UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 ANDREW 
 
 SMITH 
 
 HALLIDIE: 
 
The D. Van Nostrand Company 
 
 intend this booK to be sold to the Public 
 at the advertised price, and supply it to 
 the' Trade on terms which will not allow 
 of discount. 
 
THE 
 
 Transmission of Heat 
 
 THROUGH 
 
 Cold-Storage Insulation 
 
 FORMULAS, PRINCIPLES, AND DATA RELATING TO 
 INSULATION OF EVERY KIND 
 
 A MANUAL FOR REFRIGERATING ENGINEERS 
 
 BY 
 
 CHARLES P. PAULDING, M.E. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 v UNIVERSITY 
 

 Copyright, 1905 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE laws and experiments given by the French 
 physicist, Peclet, in his famous "Traite de la 
 Chaleur," have been the basis of all treatises on 
 artificial heating that have since been written. 
 
 They are equally applicable to the art of 
 refrigeration, and it is the purpose of this book 
 to present them in convenient form with the 
 additional data required for modern practice. 
 
 iii 
 
 14141:5 
 
THE TRANSMISSION OF HEAT THROUGH 
 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 i. General Principles. Let figure i represent a 
 section of a wall of a refrigerated room, and let 
 the wall be of the same material throughout its 
 thickness. Let this room be maintained at a 
 constant temperature, lower than that of the 
 external air, by the withdrawal of heat from it 
 by any of the usual methods. Assume the room 
 to be filled, or partially filled, by articles in 
 storage, and suppose that the temperature of 
 the air in the room and that of the air on the 
 outside have remained constant long enough for 
 the flow of heat in through the wall to have 
 become steady ; in other words, that the wall has 
 become as cold as under these conditions it ever 
 will become. 
 
 Consider, first, the inner surface of the wall; 
 on account of the difficulty which heat experi- 
 
COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 ences in escaping from the surface of a body, 
 this surface is appreciably warmer than the air 
 within the room, and it gives out heat to the room 
 in two ways, by radiation and by air contact. 
 
 T 
 
 i 
 
 .FIGURE: i. 
 
 The radiant heat travels in straight lines from 
 the wall-surface to the objects in the room, pass- 
 ing through the air without much, if any, heating 
 of it, but the heat thus imparted to the objects 
 is given up by them to the air by air contact. 
 The objects receiving the radiant heat will evi- 
 
GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 3 
 
 dently be at a temperature slightly higher than 
 the air; we may neglect this in all calculations, 
 but in measuring the air temperature of a re- 
 frigerated room by a thermometer we should 
 always take care to protect it from radiation 
 from the walls, and we should also prevent it 
 from radiating heat to any cooling-surfaces such 
 as brine pipes and so forth. 
 
 The heat given out by air contact, or convection, 
 as it is perhaps more usually called, is emitted by 
 the wall-surface to the air actually in contact with 
 that surface. As this air is heated it rises, form- 
 ing an ascending current along the surface, and 
 therefore the higher the wall the less energetic 
 is this action, although the decrease with height 
 is less than might be expected. 
 
 The heat thus given to the air and that ab- 
 sorbed by it by contact with the objects heated 
 by radiation is, of course, carried by it to the 
 cooling-pipes ; it enters these and is carried away 
 by the cooling-liquid or gas circulating through 
 them. 
 
 Turning to the outer wall-surface we again find 
 a sudden difference of temperature between the 
 air and the surface, this difference being neces- 
 sary to draw the heat in through the resistance of 
 
4 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 the surface. Part of the heat is radiated to the 
 surface from the surrounding objects and the rest 
 is brought to it by air contact; in this case the 
 current of air along the surface is a descending one 
 instead of an ascending one, as in the case of the 
 inner wall-surface. 
 
 Once within the wall, the heat is drawn through 
 the body of it by the difference of temperature 
 between the inner and outer surface. In a homo- 
 geneous wall, such as we are considering, the 
 temperature of the wall decreases regularly frorfi 
 the outer to the inner surface, forming a steady 
 slope down which the heat flows by virtue of the 
 conductivity of the insulation. The difference of 
 temperatures governing this action is that of the 
 surfaces, and must not be confused with that of 
 the inner and outer air. 
 
 For a given area of wall, the quantities of heat 
 absorbed by the outer surface, transmitted 
 through the body of the wall and emitted by the 
 inner surface, must evidently be equal during 
 any given period of time and constant conditions 
 of temperature. 
 
 Having outlined the general principles we now 
 turn to the methods and data for numerical 
 calculations. 
 
RADIATION. 5 
 
 2. Radiation. "The quantity of heat emitted 
 by radiation per square foot of surface per hour 
 is independent of the form and size of the body, 
 provided that its surface has no reentrant por- 
 tions ; it depends solely on the nature of the sur- 
 face, on the excess of its temperature over that 
 of the objects to which radiation takes place, and 
 on the absolute value of the temperature of these 
 objects.* 
 
 It makes no difference whether the surface is 
 radiating heat to other objects, as is the case for 
 the inner surface of a wall of a refrigerated room, 
 or is receiving heat by radiation from other 
 objects, as is the case for the outer wall-surface, 
 the amount of heat emitted or absorbed will be 
 the same for otherwise identical circumstances. 
 
 For all practical purposes connected with 
 insulation we may simply take the radiation to be 
 proportional to the difference of temperature be- 
 tween the wall and the objects radiated to, al- 
 though this is not precisely true, and we may 
 entirely neglect the variation due to the particular 
 temperature of the objects radiated to, but as 
 there will always arise special cases in which these 
 
 * Peclet. Traite de la Chaleur. 
 
6 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 variations might be important, and also in order 
 that individual judgment may have free play, we 
 will give the necessary tables for more exact cal- 
 culations. 
 
 TABLE I.* VALUES OF K FOR DIFFERENT SURFACES. 
 
 In B.T.U. radiated per hour, per square foot, per one degree 
 difference of temperature between temperature of surface 
 and temperature of objects radiated to. 
 
 Polished silver 027 
 
 Silvered paper 085 
 
 Polished brass 053 
 
 Gilded paper 047 
 
 Polished copper 033 
 
 Cast iron new 649 
 
 Cast iron rusted 688 
 
 Glass 596 
 
 Powdered chalk 680 
 
 Sawdust 723 
 
 Powdered charcoal 700 
 
 Fine sand 741 
 
 Oil paint 759 
 
 Paper 772 
 
 Lampblack 820 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 049 
 
 Polished tin 044 
 
 Tin plate 086 
 
 Sheet iron polished. . .092 
 
 Sheet iron leaded 133 
 
 Sheet iron ordinary. . .567 
 Sheet iron rusted. .. . *688 
 
 Building-stone 737 
 
 Plaster and brick 737 
 
 Wood 737 
 
 Woolen cloth 753 
 
 Calico or canvas 747 
 
 Silk 759 
 
 Water 1.087 
 
 Oil 1.482 
 
 Thus in our calculations any painted wall 
 which is three degrees cooler than the objects 
 radiating heat to it would absorb 3X. 759 = 2. 28 
 B.T.U. per hour per square foot. For more re- 
 fined estimates we modify the figures of Table I 
 by multiplying by a coefficient (/ depending on 
 the difference of temperatures, and then by 
 another coefficient c" varying with the tempera- 
 
 * Peclet. Traite de la Chaleur. 
 
