^ ■..IbkARY <^,. ik'arsi'V of Californi^ "*" IRVINE THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IRVINE GIFT OF MR. J. L. PETERSON HISTORY F COLORADO WILBUR FISK SJONE EDITOR ~ "" ILLUSTRATED VOLUME I CHICAGO THE S. J. CLARKE PUHLI SUING COMPANY 1918 r, . Bebicateb to tf)E pioneers of Colorabo FOREWORD The prime object in the minds of the editor and his assistant writers in compiHng this History of Colorado, also the intent of the publishers, has been to base it on authentic sources, not only in the narrative of the original explora- tions of the New World, but in the modern settlement and development of our state. Hence, the facts relating thereto are stated not as opinions or mere con- clusions of the writers or individual informants, but, in order to avoid f>ersonal bias and prejudice, all that is set forth pertaining to important events of public interest in the departments of state history — the military', industrial, educational, religious and social organizations and their progress and results' — has been taken from the records, rejjorts and archives, national and state, of the govenunent and administrative bodies relating to the several topics. Errors that have been made in the past with reference to Colorado history have been corrected, so that the work, as is sincerely desired by the editor and his many friends and assistants, may come to be regarded as the standard History of Colorado to the present date. In the work of writing and compiling the historical volume the editor has been ably assisted by Mr. Alfred Patek, a writer well known to Colorado, and Mr. Gordon K. Miller, both experienced historical writers connected with The S. J. Clarke Publishing Company of Chicago. The work of the biographical volumes has been done by a corps of writers engaged by the publishers for that department and their work has been gratify- ing to the editor and, so far as he has ascertained, highly satisfactory to the subjects of the sketches, to whom the typed copy has been submitted l)efore reaching the publishers. The very efficient work of Mr. Charles T. Sprague in the organization of the plan of work, the preparation of the prosf>ectus, securing the names and aid of the editor, and {persons known to all the people of the state as sponsors of the work, and who secured photographs for the illustration of the same, is greatly appreciated and cTeserves the thanks of all the patrons. The labor of all who have taken part in producing these volumes, aside from the liberality of the publishers in their vast expense in the venture, has been great ; but a noted man once said : '"There is no great excellence without great labor." Wilbur Fisk Stoxf.. Editor. CONTENTS CHAPTER I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE POSITION OF COLORADO MOUNTAINS — PARKS — HUMIDITY' TEMPERATURE — FROSTS — PRECIPITATION — TOPOGRAPHY OF THE COUNTIES I CHAPTER n THE SPANISH AND FRENCH PERIODS OF EXPLORATION SPANISH JURISDICTION DE VACA's EXPLORATION CORONADO's F.XPEDITION — FATHER PADILLA's FATE — MOSCOSCO's MARCH ONATE's EXPEDITION BONIL- LA'S EXPEDITION — ONATE's SECOND EXPEDITION PUEBLO UPRISING THE FRENCH MENACE VALVERDE's EXPEDITION — ESCALANTE's EXPLORATIONS — THE LAST SPANISH EXPEDITION- — THE FRENCH — FRENCH BELIEFS AND CLAIMS DU TISNE LA HARPE — BOURGMONT'S SECOND APPEARANCE THE MALLET BROTHERS — FABREE DE LA BRUYERE GOVERNMENTAL ASPECTS 20 CHAPTER HI THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN EXPLORATION THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE — LEWIS AND CLARK — ZEBULON M. PIKE — HIS FIRST AND SECOND EXPEDITIONS — FIRST VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS — MEETING WITH THE SPANISH PIKE's SINCERITY — LONG's EXPLORING EXPEDITION— FIRST ASCENT OF pike's PEAK — JOHN C. FREMONT — THE SECOND EXPEDITION THE THIRD AND FOURTH EXPEDITIONS OF FREMONT — THE GUNNISON EXPEDITION — FI'HMdXr's lASr FXPEDITION 37 CHAPTER IV ANCIENT AND MODERN INDIAN TRIBES THE CLIFF DWELLERS — DISCOVERY OF RUINS — THE DWELLING — SPRUCE TREE HOUSE CLIFF PALACE THE SUN TEMPLE ORIGIN OF CLIFF DWELLERS — THE AMER- ICAN INDIAN — COLORADO TKinES — CHIEFTAINS — COL. IIENRV DODGE's EXPEDl- vi . CONTEXTS tion the kearny expedition beginning of depredations the uprising of 1864 alarm in denver — reign of terror council at denver the affair at sand creek the aftermath — effect upon the indians — Forsyth's eattle on the arickaree — roman nose — beecher's death — THE outcome UTE UPRISING OF 1879 ATTACK ON THORNBURGH THE AT- TACK AT THE AGENCY 65 CHAPTER V TRADERS AND TRAPPERS THE CHARACTER OF THE TRAPPER — THE FIRST TRADERS CHOUTEAU AND DE MUNN — THE GLENN-FOWLER EXPEDITION — THE BENTS THE PUEBLO- — THE FIRST POST ON THE SOUTH PLATTE FORT LANCASTER FORT ST. VRAIN ANTOINE ROUBI- DEAU — FORT LARAMIE — THE SANTE FE TRAIL — THE LAST TRADER DR. F. A. WIS- LIZENUS" JOURNEY I08 CHAPTER VI EARLY SETTLEMENT LN COLORADO SETTLEMENT ON DENVER SITE ST. CHARLES TOWN ASSOCIATION — THE AURARIA TOWN COMPANY- — THE DENVER CITY TOWN COMPANY FIRST BUSINESS AT CHERRY CREEK^ — BOULDER CITY TOWN COMPANY LA PORTE EL PASO CITY FOUNTAIN CITY TOWN COMPANY — MOUNTAIN CITY GOLDEN CITY COLORADO CITY — CANON CITY OTHER TOWNS OF 1859 CENTRAL CITY — PUEBLO CITY — LEADVILLE — GRAND JUNCTION — DELT.\ MONTROSE — GLEN WOOD SPRINGS GUN- NISON — Sn.XERTON — OURAY — TELLURIDE DURANGO 134 CHAPTER Vn COLONIZATION IN COLORADO BEGINNING OF COLONIZATION — THE CHICAGO COLONY — THE UNION COLONY THE CHICAGO-COLORADO COLONY — THE ST. LOUIS WESTERN COLONY THE SOUTH- WESTERN COLONY — INSPIRING IMMIGRATION — SETTLEMENT OF COLORADO SPRING.S SOUTH PUEPLO — BEGINNING OF FORT COLLINS I58 CHAPTER VIII GOVERNMENT— ITS BEGINNINGS AND DEVELOPMENT UTAH, NEBRASKA, KANSAS AND NEW MEXICO LAND TRANSFERRED THE BEGIN- NINGS OF GOVERNMENT — FAILURE OF FIRST STATE CONSTITUTION TERRITORY OF JEFFERSON PEOPLE'S AND MINERS* COURTS — CONGRESS CREATES COLORADO TERRITORY CREATING THE FIRST COUNTIES — MOVING THE CAPITAL TO COLO- CONTEXTS vii RADO CITY THE CAPITAL AT GOLDEN — CHANGE FROM GOLDEN TO DENVER CONGRESS PROVIDES FOR CONSTITUTION — CUSTOMS OF LEGISLATURE TERRITO- RIAL OFFICERS OF COLORADO — GOVERNORS SECRETARIES TREASURERS — AU- DITORS SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION — DELEGATES TO CONGRESS JUDGES OF THE SUPREME COURT CHIEF JUSTICES — ASSOCIATE JUSTICES — UNITED STATES DISTRICT ATTORNEYS LENGTH OF SESSIONS AND NUMBER OF MEMBERS CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONS — FIRST ELECTION POLL BY COUN- TIES i68 CHAPTER IX THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OPPOSITION TO STATEHOOD MEETINGS OF CONVENTION APPOINTMENT OF COM- MITTEES SUMMARY OF CONSTITUTION — FRAMING AN APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE THE VOTE SUBMITTING OF CONSTITUTION TO FEDERAL AUTHORITIES — STATE- HOOD 183 CHAPTER X GROWTH OF THE STATE GO\ERNMENT I HE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT — ROSTER OF ELECTIVE STATE OFFICERS REPRESENTA- TION IN CONGRESS THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE SUPREME BENCH DENVER BE- COMES THE CAPITAL — BUILDING THE STATE HOUSE — WHEN THE NEVV COUNTIES WERE CREATED THE STATE'S FINANCES — AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION — THE INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM — RECALL OF DECISIONS — THE SUFFRAGE AMEND- MENT — PKOIIir.lTION — CHANGES IN THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW t<)0 CHAPTER XI THE GROWTH OF STATE DEPARTMENTS THE PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION — BOARD OF EQUALIZATION TURNS POWERS OVER TO A TAX COMMISSION THE STATE INHERITANCE TAX— BOARD OF STOCK INSPEC- TION COMMISSIONERS STATE BOARD OF HEALTH CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION STATE BUREAU OF CHILD AND ANIMAL PROTECTION — CHARITIES AND CORRECTION THE INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION — COAL INSPECTION STATE HISTORICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FISH AND GAME COMMISSION INSURANCE IM- MIGR.ATION— BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS— BANKING COMMISSION CAPITOL MANAGERS — STATE' LAND BOARD — ENGINEER — THE STATE SEAL 2o6 CHAPTER XII THE BEGINNINGS OF MINING HISTORY IN COLORADO MINING liV EARLY EXPLORERS — FIRST GOLD DISCOVERIES THE RUSSELL EXPFJJITION JACKSON's DISCOVERIES ON CLEAR CREEK CLEAR CREEK PRODUCTION THE FIRST MINING REVIEW — GILPIN COUNTY AND JOHN H. GREGORY — COLORADO'S i CONTEXTS FOUR MINING EPOCHS — CRUDE METHODS FOLLOWED BV AN EXODUS PERIOD OF THE FISSURE VEINS — CVANIDATION DEVELOPS PROSPECTS OF MINING DIS- TRICTS RISE AND FALL OF CHLORINATION CHANGING FROM A SILVER-PRO- DUCING TO A LEADING GOLD-PRODUCING COUNTRY ERA OF DEEP MINING TUNNELING — DREDGING REVIVES PLACER MINING OIL FLOTATION PRODUC- TION OF BIG PROPEiniES UP TO 1880 228 CHAPTER XIII COLORADO AIIXIXG— BY SECTIONS THE MINES OF PARK COUNTY — THE ROMANCE OF MINING IN SUMMIT COUNTY — • LEADVILLE MAKES WORLD HISTORY' MINES OF THE SAN JUAN — BOULDER COUN- TY'S ARGONAUTS — CRIPPLE CREEK PROVES A WORLD WONDER CUSTER COUNTy's MINING HISTORY IN THE REGION OF RICO^EAGLE COUNTY EL PASO COUNTY FREMONT COUNTY' MINING IN GUNNISON COUNTY IN GRAND COUNTY HINSDALE IN THE SAN JUAN COUNTRY' JEFFERSON COUNTY- — LARIMER AND JACKSON COUNTIES — MESA COUNTY MINERAL COUNTY' MONTEZUMa's MINES COLORADO CARNOTITE ENRICHES THE WORLD OURAY's MINES CAMP BIRD MINES — RIO GRANDE COUNTY' ROUTT AND MOFFAT COUNTIES CHAFFEE COUNTY SAGUACHE COUNTY SAN MIGUEL PITKIN COUNTY'^ — METAL OUTPUT OK COLOR \D() r.\ YEARS — DISTRIBUTION OF MINERALS IN COLORADO 262 CHAPTER XIV RECORD OF SMELTERS FOR HALF A CENTURY BEGINNING OF THE SMELTER INDUSTRY IN COLORADO— PROF. NATHANIEL P. HILL AND HIS WORK FIRST COMPANY ORGANIZED RICHARD PEARCE's WORK PEARCE'S IMPROVED TREATMENT OF ORES OTHER SMELTERS — PRICES PAID BY BLACKHAWK SMELTER BEFORE iS/O GROWTH OF INDUSTRY LONG FIGHT OF THE AMERICAN SMELTING AND REFINING COMPANY CONTROL GOES TO THE GUGGENHEIMS .^lO CHAPTER XV THE POWER PLANTS OF COLORADO FIRST EFFORTS TO HARNESS STATE WATER POWER — CURTIS & HIKE PIONEER THE WORK — FAILURE OF POWER COMPANIES EASTERN CAPITAL BECOMES INTER- ESTED — COLORADO POWER COMPANY STATEMENT OF BOARD OF UTILITIES IN JANUARY, 1918 WESTERN LIGHT & POWER COMPANY ARKANSAS VALLEY RAILWAY, LIGHT & POWER COMPANY — COLORADO SPRINGS LIGHT, HEAT & POWER COMPANY — WESTERN COLORADO POWER COMPANY' TRINIDAD ELECTRIC TRANS- MISSION, RAILWAY' & GAS COMPANY — OTHER PLANTS IN COLORADO 317 CONTEXTS ix CHAPTER XVI TRANSPORTATION— FROM MULE PACK TO RAILWAY BEGINNING OF WAGOX FREIGHTING FINDING TRANSCONTINENTAL RAILWAY ROUTE — STAGES FOLLOW THE FREIGHTERS — THE OVERLAND EXPRESS WELLS, FARGO & COMPANY THE PONY EXPRESS — COLORADO CENTRAL & PACIFIC RAILROAD NEED OF TRANSPORTATION SELECTION OF BRIDGER PASS BY THE UNION PACIFIC — THE CHEYENNE MENACE — LOVELAND's AMBITIONS THE KANSAS PACIFIC RAILROAD AID REQUESTED— A DAY OF CRISIS — SITUATION IN 1868 ADVENT OF GEN. WILLIAM J. PALMER — ARRIVAL OF FIRST TRAINS IN DENVER STRUGGLE FOR MINING OUTPUT FREIGHT BUSINESS IN 187I COLORADO CENTRAL & PA- CIFIC STARTS BUILDING — KANSAS PACIFIC IN FINANCIAL STRAITS — UNION PACIFIC SECURES CONTROL OF OTHER ROADS 3^5 CHAPTER XVII TRANSPORTATION— THE DENVER & RIO GRANDE VISION OF GEN. WILLIAM J. PALMER PLANS A GREAT SYSTEM IN AN UNDE- VELOPED COUNTRY FAITH IN ITS GREAT POSSIBILITIES PREDICTED WITH UNER- RING ACCURACY TOURIST TRAVEL HOW THE FIGHT FOR THE CANON OF THE AR- KANSAS WAS WON — THE CANON CITY & SAN JUAN RAILROAD ON THE SIDE OF THE SANTA FE WHAT LE.\DVILLE MEANT TO THE FIRST RAILROAD TO REACH IT THE DENVER & RIO GRANDE SELLS OUT TO THE SANTA FE PALMER MEN TAKING FORCIBLE POSSESSION — SEIZING ROLLING STOCK AND STATIONS JAY GOULD EN- TERS THE FIELD AND EFFECTS A COMPROMISE — TERMS OF THE AGREEMENT FIGHT FOR RATON PASS — CONSTRUCTION RECORDS IN COLORADO THE WESTERN PACIFIC IN THE HANDS OF RECEIVERS 346 CHAPTER XVIII TRANSPORTATION— OTHER STATE AND TRUNK LINES THE DENVER & SOUTH PARK THE DENVER & NEW ORLEANS THE COLORADO & SOUTHERN — THE BURLINGTON — THE SANTA FE THE MISSOURI PACIFIC — COLO- RADO MIDLAND THE MOFFAT ROAD ITS STRUGGLES TO FINANCE ITSELF WRECKED GREAT FORTUNE — ERIi ENTERS AND LEAVES THE FIELD COLORADO MEN AGAIN IN POSSESSION — THE DENVER, LARAMIE & NORTHWESTERN — HOW IT WAS BUILT — ITS JUNKING — THE ROCK ISLAND — THE DENVER, LAKEWOOD & GOLDEN — UNION DEPOT — THE COG ROAD GOLD CAMP ROADS — RAILROAD MILEAGE IN 1917 — WHAT IT COST TO liril.D THE EARLY ROADS 3^5 CHAPTER XIX THE TELEGRAPH AND THE TELEPHONE EFFORTS TO ORGANIZE TELEGRAPH COMPANIES IN 1860 FAIL — CONGRESSIONAL SUB- SIDY IN 1861 EFFECTIVE LINE REACHES JULESBURG DENVER USES PONY EX- PRESS TO Sr.\TE LINE — FIRST LINE REACHES DENVER— -CONSTRUCTING TO SANTA X CONTENTS FE WESTERN UNION ACQUIRES ALL EXISTING LINES IN TERRITORY IN 187O ENTRANCE OF POSTAL TELEGRAPH IN FIELD MILEAGE IN I918 THE TELE- PHONE COMPANY ORGANIZES FOR BUSINESS IN COLORADO DETAILED HISTORY OF ITS GROWTH THE BEGINNING AT LEADVILLE — SUBSTITUTING GIRLS FOR MALE OPERATORS IMPROVEMENTS — EXTENDING THE SYSTEM ORGANIZING THE MOUNTAIN ST.\TES TELEPHONE COMPANY 383 CHAPTER XX BANKS AND BANKING EARLY BANKING IN DENVER CLARK, GRUBER & COMPANY — ESTABLISHMENT OF UNITED STATES MINT IN DENVER OTHER PIONEER BANKING BUSINESS C. A. COOK & COMPANY THE EXCHANGE BANK P. P. WILCOX & COMPANY — KOUNTZE brothers' BANK BANKS NOW DEFUNCT — THE FIRST NATIONAL BANK — COLORADO NATIONAL BANK DENVER NATIONAL BANK OTHER BANKS BANKING FRAUDS IN DENVER — DENVER CLEARING HOUSE ASSOCIATION FIRST BANKING IN OTHER COMMUNITIES, COLORADO SPRINGS, PUEBLO, ETC. STATIS- TICS OF COLORADO BANKS IN igi8 392 CHAPTER XXI COLORADO'S POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS POLITICS BEGAN WITH THE COMING OF THE GOLD-SEEKERS ORGANIZING THE TERRITORY OF "jEFFERSON" NAMING THE NEW TERRITORY ELECTING THE FIRST "state" OFFICERS — THE FIRST GOVERNOR ARRIVES — TERRITORIAL SQUAB- BLES — GILPIn's REMOVAL TURNING DOWN COLORADO'S FIRST CHOSEN "SEN- ATORS" GRANT SPRINGS A SURPRISE BY REMOVING ELBERT THOMAS M. PAT- TERSON TELLS OF THE WINNING OF STATEHOOD THE FIRST STATE ELECTION — JUDGE WILBUR F. STONE ONLY DEMOCRAT CHOSEN — JOHN L. ROUTT WINS GOV- ERNORSHIP- — THE BELFORD AND PATTERSON CONGRESSIONAL FIGHT CHAFFEE AND TELLER GO TO SENATE BELFORD FOR CONGRESS N. P. HILL ENTERS THE FIELD — PITKIN CHOSEN GOVERNOR TELLER GOES INTO CABINET — -BOWEN AND TABOR GO TO THE SENATE EATON ELECTED GOVERNOR — E. 0. WOLCOTT CHOSEN SENATOR ROUTT AGAIN CHOSEN GOVERNOR — REPUBLICAN FACTIONS IN RIOT WAITE IS GOVERNOR — WAITE RIOTS — THE LONG SILVER FIGHT THE BRYAN CAMPAIGNS LABOR WAR OF 1894 — THE PEABODY-ADAMS CONTEST TELLER'S RE-ELECTION TO THE SENATE — GUGGENHEIM'S ELECTION — C. J. HUGHES, JR., GOES TO SENATE — SHAFROTH AND THOMAS WIN OUT AMMONS, CARLSON, GUN- TER FOLLOW EACH OTHER IN GOVERNOR'S CHAIR CHANGING THE ELECTION LAWS 417 CHAPTER XXII COLORADO COAL PRODUCTION COAL IN THE UNITED STATES — FIRST COAL MINING IN COLORADO PROGRESS AND DEVELOPMENT FROM YEAR TO YEAR MINES IN 1888 OWNERS — TABLE OF MINES IN I916 OPERATORS AVERAGE NUMBER OF MEN EMPLOYED CAPACITY CONTEXTS xi OF MINE PER !).\V IX TOXS — STATE COAL PRODUCTION FROM 1864 UNTIL I917 IN SHORT TONS VALUE OK OUTPUT FOR EACH YEAR EMPLOYES MACHINE MINING — AVERAGE PRICE PER TON AT MINE FATALITIES PRODUCTION OF LEADING COUNTIES FROM 1887 UXTIL I917 — COLORADO COAL FIELDS THE COKE IXnUSTRY — COKE ESTABLISH MEXTS — PROIHXTTOX VALUE 449 CHAPTER XXIII AGRICULTURE IX COLORADO FIRST AGRICULTURISTS BEGINNING OF IMPROVED CULTIVATION — AGRICULTURAL DISTRICTS — THE SAN LUIS VALLEY — NORTHWESTERN COLORADO MOUNTAIN PARK DISTRICTS — EASTERN COLORADO — PINTO BEANS — COLORADO LAND AND SET- TLEMENT — PRODUCTION OF igi" — COUNTY AGENTS FRUIT GROV/ING CROP STATISTICS 478 CHAPTER XXIV DEVELOPMENT OF IRRIGATION FIRST IRRIGATION — FIVE PERIODS OF CANAL CONSTRUCTIOaN EARLIEST CANALS — COMMUNITY EFFORT — CORPORATION EFFORT — PERIOD OF GREATEST DEVELOP- MENT THE CAREY ACT FAILURE OF STATE MANAGEMENT FEDERAL EFFORT UNDER RECLAMATION ACT RESERVOIRS — BEGINNING OF WATER RIGHT LAWS INCORPORATION OF CAPITOL HYDRAULIC COMPANY CITY DITCH FIRST LEGIS- LATION LATER IRRIGATION LAWS — IRRIGATION KNOWN TO ANCIENT PEOPLES RIPARIAN RTGHTS 1 NTI^RSTATF RIGHTS TRANSFER OF WATER 49I CHAPTER XXV FROM RANGE DAYS TO THE THOROUGHBRED ERA ■'hunting out" THE BUFFALCJ BUYING UP THE BROKEN-UOWN FREIGHTING OXEN — CONDITION OF CATTLE INDUSTRY IN 1866 — DISCOVERY OF GRAZING VALUES — TRAITS OF RANGE CATTLE "mAVERICK" LEGISLATION ROUNDING UP THE CAT- tle thieves — shipments of cattle — range conditions in 1879 foreign- ers invest heavily — early stock-raising methods — the fight on fencing public lands commission regulates grazing on public domain pass- ing oftiie last great iii:rd the old fent e laws — the briceding of horses — Larimer's early sheep history — the lamb feedini; industry — the founding of a great industry — in the uncompahgre — in the roaring fork valley — the coming of the hereford — the national live stock show — the stock yards and the packing i ndustrv- -on ihe white river and on the bear — stock raising in the san luis valley — live stock sta- tistics — the state cattle growf.rs' association sof> xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XXVI HOW COLORADO WOX BEET SUGAR LEADERSHIP CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY WHEN MOVEMENT STARTED IN THIS STATE^NATIONAL PRODUCTION BY YEARS GROWTH IN NUMBER OF FACTORIES THROUGHOUT THE NATION HOW irrigation's BENEFITS WERE DISCOVERED SUCCESS IN UTAH STIRS UP WESTERN SLOPE CHARLES S. BOETTCHER AND JOHN CAMPION HELP ALONG THE INDUSTRY WHAT THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE WAS DOING SHIP- PING THE FIRST BEETS TO NEBRASKA THE FAILURE AT GRAND JUNCTION SUC- CESS FOLLOWED WITH EXPERIENCE THE GREAT WESTERN SUGAR COilPANV — HAVEMEYERS COME INTO THE FIELD — THE AMERICAN BEET SUGAR COMPANY — THE OXNARDS — THE XATIOXAL — THE HOLLY SUGAR CORPORATION 533 CHAPTER XXVII THE STRUGGLE TO BUILD UP MANUFACTURING THE FIRST MANUFACTURERS IN COLORADO — SOME E.\RLY STATISTICS— DEVELOPMENT DESPITE REBATES AND DISCRIMINATIONS — U. S. CENSUS FIGURES FROM 187O TO I914 LATER FIGURES FROM STATE RECORDS PROFESSOR PHILLIPS WRITES THE HISTORY OF Colorado's greatest struggle — forming the Colorado manu- facturers' ASSOCIATION KINDEL SCORES FIRST VICTORY DEFEAT IN GALVES- TON CASE COLORADO MANUFACTURERS' ASSOCIATION SECURES PARTIAL READ- JLTSTMENT COLORADO FAIR RATES ASSOCIATION BEGINS COMPREHENSIVE SUIT WHICH WAS STILL PENDING EARLY IN I918 MISCELLANEOUS NON-METALS THAT ENTER INTO THE MANUFACTURING HISTORY OF COLORADO THE STONE QUARRIES OF T[IE STATIC — OIL PRODUCTION OF COLORADO 54'' CHAPTER XXVIII COLORADO'S NATIONAL FORESTS AND MOUNTAIN PARKS PROTECTING THE TIMBER IN THE PUBLIC DOMAIN — WORK OF PRESERVATION BEGUN TWENTY YEARS AGO THE WHITE RIVER PLATEAU TIMBERLAND RESERVE, THE FIRST NATIONAL FOREST IX COLORADO TOTAL AREA OF SEVENTEEN FORESTS IN STATE IS 12,640,450 ACRES BUILDING HOMES IN THE RESERVES MAKING THE TIMBER PROFITABLE — SELLING AT COST TO SETTLERS PROTECTED RANGE FOR HOMESTEADERS AND RANCHERS — NEARLY THREE THOUSAND RANCHERS GRAZED LESS THAN lOO HEAD OF STOCK EACH IN I917 NATIONAL FORESTS OPEN TO MINING DEVELOPMENT WATER POWER IN THE RESERVES — ROAD BUILDING THROUGH THE FORESTS — STRETCHING TELEPHONE WIRES FROM STATION TO STATION WORK OF THE FIELD DISTRICT NATIONAL FORESTS IN COLORADO — THE MOUNTAIN PARKS — DENVER'S MOUNTAIN PARKS 5^3 CONTEXTS xiii CHAPTER XXIX DEVELOPING THE HIGHWAYS OF THE STATE THE FIRST WAGON ROADS Al-TER THE SANTA FE TRAIL '"SMOKY HILL" TRAIL ROUTES FROM THE EAST BUILDING THE MOUNTAIN ROADS THROUGH UTE PASS TO SOUTH PARK HAYDEN's LIST OF ROADS TERRITORIAL LEGISLATURE NAMES TERRITORIAL ROADS — ^HIGHWAYS OUT OF SILVERTON— "SNUBBINg" POSTS ADVENT OF THE AUTOMOBILE THE FIGHT FOR GOOD ROADS THE NEW HIGH- WAY COMMISSION — liUILPIXn A NEW SYSTEM OF STATE ROADS 573 CHAPTER XXX EDUCATION IN COLORADO EARLY SCHOOL LAWS — STANDARDIZATION — OPPORTUNITY SCHOOL EARLY HISTORY OF THE SCHOOLS IN EACH COUNTY OF COLORADO PRESENT ATTENDANCE, VALUES, ETC 585 CHAPTER XXXI EDUCATION IN COLORADO (Continued) HIGHER EDUCATION L"M\ ERSITY OF COLORADO'S DEVELOPMENT DENVER UNIVER- SITY THE SCHOOL OF MINES — THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE — THE TEACHERS* COLLEGE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL — COLORADO COLLEGE — WOMAN's COLLEGE — THE CLAYTON SCHOOI 6O3 CHAPTER XXXH RELIGIOUS— GENERAL— GROWTH OF COLORADO'S PROTESTANT CHURCHES FIRST SERMON PREACHED BY REV. W. G. FISHER — TOWN COMPANY OFFERS LOTS FOR HOUSES OF WORSHIP — RICHARDSON DESCRIBES EARLY STREET PRAYER MEETINGS THE CHURCH CENSUS OF iSyO, OF I9OO. OF I906 AND OF I9IO MARVELOUS GROWTH — THE PROTESTANT-EI'IS( OPAL CHURCH — ESTAULISHING THE DIOCESE OF WESTERN COI.ORADfJ — THE METHODIST-EPISCOPAL CHURCH— THE STRUGGLE TO ESTABLISH THE FIRST I'RICSI'.VTICRIAX ( H L K( H — THI'. IIAPTISTS CONGREGA- TIONALISM AND ITS GROWTH IN COLORADt) TIM. CIIUISTLW CHURCH THE LUTHERAN UNITARIAN — THE REFORMED CIIUUlll — (IMUSTIAN SCIENTISTS — SEVENTH DAY ADNENTISTS C)7,2 xiv COiNTENTS CHAPTER XXXIII THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN COLORADO AMONG THE PUEBLOS — CHURCH ESTABLISHED IN DENVER THE FIRST BUILDING- COMING OF FATHERS MACHEBEUF AND RAVERDY — REVIVAL OF WORK — THE CATHEDRAL ST. MARY's ACADEMY — SISTERS OF LORETTO — CATHOLICISM AT CAL- IFORNIA GULCH — BEGINNING OF THE CHURCH IN OTHER COMMUNITIES 677 CHAPTER XXXIV JEWISH CONGREGATIONS IN COLORADO ORDER OF b'nAI b'RITH ESTABLISHES FIRST PERMANENT JEWISH ORGANIZATION IN COLORADO FOUNDING OF FIRST CONGREGATION LIST OF ITS RABBIS — THE LONG RABBINATE OF REV. DR. WILLIAM S. FRIEDMAN ORGANIZING FIRST ORTHODOX CONGREGATION — ELEVEN NOW IN ACTIVE CHURCH WORK THE NATIONAL JEW- ISH HOSPITAL FOR CONSUMPTIVES AND ITS MEMOR.