IT! 
 
 ^^&. 
 
 Ex Libris 
 C. K. OGDEN 
 
 ARTHUR EDWARD WAITE, 
 SIDMOUTH LODGE, 
 
 SOUTH EALING, 
 
 MIDDLESEX.
 
 V. 
 
 't>
 
 MB.cli.re t, Mucdtmald. Lith. 
 
 CUPID SHAPING HIS BOW. 
 Imperial Gallery at Vienna.
 
 TREATISE 
 
 KNOWLEDGE NECESSARY TO AMATEURS 
 
 PICTURE S. 
 
 TRANSLATED AND ABRIDGED FROM THE FRENCH 
 
 M. FRANCOIS -XAVIER DE BURTIN, 
 
 FIRST .STIPENDIARY MEMBER OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF BRUSSELS IN 
 THE CI.ASS OF SCIENCES, ETC. ETC. ETC. 
 
 BY 
 
 ROBERT WHITE, ESQ. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
 LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS, 
 
 PATERNOSTER-ROW. 
 
 EDINBURGH : A. AND C. BLACK. 
 1845.
 
 LONDON : 
 
 Printoil by A. SPOTTISWOOD*. 
 New-Street-Square.
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE, 
 
 ALTHOUGH M. Burtin's work, which was published 
 in 1808, at Brussels, in the French language, cannot 
 now be considered as new, and makes no preten- 
 sions to the character of a profound disquisition 
 on the art of painting, yet no publication that has 
 appeared, before or since, addresses itself so directly 
 to the wants and wishes of amateurs, or supplies 
 so compendious a general view of the subject of 
 which it treats. It contains, indeed, so much of that 
 kind of practical information which amateurs must 
 acquire, either through some such aid, or through 
 the more tedious path of their own individual ex- 
 perience, and at the same time affords to persons of 
 more matured taste such an insight into the state 
 of connoisseurship on the Continent, that it is to be 
 wondered that no one has, until now, endeavoured 
 to make it more generally accessible by means of an 
 English version. 
 
 A 2
 
 iv TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 The original work consists of two volumes. But 
 nearly two thirds of the second volume are taken 
 up with a description of the author's private collec- 
 tion of pictures, which few readers would care to 
 peruse, particularly as there is a separate chapter 
 on the method of analysing and describing the 
 productions of the pencil. In other respects, too, 
 the very copious and minute style of the Author 
 affords considerable room for retrenchment. By 
 selecting, therefore, a few only of the descriptions 
 of the pictures as examples, and by otherwise con- 
 densing the style and matter, the work has been 
 brought within the convenient compass of a single 
 volume, and, it is hoped, without the omission of 
 any thing in it that is in the least essential. 
 
 In all the parts that treat of the principles of the 
 art, the Translator has thought it his duty to ad- 
 here closely to the form of thought, and even to 
 the language, of the original, although at the ex- 
 pense sometimes of smoothness of diction. He has 
 not indeed restricted himself from such changes 
 in the construction and connection as conduced to 
 greater brevity and clearness, or were more agree- 
 able to the idiom in which the work now appears ; 
 but he has not, in any case, intentionally added to 
 or taken from the meaning of the Author, unless in 
 the form of a note ; sensible that the opinions of the
 
 TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. v 
 
 latter will be more acceptable to the public than the 
 ideas of one pretending so little to connoisseurship 
 as himself. The slight extension of the subject 
 which he has made, by the introduction of the 
 prices of pictures at the public sales of the prin- 
 cipal collections in France for the last hundred 
 years, taken from the work of M. Gault de Saint 
 Germain, need scarcely be noticed as an exception 
 to this statement. 
 
 The abridgments that have been made, have been 
 chiefly on those parts of the work in which it 
 digresses into controversial matter no longer at 
 issue, such as the comparative merits of colour and 
 design, or the opinions of writers in regard to 
 the Flemish school of painting. In these, the 
 Translator has used greater freedom, both of selec- 
 tion and arrangement ; but he has, at the same 
 time, been careful to retain throughout the tone 
 and train of thought of the Author. 
 
 The Translator was much interested by dis- 
 covering that two of the pictures described by 
 M. Burtin as being in his collection at the time of 
 publishing his work, and which the Translator had 
 included among the examples of descriptions to 
 be retained, had found their way into this country, 
 like so many other fine works of art ; the one, a 
 fruit piece, by Van Aelst, being at West Shandon, 
 A 3
 
 VI TRANSLATORS PREFACE. 
 
 in Dumbartonshire, the seat of Robert Napier, 
 Esquire ; and the other, the Adoration of the Shep- 
 herds, by Poelemburg, being in the possession of 
 Dr. Drury, of Glasgow. Through the polite favour 
 of these gentlemen, he is enabled to place litho- 
 graphed outlines of them before the reader, which 
 cannot but serve to illustrate M. Burtin's descrip- 
 tions, so far as regards the design and arrangement 
 of the subjects, although they cannot give any idea 
 of the great beauty of the execution. He had ex- 
 pectations up to the moment of publication of ob- 
 taining engravings of two other of M. Burtin's 
 collection. But having been disappointed in this, 
 he has been obliged to substitute two other illus- 
 trations for them. 
 
 Edinburgh, April, 1845.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 Introduction 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Of the Qualities which are required to make a good 
 
 Picture. 
 
 Section 1. Definition of Painting, and of a Picture - 12 
 
 2. Of a good Picture - - 13 
 
 3. Of a good Choice (of Subject) - - 13 
 
 4. Of Invention - ]g 
 
 o. Of Composition - - 19 
 
 6. Of the Disposition of the Subject - 22 
 7. Of the Design, the Airs of the Heads, the 
 
 Attitudes, and the Expression - - 23 
 
 8. Of Linear Perspective - - - 26 
 
 9. Of Aerial Perspective - - 27 
 
 10. Of the Colours, proper and local - - 28 
 
 11. Of the General Tone of Colour - - 36 
 
 12. Of the Clear Obscure - 41 
 
 ., 13. Of Transparency - - - 43 
 
 14. Of Harmony - . - 45 
 
 15. Of the Effect . . 45 
 
 16. Of the Empasto - - - - 48 
 
 17. Of the Touch - - - - 55
 
 Vlll CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 How to judge Pictures - - 58 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 How to judge whether a Picture is in good Preservation, 
 or not - 69 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 How to know and appreciate Copies - 77 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Of the Manner of analysing and describing Pictures - 91 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Of the General Schools of Painting. 
 
 Section 1. Of that which constitutes a School of Paint- 
 ing - 113 
 2. Of the Florentine or Tuscan School - 1 16 
 3. Of the Roman School - 118 
 4. Of the Venetian School - - 119 
 5. Of the School of Lombardy - 122 
 6. Of the Flemish School - - 125 
 7. Of the Dutch School - 133 
 8. Of the French School - 135 
 9. Of the German School - - 139 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Observations on the Causes of the Characteristics which 
 distinguish the different Schools from each other - 142 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Of the Classification of Pictures according to their Subject, 
 with Remarks on the Natural and Ideal Classes - 151
 
 CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 On the Causes of the Superiority of the Pictures of the 
 Sixteenth and Seventieth Centuries over those of the 
 past Century - - 16O 
 
 CHAPTER XT. 
 
 Of the different Manners of the Masters - 168 
 
 CHAPTER Xn. 
 
 Of the Signatures of the Masters, and the Subtances on 
 which they painted - 192 
 
 CHAPTER XHI. 
 Of De Piles famous Balance of Painters - - 210 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Of the Prices at which the Pictures of the most distin- 
 guished Flemish, Dutch, and German Painters have 
 been sold, up to this time - 225 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Of the different Methods of cleaning Pictures, and of the 
 Precautions to be taken in lining and restoring them - 247 
 
 Section 1. The Necessity of every Amateur learning to 
 
 clean his Pictures - 247 
 
 2. Of Pictures covered with Mastic Varnish, or 
 
 other Gums of a similar nature - - 250 
 
 3. Of Pictures that are covered with Oil - 259 
 
 4. Of Pictures that are covered with a bad 
 
 Varnish - . 263 
 
 5, Of Pictures that are covered with the White 
 of Eggs, or with Isinglass, or with Water 
 Varnish - ... 264
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Section 6. Of Pictures that are covered with Smoke, 
 or other Atmospheric Deposit, without ever 
 having been varnished or oiled - - 266 
 
 7. Of the different kinds of Mould that attack 
 
 Pictures - 270 
 
 8. Of the Cases in which the Scraper and 
 Smoothing-irons may be used upon 
 Pictures - - 273 
 
 9. General Precautions to be taken in the 
 
 cleaning, lining, and restoring of Pictures 275 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Of the Varnishes employed upon Pictures - 289 
 
 Section 1. Of bad Varnishes - - 289 
 
 2. Of good Varnish - - 296 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Of Public Galleries, with Remarks on those of Paris, 
 
 Vienna, Dresden, Dusseldorf, and Munich - - 302 
 
 CHAPTER XVHL 
 
 Of the Utility of Private Collections, and how to form them 
 
 properly - 324
 
 LIST OF PLATES. 
 
 1. CORREGIO, 1 
 
 or > Cupid shaping his Bow. To face title-page. 
 
 PARMEGIANO J 
 
 2. POELEMBURG. The Adoration of the Shepherds. - 106 
 
 3. VAN AELST. Fruit-piece. - ^ 109 
 
 4. TENTERS. Village Festival. - - 146
 
 ON 
 
 THE KNOWLEDGE 
 
 NECESSAUY TO 
 
 AMATEURS IN PICTURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 IT is proper to premise that this treatise is not in- 
 tended for artists, nor accomplished connoisseurs. 
 The former will disdain it, as coming from one who 
 is not himself a painter ; the latter have no need of 
 it. The interest which I feel in amateurs, especially 
 the inexperienced among them, has been my sole 
 inducement to undertake the work, while at the 
 same time, I trust that others who may be led to 
 peruse it, may not do so without advantage. 
 
 I have been attracted from my youth towards 
 the beautiful productions of the pencil, by a passion 
 which at first knew no bounds, and which so carried 
 me away as to close my eyes to their defects. To 
 me all pictures appeared to be good, however indif- 
 ferent they were in reality ! If I could discover a 
 point about them that was ever so little com- 
 B
 
 2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 mendable, it never failed to blind me to all their 
 other imperfections. 
 
 " Centum sunt causae, cur ego semper amem ! " OVID. 
 
 The result of a taste so decided and so ill-informed 
 was the continual acquisition of pictures of little 
 or no merit, which I persisted in considering good 
 on the strength of my own opinion, very much dis- 
 satisfied with those who manifested a contrary one. 
 But when, in course of time, the opinion of others 
 gave rise to doubts as to the quality of my pur- 
 chases, I became timid and irresolute. I sought 
 instruction every where, but found it nowhere. Con- 
 strained by my ruling passion to make from time 
 to time new acquisitions, I yet did not dare to 
 judge for myself, but borrowed the eyes of others 
 who passed for connoisseurs ; until I perceived 
 that these often consulted the interest of the 
 seller more than mine in the advice which they 
 gave me. At length, after having struggled long 
 against difficulties, without advancing a step farther 
 towards true knowledge, I had opportunity to see 
 and study at leisure the beautiful collection of the 
 Chevalier Verhulst at Brussels. This soon began 
 to open my eyes, and finally convinced me, that by 
 seeing only bad pictures we remain always blind ; 
 and that it is by repeatedly contemplating such as 
 are truly fine that we learn to know them, and to 
 understand, from the perception of their great 
 superiority, how little the indifferent examples 
 which formerly attracted us were worthy of our
 
 INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 regard. This is a point of the utmost importance 
 to all beginners, and which is unfortunately too 
 much overlooked by them. From that time, T 
 turned my attention to pictures of true merit ex- 
 clusively. My previous acquisitions became dis- 
 tasteful to me ; and in order not to feel the loss 
 which I should have sustained in selling them, I 
 resolved to be rid of them, by giving them, without 
 too much calculating their value, as part payment 
 of any new purchases that I might make. 
 
 Since that period I have continued to pursue 
 with ardour the true road to knowledge, which I 
 had had the good fortune to hit upon. Averting 
 my eyes from all productions without merit, I 
 sought out and studied with care whatever the 
 beautiful collections in Ghent, Antwerp, and es- 
 pecially Brussels, (then so numerous, but now, 
 through the misfortunes of the times, so rare,) 
 contained most worthy of admiration. Having 
 thus so far strengthened my judgment as to be able 
 to give a reason for my opinions on the productions 
 of art, I was the better able to profit by the long 
 journies which I made subsequently. My travels 
 have given me the opportunity of seeing at leisure 
 the pictures to be found in the Low Countries, Hol- 
 land, Germany, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Styria, 
 Upper Italy, the greater part of France, and a part 
 of Prussia, Poland, and Hungary, where the know- 
 ledge T have acquired on this subject stood me 
 every where instead of an introduction to ama- 
 
 B 2
 
 4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 teurs ; conformity of tastes being a powerful bond 
 of union between men of every country. Where- 
 ever I have been, I have made the search for, and 
 the study of, pictures one of my favourite occu- 
 pations; by no means confining myself to those 
 contained in galleries, churches, and other public 
 places, nor even to those in private collections, 
 but seeking out even such as were dispersed in 
 private houses, and very often banished to the 
 lumber-room. The number of pictures which I 
 have seen by pursuing this course is truly innu- 
 merable, and surpasses all imagination. The Abbe" 
 Laugier, in his work on the manner of judging the 
 productions of painting, lays it down as a principle, 
 that seeing a multitude of pictures is the most 
 certain means of becoming a connoisseur and 
 judge. " To judge well of art," he says, " it is 
 necessary to know its productions. They furnish 
 an instruction, which, falling under the observation 
 of the senses, is far more efficacious than the best- 
 digested lessons. Works of art place under the eyes 
 existing perfection, and by comparing that with the 
 perfection possible to be attained as conceived in 
 the mind, there results a solid judgment, the source 
 of a criticism that is exact, but without rigour. 
 It were to be wished that a journey could be made 
 into all the countries where painting has flourished, 
 in order to see all the pictures which have come 
 from the hand of man." In writing thus, the Abbe* 
 certainly did not consider that in our time very many 
 people have found the secret of becoming connois-
 
 INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 scurs in a day, and have set themselves up as 
 skilful judges without ever having seen pictures ! 
 
 I will candidly acknowledge, nevertheless, that 
 whatever facility long practice may have given 
 ine, in judging with readiness, and on good grounds, 
 of the productions of art, still occasions are not 
 wanting to show me that one has always some- 
 thing to learn ; for the subjects of instruction are 
 multiplied without end, and dispersed throughout 
 the whole of Europe. But happily the difficulties 
 caused thereby are confined to the knowledge of 
 masters, their different manners, and other acces- 
 sories, and do not extend to the point the most 
 essential of all, to which alone I trust people will 
 one day pay regard, viz. the true intrinsic merit 
 of a picture. This does not depend upon the 
 name of the master, nor any other circumstance, 
 but is based, as I shall hereafter show, upon fixed 
 and invariable rules, that may be acquired by 
 every one. These rules, and the means of de- 
 termining the schools, the masters, their works, as 
 well as the preservation, the originality, and the 
 price of them, the utility of collections, the method 
 of cleaning and varnishing pictures, and the art of 
 analysing and describing them, founded on prin- 
 ciples, and exhibited in practice, by examples of 
 description taken from pictures in my possession, 
 will form the matter of this work. The want which 
 I myself have always experienced of such a work 
 has given rise to the idea of it ; nor did I require 
 any stronger motive for undertaking it than my
 
 6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 desire to relieve others from the numberless embar- 
 rassments that scattered thorns in my way when 1 
 ought only to have met with flowers. In short, 
 I have suffered so much from my own ignorance ; I 
 have found such an obstinate silence maintained by 
 those from whom I have sought light ; I have reaped 
 so little benefit from my reading, that I wish to save 
 amateurs from the whole, or at least the greater part, 
 of the infinite trouble which I encountered, ere 
 the scales which obscured my eyes fell from them. 
 I have such satisfaction in the knowledge which I 
 have at length obtained through my own observa- 
 tion, aided by reflection, that I am desirous that 
 beginners should share with me in the enjoyment 
 of it ; although I cannot by my instructions alone 
 carry them in an instant to that degree of know- 
 ledge to which they may arrive, by founding ob- 
 servations of their own upon those which I present 
 to them. 
 
 It must not surprise any one that in writing on 
 the productions of the palette I have made almost 
 no use of the books which have been published on 
 the subject. There are few of the kind which I 
 have not read; but all have left me in the same 
 ignorance I was in before; besides, the object of 
 my work is so different from that of all previous 
 writers, that even if inclined I could scarcely derive 
 benefit from them. If, however, I cannot commend 
 the works of this class which I have read, I do not 
 on that account accuse the authors of incapacity ; 
 but I complain, and I think with reason, of the
 
 INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 defective plans which they have followed : one con- 
 fining himself to the monotonous history, for the 
 most part very insipid, of the ancient masters, and 
 neglecting the characteristic marks of style and 
 handling which distinguish these artists in their 
 works, the only thing that could render his work 
 useful and interesting ; others, so scattering the 
 principles whicli they wish to teach, and drowning 
 them in such a superfluity of words, that it becomes 
 impossible to collect them in consecutive order; 
 many also not distinguishing sufficiently between 
 the ideal part of the art and the mechanical ; in 
 fine, all, or with few exceptions, rendering them- 
 selves absolutely useless to him who seeks to be- 
 come a connoisseur, by speaking only of the details 
 of execution, the mechanical procedure, and the 
 physical means of the art, or, on the contrary, 
 showing an excessive enthusiasm for the sublime, 
 ideal beauty, the antique statues, grace, and gran- 
 deur, and the application of the rules of music and 
 poetry to the art of painting, and extolling com- 
 position, design, and expression, as if colour was 
 only an accessory of very little consequence. In 
 short, these authors occupy themselves with the 
 painters of history alone at the expense of all those 
 who have devoted themselves with such success to 
 landscape, scenes of common life, and other sub- 
 jects of that nature, and manifest their contempt 
 for the latter, although their works are the orna- 
 ment of cabinets and galleries, by designating 
 them all under the title of PAINTERS OF NATURE 
 
 B 4
 
 8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 (peintres de genre), as if history were not nature 
 likewise.* 
 
 I have not been able to derive, from all that I have 
 read upon art, satisfactory information as to the 
 touch, colouring, the general tone, the clear-obscure, 
 harmony, transparency, aerial perspective, effect, 
 and other interesting parts, which depend on co- 
 lour ; and still less, instructions and general rules for 
 judging of, keeping, and preserving pictures. All 
 that my own reading left me to desiderate on these 
 different points, so necessary to a true connoisseur, 
 it shall be my endeavour to supply. 
 
 I have said that this work may be useful to 
 others besides collectors. A taste for art is now 
 become so general amongst the well-educated classes, 
 that they who have not collections themselves seek 
 as much as they can the enjoyment of those of 
 others. Such as travel for pleasure or instruction 
 miss no opportunity of seeing pictures wherever 
 they go, whether in private collections or in public 
 places. All taste and sentiment apart, it is be- 
 coming more and more a matter of good breed- 
 ing to like painting and its productions, espe- 
 cially since governments have begun to emulate 
 each other in attaching importance to them. This 
 
 * The meaning of peintres de genre" is, painters of com- 
 mon hfe ; but the phrase is here used in opposition to painters 
 of xdeal subjects ; and the translation given is not only admis- 
 sible as conveying the meaning intended, but as preserving the 
 play on the word genre, made use of by the author. Trans- 
 lator.
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 work, then, extends its aid to all those who would 
 not wish to be reduced, on beholding pictures, to a 
 mute and barren admiration, for which they cannot 
 give a reason either to themselves or others ; or, 
 more humiliating still, to expose their ignorance by 
 selecting a bad subject for approval, or by an ill- 
 founded judgment. Here they will find what will 
 enable them in a short time to judge correctly, and 
 without fear of drawing ridicule on themselves, 
 whether a picture which is put before them has 
 merit or not. They will be enabled, even amongst 
 a whole collection, to mention such as they ap- 
 prove, on grounds sufficient to obtain the corro- 
 boration of their opinion by connoisseurs ; who are 
 aware how much particular taste may embellish 
 any picture to our eyes, and can make allowance for 
 this, provided only that the work have true merit. 
 Here, I trust, will be found all that is necessary 
 for him who is not unambitious of becoming an 
 amateur. For after having mastered what is herein 
 placed before him, there can only be further re- 
 quired of him, that he should learn to distinguish 
 an original from a copy, and a pure picture from 
 one which is repainted ; or, less difficult still, to 
 tell to what school or to what master it is to be 
 attributed. The new ideas which I develop, the 
 care I have taken to fill up the gaps without num- 
 ber left by those who have hitherto written on 
 painting, and the connection, order, and clearness 
 which I have introduced into a matter so vast, so 
 complicated, and so confused, will not, I think,
 
 10 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 escape the notice of literary men, nor of connois- 
 seurs, of whose suffrages especially I am ambitious. 
 
 To prevent my opinions from being misunderstood 
 through the frequency of my arguments against 
 the prejudices of others in regard to different kinds 
 of pictures, I think it due to myself to say, before 
 finishing this chapter, that, perfectly impartial in 
 every thing else, I am a partisan only for the 
 quality of truth in a picture. If I am the ad- 
 mirer of natural beauties well imitated, I am not 
 the less so of ideal beauties well employed ; in a 
 word, I love every production of the pencil, in pro- 
 portion as its real and intrinsic merit ought to 
 make it commendable. But as an impartial friend 
 of all that is beautiful in art, I will say, and repeat 
 without ceasing, that without the science of colour- 
 ing, that so difficult science about which the exclu- 
 sive partisans of ideal beauty trouble themselves so 
 little, their antiques and their ideal perfection may 
 produce designs, but never can pictures ! 
 
 If those in whose favour I have written this 
 work approve of it and profit by it, if the facilities 
 and assistance which it affords shall multiply ama- 
 teurs of the art, I shall then have the recompense 
 that will be the most delightful to me; a recom- 
 pense that will indemnify me for the criticisms to 
 which the nature and the novelty of the subject I 
 treat of may expose me on the part of those whose 
 interest may not find its account here, or on the 
 part of those whose opinions shall be impugned, 
 and their self-love wounded, contrary to my desire,
 
 INTRODUCTION. 1 1 
 
 by the truths which I declare. I dare to hope that 
 no one will be able to reproach me with having 
 designedly given personal offence. If, nevertheless, 
 it be possible that I can have wounded the self- 
 esteem of any one, I protest beforehand that it 
 has been without intention, as I will prove by my 
 silence in every case in which it may be shown to 
 the public that there is ground for such a com- 
 plaint.
 
 12 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ABE REQUIRED 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED TO MAKE A 
 GOOD PICTURE. 
 
 SECT. I. Definition of Painting and of a Picture. 
 
 PAINTING, considered with reference to pictures, is, 
 according to my idea, nothing else than the art of 
 applying colours, without relief, upon a plain surface, 
 so as to imitate any object, in the manner in which it 
 is seen, or may be conceived visible in nature. From 
 this definition, which I have made as exact and 
 complete as I possibly could, it naturally follows 
 that every thing that fulfils in any manner the 
 conditions contained in it, is indeed a picture ; but 
 it does not in like manner follow that it is a good 
 picture. For not only does the subject affect its 
 goodness, but it is evident that it will be better in 
 proportion as the conditions shall be skilfully and 
 rigorously fulfilled, and, by consequence, the imita- 
 tion more perfect. Starting from these premises, 
 I shall be able to establish most of the qualities 
 that are required in a good picture on the side of 
 execution. But, besides that the whole qualities 
 are not reduced to that one, I prefer to give all 
 the necessary clearness to the subject by stating a 
 principle as simple as it is luminous, which is the
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 13 
 
 result of forty years study and observation on the 
 matter, and which says all in two words only. 
 
 SECT. II. Of a good Picture. 
 
 A good choice (of subject) well represented*, are 
 the two words which include exactly all the condi- 
 tions necessary to make a picture yood ! Its merit 
 will increase in proportion as there may be a better 
 choice of subject, and as that may be better repre- 
 sented ; and it will decrease, in the proportion that 
 its subject, or execution, or both together, fall 
 below the definition. 
 
 SECT. III. Ofa good Choice (of Subject). 
 
 As painting belongs to the agreeable arts, the 
 first aim of every artist ought to be to please. 
 This is the principle which ought to regulate his 
 choice of subject in order that it may be good. 
 If therefore the subject be ever so little dis- 
 pleasing, the picture will cease to be good, and 
 it will become worse the more this is the case. 
 Consequently, it will not be well chosen, if, even in 
 nature herself, it excite only indifference or con- 
 tempt by its nothingness or insignificance ; disgust 
 or displeasure by its monotony, or hideous and 
 revolting form; horror and affright, by its mon- 
 strosity or barbarity. 
 
 * " Bon choix, bien rendu."
 
 14 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 To render this more clear by examples, I observe 
 that the representation of an article by itself,, such 
 as a chair, a table, a book, and a thousand other 
 similar objects which fall under our notice every 
 instant without exciting in us the least attention, 
 or that of a window, a door, a wall, or any thing 
 that makes part of a house, if nothing accom- 
 pany them to give them interest, will, in the 
 eyes of a true connoisseur, be only as images, or 
 the toys of an infant, however precious they may 
 be in point of execution. But if the window be 
 enriched with a head looking out, for example, 
 were it only from a single open pane, the whole 
 may become a work in the highest degree interest- 
 ing; as is shown by a picture of such a subject, 
 painted by Hoogstraeten, and now in the Imperial 
 Gallery at Vienna. I add, that excepting man, 
 that king of nature, whose head presents to a 
 painter the subject that is the most interesting for 
 character, grace, dignity, and the expression of the 
 whole mind, of which it is the mirror, no animal, 
 dead or alive, affords in any one part of its frame, 
 whatever care may be taken in the execution, more 
 than a subject for a study, or will by any means 
 form what can be called a picture. The entire 
 frame even of the greater number of animals, or a 
 representation of any one vegetable production, 
 cannot produce a good work, unless as parts of an 
 attractive whole. Nay, a portrait of the human 
 countenance having the greatest degree of resem- 
 blance, may become a picture which shocks by its
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 15 
 
 bad choice, if the colours used by the artist on 
 the dress are ill assorted ; or if, in the costume, 
 and especially in the head-dress, he servilely imi- 
 tate ridiculous fashions, which have an air of cari- 
 cature from their exaggeration, and which we 
 tolerate while they are in vogue, but sneer at the 
 instant after. 
 
 Finally, no object, of whatever kind it be, were 
 it executed with the greatest perfection, will ever 
 pass for being of a " good choice," if by the unskil- 
 fulness of the painter it be placed upon a ground 
 of one single monotonous tint, whether white, 
 black, red, blue, green, or any other colour, without 
 one being able to perceive about it those numberless 
 and almost imperceptible variations of tint which 
 one sees always in nature, either in that which 
 serves as its ground or surrounding it, and of 
 which some part is always taken into view along 
 with it. From these it is not in our power to 
 isolate it, and the artist is thus placed under the 
 obligation of surrounding in like manner his prin- 
 cipal object therewith as with an inseparable 
 accessory, according to the definition of painting, 
 which requires that every object be represented 
 such as it is seen in nature. The artist therefore, 
 by offending against this rule when he substitutes 
 the bad ground of his invention for the natural 
 tints which he ought to imitate, makes a bad 
 choice. 
 
 I remark farther that all subjects which by their 
 monotony displease in nature herself, and which, by
 
 16 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 the sombre uniformity of their tint, disgust, fatigue, 
 and repel the spectator, (and, be it observed, that the 
 numerous tints of detail generally to be found in 
 nature disappear when a large tract is embraced by 
 the eye at one time,) offer only a bad choice to the 
 painter, unless he know how to break the monotony 
 by possible effects which his genius may suggest. 
 For example, he may break the displeasing dark- 
 ness of night pieces by striking effects of the moon, 
 or by an artificial light, or by reflections from 
 water ; gild the fatiguing whiteness of snow with 
 the ruddy rays of a setting sun ; or correct, by 
 means of clouds, the disagreeable monotony of a 
 sky altogether grey, or the glaring uniformity of 
 one wholly azure. 
 
 It is evident that an animal, flayed or embowelled, 
 entrails, meat raw or mangled, blood, excrements, 
 skeletons, death's heads, carcasses, and similar ob- 
 jects, if they strike upon the view too much, will be 
 as disgusting in a picture as they are in nature ; 
 and that grimaces, hideous or monstrous deformities, 
 whether moral or physical, will be as shocking in 
 the one as in the other. Events which are suffi- 
 ciently unnatural, barbarous, and cruel, to shake 
 violently the soul and cause it to tremble with in- 
 surmountable horror, create an agitation too fright- 
 ful for it to resist, much less to be pleased with. 
 Subjects of so bad a choice (which Horace severely 
 prohibits from being introduced upon the scene) do 
 little honour to the painter. They become even 
 more insupportable in proportion as they approach
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 17 
 
 nearer to reality by the perfection of their exe- 
 cution.* 
 
 It is not the same however with respect to 
 subjects of devotion, in which we seem to forget 
 the sufferings of saints, to think only of the 
 eternal happiness which awaits them. I except 
 also from this general proscription of pictures of 
 bad choice, certain sad and melancholy subjects 
 which inspire compassion, a tender interest mingled 
 with fear, and other similar emotions, and which, 
 
 * The author seems to have stated this too broadly. Some 
 of the most remarkable instances of that truth in painting, of 
 which he declares himself a partisan, are to be found amongst 
 this class of pictures, such as the " Lesson of Anatomy," by 
 Rembrant, and " Prometheus devoured by the Vulture," by 
 Salvator Rosa, Nos. 125. and 250. of the Royal Museum at the 
 Hague. In these and similar subjects, for instance, the " Raising 
 of Lazarus," by Sebastian del Piombo, in the British Gallery, a 
 certain thrilling interest is awakened in the spectator by the 
 realisation of such startling scenes through the powerful 
 imagination of the painter. The mind is susceptible of various 
 emotions, every one of which finds gratification in being sup- 
 plied in its turn with appropriate food ; and a gallery that should 
 contain only pictures to flatter the senses with the gilded rays, 
 which alone the author seems to consider agreeable to the mind, 
 would become, taken as a whole, an example of the insipidity 
 and monotony of which he complains. Art must not be limited 
 in her empire, but must be able, and must be allowed, to wan- 
 der over the strings that wake the whole passions of the soul, 
 from the tinkling treble of delight, to the deep diapason of 
 despair. The error lies, not in painting what is terrific, but 
 in making the representation of such objects the chief end of 
 the picture, instead of using them only as the occasion of calling 
 into action the higher and deeper feelings. When so used, 
 they are to be touched upon vigorously and manfully, but not 
 dwelt upon more than is necessary for that purpose. Trans. 
 C
 
 18 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 although the reverse of cheerful, and in some de- 
 gree productive even of pain to such as are of a 
 sensitive temperament, yet do not move the soul 
 with sufficient violence to prevent those who love 
 the pathetic from feeling a certain pleasure and en- 
 joyment in them. 
 
 It may be seen, from all I have just said, how 
 much painters err in attaching themselves to sub- 
 jects that are insignificant, contemptible, mono- 
 tonous, repulsive, or horrible, and in not select- 
 ing them (since the choice depends only on their 
 own will) from subjects that are agreeable, at- 
 tractive, and interesting, of which nature and 
 their own imagination could furnish them with so 
 inexhaustible a store. But the idiosyncracy of 
 certain artists, full of enthusiasm for expression, 
 is so disposed towards the tragical, in which the pas- 
 sions, being more violent, are more easy to be 
 expressed than the gentle and tranquil affections 
 generally are, that they end by plunging into the 
 horrible and the cruel. It is a true misfortune to 
 art when such persons unite distinguished talent 
 to their austerity of character. By degrees their 
 taste will infect their pupils, and the most amiable 
 of arts will become insensibly the faithful his- 
 torian of executioners, and of the monsters of 
 every time and country. 
 
 SECT. IV. Of Invention. 
 
 The choice of a subject, good or bad, of which 
 I have been speaking, belongs solely to that part
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 19 
 
 of the art which is called INVENTION. It consists 
 of the first idea which the artist has conceived of 
 his subject, and has determined to adopt in pre- 
 ference to every other, irrespective of the manner 
 in which he may work it up into a picture by 
 means of Composition and Disposition* For greater 
 clearness, I will commence by showing the true 
 meaning of these three technical terms so often 
 employed in painting, and so often ill understood. 
 
 With regard to the first, to wit, invention, I 
 have already stated in what it consists. I add 
 here, that in subjects of which the artist finds 
 the model in nature, or in history, he is scarcely 
 entitled to any merit on the score of invention ; 
 for he is saved the time that would be occupied in 
 putting down any thing of his own. Thus, in 
 place of inventing, he, properly speaking, does 
 nothing but select. The honour of inventing, truly 
 belongs to him only whose imagination creates all, 
 or almost all, of new. 
 
 SECT. V. Of Composition. 
 
 COMPOSITION, considered as one of the three parts 
 of invention, consists in the choice which the 
 painter makes of personages, and other objects, in 
 order to communicate his idea to the spectator. 
 The more the composition is agreeable, noble, in- 
 teresting, rich, learned, and judicious, the less there 
 
 * That is, simply the determining on the act to be represented, 
 or the view to be exhibited. Translator.
 
 20 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ABE REQUIRED 
 
 will be of superfluities, of outworks, or of figures to 
 let, as they have been termed. The more that the 
 costume, and suitableness, and propriety are ex- 
 actly observed, and the draperies cast and folded 
 with art, so as to betray the naked without cling- 
 ing to it ; the more plainly and clearly it speaks 
 to the mind ; the more, in a word, that it is con- 
 formable to beautiful nature, so much the nearer 
 will it approach to perfection. But it will become 
 bad in proportion as it shall be disagreeable, in- 
 significant, without understanding, overcharged, 
 confused, obscure, or contrary to nature. This last 
 fault proceeds often from the ridiculous and start- 
 ling disproportion between the size of different 
 objects. Thus the great Raphael himself has 
 committed two striking faults against nature and 
 linear perspective, in his famous picture of the 
 Transfiguration, by the ridiculous smallness of his 
 Mount Tabor, and by the disproportionate size of 
 the Christ, and of the two prophets. 
 
 Besides the signification of the word composi- 
 tion, of which I have just given an account, there 
 is another in more common use, by which it is 
 employed to designate both the invention of the 
 subject, and the manner in which it is composed 
 and distributed; in short, the whole parts of in- 
 vention. Very many painters, and very many 
 writers also, confound these two significations. A 
 composition taken in this latter sense, may offend 
 against nature by offending against unity; that is 
 to say, when it unites in one picture things which
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 21 
 
 could never find themselves together, or events which 
 have happened in different epochs, or in different 
 places. It were well that this defect, sufficiently 
 rare amongst the ancients, were less to be found 
 amongst the moderns. 
 
 The rules which I have laid down are sufficient 
 to enable every person who has eyes and good sense 
 to judge of any composition, except such as belong 
 to the historical class. These require in the spec- 
 tator a knowledge of history, true and false, still 
 more extensive than in the artist. For the latter 
 has only occasion to know well the subjects which 
 he himself undertakes to execute ; while the spec- 
 tator ought to be in a situation to judge of the 
 compositions of all painters without exception ; to 
 unravel historical subjects, even the least cha- 
 racterised, fabulous subjects the most confused, 
 and allegories the most absurd and odd, which it 
 so often pleases painters to produce, without giving 
 themselves any concern about being understood by 
 others, provided they understand them themselves. 
 Those then amongst amateurs who are ignorant of 
 fable or of history, ought to consult such as are 
 informed in order to judge of this matter, unless 
 they are willing to content themselves with the 
 pleasure they may derive from a picture of this 
 class, in regard of its disposition, design, and what 
 belongs to colour and handling, irrespective of its 
 truth, correctness, and historical propriety. On 
 the other hand, every amateur whose reading puts 
 him in a situation to judge of historical compo- 
 
 c 3
 
 22 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 sitions, has a right to hold all obscurity as a capital 
 fault. For he may require with reason that there 
 shall be sufficient distinctness to enable him to 
 tell without difficulty the subject which is repre- 
 sented, and characteristics enough to prevent him 
 from misunderstanding it, or confounding it with 
 other analogous subjects. This happens too often 
 in ancient pictures of the historical class, but much 
 oftener still in the works of modern painters, when, 
 from a desire to be original in their compositions, 
 they render them unintelligible, and produce pic- 
 tures in which nothing is determinate nor specific 
 in subject, painted enigmas, true hieroglyphics, 
 of which themselves alone possess the key ! 
 
 SECT. VI. Of the Disposition of the Subject. 
 
 DISPOSITION, or ORDONNANCE, is nothing else 
 than the arrangement of all the objects which form 
 part of the composition. It contributes to the 
 " goodness " of the picture if it be ingenious and 
 natural ; if it avoid uniformity and positions that are 
 too symmetrical ; if it distribute the light well ; if, 
 by means of it, the groups pyramid and unite well ; 
 and if it give value to all the parts of the picture 
 by means of each other, in such a manner as that 
 the result shall be a satisfactory whole. On the 
 contrary, it will render the picture bad in pro- 
 portion as it departs from these requisites. In a 
 word, disposition is in the hands of the painter, 
 what words, ideas, and phrases are in the mouth of
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 23 
 
 the orator, or under the pen of a writer. The 
 dross of Ennius becomes gold under the pen of 
 Virgil; what wearies in Chapelain, amuses in 
 Voltaire. 
 
 SECT. VII. Of Design, the Airs of the Heads, the 
 Attitudes, and the Expression. 
 
 I trust I have said enough in regard to the choice 
 which the painter has made of his subject, and the 
 different parts implied therein. It remains to ex- 
 amine all the other parts of painting, viz. design, 
 the airs of the heads, the attitudes, expression, 
 perspective, as well linear as aerial, the colours, 
 proper and local, the general tone, the clear-obscure, 
 the transparency, the harmony, the effect, the em- 
 pasto, and the touch, in order to be able to decide 
 by the execution, whether the artist has " well re- 
 presented " the subject he has chosen. 
 
 The DESIGN, as well as the airs of the heads, the 
 attitudes, and the expression, which all three de- 
 pend upon it, fall under the rule which the defini- 
 tion of painting imposes without distinction on all 
 its parts, namely, that they ought each for its own 
 part to co-operate in the imitation of the object, 
 such as one sees it, or may conceive it visible, in 
 nature. Hence, if the forms of an object are de- 
 termined, either by the reality, or by common 
 opinion founded upon its character and attributes, 
 the design and its three dependencies must be 
 conformable to these forms, in order to its being 
 
 c 4
 
 24 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 well represented. In imaginary and fantastic ob- 
 jects, the painter may choose his forms at his 
 pleasure ; but if they displease the spectator, the 
 painter will have offended against the "well re- 
 presented." 
 
 The more the design is correct and precisely 
 similar to its model, the more the airs of the heads 
 are diversified and appropriate to each individual 
 character, the more the attitudes and expres- 
 sion are varied, natural, well balanced, and con- 
 formable to the action and to the emotions of the 
 mind required by the subject, the more these parts 
 will contribute each for itself to the quality of good 
 representation in the picture. Of all these the 
 spectator will judge, by comparing them, in sub- 
 jects taken from existing things, with nature 
 herself; and in fabulous subjects, with the idea 
 he has conceived of them from the character 
 usually attributed to them. To do this is much 
 more easy than my readers in general will believe 
 it to be, accustomed as they are to the imposing 
 tone with which very many painters hold forth upon 
 the importance and the difficulties of design, and 
 the parts which depend on it, especially as regards 
 the human frame. The decided manner in which 
 these painters express themselves, imposes on their 
 auditors to such a degree as to render them timid 
 in this matter ; for the latter comparing the igno- 
 rance which they suppose to be in themselves, with 
 the self-sufficiency of the former, forget that the 
 artist makes pictures, but it is the public that
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 25 
 
 judges of them. Is it not then astonishing that 
 people do not dare to trust to their own eyes, nor 
 accustom themselves to judge for themselves in the 
 copy, of that of which they judge every day so well 
 and so confidently in the original ? Do not we see 
 indeed, every moment, persons of both sexes judg- 
 ing with as much correctness as facility, whether 
 the body of an individual, and every one of its 
 parts, be well or ill-formed, well or ill-propor- 
 tioned? whether the features of the countenance 
 render it beautiful, pretty, attractive, noble, and 
 interesting, or not ? whether its exterior character 
 corresponds to the station the person occupies ? 
 whether the manner or the expression is natural or 
 exaggerated ? whether the movements are graceful 
 and easy, or awkward and affected ? In a word, 
 do we not see mankind in general put in practice 
 in such a case, in regard to their fellows, a certain 
 knowledge which they possess, without almost en- 
 tertaining a doubt of their ability ; but which the 
 painter, whom they regard as an oracle in the 
 matter, has so much difficulty to put in practice 
 successfully in his pictures?* 
 
 * Perhaps the author here loses sight for a moment of the 
 inability to act that may be observed in the judgment of those 
 who have not been accustomed to exercise their faculties on pic- 
 tures, and forgets that it requires considerable practice and ex- 
 perience to enable one to judge how much art can do; what is 
 the exact medium between feebleness and exaggeration, which 
 constitutes the all-surpassing quality of truth, of which he 
 declares himself a partisan; and in what manner one painter dif- 
 fers from or excels another in the representation of it. Trans.
 
 26 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE 11EQUIRED 
 
 Another thing which impedes men in their judg- 
 ment of design and its dependencies is, that in 
 looking at a picture they are chiefly struck by the 
 illusive effect of the colour, and of the light and 
 shadow which attract them to the neglect of the 
 design. This error is only corrected by the habit 
 of seeing pictures. 
 
 SECT. VIII. Of Linear Perspective. 
 
 Two sorts of perspective are necessary to every 
 picture which has a distance, or which represents 
 several planes that withdraw themselves more and 
 more in succession from the view. The first of 
 these perspectives, called LINEAR, serves to give to 
 objects the just dimensions required by the distance 
 between them and the eye; the apparent size of 
 objects always diminishing in nature in the inverse 
 ratio of the distance. 
 
 This perspective which makes part of the design, 
 was more or less known to the ancients. It de- 
 pends upon fixed and certain rules, founded on 
 mathematical principles, which by means of the 
 point of sight or seat of the eye, the points of dis- 
 tance, the ground line or base of the picture, the 
 line of elevation, and what is called the horizontal 
 line, or line of the distance, guide the hand of the 
 painter with a certainty absolutely mathematical. 
 He will be inexcusable then, if from indolence he 
 neglect the aid of this perspective to the " good 
 representation" of his picture, seeing it requires
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 27 
 
 from him only the employment of the rule and the 
 compass. 
 
 SECT. IX. Of Aerial Perspective. 
 
 The second of these perspectives, named AERIAL, 
 was unknown to the ancients. It was not dis- 
 covered till the fifteenth century, and was brought 
 to perfection by slow degrees. It is this which 
 gives to the proper colours that tone which renders 
 them local ones, and causes them to appear placed 
 upon their true plane by a magic which contributes 
 infinitely to " good representation " in the work. 
 It is accounted for thus : the mass of air between 
 the object and the eye of the spectator increases in 
 the direct ratio of the distance ; whence arises an 
 obstacle, always in proportion to the distance, which 
 weakens the visual ray passing from the object to 
 the eye, and by consequence presents it less dis- 
 tinctly and under a more softened tint. Thus the 
 farther an object is removed, the less do the lights, 
 the shadows, and the demi-tints become visible; 
 and its proper colour is therefore less apparent, in 
 proportion as it is modified by the general tone of 
 the plane on which it is situated. The least defect 
 against this perspective very much injures a picture 
 as a whole, and if the defect be striking, it destroys 
 all the harmony and all the magic of the picture. 
 In order to judge if this perspective (as well as the 
 other) be well represented, the spectator has only 
 to transport himself in idea into nature, and to
 
 28 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 form in his imagination a picture of the same sub- 
 ject, and of the full size. This will enable him at 
 once to perceive whether the actual picture pre- 
 sents the same perspective with the imaginary one. 
 It is against the last of these perspectives that 
 the greatest of the Italian masters have so often 
 offended, especially when their composition con- 
 tained some aerial scene accessory to it. This they 
 have often had the unskilfulness to represent with 
 a force of colour equal to that of the principal 
 action going on on the ground. Thus Domenichino 
 in his Martyrdom of St. Agnes, and in his Virgin 
 and Rosary, in the Museum at Paris, has deprived 
 of all effect and truthfulness these two immense 
 compositions, which seem each to form two pictures 
 of equal force, the one above the other. Thus also 
 the Crowning of the Virgin, by Raphael, in the 
 same museum, forms two separate pictures, the 
 one as strongly pronounced as the other, both 
 equally black and without understanding of per- 
 spective or the clear-obscure ; the one of which, by 
 the by, has been finished by Penni, and the other 
 by Julio Romano, both disciples of Raphael. 
 
 SECT. X. Of Colours proper and local. 
 
 The colour of a picture, like that of the universe, 
 is composed bnly of proper colours and local colours, 
 which together produce what is called the general 
 tone of a work of art. 
 
 The PROPER colour is that which belongs to each
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 29 
 
 pcarticular object, apart from every thing that 
 surrounds it, of the place where it is situated, and 
 of the light by which it is illuminated.* From 
 this it follows that all reflections, half-lights, aerial 
 tints, and even shadows, not being inherent in the 
 body, but derived from other objects, cannot belong 
 to it as its own proper colour, but ought to be 
 ranked amongst the local colours. For although 
 shadows seem to be inseparable from an object, 
 they are in reality so foreign to it, that they dis- 
 appear or change their situation the instant that it 
 is moved. Thus they are nothing else but a depri- 
 vation more or less of light, and always depend 
 upon the situation in which the thing shaded is 
 placed. Further, the proper colours are so gener- 
 ally influenced and modified by the air, by light, 
 and by all the bodies that surround them, that one 
 might say with reason that every object presents 
 only tints more or less local to the painter, and that 
 by consequence he can scarcely employ others than 
 those in his work. The light of a taper, which 
 often changes blue into green, proves that a very 
 little thing is necessary to cause a proper colour to 
 become a local one. 
 
 It is not then strictly true to say, as they do who 
 have written on painting, that the proper colours 
 are those which belong to the foreground. There, 
 as every where else, they are for the most part 
 modified by the reflected colours of many neigh- 
 
 * The term proper colour is unknown amongst us. We use 
 the term local colour to signify the same thing. Trans.
 
 30 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 bouring objects, not to speak of the effect, more or 
 less perceptible, of the air and of the light. The 
 two last especially exercise such a dominion over 
 objects in the foreground, that, wherever they act 
 directly, they banish and destroy the proper colour 
 to substitute for it their own. That again dimi- 
 nishes and disappears in its turn, in proportion as 
 the light, from the rounding of the object or other- 
 wise, falls more obliquely on it ; and in this behold 
 the principle, which, under a skilful pencil, renders 
 black itself almost white on the points of incidence 
 perpendicular to the luminous rays ! 
 
 It is the perfect understanding of this interesting 
 principle which renders the works of Rubens, and 
 of his best scholars, so superior for their magic 
 truth of colour. It is this which explains why 
 they make the colour of the blood to appear 
 through the fine and transparent skin of their 
 Flemings, particularly of the women, only in pro- 
 portion as the effect of the light is lost in the 
 retiring parts ; and why the red prevails more in 
 these parts in general which are illuminated only 
 by a reflected light too feeble to change the natural 
 colour. The latter may often be even strengthened 
 by the colour of the object from which the reflected 
 light proceeds, which happens when one flesh part 
 is reflected upon by another, as may be remarked 
 more particularly towards the extremities. 
 
 I might dilate much more on a subject so rich 
 in observation ; but I trust I have said enough to 
 show, that all that can be maintained touching
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 31 
 
 proper colours on the foreground, without departing 
 from truth, is, that not being necessarily exposed 
 throughout to foreign influences as they always 
 are in the distance, they make themselves better 
 recognised wherever they are not subdued by the 
 prevailing light, or by coloured reflections. 
 
 What I have just said makes it sufficiently appa- 
 rent, that LOCAL colour is just the proper colour 
 itself, modified in different ways according to cir- 
 cumstances ; such as the tone which the light, or 
 its deprivation, gives to it ; the effect of the air in- 
 terposed between it and the eye ; or, finally, the 
 colours which neighbouring bodies reflect upon it, 
 and which often produce the most sparkling effects.* 
 As to the influence of the light upon the local 
 colours, one of the plainest proofs of it is, that 
 the colour of objects seen in broad day diminishes 
 in force the more that the sun enlightens the 
 distant plain on which they are placed. This 
 observation, and many other analogous ones, con- 
 vince me that the light in a picture in general 
 exerts a greater influence upon the local colours 
 than even the air, although those who have written 
 upon the art seem to attribute the local colours 
 exclusively to the interposition of the air and the 
 vapours with which it is charged. The above re- 
 mark, though useful to all painters, becomes the 
 more indispensable to those who have to do with 
 
 * For what is here denominated local colours, the terms 
 atmospheric or aerial colours, reflections, and half-lights, are used 
 in this country. Trans.
 
 32 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 landscape, seeing that without attention to it, the 
 aerial perspective would render useless, by a false 
 and mannered representation, the just proportions 
 and the exact contours dictated by the linear per- 
 spective. 
 
 Another remark not less interesting is, that the 
 colour of cast shadows* depends, beyond every 
 thing, on that of the light, and consequently on the 
 state of the atmosphere. From this principle it 
 results, that blue is always made the base of a cast 
 shadow; although often the red and the yellow 
 may modify it, and even alter it, so far as to render 
 the shadow more or less greenish or violet coloured, 
 according to the actual state of the atmosphere and 
 the time of, the day, as well as the season of the 
 year. 
 
 This is the most extensive field which painting 
 offers to its followers, and complete success in it 
 captivates the mind. In this the artist, without 
 other aid than the study of Nature, varied as she 
 is to infinity, must, if he wish his picture to be a 
 good representation as to colour, on which depends 
 the soul of his work, exhibit an indefatigable per- 
 severance, an observing and penetrating mind, a 
 profound discernment, a surpassing power of judg- 
 ment, and, I venture to add, genius truly creative ! 
 
 Let the interested and exclusive extollers of de- 
 sign and its component parts say what they will, 
 
 falling ' not on if '
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 33 
 
 the colourist does not, like them, find treatises and 
 entire books filled with principles, demonstrated by 
 figures, to guide him in his work. He has not at 
 hand, like them, models of every kind which he 
 may servilely imitate. He cannot, like them, in- 
 voke the aid of the rule and the compass. Every 
 stroke of his pencil must come from his head. All 
 with him becomes creation in the execution. He 
 cannot efface his traces like those of the crayon, 
 recommencing twenty times, in order to succeed 
 once. The least error may spoil his work ; every 
 part of his performance requires a touch suited to 
 itself. The crayon designs a skeleton ; his pencil 
 creates a living body. Why then do so many 
 painters affect to despise colour, and extol de- 
 sign to the clouds ? Here is the reason, if I mis- 
 take not. 
 
 Scarcely has a young aspirant, who exhibits an 
 inclination to the art, learned to handle the crayon 
 with a little readiness, than established custom, 
 vanity, patronage, favour and encouragement of 
 every kind cause him to pack up for Italy. Italy ! 
 which our ancient artists understood literally, in- 
 vestigating the whole of it ; but which, with the 
 most of our modern ones, means no more than the 
 city of Rome. Once arrived there, design alone, 
 of which they hear every day new eulogiums, ab- 
 sorbs all their time, and occupies them entirely. 
 There is not a Roman who does not tell them, con- 
 formably to the absurd system of his school, that 
 any picture well designed is always sufficiently
 
 34 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 good ; that colour were useless but for form, and 
 adds nothing to the true merit of a work. Adopt- 
 ing an error so dangerous, but which such authority 
 renders respectable in his eyes, the young disciple 
 makes it the rule of his conduct, raves of nothing 
 but design, occupies himself about it without re- 
 laxation, and devotes his best years to it. But 
 when at length, his time of sojourn almost expired, 
 he recollects that every picture requires colour at 
 least as an indispensable accessory, and according 
 to the acknowledgment of those even who have so 
 well tutored him, he flies to the shop, buys a pallet 
 garnished with colours, sets himself to his easel, 
 and becomes a painter in as many days perhaps 
 as he has spent years in order to become a de- 
 signer. On his return home, what does our artist? 
 Admiring, as he must do, the masterpieces of so 
 great a number of our old colourists, yet will he 
 retract his error ? No ! Interest on the one hand, 
 pride on the other, forbid that. Declining to com- 
 mence a new career in a path, the length of which 
 his own feebleness in it exaggerates, he finds it 
 more easy to decry the merit of the ancients, 
 whom he despairs of being able to imitate. He 
 censures the painters of history as bad designers. 
 He contemns other artists as painters of common 
 life, and without ceremony designates as maggots 
 figures the most intellectual!* 
 
 * The above will suffice for many eloquent passages to the 
 same purpose, which the author loses no opportunity of intro- 
 ducing throughout the work, but which would not interest
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 35 
 
 The high consideration which the ignorant en- 
 tertain for a painter returned from Rome soon 
 procures him partizans; of whom it is easy for 
 him to make so many echoes in favour of design, 
 by astounding them with his discourse, and with 
 terms of art which they do not understand, and 
 which make him pass as some very great oracle. 
 He is clever enough to enjoy his triumph, and to 
 maintain himself in it by the same sarcasms against 
 the colourists which have acquired it for him. 
 Very soon erecting himself as an arbiter of every 
 production of art, he runs disdainfully through 
 the sanctuaries which contain its wonders, an- 
 nouncing at most by a nod the approbation, always 
 hesitating, which he accords to one picture among 
 a thousand of all those who have not the honour, 
 like him, of coming from Italy ! By such conduct, 
 which excites the pity of the true connoisseur, he 
 becomes the pest of every young collector, by 
 evincing only contempt for every thing the latter 
 possesses, and drives him to despair by principles 
 directly contrary to the opinion, hitherto sup- 
 readers of the present day, and they are, therefore, omitted. 
 The question between colour and design is no longer a difficulty. 
 Every one now is acquainted with the properties of the two ; 
 and how far they are dependent on each other. Design is per- 
 fectly intelligible by itself, without colour, and a simple outline 
 may convey ideas of size, form, distance and perspective, and 
 give the impression of rest or action, elegance or grandeur, 
 apathy or feeling. Colour, on the other hand, apart from outline 
 (or form), is nothing but an unmeaning glare. Yet it is not the 
 less necessary to perfection, and beauty of form will not please 
 with a bad colour. 
 
 j> 2
 
 36 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 posed beyond doubt, with which his eyes, his 
 innate taste, and internal conviction, founded on 
 nature, have inspired him. 
 
 You then, who form collections of pictures, dis- 
 trust the interested opinions of these men of 
 domineering manner, who pretend to set a value 
 on the works of others, and do not know how to 
 appreciate their own ; and who, as the judicious 
 De Piles observes, " imagine that they pass for 
 great connoisseurs, when they say that an arm is 
 distorted ; that a limb is too long ; that an action 
 is too forced ; although the picture be well designed, 
 and the places which they reprove be in truth very 
 correct." 
 
 After this digression, which the greatness of 
 the evil that I denounce rendered very necessary, 
 I retrace my steps, to finish what remains still to 
 be said respecting colour. 
 
 SECT. XI. Of the general Tone of Colour. 
 
 We have seen that the result produced by the 
 proper and local colours is what is called in 
 painting the GENERAL TONE of colour. That, ac- 
 cording as the painter shall have well or ill chosen 
 his colours, and shall have well or ill arranged 
 them, will become conformable to nature, and will 
 "be good and " well represented," if it be agreeable, 
 sweet, sparkling (but with prudence), warm, har- 
 monious, argentine, vaporous, soft, mellow, airy 
 
 in a word, if it be agreeable to the spectator. It 
 will be bad, on the contrary, if it be cold, mono-
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 37 
 
 tonous, grey, black, bricky, red, gaudy, without 
 agreement, raw or offensive by the ill-managed 
 union of discordant colours, such as blue with 
 yellow, or vermilion with green ; in a word, if it 
 displease the eye. But the tone 1 may still be 
 attractive, although not rigorously conformable to 
 Nature, when it seems to have aimed at rendering 
 her more agreeable by a peculiarity sufficiently 
 happy not to displease. Such is the vinous or 
 purple tone, which Poelemburg has employed with 
 so much success as to enchant even Kubens him- 
 self. Such also is that called flowery, which de- 
 lights us in certain interiors of Adrian Ostade, 
 and which charms in the works of Barroccio. 
 
 I have said above that the general tone of the 
 picture is the effect of the choice and arrange- 
 ment of the colours. I add here, that the good- 
 ness of these, in their turn, consists in their con- 
 formity with nature, according to the time and 
 the circumstances represented, which imperiously 
 dictate the law to the painter, in regard to the 
 general tone he ought to give to his picture. To 
 render more intelligible by example this general 
 principle, which is of the highest importance in 
 painting, and in judging of pictures, I observe, 
 that the light by which the picture is illuminated 
 gives more or less a tone to the proper colours of 
 the objects in it ; whence it follows that that ought 
 to determine, more than any other thing, the 
 general tone required in the colour of a picture. 
 
 I add, further, that although artificial lights 
 
 D 3
 
 38 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE HEQUIKED 
 
 remain always the same to our view, it is not so 
 with that which proceeds from the sun, nor even 
 with that which the moon borrows from him. We 
 see the moon duller or clearer, fainter or more bril- 
 liant, whiter or more ruddy, according to the state 
 of the atmosphere through which the solar rays 
 received and reflected by her pass. The rays shed 
 by the sun vary for the same reason to our view, 
 in colour and in tint, although in themselves they 
 remain always the same. 
 
 These changes of tone in the light of this great 
 orb depend often on accidental circumstances, and 
 are affected by fluctuations in the causes which 
 produce them. When an agreeable effect is pro- 
 duced by these, the judicious artist will be able 
 to seize upon it ; when not, he ought to avoid it. 
 The constant changes in the colour of the solar 
 rays relatively to us have their origin in the situ- 
 ations of that luminary witli reference to our view, 
 according as he is rising or falling, or approaches 
 the middle of his daily course; and according as 
 he is nearer to or more distant from our latitude, 
 in his annual career. A knowledge of changes of 
 this kind is indispensable to all painters, especially 
 to those who are engaged with landscape, who by 
 this means may be able to achieve such a degree of 
 illusion, as that the moment of the day that is 
 represented may be determined from their work. 
 Thus the setting sun spreads over all the plains 
 the ruddy colour of his rays; and thence arises in 
 the picture a general warm tone of the same 
 nature, and shadows cast very long. This tone
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 39 
 
 becomes often vaporous, from the exhalations 
 which the sun ceases to draw towards him at that 
 hour. 
 
 When towards the middle of the day the broiling 
 rays of that luminary parch and sear every thing, 
 the artist imitates the effect of this by a general 
 tint which produces a hot and yellowish tone. He 
 adds to this short shadows, conformably to the 
 elevation of the sun so well described by the poet : 
 
 " Tempus erat, quo sol, minimas, altissimus, umbras 
 Projicit." 
 
 Finally, by a general tone of colour, clear, not 
 vaporous, more or less cold and firm, and by 
 shadows cast very long, the skilM artist knows 
 how to imitate successfully that moment of the day 
 in which the sun begins to dissipate the cold of 
 night and the dews of morning. I add, that in 
 general the morning displays more or less of rose 
 colour, of a yellowish colour, or of a silvery tone ; 
 and the twilight exhibits the orange, the ruddy, or 
 the violet colour. 
 
