NATURAL HISTORY QUADRUPEDS To which is Prefixed, The History of the EarthIts Form and Compos Attraction Repulsion Element Heat Air \Va Hills Seas Lakes Rivers Tides Hurricanes- Whirlwi nds Waterspouts Volcano. Earthquakes: AND M A ADORNED WiTR fi-v ENGRA'. fit (MED Blf A. LONDOX. N, . For il, LOS ANGELES COUNTY FREE LIBRARY 599 Natural history of quadrupeds. REFERENCE NATURAL HISTORY To which is Prefixed, The History of the Earth Its Form and Composition Of Attraction Repulsion Element Heat Air Water Hills Seas Lakes Rivers Tides Hurricanes . Whirlwinds Waterspouts Volcanoes Earthquakes- AMD MAN. ADORNED WITH 64 ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD. LONDON: iRlMTED BY A. MACPHERSON, RUSSELL COURT, COVEST GARDEJT, For J. KFTTLE, Bookseller, 180, High Holborn. 1804 (Price 55, in boards- J CHAP. I. P THE EARTH ITS FORM AND COMPOSITION OP ATTRAC- TION REPULSION ELEMENTS HEAT AIR WATER. IT is universally allowed, that practical observations on any subject are far superior to those which are founded only in speculation: tho' it is equally true, that real practice owes its existence to theory. Many writers of respectability both at home and abroad, have attempted to write theories of the earth, but with what success I shall not determine. Our present business shall be to state such facts as have received general approbation, and f o adduce such others as cannot fail to give the reader pleasure and satisfaction. The globe which we inhabit, presents the beholder with heights, depths, plains, seas, marshes, rivers, caverns, gulfs, and volcanos, in the disposition of which we observe nei- ther regularity nor order. If we penetrate the bowels of the earth, we discover metals, minerals, stones, bitumens, and matter of every kind, as it were, without any apparent design. Upon a more accurate inspection, we perceive mat- ter combined in such a chaotic manner that it can be com- pared to nothing but the ruins of a world. Amid these ruins, however, the different generations of animals, and of vegetables succeed each other in a beautiful and regular order. With respect to us, the earth formerly a chaos, is now become a delightful habitation, where every object affords amazing displays of the power, intelligence, and \>eneficence of -its great Creator. 2 NATURAL HISTORY. In describing the surface of the earth, the first object that solicits our attention, is that immense body of water with which the greater part is covered. The waters occupy the lower grounds, and, notwithstanding their uniform tenden- cy to rest; they are kept in continual agitation by an agent, that communicates, to them a regular periodic motion which produces a vibration throughout the whole mass. When we explore the bottom of the sea, we discover hills and valleys, plains and hollows, and rocks and earths of every kind. We see that islands are only the summits of vast mountains; we likewise find mountains whose tops al- most reach the surface of the water; and rapid currents which counteract the general movement; the motions of which are sometimes direct, and at others retrograde. On the one hand, we meet with tempestuous regions, where the heavens and the ocean seem equally confounded in the ge- neral shock; violent intestine commotions, tumultuous swel- \vaterspouts, and strange convulsions produced by volcanoes and dreadful whirl-pools: on the other we dis- cover vast regions always calm, but equally dangerous to the manner: and if we direct our eyes towards the polar re- gions, we find huge masses of ice, (which having detached themselves from the great mountains which have been for- nud there from time immemorial) advancing in a formidable manner, until they dissolve in the temperate climates. Besides these grand objects, the ocean exhibits an infinite variety of animated beings; all of which find abundance of food in this fluid element. But when we take a view of the land: what a difference takes place in different climates ! what a variety of soils ! what inequalities in the surface! Yet from attentive observation, we find great chains of mountains lie nearer the equator than the poles; that, in the old Continent, their direction is more from east to west titan from north to south: and the figure and direction of these mountains which appear most irregular, correspond so, that the prominent angles of one mountain are constantly opposite to the concave angles of the neighbouring mountain, and of equal dimensions, whe- ther they be separated by an extensive plain or a small val- ley. 1 have also remaiked, that the opposite are almost al- ways of the same height; ami that mountains for the rao&t NATURAL HISTORY. 3 part occupy the middle of continents, islands and promonto- ries, and that they divide them by their greatest lengths. By tracing the courses of the principal rivers too, I find that their direction is nearly perpendicular to the sea-coasts into which they empty themselves, and that for the greater part of their courses they follow the direction of the mountains xviience they take their rise. The sea-coasts are generally bordered with earth and sand accumulated by the waters of of the sea, or swept down by rivers. In opposite coasts se- perated only by small arms of the sea, the different strata are of the same materials. Volcanoes never exist but in high mountains; a great number ot which are entirely extinguish- ed; some are connected with others by subterraneous pas- sages, and their eruptions frequently happen at the same time. Similar communications subsist between certain lake's and seas: and some riveis disappear on a sudden and seem t precipitate themselves into the bowels of the earth. There are certain inland seas also, which constantly receive from rivers prodigious quantites of water and which as their bounds are not augmented, probably discharge those extraneous supplies by subterraneous passages. Countries that have been long inhabited may likewise be easily dis- tinguised from those which are less so, from their rude ap- pearance and uncultivated state. In our examination of the upper stratum of the earth, we find it to be universally of the same substance, which is no- thing else but a composition of ti;e decayed parts of animal and vegetable bodies. Penetrating a little deeper, we dis- cover the real earth, beds of sand, lime-stone, clay, shells, marble, gravel, chalk, &c. These strata are always parallel to one another, and of the same thickness tnougjiaut. In neighbouring hills, strata of the same materials are uniionn- Jy divided by perpendicular fissures. Shells, skeleton, of fishes, marine plants, &c. perfectly similaj- to those of the ocean, are often found in the bowels of the earth, and on the tops of mountains at a very great distance fro re th? sea. Petrified shells are found almost every where in prodigious quantities, not only inclosed in rocks of rtiprble and lime- stone, in earths and clays, but incorporated and filled wkh the same substance with which they arc inclosed. Indeed ail marbles, lime-stones, chalks, marles, clays, sands, and ahnot ^ NATURAL HISTORY. $\l terrestrial substances, are full of shells and other spoils of the ocean. Without dwelling any longer upon these particulars, I shall confine myself to well authenticated facts. It is cer- tain, that the waters of the sea have, at one period or ano- ther, continued for a succession of ages upon what we now Jjnow to be dry land, and that, of concequence, the vast continents of Asia, Europe, Africa, and America, were then the bottom of an immense ocean, replete with every thing which the present one produces. It is also certain that the different strata of the earth are horizontal and parallel to one another; which situation is occasioned by the operation of the waters. The horizontal position of water is almost uni- versal: in plains the strata are perfectly horizontal. And it is only in the mountains that they are inclined to a horizon; because they have been originally formed by sediments de- posited upon an inclined base. Now these strata must have been formed gradually, for nothing is more frequent than strata composed of heavy materials placed above light ones, which could not have been the case, if the whole had been blended and dissolved by the deluge, and then precipitated. Another circumstance requires our attention. Nothing but the motion and sediments of water could possibly produce the regular position of the various strata of which the superfici- al part of this earth is composed. And as both the highest mountains, and the lowest vallies consist of parallel strata, this parallel and horizontal position of strata must be the ef- fect of an uniform and constant cause. And hence we con- clude that the dry and habitual part of the earth has remain- ed a long time under the waters of the sea, and must there- fore have undergone the same changes which are at present going on at the bottom of the occean. By examining there- fore what passes in the bottom of this sea, we shall soon be able to draw some rational conclusions respecting the exter- nal figure and internal constitution of the earth. The ocean, since the creation, has been subject to a re- gular flux and reflux. This motion which uniformly takes place twice in twenty four hours, is principally owing to the moon, and is greater in the equatorial regions than in re- mote climates. The earth too performs a rapid moiion on its axis, and consequently has a centrifugal force, which is NATURAL HISTORY. g Iso the greatest at the equator; which last circumstance proves, that the earth must be more elevated under the e- quator than at the poles. From the tides, therefore, and the motion of the earth combined, we may fairly conclude, that though this globe had originally been a perfect sphere, its diurnal motion, and the ebbing and flowing of the tidet, must in a succession of time, have elevated the equatorial parts, by gradually carrying mud, shells, &c. from other climates, and depositing them at the equator. On this hypothesis, the greatest inequalities on the earth's surface ought to be found and indeed are found near the equal T. But far- ther, as the alternate motion of the tides has been regular since the existence of the world, may we not naturaliy ima- gine, that at each tide, the water carries from one place to another a small quantity of matter, which falls to the bottom as a sediment, and forms those horizontal and parallel strata that every where appear. It may however be objected, that as the flux is equal to, and regularly succeeded by the reflux, the two motions will balance each other v and, of consequence this cause of the formation of strata must be chimerical, as the bottom of the ocean can never be affected by an uniform alternate motion, of the waters. But, in the first place, the alternate motions of the water are far from being equal, as the sea has a continual motion from east to west, and also as the winds produce great agita- tions, and consequently inequalities in the tides. By every motion of the sea too, particles of earth and other materials must be carried from one place and deposited in another; and these collections of matter must assume the form of pa- rallel and horizontal strata. Besides, on all coasts where th'e ebbing and flowing are discernible, numberless materi- als are brought in by the flux, which are not carried back by the reflux. Thus the sea gradually advances in some places, and recedes from others. But in order to remove every doubt, let us examine more closely the possibility of a mountain being formed at the bottom of the sea, by the mo- tion and sediments of the water. On a coast which the sea lashes with violence, some part of the earth must be carried off by every stroke of the waves; even where the sea is bounded by rocks, it is a. well authenticated fact, that 6 NATURAL HISTORY. that small particles are carried from them by the retreat of e* very wave. Those particles of earth or stone being transport- ed to some distance ; it happens, that when the agitation of the water is abated, the particles are precipitated in the form of a sediment, and lay the foundation of a first stratum which will soon be succeeded by a similar one. In process of time, this gradually accumulating mass will become a mountain in the bottom of the sta, perfectly like, both in. external and internal structure the mountains on the dry land. When the bottom of the sea too, at particular places, is troubled by the agitation of the water ; earth, clay, shells, and other' matter, must be removed from thence, and deposited else- where. Forrnany assure us, that the bottom of tne sea, at the greatest depths to which they have descended, is so strongly agitated by the water, that earth, clay and shells are removed to great distances. Transportations of this kind must therefore go on in every part of the ocean ; and the matter transported, after having subsided, must raise emi- nences similar to the composition and structure of our moun- tains. We must not however imagine that such mutter can- not be carried to a great distance; for we daily find grain, and other productions of the East and West Indies landing on our coasts. These bodies may be said to be specifically lighter than the water, and the other substances specifically heavier. Yet as they are reduced to an impalpable powder, they may be long suspended in the water, and consequently transported to any distance. It has been imagined, that the agitation, produced by the winds and tides, does not affect the bottom where it is very deep. But the truth is, that whatever be the depth, the power which occasions the flux and reflux operates equally upon every particle of the mass at the same time. It there- fore appears, that the tides, the winds, and whatever else gives birth to the motion of the sea, must naturally produce heights and inequalities at the bottom; and that these emi- nences must uniformly be composed of regular strata, either horizontal or inclined. Whenever eminences are formed, they interrupt the uni- form motion of the waters, and produce new ones called currents. Between two neighbouring heights in the bottom of the ocean, there must be a current, which will follo\y NATURAL HISTORV. their common direction, and like a river, cut a channel, the angles of which will be alternately opposite through the whola of its course. These heights must of consequence in- crease, as> the water will deposit its ordinary sediment upon their ridges; and thus by means of the different motions and sedinu-nts, the bottom of the ocean, though formerly smooth, must soon bo furrowed, and interspersed with hills,and chains of vast mountains, as we find itatpresent. And the materials which consisted of sandy and crystalline particles, would produce those masses of rock and flint in which we find crystals and other precious stones. Others composed of stony particles and shells, produce lime-stone and marble; and lastly, particles of shells mixed with pure earth, have given rise to all our beds of marie and chalk. It may be said however, that great numbers of hills, whose summits consist of solid rock of moor stone, or marble, are founded upon small eminences composed of lighter materi- als. But the explication of this phenomenon is perfectly easy. The waters would first operate upon the upper stra- tum, either of coasts, or the bottom of the sea. This upper stratum generally consists of clay or sand; and these light substances being carried off and deposited sooner than the more dense and solid, they would of consequence be- come foundations for the more heavy particles to rest upon. The harder and more ponderous substances would next be subjected to the attrition of the water, and carried off and deposited about the hillocks of sand or clay. These small stony pai tides would, in process of time, form those solid rocks which we now find on the tops of hills and mountains. And as particles of stone are heavier than those of either sand or clay, it is probable that they were originally covered by superior strata of considerable depth; but that they now oc- cupy the highest stations, because they were last transported by the waves. To confirm this reasoning, it is worthy of remark, that, the different strata of stones in quarries are almost all horizontal or regularly inclined. Indeed the strata of granite, verifiable sand, clays, marbles; calcareous stones, chalk, and marles, are always parallel or equally inclined. And, the disposition of strata, as far as mankind have penetrated is the same. S NATURAL HISTORf. Those beds of sand and gravel which are Washed from the mountains, must, in some degree, be excepted. And as the are formed by rivers and brooks which often change their channels, it is not surprizing that they are so frequent. The strata formed by rivers are not very ancient; they are easily distinguished by their frequent interruptions, and the inequality in thickness, which is constantly varing, but the ancient strata uniformly preserves the same dimensions throughout. The modern strata may likewise be distin- guished by the form of the stones and gravel they contain, which bear evident marks of having been rounded by the motion of the water. The same observation holds good with respect to those beds of turf, and corrupted vegetables, which are found in marshy grounds, immediately below the soil ; and which have derived their origin from successive accumulations of decayed trees, and other plants. The stra- ta of slime and mud being formed by stagnated waters, or the inundations of rivers, are neither so perfectly horizontal, nor so uniformly inclined, as those produced by the regular motions of the sea. In strata formed by rivers, we meet witli river but seldom with sea shells; in the ancient strata there are no liver shells; the sea shells are numerous, well preserved and all placed in the same manner. From whence then could this beautiful regularity proceed? Instead of re- gular strata, why do we not find the materials which com- pose the earth huddled together without order? Why are not rocks, marbles, clays, marles, &c. scattered promiscuous- ly, or joined by irregular or vertical strata? Why are not heavy bodies found in a lower situation than light ones? It is easy to perceive, that this uniformity of nature, this spa- cies of organization, this union of different materials by par- allel strata, without regard to their weight, could only pro- ceed fiom a cause equally powerful and uniform as the mo- tions oi the sea, produced by regular winds, or by the flux and reflux, &c. As these causes act with superior force under the equator than in other climates, chains of mountains are of conse- quence proportionately extensive. Thus the mountains of Africa and Peru are both the highest and most extensive in the world. The mountains of Europe and Asia, which extend from Spain to China, are not so high as those of NATURAL HISTORY. Africa and South America. Besides, in the northern seas, the islands are but few, when compared with those in the Torrid Zone. As islands, therefore, are nothing but the summits of mountains, it is clear, that there are more inequa- lities of the earth near the equator, than in the northerly climates. Those vast chains of mountains which run from west to east in the old continent, and from north to south in the new, must have been formed by tiie general motion of the tides. But the origin of tlv-t smaller mountains and hills may be ascribed to particular motions occasioned by wiiids, cur- rents, and other irregular agitations of the sea, or to a com- bination of those motions, which are capable of infinite variations. But how has it happened, that this earth, which, from -time immemorial, has been an immense continent, should, if formerly the bottom of an ocean, be new so much elevat- ed above the waters, and so completely separated from them? A little reflection will furnish us with at least a plausible solution. We daily find the sea gaining ground on certain coasts, and losing it on others; that the ocean has a gene- ral and uniform motion from east to west; that there are whole provinces which human industry can hardly defend from the fury of the waves, and that there are islands which: have but lately emerged from the waters, and regular inun- dations. History also informs us of inundations and delu- ges of a more extensive nature. Should not all these occur- rences convince us, that the surface of the earth has under- gone verv great revolutions, and that the sea may have gi- ven up great quantities of ground which it formerly possess- ed? Let us suppose for example, that the old and new worlds were formerly but one contir ent, and that, by a violent earthquake, the ancient Atalantis of Plato was sunk. What would be the consequence? The sea , would rush in from all quarters, and form what is now called the Atlantic Ocean, leaving vast continents entirely dry. This great revolu- tion might be effected by the sudden failure of some im- mense cavern in the interior part of the globe, and an uni- versal deluge would infallibly succeed. 1 am inclined how- C J9 NATURAL HISTORY. ever to think, that to effect such a revolution would require a very long period. Be these conjectures as they may, it i* certain that such a revolution has happened, and I believe it to have been a natural production. In consequence of the aforesaid motion, the Pacific Ocean must make continual ef- forts against the coasts of Tartary, China and India; the Indian Ocean must act against the eastern coast of Africa; and the Atlantic must operate in a similar manner upon the eastern coast of America. Hence the regular incursions of the sea on the east and its departure on the west. If such is the natural effect of this motion of the ^ea, may we not suppose, that Asia and all the eastern continent is the most ancient country in the world ? and that Europe and part of Africa, particulary the western parts of these continents, as Britain, France, Spain, &c. are more recent countries. There are also many parts of the earth below the level of the sea, which being defended only by banks, must by the continual action of the water gradually waste away ; and of consequence, soon become part of the ocean. The moun- tains too are daily diminishing; and every little brook car- ries earth, and other materials from the high grounds into the rivers,, by which they are at last transported to the ocean. Thus the bottom of the sea is gradually filling up, and the furface of the earth approaching to a level. But we shall give a detail of facts in order to explain the different alterations the earth has undergone, whether by irruptions of the sea, or by its retreat from lands which it formerly occupied. The irruption which gave birth to the Mediterranean is no doubi the greatest. The motion of the water through the straits of Gibraltar is contrary to the motion through e- very other strait; it being from west to east. This circum- stance is a demonstrative proof, that the Mediterranean Sea is not an ancient gulf, but that it has been formed by an ir- ruption, produced by some accidental cause. When the ocean forced this passage, it ran through the straits with much more rapidity than it does now, and im- mediately deluged that large tract of land which formerly joined Europe with Africa. The waters covered all the grounds which were lower than the level of the ocean; and no part of them is to be seen at present, except the tops of NATURAL HISTORY. some of the mountains, such as part of Italy, Sicily, Malta, Corsica, Sardinia, Cyprus, Rhodes, and the islands of the Archipelago. It is not improbable, but that the Black Sea will, some time or other, be entirely separated from the Mediterranean; and that the Bosphorus will be choaked up, whenever the rivers shall have accumulated a quantity of materials suffi- cient for that purpose. The Caspian and Black Seas should rather be accounted lakes than gulfs of the ocean; because they are perfectly si- milar to the other lakes that receive a number of rivers with- out any visible outlets, as the. Dead Sea, several lakes ia Africa and elsewhere. We will now give some recent examples of the changes of seainto land and of land into sea. At Venice, the bottom of the sea is constantly rising. And the same thing may be said, of most harbours, bays, and mouths of rivers. In Hol- land the bottom of the sea is elevated in many places, the gulf of Zudovzee and the straits of the Texel, cannot receive such large vessels as formerly; and it it quite evident that the sea is always darned up, wherever great rivers empty themselves. The Rhine is lost in the sands which itself has accumulated. The Danube, the Nile, and all large rivers, af- ter they have transported great quantities of slime, sand, &c. never arrive at the sea by a single channel. Marshes are drained every day; lands, forsaken by the sea, are plowed and sown ; and we navigate whole countries now covered by water. In short, we see so many instances of this nature, that they are sufficient to convince us, that in time, the gulfs of the ocean will become continents; isthmuses changed into straits; and the tops of mountains converted into shoa- ly rocks in the sea. Still, however, those perpendicular fissures, which are e- qually diffused through rocks, clays, and every constituent part of the globe, remain to be considered. The perpendi- cular fissures are indeed placed at greater distances from one another, than the horizontal ; and the softer the matter, the more distant are the fissures. In marble and hard stone, the fissures are only a few feet asunder. If the mass of rock be extensive, the distance between the fissures is some fathoms. NATfRAI. HISTORY. The cause of perpendicular fissures is easily investigated.. As various materials constituting the different strata were transported by the waters, and deposited in the form of sedi- ments, they would nt first be in a very diluted state, but by r'eirees would harden and part with the water they contained. In the process of drying, they would contract and split at irregular distances. The contraction, therefore of the parts in drying, is the cause of perpendicular fissures; for I ha-e often "remarked, that the sides of those fissures, throj uniformly to be found ; but, in high grounds, it is Impossible to extract water from the bowels of the earth. There are extensive countries, where no wells can be obtain- ed. In the east, and especially in Arabia, Egypt, and Persia, wells a.nI springs are seldom to be met with. To supply the place of which, the inhabitants have been obliged to make large reservoirs to collect the rain water. In plain countries, famished with large rivers, it is almost impossible to break the surface of the earth without finding water. The greatest part of the water so liberally diffused through fowgrounds, comes from the neighbouring hills and emi- nences. During great rains, or the sudden melting of snow, port of the water runs upon the surface ; but most of it pe- neiJrates the earth and rocks by small chinks and fissures. It snoges indeed as soon as it can find an opening; but it of- ten creeps along until it can find a bottom of clay, or hard artb r a.rtd there forms subterraneous lakes, brooks, and per- haps rivers, the channels of which are consigned to eternal bfivioo. There are several lakes which neither receive nor give o- B%in to ajiy livers. There are others, which though they receive no considerable rivers, are the sources of the largest NATURAL HISTORY. 15 in the world. Such are the lakes from whence the river St Laurence arises; the lake Chiame, from whence two large rivers proceed, that water the kingdoms of Asem, and Pegu ; the lakes of Assinboil in America; those of Ozera in Mus- covy; and those which give rise to the Bog, the Irtis, and many more. The water which falls upon elevated situations, must, af- ter penetrating the earth, from the declivity of the ground; break forth at many places, in springs and fountains : and of consequence little water will be found in the bowels of mountains. But, in plains, as the water filtrated through the earth can find no vent^it must be collected in subterra- neous caverns, or dispersed in small veins among sand and gravel. The bottom of a pit or well is only an artificial ba- son, into which the water empties itself from the higher grounds. Hence it is, that though water may be found in any part of a plain, only a number of wells can be supplied in proportion to the quantity of water diffused, or rather to the extent of the higher grounds from whence it proceeds. To find water, it is unnecessary to dig below the levels of , rivers. Even that which is found in the earth below such levels, doth not proceed from them. From what has been advanced, we may conclude, that the flux and reflux of the ocean have produced all the moun- tains, valleys, and other inequalities on the surface of the earth ; that currents of the sea have scouped out the valleys, elevated the hills, and bestowed on them their corresponding directions; and that the waters of the ocean by transporting and depositing earth, &c. have given existence to the paral- lel strata; and by diminishing the heights of mountains, fil- ling up the valle\s, and choaking the mouths of rivers, they will restore the earth to the sea, which, by its natural opera- tions, will again create new continents, beautifully diversi- fied with mountains and valleys, and in every respect like those which we now inhabit. The surface of the globe is divided into two immense bands of earth, and two of water. The principal band is that which is called the ancient continent, including Europe, Asia, and Africa. The distance between its two extreme points, if measured from the most eastern point of Tartary to the Cape of Good Hope, will produce a line of 3600 leagues; NATURAL HISTORY. and if measured directly from north to south, we shall find there are only 2500 leagues from the northern Cape of Lap- land to the southermost point of the Cape of Good Hope. The utmost breadth of this continent, that is, from the west- ern coast of Africa to Trefana, as far as Nisingpo, on the east coast of China is, about 2800 leagues. Another line may be drawn also from Brest in Brittany, as far as tiie coast of Chinese Tartary, which will be about 2300 leagues. The old continent, from the best estimations may be said to contain 4,940,7^0 square leagues, which is about a fifth part of the surface of the globe, and may be considered as a large belt of earth, with an inclination to the equator of about 30 degrees. The new continent of America is divided into north and south. Its greatest length is from the mouth of the river Plata in Paiagua to the lake of Asseniboils, which amounts to about 2500 leagues. It is supposed to contain 2,140,212 square leagues. The whole superficial content, therefore, of both the old and new continents, is about 7,080,993 square leagues, not near a third of the surface of the globe, which contains 25,000,000. Of these lines, which divide both continents into two e- qual parts, it is worthy of remark, that they both terminate in the same degree of north and south latitude ; and that the two continents make mutual advances towards each other, to wit, those on the African coast, from the Canary Isles to Guinea ; and those of America, from Guiana, to the mouth cf the Rio-Janeiro. It therefore appears, that the most ancient lands are those, which extend from 200 to 250 leagues on each side of the two lines of which we have already taken notice. Agreeable to which idea, we conclude, that in the old continent, the most ancient countries of Africa are those which reach from the Cape of Good Hope to the Red Sea and Egypt, and are about 500 leagues broad; and, of consequence, the whole western coast of Africa, from Guinea to the Straits of Gib- raltar, is new land. In the new continent, we likewise find, that Terra Magel- lanica, the eastern part of Biasil,the country of the Amazons, f Guiana, and of Canada, are new lands when, compared NATURAL HISTORY. 17 with Tticuman, Peru, Terra Firma, the islands in the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, the Missisippi, and Mexico. It was but a sm ill part of the globe with which the anci- ents were acquainted. All America, the'Arctic Circle, Terra Australis the Magellanic, and a great part of the internal re- gions of Africa, were entirely unknown to them. They knew not that the Torrid Zone was inhabited, although they had navigated the coasts of Africa ; for it is 2200 years since Ne- co king of Egypt gave vessels to the Phoenicians which departed from the Red Sea, doubling the Cape of Good Hope, and having employed two years in this voyage, en- tered the strains of Gibraltar. The ancients were unac- quainted with the properties of the load-stone ; they had no idea of the general cause of the flux and reflux of the sea ; no certain knowledge that the ocean surrounded the globe without interruption : some indeed suspected it, but with so little foundation, that no one dared to say, that it was possible to make a vo age round the world. Magellan was the first who made it A. D. 1 5 19 in 1 1 24 days. Sir Francis Drake in 1577 did it in 1056 days; afterwards Thomas Cavendish made this great voyage in 777 days, in the year 1586. These famous circumnavigators were the first who demonstrated physically, the globular form and extent of the earth's cir- cumference: which the ancients were far from having a just idea of, although they had travelled a great deal. The general and regulated winds, and the use to be made of them in long voyages, were also unknown to them; there- fore, we must not be surprised at the little progress they made in Geography, since at present, in spite of all the knowledge we have acquired by the aid of mathematical sciences, and the discoveries of navigators, many things re- main to be found, and vast countries to be discovered. As there is so large a portion of the globe with which we are unacquainted, particularly near the poles, where the ice has never permitted any navigator to penetrate, we cannot exactly know the proportion between the surface of the eaith, and that of the sea ; but by inspection and comparison, we are sensible there is more sea than land. If we would form an idea of the enormous quantity of water which the sea contains, let us suppose one common d of NATURAL HISTORY, and general depth to the ocean ; by computing it only a 200 fathoms, or the roth part of a mile, we shall see, that there is water sufficient to cover the whole globe to the height of 600 feet, which if reduced into one mass, will form a globe of more than 60 miles diameter. The form of the earth is not that of a globe, but rather what is termed a spheroid, a globe which is flatted at the poles, and the axis, or line which may be supposed to pass through it at the equator, is to its axis at the poles in the proportion of 230 to 229. The solid parts of the earth are formed of beds or strata of different materials, which lie one upon another in a regular order. The first stratum consists of common soil, mixed with a variety of de- cayed vegetable and animal substances, and with stony and sandy particles. Indifferent parts of the world the other strata are found to consist of different materials, and differ- ently disposed. In some parts the strata are horizontal, in others they are inclined ; and veins or fissures of metals, coals, and other minerals, frequently penetrate through the different beds or strata to a great depth, and divide them. At Marly-la-Ville in France, which is a high country, but flat and fertile ; the following strata were found arranged horizontally: from the shells found in No 16, we may con- jecture, that at some period the soil of Marly-la-Ville, was the bottom of the sea, which has since been raised to the height of 7 5 feet. The state of the various Beds of Earth found at Marly-Ia- Ville, at the depth of zoo feet. I. A free reddish earth, mixed with much mud, a very small quantity of verifiable sand and somewhat more calcinahle sand II. A free earth or soil mixed with mo e gravel, and a little more verifiable sand _______ III. Dirt mixed with verifiable sand in a very great quanti- ty, and which made but very little effervescence with aqua iortis IV. Hard marie, which made a very great effervescence with aqua fortis, ______ V. Pretty hard marly ston VI. Maile in powder mixed with vitrifiable sand VII. Very fine vitrifiable sand - - - _ 6 VIII. Marie in earth, mixed with a little verifiable sand - -) IX. Hard Made, in which was real flint - gj. NATURAL HISTORY. Feet Inch, X. Gravel, or powdered marie - . --1:0 XI. Eglantine, a stone of the grain and hardness of marble,' and sonorous - - - - . -1:6 XII. Marly gravel - - . . - i : 6 XIII. Marble in hard stone, the grain of which was very fine 1 : 6 XIV. Marie in stone, the grain of which was not so fine i : 6 XV. More grained and thicker marie - - - t : 6 XVI. Very fine vitrifiable sand, mixed with sea fossil shells, which had no adherence with the sand, and the colours of which were perfect. - . . . -1:6 XVII. Very small gravel or fine made powder - - a : O XVIII. Marie in hard stone - - . -3:6 XIX. Very large powdered marie ... - 1:6 XX. Hard and calcinable stone like marble - - 1:6 XXI. Grey and vitrifiable sand mixed with fossil shells, par- ticularly oysters and muscles, which had no adherence with sand and were not petrified __-___ 3 O XXII. White vitrifiable sand mixed with shells - a : O XXIII Sand streaked red and white, vitrifiable and mixed with the like shells - - - - - i : XXIV. Larger sand, but still vitrifiable, and mixed with the like shells - - - - - - i : XXV. Grey, fine and verifiable sand mixei with the like shells 8 : 6 XXVI. Very fine fat sand, where there were only a few shells 3 : o XXVII. Free-stone - - - - 3:0 IXV 1 1 1. Vitrifiable sand, streaked red and white - 4:0 X\IX. White vitrifiable sand - - - 3:6 XXX. Reddish vitrifiable sand - - - 15:0 Total depth when they left off digging 101 ; O Within a trench made at Amsterdam, the earth was dry to the depth of 230 feet, and the strata were found as follow: 7 feet of vegetable or garden earth, 9 of turf, 9 of soft clay, 8 of sand, 4 of earth, 10 of sand, on which it is customary to fix the piles which support the houses of Amsterdam ; 2 of argile ; 4 of white sand, 5 of dry earth, i of soft earth, 14 of gravel, 8 argile, mixed with earth; 4 of gravel, mixed with shells ; 103 of clay, and 31 of sand, at which depth they ceased digging. Every stratum, whether horizontal or inclined, is of an e- qual thickness throughout. In the quarries near Paris, beds of good stone are scarcely 18 or 20 feet thick; in th se of Burgundy they are much thicker. It is the same with marble, the beds of the black and the white, are thicker than those f the coloured ; and I know beds of very hard, stone, which NATURAL HISTORY. the farmers in Burgundy make use of to cover their house* that are not above an inch thick. In short, the thickness of the horizontal strata js so variable, that it is found from one line and less, to i, 10, 20, 30, or 100 feet thick : the ancient and modern quarries which are horizontally dug; the per- pendicular and other divisions of mountains prove, that there are extensive strata in every direction. The various strata of the earth are not disposed of accord- ing to the order of their specific weight , for we often find strata of heavy matter placed on those of lighter. To be as- sured of this, we have only to examine the nature of the earth on which rocks are placed, and we shall find, that it is generally clay which is specifically lighter than the matter of the rock. In hills and other s'mall elevations, we easily discover the bases on which rocks are founded ; but it is not so with large mountains, the summits of which are not only rocks, and these are placed on other rocks; yea, there are mountains upon mountains and rocks upon rocks, to such a considerable height and extent, that we can scarce- ly' be certain whether there is earth at the bottom or not, and of what nature it is. We see picked rocks which are many hundred feet high ; these rocks rest on others, c. ne- vertheless, may we not compare great with small, since the rocks of little mountains, whose bases are to be seen, rest on earth less heavy and solid than stone, and suppose that the bases of the highest mountains are also of earth ? In a soil where flint is the predominant stone, the country is generally fertile; and if the place is uncultivated, and these stones have been long exposed to the air, without be- ing moved, the upper superficies is always very white, whilst the opposite side which touches the earth, preserves its na- tural colour. If the blackest, and most flinty flint be expo- sed to the weather, in less than a year, its surface will change colour, and if we have patience to pursue the experiment, we shall perceive it to lose by degrees its hardness, transpa- rency, and other specific characters, and approach every day rearer and nearer the nature of argile. What happens to flint, happens to sand; each grain of sand may be considered as a small flint, and each flint as a mass of sand, extremely fine and exactly grained. The example of the first degree of decomposition of sand, is found in the NATURAL HISTORY. brilliant and opake powder called Mica, in which potter* earth and slate are always diffused. The perfectly transpa- rent flints, the Quartz, produce by decomposition, fat and soft talc, as petrifiablu and ductile as clay: and it appears to me, that talc is a mediate term between glass or transparent flint and argile ; whilst on the contrary, coarse and impure flint, by decomposing, passes to potters earth without any intermedium. Our factitious glass proves also the same alterations: it decomposes in the air, and perishes in some degree by re- maining if: th c-arth. At first its superficial scales exfoliate; by working it, we peiceive brilliant scales fly from it; but when its decomposition is more advanced, it crumbles be- tween the fingers, and is easily reduced into a very fine, white, talcy powder: art has even imitated nature in the decomposition of glass and flint. CHAP. II. OF HILLS SEAS -RIVERS LAKES THEIR NATURE AN PROPEBTIE6. IF in place of that beautiful variety of hills and valleys, of verdant forests and refreshing streams, which at present de- light our senses, the earth were an even and regular plain ; a dreary ocean would cover the whole expanse, and it would be merely the habitation of the scaly race. It cannot therefore, be supposed, that even at first, the surface of the earth was perfectly regular; and since its for- mation, a variety of causes, as the motion of the waters, sub- terraneous fires &c. have contributed much to this irregu- larity. Next to the elevations of mountains, we are presented with the irregular depth of the ocean, which is very different even at great d'stances from land: it is said there is parts above a mile in depth, but these are few. The most gene- ral profundities are from 60 to 150 fathoms. Gulfs border- ing on the coasts are much shallower, and straits have gene- rally the least depths. In general, the depths increase or diminish pretty regular- ly, being for the most part deeper the farther from land. But f t NATURAL HISTORY. there are places in the middle of the sea, as at the Abrolkos in, the Atlantic, where large shelves appear; and in other places, there are vast sand banks, to which the East India- men are no strangers. Along coasts also the depths are very irregular; yet it may be laid down as a certain rule, that the depth is always proportioned to the height of the coast; the same remark is applicable to rivers. The highest mountains in Asia are Mount Taurus, Imaus, Caucasus, and the mountains of Japan ; all of which are higher than any in Europe. The highest mountains in Afri- ca, i. *. the great Atlas, and the mountains of the moon, are at least as high as those in Asia; and the highest of all are in South America, particularly those of Peru, which are more than jooo fathoms higher than the level of the sea. In ge- tieral, the mountains between the tropics are loftier than those of the temperate zones, and these more than those of the frigid zones ; so that the nearer we approach the equa- tor, the greater are the inequalities of the earth, which with respect to us, are not very considerable when compared with the rest of the globe. Three thousand fathoms difference to 3000 leagues diameter, is one fathom to a- league, or one foot to 2300 feet, which on a globe of 2 feet and a half dia- meter, does not make the 6th part of a line. Hence this earth, which appears to us so crossed and cut by the enor- mous heights of the mountains, and the frightful depths of the sea, is, when we consider its size, so very slightly furrow- ed with irregularities, that they can make little or no varia- tion on its natural figure. sUpon th.6 continents the mountains are continued, and form chains. In islands they appear to be more interrupted and isolated, and generally raised above the sea, in form of a cone or pyramid, called peaks. The peak of Teneriffe is one of the highest mountains on the earth; being nearly a mile and a half above the level of the sea; the peak of St George in one of the Azores, and the peak of Adam in the island of Ceylon, are also very high. All these peaks are fcomposed of rocks, piled one upon another, and emit from their summits, fire, cinders, bitumen, minerals, and stones. There are even islands which are only the tops of moun- tains, as St Helena, Ascension, most of the Azores, and Cu- paxies; and we must remark, that in most of the islands^ NATURAL HISTORY, ft) promontories, and other projecting lands, the middle is at* ways the highest, that they are generally separated by chains of mountains, which divide them in their greatest lengths, as the Grampian mountains in Scotland, which extend from east to west, and divide Great Britain into two parts; it is the same with the islands Sumatra, Lucon, Borneo, Celebes, Cuba, and St Domingo, and also Italy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Apenines. With respect to depths, those of the ocean are, no doubt, the greatest; but as these can only be discovered by sound- ing, we shall turn our attention to such as appear on the sur- face of the earth. The precipices then, which are between rocks, are formed by the sinking of their bases, which some- times give way more on one side than the other, occasion- ed by the action of the air and frost, which splits and divides them; or by the impetuous falling of torrents, which open passages, and carry along with them whatever opposes their violence. But these abysses or vast and enormous precipi- ces found at the summits of mountains, to the bottom of which it is not possible sometimes to descend, have been formed by the operation of fire ; and consequently the fun- nels of volcanoes : and all the matter their deficient, had been ejected by the action and explosion of these fires, which have been long extinct, for want of combustible mat- ter. The abyss of mount Ararat, of which M. Tournefort gives a description in his voyage to the Levant, is surround- ed with black and burnt rocks, as the abysses of Etna, Vesu- vius, and other volcanoes will be, when they have consumed all the combustible matter they contain. Plot, in his natural history of Staffordshire, mentions a kind of gulf which had been sounded to the depth of 2600 feet, without finding either water or bottom. Great cavities and deep mines are generally in mountains, they never descend to a level with the plains ; so we learn from them the internal structure of the mountain only, and not that of the globe. It was long thought, that the chains of the highest moun- tains run from west to east, till the contrary direction was discovered in the new world; but no person before Mr Bourguet discovered the surprising regularity of the struc- ture of those great masses. Alter having crossed the Alps, B 4 NATURAL HISTORY. thirty limes in fourteen different parts, twice over the Ape- nine mountains, and made divers tours in the environs thereof and in mount Jura, he found, that the contours of all mountains bear a striking resemblance to the works of regular fortifications. When the body of a mountain runs from east to west, it forms prominences, which face as much as possible the north and south ; this admirable regularity is so striking in valleys, that we seem to walk in a regular covered way ; if, for example, we travel in a val- ley from north to south, we perceive that the mountain which is on the right forms projections or angles which front the east, and those of the mountains on the left front the west, so that in fact, the prominent and concave angles, on each side, correspond with one another alternately. The angles which mountains form in great valleys are less acute, because their direction is not so steep, and they are farther distant from each other; in plains they are not so perceptible as in the courses of rivers, which generally take up their el- bows; the middle of them naturally answers to the most stri- king projections, or the most advanced angles of mountains; and this is the cause of the serpentine courses of rivers. It is astonishing that so obvious a fact should have remained so long unobserved, for when in a valley the inclination of one of the mountains which border it, is less steep than that of the other, the river takes its course nearer the steepest mountain, and does not flow through the middle of the val- ley. These observations might be confirmed by a number of facts. The mountains of Switzerland, for instance, are steeper on the south-side than on the north, and on the west than on the east. But the most striking example is afford- ed by the mountains of Chili and Peru. The Cordeliers are exceedingly steep on the west side, but they have a gradual declivity towards the east, and they end in vast plains, which are terminated by the largest rivers in the world. This is a consequence of the parallel direction of the dif- ferent chains ot mountains : besides, the whole continent of Europe and Asia is broader from east to west than from north to south ; and there are two modes of conceiving this direction. In the long and narrow continent of South A- merica, there is only one principal chain of mountains, that NATURAL HISTORY. tg is, from east to west or from west to east; in fact, it is in this direction ail the rivers of America flow, because, except- ing the Cordeliers, there are no very extensive chains of mountains, and none the directions of which are parallel to them. In the Old as well as the New Continent, most of the waters have their greatest extent from west to east; and most of the rivers flow in this direction, which is owing to ano- ther cause, viz. that there are many long chains of moun- tains parallel to each other, the directions of which are from west to east, and because the rivers and other streams are obliged to follow the intervals which divide these chains, so one single chain, directed from north to south, will pro- duce rivers, similar to those which issue from many chains of mountains, and it is for this particular reason, that the rivers of America have this direction common with those of Europe, Africa, and Asia. A remarkable phenomenon has been observed with re- spect to rivers, which is, that in the inland parts at a distance from the sea, they flow in a direct line ; but in proportion as they approach their mouths, they assume more of a winding course. In large rivers, there is a considerable eddy along the banks ; and the nearer the sea, this eddy is the greater. The surface of the water in rivers is by no means level from bank to bank; on the contrary, the middle of the stream is higher or lower than the water of the sides according to cir- cumstances. When a river swells suddenly by the melting of snow or any other cause, the middle of the stream is sen- sibly higher than the sides: in one instance the elevation is said to have been as great as three feet. On the other hand, when rivers approach their mouths, the water near the sides is commonly more elevated than that in the middle. The inundations occasioned by the Nile, than which no- thing can be more natural, have long afforded matter for cu- rious and doubtful speculation. It is the rain which falls in Abyssinia and Ethiopia that occasions the swelling of this river, though the north wind must be regarded as the pri- mitive cause, ist, Because it drives the clouds which con- vey the rain from the coast of Abyssinia: zdly ; because by opposing itself to the two mouths of the Nile, it forces the the water back against the stream, and thus prevents it e 26 NATURAL HISTORY. from fpouring into the sea in too great a quantity : this circumstance may be relied on, for when the wind at the north, suddenly veers to the south, the Nile loses in one day what it gathered in four. Inundations are generally greatest in the superior parts of rivers; because the velocity of a river uniformly increases until it empties itself into the ocean. But as the theory of running waters is subject to many difficulties, we ought carefully to study the peculiarities of particular rivers. The greatest rivers of Europe are, the Wolga, the course of which from Reschow to Astracan on the Caspian Sea, is about 650 leagues ; the Danube, which runs about 450 lea- gues, from the mountains of Switzerland to the Black Sea; the Don, from the source of the Sosna, which receives it, to the Black Sea, runs 400 leagues ; the Nieper also falls in- to the Black Sea, after running 350 leagues; and the Duine, which empties itself in the White Sea, runs about 300 lea- gues. The greatest rivers of Asia are, the Hoanho, which rises at Raja Rilron, and after running 850 leagues, falls into the middle of the gulf of Changi, in the Chinese Sea; the Je- nisca, which runs from Lake Leling to the northern sea of Tartary, a course of about 8co leagues; the Oby, from Lake Kila to the North Sea beyond Waigat's Straits, runs about 600 leagues ; the Amour, in East Tartary, has a course of 575 leagues, from the head of the river Kerlon, which falls into it, to the sea of Kamschatka. The river Menan may be measured from the source of the Longmu, which falls in- to it, to its mouth at Poulo-condor ; the Kian, which run about 550 leagues, from the source of the Kinxa, which it receives till it discharges itself into the Sea of China ; the Ganges, which has a course nearly of the same extent with the Kian ; the Euphrates, computing frpm the source of the Irma, which it receives, runs about 500 leagues; the Indus, which runs about 400 leagues, and falls into the Arabian Sea on the east of Guzarat; and the Sirderoias, which runs a- bout 400 leagues, and falls into Lake Aral. The greatest rivers of Africa are the Senegal, the course f which, comprehending the Niger, which is but a continu- ation of it, and the source of the Gambarou, which falls in- to the Niger, is about 1125 leagues; the Nile, which rises -NATURAL HISTORY. 