-^BLE WORK THE JEWISH CONSUMPTIVES RELIEF SOCIETY — HOW IT WAS ESTABLISHED ITS GROWTH.. 6R1 CHAPTER XXXV WHAT SUFFRAGE HAS ACCOMPLISHED THE FIRST EFFORTS FOR WOMAN SUFFR.\GE IN TERRITORIAL LEGISL.\TURE — GOVERNOR MCCOOK URGES ADOPTION ADVOCATES BECOME ACTIVE IN STATEHOOD YEAR FIRST ORGANIZATION APPEAL TO CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION CONCESSIONS OBTAINED EASTERN WOMEN TAKE PART IN FIRST CAMPAIGN- — THE PROPOSITION DEFEATED ORGANIZING FOR VICTORY IN 1893 CAUSE LOOKED HOPELESS — MEN AND WOMEN WHO HELPED FIRST VICTORY IN SCHOOL ELECTION THE WORK CROWNED BY DECISIVE FAVORABLE VOTE WAITE ISSUES PROCLAMATION — WOMEN WHO HAVE HELPED AS LAW MAKERS — MEASURES PASSED THROUGH THE INFLU- ENCE OF WOMEN — LONG HONOR ROLL 688 CHAPTER XXXVI MILITARY THE CIVIL WAR PERIOD — SENTIMENT IN 1861 CONFEDERATE FLAG-RAISING IN DENVER DEFEAT OF ENEMY PLANS FIRST RECRUITING PROCLAMATION — MENACE FROM THE SOUTH BAYLOR's CAMPAIGN CONFEDERATE PURPOSES — PREPARATIONS TO RESIST SIBLEY CONFEDER.'^TE PREPARATIONS — THE FIRST CONFLICT — THE FIRST COLORADO FIRST BATTLE OF LA GLORIETA PASS THE SECOND BATTLE THE RETREAT AND PURSUIT — DISPOSAL OF THE FIRST COLORADO THE SECOND COLORADO VOLUNTEER INFANTRY OTHER VOLUNTEER ORGAN- CONTEXTS XV IZATIONS MERGER OF THE SECOND AND THIRD COLORADO CAREER OF THE SECOND CAVALRY R.AID INTO COLORADO TERRITORY THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR PREPARATIONS IN COLORADO — THE FIRST REGIMENT CASUALTIES — SERV- ICE OF OTHER COLORADO TROOPS — THE WORLD WAR COLORADO'S QUOTA RE- CRUITING SELECTIVE DRAFT — RED CROSS LIP.ERTY LOANS — COUNCIL OF NA- TIONAL DEFENSE OTHER PREPARATIONS FAREWELL ADDRESS BY CAPT. J. C. W. HALL TO HIS TROOPS, 1S64 7OI CHAPTER XXX\TI THE BENCH AND BAR COLORADO COLT«TS — HISTORY OF THE APPELLATE COURTS, BY JUDGE WILBUR F. STONE — THE PIOXKFR P-ENCH AND BAR, BV JUIKJE WILBUR F. STONE —REMINIS- CENCES OF THi: r.ARf.V BENCH AND BAR. BY C. S. THOMAS, T. J. o'doNNELL, W. H. GABBERT, JOHN F. PHILIPS AND E. T. WELLS THE COLORADO BAR ASSO- n ATION •J2,2 CHAPTER XXX\ HI THE MEDICAL PROFESSION FIRST DOCTORS IN ROCKY MOUNTAIN REGION--EARLY EFFORTS TO ORGANIZE TER- RITORIAL MEDICAL ASSOCIATION FIRST HOSPITAL — DENVER MEDICAL ASSOCIA- TION ORGANIZATION OF TERRITORIAL MEDICAL SOCIETY ROSTER OF STATE MED- ICAL SOCIETY PRESIDENTS EARLY MIGRATIONS CONDITIONS IN 1864 FIRST MEDICAL LEGISLATION LEGISLATION RELATIVE TO OSTEOPATHY CHIROPRACTIC OTHER LEGISLATION — COLORADO MEDICAL LIBRARY ASSOCIATION — WOMEN PRACTITIONERS NATIONAL AND STATE HONORS GENERAL HOSPITALS STATE SANATORIA COLORADO AS A HEALTH RESORT — MILITARY RECUPERATION CAMP COLORADO DOC TORS IN THE WORLD WAR 765 CHAPTER XXX IX THE PRESS OF COLORADO BRINGING THE FIRST PRINTING PRESS TO THE NEW GOLD REGION GREELEY VISITS THE CAMP — THE FIRST EXTRA — BYERS SECURES CONTROL OF THE NEWS — CHANGES IN CONTROL — PATTERSON BECOMES EDITOR THE TIMES IS FOUNDED THE REPUBLICAN THE TRIBUNE PIONEER PUBLICATIONS IN THE MINING CAMPS FOUNDING THE CHIEFTAIN AT PUEBLO THE STAR-JOURNAL — THE BE- GINNING OF COLORADO SPRINGS NEWSPAPERS ON THE WESTERN SLOPE IN THE SAN LUIS VALLEY — IN THE ARKANSAS VALLEY — NEWSPAPERS OF THE PLAINS — GREELEY TRIBUNE-^FORT COLLINS PUBLICATIONS GUNNISON's PAPERS — OTHER COUNTY AND CITY PUBLICATIONS 7S1 xvi CONTEXTS CHAPTER XL STATE INSTITUTIONS— CORRECTIONAL AND ELEEMOSYNARY THE COLORADO STATE PENITENTIARY MODERN METHODS — ROAD BUILDING BOARD OF PARDONS — THE COLORADO STATE HOSPITAL AT PUEBLO THE COLORADO SCHOOL FOR THE DEAF AND THE BLIND — HOW IT HAS DEVELOPED INTO A NATIONALLY-FAMED INSTITUTION ^THE COLORADO SOLDIERS* AND SAILORS' HOME AT MONTE VISTA — COLORADO STATE REFORMATORY THE STATE HOME CARING FOR DEPENDENT AND NEGLECTED CHILDREN STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR BOYS STATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL FOR GIRLS — INDUSTRIAL WORK- SHOP FOR THE BLIND SCHOOL FOR MENTAL DEFECTIVES — MOTHERS' COMPEN- SATION ACT 8l6 CHAPTER XLI LABOR WARS OF HALF A CENTURY FIRST ORGANIZATION OF METALLIFEROUS MINERS IN COLORADO THE LEADVILLE STRIKES OF 1880 AND 1896 REDUCTION MILL EMPLOYES' STRIKE — SYMPA- THETIC STRIKE AT CRIPPLE CREEK THE "EIGHT-HOUR" STRIKE OF I9O3 THE TROUBLE IN IDAHO SPRINGS TROUBLE AT TELLURIDE STRIKES AT CRIPPLE CREEK, 1903-4 THE STRIKES IN THE COAL SECTIONS OF COLORADO 837 CHAPTER XLII COLORADO LITERATURE 8"/ CHAPTER XTJTI SPANISH NAMES 8gi WILBUR F. STONE HISTORY OF COLORADO CHAPTER I TOPOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE POSITION OF COLORADO MOUNTAINS PARKS HUMIDITY TEMPERATURE FROSTS PRECIPITATION TOPOGRAPHY OF THE COUNTIES POSITION OF COLORADO Colorado occupies a central position in the western half of the United States, between latitudes 2,7° and 41° north, and longitude 102° and 109° west. It is almost a parallelogram in shape, its east, and also its west boundary being 275.7 miles in length, its northern, 365.7, while its southern is 387.6 miles. The state has an area of 103,478 square miles. Two-fifths of this area is highly moun- tainous, the remainder being plains, foothills, and high mesas ; 42 per cent of the entire state is above seven thousand feet elevation. The plains region, or the eastern two-fifths of the state, is crossed by a ridge which forms the watershed between the South Platte and the Arkansas rivers. Beginning in the foothills north of Pike's Peak, this divide extends eastward, gradually dying away in the eastern border counties. The lowest point in the state. Holly, on the Arkansas River, has an elevation of 3,386 feet, while Julesburg, on the South Platte, eleva- tion 3,458 feet, is the lowest point in the northeastern counties. MOUNTAINS The one hundred and seventh meridian marks the location of the Continental Divide in the extreme northern as well as in the extreme southern part of the state. In the north this watershed is known as the "Park Range" ; its course is southward for a short distance, thence easterly to Long's Peak, thence south- westward, forming the eastern boundary of Grand and Summit counties and the northern boundary of Lake County; then the western boundary of Lake and Chaffee counties, where it is known as the Sawatch Range. From the most southerly point in Chaffee County the course of the divide is due southwest to San Juan County, then southeastward to the state line, the Cochetopa Hills being the divide until the San Juan Mountains are reached. For four-fifths of the distance the summit of the divide is above timber line. Though this area above timber line is considerable, it is not nearly so great as is to be found on the de- tached ranges and spurs. Vol. I— 1 1 2 HISTORY OF COLORADO The foothills rise a few miles east of a north-and-south line drawn through the center of the state. In the north, high mountains occupy the region to the westward of this line for about seventy-five miles, but farther to the south these ranges widen out west of Pike's Peak to about one hundred and thirty-five miles. At a point not far from the center of the state the Sangre de Cristo Range begins and extends southward beyond the New Mexico line. The San Juan, a range of great altitude, occupies a large area in the southwestern part of the state. PARKS A prominent feature of the mountain region is the number of large upland valleys or parks. The principal ones, North, jMiddle, South, and San Luis, lie nearly in a north-and-south line, just west of the Front Range. Of these only one, Middle Park, is west of the Continental Divide, which forms its northern and eastern boundaries; its surface is undulating; elevation about eight thousand feet. North Park opens toward the north, elevation generally about eight thous- and feet. South Park lies in the center of the state, elevation eight thousand to ten thousand feet, and is surrounded by very high mountains ; its surface is nearly flat. San Luis Park, the most southerly, is larger than North, Middle, and South parks combined; it is an immense elliptical basin, whose surface is remarkably flat — at one time doubtless the bed of an inland sea. The western fifth of the state is occupied by high plateaus, or mesas — deep gullies, or arroyos, being a feature, with many cliffs and hills. Of the peaks above 14,000 feet elevation, the altitudes of thirty-two have been determined. Mount Massive, near Leadville, with an altitude of 14,424 feet, is the highest, and Mount Elbert, 14,421 feet, is next. The average height of timber line is 11,526 feet, with extremes of 10,410 feet on Sierra Blanca, and 12,117 feet on Mount Harvard. A number of important rivers rise in the state. The Rio Grande has its source in the San Juan Mountains, while the Arkansas and the South Platte of the eastern slope, and the Gunnison and the Grand, important branches of the Colorado, rise but a few miles apart near the center of the state. HUMIDITY Considering the great distance from the Pacific, and the high mountain ranges which the prevailing westerly winds must cross, it is not surprising that low- humidity, attended by a great range of temperature, should be a characteristic feature. Though distant also, the influence of the Gulf of Mexico is appreciable, but only to a varying extent. It is most marked during the summer months, when there is a general stagnation in the movement of northern low-pressure areas, affording sufficient time for moisture to be brought to the eastern slope. That this is true is apparent from the increased precipitation east of the Continental Divide during the warmer half of the year. With the advance of winter the pressure gradually increases over the Great Basin until an extensive high-pressure area is developed. Remaining practically unchanged for months, it exerts an important influence on the winter climate of Colorado, the character depending on location, whether east or west of the Conti- ^ CO rlion of tlu-
  • eaks ennobled with coronets of snow." Fremont County, embracing, as it does, a part of the western limit of the Great Plains country in the eastern portion, and its west boundary being outlined by the crest of mountain ranges, flanked with foothills, is topographically divided into three natural divisions — viz : mountains, foothills and plains. The geology has many features in common with that of Boulder and other border counties, differing mainly in the fact that in Boulder the Trias rests directly upon the granite gneiss of the mountain proper, while in Fremont the Paleozoic rocks of the Carboniferous and Silurian periods are exposed and rest upon the granite floor. The uplifted strata are well seen along the Arkansas River from the mouth of Grand Canon eastward. Conejos, Rio Grande, Costilla, and Alamosa counties together form a notable topographical group. The west boundary line is the summit of the San Juan Mountains, which at this portion form a part of the Continental Divide. This section is quite rugged, and contains mountain peaks that reach an altitude varying from 11,000 to 13,000 feet above sea level. The San Juan Mountains at this point mark nearly the southern limit of the great andesitic lava flow common to what is generally designated as the San Juan country. This volcanic mass is locally traversed by a series of dikes, the basalt flows being prominent near the mountain base and capping many of the adjoining foothills. The Rio Grande River courses the center of that section. The eastern portion of Conejos County embraces the southwest part of the San Luis Valley. This valley is unusually level, and has an average altitude of 7,500 feet above sea level. The drainage is through the Alamosa, La Jara, Conejos, San Antonito and Los Pinos creeks, and through the Rio Costilla, Rio Culebra and Rio Trinchera. ON THE CRYSTAL PARK AUTO ROAD LOOKING OUT UHOiM TIIK (iATKWA'l' TO CliYSTAI. I'AliK 10 HISTORY OF COLORADO These streams head well back toward the mountain summit, envelop numerous small tributaries, and all unite with the Rio Grande River. The summits of the Sangre de Cristo and Culebra outline the east boundary line of Costilla County. The mountain ranges on the east rise quite abruptly and contain some of the highest mountain peaks in the state, among which may be named Purgatory, 13,719; Culebra, 14,079; Trinchera, 13,340; Blanca, 14,464; Baldy, 14,176, and Grayback, 12,887 ^^^'' above sea level. Near the north end of Costilla County are a number of small lakes, the largest being known as the San Luis lakes, and contain several square miles. These lakes are fed by numerous springs around the mountain base near Mosca Pass and San Luis and other small streams coming in from Saguache County. There is no apparent outlet to lakes, and the tendency of all the streams in this section is to sink out of sight and appear only at intervals. The eastern and major portion of Rio Grande Coimty embraces the flanking foothills and mesas and the western limit of the San Luis Valley, which here iias an average altitude of about 7,700 feet. The Rio Grande River passes easterly through the northern portion of that county, and with tributaries affords drainage. The principal tributaries from the south are Park, Abiti, Wolf, Los Pines, San Francisco and Alamosa : from the north, Beaver, Bear and Embargo creeks. The topography of Custer County in a general way, is that of a compara ti\ely level basin or valley, within two mountain ranges. The average altitude of the valley is about 8,000 feet. On the west the Sangre de Cristo Range rises quite abruptly to 12,000 feet, and contains mountain peaks that reach an eleva- tion of over 14,000 feet above sea level. The range front is scarred by deep ravines or gorges, with precipitous cliffs or walls. Rising some 6,000 feet above the valley, the bold, rugged, front and pyramidal peaks present one of the most striking views in the mountains. The main rock of the mountain top is granite, but of somewhat different type to that common to the Front Range. Along and flanking the mountain front Carboniferous sandstones and conglomer- ates predominate. The valley which bears the same name as the mountain range on the east — viz.. Wet Mountain — is about twenty-five miles long and fourteen to twenty miles wide. It is one of the widest mountain valleys in the state. The Wet Mountains on the east, originally known as the Sierra Ma j ado, is a comparatively low mountain range. The highest points are about 11,000 feet, somewhat irregular and separated by comparatively shallow valleys, with easy slopes. The rock mass composing this range is a coarse-grained granite. The main drainage of this section is through Grape Creek and its numerous small tributaries, which empty into the Arkansas River. Huerfano and Las Animas counties border the Great Plains country, the western boundary being the crest of the Sangre de Cristo and Culebra mountain ranges. In the south portion are the Spanish Peaks, and in the north the south- ern extremity of the Wet Mountains. The drainage is through Huerfano and Cuchara, the Purgatorial and Las Animas rivers, the Apishapa and many tribu- taries to the Arkansas River. The southern boundary of Las Animas County passes over the summit of the Raton Mountains. The mountainous sections are covered with a good HISTORY OF COLORADO 11 growth of pine timber, and interspersed with comparatively broad valleys. Ad- joining the foothills the mesas, or table lands, merge into the level plains on the east. In Mineral County, in the southwest part of the state, the drainage is through the K;() Cirande River and numerous tributaries. The water-shed of the Rio Gnmde River is a basin-like area of horseshoe shape. On the north edge of Mineral County the La Garita Mountains have a southwesterly course, and near the west boundary of Hinsdale County unite with the San Juan Mountains. This latter range, from point of junction, trends southward, and, gradually turn- ing to southwest, passes through the southern part of Mineral County. The crests of the two ranges form the Continental Divide, which may be said to encircle the county on the north, w^est and south sides. Considered as a whole, the topography is unusually rugged. The surround- ing mountain chains rise from 10,000 to over 13,000 feet above sea level. From these occur somewhat detached spurs, culminating in peaks 12,000 feet and over, and occupying the central portion. The intervening valleys are, in the main, quite narrow, but locally widen out into enclosed basins or parks of con- siderable size. In the south central part of the state lies what is known as the San Luis \'alley. Skirting the south and west are sections rich in coal and minerals. F'or the purpose of a topographical description the central and south central section comprises Mineral, Rio Grande, Saguache, Conejos, Costilla, Alamosa, Chaffee, Custer, Huerfano and Las Animas counties. The west boundary of Chafifee County is formed by the Continental Divide of the Saguache Range, and the east boundary follows the more prominent peaks of the Park Range. The intervening valley embraces the Arkansas River, which with its tributaries affords drainage for the county. This valley varies from an altitude of 7,000 feet at the southern to 9,000 feet at the northern boundary. While it is quite narrow near the south-central portion of the county, the valley widens to twelve or fifteen miles and carries this width for about thirty miles in the central portion. The Saguache Range on the west rises to 14,375 ^sst "^^ Mount Shavano, 14,245 at Mount Antero, Princeton 14,190, Yale 14,187, Haywood 14,575, and '-=' Plata 14,311 feet above sea level. On the west the main tributaries of the Arkansas River are Cash, Clear, Pine, Cottonw-ood, Chalk, Browns, lioyds. South Arkansas and Poncha creeks. On the east, Sweetwater, I'>adgcr and Iroiit creeks. These streams in the main course through the granite-gneiss complex or metamorphic rocks common to the Rocky Mountain system. Kear tiie base of the mountains tliey usually occupy more or less rugged canyons and locally expose remnants of strata assignable to the Paleozoic. The Chalk Creek Hot Springs near Haywood h.ive a temperature of 150° Fahrenheit; Poncha Springs, a grouj) of hot niiner.il waters range in tempera- ture from 90" to 168°, Fahrenheit. The southern and southwestern section of the state comprises San Miguel, Dolores, San Juan, Ouray. Ilinsd.ilc, Arcluilcta, f,a Plata and Montezuma coun- ties, including in the larger part of tliese boundaries what is known as the San Juan country and one of the richest and most productive sections of the state. The territory embraced within .'