THE 
 
 RADIATION. 
 
 jr OF 
 UNIVERSITY 
 70. 
 
 ture of the objects to which radiation takes place. 
 Then the number of B.T.U. radiated per hour 
 per square foot is 
 
 K X c* X c" X diff. of temp. . . (i) 
 
 The difference of temperature is, as before, 
 that between the radiating surface and the objects 
 radiated to. 
 
 TABLE II. VALUES OF c f . 
 
 Difference of Temperature 
 between Surface and 
 Objects Radiated to 
 
 5 
 
 IO 
 20 
 40 
 80 
 
 160 
 
 320 
 
 c'. 
 i .11 
 
 I . 12 
 I.I4 
 
 1.18 
 
 1.28 
 
 i-54 
 2.30 
 
 TABLE III. VALUE OF c". 
 c". 
 
 Temperature of Objects 
 Radiated to 
 
 O 
 
 2O 
 40 
 60 
 80 
 IOO 
 
 150 
 
 2OO 
 
 .80 
 
 .86 
 
 93 
 .01 
 
 . 10 
 
 .19 
 
 47 
 .82 
 
 Now return to the example given just after 
 Table I, and assume that the painted wall is at 
 a temperature of thirty-three degrees and the 
 
8 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 objects to which it radiates at a temperature of 
 thirty degrees ; then we have by formula (i) 
 
 Heat radiated =.759 Xi. ii X. 90X3 =2.28. 
 
 This result is the same that we obtained before. 
 Now it will be shown further on that it is neces- 
 sary for simplification to use a value of K, the 
 mean between that for the outer wall and that 
 for the inner. An inner temperature of fifteen 
 degrees and outer of forty-five degrees would give 
 the conditions used in the above calculation. 
 Take an inner temperature of forty degrees and 
 an outer of eighty degrees, then the mean is sixty 
 and we would have 
 
 Heat radiated =.759 Xi.n Xi.oi X3 =2.55. 
 
 These cases are toward the two extremes of 
 practice, yet the difference is only about one 
 ninth part of the smaller. If we had been using 
 the two values of K, .759 and .759X1.11X1.01 
 = .85, in computing the loss of heat through a 
 wall six inches thick of any ordinary insulating 
 material the difference in the result would have 
 been about one per cent, which is less than the 
 probable error of any calculation of this kind. 
 
 3. Air Contact. "The loss of heat arising from 
 air contact is independent of the nature of the 
 
AIR CONTACT. 9 
 
 surface of the body, and of the absolute value of 
 the temperature of the surrounding air ; it depends 
 solely on the excess of the temperature of the 
 body over that of the surrounding air, and on the 
 form and dimensions of the body." * 
 
 In all calculations in this book, unless specif- 
 ically stated otherwise, we will assume the air- 
 contact loss to vary directly as the difference of 
 temperatures of the air and of the wall-surface 
 and will take the loss for plane vertical walls 
 directly from the following table. 
 
 Thus for a wall thirty-two feet high at a tem- 
 perature of eighty degrees and exposed to air at a 
 temperature of eighty-three degrees the heat 
 absorbed per square foot per hour by air contact 
 will be=#'Xdiff. of temp. =.27X3 =.8i. 
 
 TABLE IV. VALUES OP K r FOR A PLANE VERTICAL WALL. 
 
 In B.T.U. per hour, per square foot, per one degree differ- 
 ence of temperature of wall-surface and surrounding air. 
 
 Value of K'. 
 
 1 .40 
 
 2 .35 
 4 -32 
 8 .30 
 
 16 .28 
 
 32 .27 
 
 64 .26 
 
 * Peclet. Traite de la Chaleur. 
 
io COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 As the air-contact loss, like the radiation loss, 
 does not vary precisely as the difference of tem- 
 perature, we will give the following formulas and 
 tables for those who may wish to make more exact 
 calculations. 
 
 The air-contact loss in B.T.U. per square foot 
 per hour 
 
 =K f Xc Xdiff. of temp., . . . (2) 
 
 
 
 in which the difference of temperature is that 
 between the surface and the surrounding air, 
 c a coefficient depending on this difference of 
 temperature and to be taken from Table V, and 
 K f a number depending on the form and size of 
 the object and given by the following formulas. 
 For vertical plane surfaces 
 
 where h is the vertical height of the surface in 
 feet. 
 
 For horizontal pipes of circular section 
 
 - ..... (4) 
 
 where r equals the^outside radius in inches. 
 
CONDUCTION. II 
 
 For vertical pipes of circular section 
 
 where r is the outside radius in inches and h the 
 height in feet. 
 
 TABLE V. VALUES OF c. 
 
 Diff . of Temp. c. 
 
 2 -57 
 
 4 .67 
 
 6 .73 
 
 8 .78 
 
 10 .&2 
 
 20 .97 
 
 40 I.I3 
 
 60 1.24 
 
 80 1.33 
 
 100 1.40 
 
 *S *-55 
 
 200 1.64 
 
 300 1.82 
 
 It will be noticed that the values of Table IV do 
 not agree with formula (3). This is because these 
 values have already been multiplied by the co- 
 efficient c taken from Table V for a difference of 
 temperature of four degrees. 
 
 4. Conduction. The quantity of heat trans- 
 mitted through the insulation from outer surface 
 
12 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 to inner surface varies directly as the area of 
 the wall, directly as the conductivity of the ma- 
 terial, inversely as its thickness, and directly 
 as the difference of temperature between the two 
 surfaces. 
 
 The formula for an area of one square foot 
 of a homogeneous wall with plane parallel sur- 
 faces is then 
 
 (6) 
 
 in which M=B.T.U. transmitted per hour per 
 
 one square foot ; 
 (7= the conductivity of the wall as given 
 
 in the following tables ; 
 E=the thickness of the wall in inches ; 
 2= the temperature of the outer wall- 
 surface ; 
 
 2'= the temperature of the inner wall- 
 surface. 
 