27 in upper Ethiopia, runs about 970 leagues. There are o- thers, the courses of which are but little known, as the Zai- ra, the Coanza, the Couama, and the Quilmanci. In America, the river of the Amazons runs above 1200 leagues; the river St Laurence in Canada runs more than 900 leagues ; the Missisippi runs above 700 leagues; the PJata extends more than 800 leagues, from its mouth to the source of the Parana, which it receives ; the Oronoko runs above 575 leagues, if we reckon from the source of the river Caketa, near Pasto, a part of which falls into the Oronoko, and a part runs towards the river of the Amazons ; and the Madera which falls into the Amazons extends above 660 leagues. In order to ascertain the quantity of water discharged iri- io the sea by all the riveis, we will suppose one half of the surface of the earth to be sea, and the other half dry land; also, that the mean depth of the sea is 230 fathoms. The total surface of the earth is 170,981,012 square miles, and that of the sea 85,490,506, which when multiplied by one-fourth of the depth of the sea, gives 21,372,626 cubic miles for the quantity of water contained in the ocean. Now, that we may pretty nearly ascertain the quantity of water discharged into the sea from the rivers, let us take the rivex Po, for an example, which runs through Lombardy, and waters a coun- try 380 miles long. According to Riccioli, the breadth of the Po is too feet, its depth 10 feet, and it runs at the rate of 4 miles an hour ; consequently, the Po discharges into the ,sea 200,000 cubic perches of water in on hour: and as a cu- bic mile contains 125 oco.ooo cubic perches, the Po will re- quire 26 days to discharge into the sea, a cubic mile of wa- ter. It only remains to determine the proportion that the Po bears to all the other rivers of the earth taken together, which cannot be done exactly. But, to come as near the truth as possible, let us suppose the quantity of water, which the sea receives from the great rivers in every coun- try, to be proportioned to the extent of the surfaces of those countries ; arid that the country watered by the Po, and by the rivers that fall into it, is to the total surface of the dry land, as the Po is .to all the rivers of the earth. Now, from the most accurate charts, it appears, th?t the Po waters a country 380 miles long by 120 broad, which make 45,600 43 NATURAL HISTORY. square miles. But the surface of the dry land is 85,490,506 square miles; consequently, the quantity of water conveyed to the sea by all the rivers, will be 1874 times greater than the quantity discharged b'y the Po. but, as 26 rivers, equal to fhe Po, furnish a cubic mile of water every day, it fol- lows, that in the space of a jear, 1874 rivers equal to thePo, will convey to the sea 26,308 cubic miles of water ; and that in 812 years, all these rivers would discharge 21,372,626 cu- bic miles, which is a quantity equal to that contained in the ocean ; of course, if the ocean were empty, 812 years would be necessary to fill it from the rivers. In the Old Continent there are about 430 rivers, which fall directly into the ocean, or into the Mediterranean and Black Seas: and in the New Continent, scarcely 180 rivers are known, which fall directly into the sea. In this number however, I have included none but such as are as large as the river Somme in Picardy. All these rivers carry to the sea a great quantity of mineral and saline particles, which they wash from the different soils through which they pass: hence some naturalists, and among the rest Dr. Halley, have pretended, that the saltness of the sea proceeds from the salts which the rivers transport thither. Others assert, that this saltness is as ancient as the sea itself, and that it was thus impregnated to preserve it from corruption. But may we not suppose, that the sea is kept thus pure by the agita- tions of the wind, and the constant flux and reflux, as much as by the salt it contains; for when it is kept in a barrel, it corrupts in a few days: and Boyle relates, that a mariner* becalmed for 13 days, found the sea at the end of that time so putrid, that if the calm had continued, the greatest part of his people on board would have perished. The wa- ter of the sea is also mixed with a bituminous oil, which gives it a disagreeable taste, and renders it very unhealthy. The quantity of salt contained in sea water, is about one 4oth part, and the sea is nearly equally saline throughout; though there are several parts, as on the Mosambique Coast, where it is much salter than elsewhere. It is also asserted not to be so saline under the Arctic Circle, which may pro- ceed from the great quantity of snow, and fresh rivers which fall into those seas, and because the evaporations are less there than in warmer climates. NATURAL HISTORY. jg There are rivers which lose themselves in the sands, and others which seem to precipitate themselves into the bowefs of the earth: the Guadalquiver in Spain, the river of Got- tenburg in Sweden, and the Rhine itself, lose themselves in the earth. It is asserted, that in the west part of St Domin- go, there is a mountain of a considerable height, at the foot of which are several large caverns that receive the rivers and brooks, the fall of which is heard seven or eight leagues off. The rivers, however, which disappear thus, are very few; and they seem not to descend very deep. And it is probable, that like the Rhine, they lose themselves by dividing and disappearing through a large surface of sand, of which there are many examples in Africa, Persia, Arabia, c. The rivers of the north carry down to the sea prodigious quantities of ice, which form those enormous masses so dan- gerous to the mariner; those in the sea of Nova Zembla and in the straits of Waigat, come from the Oby, and, perhaps from the Jenisca, and other great rivers in Siberia and Tar- tary: those of Hudson's Straits, from Ascension Bay, into which many rivers in North America empty themselves; and those of Terra del Fuego, from the southern continent. If fewer of them are found in the northern coasts of Lapland than in those of Siberia and Waigat's Straits, it is because all the Lapland rivers fall into the gulf of Bothnia, and none of them into the North Sea. The ocean surrounds the whole globe without any inter- ruption, and the tour of the globe may be made by passing the point of South America ; but it is not yet known whether the ocean surrounds the northern part of the globe in the like manner: and all manners who have attempted tu sail [ from Europe to China by the north-east or north-west, have equally miscarried in their enterprises. The seas which are called Mediterranean, are properly branches from the gieat ocean, by which they are supplied. Lakes differ from the Mediterranean seas, because they do not receive any water from the ocean; so on the contrary, if they have communication with the seas, they furnish them with water; thus the Black Sea, which some geographers have regarded as connected with the Mediterranean, and consequently as an appendix to the ocean, is only a lake; >ecaut>e P instead of receiving water from the Mcditurancau, go NATURAL HISTORY. it supplies it, and flows with rapidity through the Bosphe* rus into the lake called the Sea of Marmora, and thence through the straits of the Dardanelles into the Grecian Sea. The water of the Black Sea is less clear and saline than that of the ocean. No island is to be met with in this sea: tem- pests are very violent here, and more dangerous than those in the ocean; occasioned from the whole body of the water being contained in a kind of bason, which when agitated, has a whirling motion that strikes the vessels on every side with an intolerable violence. Next to the Black Sea, the greatest lake in the universe is the Caspian Sea, the extent ot which, from north to south, is about 300 leagues; and from a moderate computation, is scarcely more than fifty broad. This lake receives the Vol- ga, which is one of the greatest rivers in the world; and al- so some other considerable rivers, as the Keir, the Fay, and the Gempo; but what is singular, it does not receive any on its eastern side. There are some small islands in the Caspi- an Sea, the waters of which are less saline than those of the ocean. In this sea no large vessels are used, as the naviga- tion is very dangerous, and because it is shallow, and many banks and shoals are scattered under the surface. There are lakes, which like pools neither receive nor emit rivers; there are others which do both; and there are some which only receive rivers, as the Caspian Sea and the lake Aral which receive and retain the water of many rivers: and the Dead Sea which receives the Jordan. In Asia Mi- nor, there is a small lake of the same kind, which receives the water of a river the source of which is near Congi, and like the preceding, throws off the water it receives by eva- poration. There is one much larger in Persia, on which the town of Marago stands, its figure is oval, .and about ten or twelve leagues long, by six or seven broad; it receives the river Tauris, which is not very considerable. There is also a similar small lake in Greece, about 12 or 15 leagues from Lepanto, and there are some of the same sort both in Africa and America. The largest lakes, however, are those which being the re- servoirs of, so they give rise to other great rivers. It is also worthy of remark, that alllakes from which rivers derive their origin; all those which fall into the courses of rivers, NATURAL HISTORY. & and which carry their water to them, are not salin. But almost all those, on the contrary, which receive rivers> without others issuing from them, are saline; which in some measure favours the opinion we advanced respecting the salt- ness of the sea; for evaporation cannot carry off fixed salts, and consequently those, which rivers carry into the sea, re- main in it; and although river water appears to taste sweet, we know that it contains a small quantity of salt, and in course of time, the sea must have acquired a considerable de- gree of saltness, which still continues to increase. Hence, in my opinion, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the lake Aral, the Dead Sea, &c. are become salt. The lakes which are any ways remarkable, are, the Dead Sea, the waters of which contain much more bitumen than salt; this bitumen, which is called the Bitumen of India, is no other than the Asphaltum, which has induced some au- thors to denominate this sea, lake Aspbaltum. The land which borders on this lake contains a great quarrtity of bitu- men, and many have applied the fables to this lake, which, the poets feigned of the lake Avernus, that no fish could live in it, and that birds which attempted to fly over it were suf- focated. But neither of these lakes produce such mortal e- vents; fish live in both, birds pass over them, and men bathe in them without the least danger. A petrifying lake in Iceland, is also mentioned, and the lake Neagh in Ireland, has also the same property of apparently turning wood, &c. into stone; but these petrifications are no other than incrus- tations like those made by the water of Arcueil. CHAP III. OF TIDES WINDS, REGULAR AND IRREGULAR MONSOONS- HURRICANES WHIRLWINDS WATER-SPOUTS. WATER, like every other fluid, remains smooth and tranquil, unless put in motion by some foreign cause. All the waters of the ocean are collected in the lowest places upon the sur- face of the earth; hence the motion of the sea must pro- ceed from external causes, The chief motion is that of the NATURAL HISTORY. tides, which rise and fall alternately, and produce a perpe- tual motion from east to west. These two motions have an unvariable relation to the motions of the moon. Du- ring the full and new moons, this motion from east to west is most observable, as well as that of the tides, which ebb and flow upon most coasts, every 6| hours. It is always high tide when the moon arrives at the meridian ; and low tide, when she is at the greatest distance from it, viz. at rising and setting. The motion from east to west is per- petual; because when the tide rises, it pushes an immense body of water from east to west, and the ebbing seems on- ly to be occasioned by a smaller quantity of water which is impelled westward. This motion is attended with the following circumstan- ces: ist, It is more apparent at the full and new moon than at the quadratures. It is also more violent in spring and autumn than any other season ; and weakest at the sol- stices. This is owing to the combined attraction of the sun and moon. 2d> The direction and quantity of this motion is often varied by the winds, particularly by those which blow incessantly from the same quarter. 3d, It is worthy of remark, that when one part of a fluid is moved, the mo- tion is communicated to the whole ; so that the ocean is in a constant state of agitation. In order to throw a little more light upon this subject, let us attend to the causes which produce the tides. We may therefore remark, that the moon acts upon the earth by a power called gravity or attraction. This power penetrates the whole globe, and is exactly proportioned to the quanti- ty of matter, and decreases as the squares of the distances increase. Let us now examine what effects this power must produce upon the waters when the moon comes to the meridian of any place. The surface of the water immedi- ately under the moon, is nearer that planet than any othec part of the earth, consequently, that part of the sea must be elevated towards the moon, and the summit of this emi- nence must be opposite to the moon's centre. To produce this eminence, the waters upon the surface, as well as thoi.e at the bottom, contribute their share, in proportion to their distances from the moon, which acts upon them in the in- "yerse ratio of the squares of their distances. Hence the sur-< NATURAL HISTORY. 33 face of this part of the sea is first elevated ; the surface of the adjacent parts is also elevated, but not so much ; and the waters at the bottom of all these parts are raised by the same cause. Thus, as the whole portion of water under the moon is raised, the water at a distance, upon which no at- traction is exerted, must necessarily rush forwards with pre- cipitation, to supply the place of that which was drawn to- wards the moon. It is in this manner that the tides are pro- duced, which is more or less perceivable in different coasts, and which agitates the sea not only at the surface, but throughout its whole profundity. The ebb, is a conse- quence of the natural disposition of the water, when no longer acted upon by the moon, to subside, and returns to occupy those shores from which it had been forced to retire by an external cause. Nothing is more irregular in our climates than the course of the winds; but there are countries where this irregulari- ty does not exist, and others where the wind blows constant- ly in the same direction. There are several causes which give rise to the motion of the air, but the most powerful is the sun, which by rarefy- ing it, produces an influx of cold air, which is a heavier fluid, and consequently presses in upon that which is rarefy- ed and light, and produces a stream or current, called wind. In the Torrid Zone, this effect is more uniformly manifest than in other parts of the world". In the regions near the , equinoctial, a continual raiefaction is produced by the sun, and a constant current of air follows that luminary in his progress from east to west. This easterly wind blows so generally in the Pacific Ocean, that ships which sail from Aeapulca to the Philippines, perform a voyage of 2700 lea- gues in less than two months. About 28 or 30 degrees on this side of the line, the west winds are equally constant, and it is for this reason, that vessels returning from the West Indies to Europe do not pursue the same route as in going out. The winds which blow continually for some months, are generally followed by contrary winds, and mariners are of- ten obliged to wait for that which is most favourable; when f 34 NATURAL HISTORY. these winds change, a calm or dangerous tempest en sues/ which lasts for several days, and sometimes for a month. These general winds, occasioned by the rarefaction of the atmosphere, combine differently by different causes in differ- ent climates. In part of the Atlantic Ocean under the Tem- perate Zone, the north wind blows almost constantly during the months of October, November, December, and January ; which is the reason why these months are the most favour- able to embark from Europe to India, in order to p.iss the line by the favour of these winds ; and it is known, that ships which quit Europe in the month of March, do not ar- rive sooner at Brazil than those which sail in the month of October. The north wind almost continually reigns during winter in Nova Zembla, and the other northern coasts. The south wind blows during the month of July at Cape Verd, when the rainy season, or winter of these climates sets in: at the Cape of Good Hope, the north west wind blows du- ring the month of September : at Patna, in India, it blows during the months of November, December, and January, and produces heavy rains; but the east wind blows during the other nine months. In the kingdom of Guzarat, and on the coasts of the neigh- bouring sea, the north winds blow from March till Septem- ber; and during the other months of the year, south winds almost always prevail. The Dutch, in order to return from Java, generally set sail in the munth of January or February by an easterly wind, which is felt as far as 18 degrees north latitude, after which they meet with south winds which car- ry them to St Helena. In the Mediterranean, the wind blows from the land to- wards the ?ea at the sun's setting; and, on the contrary, from the sea towards the land at his rising. Hence, in the morn- ing it is an easterly wind, and in the evening a westerly wind. The south wind, which is rainy, and which general- ly blows at Paris, Burgundy, and Champagne, at the begin- ning of November, and which gives place to mild and tem- perate breezes, produces the fair weather, vulgarly called, the summer of St Martin. On the sea, the winds are more regular than at land, be- cause the temperature of the sea is more equal. The tem- perature at the land is altered by a variety of causes ; sucb NATURAL HISTORY. 35 as electricity, volcanoes, exhalations from the earth, the ex- plosions of meteors, &c. In general, on the sea, the east wind and those which come from the poles, are stronger than the west and those which proceed Jrom the equator. On the land, on the con- trary, the west and south winds are more or less violent than the east and north winds, according to the situation of the climates. Contrary currents are often observed in the air; clouds that move in one direction, and others which are higher or or lower than the first, proceed in a direction entirely oppo- site. This contrariety of motion, however, does not remain very long, and it is commonly produced by the resistance of some clouds to the action of the wind, and by the reac- tion of the direct wind, which reigns solely as soon as the obstacle is removed. Winds are more violent in mountainous places than in plains; and the higher we ascend, the more the power of the wind increases, until we reach the common height of the clouds, which is about one-quarter or one-third of a league. Beyond that height, the sky is generally serene, especially in summer, and the wind is said to be even imperceptible on the tops of the highest mountains. A current of air increases in velocity, like a current of wa- ter, where the space of its passage is contracted. The wind, which is but slightly felt in a wide and open plain, becomes violent in passing through a narrow passage between two *mountains, or between two lofty buildings ; and the point ef the most violent action of the wind is above the struc- tures or mountain straits. For the air being compressed by the resistance of these obstacles, has a greater mass, density, and velocity subsisting; the effort or gust of wind, and the momentum become much stronger; this is the cause that near a church or a castle, the winds seem to be much strong- er than they are at a certain distance from these edifices. I have often remarked, that the wind reverberated from a building that stands by itself, is stronger than the direct wind that produced it. And since I have endeavoured to discover the reason of this, I have been able to find no other than the above. The impelled air compresses against the build- ing, and is beat back, not only with its former velocity, bu5 jfi NATURAL HISTORY. also with a greater bod}', which, in fact, renders its action much more violent. Particular winds, whether direct or reflected, are more violent than those which are general. An uniformly conti- nued stream of air, produces not such havoc k, as the fury of those winds which blow in sudden gusts. The predominan- cy of certain winds, in certain parts, has occasioned a gene- ral division of them into zones, though it is not to be under- stood that their effects are invariable. The east wind, which extends 20 or 30 degrees on each side of the equator, oc- cupies the Torrid Zone, and the north wind the Frigid Zones. With regard to the Temperate Zo^ies, the winds which reign there, are, if I may use the expression, only cur- rents of air, the motion of which is composed of those two winds, the direction of which tends to the west. And with respect to the westerly winds, the direction of which tends to the east, and which often prevail in the Temperate Zone, whether in the Pacific or Atlantic Oceans, they may be con- sidered as winds reflected by the continents of Asia and A- merica, but originally proceeding from the east and north winds. The monsoons, or trade winds, which have an alternate motion, are subject to many deviations. Some continue for a longer, some for a shorter time; and they also differ in their extent, and in their degree of violence. In the Indian Ocean, for instance, between Africa and India, as far as the Moluccas, the east wind begins in January, and lasts till June. In the month of August or September, the contrary' motion begins ; and the west winds reign during three or four months. In the intervals of these monsoons, that is, at the end of June, in the month of July, and beginning of August, there is no wind on that sea; but it is infested with violent storms from the north. There are winds which may be regarded as peculiar to Certain coasts; for example, the south wind is almost conti- nual on the coasts of Chili arid Peru. It begins about the 46th degree of south latitude, and extends beyond Panama, \vhich renders the voyage from Lima to Panama much easi- er than the return. The westerly winds blow almost conti- nually, or at least very frequently, on the Magelianic coasts, and over the environs of the straits of Maire, The eojrtU NATURAL HISTORY. 37 and north-west winds prevail almost continually on the Ma- labar coast; the north-west wind is also very frequent on the coast of Guinea ; and at a certain distance from that coast, in the open sea, we meet with the north-east wind very frequently. The westerly winds reign on the coasts of Ja- pan, in the months of November and December. The alternate or periodical winds, which we have just been speaking of, are sea winds. But there are also land winds, which are periodical, and return either at a certain season, or in certain days, or even at certain hours. On the Malabar coast, for example, from the month of September to April, a land wind blows from the eastern side: it gene- rally commences at midnight and finishes at noon, and is not felt beyond 12 or 15 leagues from the coast, and from noon till miduight a weak sea wind reigns, which comes from the west. On the coast of New Spain in America, and on that of Congo in Africa, land winds reign during the night, and sea winds during the day. At Jamaica, the winds blow from all quarters at on.ce, during the nighr, which hin- der vessels from either landing or setting out but in the day- time. The winds are however more irregular on the land than on the sea, and more irregular in the higher lands than in plains. The mountains not only alter the direction of winds, but they even produce winds, which are either constant or variable according to different causes. The melting of the snow, which is upon the mountains, general- ly produces constant winds, which sometimes remain very long. The vapours which are stopt by mountains, and which accumulate upon them, produce variable winds, very frequent in all climates. In the straits, on all the projecting coasts, at the extremity and in the environs of ali promon- tories, peninsulas and capes, and in all narrow gulfs, storms are frequent. But independent of these circumstan- ces, some seas are much more tempestuous than others. The Indian Ocean, the Japan Sea, the Magellanic Sea, that of the African coast beyond the Canaries, and on the other side towards the country of Natolia, the Red Sea., &c. aro very subject to storms. The Atlantic Ocean is more stormy than the Ocean, which, from its tranquillity, is called the Thii ocean, however, is not absolutely tranquil; KATURAL HISTORY- except between the tropics, and about the Temperate Zones; and the more we approach the poles, the more we are subject to variable winds, the sudden changes of which often occa- sion tempests. All continents are subject to variable winds, which often produce singular effects. In the kingdom of Cassimir, which is surrounded by the mountains of Caucasus, a very sudden reverse of season is felt on mount Pirepenjale: for in less than an hour's journey we pass from summer to winter. A north and a south wind, according to Berner, blow perceptibly within 200 paces of one another. In the peninsula of India, which is traversed from north to south by the mountains of Gate, the extreme heats of summer are felt on one side of the mountains, and all the rigour" of win- ter on the other. The same phenomenon is also observed at Cape Rozalgate in Arabia, and the island of Ceylon. In Egypt, during summer, a south wind prevails, which is so hot as to stop respiration; and it raises so great a quanti- ty of sand, that the sky seems covered with thick clouds. This sand is so fine, and driven with such force, that it pe- netrates every where, even into the closest coffers. When these winds last several days, they occasion epidemical dis- eases, which are often attended with the most fatal conse- quences. The Cape of Good Hope is famous for its tempests, and the singular cloud which produces them. This cloud ap- pears at first only like a small round spot in the heavens, called by sailors the Ox's Eye, and which 1 imagine appears EO small from its exceeding great height. In Natolia, a cloud similar to the Ox's eye at the Cape, produces the same dire- ful effects. In the sea between Africa and America, especi- ally under the equator and in the neighbouring parts of it, these tempests very often arise; near the coast of Guinea, sometimes three or four of these storms are formed in a day. They are occasionedand announced, like those of the Cape, by small black clouds. The rest of the sky is generally ve- ry serene, and the sea calm. The first blast which issues irom these clouds is furious, and would sink ships in the open sea, if they did not take the precaution to furl the sails. It is principally in the months of April, May, and June, that NATURAL HISTORY. 3 g these tempests are experienced on the Guinea Sea, because no regular wind blows there during the season. All these tempests originate from winds which issue from a cloud, the direction of which is either to the north or south, north east or south west, &c. But there are tempests called hurricanes, which are still more violent, and in which the winds seem to blow from all the coasts at once, with a circu- lar motion, which nothing can resist. A calm generally precedes these horrible tempests; but in an instant the fury of the winds raises waves as high as the clouds. Some parts of the sei cannot be approached, because they are con- tinually infested with calms or whirlwinds. The Spaniards have therefore called these places calms and tarnados. When from a sudden rarefaction, or any other cause, con- trary currents of air meet in the same spot, a whirlwind is produced. Perhaps the same effect takes place in another element, and gulfs or whirlpools, may be no other than the eddies of the water formed by the action of two or more opposite currents. The Euripus, so famous for the death of Aristotle, alternately absorbs and rejects the water seven times in twenty four hours: this gulf is near the Grecian coast. The Charybdis, which is near the strait of Sicily, rejects and absorbs the water thrice in twenty-four hours. We are uncertain, however, with respect to the number of alternate motions in other whirlpools. The greatest known gulf is that of the Norway Sea, which is affirmed to be up- wards of twenty leagues in circuit. It absorbs for six hours, water, whales, ships, and whatever is near it, and afterwards returns them. A waterspout is no other than a whirlwind at sea. The Vacuum which is occasioned by the meeting currents, makes the water rise in the form of a cylinder, or rather of an inverted cone. In the travels of Mr Thevenot, there is a very minute aud circumstantial account of the formation of a waterspout; though there is reason to suspect, that the re- lation is not without some optical deceptions. The first, says this celebrated voyager, that we saw, was on the northern coast, between us and the island Quesomo, a- bout a gun-shot from the ship. We directly perceived the water begin to boil on the surface of the sea, about a foot high; it was whitish, and appeared above that height like a 46 NATURAL HISTORY. thick black smoke, so that it properly resembled some burn- ing straw, which only smoked. It made a noise like that of a torrent which runs with much rapidity in a deep valley. But this noise was mixed with another, similar to the strong hissing of serpents or vipers. A little while afterwards, we perceived something like a dark canal or pipe, which bore a strong resemblance to smoke, ascend towards the clouds, which revolved with great velocity. This pipe appeared to be about the thickness of my finger, and the same noise continued ; the duration of this spout was about a quarter of an hour. We then perceived another on the south side of us, which began in the same manner as the preceding. Immediately a third and then a fourth sprung up, both to the west; which appeared like heaps of smoking straw, and were accompanied with the same noise as the first. We after- wards saw three pipes or canals, which descended from the clouds, on those places where the water was raised up, each of which was as broad at the end fastened to the cloud, as the broad end of a trumpet, and resembled the teat of an ani- mal, drawn perpendicularly down by a heavy weight. These canals appeared of a darkish white, and were crooked in some places; and their directions from the clouds to which they were joined to the parts which drew in the wa- ter, were very oblique. And what is singular, the cloud which the second of these three was fastened to, having been driven by the wind, the canal followed it without breaking or quitting the place where it drew in the water; and passing behind the first canal, they sometimes appeared like St Andrew's Cross. At the beginning, they were all about the thickness of my finger; but afterwards, the first of the three increased considerably: and the last which was formed, scarcely remained longer than that which we saw on the north side. The second, on the south side, remained a- \jout a quarter of an hour, but the first on that side remained a little longer ; and it was this which terrified us the most. At first, its canal was as thick as my finger, afterwards as thick as my arm, then as my leg, and at last as the trunk of a lar;jce tree, which a man might compass with his arms. We distinctly perceived water through this transparent bod}-, which ascended in a serpentine form. Sometimes it dimi- nished a little in size, sometimes at top and sometimes at NATURAL HISTORY. bottom; then it exactly resembled a soft tube with somu fluid matter pressed with the fingers, either at top, to !iu:Le the liquor descend, or at bottom, to make it ascend. After this, it diminished so much, that it was no thicker than my arm; then it became as thick as my thigh, and again be- came very small. At last, I saw that the elevated water began to lower, and that the end of the canal, which touched it, divided and grew narrower, when a variation of the light removed it from our view. CHAP IV. OF VOLCANOES EARTHQUAKES THE FORMATION OF NEW ISLANDS CAVERNS AND GROTTOES BOGS AND FEXS CHANGES OF LAND INTO SEA, &C. JjURNING mountains, called Volcanoes, contain in their bowels, sulphur, bitumen, and other materials, which serve as aliment to a subterraneous fire ; the effect of which, is more violent than that of gunpowder or even of thunder. A volcano, is a cannon of a very large size, the orifice of which is often more than half a league ; and vomits forth *torrents of smoke, flame, rivers of bitumen, sulphur, and melted metal, clouds of cinders and stones, and sometimes it ejects enormous rocks to the distance of many leagues. The combustion is so terrible, and the quantity of burnt, melted, calcined, and vitrified materials, which the mountain throws out, so plentiful, that it enters cities, forests, covers the fields an hundred, and sometimes two hundred feet thick, and frequently forms hills and mountains. The action of this fire is so great, and the force of the explosion so vio- lent, that its reaction has been known to shake the earth, agitate the sea, overthrow mountains, and destroy the most solid towns and edifices, to a very considerable distance. The natives of Iceland, imagine, that the roarings of the g 4, NATURAL HISTORY. volcano are the cries of the damned, and its eruptions, the effects of the rage and despair of these unhappy wretches. All these phenomena, however, are only the effects of fire and smoke. In the bowels of mountains, there are veins of sulphur, bitumen, and other inflammable substances; also great quantities of pyrites, which ferment when expo- sed to the air, or to moisture, and produce explosions in proportion to the quantity of inflammable matter they con- tain. A mixture of sulphur, filings of iron, and water, bu- ried at a certain depth in the ground, will exhibit, in mini- ature, all the appearances of a volcano. This mixture, will soon produce explosions, perfectly similar to those of burn- ing mountains. There are three famous volcanoes in Europe, ./Etna in Sicily, Hecla in Iceland, and mount Vesuvius, near Naples in Italy. Mount ./Etna has burnt frqm time immemorial: its eruptions are very violent, and the mattei it throws out, so plentiful, that it may be dug to the depth of 68 feet; where we meet with marble pavement, and the vestiges of an ancient town, which has been buried under matter eject- ed from this mount, in the same manner, as the city of Her- culaneum has been covered by the matter thrown out of Vesuvius. New mouths of fire were formed in 1650, 1669, and at other times. We can see the flame and smoke of this volcano from Malta, which is about 60 leagues distant; it smokes continually, and sometimes vomits flame and matter of every kind with impetuosity. In 1537, there was an e- ruption of this volcano, which occasioned an earthquake in Sicily, for iz days; and overthrew a great number of houses and other structures. It ceased only by the opening of a new mouth, which burnt every thing within five miles of the mountain. The cinders thrown out by the volcano, were so abundant, and ejected with so much force, that they were driven as far as Italy ; and vessels which had de- departed to some distance from Sicily, were incommoded by them. Farelli, describes the conflagration of this moun- tain circumstantially ; and says, the foot of it is 100 leagues in circumference. This volcano, has now two principal mouths, the one nar- rower than the other, which always smoke ; but fire is ne- ver seen to issue from them, but during the time of erup- NATURAL HISTORY. 43 tions. It is pretended, that stones are found which itjiat thrown out to the distance of 60,000 feet. One of the last, and most violent eruptions of mount Ve- suvius, was in the year 1737. The mountain vomited, by divers mouths, large torrents of burning metallic matter, which overflowed the country, and run into the sea. Mon*. de Montealegre, who communicated this relation to the A- cademy of Sciences, observed, with horror, one of these ri- vers of fire, and saw its course for six or seven miles, till it reached the sea. Its breadth was sixty or seventy feet, its depth twenty five or thirty palms, and in certain bottoms or valleys, 220: ihe matter was like the scum which issues from the furnace of a forge. In Asia, as well as in America, there are a great number of volcanoes; but there is nothing worthy of remark in any, except the violence with which some of them emit the burn- ing matter they contain. Near Fez, in Africa, there is a mountain or rather a ca- vern, called Beniguazevel, which always emits smoke, and sometimes flames. One of the islands of Cape Verd, called the island of Fuogo, is only a large mountain which burns incessantly. This volcano, like the rest, throws out many cinders and stones; and the Portuguese who have attempted several times to erect habitations on it, have been constrain- ed to abandon the project, through the dread of its effects. The Canaries, the Peak ofTeneriff, and some of the highest mountains in the*world, throw out fire, cinders, and large * stones; from the tops of which, rivulets of melted sulphur flow, which are discernible at a great distance. The matter which volcanoes throw out, generally comes forth in the form of torrents of melted minerals, which in- undate the environs of these mountains; and when cooled, form horizontal or inclined strata, which, for position, are like the strata formed by the sediments left by floods. But it is very easy to distinguish the strata produced by the ex- pansion of matter thrown out by volcanoes, from those which have the sediment of the sea for their origin, i. Be- cause those strata are not of an equal thickness: 2. Because they contain only matter which is easily perceived to have been calcined, vitrified, or melted, and because they do not extend to any great distance. When coal mines are opened, ,, NATURAL HISTORY. which are generally met with in argillaceous earth, at a great depth; it sometimes happens, that such matter has taken fire. There are even mines of coal in Scotland, Flan- ders &c. which have burnt for a number of years. The com- munication of the air suffices to produce this effect; but the fires which are lighted in these mines, produce only slight explosions, and do not form volcanoes; because, all being solid and full in these places, fire cannot be excited like that of volcanoes, in which there are cavities and void places where the air penetrates, which must necessarily extend the conflagration and augment the action of the fire to the point in which we see it, when it produces the terrible ef- fects we have taken notice of. There are two kinds of earthquake; the one occasioned by the action ot subterraneous fires, and the explosion of vol- canoes which are only felt at small distances, and at the time when volcanoes act, or before they open. When the mat- ter which forms subterraneous fires, ferments, heats, and in- flames; the fire makes an effort on every side, and if it does not find a natural vent, it raises the earth, and forces a pas- sage for itself by throwing it out, which produces a volcano, the effects of which are repeated, and last in proportion to the quantity of inflammable matter. If the quantity of mat- ter which takes fire, is not considerable, a commotion or ail earthquake may issue, without a volcano being formed. The air produced and rarefied by subterraneous fire, may also find small vents, by which it will escape, and in this case, there will be only a shock, without an eruption or volcano.' But when the quantity of inflamed matter is great, and con- fined by solid and compressed matter, then a commotion and volcano arises; but all these commotions form only the first kind of earthquake, and can only shake a small space of ground. A vtry violent eruption of mount JEtna, will occa- sion, for example, an earthquake through the whole island of Sicily; but it will never extend to the distance of three or four hundred leagues. When any new mouths are formed in mount Vesuvius, there are earthquakes at Naples, and in the neighbourhood of the volcano: but these earthquakes never shake the Alps, and are not communicated to France, or to other countries remote from the source of the phenomenon. NATURAL HISTORY. 45 But, there is another kind of earthquake, very differentia its effects, and perhaps in its cause. There are also earth- quakes which are felt at great distances, and which shake a great extent of ground, without any new volcano or eruption appearing. To understand rightly, what may be the cause of this kind of earthquake, it must be remembered, that all inflammable matter capable of explosion, produces like gun-powder, by inflammation, a great quantity of air; that this air is in a state of very great rarefaction; and that, by a state of com- pression, in which it is found in the bowels of the earth, it must produce very violent effects. Let us therefore sup- pose, that, at a very considerable depth, as at one or two hundred fathoms, pyrites, and other sulphurous matter are to be met withj and that, by the fermentation produced by the filtration of water, or other causes, they inflame. At first, this matter is not disposed regularly by horizontal strata, as the more ancient matter is, which has been formed by the sediments of the waters. On the contrary, they are, formed in perpendicular strata, in caverns at the feet of these clefts, and in other parts where the water can act and pene- trate. This matter inflaming, will produce a great quantity of air or vapour, the spring of which, compressed in a small space, like that of a cavern, will not shake the earth imme- diately above, but will search for passages, in order to make its escape. It will, therefore, naturally force its way through those parts, where it meets with the least obstruction, and will proceed through the interstices between the diffe- rent strata, or any channel or cavern through which it can find a passage. This subterraneous air or vapour, will, in its passage, produce a noise and motion proportioned to its force, and to the resistance it meets with. And these effects will continue, till it finds a vent, perhaps in the sea, or till it has diminished its force by being greatly expanded. This explanation, corresponds entirely with the phenomena which are observed respecting earthquakes. They proceed with a wave-like motion, and are felt at different places, not at the same instant, but at different times, in proportion t the distance. We can also confirm what has been advanced, by connect- fng it with two other circumstances. It is well known, that '6 NATURAL HISTORY. mines exhale vapours, which are produced by currents of water, independent of the wind ; we often meet with cur- rents of unhealthy air and suffocating vapours. We also know, that there are holes, abysses, and deep lakes in the earth, which produce winds; as the lake Boleslaw in Bohe- mia, &c. From history, we have innumerable instances, of the dreadful and various effects of these terrible phenomena. Pliny, in his first book, chap. 84, relates, that in the reign of Tiberius, an earthquake happened, which overthrew twelve towns in Asia ; and in his second book, he mentions an earthquake, which overthrew 100 towns in Lybia. In the time of Trajan, the town of Antiochus, and a great part of the adjacent country, were swallowed up by an earth- quake; and, in the time of Justinian, in 528, it was again destroyed by a second, with upwards of 40,000 of its inhabi- tants. And, sixty years after, in the time of Saint Gregory, it felt the effects of a third earthquake, with the loss of 60,000 of its inhabitants. In the time of Saladin, in 1182, most of the towns of Syria and Jerusalem were destroyed by the same cause. In Calabria and Poh, there have been more of them than in any other part of Europe. In the time of Pope Pius XL all the churches and palaces of Na- ples were overthrown, and above 30,000 of its inhabitants killed. In 1629, there were earthquakes in Pola, which de- stroyed 7000 persons; and in 1638, the town of Saint Eu- phemia was swallowed up; and there remains only a stink- ing lake in its place. Ragusa, and Smyrna, were also nearly destroyed. There was an earthquake in 1692, which extend- ed into England, Holland, Flanders, German)', and France; it was chiefly felt on the sea coasts, and rivers, and extended to a space of at least 2600 leagues square. On the i6th of June, 1628, there was so horrible an earthquake in the island of St Michael, that the sea near it opened, and, in one place, where it was more than 150 fathoms deep, threw up an is- land a league and a half long, and upwards of 60 fathoms, high. Another earthquake happened in 1691, which began the i6th of July, and lasted in the island of St Michael till the 1 2th of the following month. Tercera, and Fayal, were a- !tated the next morning with so much violence, that they NATURAL HISTORY. 47 appeared to move ; but these frightful shocks returned only four times ; whereas, at St Michael's, they did not cease a moment for i $ hours. The islanders having quitted their houses, which they saw fall before their eyes, passed all that time exposed to the injuries of the weather. A whole town, named Villa Franca, was overthrown to its very foundation, and most of the inhabitants buried under its ruins. Several plains rose into hills, and some mountains sunk into valleys. A spring of water issued irom the earth, which flowed for four hours, and then suddenly became dry. The air and sea, still more agitated, resounded with a noise like the roaring of a number of wild beasts. Many persons died with the fright, the ships in the ports suffered dangerous shocks ; and those which were at anchor or under sail, 20 leagues distant from the islands, sustained great damage. In the year 1646, the mountain of the island of Machian, split with terrible reports, by an earthquake ; and so many fires issued through this opening, that they consumed many negro-yards, and all that were in them. This prodigious crack is still apparent ; and is called the path of Machian, because it descends from the bottom like a road hollowed out ; but which, at a distance, appears like a path. At sea, the shock of an earthquake is felt at a considerable distance. M. Shaw, relates, that, in 1721, being on board the Gazelle, an Algerine vessel, mounting 50 guns, three vi- olent shocks were felt one after another, as if a weight of 20 .or 30 tons had each time been thrown on the ship. This happened in a part of the Mediterranean which was 200 fa- thoms deep. In countries subject to earthquakes, it happens, when a new volcano is formed, earthquakes cease, and are only felt in the violent eruptions of the volcano, as is observed in the island of M Christopher. New islands are produced, either suddenly, by the opera- tion of subterraneous fires, or slowly, by the accumulated se- diments of water. Seneca, informs us, that in his time, the island Therasia suddenly emerged from the sea ; and Pliny relates, that thirteen islands arose all at once from the bot- tom of the Mediterranean. Upon this subject, however, we have some facts more recent, and less involved in ob- sciyitv. 