-^.in Juan County boundaries, about 480 square 12 HISTORY OF COLORADO miles, is very mountainous. The San Juan J^Iountains on the north and Needle Mountains in the south, with their numerous spurs, cover the entire county. The intervening valleys are quite narrow in the main, but occasionally widen out into small park-like areas. Baker's Park is the largest and has a mean alti- tude of about 9,200 feet above sea level. Through it flows the Animas River in a southerly course, aftording the main drainage of the county. The narrow valleys adjoining Baker's Park are traversed 'oy mountain streams that find source in large oval basins or cirques near the summit of the surrounding moun- tains. The mountains reach a maximum altitude of nearly 14,000 feet above sea level. The lower mountain slopes are covered with a heavy growth of spruce timber, which ceases to grow at an altitude varying from 10,000 to 11,000 feet. The area above "timber line" in San Juan County is greater in proportion to the total area of the county than in any other sub-division of the state. San Miguel County in its eastern portion is characterized by rugged moun- tains with numerous cliff exposures, cut by deep, narrow canyons. The moun- tains culminate in numerous peaks that reach an altitude of nearly 14,000 feet above sea level, and the intervening gulches have been eroded to a mean eleva- tion of about 9,000 feet. The west portion of the county embraces the eastern limit of the Great Sage Plains of Utah, having a mean elevation of about 7.500 feet. Dolores County embraces an area of about 1,000 square miles. The east part of the county is mountainous, with rugged peaks rising from 12,000 to 14,000 feet above sea level. The west, and by far the greater part, consists of elevated plateaus sloping gradually toward the west and varying from an alti- tude of 8,500 feet near the mountains to about 6.000 feet near the Utah line. The mountain area is drained by the East and West forks of the Dolores River and numerous tributaries. These streams have a general southwest and south course and unite about twenty miles below Rico in Montezuma County. The main river makes a somewhat lengthy detour south and west, then turns north- ward and crosses Dolores County a short distance east of the Utah line. In the Hayden atlas, based upon work of the survey in 1874-76, the moun- tains of eastern Dolores County are designated as the "Bear River Mountains." Later work of the geological survey has for good reasons changed the name to the Rico Mountains. Hinsdale County consists of rugged mountain chains, with comparatively narrow valleys intervening, well-watered by streams. The valleys occasionally widen into comparatively level parks and vary in altitude from 8,000 to 9.000 feet above the sea level. The mountains in individual peaks are from 12,000 to 14,000 feet above tide-water. L^ncompahgre Peak, in the northwest corner, is 14,289 feet, and is one of the highest in the state. The San Juan Mountains form the west boundan,' in the northern part and cross the south portion of the county in a southeast direction. Near the center of the west boundary a spur extends from the San Juan Range in a northeast direction and joins the Coche- topa Hills in Saguache County. This range-spur forms the Continental Divide at this point. The territory embraced within county boundaries is therefore on both the Atlantic and Pacific slopes. The north portion drains through the Gunnison River, the south through San Juan, both streams emptying later HISTORY OF COLORADO 13 into the Colorado on the Pacific Slope. The central portion drains through the Rio Grande to the Atlantic side. Archuleta County as a whole is a hilly one, composed of numerous mesas and ridges of sedimentary rock, intersected with equally numerous valleys locally widening into parks. The hills and mesas are timbered with some of the finest timber in the state, principally white pine, yellow pine, red and white spruce. These trees often attain a thickness of three feet or more, and run up for fifty or sixty feet, a straight column without a branch. The peaks of the adjacent Conejos Range average from 12,000 to 13,500 feet. The average altitude of the valleys and parks is between 7,000 and 8,000 feet. The mesas may rise 500 feet above this. Prior to the advent of the white man what are now termed Pagosa Springs were known among the Indians as the "Great Medicine Waters," or "Healing Waters," and their possession jealously guarded. The main spring basin is 50 by 75 feet in size, and presents the appearance of an immense seething caldron. The temperature of the water is 148 degrees Fahrenheit. The outlet from this pool evidences the probability of the springs being justly entitled to the claim of the "largest hot spring in the world." Montezuma County embraces the eastern limits of the Utah Plains, through which two isolated groups of mountains have risen. The El Late group occupies about forty square miles in the southwest portion, which in individual peaks, reach an altitude of 10,000 feet above sea level. La Plata Mountains are in the northeast part of the county, and the culminating peaks reach an altitude of over thirteen thousand feet. The plateau, from the base of the La Plata group, de- scends in a gradual slope from 7,000 to 5,000 feet at the west county boundary. The drainage of the east and south portions of the county is through the Rio de la Mancos and its tributaries. The northern portion drains into the Dolores River, which enters, makes a big bend, and finds egress through the north boundary line. La Plata County. — The topographical features of the southwestern section are those common to rugged mountains, flanked by foothills and lofty mesas, inter- sected by streams and gulches cutting through the country at irregular intervals. In the north part of La Plata County are the Needle Mountains, in the west- central portion the La Plata Mountains, each containing peaks that reach an alti- tude of between 13,000 and 14,000 feet above sea level. The valley and mesa lands vary from an elevation of 6,500 feet, at Durango, to 6,100 feet, near the southern border. The county is well watered, and drains through three principal streams, viz.. La Plata, Animas and Los Pinos rivers. These streams are roughly parallel, rise in the lofty mountain ranges lying on the northwest and north, and flow in a southerly course. The La Plata drains the west, the Animas the central and the Los Pinos the east portions of this section. Mineral springs, both hot and cold, occur in several localities. The best im- proved are the Trimble Hot Springs, about nine miles from Durango. Wjth the exception of a small portion in the north end, the topography of Ouray County is that of rugged mountains, a number ojf which reach an altitude of 13,000 to over fourteen thousand feet above .'■■ea level. Tiie various streams head, generally, in large open basins, or glacial cirques, well uji above timber line, 14 HISTORY OF COLORADO and near the top of the cuhninating ridges connecting the more prominent moun- tain peaks. Below the basins, these streams occupy eroded valleys or gulches, gradually deepening into somewhat narrow canyons, and finally uniting with the Uncompahgre River, and making exit through the north county boundary line at an altitude of 6,500 feet. Timber is abundant on the various mountain slopes, and grows to an elevation of 10,500 to 11,500 feet above sea level. Ouray County, in its southern portion embraces a small part of the San Juan Mountains composed almost entirely of volcanic rocks. These rocks consist, in the main, of tuffs, agglomerates and lavas of andesite and rhyolite. In the up- per horizons the different lava flows lie practically horizontal, differ somewhat in color and present a stratified appearance. Later, this volcanic complex has been penetrated by a variety of eruptive rocks in the form of somewhat massive intrusions and numerous dikes. Lake County is situated on the west flank of the Mosquito Range, near the head or north end of Arkansas Valley, and has a mean elevation of 10,200 feet. The Saguache Range on the west and the Mosquito Range on the east have a comparatively uniform elevation of from thirteen thousand to fourteen thousand feet above sea level. The north as well as west boundary form the Continental Divide. This basin-like area is drained by the Arkansas River, which flows in a southerly course, and a number of tributaries that rise in the mountain ranges upon the east and west sides. In the vicinity of Leadville the Arkansas flows through a comparatively flat and level valley, six to ten miles wide. On either side mesa-like benches rise one above the other to the foothills flanking the mountain ranges. The City of Leadville occupies one of these mesas, about three miles west of the river valley proper, near the base of the rounded foot- hills, and north of California Gulch. Summit County is embraced within boundaries that are outlined by the crests of mountain ranges, viz., the Williams River Mountains on the east, the Conti- nental Divide on the south, and the Park Range on the west. The included terri- tory lies wholly on the Pacific Slope and embraces the valleys of the Blue, Swan, Snake and Ten Mile rivers, with the drainage basins of- their tributaries, all of which unite with the Blue and form one of the large tributaries of Grand River, which it joins near the north county boundary. In the central west lie Rio Blanco, Garfield, Mesa, Delta and Montrose coun- ties. Rio Blanco is included within the drainage basins formed by the Yampa Plateau, Danforth Hills and Williams River Mountains on the north and east, and the White River Plateau, Book Cliffs and Roan or Book Plateau on the south. The White River Valley rises from an altitude of five thousand feet at the western boundary of the county to nine thousand feet near the eastern limit. The mountain peaks in the eastern part vary from ten thousand to twelve thou- sand five hundred feet, and the plateaus on the north and south from eight thousand to nine thousand five hundred feet above sea level. In Garfield County the drainage is through the Grand River, which enters the ea.st county boundary near the center and flows in a general southwest direction, passing through the south boundary line west of the center. The main tributaries from the south are Roaring Fork, Divide and Maroon creeks ; from the north. Elk. Rifle, Parachute and Roan. These streams occupy narrow valleys, which 16 HISTORY OF COLORADO locally open out into comparatively wide and level parks, and in other places are closely confined by narrow walls. Along the Grand River, Garfield County, for a distance of a half-mile or more are noted hot springs. They occur at intervals, and appear to issue from a fissure in the Paleozoic rocks. The largest and best improved are on the north side of the river. The largest group of springs, called the Yampa, has a flow of about two thousand gallons per minute and has a temperature of 120 degrees Fahren- heit. In Mesa County the drainage is through the Grand and Gunnison rivers, two of the largest streams in the state. The valleys along these streams and tribu- taries are of varying width, but are, in the main, comparatively wide and very fertile. The northeast portion of Montrose County embraces the southern limit of the West Elk Mountains. Through this section the Gunnison River flows. The Cerro Hills separate the valleys of the Uncompahgre and Cimarron, and both have streams that rise well back in the rugged San Juan Mountains, lying south of the southern boundary line. The Uncompahgre River fiows north and northwest through the country to its junction with the Gunnison River. On the west and southwest side of the river the broad valley rises gradually from six thousand to ten thousand feet above sea level to another broad mesa known as the Uncompahgre Plateau. From the northeast slope of this plateau a number of streams flow in a northeasterly course and join the Uncompahgre River. Still farther west there is another comparatively level mesa known as the San Miguel Plateau. This plateau is drained by tributaries that flow westward and join the San Miguel and Dolores rivers. Just beyond the west border are the Sierra la -Sal Mountains. In Delta County the north and east county boundaries are outlined by natural topographical divisions. The higher points rise from ten thousand to twelve thousand feet above sea level, and the valleys vary in altitude from four thousand eight hundred to six thousand five hundred feet. In the next group, northwestern Colorado, are Larimer, Jackson, Grand, Routt, and Moffat. The east portion of Larimer County embraces about eighteen miles of the western limits of the Great Plains section. In the western portion the Front Range of the Rocky Mountain system ceases, and merges into the Medicine Bow Range in Jackson County. These ranges have a general northwesterly course. The Park Range, on the west, separates Routt and Jackson counties, and the north limit of the Front Range is topographically connected with the Park Range by an east and west chain, which chain, with the Park and Front ranges, form the Continental Divide. North Park is a large basin-like section, in the west part of the county, lying between the Park and Medicine Bow ranges, and north of the range connecting the two, and separating North and Middle parks, the latter in Grand County. North Park proper is a broad, comparatively level basin, free of timber, thirty miles wide, east and west, by forty miles long, north and south. The altitude ranges from eight thousand to nine thousand feet above sea level. The plains section in the east part of Larimer County varies fro 1 five thousand to five thousand five hundred feet, and the mountain chains culminate in Jackson HISTORY OF COLORADO 17 CVmiity in numerous peaks ranging from eleven thousand to fourteen thousand feel above tide-water. The drainage is through the Little and Big Thompson and Cache la I'oudre rivers, which flow in a general southeast direction and unite with the South Platte River. The North Platte I'iiver finds source through a number of radiat- ing tributaries in North Park and fknvs north into Wyoming. The Big Laramie River and tributaries drain the east slojjc of the Medicine Bow Range and flow north into the Laramie Plains of Wyoming. In Crand County is the bYont Range; on the south, the Williams River Moun- tains; on the west, the Park Range; and on the north, an east and west range that connects the Front and Park ranges, separates North from .Middle Park, and forms the Continental Divide. The entire drainage is through the Grand River and its tributaries. This stream flows practically east and west through the center of the county, and its tributaries have a general north or south course. Near the east boundary the Grand River proper divides into two main branches, known as the North and South forks. These branches, with their tributaries, drain the west slope of the Front Range. From the south the I-"razer, Williams and Blue rivers are the main tributaries to the Grand River, and all flow in a northerly course. Between the Frazer and Williams rivers there is a mountain range called the Vasquez Moun- tains. Between the Williams River and the Blue is a range known as the Wil- liams River Mountains. These ranges or spurs are roughly parallel to the Park and Front ranges, and the east and west slopes have a number of small streams that are tributary to the main streams which occupy the intervening valleys. The north part of the county has a series of streams that flow south to the Grand. The principal streams from east to west are the Stillwater, Willow, Troublesome and Muddy creeks. Each of these streams has a number of tributaries and occupies a valley separated by ridges, but not so pronounced as those on the south side. The central portion of the county is known as Middle Park. It differs ma- terially, however, from the broad, open and comparatively level and timberless basins known as North and South parks. Middle Park is practically a series of valleys along Grand River, with the contiguous vtlleys of the tributaries of the river. The intervening ridges are as a rule heavily timbered, and little idea of the general topography may be gained except from some of the prominent sur- rounding mountain peaks. Locally the valley land is much restricted, but gen- erally the valleys are of good width and comparatively level. They vary in alti- tude from seven thousand to nine thousand feet. The surrounding mountains have numerous peaks that reach 12,000 and Long's Peak, on the cast, passes above the- fourteen thousand foot mark. Routt and Moflfat counties extend to the northwestern corner of the state. Near the northeast corner the eruptive mountain group called the Elk Head Mountains is the most prominent uplift. This group contains a number of cul- minating points that reach an altitude of nearly eleven thousand feet, the most prominent and perhaps best known being Hahn's and Anita peaks. Both of these are very prominent landmarks, the latter being generally called the "Bear's F.ars." on accofr^t of its peculiar formation. Along the south ]iart of the county the Williams River Mountains, Dan forth Hills and Yampa Plateau, are elevated ]iortions varying in altitude from eight thousand to nearly ten thousand feet. The Vol. 1— J 18 HISTORY OF COLORADO main drainage is through the Yampa or Bear River, which flows in a general west- ward course through the center of the section and is joined by numerous tribu- taries from north and south. The main streams from the north are Elk, Elk Head, Fortification and Little Snake ; from the south, Williams River and Milk Creek. It contains 150 mineral springs, all of which differ more or less in amount of solids held in suspension and in accompanying gases. Gunnison, Pitkin, Eagle, Lake and Summit are a central group with a varying topography. The Continental Divide or Saguache Range, forms the east boundary line of Gunnison County, and has a general north and south course. The main drainage is through the Gunnison River, which flows westward and departs from the county south of its center through the well known Black Cation. Numerous tributaries join the river in the canyon. From the south the principal streams are Lake Fork and White Earth creeks ; from the north, Curecanti, Sapi- nero. West Elk and Ohio creeks. Near Gunnison, which is the county seat and occupies a south-central position in the county, the Tomichi joins the river. This stream carries the waters from the southeast part and its main branches find source well up toward the Continental Divide. Gunnison River is formed by the junction of Slate and Taylor rivers at Almont, about nine miles north of Gunnison. These streams, with tributaries, care for the waters in the northeast ; the North Fork of the Gunnison carries the drainage from the northwest, and the extreme north section is drained by Rock Creek, which is tributary to the Grand River. The topography of Pitkin County, taken as a whole, is quite diversified. On the east is the Continental Divide of the Saguache Range, separating Pitkin and Lake counties, and in the south and west sections embrace in part the Elk Moun- tains. Both of these ranges contain noted landmarks, such as Mount Massive on the east, 14,424 feet, and Castle Peak, 14,115 feet, and Maroon Mountain, 14,008 feet above sea level, on the south. The general drainage is toward the northwest through the Roaring Fork, one of the main tributaries of Grand River. The main