 The conductivity, designated by C, is the quan- 
 tity of heat that would traverse in one hour a 
 plate of the given material one square foot in 
 area, one inch thick, and with its surfaces 
 
CONDUCTION. 13 
 
 maintained at temperatures differing by one 
 degree. 
 
 In Table VI are given the values of C for a large 
 number of materials as determined with great 
 care and skill by Peclet. 
 
 TABLE VI. VALUES OF C. 
 
 In B T.U. transmitted per hour, per square foot, for one 
 inch of thickness, for one degree difference of surface tem- 
 peratures. 
 
 SOLID MATERIALS. 
 
 Density. C. 
 
 Marble, gray, fine-grained 2 . 68 28.1 
 
 Marble, white, coarse-grained 2 -77 22.4 
 
 Limestone, fine-grained 2 . 34 16 . 8 
 
 Limestone, " . 2.27 13.6 
 
 Limestone, 2.17 *3 7 
 
 Limestone, coarse-grained, 2.24 10.6 
 
 Limestone, 2.22 10 . 2 
 
 Plaster, ordinary 2.22 2.67 
 
 Plaster, ' ' , very fine 1.25 4.20 
 
 Brick i . 98 5-56 
 
 Brick 1.85 4-n 
 
 Fir (wood), perpendicular to fibres 48 .75 
 
 Fir " parallel " " 48 1.37 
 
 Walnut, perpendicular " 48 .86 
 
 Walnut, parallel " " .40 
 
 Oak, perpendicular ' .70 
 
 Cork 22 .'15 
 
 India-rubber. . 22 .37 
 
 Gutta-percha 22 .39 
 
 Starch paste 1.02 3-43 
 
 Glass 2 . 44 6.05 
 
 Glass 2 . 55 7.10 
 
 (Continued on next page.) 
 
14 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 TABLE VI Continued. 
 
 MATERIALS IN A STATE OP POWDER. 
 
 Density. C. 
 
 Quartz sand 1.47 2.18 
 
 Brick-dust large grains i . oo 1.12 
 
 Brick-dust passed through a sieve of silk. . . i .76 i .33 
 Brick-dust fine powder obtained by decan- 
 
 tation.. 1.55 1.13 
 
 Chalk, in powder, slightly damp 92 .897 
 
 Chalk, in powder, washed and dried 85 .694 
 
 Chalk, in powder, washed, dried, and com- % 
 
 pressed 1.02 .855 
 
 Wood-ashes 45 . 484 
 
 Mahogany sawdust 31 . 524 
 
 Charcoal, powdered 49 .637 
 
 Charcoal, powdered and passed through silk. . .41 .653 
 
 Coke, in powder 77 i . 290 
 
 TEXTILE MATERIALS. 
 
 Canvas, of hemp, new 54 .420 
 
 Canvas, " " old 58 . 347 
 
 White writing-paper 85 .347 
 
 Gray blotting-paper 48 .274 
 
 Calico, new, of any density .403 
 
 Cotton wool, " " .323 
 
 Sheep's wool, " " " 3 2 3 
 
 Eiderdown, " " " 3^5 
 
 Table VII was computed from tests of steam- 
 pipe coverings. The figures given are averages of 
 a large number of tests and are believed to be very 
 reliable. * 
 
 * See Paulding, "Condensation of Steam in Covered and 
 Bare Pipes." Van Nostrand, 1904. 
 
CONDUCTION. 
 
 TABLE VII. VALUES OF C. 
 
 Hair-felt 32 
 
 Remanit 36 
 
 Mineral wool (a) 38 
 
 " (t) 40 
 
 (<0 47 
 
 Compressed sheet cork 47 
 
 Magnesia 45 
 
 Asbestos (a) 57 
 
 (b) 61 
 
 (0 67 
 
 (<*) 74 
 
 Mineral wools a and b contained eighteen per 
 cent of magnesia, while c had only three per cent 
 of that substance. Asbestos a and d are made by 
 the same firm, but a is much the more expensive 
 covering, probably of selected material. Asbestos 
 b and c are formed of small air-cells. 
 
 Table VIII was computed from the results of 
 experiments given by Mr. J. E. Starr in a paper 
 read before the American Warehousemen's Con- 
 vention in 1901.* 
 
 TABLE VIII. VALUES OF C. 
 
 Lampblack 91 
 
 Pitch 74 
 
 " 95 
 
 American spruce 93 
 
 " 94 
 
 Mineral wool .69 
 
 11 82 
 
 Granulated cork 48 
 
 Calcined pumice 6 1 
 
 Mill-shavings 65 
 
 * See "Ice and Refrigeration," Nov. 1901. 
 
1 6 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 Table IX is from Jude and Gossin " Physics, " 
 1899. 
 
 TABLE IX. VALUES OP C. 
 
 9 
 
 Silver 444 
 
 Copper 3192 
 
 Gold 2100 
 
 Zinc 888 
 
 Tin. ., ... 572 
 
 Iron 476 
 
 Lead 334 
 
 Ice 17.42 
 
 Snow 2.03 
 
 Water. 4-4* 
 
 Air 0.16 
 
 Peclet states that dampness greatly increases 
 the conductivity of insulating materials, a fact 
 now well known to all refrigerating engineers. 
 One of the most important problems in the con- 
 struction of insulated walls is to prevent the 
 entrance of moisture. 
 
 5. Formula for a Homogeneous Wall. Let figure 
 i represent, as before, a wall of the same ma- 
 terial throughout its thickness. Let T and t be 
 the temperatures of the outer air and the outer 
 wall-surface respectively, and T r and t' the tem- 
 peratures of the inner air and the inner wall- 
 surface. Let M be the B.T.U. transmitted 
 through one square foot of the wall in one hour! 
 this is, of course, the quantity we wish to deter- 
 
FORMULA FOR A HOMOGENEOUS WALl. 1 7 
 
 mine. Then from paragraphs 2 and 3 we know 
 that 
 
 M=(K+K')(T-t)-Q(T-t) . . (7) 
 
 and M=(K+K')(t f -T f }=Q(t'-T), . (8) 
 
 and from paragraph 4 we have 
 
 Now in practice we never know the tempera- 
 tures t and t' of the wall- surf aces, but since the 
 three equations above are all equal to one another 
 (see paragraph i) we can by combining them 
 obtain the following formula in terms f the 
 inner and outer air temperatures* which we may 
 always easily measure. 
 
 in which M=B.T.U. transmitted per hour per 
 
 one square foot ; 
 C=the conductivity of the material 
 
 (par. 4) ; 
 
 Q=K+K' (pars. 2 and 3) ; 
 E = the thickness of the wall in inches ; 
 T =the temperature of the outer air; 
 T' =the temperature of the inner air. 
 