4 8 NATURAL HISTORY. The zjdof May, 1707, at sun-rising, near the same island of Therasia, or Santorini, something was seen like a floating rock in the sea. Some persons, excited by curiosity, ap- proached it, and found this shoal which had issued from the bottom of the sea, to increase under their feet ; and they brought with them pumice stone and oysters, which stifl adhered to its surface. There was a slight earthquake at Santorini, two days before the growth of this shoal ; which increased considerably till the i4th of June, with- out any accident, and was then half a mile round, and from twenty to thirty feet high. The earth was white, and bordered a little on argillaceous, after which, the sea was still more agitated ; vapours arose, which affected the island Santorini ; and the i6th. I7th, or i8th of July, rocks were seen to issue at one time from the bottom of the sea; which seemed to unite into one. All this was done with a dismal noise, which continued upwards of two months, during which time, the island still kept increasing in circum- ference and height ; and the explosions threw out rocks and stones to the distance of seven miles. The 10th of October, 1720, near the island Tercera, a ve- ry considerable fire rose out of the sea. Mariners having been sent to examine it, they perceived an island the igth of the same month, which appeared to be covered with fire and smoke, and a prodigious quantity of cinders, as if thrown from a volcano, and accompanied with a noise similar to that of thunder. The Historian of the French Academy, in relating this e- vent, remarks, that after an earthquake in the island of St Michael, a torrent of fire appeared between it and the island Tercera, which gave birth to two new rocks ; and, the next year, the same Historian give the following account: " M. de 1'Isle, has informed the Academy of several parti- ' cuiars, which were communicated to him in a letter, from ' M. de Montagnac, consul at Lisbon, concerning the new ' island among the Azores. On the i8th of September, ' 1721, M. de Montagnac's vessel was moored off the For- ' tress of St Michael; and he procured from the Pilot of the ' port the following intelligence. " On the 7th of December, 1720, at night, a great earth- " quake happened in Tercera and St Michael, which aredi$- NATURAL HISTORY. 49 " tant about 28 leagues from one another, and a new island " emerged from the sea. It was, at the same time observed, " that the island Peak, thirty leagues distant, which ejected "flames, was extinct; and that a continual thick smoke " proceeded from the new island, which was distinctly per- " ceived by M. de Montagnac, as long as he remained in that " part. The pilot assured him, that he had sailed round the " island, and approached it as near as he could with safety. " He sounded, on the south side of it, with a rope of 60 fa- " thorns; but found no bottom. On the west side, the wa- " ter appeared to be mixed with white, blue, and green ; " and at the distance of two miles, it seemed to be shallow, " and boiling, On the north-west, the side from which the " smoke issued, he found, at 15 fathoms, a bottom of coarse " sand. He threw a stone into the sea, and at the place " where it fell, he observed the water boil and mount into " the air with great velocity ; and the bottom was so hot, as " to melt a piece of suet that had been fastened to the end " of the plumb line. The pilot, also, observed smoke to is- " sue from a small lake in the midst of a sandy plain. " We have since learned, from M. Adrien, the French con- " sul at St Michael, dated March, 1722, that the new island " is nearly on a level with the water ; and that it will proba- " bly soon disappear. " From these, and several other facts, it appears, that in- " flammable bodies exist under the sea, and that they some- '"* times produce violent explosions." On the whole, islands produced by the action of fire, and earthquakes, are but few, and these events are seldom; but there are an infinite number of new islands produced by the mud, sand, and earth, -which rivers, or the sea, transport into different places. At the mouths of most rivers, masses of earth, and banks of sand are formed ; the extent of which often become considerable enough to form islands of a moderate size. It may also be remarked, that there are very few islands in the middle of the sea, compar- ed with those in the neighbourhood of continents, where the sea formed them, either by retreating from, or approaching towards these countries. h NATURAL HISTORY. Water and fire, the natures ot which are opposite ; pro- duce, what at least appears to us, similar effects. Water, as has been observed, has produced mountains, and formed islands. There are likewise caverns, clefts, holes, gulfs, &c. some of which owe their origin to subterranean fires, and others to water. Saint Patrick's cavern, in Ireland, is not so considerable as it is famous. It is the same with the Dog's Grotto in Italy, and with that which throws out fire in the mountain of Be- nigauzeval, in the kingdom of Fez. - One of the most remarkable and largest caverns, is that of Antiparos, which is computed to be three hundred fathoms deep; arid the grotto appears to be forty fathoms high by fif- ty broad. It is filled with large, and beautiful stalactites, of various forms, both on the roof and at the bottom. In that part of Greece, called Livadia, (the Achaia of the ancients) there is a large cavern, in a mountain which was formerly very famous for the oracles of Trophonius, be- tween the lake Livadia and the adjacent sea. There are forty subterranean passages across the rock, under a lofty mountain, through which the waters of the lake continually How. In the month of June, 1714, a part of the mountain of DiabJeret in Valois, fell suddenly, between two and three o'clock in the afternoon. The sky was very serene; the mountain was of a conical figure, and destroyed fifty-three huts belonging to the boors,. crushed to death fifteen people, above two hundred cattle, and covered a square league with its ruins. A profound darkness was occasioned by the dust. The heaps of stones thrown together stopped the currents of water, which formed new and very deep lakes. In all of which, there was not the least trace of bituminous matter, sul.phur, nor lime ; and consequently no subterranean fire: for it appeared, that the base of this great rock was entire- ly reduced to dust by the corroding teeth of time. We have a remarkable example of these sinkings near Folkstone, in the county of Kent. The hills in its environs, which are composed of rocks of stone and chalk, have sunk imperceptibly and without any earthquake; and by so doing, have thrown into the sea great rocks and vast quantities of earth. NATURAL HISTORY. *i When the water on the surface of the earth cannot find rent, it forms morasses and bogs. The most famous moras- ses in Europe, are those of Moscovy, at the source of Tanais; those of Finland, where are the great morasses of Savolax and Enasak. There are also some in Holland, Westphalia, and many other low countries. In Asia, there are the mo- rasses of the Euphrates, those of Tartary, and the Palus Me- otidis: but in general, there are fewer in Asia, and Africa, than in Europe. America, may be said to be one continu- ed morass through all its plains; which is a proof of the mo- dern date of the country, the small number of inhabitants, and also of their want of industry. To give an idea of the quantity of earth, which the rains carry from the mountains into the valleys, we can quote a circumstance related by Dr Plot; who in his Natural His- tory of Staffordshire, observes, that in his time, at the depth of eighteen feet, several pieces of money, coined in the reign of Edward V. had been found; which was a period of two hundred years. Hence this ground, which is boggy, had increased above a foot in eleven years, or an inch and a twelfth every year. We can make a similar observation on trees buried at the depth of seventeen feet, below which, medals of Julius Cassar have been found: hence, the earth brought from mountains into plains by currents of wa- ter, must considerably increase their elevations. In the city of Modena, and four miles round, whatever part is dug, when we reach the depth of sixty three feet, and, K ?re five feet deeper with an auger, the water springs out with such force, that a well is filled in a very short space of time. This water flows continually, and neither diminishes nor increases by the rain or drought. What is very re- markable in this ground, when we reach the depth of four- teen feet, we find pavements, and other ruins of an ancient town; as boards, houses, different pieces of mosaic work, &c. Below these, we find the ground very solid which is thought to have never been stirred; yet, below it, we find a moist earth mixed with vegetables : and at twenty six feet, are entire trees, as nut trees, with nuts on them, and a great quantity of branches and leaves of trees. At twenty eight feet depth, we meet with a friable chalk, mixed with many shells; and this bed is eleven feet in thickness; after which, 5 2 NATURAL HISTORY. n-e again meet with vegetables; and thus alternately, chalk ?nd earth mixed with vegetables, to the depth of sixty three feet: at which depth, is a bed of sand mixed with gravel r.nd shells, like those formed on the coasts of the Italian sea. These successive beds of fenny or marshy earth and chalk, are always found in the same order, wherever we dig; and very often the auger meets with great trunks of trees, which it bores through, but with great trouble to the workmen. Bones, coals, flint, and pieces of iron, are also found. Ra- mazzini, who relates these circumstances, thinks, that the Gulf of Venice formerly extended beyond Modena; and that, perhaps, by the inundations of the sea, this ground has been formed. It is evident, that considerable changes have taken place on the surface of the globe, not only by the action of fire, but also by water. The sea, from various circumstances, has re- peatedly changed its bed. Authors have suspected, that the island of Great Britain was formerly united to the continent of Fiance. On the coasts of France, England, Holland, and Germany, the sea has retreated in many parts. In Italy, a considerable tract of territory has been gained; and Raven- na, which was formerly a sea-port of the Exarques, is no longer a maritime town. On the mountain of Stella, in Portugal, is a lake, in which the wrecks of ships have been found, notwithstanding this mountain is more than twelve leagues distant from any sea. Sabinus, in his commentaries on Ovid's Metamorphoses, says7that from monuments of history, it appears, that in &2 year 1460, a whole ship, with its anchors, was found in a mine of the Alp*. NATURAL HISTORY. |'j CHAP. V. ANALOGIES BETWEEN ANIMALS AND VEGETABLES -ON THE NA- TURE OF MAN OF INFANCY --MAN3OOD EXTENT OF HU- MAN LIFE -OF THE SENSES ANECDOTES ILLUSTRATIVE OF THIS SUBJECT. AMONG the vast variety of objects with which the earth abounds, animals hold the first rank ; both on account of the relation they bear to man, and their superiority over vegetable and inanimate nature. The senses, figure, and motions of animals, afford them a more intimate con- nexion with surrounding objects, than vegetables possess. The latter, however, from their expansion, growth, and variety of parts which compose them ; are more intimately- related to external objects, than minerals or stones, which are perfectly inert, and destitute of every vital principle. Jtis these relations alone, which render the animal superior to the vegetable, and the vegetable to the mineral. What a variety of springs, powers, and mechanical move- ments, are included in that small portion of matter, which composes the body of an animal ! What a number of rela- tions, what harmony, what correspondence among the diffe- rent parts ! How many combinations, arrangements, causes, effects, and principles, all conspiring to accomplish the same grand design ! But how admirable soever this work may appear, the greatest miracle is not exhibited in the individual. It is in the successive renovation, and in the continued duration of the species, that nature assumes an aspect, inconceivable and astonishing. This faculty of reproduction, which is peculiar to animals and vegetables, must, with regard to us, continue to be so profound a mystery, that we shall proba- bly never be able to investigate it with sufficient accuracy. Even inanimate bodies have some properties, and the most imperfectly organized matter, possesses many relations with the other parts of the universe. We will not assert, however, that matter under whatever form it appears, is tanscious of its existence, and of its relative powers; we 44 NATURAL HISTORY. shall only say, that being ignorant of the extent of our own connexion with external objects, we will not hesitate to pro- nounce inanimate matter to be infinitely more so. Besides, as our sensations have not the most distant resemblance to the causes that produce them, analogy obliges us to conclude, that dead matter, is neither endowed with sentiment, sensa- tion, nor even a consciousness of its own existence. With inanimate matter, therefore, we have no other rela- tion than what arises from the general properties of bodies; as extension, impenetrability, gravity, &c. But, as relations purely material make no impression on us, and as they exist independent of us, they cannot be considered as any part of our being. Our existence, therefore, is an effect of organi- zation, of matter with spirit. Matter, in this view, is not a principle but an accessary. It is a foreign covering, united to us in a manner unknown. But, in order to give a more perfect idea of the nature of man, let us trace him through the different stages of his existence. At his birth, he is exposed to a new element, the air; but what his sensations are on the admission of this element into the lungs, is impossible to conjecture; only from his cries, we have reason to believe, they are attended with pain. The eyes of an infant, are indeed open, but they are dull, and appear to be unfit for the performance of any office whatever; the outward coat being wrinkled. The same reasoning will apply to most of the other senses. It is not till after forty days that he begins to smile; nor does he till then begin in reality to weep. The size of an infant, born at the full time, is twenty-one irrches, though some do not exceed fourteen; and it generally weighs twelve, and some- times fourteen pounds. The form of the body, and mem- bers, are by no means perfect: at the end of three days, it has a kind of jaundiced appearance, and milk is found in the bjeasts, which may be squeezed out with the fingers. The skulls of infants are not completely formed at the birth, but, in ti;c language of the nursery, me open in a particular part; viz. at the top of the head: in this opening, a pal- piiistion rn;;y sometimes be discovered, and above it, a .. of scurf Appears, which may be rubbed off with a brush. In this country, infants, as soon as born, are inju- urfdty ..; with bandages, which ren- NATURAL HTSTORY. ^ der them unable to move a single joint. Nations which we call barbarous, act more rationally in this respect: the Siamese, Indians, Japanese, Negroes, the Savages of Cana- / da, Virginia, Brasil, and almost all the inhabitants of South America, lay their infants naked in hanging beds of cotton, or in cradles lined with fur. Infants sleep much, but it is often interrupted. They ought to have the breast every two hours in the day; and in the night, as often as they awake. It is of great im- portance to keep children clean and dry from their excre- ments. The American Indians, who cannot change their furs as frequently as we do our cloths, put under them the dust of rotten wood, and renew it as ofien as it gets'damp. Great evils ensue from the negligence of nurses. Infants are sometimes left to cry for a considerable time, which of- ten occasions diseases, especially ruptures, or at least, throws them into a state of lassitude, which deranges their consti- tutions. To palliate this, they are sometimes put into a cra- dle, and rocked to sleep; which may occasionally disorder the stomach and head. Before children are put up into the cradle, we ought to be certain they want nothing, and wherr they are rocked, it must never be with such violence as to stun or stupify them. The eyes of children are always di- rected towards the light, and if one eye only be directed to it, the other will probably become weak; both eyes, there- fore, should be equally shaded, or equally exposed. Squint- *ing is commonly the effect of injudicious treatment in this respect. Respecting the teeth, the eight incisores, or fore-teeth, appear first. They are produced generally by pairs, from two months old to ten or twelve. The four canini or dog teeth, appear commonly about the gth or roth month; at the close of the first, or in the course of the second year, 16 others appear, called matures, or giinders. lu the Jth, 6th, or yth year, the fore-teeth, dog-teeth, and the first six of the grinders, naturally shed, and a new set ap- pears; and at the age of puberty, or later, the denies sapien- tice, or wise-teeth, appear. The frames of infants, are less sensible of cold than during any other season of life. The pule is strong, and it is there- fore fair to conclude, that the internal heat is considerable. 4 6 NATURAL HISTORY. Small animals, for the same reason, have more heat than great ones; because the action of the heart and arteries, in- creases in proportion to the smallness of the animal. Till the age of three years, the life of infants is extremely precarious; in the course of the second or third year, it be- comes more certain; and at six or seven, a child has a greater probability of living than at any other period. It is remarked, that of a certain number of children born at the sama time, above a fourth die the first year; a- bove a third in two years, and at least one half in three years. By other calculations, it appears, that one half of the children born at the same time, are not extinct in less than seven or eight years. At 12 or 15 months, infants begin to lisp. A, is the vowel which they pronounce with most ease. Of the consonants, B, M, P, T, are the most easy. In every language, therefore, Ba-ba, Mama, Papa, Tata, are the first words that children learn. Some children pronounce distinctly at two years old; though the generality do not speak until two and a half, and frequently not so soon. Some young persons cease growing at 14 or 15, while o- thers continue their growth to 23 or 23. In men, the body attains its perfect proportion at the age of 30; and the persons of women, are generally complete at 20. The distance between the eyes, is less in man than in any other creature; in some animals, they are at so great a distance, that it is impossible they should ever view the same object^ with both eyes at once. Men, and apes, are the only crea- tures that have eye-lashes on the\lower eye-lids ; other ani- imals have them only on the upper. The upper eye-lid rises and falls, the lower has scarcely any motion. The ancients, erroneously, considered the hair as a kind of excrement, and believed, that like the nails, it increased by the lower part pushing out the extremity. But the mo- derns have discovered, that every hair is a tube, which fills and receives nutriment like the other parts of the body. The roots, they observe, do not turn grey sooner than the extremities, but the whole changes its colour at once. We have known persons, the hair of whose heads has become grey in the short space of a night. NATURAL HISTORY. There is no part of the body which has been subject to such changes of fashion, as the hair and the beard. Some people, and among others the Turks, cut the hair off their heads, and let their beards grow. The Europeans, on the contrary, shave their beards, and wear their hair. The ne- groes shave their heads in figures at one time, in stars at an- other, in the manner of friars, and more commonly in alternate stripes; and their little boys are shaved in the same manner. The Talapoins, of Siam, shave the heads and eye- brows of such children as are committed to their care. Eve- ry nation seems to have entertained different prejudices in favour of one part or another of the beard. The neck, which supports the head and unites it to the body is much more considerable in most quadrupeds than in man. Fishes, and animals that have not lungs similar to ours, have no neck. Birds, in general, have the neck longer than any other kind of animal; and those which have short claws, have also short necks: on the contrary, those that have them long, the neck is proportionate. The human breast is formed in a very different manner from that of other animals; and is larger in proportion to the size of the body. None but man, and such animals as use their fore feet as hands ; as monkeys, bats, and squirrels, are found to have those bones called clavicles or collar bones. The breasts of women are larger than those of men, though those of the latter are formed in the same man- ej; und milk is sometimes found in them as well as in those of women. Birds, and all oviparous animals, have no teats ; but viviparous fishes, as the whale and the dolphin, have both teats and milk. Little is known with regard to the exact proportion of the human figure. Some, who have studied after the ancient masters, divide the body into ten times the length of the face, and others divide it into eight. They tell us, that there is a similitude of proportion in different parts of the body: that the hand is the length of the face; and the thumb the length of the nose; that the space between the eyes is the breadth of the eye ; that the breadth of the thick- est part of the thigh is double that of the thickest part of the leg, and treble the thinnest, &c. NATURAL HISTORY. The strength of man is very considerable when matured by practice. We are assured, that the porters- of Constanti- nople carry burthens of nine hundred pounds weight ; and Mr. Desaguliers mentions a man, in an upright posture, who, by distributing a certain number of weights in such a man- ner, that every part of his body bore its share, was able to support a weight of two thousand pounds. The strength of a man maybe farther estimated by the continuance of his labour, and the agility of his motions. Men, who are exercised in running, outstrip horses, or at least continue their speed for. a greater length of time. In a journey, after a man and a horse have proceeded toge- ther for several days, the former will be fresh when the lat- ter is quite tired. The royal messengers of Ispahan, run thirty-six leagues in fourteen or fifteen hours; and travellers assure us, that the Hottentots out-run lions in the chace; and that the savages who hunt the elk, which is as fleet as a stag, pursue it until they take it. The civilized man is ig- norant of his own strength ; he is not sensible how much he loses by effeminacy, and how he might increase it by the habit of vigorous exercise. To complete our description of man, it will be proper to investigate the human countenance, as it appears among our- selves, when agitated by the passions. In affliction, joy, love, shame, and compassion, the eyes are apt to be swell- ed, and, as it were, obscured by an overflow of tears. The effusion of these is always accompanied with a tension of the muscles of the visage, by which there is occasioned an opening of the mouth. At the same time, the natural moisture in the nose becomes more copious, and by inter- nal passages, mixes itself with the lachrymal moisture; which, however, flows only at intervals. By grief, the two corners of the mouth are lowered, the under lip raised, the eye-lids are half closed, and the pu- pils of the eyes are almost covered: the other muscles of the face are so much relaxed, th .t the space between the mouth and the eyes is larger than ordinarj', and consequently the countenance assurr.es a lengthened appearance. Fear, terror or horror, wrinkles the forehead, raises the eye-brows, extends the eye-lids as much as possible, and eiscovers a part of the white of the eye over the pupil, NATURAL HISTORY. which is loweied, and somewhat concealed by the inferior eye-lid. The mouth, at the same time, is widely opened, and bo'h the upper and under teeth appear. Contempt or derision, raises the upper lip on one side, and on the other there is a little motion, as if inclined to smile. The nose is shrivelled on the same side on which the lip is raised, and the corner of the mouth is extended. The eye on the same side is almost shut, while the other is open as usual, but the pupil of each is lowered, as when one looks downwards. By jealousy, malice, and envy, the eye-brows fall down, and are knit; the eye-lids are raised, and the pupils lowered. The under lip is raised on each side, while the corners of the mouth are rather lowered, and the middle of the tinder lip raised, in order to join the middle of the upper one. By laughter, the corners of the mouth are extended and somewhat raised; as are the upper part of the cheeks; and the eyes are more or less closed. The upper lip also is raised, while the under is lowered; and, in mo- derate laughter, the mouth is opened, and the skin of the nose contracted. Where there is a good natural constitution it is not impossible, but by moderating the passions, temper- ance, and sobrir ty, to extend the period of liie for a few years. But even of this, there seems to be an uncertainty; for, if it is necessary that the body should employ its whole strength, that it should consume whatever it is capable of consuming, that it should undergo every possible exercise, whence could any benefit accrue from regimen, and ab- stinence? Men, no doubt, there are, who have outlived the usual period of human existence. Not to mention Par, who lived to the age of one hundred and fifty two, and Jen- kins, to that of one hundred and sixty nine, as recorded in the Philosophical Transactions; we hax r e many instances of the prolongation of life to one hundred and ten, and even to one hundred and twenty years. Yet, this longevity was owing to no peculiar art or management; for it appears that the greater number of such long livers were peasants, or persons accustomed to the greatest fatigues. If, in the duration of life, there is an) difference to be found, it seems proper to ascribe it to the quality of the air. In elevated situations, old people are more generally Sound NATURAL HISTORY. than in low ones. In the mountains of Scotland and Wales, Auvcrgne, and Switzerland, there have been more instances of extreme longevity than in the plains of Holland, Flan- ders, Germany or Poland. Human life is, however, nearly the same in every country; accidental distresses excepted. The common verge of existence is, ninety or an hundred years, which has been the case since the days of David, without much variation. The following table of the probabilities of human life, has been compiled from a careful examination of many country registers of burials in France, compared with the mortality bills of Paris. TABLE OF THE PROBABILITIES OF THE DURATION OF LIFE. Duration. Duration Duration. Age. of Life. Age. of Life. Age. of Life. Years. Yrs. Mths. Years. Yrs. Mths. Years. Yrs. Mths. 8 o 29 28 6 58 12 3 i 33 o 30 28 o 59 11 8 2 38 o 3 1 27 C 68 11 i 3 4 o c 32 26 11 61 10 6 4 41 33 26 3 62 10 5 41 6 34 2 5 7 63 9 6 6 42 O 35 25 o 64 9 o 7 42 3 36 2 4 5 65 8 b 8 41 6 37 23 10 66 8 o 9 40 10 38 23 3 67 7 6 10 40 2 39 22 8 68 7 o 11 39 6 40 22 1 69 6 7 12 38 9 4 1 21 6 70 6 * 13 38 i 42 20 11 5 8 H 37 5 43 20 4 72 5 4 a s 36 9 44 *9 9 73 5 ?6 17 36 o 35 4 45 4 h J 9 3 18 9 74 75 4 9 4 6 18 34 8 47 l8 2 76 4 3 5 9 34 o 48 17 8 77 4 1 9.0 33 5 49 17 2 78 3 i 1 t.\ 3 2 11 50 16 7 79 3 9 2 32 4 5 1 16 o 80 3 7 3 31 10 5 2 15 6 81 3 *4 3i 3 53 15 82 3 3 | 3 9 54 14. 6 83 3 * 6 30 2 55 14 84 3 1 *7 8 2 9 7 29 o 66 52 13 5 12 10 85 2 * NATURAL HISTORY. 61 By this Table, it appears, that we may lay or bet one to one, that an infant newly born, will live eight years, that an infant of one year, will live thirty-three years longer; that an infant of t-.vo years, will live thirty-eight years longer; that a man oftwentv, will live thirty-three years and five months longer; that a man of thirty, will live twenty-eight years longer; &c. of every other age. Ideas of external things, are conveyed to the soul of man by means of the five senses, seeing, bearing, feeling, tasting, and smelling. The organs by which the senses act, are the nerves; which are small thread-like fibres distributed over the whole body, and all of them connected with the brain. The eyes seem to be formed very early in the human em- bryo. In the chicken also, of all the parts that are double, they are the soonest produced; and I have observed upon the eggs of several sorts of birds, as well as upon those of li- zards, that the eyes were much larger and earlier in their expansion, than any other parts of two-fold growth. Though in viviparous animals, and particularly in man, they are, at first, by no means so large in proportion as in the oviparous classes; yet, they obtain their due formation sooner than any other parts of the body. This is also the case with the or- gan of hearing. The little bones that assist in constructing the internal part of the ear, are entirely formed before any of the other bones have acquired any part of their growth or solidity. Hence it is evident, that the parts of the body, which are furnished with the greatest quantity of nerves, are those which appear first, and which first attain to perfection. MrCheselden, having couched for a cataract a lad of thir- teen years of age, who had been blind from his birth, and thus communicated to him the sense of seeing, was at great pains to mark the progress of his visual powers. The youth, though hitherto incapable of seeing, was not absolutely and entirely blind. Like every other person whose vision i* obstructed by a cataract, he could distinguish day from night, and even black from white, or either from the vivid colour of scarlet. Of the form of bodies, he could dis- tinguish nothing, nor of colours themselves, unless the light was strong. The operation was performed upon one eye; and when he saw for the first time, he was so far from f-s. NATURAL HISTORY. forming the least conception of distances, that he sup- posed (as he himself expressed it) every thing he saw touched his eyes, in the same manner as every thing he felt touched his skin. The object* that pleased him most, were those the surfaces of which were plain, and the figures regu- lar; though he could neither judge of thsir different forms, nor give any reason why he preferred the one to the other. The ideas he had entertained of colours, during his former dark state, were so imperfect, that when he saw them in reality, he could hardly be persuaded they were the same. When such objects were shewn him, as he had been former- ly familiar with by the touch, he beheld them with earnest- ness, in order to distinguish them a second time. Of these, however, he had too many to retain at once, of course the greatest number were forgot; and for one thing which he recollected upon seeing a second time, there were a thou- sand of which he had not the least remembrance. He was very much surprised to find, that persons and objects which he had loved best, were not the most pleasing to the eye; nor could he help expressing his disappointment in finding his parents less handsome than he had conceived them to be. Before he could distinguish that a picture resembled a solid body, above two months elapsed; till then, he only con- sidered it as a surface diversified by a variety of colours : but when he began to perceive that these shadings actually repre- sented human beings, he also began to examine, by the touch, whether they had not the usual qualities of such bodies; and gieat was his surprise to find what he had imagined a very unequal surface, to be smooth and even. He was then shewn a miniature portrait of his father, which was contain- ed in his mother's watch-case; and though he readily perceived the resemblance, he expressed his astonishment how so large a face could be comprised in so small a com- pass: to him, it appeared as strange, as that a pint-vessel should contain a bushel. As first, he could bear but a very small quantity of light, and he saw every object much great- er than the life: but in proportion as he observed objects that were really large, he conceived the others to be dimi- nished. Beyond the limits of what he saw, he had no con- ception of any thing: although he knew that the apart- ment he occupied was only apart of the house, he could not NATURAL HISTORY. 63 oonceive how the latter should seem larger than the former. Before the operation, he had no gre.it expectation of the pleasure he should receive from the new sense he was pro- mised : that by it he might be enabled to read and write, was his grand object. He said, that he Guild enjoy no great- er satisfaction from walking in the garden, with this sense, than without it; because there he already walked at hhs ease, and knew all the walks. With great truth he also observed, that his blindness gave him one advantage over the rest of mankind; an advantage which indeed he retained long after he had acquired the sense of seeing ; namely, that of being able to walk in the dark with confidence and security. He had, however, no sooner begun to enjoy this new sense, than he was transported beyond measure; and declared, that every new object opened to him a fresh source of delight. About a year after, he was carried to Ep- som, where there is a beautiful, and an extensive prospect: with this he appeared greatly charmed ; and the landscape before him, he called a new method of seeing. He was couched in the other eye, a year after, and of both opera- tions the success was equal. When he saw with both eyes, every thing appeared to him twice as big as when he saw but with one; although he did not see double, or at least he discovered no marks from which any such conclusion could be inferred. Distance is only conceived by experience, for the more * distant an object is, the less it appears. When, from certain circumstances, we cannot form a just conception of distance, and when we cannot judge of objects but b^ angles, or ra- ther by the image, which they form in our eyes, we are then necessarily deceived as to their size. Every man has felt, how liable we are in travelling by night, to mistake a bush which is near for a tree at a distance, or indeed a distant tree for a bush at hand. In the same manner, if we do not dis- tinguish objects by their shape, and if we cannot by it judge of distances, the same fallacy willstill continue. In this' case, a fly, which may piss before us with rapidity, will seem t be a bird at a considerable distance; and a horse which may be in the middle of a plain, and in an attitude similar, for in- stance, to that of a sheep, will seem to be no bigger than a sheep, till we have discovered that it is a horse. NATURAL HISTORY. If, therefore, we are benighted in a strange place, where no judgment can be formed of distance, we are every moment liable to the deception of vision. Hence originate the dread- ful stones of spectres, and those wonderful, hideous, and gi- gantic figures, which so many persons have seen. Though such figures, it is commonly Asserted, exist solely in the ima- gination; yet it is highly probable, that they might appear to the eye, in tlie manner above described. This remark will be allowed to be the more probable, when we consider, that whenever we cannot judge of an object but by the an- gle which it forms in the eye, this object is magnified accord- ing to its propinquity. And that, if it seemed at first to the spectator, when at some distance from it, a few feet high, it must appear to him, when within a few paces of it, of a size stupendously increased. At this he must naturally be terrifi- ed, till he touches the seemingly gigantic object, and in that instant, it will diminish, and appear to him what it really is. If, on the other hand, he is afraid to approach it, and fries from the spot with precipitation, the only idea he will form, will be (hat ofan image, gigantic in its size, and dreadful in its form. Hence, such visions depend not, as philosophers have supposed, on the imagination only ; but originate from real facts. Deception is not, however, confined to sight only, fop hearing is liable to similar mistakes. By this organ, no dis- tinct intelligence is conveyed of the distance whence a sounding body is heard. A great noise, if distant, and a, small one very near, produce the same sensation; and, un- less we receive information from some other sense, we can- not accurately tell whether the sound be great or small; and it is not, till we have by experience become acquainted with any particular sound, that we can judge of the distance whence it came. When for example, we hear the tone of a bell, we are at no great loss to determine the distance. One body striking against another, produces sound; which is simple in bodies that are non-elastic, and often repeated in such as are. If we strike a bell, for instance, a single blow produces a sound, which is repeated by the undula- tions of the jonorous bo:!y; and multiplied, as often as it un- dulates or vibrates. These undulations succeed each other so fast, that the ear supposes them one continued sound; NATURAL HISTORY. whereas they form many sounds. Sounding bodies are, therefore, of two kinds; elastic and non-elastic. The latter, when struck, return single sounds ; and the former return a succession of sounds, which form a tone. This tone may be considered as a great number of sounds, all produced one after the other, as we find in a bell, which continues to sound for some time after it is struck. A continuing t<;ne may also be produced from a non-elastic body, by rr the blow quick and often, as when we beat a drum, or when we draw a bow along the string of a fiddle. To know the manner in which musical sounds become pleasing, it must be observed, no one continuing ton-, how loud or swelling soever, can afford delight. We must have a succession of them, and those in the most pleasing propor- tion. The nature of this proportion may be thus conceived. If we strike a body incapable of vibration, with a double force, or what amounts to the same thing, with a double mass of matter, it will produce a sound that is doubly grave. Music, according to the ancients, was first invented"from the "blows of different hammers on an anvil. Suppose then we strike an anvil with a hammer of one pound weight, and a- gain with a hammer of two pounds, it is plain, that the two pounds hammer will produce a sound twice as grave as the former. But if we strike with a two pounds hammer, and then with a thee pounds it is evident, that the latter will produce a sound one-third graver than the former. If w*e strike the anvil with a three pounds hammer, and then \vith a four pounds, it will likewise follow, that the latter will be one-fourth graver than the former. Now, in com- paring those sounds, it is obvious, that the difference be- tween one and two, is more easily perceived than that be- tween two and three, three and four, or any number succeed- ing in the same proportion. The succession of sounds, therefore, will please in proportion to the ease with which they are distinguished. That sound which is double the former, or the octave to the preceding tone, will be the most pleasing. The next to that, which is as two to three, or the third, will be the most agreeable. And universally, those sounds the difference of which may be most easily com- pared, are the most agreeable, k (6 NATURAL HISTORY. Sound has, in common with light, the property of being extensively diffused ; and like it, admits of reflection ; ttie Jaws of which are less understood than tho.^e of light. All we know is, that sound is principally reflected by hard bodies, and that their being hollow, increases the rever- beration. The internal cavity of the ear, which is fashion- ed in the temporal bone like a cavern cut in a rock, is well calculated for the purposes of echoing sound with the great- est precision. One of the most common complaints in old age, is deaf- ness; which probably proceeds from the rigidity of the nerves in the labyrinth of the ear. This disorder also, pro- ceeds from the stoppage of the wax, which art may easily re- medy. In order to know whether the defect be internal or external, let the deaf person put a ' repeating-watch into his mouth; and if he hears it strike, he may be assured his disorder proceeds from an external cause. It often happens, that people hear better with the one ear than the other; but these have, what musician rcall, a bad ear. I have made several experiments on perso nofthis de- scription; and! have uniformly found, that their defect, in judging properly of sounds, proceeded from the inequality of their ears, and from their receiving by both, at the same time, unequal sensations. In like manner, as such persons hear falsely, they will, without knowing it, sing so. They also frequently deceive themselves with regard to the side whence the sound comes, general 1 )* supposing it to make as impression on the best ear. Hearing is a much more necessary sense to man than to animals. In these it is only a warning against danger, or an encouragement to mutual assistance; but in man, it is the source of most of his pleasures ; and without it, the rest of his senses would be of little benefit. A man born deaf, must necessarily be dumb ; and his whole sphere of know- ledge must be bounded by sensual objects. We have a sin- gular instance of a young man who, being, born deaf, was restored, at the age of twenty-four, to perfect hearing. The account, which is given in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, is as follows : " A young man, of the town of Chartres, between the *ge of twenty-three and twenty-four, the son of a tradesman, NATURAL HISTORY. f , 7 and deaf and dumb from his birth, began to speak all of a sudden, to the utter astonishment of the whole town. He g ; ,ve them to understand that, about three or four months before, he had hoard the sound of the bell, and was greatly surprised at this new and unknown sensation. After some time, a kind of humour issued from his left ear, and he then heard perfectly well with both. During these three months, he listened to every thing; and without attempting to speak aloud, he accustomed himself to utter softly the words spo- ken by others. He also laboured hard to acquire the pro- nunciation of word-, and che ideas of which they were ex- pressive. At length, having supposed himself qualified to break silence, he declared, that he could now speak, though as yet but imperfectly. Soon after, an able Divine question- ed him concerning the ideas of his past state ; and principal- ly with respect to God, his soul, the moral beauty of vir- tue, and deformity of vice; but the young man had not directed his solitary speculations into that channel. He had gone to mass with his parents, had learned to sign himself with the cross, to kneel down, and to assume all the grima- ces of a man in the act of devotion; but he did all this with- out knowing the intention of the cause ; he saw others do the like, and that was enough for him. He had formed no idea of death, but had led a life of pure animal instinct ; and though entirely taken up with sensible objects, and such as were present, he did not seem to have made such reflections even upon these, as might reasonably have been expected. The young man, however, was not deficient in under- standing; but the understanding of a man, deprived of all commerce with others, is so very confined, that the mind may be said to be under the controul of its immediate sensations." It is very possible to communicate ideas to deaf men which they previously wanted; and to give them very pre- cise notions of abstracr, and general subjects, by means of signs and letters. A person born deaf may, by time and application, be taught to read, write, and even by the motion of the lips, to understand what is said to him. This is a plain proof, how much thv senses resemble and may supply the defects of ea.ch other. It is probable however, that as most of the motions of speech are made within */je fg NATURAL HISTORY. mouth by the tongue; the knowledge, fiom the motion of the lips, can be but very confined. The sense of feeling is universal, but it employs itself dif- ferently in different parts of the bod',. The sensation which results from feeling, cannot be excited otherwise than by the contract and immediate application of the surface of some foreign body to that of our own. If we apply a foreign body against the breast, or upon the shoulder of a man, he \villbe sensible |OT the impression, but cannot form any idea of its shape; because the breast only touches it in a sin- gle plain or surface. It is the same with respect to all other parts of the bo >y, which cannot adjust themselves to the surfaces of foreign bodies, nor bend to embrace, at once, ma- ny parts of their superficies. Tnese parts of our body can- not, therefore, give any just idea of their form ; but those, on the contrary, which, like the hand, are divided into many small, flexible, and moveable parts; and can apply them- selves at one and the same time to the different plains of the superficies of the body, are the parts which give us ideas of their form and size. It is not because there is a greater quantity of nervous tufts at the extremity of the fingers than in any o^her part of the body; it is not, as is vulgarly pretended, because the hand has the most delicate sense, that it is in effect the principal organ of reeling : for there are parts more sensible, and where the fueling is more delicate, as the eyes, the. tongue, &c. but it is owing to the hand being divided into many moveable parts, all flexible, all acting at the same time, anrjr: all obedient to the will, that we acquire distinct ideas of the forms of bodies. Animals, which have hands, appear to be the most acute; thus, apes do things so like the mechanical actions of man, that it seems as if they had the same succes- sion of corporeal sensation for the cause of them ; and those which have no hands, nor any part divided and flexible e- nough to be able to adjust itself upon the superficies of bodies, cannot have any precise notion of the form, or size of them. It is for this reason, that we often see them in suspense, or frightened at the aspect of objects which are most familiar to them. The 1 principal organ of feeling is their muzzle, and the tongue serves them to touch bodies, which they turn ?jjain and again, before they take them between their teeth. NATURAL HISTORY. 69 It is therefore to the sense of feeling, that we are indebt- ed for the power of usefully exercising all ourotherfaculties. One man does not, perhaps, possess more ingenuity or ca- pacity than another ; but because in his earliest infancy he made a greater and a readier use of this sense. As soon as children are of sufficient age, they manifest a disposition to use their hands, and are fond of touching whatever is presented to them; they amuse themselves by handling every thing they are capable of, and seem as if they were endeavouring to find out their form by touching them on every side. CHAP VI. F THE APPARENT VARIETIES IN THE HUMAN SPECIES LAP- LANDERS TARTARS CHINESE JAPANESE FORMOSANS - MOGULS PERSIANS ARABIANS CIRCASSIANS TURKS RUSSIANS NEGROES HOTTENTOTS AMERICANS CAUSES OF THIS VARIETY, JL HERE are many causes which contribute to produce an apparent variety between the different nations of the earth: climate, food, manners, and customs, make not only a difference in sentiment, but even in the external form. In examining the surface of the earth, and beginning our enquiries at the north, we find in Lapland, and in the north- e?T "farts of Tartary, a race of small-sized men, whose figure is uncouth, and physiognomy wild as "their manners are unpolished. Though they seem to be a degenerate species, they are very numerous, and occupy vast tv^ious. The Laplanders, Danes, Swedes, Muscovites, the inhabi- tants of Nova-Zembla, the Borandians, Samoeids, Ostiacs of the Old Continent; and the Greenlanders, and savages to the north of the Esquimaux Indians of the New, appear to be of one rice, which has been extended and multiplied a- long the coasts of the northern seas, and over deserts, consi- dered as uninhabited by every other nation. In these coun- tries, the visage is large and broad; the nose, flat and short; the eyes of a yellowish brown, inclining to black; the eye- lids, drawn towards the temples; the cheek-bones, extremely 7 NATURAL HISTORY. prominent; the mouth, very large; the lower part of the countenance, narrow; the lips, thick and turned outward; the voice shrill; the head, bulky; the hair, black and straight; and the skin, tawny. They are small in stature; and, though meagre, are of a squat form. In general, their size is about four feet, nor do the tallest exceed four and a half; and among these people, if there is any difference to be found, it depends on the degrees of deformity. The Danish Laplanders have a large black cat, which they make a confidant in all their secrets, and a counsellor in all their difficulties; and the Swedish Laplanders have a drum in every family, for the purpose of consulting the de- vil: and though the natives of these countries are robust and nimble, there is reason to suppose, that they cannot live but in their own country, and in their own manner. In travel- ing over the ice and snow, they use skates maJe of fir, which are about two feet long, and half .