 Besides these general tones which the light of 
 the sun produces by his different positions with 
 respect to us, and those which may be produced by 
 the accidental circumstances that effect the proper 
 colours, of which I have spoken above, the air may 
 give rise in its turn to general tones, sometimes 
 good and sometimes bad, by its interposition be- 
 tween the eye of the spectator and the azure of the 
 sky. An example of each kind will illustrate this. 
 For instance, the argentine, or silvery tone, in a
 
 40 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED. 
 
 picture, so sought after by amateurs, is nothing but 
 the faithful imitation of the tone assumed by nature 
 in countries where the rays of the sun are not 
 too perpendicular, every time that the air is in that 
 state of transparency required to temper to the 
 necessary degree the too brilliant blue of a pure 
 sky, and itself to receive and transmit this de- 
 sirable silvery tone, which delights the spectator. 
 The painter, however, must guard against extending 
 it to the figures, or to the rest of the foreground, 
 where it would cause all to become grey and cold, 
 that part not being able to appear argentine for 
 want of a sufficient body of air between it and the 
 supposed position of the spectator. 
 
 The grey and cold tone which is so displeasing, 
 appears in nature when a cloud, reposing on the 
 earth, envelopes us in mist, and conceals the sky 
 from us; or when all the azure of the sky dis- 
 appears behind clouds more elevated than mist, but 
 massy and continuous. 
 
 If pictures offend against nature, and become 
 cold by the employment of cold colours upon them, 
 such as black, white, blue, and green, either pure 
 or bluish, and by the omission of the glazings 
 which the tone of the light requires, or if they 
 become so from the natural coldness of night and 
 of snow, not remedied by art, the painter ought to 
 correct the fault in the manner I have previously 
 hinted at. But nothing can correct the cold of a 
 sky concealed by the kind of clouds last-mentioned, 
 or rendered totally invisible by mist.
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 41 
 
 SECT. XII. Of the Clear-obscure. 
 
 The parts depending on colour, of which I have 
 still to speak, are the clear-obscure, the trans- 
 parency, the harmony, and the effect. 
 
 There is no term of art in regard to the meaning 
 
 of which opinions are more various, than the clear- 
 
 obscure. It is derived from a compound Italian 
 
 word cliiaro-scuro. In the literal sense this word 
 
 means nothing but the obscure, which is, at the 
 
 same time, clear. In this sense it may be held to 
 
 mean the shadows and half lights, treated with the 
 
 intelligence requisite to prevent the former from 
 
 becoming opaque, and the latter syrupy or heavy, 
 
 and to cause both to remain transparent, so as to 
 
 allow the colours and forms which they cover to be 
 
 perceived. This is agreeable to nature, where no 
 
 part of an object within reach of the rays of any 
 
 light ever disappears entirely under a shadow, 
 
 even the most thick, but remains always more or 
 
 less visible, according to the greater or less force 
 
 of the rays of light, whether reflected or striking 
 
 laterally on it. I do not know that the term has 
 
 ever been used in this sense ; but I think that this 
 
 signification would have been useful, by recalling 
 
 to the artist the duty of observing transparency in 
 
 his shadows and half lights. 
 
 Be that as it will, general use has now appro- 
 priated the term to express in one word the light 
 and shadow. Leonardo da Vinci first used it suc- 
 cessfully. No part of the art contributes more to
 
 42 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 the illusion necessary to " good representation " in 
 a picture. The magic of it, when it is employed 
 upon a single object, such as a head for example, 
 consists in this, that the skilful artist leaves in the 
 light the parts which he wishes to make advance, 
 by graduating the light in such a manner as that 
 they receive more of it in proportion as they ought 
 to be more prominent. On the other hand, he 
 throws into the shade the parts which he wishes to 
 retire. This he takes care to execute with the 
 same proportional graduation, and without neglect- 
 ing any of the necessary reflections, and he adds, 
 if the effect require, some gleam of accidental light. 
 By this proceeding, managed with all the requisite 
 skill, the head will appear to stand out of the 
 picture, the surfaces will take a just roundness, all 
 the parts will be in their places, and the whole will 
 detach itself from the ground. This then is the 
 combination of light and shadow which I call the 
 clear-obscure of that head, and upon which the 
 magical effect of it altogether depends. 
 
 In compositions, the clear-obscure will be that 
 of the object the most prominent and most bright. 
 From that the light, carried in natural gradations 
 to the other objects in succession, and modified by 
 the interposition of the air in the remote planes, 
 will produce in them so many lights and shadows, 
 that is to say, so much subordinate clear-obscure. 
 The union of these with that of the first object 
 makes the general clear-obscure of the picture as a 
 whole.
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 43 
 
 Of all the parts of colour no one contributes 
 so much to the " well represented," and to the 
 magic truth of a work, none has more direct influ- 
 ence upon its effect, or attracts more powerfully 
 the eye of the spectator, none is more decisive in 
 producing the illusion of fore-shortening, than the 
 clear-obscure, if the different parts be executed, 
 disposed, and united, with the art and the agree- 
 ment necessary. It is especially this magical part 
 of colour which renders the pictures of so many of 
 the Dutch masters so generally sought for. It is 
 this that contributes very much to the glory of the 
 Flemish school. It is this, in fine, against which 
 so many renowned Italian masters have sinned, but 
 in which the immortal Corregio is so eminently 
 distinguished, and which proves how they err that 
 have named Titian the Prince of Colourists ! for how 
 much soever he may possess in a supreme degree 
 very many other parts of colouring, he has so mis- 
 understood this one in his general harmony, that 
 his grounds are rarely in agreement with the rest 
 of his picture, and are very often all black. His 
 Venus in the Dresden Gallery, and his Ecce Homo 
 in that of Vienna, two of his most renowned pic- 
 tures, but especially the latter, present striking 
 proofs, among very many others, of the correctness 
 of my opinion on this great colourist. 
 
 SECT. XIII. Of Transparency. 
 It is not without reason that true connoisseurs 
 set such a value on TRANSPARENCY in pictures, for
 
 44 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 it augments the " good representation " of them by 
 an inexpressible charm, which seduces even the 
 most ignorant. All the art of it consists in the 
 glazings being always sufficiently transparent to 
 allow the forms and colours beneath to appear, 
 more or less, according to need, without which 
 there cannot be perfect conformity with nature. 
 Transparency is not confined to the shadows and 
 demi-tints which cannot do without it. The skilful 
 artist will take advantage of it equally for the dra- 
 peries, the trees, and most objects that enter into 
 his composition ; correcting thus the rawness of his 
 colours, and giving warmth to those which are too 
 cold. 
 
 The great Rubens and his followers have excelled 
 in this quality, as well as Teniers, Peter Neefs the 
 elder, and many other Flemings. The greater part, 
 of the Dutch school have equally distinguished 
 themselves in it. Among the Italians, the Venetian 
 school, after the example of Titian, have made a 
 very happy use of it. But I am of opinion that 
 Paul Veronese, although a little too raw in his 
 lights, has distinguished himself by the art, as 
 magical as peculiar, with which he has treated his 
 shadows, an art of which the most eminent proof 
 will be found in his astonishing picture of the Mar- 
 riage of Cana, which is in the Musee at Paris, and 
 makes one of its principal ornaments, whatever the 
 partizans of the ideal and of costume, in their sin- 
 gularity, may say of it.
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 45 
 
 SECT. XIV. Of Harmony. 
 
 HARMONY of colours in a picture consists in their 
 affinity, their union, and even in their opposition, 
 all so judiciously and so well managed, that there 
 results a perfect concord. Under the pencil of 
 an intelligent artist local colours, even the least 
 agreeable, and those which have the least affinity 
 among themselves, may become very agreeable to 
 the eye, and contribute powerfully to the harmony 
 of the picture through the interposition of some 
 other colour ; as in music discordant tones are hap- 
 pily united by means of intermediate ones.* 
 
 The success of this part of colour depends very 
 much upon the clear-obscure, which, in order to 
 contribute thereto, ought to present only large 
 masses of light and shadow, united by delicate pas- 
 sages, which produce a whole well graduated, and 
 
 * The three primary colours being red, blue, and yellow, it 
 has been stated by Mengs, that when any one of them is promi- 
 nently used, it should be accompanied by one which combines 
 the other two. Thus, if pure red be used, it should be accom- 
 panied by green, which is a compound of blue and yellow. This 
 compound colour is called the contrasting colour, and is always 
 used sparingly. But the harmonising colour is said to be the 
 compound made by any one colour itself along with the next 
 adjoining to it on either side of the spectrum. Thus red will 
 be harmonised by purple, the colour produced by compounding 
 it with the blue on the one side of it, and it will also be har- 
 monized by orange, which is the colour produced by compound- 
 ing it with the yellow, next to it on the other side of the 
 spectrum. Trans.
 
 46 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 where nothing is glaring. This success depends 
 scarcely less upon the intelligent use of weak colours 
 against strong, and strong ones against weak, than 
 on the good choice of local colours, no one of which 
 ought to produce a more marked effect than is 
 required by the place it occupies ; for then it would 
 produce upon the eye the same painful sensation 
 that is produced upon the ear by a false tone in 
 music, harmony in which, if understood, may give 
 a luminous idea of that of colour. 
 
 It is necessary to guard well against confounding 
 in any respect monotony with harmony in painting, 
 just as no one would think of confounding them in 
 music. 
 
 SECT. XV. Of the Effect. 
 
 The EFFECT, the last part of colouring, is the end 
 of all the others, the true aim of the artist, and the 
 result of all his labour. It is the impression which 
 the picture produces upon the person who looks at 
 it. If no impression be produced upon the spec- 
 tator by the picture, and especially if it displease, 
 repel, or shock him, it carries its condemnation 
 along with it without reprieve. From that moment, 
 whatever merit the work may have in point of com- 
 position and design, and the parts depending on 
 that, it offers nothing to the eyes of an impartial 
 connoisseur but a beautiful design, of which he 
 regrets the ill employment.
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 47 
 
 A picture will have so much the more merit in 
 proportion as its effect shall be piquant, without 
 violating truth, and great, without being extrava- 
 gant. I do not condemn absolutely the effects 
 which I call factitious, and of which nature offers 
 no real example, but which the painter has imagined 
 possible to be seen, just as he imagines fabulous 
 beings. Nevertheless, I prefer always that he keep 
 to Nature herself, which furnishes him with subjects 
 sufficiently striking ; and I cannot approve of those 
 artists who, exceeding all measure in order to give 
 effect to their pictures, carry even to the extent of 
 impossibility the opposition of light and shadow, 
 and produce all their false magic by the extrava- 
 gant contrast of black and white. 
 
 Carravagio, and very many other Italians, have 
 left us striking instances of this error. They be- 
 come more striking still by comparison, in those 
 who, besides their factitious manner, have a natural 
 manner also. Such as Valentin, Annibal Caracci, 
 Guerchino, and above all Spagnoletto, in regard to 
 whom one cannot sufficiently regret the blindness 
 that has led him to so bad a taste, when one con- 
 templates his admirable Adoration of the Shepherds, 
 which belonged to the Princess Delia Regina at 
 Naples.* 
 
 Amongst the Dutch, Rembrandt and his pupils 
 have left us very many pictures which are examples 
 of factitious effect to an extravagant degree, and 
 
 * To the above may be added Guido Reni, who was led by 
 fashion, for a time, to imitate Carravagio. Trans.
 
 48 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 some even have a ground all black ; but they cause 
 us almost to forget this defect, though it be really 
 unpardonable, by the magic of the perfect clear- 
 obscure thrown upon the figures in the foreground. 
 I will say as much of very many works of Leonard 
 Bramer, who is given as a pupil to Rembrandt, 
 although he never was, any more than Jean 
 Lievens, and some others, who are wrongly at- 
 tributed to his school. This error has probably its 
 source in the vigour of their colouring, especially 
 of their clear-obscure. 
 
 SECT. XVI. Of the Empasto. 
 
 Having thus finished what appeared necessary 
 to communicate to my readers the qualities re- 
 quired in each of the parts of painting, in order 
 that a picture may be " well chosen " in respect 
 of subject, and, " well represented " in point of ex- 
 ecution, I close this chapter by examining how 
 the manual part of the art must contribute to 
 good representation in the work, by means of the 
 EMPASTO, and of the touch. The manual employ- 
 ment of the colours of a picture is, according to 
 my idea, the definition of the Empasto, in the 
 sense in which we have to do with it at present. It 
 differs from the touch, which means only the 
 manner in which the artist conducts every stroke 
 of the brush or pencil, in this, that it is the material
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 49 
 
 product of the union of all the touches, as the 
 picture is the formal product.* 
 
 The manner of the empasto in a picture may 
 contribute very much to " good representation" in 
 the eyes of a connoisseur. It may, on the other 
 hand, take away, or render useless to him, a great 
 part of the merit which the picture would otherwise 
 have. It often suffices even, alone, to decide its 
 condemnation with the amateur. 
 
 In order that the einpasto may be good, it is 
 necessary that it be well nourished in the light 
 parts, and that it be thin and light in the obscure 
 and retiring parts ; or, if it is not so in reality, 
 it must at least appear to be so, by means of 
 transparent glazings. Every colour ought to be 
 presented clear, pure, and bright, in its primitive 
 beauty and brilliancy. It ought to give proof of 
 a hand intelligent, light, easy, and firm. Nothing 
 should appear in it dull, laboured, heavy, nor 
 dabbled. It must not be dirty or bedaubed, through 
 tormenting it too much, or confusing it with the 
 contiguous colours, or puddling it with those of the 
 ground. It ought to be delicately melted at its 
 extremities into the neighbouring colours, with the 
 requisite neatness and address, or united with them 
 by relative tints judiciously applied. Throughout 
 the empasto there must not be skips and edges 
 
 * The author appears to have become obscure in his defini- 
 tion, from his anxiety to be clear. The layer, or body of paint, 
 is the true definition of empasto, considered without reference 
 to its shape or other qualities. TRANSL.
 
 50 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ABE REQUIRED 
 
 between it and the colours which touch it.* All 
 ought to be blended and graduated with art. The 
 contours of every object especially ought to be 
 melted with the greatest intelligence and justness, 
 into whatever serves as their ground, for if they 
 are too little so, they will become sharp, dry, and 
 as if cut out ; if they are too much, they will cling 
 to the ground, rendering the work soft and feeble, 
 and will destroy in it all the magic of air seeming 
 to surround the object. This rule, however, has 
 a certain latitude, of which superior geniuses know 
 how to take advantage, each in his own way. Two 
 wonderful pictures, which are in the Mus6e at Paris, 
 by the side of each other, confirm this observation 
 in a remarkable degree. The one is the Marriage 
 of Cana, by Paul Veronese (before referred to) ; 
 the other, Christ denouncing Heresy, by the hand 
 of Rubens. These two capital pictures dispute the 
 palm for effect and colouring, although the con- 
 tours in the first are very much more melted than 
 in the latter ; and by this difference, likewise, they 
 demonstrate two points which may assist us to dis- 
 cover the different means by which good effects are 
 produced in different masters. The one is, that 
 the less the contours are melted into the ground, 
 provided that they be not cutting, the better will 
 
 * That is, of course, in the same ohject, and where there are 
 no breaks naturally ; but the instruction must be understood as 
 referring more especially to small pictures of high finish, and 
 intended to be seen near at hand, for which class the author has 
 an evident predilection. TUANSL.
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 51 
 
 the figures detach themselves from it, and the better 
 will the eye get round them ; but the work, as a 
 whole, will be drier and less soft. The other point 
 is, that the more the contours are melted, light, 
 and vanishing, without falling into softness, the 
 more will the object round itself backwards, and 
 the picture will become more sweet and harmonious 
 as a whole ; but, at the same time, the figures will 
 not advance so far out of their ground. 
 
 The manual part of the art not being included 
 in the object of my work, except as to its effects, I 
 feel obliged to restrict myself as much as possible 
 in my observations on the empasto, which (if fully 
 treated) would lead me beyond my purpose, and 
 would interest artists only. But 1 cannot avoid 
 casting a rapid glance upon what, in the practical 
 management, relates more directly to " good repre- 
 sentation " in pictures. I speak first of the priming, 
 or first ground of oil, which artists put or cause to 
 be put on the canvass, or on the panel, before com- 
 mencing to paint their subject, and to which each 
 of them gives the tint that suits his work, or which 
 his caprice dictates. The immense quantity of 
 pictures which grounds of brown red have ruined, 
 by destroying the colours put upon them, ought 
 to prevent artists from using the ochres for their 
 priming. Those who make them white or greyish 
 white insure the duration of their work. Some of 
 them even have known how to take advantage of this 
 kind of priming in the way that Rubens has dune 
 with so great success, by means of parts of it left 
 
 B 2
 
 52 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ARE REQUIRED 
 
 with only a little oil scarcely coloured put over 
 them for a glazing. This practice serves to dis- 
 tinguish his works from that of all his followers. 
 
 Artists who have the imprudence to paint their 
 sketches upon a ground of chalk, without covering 
 it with oil colour, will find that their pictures will 
 never retain such a state of preservation, as to 
 enable them to go down to posterity as they 
 would wish. Very many good painters, however, 
 especially in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, 
 have employed, and with much success, a priming 
 of white, for designing and sketching in oil their 
 subject, with all its accessories, which they have 
 covered in afterwards with suitable transparent 
 colours. This practice makes it easy for them to 
 take advantage of their ground in the retiring 
 parts whenever it is deemed advisable. 
 
 Not only ought all the colours which compose 
 the empasto to be perfectly well ground down, and 
 very fine, especially for small pictures, in order not 
 to injure the neatness of the work, but the ground 
 ought likewise to be perfectly smoothed with the 
 badger's hair brush; without which the glazings 
 will become ill united and rough. 
 
 Pictures which the painter is contented to finish 
 upon the sketch, by covering it, even in the lights, 
 with only a little colour very thin, cannot be 
 durable, especially if very much oil is employed. 
 For that will very soon begin to absorb colours 
 which have so little body, and will finish by ob- 
 literating them. If the great masters have often
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 53 
 
 put only glazings on their grounds, in forming 
 their darks and half-tints, they have taken care to 
 use the least possible quantity of oil. On the other 
 hand, they knew how to render their pictures solid, 
 by nourishing and empasto-iny, to the degree neces- 
 sary, the light and prominent parts, so as by that 
 to fix enduringly the brilliancy and brightness of 
 their work. Such a process has insured to pos- 
 terity the enjoyment of their splendid perform- 
 ances. 
 
 This thick layer of colour has nevertheless its 
 limits. To overstep these, lays the artist open to 
 the charge of not knowing as he ought how to 
 employ the ordinary resources of the art. It is 
 true that large pictures made to be seen from a 
 distance, especially if they are painted upon can- 
 vass, bear, and even require, the colours to be 
 made very thick, in order to insure and preserve 
 the effect, and to prevent cracks. The difference 
 between the works of Rubens painted on panel, 
 which astonish and enchant by their lightness and 
 the transparency of their empasto, and those which 
 he has painted on canvass, which are always em- 
 pasto-ed doubly, and even more, especially in the 
 lights, proves how much that great artist has felt 
 the necessity of this principle. But those who lay 
 on such a mass of colour, as in a manner to 
 emboss it, in order to augment the effect, do 
 manifestly offend against the definition of painting, 
 which prohibits the employment of colours in 
 relief. 
 
 E 3
 
 54 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ABE REQUIRED 
 
 Those who use gold or silver leaf on their works, 
 or who have inserted precious stones or the like in 
 them, if it be true that this has been done, have no 
 less departed from the definition, which requires 
 the imitation of natural objects, not the use of the 
 objects themselves. A truly unique picture by the 
 great Michael Angelo Buonaroti, in my possession, 
 proves to what an astonishing degree art can imi- 
 tate gold, silver, and stones, without using the 
 originals, by the magical illusion with which this 
 rare genius has painted them as ornaments, that 
 look as if relieved on the armour of the two cava- 
 liers, in so much that one could believe them to be 
 truly the work of an actual chisel. 
 
 Amongst the different kinds of empasto, there 
 are some in which the touches are so smooth that 
 they are scarcely visible, and in some of them one 
 cannot perceive any trace of it. Such are those of 
 Mieris, Gerard Dou, Van Slingeland, Gaspar Net- 
 scher, Ary de Voys, Van der Werff, and many 
 other Dutch painters of figures, or of still life. 
 But when this extreme finish shows too much 
 labour, so as to want soul and effect, and looks like 
 porcelain or enamel, as is the case with the pictures 
 of Van Gool, Wigman, and Platzer, the work is 
 thereby deprived of all merit. 
 
 Although there are large pictures very well re- 
 presented, which have an empasto, showing very 
 little of the touch, such as some of the best pic- 
 tures of Philip de Champaigne in the manner 
 of Le Sueur, and those of Leonardo da Vinci, and
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 55 
 
 other good ancient painters ; nevertheless, an 
 empasto with a visible touch answers better for 
 pictures of a large size, and is the only one suitable 
 for landscapes, which it prevents from having the 
 look of enamel, while it represents better the small 
 details without number that enter into their com- 
 position. 
 
 SECT. XVII. Of the Touch. 
 
 The TOUCH, by which the empasto is made, 
 finishes the list of the parts that contribute each 
 for itself to " good representation " in a picture. 
 It is made by means of the brush, or the pencil.* 
 The most celebrated painters of figures, and of his- 
 tory, have used the first, often for executing the 
 smallest figures, and have done so with a dexterity 
 and neatness which astonish the greatest connoisseurs. 
 The pencil has, however, been used most commonly 
 by the Dutch artists for all their works, and by all 
 other artists for small pictures. 
 
 Whether made with brush or pencil, the touch 
 will be always the same as to the marks which it 
 produces, only those of the first will be larger, and 
 will bear the impression of the hair ; those of the 
 other will be more close and united. 
 
 Although it might appear by the difference be- 
 tween the touch of the great masters that they have 
 obtained their object, each in his own way, without 
 
 * That is, the small brush of sable. TKANSL. 
 
 B 4
 
 56 OF THE QUALITIES WHICH ABE REQUIRED 
 
 submitting to any rule but their own choice, it is 
 not the less true, that they have all arrived at per- 
 fection by the same road, and that they have only 
 differed in the manner in which each of them has 
 followed it with more or less success. It is this 
 manner which enables their pencils to be recognised, 
 with the help of the style in which the work is 
 treated. 
 
 In order that a touch be good, it is neces- 
 sary that it contribute to "good representation" 
 in the empasto, the principles of which ought 
 to be kept in view. It matters little whether the 
 handling of the tool renders it drawn or hatched, 
 grained or embroidered, round or long, large or small, 
 flat or prominent, blunt or sharp, fat or thin, solid 
 or transparent ; provided that it be not painfully 
 laboured, timid, poor, mean, too feeble, or over-re- 
 fined, dull, hard, cutting, dabbled or confused, and 
 that without becoming too uniform and mannered, 
 it be appropriate to the texture of each object, and 
 to the place it occupies in the picture ; so that in 
 the carnations it shall follow the drawing of the 
 muscles ; the coat in every kind of animal ; the dif- 
 ferent details by which the vegetable kingdom is 
 distinguished, as well as all the other bodies such 
 as they exist, or rather, such as they appear to be 
 in the supposed situation, and according as they be- 
 come less marked by reason of the distance of their 
 position. During my travels, I have had a thousand 
 occasions to admire the intelligence with which the 
 great painters have taken care to give to each object
 
 TO MAKE A GOOD PICTURE. 57 
 
 the touch required by its nature, and I have no 
 where seen this in more wonderful perfection than 
 in an admirable picture by Metsu, known as the 
 Fainting Beauty, in my own possession. 
 
 When I come to speak of the different manners of 
 the masters, I shall have occasion to mention many 
 more examples of touch. Here I add, that if flesh 
 and other objects, united and flat, can be well re- 
 presented without the touch appearing on them, 
 this is not the case with bodies whose surfaces are 
 not united such as animals, vegetation, and tracts 
 of ground. In these a visible touch cannot be dis- 
 pensed with without fulling into enamel or porcelain. 
 Metals and other lustrous bodies are in the same 
 situation in regard to their lights. 
 
 Since it is correct to say that without a good 
 touch there cannot be a good picture, one may say 
 likewise, that he is not a good master who has not 
 a good touch, and who does not know how to avoid 
 exhibiting it too much. It is not, therefore, sur- 
 prising that the touch should have become com- 
 mendable according to occasion, under so many and 
 so different forms of expression. Thus, one may 
 speak with propriety of the touch in pictures being 
 natural, intelligent, spirituelle, clean, careful, finished, 
 precious, delicate, caressed, united, soft, fat, nou- 
 rished, full, large, light, free, easy, firm, piquant, 
 bold, decided, spirited, unconfined, learned, vigorous, 
 grand, powerful, dashed or stumped terms of which 
 I shall make the practical application in the chapter 
 that treats of the different manners of masters.
 
 58 OF THE QUALITIES, ETC. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES. 
 
 ALTHOUGH it be my intention to make as little use 
 as possible of what modern authors have written on 
 painting, and to communicate to the public only 
 what I myself have learned from forty years' observa- 
 tion, reflection, and experience, yet there presents 
 itself here a matter so delicate to treat of, and which 
 touches so nearly on the self-esteem of artists, to- 
 wards whom I do my endeavour to maintain that 
 respect which is due to their honourable and useful 
 occupation, that I am led, before announcing my 
 own opinion, to cite that of another, in order to 
 show that if mine have the misfortune to displease 
 those who have an interest in taking offence at it, 
 it enjoys, at least, the merit of being neither new 
 nor singular. The authority upon which par- 
 ticularly I rest my opinion is that of the very 
 erudite English writer, Webb, who says, " We have 
 all within us the germs of taste, and are capable, if 
 we exercise our powers, of improving them into a 
 sufficient knowledge of the polite arts. I am per* 
 suaded that nothing is a greater hinderance to our 
 advance in any art than the high opinion we form 
 of the judgment of its professors, and the proportion- 
 able diffidence of our own. I have rarely met with
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 9 
 
 an artist who was not an implicit admirer of some 
 particular school, or a slave to some favourite man- 
 ner. They seldom, like men of the world and con- 
 noisseurs, rise to an unprejudiced and liberal con- 
 templatation of true beauty. The difficulties they 
 find in the practice of their art tie them down to 
 the mechanic ; at the same time that self-love and 
 vanity lead them into an admiration of those strokes 
 of the pencil which come the nearest to their own." * 
 
 All that this learned person says here, and all 
 that Junius, the Abbe* Laugier, and others, have 
 written upon the same subject, I, myself, have 
 thought a thousand times, before having read 
 them. The greater part of the painters who have 
 returned from Rome have not failed to confirm me 
 in my opinion, by their unjust contempt for every 
 thing that is not in their manner, and that does 
 not smell of Italy. This odious affectation disgusts 
 the young amateur, and so intimidates him, that 
 not daring longer to trust his eyes, he is reduced 
 to judge of pictures only on hearsay. He refers 
 himself blindly to the judgment of others ; he re- 
 presses his own conviction into servile silence, 
 smothering the opinion which his natural taste dic- 
 tates, and so accustoms himself to exaggerate the 
 difficulties of attaining to true connoisseurship, 
 _ which is the object of his desire, that by his own 
 pusillanimity he never does reach it. 
 
 What I have myself experienced, as stated in the 
 first chapter, ought to serve as an example to per- 
 
 * Enquiry into the Beauties of Painting, by Daniel Webb, 
 Esq. Lend. 1760. p. 18.
 
 60 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 
 
 sons so situated. The means which I present to 
 them will smooth their difficulties, and ought 
 encourage them to break the yoke of others. Pro- 
 vided they reduce my precepts to practice, ac- 
 companied by observation and reflection, they 
 will not be long in arriving at the knowledge so 
 necessary to them. Then they will feel that the 
 true connoisseur judges always as an impartial 
 person ; that all schools, all manners, and all names, 
 are alike to him ; and that he esteems every pic- 
 ture only for its intrinsic merit, having no need of 
 the reputation of the painter in order to give weight 
 to the work ; conduct which certain artists can 
 scarcely be said to follow, who have no eyes but for 
 that which has a similarity to their own manner. 
 For this reason, painter and connoisseur are two 
 qualities which so rarely go together, that I have 
 not found them united hitherto, unless in those 
 who have abandoned the practice of the art. Such, 
 indeed, I admit, from the time that their interest 
 has led them to be impartial, have been able to 
 become connoisseurs much sooner than others, and 
 even to advance farther, by the help of the prin- 
 ciples and the practice of the art acquired in the 
 profession, the mechanical part being better known 
 to painters than to amateurs in general. But the 
 knowledge of the ideal part, and of the result of the 
 art, which is the effect, may be attained by all 
 without distinction, whose eyes are well organised 
 for it, and who have practice and the required im- 
 partiality. 
 
 The public, indeed, in general, is the natural
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 61 
 
 judge of every picture, as of every piece of poetry 
 and music. The author in vain complains of its 
 ignorance. He is condemned without appeal, if lie 
 is disapproved of by this public, whose suffrages 
 ought to be the aim of his work ; and that so much 
 the more, because their decisions are founded only 
 on nature. For as Quintilian judiciously observes, 
 book ix. chap. 4., " Artists feel the reason of that, 
 of which the ignorant feel the pleasure." Now the 
 motive for ever}' work of art is only the hope of 
 pleasing and of being approved, whether it be by 
 reason or by feeling. 
 
 The Abbe Lanzi has good reason to say, in his 
 preface to the Storia pittorica della Italia, " It is more 
 rare to find a true connoisseur than a good painter. 
 It is a science apart ; they are arrived at by different 
 studies and by a different course of observations, 
 which few people can make, and fewer still make 
 with success." You then, young amateurs, who 
 enter on the career of taste, and who seek to gratify 
 your growing passion, follow the route which I 
 have traced out for you ; and until experience has 
 confirmed you in my principles, remember, that 
 in painting, and all the arts which are judged of 
 by their effects, the sensation produced is the only 
 rule which ought to guide us ! 
 
 When you set yourself to judge of a picture, 
 commence always by giving it the position which 
 suits it, if nothing prevent. Then place yourself 
 at a distance proportioned to its size, between the 
 window and the picture, in such a manner that
 
 62 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 
 
 your position shall make with the picture and the 
 window a triangle, of which you should occupy 
 generally the most acute angle. By this pre- 
 caution you shall avoid the inconvenient glare 
 which the light reflected from the picture produces 
 in any other position. This done, you will first 
 view the work as a whole, and make trial of its 
 general effect. If this please you, you will con- 
 tinue your observation of it as long as may be 
 necessary to satisfy yourself in what this effect con- 
 sists, and whether it attracts you by its conformity 
 with nature, or whether, false and factitious, it only 
 dazzles you. 
 
 After having thus made trial of the picture as 
 a whole, examine successively all the parts of it, 
 trying them by the rules for judging of the parts 
 of painting contained in the preceding chapter. 
 
 As every picture is intended to be seen at the 
 distance for which the artist painted it, you will 
 take care to hit this true point of view, by seeking 
 for it in positions nearer or more distant, while you 
 are making your observations. 
 
 I would not condemn the practice of looking at 
 a picture through the hand, or through a tube, in 
 form like the large end of a trumpet, either for one 
 or both eyes. . This method increases the illusion, 
 by isolating the whole picture, or any of its parts. 
 But I do by no means approve the custom of 
 judging of a picture from its reflection in a mirror ; 
 for this changes the true effect by softening it and 
 concealing its rawness, as well as its want of agree-
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 63 
 
 ment and harmony ; reasons which may render it 
 favourable to certain painters who employ it to 
 show their works to others, in place of using it 
 only to see them in it themselves, while they 
 are employed upon them, as was the practice of 
 Giorgione and Corregio, in order to learn the effect 
 of the colours, of the masses, and of the work as a 
 whole. 
 
 After having terminated in this manner the 
 examination of the picture, and every one of its 
 parts, with all the attention possible, at the proper 
 distance, and according to the rules detailed in the 
 preceding chapter, it is necessary to approach it as 
 near as the eye, naked or furnished with glasses, 
 may require, in order to examine likewise the em- 
 pasto, the touch, the preservation, and the origi- 
 nality, which one is not bound to judge of at a 
 distance. But from what I have just said, it may 
 be concluded that I condemn absolutely the method 
 of some, who begin the examination of a picture 
 where they ought to end it. By this I mean all 
 such as, from misplaced anxiety to ascertain the 
 empasto, the touch, the preservation, and the origi- 
 nality, indulge in the bad habit of taking the pic- 
 ture in their hand at the first moment of its being 
 presented to them, or of viewing it so near that 
 they cannot afterwards judge of it as a whole; at 
 least cannot experience the illusion which depends 
 upon its being placed at the proper distance. By 
 this ignorant practice they lose all the advantage 
 derived from the first sensation in deciding on the
 
 64 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 
 
 harmony and the effect of the picture, which is no 
 longer an object new to their eyes, after the ac- 
 quaintance they have already made with it in 
 detail. 
 
 Persuaded that my readers will not fail to ob- 
 serve that this chapter is only the result and 
 practical application of the preceding one, and of 
 those wherein I treat of the preservation of pic- 
 tures, and of the manner of knowing copies, and 
 that in consequence they will take care to make 
 themselves masters of the principles which I have 
 there established, before proceeding to judge of 
 pictures, I have only farther to communicate some 
 general remarks drawn from the rules which I have 
 already laid down, to the end that the practical 
 employment of them may be facilitated. 
 
 The more a work of art attracts the spectator, 
 the better it will be, other things being equal ; and 
 it will in like manner be bad, in proportion that 
 it is uninteresting, or forbidding, when his eyes 
 are first cast upon it. The beauties and the 
 perfections which he may afterwards discover in a 
 picture, on examining it in detail, can only regard 
 its parts, but they do not by any means, on that 
 account, save it as a whole in the eyes of the true 
 connoisseur. On the contrary, it procures some 
 degree of favour for defects in the details, when 
 they cannot be discovered but by searching for 
 them, provided the picture please generally, for the 
 connoisseur knows that absolute perfection is not 
 the attribute of any human performance, and that
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 65 
 
 the precept of Horace is in a special manner appli- 
 cable to the present case : 
 
 "... Ubi plura nitent, non ego paucis 
 
 Offendar maculis." 
 
 But if a striking defect so shock the spectator on 
 approaching the picture, as to disturb the enjoy- 
 ment which he promised himself from his first 
 view, this becomes a capital and unpardonable 
 fault in his eyes, and diminishes to him the merit 
 of the work in proportion to the number and the 
 greatness of the defects ; especially if by their posi- 
 tion or importance they attract his attention every 
 time that he proceeds to contemplate the work. 
 
 Let me add here, that the amateur, in order 
 to reap the fruits of the rules I have just laid 
 down, must bring to the judgment of pictures the 
 greatest impartiality possible, and the most perfect 
 independence of all prejudice and of every ex- 
 ternal suggestion ; and that, whether he have 
 already acquired that facility in judging, which 
 experience and practice give, or find himself still 
 reduced to be guided by that kind of tact and 
 natural feeling which seems to be born with us. 
 Thus disposed, all schools, all masters, all manners, 
 and all classes of pictures, will be a matter of 
 indifference to him. He will exact nothing else 
 from every picture, but that it shall be of a " good 
 choice of subject, well represented." He will in all 
 seek only imitation the most perfect, or rather the 
 least imperfect, of " that which may be seen, or
 
 66 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 
 
 may be conceived visible, in nature." Thencefor- 
 ward his innate predilections and his prevailing 
 taste for particular subjects may determine his 
 choice in favour of one picture over another, where 
 there are two of equal merit. But he will not feel 
 the less all the merit of that which he may not 
 choose. Well convinced that all the parts of paint- 
 ing ought to aid and co-operate without exception, 
 in order to a picture being perfect, he will only 
 laugh at the pre-eminence which vanity, personal 
 interest, and party spirit accord to some, to the 
 prejudice of others. The impartial friend of every 
 kind of merit, he will have difficulty in conceiving 
 that there can exist conduct so inconstant as that 
 of some nations, such as the French, who at one time 
 extol to the skies all, even the most indifferent 
 of their painters, and at another time confine all 
 their eulogiums to one artist alone. The declared 
 enemy of all cabal, and devoid of every kind of 
 prejudice, he will view with indignation the exclu- 
 sive preference which certain persons affect for 
 Italian pictures, even the worst coloured, and often 
 such as are all black and intolerably hard, solely 
 because the design and its parts are more noble, 
 more graceful, and more correct in them, while 
 their defects of colour, however offensive they may 
 be, are ascribed to time alone. He will perceive 
 that the co-operation of all the different parts of 
 painting is indispensable to the formation of a 
 picture, and that while design, and what belongs 
 to it, supply the outline, and so to speak the car-
 
 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 67 
 
 cass, this becomes a body only by means of the 
 colours, into which the clear-obscure and harmony 
 of tints infuse the soul, and produce more than 
 all the other parts the effect that attracts and 
 seduces the spectator and makes him desire to 
 possess the work. 
 
 Our amateur, advancing in knowledge, will soon 
 be able to weigh impartially the grounds of the 
 dispute between the partisans of ideal beauty on 
 the one hand, and the beauty which exists in nature 
 on the other. He will remark that the first are for 
 the most part painters of history, who have been to 
 Rome only to become the servile imitators of the 
 antique, and who, deprived of their models, become 
 small in the elegant, and charged and exaggerated 
 in the grand and sublime, because beauty and per- 
 fection are not the product of their head, but only 
 the result of the measure. He will not be long of 
 perceiving that very many of the partisans of ideal 
 perfection owe their enthusiasm for it to fashion and 
 to imitation, and some to their peculiar mode of 
 seeing and thinking, just as there are persons who 
 prefer to read of fairies and the feats of fabulous 
 heroes rather than of sober history, and who are 
 more excited by an allegorical fiction than by the 
 naked truth, because their heated imagination is less 
 in accordance with tranquil and natural enjoyment 
 than with what strikes it vividly. He will remark 
 that on the other hand, those who differ from them 
 are incalculable in number, including almost all 
 amateurs and true connoisseurs, all who trust to their 
 
 p 2
 
 68 HOW TO JUDGE PICTURES WELL. 
 
 eyes, and to the feeling (not deceptive) which nature 
 has given them in order to judge of a picture, who 
 like every work, the view of which gives them true 
 pleasure and agreeable enjoyment, and do not pre- 
 tend to tyrannise over the opinions of others. I 
 acknowledge, very willingly, that an historical pic- 
 ture, especially with heroic and supernatural person- 
 ages, wherein there were ideal beauties, every one 
 perfect in its kind, and which, to a sublime com- 
 position, united all the magic truth of the Dutch 
 school in its execution, would be, in my eyes, a gem 
 without price. But where to find such a prodigy 
 in all that the admirers of ideal perfection have 
 striven to produce hitherto, even the best of it; 
 that is the question ! Until they can achieve this, 
 in place of contemning in others what they find 
 themselves incapable of imitating, they would do 
 better to divide between all the parts of the art the 
 labour, the reflection, and the tune, which they 
 ceaselessly devote to one alone, to the neglect of all 
 the others. This is the only road that can open 
 their eyes, and conduct them to perfection ! 
 
 NOTE. The Author in his predilection for the beau ties of colour 
 and finish which distinguish his national school, (the Flemish,) 
 seems to have forgotten that there are some subjects to which 
 that bloom and finish would be inappropriate. Thus, to take a 
 familiar example, the sombre colours and sad tone of Sir Joshua 
 Reynolds' picture of Mrs. Siddons as the Tragic Muse, now in 
 the Grosvenor Gallery, and of which a duplicate is in the 
 Dulwich Gallery, are not only in themselves suitable to the 
 character of the work, but serve to call up appropriate associa- 
 tions, which would have been altogether excluded, had she been 
 decked m the hues of Hebe, and encircled with the roses of 
 Aurora. Trans.
 
 THE MANNER OF JUDGING, ETC. 69 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OP THE MANNER OF JUDGING WHETHER A PICTURE 
 IS IN GOOD PRESERVATION OR NOT. 
 
 IN order to a picture being in what is called good pre- 
 servation, it is necessary that it be free from injuries, 
 caused either by accident, or by time, or by the atmo- 
 sphere, or by the unskilfulness or mismanagement of 
 the ignorant, and that it present itself in almost the 
 same condition in which it was when it came from 
 the hand of the master, excepting the advantageous 
 changes which it may have derived from age, such 
 as greater solidity and hardness in the empastoj a 
 surface more enamelled, and less rawness in the 
 colours. 
 
 An eye in the smallest degree practised will 
 discover without difficulty in what respects a picture 
 may have suffered from accident; for example, 
 whether there be in it holes, rents, cracks, or parts 
 abraded or broken off; whether parts have been 
 detached from the priming by damp, or by too great 
 dryness; whether it has been scorched, either by 
 fire, or from the irons of the liner having been too 
 hot ; or whether the heat of the sun has caused it 
 to swell and blister, as I have known happen to a 
 magnificent picture of Berghem, notwithstanding 
 the hardness which the colours ought to have 
 
 r 3
 
 70 THE MANNER OF JUDGING OF 
 
 acquired from the elapse of more than a century 
 since it was painted. It will in like manner be easy, 
 if the picture has been painted on panel, to see 
 whether that is bent. 
 
 Among the bad effects which time may produce 
 on a picture, there are some which are easy to be 
 discovered, such as cracks, and the sinking of parts 
 of it into the interstices of the canvass, or the ap- 
 pearance of the pores of the wood in those which 
 are upon panel. But it requires a little more at- 
 tention and practice to judge whether the colours 
 have become too black; whether the oil or the 
 priming have absorbed and finally destroyed them, 
 or whether the ochres employed for the ground 
 have communicated to them a brick-red general 
 tone. The amateur ought to apply himself the 
 more to acquire a knowledge of the injuries which 
 time may cause to a picture, because art and skill 
 do not offer any remedy for them that is completely 
 successful; while an expert and intelligent hand 
 may manage to repair most other injuries in such 
 a manner as often to deceive the most practised 
 eye. 
 
 A picture is exposed to injury in so many ways 
 from the hands of the ignorant, that it becomes 
 difficult to enumerate them. It seems to me, there- 
 fore, that I cannot do better, in order to facilitate 
 the knowledge of them to the reader, than divide 
 them into those which remain evident, and those 
 which art has concealed with more or less success.
 
 THE PRESERVATION OF PICTURES. 71 
 
 Among the latter I include also reparations made 
 on such as have suffered from accident. 
 
 Of injuries of the first kind, the largest 
 number are owing to the mismanagement and 
 unskilfulness of those who have the audacity to 
 undertake the cleaning of pictures without the 
 requisite knowledge and caution. Their unprac- 
 tised or imprudent hand raises the glazings, and 
 injures the thin and delicate colours ; sometimes by 
 simple fretting, too rough or too long continued, 
 with the dry and bare fingers, and sometimes by 
 the employment of mordants either dangerous in 
 themselves, or good, but ill managed. The number 
 of pictures which such dangerous proceedings have 
 ruined, and continue to ruin every day, surpasses 
 imagination. Even when they do not destroy the 
 picture entirely, they at all events leave the most 
 injurious traces behind, depriving it of its trans- 
 parency and harmony, and much of the effect, and 
 rendering it hard, cold, and weak. Of this the 
 admirable " Night " of Corregio at Dresden presents 
 a very sad example. 
 
 The carriage of pictures from one country to 
 another is one of the most frequent causes of their 
 destruction, either from their being unskilfully 
 rolled up with the colours inwards, which is the 
 cause of those longitudinal and unpleasant crevices 
 often seen in pictures that have come from Italy, 
 or from the imprudence of those who take it upon 
 them to pack them without being conversant with 
 the method. In this latter way the Custom House 
 
 r 4
 
 72 THE MANNER OF JUDGING OF 
 
 officers at Cologne caused me irreparable loss, by 
 the entire ruin of many pictures of great value, in 
 the replacing of them in the case from which they 
 had taken them. 
 
 Many other causes besides may contribute to the 
 injury of a picture, the symptoms and remedies for 
 most of which I point out in my chapter on the 
 means of cleaning works of art. Such are mould, 
 old and bad dirt, especially that of smoke, the oils 
 and the varnishes becoming hard and tenacious, 
 the sad and yellow tone which pictures often take 
 when the light and the air have not had access to 
 them, and finally the varnish being too yellow and 
 too little transparent. 
 
 Although I have said elsewhere, that a varnish 
 somewhat yellow may have been used inten- 
 tionally, and with very good success upon certain 
 pictures, to give them a tone more warm and 
 golden, it is well to observe here, that the amateur 
 ought to be the more on his guard with varnishes 
 that are too yellow, in respect that they often serve 
 as the means of masking deceptions repaints, and 
 of giving an air of antiquity to pictures quite 
 newly painted. It is for the same purpose that 
 some persons, with evil ingenuity, employ dirt, by 
 applying it upon the varnish, or upon the colour 
 when dry, and often even by incorporating it with 
 these while they are still fresh. But both of these 
 faults, inasmuch as they are concealed, belong to 
 the following class rather than to injuries which 
 are open. 

 
 THE PRESERVATION OF PICTURES. 73 
 
 The injuries concealed by means of art are 
 those on which there has been stippling, re- 
 touching, or repainting. Although I have taken 
 the greatest care hitherto to avoid works restored 
 by one or other of these processes, in order to avert 
 by this scrupulous caution even the smallest re- 
 proach which malevolence might cast upon my col- 
 lection under such a pretext, yet the unanimous 
 opinion of the greatest connoisseurs and best in- 
 formed amateurs, even amongst the Dutch, who 
 have always been the most scrupulous on this point, 
 has convinced me, and my own experience has con- 
 firmed me in it, that I should do wrong to recom- 
 mend to others the too rigid rule which I have 
 myself adopted in this matter. A distinction ought, 
 at all events, to be made between reparations that 
 are ill made, and those in which the skill and in- 
 telligence of the artist have been crowned with 
 complete success. Indeed, I have seen many in- 
 stances of stippling made with such skill and in- 
 telligence, and many of retouching and repainting 
 made with so much expertness, and with touches 
 so conformable to those of the original, and have 
 found in all these cases the new colours so exactly 
 in accordance and harmony with the old, even after 
 several years, that, unless from having been already 
 aware of it, it would have been impossible to sus- 
 pect the smallest restoration. It is especially in 
 the parts entirely glazed of new, or entirely re- 
 painted, that it becomes impossible to discover the 
 thing ; and I have admired the rare talent of some
 
 74 THE MANNER OF JUDGING OF 
 
 artists in this branch, who render themselves 
 worthy of the highest consideration, by saving and 
 restoring with such perfect success the chief works 
 of art. But I cannot approve in any degree the 
 conduct of those, who, without necessity, permit 
 repainting on the works of the great masters, under 
 the too ambitious pretext of correcting their work ! 
 I was present at Amsterdam during a dispute be- 
 tween one who had just sold a landscape for several 
 thousand florins, and the agent who had made the 
 purchase on commission. The latter required an 
 important change to be made towards the centre 
 of the picture, which he contended would be very 
 much unproved thereby. It was in vain that the 
 seller, with whom I agreed in opinion upon the 
 point, persisted in refusing to repaint a work in such 
 good preservation, and by so great a master; for 
 the broker closed his lips by protesting, that unless 
 the demand were complied with, he was instructed 
 to throw up the bargain. 
 
 If I am constrained by reason and experience, 
 as well as by the preponderating opinions of the 
 most competent judges, to admit, that a picture 
 stippled or restored in such a manner as that the 
 most clear-seeing eye cannot discover it loses almost 
 nothing in price nor in ostensible merit thereby ; 
 on the other hand, I cannot avoid saying, that a bad 
 retouch, and a bad repaint, deteriorate a picture 
 as much as would the injury which they conceal, 
 if it remained evident. Much more do they dis- 
 figure it, in my opinion, when the painter, under 

 
 THE PRESERVATION OF PICTURES. 75 
 
 the pretext of putting his retouches in accordance 
 with the rest, has been so unskilful as to occupy 
 more space with his new colours, than the evil 
 which he wished to conceal required. 
 
 But if such repaints diminish nothing of the 
 real price and intrinsic merit of a picture, at least 
 not more than the defects which they mask, seeing 
 they may be removed at pleasure, they yet often 
 diminish the apparent merit of it, and by conse- 
 quence the value, in the eyes of young amateurs 
 who have not acquired sufficient firmness to decide 
 on the real value of a work when it presents itself 
 under disadvantageous appearances. To be able 
 to do this is a privilege, the benefits of which are 
 reserved exclusively for accomplished connoisseurs ! 
 
 To terminate this chapter it only remains for me 
 to say, that restorations ill executed betray them- 
 selves sometimes by the tint, sometimes by the 
 touch, sometimes by the empasto, and occasionally 
 even by the design, although much more rarely. 
 
 The tint will offend by being false, discordant 
 with the neighbouring ones, deeper or brighter, 
 often more dull and flat, occasionally too dirty, 
 and often too clear and free from the dirt which is 
 perceived more or less on the rest of the picture ; 
 and if by chance the colour be too new to have yet 
 changed its tone, and the tint of it has been chosen 
 at the first in exact conformity with those which 
 surround it, the varnish alone will suffice to betray 
 the retouch ; for the oil, by evaporating on the 
 place, renders it nebulous, dull, and without true
 
 76 THE MANNER OF JUDGING, ETC. 
 
 transparency. This may be very easily discovered 
 by viewing the picture horizontally in a strong 
 light. 
 
 But the touch beyond every thing denounces 
 the inexpert and injudicious restorer, who, in place 
 of imitating with exactness and intelligence that 
 of the original, shall have only been able to extract 
 from his stupid pencil a touch that is timid, la- 
 boured, uncertain, affected, confused, without neat- 
 ness or firmness; in a word, altogether different 
 from the model which he ought to have followed. 
 
 A surreptitious empasto will discover itself from 
 the original by not being of the same level, that is 
 to say, by being more or less raised, or more or less 
 united than it ; or from being too dull and heavy, 
 or too little transparent, or finally, if it remain 
 cutting and without being melted into the neigh- 
 bouring tints. 
 
 The design may betray a repaint, when the 
 figures or other bodies have been so effaced 
 throughout, or in their contours, that the restorer 
 is under the necessity of replacing them out of his 
 own head, and has not acquired sufficient firmness 
 to re-design them well, or has not sufficient dis- 
 cernment to follow the taste of design which pre- 
 vails in the original.
 
 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING COPIES. 77 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING AND APPRECIATING 
 COPIES. 
 
 OF all the parts of connoisseurship necessary to 
 an amateur, there is none in which it is more 
 difficult to lay down general rules applicable to all 
 cases, than in that which regards the difference in 
 handling between one copy and another. The 
 knowledge required to distinguish well between 
 them depends for the most part so much on prac- 
 tice in seeing and comparing, that, to my regret, 
 I find it impossible to supply the necessary in- 
 struction by rules, or to communicate to young 
 amateurs by words, that decisive and unerring 
 vision so necessary in this matter, which experi- 
 ence alone can give, and which it will give them 
 without doubt, if they accustom themselves to ob- 
 serve and reflect. But if, for want of expression, 
 I am not able to convey to them this certain some- 
 thing, which is acquired by comparison and prac- 
 tice only, and which enables the jeweller to dis- 
 tinguish at first sight the impure diamond, and 
 other stones or compositions that often deceive 
 unpractised eyes, I console myself in. part with the 
 satisfaction of being able at least to save them much 
 labour, and very much to smooth their way, by 
 the general observations which long experience has
 
 78 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 enabled me to make. The application of these, 
 which will not be difficult, will enable them to 
 know the greater part of copies, especially the 
 least meritorious, until they learn by means of 
 seeing and comparing to know them as well as 
 they can ever hope for. 
 
 Among copies there are some, as I think, 
 which it is quite impossible to discover, whatever 
 writers may say, who in that are almost all op- 
 posed to me in opinion. These copies are such 
 as masters have made after their own works. It 
 is in vain to object that on confronting the copy 
 with the original one will always find in some 
 place the one inferior to the other, although both 
 bear infallible proofs of their being wholly by the 
 same hand. Where, I ask, is the Argus sufficiently 
 penetrating to decide whether in this case the copy 
 is the worst, because of the artist not having been 
 able to put into it the same fire which had animated 
 him in executing the original, and because of his 
 pencil being more constrained than in the first 
 composition? or whether, on the contrary, the copy 
 is the best, because the artist has learned to avoid 
 in it the faults which he had committed in the 
 original, as every author improves his work on 
 repeating it? For my part I say, without hesita- 
 tion, that the word copy is very much out of place 
 here as regards the public, who will only see in 
 them two productions of the same artist, the dif- 
 ferent merit of which in their eyes will make all 
 the difference of price, depending on the degree
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 79 
 
 of pleasure which they experience from them. For 
 the rest I give full liberty to the rigidly exact to 
 treat as a copyist the man who, eminent in his 
 art, has, from taste or complaisance to his admirers, 
 executed more than once the same work without 
 changing any thing in it. I confine myself to 
 making my readers aware, that such cases are so 
 far from being unfrequent, that I have seen for my 
 part more than a hundred examples, of which 
 very many were in the principal public galleries ! 
 Alas ! in that case for the individual who comes 
 into competition with them ! His picture will be 
 sure to be the copy, however original it may really 
 be ! For an absurd prejudice makes it to be be- 
 lieved that every thing is original in the galleries, 
 notwithstanding the multiplied proofs to the con- 
 trary furnished by the galleries of Dresden, Dus- 
 seldorff, Saltzthalum, Cassel, and very many others ; 
 above all by those of Italy, which all contain more 
 than one copy very easy to be distinguished ; and 
 amongst them are a pretty considerable number of 
 which I have seen the originals in private collec- 
 tions ! But in the galleries copies often escape the 
 eye even of the connoisseur, who is too much occu- 
 pied with the numerous gems and wonders of art 
 around him to observe every thing narrowly. 
 
 The copies which a very practised eye alone can 
 know, but which it becomes occasionally very diffi- 
 cult to distinguish, are those which excellent 
 scholars have made of the pictures of their master, 
 often under his superintendance and correction;
 
 80 OF frHE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 and those which one great ancient master has made 
 after the work of another. In both one and the 
 other case, if the copyist have had genius enough 
 and a pencil sufficiently expert, and if he have 
 aimed at a resemblance perfectly deceptious, he 
 will have been able to place at fault the most clear 
 sighted ; as is proved by the copy, so often men- 
 tioned by authors, made by Andrea del Sarto after 
 a picture of Raphael, of such perfect resemblance, 
 that Julio Romano, who had worked with his 
 master on the original, believed that he had dis- 
 covered his own work in that of Del Sarto, although 
 Vasari assured him before hand that it was only a 
 copy painted by Del Sarto in his presence ! 
 
 If, on the contrary, the copyist, with all the talent 
 possible, has only endeavoured to make a good 
 picture after a model which has struck him, or if 
 an expert scholar, in order to improve himself, has 
 copied the work of his master, under the very eyes 
 of the latter ; finally, if, as happened every day in 
 the school of Rubens, a pupil, consummate in his 
 art, has replaced the pencil of his master by his 
 own, and made by order, or after the draught of 
 the latter, a picture in which the composition alone 
 is copied ; in all these cases it is almost certain that 
 the copyist will have worked with fire and without 
 constraint, and that his habitual touch will betray 
 his hand, even when the master has added his own 
 finishing touches to the work. No schools offer so 
 many examples of this last case as those of Raphael 
 and Rubens. The Saint-Bavon, which is in the
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 81 
 
 cathedral at Ghent, furnishes one of the most 
 striking proofs of this. For however excellent 
 may be the picture, as well as a beautiful sketch of 
 it which I possess, it is certain, that both the one and 
 the other are by the hand of Jacques Jordaens, whose 
 touch one may recognise throughout, and that 
 nothing of them belongs to Rubens but the com- 
 position and the corrections, which are very visible 
 in them, especially in the sketch. There one sees 
 the contours of very many, and entire figures, which 
 this great master has drawn in red chalk on the 
 painting of his pupil, to show him the changes 
 which he ought to make in the position of his 
 figures, when he should execute the picture in large. 
 Copies of these two kinds become so many very 
 precious pictures, the merit of which, and their 
 price, augment in proportion to the skill of the 
 hand from which they come. Thus a well-vouched 
 copy by Van Dyck after Rubens, in which the 
 manner and all the touches attest the enchanting 
 pencil of the first, would be worth scarcely less 
 than the original. Such, for example, is the Christ 
 taken from the Cross, at the great altar of the 
 Capucins at Brussels, under the name of Rubens, 
 which it has always borne, although the whole 
 style, tone, and touch of it betray the pencil of Van 
 Dyck. To such a degree is this the case, that my 
 deceased friend, the celebrated Falconet, on being 
 shown it on his return from Russia, got into a 
 passion with the sacristan, when the latter pre- 
 tended to prove to him, by the holograph receipt
 
 82 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 which Rubens had given for the price of the pic- 
 ture, that it could not have been painted by his 
 pupil Van Dyck. Rubens himself, during his long 
 sojourn in Italy, made copies after the pictures 
 of the most renowned Italian masters, of which 
 there is more than one that is worth at least as 
 much as the original. Thus his copy after the 
 mistress of Titian, in the Gallery at Vienna, of 
 which the original is in the Gallery at Dresden, 
 makes a more agreeable impression upon me, in 
 many respects, than even the original; which im- 
 pression has not varied, although I have seen both 
 more than a hundred times. 
 
 The engagements of the creator of the Flemish 
 school were so numerous and so varied in his cha- 
 racter of courtier and statesman, and as a man of 
 letters and a painter, that, in order to fulfil them 
 all, he was obliged to intrust the execution of the 
 greater part of his pictures to his skilful pupils, 
 not doing more to them, for his own part, than 
 furnishing a slight sketch for the composition, 
 giving a superintendence more or less close, and 
 making corrections more or less numerous, as cir- 
 cumstances might permit. There, then, to speak 
 strictly, are so many copies, but without other ori- 
 ginal than a sketch upon a bit of paper ! In each of 
 these copies a well-practised eye will know how to 
 distinguish, by the tone and the touch, to which 
 among the pupils of that celebrated school Rubens 
 confided the work which was ordered of him ; thus 
 multiplying himself in some sort, and in the same
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 83 
 
 proportion the numerous pictures which since that 
 time have borne his name. It is thus that in the 
 very large and celebrated picture now at Munich, 
 of which the subject is The Last Judgment, the 
 connoisseur may recognise easily the tone and the 
 handling of Van Thulden throughout, except in 
 the glory of the Christ and its accompaniments, in 
 which he will find traces of the pencil of Rubens, 
 that will be sought for in vain in the other parts 
 of this astonishing composition. 
 
 Whatever may be the pictures painted by the 
 pupils of this school in the name of their master, 
 happy is he who can acquire such works ! They 
 carry always the imprint of the great genius and 
 astonishing skill of their inventor. But much 
 more happy, beyond comparison, is he to whom 
 fortune has accorded the rare possession of a pic- 
 ture that may be ascribed entirely to the pencil of 
 the divine Rubens himself! It is in such a work 
 only, not in the performances of others, that one 
 can see this great man such as he truly is, in all 
 his glory and splendour ! 
 