1 8 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 For example take a wall of brick sixteen inches 
 thick and thirty-two feet high. Let the tem- 
 perature of the outer air be sixty degrees and that 
 of the inner air forty degrees. From Table I, 
 par. 2, we find that ^ = .74; from Table IV, par. 
 3, we find that K' =.27, then % Q =.74 + .2 7 =1.01, 
 and from Table VI, par. 4, we find the value of C 
 to be about 5. Then each square foot of this 
 brick wall under the given temperature conditions 
 will transmit 
 
 5x1.01(60-40) 
 
 2 X5 +I.QI Xi6 
 
 per hour. 
 
 Returning now to formula (10) we must note 
 that in order to have such a simple formula it has 
 been necessary to make some assumptions which 
 are not strictly true. Their effect on the results 
 are however comparatively small. In equations 
 7 and 8 we have set the sums of K+K' for both 
 outer and inner wall-surfaces equal to Q, which is 
 of course to assume them equal. In finding Q it 
 is perhaps best to take for K and K' averages of 
 the values appropriate to the inner and outer 
 walls, where, as generally happens, these values 
 are different. In formula (7) we assume that the 
 objects which radiate heat to the walls are at the 
 
FORMULA FOR A COMPOUND WALL. 19 
 
 same temperature as the outer air. This assump- 
 tion is unavoidable and under practical conditions 
 the error is probably more or less compensatory, the 
 transmission being greater on a clear day and less 
 on a clear night. In formula (8) we assume that 
 the objects to which the inner wall-surfaces radiate 
 are at the temperature of the inner air, and this 
 is practically true except when the wall radiates 
 directly to cold pipe surfaces, and this is negligible 
 unless the proportion of surface thus exposed is 
 unusually large. In such unusual cases an allow- 
 ance may be made in the value of Q. In com- 
 paring the insulating values of different walls, 
 one of the most important uses of these formulas, 
 these errors either do not exist or else have so 
 nearly the same value for all the cases as not to 
 influence the comparative results. 
 
 It is evident from an inspection of the formula 
 that the transmission of heat varies directly as the 
 difference of the inner and outer air temperatures, 
 but not quite inversely as the thickness of the wall. 
 Thus if the wall had been eight inches thick the 
 value of M would have been 5.59, and not twice 
 3.87 or 7.74, as might have been thought. 
 
 6. Formula for a Compound Wall. Take first a 
 wall of two different materials as represented 
 
20 
 
 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 by figure 2. Let C and C' be the conductivities 
 and E and E f the thicknesses of the two materials, 
 
 FIGURE 2. 
 
 and let 6 represent the temperature at the junc- 
 tion of the materials. Then as in paragraph 5 
 we may write the following equations : 
 
 M=Q(T-t), 
 
 M = 
 
 C'(d-t') 
 E' 
 
FORMULA FOR A COMPOUND 
 
 Combining these we have 
 
 -T') 
 
 . (ii) 
 
 For a wall made up of any number of layers of 
 different materials we would have 
 
 , . (12 
 
 in which M= B.T.U. transmitted per hour per one 
 
 square foot; 
 C, C', C" = the respective conductivities of the 
 
 different layers (par. 4) ; 
 Q=K+K'(pars. 2 and 3) ; 
 E, E', E" =the respective thicknesses in inches 
 
 of the different layers ; 
 T=the temperature of the outer air; 
 T' = the temperature of the inner air. 
 
 For an example take the wall shown in figure 
 3. This consists of an outer layer of seven- 
 eighth-inch tongued and grooved spruce sheath- 
 ing (conductivity from Table VIII equals .93), then 
 a layer of water-proof paper about. 03 inch thick 
 
22 
 
 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 (conductivity by Table VI equals .27), then i^ 
 inches of hair-felt (conductivity by Table VII 
 
 Id 
 
 L 
 
 n 
 
 
 L 
 
 t 
 
 z: 
 
 SPRUC 
 
 If 
 UJ 
 
 0. 
 
 g: 
 
 SPRU< 
 
 ^APCTR 
 
 SPRUC 
 
 I 
 
 W 
 
 j 
 
 (7) 
 
 a 
 
 s (T) 
 
 in ^ 
 
 t> 
 
 /x ^ A^ o 
 
 equals .32), then paper, spruce, paper, hair-felt, 
 paper, spruce, and galvanized iron. 
 
 On account of the ease with which it transmits 
 
FORMULA FOR WALL WITH AN AIR-SPACE. 23 
 
 heat, we may pay no attention to the galvanized 
 iron except to choose a value of K midway between 
 that due to the iron (.57) and that due to the outer 
 painted surface (.76). 
 
 Let us suppose the height of the wall to be 10 
 feet. Then Q=. 3 o +J(-57 + =-97- 
 
 Let the temperature of the outer air be ninety 
 degrees and that of the inner twenty degrees. 
 Then by formula (12) we have 
 
 M= _ .97(90-20) _ = 
 
 = 
 
 7. Formula for a Wall Containing an Air-space. 
 
 Let figure 4 represent two walls built with an air- 
 space, closed at top and bottom, between them. 
 Let x and x f be the temperatures of the two sides 
 of the air-space, then the heat will be carried 
 across by radiation and by air contact, and we 
 may say without much error that 
 
 M = (K+K')(x-x f ) =Q(x-x f ). 
 
 Now if the air-space were filled with insulating 
 material of thickness E and conductivity C, the 
 
 Q 
 
 transmission would be equal to -(# #'). Then 
 
COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 ~F 
 in the general formula we may substitute -~ for -~ 
 
 and we have, for one air-space, 
 
 *- ^-fV. C3 
 
 C + Q + C 
 
 T-i 
 
 / 
 
 FIGURED. 
 and for any number of air-spaces 
 
 For the notation see equation (12) of the pre 
 vious paragraph. 
 
FORMULA FOR WALL WITH AN AIR-SPACE. 25 
 
 As a numerical example let figure 4 represent 
 a double brick wall 32 feet high, with an air- 
 space, and let each half of the wall be 8 inches 
 thick. Let the temperature of the outer air 
 be sixty degrees and that of the inner forty 
 degrees. Then, referring to the numerical ex- 
 ample given in paragraph 5, a solid brick wall 
 1 6 inches thick, we have C=$ and Q=I.OI. 
 Then, by formula (13), 
 
 1.01(6040) 
 M=- -TO- -5^=3.24. 
 
 /8 i 8 
 
 .01 (-4- + - 
 
 VS iioi 5 
 
 Now the 1 6 -inch solid wall transmitted 3.87 
 B.T.U. per hour per square foot; we have then 
 decreased the transmission about sixteen per 
 cent by adding the air-space. 
 