tributaries of Roaring Fork are Frying Pan, Hunter, Woody, Lincoln, Diffi- cult, Castle, Maroon, Sopris, Avalanche and Rock creeks. These with their nu- merous small feeders receive the waters from drainage basins near the mountain divides at a varying altitude of ten thousand to thirteen thousand feet, and eventu- ally unite and pass out through the Roaring Fork Valley at an altitude of about six thousand six hundred feet. The drainage of Eagle County is to the Pacific Slope and through the Frying Pan, Eagle and Grand rivers and the Piney. The Frying Pan and tributaries are in the southwest part of the county. The Eagle River rises near the south- east corner, flows approximately north to the center of the county, then turns west and joins the Grand. The Grand River flows in a southwest direction through the northwest portion, and the Piney. in the east and northeast, flows northwest and joins the Grand. All these streams have numerous tributaries of more or less importance. The crest of the Park Range of mountains on the east forms the dividing line between Eagle and Summit counties. This range is quite rugged, and rises in peaks to over twelve thousand feet above sea level. Near the south boundary the most prominent landmark is the Mount of the Holy Cross. This peak rises to an elevation exceeding fourteen thousand feet, and practically marks the northern limit of the Saguache Range. HISTORY OF COLORADO 19 The Great Plains section of Colorado extends from the foothills to its eastern boundary. There are no large streams in the northern district with the excep- tion of the Platte River. The small streams in the southern part flow south to the Arkansas River and in the north to the South Platte. The Republican River rises in this district and is fed by many small streams. The average annual rainfall here varies from twelve to twenty inches. In wjiat is called the Divide between the Arkansas and the Platte rivers from the foothills east the rainfall is con- siderably heavier than on the lower lands on both sides. The surface throughout is level or gently rolling with a few restricted areas of valley or broken land. The soil is largely a sandy loam varying greatly in depth. CHAPTER II THE SPANISH AND FRENCH PERIODS OF EXPLORATION SPANISH JURISDICTION DE VAC.V's EXPLORATION CORONADO's EXPEDITION FATHER PADILLa's FATE — MOSCOSCO's MARCH ONATe's EXPEDITION BONIL- LA's EXPEDITION ONATE's SECOND EXPEDITION PUEBLO UPRISING THE FRENCH MENACE VALVERDE's EXPEDITION ESCALANTE's EXPLORATIONS — THE LAST SPANISH EXPEDITION THE FRENCH FRENCH BELIEFS AND CLAIMS DU TISNE — LA HARPE BOURGMONt'S SECOND APPEARANCE THE MALLET BROTHERS fabree de la bruyere — gov^ernmental aspects The Spanish spanish jurisdiction In order to give a proper perspective to the history of modern Colorado, its growth, institutions and relative matters, a few prefatory remarks concerning the early Spanish, French and English periods of explorations are necessary. Upon this solid groundwork of discovery and romantic tradition the story of the State of Colorado is laid. These adventurous and danger-loving men who first traversed the ranges, canyons and mountains of this country were actuated by the greed of their native countries across the sea, but they failed to build strongly and the land eventually became the permanent possession of the United States. But it is with these early explorations that we now have to do. The first of the jurisdictions under which the present territory of Colorado came was' that of "Nueva Espana" — or New Spain, which covered an immense part of North America in the Sixteenth Century. The domain of this empire included all of Mexico, practically all of the land west of the Mississippi River and extended into the unknown and unexplored regions of the Great Northwest. Spain's right of ownership was based solely upon the discoveries in the New World made by her subjects during the first half of the century. In 15 19 Alvarez de Pineda discovered the Mississippi River and named it "Rio del Espiritu Santo" ; and within the next quarter century Spanish explorers had crossed parts of the present states of New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Louisiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, ■ Kansas and Colorado. The first settlements were made upon the eastern coast of the United States at a time when fully four-fifths of the present area of the Union was Spanish territory, under the rights of discovery. The Spanish held undisputed sway over this vast territory and were not in any way threatened until the closing years of the Seventeenth Century. Then the Sieur de la Salle descended the Mississippi River and on .A.pril 9, 1682, took pos- 20 CHEYENNE SPRINGS, MANITOU MANITOU 22 HISTORY OF COLORADO session of this "Father of Waters" in the name of the French Crown. He in- cluded with the Mississippi all the tributaries and the lands through which they flowed and which they drained ; thus declaring ownership over a great extent of country from the Alleghanies to the Rockies. He named the new possession "Louisiane," in honor of his sovereign, Louis XIV. Louisiane comprised about one-half of the present area of the United States and included a large portion of Colorado. Spain naturally denied the right of France to any land west of the Mississippi, but the French succeeded in holding all they had claimed until X'ovember, 1762, when a secret treaty was drawn up, by which the Mississippi again became the eastern and northeastern boundary of New Spain, or New Mexico as it was called by that time. devaca's exploration Spanish history in the territory now included in the southwestern part of the United States begins with the story of Alvaro Nunez Cabeza de Vaca, a Spanish nobleman, and his three companions, Andres Dorantes, Alonzo del Cas- tillo Maldonado and an African negro named Estevanico (Stephen). These were the first Europeans to come into this part of the country, and were sur- vivors of the ill-fated De Narvaez expedition into the Florida country in 1528. De Vaca was held a prisoner by Indians near Galveston, Texas, but after several years escaped and struck out for the interior, where he joined his companions. The four started in search of Spanish settlements in Mexico and slowly made their way from one tribe of Indians to another. Their course is not known, but in time they reached the western coast of Mexico, where they met a band of their countrymen. Supplied with guides, De Vaca and his companions later reached the City of Mexico in July, 1536, after wandering for fully eight years. De Vaca's story of the unexplored country through which he had passed and his account of the tales which had been told him by the Indians fired the imag- ination of the Spaniards and they came to believe of rich and thriving cities far to the northward, where the sole industry of the people was the making of gold and silver articles. Nuiio de Guzman, a high official in the administration of New Spain, inspired by De Vaca's stories and those of an Indian, guided an expedition northward from Mexico City, but did not go farther than the Yaqut River. Don Antonio de Mendoza, viceroy of all New Spain, also determined to forage among the rich cities of the North and made preparations for a large ex- pedition. He first despatched a scouting party, led by two Franciscan friars, Juan de la Asuncion and Pedro Madal, which traveled as far as the Gila River in Arizona, then abandoned the quest. Not to be discouraged, however, Mendoza formed a second party and chose Marcos de Nizza, a Franciscan, captain. Ac- companied by the negro, Stephen, and Onorato, a lay brother of the order, De Nizza began his journey to the northward. Onorato left the party soon on account of sickness, so De Nizza and Stephen pushed on, acquiring many Indians in their party as they progressed. After a time, Stephen and a party of Indians were sent ahead of De Nizza and the others, with instructions to report by messenger. In June, 1539, De Nizza reached the "Land of Cibola" — the "buffalo country," where the seven rich cities were sup- posed to be located. Here he learned that Stephen had been murdered. HISTORY OF COLORADO 23 Stephen and his Indians had discovered a great pueblo in the western part of tlie present New Mexico. Despite the warnings of the inhabitants, Stephen went among them. After a few days his presence became so intolerable that the natives put him to death, with a number of his Indian companions. Those of the party who escaped hurried southward and one of them returned to De Nizza with the account of Stephen's death. The intrepid friar, though dismayed by the news, refused to retreat until he had obtained a view of the "city." He reached a high point of land and from this eminence saw the "City of Cibola" in the dis- tance. Then he returned home, where his vivid and colorful tales more than substantiated the wildest of De Vaca's stories of the rich peoples to the north. De Nizza really believed that the pueblo which he had viewed from a distance to be larger and richer than the City of Mexico. CORONADO'S EXPEDITION De Nizza stirred the imagination of the Spaniards as no one had done before. Dreams of a country vastly richer than Peru were indulged in by the people. The remembrance of cargoes of gold and silver from that South American country only stimulated their desire to loot the mysterious cities of the still more mys- terious north. Mendoza in particular resolved upon a huge expedition for the invasion of the country which De Nizza, De Vaca and others had painted in such glorious colors. Accordingly, in the fall of 1539, Mendoza financed and equipped an expedi- tion to be captained by Francisco de Coronado, the young governor of New Galicia. On February 23, 1540, Coronado left Compostella, in New Galicia, with Friar Marcos, three other Franciscans, 260 Spanish cavaliers, seventy Spanish footmen, over a thousand Indians and servants, six pieces of artillery and about a thousand horses. This army entered what is now the southeastern corner of the State of Arizona by the end of the following spring. The rest of the year was spent in subduing the Pueblo Indians and various minor explorations. Win- ter found the expedition encamped on the Rio Grande River, discouraged and disillusioned. An Indian, supposed to have been a Pawnee, 'who lived at the Pecos Pueblo fifty miles north of Coronado's encampment, told the Spaniards that he was from a rich city 1,000 miles to the northeast, where even the commonest of utensils were made of gold. The "Turk," as he was called by the Spanish, promised to lead them thither. This incident had a rejuvenating effect upon the fagged and heart-weary ex- plorers, so on April 21, 1541, the march was begim. Ten days later the plains Indians were first encountered. A captain in the expedition, Juan Jaramillo, afterward wrote that "we began to enter the ])lains where the cows (buffalos) are, although we did not find them for some four or five days. ♦ * * We found Indians among these first cows, who were, on this account, called 'Que- rechos' by those in the flat-roof houses." One authority suggests the resemblance of the name "Querechos" to Apaches. Having crossed the Canadian River, or the southerly branch of the same, the Coronado party proceeded in a northeasterly course. The exact route taken by Coronado has never been determined definitely, several different versions having 24 HISTORY OF COLORADO been given by as many historians and investigators. It is probable that Coronado reached the southeastern part of the present Colorado; at least, a' study of the different histories of the expedition would seem to establish this fact. The "Turk" eventually guided the expedition in an easterly, then southeasterly, course, diverting the Spaniards from the original trail. On the thirty-fifth day of the movement named a halt was made at another Indian village, the inhabi- tants of which were given the name of "Teyans," and who were undoubtedly Comanches. Coronado estimated at this time that he had traveled fully 650 miles from the encampment on the Rio Grande. They were now probably in what is now Oklahoma, on the north fork of the Canadian River. Here Coronado first learned that De Vaca had visited this village. A council was held and it was decided that the main part of the expedition should go no farther in search of the mythical City of Quivira, but should return to the Rio Grande, while Coronado and thirty of his picked horsemen should con- tinue the journey as planned. This was done and forty-two days later, after crossing the Arkansas River and marching to the northeast, Coronado reached Quivira. Here, instead of finding a wealthy and populous city, the Spaniards discovered a lonely village of Indians, probably Pawnees, who earned their living by hunting buffalo and raising patches of corn. For twenty-five days the explorers remained at Quivira, garroting the "Turk" to appease their anger and disappointment and in punishment for his duplicity. Then, with several Quivira Indians to guide them, the party began the return journey to the Rio Grande. The route taken is thought to have been one familiar to the Indians in their travels to the "flat-roof" villages and which undoubtedly crossed southeastern Colorado. Coronado met with a cold reception when he returned to the capital of Xew Spain and was openly snubbed by Mendoza. He did not deserve to be discredited for his failure to find the mythical cities of treasure, but the fact remains that his own sense of disgrace and the obscurity forced upon him by his fellows bore upon him until the day of his death, while he was yet a comparatively young man. The exact location of Quivira is not known. Coronado claimed that it was "950 leagues," or 2,470 miles, from the City of Mexico. It is thought by the best of writers that Coronado's farthest point into the interior of what is now the United States was in the vicinity of Junction City, Kansas. Quivira appeared on both English and French maps in the early days, in various latitudes and longi- tudes, and was really thought to exist. FATHER PADILL.^'S FATE When Coronado started upon his homeward trip one member of his party. Father Juan de Padilla, decided to stay and undertake missionary work among the Indians. With him went Andres del Campo and three educated Indians of Coronado's band. They set out with the Quivira guides who were returning to their own people. Upon the way Father Padilla crossed a corner of Colorado. After arriving among the Quivira Indians he found a portion of them hostile to him and it was not long before he suffered death at the hands of these savages. HISTORY OF COLORADO 25 Campo and the Mexican Indians escaping and finally reaching Tampico, Mexico, there to relate the story of Father Padilla and his fate. MOSCOSCO'S MARCH In 1542-43 Louis Moscosco de Alvarado, who was one of De Soto's lieuten- ants in the Florida expedition, explored deeply into the northern part of New Spain. While De Soto was in Florida, stories had been brought concerning the activities in the West, Coronado's expedition in particular. After De Soto's death Moscosco began his march westward from the Mississippi, having been ap- pointed commander by De Soto. After many days' journey, it is recorded that his scouts sighted mountain ranges to the westward, supposedly the Rockies. A few early geographical charts represent Moscosco's route as having crossed southeastern Colorado, but, allowing for discrepancies in latitude and longitude, it is improbable that he reached the present borders of the state by several hun- dred miles. Following these many attemjits to thoroughly explore the country comprised in New Spain, there were very few expeditions of any consequence for a period of over forty years. Friars went into the country of the Pueblo Indians, seeking to establish missions, but most of them met death as their reward. onate's expedition In 1595, Juan de Onate, a prominent Spaniard of the time, relative of Cortez and Montezuma, attem])ted a large expedition into the northern country for ex- ploration and colonization if possible. His actual start was about three years later and his course followed up the Rio Grande Valley and into the San Luis Park region of Colorado. About thirty miles above the site of Santa Fe. Onata founded the Town of San Gabriel, the second in the territory now the United States. Seven years later Onate founded Santa Fe. A short time after establishing San Gabriel Onate despatched Iiis nephew. Juan de Zaldivar, with a company of cavaliers, farther into the interior. It is believed that Zaldivar progressed along the foothills nearly to the site of Denver. I10NILL.\'.S EXPEDITION The undertaking of I">ancisco Leyva Bonilla in the year 1595 ^^''^s one fraught with tragedy and failure. P)0nilla was sent to subdue an Indian tribe among the northern settlements and had instructions to continue in search of Quivira if the condition of his men warranted it. Other authorities have claimed that Bonilla exceeded his orders by continuing northward. Nevertheless, he traveled up the Rio Grande Valley to the plains. Here, in a quarrel with Juan de Humana, one of his officers, Bonilla was killed. Humana took charge of the expedition, which then had passed through southeastern Colorado into southwestern Kansas. After crossing a large river (Arkansas), Humana and his men were surrounded bv Indians while encamped. The savages fired the dry grass around the Spaniards and all were killed with the exccjition of two — .'Vlonzo Sanchez and a half-Iireed Indian girl. Sanchez afterward became a chieftain in tlic tribe of his would-be murderers. 