 All that I have said of Rubens, and of the pic- 
 tures painted for him or after him by his scholars, 
 must be understood equally of the other celebrated 
 masters in regard to their scholars, especially of 
 Raphael, Titian, Paul Veronese, Guido, Albano, 
 and Annibal Caracci, who has so well copied Cor- 
 regio, and has himself been so well copied by 
 Domenichino ; in a word, of all the great Italian 
 o 2
 
 84 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 artists, who are in general much more easy to copy 
 than Rubens, in so far as regards the empasto, the 
 tone, and the touch, and whose works have served 
 for studies to the ancient masters. This circum- 
 stance often renders it more difficult to judge of Ita- 
 lian pictures than of those of all the other schools ; 
 but proves likewise the immense superiority of such 
 Italian copies over most others, and their liability 
 to deceive the unwary, and pass for originals. These 
 kinds of copies, of which I have spoken hitherto, are 
 the more difficult to distinguish from originals, in 
 that they all unite to their true merit the advan- 
 tage of antiquity, having been painted only by good 
 ancient masters. 
 
 The copies of which it remains to speak betray 
 themselves either by their freshness, not having 
 yet acquired that sort of lustrous enamel that 
 age gives to the colours, which often, in the copies 
 now alluded to, have so little of the requisite 
 degree of hardness and dryness, that they seem still 
 to smell of the oil ; or they evince their inferiority 
 by an empasto dull and heavy, a false general tone 
 of colour, a want of harmony and transparency, 
 and an effect which does not correspond to the 
 design of the whole ; or by unnatural gradations, 
 shadows too cutting and hard, and the want of 
 clear-obscure; and, above all, by a touch that is 
 timid, laboured, tremulous, uniform, without intel- 
 ligence, unsuitable, confused, or at least altogether 
 different from that of the original, as is likewise 
 often the design.
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 85 
 
 It is principally in the accessories that the touch 
 betrays the copyist, whose attention commonly 
 relaxes in them, from having been too much ex- 
 hausted by the principal objects. As to the tone, I 
 may observe, that as time causes the colours to 
 deepen, and as he who copies generally imitates 
 them just as he finds them in his model, his new 
 colours, after becoming deepened, will no longer be 
 conformable to it. Thus on confronting a copy 
 with its original, after some years, the general tone 
 of the copy will be almost always found to be 
 deeper than it ought to be, unless it has been 
 painted lighter than the original on purpose. 
 
 In the choice of pictures for a collection, he who 
 can pay for originals ought to avoid with the 
 greatest care this last sort of copies, which will 
 bring him as little honour as they do the painter 
 himself. It is these that have rendered the word 
 copy a bugbear to the young amateur. Happily 
 the preceding rules will enable him of himself to 
 discern the greater part of them, provided he give 
 the requisite attention. The worst effect of these 
 copies, so justly contemned, is that they have 
 thrown an odium upon copies in general, whatever 
 may be their merit. The name even of them in- 
 spires contempt to that degree, that in order to 
 decry a picture, the envious, however ignorant, 
 have only to call it a copy ; just as in order to the 
 destruction of a poor dog, one has only to call it 
 mad. A practice so unjust is become an inex- 
 
 G 3
 
 86 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 haustible source of annoyance and embarrassment 
 to the amateurs of art, who for the most part are 
 reduced, in making purchases, to assure themselves 
 of the originality rather than of the goodness of 
 the picture. 
 
 For my own part, led at first by example and 
 established custom, and afterwards by choice, I 
 have hitherto, to prevent every kind of criticism, 
 avoided with the greatest care, admitting into my 
 collection pictures the originality of which was not 
 evident and incontestable in all respects. This 
 conduct has cost me very great sacrifices, by the 
 purifications which it has caused me to make, often 
 indeed on observations having little foundation ; 
 and it has no less been the occasion to me of many 
 regrets, from my not having dared to acquire cer- 
 tain pictures which enchanted me by their real 
 merit, but of which I could not with certainty 
 determine the master. I think, however, that every 
 thing well considered, it is of consequence to the 
 progress of art and of artists, as well as to the best 
 interests of amateurs, that those who form col- 
 lections should depart, if there be yet time, in this 
 single instance, from the route which my practice 
 would seem to point out to them, and which I 
 cannot now change without injuring all the pictures 
 that I already possess, in the opinion of those who 
 are partisans of well-vouched names and incon- 
 testable originality. The reasons which influence 
 me to give to others advice so opposed to my own
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 87 
 
 practice on this point, will satisfy all those who, 
 setting aside every prejudice, are willing to exa- 
 mine the matter in its true light. They will then 
 perceive it to be beyond doubt that the real and 
 intrinsic merit of a picture consists only in the 
 agreeable enjoyment which the sight of it gives to 
 the spectator, who at the moment thinks of nothing 
 but the pleasure he experiences from the work, 
 without concerning himself from whence it comes. 
 Consequently, if a copy causes in him as much 
 satisfaction as the original, or more, as may happen, 
 the merit of them will be equal, so far as regards 
 their effect upon him, however different may be 
 their effect relatively to the painters ; the one of 
 whom reaps the honour of the invention, and the 
 other only that of a perfect imitation. The distinc- 
 tion, however, is a matter of great indifference to 
 the amateur, who seeks only to procure for him- 
 self the enjoyment of what is good, although it 
 may be of the highest importance, and will perhaps 
 for a long time remain so, to all those who attach 
 very great value to the knowledge of the master 
 of every picture. 
 
 Until reason remove the above prejudices, and 
 people are accustomed to admire and seek after a 
 picture for its good qualities, and not for the honour 
 which it reflects upon the painter (as one relishes 
 a good dish without troubling himself about who 
 has prepared it), I would counsel amateurs to be- 
 stow all their pains on learning to distinguish well 
 
 o 4
 
 88 OF THE MANNER OF KNOWING 
 
 between copy and copy. Then they will be able to 
 reject the one with the contempt which it merits, 
 and to select the other, and esteem it in proportion 
 to the degree of perfection which is in it, especially 
 if their means, or the want of opportunity, deprive 
 them of the hope of possessing the originals. 
 
 In order to avoid meriting the reproach of deceit, 
 the amateur ought to guard against giving out 
 these copies for any thing else than they are. So 
 very far will the frank avowal of the possession of 
 them be from giving him cause to blush, that if he 
 have chosen such as unite all the requisite qualities, 
 the acknowledgment can only procure to him eulo- 
 giums on his prudence, his good taste, and his 
 knowledge. 
 
 With a view to render this chapter more com- 
 plete and more useful, the reader ought to peruse 
 along with it the contents of the eleventh chapter, 
 which treats of the different manners of the masters. 
 He will see there that it is the mechanical part of 
 the work, especially the touch, which presents the 
 most certain means of determining the originality 
 of a picture. The articles on the empasto and the 
 touch, in my twelfth chapter, are also of the greatest 
 utility in this matter. A copyist might manage, 
 indeed, by sparing no pains, to represent trait for 
 trait, the composition, the design, and even the 
 colour of the original ; but whatever attention he 
 may give, he will not be able to imitate in every 
 point the handling of the pencil, with the neatness
 
 AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 89 
 
 and freedom which custom alone has given to the 
 master. 
 
 In painting, a touch large or contracted, dashing 
 or careful, drawn or stumped, though remaining 
 always the same in its denomination, will differ in 
 its formation under the pencil of each artist, as 
 a piece of penmanship of the same subject may 
 remain flowing, round, or regular, and yet differ 
 under the pen of each writer. However many 
 hands there may be to guide the pen or the pencil, 
 they produce the same forms by as many different 
 manners of handling ; which manners characterise 
 them individually, and serve to make their works 
 known to those who are familiar with them. From 
 this it is that true connoisseurs can scarcely be de- 
 ceived by copies. For if the imitator be but an 
 indifferent painter, he will betray himself to their 
 eyes by the constraint and timidity of his touch ; 
 if, on the contrary, he is an artist truly expert, it 
 is almost impossible for him, whatever attention he 
 may give, not to mingle here and there, from for- 
 getfulness or impatience, his own touch with that 
 of the original, especially in those parts of the 
 picture which require the least caution, such as the 
 ground, the distance, the hair of the head, and other 
 similar parts. These are with reason the parts in 
 which the true connoisseur seeks particularly to un- 
 mask the copyist. Such are probably the reasons 
 which have led Pliny to say, in his twenty-eighth 
 letter of the fifth book, " that it is infinitely more
 
 90 OF KNOWING AND APPRECIATING COPIES. 
 
 difficult to copy a picture exactly, than to imitate 
 nature faithfully." 
 
 Finally, if a case present itself, in which the most 
 clear-sighted cannot discover the slightest difference 
 in touch, empasto, or any of the parts which be- 
 long to the execution, on confronting a copy with 
 the original, the two will assuredly have the same 
 merit and the same value, and every reasonable 
 man will guard well against giving to either the 
 preference.
 
 f 
 OF ANALYSING AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 91 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING AND DESCRIBING 
 PICTURES. 
 
 THE analytical and methodical description of pic- 
 tures, if made with the requisite clearness and pre- 
 cision, is not so easy and unimportant a thing as 
 one might think it, by judging only from ordinary 
 sale catalogues. The striking difference to be found 
 between the common run of these catalogues and 
 those which have been compiled at Paris by well- 
 informed connoisseurs for the last fifty years, and 
 which are sought after by the curious, proves this. 
 Whoever wishes to succeed in analysing a picture 
 well, and describing it methodically, in order to 
 give a clear idea of it to others, without wearying 
 them with superfluities or unmeaning prolixity, 
 must unite to a style clear and concise, all the 
 knowledge, or nearly all, that is necessary to form 
 an accomplished amateur. Before taking the pen 
 in hand, he ought to make himself thoroughly 
 master of the real or apparent merits of the work, 
 and the qualities, good or bad, of every one of 
 its parts, which he will judge of separately, with- 
 out any prejudice or partiality, according to the 
 principles I have laid down on this subject in 
 the twelfth chapter, and in those immediately fol-
 
 92 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 lowing. He ought then to satisfy himself, as well 
 by the practised sight which experience gives, as 
 by the aid of these chapters, whether the picture is 
 in good or bad preservation ; whether it is an ori- 
 ginal or a copy ; to what school and to what master 
 it belongs; whether it has been painted in the 
 youth, in the prime, or in the decline of the artist ; 
 and in case the painter has had several manners, 
 which of them he has employed in it. 
 
 After having made, with the most scrupulous 
 attention, this mental analysis as an indispensable 
 preliminary, he must weigh maturely what are the 
 parts on which the merit of the picture principally 
 depends, and what are those which characterise 
 it, and serve to distinguish it from the crowd of 
 others. 
 
 Next, he ought to consider what will be the most 
 concise, luminous, and advantageous manner of con- 
 veying faithfully to another by words, what he has 
 learned from the sight, in regard of the composi- 
 tion, the effect, and execution. Then only will he 
 allow himself to commit his ideas to paper ; and 
 this he will do in the order in which he has taken 
 care to arrange them beforehand in his head : com- 
 mencing, after having named the master, by noting 
 the 'subject in detail, if it appear to require it ; if 
 not, by a general description. From the subject 
 he will pass to the details of the composition. All 
 this ought to be stated in as few words as possible, 
 but, nevertheless, with sufficient clearness for the 
 reader to form a distinct idea -of it. After which
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 93 
 
 he will enumerate, very succinctly, the commend- 
 able qualities by which the work is distinguished 
 in point of execution, taking the greatest care not to 
 lead any one into error, either by unmerited praises, 
 or by being too sparing of eulogium ; a point which, 
 in my opinion, requires more care than any other, 
 in order to preserve a just medium. 
 
 The writer will close the description by a frank 
 and sincere avowal, if there be occasion, of striking 
 defects, as well as of considerable and unskilful re- 
 paints ; and he will finish the whole by stating the 
 size of the human figure which is considered nearest 
 to the spectator, and which gives what is called the 
 proportional size of all the other figures. He will 
 add the substance on which the picture is painted, 
 as well as the height and breadth. 
 
 Besides these general rules, there are others more 
 particular, and suitable to the different classes of 
 pictures, according to the choice which the master 
 has made of his subject. Thus it may be observed, 
 that in HISTORICAL SUBJECTS the composition and 
 the design, the airs of the heads, the attitudes, and 
 the expression, have an importance altogether dif- 
 ferent from what they have in pictures of other 
 subjects ; and they, in consequence, require a marked 
 place in the description. The cast and fold of the 
 draperies are in the same situation, seeing that they 
 contribute very much to the perfection of the de- 
 sign, when they indicate well the parts which they 
 cover, that is to say, in terms of art, when they 
 betray well the naked. The formation and the union
 
 94 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 of the groups, as well as the carnations, (that is, the 
 flesh colours,) are essential parts in this class of 
 subjects, and also the clear-ohscure. The particular 
 attention which is due to all these points does not 
 dispense, however, in any manner, with the observ- 
 ance of the general rules regarding all the 
 parts of the picture.* 
 
 Example. 
 
 No. I. RUBENS (PETER PAUL), 
 Chief of the Flemish school, born 1577, died 1640. 
 Pupil of Yerhaegt, of Adam Van Oort, and 
 Otto Venius. 
 
 Henry IV. receiving the Sceptre from the Hands of 
 
 his People. 
 
 The Genius of France bears to him the crown. 
 The genii of peace and union drive away hypocrisy 
 
 * The author has not, in the original work, inserted the ex- 
 amples of description in the place in which they are given in the 
 text, but has given a detailed descriptive catalogue of the whole 
 of his pictures in his second volume, of which it takes up fully 
 two thirds. Although the perusal of that might possibly not 
 be altogether without advantage, by exhibiting the points by 
 which each master may be favourably distinguished, and with 
 which every connoisseur ought to be acquainted, yet there are 
 few who would undergo the trouble of perusing a dry and 
 lengthy catalogue of 240 pages, for so small a benefit as they 
 could derive from it, without having the pictures before them 
 It must be owned, too, that the enthusiasm of the author has
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 95 
 
 and discord. A page holds his helmet, and a dog 
 is introduced upon the scene, as the symbol of 
 fidelity. The action takes place under a canopy, 
 in a palace of beautiful architecture. 
 
 One cannot imagine any thing more learned or 
 more speaking than the beautiful allegory of this 
 little gem, nor any thing which has more of mind 
 (spirituel) in its touch. The expressions and the 
 characters are so true, that the smallness of the 
 figures, and of the whole work, does not hinder 
 one from recognising, at the first glance, the strong 
 resemblance of the good Henry IV. 
 
 This beautiful sketch, which has the effect of a 
 finished picture, is the more precious, because there 
 does not exist a picture of the master painted sub- 
 sequently to it, it having been executed by the 
 hand of Rubens himself, only on the order of 
 Marie de Mediris, to correspond with some other 
 sketches in the gallery of Henry IV. The figures 
 are five inches in height. 
 
 P. (panel); H. (height) 8J in. (inches); B. 
 (breadth) 6j in. 
 
 led him into not a little verbosity in the descriptions, and, upon 
 the whole, they do not seem to present any such excellence as 
 to render it of importance to lay them before the reader. The 
 translator has therefore omitted the catalogue; but that it 
 might not be altogether lost to the reader, he has inserted in 
 this place, under each of the classes of pictures, examples of 
 description taken from it, and which will serve as specimens of 
 the whole.
 
 96 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 No. II. GUIDO (RENI). 
 
 School of the Caracci, or second Lombard school. 
 Born 1575, died 1642. Pupil of Denis Calvert. 
 
 Holy Family. A composition of four figures of 
 nearly life-size. 
 
 This precious picture, which is in the second and 
 best manner of Guido, presents to the spectator, in 
 an eminent degree, all the graces and perfections 
 which characterise the works of this great master. 
 The Virgin, whose robe is of pale-rose colour, and 
 her cloak pale sky-blue, holds the infant Jesus 
 naked and asleep in her arms. She rests her right 
 cheek upon the head of the Saviour, and looks 
 towards the heavens in an ecstatic reverie, which 
 seems to add to her rare beauty, and to her gra- 
 cious and sweet air. Before her the little St. John, 
 naked also, seems desirous to awake Jesus, as he is 
 about to present him with a wreath ; but Joseph, 
 who is behind the Virgin, makes a sign to him with 
 his finger, to prevent his making any noise. This 
 circumstance has procured for the picture the 
 name of the Silence of Guido. 
 
 All is broad and blended in this brilliant pic- 
 ture. The arrangement in it is very happy ; the 
 design admirable; the hands, especially, enchant, 
 by certain delicacies which Guido alone understood, 
 and which one seeks in vain in the works of other 
 masters, even the most renowned. The light is 
 large and well rounded off, and the clear-obscure 
 is perfect. The folds of the draperies are krge 
 and well placed ; the carnations true ; the expres-
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 97 
 
 sion worthy of one of the best productions of the 
 Painter of the Graces ; in a word, all concur in 
 asserting for this precious gem its place amongst 
 the most distinguished productions of the art. It 
 cost an enormous sum in Italy, at the decease 
 of the Count de Briihl, first minister of the King 
 of Poland, Elector of Saxony ; of whose gallery it 
 formed the principal ornament. 
 
 C. (canvass) ; H. 30J in. ; B. 23| in. 
 
 In descriptions of LANDSCAPES, an account should 
 be given of the different planes, of the figures, 
 trees, buildings, and other details with which it is 
 enriched, as well as of the quality of the sky, and 
 the general tone of colour. 
 
 Example. 
 No. 3. BERCHEM (originally BERGHEM, NICOLAS). 
 
 Dutch school, born 1624, died 1683. Pupil of 
 Van Goyen, Nicolas Moyaert, Peter Grebber, John 
 Wils, and John Baptiste Weenix. 
 
 A Landscape, very capital (important), and very 
 sparkling in effect. 
 
 There are seen in the foreground two cows, two 
 goats, and two sheep. Upon the second plane, at 
 the foot of a tree without leaves, and half bent 
 over, is seated a shepherd with two goats near 
 him. The third plane is ornamented with a ma- 
 jestic grove of oaks of the greatest beauty, which
 
 98 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 are relieved against a rock ornamented with bushes. 
 The subsequent plane*, all lighted up by a gleam 
 of the sun, which agreeably gilds the verdure, 
 presents another shepherd under a mass of trees. 
 From thence the eye plunges into a bird's eye view 
 of an immense forest which occupies all the valleys 
 to the mountains, while these last are lost in the 
 horizon. The figures, although small, as the sub- 
 ject required, are very life-like. The disposition 
 and design of the trees, and of their branches and 
 foliage, their inimitable touch, and the clear-obscure 
 throughout, are beyond all eulogium, and prove 
 that if Berchem has been equalled by any in trees, 
 he has at least never been surpassed. 
 C.; H. 19 in.; B. 24 in. 
 
 In INTERIORS and SUBJECTS OF CONVERSATION, 
 the interest falls upon the expression, the distri- 
 bution of the light, the choice of the proper co- 
 lours (generally called local colours), the trans- 
 parency, the clear-obscure, and, above all, the touch, 
 and the layer of colour, or empasto. 
 
 First Example, in Conversations. 
 No. 4. METSU (GABRIEL). 
 
 Dutch school. Born 1615, died 1658. -His mas- 
 ter is uncertain. 
 
 The Eepast of the Admiral. A capital (impor- 
 
 * The planes would with us be called the foreground, middle 
 distance, distance, and extreme distance Translator.
 
 1 
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 99 
 
 tant) composition, and of the most precious finish 
 of Metsu. 
 
 In front of a country mansion, a Dutch admiral, 
 wearing his hat with a red and white plume in it, 
 is seated at a spread table, the table-cloth on which 
 partly conceals a rich Persian carpet of a crimson 
 ground, that falls nearly down to the earth. His 
 daughter is on his left hand, and his young son .on 
 his right. On the table there is placed before them 
 a large opened pasty of a brown colour. Raising 
 with one hand his napkin, to avoid be-spilling him- 
 self, he holds in the other a wine glass of antique 
 form, long and narrow, and terminated by a boll, 
 without a foot, from which he drinks a long 
 draught. The length of the glass, which is more 
 than two feet, obliges him to hold his head very 
 far back. His son is eating, while his attractive 
 daughter amuses both by singing to her guitar. 
 A trumpeter in a fine uniform, placed behind the 
 admiral, sounds a flourish, while that officer drinks. 
 The trumpet is ornamented with a large orange 
 flag. A page, holding in his hand a kind of glass 
 cup, as large and flat as an asset, the stalk of which 
 is very long and thin, pours into it, from a great 
 height, and from a sort of vase of an equally 
 antique form, which he elevates in his other hand, 
 a white liquor ; and a footman bends under the 
 weight of a very heavy warm pasty, which he is 
 proceeding to place upon the table. Between him 
 
 ii 2
 
 100 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 and the young lady is seen a great dog of a very 
 beautiful species, and a stool covered with a rich 
 cushion. The ground of the picture consists in 
 bushes, one end of which abuts on the further 
 end of the building. 
 
 However interesting all the figures may be, the 
 young lady more especially attracts the attention. 
 Placed nearest to the spectator, she receives the 
 light most strongly. Nothing can be more agree- 
 able than her beauty, nothing more gracious than 
 her bearing and expression, nothing more elegant 
 than her position and attitude. She inclines her 
 head affectionately towards her father. One of 
 her feet is placed on the ground, the other rests 
 upon a footstool. She has no head-dress but her 
 hair ; her neck is bare, her vest is of a beautiful 
 red, her petticoat of straw colour, her slippers are 
 tied with ribands. 
 
 From this charming figure, the light spreads 
 itself to the rest of the picture with a perfect de- 
 gradation. The richness of the composition, the 
 correctness of the design, the good choice of the 
 attitudes and the colours, the truth of the dra- 
 peries and their folds, the delicacy of the empasto, 
 and the precious finish of the touch, all contribute 
 to give value to this gem. The figures are seven 
 inches and a half high. 
 
 C.; H. 164 in.; B. 15 in.
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 101 
 
 Second Example ; Pot-houses. 
 
 No. 5. TENIERS (DAVID, the younger). 
 
 Flemish school. Born 1610, died 1690. Pupil 
 
 of his father, who was a disciple of Rubens, and 
 
 of Adam Elsheimer. 
 
 One of the finest smoking-house subjects known, 
 and of the highest finish of this great artist. 
 
 It is composed of ten figures, all equally perfect, 
 and full of life and expression. They are divided 
 into two groups, of which the one, consisting of 
 four men and two women, placed in a clear and 
 agreeable half light, around a rustic table, arc 
 enjoying themselves before the fire. The other 
 group is formed of three villagers, who are amusing 
 themselves with the game of tric-trac at a round 
 table covered with a cloth, and placed under the 
 only window, from which comes the light ; while 
 behind them the landlord, holding a pot in his 
 hand, scores upon a wooden partition the beer 
 which he has just drawn. 
 
 All these figures are of a design so perfect of 
 their kind, they express so well what each is doing, 
 they are represented with so much spirit, truth, 
 and delicacy, and in such agreeable colours, that 
 they enchant the spectator. A dog lying on the 
 ground, a linen cloth thrown negligently upon a 
 stool, a pan with lighted charcoal placed upon a 
 large block of wood, pitchers, chairs, benches, 
 broken pipes, and other accessories scattered on 
 
 ii 3
 
 102 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 the floor, with the furniture which is against the 
 wall, contribute to enrich this agreeable scene of 
 homely nature, the touch of which is as intelligent 
 (spirituelle) and preciously fine, as the arrange- 
 ment is judicious, the clear-obscure marvellous, and 
 the colours transparent and happily chosen. The 
 light of the fire which the room receives is so well 
 managed, that after having lighted the foreground, 
 it spreads over all the rest a quiet vaporous clear- 
 ness, without leaving any thing in darkness, and 
 thus produces an effect extremely seductive. The 
 figures are eight inches high. 
 C.; H. 12J in. ; B. 16J in. 
 
 In MARINE subjects, it will be proper to direct 
 attention particularly to the transparency and 
 movement of the water, the form and movement 
 of the clouds, as well as to the ships, the figures, 
 and the rigging or cordage, and all that belongs 
 thereto. 
 
 Example. 
 
 No. 6. VELDE (WILLIAM VAN DEN, the younger). 
 
 Dutch school. Born 1633, died 1707. Pupil of 
 his father William, and of Simon de Vlieger. 
 
 A sea piece of a silvery tone, very clear and very 
 pleasing. 
 
 It represents during a perfect calm, a reach of 
 the sea, until the view is lost in the horizon. To-
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 103 
 
 wards the middle of the foreground three fishing 
 boats, with white and brown sails, are at anchor, 
 and are agreeably reflected in the mirror of the 
 water. The distance is adorned with many ves- 
 sels. The beauty of the sky corresponds perfectly 
 with the transparency of the water, the perfection 
 of the ships and their rigging, and with the charm- 
 ing figures on them, as well as with the magical 
 clear-obscure which animates the whole. 
 C.; H. 10 in. ; B. 12 in. 
 
 In pictures of ANIMALS, what will attract will be 
 the design, the expression, and the difference of 
 touch which the painter has employed to repre- 
 sent the fur, wool, and hair. 
 
 Example. 
 
 No. 7. POTTER (PAUL). 
 
 Dutch school. Born 1625, died 1654. Pupil of 
 his father Peter. 
 
 A landscape composition of extreme excellence, 
 in which there is seen a shepherd playing on the 
 pipe, and surrounded by a numerous herd. He is 
 seated on the ground under two trees, close by a 
 thicket. The animals are of uncommon size, and 
 consist of cows, sheep, and goats, to the number 
 of sixteen, including the dog. They are all full of 
 life and movement, and along with some plants 
 adorn the foreground. The subsequent planes are 
 all mountainous, and adorned with trees, buildings,
 
 104 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 travellers on horseback and afoot, a herd of cattle 
 and other figures. This capital specimen of the 
 first time of the master is fortified with the signa- 
 ture of P. Potter, in all the letters, but without 
 the date. It is of a tone generally warm, and con- 
 sequently it has not the brilliant silvery tone which 
 the master adopted afterwards. Nevertheless, it 
 possesses a great deal of merit in its ingenious and 
 rich composition, in the touch, and in the design, 
 the movements, and the true and natural expres- 
 sion of the animals. 
 
 C. ; H. 46 in. ; B. 44 in. 
 
 In PORTRAITS, whether busts or whole or half 
 lengths, the points to be observed are the magical 
 truth, and the illusion of the representation ; with- 
 out overlooking the clear-obscure, and the impasto 
 and touch. 
 
 Example. 
 No. 8 VANDYCK (SiR ANTHONY). 
 
 Flemish school. Born 1599, died 1641. The best 
 of all the pupils of Rubens. 
 
 The Bust of a Young Man in a Cloak; life 
 size, three-quarters length. 
 
 It is of the most astonishing truth. The han- 
 dling full and soft; the touch careful and caressed ;
 
 THE 
 
 MaduretMacdonaldLitli Glasgow 
 
 THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS . 
 The Property of WLnnyEscf ." MD.
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 105 
 
 the carnations lively ; the clear- obscure magical ; 
 and the colouring of the greatest vigour. 
 P.; H. 17 in.; B. 12 in. 
 
 In VERY SMALL FIGURES of two inches and under, 
 observe chiefly if they appear to be made of nothing, 
 as it is called, and with a touch intelligent, firm, 
 and easy, and whether their movements indicate 
 life. In figures of a little larger size, particularly 
 when they are the principal object of the picture, 
 note above every thing the touch, in order to make 
 certain whether it be intelligent (spirituelle), clean, 
 and expressive, or of precious finish; having an 
 eye at the same time to the design, the expression, 
 the attitudes, and the harmony of the colours. 
 
 Example. 
 
 No. 9. POELEMBURG (CORNELIUS). 
 
 Dutch school. Born 1585, died 1660. Pupil of 
 Abraham Bloemaert. 
 
 The Adoration of the Shepherds. A very im- 
 portant picture, and a chef-d'oeuvre of this master ; 
 the composition of which, as happy as it is learned, 
 presents as many as fifty-five figures in a very 
 small space. (See Plate.) 
 
 The middle of the foreground exhibits a crib, 
 on which lies the infant Saviour, upon a linen 
 cloth, very artistically cast, which the Virgin re-
 
 106 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 moves, in order the better to show the divine infant 
 to a crowd of shepherds of every age and sex, who 
 crowd around her. A lamb is lying at the foot of 
 the crib. Joseph, seated upon a rock, with a book 
 before him, turns his head to admire the celestial 
 glory which is seen above. The other planes present 
 shepherds who are coming up. The sky is filled 
 with clouds, and a multitude of angels and cheru- 
 bim. Rocks, with a bit of sky of an azure colour, 
 and very brilliant, terminate this delightful com- 
 position. 
 
 Poelemburg has here surpassed himself by the 
 exactness of the design, and the fine form of the 
 figures. He has carried to the highest degree 
 their gracious and simple expression. The picture 
 is not less distinguished for the attractive effect of 
 light well distributed, for harmony, and the clear- 
 obscure, for the agreeable and sweet tone of the 
 proper colours, and for that truth in the draperies 
 to which none of his disciples attained, and which 
 must have contributed not a little to the esteem 
 the great Rubens had for his works. The figures 
 are six inches and a half in height. 
 
 Copper; H. 164 in. ; B - 13 in.
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 107 
 
 In pictures of BUILDINGS and ARCHITECTURE you 
 will look for fine finish, a firm hand, linear and 
 aerial perspective, and an illusive effect. 
 
 Example. 
 
 No. 10 NEEFS (OLD PETER), and SEBASTIAN 
 FRANCKS. 
 
 Flemish school. Neefs lived at the commence- 
 ment of the sixteenth century, and was a pupil of 
 Henry Steenwyk, whom he surpassed. Francks, 
 born about 1573, pupil of Adam Van Oort. 
 
 A very capital picture, equally distinguished by 
 the size of the composition, and by the surprising 
 finish of execution. 
 
 This chief work of art represents, in broad day, 
 the interior of a vast Gothic church, in three divi- 
 sions ; which is seen in all its length, even up to 
 the altar at the foot of the choir. There are seen 
 many other altars in the side chapels, pictures, 
 epitaphs, coats of arms, a pulpit, and organs. 
 Sebastian, the best of the Francks, has adorned it 
 richly, but without crowding, with very beautiful 
 figures, possessing great ease, painted and designed 
 in a superior manner, and full of expression ; in a 
 word, worthy, in all respects, of the pencil of Gonzales 
 himself. He has dispersed them in small groups, 
 over the whole church, with much sagacity, to ani- 
 mate the different parts of it without overpowering 
 them. The groups in front consist of a priest, 
 who is saying mass, at a chapel, near a side- door,
 
 108 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 and of people, clothed in the Spanish fashion, who 
 take part therein with much devotion; a gentleman, 
 who gives orders to his page ; two fine groups of 
 beggars; a cavalier, who presents his intended to 
 the clergyman, and two pages; and, finally, a priest, 
 who is taking confessions. The other groups, less 
 important, although all full of life, are placed far- 
 ther in the church. 
 
 This admirable picture is sufficient of itself to 
 prove how much old Peter Neefs surpassed his son, 
 Steenwyk, and all who have followed him in these 
 subjects. Less dry, less heavy, and better blended 
 than them all, his fine pencil has drawn the 
 longest lines, as well straight as curved, with such 
 inconceivable neatness and firmness, and with so 
 much delicacy, that, although painted upon canvass, 
 all the picture is united like a glass, and on passing 
 the finger over it, one cannot feel a single line. He 
 has also known better than they how to choose and 
 vary his colours, and how to produce and multiply, 
 by accessories and accidents, the striking effects 
 which result from the opposition of light and 
 shadow. In fine, his pillars, his arches, and his 
 pavement, demonstrate that no person has ever pos- 
 sessed in a higher degree than he, the rules of 
 both perspectives, and of vaporous degradation. 
 
 The figures are five inches in height, 
 
 C. ; H. 324 inches; B. 43 J inches.
 
 I'HK PROl'KRTY OP ROBERT NATMEH, KSQ 
 "West Shaadon, Dumbartonshire .
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 109 
 
 In pictures of STILL LIFE, the composition, an ex- 
 ecution preciously careful, and the perfect illusion, 
 chiefly merit attention. 
 
 Example. 
 No. 11. AELST (WILLIAM VAN). 
 
 Dutch school. Died 1679. Pupil of his uncle 
 Everard Van Aelst. 
 
 A table covered with a cloth of crimson velvet, 
 bordered with a fringe of gold, upon which is seen 
 a large goblet of antique form, made of bluish glass, 
 and half filled with Rhine wine. The sides of this 
 goblet reflect many times, on different parts of it, 
 a neighbouring street, in a manner astonishing and 
 truly magical, and its centre reflects the painter 
 himself holding his palette and his pencil. Near 
 the goblet are placed on one side, on a vessel of 
 glass, four superb peaches and some roasted chest- 
 nuts. On the other side are many bunches of 
 admirable grapes, both red and white. The whole 
 is ornamented with butterflies, and other insects, 
 which are quite illusive, and there is formed by the 
 branches of the vine and of the peach, judiciously 
 placed, a pyramidal group of the most agreeable 
 kind, which terminates against a raised curtain of 
 a brown-yellow colour. (See Plate.) 
 
 This picture, truly unique in its kind, and beyond 
 all eulogium, excites the admiration of every one 
 who beholds it. It is nature herself, in its forms,
 
 110 OF THE MANNER OF ANALYSING 
 
 its accidents, its colours proper and local, and its 
 clear-obscure. The eye gets round every object, and 
 penetrates into those which ought to be transpa- 
 rent. The pencil, although large and flowing, has 
 represented, with the most surprising truth, the 
 dust on the butterflies, the down on the peaches, 
 the velvet of the cloth, the metal of the fringes, 
 and the bloom on the grapes. In a word, one may 
 say, without exaggeration, that not only is it ab- 
 solutely the chief work of Van Aelst, but likewise 
 " that it would be difficult amongst the most admired 
 productions of Van Huysum to find a picture 
 which could stand a comparison with it, whether 
 for precious finish or for magical truth. 
 C.; H. 31 inches; B. 25 inches.* 
 
 The length and minuteness of a description ought 
 of course to bear some proportion to the excellence 
 and importance of the picture ; and when that is 
 of some common and known subject, and does not 
 go beyond the ordinary manner of treating it, it is 
 
 * It is not amiss to observe, that the measurements of the 
 pictures described in the text are those given by the author 
 himself, and consequently are French measure, of which about 
 twelve inches and three quarters make twelve English. I think 
 it necessary to note this, because the picture last described was 
 lately in the classical collection of Mr. M c Clellan of Glasgow, 
 and is now in the possession of Mr. Napier of West Shandon, 
 and the Poelemburg described is in the collection of Dr. Drury 
 of Glasgow. These gentlemen, then, and others who may 
 find themselves in the possession of the originals described, 
 will not expect the measurements to correspond exactly with 
 the pictures.
 
 AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. Ill 
 
 enough to decribe it generally by the class to which 
 it belongs. 
 
 However superfluous it may appear to warn my 
 readers to make sure of not misunderstanding the 
 subject represented, before analysing or describing 
 a picture, I feel myself nevertheless called upon 
 not to neglect this caution ; not only because of the 
 absurd errors in this respect often to be found in 
 catalogues of public sales, but also from the almost 
 incredible blunders I have met with in catalogues 
 and descriptions of very many public galleries. 
 The famous picture of Raphael, painted for the 
 church of St. John at Bologna, representing St. 
 Cecilia holding a musical instrument in her hands, 
 with others at her feet, affords an example of the 
 errors alluded to. She listens with rapt attention 
 to a choir of angels borne on the clouds and singing. 
 On her right are St. Paul, and St. John the Evan- 
 gelist, strongly characterised, the one by his sword, 
 the other by his eagle, and both by the airs of the 
 heads. On her left are St. Magdalene with her cup, 
 and St. Augustine with his cross and pontifical 
 garments. Hitherto all the world had been agreed 
 upon the justness of this description. But the author 
 of the Manual of the French Museum, printed in 
 1803, judged it proper to make one of his own, 
 of which, behold the title and the substance ! 
 
 " The Martyrdom of St. Cecilia." 
 
 " Raphael would not represent the martyrdom of 
 a young virgin like the execution of a malefactor. 
 Here Cecilia advances towards the place where the
 
 112 OF ANALYSING AND DESCRIBING PICTURES. 
 
 palm of martyrdom awaits her. Her feet only 
 still belong to this earth. Her upraised eyes tell 
 that her thoughts are already in heaven. The 
 man who bears the sword is not an executioner 
 whose stern ferocity augments that of the spec- 
 tacle. Here the headsman has an air of com- 
 passion. Behind the saint walks a priest who 
 assists her. His physiognomy is common but sweet. 
 He applauds the tranquil resignation of the victim, 
 who seems already to hear the celestial concert 
 that is going on above. The angels celebrate her 
 coming beforehand! One of the companions of 
 Cecilia points them out to her with his finger, 
 and seems to do so as an encouragement to her. 
 A young man follows the saint. His action is 
 too expressive to suppose it that of a parent or 
 convert ! " 
 
 The above will show how necessary it is not only 
 to be certain of the subject represented in a picture, 
 but also to know thoroughly the rules for analysing 
 and describing them properly. By doing so, some- 
 thing of the work may, perhaps, be advantageously 
 preserved to posterity, when the picture itself may 
 -be ruined and destroyed. What should we know of 
 the Greek painters, and of their most famous pic- 
 tures, but for what writers have transmitted to us 
 concerning them in their descriptions ?
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 1 1 3 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 SECT. I. Of that which constitutes a School of Painting. 
 
 WHEN a master has been fortunate enough to have 
 formed amongst his pupils some who become dis- 
 tinguished, the designation of his school is given to 
 the whole of his scholars good and bad, without 
 exception, and without reference to where they 
 may have been born; and when a succession of 
 eminent painters have appeared in any particular 
 town or country, they are designated as the school 
 of that town or country, without regard to the 
 place of their birth. Thus Bakkereel, Van den 
 Berg, Delmont, Deriksen, Van Campen, Diepen- 
 beeck, Vandyck, Van Harpe, Hoffman, Jameson, 
 Malo, Panneel, Potter, Quellyn, Teniers, Van Thul- 
 den, Victor, Wouters, and all the other artists 
 who, like these, have been scholars of Rubens, 
 form collectively what is called his school. To 
 these may be added, such as, like Jordaens, have 
 learned the principles of their art under other 
 masters, but have subsequently formed their style 
 and colouring upon that of Rubens. 
 
 The Flemish School, again, is so called from the 
 country of the Flemings, and especially from the
 
 114 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 town of Antwerp, in that country, where Rubens, 
 Vandyck, Teniers, and so many other eminent 
 painters have flourished. It includes, therefore, 
 not only the particular school of Rubens, but the 
 schools of other masters, such as De Grayer, Van 
 Balen, Rombouts, Janssens, Seghers, Teniers the 
 younger, Peter Neefs, and Sneyders, who taught 
 either at Antwerp, or at the other towns of Brus- 
 sels, Ghent, Bruges, Mechlin, and the like, situated 
 in Flanders, although at a distance from Antwerp, 
 the chief seat of the school. 
 
 With this general view of what is meant by a 
 School of Painting, I proceed to enquire what are 
 the general schools worthy of the name ? who are 
 their founders? what are the characteristics that 
 distinguish them? and what are the causes to 
 which these characteristics may be owing ? 
 
 The amateur cannot but feel embarrassed on 
 seeing how little authors are agreed amongst them- 
 selves about the number and the denominations of 
 the general schools. Some reckon only three of 
 them the Roman, the Flemish, and the Dutch; 
 others five the Roman or Florentine, the Vene- 
 tian, the Lombard, the Flemish or German, and 
 the French; others again, by separating the 
 Florentine from the Roman, and the German, 
 as well as the Dutch, from the Flemish, make 
 eight; to which others still, add the Bolognese, 
 the Genoese, the Neapolitan, and the Spanish, 
 and thus extend the number even to twelve. 
 Nay, if we refer to Lanzi for the division of
 
 OF THE GENEKAI, SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 1 1 5 
 
 the Italian Schools, we must adopt fourteen for 
 Italy alone: viz. those of Florence, Sienna, Rome, 
 Naples, Venice, Mantua, Modena, Parma, Cremona, 
 Milan, Bologna, Ferrara, Genoa, and Piedmont. 
 These contradictions would not exist, if writers 
 had founded their divisions upon certain rules 
 which the nature of the subject presents. 
 
 In order that the school of a particular city or 
 country may take its place among the general 
 schools, it is necessaiy, in my opinion, that it shall 
 have produced a great many masters celebrated 
 for their merit, and that these shall have in their 
 style and manner something common to them all 
 which particularly characterises them, and which 
 is sufficiently remarkable to distinguish their school 
 from all others. 
 
 Upon this principle I reckon eight schools in all : 
 and these are, the Florentine or Tuscan, the 
 Roman, the Lombard, the Venetian, the Flemish, 
 the Dutch, the French, and the German. If it 
 were sufficient to have given to the world artists 
 renowned for their merit, the Spanish might like- 
 wise claim a place among the general schools, were 
 it only from having possessed a Morales, a Velas- 
 quez, and a Murillo. Naples, too, might enjoy the 
 same privilege from the names of Spagnoletto, 
 Calabrese, Salvator Rosa, and Luca Giordano. 
 Genoa, likewise, from Castiglione, Strozzi, Castelli, 
 and Cambiase. But the want of a general dis- 
 tinctive character prevents their being ranked un- 
 der the general schools, and the masters are for the 
 
 I 2
 
 116 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 most part placed separately in that one or other of 
 the acknowledged schools to which their manner 
 approaches most nearly, or to which their master 
 belonged. 
 
 SECT. II. Of the Florentine or Tuscan Schools. 
 
 As the world at large is indebted for the art of 
 painting in oil to the celebrated John Van Eyck 
 of Maseyck, Italy owes painting in water colours 
 to the Florentines. These, in 1240, brought among 
 them some Greeks, very coarse painters, or rather 
 daubers of images of devotion, whose shapeless 
 productions were the germ from which the genius 
 of Cimabue raised up a kind of art, that two cen- 
 turies later made the Florentine pencils the admira- 
 tion of Europe. 
 
 The Florentine School, properly so called, ac- 
 knowledges for its founders, Leonardo da Vinci 
 and the immortal Michel Angelo Buonaroti two 
 men truly great. From the latter she derives her 
 chief glory ; and writers say, that " he passes for 
 the most learned and most correct designer that 
 has existed, unless Raphael be thought to have 
 equalled or even surpassed him." At any rate, it is 
 certain that it is to him, as well as to Leonardo da 
 Vinci, Masaccio, and Fra Bartolorneo, all Florentine 
 painters, that Rome owes, in a great measure, the 
 instruction of the sublime Raphael. 
 
 There is so great a difference in style and manner 
 between the works of Leonardo da Vinci, Buonaroti,
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 117 
 
 Fra Bartolomeo, Andrea del Sarto, Daniel de Vol- 
 terra, Francis Vanni, Pietro da Cortona, Christopher 
 Allori, and Francis Furini, as well as between other 
 excellent artists belonging to this celebrated school, 
 that it becomes very difficult to assign to it general 
 distinctive characteristics applicable to all its dis- 
 ciples. The following are those assigned to it by 
 M. Levesque, which, if they do not suit so well for 
 Pietro da Cortona, Allori, Furini, and some other 
 distinguished painters of this school, yet answer for 
 the greater part of its founders, and for those who 
 have followed them most closely. They are " Fire, 
 movement, a certain sombre austerity, an expression 
 of vigour which excludes perhaps that of grace, a 
 character of design, the grandeur of which is in some 
 sort gigantic. They may be reproached with a kind 
 of exaggeration, but it cannot be denied that there 
 is in this exaggeration an ideal majesty, which 
 elevates human nature above the weak and perish- 
 able nature of reality. The Tuscan artists, satisfied 
 with commanding admiration, seem to disdain seek- 
 ing to please." 
 
 Whatever may be the authority of M. Levesque, 
 I quote him here from the fear of not being able to 
 improve upon him, seeing the extreme difficulty of 
 generalising the characteristics of this school. I 
 admit, however, that I have seen many pictures of 
 Andrea del Sarto, and more than one of Fra Barto- 
 lomeo and Leonardo da Vinci, to which the above 
 characteristics scarcely seem applicable. Can this 
 
 i 3
 
 118 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 be because they are in a great measure taken from 
 frescos which I have not seen ? 
 
 SECT. III. Of the Roman School 
 
 This school, so famous, and which is under so great 
 obligation to that of Florence for many parts of the 
 art, owes all its renown to the numerous antiques 
 contained in the city of Rome, and to the great and 
 beautiful genius of its founder the illustrious 
 Raphael, whose premature death rendered it im- 
 possible for him to unite the title of a great colourist, 
 to that of the prince of designers. The rare talent 
 of this man, truly sublime in design, appeared so to 
 absorb, by its powerful attraction, all the attention 
 of the artists who took him for their model, that the 
 greater part of them, without excepting even Julio 
 Romano, his best disciple, became still more indif- 
 ferent colourists than himself. 
 
 Thus the Roman school, so little commendable 
 on the side of colour, and the parts which belong 
 to it, distinguishes itself solely by lofty ideas, by a 
 design noble and correct, which exhibits in a peculiar 
 manner the study of the antique, by great beauty 
 in the forms, a composition elegant although often 
 singular, and by expressions ideal rather than 
 natural, of which a part is often sacrificed to the 
 preservation of beauty. Felibien observes, "that the 
 Roman taste being in the greatest degree employed on 
 the above qualities, it is not wonderful that colour- 
 ing, which comes last, has not found a place in it,
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 119 
 
 the mind of man being too limited, and life too short, 
 to master all the parts of painting, and to possess 
 them all perfectly together." How comes it then 
 that Baroccio, who belongs to this school, has 
 managed to unite good design to the most agreeable 
 colouring ? It is because, to the study of the an- 
 tiques and the works of Raphael, in order to form 
 himself in design, he has had the good sense to join 
 the study of Corregio, in order to arrive at true 
 colouring. 
 
 SECT. IV. Of the Venetian School. 
 
 This school, so distinguished by the beauty of 
 its colouring, has had no other guide than nature. 
 Giorgione was the first in it to hit upon true colour- 
 ing. It was on him that the celebrated Titian, who 
 is held as the founder of this school, formed him- 
 self. The characteristics of the school may be 
 reduced to these: an exact imitation of natural 
 objects as they are seen and actually exist, both in 
 their forms and in their colours, in repose and in 
 motion. 
 
 As the honour of having founded the Florentine 
 School is divided between Leonardo da Vinci and 
 Michael Angelo Buonaroti, although the latter was 
 born twenty-nine years after the former, it would 
 be just to do the same with regard to the Vene- 
 tian School as respects Giorgione, who was but a 
 year younger than Titian, and the latter, to whom 
 his works served as models. Besides, not only has 
 Giorgione formed scholars of the highest reputation, 
 
 i 4
 
 120 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 amongst others del Piombo and Pordenone, the 
 celebrated competitor of Titian but I have seen 
 many pictures of this great artist, especially his 
 Paradise, in the palace of the reigning Duke of 
 Brunswick, in which he has surpassed in some 
 degree the works of Titian in vigour of colouring, 
 knowledge of harmony, and of the clear-obscure, 
 the perfect rounding of the figures, the truth of the 
 flesh, the elegance of the design, and the excellent 
 choice of the landscape. Unfortunately for art, 
 this great man, having died in the thirty-second year 
 of his age, has not left behind him so many proofs 
 of his extraordinary capacity as Titian, who nearly 
 reached his hundredth year, and who, by his own 
 assiduity and employing the pencils of his scholars, 
 retouching their works, and thus making them pass 
 for his own, has spread his reputation every where, 
 by multiplying without end both his portraits and 
 his easel pictures. 
 
 I am not able, without objection, to concede to 
 Titian the first place among colourists, which is by 
 some persons assigned to him. I admit that he 
 possesses in the highest degree the science of 
 proper colours their harmony, and their affinity. 
 I am not ignorant that his carnations are of ad- 
 mirable truth in his women and infants, and some- 
 times also, though more rarely, in his, men. But 
 in his compositions, beyond a single figure, the 
 foreground alone exhibits the great colourist. In 
 the other planes, all betrays his feebleness in 
 the general clear-obscure, and in aerial perspective,
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 121 
 
 and consequently in the local colours. There 
 are some persons who seek to excuse him on the 
 pretext that he obscured the grounds of his 
 pictures designedly, to cause the subject the better 
 to come out. But is not this to make the ac- 
 knowledgment, that in place of imitating nature in 
 his local colours and distances, he has only sought 
 to dazzle by the false and factitious effect which 
 always results from the unnatural opposition of 
 light and shade ? I should be almost tempted to 
 believe that this great man did justice to the extent 
 of his own abilities on this point, and that for this 
 reason he avoided great compositions, which, not- 
 withstanding the very considerable number of works 
 he has left, are so rare, that the Bacchanalians and 
 the Infants in the palace at Madrid, with the Ecce 
 Homo at Vienna, are the most remarkable ex- 
 amples, for number of figures, that I am acquainted 
 with out of Italy. Even that country possesses 
 scarcely more than half a dozen great compositions 
 of Titian, which are nearly all at Venice. The 
 Martyrdom of St. Peter the Dominican, the famous 
 altar piece of the church of St. John and St. Paul 
 at Venice, is distinguished indeed among the works 
 of Titian by its extent. But if we except the two 
 angels in the air, and some small figures in the dis- 
 tance, there are but three figures besides in the 
 whole composition. This picture, so fuU of merit 
 in other respects, presents a striking example of 
 the factitious and unnatural effect produced by the 
 extraordinary opposition of black and white. I am
 
 122 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 well aware that gay and brilliant colouring would 
 not be appropriate to a cruel action ; but a measure 
 is to be observed in every thing ; and I cannot be 
 convinced that there could occur, in broad day, 
 and in the open air, a scene in which all was ob- 
 scure and black, except the figures. 
 
 The Venetian School, however, furnishes suf- 
 ficient proof of how much a natural effect is superior 
 to a factitious one. One may be found in the Mar- 
 riage of Cana by Paul Veronese* a truly marvel- 
 ous work in point of colouring. Another is the 
 admirable chief work of Paris Bourdon, called the 
 Ring of St. Mark, which in my eyes is one of the 
 best pictures that Art has produced, as well for a 
 good selection of subject as for a good representation 
 of it. Paris Bourdon was a disciple of Titian, but 
 an imitator of Giorgione ; and this picture, painted 
 for the School of St. Mark at Venice, surpasses in 
 point of colouring any thing in the Louvre of Ti- 
 tian's, and disputes the palm with the Marriage of 
 Cana by Veronese, and even with the best coloured 
 pictures of Rubens to be found there. It yields in 
 nothing, indeed, for illusion and magical truth of 
 colouring, to the most preciously finished interiors 
 of the Dutch School. 
 
 SECT. V. Of the School of Lombardy. 
 
 Those who distinguish this school from that of 
 Bologna are very excusable in my eyes. For no- 
 
 * Now in the Louvre at Paris. Trans.
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 123 
 
 body can dispute to the Caracci the glory of having 
 revived the art, when it was near being lost in Italy 
 fifty years after the death of Corregio, by forming 
 at Bologna a school which has been fruitful in scho- 
 lars most distinguished for their talents; such as 
 Procaccini, Schidone, Guido, Albano, Domenichino, 
 Lanfranco, Guercino, Cignani, and many others. 
 Most of these have had in their turn scholars worthy 
 of such great masters. From this it follows, that 
 the Bolognese School, having so many illustrious 
 followers, as well as peculiar characteristics, which 
 distinguish it from all others, possesses all that is 
 necessary to its taking a place amongst the general 
 schools. But, on the other hand, the eminent merit 
 of the sublime and modest Corregio seems with 
 justice to claim for him the title of founder of a 
 school, although by an incomprehensible singularity 
 this great man, whose charming works electrify all 
 eyes that have any experience, has not had the for- 
 tune to be maintained in his place as master of a 
 school by his pupils, nor by their followers; the 
 very moderate talents of almost all of them having 
 been insufficient to acquire for them the degree of 
 celebrity necessary to their being admitted as one 
 among the schools. 
 
 The consideration of these circumstances has 
 forced me to unite with those writers who, although 
 Bologna is not, properly speaking, part of Lom- 
 bardy, have found a way to preserve the primacy 
 to the immortal Corregio, by giving the name of 
 Lombard as well to that celebrated school which
 
 1 24 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 the Carracci created at Bologna, as to that of Cor- 
 regio, which more properly belongs to Lombardy. 
 This opinion appears the more reasonable, in respect 
 that if these great men came too late into the world 
 to have been actually pupils of Corregio, they yet, 
 in a certain sense, made themselves so, by the study 
 of his admirable works. Traces of this may be 
 easily recognised in the works of Louis, and more 
 especially in those which Annibal painted before his 
 departure for Rome ; as may be seen from his As- 
 sumption of the Virgin and his St. Matthew, in the 
 Dresden Gallery. From these marvellous pictures, 
 too, it may be seen that Annibal lost more at Rome 
 in certain parts of the art than he gained in others. 
 The characteristics which distinguished the Lom- 
 bard School from others are a design majestic and 
 of a grand taste, rich ordonnance, beautiful ex- 
 pression, the hair of the heads often graceful, the 
 colours well blended, and approaching very close to 
 nature when they are not flat and do not run 
 towards blackness, and a pencil easy and soft. 
 Those which characterise the style and handling of 
 Corregio in particular, are a design sometimes 
 scarcely correct, but large, elegant, and undulating ; 
 the airs of the heads graceful and smiling, which is 
 sometimes felt to be not altogether appropriate 
 when the action is sad or violent ; a delicate taste 
 in his colouring ; the high lights having a strong 
 empasto; the lights often too bright and a little 
 laboured ; the flesh too little transparent ; a perfect 
 understanding of foreshortening, of the clear-ob-
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 125 
 
 scure, of reflections, of the glazings, and of har- 
 mony ; a pencil very soft ; his objects well detached 
 from their ground; and light united to light, as 
 well as shadow to shadow, with a great deal of 
 intelligence. 
 
 SECT. VI. Of the Flemish School. 
 
 The Flemish school has been immortalised from 
 its infancy by having become, so to speak, the 
 mother of all the schools, through the discover} 7 in 
 1410 by John Van Eyck, of painting in oil. He 
 was a native of Maseyck, where he was born in 
 1370, but is more commonly known as John of 
 Bruges, from his having lived and finally died in 
 the latter place in the year 1441. 
 
 When mentioning the famous discover}' of John 
 Van Eyck, it is proper to notice an error into 
 which M. Lessing has fallen in his dissertation on 
 the antiquity of painting in oil, published in 1774, 
 and which M. De Mechel of Basle has endeavoured 
 to corroborate in his catalogue of the Imperial Gal- 
 lery at Vienna, but which would tend to nothing 
 short of depriving Van Eyck of the honour that is 
 due to him. 
 
 There are to be met with in some of the very 
 old churches and other buildings in Germany a 
 few pictures, which may be known at the first 
 glance, from their extremely stiff and Gothic style, 
 to have been painted long before the tune of Van 
 Eyck. They are, for the most part, covered with
 
 126 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 a thick and very hard varnish, of a greasy and oily 
 nature, which has imposed upon M. Lessing, who 
 knows books better than pictures, and who has 
 confounded it with the paint. With regard to M. 
 De Mechel he states, " that after rigorous ex- 
 aminations, accompanied by chemical experiment 
 made in the presence of many artists and amateurs, 
 it is indisputable that the altar-piece, painted in 
 1297 by Thomas De Mutina ; the Christ upon the 
 Cross, painted in 1357 by Nicholas Wurmser ; and 
 the Two Fathers of the Church, painted in 1357 
 by Theodoric of Prague, which formed part of the 
 Imperial Gallery at Vienna, are all three painted 
 in oil ; and that, consequently, the conjecture of 
 Lessing, which had appeared so hazardous, is now 
 verified in the most authentic manner." 
 
 An assertion so positive, founded on " rigorous 
 examinations, chemical tests," and the evidence of 
 " witnesses," might suffice, I acknowledge, to im- 
 pose on those who are at a distance, and ignorant 
 of the facts and circumstances ; but for my part I 
 learned upon the spot, from public report, from 
 artists at Vienna, and in particular from one very 
 good artist and true connoisseur who lives at 
 Dresden, and who had been an eye-witness of the 
 thing, that the examinations and chemical tests of 
 M. De Mechel were simply the application of mor- 
 dants, with which he attacked the oily varnish that 
 he confounds with the paint, until the softening of 
 the latter gave him warning that it was more than 
 time to put a stop to his dangerous experiments
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 127 
 
 upon the colours, which the artists called to be 
 witnesses perceived to be fixed with nothing but 
 the white or the yoke of eggs, and by no means 
 with oil. On examining very near, and on many 
 occasions, during my long sojourn at Vienna, by 
 the help of glasses, and with the most scrupulous 
 attention, these ancient pictures, which M. De 
 Mechel's error has made more famous than they 
 deserve, I was unable to understand how a man, 
 accustomed to see works of art, could so deceive 
 himself ! For I recognised them at the first glance 
 (and I dare to say that every amateur a little ex- 
 perienced would do so likewise) to be examples of 
 those very antique pictures painted in water colour, 
 that is, in distemper, covered with a very hard 
 varnish, and sometimes signed and dated, which 
 are to be found every where in the public buildings 
 in Germany. 
 
 The Abbe Lanzi in his history of painting in 
 Italy states, that in the early periods of the Flo- 
 rentine and Venetian Schools, long before MM. 
 Lessing and Mechel wrote, some Italians had made 
 a parade of their knowledge and erudition at the 
 expense of the honour justly due to Van Eyck, by 
 maintaining that it was established by chemical 
 experiments that Colantonio del Fiore, Lippo Dal- 
 masio, Serafino Serafini, and some other ancient 
 Italian painters, had made use of oil in their 
 colours. But Professor de Morona, in his work 
 entitled " Pisa illustrated," informs us that the 
 learned chemist Bianchi demonstrated by nume-
 
 128 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 rous experiments that oil never did enter into the 
 composition of the ancient Italian pictures, but that 
 some of the most antique showed traces of wax, the 
 use of which might be derived from encaustic 
 painting. 
 
 In reply to the arguments contained in two 
 ancient manuscripts, the one " Concerning all that 
 is known of the Art of Painting," and written in the 
 eleventh century by Theophilus, a monk ; the other 
 also upon painting, written about the year 1437 by 
 one Andrea Cennini, I have to remark, that their 
 arguments prove nothing certain, except that they 
 proposed to employ oil in colours used for daubing 
 walls and furniture ; but Theophilus, in particular, 
 positively rejected the use of it for pictures, as a 
 thing impracticable. This is the amount of what 
 is contained in their manuscripts, the perusal of 
 which may perhaps have, by degrees, led painters 
 to the use of oil for grinding their colours; but if 
 so, it was so little practised that it was not known 
 to a single artist before Van Eyck. One proof of 
 this is afforded by the infamous murder committed 
 by Andrea del Castagno, a Florentine painter, on 
 his friend Domenico of Venice, whom he assassi- 
 nated in order to preserve to himself, without fear 
 of a competitor, the secret of painting in oil, which 
 Domenico had communicated to him, and which 
 the latter had learned from Anthony de Massina, 
 a pupil of Van Eyck ! 
 
 But it is time to return to the Flemish School, 
 which undoubtedly receives its greatest distinction
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 129 
 
 from the works of the incomparable Rubens, and 
 from the celebrated school which that rare genius 
 founded in the town of Antwerp, in the beginning 
 of the seventeenth century. 
 
 In order to avoid the reproach of partiality in 
 speaking of Rubens, I shall quote the opinions of 
 two judges, both severe and distinguished. Sir 
 Joshua Reynolds says, "that he may be considered 
 as a remarkable example of a mind which exhibits 
 itself equally in the different parts of the art ; that 
 the agreement among these is so great in his works, 
 that it may be said, that if he had been more per- 
 fect in some one of them, his works would not have 
 had that perfection as a whole, which is found in 
 them." 
 