 For a second example we may turn to figure 3 
 and suppose the hair-felt removed, leaving two 
 air-spaces, but all other conditions of the example 
 in paragraph 6 remaining unchanged. In the 
 formula, then, we drop out the term representing 
 
 the hair-felt and substitute the value of -, which 
 
26 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 in this case would be - ,= -; we have 
 
 .30 + . 76 i. 06 
 
 then 
 
 M .97(90-20) 
 
 M = - rrr x ; v ; ^ =9.70. 
 
 2 +.97 
 
 We have, in this case, practically doubled the 
 transmission by substituting air-spaces for hair- 
 felt. 
 
 These two examples show how we may deter- 
 mine the value of an air-space in any given case, 
 but a general view of the subject may be useful. 
 
 Returning to the formula, equation (13), or, 
 better, to the reasoning preceding it, we see that 
 the thickness of the air-space is of no effect. 
 Experiments have repeatedly shown this to be 
 true, or approximately so, for ordinary thick- 
 nesses. Taking one inch as a practical thickness 
 
 for ordinary construction, and the value of -^, 
 lying very near to unity, for a material to be of the 
 
 Q 
 
 same value as the air-space, -p must equal unity, 
 
 and for the same thickness, namely one inch, C 
 must equal unity. This is about true for ordinary 
 
FLOORS AND CEILINGS. 27 
 
 spruce ; for almost any of the other materials used 
 in insulation the air-space would be a disad- 
 vantage in a wall of fixed thickness. Of course 
 an added air-space that does not displace any 
 insulating material is always a help, but space is 
 frequently too valuable for this construction to 
 be used. 
 
 8. Floors and Ceilings. The formulas of the 
 preceding paragraph are in strictness only appli- 
 cable to vertical walls; but they are equally 
 applicable to floors and ceilings in every respect 
 except the air-contact action, represented in the 
 formulas by the coefficient K', for the conduc- 
 tivity and the radiation are of course unaffected 
 by the position of the wall. In practical cases, 
 on account of the considerable thickness of the 
 insulation we may use the same value of K' as 
 for the side walls without fear of much error, for, 
 though the air-contact action will be low for the 
 ceiling, it should be high for the floor, and the 
 average cannot be far enough from the usual 
 value of K r to seriously affect the result. 
 
 9. Experimental Proof of the Formulas. Re- 
 liable experiments on the transmission of heat 
 through insulation, under conditions represent- 
 ing actual practice, are very rare, but the following 
 
28 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 tests, made some years ago by the Nonpareil 
 Cork Manufacturing Co., are believed to be un- 
 usually good. 
 
 The apparatus consisted of an insulated box, 
 6 'X3'X3' inside measurement, containing an 
 electric heating-coil, the whole placed in a room 
 i2'Xio'x8' maintained at a constant tempera- 
 ture by air cooled by an ice-machine. One side 
 of the insulated box was removable, and sides 
 built up of any desired insulation could be sub- 
 stituted for it. The area exposed was taken as 
 the mean of the exterior and interior surfaces. 
 The figures hereinafter given for the transmission 
 in each case are per degree difference of inner and 
 outer air temperatures and are taken from blue- 
 prints issued by the cork company about 1899. 
 In another circular they state that the inner and 
 outer temperatures were held at one hundred 
 degrees and ten degrees respectively; this does 
 not, however, enter into our calculations. 
 
 The insulations tested were all combinations of 
 spruce sheathing and compressed sheet cork; 
 they are shown in detail in the following figures. 
 The value of the conductivity of spruce we take 
 from Table VIII as .93; that of water-proof paper 
 .27, as indicated by Table VI; and that of com- 
 
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF THE FORMULAS. 29 
 
 pressed sheet cork as .50, as indicated by the 
 experiments themselves. The value of K we 
 
 find from Table I to be .74; and from Table IV 
 K' is .33, and therefore Q equals 1.07. 
 
30 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 EXPERIMENT I. 
 
 INSULATION AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 5. 
 
 Heat transmitted, in B.T.U. per hour, per 
 square foot, per degree difference of temperature : 
 by the experiment =.175. 
 
 By formula (12), 
 
 EXPERIMENT II. 
 
 Insulation as in Exp. I., except two inches of 
 cork instead of one inch. 
 
 Heat transmitted: by experiment =.135. 
 By formula (12), 
 
 1.07X1 
 
 2 +1.07(4.10+2) 
 
 EXPERIMENT III. 
 
 Insulation as in Exp. II. except three inches 
 of cork instead of two. 
 
 Heat transmitted: by experiment =.094. 
 By formula (12), 
 
 1.07X1 
 
6F-THE 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF THE FORMUE^ri of: ^ 
 
 EXPERIMENT IV. 
 
 INSULATION AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 6. 
 
 Heat transmitted: by experiment =.125. 
 
 or 
 
 (u 
 
 a 
 I 
 
 > SPRUCE:. 
 
 RAPEIR. 
 
 >' SPRUCE:. 
 
 By formula (12), 
 
 M 
 
 1.07 Xi 
 
 2 +1.07 (4 X. 94 + 2 X.i I +2) 
 
 = .128 
 
COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 EXPERIMENT V. 
 
 INSULATION AS SHOWN IN FIGURE 7, 
 
 For the air-space, =.93. 
 
 U 
 
 IT 
 
 ffltf 
 
 .V.-.'* 
 
 &';/ 
 
 Heat transmitted: by experiment =.117 
 
EXPERIMENTAL PROOF OF THE FORMULAS. 33 
 
 By formula (13), 
 
 1.07X1 
 
 ~ 2 +1.07(2 X.94 + 2 X.i i +2 X2 +.93) 
 
 EXPERIMENT VI. 
 
 Insulation as in figure 7, except that a layer 
 of one-inch cork is replaced by one of seven- 
 eighths spruce sheathing. 
 
 Heat transmitted: by experiment =.146 
 
 By formula (13), 
 
 2+1.07(3 X.94 + 2 X.i i +2 +.93) 
 
 .128 
 
 To those who are familiar with the difficulties 
 of tests of this kind the agreement between theory 
 and tests will probably be not unsatisfactory, 
 except in the case of the last experiment. It will 
 be noticed that the insulation in this experiment 
 is the same as in the previous one except that a 
 layer of spruce sheathing has been substituted 
 for a layer of cork. To get the result given in the 
 test we should have to assume the spruce to be 
 of no value whatever, which is obviously absurd. 
 
 Some steam-pipe coverings of compressed cork 
 were included in some very extensive tests made 
 a few years ago by Mr. Geo. H. Barrus, and I have 
 
34 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 computed the value of the conductivity in that 
 case to have been .47. This agrees fairly with the 
 value .50 found to suit best the tests just de- 
 scribed. 
 