-. foot broad, raised and pointed before, and fastened to the feet by straps of lea- ther: with these they descend the steepest mountains, c cale the mist craggy precipices, and easily overtake the swiftest animals. They also use a pole, pointed at one end with i- ron, and rounded at the other; which serves to push them along, direct their course, keep them from falling, stop the impetuosity of their career, and to kill what game they over- take: nor are the women less skilful in such exercises. They are all accustomed to the bow and arrow ; and it is asserted, that the Muscovite Laplanders lanch ajavelin with so much dexterity, that at tht_ distance of thirty paces, they are suy? to hit a mark no larger than a silver crown, and with such force, that it will tiai.bfix a human body. As huntsmen, their favourite pursuit is that of the ermine, the fox, the lynx, and the martin; of these animals, they barter the skins for their favourite articles of luxury, brandy and tobacco. In winter, the Laplanders clothe themselves with the skins t the rein-deer, and in summer, with the skins of birds. To the use of linen they are perfect strangers. The women of Nova-Zembla have their noses and ears pierced, in order to have them ornamented with pendants or blue stone; and as an additional lustre to their charms, they form blue streaks n;;(.';i their foreheads and chins. Those of Greenland dress S of the dog-fish ; they also paint NATURAL HISTORY. ^^ Che visage with blue and yellow colours, and wear pendants at their ears. They all live under ground, or in huts almost covered with earth and the bark of certain trees, or the skins of fishes. Some even form subterranean trenches, by which one hut communicates with another ; and thus, during the winter months, they enjoy the conversation and society of their neighbours. A continued series of darkness for seve- ral months, obliges them to illuminate their dreary abodes with lamps, which they keep alive with the very train-oil they use as drink. Under all these hardships, they are sub- ject to few diseases, and they live to a prodigious age. So vigorous, indeed, are the old men, that they are hardly to be distinguished from the young. The only infirmity they experience, and it is an infirmity common to them all, is blindness: for their eyes being dazzled by the strong reflec- tion of the snow in winter, and inveloped in clouds of smoke in autumn and spring, when advanced in years, they seldom retain their sight. The Tartar country, in general, comprehends the great- est part of Asia, and extends from Russia to Kamtschatka. Jt is from eleven to twelve hundred leagues long, and about seven hundred broad; of course its circumference is twenty times larger than that of the kingdom of France. All the Tartar nations have the upper part of the visage very large and wrinkied, even in their youth. Their nose, is short and flat; their eyes, little and sunk in the head; their ^Jbeek- bones, high; the lower part of their visage, narrow ; their chin, long and prominent with little or no beard; their teeth, long and straggling; their eye-brows, so large as to cover the eyes; their eye-lids, thick; the face, broad and flat; their complexion, tawny; and their hair, black. They have thick thighs, and short legs; and though but of a middling stature, are remarkably strong and robust. The ugliest of them are the Calmoucks, in whose appearance there seems to be something frightful. They are all wanderers and va- gabonds; and their only shelter is that of a tent made ofhair 01 skins. Their food is horse, and camels flesh, either raw or a little sodden between the horse and the saddle: they also eat fish dried in the sun ; and their common drink is mare's milk, fermented with the meal of millet. They all have the head shaved, except a tuft on the top, which they 73 NATURAL HISTORY. let grow, to form into tresses on each side of the face. The women, who are as deformed as the men, wear their hair, which they bind up with bits of copper, and other or- naments of the same nature. The majority of these tribes are strangers to religion, mo- rality, and decency. They are robbers by profession; and the natives of Daghestan, who live in the neighbourhood of more polished countries, carry on a great traffic of slaves, whom they cany off by force, and afterwards sell to the Turks and Persians. Their wealth consists chiefly of hor- ses, which are, perhaps, more numerous, than in any o- ther part of the world. They are tauglit, by custom, to Jive in the same place with their horses; are continually employ- ed in training and exercising them; and, at length, they re- duce them to such implicit obedience, that they actually ap- pear to understand the intention of the rider. The limbs of the Chinese are well proportioned, their bo- dies are large and fat, and their visages, large and round. Their eyes are small ; their eye-brows, large; their eye-lids turned upwards; their noses, short and flat; upon their chins there is very little hair, and upon each lip there are not more than seven or eight prickles. Those who inhabit the southern provinces of the empire, are more brown and tawny than the others. In colour, they resemble the na- tives of Mauritania, and the more swarthy Spaniards; but those who inhabit the middle provinces, are as fair as the Germans. Le Gentel, assures us, that the Chinese women do . . .Cy thing in their power to make their eyes appear little, and oblong : for this purpose, it is a constant practice with the little girls, from the instruction of their mothers, forcibly to extend their eye-lids ; and with the addition of a nose thoroughly compressed and flattened , ears long, large, open, and pendant, they are accounted complete beauties. He adds, that their complexions are delicate ; their lips, of a fine vermilion ; their mouths, well proportioned ; their hair, very black; but that, by the use of paint, they so greatly injure their faces, that before the age of thirty, they have every appearance of old age. So strongly do the Japanese resemble the Chinese, that we can hardly scruple to rank them in the same class. As being inhabitants of a more southern climate, they only NATURAL HISTORY. 73 differ from them in being more yellow, or more brown. In general, their stature is small; their faces as \\ellas their noses, are broad and flat; their hair, black; and their beards little more than perceptible. They are haughty, fund of war, full of dexterity and vigour, civil and obliging, smooth- tongued and courteous; but fickle and vain. With asto- nishing patience, they sustain hunger, thirst, cold, heat, fa- tigue, and all the other hardships of life, 'i monies, or rather grimaces in eating, are numerous and uncouth. They are laborious, very skilful artificers, and in a word, have nearly the same disposition, and the same marine; s and customs, as the Chinese. One custom, which they have in common and which is not a little fantastic, is, so to contract the feet of the women, that they are hardly able to support themselves. Some tra- vellers mention, that in China, when a girl has passed her third year, they break her feet in such a manner, that the toes are made to come under the soles; that they apply to them a strong water which burns away the flesh; and then wrap them up in a number of bandages till they assume a certain fold. They add, that the women feel the pain of this operation all their lives, that they walk with great difficulty, and that their gait is, to the last degree, ungraceful. Other travellers do not say that they break their feet in their infan- cy, but that they only compress them with so much violence as to prevent their growth : yet they unanimously allow, that every woman of condition, particularly every handsome wo- manTT/rSst have a foot small enough to enter, with ease, the slipper of a child of six years old. Though the inhabitants of the kingdoms of Pegu and Aracan are blacker, they bear a considerable resemblance to the Chinese. Those of Aracan put great value upoa u forehead large and flat ; and in order to render it so, they apply a plate of lead to the forehead, as soon as a child is born. Their nostrils are large and extended ; their eyes, small and lively ; and their ears are of such a length, as to hang over their shoulders. They feast, with a relish, on mice, rats, serpents, and fish. Their women are tolerably fair, and their ears are as long as those of the men. The people of Achau, who are situated farther to the north than thote of 1 74 NATURAL HISTORY. Aracan, have also a flat visage, and an olive-coloured km, They allow their boys to go quite naked, and their girls with only a slight plate of silver over those parts which nature dic- tates to conceal. Northward of the Philippine Islands, is situated the island of Formosa, of which tiie natives, though at no great distance from the coast of Fokian in China, bear not the least resem- blance to the Chinese. According to Struys, the Formosans are of a small stature, particularly those who inhabit the mountains, and their visage is broad. The women have large and full breasts, and beards like the men. Their ears, are na- turally long, and they render them still more so, by certain thick shells which they wear as pendants. Their hair is ve- ry black and long, and their complexions, yellowish. These islanders, though averse to labour, are admirably skilled in the use of the javelin, and the bow : they are also excellent swimmers; and when they run, their swiftness is incredible. The Moguls, and the other inhabitants of the peninsula of India, are not unlike the Europeans in shape and features; but they differ more or less from them in colour. The Mo- guls are of an olive complexion; and yet, in the Indian lan- guage, the word Mogul signifies White. The women are extremely delicate, and they bathe very often. They are of an olive colour, as well as the men; and, contrary to what is seen among the women of Europe, their legs and thighs are long, and their bodies short. Tavernier says, that, after passing Lapor and the kingdom of Cashmire, the women have no hair on any part of the body, and the meTr'na-rdly any beards. According to Thevenot, the Mogul women are tolerably fruitful, though exceedingly chaste. They likewise suffer little from the pains of child-birth, and are often known to be abroad the day following. He adds, that in the kingdom of Decan, they are allowed to marry; the husband by his tenth, and the wife by her eighth year; and at that age they very often have children. The women, who become mothers so soon, usually cease bearing, before they arrive at thirty; and by that period, appear wrinkled and marked with all the deformities of age. The customs of the different nations of India, are very sin- gular, if not whimsical. The Banians eat nothing which has had life in it; and they are even afraid ttr kill the smallest NATURAL HISTORY. 75 reptile, however offensive to them. They throw rice and beans into their rivers as food for the fish; and grain of dif- ferent kinds upon the earth, for the birds and insects. When they meet with a huntsman, or a fisher, they beg of him in- stantly to desist from his employment. If he remains deaf to their entreaties, thev offer him money for his gun, or his nets; and when no persuasion, no offer, will avail, they trou- ble the water, to frighten th.- fish; atid shout vehemently to put the birds and other game to flight. In Ceylon, there is a species of savages denominated Be- das, which occupies a small district on the north part of the i- sland ; and seems to be totally different from the surround- ing nations. The spot they inhabit, is entirely covered with wood ; amidst which, they keep themselves so closely concealed, that it is with great difficulty they are discovered. Their complexion is fair, and sometimes red, like that of the Europeans. They do not speak the language of Ceylon; nor indeed has their language the least affinity with that of any of the other Indians. They have no villages, no houses, no intercourse with the rest of mankind. Their arms are the bow and the arrow, with which they destroy a number of boars, stags, and other animals. They never dress any meat, but sweeten it with honey, which they possess in great abundance. The inhabitants of Persia, Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, and the whole of Barbary, may be considered as one and the same people; who, in the time of Mahomet and his successors, ~~y itl^'d immense territories, extended their dominions, and incorporated with the original natives of those countries. The Persians, the Turks, and the Moors are, to a certain degree, civilized; but the Arabians have, for the most part, remained in a state of independence, which implies a con- tempt of laws. They live, like the Tartars, without order, without government, and almost without society. Theft, robbery, and violence, are authorised by their chiefs ; they glory in their vices ; and ot all human conventions, they on- ly have admitted those, which owe their existence to fana- ticism and superstition. They are a people much inured to labour; and to it they habituate their horses. They allow this animal to eat aid drink but once in twenty-four hours ; and though their hor- NATURA: irr TORY. scs nre meagre, they are excellent coursers, and seem inde- fatigable. The Egyptian women are very brown ; their eyes are lively; their stature, iow; their mode of dress is by no means agreeable; and their conversation is perfectly tiresome, jiiit thoi'gh the women in general, are short, the men are of 3 good stature. Both are of an olive colour ; and the farther Ave remove from Cairo, the people are more tawny, till we r^ach the confines of Nubia, where they are as black as the Nubians themselves. The most inherent defects of the, Egyptians, are idleness and cowardice: they do nothing hut drink coffee, smoke, and sleep, or chatter in the streets. They are very ignorant, and lull of the most ridiculous vanity; and though they can- rot deny but that they have lost every thing noble they once possessed; as the sciences, the exercise of arms, their his- tory, and even their language ; and that, from an illustrious and valiant nation, they are become' a people dastardly and enslaved ; and they scruple not to despise other nations, and to take offence at the bare offer to carry their children to Eu- rope, to initiate them in the arts and sciences. " The women of Circassia," says Struys, "are exceedingly fair and beautiful ; their complexion.'! are incomparably fine, their foreheads, large and smooth ; and, without the assist- ance of art, their eye-brows are so delicate, that they appear Jike threads of silk. Their eyes are large, soft, and full of animation ; their mouths, small and expressive of a smile ; and their chins, perfect ovals. Their necks and breasts are admj,w rably formed ; their stature is tall, and the shape of their bo- dies, easy ; th^ir skin, is white as snow, and their hair of the most beautiful black. They wear a little cap of black stuff, overwhich they fasten a roller of the same colour; but, what 5s truly ridiculous, instead of this roller, the widows wear the Madder of an ox, or a cow, inflated as much as possible, by which they disfigure themselves amazingly. In the sum- mer months, the inferior classes wear nothing but a shift, which is open down to the middle, and generally of a blue, yellow, or red colour. They are tolerably familiar with grangers, but at the same time faithful to their husband*, v/ho are by no means jealous of them." NATURAL HISTORY. 77 The Turks, who purchase a vast number of these women as slaves, are a people composed of man}' different nations. From the Armenians, the Georgians, the Turcomans, inter- mixing in the times of the crusades, with the Arnbians, the Egyptians, and even the Europeans; it is hardly possible to distinguish the native inhabitants of Asia Minor, of Syria, and of the rest of Turkey. The Turkish men are general- ly robust, and tolerably well made ; and it is very rare to find among them persons either hump-backed or lame. The women, in general, are beautiful, well proportioned, and free from blemishes; and when they go abroad, are al- ways veiled. Before the Czar, Peter I. we are told, that the Muscovites had not emerged from barbarism. Born in slavery, they were ignorant, brutal, cruel, and destitute of courage. Men and women bathed promiscuously in stoves, heated to a de- gree intolerable to all persons but themselves ; and on quit- ting this warm bath, would plunge, like the Laplanders, in- to cold water. Their food was homely, and their favourite dishes were cucumbers, or melons of Astracan ; which, in summer, they preserved in a mixture of water, flour, and salt. From ridiculous scruples, they abstained from several viands; amongst which were pigeons and veal. Never- theless, at this period of rudeness, the women were skilled in the arts of colouring the skin, plucking out the eye-brows, and painting artificial ones. They.also adorned themselves with pearls, and jewels ; and their garments were made of j ;d valuable stuffs. From these circumstances it ap- pears, that the barbarism of the Muscovites was near a close, and that their sovereign would have less trouble in polishing them than some authors have endeavoured to insinuate. They are now a people in some degree civilized and com- mercial, fond of spectacles, and other ingenious novelties. From the regions of Europe and Asia, our attention is now to be directed to a race of people differing more from ourselves in external appearance than any we have hitherto mentioned. In the latitude of seventeen or eighteen degrees north, on the African Coast, the neighbourhood of the ocean, and the Red Sea, we find the Negroes of Senegal, and Nubia. After these, all the nations of Africa, from the latitude of 7 8 NATURAL HISTORY. eighteen north to eighteen south, are black'; the Ethiopian?, or Abyssinians excepted. It appears, then, that that portion of the globe which Nature has allotted this race of men, con- tains an extent of about nine hundred leagues in breadth, and considerably more in length, especially northward of the equator. Beyond the latitude of eighteen or twenty, there are no Negroes, as will appear when we come to speak of the CafFres, and the Hottentots. By confounding the Ethiopians with their neighbours the Nubians, we have been long- in an error with respect to their visage and colour. Mannol, says, they are absolute- ly black, their visages, large; and noses flat; and, in this description, the Dutch travellers agree with him. The truih is, they differ from the Nubians, both in colour and features. The skin of the Ethiopians is brown, or olive-co- loured, like that of the southern Arabians, from whom, it is probable, they derive their origin. In stature, they are tall; their features are strongly marked ; their eyes are large and beautiful ; their noses, well proportioned ; their lips, thin ; and their teeth, white. Of the inhabitants of Nubia, on the contrary, their noses are flat; the lips, thick and prominent ; and the countenance exceedingly black. These Nubians, a* well as the Barberins their western neighbours, are a spe- cies of Negroes not unlike those of Senegal. The Ethiopians are a people between the extremes of barbarism and civilization :. their garments are cotton, though those of the more opulent, are silk; their houses are low, and of a bad construction ; and their lands are wretcrw-yrr^ neglected. These circumstances are owing to the behaviour of their nobles, who despise the tradesmen and the common people. Each of these classes, however, lives separately, and has its own villages or hamlets. Unprovided with salt, they purchase it from abroad for its weight in gold ; and they are so fond of raw meat, that, at their feasts, the second course which is considered the most delicate, consists of it entirely. Though they have vines, they make no wine ; and their u- sual beverage is a sour composition made with tamarinds. They use horses for the purpose of travelling, and mules for carrying their merchandise. Of the arts and sciences they have little knowledge. Their language is without rules; and their manner of writing, though their characters are NATURAL HISTORY. 19 more beautiful than those of the Arabians, is so imperfect, that they require several days to write a letter. In their mode of salutatiog, there is something exceedingly whimsi- cal: each takes the right hand of the other and carries it to his mouth ; afterwards, the saluter takes off the scarf of the person saluted, and fastens it round his own body: thus the latter is left half naked, few of the Ethiopians wearing any more than this scarf, and a pair of cotton drawers. The first Negroes we meet with, are those who live on the south side of Senegal. These people, as well as those who occupy the different territories between Senegal and Gambia, are called Jalofes. They are all very black, well proportioned, and of a size sufficiently tall. Their feature* are less harsh than those of the Negroes ; and some cf them, especially of the female sex, have features that are far from being irregular. With respect to beauty, they value fine eyes, a well made nose and mouth, and lips of a proportionable smallness. With respect to the ground of the picture, they differ from us ; for with them, the colour must be exceeding- ly black and glossy. Their skin, however, is very delicate and soft; and, colour excepted, we find among them women as handsome as in any other country of the world. They are usually very gay, lively and amorous. Father du Tertre, says expressly, that, if the Negroes are for the most part flat-nosed, their parents are the sole cause of it. He adds, that they also compress their lips to make them thicker ; and that, of the few who have undergone nei trier or those operations, the features of the countenance are as comely, the nose as prominent, and the lips as delicate as those of the Europeans. It appears, however, that among the Negroes in general, thick lips and a nose broad and flat are the gifts of nature; from which originated the custom of flattening the nose and thickening the lips of those, who at their birth, discovered a deficiency in these ornaments. Though the Negroes of Guinea are very healthy, they seldom attain, what we term, old age. In his own country, a Negro of fifty, is a very old man ; and so early as forty, he manifests all the marks of being so. Negroes, in general, are remarkably innocent and inoffen- sive : if properly fed, and not exposed to bad usage, they are contented, joj'ous, and obliging; and on their very coun- NATURAL HISTORY. tenances we may read the satisfaction of their souls. On the contrary, if harshly treated, their spirits forsake them, and they droop with sorrow. Alike impressed with a sense of what injuries and favours they have received, to a cruel master they are implacable foes; but to an indulgent one, they are servants who will exert every effort of which they are capable, to express their zeal and attachment to him. To their children, their friends, and their countrymen, they are naturally compassionate and tender. Content with the little they have, they communicate a share to those who are indigent. That they have an excellent heart, is evident; and in having this, they have the seed of every virtue. Their sufferings demand a tear. Are they not sufficiently unhappy in being reduced to a state of slavery, without reap- ing the smallest fruits of their labour? But, to crown their wretchedness, they must be abused, buffeted, and treated like brutes. Humanity revolts at a conduct, which nothing but the thirst for gold could ever have inspired ; and, of which, every day will produce an aggravated repetition, till an enlightened legislature shall put an end to a traffic which disgraces human nature. Mr Kolbe, who has given so minute a description of the Hottentots, is strongly of opinion, that they are Negroes: like the latter, he assures us, their hair is short, black, friz- zled, and woolly ; nor in a single instance did he ever ob- serve it long. Though, of all the Hottentots, the nose is very flat and broad, yet it would not be of that form, did not theftTTfo- thers, who consider a prominent nose a deformity, crush it presently after their birth. Their lips are also thick, the upper lip in particular : their teeth are very white; their eye-brows, thick; their heads, large ; their bodies, meagre; and their limbs, slender. They seldom live above forty years ; and the cause, no doubt, is their residing continually in the midst of filth, and constantly living upon meat thai is corrupt. 1 might dwell longer upon the description of this nasty people ; but, as most travellers have given very accu- rate accounts of them, I shall close it with a fact related by Tavemier. The Dutch, he says, once took a Hottentot girl, soon after her birth; and bringing her up among ihemselves, she became as white as an European. From NATURAL HISTORY. this circumstance he presumes, that all Hottentots would be tolerably white, were it not for the custom of perpetual- ly begriming themselves. In America, we observe less variety in the human form than might be expected; though it cannot but be suppo- sed, that in such an extensive continent, a considerable di- versity may be found. In this search we find, in the most northern parts, a spe- cies of Laplanders similar to those of Europe^or to the Sa- moeids of Asia ; and though, in comparison to the latter, they are few in number, yet extensively diffused. Those who inhabit the land of Davis' Straits, are of a diminutive size, but very strong ; their complexion, olive ; and their legs, short and thick. They are skilful fishers ; they eat their fish and meat raw; and pure water, or the blood of the dog-fish, is their constant drink. Here we see the figure, colour, and manners of the Laplanders. But what is- truly singular, as among the Laplanders of Europe we meet with Finlanders who are white, comely, tolerably tall, and well made ; so, among the Laplanders of America, we meet with another species of men, tafl , well made, tole- rably white, and with features exceedingly regular. Of a different race from the former are the savages of Hudson's Bay, and northward of the land of Labrador. They are ugly, diminutive, and unshapely; and their visages are almost entirely covered with hair, like the savages of the country of Yeco, northward of Japan. In summer, they dw;>under tents made of skins of the rein-deer; in winter, they live under ground like the Laplanders and the Sa- moeids, and sleep together without distinction. They like- wise live to a great age, and feed on nothing but raw meat and fish. The savages of Newfoundland have a considera- ble resemblance to those of Davis' Straits : they are low in stature ; have little or no beard ; their visages are broad and flat ; their eyes, large ; they are rather flat-nosed ; and, up- on the whole, are far from being unlike the savages of the North Continent, and of the environs of Greenland. Besides the savages scattered over the most northern parts of America, we find great numbers which are en- tirely different in Canada, and the vast extent of land t to $2 NATURAL HISTORY. the As?{;iiboils. These are tolerably tall, robust, vigorous, and well made. They have hair, and eyes black; teeth, ve- ry white; complexion, tawny ; beard, scanty ; and hardly a vestige of hair over the whole body. They are hardy, inde- fatigable walkers, and very nimble runners; alike unaffec- ted by excesses of hunger, and satiety; are by nature bold, fierce, grave, and sedate; and so strongly do they resemble the Oriental Tartars that, were they not separated from each other by an immense sen. we should conclude them to be descendants of that nation. In point of latitude, their situa- tion is the snme, which farther proves the powerful influence of climate not only on the colour but the figure of men. Mr Fctbry, who travelled a prodigious way to the north- west of the Mississippi, and visited places which no Euro- pean had done before, and of which the savage inhabitants had not been destroyed, has assured me, that that part of A- merica is so deserted, that he often travelled an hundred, and sometimes two hundred leagues, without observing a. single human face or the smallest vestige of an habitation. He adds, that whenever he met with any habitations, they were always at immense distances from one another; and that, in each of them, there was frequently not above one family, sometimes there were two or tbrse families, but Ne- ver above twenty persons together; and between the e t.vr>nt; ;:e^ons and 'twenty others, there was generally a space of a hundred leagues. If, however, ip the wriole of North America, there were, none but sov;u>-es to be met with ; in Mexico and Peru, there are found nations, polished, subject to laws, governed by kings, industrious, acquainted with the arts, and not des- titute of religion. In the present state of those countries, so intermixed are the inhabitants of Mexico and New Spain, that we hardly meet with two visages of the same colour. In the town of Mexico, there are white men from Europe, Indians from the north and south of America, and Negroes from. Africa, &c. insomuch, that the colour of the people exhibits every different shade between black and white. The real natives are very brown, or of an olive colour, well made, and extremely active. NATURAL HISTORY. 83 In surveying the various appearances which the human form assumes in the different regions of the earth, the most striking circumstance is that of colour ; which has been at- tributed to various causes : but in my opinion, and experi- ence warrants us to affirm, that the heat of the climate is the principal. Where this is excessive, as at Senegal and Guinea, the inhabitants are entirely black; where it is less violent, as on the eastern coasts of Africa, they are of a lighter shade ; where it begins to be somewhat more tem- perate, as in Barbary, India, Arabia, &c. they are only brown ; and where it is altogether temperate, as in Europe and Asia, they are white. All the Tartars, for example, are tawny ; while the Europeans, who live in the same latitude, are white. Of this difference the reason seems to be, the former are always exposed to the air, have no towns, no fix- ed habitations ; but sleep upon the earth, and live coarsely in every respect. These circumstances are sufficient to render them less white than the Europeans, to whom no- thing is wanting which may render life comfortable and a- greeable. Why are the Chinese whiter than the Tartars, whom they resemble in all the features of the visage ? It is because they are civilized, live in towns, and are provid- ed with every expedient for defending themselves against the injuries of the weather, to which the Tartars are con- tinually exposed. Where cold becomes extreme, it produces effects similar to those of excessive heat. Either of those extremes occa- sions a dryness of the skin, which makes the subject of a tawny colour; hence the reason why the Samoeids, Lapland- ers, and Grecnlanders are of this complexion ; and it is as- serted that, among the Greenlanders, there are men as black as those of Africa. Cold compresses, shrivels, and reduces within a narrow compass all the productions of nature ; thus the Lapland- ers, who are perpetually exposed to the utmost rigours of it, are the most diminutive of the human species. The most temperate climate is between the degrees of forty and fifty. There we behold the human form in its greatest perfection; and there we ought to form ou of the real and natural colour of man. Situated under tii.'i Zone, the civilized countries are, Georgia, Circassia, the fc 4 NATURAL HISTORY. Ukarine, European Turkey, Hungary, South Germany, ]tal\, Switzerland, France, and the North of Spain. Of the latter, the inhabitants are the most beautiful and shapely in the world. ; As difference of climate is the sole cause of the different colours of mankind ; so food, which is gross, unwholesome, or badly prepared, has a strong tendency to produce a de- generacy in the human ibrm. Hence, in all countries, where the people fare wretchedly, they are more ugly and deform; d tiui-i their neighbours. The air and soil have also great influence, not only 0:1 die form of men, but on animals, and vegetables. In comparing the peasants who live on hilly grounds, with those wiio live unbosomed in the neighbouring valleys, we finJ, that the former are active, nimble, well shaped, and lively; aad the women generally handsome: while the lat- ter, i:i proportion to the density of air, food, and water, are clumsy and inactive. From these circumstances we prove, that mankind are not composed of species essentially different from each other: but that there was originally o,:e individual species which, after being multiplied and diffused over the face of the earth, underwent divers changes from the influence of climate, dif- ference of food, and modes of living: also from epidemi- cal distempers, and the intermixture vaiied ad itifini- ium, of individuals more or less resembling each other. At fust, those alterations were less considerable, and confined to a lew ; but afterwards from the above causes beciTTiiing more general, sensible, and fixed, they formed varieties in the species; which have been, and still are perpetuated from generation to generation, in the same manner as certain de- formities and maladies pass from parents to children. In short, as those varieties would never have been produced but by a concurrence of external and accidental causes, as they could never have been confirmed and rendered permanent but by time and the continued action of those causes; so it is highly probable, that they will in like manner gradually -u, or even become different fiom what the}' now a;*:, ii'tuch causes were no longer to exist. BUFFON'S NATURAL HISTORY. CHAP. I. Of Quadrupeds in General Of Domestic Aiimals The Horse The Ass The Ox The SbeepTbe Goat Tbe Swine The Wild Boar, fc. WHEN we consider the three great classes of animals, quadrupeds, birds, and fishes, with respect to the rank they* hoW in the scale of being ; quadrupeds both from their external structure, their manners, and instincts, are evi- dently entitled to the place next to Man. -Some of the spe- cies on a superficial view, and much more when inspected with anatomical accuracy, nearly resemble the human frame. They -live like man on 'the surface of the earth, have ma- ny wants in common with him, are gifted with similar means of satisfying them, and almost all thtir bodily func- tions are performed on the same plan. They are superior to birds in bringing forth their young alive, to fishes in breath- ing through their lungs, and to insects in having the sangui- icrous vessels filled with red^blood. With the vices and virtues of mankind, Quadrupeds are deeply tinged; in them may be found, the two extremes of virtue and vice, with all the intermediate gradations. What can surpass the fidelity of the dog? or what the fe- rocity of the wolf and the tyger? A NATURAL HISTORY. In these instances which come under our view, the forma and instincts of animals are admirably conducive to their gratification. Our decision, therefore, is premature, when we denominate some animals helpless and wretched, be- cause they have not all the advantages which we enjoy; such as th'e sloth which crawls up a tree in a month, and $he mole, almost incapable of vision ; as these animals may have sources of pleasure to which we are ignorant. The heads of Quadrupeds are variously formed, corre- sponding to their different manner of subsisting : in the por- cine species, it is sharp, as their food is chiefly under ground: in the canine, which pursue their prey by scent, it is long, in order to afford room for the olfactory nerves : in others, which are frequently engaged in combat, it is short and strong, as in the lion. Their teeth also are adapted to the na- ture of their food: in those which live on vegetables, they are edged before, for cropping grass and herbs : in carnivo- rous animals, the fore teeth are sharp for holding and divid- ing ; and farther in the mouth, they turn broad with un- equal, rugged surfaces, to render the aliment fit to assimi- late with the fluids in the stomach. Their feet and legs are also adapted to them ; those which live on fish have webbed feet ; and beasts of prey have claws which they can sheathe or unsheathe at pleasure. The stomachs of Quadrupeds are formed according to their diet; those which eat flesh, have it small and glandular, while those which eat vegetables have it very large. Some animals which chew the cuj have four stomachs ; but in Africa, where the plants are soft and nutritious, only two. The number of species in quadrupeds, is usually estimat- ed at 200, the most obvious distinction is, between the do- mesticated, and those which are yet wild and untamed. NATURAL HISTORY. THE HORSE. THE noblest conquest ever made by man, is that of this spirited and haughty animal, which shares with him the fatigues of war, and the glory of the combat. Equally intrepid as his master, the horse sees the danger, and braves it; he is inspired and animated at the clash of -arms, and feels all the ardour of the warriour. He takes pleasure also in the chace, in tournaments, and in the course ; he is all fire, but equally tractable as courageous, does not give way to h& impetuosity, butknows how to check his inclinations: he not only submits to the arm which guides him, but even seems to consult the desires of his rider; and, always obe- dient to the impressions which he receives from him, pres- ses on, moves gently, or stops, as his rider pleases. The horse is a creature that renounces his being, to exist only by the will of another, which he knows how to anticipate and execute by the promptitude and exactness of his move- ments : he feels as much as we desire, does only what we wish, gives himself up without reserve, and refuses nothing, makes use of all his strength, and even dies to obey us. Such is the horse, the natural qualities of which art has im- proved, Hi$ education commences with the toss of his liber- NATURAL ty and by constraint it is finished. The servitude of these creatures is universal, and so ancient that we rarely see them in their natural state. They are never wholly free from all their bands, not even at the time of rest ; and if they are sometimes suffered to range at liberty in the fields, they always bear about them the marks of servitude, and too often three of labour and pain. The mouth is deform- ed by the wrinkles occasioned by the bit, the flanks are scarred with wounds inflicted by the spur, the hoofs are pierced by nails, and the attitude of the body constrained by habitual shackles. Even those the servitude of which is the most gentle, which re fed and broken for luxury and mag.- nificence only, and the golden chains of which serve less to decorate them, than to satisfy the vanity of their master, are still more dishonoured by the elegance of their trap- pings, by the tresses of their manes, by the gold and silk with which they are covered, than by the iron shoes on their feet. Nature is moreHbeautiful than art, and in an animated be- ing, the freedom of its movements makes nature beautiful. Observe the horses in Spanish America, that live wild ; their gait, their running, or their leaping, seems neither con- strained nor regular. Proud of their independence, they fly the presence of man, and disdain his care . They wan- der about in liberty, in immense meads, where they feed on the fresh productions of an eternal spring. Destitute of any fixed habitation, without any other shelter than a mild sky, they breathe a purer air than those that are confined in vault- ed palaces. These wild horses are also much stronger, much swifter, and more nervous than the greater part of do- mestic horses: they have, what nature has bestowed upon them, strength and nobleness : the others, only what art can give, beauty and cunning. The natural disposition of these animals is not ferocious, for though superior in strength to the greatest part of ani- mals, they never attack them; and if they are attacked by others, they either disdain them or trample them under their feet. They herd together, as they are not fearful of, but fond of one another. As herbs and vegetables are sufficient for their nourishment, they have quite enough to satisfy their appetite ; and as they have no relish for the flesh of a- mmals, they never make war with them, nor with themselves. NATURAL HISTORY. 5 They live in peace because their appetite is simple and mo- derate; and, as they have enough, there is no room for envy. As all parts of Europe are at present peopled, and almost equally inhabited, wild horses are no longer found there; and those which we see in America, were originally Euro- pean tame horses, which have multiplied in the vast desarta of that country. The astonishment and fear which the in- habitants of Mexico and Peru expressed at the sight of horses and their riders, convinced the Spaniards that this animal was entirely unknown in these countries : they therefore carried thither a great number as well for service, and their particular utility, as to propagate the breed. M. de la Salle, in 1685, saw in the northern parts of America, near the Bay of St Louis, whole troops of these wild horses feeding in the pastures, which were so fierce that nobody durst approach them. The author of the History of the Adventures of the Buccaneers, says, that in the island of St Domingo, horses may sometimes be seen in troops of upwards of five hun- dred running together, and that as soon as they see a man, they will stop. He adds, that one of them will approach to a certain distance, snort, take flight, and then all the rest will follow him. To catch them, they make use of nooses made of ropes, these they spread and hang in places which they know they frequent : if they are caught by the neck they strangle themselves, unless the huntsman hasten to their assistance, who instantly secures them by the body and legs, and fastens them to trees, where they are left for two days without either food or drink. This experiment is sufficient to begin their subjection with, and in time, they become as tame as if they had never been wild; and even, if by chance they ever regain their liberty, they know their mas- ters, and suffer themselves to be taken without trouble. The manners of these animals almost wholly depend on their education. From time immemorial it has been the cus- tom to separate the colts from their mothers after they have suckled them five, six, or seven months; for experience has taught, that those colts which are suckled ten or eleven, months, are not of equal value with those which are wean- ed sooner, though they are generally fuller of flesh. After six or seven months sucking, they are weaned, that they may take more solid nourishment than milk : bran is then given 6 NATURAL HISTORY. them twice a day, and a little hay, of which the quantity ?a increased in proportion as they advance in age, and they are kept in the stable as long as they seem to retain any desire to return to the mare; but when this desire ceases, they are suffered to go out in fine weather, and led to pasture : care however must be taken not to suffer them to go out to pas- ture fasting : they must have bran, and be made to drink an hour before they are suffered to graze, and are never to be exposed to great cold or rain : in this manner they spend the first winter. In the May following, they are not only permitted to graze every day, but are suffered to lie in the fields all the summer, and even to the end of October, only they must not be allowed to eat the after-grass: for if they accustom themselves much to it, they will grow dis- gusted with hay, which ought however to be their principal food, during the second winter, together with bran mixed with barley, or oats wetted* They are managed in this manner, letting them graze in the day time during winter, and in the night also during the summer, till they are four years old, when they are taken from the pastures, and fed on hay. This change in iood requires some precaution; for the first eight days, the colt should have nothing but straw, and it is proper to administer some vermifuge drinks, as those insects may have been generated from indigestion, and food. Great attention must be paid in weaning young colts, to put them into a proper stable, not too hot, for fear of render- ing them delicate and too sensible to the impressions of the air. They should frequently have fresh litter and be kept very clean, by rubbing them often down with a wisp of straw. But they should not be tied up or curried till they are two years and a half, or three years old; for this gives them great pain, their skin being too tender to bear it, and they would fall away instead of growing fat from it: care must also be taken that the rack and manger are not very high, as the ne- cessity of raising their heads considerably, in order to reach their food, may possibly cause a habit of carrying it in this fashion, which would give them an awkward appearance. At the age of three years, or three and a half, the rider should begin to break them and make them tractable. They should at first have a light easy saddle, and ought to wear it NATURAL HISTORY. two or three hours every day, and they should be accustom- ed to have a snaffle bit in their mouths, and to lift up their feet, on which they should sometimes receive rather smart strokes, and it designed for coach or draught horses, should wear harness and a bridle. At first a curb should not be used, they should be held by a leather strap, and be made to trot, on even ground, without a rider, and with only the saddle or harness on the body: when the saddle horse turns easily, and willingly follows the person who holds the lea- thei strap, the rough rider should mount and dismount him again in the same place, without making him move, till he is four years old, because before that age, the weight of a man overloads him, but at four he should be made to walk or trot, a little way at a time, with the rider on his back. When a coach horse is accustomed to the harness, he should be paired with a horse that is thoroughly broken, putting on him a bridle, with a strap passed through it, till he begins to be used fo the draught; after this, the coachman must teach him to go backwards, having the assistance of a man before, who must pus-h him gently, and even give him some blows to make him do it: all this should be done before young horses have changed their food, for when once they are what is called corn fed, that is, when they feed on grain and hay, as they are more vigorous, it is remarked also that they are less tractable, and more difficult to break. . The bit and the spur are two means made use of to bring them into subjection. The mouth does not appear formed by nature to receive any other impressions than that of taste and appetite, there is, however, so great a sensibility in the mouth of a horse, that in preference to the eyes and ears, we address ourselves to it, to make him understand our pleasure : the smallest motion or pressure of the bit, is suf- ficient to inform and determine the animal; and this organ of sense has no other fault than its perfection. Its too great sensibility must be managed, for if it is abused, the mouth of the horse is rendered insensible to the impression of the bit; the senses of sight, and hearing are not subject to such a change, and could not be dulled in this manner; but, it has been found inconvenient to govern horses by these or- gans, and it is generally true, that signs given them by the sense of feeling, have more effect on animals in general S NATURAL HISTORY. than those conveyed by the eyes or ears: besides, the situa- tion of horses with relation to those who mount or conduct them, makes their eyes almost useless for this purpose, be- cause they see only straight forwards, so that they could only perceive the signs made to them when they turned their heads round; and although they are frequently con- ducted and animated by the ear, yet in fact, if they are well broken, the smallest pressure of the thighs, or most trifling motion of the bit, is sufficient to direct them: the spur is e- ven useless, or at least it is only made use of to force them to violent motions; and as through the unskilfulness of the rider, it often happens that in giving the spur, he checks the bridle; the horse finding himself excited on one side, and kept in on the other, only prances and capers without stirring out of his place. By means of the bridle we teach horses to hold up their heads, and place them in a proper manner, and the smallest sign or movement of the rider is sufficient to make the horse shew all his different paces: the most natural is perhaps the trot, but pacing and galloping are more pleasant for the ri- der, and these are the two paces we particularly endeavour to improve. Though walking is the slowest of all their paces, a horse should, notwithstanding, step quick, and neither take too long nor too short steps: his carriage should be easy, this ease depends much on the liberty of his shoulders, and is known by the manner in which he carries his head in walk- ing, if he keep it high and steady, he is generally vigorous, quick, and free in his motions. When the motion of the shoulders is not free, the leg does not rise enough, and the horse is apt to stumble, and strike his foot against the ine- qualities of the ground: when, on the other hand, the shoul- ders are more confined in their action, and the motion of the legs appears free, the horse is soon fatigued, stumbles, and becomes useless. A horse should raise his shoulders, and his lower haunches in walking: he should also support his leg, and raise it high enough, but if he keeps it up too Jong, or lets it fall too slowty, he loses all the advantage of his suppleness, and becomes quite heavy. It is not sufficient that his walk should be easy, his steps uniit be also equal and uniform both behind and before, for NATURAL HISTORY. if his buttocks have a swinging motion, while he keeps up his shoulders, the rider is much jolted. The same thing happens when the horse extends his hind leg too much, and rests it aimost in the same place in which he rested his tore foot. Horses with short bodies are subject to this fault: those which cross their legs or strike them against each o- ther, are not sure footed. But those with long bodies are the most easy for the rider, because he is at a greater dis- tance from the two centres of motion, the shoulders and haunches, and is therefore less sensible of the motion and jolting. The usual method of walking among quadrupeds, is to lift up at the same time one of the fore and one of the hind legs while the right fore leg is in motion, the left hind leg follows and advances at the same time, and this step being made, the left fore leg conjointly with the right hind leg in its turn, an'd so on. As their bodies are supported upon four points which form a long square, the easiest manner of moving for them, is to change tvo of them at once in a diagonal line, in such a manner, that the centre of gravity of the body of the animal, may move but little, and rest al- ways in the direction of the two points which are not in mo- tion. In the three natural paces of the horse, the walk, the trot, and the gallop, this rule of motion is always observed, but with some difference: in the walk, there are four times in the movement; if the right fore leg moves first, the lefc hind leg follows the moment after, then the left fore leg moves forward in turn, to be followed the instant after by the right hind leg. Thus the light forefoot rests on the ground first, the left hind foot next, then the left fore foot rests, and lastly, the right hind foot, which makes a move- ment of four times, and at three intervals, of which, the first and last are shorter than the middle one. In tre trot there are but two times in the movement; if the right fore leg goes off first, the left hind leg moves at the same time, and without any intervals between the motion of the one, and the motion of the other. The left fore leg moves also at the same time with the right hind one. In the gallop there is usually three times; but as in this movement there is a kind of leaping, the interior parts of B t . NATURAL HISTORY. the horse do not move off themselves, but are driven away by the strength of the haunches and the hinder parts. Thus, of the two fore legs, the right ought to advance more for- ward than the left. The left ought before hand to rest on the ground to serve as a point of rest for the sudden jerk which he takes. Hence the left hind foot makes the first time of the movement, and rests on the ground first; then the right hind leg is lifted up conjointly with the left fore leg, and rest on the ground together. At length, the right fore leg, which is raised an instant after the left fore leg, and right hind one, rests on the ground last, which makes the thiidtime. Thus, in this movement of the gallop, there are three times and two intervals; and in the first of these intervals, when the movement is made with haste, there is an instant when the four legs are in the air at the same time, and when the four shoes of the horse may be seen at once. When the horse has the haunches and the houghs supple and moves them with agility, the movement of the gallop is more perfect, and the cadence is made in four times. He then rests the left hind foot which shews the first time. When the right hind foot falls to the ground and shews the second time. The left fore foot falls a mo- ment after, shewing the third time; and at length the right fore foot, which rests last, shews the fourth time. Horses usually gallop on the right foot, in the same man- ner aj they carry the fore right leg in walking and trotting. They also throw up the dirt in galloping with the right fore leg, which is more advanced than the left. The right hind leg which follows immediately the right fore one, is more advanced than the left hind leg, the whole time the horse continues to gallop. Hence the left leg which supports all the weight, and which forces forward the others, is more tired; for this reason it would be right to exercise horses in galloping alternately