 M. Levesque says, " the number of the works of 
 Rubens is immense ; he painted history, portrait, 
 landscape, fruit, flowers, animals, and was expert 
 in all these subjects. He invented easily and ex- 
 ecuted as much so. He has often been seen to 
 make many entirely different sketches of the same 
 subject. He loved great compositions, and in these 
 he was at home. He had not, like Raphael, that 
 quiet inspiration which manifests itself in sweet and 
 graceful effects ; but he had that fervour of genius, 
 that interior fire, which seeks to display its power, 
 and which manifests itself by effects that are astonish- 
 ing. It seemed as if all the figures, and all the groups 
 which he imagined, leaped from his head and placed 
 themselves upon the canvass, and that to create re- 
 quired only an act of his will. It has been disputed
 
 130 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 that he possessed the quality of a good designer, but 
 very unjustly. His design was grand and easy; 
 he understood anatomy, but his knowledge of it 
 yielded to the impetuosity of his conception, and 
 the vivacity of his execution. He preferred bril- 
 liancy of effect to beauty of form, and often sacri- 
 ficed correctness of design to the magic of colour- 
 ing. He had more of the qualities which result 
 from an imagination full of fire, than of those which 
 require reflecting wisdom and profound medita- 
 tion. The muscles of his figures are well knit; 
 the functions well indicated ; but they are oftener 
 gross and flabby than firm and fleshy, especially in 
 the forms of his women, to the heads of whom he 
 has given only the beauty that is Flemish. He had 
 science in expression, but taking his works in ge- 
 neral as fixing their character, and overlooking the 
 exceptions, it may be said that his pictures do not 
 present the quiet and attractive expression which 
 is admired in Raphael ; that he was more capable 
 of painting the strong passions than the calm and 
 peaceable affections ; that it is principally upon 
 colouring that his glory is founded ; that espe- 
 cially he merits the palm for the grandeur, im- 
 petuosity, and the variety of his composition ; that 
 he is the first amongst painters of draperies ; 
 amongst the first of those who speak to the eyes ; 
 and that his power in his art reaches even to en- 
 chantment." 
 
 Much injustice is done to this great man by 
 judging of him from the numerous pictures painted
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF TAINTING. 131 
 
 by his pupils, of which he supplied nothing but the 
 sketch or corrections $ifr, and in some cases, but 
 not always, the finishing touches, but which all 
 now pass by his name. M. Van Parys, of Ant- 
 werp, one of his descendants by the female side, 
 has assured me, that it is known by a continued 
 tradition in the family, that there scarcely exist 
 two hundred pictures or sketches painted entirely 
 by Rubens himself after his return from Italy, and 
 that among these there were not above twenty 
 large ones, the rest having been all easel pictures, 
 generally painted upon panel, the size of which 
 was often not more than a foot for sketches, and 
 scarcely ever beyond five feet for his finished 
 pictures. Plaving asked M. Van Parys if the tra- 
 dition conveyed information what were the twenty 
 great pictures, he acknowledged to me that he 
 knew only three, namely, St. Ildefonso, St. Am- 
 brose repelling Theodosius, and St. Agnatius ex- 
 orcising the Demoniacs ; three marvels of art 
 which the gallery at Vienna has the happiness to 
 possess. 
 
 The distinctive characteristics of the Flemish 
 School are, according to M. Levesque, " brilliancy 
 of colour, a magical clear-obscure, a design that is 
 learned, although not founded upon the selection 
 of the most beautiful antique forms, a grandeur in 
 the composition, a certain nobleness in the figures, 
 expressions strong and natural, and a sort of 
 national beauty, which is not that of the antique, 
 
 K 2
 
 132 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 nor that of the Roman nor Lombard School, but 
 which is capable and even worthy of pleasing." 
 
 The reader will easily perceive that these cha- 
 racteristics are limited to those Flemish painters 
 only who have attached themselves to the historical 
 class of subjects. But this school is equally dis- 
 tinguished in all the other classes. In these its 
 distinctive characteristics are the same as those of 
 the Dutch School, which will be stated presently. 
 
 The town of Antwerp is distinguished among all 
 those of the low countries by the glorious title of 
 founder of the good Flemish School ; and it has also, 
 beyond all the towns of Europe, the honour of having 
 produced the greatest number of good artists on all 
 subjects in proportion to its population. Without 
 reckoning those who, born elsewhere, have esta- 
 blished themselves within its walls in order to learn 
 their art or to practise it, the number who have 
 been born there extends to 160, amongst whom 
 are found Rubens, Vandyck, Teniers, Gonzales, De 
 Grayer, Jordaens, Neefs, Sneyders, Van Balen, 
 Quellyn, Pourbus, Pepyn, and many others of the 
 most distinguished artists. . Although the city of 
 Cologne, founding on very plausible arguments, 
 disputes with it the honour of having given birth 
 to Rubens, I cannot avoid placing him, after the 
 example of many writers, and especially of Orlandi, 
 among those that have arisen at Antwerp ; not that 
 I pretend to maintain that he actually first saw the 
 light there, but because, looking at Rubens in his 
 quality of painter, I can only assign him, according
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 133 
 
 to the principles formerly laid down, to the place 
 where he learned, practised, and taught his art. 
 
 SECT. VII. Of the Dutch School 
 
 The origin of this attractive school differs alto- 
 gether from that of the others. For in place of 
 being the result of a succession of artists, having 
 one or two masters more celebrated than them all 
 as their common source, and whose distinctive cha- 
 racteristics they have propagated, it is composed of 
 a number of individual schools, in many of which 
 the pupils have surpassed their masters when they 
 attached themselves to the same subjects with him, 
 or, when they departed "from these, have formed 
 new schools in a class of subjects totally different. 
 Thus Van Aelst, Berchem, Bloemaert, Dou, Ever- 
 dingen, Van Goyen, Frank Hals, De Keem, Moyaert, 
 Ostade, Poelemburg, Rembrandt, Van den Velde, 
 Weenix, Wils, Wynants, and many others, have 
 formed so many different schools. However much 
 subdivided these schools may be by the number of 
 the masters, their styles are nevertheless more nearly 
 allied to each other than any of the Italian or French 
 schools, although each of these last has at its head 
 but one, or at most two, founders. This arises 
 from the circumstance, that among the Dutch, 
 whatever may have been the class of subjects chosen 
 by them, the masters have equally with the pupils 
 acknowledged nature as their guide, and have not 
 differed from each other by mannered departures 
 
 K 3
 
 134 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF TAINTING. 
 
 from her, nor by arbitrary styles. They have there- 
 fore necessarily become true, simple, attractive, and 
 interesting as she, both in the details and in their 
 general effect ; insomuch that the principal dif- 
 ference among them lies in the choice of subject 
 and of the proper colours, and in the diversity of 
 the empasto and the touch. 
 
 In the magic of the clear-obscure and in all the 
 parts dependant on colouring, the Dutch School at 
 least equals the Flemish, and very much excels all 
 the other schools. In the neatness of the empasto^ 
 the precious finish of the touch, the art of oppo- 
 sitions, the gradations of the lights and tints, the 
 good representation of sea pieces, landscapes, and 
 animals, she knows no rival. If her design borrows 
 nothing from the antique, from which she is inter- 
 dicted by the class of subjects she has adopted, it 
 is at least as generally correct in its imitation of 
 nature as that of the Roman School in its imitation 
 of the statues. Her compositions are what the 
 subjects require them to be, and her expressions re- 
 present the affections of the mind with so much 
 truth, that I do not know any artist who has sur- 
 passed Jan Steen in this quality, nor yet in his 
 general treatment, which is as piquant as it is 
 ingenious. 
 
 If, then, truth of imitation is the first business of 
 works of art ; if, without that, no picture is in a 
 situation to please ; if all that is visible over the 
 whole face of nature be included in the domain of 
 painting, how is it that among the exclusive parti-
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 135 
 
 zans of historical subjects there are persons so blind 
 as not to see that the marvellous productions of 
 this school, and of the Flemish, have filled with 
 admirable success the immense gaps which their 
 vaunted Italian Schools have left in different parts 
 of art? 
 
 It would be doing great injustice to the Dutch 
 School, so remarkably fruitful in excellent artists, 
 to suppose that it had preferred other subjects to 
 that of history, because it felt itself deficient in 
 that kind of genius which the latter requires. No, 
 surely! We shall see hereafter that greater and 
 inevitable causes have constrained her to this choice, 
 a choice of which one cannot avoid admiring the 
 wisdom, and which, by its results, has done so much 
 honour to the art of painting. 
 
 SECT. VIII. Of the French School 
 
 Although no country has been at so much expense 
 as France in order to encourage the study of paint- 
 ing, it is not on that account the less true that none 
 of all the general schools has produced fewer emi- 
 nent artists than the French, notwithstanding the 
 very considerable number of its pupils. It, too, is 
 the only one the productions of which will be looked 
 for in vain in most of the public galleries and pri- 
 vate collections of other countries. The cause of 
 this singularity will partly be found in the distinc- 
 tive characteristics of the school, and in the reasons 
 given for these in a subsequent chapter. 
 
 K 4
 
 136 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 Simon Vouet is generally regarded as the founder 
 of the French School. M. Levesque, his fellow- 
 countryman, says, "that he would have ruined 
 their school, of which he was the creator, if his 
 scholars had followed his manner; that he was 
 mannered in design, false in colouring, and had no 
 idea of expression ; finally, that he deceived by a 
 delusion, inculcating large general tints of light 
 and shadow, with an eye to greater expedition." 
 Lairesse, on the contrary, who held such rigorous 
 principles on colouring, says, " that Vouet has 
 rendered himself celebrated in the science of re- 
 flections, in which he has surpassed, not only all 
 the French, but all the Italians likewise." Vouet 
 was always esteemed highly in Italy. So long as 
 he was there, he was overpowered with employ- 
 ment, and especially at Rome, where he was chief 
 of the academy of St. Luke ; and many good works 
 of his are to be seen in the Barberini Palace. This 
 esteem did not cease with his death. The Italian 
 writers speak of him as a great artist, and his con- 
 temporary, Debie, says that one believes one sees 
 nature living in his pictures ! 
 
 For my part, I avow sincerely, that I think the 
 criticism of M. Levesque extraordinary, especially 
 considering that he was the first among his coun- 
 trymen who dared to abandon the prevailing feeble 
 manner, and exerted himself to communicate to 
 others a good taste. He has, besides, had the credit 
 of counting amongst his pupils Eustache Le Sueur, 
 the honour of the French School, who, by his rare
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF TAINTING. 137 
 
 talent, has so distinguished his style from that of 
 the other painters of the nation, that he stands by 
 himself. 
 
 It is true that the greater part of the pictures of 
 Le Sueur that remain to us, although admirable for 
 the knowledge displayed in their composition, and 
 for the perfection of their design and expression, 
 err remarkably in point of colouring, by the cut- 
 ting of the contours, by a clear-obscure ill-under- 
 stood, and by the want of effect and opposition. 
 But a premature death arrested him early in his 
 career, and before he had seen Italy ; and in the 
 small number of finished pictures which he has 
 left us, such as the Preaching of St. Paul and the 
 Descent from the Cross, in the Louvre, there are 
 evident proofs that he was in the way of becoming 
 as excellent a colourist as he was a great designer. 
 
 I am sorry not to be able to place in the 
 French School Nicolas Poussin and Claude Gelee 
 de Lorrain. Poussin, although born in France, 
 recommenced the study of the principles of his 
 art when he went to Italy, where he formed a 
 school, and where he resided so long as he 
 lived, while his works have evidently the character 
 of the Roman School. As to Claude, the case is 
 stronger still, for he had only learned to scrawl 
 before he left Lorrain, the country of his birth, and 
 it was at Rome that he learned to paint, and there 
 that he passed his days. The Flemish School does 
 not claim Antony Bilevelt, a native of Maestrecht, 
 from the Florentines; nor Denis Calvart, a native of
 
 138 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF TAINTING. 
 
 Antwerp, from the Lombards, whatever honour 
 these two distinguished artists might do to them. 
 Nor does the German School seek to take Rubens 
 from the Flemish, under the pretext of his being 
 born at Cologne. Nobody disputes to the Dutch 
 School her Gaspar Netscher, Adrian and Isaac 
 Ostade, Lingelbach, Mignon, or Backhuysen, who 
 acquired their art with her, because of their being 
 Germans ; nor Gerard Lairesse, although he learned 
 his art at Liege, where he was born, and although 
 it was only after that that he established himself in 
 Holland, where he died. 
 
 I terminate this article by observing that French 
 authors are themselves agreed, " that the character- 
 istic which distinguishes their school from others, 
 is the having no character appertaining to it in 
 particular, but an aptitude for imitating that of 
 the others. To which they add, that it combines in 
 a moderate degree the different parts of the art, 
 without carrying any of them to eminence." I 
 am of opinion, however, that it may be said, in 
 general, that it is much more feeble in colouring, 
 especially in the clear-obscure and aerial perspec- 
 tive, than in design ; that it shows as much spirit, 
 lightness, facility, and gaiety, as fertility and rich- 
 ness in its compositions ; and that it is more suited 
 to aid display in rich apartments, than to lend a 
 magical illusion to the collections of amateurs.
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 139 
 
 SECT. IX. Of the German School 
 
 Although this school holds the first rank in point 
 of antiquity, I have mentioned it last. Not that I 
 pretend to refuse to it the title of a general school, 
 as many artists do ; but because, after having shone 
 forth at first with much brilliancy in the Gothic 
 taste, it was from political and moral circum- 
 stances, of which I shall give an account hereafter, 
 stifled in its birth, without being allowed time to 
 try itself in a better taste, or being permitted to 
 come to maturity. The German School was founded 
 in the end of the fifteenth century by Albert Durer 
 of Nuremberg ; a genius truly astonishing, whom 
 Raphael himself admired, and who might have 
 become the first painter of the world, if he had 
 appeared half a century later ; and especially if in 
 that case he had lived in Italy, so as to learn there 
 by seeing the antiques, the only part of the art 
 which nature and his great genius did not suffice 
 to teach him. He had an inexhaustible fecundity 
 of invention, and was as ingenious in his ideas as 
 he was true in his compositions. His design was 
 correct, and founded on a knowledge of anatomy ; 
 his expressions were true, without reaching to 
 the ideal; his colouring was agreeable and bril- 
 liant ; and his touch equalled that of Mieris and 
 Gerard Dou for neatness and precious finish. His 
 faults were not his own, but that of the time in 
 which he lived ; and have their source in ignorance 
 
 *K6
 
 140 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 
 
 of aerial perspective. The folds too numerous and 
 broken, the faults against costume, and the dryness 
 of outline, which are observed in the most of his 
 works, are not found at all in some of them. One 
 ought not to be astonished at the exorbitant price 
 which is paid in England, and even in Italy, for the 
 well ascertained and well preserved pictures of this 
 master; for to their great merit must be added 
 'their extreme rarity, the galleries and other public 
 establishments having withdrawn them all from 
 circulation. Sandrart and many other authors 
 have said that the most ancient picture of Albert 
 Durer known is of the year 1 504. But the charm- 
 ing portrait of " the Beauty of Nuremberg " in my 
 possession, and which is proved by the signature 
 on it, as well as by a print, to have been painted 
 by him in 1497, attests, by its astonishing perfec- 
 tion, that at that time this great artist, who was 
 only in his twenty-sixth year, had carried his art 
 to a very high degree of excellence ; for it excites 
 the admiration of all connoisseurs, although in my 
 collection it is surrounded by very striking works 
 of the best Dutch and Flemish masters. 
 
 At the same time with Albert Durer many other 
 German painters did honour to their country. 
 Amongst these Hans Holbein, the younger, was 
 particularly distinguished. His works are truly 
 admirable, and sell at a very high price, although 
 they are only portraits. Another was Luca 
 Kranach, whose pictures I have seen of the most 
 attractive colouring, and who had a son worthy of
 
 OF THE GENERAL SCHOOLS OF PAINTING. 141 
 
 such a father. The most distinguished among the 
 disciples of Durer were, as I think, George Pens, 
 whose pictures I have seen truly enchanting, and 
 with nothing of the Gothic ; and Matthew Gruene- 
 wald, whose works are often confounded with those 
 of his master. 
 
 The German School was extinguished with these 
 masters; nor has it been formed anew, notwith- 
 standing the very generous encouragements which 
 painters have never ceased to receive from the 
 different sovereigns among whom Germany is di- 
 vided, many of whom have given distinguished 
 proofs of their love for the art by the magnificent 
 galleries which they have formed, or by collections of 
 less importance which they have made for their own 
 private enjoyment. But Germany, nevertheless, 
 has never been without artists capable of doing her 
 honour. Such, among others, were Adam Elsheimer, 
 Rotenhamer, Charles Screta, surnamed L'Espadron, 
 Christopher Pauditz, John Lys, surnamed Pan, John 
 Henry Roos, Denner, Dietrici, and Mengs ; but each 
 of these excellent painters has shone out singly, and 
 they have all departed without having revived the 
 German School. 
 
 There yet remains, however, to this vast empire, 
 a well-founded hope that a very different result may 
 be produced by its academies, especially those of 
 Vienna, Dresden, and Munich, all of which are 
 magnificently endowed, and enjoy the incalculable 
 advantage of presenting to aspirants a rich collection 
 of the chief works of the art, as examples.
 
 142 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 OBSERVATIONS ON THE CAUSES OF THE CHARACTERISTICS 
 WHICH DISTINGUISH THE DIFFERENT SCHOOLS FROM 
 EACH OTHER. 
 
 A great many causes moral, political, and phy- 
 sical have concurred to form the characteristics 
 which distinguish among themselves the eight 
 general schools of painting mentioned in the pre- 
 ceding chapter. These causes may be reduced to 
 the following : the nature of the soil and climate of 
 the different countries to which the schools belong ; 
 the manners, the knowledge, the genius, the taste, 
 the temperament, the wealth, and the religion of 
 their inhabitants ; the circumstance of their being 
 at peace or war ; the nature of their political con- 
 stitution ; and the character of their governments. 
 
 That all these are causes will become sufficiently 
 manifest in the application of them which I shall 
 make to each particular school when I come to 
 speak of it. One only, namely, the temperament, 
 seems to require that I explain it here, in order 
 that it may be made clear. 
 
 Nobody is ignorant how powerfully the physical 
 constitution of our body, be it good or bad, affects 
 the feelings, the disposition, the imagination, the 
 quality of the ideas, and the nature of the move-
 
 .OF EACH SCHOOL. 143 
 
 ments; and consequently how much it must in- 
 fluence also our tastes and conceptions, and our 
 aptitude for executing them. How much do the 
 numerous optical deceptions to which men are more 
 or less subject metamorphose objects in their eyes ! 
 How much are those exposed to be deceived in re- 
 gard to measurements, whose eye is not mathema- 
 tical ? How much may they mistake colours, whose 
 eyes are occupied by vicious humours ? Every 
 thing is yellow or greenish to the eyes of the 
 bilious ; every thing black, bricky, or livid, to the 
 atrabilious. The languid dyspeptic sees every thing 
 pale and chalky. Let him be ever so little san- 
 guineous, and every thing is embellished to his 
 eyes, and animated with additional brilliancy and 
 vivacity. That man alone who enjoys perfect 
 health, sees nature just as she is. Yet he who 
 from any of the above causes sees amiss, does not 
 usually suspect it himself, and supposes himself to 
 see like the rest of the world. 
 
 Without farther observation on the physical 
 causes which may affect our organs of sight, I have 
 next to remark that religion, manners, the prevail- 
 ing taste for show, a state of peace, the political 
 constitution, and the nature of the government, 
 have all equally favoured painting, especially of the 
 historical class, at Rome, at Bologna, at Florence, 
 as well as at Modena. It is owing to the fervid 
 climate of Lower Italy, and the lively and electrical 
 genius of its inhabitants, that the Romans, Floren- 
 tines, and Bolognese, have a turn for the grand, the
 
 144 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 extraordinary, and the heroic a taste which the 
 numerous statues at Rome have carried towards 
 the supernatural there, especially with the help of 
 those reminiscences of their ancient history that 
 remain to them. At the same time their soil, 
 alaways parched, often ill-cultivated, and covered 
 in some parts with the terrible traces of volcanic 
 remains, joined to the adust temperament, more or 
 less atrabilious, of the inhabitants, has led to car- 
 nations dry and embrowned, shadows too dark and 
 cutting ; in a word, to bad colouring ; while many 
 reasons have combined to fix all the attention of 
 artists upon invention, composition, expression, and 
 design in general. 
 
 Corregio, in the more fertile and cooler climate 
 of Lombardy, and the Venetians in their well culti- 
 vated environs, saw nature in all the brilliancy and 
 variety of her colouring, and their efforts were di- 
 rected to the imitation of her. The wealth of indi- 
 viduals at Venice, and the prodigious concourse of 
 strangers of every country which commerce attracted 
 to her, are the cause of that astonishing variety of 
 modern costumes, and of that extraordinary gor- 
 geousness in the dresses, which one remarks in the 
 pictures of that school; while the self-respect of 
 numerous aristocratic Venetians and of the great 
 merchants, have produced among them that multi- 
 tude of portraits which do honour to the Venetian 
 School. This is the source of their excellent carna- 
 tions, and probably one of the principal causes 
 which led the painters of that school to make use
 
 OF EACH SCHOOL. 145 
 
 of figures taken from nature, rather than ideal ones, 
 in their historical compositions. 
 
 The Flemings, again, living in a happy and nou- 
 rishing country, where nature appears decked out 
 in her most agreeable and most varied colours, have 
 given themselves up to the seductive attractions of 
 hues so full of charms. Their churches, plundered 
 and ravaged by the iconoclasts, offered them an im- 
 mense void to fill up by their works. It was natural 
 then that their first care should be directed to that 
 part of the historical class which belongs to sacred 
 subjects, and to the ornament of the churches. And 
 smitten as they were with nature for the beauty of 
 her colouring, is it wonderful that they have come 
 to admire corresponding beauty of feature likewise? 
 that, comparing the fresh tint of the mingling 
 rose and lily, the fine and delicate skin, and the 
 soft and plump proportions of the beautiful 
 Flemish blonds, with the tawny hue, the tight and 
 stretched skin, the hard and dry forms of the bru- 
 nettes of certain countries, they should have found 
 the first quite as agreeable in the copy as in the 
 original ; and that they should have chosen from 
 among them models for their devotional pictures, 
 in. which the reality of the personages represented 
 debarred them from introducing figures whose 
 forms did not exist in nature ? 
 
 The peasantry, too, far from presenting that for- 
 bidding aspect which misery and oppression too 
 often give them elsewhere, do there inspire one 
 with feelings of joy and pleasure by their air of
 
 J46 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 ease and contentment; as is exhibited in the en- 
 gaging pictures of Teniers in this class of art, which 
 attract as much by the simple gaiety of the subject, 
 as they charm by the cleverness and truth of their 
 execution, and which, for this double merit, amateurs 
 prefer to his works of every other class, although 
 these may be equally well represented. Such were 
 the beneficial effects of the peace which the Belgians 
 enjoyed after the violent shocks sustained by the 
 quiet and paternal government of Albert and Isa- 
 bella, and so favourable was it to historical painting, 
 by maintaining among them the Catholic religion, 
 until Rubens laid the foundation of his celebrated 
 school ! So much did the liberty which the Dutch 
 had just recovered from the Spaniards by unheard 
 of efforts, become fatal among them to the same 
 class of art, the foundations of which they sapped 
 by their resolution to banish their priests, and to 
 substitute a religion that suffers neither pictures 
 nor statues of saints in their churches ! From 
 that time all the views of their painters were 
 necessarily turned to the other classes of art, more 
 susceptible of a small form, and therefore more 
 suitable to the private houses of the Dutch, which, 
 though neat and commodious, are not sufficiently 
 large for pictures of great size. In these classes, 
 thanks to the perseverance, the patience, and the 
 love of occupation which characterise this indus- 
 trious nation, they have arrived at a point of 
 perfection not to be equalled in all the other 
 schools, and have supplied the place of that in-

 
 OF EACH SCHOOL. 147 
 
 terest which an historical subject " presents, by 
 magical truth, perfect illusion, and precious finish 
 of execution. Imitating the fresh and various tints 
 which nature wears with them, they have attained 
 a colouring which is beyond all eulogium. Their 
 design has become the more correct, because, paint- 
 ing only from the real objects with Avhich they 
 were surrounded, it has been easy for them to pro- 
 cure models ; while it may be said in favour of the 
 subjects they have chosen, that they have been 
 such as the manners, the usages, and the customs 
 of their country demanded. 
 
 The reformed religion and the natural character 
 of the Dutchman render him simple and austere 
 in his manners, and in dress, the enemy of show 
 and outward display, and of boisterous scenes and 
 frivolous ostentation. Altogether occupied with 
 business, his utmost ambition is the possession of a 
 character without stain, orderly accounts, and a 
 tranquil conscience. When in town, he seeks only the 
 true enjoyments to be found among his family and 
 friends. In the country, he relaxes in the contem- 
 plation of nature, and in rural amusements. Can 
 he then avoid liking pictures, in which he finds 
 represented himself, and all that is agreeable and 
 dear to him? Can he do otherwise than prefer 
 such to historical subjects, which, without truth of 
 execution, without effect, and without illusion, 
 have no merit but that of the design and composi- 
 tion, and in which he in vain seeks for the nature 
 that he is familiar with, and for the objects of his 
 
 L 2
 
 148 DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS 
 
 affections ? Those who cry up theatrical fictions, 
 and reproach the painters of this school with low- 
 ness in the choice of their subject, ought to recol- 
 lect that nothing is low or contemptible in nature ; 
 that the peasantry, whom they call maggots, are 
 their fellow-men ; much more interesting than they, 
 because of their usefulness, although clothed in 
 simple garb ; and more respectable in the eyes of 
 every considerate observer, inasmuch as they pre- 
 sent mankind in a state less corrupted, less dis- 
 guised, and nearer to nature. 
 
 The nature of the soil, a point that has been 
 favourable to the Dutch and Flemish painters, has, 
 on the contrary, been very disadvantageous, so far as 
 regards colouring, to the French ; for the city of 
 Paris, the seat of their school, stands upon a plain 
 of gypsum which extends far around it, and which, 
 in the form of plaster, is employed in the construc- 
 tion of the houses. These are, therefore, generally 
 of a white or grey colour, while the chalky dust con- 
 tinually raised by the confluence of people and of 
 carriages, destroys for a great distance round Paris 
 the colours of nature, covering them all with a 
 greyish monotonous tint, and seeming as it were to 
 devour the verdure of vegetation. We need not 
 then be astonished at the feebleness of colouring 
 that is objected to this school ; the pupils of which 
 cannot avoid beholding every thing grey, seeing 
 that the air itself, charged with this chalky dust, 
 does not with them appear of the colour of nature. 
 
 If the taste of the nation for the productions of
 
 OF EACH SCHOOL. 149 
 
 this beautiful art, and the munificent encourage- 
 ment of sovereigns, and of the great, have multiplied 
 French artists in point of numbers, they have not 
 at the same time been able to overcome the in- 
 fluence which the national character, as light arid 
 inconstant as it is full of fire- and genius, seems to 
 exercise on its painters. Hence those grand and 
 ingenious compositions, which are not without 
 interest, but which yet have always about them 
 something to except to; hence that design and 
 those expressions, which, while they are neither 
 correct nor strictly true, are yet not without con- 
 siderable merit ; hence that execution, which, 
 without being perfect, is yet by no means to be 
 despised: in short, after the great number of 
 pictures of this school which I have seen, I feel 
 warranted in saying that if, with the exception of 
 Le Sueur, it has produced no painter that is emi- 
 nent, it has at any rate produced none that can 
 be called absolutely bad. 
 
 The astonishingly sudden fall of the German 
 school, which in its infancy promised so much, is 
 owing altogether to the introduction of Lutheran- 
 ism, which disturbed that country, and banished 
 the Catholic religion from it, at the very time when 
 Albert Durer had attained the height of his fame. 
 The city of Nuremburg, where he lived, adopted 
 the reformed religion in the year 1525, as likewise 
 did that of Basle, where Hans Holbein resided, and 
 the kingdom of Saxony, in which Luca Cranach 
 had his residence. Thus these three artists, who 
 
 L 3
 
 150 CHARACTERISTICS OF EACH SCHOOL. 
 
 exhibited a preference for the historical walk, saw 
 but a poor prospect in store for their school, in the 
 expulsion from the convents of the monks, whose 
 zealous devotion afforded the principal resource to 
 painters in that class. The small number of pic- 
 tures which the religious reformers left in the 
 churches reserved for their own use, and the long 
 and cruel wars which followed the introduction of 
 Lutheranism into Germany, served to complete the 
 discouragement of artists, and decided the fall of 
 that school ; which probably might have attained a 
 degree of fame equal to any of the others, if, in 
 place of having set up his easel at Nuremburg, 
 Albert Durer had been fortunate enough to do it 
 at Vienna, the chief seat of Papacy in Germany. 
 The peace which that city enjoyed during the long 
 religious wars in other parts of the empire, would 
 probably have ensured to painting the success to 
 which the soil and climate, the genius and temper- 
 ament of the nation, and the nature of the govern- 
 ment, seem to entitle it. We are authorised to 
 conclude thus much from the brilliant success of 
 many painters, who have sprung up singly in Ger- 
 many since the fall of the school ; amongst whom 
 Dietrici, and John Henry Roos, hold the first place, 
 and have obtained universal approbation for the 
 excellence of their works.
 
 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 151 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 OF THE CLASSIFICATION OF PICTURES ACCORDING TO 
 THEIR SUBJECT, WITH REMARKS ON THE NATURAL 
 AND IDEAL CLASSES. 
 
 PICTURES are divided into classes according to the 
 nature of their subject. The different classes may 
 be stated as follows : 
 
 The Historical Class, which includes the sa- 
 cred, the profane, the allegorical, and the 
 fabulous. 
 
 Portraits. 
 
 Conversations. 
 
 Interiors and Household subjects. 
 
 Pot-houses. 
 
 Battles. 
 
 Landscapes. 
 
 Sea pieces. 
 
 Architectural subjects. 
 
 Still Life. 
 
 High-finished Pictures. 
 
 The latter, which are confined almost exclusively 
 to the works of some of the best Dutch masters, 
 ought not, properly speaking, to form a class by 
 themselves. But the high prices which they bring 
 have given them an importance with amateurs, 
 and made them be talked of as a class, and as
 
 152 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 
 
 distinguished from the multitude of other pictures 
 by the superiority of their touch and empasto. 
 
 A small number of artists, such as Rubens, Bene- 
 detto Castiglione, Teniers, and John Baptist Weenix, 
 have been equally distinguished in all the classes. 
 Others have applied themselves only to some of them, 
 and a very great number have confined themselves 
 to but one. In the same manner, the general schools, 
 although they may have furnished some examples 
 in each class, have yet generally shown a marked 
 predilection for some one of them in particular. 
 Thus the Florentine, the Roman, and the Lombard 
 schools attached themselves more particularly to 
 history; the Venetian, French, and German, to 
 history and portrait ; the Dutch to all the classes, 
 although but little to the historical. The Flemish 
 alone seems to have succeeded equally in every 
 class. 
 
 The classes which beyond all comparison have 
 employed the greatest number of painters are those 
 of history and portrait ; notwithstanding of which 
 the number of good historical pictures is very 
 small. Perhaps this may be because of their large 
 size, and of the time required for them, or perhaps 
 because the best Italian artists were more devoted 
 to fresco ; but it is chiefly, I think, owing to this, 
 that the historical class presents greater difficulties 
 than any of the others. 
 
 With respect to portrait, although incomparably 
 more easy, yet in collections one sees few of that 
 class, which is not in request unless they arc by
 
 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 153 
 
 the hands of the most celebrated masters, and of a 
 truth that is magical and astonishing. 
 
 The class in which the smallest number of artists 
 have succeeded is, without doubt, that of sea pieces ; 
 for after the class of high-finish, this is the one in 
 which it is most difficult to meet with pictures 
 of the required quality. 
 
 The reader will find in Chapter XI. further 
 details concerning these classes. The art of paint- 
 ing extends over the whole of them; but the 
 division of it into classes has become necessary, 
 because, embracing as it does the whole round 
 of nature, the field is too vast for any man 
 to entertain any reasonable hope of succeeding 
 in the whole. Each artist has therefore selected 
 that department which appeared to him the most 
 in accordance with his genius and taste. Xay, 
 many, finding that it was beyond their powers to 
 succeed in the whole of even one class, have had 
 the prudence to confine themselves to a part of it 
 only, in which part they have thereby generally at- 
 tained the more complete success. Thus, in land- 
 scape, several painters, such as Wynants, Decker, 
 Hackaert, and Waterloo, refrain from figures and 
 animals, seeking for these the aid of another pencil. 
 Some, as Van Goyen, Camphuysen, Van der Neer, 
 Cuyp, and Hobbima, have confined themselves to 
 flat scenes. Some, like Berchem, Pynacker, and 
 Both, have preferred mountainous views; others 
 have selected confined spots ; and others again have 
 exhibited extensive prospects.
 
 154 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 
 
 In architectural subjects, some have attached 
 themselves to the modem, as Van der Heyden; 
 others to the Gothic, as old Peter Neefs ; and others, 
 like Van Deelen, to both, with equal success. The 
 most of these have not painted the figures in their 
 pictures. 
 
 In still life John B. Weenix has exhausted the 
 whole class, to which he has added excellent 
 figures and landscape ; and nearly the same may 
 be said of John Van Huysum. William Van Aelst 
 has, to the other parts of this class, added dead 
 animals; while Mignon, De Heem, and Kachel 
 Ruysch, have omitted them. Many other painters 
 in this class have confined themselves to fish, 
 moveable effects, and household utensils. 
 
 The historical class is divided into two depart- 
 ments; the one of which, commonly called the 
 natural class, includes history properly so called, 
 and every thing in painting that is not imaginary. 
 The] other, which has been called the ideal, takes 
 for its subject the whole field of allegory and 
 fable.* It will be recollected, that, according to 
 
 * It seems evident that this division of the subjects of paint- 
 ing is incorrect, or at least incomplete. For though a painter 
 may represent only personages such as we every day see in 
 reality, yet the situation in which he may place them, as for 
 instance, a beautiful effect of accidental light, and the circum- 
 stances under which he may exhibit them, such for instance, as 
 a young man engaged in a noble or spirited action, or a young 
 woman in the exercise of an amiable one, (through which situa- 
 tion and circumstances alone they acquire pictorial eflect, and 
 recommend themselves to the true connoisseur by calling forth 
 our sympathies with the higher and better feelings,) may be
 
 DIVISION OP PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 155 
 
 our definition of a picture, it ought to represent 
 the subject " in the manner in which it is seen, 
 or in which it may be conceived visible in nature." 
 Pictures come therefore to be divided into those 
 which imitate real objects, which must be repre- 
 sented in the manner in which they actually exist 
 in nature, and those which represent imaginary 
 things that have no existence but in the fancy of 
 the artist, which he must represent in the manner 
 in which we imagine they would exist if real. 
 In saying, however, that they have no existence 
 but in the fancy of the artist, I do not at all mean 
 that he is at liberty, in the choice of such subjects, 
 to abandon himself to chance or caprice. The 
 ancients, particularly the Greeks, have left us judi- 
 cious models for such creations, whether fabulous 
 or allegorical, and these have been adopted by the 
 unanimous voice of posterity. To them the painter 
 ought to have recourse, whenever the subject of 
 his picture is to be found among them. Ca?sar 
 Ripa published at Padua, in 1625, a very useful 
 collection of emblematical figures, in his Iconologia y 
 which contains a great many examples, and was 
 reprinted in French, with the addition of a second 
 part, at Paris, in 1643. The artist will find there 
 not only emblematical forms for our virtues, vices, 
 affections, passions, the arts, the sciences, the 
 elements, the seasons, and other similar things, all 
 
 entirely the produce of the painter's imagination ; and are then 
 as much ideal, as if the subject were entirely fabulous. 
 Trans.
 
 15.6 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 
 
 personified after the principles of the ancients, 
 but also very sensible precepts which may guide 
 him in giving suitable forms to things of that kind 
 for which antiquity does not furnish a model. 
 
 To return from this digression, the above two 
 kinds of pictures, called the natural and the ideal, 
 have been a fruitful source of disputes between the 
 admirers of faithful and simple imitations of nature 
 on the one hand, and the partisans of ideal beauty 
 and sublimity on the other. 
 
 As to this ideal beauty, which the latter have 
 always in their mouths, all those that have written 
 of it, from the most remote period of antiquity 
 down to our day, have been unable to give an in- 
 telligible definition of it, or to explain to us on 
 what it depends, or in what it consists, notwith- 
 standing their long discourses, filled with words, 
 but void of meaning, and their obscure metaphy- 
 sical reasoning, which only serve to prove that 
 they do not themselves know what they pretend 
 to teach to others. The learned Watelet, in his 
 Dictionary of the Arts, which is so clear in other 
 respects, becomes unintelligible in the articles on 
 Beauty and the Beautiful, by trying to demonstrate 
 the problem less badly than others have done it ; 
 for all that I have been able to extract from his 
 long, obscure, and tiresome reasoning is this, that 
 beauty ought to please ; that the hair ought to be 
 golden coloured, long, and curled ; that the mouth 
 ought to be neither too large nor too small; and, 
 finally, that Alcina and Olympia, mentioned by
 
 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 157 
 
 Ariosto in his Orlando Furioso, were two beauties. 
 Was it necessary to employ fifty-five mortal pages, 
 in octavo, and very small print, to tell us only that ? 
 Of all writers on this subject, Professor Camper 
 has treated it with the greatest clearness, in his 
 Dissertation on Physical Beauty, a work accom- 
 panied with all the necessary diagrams for the 
 understanding of it, and which I take it upon me 
 to recommend to all artists who are employed on 
 historical subjects. The exclusive partisans of the 
 ideal may there see that we do not know exactly 
 what constitutes physical beauty ; that we have not 
 an intuitive feeling of this sort of beauty, like the 
 very distinct one which we have of moral beauty ; 
 that a fixed proportion between parts is not the 
 foundation of the beauty of men, nor of animals, 
 any more than of architecture ; that what we call 
 beauty depends on mutual agreement and consent, 
 and rests on the authority of a small number of 
 persons ; that our considering any thing beautiful 
 is only the result of habit ; finally, besides many 
 other equally interesting aphorisms on this matter, 
 which may perhaps render them more circumspect 
 in their assertions regarding ideal beauty, they will 
 find two great truths demonstrated by means of 
 comparative anatomy; the one of which is, that 
 the beauty of the antique heads depends chiefly 
 on the facial line in them making an angle of 100 
 degrees with the horizontal line ; and the other is, 
 that it is certain that such a head is never found 
 in nature ! Why then do masters and professors
 
 158 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 
 
 talk without ceasing of ideal beauty to their pupils, 
 at the risk of driving them stupid by inculcating 
 it as if it rested on the authority of a law, when, 
 so far from being able to establish it upon rules 
 and principles, they are at a loss to make it in- 
 telligible to them by any means whatever ? They 
 might employ much more usefully the precious 
 time of their youth by confirming them in those 
 parts of the art which are positively ascertained, 
 until practice in seeing and comparing the modern 
 and the antique, based on the indisputable lessons 
 of nature, should teach them by degrees something 
 capable of being understood, and so conduct them, 
 without forcing their natural convictions, to the 
 beautiful and the graceful, as it has previously 
 conducted Corregio and other artists. 
 
 I admit, on the one hand, that a student may 
 derive great advantage from the study of the 
 antique statues, from the nobleness, the elegance, 
 and the ease of their forms, their flowing and 
 graceful contours, the poise of their positions, the 
 truth of their attitudes, and the facility of their 
 movements. But, on the other hand, I maintain 
 that, as every one is pleased with the sight of a 
 pretty garden, a lovely country, a fine palace, a 
 beautiful church, country occupations and amuse- 
 ments, the heartiness of the village festival, hunting 
 and fishing, parterres and flowers, trees and fruit, 
 cattle in the meadows, harvests on the plains, hills 
 and forests, fountains and streams, the sea and its 
 impetuous billows, in a word, with the number-
 
 DIVISION OF PICTURES INTO CLASSES. 159 
 
 less wonders of nature, presenting to us as they do 
 a round of amusement, enjoyment, and variety, 
 without which life would be monotonous and in- 
 sipid, and which delight the eye, charm the heart 
 and mind, dissipate weariness, calm our chagrin, 
 and lend a comfort to our existence ; so it is worse 
 than mere assurance to treat as insignificant trifles 
 the works of an expert painter, who renews our 
 pleasures by representing all those with magical 
 truth, and with a skill that cannot but be difficult 
 of acquirement, since so few artists have attained 
 perfection in it. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans admired this 
 kind of pictures no less than we, and paid for them 
 frequently more than for historical compositions. 
 Not only do they predominate amongst those which 
 have been found in the ruins of Herculaneum, but 
 it is notorious also, that the most celebrated paint- 
 ers amongst the Greeks, such as Zeuxis and Parr- 
 hasius, gloried in their success in the representation 
 of inanimate objects. Nay, more, in speaking of 
 Pyreicus, Pliny bears direct testimony to the fact, 
 when he states, " that few artists deserve to be pre- 
 ferred to him ; that he painted, in small, barbers' 
 and shoemakers' stalls, asses, beans, and such 
 things." He adds, " that his works gave the great- 
 est delight, that he obtained larger prices for them 
 than many others for noble and great productions, 
 and that he was by no means degraded by choos- 
 ing such common subjects, since he acquired a 
 great name notwithstanding."
 
 160 CAUSES OF SUPERIORITY OF PICTURES 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 ON THE CAUSES OF THE SUPERIORITY OF THE PICTURES 
 OF THE SIXTEENTH AND SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES 
 OVER THOSE OF THE PAST CENTURY. 
 
 IT is painful to be obliged to admit the decline of 
 art since the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, 
 and our inability to restore it to the same pitch of 
 perfection to which it had then attained. There 
 have recently, it is true, been many distinguished 
 exceptions among us to the generality of this 
 remark, of whom I have much pleasure in mention- 
 ing particularly M. Ommeganck of Antwerp, in the 
 class of animals; M. Simon Denis, in landscape; 
 and M. Van Spaendonck, Professor in the Garden 
 of Plants at Paris, in fruits, flowers, and similar 
 subjects, ah 1 of whom have carried their art to 
 a very high degree of perfection ; but, generally 
 speaking, the productions of the past century are 
 far from equalling the immortal works of the 
 ancient masters in truth of imitation, magical illu- 
 sion, and power of effect. 
 
 I have heard it said by some modern painters 
 that the slow action of time alone has given to the 
 ancient pictures this force and illusion, and that 
 their own will not fail to become more beautiful 
 every year, and will, in The erai> altogether equal 
 the perfection of their predecessors ; to which they
 
 AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 161 
 
 add the trite remark, that a painter must be dead 
 before his works come into request. But others, 
 more sincere, have admitted to me without hesita- 
 tion our incapacity to equal the ancients; these, 
 however, alleging at the same time as the cause, 
 the loss of the colours which they had used. From 
 the researches, however, which I have made into the 
 subject, I am satisfied that the decided and continued 
 inferiority of the moderns in their original pic- 
 tures arises from their wanting aptness or practice 
 in seeing and conceiving. For I find a great num- 
 ber of successful copies made after the works of 
 the ancients by painters who out of their own 
 head produce only things worthy of contempt. I 
 conclude, therefore, that the art of imitating nature 
 is not yet lost, but that we require her to be 
 accommodated to our weakness by a copy pre- 
 viously made from her. 
 
 Carrying my researches still farther, I have be- 
 come satisfied that the deterioration is by no means 
 to be attributed to the loss of the colours employed 
 by the ancients ; that these never made a secret of 
 the colours used by them ; and that the best Venetian 
 colourists, such as Giorgione and Titian, neither 
 made theirs themselves nor brought them from afar, 
 but bought them uniformly in the shops at Venice. 
 I am further satisfied that the prevailing fault 
 among the moderns has been the painting from 
 habit, without consulting nature, as they ought, in 
 order to imitate h"" colours. Accordingly, I have 
 observed that, in general, painters of portraits and 
 M
 
 162 CAUSES OF SUPERIORITY OF PICTURES 
 
 of still life, being obliged to paint only from nature, 
 succeed better than all the other classes of modern 
 artists. 
 
 Finally, having compared for a long time the 
 practice of the ancients with that of the moderns, 
 and the works of the one with those of the other, 
 trying both on every occasion by the picture of 
 natural objects retained in my mind, I have become 
 by degrees perfectly convinced, that ignorance of 
 colouring has been the chief cause, not to say the 
 only one, which has placed the artists of the 
 eighteenth century so much beneath those of the 
 two preceding ones. 
 
 Having come to this conclusion, I was led, with 
 the view of making it useful, to inquire into the 
 cause why the ancients attached so much import- 
 ance to colouring, and why the moderns evince so 
 much indifference to it ; for I could not bring my- 
 self to attribute the superiority of the first, as is 
 pretty generally done, to the physical influence of 
 the age in which they had the happiness to live. 
 Such a manner of accounting for it is the more 
 monstrous in my opinion, because it would esta- 
 blish (on a ground that would be inevitable) the 
 inferiority and the hopelessness of the moderns, 
 at the same time that it furnished their excuse, 
 and because it would tend to fix the art for a long 
 period in the state of mediocrity in which it now is. 
 
 What first struck me in my research into the 
 different estimate^put by the ancients and moderns 
 on colouring was this, that since the period when
 
 AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 163 
 
 aerial perspective became known, no painter, of 
 whatever school, among the ancients, except those 
 who adopted the Roman taste, had a colouring that 
 was absolutely bad ; and I have looked in vain for 
 a picture painted during that period which was 
 altogether destitute of merit in this quality. 
 
 I observed, in the second place, that in point of 
 fact the fashion of going to Italy was as prevalent 
 amongst the ancient as amongst modern painters ; 
 but with this remarkable difference, that most of 
 the latter hasten thither to learn their art, ere the 
 first principles of it have had time to strike root 
 in them ; while the first did not generally go there 
 until after they were matured in the theory and 
 the practice of it, and did not arrive in Italy until 
 they had already acquired a reputation. The con- 
 sequence of a course so different is, that the 
 moderns, arriving in Rome after having passed 
 through Italy as speedily as possible, receive and 
 appropriate all the principles and ideas that are 
 inculcated there ; and these have the greater effect 
 upon them, because they have not the means of 
 comparison which they ought previously to have 
 derived from experience and observation. Whereas 
 the ancients, confirmed before going there in the 
 principles of the art by practice and the constant 
 study of nature, could not be misled, judged all 
 impartially, and- retained only that which was 
 advantageous to them. 
 
 It is true, I must admit, that Poussin and Claude 
 
 M 2
 
 164 CAUSES OF SUPERIORITY OF PICTURES 
 
 Lorrain were exceptions to this latter course of 
 procedure. Poussin did not go to Italy until he 
 was thirty years of age, up to which tune he had 
 learned no good under the masters that he had in 
 France ; but he had filled his mind with studies 
 made privately through the impulse of his own 
 taste, from casts and engravings of the works of 
 Raphael and Julio Romano. When he reached 
 Italy, he applied himself anew to the principles of 
 the art. At first he studied Titian ; and accordingly 
 his pictures of that period, that is, his earliest, are 
 much better coloured than his subsequent works. 
 For, afterwards, carried away by the expressions of 
 Domenichino, whose school he frequented, and by 
 the antique statues, he neglected colouring, fearing 
 that he should not be able to do justice to it at the 
 same time with these other parts of the art, of 
 which he had become so enthusiastic, that one 
 might tell from his works every statue that has 
 served him for a model. By such injudicious con- 
 duct, he became as bad a colourist as he was a 
 great and learned designer. I need go no farther 
 than the Louvre for sufficient proofs in support of 
 my opinion, to say nothing of other exceptions that 
 may be made to his figures, which have too much 
 feeling of the marble, too great an uniformity in 
 the airs of the head and in the expressions, and 
 too little contrast in their positions, while the folds 
 of the draperies are too numerous. 
 
 Claude Lorrain, again, attained the high pitch of 
 fame to which he has risen, by pursuing a course
 
 AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 165 
 
 altogether opposed to that of Poussin ; for, thanks 
 to his happy stars, finding no employment at Rome 
 as a confectioner, in which capacity he had arrived 
 there, he entered the service of Augustino Tassi, a 
 good landscape painter of that time. Here, oppor- 
 tunity, and his natural taste, led him to try his 
 pencil in that line, and his genius taught him to 
 adopt nature for his only guide, who repaid him 
 well for the wisdom of his choice ; for to that 
 we owe those marvellous works to which the 
 greatest connoisseurs continue to render the just 
 tribute of their admiration. His performances 
 give a very high idea of his powers, yet in some 
 of them he seems to have worked from habit, and 
 without consulting nature, and these may be 
 blamed for an intolerable degree of blackness ; nor 
 are they faultless in the aerial perspective and the 
 local colours of distant objects, nor in the clouds, 
 which are sometimes woolly to a ridiculous degree. 
 The Gallery of the Louvre furnishes plenty of 
 examples of these different defects. 
 
 The last and most important point which has 
 occurred to me during my observations in regard 
 to the decline of painting is, that the good colouring 
 found amongst the ancients may itself have been 
 the innocent cause of its loss. For having become 
 so common a quality among painters, they may 
 have thought that they could no longer be distin- 
 guished by it from the crowd ; and while seeking, 
 in consequence, some other means of being so, they 
 have come by degrees to neglect colouring in pro- 
 
 *M3
 
 166 CAUSES OF SUPERIORITY OF PICTURES. 
 
 portion as they have directed their attention to the 
 other qualities upon which they hope to found 
 new claims to notice. Thus situate, it was natural 
 that the eminent merit of Raphael, and of his fol- 
 lowers, in design and its parts, should determine 
 their choice towards these, and that the honours 
 and rewards which popes, cardinals, and all the 
 great, had heaped upon this wonderful man, so 
 worthy of being entitled the Prince of Designers, 
 should have increased the attraction. 
 
 The resolution, once taken, of distinguishing 
 themselves from the crowd by following the same 
 road which had conducted Raphael to the highest 
 pinnacle of fame, all their views have been neces- 
 sarily turned towards design, the airs of the heads, 
 the expressions and attitudes, and their attention 
 has been in an equal degree diverted from colouring 
 and its parts. Example, always contagious, has 
 drawn after it the greater number of artists ; until 
 finally, by running after Raphael, whose eminent 
 qualities they have never been able to reach, they 
 have ended by losing even the colouring to which 
 they had attained, and the loss of that has com- 
 pleted the fall of the art. 
 
 You, Rome, and your antiques, are, in my 
 eyes, the cause of this fall, so little honourable to 
 modern art ! You alone enable me to solve a pro- 
 blem which has long been the wonder and the 
 regret of all Europe ! You alone present to me 
 the true reading of this strange enigma! The 
 antique and design! design and the antique!
 
 AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 167 
 
 These are all that are seen, heard of, and com- 
 mended, all that is taught and learned in you ! 
 In you, every one, small or great, ignorant or 
 learned, talks of them, and busies himself about 
 them from morning till night ; nor can the young 
 artist escape being smitten with the enthusiasm for 
 them -with which your whole people are inflated. 
 Can we, then, be astonished, that those who have 
 sojourned for a time within your walls should 
 return with heads stuffed only with design and the 
 antique, your dangerous counsels having sealed 
 their eyes to the value of all the other parts of 
 painting ? 
 
 M 4
 
 168 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 OF THE DIFFERENT MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 THE word manner has two significations very dif- 
 ferent from each other. In one sense it means a 
 peculiarity of habit, and implies a reproach against 
 the painter. In the other, it affords the means of 
 knowing the author of a work, and the school to 
 which it belongs. In this last sense the manner of 
 a master is nothing but his particular way of 
 choosing, imagining, and representing the subject 
 of his pictures. It includes what are called his 
 style and handling ; that is, the ideal part, and the 
 mechanical part, which give their character to his 
 works in the eyes of those who have bestowed upon 
 them sufficient attention to become familiar with 
 them ; just as the choice of the matter, the fashion 
 of the language, the turn of the phrases, and even 
 the orthography and the formation of the letters, 
 give such a peculiarity of character to a writer, 
 that, if any production of his, in his own hand- 
 writing, although unsigned, should fall into the 
 hands of one who had seen many others of his per- 
 formances, the author would stand disclosed to such 
 a person at once, without the necessity of having 
 him named. The mechanical part especially be- 
 comes in painting, just as in writing, the most cer-
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 169 
 
 tain means of recognising the author, and the least 
 liable to error. For although both may vary at 
 pleasure the nature of their subjects, the one can- 
 not in like manner alter his style, his orthography, 
 and especially his handwriting ; nor can the other 
 change his colouring, his empasto, and his touch. 
 In either case these are the result of habit, of which 
 we cannot divest ourselves when we would. 
 Although a knowledge of the habit thus contracted 
 by each master be one of the most certain means 
 of recognising his works, it is not the less true that 
 amateurs of little experience, and even those con- 
 siderably advanced in connoisseurship, may some- 
 times confound the work of a skilful pupil with 
 that of his master, when the pupil has imitated the 
 manner of the latter in the composition, the airs of 
 the heads, the design, and even in the colour, and 
 to a certain extent the empasto and the touch. 
 Nevertheless, there is a certain something which 
 pertains to the peculiar genius of every master, 
 which is always missed in the works of his imitators, 
 for the mental constitution is incommunicable ! But 
 unfortunately the knowledge of this is so difficult 
 of acquirement, that to possess it is the privilege of 
 accomplished connoisseurs only. Those who cannot 
 flatter themselves with being such, will do well to 
 betake themselves to the resource, generally a sure 
 one, which the mechanical part holds out to them, 
 and the study of which I cannot too much recom- 
 mend to amateurs. 
 
 Thus the touch of young Teniers, light, decisive,
 
 170 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 and full of spirit, betrays always to the eyes of the 
 true connoisseur the pencil of this skilful Proteus, 
 however expertly he may imitate the styles of all 
 the renowned masters in every known class of sub- 
 ject. Thus also the clear, learned, smooth, and 
 full touch of Dietrici, joined to his judicious 
 glazings, cause his rare talent to be always recog- 
 nisable, although he may have infinitely varied his 
 manner according to his subject, from the humble 
 Charlatan of the Village to the sublime Communion 
 of St. Jerome, and notwithstanding that he may 
 have altered his handling from the dashing style of 
 his Calisto to the exquisitely precious finish of his 
 Flight into Egypt. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that every 
 master had but one and the same manner. For, 
 not to speak of the varieties of manners which 
 many of them have adopted in the course of their 
 career, from taste or caprice, or for their advan- 
 tage, it is evident that all of them have necessarily 
 had a beginning, and an advanced stage of improve- 
 ment ; and those of them who have lived long 
 enough have had their decline also. Of this last the 
 renowned Titian, among others, afforded a sad ex- 
 ample towards the end of his life, when he used to 
 daub his best works anew with red paint, because 
 he thought the colour too feeble. But happily his 
 pupils had the address to prevent the fatal effects 
 of his foolishness, by making up his colours with 
 water only, or with an oil that was not of a drying 
 nature.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 171 
 
 We see, then, that different manners may be 
 observed in the works of every master at the dif- 
 ferent periods of his life. 
 
 Thus, as soon as a young scholar has learned 
 something of colours, he sets himself to copy the 
 works of his master. The least success in this, 
 although altogether mechanical, surprises and 
 charms him so much, that he becomes eager to try 
 a flight with his own proper wings. Now, then, we 
 have him trying his hand upon a picture, in which 
 he alone finds any merit, but which, however bad, 
 serves as an inducement to him to multiply his 
 attempts, until at length, by degrees, the counsel 
 of his master, arid the lessons of experience, discover 
 to him their worthlessness, and cure him of the 
 most glaring of his faults. His manner during 
 this period cannot be otherwise than puerile in the 
 style, and timid in the execution ; and his produc- 
 tions cannot announce the master, unless he have 
 the folly to sign these works of his boyhood ; an 
 example of which, however, in the case of Berchem, 
 has been mentioned in my fourteenth chapter. 
 
 Being once brought back from his wanderings, 
 his faults corrected, and himself confirmed in the 
 principles of the art, our student, for fear of a 
 relapse, will not fail to follow as nearly as possible 
 in the footsteps of his master, whom he will now 
 more than ever look upon as a good model to 
 imitate. Thus the manner which he will next 
 adopt will reflect very much of his master's ; nor 
 indeed will it change, until, left to himself, he create
 
 172 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 a new one, from the study of nature and the works 
 of other great artists. But, if his master be one 
 of that class, it is rarely that the scholar does not 
 preserve throughout his life traces of his manner 
 in a greater or less degree, except he be himself 
 one of those extraordinary and creative geniuses 
 who, incapable of long bearing the yoke of another, 
 cannot be otherwise than original in all they do. 
 
 Having at length formed a manner for himself, 
 the painter commences the period of his greatest 
 vigour, which continues until he arrives at the 
 height of his proficiency, and as long as his inte- 
 rest and self-esteem sustain his zeal for the study 
 of nature. But if dazzled by praises, and puffed 
 up with the idea of his reputation, he imagine that 
 he may be excused for the future from consulting 
 nature, and fancy, through the dictates of indo- 
 lence or presumption, that he is able to paint with- 
 out any other guide than his acquired ideas and 
 his imagination, he will infallibly fall into a man- 
 nered style, which is correctly denominated habit.* 
 From that time his style and handling, from being 
 good and natural as they were before, and appro- 
 priate to different objects, and to the appearance 
 these present in nature, who is herself always 
 copious and varied, and always without mannerism. 
 
 * Pratique. Pictures painted from habit are called ta- 
 bleaux de pratique, in contradistinction to tableaux de choix, 
 select pictures on which the artist has exercised his mind and 
 powers. Translator.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 173 
 
 will become uniform and mannered in the sense in 
 which that word is a reproach to every picture. 
 
 Many other causes have led very great artists to 
 alter their manner from good to bad, and from a 
 natural and careful to an expeditious and negligent 
 one. Thus Cavedone, from being a painter superior 
 even to the Caracci as he was, became worse than 
 a sign-painter, after his mind was prostrated by 
 grief on account of his wife being accused of sor- 
 cery. Thus also Luco Giordano, in obeying the 
 ceaseless desire of his father to make haste ; Ber- 
 chem, in order to allay the clamours of his shrcwisli 
 wife ; Van Dyck, to support his extravagance in 
 England ; Guido, to supply his passion for play ; 
 Rembrandt, from avarice ; Jan Steen, from debauch- 
 ery and intemperance ; and Tintoretto, in order to 
 satiate his extraordinary appetite and zeal for work, 
 had all the misfortune to fall into a manner 
 hasty and negligent, which has rendered their 
 pictures of habit inferior to their other works. In 
 like manner, also, Annibal Caracci often fell into a 
 grey tone from imitating Corregio, although unable 
 to equal him ; John Van Huysum, in order to 
 satisfy the wishes of ignorant persons, came at 
 length to paint his flowers on grounds of pale 
 green, and sometimes even entirely of white ; Guido, 
 in order to comply with the demands of Cardinal 
 Borghese, and with the prevailing taste, imitated 
 the intolerable blackness of Carravagio; and to 
 conclude, these two immortal princes in the art, 
 Raphael and Rubens themselves, especially the last,
 
 174 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 have in no small degree violated that stern truth 
 which their sublime talents ought to have inspired, 
 when, in order to supply the demand for their 
 works beyond what they could satisfy, they in- 
 trusted their reputation to the pencils of scholars. 
 