 10. Insulation of Brine-pipes. In the case of 
 a covered pipe conveying cold brine or ammonia- 
 gas, there are four stages in the process of the 
 absorption of heat: 
 
 i st. The passage of the heat from the air into 
 the surface of the covering, by radiation from the 
 surrounding objects and the air-contact action of 
 the surrounding air. 
 
 2d. The conduction of the heat through the 
 covering from its outer to its inner surface. 
 
 3d. The conduction of the heat through the 
 metal of the pipe 
 
 4th. The escape of the heat from the inner 
 surface of the pipe to the liquid or gas traversing 
 the pipe. 
 
 On account of the high conductivity of the 
 metal of the pipe, the ease with which heat 
 escapes from a surface to a rapidly moving liquid, 
 or even gas, bathing that surface, and the small 
 quantity of heat permitted to pass by the insu- 
 lating covering, we may entirely neglect the 
 third and fourth stages of the process. This is 
 
INSULATION OF BRINE-PIPES. 35 
 
 equivalent to saying that the temperature of the 
 inner surface of the covering is the same as that 
 of the brine or gas circulating through the pipe. 
 The first and second stages depend on exactly 
 the same principles as in the case of the walls of a 
 refrigerated room, and from these laws we get the 
 following formula : 
 
 * If we consider an infinitely thin annular element of the 
 covering, one foot long, at radius r, its thickness is dr, its area 
 2-xr, its conductivity per one foot thickness is C', equal to 
 
 , and the difference between the temperature of its inner 
 12 
 
 and outer surfaces is dt. Then, treating it as a flat plate, 
 we have by paragraph 4 
 
 TT 27irC'dt , {** , U C R 'dr 
 
 U= -j , or C' I dt = / , 
 
 dr I ,r 27T /o r 
 
 *j i / K. 
 
 where t = temperature of the outer surface of the covering. 
 Integrating, and changing from hyperbolic to common 
 logarithms, we get 
 
 2. 3 (log/?'-log7?) AT 
 
 We know from the principles of paragraphs 2 and 3 that 
 
 By combining these last two equations and writing for C' 
 we get 
 
 U = 
 
3 6 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 in which U =the B.T.U. per hour per foot run 
 
 absorbed through the covering ; 
 77=3.1416; 
 
 R' = radius in feet of the outer surface 
 of the covering (see Table X) ; 
 
 N = 2. 3 (logarithm of J?' logarithm of 
 R) where R is the radius in feet of 
 the outer surface of the pipe 
 (see Table X) ; 
 
 Q =K +K', in which K is the radiation 
 coefficient appropriate to the ma- 
 terial forming the surface of the 
 covering, and is to be taken from 
 Table I ; while K f is the air-con- 
 tact coefficient to be taken from 
 Table X or from formula 4 or 5 of 
 paragraph 3 ; 
 
 C=the conductivity of the material of 
 the covering taken from the 
 tables of paragraph 4 ; 
 
 T =the temperature of the air surround- 
 ing the covered pipe ; 
 
 f =the temperature of the brine or gas 
 circulating through the pipe. 
 
INSULATION OF BRINE-PIPES. 
 
 37 
 
 TABLE X. FOR USE WITH FORMULA (15). 
 
 Nominai 
 Pipe 
 Size. 
 
 Thickness 
 of Covering 
 in Inches. 
 
 Radius 
 in Feet. 
 
 Square Feet 
 per 
 Foot Run. 
 
 1 2R'N. 
 
 For Hori- 
 zontal Pipe. 
 
 
 
 R'. 
 
 t*R'. 
 
 
 K', 
 
 
 O 
 
 55 
 
 356 
 
 
 .89 
 
 
 i 
 
 .097 
 
 .609 
 
 .660 
 
 .68 
 
 
 i 
 
 .138 
 
 .870 
 
 1.530 
 
 .61 
 
 l" 
 
 i* 
 
 .180 
 
 1.130 
 
 2 . 560 
 
 56 
 
 
 2 
 
 .221 
 
 1.389 
 
 3.688 
 
 54 
 
 
 a| 
 
 .263 
 
 i .652 
 
 4.928 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 3 
 
 305 
 
 I -9 1 S 
 
 6 . 260 
 
 So 
 
 
 
 
 .078 
 
 .491 
 
 
 75 
 
 
 i 
 
 .121 
 
 759 
 
 639 
 
 63 
 
 
 i 
 
 ,I6 3 
 
 I .022 
 
 1.425 
 
 58 
 
 *r 
 
 ii 
 
 . 2O4 
 
 1.283 
 
 2-35 
 
 55 
 
 
 2 
 
 . 246 
 
 I .546 
 
 3-39 
 
 S 2 
 
 
 a| 
 
 .288 
 
 I .8lO 
 
 4-55 
 
 5 1 
 
 
 3 
 
 329 
 
 2 .069 
 
 5-665 
 
 50 
 
 
 o 
 
 .OOO 
 
 .62 
 
 
 .68 
 
 
 \ 
 
 vyy 
 .141 
 
 .89 
 
 593 
 
 .60 
 
 
 i 
 
 .183 
 
 I - 1 5 
 
 1-335 
 
 56 
 
 2" 
 
 1* 
 
 .224 
 
 1.41 
 
 2 . 190 
 
 54 
 
 
 2 
 
 .266 
 
 1.67 
 
 3. J 45 
 
 5 2 
 
 
 a* 
 
 .308 
 
 1.94 
 
 4.192 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 349 
 
 2.19 
 
 5-273 
 
 49 
 
 
 o 
 
 . I2O 
 
 . 7 e 
 
 
 .63 
 
 
 i 
 
 .162 
 
 / 
 
 i .02 
 
 579 
 
 **o 
 
 58 
 
 
 i 
 
 .204 
 
 1.28 
 
 i . 290 
 
 55 
 
 a*" 
 
 *f 
 
 245 
 
 i-54 
 
 2-093 
 
 S 2 
 
 
 2 
 
 .287 
 
 i .80 
 
 2 -997 
 
 5 1 
 
 
 a* 
 
 -328 
 
 2 .06 
 
 3-952 
 
 5 
 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 2.32 
 
 4-999 
 
 49 
 
 
 o 
 
 14-6 
 
 O2 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 i 
 
 * *T^ J 
 
 .188 
 
 .:?? 
 
 565 
 
 56 
 
 
 j 
 
 .229 
 
 1.44 
 
 i .240 
 
 53 
 
 3" 
 
 ii 
 
 .271 
 
 1.70 
 
 2 .OIO 
 
 5 1 
 
 
 2 
 
 313 
 
 i .96 
 
 2.85 7 
 
 5o 
 
 
 * 
 
 354 
 
 2 .22 
 
 3-754 
 
 49 
 
 
 3 
 
 396 
 
 2.49 
 
 4.730 
 
 49 
 
COLD-S TOR A GE INS ULA TION. 
 