26 HISTORY OF COLORADO onate's second expedition In 1601 Onate organized another expedition and started northeastward, both for the purpose of continuing Zaldivar's search and to learn more of the ill-fated Humana expedition. For over three months he was absent upon this journey. He came as far north as the site of Denver, then turned eastward into eastern Kan- sas and, according to modern writers, went as far as the Missouri River, either in Kansas or Nebraska. Nothing of material advantage resulted from this sec- ond expedition, aside from the fact that Onate discovered the spot where Humana and his soldiers had been annihilated by the Indians. Following Onate's last attempt to discover riches in the north, there were no more expeditions of consequence until 1662. Roving bands of Spaniards traveled north in search of adventure, and generally found it, but their result was negative. PUEBLO UPRISING Near the close of the Seventeenth Century the Spanish settlements along the Rio Grande from the Taos Valley to Socorro had become numerous. Stock raising and mining for gold were the chief occupations of the people. Pueblo Indians were made slaves by the Spaniards and compelled to do all the heavy work in the mines. This naturally led to an uprising among the natives, which occurred in August, 1680. Then came days of massacre and conflict, with the result that the Spaniards were either killed or driven southward toward El Paso. By September ist, it is recorded, not a live Spaniard -was left upon the Upper Rio Grande and all the settlements were destroyed. Notwithstanding their utter defeat at first, the Spanish quickly recuperated and sent out small bands to engage the Indians. Finally, in 1693-94, Don Diego de Vargas, after desperate fighting, succeeded in retaking the land, but not in returning the Indians to a state of slavery. THE FRENCH MENACE With the beginning of the Eighteenth Century there appeared a distinct menace to the Spanish and their rights in New Spain. This menace was com- prised of French explorers and colonists. La Salle came from France in the winter of 1684-85, with a party of colonists, and had located on the Gulf Coast about one hundred miles southwest of Galveston. He had previously, in 1682, taken possession of the Mississippi River, all its tributaries and basin, in the name of the French Crown. Settlements were made near New Orleans in 1699 and also in the present southern part of Illinois. At the same time the Spanish had considerably extended their field of opera- tions. Traders, missionaries and adventurers had gone as far. as Montana and Illinois. Many instances are recorded wherein the Spanish and French had found evidences of each other's presence in different places. The trails crossed many times, but until 1719 there were no signs of resistance by either. VALVERDE's EXPEDITION In 1 7 19 Governor Valverde assembled about one hundred soldiers and their followers for an expedition against the French, whose inroads upon Spanish ter- PIONEER MONUMENT, DENVER 28 HISTORY OF COLORADO ritory had become serious. Their first purpose was to settle with some unruly Comanche Indians and then continue the campaign against the French. The party was joined later by Apaches, who had engaged in sanguinary conflict with the French. Although Valverde claimed that he advanced farther north than any other Spanish explorer, his purpose vczs unfulfilled and the expedition was devoid of important results. In 1720 another military force, imder Pedro Villasur, left Santa Fe to es- tablish a garrison on the northeast Spanish frontier. The object, as stated in the De Montigny Memoirs, was to destroy the Missouri Indians, who were French allies, and then confiscate the country, also to form an alliance with the Pawnees, who were hostile to the Missouris. The Spanish first met the Missouri Indians and mistook them for Pawnees. Unwittingly they bargained with these Indians and thus exposed their whole plot. The Missouris maintained their bluff and three days later, reinforced, fell upon the Spaniards and annihilated them. From this time there appears to have been no more militar}' expeditions by the Spanish against the French on the northeastern border of New Spain. The latter were practically unrestricted in their operations in this territory. How- ever, the Spanish turned their attentions in another direction and resumed their long journeys from the Rio Grande settlements. Little is known of these explora- tions, for the simple reason that the Spanish did not keep records or maps of their travels, thus differing from the French. In the middle of the Eighteenth Century the present San Juan section of Colo- rado became a district of great interest and several expeditions were sent there by the Spanish in search of gold and silver. The first of these was that of Juan Maria Rivera in 1761. This prospecting trip, such as it was, occupied a few months' time without noteworthy result. Rivera and his companions are said to have been the first white men to visit the Gunnison \"alley. escal.'\nte's exploration About 1773 Father Junipero Serra, in charge of the Spanish missions in Upper California, urged that a road be established from Santa Fe to his missions on the Pacific Coast. Until 1776 his pleas were ignored, then Father Francisco Silvestre Velez Escalante was given the authority to head such an expedition into Cali- fornia. This exploring party started their journey in a northwesterly dii-ection and entered what is now Archuleta County. They reached the San Juan River and encamped at a point three leagues below the junction with the Navajo on August 5th. This spot they called Nuestra Seiiora de las Nieves and it was the first named site in Colorado of which the exact date is known. From this place Escalante again took up his northwesterly course, crossing several tributaries of the San Juan and giving them such names as Piedra Parada, Pinos,- Florida, and Las Animas. In order to avoid confusion, it must be stated that the Rio las Animas, or Purgatory, is a tributary of the Arkansas in the south- eastern part of the state and the Rio las Animas in southwestern Colorado is a tributary of the San Juan. Escalante gave the appellation of Sierra de la Grulla to the easterlv extension of La Plata Range and called the La Plata River the HISTORY OF COLORADO 29 Rio de San Joaquim. In the valley of the latter stream Escalante found evidences of Rivera's mining investigations. Arriving at the Rio Mancos, he heard from the Indians tales of gold mines to the northeast and also saw the ruins of the ancient Cliff Dwellers in this dis- trict. He was the first white man to visit these historic ruins, but he saw only a part of them. From the Mancos Escalante proceeded northward to the Rio Dolores. Along this stream he gave names to localities such as Asuncion, Aqua Tapada, Canon Agua Escondida, Miera Labarinto, and Ancon San Bernardo. To a small tributary of the Dolores the name of Paraliticas was given, the name suggested by the sight of three paralyzed Ute squaws the party met there. Gyp- sum Valley was entered about this point, otherwise called Cajon Del Yeso. After ascending to a mesa, the party went on to the next halting point, called San Bernabe. Another six leagues of march brought them to the San Miguel River, which they called Rio de San Pedro. Places of encampment upon this stream were San Luis, San Felipe and Fuento de la Guia. Leaving the San Miguel they crossed the Canada Honda, probably the Uncompahgre Park, and encamped again at the Ojo de Lain, so named in honor of their guide. Here Escalante reached the Uncompahgre River and christened it the Rio Francisco. The first station farther on was named San Augustin. It was estimated by the travelers that the distance from the Uncompahgre to the Gunnison River, as they went, was about ten leagues. The Indians called the Gunnison by the name of Tomichi, but Es- calante renamed it the San Javier. A cross on the river bluff established the fact that Rivera had reached this point. Proceeding up the Gunnison the .Spaniards came to another stream, which they named Santa Rosa, and still farther they found another which they called Rio Santa Monica. Then came the Rio San Antonia Martir, the present Divide Creek. The two buttes. North Mam and South Mam, they gave the names of San Silvestre and Nebuncari. Mam Creek they named Rio de Santa Rosalia. Across the summit of Elk Range the party took their way and descended into the valley of the Grand River, which river Escalante named Rio de San Rafael. Continuing in a northwesterly course from the Grand they next encountered the White River, called by them Rio de San Clementc. Their point of contact with this river was about the Colorado-Utah line and the date September 9th. From here the Escalante party passed into what is now the State of Utah. From this state they returned to Santa Fe. .\Uhough I'^scalante did not succeed in his original purpose, his name has been prominently recorded in the history of the southwest part of the United States. In the northwestern corner of Colo- rado his name has been given to a large range of mountain hills. Some years later a trail was laid down from Santa Fe to Los Angeles, which traversed south- western Colorado for a distance of 115 miles. TUK I.A.ST SP.VNISir KXPEDITIOX The last Sjianish ex]5cdition to travel into the north country from the south was that commanded by Lieut. Don Facundo Mclgares. This was primarily a military enterprise, undertaken after the United States had purchased the Prov- ince of Louisiana. The Spanish became alarmed over the claims of the United .States and the rumors of Pike's expedition into the West, The Mclgares expedi- 30 HISTORY OF COLORADO tion accordingly was organized to go out to meet the incursions of Pike, to ex- plore all the country between the Platte and Arkansas rivers to the Missouri River, and to make friends with the Comanche, Pawnee, Kansas and other Indian tribes. Melgares and his little army marched into the Comanche country and bestowed upon the Indians presents and commissions, then went northeast to the Arkansas River, to a place now in the southern part of Kansas. With a part of his force, Melgares then entered the Pawnee country in the northern section of Kansas, all the time watching for Pike. Returning to the other part of his band on the Arkansas Melgares then followed the stream nearly to the site of Canon City, still in search of Pike. In this quest he failed, as Pike came later, but the two had occasion to meet later while Pike was a partial prisoner of the Spanish and they became warm friends. As stated before this was the last of the Spanish expeditions in the north. At this writing there are no evidences of any permanent settlement having been made upon Colorado soil by them. From this time on, that is in 1806, when the Melgares expedition went northward, Spain's participation in the affairs of the Southwest was small. Prior to this time they had been masters in this country, even over the region to the northwest which yet was unexplored. The treaty made between England and France in 1763 took from the French all their au- thority over the land now in the United States and left it under the control of either the Spanish or English. In 1800, for some unknown reason, a treaty was made by Spain and France, wherein Spain returned to France all the territory which the latter had ceded to her in 1762. Three years later France sold all of this territory to the United States, a negotiation which shall be described further on. However, this still left about one-half of Colorado's area in the possession of Spain. Mexico rebelled in the first part of the Nineteenth Century and in the region of the Rockies she replaced Spanish ownership. About fifteen years later the Republic of Texas came into existence and claimed more than half of the present New Mexico, about two-fifths of Colorado and a small part of Wyo- ming. This territory Texas held when admitted to the Union as a state. The .American war with Mexico placed the boundary between the country approxi- mately the same as at present and made Colorado United States territory. In 1850 Texas gave up claims to the northwestern part of her territory in return for a large sum from the United States Government. The French The explorations of La Salle, Joliet and Marquette, were responsible for the French claims to the Mississippi Valley in the first years of the Eighteenth Cen- tury. Also, the French settlements upon the Gulf Coast were a large force to this same end. Prior to La Salle's voyage down the Mississippi very few claims were made by the French, except in the vicinity of the St. Lawrence River and the Great Lakes. Afterward, however, they claimed all of the Mississippi Valley, which included fully half of the present State of Colorado. In this claim the French not only found opposition among the Spanish, but among the English upon the eastern seaboard, who believed that their charters gave them possession of the land from sea to sea. The belief that the western coast of .America was adjacent to. or a part of. HISTORY OF COLORADO 31 the continent of Asia; the belief of a great waterway leading directly from the Mississippi to the western ocean ; and the prevalence of rich and large mines of gold, formed the basis of English and French calculations during the early period. Mai>makers confidently arranged their maps of the northwestern terri- tory according to traditions and stories heard from the Indians and explorers. Unscrupulous explorers, such as La Hontan, conceived marvelous stories of great' rivers and Indian tribes, which they claimed they had found or traced. Boun- daries were indelinite and neither the French nor the Spanish could have pointed out exactly the territory which they believed to be theirs. Consequently, when the French became the owners of Louisiana, they claimed a vast extent of coim- try- without regard to the rights of the Spanish or English. One of the first attempts of the French to explore the northwest occurred in 1712, when a band of adventurers journeyed for several months. No record of this enterprise exists, but it is known that they reached the plains country and heard of the mountain ranges beyond. At this same time French traders and trappers had begun to navigate the Missouri River and its tributaries. Although it was some time before any of these traders reached the site of Denver, excur- sions of equal distance in other directions were taken. The Crozat Government in Louisiana, which began in 171 3, endeavored to open up trade with the Span- ish region to the southwest and in the valley of the Arkansas, basing its hopes on the descriptions furnished by Indians. However, this attempt was abortive. As an instance of the vague idea then held by the French in regard to their western neighbors, the story of Bourgmont may be mentioned. In 171 7, Bourg- mont, an explorer who had become familiar with the lower part of the Missouri River, reported that he had learned of the existence of a race far to the west which traded with the Pawnees. The French accepted this story and, although they knew that the Spanish were in that remote territory and that a large ocean separated China from America, they persisted in the belief that this new race was Chinese. In 1718 a memorial was prepared in Paris, outlining a plan for the develop- ment of the mines on the Missouri and for making Louisiana the commanding state in the new world. The memorial also stated : "Inasmuch as the Missouri has one branch leading to the South Sea, trade can also be opened with Japan and China." This branch assumed to lead to the South Sea was the River Platte, of which the l'"rciuh had a very hazy idea. DU TISNE In the latter part of the year 1719 two P^rench exjilorers started for the western country, in order to gain some definite knowledge of it and use the same for the benefit of their country. One of these expeditions was under command of Du Tisne. He started from Kaskaskia and eventually arrived at a Pawnee village near the present Fort Riley, Kansas, where he raised the French flag, as customary. He made friends with these Indians, and then proceeded farther to visit the Padu- cahs, after having gained the consent of the Pawnees, who were enemies of that tribe. In November Du Tisne returned to Kaskaskia, without having found the supposed Chinese or the river route to the South Sea. 32 HISTORY OF COLORADO LA HARPE The other expedition of Hke character was under the leadership of Benard de la Harpe. This expedition also entered the country of the Paducahs. La Harpe started from the French post on the Lower Red River, named Natchitoches. He ascended the Arkansas River and probably came very near, if' not into, the plains of southeastern Colorado. At the point where the Santa Fe trail in later years crossed the river. La Harpe found an inmiense gathering of Indians who were friendly. They told of how easy it would be to reach the Spanish settle- ments by way of the river, but cautioned La Harpe against doing so, well knowing the hostility shown by the Spanish toward the French intruders. La Harpe re- turned to his starting point without discovering anything of value, other than the feelings of the Spaniards. The expeditions of Du Tisne and La Harpe greatly alarmed the Spanish and the military expedition described in foregoing paragraphs was despatched to drive out the invaders. The terrible fate of this expedition at the hands of the Alissouri Indians has been described. In 1/21 La Harpe was sent upon another expedition, which was no more suc- cessful than the first. The purpose was to learn whether or not the Arkansas would make a satisfactory route for trade with New Mexico, also to obtain cattle from the Spaniards upon the Rio Grande. uourgmoxt's second appearance In 1722 Bourgmont, whose fifteen years among the Indians of the Missouri country had well qualified him for such work, was employed by the Company of the West Indies, of French origin, and formed for the purpose of extendmg commerce in Louisiana. He was instructed to devise means to hold the Spanish from the Missouri. Bourgmont's first action was to erect a fort upon an island in the vicinity of the present Jefferson City, called Fort Orleans. In June, 1724, he built another fort up the Kansas River. Later, desiring to make friends with the Indians, he took with him a small force of men and journeyed into the ter- ritory occupied by the Kansas Indians. At a council held with these Indians they promised Bourgmont safe conduct for French traders through their country to the Spanish settlements on the Rio Grande. This was the last formal expedition by the French for a period of fifteen years. Individual traders and adventurers delved into the mysteries of the region during this time, returning each time with bits of information of interest to the French go^'ernment. THE MALLET BROTHERS With the purpose of finding a waterway into New Mexico, or to find the western ocean and its eastern shore, the two Mallet brothers, with a small party of Frenchmen, left the French settlements in Illinois in the spring of 1739 and as- cended the Missouri River as far as the village of the Arickaree Indians. These Indians pointed out to them that they were on the wrong road to the New Mexi- can settlements and redirected them. Then, after descending the Missouri for a distance, the Frenchmen started across countrv to the Platte, then known as the MONUMENT TO WINFIELD SCOTT STRATTON, STRATTON PARK, COLORADO SPRINGS Vol. 1—8 34 HISTORY OF COLORADO Riviere des Padoucas. The Mallet brothers, in fact, gave this river the name of Riviere la Plat. They followed this stream to ihe junction of the North and South Platte, then proceeded up the latter to its meeting with the Lodge-pole Creek, in the vicinity of the present Julesburg. The party then left the river and again struck out across the plains in a southwest direction. They passed the Arkansas, crossed the southern part of the Sangre de Cristo Range, then on to Santa Fe. Here they remained until the following spring, then returned toward the Mississippi. At a point in western Oklahoma the band separated, one cross- ing the plains to the Missouri, and the other, with the Mallets, going down the Canadian and Arkansas rivers to the Mississippi, thence to New Orleans. Thus, it will be seen, the route of the Mallet brothers across Colorado began at the northeast corner and led directly across the state from north to south. Tlie account of this expedition, when told to Governor Bienville at New Orleans, led all the officials to believe that the Mallets were upon Chinese soil, Eastern Asia, when they were tramping across Colorado. The governor was so excited over the expedition that he immediately made preparations for another, in order to explore more deeply into the West. FABREE DE LA BRUYERE For the command of this expedition there was chosen Fabree de la Bruyere, a naval officer. In the party were also the Mallet brothers, who wished to share in the entrance to Asia, which they profoundly believed possible. La Bruyere and his men ascended the Mississippi and the Arkansas in the fall of 1741, but diverted his course into the Canadian, instead of continuing up the Arkansas as originally intended. About one hundred miles from the latter stream's mouth he constructed a small fort, in which the party spent the winter months. During the long hours of this wait, the prospect of finding "Asia" and the Chinese be- came very discouraging and resulted in the decision to return home. Upon the return journey a stop was made at the mouth of the Canadian and all the surrounding region was claimed in the name of the French king. La Bruyere's journey ended forever the French quest for the western river connection with the ocean and the eastern part of Asia. No more expeditions were made in the direction of Colorado. Whether the French were convinced at last that these things sought for did not exist, or whether the resentment shown by the Spanish caused them to seek trade territory in other parts of Louisiana, is hard to determine. The waterway to the western ocean, proof of which