 It is not meant to be inferred that all the inter- 
 mediate manners, from the rough and hasty one of 
 Rembrandt and of Tintoretto, to the caressed one 
 of Van Dyck, and these, preciously finished, of 
 Mieris and Gerard Dow, may not produce good 
 pictures, provided they imitate nature. But as 
 good works are esteemed in proportion as they 
 approach perfection, the true connoisseur cannot 
 see but with regret that many good masters have 
 so lost sight of their reputation at certain periods 
 of their life, that they can scarcely be discovered 
 in their works of that period. This is a confirma- 
 tion of the maxim I have so often repeated, that it is 
 necessary to judge of a picture by what it is, not by 
 the name it bears. 
 
 However agreeable and useful may be the know- 
 ledge of the different manners of the masters, the 
 subject presents so many difficulties, and requires 
 so much experience, that more than one amateur 
 has given up the idea of attaining it, and betaken 
 himself to the above sure and easy maxim in his 
 acquisition of pictures. For however great may 
 be the desire of some to attain to this knowledge, 
 they may find themselves unable, not only because 
 the works of those who are good enough to deserve 
 their attention are become so rare that they find
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 175 
 
 a difficulty in obtaining opportunities of studying 
 them, but likewise because it is not given to every 
 one to possess an eye sufficiently true to discover, 
 and a memory good enough to retain, all the pecu- 
 liarities which characterise the manner of eacli 
 master. Those, however, who attach much import- 
 ance to a knowledge of the masters, (a desirable 
 accomplishment, certainly, for an amateur,) but who 
 yet find the acquirement of it somewhat too diffi- 
 cult on account of the infinite varieties of touch, 
 may limit themselves to some one or other of the 
 most constant and most characteristic marks of 
 each artist, which may be sufficient in case of need, 
 to enable them to distinguish his manner. In order 
 to facilitate the adoption of this method, I have 
 subjoined some examples from the works of such 
 of the Flemish, Dutch, and German masters in the 
 different classes of subjects as are the most in 
 request, and fetch the highest prices. 
 
 HISTORICAL. 
 
 RUBENS is distinguished by a colouring, brilliant, 
 grand, and of the most striking effect ; by a magi- 
 cal clear-obscure; by a design, noble and learned, 
 though not founded upon antique forms; by a 
 composition, great, majestic, full of fire and genius ; 
 by admirable handling, made with a single stroke ; 
 by a touch, firm, distinct, and little blended, which 
 delineates the object in the painting of it; and, 
 finally, by the intelligence with which he has made
 
 176 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 use of parts of the ground or of the priming, by 
 leaving them scarcely covered wherever he has seen 
 occasion for it, as is often the case in his pictures, 
 and especially in those on panel, which are always 
 thinner in the layer of paint than those on canvass, 
 when they are truly from his hand. The reason 
 of this will be found stated in the second chapter, 
 under the article Empasto. 
 
 VAN DYCK, in his best manner, is remarkable for 
 a touch very neat, well blended, smooth, and ca- 
 ressed ; for the delicacy of his tints, the dignity 
 of his design, admirable hands, draperies correct, 
 light, and inimitable; in a word, for uniting so 
 many perfections in his select pictures (tableaux de 
 choix), that the Marquis of Argens, in his Critical 
 Reflections on the Schools of Painting, declares, that, 
 without excepting even Raphael and Rubens, he 
 thinks there is no painter worthy to be compared 
 to Van Dyck, whom he calls the best painter in the 
 world. 
 
 REMBRANDT is known by a design very indif- 
 ferent ; a tone always warm ; a variety of colours 
 in the flesh parts, applied the one over the other 
 with a seeming irregularity which baffles all attempt 
 to discover the order and the process ; by an affec- 
 tation, besides, of much empasto in the whites and 
 light parts ; and in the hair, especially the beard, 
 by strokes drawn as if with the handle of the 
 brush or pencil ; by the hands being as careless, as 
 the heads are often very much the reverse ; and, 
 finally, by a remarkable knowledge of the clear-
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 177 
 
 obscure, and by a very learned graduation of the 
 tints of the foreground, but which on the other 
 hand he has so neglected in the more remote parts 
 of many of his pictures, that the result is a general 
 tone, yellow or reddish, too uniform, and evidently 
 factitious. In many of his works, likewise, the 
 ground is too black, from the light which he casts 
 upon the prominent parts being too much confined, 
 in order to give effect. 
 
 LAIRESSE may be known by a style more poet- 
 ical, and more ideal than the other painters of his 
 school ; by compositions rich and agreeable ; by a 
 graceful design and movements that are pleasing, 
 but in which one could desire greater variety ; by 
 his great knowledge of costume, of architecture, of 
 heathen and bacchanalian rites ; by erudite and 
 ingenious allegories ; by draperies very well ar- 
 ranged ; by a general tone of colour that is quiet 
 and tranquil ; and by a touch, rather flat than fat, 
 but agreeable, and very easy. 
 
 POELEMBURG is remarkable for a manner sweet 
 and light ; for a general tone approaching to that 
 of the lees of wine, and more agreeable than rigor- 
 ously true ; by figures rather long in their propor- 
 tions, but without being sum, and always very 
 attractive; and by a perfection in his draperies, 
 and a neatness in his touch, which distinguish him 
 from all his followers. 
 
 ALBERT DURER, by a finish as precious and 
 smooth as that of Mieris and Gerard Dow ; by bril- 
 liant colouring ; by ingenious compositions ; by a
 
 178 OF THJT DIFFERENT 
 
 design, true and correct, but for the most part dry 
 and stiff; and by total ignorance of aerial per- 
 spective. 
 
 HANS HOLBEIN, by almost the same good and 
 bad qualities as Albert Durer, except that his flesh 
 is less lively, and that the hair is as fine as Leonardo 
 da Vinci's, if not even more so. It is by that, that 
 those beautiful portraits which are his most es- 
 teemed works are to be recognised. 
 
 THE HIGH-FINISHED CLASS. 
 
 GERARD Dow is distinguished by a delicate tone ; 
 by a touch full of art, which, in some degree, con- 
 ceals the labour ; by homely figures ; and by a 
 perfect understanding of the graduation of light, 
 which is often a little too cold, but which, when it 
 is of sufficient warmth, renders his works truly 
 magical, and enchanting beyond expression. 
 
 FRANCIS MIERIS the elder is distinguished from 
 Gerard Dow, his master, by a more correct design ; 
 by figures more noble, and better selected, and a 
 touch more intelligent and larger, although his 
 figures may be of smaller proportions ; by a hand- 
 ling more agreeable and easy, and by fresher and 
 more vigorous colouring. Lairesse, Watelet, Des- 
 camps, and other painters, who have written on the 
 art and artists, have in consequence accorded to 
 him a decided preference over Gerard Dow. 
 
 METSU is distinguished from the two preceding 
 by a touch more easy, and larger, sometimes very 
 visible, bold, and full, of which the Dresden Gallery
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 179 
 
 possesses a beautiful example, sometimes highly 
 blended, careful, and of the most precious finish ; in 
 which case his layer of colour is so slight that it 
 appears like air, and made with glazings. For this 
 reason nothing is more dangerous than the cleaning 
 of his pictures ; the extreme scarcity of which 
 arises, in part, from many of them having already 
 disappeared under ignorant hands. Metzu was 
 distinguished likewise by very great truth, by 
 figures well selected, well designed, and particularly 
 well relieved ; and above all, by the admirable art 
 with which he has represented all sorts of stuffs, 
 and has opposed a colour to itself without an inter- 
 mediate one, so that two contiguous objects of the 
 same tint detach themselves perfectly from each 
 other, and range themselves each in its place, by 
 some magical process that is but little understood. 
 
 GASPAR NETSCHER, in his best works, is remark- 
 able, beyond any of the three preceding artists, by 
 a touch inimitably smooth ; contours excellently 
 vanishing, and by the most true and perfect clear- 
 obscure. He is also, in general, distinguished by a 
 noble and correct design, admirable hands, and 
 great elegance in the attitudes and in the expres- 
 sions. Lairesse has thought him alone entitled 
 to be proposed as a model to all artists. 
 
 ART DE VOYS may be known by his excellent 
 design ; by a large touch perfectly blended, and by 
 the warmth of the shadows in his carnations. It 
 is only his pictures in his best manner that exhibit 
 a layer of colour, thin, airy, and transparent. 
 
 N 2
 
 180 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 ADRIAN VAN DER WERFF is remarked for his 
 extraordinary correctness, and the extreme finish 
 and polish of his works ; in most of which his 
 colouring is somewhat cold, and has a little too 
 much the look of ivory. But in his best works, 
 which are generally those which he painted before 
 being made chevalier, his colouring is vigorous, 
 and even velvety. 
 
 TERBURG is known by extremely careful hand- 
 ling ; by great correctness, and by his perfect 
 representation of the different sorts of stuffs, espe- 
 cially white satin. In other respects, his figures 
 are common enough, his design having but little of 
 elegance, and his pencil not being over light.* 
 
 SLINGELAND is very good in colouring, parti- 
 cularly in his carnations ; but his attitudes are stiff, 
 and without taste ; his handling laboured and cold, 
 and he was so patient of toil, in order to arrive at 
 the highest degree of finish, that he has overshot 
 the mark, and fallen into enamel. A small number 
 of his works, however, must be excepted from 
 these strictures, ambngst which, are those in the 
 Electoral Gallery at Dresden. 
 
 SCHALCKEN'S pictures are remarkable for a very 
 engaging finish about them ; for a good colour, an 
 easy pencil, a scrupulous imitation of nature, and 
 above all, by his truly unique art in representing 
 the effects of artificial light, which class accord- 
 
 * Terburg is in a particular manner remarkable for his abso- 
 lute truth to nature, from which he never varies, even to embel- 
 lish with additional grace or beauty. Trans.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 181 
 
 ingly, and particularly these little gems, with only 
 half-length figures, are most esteemed.* 
 
 CARL DE MOOR, good in his larger works, parti- 
 cularly excels in his small, by an execution as 
 natural as preciously finished, by correct design, 
 judicious arrangement, and sweet and agreeable 
 colouring. 
 
 EGLON VAN dER NEER, not so great an artist as 
 his father Arnold, or Van Loo, who were both his 
 masters, nor equal to Van der Werff, his pupil, is 
 most remarkable for his precious finish, which 
 causes his works to be sought after, although the 
 too great care which he always bestowed on the 
 accessories often detracts from their union and 
 harmony. 
 
 CONVERSATIONS, INTERIORS, AND POT-HOUSES. 
 
 I have already mentioned the characteristics of 
 Teniers and Dietrici in this class. I now add to 
 them 
 
 JAN STEEN, who is distinguished by the drollery 
 
 * Some of Schalcken's pictures have acquired an undue 
 degree of redness in their tone. But others of them are as 
 clear as those of any known master. My friend Mr. Rhind, of 
 Edinburgh, has a small portrait of a Lady by him (half length), 
 probably one of those painted when he was in London, in which 
 the design and costume are peculiarly elegant ; the colouring 
 both in the flesh and draperies of the utmost brilliancy, and the 
 empasto in the highest degree full, blended and polished, 
 approaching to enamel. 
 
 N 3
 
 182 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 of his subjects, and by the most true and ingeni- 
 ously simple expression of the feelings of common 
 life. 
 
 GONZALES, by a learned and caressed touch, which 
 renders his small figures as life-like and full of cha- 
 racter as the large ones of Van Dyck. 
 
 The two OSTADES, by a perfect understanding of 
 the clear-obscure ; by the humbleness of the figures, 
 the heads full of truth and expression, and the 
 hands always neglected.* 
 
 BBOUWER is known by a tone generally warm, 
 figures less agreeable than those of Teniers, often 
 more vulgar and extravagant, expressions very ani- 
 mated, and a touch large and firm.f 
 
 Artists in this class, like all painters of figures, 
 are generally characterised, in a particular manner, 
 by the airs of the heads, which for the most part 
 indicate the different masters. 
 
 * Adrian Ostade is farther distinguished by his beautiful 
 effects of light, represented as entering at a window, which is 
 the point considered desirable by connoisseurs ; by the agreeable 
 variety of outline caused by his figures and other objects as seen 
 against each other, the artistical manner in which the light is 
 carried round the picture, the beauty and delicacy of his colours 
 (always broken in tint), which, reviving throughout the picture 
 in subdued yet' clear and harmonious tones, have caused the 
 epithet of flowery to be applied to his works. 
 
 The objection of want of finish in the hands is properly 
 applicable to Isaac Ostade only. Trans. 
 
 tBrouwer may farther be known by higher finish than 
 Teniers in the still life and other parts, the touch being more 
 blended, and less sharp and decided, and the colouring browner 
 and darker than the mature works of Teniers. Trans.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 183 
 
 CLASS OF ANIMALS. 
 
 Of all animals, sheep afford the easiest and 
 quickest means of distinguishing the different art- 
 ists in this class, from the very different character 
 which each has given to them in design and touch, 
 according to the different country from which he 
 has taken his models. Besides this general dis- 
 tinction, every artist has others, which belong to 
 his particular manner. Thus 
 
 NICHOLAS BERCHEM is distinguished by lights 
 sharp, and often long and angular. 
 
 ALBERT Curr, by lights crisp and golden. 
 
 VAN DER DOES, by the lightness of the wool in 
 his pictures.* 
 
 CARL DU JARDIN, by grand effects without great 
 oppositions ; by a tone oftener golden than argentine ; 
 by a touch large, easy, and natural, and by magical 
 truth, which differs from nature only in size.f 
 
 PAUL POTTER may be known by a touch raised 
 as if embroidered, and by the dryness and sharp- 
 ness of his contours. 
 
 PYNACKER, by the great intelligence with which 
 he has seized the passing positions of his animals, 
 and by his crisp lights. 
 
 * The pictures of Van der Does have a general tone of pale 
 bluish-green, sometimes approaching to black ; and there are 
 some of a reddish hue, like that in the Amsterdam Gallery, but 
 the effect of them all is somewhat heavy. 
 
 j* Du Jardin has two manners of handling the one clear, 
 light; broad, and large ; the other round, firm, and full 
 
 N 4
 
 184 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 HENRY Eoos, of Frankfort, by the perfection of 
 design, and his great knowledge of the anatomy of 
 animals, particularly cows. 
 
 ADRIAN YAN DEN VELDE, by a touch easy, 
 learned, and natural.* 
 
 JOHN BAPTIST WEENIX, by his universality, and 
 by his sparkling reflections and crisp lights. And, 
 finally, 
 
 PHILIP WOUVERMANS, by a design refined and 
 elegant, and by a pencil of the utmost delicacy, 
 although rich, mellow, and full, which softens 
 every thing with admirable art, and without dimi- 
 nishing its force. His tone is often vaporous, 
 argentine, or greyish, sometimes more or less red- 
 dish or brown, f 
 
 THE CLASS OF LANDSCAPE. 
 
 Although in the class of landscape, whether 
 ordinary or pastoral, heroic or historical, Arcadian 
 or ideal, the choice of the view, the composition, 
 the accessories, and those parts which belong to 
 the execution, might each contribute to indicate 
 the author of the work, the amateur will find a 
 
 * He is distinguished from Van Bergen, whose works are 
 most generally sold for his, by the lightness of his touch both 
 in his trees and animals, the natural and spirited attitudes of 
 the latter, the appropriateness of his texture, and the superior 
 delicacy and beauty of his landscape ; Van Bergen having a 
 much more solid and heavy empasto, particularly in his cattle. 
 The same remarks may apply to Van der Leews, who is also sold 
 for him, and who is generally of a much hotter tone. Trans. 
 
 t The reddish brown, and somewhat heavy works, are those of 
 his early period. Trans.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 185 
 
 more easy and certain way of ascertaining the 
 masters, by studying thoroughly the style and 
 handling of the skies, and particularly the touch of 
 the foliage, which itself may suffice to direct him to 
 them without the risk of error. 
 
 SEA PIECES. 
 
 WILLIAM VAN DEN VELDE, who is approached by 
 no one in this class, may be known, at the first 
 glance, by a truly magical resemblance to nature, 
 especially in his works of a silvery tone, and not 
 too much crowded with ships, which are most in 
 request amongst amateurs. In his works may be 
 observed, skies clear and sparkling, and clouds 
 which seem to move ; great transparency ; extreme 
 exactness in the ships and rigging ; ropes, some in 
 light and some in shadow; small figures, full of 
 life, and touched with spirit; water, true to na- 
 ture, whether tranquil or agitated, and sparkling 
 lights.* 
 
 LUD. BACKHUYSEN is distinguished by his skies ; 
 by his storms and tempests being well disposed ; by 
 the waves rising and falling well; by a general 
 tone more or less mannered, often violet coloured ; 
 and by a touch, though very beautiful in other 
 respects, yet flat and without truth in his figures, 
 which very much injure his works.f 
 
 * It may be remarked, that his figures, which have a great 
 variety of postures, and some of them generally bending double, 
 are each of them placed in one single broad light or shadow. 
 Trans. 
 
 f The violet-coloured, or reddish tone, found in some of his 
 works, is that of his decline, and is scarcely a proper average
 
 186 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 CLASS OF ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 THEODORE VAN DELEN excels all who have painted 
 ancient architecture, by a tone sweet and enchant- 
 ing ; by perfect clear-obscure ; by a large manner of 
 handling ; by a touch learned and delicate ; magical 
 transparency, and an exact imitation of the ravages 
 of time. 
 
 PETER NEEFS the elder, the most astonishing 
 artist known in Gothic architecture, has very much 
 surpassed his master, Steenwyck, especially in his 
 light church pieces, which are the most esteemed of 
 his works, his manner being less sombre. He has a 
 more perfect knowledge of the graduation of colours, 
 of aerial perspective, and of the clear-obscure ; more 
 exact observance of the least details, and a touch 
 much more delicate and firm. His longest lines, 
 as well straight as curved, are not in the least de- 
 gree raised, and cannot be felt Avith the finger, as 
 all those of the two Steenwycks may be, as well as 
 those of his son, Peter Neefs, whose inferior works 
 
 characteristic of his works. Some of his most esteemed pictures 
 have a very decided yellow tone throughout. But his best pic- 
 tures are of a fine silvery tone and light, and transparent in the 
 colour; and in these the figures have' great beauty, and con- 
 tribute very much, by their spirit and the fluttering of their 
 garments, to the airiness of the work. I am possessed of one 
 of this last quality, in which the figures, both of the foreground, 
 which are about an inch high, seated, and those on the distant 
 ships, which can only be discerned on close inspection, are of 
 the greatest excellence and liveliness, both in colouring and 
 expression Trans,
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 187 
 
 Fuseli complains do injury to the father by being 
 confounded with his. 
 
 VAN DER HEYDEN, an artist altogether unique in 
 modern architecture, is remarkable for a touch in- 
 credibly fine, although firm, easy, and rich at the 
 same time; an enchanting transparency; perfect 
 knowledge of the clear-obscure, and of perspective 
 graduation and harmony in colouring; the most 
 scrupulous observance of the courses of the bricks, 
 the railings, the tiles, and the smallest details 
 whatsoever ; and, in fine, by foliage of a delicacy 
 absolutely inimitable, and which has foiled every 
 one that has attempted to copy it, whatever might 
 be the amount of his perseverance. 
 
 STILL LIFE. 
 
 This class has the peculiarity, that its small 
 productions are generally intended to be viewed 
 near at hand. They are therefore esteemed in pro- 
 portion as they are of precious finish, and of a truth 
 so magical as to seem as if they would surpass 
 nature herself. These qualities are found com- 
 bined in the works of so small a number of artists 
 in this class, that it would be extremely difficult to 
 characterise them by this means. In order to dis- 
 tinguish them, however, we can have recourse to 
 the difference of subject to be found among them, 
 and to the difference in the general tone of their 
 colouring, and in their manner of arranging and 
 grouping their objects. Besides, the most distin-
 
 188 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 guished among them, such as Van Aelst, De Heem, 
 Van Huysum, Mignon, Rachel Ruysch, and Weenix, 
 have signed the greater number of their works. 
 
 These examples will be sufficient to guide the 
 young amateur to the method he ought to follow, 
 in order to store up the most striking character- 
 istics of manner in the different masters. The 
 nature of my work does not permit me to do more 
 than give a sort of general view of them, for the 
 direction of amateurs in this matter ; the extent of 
 which is such, that to exhaust it by giving a com- 
 plete analysis of the characteristics of all the old 
 masters, would require many volumes. 
 
 I have said at the commencement of this chapter, 
 that the word manner has two significations very 
 different from each other. The one of which I 
 have hitherto spoken relates to the style and hand- 
 ling made use of by the painter in order to imitate 
 nature. I have now to speak of the other meaning 
 of the word, by which a reproach is always meant 
 to be conveyed. It implies, that in place of being a 
 faithful imitator of nature, he only apes her by 
 representing her under assumed and false aspects ; 
 repeating himself always in his compositions, 
 colours, airs of the heads, characters, expressions, 
 and attitudes; having but one touch for the texture 
 of every object, and often uniting to these other 
 faults one more forbidding than them all, viz. a 
 general tone of colouring false to nature. It will 
 be seen from what I have said, that a painter 
 will be more or less mannered, according as he
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 189 
 
 exhibits a greater number of these defects, and 
 according to the degree of observation which these 
 attract. This remark is not unimportant ; for the 
 number of good artists to whose works a certain 
 degree of mannerism in one part or other may be 
 objected, is so considerable, that if we were to act 
 rigorously in this matter there would remain very 
 few masters, particularly among the Italians, who 
 should be entirely free from this reproach. Although 
 the true connoisseur cannot behold with satisfaction 
 any degree of mannerism in a work of art, yet he 
 willingly makes allowance whenever the actual 
 beauties and merits sufficiently redeem that fault ; 
 and he can in such a case only feel regret that the 
 imperfection, although often very slight, should 
 diminish the intrinsic merit of the piece. But 
 when the mannerism becomes startling, whether 
 because of its being too obtrusive or too generally 
 diffused, or because of its existing in some promi- 
 nent part, such as the design, the ordinance, the 
 general tone of colour, or the touch, then it renders 
 the picture insupportable to every eye that has 
 become refined by practice ; and the real merit pos- 
 sessed by the picture in other parts cannot save it 
 from the condemnation, as a whole, which must be 
 pronounced against it by every impartial connois- 
 seur, who, without enthusiasm or prejudice, desires 
 to think of it with fairness and firmness. Of the 
 nature just described are those works so common 
 amongst the Italians, which are forbiddingly black 
 in their grounds and shadows, and which a con-
 
 190 OF THE DIFFERENT 
 
 noisseur can look upon in no other light than as 
 beautiful designs and arrangements spoiled by 
 abominable colouring. Such also are those of a 
 red general tone; those which are called meally ; 
 those of Luco Kranach with green grounds ; those 
 which are called syruppy; those of the two bro- 
 thers Brill, in which every thing is green ; those in 
 which the colours are raw, cold, or monotonous ; 
 those in the bad manner of Breemberg*, which, in 
 place of being silvery, are grey or brown. Such 
 also are the Views of the Rhine, by Herman Sacht- 
 leven, and the two Griffiers, which seem all cast in 
 one mould in respect of the subject and the manner 
 of representing it ; and such also are the works of 
 other masters who merit the same reproach ; the 
 continued sight of whose works cannot fail at 
 length to become displeasing to every amateur, 
 however agreeable he may find them at first. Such 
 also are the works of those painters who, like Van 
 der Kabel, have the affectation of a touch that is all 
 of a piece. Such likewise are the compositions that 
 are symmetrical, i. e. in the shape of chapels, or in 
 any other shape ; figures that are all brothers and 
 sisters ; those which are nothing but statues, and 
 of which the forms or the draperies feel too much 
 of the marble from their stiffness or their colour ; 
 and, finally, all those which have the defect, too 
 common amongst certain painters of history in the 
 
 * The name given is Bartolome, which can scarcely mean 
 Fra Bartolomeo, although the author designates him by the 
 same name. Trans.
 
 MANNERS OF THE MASTERS. 191 
 
 present day, of resembling the figures on Etruscan 
 vases, and all whose actions, positions, and attitudes 
 are nothing but the cold and servile reminiscences 
 of academical postures, often far from natural, but 
 with which professors cram the heads of their 
 pupils during a wearisome course of many conse- 
 cutive years. 
 
 All that I have just said tends to prove that a 
 painter only becomes mannered by ceasing to 
 adhere to nature, and, consequently, that it is she 
 that is the most infallible guide of artists a truth 
 which I have missed no opportunity of repeating in 
 the course of this work. In the same spirit, Diderot 
 has said, that " he cannot be mannered, either in 
 design or in colouring, who imitates nature scru- 
 pulously, and that mannerism comes of the master, 
 of the academy, of the school, and of the antique ! " 
 
 '
 
 192 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 IT is surprising that no one has yet given to the 
 public a collection of the signatures of the masters.* 
 Such a work could not fail of being agreeable to 
 amateurs, while, at the same time, it would be use- 
 ful, by affording an additional means of exposing 
 spurious signatures. The difficulties, which I am 
 aware any person undertaking such a work would 
 have to encounter, would, yet, I think, not be 
 insurmountable, if connoisseurs of pictures were as 
 communicative as the admirers of engravings. He 
 in whom are combined sufficient patience and per- 
 severance to make the innumerable investigations, 
 which such a work will require, will render a very 
 useful service to the public ; but he will require 
 to be on his guard against misleading them by 
 
 * There has been a very erudite work published at Munich, 
 by MM. Brulliots, in three vols., the last edition of which is 
 so late as 18321834, and which contains the monogrammes, 
 contracted signatures, and hieroglyphics used by painters, as 
 well as those by engravers. There is also a similar work in 
 one vol., in the German language, by Heller, called Monogram- 
 men-Lexicon, published at Hamburg in 1831, but which is very 
 little more than an extract applicable to painters only, from the 
 Brulliots' work, and in both, the amateur will be disappointed 
 to find that there are scarcely any of the full signatures of the 
 masters most in request among us Trans.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 193 
 
 founding too general conclusions upon the small 
 number of facts that he will meet with. Until some 
 one shall lay before us the fruit of his researches, 
 I feel it incumbent on me to communicate to the 
 public such general observations, relative to this 
 subject, as my travels have enabled me to make on 
 a pretty considerable number of the painters that 
 are most famed. 
 
 In the first place I would remark, that, amongst 
 the best ancient artists, there are a great many 
 who have never signed their works. Among the 
 Italians, especially, the greatest number are in this 
 situation, which often renders a decision as to the 
 master of works which may have great excellence, 
 a very difficult undertaking. The following are the 
 principal Italian masters whose signatures I have 
 not found, or at least scarcely found, on any picture 
 of theirs which I have seen. 
 
 Baroccio, Fra Bartolomeo, Benedetto, Paris Bor- 
 don, Caravagio, Cignani, Corregio, Pietro da Cor- 
 tona, Domenichino, Francesco Furini, Giordano, 
 Giorgione, Guercino, Guido, Julio de Romano, Carlo 
 Maratto, Orbetto, Old Palma, Parmegiano, Pesarese, 
 Pordenone, Raphael, Andrea Sacchi, Andrea del 
 Sarto, Sassoferrato, Schidone, Spagnoletto, Bernardo 
 Strozzi, Tintoretto, Trevisane, Francesco Vanni, 
 Paul Veronese, Leonardo da Vinci, and the two 
 Zucceros. 
 
 I am aware that while many of these masters, such 
 as Guido, Old Palma, and Paul Veronese, appear 
 never to have signed their works, some of them, 
 o
 
 194 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 such as Baroccio, Paris Bordon, the Caracci, Guer- 
 cino, Andrea del Sarto, and Tintoretto, have signed 
 a few of their principal performances. But I do not 
 think this a sufficient reason for classing them with 
 those masters whom I state as usually signing, and 
 whose signatures are almost always found on their 
 works, such as Titian, who signed in different man- 
 ners, and who, after being made chevalier of the 
 empire, by Charles the Fifth, was pleased to 
 announce his degree in letters sufficiently distinct, 
 along with his name and often the year, on those 
 works in which he thought he had been the most 
 successful. 
 
 The following, among others, are the masters 
 who have signed part of their works, some of them 
 even the whole, either in full or with initials, or 
 monograms, or hieroglyphics : Bassano, Pom- 
 peio Battoni, Marco Baxaiti, Bellini, Guido Cag- 
 nacci, Vincent Catena, Scipio Compagno, Contarini, 
 Dosso, Empoli, Francesco Francia, Garofalo, Gen- 
 tileschi, Philippo Lauri, Luigi, and Young Palma. 
 
 I limit myself to the preceding notice of Italian 
 painters, because I have not seen examples enough 
 of the works of the rest of them to authorise me 
 to come to any general conclusion concerning their 
 practice in this matter. 
 
 Following the example of the majority of the 
 Italians, the most of the Flemish historical painters 
 have refrained from signing their works. I need 
 only mention Rubens and Van Dyck, of whom 
 the first, to a certainty, signed no picture after his
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 195 
 
 journey to Italy. If, therefore, there exists any 
 picture of his bearing his indisputable signature, 
 it can only be an early production in the style of 
 his master, Otto Yenius. As to Van Dyck, ac- 
 cording to general opinion, he has signed only four 
 or five of his works, by way of distinguishing 
 them. The two principal of these are his Mar- 
 riage of Saint Catharine, the admirable chief work 
 of this great man, which forms part of my col- 
 lection ; and the Christ on the Cross, which served 
 as a monument for his father, both of which bear 
 his authentic signature in full, in Roman letters, 
 well enough formed, except that the Y has the tail 
 much too thick. The form of these signatures of 
 undoubted originality has always thrown suspicion 
 upon a small number of others, in which the name 
 of Van Dyck is found in letters made with care, 
 on certain pictures that have been attributed to 
 him. 
 
 Many other painters of common life, in Flanders, 
 Holland, and Germany, have not signed their 
 works, at least I have never met with their signa- 
 tures on any that I have seen. Among these are 
 Wildens, who often painted the landscape part of 
 Rubens' pictures, and many other good landscape 
 painters ; Adam Elsheimer ; and, above all, Peter 
 Neefs the elder, whose pictures may, by this 
 means, joined to their very gre*at superiority, be 
 distinguished from those of his son of the same 
 name, whose pictures are signed, and are of the 
 same class with those of the father. 
 
 o 2
 
 196 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 The greater number of artists, however, in 
 all these three schools have been more or less in 
 the practice of signing their works. Amongst 
 those who have been most constantly in the habit 
 of doing so are the following, whose pictures I 
 have never met with without a signature. 
 
 William Van Aelst, who signed in full, with 
 
 letters very well formed. 
 Henry Aldegraf signed with a monogram, in 
 
 Eoman letters. 
 Ludovic Backhuysen, who signed in a great 
 
 many ways, but always in letters which showed, 
 
 by their excellence, that he had learned the 
 
 art of writing.* 
 
 Henry Van Balen, in Roman letters. 
 Job and Gerard Berckheyden, generally in full, 
 
 in Roman letters. 
 Brekelenkamp, with initials, or in full, in Roman 
 
 letters. 
 
 John Brueghel, always in full, in Roman letters. 
 Camphuysen, in full, with common letters. 
 Luca Kranach, with a serpent winged and 
 
 crowned, and holding a ring in its mouth. 
 Albert Cuyp, in full, or with initials, in common 
 
 letters. 
 
 Van Delen, in full, with Roman letters. 
 Denner, in full, ordinary letters. 
 Gerard Dou, in*full, in Roman letters. 
 
 * These specimens of penmanship are found on his early 
 pictures. In his latter works he very commonly signed with his 
 initials (L. B.), and often added the first syllable of his surname. 
 Trans.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 197 
 
 Albert Durer, with a monogram, in Roman letters. 
 Everdingen, in full, or with initials; Roman 
 
 letters. 
 
 De Heem, in full, or with initials ; ordinary letters. 
 Hoogstraeten, with a monogram, in Roman 
 
 letters. 
 
 John Van Huysum, in full, with ordinary letters. 
 Van Kessel, in full, or with initials ; Roman 
 
 capitals. 
 
 Gerard Lairesse, generally by two Roman initials. 
 Lucas Van Leyden, by a monogram. 
 Francis Mieris, older and younger, and William 
 
 Mieris, all in full, in very beautiful letters ; 
 
 very rarely by initials. 
 Carl Demoor, in full, with ordinary letters. 
 Peter Neefs, the son, in full, and generally in 
 
 Roman letters. 
 Arnold Van der Neer, by a monogram, in Roman 
 
 letters. 
 
 Cornelius Poelemberg, by two Roman initials. 
 Paul Potter, generally in full, with common 
 
 letters. 
 John Henry Roos, always in full, with common 
 
 capitals, and the year. 
 
 Rachel Ruysch, in full, in ordinary letters.* 
 Theodore Valkenburg, in full, in very beautiful 
 
 common letters. 
 
 * And with the dates she sometimes also added the year of 
 her age, as if she took pride in the possession of her faculties 
 in her later years, which reached to 86. I have a small specimen 
 dated, M. 78. 
 
 o 3
 
 198 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 David Vinckenbooms, always by a goldfinch, (in 
 Flemish, Vinck,) upon a tree (in Flemish, 
 Boom). 
 John Baptist Weenix, almost always in full, with 
 
 ordinary letters. 
 
 Adrian Van der Werff, always in full, either in 
 ordinary letters or in Roman, made very care- 
 fully, with light and shade. 
 Philip Wouvermans, almost always by a mo- 
 nogram of ordinary letters differently com- 
 bined. 
 
 The following is a list of those masters whose 
 works I have met with, sometimes signed and 
 sometimes not, for which I have been able to dis- 
 cover no sufficient reason, founded on any differ- 
 ence in the quality of their works. The signature, 
 or the want of it, appears to me to have been 
 owing only to chance or to caprice ; but may 
 perhaps arise from a different practice at the 
 different periods of the artist's career, or to comply 
 with the request of those for whom the pictures 
 were painted. 
 
 John Asselyn, called Crabetje. 
 Cornelius Bega. 
 
 Nicolas Berchem. When this excellent master 
 has signed, he has done it for the most part in 
 full, and in very beautiful letters*; at other 
 times by monograms, equally well formed, 
 and made by the combination of B with C, 
 
 * More generally, the surname only is in full. Tran*.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 199 
 
 or with N, which latter are the initials of 
 Claas and Nicolaas, different pronunciations 
 of his Christian name in Holland. 
 
 Theodore Van Berghen. 
 
 John and Andrew Both. 
 
 Bartholomew Breemberg. 
 
 Philip de Champaigne, not Champagne, as one 
 sees it always written. 
 
 Christian William Ernest Dietrich, called Die- 
 trici, when he has signed, has done it in a 
 great many different ways, either in mono- 
 grams or in full ; he puts a Y at the end of 
 his name. 
 
 A. Duck, misnamed Le Due. 
 
 Govard Flinck. 
 
 Francis Floris. 
 
 N. Van Gelder. 
 
 Gonzales Coques, called the Little Van Dyck. 
 
 John Van Goyen. 
 
 John Hackaert. 
 
 Nicolas de Kelt, called Stockade. 
 
 Egbert Hemskerk, father and son. 
 
 Gerard Van Harpe, a very excellent painter, and 
 pupil of Rubens. He remained long unknown, 
 from the rarity of his signatures. 
 
 William and Jacob de Heusch. 
 
 John Van der Heyden, whose inimitable works 
 have no need of a signature. 
 
 John Minderhout Hobbima. 
 
 Hans Holbein. 
 
 Melchior Hondecoeter. 
 
 o 4
 
 200 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 John Hughtenburg. 
 
 Carl De Jardin, who, when he signed, generally 
 did it in full, with Roman letters, coarsely 
 and ill formed. 
 
 John Lingelbach. 
 
 Peter Van Lint. 
 
 James Van Loo. 
 
 Gabriel Metsu, whose signatures are in full, and 
 in ill-formed ordinary letters, very rarely in 
 Roman letters, but always with an s in place 
 of a z. 
 
 Theobald Michau. 
 
 Abraham Mignon. 
 
 Frederick Moucheron and Isaac Moucheron. 
 
 Gaspar Netscher. This wonderful artist has 
 very seldom signed. 
 
 Adrian and Isaac Ostade have more often signed 
 than not ; sometimes with initials, but ge- 
 nerally in full. 
 
 Egbert Van der Poel. 
 
 Adam Pynacker, whose signatures are generally 
 in full, in common, ill-formed letters. 
 
 Peter Quaast. 
 
 John Erasmus Quellinus. 
 
 Paul Rembrandt, who, when he signed, did it 
 in full, in ordinary letters, rarely with initials, 
 but almost always ill-formed, and generally 
 with the year. 
 
 Jacob Ruysdael.* 
 
 * Generally with initials, or the last name in full, in ordinary 
 letters, and with a long A Trans.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 201 
 
 Godfrey Schalcken, whose signatures are gene- 
 rally in full, in common letters cutting against 
 the ground ; rarely with initials. 
 Bartholomew Spranger. 
 
 David Teniers, the younger, whose signatures 
 are either in monograms or in full, with 
 Roman letters ; in either case carelessly. He 
 has signed the most of his works. 
 Gerard Terburg. 
 Theodore Van Thulden. 
 Lucas Van Uden. 
 
 Adrian and William Van den Velde. * 
 Ary de Voys, or De Vois, as I have seen it.f 
 Simon de Vos, who signed often in full, in Roman 
 
 letters. 
 
 Anthony Waterloo. 
 John Weenix. 
 John Wils. 
 John Wynants.J 
 
 Although the above lists include the names of 
 masters with whose works I am familiar, from 
 having seen a great number of them, I pray the 
 reader not to attach greater importance to them 
 than I do myself, and to look upon them only as 
 the result of numerous observations. I hold my 
 
 Sometimes with initials, and sometimes with the surname 
 in full. Trans. 
 
 f I have seen it Voils on an early but authentic picture, not 
 particularly remarkable for expression, and of a heavy empasto. 
 Trans. 
 
 % Very frequently with the surname in full and the date 
 
 Trans.
 
 202 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 self responsible only for the truth and fidelity with 
 which they have been made, and I am always 
 ready to profit by the discoveries which others may 
 make from the numerous pictures that are un- 
 known to me, although they may be opposed to 
 what I have observed. 
 
 But what I am anxious to recommend to the 
 notice of those who inquire into this subject is, 
 not to lose sight of the numerous original signa- 
 tures, which unskilfulness, or the desire of gain, 
 have altered, or obliterated. Nobody is ignopant 
 that the vile trick of effacing signatures has often 
 plunged into oblivion the memory of many an 
 excellent artist, traces of whom are no longer to 
 be found, except in the works of biographers. 
 These have transmitted to us, along with the just 
 eulogiums of their contemporaries, the names of 
 many painters who have distinguished themselves 
 among illustrious competitors, but whose works 
 are no where to be found at the present day ! The 
 Dutch school, so fruitful in excellent artists, offers 
 numerous examples of this, among those pupils 
 whose style and handling approached in some 
 degree to those of painters of eminence. The 
 signatures which bore evidence at once to the 
 authenticity of their works and to their talents, 
 have disappeared under the hands of men who 
 have sacrificed their fame, without remorse, to the 
 demon of cupidity. 
 
 From what I have said it may be seen that most 
 signatures are in full, or in initials, very rarely
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 203 
 
 in monograms ; and that the masters who have 
 employed hieroglyphics are very few. They are, 
 Dosso, who seems to have intended to unite 
 hieroglyph with monogram, by passing a cross- 
 bone through a D. Garofalo, whose name signifies 
 in Italian the pink, which flower he has always 
 employed for a signature. Luca Kranach, who, 
 as we have said, used a serpent winged, with a 
 crown and ring. And Vinclceribooms, who used a 
 goldfinch on a tree, which is the meaning of his 
 name in Flanders. 
 
 I may mention, as a singularity among sig- 
 natures, that I have seen that of Carl Du Jardin 
 indented very deeply on the back of a very singular 
 picture painted by him upon a thin plate of tin. 
 The picture, which represented the Deluge, was 
 remarkable from its having only one figure quite 
 naked, and which formed a great point of light, 
 while the rest of the picture was wrapt in a fright- 
 ful obscurity of rain and tempest. But though it 
 be possible to find pictures with authentic signa- 
 tures on the back, I would guard my readers 
 against an error into which many persons have 
 been, and still are, led, by seeing the arms of 
 the town of Antwerp branded with a hot iron on 
 the back of certain old pictures painted on panel, 
 and which they take for the authentic signature of 
 some rare old master, or for an evidence of the 
 value of the work. The truth is, that this mark 
 was used to attest simply the goodness of the 
 panels at the time when Antwerp enjoyed a repu-
 
 204 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 tation for making them, and it was intended to 
 maintain their quality by a species of assay like 
 that which is applied to the precious metals. 
 
 Although, knowing from experience the import- 
 ance attached by young amateurs to a signature, I 
 have intentionally extended this article beyond 
 what might have been necessary, I would observe, 
 that if we were considerate enough to esteem a 
 picture only for its true merit, without troubling 
 ourselves about the name which it bears, or, though 
 habit prevent us from doing this, if we would 
 render ourselves at least capable of reading the 
 name of the master in the style and handling of 
 the work, and not in the letters which we may find 
 upon it, signatures would then be very unneces- 
 sary.* But so long as true connoisseurs are so 
 rare so long as from fear of being deceived, we 
 do not dare to praise a picture until we are assured 
 that it is by a master who figures among those that 
 
 * Whatever writers may say about indifference to one master 
 more than another, the difference in the marketable value 
 among them, which in some is 300 times what it is in others, 
 must always give importance to the question who is the master 
 of a picture. Besides the established reputation of the great 
 masters is not without foundation, and their names afford a 
 guarantee for the excellence of the work to the young amateur. 
 It will be observed, too, that all esteemed collections are chiefly 
 composed of the works of those masters whose names are in 
 request, and the author's collection shows that he leaned to the 
 same fault, if it be one. 
 
 When the name of a master is very evident, from the style 
 and handling of a picture, the picture is said to be signed all 
 over." Trans.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 205 
 
 are much prized nothing certainly can be more 
 convenient than an original signature well ascer- 
 tained ; for it establishes, without other proof, the 
 authenticity of the picture with those who are 
 accustomed to them. But it is of no use to the 
 amateur whose untaught eye cannot decide whe- 
 ther it is original or counterfeit, unless he shall 
 have recourse to the judgment of another to deter- 
 mine that, or resolve, if the picture be his own, to 
 have the signature proved by spirit of wine, which 
 removes new paint. Should he do this, it ought 
 to be with great circumspection, seeing that this 
 mordant destroys many old colours as well as new ; 
 and certain artists have signed their pictures with 
 colours so weak, and of so little body, that even 
 fretting with the finger a little too roughly, in 
 order to raise the varnish, might be sufficient to 
 efface them. It is necessary, then, to be very cau- 
 tious in such a case, lest a signature truly original 
 should be obliterated by an imprudent trial, and be 
 thereby erroneously held as having been a newly- 
 fabricated one. It thus appears that we should in 
 vain hope to discover in every case the author of a 
 work from the signature upon it. 
 
 I now come to the remaining subject to be 
 treated of in this chapter, viz. the material on 
 which a picture is painted ; and a few words will 
 enable me to show that as little will that suffice to 
 determine in every case the school to which a work 
 belongs. I beg to premise, however, that a true 
 connoisseur never looks at the back of a picture,
 
 206 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 unless, perhaps, to ascertain what state of preserv- 
 ation it is in. But in order to judge what it is, 
 and from what country it comes, the picture itself 
 is the only guide. I have never, therefore, been 
 able to reconcile myself to the singular importance, 
 which they usually attach in Germany to the 
 material on which a picture is painted. There, 
 scarcely has the amateur taken one in hand than 
 he hastens to turn it over and examine it behind ; 
 and it is not until after this preamble that, re- 
 tracing his steps, he finishes where he ought to 
 have begun, that is to say, by looking at the pic- 
 ture ! The uselessness of such a practice becomes 
 evident on considering what a number of materials 
 have been used by the artists of all countries indis- 
 criminately for painting upon. Pictures are found 
 painted on paper, pasteboard, vellum, ivory, silk, 
 plates of gold, silver, copper, tin, white iron, glass, 
 china, marble, alabaster both white and coloured, 
 porphyry, agate, jasper, touchstone, and a great 
 many other stones, even those which rank amongst 
 the precious ones ; for I have seen small pictures 
 which were painted on garnets ; but canvass, wood, 
 and sometimes copper, have been the materials 
 usually employed for pictures of any size. 
 
 Amongst the different substances, paper and 
 pasteboard have been more particularly used for the 
 studies of great artists in the different schools; 
 vellum, ivory, silk, gold, silver, and the stones, 
 as well as rare woods, by painters who aimed at 
 singularity, or at costliness, or extreme finish.
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 207 
 
 White iron has been used only by the Germans 
 and some Italians, to supply the place of copper. 
 
 Copper has been employed chiefly by the Fle- 
 mish and the Dutch, but only for pictures of a 
 small or medium size. 
 
 Among the woods, fir, and other soft kinds, have 
 been used only by the German and Italian painters. 
 The last generally employ panels extremely thick, 
 the back of which, in place of being sawn or 
 planed, have been only dressed with the hatchet. 
 The chestnut, employed very commonly by Italian 
 painters, has been used also by the ancient German 
 artists, and even by some of the Flemish about the 
 same period ; a circumstance the more remarkable, 
 as it seems to indicate that this wood, so common 
 in Italy, must have been equally so in Germany 
 and in the Low Countries in the fifteenth and six- 
 teenth centuries, although it has become so rare 
 there now. This idea seems to be supported by 
 the circumstance, that, on taking down the royal 
 castle of Tervuren, and some other very ancient 
 chateaux in the Low Countries, the carpenter-work 
 is found to be all of chestnut. The use of oak, 
 and that the choicest kind of it, seems to have been 
 peculiar to the Flemish and Dutch painters, whose 
 pictures are not found upon any other wood, ex- 
 cept the very small number of the most ancient, 
 which may be upon chestnut, as above mentioned. 
 Oak panel is so esteemed among the German ama- 
 teurs, where no ancient artist seems to have used 
 it, that it becomes often in their eyes actually a 
 
 *08
 
 208 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 
 
 recommendation to a picture to be painted upon it. 
 They give it the name of schiff-brett, i. e. shipwood, 
 as if it were derived from old ships broken up. 
 
 Finally, the Italians alone, and some Spaniards, 
 render themselves remarkable by the employment 
 of very coarse canvass, generally so ill-prepared 
 that the threads may be counted through the paint- 
 ing. Nay, the Italian canvass is sometimes so 
 coarse, that it might more properly be called cloth 
 of cord than of thread. 
 
 I cannot terminate this article without correcting 
 an error, too generally prevalent, even in the Low 
 Countries and in Holland, through which many 
 persons, otherwise sufficiently well informed upon 
 the subject of pictures, are led to entertain a firm 
 belief, that the material on which a picture is 
 painted affects its merit and its price. Luckily, 
 one part of these stand up for canvass, another 
 part of them for panel. This division of opinion 
 renders less dangerous a prejudice, of which a single 
 sentence or two may show the absurdity. 
 
 The three materials most usually employed for pic- 
 tures in oil, are canvass, wooden panel, and copper. 
 Each of these offers certain advantages, and has, at 
 the same time, certain defects peculiar to it, which, 
 upon the whole, are so well balanced between the 
 three, as not to leave room for any decided pre- 
 ference in favour of any of them. 
 
 The copper is solid and united, but the dimples 
 and bends to which it is subject are without a 
 remedy; besides, it often throws out a verdigris, 
 which blackens and absorbs the colours, and it
 
 ON THE SIGNATURES OF THE MASTERS. 209 
 
 renders the transferring of the painting to canvass 
 almost impracticable. 
 
 Wood is united and solid, but it is liable to show 
 the fibres and the pores through the colours, if they 
 are not thick, especially if it has ever been floated. 
 It is farther liable to shrink and split, to twist, and 
 to separate where there are joints. 
 
 Canvass, from its pliability, escapes well from 
 risks, especially if it be well prepared. It facilitates 
 the lining of the picture, and, when the colours are 
 rolled outwards, the carriage of it becomes easy, 
 however large it may be. But the picture is very 
 liable to crease, and to break, or crack, as well as to 
 become sunk between the threads, and to be too easily 
 affected by changes of the atmosphere. Thus the 
 merits and defects of these three materials being 
 pretty equally balanced, none of them deserves a 
 preference over the others. 
 
 Not to neglect any thing respecting materials 
 upon which pictures have been painted, I have only 
 farther to notice, that it is often found that even be- 
 fore the discovery of painting in oil, the panel upon 
 which very old pictures appear to have been painted 
 has been first covered with a very thin canvass ; 
 and that the wax, which, combined with other sub- 
 stances, has given them their consistency and ex- 
 treme hardness, has very commonly been used by 
 the ancient artists as the ground on which they 
 applied the gold leaf and other gilded ornaments, 
 which, with singular oddity of taste, they often 
 introduced in relief in their pictures, 
 p
 
 210 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 OF THE FAMOUS BALANCE COMPOSED BY DE PILES FOB 
 ESTIMATING THE DIFFERENT DEGREES OF MERIT IN 
 THE PRINCIPAL HISTORICAL PAINTERS. 
 
 DE PILES has composed a balance of painters, in 
 which he presents, in alphabetical order, a certain 
 number of distinguished painters, and determines 
 the respective merit of each, in composition, design, 
 colouring, and expression, by a comparative number 
 of good marks, which can never go beyond eighteen, 
 in any one of those four constituent parts of the art. 
 This number of eighteen, according to De Piles, re- 
 presents the highest degree of perfection to which the 
 best work yet known has reached in any of the four 
 parts : but he maintains, that we may see realised a 
 nineteenth degree in each part, although no one has 
 yet attained it; and he even supposes a degree beyond 
 that, which he considers would be absolute perfec- 
 tion, but which, according to him, we cannot com- 
 prehend in its full extent. Watelet, in his " Dic- 
 tionary of the Arts," speaks of this balance as a joke, 
 and Don Pernety, in his, contents himself with say- 
 ing, that the title of a balance of painters presents 
 an idea that, to say the least of it, is incorrect. 
 Even De Piles himself has the modesty to state, 
 that his balance was an attempt, and that he made 
 it rather for his own amusement than to influence 
 the opinions of others. Still, however, in the de- 
 ficiency of any other aid to instruction, and from
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 211 
 
 the pleasing hope which it holds out to the in- 
 experienced, of easily acquiring a knowledge of the 
 merit of the principal painters, it has come to be 
 looked upon as very instructive and very useful, 
 by most amateurs, who are accustomed to consult 
 it as an oracle ; and that the more eagerly, because 
 they believe they find there a just appreciation of 
 the most distinguished Italian masters, whose pic- 
 tures rarely come under their notice, so as to enable 
 them to judge for themselves. It appears to me, 
 therefore, that I cannot avoid inserting it, and 
 giving it some consideration. 
 
 BALANCE OF PAINTERS, COMPOSED BY DE PILES. 
 From his Course of " Painting by Principles" 12mo. Paris, 1708. 
 
 
 j 
 
 
 $ 
 
 c 
 
 Names of Painters most noted. 
 
 1 
 
 | 
 
 z 
 
 1 
 
 
 J 
 
 P 
 
 S 
 
 W 
 
 Albano - 
 
 14 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 Albert Durer 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Andrea del Sarto 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 9 
 
 8 
 
 Baroccio 
 
 14 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 10 
 
 Bassano, J. 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 
 
 Del Piombo, Sebastian 
 
 8 
 
 13 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 Bellini, J. 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 Bourdon 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 
 Le Brun ... 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 Calliari 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 The Caracci ... 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 Corregio - 
 
 13 
 
 13 
 
 15 
 
 12 
 
 Daniel de Volterra -..-..- 
 
 12 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 8 
 
 Diepenbeck - - - - 
 
 11 
 
 10 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 Domenichino ... 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 9 
 
 17 
 
 Giorgione .... 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 P 2
 
 212 
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 Names of Painters most noted. 
 
 c 
 
 ! 
 
 Colouring. 
 
 Expression. 
 
 Guercino - ... 
 
 18 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 4 
 
 Guido .... 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 Holbein 
 
 9 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 13 
 
 John De Udina 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 Jordaens, Jacob 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 16 
 
 6 
 
 Giordano, Luca 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 6 
 
 Josepin 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 Julio Romano 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 Lanfranco - - 
 
 14 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci - 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 4 
 
 14 
 
 Lucas Van Leyden - 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 Michael Angelo - . 
 
 8 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 
 8 
 
 Caravagio - - 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Mutiano Girolamo - 
 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 4 
 
 OttoVenius - 
 
 13 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 10 
 
 OldPalma - 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 Young Palma ... 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 6 
 
 Parmegiano - ... 
 
 10 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Paul Veronese 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 16 
 
 3 
 
 Francesco Penni ... 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Pietro del Vaga 
 
 15 
 
 16 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 Pietro da Cortona - 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 Pietro Perugino - 
 Polidore da Caravagio (Caldara) 
 Pordenone - ... 
 
 4 
 10 
 8 
 
 12 
 17 
 14 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 15 
 5 
 
 Pourbus --.. 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 Poussin -.._ 
 
 15 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 15 
 
 Primaticcio - ... 
 
 15 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 Raphael Sanzio 
 
 17 
 
 18 
 
 12 
 
 18 
 
 Rembrandt - ... 
 
 15 
 
 6 
 
 17 
 
 12 
 
 Rubens .... 
 Fr. Salviati - ... 
 Le Sueur .... 
 Teniers - ... 
 Pietro Testa - 
 Tintoretto ... 
 Titian 
 Vanius 
 Van Dyck - . " 
 Tadeo Zuccero 
 Fred. Zuccero . " 
 
 18 
 13 
 15 
 15 
 11 
 15 
 12 
 13 
 15 
 13 
 10 
 
 13 
 15 
 15 
 12 
 15 
 14 
 15 
 15 
 10 
 14 
 13 
 
 17 
 8 
 4 
 13 
 
 16 
 18 
 12 
 17 
 10 
 8 
 
 17 
 8 
 15 
 6 
 6 
 4 
 6 
 13 
 13 
 9 
 8
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 213 
 
 The real knowledge, the impartiality, and the 
 good faith, which I have found in the works of 
 De Piles, inspire me with so much esteem for him, 
 that I feel surprised how he could have hazarded 
 so lightly, and especially how he could have put 
 in print, a balance so liable to the objections of 
 being neither complete nor correct. Its want of 
 corectness appears in this, that the number of 
 points are not for the most part conformable to the 
 real merit of the respective painters to whom they 
 are assigned, of which, among many others, the 
 following examples will afford sufficient proof. 
 
 Baroccio, that agreeable colourist, is limited to 
 six points of approbation for colouring ; for which 
 De Piles assigns seventeen to Bassano, although 
 the latter again is very inferior therein to Sebastian 
 Del Piombo, who has obtained sixteen. 
 
 Le Brun, although inferior to Le Sueur in 
 design, colouring, and expression, is yet placed 
 above him in all those parts. 
 
 The three Caracci are actually all ranked, with- 
 out ceremony, on the same line, and so marked with 
 the same points for all the qualifications. 
 
 Giorgione has received nine points for design, 
 for which Tintoretto, so often incorrect, has received 
 no less than fourteen. 
 
 Guido, that sublime artist, distinguished as the 
 Painter of the Graces, has only thirteen points for 
 design, nine for colouring, and twelve for expres- 
 sion ! He, to whom Bologna owes her " St. Peter 
 Penitent," a chief work in art, and which Cochin, 
 
 p 3
 
 214 DB PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 in his " Voyage Pittoresque" proclaims to be the 
 most perfect picture in Italy for all the parts of 
 painting ! One is tempted to believe that De Piles 
 did indeed wish to amuse himself at the expense of 
 Guido, when he did not accord to him one single 
 point for composition, while so many well composed 
 works of this master are to be met with at Bologna, 
 and in public galleries ; especially the Job which 
 he painted for Bologna, and the admirable Assump- 
 tion of twenty-six figures, life size, which he painted 
 for Verona, and which alone are sufficient to im- 
 mortalise him in that department of the art. 
 
 Luca Giordano has received only nine points for 
 colouring, while as many as sixteen have been 
 given for this quality to Caravagio, whose colouring 
 is so false with its black shadows and intolerable 
 hardness. Leonardo da Vinci and Buonaroti have 
 obtained only four each for this same colouring, for 
 which Raphael has obtained twelve ! an allotment 
 without a shadow of propriety. 
 
 Francesco Penni, called II Fattore, has not 
 received a single number for composition, although 
 he painted the " Passage of the Red Sea," not to 
 speak of his other works at Rome and elsewhere. 
 
 Van Dyck, who was so correct and elegant a 
 designer, obtains but ten points for that quality, 
 while sixteen are allotted to Le Brun, fifteen to 
 Pourbus, fourteen to Otto Venius, Pietro da Cor- 
 tona, and Tintoretto, and even twelve to Teniers. 
 
 De Piles is right in giving no points for colouring 
 to Caldara, who, with the exception of his picture
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 215 
 
 of " The Bearing of the Cross" at Messina, painted 
 nothing but bas-reliefs, and to Pietro Testa, who is 
 known only as an engraver ; but he should not then 
 have placed them amongst the famous painters, 
 unless indeed he was of opinion that one can be a 
 painter without employing colours. 
 
 I cannot imagine how an author, otherwise so 
 fair and equitable, has refused a single point for 
 expression to Bassan, Bellini, and old Palma. 
 Feeble they were, certainly, but not quite ciphers in 
 this quality. He has done the same by Francesco 
 Penni, the pupil and colleague of the great Raphael, 
 many of whose works were finished by him after 
 the death of the master. 
 
 I am dissatisfied, also, with the small number of 
 points, accorded for expression to several painters ; 
 such as Paul Veronese, to whom he has given only 
 three, and Jordaens and Teniers, so remarkable for 
 the expression of their figures, to whom, notwith- 
 standing, he has given but six points for this 
 quality. 
 
 I trust I have said enough already to show how 
 far the balance of De Piles is from being correct. 
 The reader will perceive, likewise, on casting a 
 glance upon the list of names which it includes, 
 how far it is from being complete. For he will 
 perceive at once, that among the painters of his- 
 tory, to whom alone it refers, there are many very 
 distinguished ones who are not to be found in it, 
 such as Furini, Allori, Bourdon, Schidone, Cave- 
 done, Benedetti, Spagnoletto, Procaccini, Calabrese, 
 
 p 4
 
 216 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 Preti the Genoese, Murillo, Cignani, Andrea Sao 
 chi, all Italian painters ; and Grayer, P. de Cham- 
 paigne, Gonzales, Van Thulden, and many others, 
 among the Flemings, with Lairesse and Eeckhout 
 amongst the Dutch. 
 