 TABLE X Continued. 
 
 Nominal 
 Pipe 
 Size. 
 
 Thickness 
 of Covering 
 in Inches. 
 
 Radius 
 in Feet. 
 
 Square Feet 
 per 
 Foot Run. 
 
 1 2 R'N. 
 
 For Hori- 
 zontal Pipe. 
 
 
 
 #'. 
 
 27tR'. 
 
 
 K'. 
 
 
 o 
 
 .188 
 
 I.l8 
 
 
 56 
 
 
 i 
 
 .229 
 
 1.44 
 
 553 
 
 
 
 53 
 
 
 i 
 
 .271 
 
 1.70 
 
 i . 196 
 
 5 1 
 
 4" 
 
 i* 
 
 3 J 3 
 
 I .96 
 
 I -9 I S 
 
 5 
 
 
 2 
 
 354 
 
 2 . 22 
 
 2.682 
 
 49 
 
 
 a| 
 
 39 6 
 
 2.49 
 
 3-533 
 
 49 
 
 
 3 
 
 43 
 
 2 -75 
 
 4-434 
 
 .48 
 
 
 o 
 
 . 232 
 
 i . 46 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 273 
 
 1.72 
 
 541 
 
 oo 
 5 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 3iS 
 
 i .98 
 
 i . 160 
 
 5 
 
 5" 
 
 I* 
 
 357 
 
 2.24 
 
 1.847 
 
 -49 
 
 
 2 
 
 .398 
 
 2.50 
 
 2-574 
 
 .49 
 
 
 a* 
 
 .440 
 
 2.77 
 
 3-37 1 
 
 .48 
 
 
 3 
 
 .482 
 
 3-3 
 
 4 . 220 
 
 .48 
 
 
 
 
 .276 
 
 J -73 
 
 
 5 1 
 
 
 i 
 
 .318 
 
 2 .00 
 
 534 
 
 5 
 
 
 i 
 
 359 
 
 2.26 
 
 I-I33 
 
 -49 
 
 6" 
 
 i* 
 
 .401 
 
 2.52 
 
 l -795 
 
 -49 
 
 
 2 
 
 443 
 
 2. 7 8 
 
 2.512 
 
 .48 
 
 
 a| 
 
 .484 
 
 3-4 
 
 3-259 
 
 .48 
 
 
 3 
 
 526 
 
 3-30 
 
 4.063 
 
 47 
 
 
 o 
 
 5 r Q 
 
 2 . 26 
 
 
 4.0 
 
 
 i 
 
 o jy 
 .401 
 
 2.52 
 
 529 
 
 ty 
 
 49 
 
 
 i 
 
 443 
 
 2. 7 8 
 
 I . IIO 
 
 48 
 
 8" 
 
 i* 
 
 .484 
 
 3-04 
 
 1.738 
 
 .48 
 
 
 2 
 
 . 526 
 
 3-30 
 
 2 .410 
 
 47 
 
 
 2* 
 
 .568 
 
 3-57 
 
 3.120 
 
 47 
 
 
 3 
 
 .609 
 
 3-83 
 
 3.859 
 
 46 
 
 For a numerical example we will take a ij- 
 inch standard pipe, running horizontally, covered 
 with an insulation "two inches thick and of con- 
 ductivity .64. Let the temperature of the sur- 
 
INSULATION OF BEINE-PIPES. 39 
 
 rounding air be eighty degrees and the brine 
 within the pipe be at a temperature of twenty 
 degrees. What will be the absorption of heat 
 per hour per foot run in B.T.U. ? 
 
 In this example we may take the quantities 
 2nK, i 2 NR', and K f directly from Table X; their 
 values are 1.55, 3.39, and .52 respectively. If we 
 suppose the outer surface of the covering coated 
 with paint we may take K= .76, then Q= .52 + .76 
 = 1.28 and our formula becomes 
 
 1.55 Xi. 28(80-20) 
 
 3-39X...8 -5-30. 
 
 .64 
 
 If the brine in this pipe were to travel at a 
 speed of 1 50 feet per minute, there would pass in 
 one hour 8940 pounds of a specific gravity of 1.12 
 and a specific heat of .86. To raise the tempera- 
 ture of this one degree would require 8940 X. 8 6 
 = 7688 B.T.U. If we divide this figure by 15.30 
 we get the length of pipe through which the brine 
 may be carried before its temperature rises one 
 degree. This works out at about 500 feet. 
 
 Returning to formula (15) we see at once that 
 the amount of heat absorbed varies directly as the 
 
40 COLD-STORAGE INSULATION. 
 
 difference of temperatures of the surrounding air 
 and the brine. In regard to the variation due to 
 the conductivity, C, of the covering, we see from 
 the formula that although the absorption does not 
 vary directly with this, still the departure from 
 this law is not great. Thus in our numerical 
 example, if we had employed hair-felt with a con- 
 ductivity of .32 instead of the material with C 
 equal to .64 we should have found U to equal 8.17, 
 which is not so far from half of 15.30. But in 
 regard to the variation of the absorption as the 
 thickness of the covering is changed the law is 
 complicated. If we consider a covering com- 
 posed of two cylindrical layers of equal thickness, 
 it is evident that while the resistance due to 
 thickness will be the same in both, the outer layer 
 will present a greater area for the passage of the 
 incoming heat and therefore will be less effective 
 than the inner layer. Moreover, the addition of 
 the outer layer has increased the superficial area 
 per foot run, thus giving a greater opportunity 
 for air contact and radiation. The greater the 
 diameter of the pipe the nearer does each layer 
 come to being equally effective. Returning to 
 our numerical example the variation of absorp- 
 tion with thickness would be as follows: 
 
INSULATION OF BRINE-PIPES. 4* 
 
 (C ~ 64) (Diff. of Temp. = 60) 
 
 I" 26.55 
 
 1 " 20.58 
 
 ij" 17-35 
 
 2 " 15.30 
 
 By the principles laid down in paragraphs 2 and 
 3 the absorption of heat by a bare pipe under the 
 conditions of our numerical example can be 
 readily obtained. 
 
 The formula is : 
 
 U=2KR'Q(T-t'\ . . . (16) 
 
 and from Table X, 2nR' is .491, while K' is .75. 
 From Table I, K is about .57, therefore Q = .75 + 
 .57 = 1.32 and U =.491 Xi. 32 X6o =38.89. 
 