on the left foot, as well as on the right; and consequently they would bear much longer this violent motion. In walking, the legs of the horse are lifted up only a small height, and the feet almost scrape the ground. In trotting they are raised higher, and the feet are entirely free from the ground. In galloping the legs are lifted up still higher, aad the feet seem to rebound from the earth. The walk to NATURAL HISTORY. be good should be quick, eas}-, light, and sure. The trot should be firm, quick, and equally sustained. In this place, the horse should carry his head high, and his back straight; for, if the haunches rise and fall alternately at each trot he takes, if the crupper moves up and down, and the horse rocks himself, he trots ill. If he throws out his fore legs it is another fault: the fore legs should tread in a line with the hind ones, which should always efface their tracts. When one of the hind legs is thrown forwards, if the fore leg of the same side remains in its place too long, the motion becomes more uneasy and difficult from this resistance. For this reason the interval between the two times of the trot should be short; but, be it ever so short, this resistance is sufficient to make this pace more uneasy than either walking or galloping, because in walking the motion is more easy, gentle, and the resistance less; and in galloping there is scarcely any horizontal resistance, which is the only cue inconvenient to the rider. Walking, trotting, and galloping, are the most natural paces of the horse. Some, however, have another called the amble, which is very different from the former, and, at the first glance appears contrary to the laws of mechanics. In this pace the foot of the horse grazes the ground still more than in walking, and each step is much longer. Bur. the most remarkable circumstance is, that the two legs oa the same side, set off at the same time to make a step, and afterwards the two other legs move at the same time to make another, so that each side of the body alternately is without support, and there is no equilibrium maintained between the one or the other. It is therefore only from his almost grazing the earth, and the quick alternate mo- tion, that he can support himself in this pace. There is in the amble, as well as in the trot, but two times in the motion; and all the difference is, that in the trot the two legs which go together are opposite, in a diagonal line: instead of which, in the amble, the legs on the same side go together. This pace, is very easy for the rider, as it has not the jolting of the trot, which is occasioned from the re- sistance the fere leg meets with when the hind leg rises. Because in the amble, the fore leg rises at the same time with :he him! Jeg on the same side: instead of whidi, in ts NATURAL HISTORY. trotting the fore leg on the same side, rests arid assists the impulse the whole time the hind leg is in motion. Of all large animals, the horse has the greatest propor- tion and elegance in every part of his body. The great length of the jaws, is the principal cause of the difference between the heads of quadrupeds, and those of the human species. It is also, the most ignoble mark of all; yet, though the jaws of the horse are very long, he has not, like the ass, an air of imbecility, or of stupidity like the ox. The regu- larity of the proportions of his head, on the contrary, gives him an air of sprightliness, which is well supported by the beauty of his chest. The horse seems desirous of raising himself above the state of a quadruped, by holding up his head, and in this noble attitude he looks man in the face. His eyes are lively and large, his ears well made, and of a just proportion, without being short like those of the bulf, or too long like those of the ass. His mane graces his head, ornaments His neck, and gives him an air ofsuperiori- *". His long bushy tail covers, and terminates advantage- ;he extremities of his body, far different from the short the stag, the elephant, &c. and the naked tails of the ;e camel, the rhinoceros, &c. The tail of the horse is .:{ of long, thick hair, which seems to come from his ,. I u- cannot raise his tail like the lion, but it suits him b-aer lunging down, as he can move it sideways. It is very useful to him to drive away the flies which incommode him, for though his skin is very hard, and every where furnished \\ it:, a close thick coat it is extremely sensible. The head of a well proportioned horse sho.ild be lean and small, without being too long. The ears should be at a moderate distance, small, straight, immoveable, narrow, thin and well placed on the top of the head. The forehead should be narrow, and a little convex. Hollows should be filled up, the eye-lids t!nn, the eyes clear, livel- , full of fire, rather large, and projecting from the head, the pupil large, the nether jaw thin, the nose a little aquitkie, the nostrils large and open, the partition of the nose, and the lips thin. The mouth ought to be of a moderate width, th p withers raised and sloping, the shoulders thin, flat, and not confined, the back equal, even, and insensibly arched lengthways, and raised on each side of the spine, which should appear indent- NATURAL HISTORY. ed. Flanks should be full and short, the rump round and fleshy, the haunches well covered with hair, the stump of the tail thick and firm, the fore legs and thighs thick and fleshy, the knees round before, the houghs large and round- ed, the sinews loose, the joints next the feet small, the fetlock 'thinly covered with hair. The pastern ought to be large, and of a midling length, the coronet rather raised, the hoof black, smooth, shining, and high, the quarters round, the heels wide and moderately raised, the frog small and thin, and the sole thick and hollow. But there are few horses in which this assemblage of per- fections is to be found. The eyes are subject to many com- plaints, which are not easily understood. In a healthy eye. we ought to see through the cornea two or three spots of the colour of soot above the pupil. To see these spots, the cornea must be clear, clean, and transparent; if it appears double, or of a bad colour, the eye is not good. A small, long, and straight pupil, encompassed with a white circle, is also a bad sign; and when it is of a blueish-green colour, the eye is certainly bad and the sight dull. It is very easy to form a judgment of the natural and ac- tual state of this animal by the motion of his ears: when he walks, he should project forwards the points of his ears: a jaded horse carries his ears low; those which are spirited and mischievous, alternately carry one of their ears for- wards and the other backwards : they all carry their ears on that side from whence they hear a noise, and when any one strikes them on the back, or on the rump, they turn their ears back. Horses which have their eyes deep sunk in the head, or one smaller than the other, have usually bad sight: those which have the mouth dry, are not of so healthy a temperament as those which have the mouth moist, and make the bridle frothy. A saddle horse ought to have his shoulders flat, moveable, and not very fleshy; the draught horse, on the contrary, should have them flat, round, and brawny: if, notwithstanding, the shoulders of a saddle horse are too thin, and the bones shew themselves through the skin, it is a proof they are not free, and con- sequently the horse cannot bear fatigue. Another fault ofa saddle horse is, when the chest projects too far forward, and the fore legs drawn too much back, because he is apt to rest H NATURAL HISTORY. on the hand in galloping, and even to stumble and fall. Th$ length of the legs should be proportionate to the height of the horse; when the fore legs are too long he is not sure footed, if they are too short, he is too heavy in the hand. It is a remark that mares are more liable than horses to be short-legged, and that the legs of horses in general ate thick- er than those of mares and geldings. One of the most important things to be known, is the age of the horse, which is best discovered from his teeth, of which he has forty, viz. twenty -four grinders, four eye teeth, and twelve incisive teeth ; mares have no eye teeth, or if they have, they are very short: the grinders are not instru- mental to this knowledge, we form our judgment from the front and eye teeth. The twelve front teeth begin to shew themselves fifteen days after the birth of the foal, these first teeth are round, short, weak, and drop out at different peri- ods in order to make room for others: at two years and a half the four front middle teeth drop out the first, two at top and two at bottom; a year after four others fall out, one on each side of those which are already replaced: at about four years and a half, four others drop out, always on the side of those which have been replaced, these four last milk teeth are replaced by four others, which do not grow near so fast as these which replaced the first eight; and the four last teeth which are called the wedges, and which replace the four last milk teeth, are those by which we know the age of a horse. These are easily known, since they are the third as well at top as at bottom, beginning to count from the mid- dle of the extremity of the jaw: these teeth are hollow and have a black mark in their concavity: at four and a half, or five years old, they scarcely project beyond the gums, and the hollow is plainly seen: at six and a half it be- gins to fill up, the mark also begins to diminish and grow narrower, and so continues till seven and a half or eight years, when the hollow is entirely filled up and the black mark effaced: after the animal has attained eight years, these teeth do not give any further information respecting age, we then have recourse to the eye teeth or tusks: these four, teeth arc placed at the side of those which have just been mentioned. The eye teeth, as well as the grinders, are not preceded by others which fallout, those of the infe- NATURAL HISTORY. 15 fior jaw usually come out first at three years and a half, and those of the upper jaw at four which till they are six years old are very sharp: at ten the upper ones appear already blunt, worn and long, because they are bare, the gum wear- ing away with age, and the more they are worn away the more aged the horse is: from ten till thirteen or fourteen years, there is hardly any indication of the age, except some hairs on the eye-brows which begin to grow white; but this is equivocal, since it has been remarked, that hor- ses engendered from old stallions and old mares have the hair white on the eye brows at ten years old. There are also horses the teeth of which are so hard that they do not wear, and upon which the black mark subsists, and is ne- ver effaced; and others which have the mark in their mouth as long as they live. We may also know, though with less precision, the age of a horse by the ridges of the palate, which are effaced in proportion to his age. It has been remarked, that studs kept in dry and light countries produce good tempered, swift, and vigorous horses \vith nervous legs and hard hoofs; while on the other hand those which are bred in damp places, and in fat pasturage, have generally the head large and heavy, the legs thick, the hoofs soft, and the feet flat. This difference arises from the climate and food, but what is more difficult to be accounted for, and still more essential than any thing that has been said, is the necessity of always crossing or mixing the breed, if we would prevent degeneration. Mares usually go with foal eleven months and some days; they breed commonly till the age of fourteen or fifteen years and the more vigorous till they are above eighteen. The duration of the life of horses, is like that of every other species, which is in proportion to the length of the time of their growth. Man, who is above fourteen years in growing, lives six or seven times as long, that is ninety or a hundred years. The horse, which attains his full growth in four years, lives six or seven times as long, that is twenty- five or thirty years. There are so few examples to contra- dict this rule, that we should not even regard them as ex- ceptions from whence we may draw any precedents. It is worthy of remark too, that as robust horses arrive at their jf NATURAL HISTORY. full growth in less time than delicate ones, they alsd live less time, and at fifteen years of age become old. The Arabian horses are, as far as we know, the handsom- est in Europe, they are larger and plumper than those of Barbary, and equally well-shaped, but as they are not often brought into this country, riding-masters are not able to give an exact account of their perfections and defects. The horses of Barbary are more common ; they are fre- quently negligent in their paces, and must be often remind- ed : they are very swift and strong, light, and fit for hunt- ing. These horses seem the most proper to breed from : it were only to be wished that they were larger, as they sel- dom exceed four feet eight inches high. The Turkish horses are hot so well proportioned as those of Barbary: they will, however, travel a great way, and are long winded ; this is not surprising, if we consider, that in warm countries, the bones of animals are harder than those in cold climates ; hence the reason of their being stronger in the legs. The Spanish horses are second in rank to those of Barbary : those of a handsome breed are plump, well-coat- ed, and low : their movements are likewise quick and sup- ple, and they are remarkable for spirit and boldness. Their hair is usually black, or of a bay chesnut colour, though there are some of various colours, and it is but seldom that they have white legs and noses. The Spaniards, who have an aversion to these marks, never breed from horses that have them, chusing only a star in their forehead. The handsomest English horses have m their conforma- tion great resemblance to those of Arabia and Barbary, from which they originally sprung : they are frequently five feet high, and above: they are of different colours, and have all kinds of marks ; they are generally strong, vigorous, bold, capable of great fatigue, and excellent for hunting and cour- sing. The horses of Italy were formerly much handsomer than at present, because the breed for some time has been neg- lected ; notwithstanding there are still some handsome Nea- politan horses, especially draught ones; but, in general, they have the head large, and the chest thick. They are untractable, and consequently, not easily managed; bur NATURAL HISTORY. these defects are compensated by their noble form, their stateline^s, and the beauty of their motions. The Danish horses are so handsome in their form, and so beautiful in their coats, that they are preferred to all others for carriages : they are of all colours, and even of some sin- gular ones, as pied. Horses spotted like tygers are found no where but in Denmark. In Germany we meet with very handsome horses ; but they are generally heavy and short-breathed. The Hussars and Hungaiians split their nostrils, in order, as they say, to give them more breath, and also to hinder their neighing in battle. The Flemish horses are greatly inferior to .hose of Holland: almost all of them have large heads, flat feet, and are subject to humours in the -eyes; the two last of which are considerable defects in coach-horses. According to Marmol, the Arabian horses are the off- spring of the wild horses of the desarts of Arabia, large studs of which were formed in ancient times, and are now so numerous, that all Asia and Africa are full of them. The Arabians of the desait, and the people of Lybia, breed a great number of these horses for hunting, but they neither use them in travelling nor in their wars ; they send them to pasture whilst there is grass for them, and when that fails, they feed them with dates and camel's milk, which make them nervous, nimble and lean, so that some of them will outstrip the very ostriches in their course. They hy snares for the wild horses, and eat the flesh of the young ones, which they affirm is very delicate food. These wild horses are smaller than the tame ones, and are commonly ash-coloured, though there are also some white ones : the mane and hair of the tail is short and frizzled. Let an Arabian be ever so poor, he has horses. They usually mount the mares, experience having taught them that they bear fatigue, hunger, and thirst, better than the horses. The Turks, on the coutraiy, do not approve of mares; and the Arabians sell them the horses they do not keep for stallions, They have long and with great caie preserved the breed of their horses ; they know their gene- alogy, and distinguish the breeds by different names. The lowest price for-a mare of the first class, is from one hundred, C ,-g NATURAL HISTORY. to two or three hundred pounds sterling. As the Arabians have only a tent for their house, it serves them al r o for a stable. The rnare, colt, husj>and, wife and children, lie pro- miscuously together; and the little children will lie on the body and neck of the mare and colt, without the least in- jury. These mares are so accustomed to live in this fa- miliar manner, that they will suffer any kind of play. The Arabians treat them kindly, talk, reason with, and take great care of them, always let them walk, and never use the spur without necessity. Hence, as soon as they feel their flank tickled with the stirrup-iron, they set off immediately with incredible swiftness, and leap hedges and ditches, with great agility : if their rider happens to fall, they are so well train- ed, that they will stop short even in the most rapid gallop. All Arabian horses are of a middling size, very easy in their manner, and rather thin than fat. They are regularly dres- sed morning and evening with so much care, that not the smallest spot is left on their skins: their legs, mane, and tail, are also washed, which they let grow and seldom comb, to avoid breaking the hairs. They have nothing given them to eat all day, and seldom are allowed to drink above two or three times. At sunset a bag is fastened round their heads, in which is about half a bushel of verv clean barley. These horses, therefore, eat only during the night ; and the b.'g is not taken from them till the next morning, when all is eaten up; and, in the month of March, when the grass is tolerably high, they are turned out to pasture. As soon as the spring is past, they are taken again from pasture, and have neither grass nor oats all the rest of the year, and straw but seldom, barley being their only food. They cut the manes of the colts as soon as they are a year or eighteen months old, in order to make them grow thick and long. They mount them at two years old, or two and a half at most: till this age they put neither saddle nor bridle on them; but after it, all the Arabian horses stand saddled at the doors of their tents, every day, from morning to night. The breed of these horses is dispersed in Barbary, among the Moors, and even among the Negroes of the river Gam- bia and Senegal: the principal people of the country have some which are of uncommon beauty. Instead of barley or oa.ts, they give them maize reduced to flour, which they NATURAL HISTORY. 19 mix with milk, when they are inclined to fatten them; and in this hot climate they seldom let them drink. The Tartars live with their horses nearly in the same manner as the Arabians do. When they are about seven or eight months old, the young children mount them, and make them walk and gallop a little way by turns: they thus break them by degrees, and oblige them to submit to long fasting; but they never mount them for racing or hunting till they are six or seven years old, and then make them undergo incredible fatigue, such as travelling two or three days together without stopping, passing four or five without any other food than a handful of grass every eight hours: they also inure them to go twenty-four hours without drink- ing. These horses, which appear, and which are actually robust in their own country, soon become enfeebled and good for nothing, when transported to Chi-ia or the In- dies; but they succeed better in Persia and Turkey. In lesser Tartary they have also a breed of small horses, which are in such estimation, that they are not allowed to sell them. to foreigners. These horses have all the good and bad qua- lities ot those in great Tartar-', which shew how much the same manners, and the same education, give the same dispo- sition to these animals. There are also in Circassia, ;>weden &c. for they are, in fact, weak and small in pro- portion to the coldness of the climate. The Latins, after the Greeks, have called the wild ass, an- gra, which animal must not be confounded, at, some natural- ists and many travellers have done, with the zebra. The angra, or wild ass, is not striped like the zebra, and is not near so elegant in figure. Wild asses are found in some of the islands of the Archipelago, and paiticularly in that of Cerigo. There are also many in the deserts of Lybia and Numidia. They are grev, and run so fast, that the horses of Barbary only outstrip them in the chace. When they see a man, they give a loud cry, tnrn themselves about, and stop, and do not attempt to fly till he approaches pretty near them. They are taken in snares made with ropes, and go m troops both to pasturage and to drink; their flesh is also eaten. There were also, in the time of Marmol, wild assea in the island of Sardinia, but less than those of Africa ; and 1'ietro della Valle says, he has seen a wild ass at Bassora, the NATURAL HISTORY. *7 figure of which differed in no respect from a domestic one, except in his colour which was lighter, and had from the head to the tail, a stripe of white ; he was also much liveli- er, and lighter in hunting, than the greater number of asses. Neither asses nor horses have been found in America, al- though the climate, especially of North America, is as good for them as any. Those which the Spaniards have trans- ported from Europe, and left in the West Indies, and on the Continent, ruv.' greatly multiplied ; and in some parts wild asses are found in troops, and are taken in snares like wild horses. The ass with the mare prrduces large mules, and the horse with the she-ass produces small mules, differing from the fiist in many respects. As wild asses are unknown in these climates, we cannot ac- tually say whether the flesh is good to ea^or not; but it is certain that the flesh of the domestic ass is extremely bad, and harder than that of the horse. The mIk of the ass, on the contrary, is an approved and specific remedy for certain complaints, and its us" is known from the Greeks to us. That it may be good in its kind, we should choose a young heahhv she-ass, full of Hesh, that has lately foaled, and which has nut since that period been with the" male. Care must be taken to feed her well with hay, wieat, and grass. The milk must not be exposed to the air, which will spoil it in a short time. The skin of the ass is used fur different purposes, such as to make drums, shoep, and thick parchment for pocket- books, which itf slightly varnished over. It is of these skins that the Orientals make the sagri, vhich we call shagreen. The ass, is perhaps an animal, which for its size, can carry the greatest weight. It costs little to feed him, and as he scarcely requires any care, he is of great use in the country. He also is serviceable to ride on, as all his paces are gentle, and he is less subject to stumMe than the horse. He is fre- quently put to the plough in countries where the earth is light, and his dung is accounted excellent manure. KATURAL HISTORY THE BUI.r, THE COW. THE ox, * and other herbivorous animals are not only tlie most useful to man, but they are also main- tained at a small expence. Th ox is the most excellent in this respect, as he restores as much to the earth as he takes from it, and even enriches the ground on which he feeds. That the ox is not so proper as the horse, the ass, or the camel for carrying burthens, the form of his back and loins, *Thc word ox, in its common acceptation, denotes Black Cattle in general without regard to ::. In a more restricted sense, i: signifies a castrated BuJI. NATURAL HISTORY. * 9 5s a demonstration. But the thickness of his neck, and the breadih of his shouldeis point him out as an animal proper for the yoke. In some places they make him draw by the horns. In support of this praciice, it is alledged, that when yoked in this manner he is more easily managed. His head is very strong, and he draws well by the horns, but with much less advantage than by the shoulders. Nature seems to have destined him for the plough. The size of his body, the slow- ness of his motions, the shortness of his legs, and even hi tranquillity and patience when he labours, seem to concur in rendering him proper for the cultivation of the fields, and more capable than any other of overcoming the constant re- sistance he meets with from the earth. In those species of animals, which man has formed into flocks, and where the multiplication is the principal object, the female is more useful than the male. The produce of the cow is constantly renewed. The flesh of the calf is \vholesomeand delicate. The milk is the food of children; butter relishes the most of our dishes, and cheese is the com- mon food of the peasants. The cow arrives at the age of puberty in eighteen months, and the bull in two years. But they should not be admitted to each other till they are three years old. From three to nine years these animals are in their greatest vigour. After this, neither cows nor bulls are fit for any thing but to fatten for the slaughter, as at two years of age they are almost at their full growth. The length of their lives is almost like that of the greatest part of the other species of animals, a- bout fourteen years, and they seldom Jive above fifteen. The dullest and most idle animals are not those which sleep the soundest, or the longest. The ox sleeps, but his- sleep is short and not very sound; for he wakes at the least noise. He usually lies on his left side, and that kidney is always larger and fatter than the kidney on the right. Oxen like other domestic animals, differ in colour; but at the same time red appears to be the most common, and the redder they are, the more they are esteemed. It is said, that oxen of a bay colour last longest; that those of a brown co- lour are sooner fatigued, and shorter lived; that the grey, krindled, and white, are not proper for work, but only , e NATURAL HISTORY. to be fatted for slaughter. Whatever colour the coat of the ox is of, it should be shining, thick, and soft to the touch; for if it is rough and uneven, we have reason to think that the animal is not well, or at least, that he is not of a strong constitution. The ox should only work about seven years, viz from three to ten; and then to be taken from the plough, in order to fat- ten him, as the flesh wi'I be better now than if he were Icept longer. The age of this animal is known by his teeth and horns. The first front teeth fall out when he is ten months old, and aie replaced by others which are larger and not so white. At sixteen months those on each si:ie of the middle teeth drop out, and are replaced by others; and at three years old, all the incisive teetli are renewed. They are then all long, white and even; anH, in proportion as the ex advances in yeais, they decay, and become unequal and "black. The horns fall off at three years, and these are re- placed by others, which like the second teeth do not fall off a second time. The horns of the ox and the cow grow larger and longer than those of the bull; but the growth of these is not so uniform as the first. At the fourth year of the ox, two little ported horns sprout, which are even, and terminate at the head by a kind of knob. The fol- lowing year ihis knob grows from the head, pushed out by a cylinder of horn, which forms and is terminared by ano- ther knob; for as li.ng as the animal lives, the horns grow. These knobs become annular knobs, which are easily dis- tinguished in the horns, and by which the age may be ea- sily known. The horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost conti- nually. The ox, on the contrary, eats quick, and takes in a short time all the food which he requires after which he ceases to eat, and lies down to ruminate. This difference a- rises from the different conformation of the stomachs of these animals, The ox, the two first stomachs of which torm but one bag of a vast capacity, can receive grass, into both of them at the same ti.ne which it afterwards ruminates on, and digests at leisure. The horse, whose stomach is small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled succes- sively in proportion as he digests it, and it passes into the intestines, where the principal decomposition of the food is performed. NATURAL HISTORY. 31 Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, oc- casioned by the re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains. The ox fills the two first stomachs the. paunch, and the hag, which is but a portion of the paunch, as much as he can. This membrane acts xvith force on the grass which it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is greatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of contraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only communicates with the other bv a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit such dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moister parts The food must, therefore, necessarily return to the oesopha- gus, the orifice of which is larger than the orifice of the con- duit, and the animal again chews and mace rates it, and then imbibes it afresh with his saliva, and thus by degrees mak s the aliment more moist. He reduces it to a paste, li- quid enough to enter this corduit which passes into the third stomach, where it is again macerated before it en- ters the fourth ; and it is in this last stomach that the decom- position of the hay is finished, which is reduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms the truth of th?s explication is, that as long as these animals suck, and are fed with milk and other Jiquid aliments, they do not chew the cud. They chew the cud much more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer, when they eat tender grass. Good milk is neither thick nor thin : its consistence should be such, that when we take a drop, it should pre- serve its roundness without running, and in colour should be of a beautiful white. That which is inclinable to blue or yellow is not good. Its taste ought to be sweet, without any bitterness or sourness. It i~ better in the summer, than in the winter; and is never perfectly good but when the cow is of a proper age, and in good health. The milk of young covts is very thick, and that of old ones during the winter the same. The milk of cows which are hot, is not good, any more than that of a cow which is near her time, or which has lately calved. In the third and fourth stomach of the calf which sucks, there are clots of crudled milk. These when dried in the air, serve to make runnet or that well known substance which coagulates milk. The ^ NATURAL HISTORY. longer the runnet is kept, the better it is : a small quantity of which is required to make a great deal of cheese. Bulls, cows, and oxen, are apt to lick themselves, but mostly when they are quiet; and as it is thought that it hin- ders them from fattening, it it usual to rub all the parts they can touch with their dtfng. When this precaution is not taken, they raise up the hair of their coats with their tongues, which are very rough, and then swallow it in large quantities. As this substance cannot digest, it re- mains in the stomach, and forms round, smooth balls, which sometimes are of so considerable a size, as to prevent diges- tation. These knobs in time get covered with a brown crust, which is somewhat hard. It is, notwiths anding, but a thick mucilage, which, by rubbing and coaction becomes hard and shining. They are never found any where but in the paunch, and if any of the hair gets into the other sto- machs, it does not remain but seems to pass with the ali- ments. Animals which have incisive teeth, such as the horse and the ass, in both jaws, bite short grass more easily than those which want incisive teeth in the upper jaw. Hence if the sheep and the goat bite the closest, it is because they are small, and their lips are thin. But the ox, whose lips are thick, can only bite long grass ; and it is for this reason that they do no harm to the pasture in which they feed, as they can only bite off the tops of the young grass. They do not stir the roots, and for this reason scarcely hurt the growth : but the sheep and the goat bite so close, that they destroy the stalks and spoil the roots. The horse chooses the most delicate grass, and leaves the largest to grow, the stalks of which are hard. The ox, on the other hand, bites these thick stalks, and by little and little destroys the coarse grass ; so that, at the end of some years, the field in which the horse has lived becomes a very bad one, whilst that on which the ox has broused, becomes fine pasturage. NATURAL HISTORY, THE RAM. THE EWE. OF all animals, the sheep is the most weak, simple and innocent: it has many enemies, and its life is sought by every beast of prey, in preference to any other. It is the most defenceless of creatures. The ram has but feeble arms; his courage is nothing but a petulance peculiar to himself, which is destroyed by cas- tration . Weather sheep are more fearful than ewes; as the smallest noise, to which they are unaccustomed, is sufficient NATURAL HISTORr. to make them fly and to cleave close to one another. This fear is accompanied with the greatest ignorance; for though they are sensible of danger, they do not know how to escape it; 'and in the greatest storms they will not change their si- tuation, except one of them leads the way and then the rest follow. This animal, so cowardly in itself, is the most precious and useful to mankind; supplies our greatest necessities, furnish- ing us at once with food and cloathing. Nay the very milk, skin, bowels, bones, and even the dung have their peculi- ar excellencies. These simple animals are of a veiy weak constitution, travelling soon exhausts them; and when they run, they pant and are soon out of breath. The great heat of the sun is as disadvantageous to them, as too much moisture, cold and snow. They are subject to many disorders, the greatest part of which are contagious; too much fat sometimes kills them, and always prevents them from having lambs. They suffer a great deal in the time of yeaning, have frequent abor- tions, and require more care than any other domestic animal. At one year old, sheep lose the two front teeth of the lower jaw; and almost every one knows that they have no> incisive teeth in the upper. At eighteen months, the teeth adjoining the two first that fell, fall also; and, at three years old, they are succeeded by others. They are then even, and tolerably white; but, in proportion as the animal grows older, they become uneven and black. The age of the ram is known by his horns, which shew themselves the first year, and frequently from the time of yeaning. They grow every year a ring which is a mark round. Sheep in general have no horns; except two bony prominences in the same parts where those of the rams grow; there are, notwith- standing, some sheep which have two, and some four horns. These sheep are like the other; their horns are five or six inches long, but less turned than those of the ram; and when there are four horns, the two exterior are shorter than the two interior ones. Sheep cany their young five months, and drop them at the beginning of the sixth. They usually produce but one Jamb, and sometimes two. In warm climates they yean twice, but in cold ones only once a year. NATURAL HISTORY. 35 Ewes have plenty of milk the first five or six months af- ter yeaning, which makes tolerable food for children and poor people in the country; it also makes good cheese, especially when it is mixed with cow's milk. In dry soils, and high grounds, where wild thyme and o- ther odoriferous herbs abound, the flesh of the sheep is of a much better quality than when it is fed in plains and humid vaileys, unless these plains are sandy and near the sea; then the herbs imbibe a saltuess, which gives the mutton a most agreeable relish. Milk is also more plentiful, and of a bet- ter flavour, for nothing is more pleasing to the taste of these animals than salt, so nothing is more salutary when given in moderation; hence, in some places, they put a bag of salt, or a salt stone into the fold, which the sheep will lick alternately with their food. Nothing contributes more to fatten sheep, than to give them plenty of water, and nothing prevents this advantage so much as the burning heat of the sun. We frequently find worms in the livers of animals; and in the Journal des Savans, there is a description of worms found in the livers of sheep and oxen, as also in the German Ephemerides. One would think, that these singular worms were only found in the livers of animals which chew the cud; but Mr Deubenton assures us, he found some which exactly resembled them in the liver of an ass; and it is pro- bable, that they may be found in the livers of other animals. It has also been said, that butterflies have been found in the Jivers of sheep. The work of sheep-shearing is performed once a year. In France it is executed in the month of May, after the sheep have bern well washed, in order to make the wool as clean as possible. In April it would be too cold; and it' Jhc-y were to wait till the month of June or July, there would not be time for the wool to grow in order to preserve them from the cold in winter. The wool of ewes is generally better, and in greater abundance, than that of other sheep; and that on the neck, and top of the back, is the best. White wool is preferable to grey, brown, or black, because in dying it will take any colour. Respecting the quality, that which is smooth is better than that which is frizzled; it |s also ?aid, that sheep, the wool of which is frizzled, are not 3 6 NATURAL HISTORY. so healthy as others. Another considerable advantage ari- ses from sheep, by enclosing them on the ground we wish to improve: the dung, urine, and heat of which, will, in a Jittle time, enrich the most exhausted, cold, and infertile ]and. A hundred sheep, in one summer, will enrich eight acres for six years. The ancients affirmed, that all animals which chew the cud, have tallow; but this is only true of the ox, the sheep, and the goat; that of the goat is abundantly whiter, firmer, and of a better quality than any other. It is about the loins that it is found in the greatest quantities, and the left loin has always a larger quantity than the right. Sheep have no other fat about them but the suet; and this matter is so pre- dominent in their habit, that all the extremities of the body are edged with it; even the blood contains a considerable quantity. The wool of Italy, Spain and England, is finer than that of France. Those animals with large long tails, which are so common in Africa and Asia, and to which travellers have given the name ot Barbary sheep, appear to be of a different species from ours, as well as the lambs of America. NATURAL HISTORY. 37 THE GOAT. THOUGH the species of animals in general differ from each other; yet there are some which approach so near each other, that space is hardly left for a bare line of distinction. The ass might almost replace the horse; and, if the species of sheep were to fail, that of the goat might supply the defect. The goat like the sheep, affords both milk and suet in considerable quantities. Her hair though rougher than wool, serves to make very good stuffs; and her skin is worth more than that of the sheep. The flesh of a young goat nearly resembles that of a lamb. These auxiliary species are wilder and more robust than the principal species. The ass and the goat do not require so much care as the horse and the sheep; for they every where find food to support them; and brouze equally on plants of all kinds. They are less affected with the intemperance of the climate, and can do better without the help of man : hence the less dependance any thing has on us, the more it seems to belong to nature. Although the goat is a distinct species, yet he will couple with the sheep; but no intermediate species has been pro- dwced by this acquaintance. These two species are distinct, remaining constantly separated, and always at the same dis- NATURAL HISTORY. ance from each other, and have never been changed by this mixture, or produced any new stock. The goat has naturally more understanding, and can shift better for herself than the sheep. She comes voluntarily, and is easily familiarised: is sensible of caresses, and ca- pable of attachment: she is also stronger, lighter, more agile, and less timid than the sheep: she is lively, capricious and lascivious. Goats are fond of straying into solitary places, climbing steep ascents, sleeping on the tops of rocks, and the brinks of precipices. The inconstancy of this animal's nature is shewn by the irregularity of her actions; she walks, stops short, runs, jumps, advances, retreats, shews, then hides herself, or flies, and this all from caprice, or without any other determinate cause than her whimsical vivacity. All the suppleness of her organs, and all the nerves of her body, are scarcely sufficient for the petulance and rapidity of these motions, which are so natural to her. That these animals are naturally fond of mankind, and that in uninhabited places they do not become wild, the following anecdote is a striking confirmation. In 1698, an English vessel having put into harbour at the isle of Bonavista, two negroes presented themselves on board, and offered the Captain as many goats as he chose. The Captain being surprised at this offer, the negroes observed, that there were only twelve persons in the island, that the goats multiplied so fast as to become troublesome; and that far from having any difficulty in taking them, they followed them with a kind of obstinacy, like domestic animals. Goats go five months with young, and bring forth at the beginning of the sixth. They suckle the young ones a month or five weeks; so that it may be reckoned about six and twenty weeks from the time of their coupling till the young kids begin to eat. The goat generally produces one kid, sometimes two, very rarely three, and never more than four; and she brings forth young from a year or eighteen months, till she is seven years old. The knobs in their fcorns, and teeth, determine their ages. The number of teeth is not always the same in female goats; but they rave generally ftwer than the male, which has also the hair and the beard and horns longer. These animals* NATURAL HISTORY. 39 like oxen and sheep, have four stomachs, and chew the cud. They are more diffused than sheep : goats like ours are found in several parts of the world, as in Guinea, and the warm countries, where they are smaller; but in Muscovy, and other cold climates, much larger. The goats of Angora, and of Syria, have ears hanging down, and are of the same species with ours. They mix and produce together, even in our climate. The males have horns almost as long as the com- mon goat; but their circumference and direction are very different. They are extended horizontally on each side of the head, and form spirals, somewhat like worms. The horns of the female are short, and first turn round back- wards, then bend down, and turn round before, so that they end near the eyes; and in some their circumferences and di- rections vary. The male and female goat of Angora, which I have seen, are such as I have described; and these goats, like all the animals of Syria, have the hair so very long, t&ick, and fine r that stuffs have been made of it, almost as handsome and glossy as our silks. It is, in fact, what ia- commonly termed mobair. NATURAL HISTORY. THE HOG. I SHALL treat of the sow, the hog of Siam, and the wild boar at the same time, as they form but one and the same species. Aristotle first divided quadrupeds into beasts with the hoof entire, those with cloven feet, and the species which has claws. He allows that the hog is of an ambiguous na- ture ; but the only reason he gives, is, that in Illyria swine are found which have hoofs, and in some other parts a spe- cies which have claws. This animal is also a kind of excep- tion to the two general rules of nature, viz. That the larger animals are, the fewer they produce at a birth; and that of all animals, those which have claws are the most proli- fic. The sow, which in her make is greatly above the mid- dle size, produces more of her kind at a litter, than any other quadruped. To the singularities we have already related, we shall add another, which is, that the fat of the hog is different from that of almost all other quadrupeds, not only in its consis- tence and quality, but also in its position in the body. The fat of man, and of animals which have no tallow, such as the dog, the horse, &c. is mixed pretty equally with the flesh. The tallow in the ram, goat, stag, &c. is found only in the extremities. In the hog, the fat covers the flesh and forms a thick, distinct, and continued bed or layer, between the flesh and the skin : this he has in common with the whale, and NATURAL HISTORY. 4. other cetaceous animals, the fat of which is only a kind of lard, nearly of the same consistence with, but more oily than that of the hog. There is only the hog, and two or three other species of animals, which have defensive or very long canine teeth ; and they differ from the other, by growing out on each side of the inferior jaw. In the elephant, and sea-cow, they are cylindrical, and some feet in length. In the wild boar, and male hog, they are partly bent; and I have seen them from nine to ten inches long. They are not very deep in the socket, and have also, like those of the elephant, a cavity at the superior extremity ; but the elephant, and the sea- cow have their defensive teeth in the upper jaw, and even want the canine in the lower. The male hog, and the wild boar, on the other hand, have them in both jaws, and those of the inferior are not only the most useful but the most dan- gerous ; for it is with these the wild boar wounds his enemy. Of all quadrupeds, the hog appears to be the most rough and unpolished; and his voraciousness seems to be owing to the incessant avidity he has to fill the vast capacity of his stomach. It is the roughness of the hair, the hardness of the skin, and the thickness of the fat, which render these a- nimals so insensible to blows. Mice have been known to lodge in their backs, and to eat the fat without their being sensible of it. Their other senses are good ; and huntsmen know well, that wild boars see, hear, and smell, at a great distance. In order, therefore, to surprise them, they wail; in silence during the night, and place themselves under the wind, to prevent the boars from smelling them, for if they do, they immediately change their road. This imperfection in the senses of the taste and touch, is still more increased by a distemper called the meazles, which renders them almost insensible. This disorder, in general, arises from the coarseness of their food; for the wild boar, which usually lives on corn, fruits, acorns, and roots, is not subject to it, nor are young pigs whilst they suck. The on- ly preventative is, by keeping them in a clean stable, and giving them plenty of wholesome food; by which means their flesh will be well flavoured, and the lard firm and brittle. F j, NATURAL HISTORY. The Wild Boar is hunted by dogs, or else taken by sur- prise in the night by the light of the moon. The old ones should only be attacked, and these are easily known by their traces. A young boar, of three years old, is difficult to be taken, as he runs a great way without stopping; an old one suffers himself to be closely hunted, and is not afraid of the dogs. In the day time, he usually hides himself in the thickest and most unfrequented part of the wood, and at night goes out in quest of food. In summer, when the corn is ripe, it is easy to surprise him, particularly among oats, which he frequents every night. Immediately a boar is killed, the huntsman cuts off his testicles, the smell of which is so strong, that in five or six hours, his flesh would be infected. Of an old wild boar, the head only is good for food; but, the flesh of a young one is extremely delicate. No one is ignorant of the value of the hog. His flesh sells for more than that of the ox, the lard for double ; and the blood, bowels, viscera, feet, and tongue, when pro- perly prepared, may all be eaten. The dung is much col- der than that of other animals, and should not be used but on hot and dry lands. The skin is used in making sieves; and brooms, brushes, and pencil-brushes- are made of the liair. The flesh of this animal takes salt and salt-petre bet- ter than any other, and will retain their qualities longer. This species, though abundant, and greatly spread in Eu- rope, Africa, and Asia, was not found on the continent of America, until it was first carried there by the Spaniards; who also carried large quantities to almost all the islands of that Continent. They have multiplied and become wild in many places; and resemble our wild boars, with this diffe- rence only, that the body is shorter, the head larger, and the skin thicker. Domestic hogs in warm climates are all black like wild boars. The Hog- of Siam resembles the wild boar more than the common hog. One of the most evident signs of their dege- neracy, is from the ears, which become more supple when the animals undergoes this change: in short, those of the do- mestic hog are not near so stilF, are much longer, and more pendant, than those of the wild boar, which should be re- garded as the model of the species. NATURAL HISTORY. CHAP. II. Of another Class of Domestic AnimalsThe Dog Its Va- rietiesThe Cat, THE MASTIFF DOG. THE SHEPHERD'S DOG. THE largeness of the make, the elegance of the form, the strength of the body, the freedom of the motions, and the exterior qualities, are not the noblest properties of an animate being, As in mankind, understanding is prefer- red to figure, courage to strength, and sentiment to beauty; 44 NATURAL HISTORY. so the interior qualities are those which we esteem most i animals. It is these that make them differ from the automa- ton, and by which they are raised above the vegetable, and made to approach near to ourselves. It is their senses which ennoble their being, command the organs, make the mem- bers active, give birth to desire, and to matter progressive rhotion, will, and life. Thedog,indepeiidentoftiis beauty, vivacity, strength, and swiftness, has all the interior qualities which can attract the regard of man. The tame dog comes crawling, to lay at his master's feet his courage, strength, and talents, and waits his orders to use them. He consults, interrogates, and be- seeches. A glance of his eye i? sufficient; he understands the signs of his will. Without the vices of man, he has all the ardour of sentiment; and, what is more, he has fidelity and constancy in his affections. He has no ambition, no in- terest, no desire of revenge, no fear but that of displeasing his master. He is all zeal, all warmth,, and all obedience. More sensible of benefits than wrongs, he soon forgets, or only remembers them to make his attachment the stronger. Far from running away, he licks the hand which is the cause of his pain, he only opposes it by his cries, and at length entirely disarms it by his patience and submission. More docile and flexible than any other animal, the dog is not only instructed in a short time, but he even conforms himself to the motions, manners, and habits of those who command him. He has all the manners of the house where he inhabits. Like other domestics, he is always attentive to his master; and striving to anticipate the wants of his friends, he gives no attention to indifferent people. When the care of the hoirse is intrusted to him during the night, he be- comes sometimes' ferocious. He watches, he walks his rounds, he scents strangers.afar off; and if they happen to stop, or attempt to break in, he flies to oppose them, and by reiterated barkings, efforts, and cries of passion, he gives the alarm. As furious against men of prey as against devouring animals, he flies upon, wounds, and tears them, and takes from them what they were endeavouring to steal; but, con- tent with having conquered, he rests himself on the spoils, will not touch them even to satisfy his appetite, and at once gives an example of courage, temperance, and fidelity. NATURAL HISTORY. 