 Seeing the incorrectness of the balance of De 
 Piles, I employed myself during my travels in 
 forming one after a manner of my own, and solely 
 for my own satisfaction. My plan differs from that 
 of De Piles in this, that in place of using four 
 columns for composition, design, colouring, and 
 expression, as he has done, I have employed five, in 
 order to embrace more completely, without ambi- 
 guity and without confusion, the eighteen depart- 
 ments of painting, which contribute to the goodness 
 of the subject, and to the goodness of its repre- 
 sentation. These parts, it may be remembered, 
 are, 1. Invention; 2. Composition; 3. Disposi- 
 tion or Arrangement ; 4. Design ; 5. the Airs of 
 the Heads ; 6. Expression ; 7. the Attitudes ; 8. 
 Linear Perspective ; 9. Aerial Perspective ; 10. 
 the Proper Colour; 11. the Local Colour; 12. the 
 General Tone of Colour ; 13. the Clear-Obscure ; 
 14. Transparency; 15. Harmony; 16. Effect ; 
 17. Empasto; and 18. Touch. Of these eighteen 
 parts, the three first belong to the subject, and the 
 five following to the design ; and I have retained 
 the three columns allotted by De Piles for these 
 departments, making only certain changes which 
 appear to me to be necessary with regard to the
 
 DE FILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 217 
 
 parts included under each. But I have not followed 
 his arrangement in regard to the remaining ten 
 parts, which all refer to the colouring. For several 
 of these parts are independent of the others, and 
 many painters have excelled in some of them who 
 have by no means succeeded in the others. In 
 order, therefore, to mark such distinctions, I have 
 adopted two columns for the parts which relate to 
 colouring, instead of one as he has done. In the 
 first of my columns, I include the proper colours 
 and the transparency, with the general tone of 
 colour upon which these two have great influence, 
 and the empasto and the touch. Under my second 
 column for colouring, I note the aerial perspective, 
 the local colour, the clear-obscure, the harmony, 
 and the effect. 
 
 I hope one day or other to be able to submit my 
 balance to the public, when I have brought the 
 numerous researches which I am making for it to a 
 close, and when it has attained to such a degree of 
 perfection as to be worthy of being laid before them. 
 In the mean time, however, I cannot withhold myself 
 from presenting my readers with a partial view 
 of my plan, that they may compare the system on 
 which it is formed with that of De Piles. At the 
 same time, I am far from wishing to attach any 
 importance to my judgment in this matter, and I 
 offer it only for what it may be worth in the eyes 
 of others, without making any pretensions to be 
 considered an authority on the subject.
 
 218 
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 EXTRACT FROM MY BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Proper 
 
 Local 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (local) Co- 
 
 (aerial) 
 
 Names of Painters. 
 
 Invention, 
 Composi- 
 tion, 
 Disposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Design, 
 Airs of the 
 Heads, 
 Linear 
 Perspec- 
 
 Expres- 
 sion, 
 Attitudes. 
 
 lours, 
 Transpa- 
 rency, 
 Tone of 
 Colour, 
 
 Colours, 
 Aerial Per- 
 spective, 
 Harmony, 
 Clear Ob- 
 
 
 
 tive. 
 
 
 Empasto, 
 
 scure, Ef- 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Touch. 
 
 fect. 
 
 AnnibalCaracci 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 18 
 
 18 
 
 17 
 
 Corregio 
 
 16 
 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 
 Van Dyck 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 19 
 
 20 
 
 22 
 
 Raphael 
 
 22 
 
 23 
 
 23 
 
 20 
 
 15 
 
 Rembrandt 
 
 16 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 22 
 
 20 
 
 Rubens 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 21 
 
 Titian 
 
 16 
 
 16 
 
 14 
 
 24 
 
 18 
 
 SUM OF MY MARKS AND OF THOSE OF DE PILES. 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of De 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 Names of Painters. 
 
 Totals 
 of my 
 Three 
 first Co- 
 
 Piles for 
 Compo- 
 sition, 
 
 Totals 
 of my 
 Two 
 last Co- 
 
 Totals 
 of De 
 Piles for 
 Colour- 
 
 Totals 
 of my 
 Five Co- 
 
 of the 
 Four 
 Co- 
 
 lumns of 
 
 
 lumns. 
 
 and Ex- 
 
 lumns. 
 
 ing. 
 
 lumns. 
 
 De 
 
 Piles. 
 
 
 
 pression. 
 
 
 
 
 
 AnnibalCaracci 
 
 58 
 
 45 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 
 93 
 
 58 
 
 Corregio 
 
 56 
 
 38 
 
 43 
 
 15 
 
 99 
 
 53 
 
 Van Dyck 
 
 57 
 
 38 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 99 
 
 55 
 
 Raphael 
 
 68 
 
 53 
 
 35 
 
 12 
 
 103 
 
 65 
 
 Rembrandt 
 
 43 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 17 
 
 85 
 
 50 
 
 Rubens 
 
 61 
 
 48 
 
 43 
 
 17 
 
 104 
 
 65 
 
 Titian 
 
 46 
 
 33 
 
 42 
 
 18 
 
 88 
 
 51 
 
 By comparing the total numbers given to each 
 painter in my three first columns with the totals 
 given to them by De Piles, in his corresponding
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 219 
 
 columns for composition, design, and expression, 
 and by comparing the totals in my two last columns 
 with those given by De Piles in his corresponding 
 column for colouring, it will be easy to bring out in 
 what respects my opinions on the masters agree 
 with his, and in what they differ. But it will be 
 observed that my highest number being 24, and 
 that of De Piles 18, the amount of my numbers 
 ought always to be as 4 to 3 of De Piles, in order to 
 equalise each column; and that in comparing his 
 numbers for colouring with mine, it is necessary to 
 double his, in order to equalise them, seeing that 
 his single column for colouring stands for my two. 
 In this manner it will be found, that on com- 
 paring the totals of my three first columns with the 
 two first and the fourth of De Piles, and the totals 
 of my two last with his third column doubled, 
 there will be produced the following result ; viz. 
 To Annibal Caracci, an augmentation by me of 2 
 points in his favour; to Corregio, 5J points of ad- 
 vance ; to Van Dyck, 6J points of advance ; to 
 Raphael, a loss of 2| ; to Rembrandt, a loss of 1 
 point ; to Rubens, a loss of 3 points ; and to Titian, 
 2 points of advance. The result of my two last 
 columns, as compared with the single column of De 
 Piles for colouring, will be, to A. Caracci, a gain of 
 ^ of a point ; to Corregio, a gain of 3 points ; to 
 Van Dyck, a loss of 3 J ; to Raphael, a gain of 3 
 points ; to Rembrandt, 3 3 points of loss ; to Rubens, 
 2J points of loss ; and a loss of 6 points to Titian.* 
 
 * Having tried the above calculations, without bringing out
 
 220 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 By this comparison, also, it appears that the Ca- 
 racci and Corregio gain on two of my columns, be- 
 yond the estimate that De Piles has put upon them ; 
 that, on the contrary, Eembrandt and Rubens lose 
 on two columns, and that Van Dyck, Raphael, and 
 Titian gain by one of my columns and lose on 
 another. It further appears, that in the totals of 
 my three first columns, including invention, design, 
 and expression, Raphael occupies the first place, 
 Rubens, the second, the Caracci the third, Van 
 Dyck the fourth, Corregio the fifth, Titian the 
 sixth, and Rembrandt the last ; while in the totals 
 of my two last columns (which refer to colouring 
 and its parts) Corregio and Rubens occupy the 
 first place, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, and Titian the 
 second, and the Caracci and Raphael the third. 
 
 It is proper to observe, that I have formed my 
 estimate of the masters from the greatest num- 
 ber of their most important works that I could 
 meet with, and not from any single specimens, 
 otherwise Annibal Caracci (to give an example) 
 would have been entitled to twenty points for each 
 of the parts of colouring, if I had founded my ap- 
 preciation of him on the two admirable examples 
 of his in the Dresden Gallery alone. 
 
 I may add, in explanation of my balance, that by 
 the word design, in my second column, I mean the 
 
 exactly the same results as in the text, probably owing to the 
 different maximum of points adopted in the two balances, I 
 think it proper to allow them to stand as set down by the author. 
 Trans.
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 221 
 
 tracing of the contours of objects and their parts, 
 dead or alive, without reference to the movement of 
 the body, or to the operations of the mind in such 
 as are living. By the airs of the heads, in the same 
 column, I understand the physiognomy or particu- 
 lar features which men have from nature. Linear 
 perspective is placed in the same column with these, 
 because it affects these contours and features in 
 proportion to the distance of the objects. The 
 three parts comprised in this second column give 
 the form, the individual character, and the propor- 
 tion of all objects. 
 
 The expression and the attitudes, again, which 
 are placed in the third column, cause the forms to 
 speak and to act. They are so inseparable in most 
 human emotions, that expression, if represented 
 without attitude, would lose a great part of its 
 truth and energy. It would be a very great error 
 to confound expression with mere form and feature 
 (that is, with the airs of the heads) ; or attitude 
 with the simple position of figures in repose. Both 
 of them have their source in, and are as variable 
 and fugitive as, the circumstances which give rise 
 to the thoughts and affections of the mind. In a 
 word, my second column is set apart for the body, 
 my third for the mind.* 
 
 * It may be proper to observe, that expression is understood 
 to mean the feeling displayed throughout the whole of the 
 form, not merely the expression of the face, which last is more 
 properly called the passion. Hence the phrase, the expressions. 
 Translator. 
 
 *r7
 
 222 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 With regard to the remaining columns, every 
 impartial reader will see from my sketch itself the 
 importance of having at least two columns for the 
 colouring. For Titian, who obtains the maximum 
 of twenty-four numbers in my fourth column, 
 (for his excellence in the proper colour, transpa- 
 rency, and other parts therein included,) has only 
 eighteen in my fifth column for aerial perspective, 
 aerial colours, clear-obscure, harmony, and effect. 
 Nay more, if I had included Caravagio, I would 
 have given him twenty points in my fourth column, 
 and scarcely three in my fifth. I am unable to 
 understand, therefore, how De Piles could have be- 
 stowed upon him sixteen in his column for colouring 
 out of his maximum of eighteen, unless his opinion 
 was formed only upon his proper colour, without 
 regard to the other parts of colouring, on which 
 depends conformity to nature. 
 
 In my fourth column I have placed transparency 
 along with the proper colours of the foreground, 
 because it ought always to accompany them, and I 
 have added to these the general tone of colour, be- 
 cause they have a very great effect upon it. As to 
 the empasto and the touch, which I have also placed 
 in the same column, amateurs and connoisseurs 
 will agree, whatever modern painters may think, 
 that they contribute most essentially to good re- 
 presentation in a picture, and, consequently, to the 
 merit of the artist. The importance attached to 
 them by true connoisseurs, both with respect to 
 the goodness of a work, and for the discovery of
 
 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 223 
 
 the master, would have been sufficient reason for 
 placing them where I have, even if what is con- 
 tained hi my second chapter had not made it im- 
 perative on me. I have there shown, that although 
 these two parts of the art be only manual, they are 
 subject to rules and principles, and ought by no 
 means to be looked upon as mere matter of caprice ; 
 for, under the firm and skilful hand of an able and 
 judicious artist, they may contribute very much to 
 the perfection of every picture, and to that decep- 
 tious imitation of objects which alone can produce 
 the magical illusion that is the true aim of the 
 painter. But a touch, made without meaning, and 
 disconformable to the nature of objects, cannot but 
 miss the imitation of them, and, by consequence, 
 make a bad picture." In like manner a bad empasto 
 may spoil the best imagined work and the best de- 
 sign, as may be shown from a thousand examples. 
 
 It is necessary to inform the reader that my last 
 column does not refer to the clear-obscure of a 
 single figure or more, nor to that of one, or even 
 of several planes, but to the general clear-obscure, 
 which is the result of all the subordinate lights and 
 shadows on all the figures, objects, and planes in 
 the picture. And I conclude by remarking, in re- 
 gard to this last column, that although the clear- 
 obscure as I have said, has a very great effect upon 
 the harmony, while both contribute in the highest 
 degree to the effect of a picture, yet these three 
 parts, which are all included in this column, are 
 quite distinct from each other ; for nothing is more
 
 224 DE PILES' BALANCE OF PAINTERS. 
 
 common than to see pictures full of agreement and 
 harmony, but in which nevertheless the clear- 
 obscure is very feeble, and which have therefore no 
 effect ; and, on the other hand, it is equally common 
 to meet with pictures that have abundance of fac- 
 titious effect, although the clear-obscure in them is 
 false, and they are altogether without harmony. 
 I have also seen more than one picture, in which, 
 though there was nothing to object to the clear- 
 obscure, the bad selection of the proper colours 
 rendered the effect displeasing.
 
 TRICES OF PICTURES, ETC. 225 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 OP THE PRICES AT WHICH THE PICTURES OF THE 
 MOST DISTINGUISHED FLEMISH, DUTCH, AND GERMAN 
 MASTERS HAVE BEEN SOLD. 
 
 NUMBERLESS difficulties are encountered in the at- 
 tempt to fix with precision the value of the works 
 of the different masters. The first of these, and 
 the greatest, arises at the very source from which 
 the best information ought to be obtained, i. e. in 
 the catalogues of public sales, in which great names 
 are given to pictures to which they have no title, 
 in order to make them pass for good; pompous 
 eulogiums are pronounced on such as may be ori- 
 ginal, without any mention being made of their 
 ruinous condition ; no notice is taken whether a 
 picture that truly belongs to the master to whom 
 it is attributed be not a very early work, and in his 
 bad manner ; and copies are even shamelessly passed 
 off as originals. This disingenuous conduct on the 
 part of the framers of catalogues is never of any 
 real service to a sale, but, on the contrary, must 
 injure it as soon as it is noticed, by casting a doubt 
 even on those articles that are correct. But to 
 such as look back to these catalogues for inform- 
 ation in regard to the real prices of pictures it is a 
 great source of embarrassment, for they sometimes 
 find that of two pictures bearing the same name, 
 Q
 
 226 PRICES OF PICTUBES 
 
 nearly similar in size, and which seem from the 
 description to be of nearly equal merit, the one has 
 been sold for many thousands of francs, while the 
 other has scarcely brought as many hundreds. A 
 circumstance wearing so little the appearance of 
 truth, scarcely, indeed, disturbs the ideas of the con- 
 noisseur, who knows what to think of it, and who 
 looks upon the highest price as indicating which 
 was the real picture of the master ; but it might 
 mislead an inexperienced amateur into imagining 
 that the price of pictures was arbitrary, and 
 depended on the chance of sales, unless he were 
 made aware that the value of works undoubtedly 
 true and good is too generally known, and has too 
 little variation to be subject to such accidents, 
 when the sale has sufficient attraction to induce the 
 attendance of amateurs. 
 
 Another difficulty, by no means inconsiderable, 
 arises from the difference in the prices of pictures, 
 and in the tastes for certain masters that prevail in 
 different countries. To prevent any one being 
 misled, therefore, it is proper to intimate that in 
 my estimate of prices I refer exclusively to those 
 of France, Holland, the Low Countries, and Ger- 
 many ; but have not taken into account those of 
 Russia, nor, especially, the high prices, so little 
 known elsewhere, but which are obtained for chef- 
 dceuvres in England, where wealth is so common, 
 that it is much easier there than elsewhere for 
 people to gratify their taste at any price, and where 
 rich amateurs refuse to admit into their collections
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 227 
 
 any picture which has not sufficient merit to be 
 worth a very large sum : a circumstance as fortu- 
 nate as honourable to the art and its productions ! 
 The English amateur, therefore, into whose hands 
 my list of prices may come, must be made aware 
 that, though he may make use of it every where 
 else with advantage, it will not answer for his own 
 country, where he will find that in the public sales 
 pictures of the highest class bring far beyond the 
 estimate I have put upon them.* 
 
 A third difficulty, and one which cannot be 
 avoided, is the continued increase in the price of 
 works of art, for which I have accounted in my 
 eighteenth chapter. This consideration, however 
 little it may be gratifying to my feelings as an 
 author, makes it apparent to me, that whatever 
 trouble I may have taken in fixing the prices in my 
 list, it must become useless in the course of a cer- 
 tain number of years. 
 
 But a difficulty of far greater importance arises 
 from many excellent masters among the Dutch 
 having left so few of their works behind them, that 
 their names are scarcely known beyond the limits 
 of their own country ; and these it has, therefore, 
 been impossible to estimate, for want of sufficient 
 grounds to proceed upon. It appears to me that I 
 shall do a service to every amateur, by giving here 
 the names of the principal masters of this class, 
 
 * The expense of carriage, the duty, the importer's expenses 
 and often those of cleaning, &c., are to be added to the Jirst 
 price of pictures when imported into this country. Trans.
 
 228 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 with which I am acquainted, whose works have so 
 much merit, and are of such rarity, that it is a 
 piece of great good fortune to fall in with them. 
 They are Abraham Genoels, an excellent landscape 
 painter, whose pictures, possessed of the most at- 
 tractive colouring and the most delicate touch, are 
 almost always sold under other names ; John Wils, 
 from whose great talent in landscape, Berchem, his 
 illustrious pupil, drew such store of instruction ; 
 John Wouvermans, who died too young for his own 
 fame and that of painting, since the few works 
 which his short career allowed him to complete are 
 commonly sold for those of his brother Philip, to 
 whose own they are very little inferior ; Nicolas de 
 Helt (Stockade), a Dutch painter, as distinguished 
 for his beautiful colouring as for the exquisiteness 
 of his pencil, whom Italy appropriated to herself 
 on account of his rare talent, so that one now seeks 
 in vain for his works in his native country ; Theodore 
 Keyser, of whom the Muse*e at Paris possesses two 
 rare and precious examples ; Samuel Hoogstraeten ; 
 Peter Van der Leew, whose works commonly pass 
 for those of Adrian Van den Velde ; Van Geel, who 
 has approached so near to Metsu ; Tilius, whose 
 pictures are sold for those of William Mieris, and 
 sometimes for those of Ary de Voys; and Van 
 Deuren, who has followed with so much success in 
 the footsteps of Schalcken and Metsu. The best 
 thing an amateur can do, when he meets with a 
 picture of these rare masters, is to compare its 
 merit with one by some of the masters whose prices
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 229 
 
 are known, and to whom it most nearly approaches, 
 and in this manner estimate its value by approxi- 
 mation. There is another class amongst the good 
 Dutch masters, whose pictures become very diffi- 
 cult to value, because, being painted with extreme 
 finish, they generally consist of small and unimpor- 
 tant compositions, and seldom of such pictures as 
 are called capital ; from which it happens that these 
 last appear so rarely in public sales, that there are 
 not to be found sufficient instances by which to 
 estimate the price. Of this kind is William Van 
 Aelst, a truly wonderful painter of still life, who has 
 caused me a deal of research before I could enter 
 him in my list of prices, on account of his large com- 
 positions being so rare, that I have not found them 
 in the recent catalogues, although in the year 1687 
 his good compositions had already attained to the 
 price of 400 florins*, in the same sales at which 
 " The Painter in his Studio," by Gerard Dou sold 
 for only 250 florins f; and capital pictures by 
 Mieris, Philip Wouvermans, Terburg, De Heem, 
 Weenix, Potter, and other great masters, were as 
 low in proportion. 
 
 I had long entertained the idea of making a list 
 of prices for myself from those of the sales at which 
 I had been present, and from those of the collection 
 of Hoet, and numerous catalogues from different 
 countries, containing the prices and the names of 
 the purchasers, which I possess ; but as the sales 
 
 * 33/. 4s. f 201. 10*.
 
 230 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 which I have attended, besides those in the Low 
 Countries, have been only the principal ones that 
 have taken place in Holland during the last eighteen 
 years, five or six at Paris, and a dozen in Germany, 
 I prefer having recourse to the list furnished by 
 M. Le Brun, the author of the " Gallery of Painters," 
 who, during a long period, has been a most exten- 
 sive dealer in pictures in all parts of Europe, and 
 who possesses the most complete collection of priced 
 catalogues that is known. It will be observed, 
 however, that I have departed from his list in some 
 instances, in which I had obtained information sub- 
 sequent to his publication, or to which he had not 
 access. I have marked with an asterisk (*) as well 
 these articles as many other names which I have 
 added to it. My additions will sliow how much the 
 values have increased in many instances during the 
 twelve years that have elapsed since the publication 
 of Le Brun's " Gallery" in 1796-t 
 
 It will be evident that it would have been very 
 difficult, and, indeed, impossible, to give in detail 
 the particular prices of all the pictures of each 
 master, according to their greater or less degree of 
 perfection and importance. I therefore confine 
 myself to a single price for each master, and that 
 is the highest known price to which his highest 
 class and most important pictures, painted in his 
 best manner, and at the period of his greatest 
 vigour, have yet attained. But my list contains a 
 
 t M. Burtin's work bears the date of 1808.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 231 
 
 small number of exceptions to this rule in regard 
 of certain most eminent masters, when it is of con- 
 sequence to fix a price for their small works, and 
 their large ones, separately. 
 
 The prices will afford to the amateur a standard 
 by which he may estimate the productions of every 
 master according to their intrinsic value, and in 
 proportion to their degree of merit relatively to the 
 pictures contained therein. For example, I have 
 seen in Holland, a picture worse than indifferent, 
 which public opinion, and the undoubted sig- 
 nature, showed to be by Berchem, but by Ber- 
 chem while he was yet in his boyhood. It was 
 sold for a ducat, (more than it was worth, as I 
 think,) while I have seen another by the same 
 master, and of nearly the same size, but in his 
 best manner, and of his best time, sell for 800 
 louis-d'or, and even that appeared to me below 
 its real value. 
 
 But when I say in general terms that all the 
 prices in my list indicate the highest sale prices for 
 pictures of the highest class, the most capital, and 
 painted in the best manner of each master, it will 
 be evident that I speak of those only which have 
 . been subjected to the test of the sales ; and as a 
 matter of course, that I do not at all mean my es- 
 timate to apply to certain wonders of art, which, so 
 far from having come under the hammer have con- 
 stantly adorned royal collections, public galleries 
 or the seats of illustrious and powerful families. 
 I am equally far from intending to set a price
 
 232 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 upon the most important and chief works of the 
 most distinguished masters, the incomparable merit 
 and extreme rarity of which place them absolutely 
 above all price, and of which no public sale has 
 contained any example ; such as the most capital 
 works of Rubens, Van Dyck, and John Van Eyck, 
 amongst the Flemings ; of Gerard Dou, old Mieris, 
 Metsu, Caspar Netscher, Rembrandt, and Du Jar- 
 din, amongst the Dutch ; or of Albert Durer, and 
 Hans Holbein, among the German painters. Nor 
 does my list apply to the altogether extraordinary 
 prices that may have been obtained for some single 
 picture or other, which a master, otherwise indif- 
 ferent, has hit off, as if by chance, surpassing him- 
 self without well knowing how. I have seen such 
 a picture, by Peter Bloot, at Rotterdam, which has 
 been sold for many thousands of florins, on account 
 of its singular merit and first-class quality, al- 
 though the highest price of the works of this mas- 
 ter, according to such Dutch catalouges as I have 
 met with, does not exceed 151 florins. 
 
 In the small -number of cases in which recent 
 sales offer no example of the master by which to 
 fix the price, I have estimated him by his merit 
 relatively to other masters, and the prices of both 
 in the old catalogues; not neglecting to consider 
 also prices obtained by private sale. But the in- 
 trinsic merit of the master has in such case been 
 my principal guide. 
 
 In conclusion, 1 have one observation to offer to 
 the inexperienced, which is not always to believe
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 233 
 
 absolutely that the amount of the price indicates the 
 degree of excellence of the masters. By no means ! 
 Rarity, caprice, fashion, and sometimes chance 
 itself, especially in public sales, too often play 
 their part in favour of some one master or other, 
 to admit of people always considering the real 
 merit of each. 
 
 In my list I have reduced the prices which M. 
 Le Brun states in louis-d'or, or in Dutch florins, 
 to the livre tournois.
 
 234 PEICES OF PICTURES 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST, 
 
 CONTAINING 
 
 THE NAMES OF MOST OF THE BEST FLEMISH, DUTCH, AND 
 GERMAN PAINTERS, WITH THE HIGHEST PRICES AT WHICH 
 THEIR PICTURES HAVE BEEN SOLD. 
 
 Note. The list given by M. Burtin is stated by him to be 
 founded on that of Le Brim, to which he makes certain additions, 
 besides altering some of the prices. These additions and alter- 
 ations are marked thus * before the name, as in the original work. 
 LeBrun's "Gallery" was published in 1796, and M. Burtin's work 
 in 1808, and their prices are now, in many instances, valuable 
 rather as matter of curiosity, than as a guide to the prices of 
 the present day. Since the date of M. Burtin's work, however, 
 another has been published at Paris, by M. Gault de Saint 
 Germain, in which he gives a list of various prices at the most 
 important public sales in France, from that of the Countess de 
 Verrue, in 1737, down to the date of his publication in 1818. 
 He states that he includes among these Le Brun's prices, but he 
 gives no mark by which to distinguish them. Saint Germain's 
 list seems to afford, to the curious, so desirable a body of facts, 
 for the purposes of comparison, that the translator has taken 
 the liberty of introducing it here in addition to M. Burtin's, 
 thus exhibiting a progressive list of prices on the Continent, at 
 the most important public sales, from the year 1737 to the year 
 1818. Saint Germain states, that the prices in his list reach 
 from the medium prices upwards to the highest known. 
 
 The prices first mentioned after each name in the list are 
 M. Burtin's. All that follow are Saint Germain's, before which 
 a G. is placed. 
 
 The prices are stated in livres tournois in both the original 
 works. The livre, as near as possible, corresponds to a franc, 
 81 livres being equal to 80 francs. The prices are here 
 reduced to English money, taking the livre at lOrf. sterling, 
 and 24 of them to the pound sterling, and striking off all the 
 odd shillings. A pound sterling may sometimes, according to
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 235 
 
 the rate of exchange, be worth 25 livres (or francs), but the 
 rate adopted affords a safe and sufficient approximation for any 
 purpose the list of prices can now serve, and it agrees better 
 with the Dutch currency, in which one generally gets 12 florins 
 of 20d. each to the pound sterling, answering exactly to 24 
 livres at lOd Translator. 
 
 A. 
 
 * Aelst, William Van, 1501. G. 837. 1507. 
 Aertsen, Peter. G. 67, 47, 21. 
 Aldegraff. G. 47. 201. 417. 
 
 Asch, Peter John Van, 751. 
 
 Asselyn, John, 1667. G. 837. 1257. 1667. 
 
 B. 
 
 Backhuysen, Ludovic, 3337. G. 208/. 2507. 29 1/. 3337. 
 
 * Balen, Henry Van, 150L G. 837. 4 1/. 127. 87. 47. 
 
 Saint Germain states they are very much fallen in France. 
 Bamboccio, Peter de Laar, 837. G. 257. 87. 
 
 * Beerestraten, Alexander, 667. 
 
 Bega, Cornelius, 1007. G. 257. 417. 1007. 
 
 Berchem, Nicolas, 3337. 10007. G. 1257. 1667. 2087. 
 
 2507. 6257. 7507. 10007. ; 3997. 1457. 1337. Sale of M. 
 
 La Perriere, 1817. Nos. 11, 12, 13. of Catalogue. 
 Bergen, Theodore Van, 837. G. 47. 417. 837. 
 Berkheyden, Job and Gerard, 627. G. 47. 57. 627. 
 Blcemaert, Abraham, 507. G. 27. 37, 507. 
 Bloemen, Peter Van, 337. G. 57. 87. 337. I have seen 
 
 admirable pictures of this master, which, though esteemed, 
 
 were not high priced. G. 
 Boll, Ferdinand, 1257. G. 337. 837, 1257. 
 
 * Boonen, Arnold, 627. 
 
 Both, John and Andrew, small, 3757., capital, 5007. G. 837. 
 1257. 3337. 4167. 4607. Sale of M. de la Pierriere, 1817. 
 Bout, and Baudewyns, 207. G. 37. 47. 207. 
 Brakenburg, Renier, 207. G. 47. 57, 87. 207. 
 
 * Bramer, Leonard, 507. G. 27. 57. 417. 
 Bray, Solomon, 417. G. 87. 207. 417. 
 Breenberg, Bartholomew, 5007. G. 67. 337. 507. 
 
 *Q6
 
 236 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 Le Brun says that they have fallen, but that they will rise 
 again. Their celebrity has been the cause of their fall ; for 
 those of an argentine tone are so attractive, that they for- 
 merly rose to an exorbitant price, and that has brought out 
 all those of his inferior manner, which are of a brownish- 
 red, or of a grey, cold, stony, and monotonous tone, like 
 those in the Musee at Paris. But I agree with M. Le Brun 
 that the best will again rise. Burtin. 
 
 Brekelankamp, 501. G. 41. 161. 501. 
 
 Bril, Paul, fallen from 1251. to 41L The fall is caused by the 
 green and cold general tone, and the hard and cut-out con- 
 tours. They are sustained by the very good little figures 
 made by other artists, particularly by the Italians. B. 
 
 Brauer, Adrian. Three to four figures, 150J. G. 621. 
 S3L 1501. Sale of M. de La P. 1001. Ditto, No. 15/. 
 
 Brueghel, John, called Velvet Fallen from 250*. to 125/. 
 and less ; some even to 101. G. 125/. 208J. 250/. 121. 
 SI. 41. 3J. 2L 
 
 The fall is greater than is just. Some of the works of 
 Brueghel are remarkable for richness of composition, good 
 arrangement, figures well designed, well balanced, lively 
 and speaking, and a touch clean, intelligent, delicate, and 
 smooth, although red dresses sometimes prevail over-much, 
 and the distances are somewhat too blue. B. 
 
 C. 
 
 * Camphuysen, Theodore Raphael, 200*. G. 25*. 411. 1661. 
 Capelle, John Van, 70*. 
 
 Champaigne, Philip, 250*. compositions ; 150*. portraits. 
 G. Historical, 4U 125L 1661. 2501.; portraits, 8*. 16*. 
 411. 1251. 
 
 * Coedyck, N. N. 400*. 
 
 Coques, Gonzales, 300*. G. 83*. 166*. 2501. 2911. 
 Coxcie, Michael. G. 125*. 166*. 333*. 3751 
 
 * Grayer, Gaspar, 416*. G. 201. 83*. 416*. 5001. 6251. 
 
 * Cuyp, Albert, 416*. G. 250*. 291*. 333*. 416*. 
 
 D. 
 
 Decker, C., 1001. G. 251. 411. 83/. 
 
 * Delen, Theodore Van, 100L G. 33J. 37*. 41L 
 Diepenbeeck, Abraham, 300/. G. Fallen in France from 
 
 333J. to 201. SI. and 41.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 237 
 
 Dietrici, Christian William Ernest, 5001. 
 
 M. Le Brun says, that 1G6/. is the highest price which 
 he has yet fetched, but that he must become much dearer. 
 For my part, I do not hesitate to declare, that the eminent 
 merit of this great artist has always struck me the more, 
 because his rare talent extends to all subjects, from the 
 pastoral to the highest historical, and because among the 
 painters of the eighteenth century he alone has so fully 
 come up to the true and magical colouring of the two pre- 
 ceding centuries, as to prove that the colours used by the 
 great old painters are not altogether lost. /?. 
 
 Does, James Van der, 100/. G. 121. 4 1/. 1001. ' 
 
 Does, Simon Van der, 837. G. 41. 337. 837. 
 
 Dou Gerard. One figure, half-length, 5001. ; a composition, 
 1750/. G. Simple composition, 125/. 166/. 250/. 333/. 
 500/. ; capital, 6251. 3331. 12501. 16661. 
 
 Due, John Le, 162/. G. 41. 8/. 201. 411. 1661. 
 
 Durer, Albert, 5007. 
 
 The works of this master are so much confined to- public 
 galleries, that I have never yet seen an undoubted one in 
 in private catalogues. The only real picture by Albert 
 Durer, to the price of which I am able to speak, is a small 
 half-length portrait of a woman, which was bought by an 
 
 Englishman at Dusseldorff, in 1780, for 500 guineas B. 
 
 Query. For guineas read florins, or thalers? Transl. 
 
 Vandyck, Anthony. A half-length portrait, 400/. ; compo- 
 sition, 15001. G* Portraits, 20/. 33/. 125/. 4161. A 
 grand composition, 5001. 6251. 16661. 
 
 The compositions of this master are so rare, and are so 
 entirely removed from circulation, that I may say in truth 
 that I have met with only one undoubted one in public 
 sales. All the rest which I have seen announced in his 
 name were evidently not by him. 
 
 Vandyck, Philip, 166. G. 331. 411. 166/. 
 
 E. 
 
 Eekhout, Gerbrant Van den, 250/. G. 161. 20/. 291. 
 
 331. 1251. 2501. 
 
 Elsheimer, Adam, 250/. G. 20/. 4U 250/. 
 
 Everdingen, Aldret Van. Not so dear as Jacob Ruysdael,
 
 238 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 his scholar, ^although as good, and even better, than he. I 
 have seen pictures of such merit, and so admirable by 
 Everdingen, that I cannot avoid placing him in the first 
 rank of landscape painters ; and I am convinced that no 
 one can do otherwise, but from fashion or from ignorance. 
 B. 
 
 Eyck, John, and Hubert Van. G. 837. 2087. 333/. 4 167. 
 5007. 
 
 F. 
 
 Falens, Charles Van, 417. G. Fallen in France from 4 11. 
 
 to 8/. and 47, 
 Ferg, Francis Paul, 1507. 
 Flamael, Bertholet, 1667. But he is worth more. 
 
 * Flinck, Govaert. Same as G. Van den Kekhout. G. 337. 
 
 377. 417. 1667. 3337. 
 
 * Francks, Sebastian, 897. G. Fallen from 1257. to 417. 
 
 207. and 47. 
 
 The other Francks at all prices. 
 Fyt, John, 837. G. 87. 337. 837. 
 
 G. 
 
 Gelder, Arnold, 1507. G. 417. 837. 1507. 
 
 Glauber, John, 2507. G. 2507. Fallen, to the great regret 
 
 of true connoisseurs, to 167. 127, 87, and 47. 
 Goyen, Van, 627. G. 417. 447. 627. Fallen, with justice, 
 
 to 207. 87. 47. and 27. 
 
 H. 
 
 * Hackaert, John, 1507. G. 207. 417. 1507. 
 Hals, Frank, 507. G. 127. 337. 417. 507. 
 
 Heem, John David de, 2137. G. 837. 1257. 2137. Fallen 
 
 to 207. 127. and 87. 
 Heist, Bartholomew Van der, 4167. G. 4167. Fallen to 
 
 507. 207. 167. 
 
 * Harp, Gerard Van, 1667. 
 
 Heusch, William de, 1007. G. 257. 337. 377. 417. 1007. 
 Heyden, John Van der, 8337. G. 2917. 3337. 3757. 4167. 
 6257. 8337.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 239 
 
 * Hobbima, Minderhout, 5007. G. 2911. 3331. 3757. 4167. 
 
 6257. He will rise one day, perhaps, to 8337. 12007. 
 Hoeck, John Van, 1257. G. 127. 167. 207. 837. 1257. 
 Hoet, Gerard, 717. G. Fallen in France from 417. and 
 
 837. to 87. 67. 47. 37. and 27. Small compositions. 
 Holbein, Hans, 5007. G. 837. 2137. 4167. 5007. 6257. 
 
 * Honde, Koeter Melchior, 1837. G. Fallen from 1837. to 
 
 127. and 87. 
 
 * Hooge, Peter de, 2507. G. 837. 1257. 1667. 
 Hughtenburg, John Van, 1257. G. Grand compositions, 
 
 417. 837. 1257.; inferior, 507. 337. 127. 47. 
 
 * Huysmans, Cornelius, called De Malines, 507. G. 47. 207. 
 
 417. 507. 
 
 Huysum, John Van, 5007. G. 1257. 1667. 2507. 3337. 
 4167. 5007. 
 
 J. 
 
 Jardin, Carl Du, 8337. G. 207. 337. 507. 4167. 8337. 
 Jordaens, Jacob, 3007. G. 87. 337. 1257. 3007. 
 
 K. 
 
 Kalf, William, 507. G. 507. 337. 37. 27. 
 
 Kierings, Alexander, 1007. G. Fallen from 1257. to 257. 
 
 207, 167. and 47. Has continued to fall for a long time. 
 Klomp, Albert, 357. G. 207. 87. 47. 37. 
 Koning, John de, 2007. 
 
 I know landscapes by a De Koning, in the style of 
 
 Rembrandt, but I do not know whether he is called John, 
 
 as M. Le Brun calls him, or Philip. B. 
 Koning, Solomon de, 1007. G. 1007. 257, 87. 
 
 Lairesse, Gerard, 4 167. G. Fixed at 4 1 67. by M. Le Brun ; 
 547. at the sale of R. de Boisset ; 4007. at the sale of 
 Julienne. Fallen since that more than three fourths. 
 
 Lievens, John, 3667. 
 
 Limburch, Henry Van, 1007. G. 1007. Fallen in France 
 to 257. 127. 87.
 
 240 PRICES OF PICTURES. 
 
 Lin, John Van, 411 
 
 Lingelbach, John, 2007. G. 2001. Fallen to 417, 37/. 251. 
 
 121. 41. 
 
 * Loo, Jacob Van, Dutch school, 757. 
 
 Little known in France, where he is confounded with the 
 
 French Van Loo. B. 
 Loutherbourg, Philip J., 1667. 
 
 M. 
 
 Mabuse, John de, 621. 1251. 
 
 Maes, or Maas, Nicolas, 837. G. 83/. 4 1/. 201. 121. Si. 
 
 * Meer, John Van der, 2501. G. 2507. 208/. 1251. 61. 
 
 * Metsu, Gabriel. A half-length figure, 2507. A composition, 
 
 10837. G. Grand composition, "The Green Market at 
 Amsterdam," 10757. ; sale of De Gagnay, 537. 2277. 3087, 
 4157. 2627. 2497. 2837. ; catalogues of Prince de Conti 
 de Julienne de Gersaint, De Peilhon, De Choiseul, 2297. ; 
 being a composition of three figures at M. dc la Perierre's. 
 His most finished works are as rare, and worth as much, as 
 those of Gerard Dou and Mieris. B. 
 
 Meulen, Anthony Francis Van der, 3007. G. 1337. 2917. 
 1257., fallen to 257. 207. 87. 47. and 37. Small compo- 
 sitions. 
 
 Michau, Theobald, 337. G. 337. 127. 87. 47. 27. 
 
 Miel, Jan, 1257. G. 1257. 75/. 837. Catalogues of Gai- 
 gnat, Choiseul, Conti. 
 
 Mieris, Francis, Old. The same price as Gerard Dou. 
 G. 2087. 1667. 207. 
 
 * Mieris, Francis, Young, 1507. G. 1507. 1667. 
 Mieris, William Van, 2087. G. 2087, 837, 377. 
 
 * Mignon, Abraham, 2507. G. 2507. 207. 87. 47. 37. 
 Mille, Francesco, 507. G. 507. 257. 167. 
 
 * Mol, Peter Van, 5837. G. 1257. 207. 87. 47. 37. 
 Moor, Carl de, 1667. G. 1667. 87. 507. 127. 
 Moreelze, Paul, 3007. 
 
 Moucheron, Frederick and Isaac. With Adrian Van de 
 Velde's figures, 2507., and with those of Lingclboch or 
 Kalmbrecker, 1877. 
 
 Murant, Emmanuel, 507. G. 507. 207. 87. 4/.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 241 
 
 N. 
 
 Neveu, Mathew, 621. G. 621. 
 
 Neefs, Peter (old), 1607. G. 150/. 11G/. To/. 411. 34/. 
 The works of the son are so inferior to those of the father, 
 as not to be worth a half. /?. 
 
 Neer, Arnold Van der. Those of small form 83/. ; capital, 
 1501. G. Grand compositions, L>0/. G2/. .'01. 166/. 
 Inferior, 8/. 4/. A moonlight (capital) lately sold for 500/., 
 which shows how much the price of pictures is increased 
 since Le Brim published his work. If. 
 
 Neer, Eglon van der, 250/. G. 2501. 83/. 33/. 1 G/. 
 
 Netscher, Caspar. A half-length figure, 300/. A capital 
 composition, 62o/. G. Larger compositions, 6251. 146/. 
 551. 751. 501. 2911. T4/. 6GI. 1(X)/. Catalogues Boissot, 
 Gaignat, Poulain, Peilhon, Clairon, Conti. 
 
 I have found it difficult to fix a price in this case, because 
 of the extreme rarity of well-authenticated works of this 
 artist, and of the demand for them, which causes those of 
 his son Constantino to be substituted for his. This 
 becomes more easv, since in Holland the Christian name 
 of the father is written Caspar, so that they have both 
 the same initial, which the son has put before his name 
 in most of his works, while the father has left most of 
 his unsigned. This last circumstance gives opportunity 
 for other substitutions, in which there is but little resem- 
 blance to this great master. All the pictures truly worthy 
 of Caspar Netscher are of a most charming and natural 
 colour, with figures beautiful, elegant, easy, and full of 
 very graceful expression, as one would expect from a man 
 who lived always amongst the great ; and though they are 
 scarcely above ten inches higli, they seem larger, from 
 their dignity and proportions. The clear obscure is so ex- 
 quisite that they appear really and absolutely relieved. As 
 to execution, his works equal the best of Mieris and Gerard 
 Dou for precious finish, and they even exceed them, by a 
 touch more easy, smooth, and large, and by better vanish- 
 ing contours. The price ought, therefore, to equal at least 
 that of the best productions of these two celebrated mas- 
 ters. But, from my acquaintance with most of the public
 
 242 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 and private collections, I am satisfied that nothing is more 
 rare than the true gems of Netscher, in even the most dis- 
 tinguished of them in Holland. 
 
 There is another kind of pictures which are attributed 
 to him, and not uncommonly found in public and private 
 collections, which are of very inferior merit, and of a style 
 altogether different, but sufficiently good, nevertheless, to be 
 his, provided it be true that he had two manners so oppo- 
 site. These are marked by less natural colouring, and an 
 approach to brickiness, figures less easy, and although 
 generally larger than the other class, yet appearing shorter 
 and clumsier, less perfect in the clear obscure, and less 
 rounded and relieved. I am inclined therefore to think 
 that M. Le Brim had seen only the best of this last class of 
 Netscher's works, when he estimated the fine compositions 
 of this master at 4167. B. 
 
 Netscher, Constantino. Composition, 1507. G. 1507. 83/. 
 207. 
 
 O. 
 
 Ochtervelt, J. 837. 
 Ostade, Adrian, 5007. G. 507. 757. 4507. 2917. 2377. 
 
 2677. 2757. 3127. Catalogues of Julienne, Boisset, Conti, 
 
 Poulain, Gaignat 2277. 1617. Perriere. 
 Ostade, Isaac, 7087. G. 7087., an amplification. 2087. 
 
 1667. 337. 257. 127. Perriere, 837. No. 40. 
 
 P. 
 
 * Poel, Egbert Van der, 1007. G. 1007, 507. 167. 67. 
 Poelemburg, Cornelius, 1507. G. 1507. 1007. 707. 507. 
 
 457. 687. 467. Catalogues Choiseul, Boileau, Pange, Conti, 
 Valliere, and Le Brun, 12th March, 1782. 
 Pourbus, Francis. Portrait without hands, 607, G. 607. 
 417. 207. Portrait. 
 
 * Potter, Paul, 14167. G. 11417. 7867. 4167. 5837. 1007. 
 
 1337. 4547. 3877. 3337. 3977. 2507. 3057. 87, Cata- 
 logues Pange, Boileau, Choiseul, Conti, Boisset, Gaignat, 
 Poulain. 7177, Perriere, No. 43. Not doubtful, but not a 
 chief work. 
 Pynacker, Adam, 2507. Q. 2507. 527. Perriere.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 243 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quellin, Erasmus, 150/. 
 
 E. 
 
 Rembrandt, Van Ryu Paul, 7507. G. 7507. 570/. 4377. 
 583/. 4541. 2271. 2501. 841. 581. 501. 621. 4161. Cata- 
 logues De Boisset, Guichc, Boileau (anno 1779), Conti> 
 Choiseul, Gaignat. De Gagny; 737. 621. Nos. 45, 46. 
 catalogue of the last mentioned. 
 
 Rombouts, Theodore, 4 II. G. 411. 201. 161. 81. Rising 
 wonderfully, when good and in good preservation. G. 
 
 Romeyn, William, 100/. G. 100/. 4 II. 331. 251. 
 
 Roos, John Henry, of Frankfort, 2507. G. 2501. 411. 201. 
 
 Rottenhamer, John, 1501. G. 1501. 1501. 511. 601. 411. 
 Sales Tallard, Julienne, Gaignat, Gagny ; fallen, for length 
 of time, to 201. 161. 41. 31. 
 
 Rubens, Peter Paul. A composition, 404 1/. A half-length 
 portrait, 5001. G. Grand composition, 404 II. Portrait, 
 500/. 416/. 312/. 621. 501. 2081. 104/. 833/. 75/. 1291. 
 4121 8351. Sales of Tallard, Boisset, Jully, Conti, No- 
 garet, Godefroi. 8337. Sale at Antwerp, 1817. 
 
 The great pictures of Rubens having been painted for 
 churches, palaces, and public places, they do not appear in 
 the market so as to afford data for fixing their value. But 
 the price which I have stated for a distinguished composi- 
 tion is that which has been actually paid for one of his 
 church pieces, upon the award of experienced persons, 
 besides a good copy of the picture. B. 
 
 Ruysch, Rachel, 3547. G. 354/1, fallen to 167. 121. 81. 41. 
 
 Ruisdael, Jacob, 3337. G. 333/. Perriere 146/. 127. 
 1007. 108/. Nos. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52 of catalogue. 
 
 Ruisdael, Solomon, 30/. 
 
 Ryckaert, David. 757. G. 757. 201. 161. 81. 41. 
 
 S. 
 
 Sanredam, Peter John, 507. 
 
 Sart, Cornelius de, 837. G. 837. fallen to 507. 337. 257. 
 87. 47. 37. 
 
 a. 2
 
 * 
 244 PRICES OF PICTURES 
 
 Schalcken, Godfrey. His small candlelight half-lengths, 
 
 2501. G. 2501. 541. De Gagny. 
 Schut, Cornelius, 62L G. 621. 4 1/. 377, 
 Seghers, Gerard, 1501. G. ISO/., fallen to 167. 121. SL 
 Slingeland, Peter Van, 5001. G. 5007. 1667, 1251. 831. 
 
 201. 121. 
 
 * Sneyders, Francis, 1667. G. 166/., singularly fallen in 
 
 France. I have seen his chief works sold at from 87. to 
 121. 
 
 * Staveren, John Adrian Van, 1257. 
 
 Steen, Jan, 250L G. 2501. Catalogues of Boisset and 
 
 Poulain, 667. 
 Steenwyck, Henry, 1001. G. 100/. Catalogues Choiseul, 
 
 Conti, 837. 811. 
 Storck, Abraham, 627. G. 621., fallen to 167. 127. 87., 
 
 the greater part of his pictures in France being too much 
 
 rubbed. 
 Swanevelt, Herman, 1007. . G. 1007. 837, 507. 257. 77. 
 
 T. 
 
 Teniers, David (old), 507. 337. 207., 57. 37. 27. 17. 
 
 * Teniers, David (young), 12507. "G. 12507. Sale of De 
 
 Gagny, No. 81. 12087., being "The Works of Mercy." 
 This picture was 6rst in the collection of Gontaut, then of 
 Cressent, No. 75. of his catalogue. It belongs now to the 
 Gallery of France. It was sold in the Gaignat catalogue 
 for 3027., in the Choiseul for 3977., and in the Conti one 
 for 4167. G. 
 
 It is not one of the best works of Teniers. B. 
 
 * Terburg, Gerard, 6667. G. 6667. 1507. 4167. 1167. 1497. 
 
 200/. 2437. 1627. 2157. 1297. 1247. 2007. Catalogues 
 Conti, Choiseul, Poulain, Gagny, Pange, Julienne, Boisset. 
 1027. Perriere, No. 60. 
 Thulden, Theodore Van, 2507. G. 2507. 837. 207, 57, 
 
 * Thyssens, Peter, 1507. 
 
 Tilburg, Gilles Van, 627. G. 627. 87. 37. 27. 
 , Tol, Dominico Van, 1667. G. 1667. 337. 67.
 
 BY VARIOUS MASTERS. 245 
 
 U. 
 
 Uden, Lucas, 501. G. 50/. 251. Si. 41. 21. 
 Ulft, Jacobs Van der, 250/. 
 
 V. 
 
 Valkenburg, Theodore Van, 100/. G. 100/. 50/. 33/. 20L 
 Velde, Adrian Van Den, 833/. G. 833/. 6241. 1251. 1661. 
 
 1991. 2111. 1581. Catalogues Gagny, Julienne, Mariette, 
 
 Boisset, Conti, Trouard. 208/. Perriere. 
 Velde, William Van Den, 833/. G. 833/, 521. 3351. 1311. 
 
 701. 1121. 751. Catalogues Choiseul, Conti, Boisset> 
 
 Poulain, Pange, Boileau, 1779. 375/. Perriere. 
 Verbooms, Abraham, 621. 
 Verelst, Simon, 621. 
 
 Verkolie, John, 1251. G. 1251. 831. 501. 201. 
 Verschuring, Henry, 4 11. 
 Victoors, Francis, 208/. 
 Vlieger, Simon de. 208. G. 208/. 
 Vliet, Henry Van, 501. G. 501. 251. 161. 81. 
 Vos, Martin de, 83/. G. 250/., fallen in France to 201. 
 
 12L 61. 
 
 Voys, Ary de, 250/. 
 Vries, Ferdinand de, 501. G. 501. 201. 81. 61. 
 
 W. 
 
 Waterloo, Anthony, same as Everdingden. 
 
 Weenix, John Baptist, 500L G. 250L 300/. 751. Cata- 
 logues Menars, Boisset, Poulain. 
 
 Weenix, John, 600/. G. 600/. 416*. 621. 121. 
 
 Werff, Adrian Van der, 1500/. G. 1500/1 105*. 250/. 
 52 II. 3331. 2191. 2491. 2461. 2871. Catalogues Choi- 
 seul, Conti, Brunoy, Poulain, Gaignat, Julienne. 
 
 Werff; Peter Van der, 500J. G. 500/. 4U 250J. 20L 
 
 Witte, Emmanuel de, 541. G. 541. 
 
 Wouvermans, Philip, 875*. G. 875/. 83/. 825/. 499/. 
 60/. 695/. 444/. Catalogues Boisset, Julienne, Gaignat, 
 Choiseul, Conti. 39 11. 4831. Perriere, Nos. 64. 66.
 
 246 PRICES OF PICTURES. 
 
 Wouvermans, Peter, 201. G. 201. 121. SI. 61. 
 Wyck, Thomas, 411 G. 4U 201. 121 
 Wynants, John, 4161. G. 411. No. 54. of Boisset's Cata- 
 logue, 416/. and No. 69 and 70 of Perriere's. 254/. 148/. 
 
 Zacht-Leeven. Herman, 166/. G. 166f. 1251. 411. 201. 
 Zorg, Henry Rokes, 1257. G. 1251. 411. 251. 
 Solemaker. Le Brun has forgotten this master. I have seen 
 
 admirable pictures of his. They may be estimated at from 
 
 401. to 501. G.
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 247 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS THAT MAY BE USED TO 
 CLEAN PICTURES, AND THE PRECAUTIONS TO BE 
 TAKEN IN LINING OR RESTORING THEM. 
 
 SECT. I. The Necessity of every Amateur learning to 
 clean his Pictures. 
 
 NOTHING can be more useful to an amateur than 
 to be able to clean his pictures himself ; nor can 
 any thing give him more lively enjoyment than to 
 see reviving under his hands a beautiful production 
 of the art to which his operations give a second 
 life. But from ignorance of the means, and the 
 difficulty of procuring instruction in it, through 
 the pains taken by those who make a business of it 
 to conceal the process, or what they call their 
 secrets, the greater number of amateurs are re- 
 duced to the necessity of placing themselves in the 
 hands of others in this matter. Even amongst 
 those who have been fortunate enough to learn 
 some good method, there are a great many to 
 whom the knowledge of it becomes unproductive, 
 from their timidity, or from the ill success of their 
 first attempts, through want of practice. Others 
 again, having through misplaced confidence, made 
 trial of injurious or dangerous processes, vaunted 
 by charlatans, or cried up in books, have become 
 
 R 4
 
 248 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 disgusted for ever by having spoiled their pictures, 
 for which, alas ! their regret comes too late. It is 
 true, I admit, that without some practice, and a 
 little prudence, the best methods are not without 
 danger. But that need not frighten the amateur. 
 He will get practice by making his first attempts 
 on some worthless picture. He will learn from me 
 all the precautions useful to him. His interest, 
 the delight of success, and the fear of injuring 
 objects that he cherishes, will do the rest so 
 effectually, that his pictures will soon find, in his 
 hands, a security not always to be found in those 
 of mercenary operators, where they miss the super- 
 intending eye of the master, and where they are 
 treated all the more cleverly, because if any thing 
 is rubbed out, it can be cunningly concealed by a 
 plaster, which a veil of varnish masks to the pro- 
 prietor, until time discover it by the blackening of 
 the colours. The amateur, moreover, will expect 
 in vain to find in another the patience of labour 
 which he will himself exhibit, animated as he will 
 be by his anxiety to preserve the gem that he 
 loves, and pleased with the opportunity to dispose 
 so agreeably of the time he may have on his hands. 
 Besides, subjected continually to disagreements and 
 to exorbitant demands on the part of those whom 
 he employs, and often obliged, for want of cleaners 
 in the place where he resides, to expose his pictures 
 to the risks of transport in sending them to a 
 distance, how can he be otherwise than charmed 
 with the power of emancipating himself from all ex-
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 249 
 
 traneous aid by the means which I present to him, 
 of which forty years' experience has guaranteed to 
 me the success, and the safety of which will be 
 evident to all amateurs who are not strangers to 
 the principles of sound chemistry. 
 
 I am very far from arrogating to myself the 
 merit of being an inventor. Beyond my dis- 
 coveries for removing old oils, and tenacious and 
 pliable varnishes, I only lay claim to the merit of 
 having weighed the value of all that I have found 
 scattered through the books on this subject ; of 
 having had the perseverance to worm their secrets 
 from many amateurs and others, who had the re- 
 putation of cleaning pictures well ; of having 
 cleared up the chaos of recipes and appliances, by 
 judging of them by the rules of chemistry and 
 sound reason ; and finally, of not having made 
 my selection before trying successively all those 
 which did not appear to me to be altogether ridi- 
 culous, and of confirming and bringing to perfec- 
 tion by experience and observation the use of those 
 which I have adopted. I now throw these open 
 to the public without reserve, hoping that they 
 will serve as a foundation for the future discoveries 
 that chemists may make on this subject. 
 
 To enter upon the matter in hand, I commence 
 by warning the reader against supposing, as is too 
 generally done, that one and the same means will 
 answer for cleaning all pictures. The nature of 
 the things to be acted upon, and trials beyond 
 number, have demonstrated to me the error of
 
 250 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 such an opinion, and convince ine that simple fret- 
 ting with the fingers, spirits, the alkalies, as well 
 common as caustic, the oil of turpentine, mastic 
 varnish, the oils, cold water, hot water, saliva, 
 even the scraper, sand, and ashes, must all be 
 employed in their turn, either separately, or several 
 of them combined, according to the difference of 
 the case, and the nature of the dirt which is to 
 be removed. In order to facilitate the under- 
 standing of this by the practical application of it, 
 I shall consider separately, pictures varnished with 
 mastic or other gums of the same nature ; those 
 Avhich are covered with oil ; those which are co- 
 vered with a bad varnish ; those which are coated 
 Avith white of eggs, size, or water varnish ; those 
 which have never been varnished or oiled, and 
 which are only obscured by smoke and other dirt 
 arising from the atmosphere ; and, finally, those 
 which are attacked with the mould. 
 
 SECT. II. Of Pictures covered with Mastic Varnish, or 
 other Gums of that Nature. 
 
 In a subsequent Chapter, which treats of the 
 composition of varnishes, I point out that that 
 which is made of gum mastic dissolved in the oil 
 of turpentine, is now generally recognised and 
 employed as preferable to all the others. And 
 with reason ; since, without ever injuring the pic- 
 tures, when they are sufficiently old and dry to be
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 251 
 
 fit for its use, it unites the most of the good qua- 
 lities required to produce the effect desired of it. 
 
 The qualities which chiefly recommend the above 
 varnish are, that it dries quickly without cracking, 
 and that in a short time it acquires a degree of 
 hardness and cohesion, which time does not increase 
 so much but that it may be raised and reduced to 
 a powder by simple fretting with the dry fingers. 
 By this means every one may very easily remove 
 it from his pictures, however little experience he 
 may have, provided he take the precaution fre- 
 quently to wipe off with a dry linen rag the powder 
 which he raises by rubbing the varnish, and whicli 
 would otherwise prevent him from seeing what he 
 is about. 
 
 The farther the work proceeds, the more he must 
 take care not to disturb needlessly the places from 
 which he has already rubbed off the varnish. A 
 little practice will teach him to know the moment 
 that he has gone beyond this point, for, coming 
 then to a substance harder and less friable, he will 
 no longer feel the new powder rising under his 
 fingers. If there has been a repaint in the varnish 
 or under it, he will perceive it without difficulty by 
 this, that the powder will lose its whiteness, and 
 will unite and become globular. He will know if 
 there has been white of eggs, or size, under the var- 
 nish, by seeing the powder become dirty and thicker, 
 instead of white and impalpable as before. 
 
 Those who find difficulty in starting the varnish 
 have only to touch with the finger the powdered
 
 252 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 varnish raised on another picture, or some such 
 powder as that of resine or sandaric.* When the 
 operation draws towards a close, care must be taken 
 to wipe off, not only the powder which is upon the 
 picture, but also that which adheres to the fingers, 
 in order to be better able to judge whether the 
 rubbing is still producing new powder from the 
 varnish, or whether you have not got down to and 
 are rubbing out the paint. 
 
 This method of removing the varnish dry, is 
 generally preferable for pictures on copper or panel, 
 the surface of which is well united; and likewise 
 for those on canvas that are in the same condition, 
 provided they be sufficiently stretched to prevent 
 the fear of crevices being formed by the rubbing. 
 It suits especially for pictures of a small size and 
 precious finish ; and it is the only one that can be 
 employed on the small number of pictures which 
 Gerard Dou, Mieris, Slingeland, and some others of 
 the great Dutch masters, thought proper to paint 
 in varnish: a practice very reprehensible, which 
 the late M. Casanova at Vienna, and some other 
 painters, have chosen to revive in our day, to avoid 
 the sinking of the colours, and to imitate at once, 
 by this means, the kind of enamel which the colours 
 ought to derive from time alone. It is usual to 
 
 * The readiest way to start the varnish is to dip the finger 
 in the white ash from the fire place, rubbing off what of it may 
 be too rough. Bath brick, or powered pumice-stone, are also 
 more likely to be at hand, than the substance above recom- 
 mended. Trans.
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 253 
 
 raise the varnish in order to renew it, whenever it 
 becomes blanched, tarnished, sombre, or yellow, 
 either from its nature, or from external causes, or 
 from its too great age. It is raised likewise when 
 it happens to cover any dirtv matter which impairs 
 the picture, and which one lias often the pleasure 
 to see disappear with the varnish under the fingers. 
 But in such a case it is often necessary to employ 
 also the spirituous liquids, which constitute the se- 
 cond method of raising the varnish described in 
 the beginning of this chapter, and of which I am 
 now to speak. 
 
 When a picture has a rough surface, no matter 
 on what substance it is painted, or when it is upon 
 canvas the interstices of which form so many little 
 sunk places between the warp and the woof, the 
 preceding method becomes defective in this, that 
 the fingers are unable to penetrate to these places, 
 and the dirt and soiled varnish is left remaining in 
 them, from which arise so many small specks, that 
 will injure the general appearance of the picture 
 through the new varnish that is to be applied to it. 
 Dry fretting is also too laborious to .be used for 
 large pictures, on account of their extent ; and it 
 becomes dangerous for those upon canvas, even the 
 best united of them, when they are not sufficiently 
 stretched, because of the numerous small cracks 
 which may be produced in them by rubbing them, 
 unless they are rested on a board or some other 
 hard and united support during the process. 
 