laid only in the Indian reports, and the existence of the City of Quivira, persisted for many years. GOVERNMENTAL ASPECTS Reference has been made in the earlier paragraphs of this chapter to Spain's claim over the entire northwest territory. Her claim, naturally, was based upon the "right of discovery," a much abused phrase and one calculated to cover a multitude of governmental sins. Until the closing years of the Seventeenth Century no serious opposition appeared from the Spanish in the Southwest. Then, in 1682, when La Salle took possession of the Mississippi River and all HISTORY OF COLORADO 35 its immense valley from the Alleghanies to the Rockies, the period of French government may be said to have begun. In 1762, eighty years after La Salle's voyage down the Alississippi, a secret treaty was consummated between France and Spain, the terms of which allowed the Mississippi to be the eastern boundary of New Spain, or New Mexico. England declared war upon Spain in 1739 '^"'^^ upon France in 1744. This overseas struggle did not end until 1748 and even then the peace compact was considered nothing more than a truce. The interests of France and England in North America immediately conflicted and in seven years resulted in another war, which lasted seven years more. This Seven Years' War was concluded by the Treaty of Fontainebleau on November 3, 1762, by which France ceded to Great Britain all that part of Louisiana lying east of the Mississippi River "ex- cept the City of New Orleans and the island upon which it is situated." This treaty was ratified by the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763, at which time it was announced that, by an agreement previously made in secret, "the city and island of New Orleans, and all that part of Louisiana lying west of the Mis- sissippi, including the whole country to the headwaters of the great river and west to the Rocky Mountains," was ceded to Spain. In this way Colorado again became Spanish territory, and continued so until the beginning of the Nine- teenth Century. The French Revolution during the closing years of the Eighteenth Century brought into prominence two of the most noted characters in European history — Napoleon and Talleyrand. These two great Frenchmen, feeling deeply the loss of their country's American possessions, soon began to plan for the rebuild- ing of a colonial empire, one of the chief features of which was the recovery of Louisiana. At that time Don Carlos IV was King of Spain, but Channing says: "The actual rulers in Spain were Dofia Maria Luisa de Parma, his queen, and Don Manuel Godoy, el Principe de la Paz, which title writers of English habitually translate 'Prince of Peace.' " Godoy, who had been influential in the formation and adoption of the Treaty of Madrid in 1795, which gave the United States the free navigation of the Mississippi, knew that he was not liked by Napoleon and Talleyrand. There- fore, when they began overtures for the transfer of Louisiana back to France, he resigned from the Spanish ministry, leaving the king without his most efificient advisor. In exchange for Louisiana, Napoleon and Talleyrand offered an Italian kingdom of at least one million inhabitants for the Duke de Parma, prince presumptive, who was at once son-in-law and nephew of the ruling mon- archs. The State of Tuscany was selected and its transfer to Spain was the condition imposed by the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. This treaty was con- firmed by the Treaty of Madrid on March 21, 1801. So Colorado again became French territory, so to remain until 1803, when by the Louisiana Purchase, her soil came into the possession of the United States. Of this tremendous negotia- tion a description is given in the following chapter. Perhaps the first governor of the territory now in Colorado was the governor, or commandant, at St. Louis, Captain St. Ange of the French Army, who went to St. Louis in 1765, a short time after the founding of the city by Laclede and Choteau. St. Ange was succeeded in 1770 by the first Spanish commandant, Don Pedro Piernas, who served until May 19, 1775, when he was relieved by 36 HISTORY OF COLORADO Don Francisco Crozat. The latter remained in office until June 14, 1778, then gave way to Don Fernando de Leyba. De Leyba died in June, 1780, was succeeded by Lieut. Silvio Francisco Cartabona, who served until Crozat was reappointed. Crozat's second term ended November 25, 1787, and then came Don Manuel Perez. Zenon Trudeau followed in 1793 and stayed until 1799. His successor was Don Carlos Dehault Delassus, a Frenchman who had become a Spanish subject. In 1800, when France again became the controlling power over Louisiana, Delassus yet remained at his post and governed until the acqui- sition of the province by the United States in 1803. In fact, France had very little jurisdiction, other than nominal, during the three years. At this point begins the history of the American development of the Great West, which story follows in the next chapter. CHAPTER III • THE PERIOD OF AMERICAN EXPLORATION THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE LEWIS AND CLARK ZEBULON M. PIKE HIS FIRST AND SECOND EXPEDITIONS FIRST VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS-^MEETING WITH THE SPANISH PIKE's SINCERITY LONG's EXPLORING EXPEDITION FIRST ASCENT OF pike's PEAK JOHN C. FREMONT THE SECOND EXPEDITION THE third and fourth expeditions of fremont— the gunnison expedition Fremont's last expedition. the louisiana purchase A copy of the secret treaty between France and Spain which was confirmed by the Treaty of Madrid (March 21, 1801) was sent to President Jetferson by Rufus King, then United States Minister to England. It reached the White House on May 26, 1 801. In August following, Robert R. Livingston went to France as United States minister and immediately upon his arrival asked Talleyrand, then the French Prime Minister, if the Province of Louisiana had been receded to France. Talleyrand replied in the negative, and in one sense of the word he was justified in doing so, as the Treaty of Madrid was not signed by the King of Spain until in October, 1802. When President Jefferson received a copy of the treaty sent by Mr. King, he wrote to James Monroe : "There is consid- erable reason to apprehend that Spain cedes Louisiana and the Floridas to France. To my mind this policy is very unwise for both France and Spain, and very ominous to us." During the next twelve months, President Jefferson and his cabinet officers were kept in a state of suspense as to the status of Louisiana and little progress was made toward a satisfactory adjustment of the navigation matter. On April 18, 1802, the President wrote to Mr. Livingston at Paris, advising him that the American people were anxiously watching France's movements with regard to Louisiana. In concluding his letter he said : "The day that France takes pos- session of New Orleans fixes the sentence which is to restrain her forever within her low water mark. It seals the union of two nations who in conjunction can maintain exclusive (control) of the ocean. From that moment we must marry ourselves to the British fleet and nation. The first cannon which .shall be fired in Europe will be the signal for tearing up any settlement she may have made, and for holding the two continents of America in sequestration for the common purpo.se of the united British and American nations." Jefferson did not desire an alliance with England, but was firm in the con- viction that French possession of Louisiana would force the United States to 37 38 HISTORY OF COLORADO adopt such a course. In November," 1802, news reached Washington that the Spanish authorities at New Orleans had suddenly and without warning with- drawn the right of deposit at that port. The country — particularly in the new settlements in the Mississippi and Ohio valleys — was ablaze with indignation. The federalists, Jefferson's political opponents, tried to force the administration into some policy that would give them a political advantage, but their efiforts were futile. Says Channing: "Never in all his long and varied career did Jef- ferson's foxlike discretion stand him in better stead. Instead of following public clamor, he calmly formulated a policy and carried it through to a most successful termination." In his message to Congress at the opening of the session in 1802, the Presi- dent merely stated that the change in ownership of Louisiana would necessarily make a change in our foreign relations, but did not intimate what the nature of that change would be. On January 7, 1803, the lower house of Congress, acting upon the President's recommendation, adopted the following resolutions : "Resolved, That it is the unalterable determination of the United States to main- tain the boundaries and rights of navigation and commerce through the Mis- sissippi River, as established by existing treaties." On the 13th of the same month Mr. Jefferson wrote to James Monroe that the federalists were trying to force the United States into war in order to get into power. About the same time he wrote to Mr. Livingston that if France considered Louisiana indispensable to her interests, she might still be willing to cede to the United States the island of Orleans and the Floridas. Or, if not willing to cede the island, she might be induced to grant the right of deposit at New Orleans and the free navigation of the Mississippi, as it had previously been under the Spanish regime, and directed him to open negotiations with that end in view. A few days after writing this letter, thinking the cession could prob- ably be more easily accomplished by sending an emissary direct from the United States for that purpose, he appointed James Monroe as minister plenipotentiary, to cooperate with Minister Livingston. The Senate promptly confirmed Mr. Monroe's appointment and Congress placed at his disposal the sum of $2,000,000 to be used by him and Mr. Livingston to pay for the island. In this connection, it may be well to note that the ultimate success of Liv- ingston and Monroe was no doubt furthered by a letter written about this time by Pichon, the French minister to the United States, to Talleyrand, in which he advised the French prime minister that the people of the United States were thoroughly aroused over the suspension of the right of deposit, and that the administration might be forced by public opinion into an alliance with Great Britain. War between England and France had just been renewed and Napoleon, realizing the superior strength of the British Navy, saw that it would be a diffi- cult undertaking to hold Louisiana if an alliance should be made between Eng- land and the LTnited States. He had a force of troops under General Victor ready to send to New Orleans, but learned that an English fleet was lying in wait for Victor's departure and countermanded the order. In the meantime Livingston had opened negotiations for the cession of the island of Orleans and West Florida, believing the Floridas were included in the Treaty of San Ildefonso. On April 11, 1803, Napoleon placed the entire matter of the cession in the hands of the Marquis de Marbois, minister of the French HISTORY OF COLORADO 39 Treasury, and the same day Talleyrand startled Livingston by asking if the United States would not like to own the entire Province of Louisiana. Livingston gave a negative reply, but Talleyrand insisted that Louisiana would be worth nothing to France without the city and island of New Orleans and asked the American minister to make an offer for the whole province. Another conference was held the next morning and that afternoon Mr. Monroe arrived in Paris. That night the two American envoys spent several hours in consultation, the result of which was that Mr. Livingston was selected to conduct the negotiations. Several days were then spent in discussing the matter, Marbois at first asking 125,000,000 francs ($25,000,000) for the whole province, though it afterward cropped out that Napoleon had directed him to accept 50,000,000 francs, pro- vided that a better price could not be obtained. The price finally agreed upon was 80,000,000 francs, three-fourths of that amount to go directly to the French treasury and the remainder to be used in settling claims of American citizens against the French government. The next step taken was to embody the terms in a formal treaty, called the Treaty of Paris. The treaty bears the date of April 30, 1803, and was signed by Robert R. Livingston, James Monroe and Barbe Marbois. The original cost of the entire territory thus ceded was about three cents per acre, but McMaster says: "Up to June, 1880, the total cost of Louisiana was $27,267,621." Out of the country acquired by the treaty have been erected the following states : Louisiana, Arkansas, Missouri, Kansas, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, one-third of Colorado, nearly all of Mon- tana, three-fourths of Wyoming and Oklahoma. After the treaty was ratified by both houses of Congress, Mr. Jefferson appointed William C. C. Claiborne, gov- ernor of Mississippi, and Gen. James Wilkinson as commissioners to receive the province from Pierre Laussat, the French commissary. The transfer was formally made and the Stars and Stripes were raised at New Orleans on December 20, 1803. LEWIS AND CLARK Not long after the cession of Louisiana to the United States, President Jef- ferson began making plans to send an expedition up the Missouri River to dis- cover its sources, and to ascertain whether a water route to the Pacific coast was practicable. As it was late in the year 1803 before the Treaty of Paris was rati- fied, the expedition was postponed until the following spring. The President selected as leaders of this expedition Capts. Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, of the regular army. Both were natives of Virginia and the latter was a brother of Gen. George Rogers Clark. On May 14, 1804, they left the mouth of the Missouri River and ascended that stream. Their company consisted of fourteen regular soldiers, nine young men from Kentucky, two French voy- ageurs or boatmen, an Indian interpreter, a hunter and a negro servant belonging to Captain Clark. Their main vessel was a keel-boat, fifty-five feet long, with twenty-two oars and drawing three feet of water. It had a cabin, in which were kept the most valuable articles, and a large square sail to be used when the wind was favorable. They also had two pirogues, fitted with six and seven oars respectively. Two horses were led along the bank, to be used in hunting game. These explorers continued to the headwaters of the Missouri River, then crossed the Continental Divide and proceeded to the mouth of the Columbia River. 40 HISTORY OF COLORADO ZEBULON M. PIKE The life and efforts of young Lieut. Zebulon M. Pike, a young officer of the regular army, are very closely associated with the early history of Colorado. Pike was a debonair and dashing officer, with individual ideas, and well fitted to conduct the expeditions into the western country. Of his unfortunate asso- ciation with the notorious General Wilkinson, much has been written, some authors giving Pike the benefit of the doubt, while others hesitate not in proclaiming him a leader with traitorous designs. Pike's first expedition occurred in 1805. On August 9th of that year he left St. Louis with a sergeant, two corporals and seventeen privates, to explore the upper Mississippi River. He states, in his preface to the "Journal," that "I was chosen to trace the Mississippi to its source, with the object in view contemplated by my instructions; to which I conceived my duty as a soldier should induce me to add an investigation into the views of the British traders in that quarter as to trade, and an inquiry into the limits of the territories of the United States and Great Britain." In the latter part of August, Lieutenant Pike held a council with the Indians near the town of Montrose, Iowa. No attempt was made to conclude a treaty with the Indians, but Pike's words of cheer made friends of them. Several years later the noted Black Hawk, Sac chieftain, described Pike's visit as fol- lows : "A boat came up the river with a young chief and a small party of sol- diers. We heard of them soon after they passed Salt River. Some of our young braves watched them every day, to see what sort of people were on board. The boat at last arrived at Rock River and the young chief came on shore with his interpreter, made a speech and gave us some presents. We in turn gave them meat and such other provisions as we could spare. We were well pleased with the young chief. He gave us good advice and said our American father would treat us well." In order to gain a clear understanding of Pike's first trip a summary of his journey is valuable. After leaving St. Louis he met a band of Chippewa chiefs at Prairie du Chien and persuaded them to better their relations with the Sioux Indians. The falls of St. Anthony was reached September 23d and here Pike purchased a tract of land nine miles square at the mouth of the St. Croix, for the location of a fort. In the middle of October, at Little Falls, Pike constructed a stockade, where he left seven men. He arrived at Leech Lake (Lake La Sang Sue) and believed it to be the main source of the Mississippi River. He then traveled thirty miles farther to Cass Lake (Red Cedar). Here Pike spent his time combating the influence of the British among the Indians, then returned along the Mississippi to St. Louis, arriving on April 30, 1806. pike's second expedition In 1806 Lieutenant Pike led his second expedition, under the order of Gen. James Wilkinson, westward to the Rockies, within the present State of Colorado. The object of this expedition was, primarily, to restore to their people a band of Osage Indians which had been held as captives by the Potawatomi of Illinois, also to take home a number of Osage and Pawnee chiefs who had been to Wash- LIEUT. ZEBULON M. PIKE This portrait of Lieutenant Zebulon Montgomery Pike, of the United States Army and for whom Pike's Peak was named, is reproduced from a photot;ra]iliie enlargement of an engraved portrait of liim that was made in 1810. He was the commander of a military ex- pedition, ostensibly for exploring the central parts of the Far West, and which, departing from Bello Fontaine, near St. Louis, crossed tiio country that now forms the states of Missouri and Kansas, traversed tlio southwestern quarter of Colorado 's area, and thcnco passed into New Mexico, in the years 1806-07. Pike was born in Ijamberton, N. J., on January 5, 1779, and having attained the rank of brigadier-general early in our last war with England, was fatally injured on April 27, 181.'!, while leading the victorious assault on the British tovm of York (Toronto), Canada. 