46 Thus we m.iv see, of what importance this species is in the erder of nature. Without the assistance of the dog, how could man have been able to tame, and reduce to slavery, other animals? How could he have discovered, hunted and destroyed, wild and noxious creatures? To keep himself in safety, and to render himself master of the living universe, it was necessary to begin by making himself friends among animals, in order to oppose them to others. The first art, then, of mankind, was the education of dogs, and the fruit of this art was the conquest and peaceable possession of the earth. The dog, ever faithful to man, will always preserve a por- tion of empire, and a degree of superiority over other animals. He commands them, and reigns himself at the head of a flock, where he makes himself better understood than the voice of the shepherd. Safety, order, and discipline, are the fruits of his vigilance and activity. But it is in w< - .r a- gainst animals which are his enemies, that his courage shines forth, that his understanding is displayed, and that his na- tural and acquired talents appear. As soon as the horn, or the voice of the huntsman, has given the signal of an ap- proaching war, transported with fresh ardour, the dog ex- presses his joy, and shews by his emotions, and cries of im- patience, his desire to combat and to conquer. Then, in silence, he investigates the traces of his enemy, and, by different cries, indicates the time, the distance, the species, 'and even the age, of his prey. In deserts and depopulated countries, there are wild dogs, which differ only from wolves, by the facility with which they are tamed. They unite also in large troops, to hunt and attack wild boars and bulls, and even lions and tygers. In America, the wild dogs spring from a breed anciently do- mestic, having been transported from Europe ; and either forgotten or abandoned in these deserts, have multiplied to such a degree, that they go in troops to inhabited places, where they attack the cattle, and sometimes insult the inha- bitants. They are then obliged, either to drive them away or kill them like other ferocious animals ; in fact, all dogs are such till they become acquainted with man. When, how- e>er, we approach them with gentleness, they soon become familiar, and remain faithfully attached to their masters. The 4 6 NATURAL HISTORY. wolf, on the other hand, although taken young, and bred in the house, is only gentle in his youth, and never loses his desire for prey, but sooner or later gives himself up to the love of rapine and destruction. The dog, is the only animal, the fidelity of which may be put to the proof. He is the only one which knows his mas- ter and his friend, the only one which perceives the ap- proach of a stranger; and, in short, he is the only animal the talents of which are evident, and education good. Of all animals, the dog has an undertanding most suscep- tible of impressions, and is most easily taught by moral causes. He is also, above all other creatures, most subject to alterations, occasioned by physical influences. The temper- aments, faculties, and habits of dogs, vary prodigiously, and their make is not uniform. In the same country, one dog is very different from another, and it is observed, that the species varies with the climate. What is most difficult to ascertain amidst this variety, is, the character of the primitive and original bred. How are we to know the effects produced by the influences of the cli- mate, food, &c. ? Among domestic animals, the dog is the most attached to man. He is a creature, over which sentiment predominates, to render him sufficiently docile, obedient, and susceptible of impressions, and even of constraint. It is not astonishing, therefore, that of all animals, this should be that in which we find the greatest variety, not only in figure, in height, and in colour, but in every other quality. Dogs, which have been abandoned in the deserts of Ameri- ca, and have lived wild for a hundred and fifty, or two hun- dred years, though changed from their original breed, have notwithstanding this long space of time, retained, at least in part, their primitive form, and travellers report, that they resemble our greyhound. These wild dogs, however, are xtremely thin and light; and, as the greyhound does not differ much from the cur, or from the dog called the shep- herd's dog, it is natural to think, that these wild dogs are ra- ther of this species, than the real greyhounds. Ancient tra- vellers inform us, that the dogs of Canada have their ears straight like foxes, aud resemble our middle sued mastiff, or NATURAL HISTORY. 47 shepherd's dog, and that those of the deserts of the Aratllles Isles, have the head and ears long, and are very like foxes. Besides, what we learn from the narratives of travellers; we find, that dogs of cold climates have all long snouts and straight ears : those of Lapland are small, their ears straight, and snouts pointed ; those of Siberia, known by the name of wolf-dogs, are larger than those of Lapland; but are in every other respect like them. We learn too, that those of Iceland, have also some resemblance to those of Siberia ; and that in warm climates, the dogs natural to those coun- tries have sharp snouts, straight ears, and tails dragging on the ground ; the hair long, frizzled, and shining. We may presume then, that the shepherd's dog approach- es nearest to the primitive race of this species; for in all countries inhabited by savages, or men half-civilized, the dogs resemble this kind. In America, they had no other. In France, where this species is usually called the shepherd's dog, and in other temperate climates, it is still more nume- rous ; notwithstanding, we are more engaged in raising dogs which are pleasing, than preserving those which are profitable, and which we have abandoned to the peasants who take care of our flocks. Dogs are generally produced with their eyes shut. The eye-lids are not only closed, but united by a membrane, which breaks away as soon as the muscle of the upper eye- lid is strong enough to raise itself: most dogs do not open their eyes till the tenth or twelfth day, at which time, the bones of the skull are not finished, the body is puffed up, the snout swelled, and they have not their proper form. In less than a month they learn to exercise all their senses, and begin to have strength and a swift growth ; and in the fourth month, they get some of their teeth, which in all, amount to forty two. Bitches go with young nine weeks, that is, sixty-three days, but never less than sixty. Length of life, in dogs, is like that of other animals, proportioned to the time required for their growth; and if they are about two years in growing, they will live fourteen. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences, we find the history of a bitch, which having been accidentally left behind in a country-house, subsisted forty days without any othet 4S NATURAL HISTORY. food than the stuff or the wool of a mattress that she had torn. Water seems to be more necessary for dogs jthan food: they drink often, and a great deal at a time; and it is even a vulgar opinion, that if they want water long, they become mad. The hound, the setting-dog, and the terrier, are only one and th,e same species ; for it has been remarked, that the same birth has produced setting-dogs, terriers, and hounds, though the hound bitch had only been covered by one of the three. The beagle, and almost all sorts of dogs, transported into Spain and JBarbary, have fine, long, and thick hair, and be- come spaniels and barbets. The great and little spaniels, which differ only in the size, when transported into England, change their colour from black to white, and by the influ- ence of the climate become large, small, and shabby. To these we may ad,d the terrier, which is but a black beagle, like the other, but with liver-coloured marks on the four feet, the eyes, and the snout. The shepherd's dog, transported to the north, becomes a large Dane ; and to the south, becomes a greyhound. The largest greyhounds come from the Levant; those of a mid- dle size from Italy. Greyhounds from the latter of these places, when transported into England, degenerate in size. The large Danes, transported into Ireland, Ukrain, Tar- tary, Epirus, and Albany, become large Irish dogs, and in size, surpass all the rest of the species. The bull-dog, transported from England into Denmark, becomes a small Dane : and this small Dan6 when transport- ed into warm climates, loses his hair entirely, and becomes the naked Turk dog. All these races, with their varieties, have been produced solely by the influences of climate, joined to the effect of their food, and of a careful education. The other dogs are not pf a pure race, and come from a mixture of these races. The greyhound, and the shepherd's dog, produce the mongrel greyhound, which is called the greyhound in wolf's ploattying. Of this mongrel, the snout is not so thin as that of the Turkish greyhound, which is very rare in France. The large Dane, and the large Spaniel, have produced together the t!og of Calabria, which is a handsome dog NATURAL HISTORY. with long, thick hair, and which is taller than the larger mastiff. The spaniel and the terrier produce another kind of dog, called the Burgundy spaniel. The spaniel and the little Dane produce the lion-dog, which is very scarce. The dogs with long, fine, and curled hair, which are called dogs of Purgos, and which are of the size of the largest bar- bets, come from the large spaniel and the barbet. The little barbel comes from the small spaniel and the barbet. The bull-dog with a mastiff bitch, produce a mongrel, called the strong bull-dog, which is much larger than the real bull-dog, and more like him than the mastiff. The pug comes from the English bull-dog, and the little Dane. All these races are simple mongrels, and come from the mixture of two pure races; but there are also other dogs, which may be called double mongrels, because they come from the mixture of a pure race, and of one already mixed. The shock-dog is a double mongrel, which comes from the pug and the small Dane. The dog of Alicant is also a double mongrel, which comes from the whelp and the little spaniel. The Maltese, or lap-dog, is a double mongrel, -and comes from the small spaniel and the barbet. G NATURAL HISTORY. THE WILD CAT. THE Cat, though an animal of prey, is a use- ful domestic. She is neither wanting in sagacity nor senti- ment; buther attachment is stronger to places than to per- .'oii . The form of her body corresponds with her disposi- tion. The cat is handsome, light, adroit, cleanly, and volup- tuous : she loves ease, and searches out the softest furniture to repose upon. Cats go with young fifty-five or fifty-six days ; and their usual number is four, five, or six. Young cats are gay, lively, pretty, and would be very proper to amuse children, if the strokes of their paws were not to be feared. Their disposition, which is averse to all restraint, renders them in- capable of a regular education. We are told, however, of the Greek friars of Cyprus, having taught cats to hunt, take, catch, and destroy the serpents with which that island was infested. Their scent is far from being good, and therefore they cannot pursue their prey any longer than they see it; but wait and attack it by surprise/ '1 lie immediate physical cause pf this inclination, which they have to soy out, and surprise other animals, is owing, to the particular conformation of their eyes. The pupil of the eye in man, as well as in other creatures is capable of a certain degree of contraction and dilatation. It enlarges a little when there is no light, and contracts when the light becomes too strong. NATURAL HISTORY. In the eyes of a cat, and nocturnal birds, this contraction and dilatation are so considerable, that the pupil, which in obscurity is large and round, becomes in open day, y NATURAL HISTORY. 65 vours, by licking, to give a gloss to their hair; he also licks their eyes, &c. and all of them, in their turn, partake equally of his care. A gentleman, in my neighbourhood, who had amused himself with raising rabbits for many years, favoured me with the following remarks. " I began," said he, " with only one male and one female, the former white, the latter grey; and of their produce, which was very numerous, the major part was grey ; a great number of them white, and of a mixed colour; and some few were black. These animals appeared to have great respect for paternal authority; at least I judged so, from the great deference they shewed to their first ancestor, which I could always distinguish by his whiteness ; he was indeed the only male of that colour which I had preserved. It was to no purpose the family increased. Those, which in their turns, became fathers, were still subordinate to him. Whenever they fought, whether on account of their females, or con- cerning their food, their great progenitor, as soon as he heard the noise, would run to the place of dispute with all speed. No sooner did they perceive him. than every thing was presently reduced to order; and if he surprised any one of them actually assaulting another, he used to separate him from the rest, and punish him upon the spot. Another proof of his dominion over his posterity, was, that they were accustomed to return at a whistle. Whenever I gave the signal, how distant soever they might be, this old one would immediately put himself at their head ; and, though he came first, he made them all file off, and enter before him." 66 NATURAL HISTORY. CHAP V. Of Carnivorous Animals The Wolf Fox BadgerOtter .Martin Pine-Weasel Pole-Cat Ferrets-Weasel and the Ermine. ANIMALS, which have but one stomach, and the intestines short; are forced, like man, to feed on flesh. Of this affinity, and this truth, we shall procure certain in- formation, by a relative comparison of the size of the intes- tinal canal in carnivorous animals, with those that live sole- ly an herbage. We then find, that the difference in their manner of living, depends entirely on their conformation; and their nourishment is more or less solid, as the receptacle for it is moie or less capacious. But, we must not conclude, that those animals which live solely on herbage, are, from physical necessity, like carnivorous animals, absolutely con- fined to one kind of food. It is not meant, that they might not use animal food, or that if Nature had furnished them with arms, not only for the purposes of self defence, but for those of attack and rapine, that they would not have exert- ed them; for we find, that sheep, calves, goats, and horses > greedily eat milk and eggs; and that, unaided by custom, they do not refuse meat which has been hashed and season- ed with salt. We need not, therefore, scruple to conclude, that the ge- neral appetite of animals is for flesh and other solid food; and that it is more or less voracious, according to the parti- cular conformation of each animal: and, on taking a full view of Nature, we find it not only in man, but in quadru- peds, fishes, insects, and worms. NATURAL HISTORY. THE WOLF. THE Wolf is one of those animals, the ap- petite of which, for animal food, is the most craving, and the means of satisfying it, the most various. Nature has fur- nished him with strength, with cunning, with agility, and in a word, with all those requisites, which fit an animal for pur- suing, overtaking, and conquering its prey. Notwithstand- ing all these, he frequently dies of hunger. Being long proscribed, and a reward offered for his head, he is obliged to fly from the habitations of men, and to live in the forest. When pressed with hunger, however, he braves danger, and comes to attack those animals which are under the protec- tion of man; particularly lambs, sheep, and even dogs them- selves. If his excursion has succeeded, he often returns to the charge; til! having been wounded, or closely pursued by the dogs or the shepherds, he hides hirmelf by day in the thickest coverts, and, for a while, only ventures out at night. At last, however, when his necessities are very ur- gent, he boldly faces certain destruction. He attacks wo- men and children, and sometimes ventures upon men. He becomes furious by his continual agitations, and ends his life in madness. The wolf, as well externally as internally, so nearly re- sembles the dog, that he seems modelled upon the jair.e plan; but presents us with the reverse of his disposition. - NATURAL HISTORY. which is so dissimilar, and opposite to that of the dog, that no two animals can have a more perfect antipathy to each other. A young dog shudders at the sight of a wolf; but one which is stronger, bristles up at the sight, testifies his animosity, attacks him with courage, endeavours to put him to flight, and exerts his utmost efforts to rid himself of so hateful a creature. They never meet, without flying from or fighting with each other. If the wolf is the stronger, he tears and devours his prey. The dog, on the contrary, is more generous, and contents himself with having gained the victory. The dog, even in his savage state, is not cruel; is easi- ly tamed, and continues firmly attached to his master. The wolf, when taken young, becomes tame, but never affection- ate. Nature is stronger in him than education; he resumes, with age, his natural disposition, and embraces the first op- portunity to return to his native woods. Dogs, of the dullest kind, seek the company of other animals, and are na- turally disposed to follow them; but the wolf is an enemy to all society, nor does he keep much company even with those of his own species. When they are seen in packs, it is not to be considered as a signal of amity among them- selves, but a combination for war. They testify their hos- tile intentions by loud bowlings; and by their fierce- ness, discover a project for attacking some great animal, such as a stag, a bull, or some formidable dog. The instant their military expedition is completed, each returns in si- lence to his solitary retreat. What is remarkable, there is not any strong attachment between the male and fe- male; they seek each other only once a year, and remain but a few days together. The difference in the duration of the pregnancy of the she-wolf, which goes with young above an hundred days, and the bitch, which does not go above sixty ; proves, that the wolf and the dog, so different in disposition, are still more so in one of the principal functions of the animal e- conomy. The wolf generally brings forth five or six, and sometimes nine at a litter. The cubs are brought forth, like the dog kind, with their eyes closed. The dam suckles them for some weeks, and teaches them occasionally to eat flesh, NATURAL HISTORY. &> which she prepares, by chewing it herself. They do not leave the den till they are six weeks or two months old. It is not, however, till they are about ten or twelve months old, or till they have shed their first teeth and completed the new, that the dam thinks them in a ca- pacity to shift for themselves. Whenever they have acquir- ed arms from Nature, and have learned industry and cou- rage from her example, she declines all future care of them, and is again engaged in rearing a new progeny. These a- nimals require two or three years for their growth, and live to the age of fifteen or twenty. The wolf grows grey as he grows old, and his teeth wear, like those of most other animals. He sleeps, when his belly is full, or when he is fatigued, and is always very easily a- waked. He drinks frequently ; and in times of drought, when there is no water to be found in the trunks of old trees, or in the pools about the forest, he visits the brooks, or lakes in the plain. Although very voracious, he supports hunger for a long time, and often lives four or five days without food, provided he is supplied with water. The wolf has great strength in his foreparts, particularly in the muscles of his neck and jaws. He carries off a sheep in his mouth without letting it touch the ground, and runs with it much swifter than the shepherds who pursue him: hence, nothing but dogs can overtake, or oblige him to quit his prey. He bites craelly, and the more so, the less he is resisted ; with such animals as attempt to stand upon the defensive, he uses more precaution. He is cowardly, and never fights but when under the necessity of satisfying his hunger, or of making good his retreat. When he is wound- ed by a bullet, he howls; but when surrounded by the peasants, and attacked with clubs, he never howls, but de- fends himself, in silence, to the last. If he happens to be caught in a pit-fall, he is for some time so astonished, that he may be killed without resistance, or taken alive without much danger. At that instant, one may put a collar round his neck, muzzle him, and drag him along, without his ever betraying the least symptom of an- ger or resentment. At all other times, his senses are in great perfection. He smells a carcase at the distance of more than a league ; can perceive living animals a great TW NATURAL HISTORY. way off, and follow them a long time upon the scent. When- ever he leaves the wood, he always takes care to go out a- gainst the wind ; and when he arrives at its extremity, he stops to examine, on all sides, by his smell, the emanations that may come either from his enemy or his prey, which he very nicely distinguishes. He prefers animals of his own taking, to those he finds dead ; but when hungry, he does not disdain any, however putrid. He is particularly fond of human flesh ; and, perhaps, if he had it in his power, would eat no other. Wolves have been known to follow armies, and to come in great numbers to the field of battle, where they devoured such dead bodies as were left upon the field, or but carelessly buried. These, when once accustom- ed to human flesh, seek particularly to attack mankind, prefer the shepherd to his flock, devour women, and carry ofFchil- dren: such dreadful wolves, are called, -ware-wolves; that is, wolves of which we ought to be aware. The colour of this animal, differs, according to the differ- ent climates in which he is bred, and often changes even in the same country. Beside the common wolves, which are found in France and Germany, there are others with thicker hair, inclining to yellow. In the northern climates, some are found quite black, and others entirely white. The former are larger and stronger than those of any other kind, NATURAL HISTORY. THE FOX. THIS animal has always been famous for his artifices ; and the reputation he has thus acquired, he partly merits. What the wolf cannot accomplish but by his superior strength, the fox accomplishes by his cunning. Without attempting to oppose either the shepherd, his dog, or his flock, he finds an easier way to subsist. Patient and prudent, he waits the opportunity for depredation, and va- ries his conduct according to circumstances. Though as in- defatigable, and more nimble than the wolf, he does not trust entirely to his swiftness, but contrives for himself an asylum, to which he retires in cases of necessity, and in which, sheltered from danger, he brings up his cubs. The fox generally fixes his residence at the edge of a wood, and not far from a cottage, or hamlet. He listens to the crowing of the cock and the cackling of other domestic fowls, can scent them at a considerable distance, and seizes his opportunity. If he is able to get into the yard, he be- gins by making a general destruction: after which, he car- ries off a part of the spoil, hides it at some convenient dis- tance, and again returns to the charge, taking off another fowl in the same manner, which he hides also, but not in the same place; and thus he perseveres, till warned by the NATURAL HISTORY. approach of day, or the noise of the family, he finally re- tires. He practises the same art, when he finds birds entan* gled in snares laid by the fowler, which he anticipates very expertly; snatches them out of the snare, conceals them in different places, leaves them there sometimes for two or three days, and is never at a loss to recover his hidden trea- sure. He is equally alert in seizing young hares and rab- bits, before they have strength to escape him; and when the old ones are wounded and fatigued, he is sure to seize them in the moment of distress. In the same manner, he finds out the nests of partridges and quails, and seizes the hens as they sit. The fox is so voracious, that, when he has no better food, he devours rats, mice, lizards, toads, and serpents. Insects and shell-fish sometimes serve him for food. In vain does the hedge-hog roll itself into a ball to oppose him. Wasps and wild bees are attacked by him with equal suc- cess. Though at first they fly out upon their invader, and actually oblige him to retire, yet this repulse is but for a few minutes, till he has rolled himself upon the ground, and crushed such as may have stuck to his skin. He then returns to the charge, and at length, by dint of perseverance, obliges them to abandon their combs, which he greedily de- vours. Young foxes are produced blind, and like dogs, are eigh- teen months or two years in reaching their full growth, and they live about thirteen or fourteen. The senses of the fox are as good as those of the wolf; his sentiment is more acute, and the organ of his voice is more supple, and perfect. The wolf is never heard but by dreadful howls; the fox only yelps, barks, and sends forth a moanful sound, resembling the cry of the peacock. His tones, too, are dif- ferent, according to the different sentiments with which he is aifected. He has one sound expressive of desire, a second of murmur, a third of sorrow, and a fourth of pain. The latter is never heard, but in the instant he is wounded by a shot, and has lost the use of some member; for, like the wolf, when attacked with cudgels, he never murmurs, but will defend himself with obstinacy, and fight, in silence, to the last. He bites dangerously, and with such determined NATURAL HISTORY. fury, that, in order to make him relinquish his hold, ponder- ous wood, and even iron bars, are necessary. The flesh of the fox is not so bad as that of the wolf: dogs, and even men, eat it in autumn, especially if the ani- mal has fed on grapes; and, in winter, good furs are m.ide of his skin. He sleeps so sound, that however closely ap- proached, there is no great danger of awaking him. When lie only means to rest himself, he stretches out his hind l^gs and remains flat upon his belly. In this posture, he watch- es for the birds as they perch on the hedges; which they no sooner perceive, than they give each other warning of their danger. The jack-daw and the magpie, in particular, often follow him to the distance of some hundred paces, towering beyond his reach, and with cries reiterated, ap- prize others to beware. Of all wild animals, the fox is most subject to the influ- ence of climate; and there are found nearly as many va- rieties in this species, as in that of any domestic animal. The generality of French foxes are red; of some, the hair is of a greyish cast; and of all, the tip of the tail is white. In the northern countries, we find foxes of all colours. K NATURAL HISTORY. THE BADGER. THE Badger is a lazy, distrustful, solita- ry animal, that retires tar from the approach of man, and digs a subterranean residence, where he spends, at least, three-fourths of his existence, and never ventures forth but in search of food. He burrows in the ground with parti- cular ease: the hole he forms is often at a very great dis- tance from the surface, and the passage to it, always oblique and winding. The fox, which is less expert at such excavations, often appropriates the labours of the badger to his own use. Un- able to drive him from his retreat by force, he expels him by stratagem, by remaining at the mouth of the passage, and a? an infallible expedient, emits his ordure. When the badger has left it, he immediately takes possession. At a little distance from his old burrow, the badger forms a new one, from which he never stirs but at night. The dogs ea- sily overtake him, when at a distance from his hole; arid t'ie;i, exerting all his strength and powers of resistance, he throws himself upon his back, and defends himself with desperate resolution. Several badgers have been brought to me; some of which I kept a long time. The young ones are easily tamed; will play with young dogs, and follow any person they know, i'n.m whom they will receive their food; but the *ld one* 3JATUR<\L HISTORY. 75 in spite of every effort, remain wild. They are neither so mischievous nor voracious as the fox and the wolf, yet are carnivorous; and though raw meat is their favourite food, they will eat any thing that comes in their way. They sleep the greatest part of their time, without being subject, like the mountain-rat, or the dormouse, to a torpor, during winter. Hence, though they feed moderately, they are always fat. The female brings forth in summer, and her usual num- ber is three or four at a birth. These, at first, she feeds with her milk, and afterwards with such petty prey as she can surprise. She seizes young rabbits in the warren, robs birds of their young, and wild bees of their honey; and when she finds field-mice, lizards, serpents, and grass-hop- pers, she carries all fo her expecting brood, which she fre- quently brings forward to the mouth of the hole. These animals are naturally of a chilly temperament; and such as are reared in a house seem never more happy than when near afire. Their hair is always filthy; on which account they are very subject to the mange: and unless the dogs that penetrate their burrows, are afterwards carefully washed, they generally catch the infection. Between the anus and the tail of the badger, there is an opening, which, though it has no communicatiou with any interior part, and is hardly an inch deep, continually emits an oily liquid of which he is very fond. His flesh is not absolutely nause- ous; and of his skin are made corrse furs, collars for dogs, trappings for horses, &c. rl NATURAL HISTORY. THE OTTER. TfiE Otter is a voracious animal, which is inore fond offish than flesh; and is seldom found but at (lie sides of lakes and rivers. Accuiately considered, the otter cannot be pronounced amphibious; for we frequently find them drowned, when entangled in a net. For want offish, frog's, water-rats, or other nourishment, it will eat the young branches, and the baik of aquatic tres; and in spring, the new grass becomes excellent food. The otter brings forth in the month of March, and generally produces three or four at a birth. The industry of this creature increases with its age, and it wages a successful war against the finny tribes; which, with respect to instinct and sentiment, are greatly inferior toother cieatiires. It does not dig its own habitation, but fixes its residence in the first hole that offers; either under the root of the willow or the poplar-tree, in the clefts of rocks, or among piles of floating wood; and theie the female brings forth her young. It frequently changes its residence; and disperses its young ones at the end of six weeks, or twe mouths, NATURAL HISTORY 77 THE MARTIN. NATURALISTS have generally considered the Martin and the pine-weasel as animals of the same species: {>ut they are different both in disposition and temperament. The pine-weasel shuns open countries, confines itself to the forest, fixes its residence upon some tree, and is never found in great numbers but in cold climates. The martin, on the other hand, not only approaches human habitations, but even, forms a residence for itself in old buildings, hay- lofts, or the holes of walls; and though the species is found in great numbers in the temperate climates, it is not to be met with in the regions of the North. The countenance of the martin, is very sharp; its eyes are lively; its limbs, supple; its body, flexible; arid all its movements are quick. It rather leaps or bounds, than walks; and with great facility climbs walls, enters pigeon, and hen houses, and devours every thing it meets with; on other occasions, it destroys mice, rats, moles, and birds in their nests. This animal is said to be as prolific as the cat. The growth of the young ones is very quick: hence it may be inferred, that it is an animal the life of which does not exceed eight or ten years. Its smell, which is not very dis- agreeable, is like that of counterfeit musk. The martin and the pine-weasel, as well as a number of other ani- mals, have interior vesicles, which contain a strong-scenteU substance like that of civet. NATURAL HISTORY. THE PINE-WEASEL. THE Pine-Weasel is a native of the north, where they are so numerous, that their furs are carried to foreign countries in large quantities. In temperate cli- mates, they are rarely, and in warm climates never, to be found. There are some in Burgundy, and some in the fo- rest of Fontainbleau; but, in general, they are as scarce in France as the martin is common. There are none in Eng- land, because in that country there are no very extensive woods. Alike averse to open countries, and to such as are inhabit- ed, they remain in the bosom of some forest, range through the labyrinths of the thicket, or tower aloft upon the branch- es of the trees. They subsist by the chace, and destroy a prodigious quantity of birds. Of the squirrel, the dormouse, &c. they also make a prey, and are known to eat honey as well as the martin. The neck of this weasel is yellow, whereas that of the martin is white; and its hair is much finer, thicker, and less subject to shed. When the female is near her time, her custom is to climb to the nest of some squirrel, drive it away, and enlarge it for her own use. In the same manner she occupies the old nests of the owl and the buzzard, and the hollow places of trees, from which she presently dislodges the wood-pecker, and other birds. THE POLE-CAT. THE Pole-Cat is somewhat smaller than the martin: its tail and snout are shorter and sharper, and its hair thicker and blacker. It has some white on its forehead, and about the nose and mouth. It differs, likewise, in its voice; the cry of the martin being rather sharp and loud; that of the pole-cat, deep and hollow: neither does it re- NATURAL HISTORY- 79 semble the martin in smell, for it is perfectly fetid. When heated, but especially enraged, it emits a stench that is ab- solutely intolerable. Dogs will not eat its flesh; and even its skin, which is good in itself, sells at a very low price, as it cannot be entirely divested of its natural odour. THE FERRET. IT has been doubted, whether, or not, the Fer- ret and the pole-cat are animals of two different species. Perhaps the resemblance there is in the colour of their hair, first gave rise to this doubt. The pole-cat, though a native of temperate climates, is a wild animal like the mar- tin; whereas the ferret, originally an inhabitant of hot countries, cannot exist in France but as a domestic animal. The ferret also, and not the pole-cat, is made choice of to drive the rabbits from their burrows; because it is more easily tamed. The body of the ferret is longer and thin- ner, and the head and snout narrower and sharper than those of the pole-cat. Nor has it the same sagacity in providing for its subsistence; it cannot exist, at least, in our regions, without the care of man; for such of the species as have been lost in burrows, have perished from the severity of the winter. This animal is an inveterate enemy to the rabbit; if even a dead one is presented to a young ferret, which had never seen one before, it spiings at it and tears it with fury; if it be alive, it seizes it by the neck and nose, and immediately sucks its blood. When ferrets are sent into the burrows of rabbits, it is necessaiy to muzzle them, that they . may not kill, but only make them run out, and thereby fall into the net laid for them at the entrance. If they are allowed to go unmuzzled, there is a risque of losing them; because, after having sucked the blood of the rabbit, they fall asleep. Besides, the smoke which is raised at the mouth of the bur- row, does not always prove a sufficient expedient for bring- ing them back; as there are often more issues than one, and one burrow generally communicates with others. NATURAL HISTORY. THE WEASEL. THE Common Weasel is as abundant in tempe- rate, and hot countries, as it is rare in cold ones. Though of the same species, it is in many respects different from the ermine, which is a native of the north. When a weasel enters a hen-roost, it never meddles with the cocks or the old hens; but makes choice of the pullets, and young chickens, all of which it kills with a single stroke on the head, and carries away one after another. It also destroys the eggs, and sucks them with incredible avidity. In winter, it generally resides in some granary, or hay-loft; where the female often continues in the spring in order to bring forth her young among the hay or straw: during which time, the male makes war against the rats and mice with more success than the cat; for it follows them into all their holes, and prevents their escape. It also climbs pigeon-hou- ses, the nests of sparrows, &c. and commits great havock. In summer, it removes to some distance from the houses, always choosing the lower countries about mills and streams, and hides itself among the bushes, in order to catch birds; and not unfrequently takes up its habitation in the hollow of an old willow. The female generally produces four or five at a birth, which come forth with their eyes shut, but in a little time attain sufficient growth and strength to- fol- low het to the chace. They attack adders, water-rat, moles, field-mice, &c. and traversing the meadows, devor tnaiis and (heir eggs. NATURAL HISTORY. g> Like the pole-cat, and the ferret, these animals have so strong a scent, that they cannot be kept in any place that is in- habited; hence, as their own smell is so very bad, they seem to sustain no inconvenience from any foreign stench or effluvia. A peasant in my neighbourhood, took one day, three weasels newly brought foith in the carcass of a wolf, which had been suspended by its hind I "gs from one of the branches of a tree; and though it was in a putrid state, the old weasel had brought grass, straw, and leaves, to make a bed for her young ones in the cavity of the thorax. THE ERMIXE, OR STOAT. THE weasel, with a black tail, is called the ermine, when it is white; and the stoat, when it is red or yellowish Though it is an animal less common than the weasel, there are great numbers to be found in the old fo- rests; and sometimes during the winter, in the neighbour- hood of woody grounds. It is easily distinguished from the common weasel by- the tip of its tail, which is always of a deep black; and the edges of its ears, and the extremities of its feet, are white. NATURAL HISTOlfY. CHAP VI. Of Certain Smaller Animals of ibe Carnivorous Class Tbr Sq:tirrel--Rat Mouse Long-tailed- Fie/ (I Mouse Water- Rat-- Short-tailed Field- Mouse -Guinea- P^g Hedge-Hog S brew-Mouse Water Shrew-Mouse -Mole Rat Fat Squirrel Garden-Squirrel t or Greater Dormouse Dor- mouseBrown Rat and the Marmot. THE SQUIRREL. THE Squirrel is a beautiful little animal, which IS only half-wild; and for its gentleness, docility, and mocence of manners, deserves to be exempted from the present class. It is neither a carnivorous nor an injurious animal; and though it sometimes seizes on birds, its general xi consists of fruit, almonds, hazel-nuts, beech-mast, and acorns. It ls neat, cleanly, alert, lively, and industrious. seyes, are full of fire; its countenance, sharp; its body, nervous, -and its limbs, supple NATURAL HISTORY. Sg The beauty of its form, is farther embellished by a fine spreading tail, like a plume of feathers; which it raises a- bove its head, and forms into a kind of shade. The squirrel is less a quadruped than almost any other four-tooted animal. It generally sits upright, and uses its fore-feet as hands. Instead of hiding itself in the earth, it is continually in the air; by its lightness and activity it resem- bles the feathered tribe; and like them, rests upon the bran- ches of trees, leaps from one to another, and in. the highest of them, builds its nest. It avoi !s water more than tiie earth; and it is even asserted, that when tiiis animal is obliged to cross a river or stream, it uses the bark of a tree, or some light woody substance, as a boat, while its tail supplies the place of sails, and a rudder. In summer, it collects a quantity of nuts which it deposits in the cavity of some old tree, and to which it has recourse for provision in winter; and such is the agility of its body, that it can, in an instant, climb the smoothest beech-tree. There are many species which approach that of the squir- rel, though there are few varieties in the species itself. Some are of an ash-colour, and the rest, red. The small grey squirrel is of a different species; as are the flying squirrels. The white squirrel of Cambay, is very small, and has a tail like that of the European squirrel. That of Mada- gascar, called T^itsibi, is grey, and according to Flaccourt, is neither handsome, nor fit to be tamed. The white squir- rel of Siam; the grey and spotted squirrel of Bengal ; the streaked squirrel of Canada; the black squirrel; the large grey Virginian squirrel ; the white-stripped squirrel of New Spain ; the white Siberian squirrel; the variegated squirrel; the little American squirrel; that of Brasil, Barbary, the Palmist, &c. form so may species distinct from that which we have described. NATURAL HISTORY. THE RAT. UNDER the general name Rat, several species f small animals have been comprised; but we shall appro- priate this name to the common rat only, which is of a dark colour, and infests our houses: and give each of the other species its particular denomination. This animal is carnivorous, and we may use the expres- sion omnivorous. It p refers hard to soft substances, devours woo!, stuffi, and furniture of all sorts; eats through wood, makes hiding-places in walls, from whence it sallies forth in quest of piev, and frequently returns with as much as it is able to drag along ; forming, especially when it has young ones to provide t ;, a magazine of the whole. The females bring forth several times in a year, though mostly in the suimi:er beacon; and they generally produce five or six at a birth. In defhnce of cat?, traps, and every other method that is used to destroy these creatures, they multiply so fast, as fre- quently to do considerable damage. In old houses, in the country, where great quantities of corn are kept, and where the neighboring barns and hay-stacks favour their retreat, as well as their multiplication, they would become dange- rously numerous, were they not to devour each other; es- pecially when straitened for provisions. The method they take to do this, is, for the stronger :o dispatch the weaker: the\ then lay open their skulls, eat the brains, and afterwards the rest of the body : and hostilities are thus renewed day by day, till die major part is destroyed. Hence it is, that NATURAL HISTORY. wats often disappear of a sudden, after they have infested a place for a long time. The female always prepares abed for her young, and pro- vides them immediately with food. On their first leaving the hole, she watches over, defends, and will even fight the cats, in order to protect them. The weasel, though a small- er animal, is a more formidable enemy than the cat. Th rat cannot inflict any wounds but by snatching with its fore- teeth; which, being calculated for gnawing rather than bit- ing, have but little strength. The weasel, on the other hand, bites fiercely ; and, instead of letting go its hold, sucks the blood through the wound. In every conflict with an enemy so dangerous, it is no wonder, that the rat falls a vic- tim. There are many varieties in this species, besides the com- mon black rat; as the brown rat, the almost black, the grey, inclining to white or red, and the white. The white rat, like all other white animals, has red e^es; and this spe- cies, with all its varieties, appears to belong to the temperate climates of our continent, and are found in greater number* in hot, than in cold countries. Originally, they had no rats in America ; and those which are found there at present, are the produce of rats, which accidentally obtaineda footing on the other side of the Atlantic with the first European settlers. Of these, the increase was so great, that the rat was long considered as the pest of the colonies; where it had but one enemy to oppose it, viz. the large adder, which swallowed it alive The European ships have likewise carried these animals to the East Indies, to all the islands of the Indian Archipelago, as well as to Africa, where they are found in great numbers. In the North, they have hardly multiplied beyond Sweden ; and those which are called Norwegian and Lapland rats, are animals of a different species. NATURAL HISTORY. THE MOUSE. THE Mouse is an animal smaller than the rat ; but its instinct, temperament, and disposition, are the same; nor does it materially differ from the rat, but by its weakness, and the habits arising therefrom. It is by nature, timid; by necessity, familiar* its fears and wants are the sole spring of its actions. It never leaves its hiding-place, but to seek for food ; nor does it, like the rat, migrate from one house to another, unless compelled by necessity. Its manners are milder; and, to a certain degree, it maybe tamed. It is, however, utterly incapable of attachment. If it were not for its immense fecundity, this species would soon cease to exist. I have known them biing forth, even in traps. They produce at all seasons, and several times in the \ ear, and their usual number is five or six; which, in less thin fifteen days, attain sufficient strength to shift for themselves. As they soon attain perfection, the duration of their life must be very short; a circumstance which cannot "but heighten our idea of their prodigious multiplication. A- ristotle tells us, that, having put a pregnant mouse into a vessel of corn, he soon found in it one hundred and twenty. THE LOXG-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE. THE Long-tailed Field-Mouse is smaller than the rat, larger thin the common mouse, and does not live ia WATURAL HISTORY. 7 houses. It is remarkable for the largeness and prominence of its eyes. It differs from the rat and the mouse in the co- lour of its skin, which is tolerably white under the belly, but of a reddish brown upon the back. The species is generally and abundantly diffused. The largest are above four inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail ; and the smallest, which appear to be 1'till grown as well as the others, are an inch shorter. Al- though many are found of dirfeient intermediate sizes, they are all of the same species. These creatures are fond of dry and elevated grounds. In woods, and the fields adjoining, they are to be found in great numbers. They conceal themselves in holes, which they either find already made, or make for themselves under bush- es, or the trunks of hollow trees. In these, they amass so prodigious a quantity of acorns, nuts, See. that in one hole there has besn found a bushel at a time. These holes are generally more than a foot underground, and often divided into two eel's, one of which serves for an habitation, and the other for a granary. I could never find any other method of preventing their ravages, than that of setting traps at every tenth pace through the whole extent of each piece of new-sown land. THE WATER-RAT THE Water-Rat, is a little animal, about the size of the common rat; but in its nature and habits, resem- bles the otter. Like the otter, it is generally found on the borders of rivers, rivulets, and ponds; it feeds upon fish, or the spawn offish, and sometimes it eats frogs, water-insects, and even roots and herbs. This animal is not web-footed; yet it swims with ease, keeps itself a long time above water, and thence carries offits prey. The head of the water-rat is shorter, the nose broader, the hair more erect, and the tail much longer than that of the land rat. Like the otter, it flies from large rivers, or rather from those which are too much frequented, and is nevet found in houses or binis. NATURAL HISTORY. It is probable, that these animals bring forth often in a. year; but of this we have no certain information. Their flesh is not very bad, for in Catholic countries, the peasant* cat it during Lent, as they do that of the otter. This spe- cies is common in Europe, the extremities of the north ex- cepted. THE SHORT-TAILED FIELD-MOUSE. THE Short-tailed Field-Mouse is more ge- nerally diffused than the long-tailed, and is found almost e- very where ; in woods, in meadows, and even in gardens. It is remarkable for the thickness of its head, and the short- ness ot its tail, which is not above an inch long. It forms holes in the earth, where it hoards up corn, nuts, and a- corns ; the former of which it prefers to every other kind of food. About the month of July, when the corn begins to ripen, they flock together from every quarter, and frequent- ly do great damage, by cutting the stalk, in order to come at the ear. In autumn and winter, most of them retire to the woods, where they find beech-mast, nuts, and acorns. For want of other food, they often eat one another, and are them- selves the usual prey of the fox, the wild-cat, the martin, the weasel, and the long-tailed field-mouse. NATURAL HISTORY. THE GUINEA-PIG. THE Guinea-Pig, though a native of the warn* climates of Brasil and Guinea, lives and breeds in tempe- rate and even in cold countries, provided it is properly tak- en care of. Its skin is of little or no value; and the flesh, which is very indifferent food, might be greatly improved, were they reared in warrens, and supplied with a proper choice of herbs. These animals attain their full growth in eight or nine months. The female never goes with young above three weeks ; and has been known to bring forth when only two months old : the first Jitter amounts to four or five, the se- cond to five or six, and the rest to seven or eight, and some- times to ten or eleven ; and she does notsuckie her young above twelve or fifteen days. A thousand might be raised from a single couple, in one year, did they not frequently de- stroy each other, or perish by the cold and wet. The guinea-pig feeds on all sorts of herbs ; especially on parsley, which it prefers to bran, flour, or bread. Of apples and other fruit it is exceedingly fond. It eats like the rabbit, quick, little at a time, but very often ; and grunts somewhat like a young pig. These animals are so delicate, that it is with difficulty they survive the rigour of winter. When they feel cold, they assemble together, press close to one another, and in this situation are frequently found dead. 