 In these cases, as well as in every other in which
 
 254 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 it may suit to employ the liquid agency of spirituous 
 applications, a mixture of good spirit of wine and 
 oil of turpentine should be used, taking care to 
 allow the last to predominate in proportion as the 
 picture is precious and delicate, or as the coat of 
 varnish may be thin. The spirit of wine will, on 
 the contrary, be allowed to predominate according 
 as the coat of varnish may be thicker, and the pic- 
 ture less delicate and more solid in the colours. 
 
 Until practice teach the proper quantities, it will 
 be more prudent to commence always with a mix- 
 ture rather too weak than too strong, and to soften 
 the action of the spirit of wine by a larger quantity 
 of the oil of turpentine. If it be found too weak, 
 it will be easy to strengthen it by adding more 
 spirit of wine. Linseed oil may, without danger,, 
 and often even with advantage, be substituted for 
 the oil of turpentine, particularly when a picture is 
 too dry.* 
 
 In the mixture above mentioned of spirit of wine 
 and oil of turpentine or linseed oil, dip either a 
 piece of cotton wool, or fine old linen rag, rolled 
 up lightly, or a bit of fine sponge, holding which- 
 ever you employ between the forefinger and the 
 thumb, and pressing out a little of the mixture. 
 
 * The following proportions have been recommended as per- 
 fectly safe, with common caution, and it is believed are pretty 
 generally used for pictures of value, viz. equal quantities of 
 linseed oil and oil of turpentine, and a quantity of spirits of wine 
 equal to one-fifteenth of the whole. Shake tho mixture well 
 every time any of it is taken out. Trans.
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 255 
 
 A pencil, or even a small stiff brush, may be made 
 use of, if the dirt, from being lodged in deep places, 
 require it. 
 
 The varnish of the picture, after having thus 
 pressed out a little of the mixture on it, is to be 
 gently rubbed in small circular movements, as if 
 you were delineating so many small Os, interlaced 
 and retracing themselves. As soon as the varnish 
 is dissolved on one small place, wipe it off quickly 
 with a dry and soft linen rag, held in readiness in 
 the other hand. Thus all the parts of the picture 
 in succession are stripped of their varnish, and at 
 the same time of their dirt, one after the other, 
 care being always taken to allow the varnish to 
 remain only the exact time necessary for doing 
 this, and not to rub again the places from which 
 the varnish has been already removed. 
 
 Raw cotton is liable to the objection of its some- 
 times leaving threads adhering to what little var- 
 nish may remain. I therefore use it only for pic- 
 tures which are very delicate, and have sunk places 
 in them. A strong brush ought never to be used 
 but for rough pictures that have a thick layer of 
 colour, and when used it ought to be cleaned from 
 time to time, to free it from the dirt and varnish 
 with which it may become charged. When cotton, 
 linen, or sponge are employed, they ought to be 
 changed whenever they become saturated with var- 
 nish. If the sponges are cleaned with soap after 
 the operation, they will serve for many occasions. 
 
 When a picture is covered with a coat of very
 
 256 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 thick varnish, I have observed that the spirit of 
 wine, by mingling with it, loses much of its pun- 
 gency. This has often induced me, in such a case, 
 to employ the spirit alone, without the oil of tur- 
 pentine, which I have always done with success, 
 and without the occurrence of any thing untoward, 
 and particularly without any appearance of the 
 troublesome mould which the spirit of wine is so 
 apt to produce on pictures when employed alone 
 on the bare colours. 
 
 Some persons use lavender-water, and other com- 
 pound spirits, in place of the spirit of wine, a 
 practice which I by no means condemn ; but I 
 must own, that after having made trial of them 
 on the particular recommendation of some of my 
 friends, I see no sufficient reason to prefer them to 
 the spirit of wine ; for while there is no advantage 
 in the use of them as regards the spirituous quality 
 through which they all act, and which they all pos- 
 sess alike, the lavender and other compounds are 
 more exposed to uncertainty from variations in the 
 process of making them. 
 
 Nor do I absolutely disapprove of the varnish 
 being weakened (before proceeding to remove it with 
 the fingers) by means of simple wine or alcohol, 
 which bleach it, and so diminish its cohesion that 
 the fretting becomes easy, and there is a manifest 
 saving of time and trouble. Nay, I would even 
 recommend the practice, to" which I have often had 
 recourse, if it could be exempted from all the danger 
 to which it is at present exposed from the difficulty
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 257 
 
 of determining the degree of strength possessed by 
 the alcohols, and the quantity that ought to be put 
 upon a picture, as well as the length of time that 
 they ought to remain on it. But, so far from ex- 
 perience having regulated this matter, some persons 
 do no more than damp the picture with a little 
 of the spirits, while others completely submerge it ; 
 the first allowing hours for its operation, the last 
 only minutes, and none of them giving any con- 
 sideration to its strength. The establishment of 
 rules for this matter seems indeed to be prevented 
 both by the difference of strength to be met with in 
 such alcohols, and by variations in the thickness and 
 quality of the different varnishes they have to cope 
 with. I rather wish, therefore, than hope to see this 
 plan so perfected as to be free from danger. Luckily, 
 although convenient, it is not essentially necessary, 
 and may be omitted in all consistency with pru- 
 dence. 
 
 With regard to those who pretend to remove 
 every varnish and eveiy kind of dirt from pictures 
 by tormenting them with hard and long rubbing 
 with blotting-paper and oil of turpentine, I con- 
 demn the practice decidedly, as much on account 
 of its absolute insufficiency, as on account of the 
 danger to which it exposes the pictures. 
 
 I conclude by observing, that when the mixture 
 of spirit of wine and oil of turpentine fails to remove 
 the dirt with the varnish, those who have sufficient 
 experience to render it safe, mix with them, and 
 with success, a quantity of potassa proportioned to 
 s
 
 258 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 the occasion ; but, however useful and often neces- 
 sary this may be, it becomes so dangerous in un- 
 practised hands, and under inexperienced eyes, that 
 I cannot propose it to such without a great deal of 
 hesitation, nor unless accompanied with a double 
 portion of caution. 
 
 This leads me to remark that when a connoisseur 
 cleans a picture he stops with just discernment at 
 the proper point, preferring to leave a little dirt 
 upon it to rendering it cold and weak by cleaning. 
 He knows that the golden tone, produced by time, 
 gives to very many pictures an enchanting effect, 
 and he takes every pains to prevent it from disap- 
 pearing, and carefully avoids razing the varnish 
 entirely down to the paint, unless in case of urgent 
 need. 
 
 The action of the air and of damp induces, and 
 in course of time fixes on all varnished pictures, a 
 certain degree of foulness, which dims their look 
 and tarnishes their brilliancy. The amateur should 
 be aware that the renewal of the varnish is not the 
 only remedy for this almost inevitable accident, for 
 a very simple process, taught me by necessity, and 
 recommended by experience, will dispel it. It is 
 only necessary to rub the picture lightly and ex- 
 pertly with a fine sponge of sufficient size, or with 
 a thick spongy and supple doeskin, both moistened 
 with water and squeezed out, so that the water 
 may not form on the picture, which is to be dried 
 instantly, by rubbing it thoroughly, and with the 
 quickest possible movement, by means of a soft and 
 very dry linen rag gathered in the hand. The
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 259 
 
 amateur who shall acquire the necessary dexterity 
 in this useful and simple process may long have 
 the benefit of the same" varnish. 
 
 SECT. III. Of Pictures ichicJi are covered with Oil. 
 
 Every body knows that oils are divided into 
 those that are drying, which harden with time, 
 and those that are fat, which never dry, nor be- 
 come fixed, but continue to spread over any porous 
 surface on which they are put qualities that ren- 
 der these last too injurious to pictures to admit 
 of their ever being put upon them under any cir- 
 cumstances. The drying oils, on the other hand, 
 particularly those expressed from linseed, walnuts, 
 and poppies, are the basis of painting in solid 
 colours. Although these oils are indispensable to 
 give body and consistency to the colours used in 
 painting, of which they form one of the con- 
 stituent parts, and although they are also of 
 acknowledged utility in reviving the colours and 
 preventing cracks and crevices in pictures which 
 are threatened with ruin through dryness and age, 
 (provided that no more of them is used than is 
 necessary to nourish the colours, and that it be 
 wiped off, after having attained that object, with a 
 piece of dry linen, or with bran, or crumb of bread,) 
 it is not the less true that the application of them 
 without necessity to pictures that are already 
 finished is in every case injurious. For if the 
 picture be too new to have yet acquired its perfect 
 
 8 2
 
 260 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 hardness, the oil put upon it will incorporate itself 
 with it, and cause it to grow yellow a misfortune 
 which, when confirmed by time, is of course beyond 
 remedy. If, on the contrary, the picture has ac- 
 quired by age its due degree of hardness, then the 
 new oil, without incorporating itself with it, will 
 form on the surface a crust, which in time will 
 become as hard as the picture itself, and will dim 
 its transparency and freshness, and corrupt the 
 effect of the local and proper colours by a yellow 
 and monotonous general hue. 
 
 It is this oil notwithstanding, as will be shown 
 in the chapter on Varnishes, which is commonly 
 employed as a varnish in Italy, and in part of Ger- 
 many, where even artists cover their most valuable 
 pictures with an incredible profusion of it, first 
 rendering it even still more drying than it is, by 
 boiling it, and by the admixture of white lead with 
 it, as if they feared it would never become suffi- 
 ciently hard without. 
 
 When so hardened, this oil has always been a 
 grievous annoyance to every one who has had any 
 thing to do with the cleaning of pictures. The 
 remedy most commonly applied to it hitherto has 
 been the scraper, and the long-continued applica- 
 tion of water. I have myself experienced the evil of 
 it, and have tried upon it in vain all the secrets 
 which have been cried up to me, or which I have 
 met with in books, except the scraper, the danger 
 and insufficiency of which were too apparent. As to 
 water, notwithstanding the danger to ochre primings,
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 261 
 
 and to panels generally, with which I know it to be 
 fraught, I persisted in employing it perseveringly, 
 as well cold as hot, by means of linen cloths mois- 
 tened and applied without intermission. But my 
 efforts tended to nothing but the bleaching of the 
 colours to such a degree that I have never been able 
 wholly to revive them. Continuing always my expe- 
 riments, however, though with little hope, I have at 
 length had the happiness to find in the application 
 of this same oil itself the means of so softening the 
 old oil that I have afterwards, with spirits of wine, 
 removed both the oils, new and old together, with- 
 out at all injuring the picture. Although this 
 plan has succeeded equally well with four pictures 
 on which I had occasion to employ it, yet I must 
 not be understood to hold it out as infallible until 
 from the number of the cases in which it is tried, 
 and the uniformity of its success, it shall earn for 
 itself that title; but persuaded that the want of 
 other known means will induce connoisseurs to 
 make trial of this one, I feel desirous to put them 
 in possession of all the information that I myself 
 have in regard to it. 
 
 My four pictures, all painted on panel, were evi- 
 dently covered with an oil, which gave them an 
 aspect alike sad and monotonous, and which seemed 
 to be of many years' duration. I gave them a 
 coat of linseed oil during the warmest days of 
 summer, renewing once and even twice a day the 
 places on which it seemed to be absorbed. On the 
 twelfth day the oil on one of the pictures was 
 
 8 3
 
 262 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 become so softened that it clung to my finger. I 
 then employed good spirit of wine, without any 
 other admixture whatever, to remove all the oil 
 which I had put upon the picture ; and the plea- 
 sure I experienced was only equalled by my sur- 
 prise, when I saw the vivacity of the colours 
 restored under my hands as the spirit of wine 
 removed the old oil along with the new. After a 
 few days interval the other three pictures gave me 
 renewed occasion for congratulation by the same 
 results, and with equal success. 
 
 With regard to the fat oils, such as that of 
 olives, colsat, and the like, although the number of 
 people ignorant enough to use them for pictures is 
 luckily very inconsiderable, yet there are such not- 
 withstanding ; and there are even books held in 
 some estimation which recommend this pernicious 
 practice, and among others, I regret to say, the 
 " Elements of Painting," by De Piles. I am not 
 able to say anything from my own experience of 
 such pictures, never having been disgusted by the 
 sight of one, nor of those which are besmeared with 
 the grease of animals, as is done by certain Italians. 
 I will venture, however, from my love for the art, 
 to hazard an opinion in regard to them, which is, that 
 if there be any means of saving pictures so abused, 
 it must, I think, be by reducing the oil and vege- 
 table or animal grease to the nature of soap by 
 means of alkalies, especially caustic soap-makers' ley 
 weakened by a very large quantity of rain-water, 
 with which the picture should be constantly washed
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 263 
 
 without any intermission, trying hot water with 
 one picture and cold with another. The finishing 
 operation will be the cleaning away with pure 
 water the soap produced by so uncommon a pro- 
 cess, if one has the good fortune to get it ! 
 
 SECT. IV. Of Pictures which are covered ivith bad 
 Varnish. 
 
 Those who are well acquainted with the varnishes 
 made from gum copal, amber, oil, and spirit of 
 wine, and those especially who have often used 
 every effort in vain to remove them without injury 
 to the pictures on which they were found, will 
 learn with satisfaction that these pernicious varnishes 
 have been so seldom employed, that I have only 
 fallen upon three pictures with them up to this time, 
 only one of which appears to me to be covered with 
 the varnish made of spirit of wine. 
 
 After various abortive efforts with the ordinary 
 means, I at length got the better of this last by 
 means of spirit of wine rectified, and somewhat 
 warm. The two other pictures, in place of a very 
 hard varnish, had one that was too soft and viscous, 
 approaching to Venice turpentine. It afforded me 
 the occasion of discovering a new method of coping 
 with it, which I succeeded in doing by rolling it 
 under the fingers with much force, after having 
 softened it by successive applications of very warm 
 water. 
 
 My experience in regard to the above varnishes 
 
 s 4
 
 264 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 being so limited, I shall only further communicate 
 to the reader two conclusions to which I have 
 come in regard to them, and which considerate 
 persons will do well to have in view. The one is, 
 that the same solvent which has once dissolved any 
 matter will dissolve it again with the help of time, 
 manipulation, and the necessary degree of heat. 
 The other, that resinous substances hardened by 
 evaporation always dissolve by the application of 
 the same substances that dissolved them at first, if 
 again used in their liquid state, and through the 
 intervention in like manner of time, manipulation, 
 and the necessary degree of heat. 
 
 With respect to copal varnish, Which may be 
 recognised by its hardness and vitreous transpa- 
 rency, the learned chemist, M. Heyer, of Bruns- 
 wick, has assured me that it may be removed by 
 keeping it covered the necessary time with pul- 
 verised camphor, and that the powder or oil of 
 rosemary is nearly as efficacious. He who may 
 .happen to encounter this refractory varnish may 
 without danger make trial of both the one or the 
 other of these means, which will at least do no harm 
 should they do no good. 
 
 SECT. V. Of Pictures which are covered with Wldte of 
 s > Isinglass, or Water Varnish. 
 
 Water, especially warm, is so generally known 
 and employed as the true natural solvent for re- 
 moving these different washes from pictures, that,
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 265 
 
 if things corresponded in reality to their appear- 
 ance, the simplicity of this matter would seem to 
 require nothing more to be said upon it. But 
 however simple and natural this remedy might 
 appear, I am obliged by the necessity of the case to 
 state distinctly that it never is easy, nay, it is often 
 very difficult, and sometimes altogether impossible, 
 to disencumber pictures of these substances, which 
 cling to it as if they were incorporated with it, 
 especially if they be put on before the picture has 
 become hardened by time. Whatever may be the 
 cause of a result so unlike what might be expected, 
 my experience too strongly confirms the disagree- 
 able truth to allow the least doubt to be entertained 
 about it. I am convinced, therefore, that similar 
 trials will give rise to the same complaint in all 
 who, like me, speak in good faith, and disinterest- 
 edly. The above substances, sufficiently refractory 
 when on the surface, are much more so when they 
 happen to be under the varnish, in which situation 
 they are the torment of those who make a business 
 of this department, and who have the laudable am- 
 bition to make their work perfect. 
 
 These remarks, joined to those which I have sub- 
 mitted in speaking of the varnishes, will be sufficient, 
 I trust, to deter every reasonable person from ever 
 employing such dangerous substances on pictures, 
 whether ancient or modern. 
 
 The means which have been the most generally 
 successful with me in removing glaire of eggs when 
 I have found it stubborn, has been to rub the pic-
 
 266 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 ture well with linseed oil, which I remove one or 
 two hours after by means of spirit of wine, when I 
 find that it has generally become united with the 
 white of egg, which it brings away along with it. 
 
 SECT. VI. Of Pictures which are covered with Smoke 
 or Dirt deposited by the Atmosphere, and which have 
 never been varnished or oiled. 
 
 The saponaceous substances and alkalies take the 
 precedence of all remedies in this case. They may 
 all be employed with success. But as the sapona- 
 ceous have the inconvenience of adhering too much 
 to the picture, and the dry alkalies confuse one by 
 the variations in their strength and in the quan- 
 tities required, I shall confine myself, in order to 
 prevent any such embarrassment to the inexperi- 
 enced, to a detail of the mode of applying the caustic 
 soap-maker's ley, which, after long experience, I 
 consider to be the most valuable, as well on account 
 of its efficacy as on account of the simplicity of 
 the operation, and the ease with which the proper 
 quantity may be ascertained. Thus : pour the ley 
 into a cup of rain-water, drop by drop, until the 
 water becomes a little gummy to the feel. It is by 
 the greater or less degree in which it possesses this 
 lubricity that its strength is determined. Custom 
 will enable you to determine with confidence the 
 degree of strength that will answer for the dirt that 
 is to be removed. Commence with the weakest or 
 least glutinous degree of strength upon a corner of
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 267 
 
 the picture : if it appear sufficiently strong, proceed ; 
 if not, add to the mixture drops of the ley until it 
 has acquired the requisite activity. 
 
 Do not allow yourself to be misled into treating 
 these precautions lightly. The pure ley is so caustic, 
 that if a single drop remain upon the picture for 
 an instant, it will do more injury than a live coal 
 would in the same space of time. The kinds of 
 dirt now under consideration, however, differ so 
 much from each other in their nature, thickness, 
 and age, that a mixture that might be active enough 
 for one might not touch another, which would 
 require a much greater degree of activity in the 
 application. If in such a case the operator lose 
 patience, and attempt to reinforce the mixture all 
 at once, and at hazard, he will run the risk of burn- 
 ing his picture in place of cleaning it. Even when 
 it is perceived that the mixture, though already of 
 great strength, does not act as it ought, prudence 
 requires that in place of increasing its strength its 
 action be facilitated by some other means. This 
 may be effected by mingling with it some white 
 quartz sand, washed and well freed from all soil, or 
 by adding to it calcareous or clayey earths, or 
 similar heterogeneous substances, or by weakening 
 or loosening the dirt with oil or water before begin- 
 ning. Both of these aids have frequently succeeded 
 with me to a wish. With the sand especially I have 
 cleaned to a miracle, and so as to make them appear 
 as if new, pictures which persons most experienced 
 in this department had given up. It is well, how-
 
 268 OP CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 ever, to remark, when I mention this, that pictures 
 in the situation of those in question are generally 
 very ancient, and consequently as hard as stone, so 
 that fretting them lightly with the mixture cannot 
 do them the least injury, although it may be suf- 
 ficient to overcome the dirt, when softened by the 
 mordant with which the sand is mingled. 
 
 When it is ascertained by trial that the mixture 
 is of the requisite strength it is to be employed in 
 the following manner. Charge with it, more or 
 less according to need, a brush of an inch diameter, 
 long and thick in the bristle, and neither too stiff 
 nor too soft, with which begin upon a part of the 
 picture of about a foot square, brushing that with 
 short and very rapid movements in every direction, 
 and charging the brush with new liquid when 
 wanted. If this movement, be made with sufficient 
 lightness and quickness, the liquid will become 
 frothy, and will produce a lather similar to that made 
 by soap. Great care must be taken to wipe off this 
 as quickly as possible, by means of a wet sponge of 
 sufficient size, which is to be held always ready in 
 the other hand. The sponge, when charged with 
 the lather, ought to be immediately plunged into a 
 basin of pure water, and withdrawn again as 
 quickly as possible, in order to remove the rest of 
 the mixture from the picture with the fresh water 
 which it will take up. 
 
 The part operated upon being washed, it will be 
 easy to judge whether it is sufficiently cleaned or 
 not. If it be not, the operation must be repeated
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 269 
 
 until you be satisfied. Continue to ^ clean in the 
 same manner successively all the rest of the pic- 
 ture, taking care to renew the water in the basin 
 as often as is necessary to preserve it sufficiently 
 clean. I have specified a brush of an inch dia- 
 meter, knowing by experience that that accelerates 
 the operation, and exposes the picture less than a 
 smaller one, which prolongs the process too much 
 when the picture is large, as those generally are 
 which have never been varnished. Those of a 
 smaller size, especially the Dutch and Flemish, 
 have almost all been in the possession of persons 
 careful enough to preserve them by means of 
 varnish. If, however, you should light upon one 
 of this class which has never been varnished, and 
 which requires to be cleaned, there is nothing to 
 prevent you substituting for the large brush a 
 small one, or a piece of soft linen, or a small 
 sponge. Nor is there any reason why you should 
 not employ a brush that is hard and stiff, and short 
 in the bristle, in case of need, particularly for 
 pictures that are rough. 
 
 Experience has so convinced me of the safety 
 and efficacy of the above method, that I venture 
 to guarantee its success whenever it is employed 
 upon dirt which has not penetrated into the 
 colours, of whatever nature, and however old it 
 may be. I can even assert that it has more than 
 once removed light coats of oil at the same time 
 with the dirt which covered them. As, however, 
 spirit of wine has sometimes done me the same
 
 270 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 service, arid ^as, besides, it appears sufficient to 
 remove atmospherical deposits which are not too 
 old, a trial may be made of it before having recourse 
 to the caustic lees. 
 
 SECT. VILOfthe different Kinds of Mould which attack 
 Pictures. 
 
 When a picture whitens all over, or in any of 
 its parts, whatever it may arise from, it is said to 
 mould, or to have the mould. This word has become 
 technical in the art to designate, for the most part 
 very improperly, things that have nothing in com- 
 mon with its general and primitive signification, 
 which is confined exclusively to that whiteness 
 which always announces approaching mouldiness 
 in the substances laying undermost, and from which 
 it makes its way to the surface. This, when it is 
 not a saline crystallization, is in reality nothing 
 but the commencement of a vegetable fungus, of a 
 nature similar to the mosses and to mushrooms. In 
 order to avoid the confusion arising from the im- 
 proper use that is made of the word mould in 
 painting, I shall divide the moulds into the true and 
 the false, according to their real nature and the 
 causes which produce them. By that I shall faci- 
 litate the understanding of the remedies that may 
 be applied to them. 
 
 The true mould is always the consequence of the 
 damp to which a picture may have been exposed in 
 a place not sufficiently aired. It makes its attack
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 271 
 
 sometimes in front, and sometimes in the rear, and 
 often on both sides at once. If it be perceived 
 in time, nothing is more easy than to remedy it by 
 drying the picture and rubbing the mould. Some- 
 times, however, it is necessary to raise the varnish, 
 which it may have deprived of its transparency. It 
 appears that in general the kind of enamel and 
 stony hardness which the colours acquire from 
 time, prevents the mould from penetrating them 
 and injuring them in front. But on the other 
 hand, when concealed from the eye of the owner, 
 it makes its approach from behind ; its insidious 
 attacks come at length, not only to ruin the can- 
 vass, or even panel, but even to penetrate and per- 
 vert the colours. Here is the true cause of those 
 troublesome stains, more or less large, and always 
 in a certain degree round, against which no remedy 
 has yet been discovered, that I am aware of. 
 
 I rank in the same class the nearly similar stains 
 sometimes to be observed in pictures painted on 
 copper or white iron, and which I attribute to 
 verdigris, or to rust produced by dampness getting 
 through crevices in the picture. 
 
 The false mould includes many kinds, different 
 from each other in their nature and causes, and in 
 the remedies required for them. 
 
 1. The first kind is that arising in the white of 
 eggs, when dampness reaches it through the super- 
 incumbent varnish. It is this which the amateur 
 has often the unhappiness to see spring up sud- 
 denly in certain pictures when they have been
 
 272 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 wetted, and the water has found its way through 
 crevices in the varnish. The only remedy in this 
 case is to remove the varnish and the white of egg 
 as far as possible ; which may be done either by 
 dry fretting or by using the spirit of wine. To 
 these, however, it may sometimes be necessary to add 
 linseed oil, either alone, or combined with the spirit. 
 
 2. The second kind of false mould is that pro- 
 duced under the varnish, by spirituous applications; 
 either from their having been employed too weak, 
 with the view of loosening the varnish before 
 removing it by fretting ; or from the spirit of wine 
 having been used too strong, in order to dissolve the 
 varnish, and remove it through the liquid application 
 above mentioned. This kind of mould is the least 
 troublesome of any, and requires no peculiar pro- 
 cedure, since the same operation which caused it 
 will correct it in either case ; a little more of the 
 turpentine being used, where the spirit has been 
 too weak, or a little more of the linseed oil, where 
 it has been too strong. 
 
 3. The third kind of false mould shows itself 
 generally after relining, when the varnish has 
 been scorched during the operation by the too 
 great heat of the irons, which often nearly burn 
 the surface of the colours themselves. This abomi- 
 nable kind of mould, which renders a picture undis- 
 tinguishable and disgusting, sometimes yields to a 
 mixture of spirit of wine and oil of turpentine : 
 but what proves that too hot irons scorch the 
 colours, in the manner stated, is, that it is often
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 273 
 
 necessary in order to cure this sort of mould, to 
 substitute for the oil of turpentine a true drying 
 oil, in order to revive the colours, by replacing that 
 which the heat has dried up. 
 
 4. The fourth kind of false mould, and the most 
 stubborn of all, is caused by using the spirit of wine 
 without mixture, or other mordant of too active a 
 kind, with which some persons often persist in 
 torturing a picture in order to remove thoroughly 
 some mere speck of dirt, until they scorch or per- 
 vert the colours. This kind generally disappears 
 on the place being rubbed with a drying oil, which 
 revives the colours. I have, however, often found 
 this remedy at fault. In such a strait, I have tried 
 many other plans in vain, until the idea struck me 
 to use spirit of wine and mastic varnish, in equal 
 parts, with which I have rubbed the mould in the 
 same manner as if I had intended to remove the 
 varnish. This method succeeded with me to a 
 wish, and has done me similar service in every case 
 in which I had occasion to use it. 
 
 SECT. VIII. Of the Cases in which the Scraper and 
 Irons may be employed on Pictures. 
 
 Having always disapproved, most decidedly, of 
 the conduct of those who have the hardihood to use 
 a sharp scraper to remove dirt from the whole of a 
 picture, I could only look upon such as practise this 
 method in Italy, Germany, and the Low Countries, 
 as equally ignorant and bold. How then can I 
 T
 
 274 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 paint the surprise caused to me by two artists, the 
 best informed in all Paris in every thing that 
 regards pictures, and one of them entitled to my 
 respect for his connoisseurship, when, on calling 
 for them, I found both before Italian tables, scraper 
 in hand, and occupied in removing, by this mecha- 
 nical means alone, the dirt from the whole of the 
 pictures they were employed on, whilst I was con- 
 vinced they would have gained their object more 
 easily, and far more completely, by using water 
 strengthened with some drops of caustic soap lees, as 
 I have recommended. So far from examples of such 
 weight having shaken my opinion, they have served 
 only to render more odious to me a method so inju- 
 rious, by inspiring me with the dread of its being 
 propagated under their authority, and by the pub- 
 licity with which they use it. 
 
 But, however dangerous in my eyes may be the 
 employment of the scraper on a picture in general, I 
 consider the use of it as advantageous and necessary 
 in certain cases, and when it is managed with the ne- 
 cessary dexterity and knowledge ; as, for instance, 
 to clean deep places, the smallness of which makes 
 access to them difficult, or to remove bad repaints, 
 which have become too hard to yield to the soap- 
 lees wash or to spirit of wine. Still it would be 
 prudent to soften these as much as possible before 
 using the scraper. 
 
 When mentioning one iron implement, I take the 
 opportunity to notice another, viz. the smoothing 
 iron, which may be employed, moderately heated,
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 275 
 
 both for the lining of pictures and for the laying 
 down of the colours when they have started from 
 the canvass. In such cases the colours are covered 
 with a paper rubbed over with chalk, over which 
 the point of the iron is passed, until the raised 
 places are no longer felt. If the paper adhere to 
 the varnish, or to the colour from its being too 
 fresh, care must be taken not to pull it away, for it 
 will bring the paint with it. It must be dissolved 
 by being moistened. If the raised places be large, 
 they ought to be covered with a very weak flour 
 paste before the iron is used, and in this case the 
 paper ought to be oiled.* 
 
 SECT. IX. General Precautions to be taken in cleaning 
 Pictures, whether for lining or restoring them. 
 
 Besides the particular precautions recommended 
 for each of the foregoing operations, I have yet to 
 mention some that are of general application, and 
 which prudence requires to be observed in every case. 
 It is a general rule, in which every body concurs, that 
 a picture ought not to be cleaned unless it be dirty ; 
 and that the varnish ought not to be raised except 
 it be injuring the effect or dangerous to the preser- 
 vation of the picture. It will be injurious to the 
 effect, if it want the necessary transparency and 
 purity. It threatens the preservation, if it be likely 
 to cause the paint to crack. When a picture is 
 
 * Some picture liners use a heavy iron roller, with a heater, 
 like an Italian-iron, for laying down the cracks on the whole of 
 the picture which they have lined. Trans. 
 T 2
 
 276 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 dirty, that is, when the colours do not look as they 
 ought, which is most perceptible in the white 
 colours, it is proper, before having recourse to any 
 other operation, to commence with the following 
 simple and easy one. Let a very soft sponge, 
 dipped in very clear rain water, and squeezed so that 
 too much water may not remain in it, be passed 
 over the picture several times ; dry it up imme- 
 diately with a very soft linen cloth, or with an old 
 napkin, bearing on it as much as may be done 
 without danger. If there be any foulness on the 
 cloth after the rubbing, let the operation with the 
 sponge be renewed until no dirt comes off on the 
 cloth. 
 
 This simple process is very often sufficient to 
 restore all the effect of the picture. But it is ne- 
 cessary to keep in view that, innocent though it 
 may seem, yet if it be employed upon works 
 painted on a priming of chalk, and if every care be 
 not taken, it may ruin them in a few seconds, by 
 wetting the chalk through the crevices of the pic- 
 ture, and thus swelling it to such a degree as to 
 throw off the colour, and the picture will fall in 
 pieces. Luckily an eye that is a little practised 
 may easily discover these chalky preparations, 
 which are scarcely met with except in certain old 
 pictures of the sixteenth century, or the first years 
 of the seventeenth, which are painted on panel. 
 
 I have observed more than once, that what I have 
 failed to obtain by this simple ablution with water, 
 I have succeeded in securing by means of saliva,
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 277 
 
 from its saponaceous and solvent quality, and that 
 without any danger. Unfortunately this method is 
 scarcely practicable, except for small pictures ; but 
 it often affords an excellent means of trying how 
 far a picture will be improved by cleaning. In 
 order to this, one has only to rub a small piece with 
 it sufficiently long to remove the dirt, to wipe it 
 well, and thereafter compare it with the rest of the 
 picture. 
 
 Saliva is likewise the means generally employed 
 by the curious who wish to form an opinion of a 
 picture that is ill varnished, as when the picture is 
 wetted with it, it produces for a moment the effect 
 of varnish. But to do this with a well- varnished 
 picture is an act most reprehensible ! It indicates 
 a man of very little delicacy to do it to the picture 
 of another, and one very ill-informed who can do it 
 to a picture of his own ; for the saliva always 
 tarnishes more or less the lustre of the varnish, 
 particularly if it be not wiped off instantly with 
 a soft linen cloth, the rubbing being performed 
 by circular movements until no trace of the saliva 
 remain. The saliva too is very useful when one 
 has to varnish a picture that has been retouched, 
 for on cautiously rubbing with it the places that 
 are repainted, it will remove the oil which is always 
 found on the surface of them, and which hinders 
 them from taking on water, and even varnish. 
 
 If the amateur succeed in cleaning his picture 
 sufficiently by means of water, or of saliva, he 
 has only farther to varnish it, provided it require 
 
 T 3
 
 278 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 this. But if he is obliged to employ the more 
 efficacious methods of cleaning, he will commence 
 first by examining whether it has been varnished 
 or not. On fretting it with the dry finger, he will 
 discover by the odour and friability of the varnish 
 whether it has been made with mastic or other 
 similar gums, and oil of turpentine. By washing 
 it with water he may ascertain the presence of the 
 glaire of eggs, or of the isinglass or water varnishes, 
 from the froth and gumminess that will be caused, 
 and even it may be from mould supervening. If, 
 after these trials, properly made, he perceive no 
 such indications, he may conclude that either no- 
 thing has yet been put upon the picture, or that it 
 is covered with a hard varnish, or with dry oil. 
 This, with a little consideration, may be determined 
 by the eye alone. But if more be required in order 
 to ascertain it, he may adopt such of the processes 
 before described as may best suit the case. 
 
 The resolution, however, to remove the varnish 
 from a picture must not be adopted on too slight 
 grounds, and merely because of its being too yellow, 
 without having well examined beforehand whether 
 it would not be better to allow it to remain, either 
 because it may be mixed up with retouches well 
 executed, or may have been dirtied designedly in 
 order to conceal retouches on the picture, or be- 
 cause its yellowish tint serves to give to the picture 
 a mellow tone, on which may depend a great part 
 of its harmony. 
 
 In like manner, when the varnish has lost some- 
 thing of its brilliancy, in place of removing it at
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 279 
 
 once, it will be much better to commence by wash- 
 ing it with pure and cold water in the manner before 
 pointed out, after which you may try to restore its 
 brilliancy by varnishing it with oil of turpentine, 
 very clear and pure, and without any admixture.* 
 This process is so little capable of injuring a picture 
 that the greatest connoisseurs consider it as even 
 necessary, and use it from time to prevent their 
 pictures from becoming too dry. As to varnishes of 
 water, isinglass, and white of eggs, every prudent 
 amateur will attack them the instant that he dis- 
 covers such dangerous enemies, and will use every 
 effort to free his pictures from them. 
 
 In operating upon a work of art, whether to 
 clean it or to raise the varnish, it ought to be re- 
 membered that the colours grow hard only by the 
 lapse of time, and that new pictures therefore re- 
 quire more management than old. In general, the 
 vegetable colours are by no means solid, and the 
 earthy ones much less so than the metallic and the 
 mineral. These last are the different ochres, the 
 calx of lead, verdigris, and the calces of the other 
 metals which furnish the solid colours (properly so 
 
 * This can scarcely be done without leaving unsightly brush- 
 marks. If done successfully at all, it must be by floating the 
 picture with the oil of turpentine, and letting it dry in a hori- 
 zontal position without brushing. 
 
 If applied to dark pictures after the varnish is taken off, it 
 revives the colours wonderfully. But it must be admitted that 
 it does so by bleaching them, and consequently by weakening 
 them. It is not, therefore, altogether without danger, if the 
 picture be delicate or very valuable. Trans. 
 
 T 4
 
 280 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 called), and the admixture of which is necessary to 
 give body to those that, of themselves, have too 
 little, or none at all. Thus the metallic preparations 
 derived from lead, particularly those called white 
 lead, or ceruse, contribute more than any other 
 colour to the solidity of a picture, since they enter 
 into a greater number of tints than any other. 
 Finally, the different glazings and transparent 
 colours, being in general the least solid from their 
 nature and from their want of body, ought to be 
 treated with the greatest caution. It is necessary 
 to be particularly on one's guard therefore with 
 lake, grain yellow (stil de grain), both brown and 
 clear, Chinese vermilion, Prussian blue, terra di si- 
 enna, and vine black ; and likewise with ivory black 
 and Cologne earth, when they are used as glazings. 
 A point of the utmost importance, and which 
 must never be lost sight of is this, that among the 
 glazings there will be found some, which, although 
 very transparent and delicate, it is nevertheless 
 very difficult to injure, because they have been 
 laid on the colour when fresh, and have become 
 thoroughly incorporated and united therewith ; 
 and, on the contrary, there will be found others, 
 sometimes not so transparent and delicate, but 
 which will yet be injured very easily, because they 
 stand separate from, and do not adhere to, the 
 colour beneath them, that having been already 
 dry ere they were put on. A little attention will 
 in general enable a connoisseur to distinguish be- 
 tween these, as in the glazings that have little 
 solidity, he will always find, on places which have
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 281 
 
 been rubbed, traces more or less visible of the 
 naked colour which serves as their ground. Pru- 
 dence forbids the employment of mordants on these 
 glazings, over which the varnish ought to be fretted 
 lightly and circumspectly with the fingers, especially 
 on the flesh parts. 
 
 It is no less imprudent to tease a picture unneces- 
 sarily with overmuch cleaning, and thereby expose 
 the paint, in the vain expectation of freeing it from 
 ineffaceable stains produced by the taint of flies, 
 mould from the walls, verdigris, or rust, or to 
 make needless efforts to revive the colours when 
 absorbed by bad primings, or weakened by time. 
 And I would in like manner caution my readers 
 against wasting time with the mordants in the en- 
 deavour to clean troublesome deep places, for which, 
 as I have already said, the point of a scraper, or of 
 a penknife, is the proper remedy, and the only one 
 that can be employed without danger. The scraper 
 is likewise the only means for removing bad repaints, 
 that from their hardness resist the mordants. 
 
 I will conclude this part of the subject, already 
 perhaps too much extended, with this advice, viz. 
 that as I have recommended amateurs to learn to 
 judge of, to clean, and to varnish their pictures 
 themselves, so in like manner I would dissuade 
 them from retouching or repainting them with their 
 own hand. This is too dangerous and too difficult 
 an undertaking for an amateur. Those even who 
 make a business of it so rarely succeed in attaining 
 the perfection necessary to prevent their operations 
 from being visible, or from becoming so by time,
 
 282 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 that in my whole travels I have not met with a 
 dozen artists to whom I would have ventured to 
 entrust a picture of value. In place of adroit and 
 cautious stipplers, or skilful and judicious painters, 
 I have every where found pencils that were rash, 
 heavy, and lavish of colour, wielded by persons who 
 scarcely gave themselves the trouble to examine 
 the combinations employed by the masters whose 
 works they retouched, or to understand tho- 
 roughly the various changes produced by the slow 
 yet certain action of time, air, and light. I have 
 found them generally as sparing in the employment 
 of drying oil as prodigal of that which is injurious, 
 with which they daub profusely and unnecessarily 
 the pictures that pass through their hands, doubt- 
 less from not knowing, that if ever so little of it re- 
 main upon the colours, particularly the whites, these 
 will invariably become yellowish. But a much 
 greater evil still is the pretended improvements, as 
 unskilful as useless, which they have often the 
 boldness to make, without being asked, even on the 
 best composed pictures ! Besides, no one, at the 
 present day, is ignorant of their absurd method of 
 painting in varnish, which corrupts the colours, and 
 prevents them from ever attaining the requisite 
 hardness. Every one knows too how pernicious is 
 the practice of those self-called artists so often met 
 with, who, wanting intelligence to seize the true 
 tint required for a small defect in the picture they 
 are to retouch, have the audacity to extend their 
 dull pencil over the neighbouring parts, under the 

 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 283 
 
 pretence of bringing them into harmony ! Hence 
 those large dark stains which appear as soon as 
 time affects their colours, and which render the 
 pictures unrecognisable, disgracing the ignorant 
 pretenders to whom they owe their existence. It 
 would be a most happy event for art and for ama- 
 teurs, if artists truly worthy of the name, renounc- 
 ing the ridiculous prejudice which makes them fear 
 that they would lower themselves by restoring the 
 beautiful productions of the ancient painters, coidd 
 be induced to think, that in place of being demeaned 
 by the possession of this additional talent, they 
 would become more estimable! I could give ex- 
 amples of the truth of this view of the matter at 
 no great distance, but I am prevented by their 
 proximity. I confine myself, therefore, to referring 
 to M. Coders of Amsterdam, whose celebrity as an 
 artist scarcely in any degree arises from his own 
 works, however charming they are, but is derived 
 from the admirable manner in which he repairs the 
 accidents that have happened to the chief works of 
 the ancient masters. This he does with an art so 
 magical, that when the retouch is dry, and the pic- 
 ture varnished, his pencil cannot be discovered 
 on it. 
 
 I now come to the consideration of the art of 
 lining pictures. Although it may be demonstrated 
 by the most unvarying experience, that when it is 
 well performed, in place of in any degree injuring 
 a picture, lining renders it infinitely more durable, 
 more united, and more agreeable to the eye, yet I
 
 284 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 must also say, that many persons undertake it who 
 acquit themselves so ill, that pictures come out of 
 their hands as rough, and with the breaks and 
 cracks as visible, as when they were put into them ; 
 or if they appear at first more united and in better 
 condition after the lining, their old defects are not 
 long of reappearing ; they peel off, or shrink, blister, 
 show as many disagreeable lines as there have been 
 joinings in the sheets of paper with which they had 
 been covered during the operation, exhibit all the 
 traces of the frames, and however little the season 
 may be a damp one, it is not uncommon to find a vil- 
 lanous mould appearing upon them from the bad 
 size which has been employed, and which even shows 
 itself through the varnish. At other times, the use 
 of size too dry and hard renders the pictures stiff 
 and brittle, and causes them almost to bend the 
 stretcher. It is very lucky indeed if workmen so 
 audacious and unskilful do not ruin the picture, by 
 scorching it with using irons that are too hot, or 
 by raising pieces of it from the ground ; or destroy 
 the glazings by the employment of mordants with- 
 out sufficient caution, in order to remove the yel- 
 lowish mould which is the necessary consequence 
 of their having burned the varnish, and often the 
 colours themselves, by the application of too much 
 heat. In truth, the dangers to be encountered are 
 so apparent to me, that I know not how to advise 
 amateurs who have pictures to line. Whether from 
 ignorance or cupidity, I have seen with regret 
 during my travels that most liners neglect the prc-
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 285 
 
 cautions and depart from the process employed at 
 Paris by artisans most justly famous in this branch. 
 These last, in place of lining the pictures on their 
 own stretchers by means of very hot irons, always 
 do it, so far as their size will permit, on false stretch- 
 ers, in such a manner as that they can work them 
 from two sides ; and they supply the place of the 
 great heat used by the others, by means of heavier 
 irons, longer continued labour, and more frequent 
 renewal of the paper. They do not spare any ex- 
 ertion either, to obtain a paste and a ground size 
 that shall be perfect, and a fine canvass without 
 knots. Thus every picture comes out of their hands 
 united like a mirror, and always remains so. Their 
 workshops present an imposing aspect from the im- 
 mense tables, the pulleys, the smoothing-irons of all 
 weights and sizes, and the other implements, which 
 announce at the first glance a substantial establish- 
 ment, and inspire one's confidence. Such artists, 
 whose well-deserved fame is confirmed by every 
 case they are entrusted with, are infinitely respect- 
 able in my eyes, and worthy of the highest eulo- 
 giums. Whenever the amateur is fortunate enough 
 to meet with such, let him hasten to entrust his 
 pictures to them, in order that creases and other 
 inequalities may disappear without their being hurt 
 in any respect. They will even transfer to a new 
 canvass, without the least danger, such as are painted 
 on panel or on a bad cloth, and are threatened with 
 ruin. This operation is so well understood at the 
 present day, that it is practised at Paris upon pic-
 
 286 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 * 
 
 tures of the greatest size with the most complete 
 success, as may be seen in " The Martyrdom of 
 St. Peter the Dominican," by Titian, and " The Virgin 
 Donatary," by Raphael, which M. Hacquin has trans- 
 ferred to canvass for the gallery of the Louvre. All 
 the success depends upon the guard or facing which 
 is applied upon the picture in order to secure it, 
 and which consists of one or two plies of gauze, 
 made to adhere strongly by means of a flour paste, 
 and one or two folds of thick and soft paper, 
 pasted upon the last of these, in order to assist 
 them. This facing serves to support and secure 
 the paint, while the panel is cautiously removed by 
 means of toothed planes*, after which the operation 
 is reduced nearly to that of mere lining, except 
 that it is in some sort double in this case. As an 
 artist truly skilled in this department is really a 
 benefit to amateurs, by giving to their pictures at 
 one and the same time solidity and beauty, so every 
 person who attempts it without a real knowledge 
 of the process, exposes them to dangers which 
 they will do very wisely to avoid, by prudently 
 leaving their pictures as they are until they meet 
 with one who can do them without risk. I have 
 derived so much satisfaction from what has been 
 done for me in this line by M. Foucque", one of the 
 liners for the Musee at Paris, that I owe him the 
 return of making this public acknowledgment of 
 his talents. The pictures that come out of his 
 
 * Called toothing-planes Trans.
 
 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 287 
 
 hands are united like a glass, without any vestige 
 of old creases, or marks of the paper facing, which 
 is renewed four and even five times if there be 
 occasion. In place of burning the colours, as so 
 many others do, he employs irons with so little heat, 
 that he is obliged to supply the place of heat by 
 using them of much greater weight, and by apply- 
 ing more labour. It matters little to him upon 
 what priming a picture may be painted, nor whether 
 it is repainted, nor whether it be varnished or not, 
 provided these have not been done too recently. 
 Finally, in that state in which he delivers the pic- 
 ture it will always remain, without forming the 
 least crease, and without ever detaching itself from 
 the ground.* 
 
 As I have remarked that, next to the too great 
 heat of the irons, one of the more ordinary causes 
 of bad lining is the bad quality of the composition 
 for fixing the old canvass upon the new, either from 
 the SIZE that is used being too strong (a most cer- 
 tain occasion of failure in lining) ; or from the ad- 
 mixture with it of alkalies, or other ingredients 
 which attract moisture, and which, especially in 
 winter, produce mould ; or lastly, from the use of 
 certain mixtures for this purpose liable to be 
 affected by variations in the atmosphere ; I am gra- 
 tified in being able to communicate to my readers 
 the composition which M. Fontaine, at Paris, has 
 
 * No person can surpass the London liners, one of whom, 
 Mr. John Peel, of Golden Square, is too well known for the 
 excellence of his work to need any encomium here. Trans,
 
 288 OF CLEANING PICTURES. 
 
 assured me is that used by him. He warrants its 
 goodness upon his own experience, and that pic- 
 tures lined with it never undergo the least altera- 
 tion, but always retain their condition. The com- 
 position is made by taking any given quantity of 
 jelly (i. e. cold size), made from parchment, sheep- 
 skin, or other skins, by boiling ; to which add an 
 equal quantity of water, and a fourth part of the 
 same quantity of ryemeal. The whole is heated, 
 and used warm. The jelly, or size, made from the 
 skins is the same as that used by gilders, except 
 that it ought to be only half as strong. The com- 
 position when made, and cold, ought to be of such 
 consistency that a spoon will remain standing in it.* 
 
 * The following two recipes for size, are, it is believed, used 
 by some of the best London liners, for fixing the picture on the 
 new canvass : 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 Venice turpentine, 1 Ib. 
 White resin, Ib. 
 One stone flour. 
 Add thin glue to give consistence. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 A quart of paste. 
 Half a pint made glue. 
 Half do. Venice turpentine. 
 Two table-spoonfuls boiled linseed oil. 
 A table-spoonful Paris white. Trans.
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 289 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 SECT. I. Of bad Varnishes. 
 
 WHILE most amateurs and connoisseurs throughout 
 nearly the whole of Europe are agreed upon the 
 utility of a good varnish for preserving pictures, 
 and increasing their effect, it will hardly be believed 
 that there are people in Italy, and in a part of Ger- 
 many, who persist in condemning the use of it as 
 hurtful, and who substitute for it practices which 
 cannot fail to result, sooner or later, in the total 
 destruction of works of art ; Avhile others, from 
 ignorance of a good varnish, employ such as are 
 very injurious. The most common among the de- 
 structive varnishes are those made with the glaire or 
 white of eggs, isinglass, oil, gum copal, amber, and all 
 the varnishes made with spirit of wine, oil, or water. 
 Every body knows that the white of eggs, and things 
 similar to it, cause new paint to crack and break in 
 a short time. Thousands upon thousands of in- 
 stances have unfortunately placed this beyond 
 doubt. I can attest the same of all the water var- 
 nishes with which I have hitherto become ac- 
 quainted, which are bringing ruin on modern pic- 
 tures, from the custom most artists have of using 
 them to obviate the bad effects produced by the 
 absorption of the colours. However disagreeable
 
 290 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 it may be to an artist to exhibit to the public the 
 fruit of his labour in a disadvantageous state, had 
 he not better undergo this for a limited time than 
 see his work perish, from the purchaser neglecting 
 to remove this varnish, the use of which ought to 
 be only temporary ? And cannot the painter ac- 
 quaint the proprietor, and assure him, on the evi- 
 dence of connoisseurs, of the favourable change 
 which will certainly be made in a few years by 
 time alone ; or failing that, by the application of a 
 good varnish, which may then be applied without 
 danger, seeing that in three years a picture gene- 
 rally becomes sufficiently dry to receive this ? These 
 considerations appear so natural that they ought 
 to strike all artists ; but self-love, interest, and 
 custom, are very difficult to be overcome ; of which 
 the following is an instance : 
 
 Being at Leipsic in 1795, 1 made the acquaintance 
 of M. Graff, a painter, much esteemed and em- 
 ployed, owing to the beauty and resemblance of his 
 portraits, but whose works had the defect of crack- 
 ing in a very short time. Far from shutting his eyes 
 to this, he himself complained of it to every body, 
 blaming always the bad quality of the oils used in 
 his colours, and in despair at not having been able 
 to find better, in spite of every search in many 
 countries. In vain did I protest that he wrongly 
 accused the oils of an evil which had no other source 
 than the water varnish, or glaire of eggs, which he 
 always hastened to put upon his pictures, in order 
 to give them brilliancy. I was never able to con- 
 vince him of so evident a truth, notwithstanding
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 291 
 
 the weight he attached to my opinion in regard to 
 the other parts of the art so strongly do even 
 the greatest men cling to their errors ! 
 
 It will be well if certain artists be convinced by 
 these remarks of the danger of water varnishes, 
 white of eggs, and other matters of that kind. To 
 those who, notwithstanding all I say, will persist 
 in the use of them, I can only farther recommend 
 that they will at least do what lies in their power 
 to diminish their bad effects by mixing with them a 
 proportion of the purest sugar-candy, melted in the 
 strongest possible decoction of colocynth. This last 
 will keep off the flies, while the sugar will give to 
 the varnish a degree of pliability which will hinder 
 it from cracking the colours. The destructive 
 effects of white of eggs, and other similar substances, 
 are by no means confined to new pictures only. It 
 is proved, by an infinity of cases, that they produce 
 similar effects upon the oldest pictures, sooner or 
 later, in proportion to their age and hardness. 
 Thus I have seen in the gallery of the reigning 
 Dukes of Brunswick excellent Italian pictures, very 
 thick in the colours, and from having been painted 
 two centuries ago of course very hard, which the 
 white of eggs had in process of time caused to shrink, 
 and to separate into a multitude of rounds and 
 irregular lozenges, in such a manner that the can- 
 vass was left bare in many places, more than the 
 twelfth part of an inch. For this pernicious var- 
 nish employed by his predecessors, M. Weytsch, 
 landscape painter and director of this gallery, has 
 
 v '2
 
 292 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 substituted drying oil, which I have seen collected 
 of the thickness of a half-crown piece in the large 
 and deep creases formed in two beautiful pictures 
 by Dietrici, from their having only stretchers with- 
 out keys. M. Weytsch, however, informed me that 
 he used the oil merely from want of funds to pur- 
 chase varnish, and that he himself altogether pre- 
 ferred the latter. 
 
 I wish I could have said as much in favour of 
 M. Riedel, a painter, arid the principal inspector of 
 the magnificent electoral gallery at Dresden, the 
 most determined and obstinate enemy of varnish 
 whom I have yet met with. A volume would 
 scarcely suffice to contain the entertaining proofs 
 of his true or affected dislike to varnish which he 
 afforded me during my long stay at Dresden; a 
 dislike which he carried so far, that if he could 
 perceive the least trace of varnish in a picture, 
 whatever might be its merit and state of preserva- 
 tion, he shrugged his shoulders, and said dryly, in 
 German, that it was a good picture, but that it was 
 already varnished meaning by that to say, that it 
 was already doomed to destruction ! Nay, not con- 
 fining himself to words, he actually put in practice 
 the following little manoeuvre with much adroit- 
 ness. Having selected some pictures in the gallery, 
 from which he removed the varnish that had grown 
 old and yellow upon them during half a century, he 
 took care in doing so to leave it remaining on the 
 whitest and lightest part of the pictures, which places 
 thus became an ugly stain that shocked every person. 
 This stain he pointed out to all who were inclined
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 293 
 
 to listen to him, as a demonstration that varnish 
 was poison for pictures ; whereas the clear-sighted 
 saw in the cleaned parts of the picture only an 
 incontrovertible proof that the varnish had not in- 
 jured them in the slightest degree ! The payments 
 received by M. Riedel from his Highness the 
 Elector, for his first trials of a vegetable oil varnish 
 of his own discovery, were so considerable, that 
 they could not but increase his ardour to continue 
 the use of it ! 
 
 In the mean time his previous operations did not 
 escape criticism, and were by no means favourable 
 to him, when a comparison was made between the 
 former and the present state of some Italian chief 
 works, such as the Night and the Saint George of 
 Corregio, upon which he had operated. Not having 
 seen these until after they had come under his 
 handiwork, I am not able to determine how much 
 their condition is to be attributed to that. But 
 truth compels me to say, that I found in this famous 
 Night not only clouds such as we see in marble, 
 but likewise such hardness and dryness in many 
 parts, and such a disagreeable grimace in the coun- 
 tenance of the woman who holds her hand before 
 her eyes, to say nothing of other defects, that I 
 cannot conceive how this picture could procure so 
 much credit as it has done to Corregio, if it came 
 from his hands such as it is now. 
 
 At that time I frequented the Dresden Gallery 
 every morning, and got from M. Riedel all the 
 details of his practice. He informed me that
 
 294 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 amongst others the chief works of Corregio, Ra- 
 phael, Titian, and Procaccini, after having under- 
 gone his preparatory operations, had got a coat of 
 his oil of flowers, which he would repeat until every 
 part became perfectly bright ! And on my remark- 
 ing that in the admirable Venus of Titian the car- 
 nations alone were bright, and all the rest flat, he 
 told me, with perfect coolness, " that having only 
 as yet given it three coats of his oil, that was not 
 astonishing, but that he would put it all in unison 
 by multiplying the coats." Such was his threat 
 at the very moment that I felt overpowered with 
 chagrin to see the superb carnations of Titian ac- 
 quiring a yellowish, sad, and monotonous tone, 
 through the coats that he had already given to it ! 
 Not only has the disastrous use of oil, which is 
 confined in Germany to certain provinces, extended 
 itself throughout the whole of ^ Italy, where an in- 
 finity of fine pictures have long suffered under it ; 
 but what seems scarcely credible in that country 
 of the art, a method much more detestable still is 
 practised by ignorant persons, who, on the pretext 
 of nourishing and setting off the colours in pictures, 
 rub them with fat oil, or lard, or other animal 
 grease. I have been assured, to rny great astonish- 
 ment, that in more churches than one, the pictures 
 underwent this nefarious operation on the eve of 
 the great festivals in Italy. So destructive a prac- 
 tice comes in process of time to rot the picture, so 
 that it will no longer hold together. M. Foucque", 
 one of the principal liners in Paris, has assured me
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 295 
 
 that all his art has been insufficient to save certain 
 Italian pictures so treated, which individuals into 
 whose hands they had come through the revolu- 
 tionary wars, had intrusted to him to line or to 
 transfer to a new canvass. 
 
 If animal grease applied to the face of pictures 
 destroys them by slow degrees, the oil of turpentine 
 itself even may cause their ruin fast enough, if it be 
 applied to the back of such as are painted on can- 
 vass. Though this practice be extremely dangerous, 
 yet we find it nevertheless very much cried up by 
 more than one author as a secret, under the specious 
 pretext, that by this means the colours are imme- 
 diately revived, so that the pictures appear as if 
 new. But in point of fact this detestable plan, 
 though it give to the picture a temporary brightness 
 it is true, ends by decomposing the priming and 
 effacing the colours. 
 
 Amongst the varnishes which amateurs ought 
 altogether to banish from use, I shall point out, 
 without doing more than mentioning them, those 
 made from gum copal and amber, as well as all 
 those that are prepared from oil or spirit of wine 
 without exception, their stony hardness rendering 
 them as dangerous for pictures, as they may be suit- 
 able for carriages, furniture, and wainscotting. To 
 these pernicious varnishes, I add the waxed water 
 of Bachelier, which, being full of alkali, corrodes 
 the colours, and causes them to fly off, particularly 
 when a picture that has been varnished with this 
 drug comes to be washed. 
 
 c 4
 
 296 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 SECT. II. Of good Varnish. 
 
 After having reviewed the different kinds of 
 varnish, and analogous substances that are injuri- 
 ous to pictures, I have now to speak of those which 
 are useful, and by the employment of which no 
 danger is superinduced. These, from the united 
 experience of the best-informed amateurs in the 
 different parts of Europe, are reduced exclusively 
 to those varnishes which are made of the oil of tur- 
 pentine, called also the essence or spirit of turpen- 
 tine, combined with different resinous substances. 
 The varnish hitherto acknowledged as the most 
 exempt from defect when it is prepared with the 
 requisite attention, is that made from mastic (mis- 
 named a gum, but which is a resin,) dissolved in a 
 due proportion of oil of turpentine. The varnish 
 so formed is clear and transparent, and when ap- 
 plied to pictures dries very soon, without breaking. 
 It acquires also a degree of hardness and cohesion 
 sufficiently close and permanent, and may, notwith- 
 standing, be easily raised, and reduced to a powder 
 by a light and methodical fretting with the bare 
 and dry fingers, and without the employment of 
 any other medium. Unfortunately almost all the 
 substances which from the dearness of mastic are 
 substituted for it, such as olibanum, frankincense, 
 rosin, and pitch, are deficient in clearness and trans- 
 parency, and have the fault of becoming yellow, and 
 acquiring a dull unnatural look in a short time.
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 297 
 
 The superiority of mastic varnish is so well 
 established by its constant and daily use all over 
 Europe, and it is besides so universally known 
 and adopted by all well-informed amateurs, that 
 it may seem superfluous to give here the recipe for 
 its composition. But although all the world are 
 agreed as to its constituent parts, they are not 
 equally so as to the relative proportions of these, 
 so that one frequently sees amateurs dissatisfied 
 with the consistency of their varnish, some com- 
 plaining of its being too thin, and others of its 
 being too thick. Such was my own case until I 
 adopted the following recipe, to which, after long 
 experience, I now give the preference: To a 
 pound of the clearest and purest mastic in beads, 
 which I place in a clear bottle, with a flat bottom 
 sufficiently large, I add two pounds of oil of tur- 
 pentine, which I take care to select as bright and 
 clear as the purest water.* In summer I expose 
 the bottle to the sun ; in winter I put it at a mo- 
 derate distance from the fire. The first day or 
 two I shake it roughly as often as possible, were it 
 even every half-hour, in order that the beads of 
 mastic may separate and present the more surfaces 
 to the action of the turpentine. When they have 
 
 * A pint of oil of turpentine weighs about a pound (an ounce 
 and a half more), so that the pound of gum goes to rather more 
 than a quart bottle of turpentine. The Brabant Ib. is somewhat 
 more than the English imperial Ib., 100 of the former being 
 equal to 103-35 of the latter ; but this does not affect the rela- 
 tive proportions now given, the quantities being reduced to the 
 same measure of weight Trans.
 