 This figure shows that the two -inch covering 
 has reduced the loss to 15.30-^-38.89=39.4 per 
 cent of that which occurs with a bare pipe. If 
 the covering had been of hair-felt, which repre- 
 sents about the highest commercially obtainable 
 efficiency, the loss would be only 8.17^-38.89 = 21 
 per cent. Of course a bare pipe would soon coat 
 itself with snow and thus decrease the absorption, 
 but for purposes of comparison we cannot consider 
 this. 
 
IMPORTANT BOOKS. 
 
 -ON- 
 
 Refrigeration and Ice-Making. 
 
 -*M- 
 
 Dixon, A. J. Manual of Tee-Making and Refrigerating 1 
 Machines. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of 
 Cold-Production by Mechanical Means. 16mo, cloth. 
 St. Louis, 1894 $1.00 
 
 Hausbrand, E. Evaporating, Condensing and Cooling 
 Apparatus; Explanations, Formulae, and Tables for 
 Use in Practice. Translated from the Second Re- 
 vised German Edition by A. C. Wright, M. A. With 
 numerous figures, tables and Diagrams. Bvo., Cloth. 
 Illustrated. 400pp. London, 1902 net 5.00 
 
 Leask, A. Ritchie. Refrigerating Machinery. Its Prin- 
 ciples and Management. With numerous illustra- 
 tions Second Edition, Revised. Svo., Cloth. 296pp. 
 London, 1901 2.00 
 
 Ledoux, M. Ice-Making Machines: The Theory of the 
 action of the various forms of cold-producing, or so- 
 called Ice Machines. Translated, revised and trans- 
 formed into English units by J. E. Den ton, D. S. 
 Jacobus and A. Reisenberger. With tables, figures 
 and diagrams. Fifth Edition, Revised. 16mo, 
 Cloth. Illustrated. 190pp. New York, 1902 50 
 
 Levy, J. Refrigerating Memoranda; a collection of use- 
 ful information relating to Ice- Making and Refrigera- 
 ting, gathered from engine-room practice. With 
 tables and diagrams. 32mo, limp leather, illustrated. 
 76 pp. Chicago, 1902 75 
 
 Lorez, H. (Prof.) Modern Refrigerating Machinery; Its 
 Construction, Methods of Working and Industrial 
 Applications. A guide for Engineers and Owners of 
 Refrigerating Plants. Authorized Translation from 
 the Third German Edition by Thos. H. Pope, B.Sc., 
 with chapters on American Practice in Refrigeration, 
 Insulation, Auditorium, and Other Cooling, by H. M. 
 Haven, S.B., and F. W. Dean, S.B. 8vo., Cloth, 
 Illustrated, 396 pp. New York, 1905 net 4.00 
 
Paulding, C. P. Practical Laws and Data on the Con- 
 densation of Steam in Covered and Bare Pipes; to 
 which is added a translation of Peclet's "Theory and 
 Experiments on the Transmission of Heat through 
 Insulating Materials. " With tables, figures and dia- 
 grams. Svo., Cloth, illustrated. 102pp. New York, 
 1904 net 2.00 
 
 Transmission of Heat through Cold-Storage Insu- 
 lation: Formulas, Principles and Data relating to 
 insulation of every kind. A manual for refrigerating 
 engineers. 12mo, cloth. 41 pages, Illustrated. 
 New York, 1905 net 1.00 
 
 Kedwood, I. I. Theoretical and Practical Ammonia Re- 
 frigeration. A practical handbook for the use of 
 those in charge of refrigerating plants. Illustrated, 
 with numerous Tables. Third edition, revised 
 and corrected. 12mo, cloth. New York, 1898 1.00 
 
 Schmidt, L. M., Ph.B. Principles and Practice of Artifi- 
 cial Ice- Making and Refrigerating. Comprising 
 principles and general consideration practice as 
 shown by particular systems and apparatus insula- 
 tion of cold-storage and ice-houses, refrigerators, etc. 
 Useful information and tables. Illustrated with nu- 
 merous folding plates and diagrams. Second ed- 
 ition, Revised and enlarged. 8vo., cloth, illustrat- 
 ed. 291 pp. Philadelphia, 1904 2.50 
 
 Selfe, N. Machinery for Refrigeration: being sundry 
 observations with regard to the principal appliances 
 employed in ice-making and refrigeration, and upon 
 the laws relating to the expansion and compression 
 of gases, principally from an Australian standpoint. 
 Containing many tables, diagrams and half-tone cuts. 
 Svo, Cloth, illustrated. Chicago, 1904 3.50 
 
 Siebel, J. E. Compend of Mechanical Refrigeration. A 
 comprehensive digest of Applied Energetics and 
 Thermodynamics for the Practical Use of Ice-Manu- 
 facturers, Cold-Storage Men, Contractors, Engineers, 
 Brewers, Packers and others interested in the Appli- 
 cation of Refrigeration. With numerous tables. 
 Sixth Edition. 8vo., cloth. 389 pp. Chicago, 
 1904 net 3.00 
 
 Stephanshy, P. C. O. The practical running of an Ice 
 
 and Refrigerating Plant. Illustrated. Boston, 1897 2.00 
 
 Vincent, C. Ammonia and its Compounds: their manufac- 
 ture and uses. Translated from the French by M. J. 
 Salter. 113 pp. illustrated. 8vo., cloth. 1901. net 2.00 
 
Voorhees, G. T., S. B. Indicating the Refrigerating Ma- 
 chine: The application of the Indicator to the Am- 
 monia Compressor and Steam Engine, with practical 
 instructions relating to the construction and use of 
 the Indicator and reading and computing Indicator 
 cards. Illustrated with full page cuts, diagrams and 
 tables. 16mo., cloth, oblong, illustrated. 179 pp. 
 Chicago, 1899 net 1.00 
 
 Wallis-Tayler, A. J., C.E. Refrigeration and Cold-Stor- 
 age, and Ice- Making. A practical treatise on the 
 art and science of refrigeration. With 361 cuts and 
 diagrams. 8vo., cloth, illustrated. London, 1902. 
 net 45 
 
 Pocket-Book of Refrigeration and Ice-Making. Fourth 
 Edition, Enlarged. With 31 diagrams and num- 
 erous tables. 12mo, Cloth, Illustrated. 184 pp. New 
 York, 1905 1.50 
 
 Williams, H. Mechanical Refrigeration. Being a Prac- 
 tical Introduction to the Study of Cold Storage, Ice 
 Making, and Other Purposes to which Refrigeration 
 is being applied. 12mo, cloth, Illustrated. 406 pp. 
 New York, 1903 net 2.25 
 
 D. Van Nostrand Company, 
 
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Catalogue of Scientific Publications 
 
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