'M NATURAL HISTORY. THE HEDGE-HOG. THE Hedge-Hog has the power of defending itself from an enemy without combating, and of annoy- ing without attacking him. Possessed of little strength and no agility, by which it may escape its foes, it has receiv- ed from Nature a prickly armour, with a facility of rolling itself up, and presenting from every part of its body a poig- Kant weapon of defence. From its fear, this animal obtains another engine of security; viz. the smell of its urine, which, when attacked, it generally emits, and is sufficient to make its enemy quit the field. Hence, the generality of dogs are content with barking at the hedge-hog when it falls in their xvay; without discovering any inclination to seize it. Of these, however, there are some which, like the fox, have had the address to overcome it ; though of the martin, the pole cat, the ferret, the weasel, or any of the birds of prey, it has no dread. They are generally found in woods, under the trunks of old trees, and in the clefts of rocks. I do not believe that tfiey climb up trees, as some Naturalists have affirmed, or that they make use of their prickles to carry off the fruit. It js> with their mouth they seize it; and though they are ve ry numerous in our forests, I have never seen one of them in a tree ; but, on the contrary, at the foot in some hol- Jcnv space, or under moss. They continue in a state of in-* activity during the day, and on-lv'venture abroad by night; fcut seldom approach human habitations. They sleep dw- NATURAL HISTORY. -91 fag winter ; therefore, every thing, that has been said of their hoarding up provisions for that season, must be false. They never eat much, and can subsist a long time without any food whatever ; and their flesh, like that of all ether torpid animals, is not proper food; nor is their skin of any use. THE SHREW-MOUSE. THE Shrew-Mouse seems to fill up the vacuum between the rat and the mole: it is smaller than the domes- tic mouse, and resembles the mole in its snout, which is lon- ger than its jaw-bones. Its eyes, though larger than those of the mole, are, in like manner, concealed ; and much smaller than those of the domestic mouse. The form and number of its claws, tail, legs, particularly the hind ones, which are shorter than those of the domestic mouse, ears and teeth resemble those of the mole. This diminutive creature has a smell peculiar to itself, which is so strong and offensive to cats, that though they chearfully kill, they will not eat it. It is this noisome odour, this aversion of the cat to it, that gave rise to the notion that the shrew-mouse is a venomous animal, and that its bitels dangerous to every kind of cattle, particularly hors- es. The truth is, that it is neither venomous nor capable of biting; for it cannot open its mouth wide enough to seize the double thickness of its skin. The distemper. among hor- ses, which the vulgar attribute to the tooth of the shrew- mouse, is a swelling which proceeds from an internal cause, and not from any bite or rather scratch that this little ani- mal may give. In winter, the shrew-mouse generally fixes its residence in some hay-loft, stable, or barn, where it feeds on grain, insects, and putrid flesh. It is likewise found in woods, and fields ; where, living on corn, it sometimes conceals it- self under moss or leaves, sometimes in holes abandoned by moles, and sometimes in holes of a smaller size, which it forms for itself with its claws and snout. NATURAL HISTORY. The shrew-mouse is said to produce as many at a birth as the domestic mouse, though less frequently. It has a squeak more piercing than the latter. In point of nimble- ness, however, it is far inferior ; and as it sees imperfectly, and runs slowly, it is easily taken. The usual colour of these creatures is brown with a mix- ture of red. Others of them are ash-coloured; and they all are more or less white on the belly. They are very common in Europe, but do not seem to have obtained a footing in America. THE WATER SHREW-MOUSE. THE Water Shrew-Mouse, though a native of these regions, was unknown to our Naturalists, till M. Dau- benton discovered it. It may be taken at the sources of fountains, in the morning and evening, as the sun rises and sets. In the day-time it remains concealed in the clefts of rticks, or in holes under ground, near the edges of rivulets. It brings forth in the spring, and generally produces nine young ones at a time. NATURAL HISTORY. THE MOLE. THE Mole, which from the smallness of its eyes and those so concealed that they are of little or no use to it, possesses the senses of hearing and feeling in an emi- nent degree. Its skin is soft as silk ; and its little feet, each of which is furnished with five claws, are very different from those of other animals, and almost like the hands of a human being. Proportioned to the size of its body, its strength is great; and the art of securing itself, of forming as it were, instantaneously, an asylum, of extending it, and obtaining, without the necessity of relinquishing it, an abundant sub- sistence is equally so. The mole shuts up the entry to its retreat, which it sel- dom deserts, unless forced by heavy rains. It is fond of cultivated grounds, and is never to be found in those which are either muddy, hard, compact, or stony. It requires a soil that is soft, well supplied with esculent roots, insects, and worms, of which its principal nourishment consists. As these animals seldom come above ground, they have but few enemies ; and very readily evade the pursuit of those which are stronger and swifter than themselves. The chief calamity that befals them is, an inundation ; and when this happens, they are seen in numbers attempting to save themselves by swimming, and using every effort to reach the higher grounds. The greater part, however, as well as their young which remain in the holes, perish. Were it not for such accidents, from their great fecundity, they would become extremely troublesome. They generally N 9 4 NATURAL HISTORY. have four or five at a time; and it is easy to distinguish, from other mole-hills, that in which the female has brought forth her young. I am apt to think that they produce often- er than once a year. Of this I am certain, that moles newly produced are found from April to August; a circumstance which may be owing to their having been engendered soon- er or later in the year. The hole, in which they produce their young, is formed with singular skill, and merits a particular description. The female begins by erecting the earth into a spacious apart- ment, supported within by partition:, at proper distances, to prevent the roof from falling. As the hillock, in which the apartment is thus formed, is raised above the ground, the a- partmetit itself is consequently above the level of the plain, and therefore less subject to inundations. The place being thus fitted, she procures grass and dry leaves as a bed for her young. There they lie secure from wet and she con- tinues to make their retreat equally free from danger : for round this hill, of her own raising, are holes running into the earth from the middle apartment, like rays from a centre, which extend above fifteen feet in every direction. These resemble so many walks or chaces into which the animal makes her subterraneous excursions, and supplies her young with such roots or insects as she can procure. Besides, they contribute much to the general safety ; for as the mole is very quick of hearing, the instant she perceives her habi- tation attacked, she tikes to her burrow, and unless the earth be dug away by several men at once, si.e and her young generally make good their retreat. Some authors have said that the mole and the badger sleep during winter. That this is not true of the badger we have already observed ; and as a proof that the mole quits its hole in that season, we have only to view the traces it leaves c,n the snoxv : in fact, it continues its subterrane- an operations then as well as in summer ; hence the pea- sants of France proverbially remark that, " when the moles are at work, a thaw is at hand." They are very fond of wai m places; and gardeners often catch them round their hot beds in the months of December, January, and February. NATURAL HISTORY. THE BAT. AN animal, which, like the bat, is half quadru- ped and half bird, and which, ia fact, is neither the one nor the other, is a kind of monster. In the bat, the fore-feet are, propeily speaking, neither wings nor feet, though the animal uses them for the purposes of flying, and walking) but are two shapeless extremities, the bones of which are of a monstrous length, and connected by a membrane, without either feathers or hair. They are a kind of winged paw?, of which we see only one claw about the length of an inch, and the other four claws, though very long, cannot act but in conjunction, and have no peculiar movements, no sepa- rate functions ; or a kind of hands ten times larger than the feet, and four times longer than the length of the body. In short, they are parts which have rather the appearance of a capricious and accidental than a regular and determined production. To these incongruities, these disproportions of the body and members, may be added the still more sticking defor- mities of the head. In some species, the note is hardly vi- sible, the eyes are sunk near the roots of the ears, and are confounded with the cheeks. In others, again, the ears are as long as the body, or else the face is twisted into the form of a horse-shoe, and the nose covered with a kind of crust. Averse, likewise, to the society of all other creatures, they shun the light, inhabit none bu dark and gloomy places; to which, after their nocturnal excursions, they are s<.ire to re- turn by break of day, and there remain fixed, as it were, to the walls till the approach of night. 96 NATURAL HISTORY. Their motion in (he air may be termed an uncertain flut- ter ; which they seem to execute by struggles and in an awkward manner. They raise themselves from the ground with difficult}', never soar very high, and are but imperfect- ly qualified to accelerate or direct their flight ; which, far from b^ing either rapid or direct, is performed by hasty vi- brations in an oblique and winding direction ; and in pass- ing -ilong do not fail to seize all the gnats, moths, and o- ther nocturnal insecfs that come in their way. These they swallow entire ; for in their excrements, we meet with the remains of wings and other dry parts which they had not been able to digest. The bat brings forth and suckles her young like quadrupeds. These animals .do not produce more than two at a birth, and tlu.y frequently carry them with them when they fly. They unite in numbers to defend themselves from the cold, and pass the winter without awaking, stirring, or eating, from the end of autumn till spring. They belong to the number of carnivorous animals ; and will devour bacon and meat of all kinds. THE FAT SQUIRREL. OF this animal we know three species ; name- ly, the fat pquirrel, the garden-squirrel, and the dormouse. Many authors have coi. founded these in one; but they are each of a different kind, and of consequence easily known and distinguished. The fat squirrel is nearly of size with the common squirrel; and, like it, its tail is covered with long hair. It is without foundation that these animals sleep during winter: they are not in a state of natural sleep, but in a tor- por ; which is produced by the coldness of the blood. Their internal heat is so small, that it hardly exceeds that of the temperature of the air ; for the heat of the air when it is ten degrees above the freezing point of a thermometer, is the natural heat of these animals. Now it is well known, that the internal heat of man, and of most animals, ahva3~s exceeds thijty degrees; hence there is little reason to wonder that NATURAL HISTORY. 97 these animals, so inferior to all others in point of heat, should become torpid. This is the real cause of torpor ; a cause of winch Naturalists have not been apprised, and which extends to all animals that are supposed to sleep during winter. In this torpid state, they are without the smallest motion, their eyes are shut, and they seem to be deprived of the use of their senses; yet they feel pain when it is very acute. which they testify by a contraction, or a little hollow cry which they repeat several tunes. I am inclined to believe, that it is not from a too great waste of substance that they perish in long winters, for in autumn, they are exces- sively fat ; and, on their reviving in spring, are much the same. The flesh of the fat squirrel is not unlike that of the gui- nea-pig. They were considered as a luxury by the Romans, who reared great numbeis of them. Like the common squirrel, this animal lives in forests, climbs to the tops of trees, and leaps from branch to branch but with less activi- ty. Nuts and other wild fruit form its usual nourish* merit: it likewise eats little birds which it takes in their nests; and instead of nestling in the upper parts of trees, it makes a bed of moss in the trunks of those which are hol- Jow. It also shelters itself in the clefts of rocks, and always shews a preference to dry places. It avoids moisture, drinks little, rarely descends to the ground, and, unlike the squir- rel which is easily tamed, continues wild. The species is very common, out there are few if any of them in Eng- land. THE GARDEN-SQUIRREL, OR GREATER DORMOUSE. THE fat squirrel is a constant inhabitant of the forests, and shuns our habitations. The garden-squirrel, on the contrary, inhabits our gardens, arid frequents our houses: the species is also cnoie numerous than the former. These animals nestle in the holes of walls, climb trees, se- lect the best fruit, and gnaw it as it begins to ripen. NATURAL HISTORY. They also climb pear, apricot, and other trees; and in a scarcity of other fruit, eat almonds, nuts, and even legu- minous roots which they carry in great quantities to their holes. The cold stupifies, the heat revives them ; and some- times there are eight or ten found in one place in a state of torpor, and huddled together in the midst of their hoard of provisions. Their flesh is not palatable, and has the disa- greeable smell of the house-rat. This animal is found in all the temperate climates of Europe ; even in Poland and Prussia ; but it does not ap- pear that there are any in Sweden, or the more northern countries. THE DORMOUSE. OF all rats the Dormouse is the least ugly : its eyes are sparkling, its tail tufted, and its hair rather fair than red. It never lives in houses, is seldom found in gar- dens, but frequents the woods, where it finds a shelter in the hollow of some old tree. The species is by no means numerous: yet they are pret- ty common in Italy, and are known in the northern climates, England excepted; for Ray, who had seen it in Italy, ob- serves, that the small dormouse which is found in England is not red upon the back like the Italian, and that it proba- bly belongs to another species. The dormouse becomes torpid by cold, and rolls itself up in a ball; it revives in mild weather, and hoards up nuts and other dry fruit for future sustenance. It forms its nest like the squirrel, but in a lower situation, as among the branches of a nut tree, a bush, &c. The nest is composed ol herbs iutei woven, and is about fix inches in diameter, has no aperture but at the top, and contains three or four NATURAL HISTORY. THE BROWN' RAT. THE Brown Rat is both stronger and more mischievous than the b! ,.ck rat. It has a reddish skin, a long tail without hair, the back-bone arched like that of the squirrel, the body much thicker, and whiskers like those of a cat. They multiply prodigiously; for they generally produce from twelve to nineteen young ones at a time. The males are larger, stronger, and more mischievous than the females. When any one pursues and endeavours to take them, they will turn again and bite the hand or stick that touches them ; which is so far dangerous as to occasion a considerable swelling. They bring forth thrice a year; hence two individuals of this species will produce at least three dozen in that space. The brown rat, in its nature and some of its habitudes, bears a strong resemblance to the water-rat. They delight to live near the water ; and when they find themselves pur- sued and have an opportunity of sheltering themselves in the water or in a thorny thicket, they prefer the former, plunge into it without dread, and swim with amazing dexterity. This particularly happens when they cannot get back to their burrows ; for they always dig holes for themselves in the earth, or else occupy those of the rabbit; where they may be taken by the ferret, which follows them with more ardour than it does the rabbit. These animals live principally upon fruit and corn, but are, notwithstanding, exceedingly carnivorous. They de- vour young rabbits, partridges, and other birds; and when they enter a hen-roost, they destroy, like the pole cat, more than they eat. In winter, they do not become torpid like the dormouse, but take advantage of every fine day to come out of their subterranean mansions. Those which live in barns, drive away the mice ; and it has been remarked, that black rats, as they are called, are less common since the brown rats became more numeious. NATURAL HISTORY. THE MARMOT. THE Marmot, when taken young, is more ca- pable of being tamed than any other wild animal. It will easily learn to perform feats with a stick, dance, and obey the voice of its master. It bears great antipathy to the dog; and when it becomes familiar in a house, and is cer- tain of being supported by its master, it will, in his presence, attack the largest dog, and boldly fasten upon him with its teeth. Though this creature is not quite so large as the hare, it is of a more squat make, and has great strength join- ed to great agility. It has four teeth in the front of the jaw, which are long and strong enough to inflict a terrible wound; but, unless provoked, it neither attacks dogs nor does mis- chief to any. If care be not taken, it will gnaw the furni- ture of a house, and will even make holes through wooden partitions. As the marmot has very short thighs, and the toes of its paws are formed much like those of the bear; it often sits erect, and walks with ease, like that animal, upon its hind feet : it also eats in "that posture ; and like the squirrel, car- ries its food to its mouth in the same manner. It runs much swifter up hill than down ; climbs trees, and runs up the clefts ot rocks or the walls of houses with great ease. In- deed, it is ludicrously observed of the Savoyards, who are the general chimney-sweepers of Paris, that they have learn- ed thdr trade of the marmot. NATURAL HISTORY. set These animals eat whatever is given them ; whether flesh, bread, fruit, herbs, roots, pulse, or insects. Of milk and butter they are particularly fond ; and though less inclined to petty thefts than the cat, they are never better pleased than when they obtain access to the dairy. There seems to be a combination of the bear and the rat in the form of the marmot. Its nose, lips, and form of its head, are like those of the hare ; it has the hair and ciaws of of the badger, the teeth of the beaver, the whiskers of the cat, the paws of the bear, with a tufted tail and short ears. The colour of its hair, on the back, is a reddish brown ; on the belly, it is reddish, but softer and shorter. Its voice re- sembles that of a little dog when caressed; but when it is irritated or frightened, it raises a loud and shrill cry very of- fensive to the ear. The marmot is a very cleanly animal, and would be tolerable food, were it not for its offensive smell. This animal, which delights in the regions of ice and snow and is never found but on the highest mountains, is the most liable to be benumbed with cold. From the end of September or the beginning of October, it a- bides in its hole, and does not leave it till the beginning of April. The place of its retreat is formed with precaution, and furnished with art; is rather wide than long, and very deep; so that it is capable of containing several, without be- ing under a necessity of crowding each other, or injuring the air they breathe. Their feet and claws are formed for digging; and they burrow the ground with amazing cele- rity, scraping up the earth, and throwing it back as they pro- ceed. Their hole resembles the letter Y, the two branches having each an opening that conducts into one channel, which terminates in their apartment at the bottom which is warmly lined with moss and hay. As the whole is contriv- ed on the declivity of a mountain, there is no part of it on a level but the apartment at the end. One of the blanches or openings has a descent, which serves as a kind of sink or drain to the whole family, in which they void their excre- ments, and through which the moisture of the place finds an easy passage, the other branch projects upwards, and serves them for a door. It is asserted, that this work is carried on by the whole company; that some cut the finest grass, o- O NATURAL HISTORY. thers pile it up, and that others take their turns to convey it to the hole; which is done in the following manner: one of them lies upon its back, permits the hay to be heaped on its belly, keeps its paws upright to make all the room possible; and in this manner it is dragged by the tail to their common retreat. This practice some assign as a reason why the hair is generally worn off their backs. They make no provision for winter; but when they per- ceive the season approaching, in which their vital motions are to continue, in some measure, suspended ; they immedi- ately close up the apertures of their dwellings, which they effect with such solidity, that it is more easy to open the earth in any other part than where they have closed it. They are at that time so very fat that some of them will weigh twenty pounds, and in this condition they continue for three months, when their flesh begins to waste, and they are quite thin by the end of winter. If discovered in this state, they may be taken away, and even killed, without be- traying any symptom of pain ^ and those who find them in this manner, carry home the fat ones for food, and the young ones to rear, and tame them. The marmot produces but once a year, and the litter generally consists of three or four. Their growth is quick, and they live only nine or ten years. They are found in the Alps, Appenines, Pyrenees, in the highest mountains of Germany, in Poland, and Ca- nada, with a few variations. NATURAL HISTORY. 163 CHAP. VII. Of Carnivorous Animals continued The Bear Beaver Racoon Coati and the Agouti. THE BEAR. No animal is more generally known than the Bear, and yet there is none about which Naturalists are less agreed. These uncertainties have arisen from their not at- tending properly to the (iifferent species. The land-bear must be distinguished from the sea-bear, which is common ly known by the name of the White or Greenland bear. Land-bears must also be divided into two classes, the brown and the black. There are some white land-bears found ia Tartary, Russia, &c. which, though they resemble the sea- bear in colour, differ from it in every other particular. It is not the rigour of the climate that makes thorn white, like the bare and the ermine ; it is their natural colour. There are j-,4 XATURAL HISTORY. also bears the skins of which are a mixture of brown and black, which denotes an intermediate species between the white land-bear, and the brown or black bear. We meet with the brown bear very frequently, and with the black very rarely on the Alps. The black bear, on the contrary, is very common in the forests of the northern coun- tries of Europe and America. The former is fierce and car- nivorous; the latter is fierce, but constantly refuses to eat flesh. The bear is not only a savage, but a solitary animal ; he takes refuge in the most unfrequented parts, and the most dangerous precipices of uninhabited mountains; makes his den in the most gloomy parts of the forest, in some cavern that has been hollowed by time, or in the hollow of some large tree, and thither he retires and passes part of the win- ter without provisions or ever stirring abroad. He is not, however, entirely deprived of sensation, like the dormouse, or (he marmot, but seems rather to subsist upon the exube- rance of his former flesh, and only feels the calls of appetite when the fat he had acquired in summer is entirely wasted. When this happens, which we are told is generally after forty or fifty days, he forsakes his den; but the female re- mains confined for four months, till she has brought forth her young. That the latter should not only be able to sub- sist, but to nurse their offspring without taking any food during that time is, I think, highly improbable. When with young, however, it is allowed that they ere exceeding- ly fat; as also that, being covered with a very thick coat, sleeping the greatest part of their time, and taking no ex- ercise, they must necessarily lose very little by perspiiation. Though the males of the brown species devour their young when they have an opportunity; the females love them to a ferocious distraction. When they have brought forth, their fury is more violent, and more dangerous, than that of the males. Before the young leave the womb, their formation is perfect; and if either the foetus of the bear, or the bear when newly yeaned, appears unformed, it is be- cause there is a want of proportion in the body and mem- bers of the female; and the foetus, or new produced* ani- mal, is always more disproportioned than the grown one. NATURAL HISTORY. a 5 The voice of the bear is a kind of growl or harsh mur- mur, which, when enraged, is heightened by a clashing of the teeth. Highly susceptible of anger, that anger is always furious, and often capricious. However mild he may ap- pear before his master, and even obedient when tamed, he ought to be distiusted, and treated with circumspection. It is most dangerous to strike him on the tip of the nose, or to touch him on the pa'rts of generation. He is capable of some degree of instruction. There are few who have not seen him stand on his hind legs, or dance in a rude and awkward manner to tunes either sung or played on an instrument. But in order to tutor him with success, it is necessary that he be taken young, and held in constant restraint. A bear which has passed his youth, is not to be tamed, nor even held in awe; and shews himself, if not intrepid, at least fearless of danger. The wild bear turns not from his path, nor offers to shun the sight of man. It is said, that by a certain whistle, he may be so far charmed as to stop and stand upon his hind feet; which is the time to shoot him. When only wound- ed, he darts with fury at his foe, and, clasping him with his fore paws, is sure to stifle him, unless immediate assistance be given. The bear enjoys the senses of seeing, hearing, and feel- ing, in great perfection. His eyes, compared with the size of his body, are very small; his ears are short; his skin, coarse; and his hair, very thick. His smell is exquisite; more so, perhaps, than that of any other animal; the inter- nal surface of his nose being very extensive, and excellently calculated to receive such impressions. He strikes with his paws as a man strikes with his fist, but in whatever he may bear a rude resemblance to the human species, he does not gain, by this, the least ascendency over other animals. NATURAL HISTORY. THE BEAVER. IN all countries, in proportion as man is civi- lized and improved, the lower are the ranks of animals de- pressed and degraded ; and are either reduced to servitude, or treated as rebels ; all their societies are dissolved, and their talents rendered useless. The Beaver seems to be the only remaining monument of that kind of intelligence in brutes, which supposes cer- tain common projects, and has certain relative ends in view. Projects which, having society for their basis, suppose some particular method of understanding one another, and of act- ing in concert. It is allowed that the beaver, far from having an absolute superiority over other animals, is inferior to manv of them. This tact, I have an opportunity to confirm, having had, for near a twelvemonth, a young one in my possession, which was sent me from Canada in the year 1758. It is an animal tolerably mild, tranquil, and familiar ; though rather gloo- jny and melancholy. If we consider it in its dispersed and folitary state, we shall find that, as to internal qualities, it has not more ingenuity than the dog, more sense than the elephant, or more cunning than the fox. It is rather re- markable for the. singularity of its external conformation, than for any apparent superiority of internal qualities. Of (juadrupeds, the beaver alone has a flat ovaJ tail, covered NATURAL HISTORY. 107 with scales, which serves as a rudder to direct its motion* in the water. It is the only quadruped that has membranes between its hind toes, and none on the fore ones, with* which it conveys its food to its mouth. It is the only one which, while it resembles a terrestrial animal in its fore parts, approaches the nature of an aquatic behind. Beavers begin in the month of June or July, to form a society, which is to continue the greatest part of the year. They arrive in numbers from every quarter, and presently form a company of two or three hundred 1 . The place of meeting is commonly the place where they intend to fix: their abode, which is always by the side oftsome lake or ri- ver. If it be a lake, in which the waters are always upon a level, they do not build a dam ; but, if it be a running stream, they build a dam or pier across it. This dam or pier is often four-score or an hundred feet long, and ten or twelve feet thick at the base. If we compare the great- ness of the work with the powers of the architects*, it will appear enormous; but the solidity with which it is built, is still more astonishing. The part of the river over which it is usually built is the most shallow, and where some great tree is found growing by the side of it. This they make choice of for the principal part in their building; and, though it is often thicker than a man's body, they soon cut it down ; for this operation they have no other instrument than their four incisive teeth, and they make it fall always across the stream ; they then lop off the top branches to make it lie close and even. These operations are performed in common. At one time a number of beavers are employed at the foot of the tree in gnaw ing it down ; and when this part of their labour is fi- nished, it becomes the business of others to separate the blanches, while a third party are engaged along the banks of the river or lake, in cutting down others and stripping them of their bark ; which, though smaller than the first, are as thick as the leg, if not the thigh, of a common-sized man. These they cany by land to the brink of the river, and then by water to the place appointed; where sharpening and form- * The largeft heavers weigh from fifty to fixty pounds, and, in length, are lUtle miwe than tluce feet from the tip of the fnout to the root of the tail. 408 NATURAL HISTORY. ing them into stakes, they drive them into the ground at a small distance from each other, and fill up the vacant spaces with pliant branches. While some are thus employed in fastening the stakes, others go in searsh of clay, which they prepare with their tails and feet, and with which they ren- der their structure still more compact. This structure is so ingeniously contrived, that it has not only all the extent and solidity which are requsue, but also a form the most proper for resisting the water ; and, when it has passed its bounds, for maintaining its weight, or baffling its attack. At the top of their dike or mole, where it is nar- rowest, they form two or three openings: these they enlarge or contract as the river rises or falls; and when, from inun- dations or torrents, their works have been damaged, they immediately repair them with the greatest care. After this display of their labours to accomplish a public work, it would be superfluous to add a description of their private constructions, were it not that, in history, an account j>hould be given of every fact, and that, in this first grand work of the beaver, the intention was, that the little habita- tion of each familv should be rendered more commodious. This habitation is always furnished with two passages; one for the purpose of a land, and the other for a water excur- sion. In shape it is always either oval or round, and from four to five feet in diameter; and consists of two, and some- times of three stories, while the walls are always two feet thick . When it consists of but one story, the walls are only a few feet high, with a kind of vault over them which serves as a covering for the edifice; and the whole is plas- tered with such neatness, both without and within, that it might naturally be thought a human production. They sit to their work; and, besides the advantage of this conveni- ent poftine, they have the pleasure of continually gnawing fresh bark and soft wood, which they prefer to most other kinds of aliment. Averse to dry wood, they always provide an aiiple store of these for their subsistence during winter.* Near their habitation, they establish their magazines; and al- lot to each hut or cabin, a magazine proportioned to the num- * The fpace allotted for the provifion of eight or ten beavers, occupies from .five to thV.y fee: s^.ai.-, ard from ei^h: to teu fci deep. NATURAL HISTORY. jcg bar of its inhabitants, to which they have all a common right; nor do they attempt to plunder their neighbours. Hamlets, to use the expression, have been seen, composed of twenty and even twenty-five dwellings. Such large set- tlements, however are very rare. In general, they do not con- tain more than ten or a dozen families; which will not allow a stranger to settle within their inclosure. The smallest dwellings contain two, four, and six; the largest, eighteen- twenty, and sometimes thirty beavers; and it seldom or never happens, that the number of males and females is not pretty equal. Their society, therefore, may be said to consist fre- quently of one hundred and fifty or two hundred workmen, which having first exerted their united industry and diligence in rearing a grand public work, afterwards form themselves into different bodies, in order to construct private habitations. However numerous the republic of beavers may be, peace and good order are uniformly maintained in it. A common series of toil promotes their union; and the conveniences which they have procured for each other, and the abundance of provisions which they afterwards provide and consume together, render them happy within themselves. Having moderate appetites, and entertaining an aversion to blood and carnage, they have not the smallest propensity to hosti- lity or rapine, but actually enjoy all the blessings which man can desire. Friends to each other, if threatened by foreign enemies, they know how to avoid them; and for this purpose, on the first alarm, they give notice of their mu- tual danger, by striking the water with their tails, which e- mits a sound that is heard in the most distant dwellings. On this occasion, each beaver, as he thinks most expedient, plunges into the water, or conceals himself within the walls of his own habitation, which is in no danger but from the fire of heaven, or the weapons of man. These asylums are not only secure, but very neat and commodious: the floor is covered with verdure, young and tender branches of trees serve them for a carpet, on which they never permit any of their excrements to beMefr. The window, which fronts the water, serves them for a balcony, from which they enjoy the fresh air and bathe themselves the greatest part of the day. Their position in the water is NATURAL HISTORY. an upright posture, the head and fore parts only being visi- ble. This element is so necessary to them, or rather gives them so much pleasure, that they seem unable, as it were, to Jive without frequent immersions in it. The liabit which this animal has of continually keeping the tai! and hind', parts in the water, seems to have changed re o:' its flesh. That of the fore parts, till we come . the same quality, taste, and consistency :.< ;.-{ animals ; while the other parts have v-ni.and ail the qualities offish. As to the tail, it is an extremity of a fish fixed to the body of a qua- diupea: jri 1 n daily a foot; in thickness, an inch ; .- or six inches. It is entirely covered v.'idi scales, and Iv.s a skin the same as that of a large fish. Trie females *re s.;id to go four months with young; t'iCv 1'rr-o foi :h abiuit die close of winter, and their num- ber generally consists of two or three at a time. About :. : r enccl, the mak-s leave them and go into the fi .-Ids, v iuie 'hey enjoy al! the sweets of the spring. In this sea- io . ti:ey pay occasional visits to their habitation, but never T'iJ-ide in ii ; and fi re 'iie females remain e.nployed in suck- iii-^ -.end-'nor, and i caring their young, which are able to f Mow ;n3 .1 in a few weeks. They then, in their turn, go . w.iere iiey iced <-n fish, or on the bark of young tiecs '.n rend their ti;iie in the water, or the woods. Win,, i the princ pal season for hunting the;n, and it jis t!i '. i : u . tu 1 ib in perfection. After their fabrics are de- iji, :.!'-!' d. ::n ' a great number -taken, their society is ne- v<-> restored ; and the few that escape captivity or death, be- c.)ir. noi * J!-: J SN vandeiers, or conceal themselves in some h> '; -inder ground, where, reduced to the condition ofo- tber aiii.r.ai' ttx y lead a timid life. \Vi me. t with b.aver? in America, from the latitude of thu-'y to sixty decrees north, and even beyond it. In the northern r aris thay are very common ; und the further we proceed somh, their number decreases. The same observa- tion holds witli respect to rlie Uld Continent: we never find t theni numerous but in ti.e more northern countries; and in F ranee, Spain, Italy, Greece, and Egypt, they are exceed-i ing!y raie. They were no strangers to the ancients; and! by the religion of the Magi it was forbidden to kill them. NATURAL HISTORY. m Several authors have said, that the beaver, being an aqua- tic animal, cannot live solely on land. This opinion, how- ever, is erroneous ; for the beaver which I had from Cana- da, which was taken when young, and had always been rear- ed in the house, did not know the water when he was brought to it, but was afraid and refused to go into it. When first plunged into a bason there was a necessity of keeping him in it by force ; but a few minutes after, he be- came so well reconciled to it, that he no longer discovered an aversion to his new situation; and afterwards, when left to his liberty, would frequently return to it, and even Toll about in the dirt, and upon the wet pavemant. One day he made his esc ipe, and descended by a cellar stair case into the quarries under the Royal Garden ; there he swam to a considerable distance on the stagnated water which is at the bottom of those quarries: yet he no sooner saw the light of the torches which were ordered down for the purpose of finding him, than he returned, and allowed him- self to be taken without the smallest resistance;, He is familiar without fawning; and when he sees peo- ple at table, is sure to ask something to eat. This he does by a little plaintive cry, and by a few gestures of his lore paws. When he has obtained a morsel, he carries it away, and conceals himself, in order to eat it at his ease. Wtien he sleeps, which he does very often, he lies upon his belly. No food comes amiss to him, flesh excepted ; and this he con- stantly refuses, whether raw or boiled. He gnaws every thing he comes near; and it was found necessary to line the tun, with tin, in which he was brought over. Besides the fur, which is the most valuable article, this a- nimal furnishes a substance that has been of considerable use in medicine ; known by the name of castortum. The savages are said to obtain an oil from the tail of the beaver, which they employ as a topical remedy for different com plaints; and the flesh, though fat and delicate, is bitter and disagreeable to the palate. The senses of the beaver are very acute ; and so delicate is his smell, that he will suffer no filth to remain near him. When kept too long in confinement, and under a necessity of voiding his excrement, he drops it near the threshold of his prison, and when the door is opened, is sure to push it out. NATURAL HISTORY. THE RACOON. THE Racoon is an animal about the size of a small badger ; his body is short and bulky ; his fur, fine, long, thick, blackish at the surface, and grey towards the bottom ; his head is like thai of the fox, but his ears are round and shorter; his e}es are large, of a yellowish green, over which is a black and transverse stripe ; his snout is sharp ; his tail thick and tapering, and marked alternately from one end to the other with black and white rings, and is, at least, as long as his body. His fore legs are much shorter than the hind ones, and are armed with five strong, sharp claws. This animal uses his paws to hold his food while eating; and his pointed claws enable him to climb trees with great dexterity. He runs up the trunk with the same swiftness that he moves over the plain, and frolics about to the extremi- ty of the branches with great security and ease; on the ground, indeed, he rather bounds than runs, and his motions, though oblique, are always quick and expeditious. The racoon is a native of the southern countries of Ameri- ca, and the West-Indies, nor has he ever been found in any. part of the Old Continent. NATURAL HISTORY: THE COATI. MANY authors have called this animal, the Coati-mondi : it is veiy different from the animal de:cribed inr the preceding article, and of a smaller size. Its body, neck,, head, and nose, are of a more lengthened form, its upper jaw is an inch, or an inch and a half longer than the lower; and its snout, which is moveable in every direction, turns- up at the point. The eyes of the coati are also smaller than the eyes of the racoon; its hair is longer and coarser, its legs- are snorter, and its feet longer; but, like the racoon, its tail is diversified with rings; and on each foot, are five claws. This animal has the practice of eating its own tail, which when not mutilated, is longer than its body: it generally raises it aloft, andean move it with ease in any direction. From this circumstance, we infer, that in those smaller parts,, remote from the seat of the senses, the feeling is proportion- ably less. As to the coati in other respects, it is an animal of prey, and subsists on flesh and blood; and, like the fox, destroys small animals and poultry, hunts for the nests of little birds and devours their eggs; and it is probably from this confor- mity of disposition, that some authors have considered it as a species of small fox. NATURAL HISTORY. THE AGOUTI. THIS animal is about the size of a hare, and has been improperly considered a kind of rabbit, or large rat. It has the hair and voracious appetite of the hog, eats every thing indiscriminately, and when satiated, hides the remainder, like the dog or the fox, for a future occasion. Its or- dinary food consists of the roots of the country, a? potatoes, yams, and such fruit as falls from the trees in autumn. It uses its fore paws, like the squirrel, to carry its food, to ifs mouth; and as its hind feet are longer than the fore ones, it runs very swiftly on level ground or up hill, but on a declivi- ty it is in danger of falling. Its sight is excellent, its hear- ing equal to that of any animal, and when whistled to, it stops to listen. The flesh is dressed like that of a sucking pig, and of such as are well fed, is tolerable food, though it has a peculiar taste and is rather tough. It is hunted by dogs; and whenever it goes into a sugar ground, where the canes cover the place, it is easily caught. \Vhen in the open countiy, it usually runs tvith great swift- ness before the dogs until it gains its retreat, which is the hole of a tree; out of which nothing can force it but smoke. For this purpose the huntsman burns faggots or straw at the entrance, and conducts the smoke in such a manner as to fill the cavity. While this is doing, the poor little animal seems sensible of its danger, begs for quarter with a most plaintive cry, but seldom quits its hole till the last extremity. The agouti is a native of the southern parts of America: and is veiy common in Brasil, St Domingo and the neighbour- ing islands. To the Old Continent, it is an entire stranger. NATURAL HISTORY. 115 CHAP. VIII. Of Carnivorous Animals continued TbeLion Tiger Pan- ther, Ounce, and Leonard, Jaguar Couguar Lynx Caracal Hytena Civet and Zibet Genett and tbe On- datra and Desman. THE LION. IT has been remarked that terrestrial animals are not only larger and stronger in the hot than in the tem- perate climates, but that they are bolder and more ferocious according to the ardour of the climate in which they live. The lion produced beneath the burning sun of Africa, or In- dia, is above all others the fiercest and most terrible. Our wolves and other carnivorous animals, far from being his ri- vals, are hardly worthy to be his providers. The lious of America (if they deserve the appellation) are like the climate in which they are produced, considerably milder. That their fierceness depends on the degree of heat is evident, for in the same country, those which inhabit the high moun- tains where the air is more temperate, are different in dispo- sition from those that dwell in the plains where the heat is i,6 NATURAL HISTORY. The lion has no enemy but man; and is brave only in proportion to his conquests. Accustomed to measure his -strength with every animal he meets, the habit of conquer- ing renders him intrepid and terrible. Having never expe- rienced the dangerous arts and combinations of man, they have no apprehensions of his power: but meet him with courage, brave the force of his arms, and are not daunted at the opposition of numbers. Alipnofthe desert will often attack a caravan: andaf f eran obstinate conflict, when he finds himself overpowered, instead of flying, continues to combat, retreat, and face his enemy till he dies. On the contrary, the lions which inhabit the peopled countries of Morocco, or India, having experienced the superiority of man, have so far lost their courage as to be affrighted with a shout: and seldom attack any but the unresisting flocks or herds, which even women and children are sufficient to protect. The external form of the lion seems to speak the superi- ority of his internal qualities. His figure is striking, his Jook confident and bold, his gait proud, and his voice terri- ble. His stature is not overgrown, like that of the elephant Or the rhinoceros: nor is his shape clumsy like that of the 'hippopotamus or the ox. He is in every respect compact .and well proportioned, a perfect model of strength joined with agility. He manifests his force and muscular power by his prodi- gious leaps and bounds, by the strong and quick agitations of his tail which alone is sufficient to throw a man on the ground, by the facility with which he moves the skin of his lace, particularly that of his forehead, which adds greatly to his physiognomy, or. rather to the expressive fury of his -countenance, and by shaking his mane, which is not only bristled up but moved and agitated on all sides when he is enraged. The largest lions are about eight or nine feet loner, from the snout to tiie root of the tail, which of itself is four feet lonji, and are about four or five feet high. Those of the small size are about five feet and a half long, and three and .ike the lioness, the tigress produces four or five at a birth. From her nature, she is fierce at all times; but when sur- rounded with her infant progeny, and in the smallest danger of losing them, her fury becomes extreme. To oppose the daring invaders of her den, she braves every danger; and pursues the spoiler with the most inveterate enmity ; who i frequently obliged to drop one of the cubs, with which she immediately returns to the den, and again pursues him : he then drops another, and by the time she has returned with that, he, for the most part, escapes with the remainder. Should her young be torn from her entirely, she expresses her agony by hideous cries, and follows the person to tha very town, or ship, in which he may have taken refuge, and dares him to approach her. The skins of these animals are much esteemed in the east, particularly in China ; where the Mandarines cover their seats of justice with them, and their cushions in winter. The Indians eat the flesh of the tiger, and find it neither disagreeable nor unwholesome. NATURAL HISTORY. THE PANTHER. THE LEOPARD. THE first of these species, which exists in the Id Continent, is the Large Panther, which we shall sim- ply call Panther. The Gieeks distinguished it by the name of Pard, I ,i, ; the ancient Latins, first by the nameof'P0- tbera, aitei wards by that of Pradus, and the modern Latins hy the name ofLeopardus. The length of his body, from NATURAL HISTORY. taj the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, at his full growth, is five or six feet; and his tail above two feet. His skin is ofa yellow hue, more or less dark on the back and sides, and whitish under the belly; and is marked with black spots in the form of beads; the greater number of which have one or more spots in the centre, of the colour with the extre- mity of the ring. Some of them are oval, others circular; and they are frequently above three inches in diameter. The second species is the Small Panther of Oppian, which our modern travellers have improperly called Ounce or Onza, from Lynx or Lunx. To this animal we shall continue the name of Ounce, which, as it has some affinity to the lynx, seems to be properly applied. He is about one-third less than the panther, or near the size of the lynx ; his hair and tail, are longer than those of the panther ; the latter frequent- ly measuring above three feet. The hair of the ounce is of a whitish grey upon the back and sides, and of a grey still whiter under the belly ; whereas the back and sides of the panther are yellow more or less deep. In both, however, the spots are nearly of the same form and size. The third species is not mentioned by the ancients, as it belongs, to Senegal, Guinea, and other southern countries which they had not discovered. This animal we shall call Leopard; a name which has been improperly applied to the large panther, but which, following the example of most tra- veller's, we shall never use unless to denote the above men- tioned animal of Senegal. He is somewhat larger than the ounce, but considerably smaller than the panther, being only four feet long ; the tail measures two feet or two feet and a half. On the back and sides the hair is ofa yellow colour more or less deep ; under the belly it is whitish ; the spots are annular, but smaller, and less regularly disposed. As each of these animals is different from the other, so each forms a distinct species. Our furriers call the skins of the first species panther skins ; a name which we shall riot change. Those of the second they call African tiger-skins, which, being an equivocal name, we have set aside and a- dopted that of ounce. In short, they improperly call tiger- skins, the skins of the animal which we have here denomi- nated the leopard. , 24 NATURAL HISTORY. The species of the ounce appears to be more numerous as well as more general than that of the panther. In Bar- bary, Arabia, and the southern parts of Asia, Egypt perhaps excepted, it is very common. It is known also in China, where it is distinguished by the name of binen-pao. The ounce is easily tamed, and is employed in the chace in the hot climates of Asia, where the dog is not to be found, unless introduced from other parts ; and then he not only loses his voice, but his instinct. Besides, these animals are alike remarkable for their antipathy to dogs, which they ceize in preference to every other animal. NATURAL HISTORY. THE JAGUAR. THE Jaguar resembles the ounce in disposi- tion and f tiger, or leopa rf, others under the names it bears at Brasil, Mexico, &c. They also speak of another animai of the .same genius, and perhaps of the same species, under tne name of jaguaret, which we have distinguished from the j guar in our enumeration. Whether they are two distinct species, or oni\ varieties of the same, I cannot jpOiitively affirm, hav- ing seen only one oi the kinds. R HISTORY. The jaguar is found in Brasil, Paragua, Tucuman, Guiana, the country of the Amazons, Mexico, and in all parts of South America. Thej iguaret appears to have been always more rare, or has at least inhabited such places as are more distant from the haunts of men; and the few travellers who have mentioned him, have only drawn their accounts from those of Marcgravius and Piso. THE COUGUAR. THE Couguar is as long but not so thick as the jaguar; he has a small head, a long tail, and short hair, which is of a lively red colour, intermixed with a few black- ish tints, particularly on the upper part of the back. He is neither marked with long stripes, like the tiger, nor with round and full spots, like the leopard, nor with annular spots, like the panther and the ounce; but his chin, neck, and all the inferior parts of his body are whitish. Though he is not so strong as the j iguar, he is as fierce, and perhaps m >re cruel ; he also appears to be more greedy of prey ; which, when once seized, he does not relinquish till he has fully glutted his voracious appetite. This animal is not uncommon in Guiana. Formerly, cou- guars were known to swim over in numbers to the island of Cayenne to attack and devour the flocks, and were consider- ed as a scourge to the colony; but, by degrees, the settlers lessened their number, and at length expelled them entirely. The coiiiruar, by the agility of his body and length of his legs, seems better calculated to run, and to climb trees, than thejaguar. They are equally remarkable for sloth and cow- ardice, particularly when satia.e-'i wifh prey ; and are seldom known to attack men, except they find them asleep. They delight in the lofty sludes of forests, where they hide themselves in the covert of spine thick tree, in order to dart NATURAL HISTORY. 