 298 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOB PICTURES. 
 
 come to form only one mass from their adhering to 
 each other, and to the bottom of the bottle, the 
 shaking serves only to raise and spread the higher 
 part of the mass, which is already half-dissolved, 
 through the oil, so as to admit the solvent to the 
 under parts. It is rarely that a whole week is 
 required for the complete solution when the bottle 
 has been well shaken, and well exposed to the heat. 
 Most frequently, indeed, one or two days are suffi- 
 cient. If one were pressed for time, a sand-bath 
 moderately heated might be had recourse to ; but I 
 only suggest this in case of necessity, having always 
 preferred varnish made by a slow process. I have 
 never, therefore, agreed with those who make var- 
 nish on the instant by means of the fire, for this 
 kind has always a tendency more or less to grow 
 yellow. 
 
 For the benefit of those who are not well ac- 
 quainted with mastic, I may mention that it is a 
 dry resin that distils from the true mastic tree of the 
 Levant on incision. The taste is slightly aromatic, 
 astringent, and resinous. It is imported in the 
 shape of small beads, amongst which are mixed 
 small shapeless grains. The beads are the best. 
 The yellowish colour which it has ought to be very 
 pale and transparent, and it ought to break clean 
 under the teeth, to soften with heat, to melt and 
 puff up in the flame of a candle, itself to flame on 
 hot coals, and to give out an agreeable odour. 
 
 A varnish made with the proportions above spe- 
 cified will have as much consistency as is required,
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 299 
 
 even in cases where it is necessary to have it of 
 the thickest kind. But for those who require it 
 thinner, it is a good plan to make likewise another 
 supply, prepared in the same manner, except that 
 it should have three parts of the oil of turpentine 
 (instead of two) to one part of the mastic. Time, 
 in place of injuring, improves these varnishes, if 
 kept bottled. In order to apply it successfully to 
 a picture it is necessary to work it well on it, cross- 
 ing it in every direction. To get rid of the bells 
 which form on the brush, scrape the brush on the 
 edge of the vessel that holds the varnish ; and to 
 avoid dust, apply it in a place into which no one 
 may come during the day on which it is used. 
 After laying on the varnish the picture must be 
 placed horizontally, with the painted surface upper- 
 most, for an hour, that the varnish may spread it- 
 self and dry uniformly; after which, the picture 
 may be placed on end, with its front to the wall. 
 It is proper, as far as possible, to varnish only 
 on clear and serene days. The varnish flows and 
 spreads itself better in summer than in winter, and 
 is slower of drying, on account of the heat.* 
 
 In buying the mastic it is necessary to guard 
 against the cupidity of the dealers in it, who adul- 
 terate it by the mixture of other resinous substances 
 
 * The quantity of varnish used may be less, but should never 
 exceed two thin coats, so as to allow the handling of the pencil 
 to be seen. Nothing is more suspicious-looking, as regards 
 purity, than a thick gummy coat of varnish over a picture. 
 Trans.
 
 300 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 that are lower in price, particularly olibanum. Those 
 who wish to give it every advantage ought to spread 
 it upon a flat plate, and pour very pure rain water 
 upon it until it swim, and then cover it with an- 
 other plate, and expose it thus, where it may get the 
 most sun, and during the greatest heat of summer, 
 until all the water is evaporated. This operation, 
 which it is often necessary to repeat more than 
 once, gives the highest degree of clearness to the 
 mastic, and by it I have obtained varnish which 
 has never altered its tint. Those who consider 
 this operation too tedious ought at least to wash 
 their mastic well, in order to free it from the dust 
 with which it is always accompanied. No one 
 ought ever to use it without taking this most ne- 
 cessary precaution. 
 
 Restorers of pictures, knowing that varnish never 
 takes a good hold of the oily and greasy surface of 
 paint that is too new, have for a long time been 
 in the practice of first giving to pictures that are 
 repainted or retouched, a coat of white of eggs, 
 in order that they may be able to varnish them 
 sooner. In the present day, the knowledge of the 
 pernicious effects of this practice has made a so- 
 lution of isinglass to be substituted for it, which, 
 in my opinion, is equally bad. I condemn these 
 the more freely, because by mixing with the colours 
 used for the retouch the requisite quantity of sugar 
 of lead, and thereafter exposing the picture to the 
 light in a place sufficiently airy and warm, it may 
 very well be varnished in a month, and often even
 
 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 301 
 
 sooner, provided the new colours are not too thickly 
 laid on, and do not form too large masses, and if a 
 very thin varnish be used. This last may easily be 
 obtained by adding the proper quantity of the oil of 
 turpentine. 
 
 Having referred to this thinning of the varnish, 
 I may mention that the addition of the new tur- 
 pentine to the old often destroys its clearness, and 
 causes a deposit to be formed that is very gluti- 
 nous ; but its clearness returns naturally in a few 
 days, and even immediately by the heat of a sand 
 bath. All varnishes, indeed, form more or less of 
 a deposit in the course of time. This, however, 
 improves their clearness, since the deposit takes 
 down and incorporates with it all the dirt which 
 might be injurious. Small specks of wood are the 
 only things that are likely to remain swimming in 
 it, on account of their lightness. To avoid these 
 there is a necessity for clearing the mastic from 
 them before mingling it with the oil of turpentine.* 
 
 * Pictures are liable to become dimmed very soon after being 
 varnished, either from a very thin bluish film of smoke forming 
 on them, or from the varnish becoming chilled, that is, acquiring 
 a frozen appearance similar to ground glass. It will not do to 
 rub them for the removal of these, until the surface of the var- 
 nish has become quite hard. To do so would make it perma- 
 nently dim, the surface being too soft to bear the handkerchief, 
 and so getting crushed with the slightest pressure. Good var- 
 nish, however, ought to be sufficiently hard in ten days to admit 
 of the film of smoke being removed by very delicate rubbing 
 with an old silk handkerchief; and for this purpose it is best 
 done by a lengthened movement (as a groom rubs a horse) in- 
 stead of a round one. But against the chilling of the varnish
 
 302 OF THE VARNISHES USED FOR PICTURES. 
 
 I am not aware that there is any certain remedy. Some var- 
 nishes, however, particularly those of the best London makers, 
 are less subject to it than others ; and it is to some extent a 
 preventive to varnish the picture in a heated room, and to warm 
 the surface of the picture before applying it. I have been told 
 also, on good authority, that chilling may be prevented, and even 
 removed, by rubbing the surface of the varnish with a soft linen 
 cloth moistened with turpentine, putting at the same time on the 
 surface of the varnish as much linseed oil as adheres to the point 
 of the finger on touching the oil with it. This I have not tried, 
 but it is certainly a good thing for rubbing up a picture that 
 has got a little tarnished. It must be rubbed perfectly dry to 
 prevent its attracting dust. 
 
 When, however, the varnish has fairly chilled, the best plan 
 is to let it alone for six or eight weeks, and then damp the sur- 
 face, bit by bit, with a moist spunge, and rub it dry with an old 
 silk handkerchief. By this means, if done gently and with 
 patience, a fine enamelled surface will be produced. Trans.
 
 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 303 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES, WITH REMARKS ON THOSE OF 
 PARIS, VIENNA, DRESDEN, DUSSELDORF, AND MUNICH. 
 
 THE decline of the colossal power of Rome was 
 succeeded by ages of barbarism unfavourable to 
 the cultivation of the arts, and especially that of 
 painting. Pictures were then, at best, only a kind 
 of images. It was not until the fifteenth century, 
 and the discovery of painting in oil colours, that 
 princes, and the great, began to compete with the 
 church for the productions of the pencil. By de- 
 grees pictures became the most distinguished and 
 most valuable ornaments of palaces and public 
 buildings ; and in these they continued to be hung, 
 until the danger to which they were liable from the 
 too public exposure of such places, or the increasing 
 importance attached to them by their illustrious 
 proprietors, gave rise to the idea of collecting them 
 in buildings devoted exclusively to their reception. 
 It is thus that most of the public galleries have 
 had their commencement. Many of them have 
 been so enriched by successive additions, that they 
 have now truly become national treasures, as 
 honourable to the country which possesses them, 
 as useful to the people who have the privilege of 
 access to them. These advantages may be lost, 
 however, if the enjoyment of them be reserved to
 
 304 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 the proprietor alone. This last consideration ought 
 to be enough to induce certain sovereigns in Ger- 
 many to abolish the shameful practice introduced 
 by those who have charge of their galleries, of taxing 
 strangers who go to see them. For does not such 
 a practice present obstacles, founded on no utility 
 or necessity, to the diffusion of good taste, and to 
 the progress of knowledge ? 
 
 Public galleries may be accounted amongst the 
 most convincing proofs of a high degree of civi- 
 lisation, of a state of peaceful security and per- 
 manent prosperity, of a wise employment of the 
 public revenues, and of a government enlightened, 
 mild, and paternal. It would be in vain to object 
 that the public galleries in France were augmented 
 under the anarchial government of the revolution, 
 while England, so proud of its knowledge and civi- 
 lisation, has, as yet, no gallery at all, notwith- 
 standing its wealth, and its stable and constitutional 
 government. The facts of the case rather confirm 
 my position ; for it was to her sovereigns that France 
 owed the formation of her gallery, one of the most 
 precious in Europe ; and though the revolutionists 
 increased it without limit, it was not from the love 
 of the art, but to assuage their insatiable passion 
 for seizing on every thing, at the risk of seeing 
 every thing perish. And such, indeed, would have 
 been the result, if a wiser government had not pre- 
 vented the ruin that must have followed from so 
 many interesting productions of the art being 
 accumulated at Paris, by distributing them, and so
 
 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 305 
 
 dividing the care of them, among the different 
 departments of the country. England in like 
 manner, thanks to its kings, would have enjoyed to 
 this day a gallery worthy of its opulence, but for 
 the fate of Charles I., the great protector of art 
 and artists, and the instability of the throne con- 
 sequent upon his fall. I own, nevertheless, that 
 the English parliament, which disposes at will the 
 treasures of the nation, ought long since to have 
 done what the frequent changes in the succession 
 to the throne have hindered their kings from doing, 
 and so have placed England at least on a level in 
 this matter with many other countries less able 
 than she. Happily for the honour of the English 
 nation, individuals enough among them have 
 proved that she is not insensible to the charms of 
 art, by the truly magnificent collections which they 
 have made, and are still making, at great expense, 
 thus charging themselves, in place of the parlia- 
 ment, with the maintenance of the national glory. 
 But such private collections, being almost all distri- 
 buted among the country seats of powerful families, 
 can never excuse the English government from 
 forming a public gallery at London, especially if 
 they wish the school of painting established there 
 to succeed. May the artists of London be as firmly 
 persuaded of this as I am ! May her citizens be as 
 deeply penetrated with its advantages ! * 
 
 * This was of course written before the establishment of the 
 National Gallery. Trans. 
 
 X
 
 306 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 The Raphaels, the Rubenses, the Titians, and 
 Caracci improved themselves by studying the 
 works of other great masters. Public galleries, 
 where art displays her glory and her magic in chief 
 works of every class, afford to the scholar a method 
 of instruction the more certain, in that they demon- 
 strate to his eyes the actual practice of that of 
 which his master can teach him only the precept ; 
 while the master himself finds there, in his turn, a 
 thousand opportunities for improvement, for guid- 
 ance in difficulty, and for acquiring a firmer step 
 in the progress of his art. He finds there likewise 
 a very easy means of rendering himself a true bene- 
 factor to his pupils, and of promoting their future 
 fame, by exercising a little self-denial, and gener- 
 ously engaging them, were it ever so little, in copy- 
 ing the choice pictures of the old masters in place 
 of his own. The utility of these galleries is not 
 confined to this. They alone have the merit of 
 exhibiting the entire art in all its results, its dif- 
 ferent epochs, its progress, its schools, and its 
 cultivators. What the too short span of human 
 life does not permit us to hope for in any private 
 collection may be effected in the course of time 
 by a public establishment, provided those who 
 direct it have the zeal, the probity, the impartiality, 
 and the full complement of knowledge required 
 for a situation which it is so difficult to fill with 
 success. I am willing to suppose, that, by giving 
 a large remuneration, a custodier may always be 
 obtained who is possessed of zeal and probity ; but
 
 MUSEE ROYAL. 307 
 
 it is impossible to secure by the mere amount of 
 money all the knowledge required for such an 
 appointment, and still less to prevent a painter, 
 supposing such to be appointed, from entertaining 
 a continued partiality for that school, subject, and 
 manner which he has once adopted. 1 should 
 never have done if I were to mention all that my 
 observations and my zeal for art suggest to me on 
 this point. But it is enough to refer to my last 
 chapter, in order to show how indispensable the 
 knowledge that belongs to an amateur is to those 
 who direct public galleries. And while such know- 
 ledge is necessary in order to their completing the 
 gallery, and securing the preservation of its con- 
 tents, it is not less required of them that they and 
 their subalterns be distinguished by complaisance 
 and disinterestedness towards the public, in order 
 to render the treasures which are entrusted to them 
 useful to the utmost extent of which they are 
 capable, by facilitating and encouraging access to 
 them, and so contributing to the instruction of 
 artists in their art, and to the diffusion of good 
 taste and knowledge amongst mankind. 
 
 By general custom the word Gallery, considered 
 with reference to painting, is applied to designate, 
 not the building, but the productions of the pencil, 
 collectively, which are contained in it. The prin- 
 cipal public galleries are those of Paris, Vienna, 
 Dresden, Dusseldorff, and Munich. 
 
 I. The Gallery of the Musee Royal, now in the 
 palace of the Louvre at PARIS, consists of the 
 
 x 2
 
 308 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 pictures acquired at great cost by the kings of 
 France. It was commenced by Francis I., the 
 friend of Leonardo da Vinci, and greatly aug- 
 mented by Louis XIV. * 
 
 In the Florentine school the Muse"e is particu- 
 larly distinguished for the works of Leonardo da 
 Vinci, Fra Bartolomeo, Andrea del Sarto, Pietro 
 da Cartona, and two excellent pictures by Christo- 
 phero Allori. 
 
 In the Roman school it surpasses every other 
 collection, public and private, by the number, 
 quality, and importance of the works of Raphael 
 possessed by it. It possesses also a charming Saint 
 Michael, by Baroccio, and a number of the works 
 of Poussin. 
 
 In the Venetian school it is distinguished in an 
 especial manner by the most important works of 
 Paul Veronese, by the admirable Martyrdom of 
 Saint Agatha f , and two other very fine pictures by 
 Sebastian del Piombo, two good works by Gior- 
 gione, a number of the works of Titian, amongst 
 which are some that are not black, and finally, by 
 the marvellous Ring of Saint Mark, by Paris 
 Bordon.J 
 
 * During the wars of Bonaparte, pictures, as every body 
 knows, were taken by the French troops from many continental 
 nations, and placed in the Louvre, and in the chief towns 
 throughout the departments ; but most of them were returned to 
 the States to which they belonged, by the Allied Sovereigns, on 
 the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815. Tram. 
 
 f Not now in the Louvre. Tratis. 
 
 * Restored to Venice in 1815. Tran*.
 
 MUSEE ROYAL. 309 
 
 In the Lombard school there is a brilliant array 
 of the most precious works of Corregio, particu- 
 larly his Saint Jerome, which formerly belonged to 
 the Academy at Parma*, and for which the Elector 
 of Saxony, King of Poland, in 175."), in vain offered 
 the enormous sum of 320,000 francs, although Cor- 
 regio was paid only forty-seven ducats for painting 
 it, seven ducats more than he got for his famous 
 Night, in the Dresden gallery. f The Musee is rich 
 also in the number and importance of the works of 
 Domenichino ar.d Albano which it possesses, and is 
 graced by many of Guido, in his second or good 
 manner ; by two excellent pictures from the hand 
 of Parmegiano, and a charming picture of the 
 Virgin, by Louis Caracci ; a number of the works 
 of Annibal Caracci, some of which may be re- 
 commended for the clearness of their colouring ; 
 an agreeable Holy Family, by Procaccini ; abun- 
 dance of Guercini's works, some of which are less 
 black" than is usual with him ; and finally, by the 
 Adoration of the Shepherds, an admirable chief 
 work of Spagnoletti. The Nativity J, and other 
 beautiful works by Benedetti, a Genoese painter, 
 as well as the works of Murillo, a Spanish painter, 
 adorn the Musee, and do much honour to himself 
 likewise. 
 
 * Restored to Parma in 1815. Trans. 
 f- The ducat is equivalent to about three shillings and three- 
 pence sterling. Trans. 
 
 \ Not now in the Louvre. Trans. 
 x 3
 
 310 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 In the Flemish school this gallery is peculiarly 
 brilliant, from the number of Rubens' highest 
 works included in it, as well as those of his best 
 pupil Van Dyck, those of Philip de Champaigne, 
 and many excellent specimens of Teniers, and chief 
 works by John Van Eyck. 
 
 Among the Dutch painters, it has select speci- 
 mens of Carl du Jardin, Adrian Van Ostade, Ary 
 de Voys, Van der Heyden, Francis and William 
 Mieris, Albert Cuyp, De Keyser, Everdingen, Paul 
 Potter, a great battle-piece by Wouvermans, and a 
 number of Gerard Dou's works, although not all 
 of the best quality. It is still deficient in the 
 works of many excellent masters of this school, 
 such as Gonzales, Hobbima. Arnold Van der Neer, 
 Rachel Ruysch, Van der Does, and Hackaert. It 
 is not unprovided with examples of Van Aelst, 
 Breenberg, Brouwer, Dietrici, Elsheimer, Van Huy- 
 sum, Lairesse, Mignon, Peter Neefs, Eglon Van 
 der Neer, Gaspar Netscher, Poelemburg, Pynacker, 
 John Hendrick Roos, Terburg, William Van der 
 Velde, John Baptist Weenix, and John Weenix; 
 but I have seen better specimens in other galleries, 
 and in private collections. 
 
 In the French school the Musee is all that might 
 be expected, and without a rival. The most re- 
 markable specimens are, the Preaching of Saint 
 Paul, and the Descent from the Cross, the two 
 chief works of Le Sueur. 
 
 On the other hand, it possesses no choice work 
 of Albert Durer, and is not eminent in the
 
 IMPERIAL GALLERY AT VIENNA. 311 
 
 German school beyond some good portraits by 
 Holbein.* 
 
 II. The Imperial Gallery at VIENNA owes its 
 origin to that constant love for the art of painting 
 which has hitherto been almost hereditary in the 
 House of Austria. The gallery formed by the 
 Emperor Rodolph II. at Prague, the place of his 
 residence, was the admiration of the whole world 
 for the gems which it contained. But after the 
 death of that monarch it was pillaged, and its 
 contents dispersed by the Swedes during the thirty 
 years' war ; and three admirable works of Corregio, 
 afterwards noticed, which were carried off with a 
 small number of other chief works to Vienna, were 
 all that were saved. There this remnant, com- 
 bined with such pictures as were there already, arid 
 with the magnificent collection of the Archduke 
 Leopold William, brought from the Low Countries in 
 1657, and other additions, formed for a long time 
 the Imperial Gallery in the Stallbourg, adjoining the 
 Court. Prenner and Stampart have given an idea of 
 the contents of this gallery in a work published by 
 
 * According to the Catalogues of the year 1844, theMusee 
 contains the following old pictures, viz. : 
 
 Of the French school 373 
 
 Flemish, Dutch, and German 540 
 
 Italian 485 
 
 Copies 8 . 
 
 1406 
 
 Besides the Standish Gallery, consisting of 244 oil paintings, 
 and the Spanish Gallery, containing probably as many more. 
 Trans. 
 
 x 4
 
 312 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 them in 1735, entitled "Prodromus Pinacothecae 
 Caesarese," in which they have represented on a 
 very small scale nearly one thousand of the pic- 
 tures. In 1776 the gallery was transferred to the 
 very beautiful palace of Belvidere, which the cele- 
 brated Prince Eugene caused to be built in 1724, 
 in the quarter called Renn-Weg, for a summer re- 
 sidence ; and there it still remains, but much aug- 
 mented by pictures taken from the old castles 
 belonging to the Emperor in the different pro- 
 vinces, and by purchases made by Joseph II. and 
 Francis II. 
 
 In the Florentine school the gallery of the Bel- 
 videre is particularly distinguished by two excel- 
 lent pictures by Fra Bartolomeo ; a chief work of 
 Andrea del Sarto, and many other good works of 
 this master ; a very rare specimen of Anthony Beli- 
 velti, remarkable for its vigorous and agreeable 
 colouring; two very precious pictures by Francis 
 Furini, which rival Titian himself in the carnations 
 and Rembrandt in effect ; a very good specimen of 
 Cigoli, one of Francis Yanni, one of Santo di Titi, 
 one of Francis Currado, an agreeable picture by 
 Vasari, two charming works by Gentileschi, and 
 a very beautiful picture of the Virgin, by Carlo 
 Dolci. 
 
 I cannot admire the pictures by Leonardo da 
 Vinci, which are here included under this school ; 
 and as to the five pictures bearing the name of 
 Michael Angelo, the spuriousness of four of them 
 is evident so far as regards the execution ; for
 
 BELVIDERE. 313 
 
 although the invention, the ordonnance, and the 
 design in them appear to belong wholly to Michael 
 Angelo, that which represents the attributes of the 
 four Evangelists shows the pencil of Julio Romano. 
 The Carrying off of Ganimede is positively asserted 
 by Vasari to be painted by Baptiste Franco, from 
 the design only of Michael Angelo; and the keeper 
 of the gallery assures me that the same is the case 
 with regard to the two others, namely, the Holy 
 Family, and the Saviour in the Garden of Olives. 
 The fifth is a small picture on slate, 20 inches by 
 17, known as the Dream of Michael Angelo, which, 
 although it has suffered much, has an air of 
 originality and singularity about it that is very 
 interesting. ' 
 
 In the Roman school the Belvidere possesses 
 among others, three good pictures attributed to 
 Raphael, but of which one only, The Saint Mar- 
 garet, appears to me to be free from doubt. That 
 which represents Jesus with the Virgin, and Saint 
 John, is probably painted by Balthazar Peruzzi, 
 whose name, with the year MDVL, may be ob- 
 served in the embroidered border of the Virgin's 
 robe. But it is no way inferior to the works of 
 Raphael in his first manner, while it is an infinitely 
 greater rarity. The third picture, being a Holy 
 Family of four figures, has much more of the man- 
 ner of Francis Penni than of the third manner of 
 Raphael. It is attributed to the latter, it is true, 
 but I cannot coincide with this opinion, notwith- 
 standing the constant tradition at Milan, founded
 
 314 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 on the print by Bonasone, and notwithstanding the 
 very large price paid for it by Maria Therese to the 
 church of Saint Celse there. Besides, whatever 
 may be the merit of the picture, the name of 
 Raphael can never make me shut my eyes to the 
 disagreeable reddish-brown tone, the too youthful 
 air of the Virgin, and the representing of her in 
 dry profile. 
 
 In the same school the Imperial Gallery possesses 
 also many works of Baroccio, one of which is a 
 small gem ; a Holy Family, by Julio Romano, which 
 is one of the most tolerable pictures that I have 
 met with of this bad colourist ; The Telling of the 
 Beads, a capital work of Caravagio, to which Van 
 Dyck has added a portrait; The Death of Saint 
 Joseph, one of the chief works of Carlo Maratti, 
 and many other excellent pictures of this master ; 
 and, finally, four pictures by Mengs, and among 
 them a Holy Family, in which this exclusive par- 
 tisan of the ideal has taken his own wife as a model 
 for the Virgin ! 
 
 I do no more than mention other less remarkable 
 works of some of those masters, nor those by Per- 
 rugino, Ingegno, Baldi, Polidore, Joseph D'Arpino, 
 Andrea Sacchi, Dominico Feti, The Virgin and 
 Child, by Sassoferato, for which Joseph II. paid so 
 large a sum, nor the pretty but very small Saint 
 Catherine, by Parmegiano, nor the pictures attri- 
 buted to Poussin. 
 
 In the Venetian school this gallery is particu- 
 larly distinguished for the number of its pictures
 
 BELVIDERE. 315 
 
 by Titian, to a part of which I might take excep- 
 tion. But a third of them at least may be ranked 
 amongst the best works of the master, and the 
 Ecce Homo is the most important work of his 
 that I am acquainted with as regards the number 
 of figures, although the most of the heads are very 
 ignoble. There are many works of Paul Veronese, 
 Paiis Bordon, Old Palma, and Tintoretto, which do 
 them much honour, but none of them, in my 
 opinion, so much as his very excellent Saint 
 Justin does to Pordenone. The three specimens 
 of Bernardo Strozzi are of the choicest quality of 
 the master, as are also those by Belini. The 
 Woman taken in Adultery, by Padouanini, is a 
 distinguished and very agreeable picture. The 
 Virgin and Angels, by Lorenzo Lotto, is a charm- 
 ing specimen, as well as the Holy Family, by 
 Schiavone, and also the Calling of Saint Peter, by 
 Marco Basaiti, the rival of Giovani Belini, which is 
 precious from its great rarity, and is known to be 
 the chief work of this old master. 
 
 In the Lombard school I can do no more than 
 mention The Baptism of Jesus Christ, the chief 
 work of Guido, and other works by this master, 
 and by the Caracci. I pass by in like manner the 
 other works of Corregio, to notice three charming 
 gems by him, painted to the order of the Duke of 
 Mantua at the same time with the famous Leda 
 and the Danae, and presented to Charles V., 
 who placed them in his gallery at Prague. The 
 three now mentioned, called The Rape of Gani-
 
 316 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 mede, Jupiter and lo, and Cupid shaping his 
 Bow, were saved by being carried to Vienna before 
 the Swedes seized upon the gallery at Prague in 
 1648, and so escaped the fate of the Leda and the 
 Danae, which were carried off by them, and which 
 a French ambassador in Sweden discovered stuffing 
 the windows of a stable. I have no hesitation in 
 saying that the above three pictures of Corregio are 
 the ne plus ultra of art, both for subject and execu- 
 tion. The Cupid in particular is truly magical, 
 and, so to speak, supernatural, by the enchanting 
 grace of its design and expression, and by the 
 astonishing truth of the representation, although 
 the picture has suffered somewhat in the body of 
 the figure. There is also a very beautiful copy of 
 it in the Belvedere, made by Joseph Heinz be- 
 fore the original was injured. The lo and Gani- 
 mede have also suffered so much as to produce an 
 unpleasant effect when viewed near. Being painted 
 on canvass with a strong empasto, they are so 
 closely covered over with cracks as to affect the 
 general tone of the colouring, and destroy it in 
 many places, which has led to its being very ill 
 restored. The Cupid, being painted on panel, has 
 escaped the cause of this evil, but not the imprudent 
 hands of cleaners, nor the pencil of unskilful re- 
 storers. I do not know what grounds Vasari and the 
 Abbe Lanzi have for maintaining that this picture 
 was not painted by Corregio, but by Parmegiano, 
 and that he made many repetitions of it. All I 
 can say is, that if it be so, Parmegiano has here
 
 BELVIDERE. 317 
 
 surpassed himself, and equalled the most enchant- 
 ing figures of Corregio.* 
 
 The Supper at Emaus, by Schidone, the Mar- 
 riage of Saint Catherine, by Francesco da Cairo, 
 and the three pictures by Spagnoletti, the last 
 very superior in quality, and particularly in co- 
 louring, to most of his pictures, do honour to the 
 Imperial Gallery, as well as the very delightful 
 picture of Saint John in the Desert, by Murillo. 
 
 I cannot say as much of the four pictures attri- 
 buted to Augustino Caracci, called Love Grow- 
 ing, Love Content, Love Suffering, and Love 
 Dying, pictures as famous from the name of the 
 artist, and the engravings of them, as from the ex- 
 travagant licence of the subjects. They have a 
 certain effect as long as they are hung very high ; 
 but when I had them taken down, and saw them 
 near, I found they were only very middling copies. 
 
 In the Flemish school this gallery surpasses all 
 the others by a sequence uninterrupted, and almost 
 complete, of all the principal artists who became 
 famous during the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seven- 
 teenth centuries, that is to say, from the com- 
 mencement of painting in oil by John Van Eyck, 
 until the extinction of the celebrated school origin- 
 ated by Rubens. The Belvidere, possessing only 
 forty pictures of Rubens, must yield the palm in 
 point of numbers, to the Musee at Paris, which 
 possesses sixty. But nothing can surpass the merit 
 of several of his works here, such as Saint Ignatius 
 
 * See frontispiece. It continues to be attributed to Parme- 
 giano by Dr. Waagen and other connoisseurs. Trans.
 
 318 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 exorcising the Demoniacs, Saint Ambrose repelling 
 Theodocius, Saint Ildephonse before the Virgin, 
 which of all the pictures in the Belvidere has cost 
 the largest sum to the House of Austria, and the 
 admirable portrait of Rubens' second wife, Helena 
 Forman (life size), leaving the Bath, the carnations 
 of which surpass in truth even those by Titian him- 
 self. I am certain that the above four are painted 
 by Rubens' own hand, but not so the most of 
 the others, not even the Saint Francis Xavier re- 
 viving the Dead, although it be the companion of 
 the Saint Ignatius, and although the sketches of 
 both which are also to be seen here, are certainly by 
 him, as is also his own portrait in the same saloon. 
 
 In the works of Van Dyck, the Belvidere, and 
 the Musee at Paris, are nearly equal. But among 
 the portraits by him in the Belvidere there are 
 thirty that are truly marvellous : at Paris there 
 are only nine of the same quality. The Belvidere 
 surpasses all other galleries in the number and 
 excellence of its specimens of Teniers, and many 
 other first-rate artists, and is so nearly complete in 
 the masters of this school that it wants but a few, 
 and amongst them Gonzales Coques, in order to 
 make it altogether so. 
 
 It is not so rich in those of the Dutch school, 
 but it possesses very many works of the most dis- 
 tinguished masters, and it has the advantage of 
 presenting them arranged in chronological order 
 from its origin down to the present day. Of all 
 the galleries in Europe, the Belvidere is the only 
 one in which a knowledge of the German school
 
 DRESDEN. 319 
 
 may be acquired, there being two entire saloons 
 filled with its productions.* 
 
 III. Although the Royal Gallery at DRESDEN, 
 which is contained in the Marstall, a square build- 
 ing close to the new market, is one of the least 
 ancient, the zeal and noble generosity of Augustus 
 III., Elector of Saxony, and King of Poland, placed 
 it, even from its origin, on a level with the most re- 
 nowned galleries ; for this enlightened monarch had 
 so active a predilection for the art that he not only 
 purchased, in 1745, from Duke Francis III. of 
 Modena, then reigning, a hundred pictures chosen 
 from among the most precious of those collected 
 by the Dukes of Modena during two centuries, for 
 which he paid one million five hundred and sixty 
 thousand francs, but he never ceased during his life 
 to take advantage of every opportunity that he 
 could find to enrich his gallery with pictures worthy 
 of his magnificence and taste, at whatever cost, f 
 
 In the Florentine school this gallery possesses 
 two pictures by Leonardo da Vinci, and four by 
 Andrea del Sarto, among which is the famous 
 
 * According to the authorised catalogue compiled by M. de 
 Mechel in 1781, the Imperial Gallery of Vienna then contained, 
 
 Of Italian pictures 316 
 
 Flemish and Dutch 567 
 
 German 351 
 
 In all 1234 
 
 excluding minatures and drawings, and exclusive also of the 
 battle pieces and portraits in the Belvidere Inferieur, which, 
 together, amounted to sixty-six more. Trans. 
 
 f According to the Catalogue of 1839, there were 1857 pic- 
 tures in the Dresden Gallery. But they are not so arranged as 
 to show the numbers of each school. Trans.
 
 320 OF PUBLIC GALLKRTKS. 
 
 Sacrifice of Abraham, which he intended for 
 Francis I. of France, in the vain hope of thereby 
 reconciling that monarch. 
 
 In the Roman school it is remarkable for a pic- 
 ture by Raphael, representing The Virgin in a 
 Glory, with Saint Sixtus and Saint Barbara, which 
 Augustus III. bought at Plaisance, in 1754, for 
 200,000 livres, and the Virgin and Basin, the best 
 work which I know of Julio Romano. 
 
 In the Venetian school the visitor will admire a 
 fine landscape by Giorgione, called Jacob embracing 
 Rachel, and fifteen pictures by Titian, the most of 
 which are excellent, particularly Venus holding a 
 Flute, the figure of which is admirable, though ter- 
 minated by a foot quite unworthy of him. 
 
 In the Lombard school the Dresden Gallery 
 yields to the Musee at Paris in point of numbers, 
 as regards the works of the Caracci and their 
 followers, but it excels all public collections in the 
 variety of masters of this school, and in the quality 
 of the specimens. It is particularly remarkable for 
 the works of Corregio, amongst which are his 
 famous Night, or Adoration of the Shepherds, his 
 Saint George, not less famous, his Saint Sebastian, 
 remarkable for this, that all the Angels in it appear 
 to be mounted as if riding on each other's backs, 
 and his Magdalene reclining, a small picture of 
 >ibout a foot high, by one and a half broad, for 
 which Augustus III., notwithstanding the defects 
 in the design of the feet, paid the sum of 6000 
 louis-d'or, although the flesh-colours, which are 
 very light, are nothing but spots upon a blnrk
 
 DRESDEN. 321 
 
 ground, and upon a blue dress as sombre as the 
 ground.* This gallery also possesses, in the same 
 school, many rare and very excellent works of the 
 two Dossis ; the Virgin and Rose, and three others, 
 by Parmegiano ; eleven by Guido ; and as many by 
 Albano and Guercino. But it particularly excels 
 every other gallery in the select quality of the 
 works of Annibal Caracci, who here shows himself 
 in all his glory. 
 
 In the Flemish school this gallery is distinguished 
 more by the number of masters of whom it has 
 specimens, than by the quality of the examples. 
 A great number are attributed to Rubens and Van 
 Dyck, of most of which I have nothing to say, 
 except as to the admirable Boar Hunt, which is 
 not only in my opinion a true picture by Rubens, 
 but one of his wonders. 
 
 The Dresden Gallery is so well supplied with 
 choice pictures of the good Dutch masters that it 
 requires only a very few to complete them. It has 
 distinguished specimens of more than one of them, 
 such as Van derWerff; the best picture by Slinge- 
 land that I know ; many works by Berchem, and 
 some of them of the best quality ; and more pictures 
 by Wouvermans than any other gallery, but among 
 them, I am concerned to say, many copies. I cannot 
 avoid taking the opportunity to observe how un- 
 worthy it is of a public gallery to exhibit bad works, 
 whoever may be the master, and how much more 
 
 * The louis-d'or is equal to from nineteen to twenty shil- 
 lings sterling, according to the exchange. Trans.
 
 322 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 unworthy still to exhibit copies, not only on account 
 of the dishonour which the art thus receives in its 
 very sanctuaries, but also by the danger to which 
 models that are bad and false expose young artists, 
 and particularly by the wrong done to the pro- 
 prietors of the originals ; for the public pay such 
 respect to public galleries that the copies which 
 they contain are taken for the originals without 
 examination. 
 
 In the German school this gallery is by no means 
 to be compared to that of Vienna. 
 
 IV. The Gallery of DUSSELDORFF owes its exist- 
 ence to the elector palatine, John William, one of the 
 most zealous friends and protectors of the art. It 
 consists of a suite of five halls, of which the first is 
 called the Saloon of Rubens, on 'account of there 
 being in it forty-six pictures which are all attributed 
 to that master*, although I am very far from being 
 able to concur in this opinion. I admit with plea- 
 sure that I am able to recognise without difficulty 
 the pencil of that master himself in some of them, 
 and in others his composition, with the hand of 
 one or other of his good scholars. But there is 
 another set in which I find nothing of his celebrated 
 school but the composition; and even that, in a 
 small number, appears to be altogether different 
 from his. 
 
 The fourth hall contains, besides the Assumption 
 of the Virgin*, one of the good works of Guido, and 
 some pictures of Rembrandt, a suite of twenty-five 
 interesting pictures by Van der Werff*, 
 
 * Those marked * are now at Munich. Trans.
 
 DUSSELDORFF. 323 
 
 the hall is called by his name. Gerard Dou gives 
 his name to the second hall, which contains his 
 Charlatan, the most capital picture of this master 
 that I am acquainted with.* But I do not consider 
 it to be his chief work, as some do, because there 
 are parts of it too stiff and cutting, especially the 
 erect trunk of the old tree, which is much laboured, 
 and which attracts the eye by the strong light that 
 is on it. Perhaps, however, this may have arisen 
 from the cruel unskilfulness of the person who 
 cleaned this magnificent picture. In the same 
 saloon are two beautiful landscapes by Berchem, in 
 his good manner.* In the first saloon, called the 
 Flemish, as well as in the preceding, are many 
 pictures attributed to Vandyke *, although in merit, 
 and especially in colouring and touch, they are 
 very different from each other. Here, also, is the 
 most important, but not the best, picture that I 
 know of Gaspar de Grayer*, for which he obtained 
 the enormous price of 80,000 francs, by much the 
 highest price known' to have been given for this 
 master. Among certain pictures, which they call 
 moveable because they are not hung up, is that of 
 the Wise and Foolish Virgins, by Schalcken *, which 
 excites the admiration of the curious more than all 
 the rest of the gallery; but I cannot say this of 
 connoisseurs. 
 
 The succession of the ancient elector of the pala- 
 tinate to the duchy of Bavaria f, and the consequent 
 
 * Those marked * are now at Munich. Trans. 
 f He succeeded in the year 1770, through the failure of the 
 Y 2
 
 324 OF PUBLIC GALLERIES. 
 
 withdrawal of the best part of the Dusseldorff Gal- 
 lery to that of Munich, was an unfortunate event 
 for the former town, to which its gallery brought a 
 continual influx of strangers. The final events of 
 the late wars forced Bavaria to renounce the duchy 
 of Bergh, of which Dusseldorff is the capital. But 
 though the new sovereign reclaimed the pictures 
 from the King of Bavaria, the latter managed to 
 retain them for the Munich Gallery. 
 
 V. The Royal Gallery at MUNICH consists of seven 
 rooms, which contain 996 pictures. Of these only 
 seventy belong to the original gallery of Munich, 
 sixty having been taken from Manheim, and 161 
 from Dusseldorff. All the rest have been taken 
 from the Gallery of Deux-Ponts, or from the 
 churches and convents in the ancient possessions of 
 Bavaria, or from the Duchy of Wurtzbourg, although 
 it submitted but for a moment to Bavaria. From this 
 last were taken, amongst others, a St. Jerome, an 
 entire figure, and not very wonderful picture, known 
 time out of mind to be by Palma, but of which they 
 are so enamoured at Munich, that during my stay 
 there they were engaged in engraving it as a work 
 of Raphael, for which it will probably pass in the 
 
 younger branch of the family. The title of king was assumed 
 during the successes of his ally Napoleon. Dusseldorff still 
 possesses a collection of drawings by great ancient masters, in- 
 cluding specimens of Julio Romano, Raphael, Michael Angelo, 
 Titian, &c., and amounting in number to no less than 14,280. 
 It is distinguished also by the best modern school of painting 
 in the world, which, curiously enough, sprang up after the re- 
 moval of the old gallery. Trans.
 
 MUNICH. 325 
 
 world as many others have passed before, thanks 
 to the inscriptions of engravers. 
 
 In the first saloon are sketches attributed to 
 Rubens, including most of those which belonged to 
 Marie de Medicis. Every eye that is in any degree 
 experienced will clearly recognise them to be the 
 compositions of Rubens, executed by the hand of 
 his scholars. This is the more evident from the 
 one called the Saint Francis de Paula, No. 257., 
 which is by the hand of Rubens himself, as may be 
 observed throughout, notwithstanding that some 
 clumsy dauber has covered with his heavy touch 
 all the retiring parts which Rubens had done no 
 more than glaze.* 
 
 * The Munich galleries, including those in the royal resi- 
 dences, and particularly that in the palace of Schleisheim, which 
 itself comprises between two and three thousand, contain the 
 greatest number of pictures of any place in the world, being 
 made up of collections from Dusseldorif, Manheira, Deux-Ponts, 
 Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Bamberg, the churches and con- 
 vents throughout the Duchies of Wurtzburg and Berg, and the 
 private collections of its sovereigns, augmented by the pur- 
 chase, within these few years, by the reigning King, of the 
 Wallerstein and Boisseree collections ; the last formed by two 
 brothers of that name at Cologne, and containing the finest 
 specimens of the old German school. 
 
 The public gallery was formerly placed in the Hofgarten. 
 But the present King has erected a handsome building, on the 
 most approved plan, for the reception of about 1500 pictures, 
 into which have been draughted a selection of the most choice 
 from the whole of the above, including most of those that were 
 formerly in the Dusseldorff Gallery. It is called the Pinacothec, 
 and on the publication of the Catalogue in 1839, contained 1269 
 pictures, not arranged in schools. Trans. 
 
 T 3
 
 326 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, AND HOW 
 TO FORM THEM WELL. 
 
 IF it be true that amongst the numerous passions 
 to which human nature is subject, there are many 
 which seize upon us only to drag us into evil, it is 
 no less true that there are others which contri- 
 bute to our happiness, and augment our felicity. 
 Among the latter there is none that affords an en- 
 joyment so continual and enduring, or that may be 
 so easily communicated to others, as the taste for 
 pictures. None is less exposed to end in hopeless 
 ennui, none offers so clearly to the possessor the 
 prospect of increasing his wealth in augmenting 
 his pleasure, provided only that he act under the 
 guidance of prudence and knowledge. This may, 
 at first sight, appear paradoxical, but it will become 
 plain from what follows. 
 
 Everybody knows how much the taste for pic- 
 tures is on the increase, and that the price of good 
 pictures is enhanced from year to year, and even 
 from day to day. The prices given at public sales 
 in every country are evidence of this, especially 
 those in Holland and the Low Countries. Gerard 
 Hoet has given a collection of these in three large 
 volumes, from which it appears that, since 1684, up
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 327 
 
 to the present time, prices have continued to in- 
 crease progressively, so that a picture which was 
 worth but ten florins then, is now worth as many 
 hundreds. It is true, however, that this increase, 
 continual and progressive as it is, applies only to 
 pictures of real merit, and which are in conformity 
 with the rules of the art and with nature ; while 
 those, of which the beauty is false and factitious, 
 their merit consisting only in a kind of dazzle, and 
 those which have acquired a reputation founded 
 on caprice, or the credulity of the ignorant and 
 the manoeuvres of dealers, have not been able 
 to stand the infallible test of time, and have 
 sustained the depreciation which their mediocrity 
 deserved. The fall in the price of such as these 
 however, seems only to have enhanced, by com- 
 parison, the rise on such as are truly good; and 
 if the public papers and catalogues may be trusted, 
 we shall scarcely be able to credit the immense 
 sums which pictures of the highest class have 
 brought for some years, both by public or private 
 sale, as well in England where it is not uncommon 
 to see many thousand guineas paid for a fine speci- 
 men as in Russia, France, Italy, Holland, and the 
 Low Countries. This unlimited augmentation in 
 prices is not surprising, for it has nothing in it of 
 hazard, nor of fashion, nor caprice, but is founded 
 on the nature of the thing itself, and cannot fail 
 to continue, unless important revolutions, physical, 
 moral, or political, shall arise, to shake to its found- 
 ation the prosperity of nations, and to destroy social 
 
 T 4
 
 328 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 order. For to cover a surface, opaque and uniform, 
 with a little colour, but without any actual relief, 
 and by means so simple to bring into view every 
 object that we would, with all its accessories, in 
 the perspective required by their several distances, 
 and with the same truth and illusion as if one saw 
 them in a faithful mirror, is an art so magical, sur- 
 prises so much the human mind, makes an impres- 
 sion so agreeable, and produces an attraction so 
 seductive, that it is absolutely impossible that the 
 number of those who own the enchantment of the 
 art can ever diminish. Want of sufficient means 
 can alone account for amateurs not multiplying 
 without end, as spectators increase with the arrival 
 of every public and gratuitous exhibition of the 
 productions of this beautiful art, which must 
 attract greater admiration in proportion as know- 
 ledge is extended, and as instruction spreads step 
 by step over the family of mankind. 
 
 But, while from these causes the number of 
 amateurs is continually on the increase, there are, 
 on the other hand, unavoidable physical causes 
 which constantly diminish the number of pictures, 
 and by consequence enhance their value. Thus 
 the rash hand of ignorance, accidents without num- 
 ber, and time itself, which wears out every thing, 
 destroy from day to day so many good old pic- 
 tures, that the quantity of them is gradually dimi- 
 nishing in a manner to alarm every amateur. 
 Every one who has taken an interest in the matter 
 must recollect with sorrow how many chief works
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 329 
 
 have perished in the flames that have destroyed 
 palaces, churches, and galleries, and how many the 
 sea has engulfed on their passage to England, to 
 Russia, and other countries. So many have, to my 
 own knowledge, perished by these and the other 
 causes mentioned in the course of this work, within 
 these forty years alone, that I can scarcely believe 
 my eyes when I observe the great number which 
 yet remain to delight us. 
 
 Having thus shown that I did not advance a 
 paradox when I stated, that he who made the acqui- 
 sition of pictures, increased his wealth at the same 
 time that he augmented his pleasures, it remains to 
 me to point out how the amateur ought to act in 
 order to secure this result, and, by placing his pur- 
 suit under the guidance of knowledge and pru- 
 dence, prevent, as far as is possible, the approach of 
 weariness and regret. 
 
 Young amateurs have already seen, in the first 
 chapter, a faithful picture of the ruinous and im- 
 prudent conduct generally pursued by them in 
 their first purchases, and which I myself pursued 
 when I commenced mine, nearly forty years ago. 
 It is natural for us, in the early stages of our 
 taste, to begin with the purchase of indifferent pic- 
 tures, or even bad ones, with which we never fail 
 to be disgusted sooner or later ; our desires rising 
 higher and higher towards perfection as we our- 
 selves go on increasing in knowledge. That this 
 is a true picture of what takes place, is sufficiently 
 confirmed by the experience of all amateurs, who
 
 330 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 constantly follow in the same course, and continue 
 in a round of exertion and expense, proceeding 
 from the bad to the indifferent, and from these to 
 the good, with more or less success, in proportion 
 to the amount of their information. At first the 
 amateur is led by an irresistible desire to possess 
 works of art in general, without being able as yet 
 to distinguish their different degrees of merit. It 
 is, therefore, very natural that, till he acquire the 
 requisite discernment, he should adopt the least 
 expensive means of satisfying his taste, and that in 
 his purchases he should prefer the cheap bargain 
 that he can understand, to that merit which he has 
 not yet learned to appreciate. But by degrees his 
 eyes are unsealed by the acquirement of knowledge, 
 and by the magical truth of pictures by more skil- 
 ful artists. These cause him to dislike his first 
 purchases ; nor does he cease to regret the money 
 laid out upon them, until new acquisitions, more 
 wisely and happily chosen, relieve, by the pleasure 
 which they give to him, the regret he experiences 
 at the recollection of the others. 
 
 For these decisive reasons, I would prescribe two 
 rules for the guidance of those who wish to pro- 
 ceed wisely and prudently in the formation of a 
 collection, on the observance of which they will 
 always have reason to congratulate themselves, 
 and escape all ground for repentance. The one is, 
 to avoid with care the purchase of any picture that 
 is bad or indifferent, and not to give away money, 
 but for such as are truly good, nor for the name 
 they bear, but for their real and intrinsic merit. The
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 331 
 
 other is, to examine in the purchase of a picture 
 what it is, not from whence it comes. That is to 
 say, never allow yourself to be dazzled by the 
 great names of masters, and still less, by the stories 
 and genealogies without number by which the 
 proprietor endeavours to give importance to his 
 picture, but, keeping your ears well closed, and 
 your eyes wide open, form your opinion of the 
 work by the qualities you discover in it, regulating 
 your judgment by the principles laid down in my 
 second chapter. At the same time, there is no 
 reason why, after having decided upon buying the 
 picture on account of its own intrinsic merit, you 
 should not inform yourself as to the name of the 
 artist, to gratify any interest you may feel upon 
 that point, or from any other motive. 
 
 Until the young amateur shall be enabled by 
 study and observation to judge for himself, it will 
 be prudent for him to take the advice of such as 
 have a reputation for sagacity, and who by their 
 station may be above all suspicion of unworthy 
 conduct. If these confirm his favourable opinion 
 of a picture, then he may conclude that the acqui- 
 sition of it, so far as its merit is concerned, is con- 
 sistent with the dictates of prudence. But the 
 price being a different matter, it will be for him to 
 take care that that is not too exorbitant. Of that 
 he will soon acquire some knowledge by experience, 
 and by consulting the prices at the best sales of 
 the day, as well as from the fourteenth chapter of 
 this work, which is devoted to that subject.
 
 332 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 Between pictures of equal merit, give always the 
 preference to those which unite the most perfect 
 harmony with the most agreeable and attractive 
 effect, for it is the same in respect to the general 
 effect of a collection, as it is in regard to each pic- 
 ture, that it will never please, however excellent 
 may be the several parts of it considered by them- 
 selves, if they do not harmonise with each other as 
 a whole. You will take care, therefore, that no 
 picture be so bad or indifferent in its kind, as to 
 appear misplaced amidst the beauty that surrounds 
 it, and so injure the harmony and enchanting effect 
 produced by the general aspect of the collection. 
 
 It must not be supposed, however, that every 
 picture in a collection ought to be equally im- 
 portant, or painted in the same style, in order to 
 attain this harmonious effect. By no means : as the 
 good effect of each picture by itself depends on 
 oppositions made with judgment, and on combina- 
 tions well managed, and not on monotony and uni- 
 formity ; so, the good effect of a well-chosen cabinet, 
 far from requiring that the pictures be all of equal 
 force and consequence, or of the same class, on the 
 contrary, very much depends upon its possessing that 
 delicious variety which may induce the eye to wan- 
 der over it with delight, and that judicious differ- 
 ence in the subjects, the style, the effect, the size, 
 and the importance of the particular specimens, by 
 means of which each may give effect to the other. If 
 you wish to give every possible advantage to your col- 
 lection, it is absolutely necessary, however precious it
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 333 
 
 may be in other respects, to unite to variety in the 
 colouring, a distinction in the subjects, the masters, 
 the tone, the effect, the importance, and even the 
 size and shape of your pictures, so as to permit 
 that agreeable arrangement, which it is so desirable, 
 but so rare to meet with. Thus will you augment 
 your pleasure by a variety of enjoyment, and give 
 interest to the general effect of your cabinet by the 
 magical power of oppositions and happy unions.* 
 
 * The difference in the character and effect of pictures here 
 recommended must not be confounded with difference in quality, 
 in respect of which any deterioration, as indicated in the pre- 
 ceding paragraph, is most injurious to the pleasure afforded by 
 a collection. When indifferent pictures occur once and again 
 on viewing a collection, they affect the average opinion formed 
 of the whole to a much greater extent than might be supposed, 
 and lead us to question the judgment of him who admits them. 
 Nay, even a chance picture of superior merit and effect may in 
 this way destroy a whole collection at once, by showing by 
 comparison the worthlessness of the rest. Hence the value of 
 the good advice given by Mr. Winstanley, of Liverpool, in his 
 small work, viz. to act upon a system in collecting pictures ; 
 and that as well for the attainment of uniformity in quality as 
 for saving of expense, from its enabling the collector to strike 
 at once at his object, without the repeated losses that arise from 
 changing his views. 
 
 The systems that may be adopted are various. One may be 
 contented with the pretty and pleasing drawings, sketches, and 
 thoughts, of the artists of the day, which are to be met with in 
 most towns, and cost but little compared with the talent they 
 evince. 
 
 Another man may aim at the finished and beautiful produc- 
 tions of modern painters, which (if he avoid those of the geniuses 
 who paint pictures in a day, but without ever completing any 
 of them) will scarcely leave him any thing to wish for. 
 
 A third, who may be disposed towards the old masters, may 
 confine himself to such as are not of the very highest and most
 
 334 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 It has always been my endeavour that my col- 
 lection should exhibit pictures that are original, 
 
 expensive degree, and of whom, by so limiting his views, he 
 may be enabled to obtain the best specimens, differing little 
 from the good pictures of the leaders in their respective classes. 
 While a fourth may enjoy a fortune and a taste (enviable, but 
 more perilous) that enables him to bring around him the 
 " light of other days," the achievements and the triumphs of 
 those master minds whose existence formed epochs in the art. 
 
 All these collections, even the most modest of them, will af- 
 ford enjoyment to the man of unaffected taste. But not so the 
 mixed chaos of great names and little meaning, the refuse of 
 collections, cast out upon the world and to be met with at every 
 turn, which sometimes collectors present to you as Raphaels, 
 Titians, and Guides, until by frequent repetition they actually 
 seem to have convinced themselves that they are so ; and which 
 indeed are so worn that they might pass for any body, all being 
 rubbed and weak, except some strong light or skinned figure 
 that stares you out of countenance in the foreground. Nor yet 
 will the collector derive much credit from second-rate or early 
 pictures of the great masters, unless he fairly acknowledge and 
 show that he knows them to be such, without which acknow- 
 ledgment they will be set down as evidence of an ill-informed 
 taste. Nay, indeed, they may even, in time, by a kind of re- 
 action, create an obliquity of judgment. For it is possible by 
 long contemplation of such pictures to become partial to such 
 as have no other qualities to recommend them than the feeble- 
 ness of age, or the common-places of mannerism. Persons so 
 situated would not acknowledge a picture to be by Jacob 
 Ruysdael, if it were clear, natural, and transparent, nor unless 
 it was black in tone, syrupy in the water, and chalky in the 
 ground ; nor a picture to be by Hobbima, if it were light and 
 silvery in the touch and tone, varied in all the different trees, 
 and illumined with a gleam of sunshine, instead of being heavy, 
 cold, and black. Teniers would not be Teniers to them, if he 
 had not the liny sketchiness they have been accustomed to asso- 
 ciate with him, but which he escapes from in his best pictures ; 
 nor would they relish him in such a landscape as that at Antwerp, 
 in which he equals or surpasses the best landscape painters in
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 335 
 
 and that are true of the master to whom they are 
 attributed. All that can be required of him who 
 takes it upon him to determine the master of a 
 picture is, that the picture shall be truly an ori- 
 ginal one by some person ; that the style, the com- 
 position, the colouring, the empasto, and the touch 
 in it, have more conformity with the master named 
 than with any other ; that he who undertakes to 
 name it have the knowledge necessary to entitle 
 him to do so, and that he judge in good faith, with 
 impartiality, and without caprice or prejudice. 
 Although forty years' experience and practice have 
 entitled me in some sort to suppose that I have 
 acquired the knowledge necessary to judge of the 
 originality of my pictures without fear of being 
 deceived, yet I leave to the public the appreciation 
 of my abilities in this respect. I endeavour with 
 the utmost anxiety to form my own opinion cor- 
 rectly and honestly. By acting thus, one need not 
 fear being accused of partiality, unless from the 
 effrontery of certain cavillers, who are the pest of 
 young collectors, and who, for want of true science, 
 seek to pass themselves as connoisseurs by very 
 decided language, and by a very forward, confident, 
 and impertinent manner who, in a word, find no 
 other way of acquiring importance so short as 
 
 rich variety, fine perspective, and natural colouring. By such 
 persons, indeed, a picture that displays all the bloom of fresh- 
 ness, and a full round of brilliant, but harmonious colour, in- 
 stead of having faded into monotony and weakness, is looked 
 upon with doubt, or at least not understood, and is perhaps 
 designated as a French copy. Trans.
 
 336 OF THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS, 
 
 denying without rhyme or reason what others be- 
 lieve. The true and impartial connoisseur is always 
 modest and reserved in proportion to his expe- 
 rience. It is the ignorant alone who find nothing 
 difficult, and believe themselves infallible, and who 
 are as hasty and rash in their decisions as obstinate 
 in the opinions which they have once taken up. 
 
 The reader will easily understand that I do not 
 consider pictures that are evidently damaged, or 
 disfigured by re-paints, to be worthy of being ad- 
 mitted into a choice collection. The state of fresh- 
 ness and preservation of your cabinet will attract 
 the attention of true connoisseurs, and contribute to 
 the enchanting effect of the whole. 
 
 Finally, although the real beauty and intrinsic 
 merit of a picture depends as little on its frame as 
 the natural form of a man depends upon his gar- 
 ments, that does not hinder a bad frame from in- 
 juring a good picture, just as a bad habit may spoil 
 the appearance of a fine man. Fully satisfied of 
 the truth of this, with the importance of which I 
 cannot sufficiently impress amateurs, I have taken 
 care that the richness and beauty of all my frames 
 shall correspond with the value and selectness of 
 my pictures. I have laid out a considerable sum 
 on this needful accessory, but I find myself more 
 than repaid by the imposing effect which they give 
 to my collection. 
 
 To leave nothing to be desired by amateurs, I 
 add, that I prevent the sun from shining directly 
 on any of my pictures by thick white muslin cur-
 
 AND HOW TO FORM THEM. 337 
 
 tains, which break and disperse the light amongst 
 them in a most agreeable manner, and without 
 causing any reflection from them ; and for this rea- 
 son I appoint the middle of the day, in preference 
 to any other time, for those who wish to see them. 
 
 With regard to the arrangement of a collection, 
 I may mention, that after having tried without 
 success all the colours, red, brown, green, grey, 
 and black, which are generally used for the walls 
 on which pictures are to be hung, I have finally 
 decided upon a green of a deep bluish tone, and flat 
 (mat), with which colour I am so satisfied, that I 
 have painted the floor with it as well as the walls. 
 Those who may imitate my example will find how 
 well the gilded frames detach themselves from such 
 a ground, which besides can do little injury to 
 the colours in the pictures, as a true green is 
 scarcely ever found in them, notwithstanding the 
 variety of verdure which they represent. I leave 
 several inches of wall all round each picture, be- 
 twixt it and the others. 
 
 I indulge in the confident assurance that every 
 amateur who shall follow the advice and make use 
 of the principles contained in this work, will be 
 enabled to enjoy through his purchases the desir- 
 able happiness of augmenting his pleasures at the 
 same time that he increases his wealth, and will 
 never experience the ennui which follows bad 
 or indifferent acquisitions, but against which a 
 good picture is the most infallible antidote. Thus 
 he will double his existence by increasing his enjoy-
 
 338 THE UTILITY OF PRIVATE COLLECTIONS. 
 
 L 
 ments, and that with pleasures which are at once 
 
 refined and innocent, and with delights which are 
 always fresh. For the sight of a good picture never 
 palls upon the sense. Thus he will be able, without 
 additional cost to him, to present entertainment to 
 his friends, to amateurs, and to the curious ; whose 
 instructive conversation will repay him with a new 
 gratification. Thus, too, will he be enabled to 
 render an essential service to artists, by affording 
 them the opportunity of instruction. Thus, in 
 fine, will he insure to his old age the only en- 
 joyment which can render it happy without the 
 admixture of regrets; for long and constant ob- 
 servation has shown me, that he whom age has 
 rendered insensible to every other kind of pleasure, 
 seems to revive with the ever-lively satisfaction, 
 which he experiences in the midst of his pictures ! 
 
 THE END. 
 
 LONDON: 
 
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