42 HISTORY OF COLORADO ington to visit the "Great Father." Pike himself wrote : "The great objects in view by this expedition, as I conceived in addition to my instructions, were to attach the Indians to our government, and to acquire such geographical knowl- edge of the southwestern boundary of Louisiana as to enable our government to enter into a definite arrangement for a line of demarkation between that terri- tory and North Mexico." The United States and Spain were at this time at swords' points over the southwestern boundary of the Louisiana Purchase. Troops of the two govern- ments were several times on the verge of conflict along the frontiers. Burr's conspiracy and its menace to Spanish territory caused great uneasiness among the Spaniards ; consequently. Pike was closely watched by secret agents during the time of his preparation at St. Louis. On July II, 1806, Pike went to Belle Fontaine, six miles from the mouth of the Missouri River, where a cantonment was located. Late in the afternoon of the 15th he and his party, accompanied by fifty-one Indians, left this point and proceeded up the Missouri River in two large boats ; the Indians traveled on foot along the shore. Pike's main command consisted of : Lieut. James B. Wilkinson, son of Gen. James Wilkinson; John H. Robinson, physician ; Joseph Ballenger, sergeant ; William E. Meek, sergeant ; Jeremiah Jackson, corporal; Baroney \^asquez, interpreter; John Boley, private; Henry Kennerman, private ; Samuel Bradley, private ; John Brown, private ; Jacob Carter, private ; Thomas Dougherty, private ; W^illiam Gordon, private ; Solomon Huddleston, private; Theodore Miller, private; Hugh ]\Ienaugh, private; John Mountjoy, private; Alexander Roy, private; John Sparks, private; Patrick Smith, private; Freegift Stout, private; John Wilson, private. The expedition traveled slowly up the Missouri northward to the Osage River, thence along that stream and its north fork to the vicinity of the "Grand Osage" village. One writer locates this village "some fifteen or twenty miles northeastward of the present city of Fort Scott, Kansas." Here the captives Vfc'ere delivered to their people and pack-horses secured for the remainder of the westward journey. On September ist Pike and his party, somewhat changed in personnel, left the village of the Osage. His course first took a southeast direction, then bore northwestward through Kansas. He arrived among the Pawnees on September 25th and on the 29th held a grand council. The exact location of this Pawnee village is in doubt. It has been placed just north of the Kansas-Nebraska line on the Republican River and also in the northwestern part of the present Republic County, Kansas. The former version bears the greater weight of opinion. Here Pike learned very interesting news regarding the Spanish, namely, the Malgares expedition, which had previously visited the Pawnees. In all. Pike learned that the Spanish were apprehensive of American intentions in the Southwest. October 8th was the date of Pike's departure from the Pawnees. He now traveled south by west and reached the Arkansas River on the 14th, near the site of the present Kansas town of Great Bend. A crossing was made and camp tents pitched on the other side. Here a rest of ten days occurred, while a detach- ment of five soldiers and two Osage guides, under command of Lieutenant Wilkinson, descended the Arkansas to visit the post on that river. Recrossing the river. Pike then proceeded westward on the north bank, following an old HISTORY OF COLORADO 43 Spanish military trail. On the 30th of October the party recrossed the river again to the south bank and entered the land of Colorado. FIRST VIEW OF THE MOUNTAINS On November 15th Pike first obtained a glimpse of the Rockies, including what is now Pike's Peak. At this time he was near the mouth of the Purgatory River. In his Journal Pike describes the incident thus : "At two o'clock in the afternoon, I thought I could distinguish a mountain to our right, which appeared like a small blue cloud ; viewed it with the spy-glass, and was still more confirmed in my conjecture, yet only communicated it to Doctor Robinson, who was in front of me, but in half an hour it appeared in full view before us. When our small party arrived on the hill, they with one accord gave three cheers to the Mexican Mountains. Their appearance can easily be imagined by those who have crossed the Alleghanies, but their sides were white as if covered with snow, or a white stone." Two days later Pike added: "Marched at our usual hour; pushed on with the idea of arriving at the mountains, but found at night no visible difference in their appearance from what we had observed yesterday." The march was continued until the 23d when the party arrived at the St. Charles, a small tributary of the Arkansas, and encamped. Pike at this point determined to make an ascent of the "Grand Peak," now called Pike's Peak, although the country was in the midst of winter. The distance to be traveled seemed to him to be short, a deception which has occurred to many travelers since. Writing in his Journal on the 23d of November, Pike states that "as the river appeared to be dividing itself into several small branches, and of course must be near its extreme source, I concluded to put my party in a defen- sible situation, and to ascend the north fork to the high point of the Blue Moun- tain, which we conceived would be one day's march, in order to be enabled from its summit to lay down the various branches of the river and the positions of the country." A small log breastwork was accordingly built the next morning "five feet high on three sides and the other was thrown on the river." This insignificant fortification has been located at various points on the Fontaine, one writer placing it at a point in Pueblo, where Union Avenue crosses the river. However, it is known practically for certain that this small breastwork was the first structure erected by Americans in what is now the State of Colorado. At one o'clock on the 24th Pike, Doctor Robinson and two of the soldiers started toward the peak, leaving the remainder of the company to hold the fort and guard the supplies. Pike fully expected to reach the mountain before even- ing. Fifty miles was the distance they had to travel in order to accomplish this feat, but they made only twelve before night. Pike's Journal, under date of the 25th, states: "Marched early with e.xpectation of ascending the mountain, but was only able to camp at its base, after passing over many small hills, covered with cedars and pitch pines." However, instead of being at the base of the "Grand Peak," Pike was fully ten miles from that spot, mistaking another peak — probably Cheyenne — for the main elevation. Upon the 26th the travelers began the torturous ascent of the Cheyenne Peak, alternately marched and climbed all day and in the 44 HISTORY OF COLORADO evening made their camp in a cave. They had brought no bedding or food with them, as they had expected to make the round trip in one day. Pike describes the trip in the following words : "Arose hungry, thirsty, and extremely sore from the unevenness of the rocks on which we had lain all night ; but were amply compensated for our toil by the sublimity of the prospects below. The unbounded prairie was overhung with clouds, which appeared like the ocean in a storm, wave piled on wave, and foaming, whilst the sky over our heads was perfectly clear. Commenced our march up the mountain, and in about one hour arrived at the summit of this chain ; here we found the snow middle deep, and discovered no sign of beast or bird inhabiting this region. The thermometer which stood at 9 degrees above zero at the foot of the mountain, here fell to 4 degrees below. The summit of the Grand Peak, which was entirely bare of vegetation, and covered with snow, now appeared at the distance of fifteen or sixteen miles from us, and as high again as that we had ascended ; it would have taken a whole day's march to have arrived at its base, when I believe no human being could have ascended to its summit. This, with the condition of my soldiers, who had only light overhauls on, and no stockings, and were every way ill-provided to endure the inclemency of this region, the bad prospect of killing anything to subsist on, with the further detention of two or three days which it must occasion, determined us to return. The clouds from below had now ascended the mountain and entirely enveloped the summit, on which rest eternal snows. We descended by a long deep ravine with much less difficulty than we had contemplated. Found all our baggage safe, but the provisions all destroyed. It began to snow, and we found shelter under the side of a projecting rock, where we all four made a meal on one partridge, and a pair of deer's ribs which the ravens had left us, being the first food we had eaten for forty-eight hours." Pike consumed two days' time in returning to the other men and the breast- work. On the morning of the 30th, he abandoned this place and, under stormy and adverse conditions, moved up the Arkansas. On December 3d, Pike, with the assistance of Doctor Robinson and others, took the altitude of the Grand Peak and by their calculations judged it to be 18,581 feet in height, an error of 4,400 feet. This mistake was made in over-estimating the altitude of the base of the mountain. On the 5th the party encamped very near the present site of Caiion City, from where he sent out small scouting parties to locate traces of the Spaniards. This camp was the starting point of a month's wandering through the mountain gullies, canyons and across ridges, the men suffering during all the time from the severe weather. Provisions became scarce, game for themselves and food for the animals were almost impossible to find. A return was made to the Cation City site on January 5, 1807. While searching for the Red River, Pike came to the South Platte, marched through South Park, left it by Trout Creek Pass and then struck over to the Arkansas, which he thought to be the Red River. While holding forth at Caiion City camp. Pike and others of the party made sepa- rate excursions farther up the Arkansas, both for exploration purposes and to bag any game which might appear. He found evidences of the Spanish explorers' trail, but had no actual conflict with any other white men. By January 9th (1807) the small parties which had separated on the loth of the preceding HISTORY OF COLORADO 45 month were reunited at the Canon City camp. "The whole party was once more joined together," writes Pike, "when we felt comparatively happy, notwith- standing the great mortification I felt at being so egregiously deceived as to the Red River." "I now felt at considerable loss how to proceed," he continues in his Journal, "as any idea of service at that time from my horses was entirely preposterous. Thus, after various plans formed and rejected, and the most mature deliberation, I determined to build a small place for defense and deposit, and leave part of the baggage, horses, my interpreter, and one man; and with the remainder, with our packs of Indian presents, ammunition, tools, etc., on our backs, to cross the mountains on foot, find the Red River, and then send back a detachment to conduct the horses and baggage after us, by the most eligible route we could discover; by which time we calculated our horses would be so far recovered as to be able to endure the fatigue of the march. In consequence of this determi- nation, some were put to constructing the blockhouse, some to hunting, some to take care of horses, etc. I myself made preparations to pursue a course of observations, that would enable me to ascertain the latitude and longitude of the situation, which I conceived to be an important one." This blockhouse, or cache, was probably constructed within the corporate limits of the present Canon City. This strenuous journey in the quest of the Red River began on January 14, 1807. In the party were, besides Pike, the doctor and eighteen soldiers, according to the lournal. There is a discrepancy here, as tliere were only twelve soldiers in the whole party and one of them was left at the Canon City site with Inter- preter Vasquez. The course first followed Grape Creek into the Wet Mountain Valley and after a few days out the men encamped at the foot of the Sangre de Cristo Range. Whatever experiences Pike and his men had undergone before and whatever hardships and privations they suffered were minimized by the intense and terrible suffering which lay just before them. The air was bitter cold and when the encampment was made Pike found nine .of his men with frozen feet. Sleep was impossible under these conditions. Pike and Doctor Robinson sallied out the ne.xt morning in search of food and on the afternoon of the second day were fortunate enough to kill a buffalo. This was the fourth day since they had eaten. Nothing to be gained by remaining at this point, Pike resolved to continue the hard journey, even in the face of the past experience. Two of the men were unable to move and finally they were left in a shelter, with food and ammunition, to wait until relief could come back to them. This second lap of the trip was in every way a repetition of the first. A crossing of the Sangre de Cristo Range was made and view obtained of the Rio Grande River flowing through what is now the San Luis Park. From here Pike took a southwest course and on the evening of January 30, 1807, came to the river, about the site of Alamosa, Conejos County, Colorado. After crossing the river the party proceeded southward to the Conejos. Here a fortified station was erected and the American flag raised. The stockade, which was raised on the north bank of the river, is described by Pike thus: "The stockade was situated on the north bank of the western branch, the west fork of the Rio del Norte, about five miles from its junction with the main river, in a small prairie. The south flank joining the edge of the river (which at that place was 46 HISTORY OF COLORADO not fordable), the east and west curtains were flanked by bastions in the N. E. and N. W. angles, which likewise flanked the curtain on the north side of the work. The stockade from the center of the angles of the bastions was thirty- six feet square. There were heavy cottonwood logs about two feet in diameter, laid up all around about six feet, after which lighter ones until we made it twelve feet in height; these logs were joined together by a lap of about two feet at each end. We then dug a small ditch on the inside all around, making it perpendicular on the internal side, and sloping next the work; in this ditch we planted small stakes of about six inches diameter, sharpened at the upper end to a nice point, slanting them over the top of the work, giving them about two and a half feet projection. We then secured them below and above in that position, which formed a small pointed frieze, which must have been removed before the works could have been scaled. Lastly, we dug a ditch round the whole, four feet wide, and let the water into it ; the earth taken out being thrown against the work, forming an excellent rampart against small arms, three or four feet high. Our mode of getting in was to crawl over the ditch on a plank, and into a small hole sunk below the level of the work near the river for that pur- pose. Our portholes were pierced about eight feet from the ground, and a plat- form prepared to shoot from. "Thus fortified, I should not have had the least hesitation in putting the hundred Spanish horse at defiance until the first or second night, and then to have made our escape under cover of darkness; or made a sally and dispersed them, when resting under a full confidence of our being panic struck by their numbers and force." From here five men were dispatched northward to bring in the men who had been left on the trail. Part of them were brought in, but two others were unable to come, "but they sent on to me some of the bones taken out of their feet and conjured me by all that was sacred, not to leave them to perish far from the civilized world." These men were afterward returned to the main party, also Interpreter \'asquez and the soldier who had been left in charge of the first fort. FIRST MEETING WITH THE SP.ANISH Pike's first meeting with the Spanish occurred on February i6, 1807, while he and one of his soldiers were engaged in hunting. Pike's own account of this incident is as follows : "Immediately afterwards (the wounding of a deer six miles from the fort) I discovered two horsemen rising the summit of a hill about half a mile to our right. As my orders were to avoid giving alarm or offense to the Spanish gov- ernment of New Mexico, I endeavored to shun them at first, but when we attempted to retreat, they pursued us at full charge, flourishing their lances, and when we advanced they would retire as fast as their horses could carry them. Seeing this, we got into a small ravine, in hopes to decoy them near enough to oblige them to come to a parley, which happened agreeably to our desires. As they came on, hunting us with great caution, we suffered them to get within forty yards, where we had allured them, but were about running off again, when I ordered the soldier to lav down his arms and walk towards them, at the same HISTORY OF COLORADO 47 time standing ready with my rifle to kill either who should lift an arm in a hos- tile manner. I then halloed to them, that we were Americans and friends, which were almost the only two words 1 knew in the Spanish language; after which, with great signs of fear, they came up, and proved to be a Spanish dragoon and a civilized Indian; armed after their maimer * * * We were jealous of our arms on both sides and acted with great precaution. They informed me that that was the fourth day since they had left Santa Fe; that Robinson had arrived there, and had been received with great kindness by the governor. As I knew them to be spies, I thought it proper merely to inform them that I was about to descend the river to Natchitoches. We sat here on the ground a long time, and finding they were determined not to leave me, we arose and bade them adieu; but they demanded where our camp was, and finding that they were not about to depart, I thought it most proper to take them with me, thinking we were on Red River, and of course in the territory claimed by the United States. "We took the road to my fort, and as they were on horseback, they traveled rather faster than myself. They were halted by the sentinel and immediately retreated much surprised. When I came up I took them in and then explained to them as well as I was able, my intentions of descending the river to Natchi- toches but at the same time told them that if Governor Allencaster would send out an officer with an interpreter, who spoke French or English, I would do myself the pleasure to give his excellency every reasonable satisfaction as to my intentions in coming on his frontiers. They informed me that on the second day they would be in Santa Fe, but were careful never to suggest an idea of my being on the Rio del Norte. As they concluded I did not think as I spoke, they were very anxious to ascertain our number, etc. Seeing only five men here, they could not believe we came without horses ; to this I did not think proper to afford them any satisfaction, giving them to understand we were in many parties." On the morning of February 17th the two visitors departed from the fort. From this time on Pike fully expected to be visited by a large force of Spaniards and in this expectation he was not disappointed. On the 26th they came. "In the morning I was apprised by the report of a gun from my look-out guard, of the approach of strangers ; immediately after two Frenchmen arrived. My sentinel halted them, and I ordered them to be admitted after some ques- tions. They informed me that his excellency. Governor Allencaster, hearing it was the intention of the Utah Indians to attack me, had detached an officer with fifty dragoons to come out and protect me, and that they would be with me in two days. To this I made no reply, but shortly after, the party hove in sight, as I afterwards learned ; fifty dragoons and fifty mounted militia of the Province armed in the same manner, with lances, escopates and pistols. My sentinels halted them at the distance of about fifty yards. I had the works manned; I thought it most proper to send out the two Frenchmen to inform the com- manding officer that it was my request he should leave his party in a small copse of the wood where he halted, and that I would meet him myself in the prairie, in which our work was situated ; this I did, with my sword on me only. I was then introduced to Don Tgnatio Saltelo and Don Bartholomew Fernandez, two lieu- tenants; the former the commander of the party: I gave them an invitation to enter the works, but requested the troops might remain where tliey were. This was complied with; but when they came round and discovered that to enter they 48 HISTORY OF COLORADO were obliged to crawl on their bellies over a small drawbridge, they appeared astonished; they, however, entered without further hesitation. "VVe first breakfasted, on some deer, meal, goose, and some biscuit, which the civilized Indian who came out as a spy had brought me. After breakfast the commanding officer addressed me as follows : " 'Sir, the Governor of New Mexico, being informed that you had missed your route, ordered me to offer you in his name mules, horses, money, or what- ever you may stand in need of, to conduct you to the head of Red River; as from Santa Fe, to where it is sometimes navigable, is eight days' journey, and we have guides and the routes of the traders to conduct us.' "'What,' interrupted I, 'is not this the Red River?' 