1E? forth on such animal as pass by. Though they live only up- on prey, and quench their thirst oftener with blood than wa- fer, it has been said that their flesh is exceedingly palata- ble. Piso sa\s it is as good as veal; and Charlevoix and others have compared it to mutton. Yet, from he a- bove circumstances, it is hardly credible that it can be well tasted ; and therefore I prefer the testimony of Desrnar- chais, who sajs, that the best thing about this animal is the skin, of which they make housings for horses, and that his flesh is ot no \alue, being generally lean and of a disa- greeable flavour. NATURAL THE I.Y\ T X THE Lynx is an animal commonly found in cold climates. It was knuwn to the Greeks and Latins: f*Hny says, that the first which were seen in Rome, weie brought from Gaul in the time of'Pompey. At pre- sent, the\ aie not een in France, except a few belonging to the Alpine and Pyrenean mountains. But the Romans, un- der the name of Gaul, compiehended several northern coun- tries; besides, modern France is far from being so cold as an- cient Gaul. Tue most beautiful ?kins of the lynx are those of the lu- pus- art arms, bioughr tiom Siberia, those of the felis-cerva* r uf, from Canada In Europe, they are compared to a wolf it. size ; and in Canada to a wild cat. The lynx, the sight of which the ancients said, was so sharp as to penetrate opaque bodies , and the urine of which pos- sessed the marvellous property of hard -mug intoa solid sub- stance -a precious stone, called \lapis lincurius, is an animal \vhich never existed. To the true lynx this imaginary one has no ffinity, but in name ; we mutt not, therefore, lik most Naturalises, attiibure to rhe former, which is a real be- ing, the properties of the imaginary one, the existence of NATURAL HTSTORY. idiich, Pliny himself does not seem disposed to believe, and jvhich he classes with the sphuix, the pegasus, and other prodigies or monsters the pioduce of fiL hioi.ia. Our lynx possesses nut the wonderful quality of seeing through walls ; but has bright ev es, a mild aspect, and upon the whole, an agreeable and liv iy appearance. Irs urine dues not produce precious stones ; but like the cat, which it resembles and imitates, covers it with earth. The lynx has short legs, and is gentrallv about the size of the fox. It differs from the panther and tho ounce in the following particulars: it has iong hair, its maiks or spots are of a colour less lively, and badly disposed ; its ears are eurrounded at the extremity by a stripe or rather tuft of black hair; its tail, which is much shorter, is black at the tip; its eyes have a whitish cast ; and its countenance has something in ii more mild. The skin of the male is more ] beautifully marked than that of the female. It does not \vfclk or run like the wolf in a progressive motion, but leaps and bounds like the cat. It g;iins its sole subsistence by prey, which it will pursue to the veiy tops of trees ; neither can the wild cat, the martin, the ermine, nor rhesquinel, e- ecape it. It also seizes birds; and lies in wait for ttie stag, the roebuck, and the hare, and often with one bound seizes them by the throat. When in possession of its pre\ , itfiist suvks tiie blood of the animal, and tnen lays open the head in oidtr to devour the brains ; it then abandons the victim, goes in quest of fresh prey, and i^ seldom known to return to the former; a circumstance which has given rise to the vulgar lemaik, that of all animals the l\ nx has the shortest memory. The *kin of this creature changes its colour ac- cording to the season and climate. In winter it is in every j-espect better than in summer ; and iis flesh, like that of aft ^eastb of prey, is improper lood. I 3 NATURAL HISTORY. THE CARACAL, OR SYAGUSH. THE Caracal, though it resembles the lynx in size, in the formation of its body, the aspect of its head, and the almost singular characteristic of a stripe of black hair at the extremity of the ears, 1 am inclined to treat of it as an animal of a different species. The caracal is not spotted like the lynx, its hair is rough- er and shorter, its tail larger, and of an uniform colour; its snout is longer ; in appearance it is less mild, and in dispo- sition, fiercer. The lynx is an inhabitant of the cold, or ra- ther of the temperate regions. The caracal, on the other hand, if- only found in hot countries ; and it is more from their difference in disposition and climate that I have judged them to be of two different species, tha.i from the analogy of their appearance. It is common in Barbary, Arabia, and all those countries which are inhabited by the lion, the panther, and the ounce. Like them it depends on prey for its subsistence ; but from its inferior the and strength, ha? much difficulty in procur- ing it : hence, in general, it subsists on ihe leavings of the NATURAL HTSTORY. 191 more potent carnivorous animals. It keeps at a distance from the panther, because that animal exercises hih cruelty even after ne is satisfied with food ; but follows the lion, who, when the immediate cravings of his appe.ire are gratified, is of a pacific disposition. From the refuse of ihis noble ani- mal the caracal frequently enjjysa comfortable meal. This animal, for these reason*, has been called " the lion's guid V* the " lion's provider; and that the lion, the smell of which. is far from being acute, is said to employ it to find prey tor him, of which, it enjoys the remaius for its trouble, when its mast r is satisfied. The caracal is about the size of a fox, but much fiercer, and stronger. It has been knu.vn to attack, tear in pieces, and destroy in a tew minutes, a large dog that exerted nim- seif to the utmobt. It is very difficult to tame it, yet, if tak- en whe'n .very young and reared with care, it may be train- ed to the chace, to wnich it is by nature inclined, and in which it is sure to succeed, piovided it is nor let loose but a- gainst such animal-, as are unable to resist it. In India, they make use of this animal to take hares, rabbits, and even large buds, all ot wmJi it seizes with singular address. NATURAL HISTORY. THE HY.fcXA. THE characteristics of the Hyaena are so sin- gular and striking, that it is hardly possible to be deceived by them. It is, perhaps, the only quadruped which has but four toes on each of its feet. Like the badger it has an a- perture under its tail which does no-t penetrate into the inte- rior parts of the body. Its ears are long, straight, and bare; its head is more square and shorter than that of the wolf ; its legs, the hind ones especially, are longer; its eyes are placed like those of the dog ; the hair of its bodv and mane are of a dark grey, with a small intermixture of yellow and black disposed in waves ; and though its size is equal to that of the wolf, it has a contracted appearance. This solitary creature lesides in the caverns of mountains, elefts of rocks, or in dens, which it has formed for itself in the earn. Though taken very young, it is incapable of be- ing tamed. It Jives, Jike the wolf, by depredation; is a stronger animal, and seemingly more daring. It sometimes attacks men, carries oiF cattle, lohows the flocks, breaks open the sheep-cots by night, aud ravages with an insatiable ve NATURAL HISTORY. 133 rocity. Its eyes are keen and piercing, and it is said to see best in the night. It we max credit the Naturalists who have tieatcd of this animal, it: ciy resembles the sobs or Teachings of a man in a violent fit of vomiting; but, according to Kcempter, who was an ear witness of it, it sounds like the lowing of a calf. The hyaem defends itself against the lion, is not afraid of the panther, and attacks the ounce which is incapable of re- sisting it. When at a loss for other prey, it scrapes up the earth with its feet, and devours the carcasses of animals, and, men; which, in the countries it inhabits, are interred promis- cuously in the fields. We find this creature in almost all the hot climates of Africa, and Asia ; and it seems probable that the animal called farasse, at Madagascar, which resembles the woli in fig ire, but is larger, stronger, and more cruel, may be the byana. Few animals have had more absurd stories told of them than the hyaena. The ancients represented it as male and female alternately. The circumstance, which gave rise to this ta- ble, is the opening in the form of a cleft, which the male and female have independently of the parts of generation. It al- so has been affirmed, that this creature can imitate the human voict, that it remembers the names of the shepherds, calls to, charms, and renders them motionless; that it gives chace to the shepherdesses, makes them forget their flocks, be distract- ed with love, &c. All these things might surely happen with- out the intervention of an hyaena; therefore, to avoid the reproach due to Pliny in compiling and publishing such fa- bles, 1 conclude the description. NATURAL HISTORY. THE CIVET AN T D ZIBET. MOST Naturalists have been of opinion, that there is only one species of animals that furnishes the per- fume known by the name of civet. I have seen two, which, though they resemble each other in the essential affinities of conformation, differ in so many other characteristics, that there is sufficient reason to consider them as two distinct species. To the first of these animals I have appropriated its origi- nal name of civet; and to the second I have given that of zi- bet, which differs fio.m. the former in having a body longer and smaller, a snout more slender, flatter, and somewhat con- cave at the upper part; its hair is much shorter and softer; and it has no mane, no black under the eyes, or upon the cheeks like the civet. Some travellers suspected that there were two species of civets; but no person had so distin- guished them as to be able to describe them with suffi- cient accuracy. These animals, though they have been called musk or ci- vet-cats, resemble the fox rather than the cat, especially in the head. Their coats are diversified with stripes and spots; a circumstance which has occasioned some, who had only seen them at a distance, to mistake them for small panthers, from which they differ in every other respect. The per- fume of the civet is remarkably strong, and that of the zibet, to an extreme. This humour is found in the opening which each of these animals has near the parts of generation; and though the o- NATURAL HISTORY. , 35 dour is strong, it is agreeable, even when it issues from the body of the animal. The perfume of the civet we must not confound with musk, which is a sanguineous humour obtain- ed from an animal altogether different from either the civet or the zibet. The animal that furnishes the musk, is a kind of rre-buck without antlers, or goat without horns ; nor does it possess any property in common with the civet but that of furnishing a strong perfume. Civets, though natives of the hottest climates of Africa, and Asia, are capable of living in temperate, and even in cold countries, if carefully defended from the injuries of the air, and provided with delicate and succulent food. In Holland, where no small emolument is derived from their perfume, they are frequently reared; and the perfume of Amsterdam is esteemed preferable to that which is brought from the Le- vant, or the Indies, which is generally less genuine. That im- ported from Guinea would be the best, were it not that the Negroes, as well as the Indians and the people of the Levant, adulterate it with mixtures of laudanum, storax, and other o- dorous drugs. Those who breed these animals for the sake of this article, keep them in long, narrow boxes, which open behind, and in which they cannot turn. The person, who is employed to collect it, opens each box twice or thrice a week; drags the animal backwards by the tail, and keeps it in this position by a bar before, and with a little spoon takes the civet out into a vessel, which is afterwards closely stopped. The quantity, which a single animal affords, depends great- ly upon its appetite and the quality of its nourishment. It furnishes more in proportion as it is more delicately and a- bundantly fed. Raw flesh hashed small, eggs, rice, small animals, biids, young fowls, and particularly fish, are its fa- vourite food. The civet is a wild, fierce animal, and thoughsometirr.es tamed, is never very familiar. Its teeth are strong and sharp; its claws, feeble and blunt. It is light and active, , and lives by prey; pursuing birds and such small animals as it is able to overcome. They are somtimes seen stealing in- to yards and out-houses, like the fox, in order to carry off poultry. Their eyes shine in the night; and it is very pro- bable that they see better by night than by day. \V he n a i 3 6 NATURAL HISTORY. mal food fails, they subsist on roots and fruit. They very seldom drink; do not inhabit humid ground; but remain chiefly in burning sands, and arid mountains. THF GFA'ETT. THE Genettis an animal smaller than the civet. It has a long body, short legs, a sharp snout, and a slender head. Its fur, which is exceedingly smooth and soft, is of an ash-colour, glossy, and marked with black stripes, which are separate upon the sides, but unite on the back. It has also upon its neck a kind of mane, which forms a black streak from the head to the tail, which last is a> long as the body, and is marked with seven or eight alternate Tings of black and white, from the root to the tip. The genett has under its tail, and in the very same place ivith the civet, an opening in which is separated a kind of perfume resembling civet, but less strong and apterto evapo- rate. It is an animal very like the martin, not only in the form of its body, but also in disposition anJ habit, and from which it seems chiefly to differ in being more easily tamed. THE OXDATRA AND DESMAN. THE Ondatra and Desman are two animals which must not be confounded, though they have been de- nominated musk-rats, and have a few common characteristics. The ondatra or musk-rat of Canada, differs from the des- man in having its toes separated from each other, its eyes very conspicuous, and a very short snout. The desman or musk-rat of Muscovy, on the contrary, has the toes of its hind feet united by a membrane. The tail of both is flat ; and not only in this circumstance, but in a number of esseii- NATURAL HISTORY. 137 tial characteristics, they differ from the pilori or musk-rat of the Antilles. The ondatra is of the size of a small rabbit, a:id form of a rat. Its head is short and similar to that ot the water-rat; its hair is soft and glossy, with a very thick down under- neath, nearly like that of the beaver. l:s tail is long, and, though of a different form, is covered with lictie scales in the same manner as those of other rats. Its ears are very short, but not bare like those of the domestic rat. The striking singularities which have been remarked in the ondatra are, the force and great expansion of the mus- cles of its skin, the suppleness of its false ribs, which per- mits so considerable a contraction of the body, tn.it it is known to obtain an easy entrance into holes too narrow for the admission of animals much smaller than itself. The manner too in which the female voids her urine is a very striking characteristic ; the urethia not terminating as in ci- ther quadrupeds, but at a hairy eminence situ ited over the ospubis. The testicles also, which, as in other rats, are situ- ated on each side of the anus, become proJigiousIy large \vhiletheardourforpropagationlasts. Add to these, that t!ie vessels, which contain the musk or peifume under the form of a tni.'ky humour and which adjoin the parts of genera- tion, undergo the same change; but decay soon after, and are at length totally eflaced. The change 'ti the bags, which, contain the prefume, is effected more quickK, as well as more completely than that of the parts oi generation: they are common to both sexes, an.I contain a very copious mil- ky substance while the animals are hot. From the ondatra being a native of the same country with the beaver, they have been often compared with each o- ther; as to figure and colour. In disposition and instinct also, they bear a considerable resemblance. Like the bea- vers, the ondatras live in society during *vinter; form lit- tle dwellings about two feet and a half, and sometimes more in diameter; and cover them wirh a kind of ceiling about a foot thick; and the materials of which the\ are composed, are rushes and certain herbs interwoven, and consolidated vith clay, which they previously prepare for that purpose, with their feet. They do not resort to these habitations, in order to sleep for four or five month", like the marmots, but for shelter from the inclemency of the weather. These animals breed once a year, and generally proJu.-e five or six at a time. S stioog are their fore teeth, and so excellently calculated for gnawing, thar ^ hen one of them is shut up in a box, it presentK makes a hole, even through, the hardest wood, and effects its e.^-ipe. They are little inclined to ferocity, and when taken young are easily tamed. In the verv earl\ period of life they are also, which might r:ot be expected, exceedingly handsome; for then the loner an J almost bare tail, which renders their figure very disagreeable afterwards, is very short. They play with all the innocence and sprightliness of young cats; never bite, and might be easily reared, were it not for their noxious smell. CHAP. IX. Of the. Peccary, or Mexican ff<>g Ternat Bat Spectre F'y- ing Squirrel- G.\'y SyuirrttPalm Sjuiirel, and tbose of JBarbary, &c. Ant Eaters Sjort and Long-Tailed Ma- jiis ArmadiLo Spotted Cavy Opossum Marmose andtbe Cayopolm. THE PECCARY OR MEXICAN HOG. AMONG the animals of the New World, we meet with few species more numerous, or more remarkable, than that of the Peccary or Mexican Hog. At the first glance, we see a resemblance in this animal to our wild boar, or rather the hog of Siam, but it is of a distinct spe- cies, and refuses to engender with either. It differs from the hog in a number of characteristics, both external and in- ternal: it is less corpulent, and its legs are shorter; in the stomach and intestines there is a difference of conformation ; it has no tail, audits bristles are much stronger than those NATURAL HISTORY. 13$ of the wild boar; and Iastly.it has, upon that part of the back which borders upon the buttocks, an opening from which there is discharged an ichorious humour of a very disagreeable smell. The peccary is the only animal which has an opening in this region of the body. In the civet, badger, and genett, the reservoir for the peifume is situated beneath the parts of generation; and in the musk animals, under the belly. The peccary has pretty much the same habits and natural inclinations as the hog, and may be domesticated. It feeds upon the same alimenis; and its flesh, though more dry and Jean than that of the hog, is not unpalatable. These animals are extremely numerous in South Ameri- ca, where they may be seen in herds of two or three hun- dred each; and unite, like hogs, in the defence of each other. They are particularly fierce when any attempt is made to rob them of tlieir young: surround the plunderer, attack him without fear, and frequently his life falls a victim to his rashness. In its native country, it is more fond of the mountainous than of the low and level grounds; it delights neither in marshes nor mud, like our hogs; but keeps among the woods, where it subsists upon wild fruit, roots, and vegeta- bles. It is an enemy to the lizard, toad, and all the serpent kinds with which the uncultivated forests of the New Con- tinent abound. As soon as it perceives a serpent, or a viper, it seizes it with its fore hoofs and teeth, fleas it in an instant, and devours its flesh. Like the hog, it is very prolific. The young ones follow the dam, and do not separate from her till they have attain- ed maturity. If taken young they are easily tamed, and soon lose all f heir natural ferocity : yet never display any re- markable signs of docility. They continue oniy to do no mischief; and may be permitted to run tame, without any dangerous consequences. They seldom stray far from home: return of themselves to the sty, and do rot quarrel with each other, except when they happen to be fed in com- mon. When enraged, they draw their breath with great force, and their biistles point upwards, and do not resemble the bristles of the wild boar so much as the sharp armour of the hedge-hog. NATURAL HISTORY. THE ROUSSETTE OR TERXAT BAT,* THE ROUGETTE,+ AXD THE VAMPYRE OR SPECTRE.^ THE Roussette, and Rougette, though so like each other, form two distinct specks; and ought not, in my opinion, to be classed together. The latter differs from the former in the size of its body, and the colour of its hair. The roussette, the hair of which is of a reddish brown, is nine in- ches long from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, and three feet broad, when the membranes, which serve it for wings, are fully extended. The rougette, the hair of which is of a reddish ash-colour, is not more than five inches and a half long, and two feet broad; and its neck is half-encircled with a stripe of hair of a lively red, intermixed with orange- colour, of which we perceive no vestige on the neck of the roussette. They belong nearly to the same hot climates of the Old Continent; and are met with in Madagascar, the Island of Bourbon, Ternato, the Philippine, and other Islands of the Indian Archipelago, where they abound more than in the neighbouring continents. In the hot countries of the New World, we likewise meet with another flying quadruped, of which we know not the American name, therefore have affixed that of Spectre or Vampyre, because it sucks the blood of men and animals when asleep, without awaking them. This American animal is of a species different from the two former, which are to be iound onh in Africa, and the southern parts of Asia. THE Spectre is smaller than either the rougette, or rous- sette: the former, when it flies, appears of the size of a pi- geon; the second of the size of a laven; and the third of the size of a large hen. Of the rousse;te, and rougette, the head is tolerably Well shaped ; the ears are short and nearly like those of a dog. Of the spectre, on the contrary, the nose is longer; the aspect hideous as that of the ugliest bat; the he.ul unshapely, and mounted with large ears, very open, * Vulgarly called the Flying Dog, and, by the generality of Xaturalifts, the G) eat fiat if Madtgafcar. J Vubarlv called the Red-linked Flrir : An \ i known under the vague nam NATURAL HISTORY. 141 nd straight; its nose is disfigured; its nostuls resem ble a funnel, and have a membrane at the top, which rise.- in the form of a sharp horn or cock's comb, and add* greatly to the deformity of its face. There is no doubt, therefore, but that the species of the spectre is different from tho e of the roussette and rougette. It is an animal not less misc.iievjus than it is deformed , it is the pest of man, and the torment and destruction of animals. In confirmation of this truth, a more authentic testimony cannot be produced than that of M. de la Condamine. " The bats," says he, "which suck the blood of horses, or mules* and even of men, when they do not guard against them by sleeping under the shelter of a pavilion, some of which are of a monstrous size, are a scourge common to most of the hot countries of America. At Borja, and several other places, they have entirely destroyed the large cattle which the mis- sionaries brought thither, and which had begun to multiply." The roussette and rougette aie larger, stronger, and per- haps more mischievous than the vampyre; and it is by open force, and in the day as well as by night, that they commit hostilities. Fowls and small animals are the objects of their destructive fury ; they also attack men and bite their faces most crucify ; but no traveller has accused them of surpriz- ing either while asleep, and sucking their blood. These bats are carnivorous and most voracious animals ; and in a dearth of flesh or fish, feed on vegetables and fruit of every kind; and as they are fond of the juice of the palm- tree, it is easy to take them by placing in the neighbourhood of their retreat a few vessels filled with palm-tree water, or any other fermented liquor. They fasten to, and suspend themselves from trees with their claws ; are usually seen in troops, and oftener by night than by day; and shun places that are much frequented : their favourite residence being in the deserted parts of islands. 1 have frequently thought it worth w' ile to examine how 5t is possible that these animals should suck the blood of a person asleep without causing, at the same time, a pain so sensible as to awake him. Were they to cut the flesh with their teeth or claws, the pain would effectually rouse any of the human species, however sound. It must, therefore, be T J4 a NATURAL HISTORY. with their tongue that they make such minute apertures in the skin as to imbibe the blood through them, and open the veins without causing pain. I have not had an opportunity of observing the tongue of the vampyre ; but that of several roussettes, which Mr Dau- benton has attentively examined, seems to indicate the possi- bility of the fact. It is sharp and full of prickles directed backwards ; and it is prob.ble, that these piickles or points, from their extreme minulfeoess, ma}' enter the pores of the skin, enlarge, and penetrate so deep, as to command a flow of blood by the continued suction of the tongue These circum- stances are perhaps exaggerated, or erroneously related, by the writers who have transmitted them to us. NATURAL HISTORY- THE FLYIXG SQUIRREL. THE Flying Squirrel is of a particular spe- cies, and resembles, in some degree, the squirrel or the rat. He is more common in America than Europe, where he is seldom seen, except in Lithuania and Russia. This little animal dwells in trees, like the squirrel; goes from branch to branch ; and when he leaps, the skin, which hangs loose on both sides of his body, is stretched forwards by his fore legs, and backwards by the hind legs, and increases the sur- face of his body, without ad-ding to its weight, and conse- quently retards the acceleration of his fall ; so that this ani- mal can, at one leap, bound to a great distance. His motions are neither like the flight of a biid, nor the flutter of a bat; but madefy striking the air with repeated vibrations. The flying squirrel is easily tamed ; and must be kept in a cage, or tied with a small chain. He feeds upon bread, fruit, and seeds; is remarkably fond of buds and shoots of the birch and pine trees, but does not seek nuts and almonds like the squirrel. He makes a bed of leaves, in which he either bu- ries himself or lies upon in the day time, and leaves it in the night, or when pressed by hunger. As he has little agilit}', he becomes easily the prey of martins, and other animals which climb trees ; so that the species is not numerous, al- though they have commonly three or four young ones at * time. NATURAL HISTORY, THE GREY SQUIRREL. THE Grey Squirrel is found in the northern parts of both Continents, and is in shape like the common squirrel, but larger. The colour of his hair is a light or deep grey!; and his ears are not so hairy towards the extremi- ties as those of our squirrels. Many authors think the spe- cies is different in Europe and America; that the grey squir- rels of Europe are of the common kind, and that they change their colour, according to the season, in the northern cli- mates. Without denying this assertion, which is not suffi- ciently proved, we consider the*grey squirrel ot Euiope and America as the same animal, and as a species distinct from that of the common squirrel of both Continents. We have very little information with regard to the grey squirrel. Fernandez sa\s, that the grey or blackish squirrel of America, dwells commonly in trees, particularly pines; feeds upon fruit and seeds ; and lays up stores for winter, in some hollow tree, whither he retires during that season. The grey squirrel also differs from the others in making his nest at the tops of trees like birds. THE PALM SQUIRREL, AND THOSE OF BARBARY AND SWIT- ZERLAND. THE Paim Squirrel is as large as a rat. He lives upon Palm trees, from which he derives his name. Some call him the palmist rat, and others the palm-tree squirrel; but as he is neither of the species of the rat nor squirrel, we shall call him palmist. His head is nearly of the Fame foim vith that of the short-tailed field mouse, ?nd covered with rough hair. His long tail, which is cover- ed with hair longer than that of the body, but much shorter NATURAL HISTORY. 145 than the hair of the squirrel's tail,.does not lie on the ground like the rat's, nor on his back as the squirrel's does, bat is car- ried in an erect position. His back is variegated with white and brown stripes, which distinguish the palmist from all other animals, except the -squirrels of Barbary and Switzer- land. With respect to the squirrel of Barbary, as he is of the same continent, climate, size, and nearly of the same form with the palmist, one should be inclined to think them of the same species, with some variety; yet there is reason to be- lieve that they are different animals. We have seen all the varietu s in the king's cabinet. The squirrel of Barbary has the head and foiehead more crooked, the ears longer, and the tail more biiih\ than the palmist: in short, he is more like a rat than a squirrel. The squirrel of Barbarj has four white stripes, the palmist only three. The white stripe is on the palmist's back bone; that of the squinel of Barbary, on the same p;nt of his body, is brown and red. These animals, indeed, h<.ve nearly the same habits, and are ot the same na- tuie as the common squinel. They are of a pretty figure: their coat, with white snipes, is more valuable than that of the squirrel ; their shupe i.s shorter, bod\ lighter, and motions quicker. The palmist and the squinel ot Baiban , dweil on trees like the common fqunrd, but the Swiss squirrel lives upon the giound, and like the field mouse, forms a retreat that the water cannot pene:r..te. He is also less docile and gentle than the others; bites without mercy, (except lately tamed,) and u moie like a rat, 01 a field-mouse, by instinct and natuie, than a squnrel. NATURAL HISTORY. (THE TAMANOIR, THE TAMANDTJA, AND THE FOURMILLER, OR ANT-EATER. SOUTH America produces three species of animals, with a long snout, small mouth, no teeth, and ton- gues remarkably long and round; with which they penetrate the ants nests, which are their principal food. The first of these ant eaters is that which the Brasilians call tamandua guacu, or great tamandua, to which the French, who are in America, have given the name of tamanoir. This animal is about four feet from the extremity of the snout to the origin of his tail; his head is fourteen or fifteen inches long, his snout s'retches out to a great length ; his tail, two feet and a half long, is covered with rough hair, which is above a foot long. His neck is short, head narrow, eyes black and small, ars round, tongue thin, and more than two feet long, which lie folds again in his mouth, after he draws it entirely out. His legs are but one foot in length : the fore-legs are a little longer and more slender than those behind : he has round feet: the fore-feet are armed with four claws, the two mid- dle ones are the longest ; and those behind have five claws. The hair of his head and body is black and white; and he turns his tail up on his back, which covers his whole body, when he is inclined to sleep, or wishes to shelter himself from the rain or the heat of the sun. When irritated, he Waves it frequently and hastily, but when composed, it hangs down and sweeps the ground as he goes. The tamanok NATURAL HISTORY. 147 walks so slowly, that a man can easily overtake him : his feet seem less calculated to walk than to climb, and to fasten round bodies ; and he holds a branch or a stick so fast, that it is im- possible to snatch it from him. The second of these animals is that which the Americans call Tamandua; he is much smaller than the tamanoir; is not above eighteen inches from the extremity of the snout to the rump ; his head is five inches long, snout crooked, and flat and long below. He has a tail ten inches long, without hair at the end ; his ears are erect and about an inch long, his tongue is round, and eight inches long, placed in a sort of gutter or hollow canal within the lower jaw; his legs are not above four inches long; his feet are of the same form, and have the same number of claws as those of the tamanoir: he also climbs, holds a branch or a stick, and walks like him in every respect. He cannot shelter himself with his tail, it being almost bare; the hair ot the fore-part is shorter than that of the tamanoir; and when he sleeps, he hides his head under his neck and fore-legs. The third of these animals is that which the Naturalists of Guiana call Ouatiriouaou, to which we have appropriated the name ofFourmiller, or ant-eater, to distinguish him from the tamanoir and tamandua. He is much smaller than the tamandua, being not above six or seven inches long from the extremity of the snout to the tail; his head is two inches long; the snout is not near so long as that of the tamanoir, or the tamandua; his tail is seven inches long, but is bent and bare at the end; his tongue is narrow, long, and flat; his neck is almost bare, the head is large in proportion to the bo- dy; his eyes are placed low, at a little distance from the cor- ners of the mouth; his ears are small, and hidden by the hair; his legs are but three inches long; his fore-feet have no more than two claws, of which the exterior is much longer than the interior; his hind feet have four claws. He feels smooth, his colour is shining and diversified with red and yellow; his feet are not made to walk, but climb, and take hold of the branches of trees, on which he hangs him- self by the extremity oi his tail. These animals, so different in the size and proportions of the body, have many things in common, with regard to con- formation and natural instinct. They all feed upon ants, and J4$ NATURAL HISTORY. suck honey and other liquid and viscous substances: gather crumbs of bread and small pieces of meat wirh gieat tlexteii-* t\ ; are easily ramed and domesticated; can subsist a Jong while without food; do nor swallow ail the liquor thev take into their mouth, a part of which issues through their nos- trils; they commonly sleep in the day time, and change their station in the night: and are so slow, that a man may overtake them easily whilst running in open ground. The savages eat their flesh, which has a disagreeable t.iste. The tamanoir looks, at a distance, like a great fox, and for that reason some travellers call him the American fox. He is strong enough to defend himself against a large dog, and even a jaguar. When he is attacked, he fights s.anding on his hind legs, like the bear, and makes use of his fore claws, which are murdeiing weapons, for his protection. He fre- quently lies on his back to use his hind legs, and in this situ- ation is almost invincible, for he seldom loses his life; and after he has put his adversary to death he keeps his hold a long time. He is covered with long bushy hair, and a very thick skin; and his flesh is remarkably haid. The tamanoir, tamandua, and fourmiller, are only natives of the hottest climates of America. They ate found in Brasil, Guiana, the country of the Amazons, &c. and do not breed in Canada, nor any of the frozen regions. NATURAL HISTORY. THE PANGOLIN AND PHATAGIN; OR THE SHORT AND LONG-TAILED MAXIS. THESE animals are commonly known by the name of scaly lizards; but we reject this denomination, r. because it is a compound, 2. because it is ambiguous, and applied to both species; and 3. because these animals are not only of another kind, but even of another class than the lizards, which are oviparous reptiles, while the pangolin and phatagin are viviparous quadrupeds. All lizards are covered, even under the belly, with a sleek speckled skin, like scales, but the pangolin and phatagin have no scales under their throat, on their breast, or belly. The phatagin, like other quadrupeds, has hair on the under parts of the body ; but the pangolin has nothing but a smooth skin. without hair. The scales, with which the other parts of the body of these two animals are covered, are moveable like the prickles of the porcupine; and are so large, hard, and sharp, that they frighten and discourage all animals Of prey. It is offensive armour, it wounds while it resists. The most cruel and voracious beasts, such as the tiger, and the panther, make but useless efforts to devour these armed animals; they tread upon, and roll them, and when they at- tempt to seize them, are grievously wounded. In short, they can neither terrify them by violence, nor crush them with their weight. When the pangolin and phatagin contract themselves, they do not, like the hedge-hog, assume a globular, but an oblong- figure; and their thick and long tails, the exterior parts of NATURAL HISTORY. which carry their o,vn defence, and save these animals from being seized by their enemies ; encircle their bodies, and compose a formidable piece of armour, which is covered with scales equally hard and strong, with those which cover their bodies. The pangolin, or short-tailed manis, is larger than the phatagin, or long tailed; his fore feet are covered with scales, but the phatagin's feet, and part of his fore-legs have none, being only clothed with hair. The pangolin has also larger scales, thicker, more convex, and not so close as those of the phatagin, which are armed with three sharp paints. The scales of the pangolin, on the contrary; are without points, and uniformly sharp. The phatagin is hai- ry on the belly, the pangolin not, and between the scales xvhich cover his back, there is some thick and long hair like the bristles of .a hog, which is not found on the back of the phatagin. The pangolin is from six to eight feet long, including his tail, which is very near as long as his body, though it appears shorter when young. The scales are neither so large nor so- thick; but as he advances in age, the}' acquire such a hard- ness, as to resist a musket ball. Like the ant-eaters, the pan- golin and phatagin live chiefly on ants; they have also a very long tongue, a narrow mouth, and appear to be with- out teeth. Their body and tail are also very long, and then- claws are nearly of the ^same length and form, but equal in number. Ant-eaters are found in America; the pangolin and phatagin in the East Indies, and Africa, where the Ne- groes call them quogdo, and eat their flesh, which they reck- on wholesome fl-od. They also use their scales for different purposes. The pangolin, and phatagin have nothing disa- greeable but their figure; they are gentle, harmless, and in- nocent; feed upon insects only; never run fast, and only e- scape the pursuit of men by lading themselves in rocks, or holes which they dig for themselves. They are two extra- ordinary species, not numerous, nor very useful; and their odd form seems to rank them as an iuu-nneulate class bclwixt quadrupeds and reptiles. NATURAL HISTORY. THE ARMADILLO. UNDER the genernl name of Armadillo, we may reckon several species which seem to us really distinct; in all of which the animal is coated with a crust that resem- bles bone. This external crust covers the head, neck, hack, flanks, buttocks, and the tail to the very extiemity. It is covered by a thin skin, sleek and transparent; the throat, breast, and belly, present a white grainy skin, like that of a plucked fowl. Besides, by viewing these parts with atten- tion, you will preceive the appearance of scales which are of the same substance as the crust. This crust, however, is not of one piece, like that of the turtle; it consists of seve- ral joined to each other by as many membranes, which put this armour in motion. The number of these natural bands does not depend on the age of the animal; for the young ar- madillo and the adult hnve, in the same species, the same num- ber. Father d'Abbeville has distinguished six species of the armadillo, but the principal difference between them con- sists in the number of divisions in the armour. The armadilloe?, in general, are innocent, harmless animals; bat if they can get into gardens, they eat melon?, potatoes, pulic, and roots. Though originally natives of the hot cli- mates of Ameiica, they Jive in temperate jegions. I ocre saw one in Languedoc, which was fed at home, and went e- very where without doing any mi; chief. They walk quick- ly, but can neither leap, run, nor climb up tiees; have no o- ther resource but to hide themselves in their holes, or ;f > 59 NATURAL HISTORY. they are at too great a distance from them, they contrive t, dig one before they are overcome; for they are as expert as the mole in digging the ground ; but are sometimes caught by the tail befoie they are out of sight; in which case they make such a resistance, that the tail is broken without bring- ing out the body : therefore to take them without mutilation the burrow must be opened. When they find themselves in the hands of their pursuers, they roll themselves up into a ball; and must be placed near a fire, to force them to stretch out their coat of mail ; which, hard as it is, as soon as it is touched with the finger, the animal receives so sensible an impression, that it contracts in an instant. When they are in deep burrows, the method of forcing them out is to smoke them, or to let water run down the hole. Some pretend, that they remain under ground above three months without venturing out. It is true, they remain in their holes in the day time, and never go out but in the night to seek sub- sistence. The armadillo is hunted with small dogs, that soon overtake him, but he stops before they reach him, and contracts himself, in which condition he is carried off. If he finds himself on the brink of a precipice, he escapes the dogs and the huntsmen, by rolling "himself up and precipitating himself without injury or prejudice tohis scales. These animals are fat, and very prolific. The female brings forth, as it is reported, four young ones every month, "which makes their species very numerous. They are good to eat, and easily taken with snares laid for them on the banks of rivers and marshy grounds, which they prefer to e- very other place. It is pretended, that they are not afraid of the bite of the rattle-snake, and that they live in peace with these reptiles, which are often found in their holes. The savages make baskets, boxes, and other small vessels of their scales. XATURAL HISTORY. THE PACA, OR SPOTTED CAVY. THE Paca, or Spotted Cavy, is an animal of the New World, which digs a burrow like the rabbit, to which he has been compared, though there is scarcely any similitude. He is much larger than either the rabbit or the hare; has a round head, and a short snout; is fat and bulky, and, by the form of his body, is more like a pig, in grunting, waddling, and manner of eating; for he grubs up the earth like the hog, to find subsistence. These animals inhabit the banks of rivers, and are found in damp and hot places of South America in great abundance. Their flesh is very good, and excessively fat. Huntsmen find it very difficult to take them alive; and when they are surprised in their burrows, which have two openings, they defend them- selves with great obstinacy and bite with excessive fury. Their skin, though covered with short and rough hair, is va- luable, because it is spotted on the sides. Men and animals of prey destroy a great quantity of them, yet the species is numerous. They are peculiar to South America, and are iiot to be met with in the Old Continent. NATURAL HISTORY! THE OPOSSUM. THE Opossum is an animal of America, which is easily distinguished from all others by two singular characters. The first is, that the female has under her belly a large cavity, into which she receives, and suckles her young. The second is, that the mal-e and female have no claws on the great toes of their hind-feet, which are se- parated from the others, like the thumb on the hand of a. man; whilst the fore-feet are armed with crooked claws, like other quadrupeds. The opossum is found only in the south parts of the New World ; it does not dwell constantly in the hottest climates; nnd is found not only in Brasil, Guinea, and Mexico, but in Florida, Virginia, and other temperate regions of this Conti- nent. It is very prolific : most authors say, it produces four or five young ones at a birth , others, six or seven. Marc- grave affirms, that he has seen six in the bag of a female; they were about two inches long, very nimble, and went in and out of the bag many times in a day: they are still smaller whenjust brought forth. Some travellers say, they are not larger than fijes when they go out of the womb into the bag, and stick to the paps. This fact is not so much exaggerated as some may imagine, for we have seen in animals, the spe- cies of which is like that of the opossum, young ones stick- ing to the paps no larger than a bean. Hence we may pre- sume that, iii these animals, the womb is only the place of conception, formation, snd the fiist unfolding of the fostus, which increases in the b;;g. Some authors say, they stick NATURAL HISTORY. 155 to the paps for several weeks ; others, that they remain only in the bag the first month after they proceed from the womb. When they are strong enough to walk, they go out, and seek for subsistence ; and return to sleep, suckle, and hide them- selves when terrified. From the form of the feet of this animal, it is easy to judge, that it walks awkwardly, and seldom runs. One walking moderately may easily outstrip it. It climbs trees with great facility, and either hides itself among the leaves to catch birds, or hangs by the tail, the extremity of which is muscular and flexible as the hands ; so that it can squeeze, and even incur- vate all bodies it seizes upon; in this situation it remains a long time silently waiting for its prey. At other times, it balances itself to jump from one tree to another like the monkeys, which it resembles in the flexibleness of its tail, and the conformation of its feet. Though it be voracious and greedy of blood, it is neither wild nor ferocious: it feeds also upon reptiles, insects, sugar-canes, potatoes, roots, and even leaves and bark of trees. As it is easily tamed, it may be fed as a domestic animal; but its smell is more offensive than that of the fox. Itsfigure is also forbidding; f>r independently of its ears, which resemble those of an owl; of its tail, which resembles that of a serpent; and of its mouth, which is cleft to the very eyes, its body appears always very dirty, because its hair is neither smooth nor curled, but tarnished, as if co- vered with dirt. The bad smell of this animal resides in the skin, for its flesh is palatable; and the savages hunt, and feast on it with avidity. THE MARMOSE, OR MURINE OPOSSUM. THE Marmose, or M'urine Opossum resem- bles, in most respects, the latter species. They are natives of the same climeand continent ; and are very much alike in the form of the body, the conformation of the feet and tail, a partot which is covered with scales, the upper part only be- ing hairy. The marmose is smaller than the common opos- 1 5$ NATURAL HISTORY- sum, his snout is sharper; the female has no bag under heir belly, and has only two loose skins near the thighs, between which her young stick to the paps: when they are brought forth, they are not so large as small beans. The brood of the marmose is very numerous: we have seen ten small mar- moses, each sticking to a pap, and the dam had four paps unoc- cupied. I am persuaded, that these animais bring for:h a few days after conception: the young are then fcetus only, which are not come to the fourth part of their growth. The dam al- ways miscarries, and the foetuses save themselves by sticking to the paps, which they will not leave till they have acquir- ed the growth and strength they would naturally have got in the womb. THE CAYOPOLLIN T , OR MEXICAN OPOSSUM. THE Cayopollin, or Mexican Opossum, ac- cording to Fernandez, is a small animal little larger than a rat, and very much like the opossum in the snout, ears, and tail, which is thicker and stronger than that of a rat. He makes use of it, as we do of our hands; has thin transparent ears: and his bellv, legs, and feet, are white. The young, when they are frightened, embrace the mother, who lifts ' them upon the trees. This species has been found on the mountains of New Spain. E sr T>- c/ _ A 000 026 276 6 . A- xw,. I