'No, sir, it is the Rio del Norte.' I immediately ordered my flag to be taken down and rolled up, feel- ing how sensibly I had committed myself in entering their territory, and was conscious that they must have positive orders to take me in. He now added that he had provided one hundred mules and horses to take in my party and baggage, and stated how anxious his excellency was to see me at Santa Fe. I stated to him the absence of my sergeant, the situation of the rest of the party, and that my orders would not justify my entering into the Spanish territories. He urged still further, until I began to feel myself a little heated in the argu- ment, and told him in a pieremptory style that I would not go until the arrival of my sergeant, with the remainder of my party. He replied that there was not the least restraint to be used, only that it was necessary his excellency should receive an explanation of my business on his frontiers ; that I might go now, or on the arrival of my party ; but that if none went at present he should be obliged to send in for provisions. He added that if I would now march, he would leave an Indian interpreter and an escort of dragoons to conduct the sergeant into Santa Fe. His mildness induced me to tell him that I would march, but must leave two men in order to meet the sergeant and party to instruct him as to coming in, as he would never do so without a fight, unless ordered. "I was induced to consent to the measure by conviction that the officer had a positive command to convey me in ; and as I had no orders to engage in hos- tilities, and indeed had committed myself, although innocently, by violating their territory, I conceived it would be better to show a will to come to an explanation, rather than to be put in any way constrained. Yet my situation was so eligible, and I could have so easily put them to defiance, that it was with great reluctance I suffered all our labor to be lost, without once trying the efficacy of it. "My compliance seemed to spread general joy through the Spanish party, as soon as it was communicated. But it appeared to be different with my men, who wished to have had a little dust (as they expressed it), and were likewise fearful of Spanish treachery. "My determination being once taken, I gave permission for the lieutenant's men to come to the outside of the works and some of mine to go out and see them. Immediately the hospitality and goodness of the Creoles and Mestis began to be manifested by their producing their provision and giving it to my men; at the same time covering them with their blankets. "After writing orders to my sergeant, and leaving them with my corporal and one private who were to remain, we sallied forth, mounted our horses, and HISTORY OF COLORADO 49 went up the river about twelve miles to a place where the Spanish officers had made a camp deposit, from whence we sent down mules for our baggage." Pike's experiences with the Spanish do not form a part of the history of Colorado, but are interesting in demonstrating the attitude of the Spanish toward the Americans. Pike and his men were conducted to Santa Fe and there cour- teously received by Governor Allencaster. The governor questioned Pike mi- nutely and examined his papers, but notwithstanding the good treatment accorded him, Pike felt himself a prisoner. From Santa Fe the Americans were taken to El Paso and from there to Chihuahua, where they were again questioned, this time by General Salcedo. Leaving Chihuahua eventually, Pike and his men were escorted by a roundabout course through the northeastern part of what is now Mexico to the lower part of the Rio Grande, then by way of San Antonio across Texas to Natchitoches, where they were released on July i, 1807. pike's sincerity The name of Zebulon M. Pike has been associated with one of the most treasonable plots ever contemplated in the United States — that originating in the minds of Aaron Burr and Gen. James Wilkinson. Pike has been treated as equally treasonable by some writers of history, but on the other hand has had staunch apologists who have endeavored to show that he was a spirited young military officer who believed he was following orders. There is no doubt that the expedition of which he was the leader was formulated by Burr and Wilkin- son and was a move for the purpose of planning a seizure of a great part of the Mississippi Valley and much of New Spain, and there to establish another empire with Burr in supreme command. Wilkinson, who was proved a traitor and of the blackest character not only in this, but in other schemes, readily fell in with Burr's schemes and immediately began to learn the attitude of his younger officers. Wilkinson was at this time at the head of the United States Army. Whatever Pike's participation in this plot was, it is certain that he was aware of the real purpose of the expedition which he led to the Rockies. Cer- tain features of the journey prove that it was not an exploring expedition, but something more sinister and deeper. After the trial of Burr, Pike wrote: "There have not been wanting persons of various ranks who have endeavored to infuse the idea into the minds of the public that the last voyage was undertaken through sinister designs of General Wilkinson; and although this rejwrt had been amply refuted by two letters from the secretary of war, yet I cannot forbear, in this public manner, declaring the insinuation to be a groundless calumny, arising from the envenomed breasts of persons who, through enmity to the general, would, in attempting his ruin, hurl destruction on all those who, either through official stations or habits of friend- ships, ever had any connection with that gentleman." Harry B. Tedrow, of Denver, who has studied the subject of Pike's life with extraordinary thoroughness, in an article on "Zchulon M. Pike and Aaron Burr," (Colorado Springs Gazette, .August 18, K)Oi). states: "His intimacy with Wilkinson at the time that bombastic general was hand in hand with Aaron Burr tinges his reputation with a suspicion that even the glory of his soldier's death cannot remove. It is almost too much to believe that Vol. 1—4 50 HISTORY OF COLORADO Pike was ignorant of Wilkinson's ulterior designs in sending him to the Rocky Mountain region. At the same time the duty of a soldier admitted of no ques- tioning and he might have gone, as soldiers usually go; not because they would, but because they must. . . . He (Pike) stands convicted by his own story." In regard to the ostensible object of Pike's smoking the peace-pipe with the Indians, Tedrow says: "But other evidence tends to show that Wilkinson also gave some instruc- tions which stopped short of nothing less than premeditated invasion of Spanish ground. It takes no extraordinary imagination to believe that the general antici- pated the capture of Pike and his men." It is altogether probable that Tedrow's article was one of the first published which actually attempted to establish Pike's connection with the Burr conspiracy, although Elliott Coues, in his "The Expeditions of Zebulon Montgomery Pike," (1895), established Pike's connection with Wilkinson and Burr and his duplicity of motive. It is not the purpose here to set forth in detail the argtiments pro and con in regard to the Pike expedition. The History of Colorado is concerned more with the adventures of this courageous soldier in the Rockies, which have been described in preceding paragraphs. The world-famous Pike's Peak has been named after him, although he did not succeed in ascending this mountain, nor was he the first white man to see it. The Spaniards had looked upon its majestic grandeur, fur traders and trappers had gazed upon it, and undoubtedly the first American who saw the peak was James Purcell, whose trail led near it about eighteen months before Pike's arrival. Zebulon Montgomery Pike was born in Lamberton, New Jersey, January 5, 1779, and was the son of Zebulon Pike, an officer in the Revolution. At fifteen years of age young Pike joined his father's regiment as a cadet and at twenty-one years of age received a lieutenant's commission. Before his death he reached the rank of brigadier general. After his expedition to the Rockies, Pike served under Gen. Henry Dearborn in the campaign against York (Toronto), Canada, in the spring of 1813. On April 27th he led an attack against the British there and dispersed the garrison. As the English fled they blew up their powder magazine and a piece of masonry, hurtling through the air, mortally wounded the gallant Pike. A few hours later he died. His body was first interred at Sackett's Harbor, New York, then in 1819 removed to the military cemetery at Madison Barracks, New York, where it now lies. In the collection of the Colorado State Historical and Natural History Society at the Historical Building in Denver is the sword which Pike wore at the time of his death. long's exploring expedition The exploring expedition commanded by Maj. Stephen H. Long in the year 1820 was the logical successor of the "Yellowstone Expedition" of 1818. The pur- poses of the expedition were to explore the Mississippi River above the mouth of the Missouri, then the Missouri, the Arkansas and Red rivers ; to conciliate the Indians ; to locate sites for mihtary posts on the Upper Missouri and to locate exactly certain notable points in the western country. This so-called MAJ. STEPHEN HARRIMAN LONG This portrait is reproduced from a plintonfrapliic enlargement of an engraved copy of a dapnerreotypo of liim that was made in or near tlie period of our war with Mexico. Major Long was of the old corps of the Topograpliical Engineers of the United St^ites Army, and a native of New Hamjishire. It was for him that Long's Peak was named, and lio commanded a well organized and efBcient exploring expedition into the Colorado section of the Rocky Mountains in the year 1820. He died at Alton, Illinois, September 4, 1864. 52 HISTORY OF COLORADO Yellowstone expedition was directly in the interest of the people, as it was to decide largely whether or not the western country was worthy of settlement. A small military force, under command of Col. Henry Atkinson, was sent to the site of Leavenworth, Kansas, in the fall of 1818 and there passed the winter, expecting to cooperate with Long. The Western Engineer, the second steamboat to navigate the Missouri, left Pittsburgh on May 5, 1819, with Long and his party on board, arrived at St. Louis on the 19th and on the 21st began the trip up the river. Progress was slow and not until September 17th did the boat reach winter quarters, which had been established about twenty miles above the present City of Omaha. Major Long went back East for the winter, returning in the spring of 1820. In the meantime, Congress had become aggravated over the delay and issued new instructions, changing very much the original purposes of the expedition. An exploration of the West to the headwaters of the Platte, Arkansas and Red rivers, formed the new plan. A treaty between the United States and Spain in 1819 decided the location of the Spanish boundary line in the Southwest ; Colorado's present area west of the Continental Divide and south of the Arkansas River was thereby made Spanish ground. Long soon had his party organized for the long march to the Rockies. The personnel of the expedition was as follows : Stephen H. Long, major of the U. S. Topographical Engineers ; J. R. Bell, captain of Light Artillery, U. S. A.; W. H. Swift, lieutenant of Artillery Corps, U. S. A., assistant topographer; Dr. Thomas Say, zoologist; Dr. Edwin James, botanist, geologist and surgeon ; T. R. Peale, assistant naturalist ; Samuel Sey- mour, landscape painter; Stephen Julien, French and Indian interpreter; H. Dougherty, hunter; D. Adams, Spanish interpreter; Zachariah Wilson, baggage master; J. Oakley, civilian; J. Duncan, civilian; John Sweeney, private, Artillery Corps ; William Parish, corporal ; Peter Barnard, private ; Robert Foster, pri- vate; Charles Myers, private; Mordecai Nowland, private; Joseph Yerplank, private. On June 6, 1820, the expedition started westward through the present State of Nebraska, passed through and tarried at the Pawnee villages in the Loup River district, and on the 22d reached the forks of the North and South Platte rivers. From here they moved along the South Platte and, according to Doctor James' map, crossed the northeastern corner of Colorado on the 26th. Animals in great number were seen in this territory, including bison, deer, badgers, wolves, hares, eagles, buzzards, ravens and owls. Doctor James records that "This barren and ungenial district appeared, at that time, to be filled with greater numbers of animals than its meager productions are sufficient to support. It was, how- ever, manifest that the bisons, then thronging in such numbers, were moving towards the south. Experience may have taught them to repair at certain sea- sons to the more lu.xurious plains of the Arkansas and Red rivers." "On the 30th," writes Doctor James, "we left our encampment at our accus- tomed early hour, and at 8 o'clock were cheered by a distant view of the Rocky Mountains. For some time we were unable to decide whether what we saw were mountains, or banks of cumulous clouds skirting the horizon, and glittering in the reflected rays of the sun. It was only by watching the bright parts, and observing that their form and position remained unaltered, that we were able to satisfy ourselves that they were indeed mountains. Our first views of the HISTORY OF COLORADO 53 mountains were indistinct on account of some smokiness of the atmosphere, but from our encampment at noon we had a very distinct and satisfactory pros- pect of them. Snow could be seen on every part of them which was visible above our horizon." Shortly after this, the party noticed "three conic summits, each apparently of equal altitude. This we concluded to be the point designated by Pike as the 'Highest Peak.' " However, it was not the mountain peak which had been described by Pike. This was the lofty peak which at present bears the name of Major Long. From the point of view obtained by Long's party, there appeared to be three peaks, as a view from the north now will give. Long's name was not given to the peak at this time, but within the next decade trappers and traders began to call it Long's Peak, an appellation which has been maintained. On July 1st the Long party went into camp on the bank of the South Platte, a short distance below the mouth of the Cache a la Poudre River, and on the 3d the march was resumed, crossing made of the Poudre, Big Thompson and Vrain creeks. No side trip was made to the high peak, which was fully forty miles distance on the 3d. On Independence Day the camp was made near what is now the county seat of Adams County and a lifting celebration held in honor of the day. The next day the party ascended the Platte River about ten miles and again rested. According to Long's map this brought them to the site of Denver. On the morning of the 6th the party left tliis encampment and "crossed Ver- million Creek, a considerable tributary from the south." This stream has been identified as the present Cherry Creek. In the reports Long describes a "Cannon- ball Creek" also, which must have been Clear Creek. Doctor James records that : "Opposite the mouth of Vermillion Creek, is a much larger stream, from the northwest, which is called Medicine-Lodge Creek, from an old Indian medicine lodge which formerly stood near its mouth. A few miles farther, on the same side, is Grand Camp Creek, heading also in the mountains. About four years previous to the time of our visit, there had been a large encampment of Indians, namely, the Kiawas, Arrapahoes, and Kaskaias or Bad-hearts, had been assem- bled together, with forty-five French hunters, in the employ of Mr. Choteau and Mr. Demun of St. Louis. They had been assembled for the purpose of hold- ing a trading council with a band of Shiennes. These last had been recently supplied with goods by the Briti.sh traders on the Missouri, and had come to exchange them with the former for horses. The Kiawas, Arrapahoes, etc., who wander in the extensive plains of the Arkansas and Red rivers, have always a great number of horses, which they rear witli much less difficulty than the Shiennes, whose country is cold and barren * * * 7^0 miles beyond Grand Camp Creek is the mouth of Grape Creek, and a little above on the opjwsite side that of Defile Creek, a tributary to the Platte, from the south, which has its course in a narrow defile, lying along the base of the mountains." The names of the creeks mentioned in James' leport are not those at present applied to these streams. It is even hard to identify the streams as described by the historian. It has been presumed, however, by modern writers, that Grand Camp Creek is the same as Bear Creek, Grape Creek the present Deer Creek, and Defile Creek the Plum Creek. P.y noon of the C)\h the parly arrived at the foothills and at the entrance of 54 HISTORY OF COLORADO Platte Canon remained for two days. Doctor James and other's expected to ascend the distant mountains and return the same day, but, as Pike had been, were deceived by the telescopic condition of the atmosphere. Having obtained the height of one ridge, the others appeared just as far in the distance, so the party returned to the camp. They left the Platte Canon camp on the morning of the 9th of July, ascended Willow Creek to its source, then crossed a ridge to Plum Creek and followed this stream for some distance, before making camp. Pike's Peak first came into view on the 9th, while the explorers were upon the top of a mesa "elevated about one thousand feet, about eight hundred yards in length and five hundred in breadth, the summit of which was of an oval form." On the loth the expedition discovered and named Castle Rock, of which Doctor James remarks : "One of these singular hills, of which Mr. Seymour has preserved a sketch, was called the Castle rock, on account of its striking resemblance to a work of art. It has columns, and porticos, and arches, and, when seen from a distance, has an astonishingly regular and artificial appearance." A southern course was then taken. Monument Creek forded, and toward evening of the nth the discovery was made that the base of Pike's Peak had been passed. As it was the intention of the party to make an ascent of this height, in order to obtain the altitude, a stop was made at this point. Of their view Doctor James says : "From this camp we had a distinct view of "the Highest Peak.' It appeared about twenty miles distant, towards the northwest ; our view was cut off from the base by an intervening spur of less elevation, but all the upper part of the peak was visible, with patches of snow extending down to the commencement of the woody region. As one of the objects of our excursion was to ascertain the elevation of the peak, it was determined to remain in our present camp for three days, which would afford an opportunity for some of the party to ascend the mountain." FIRST ASCENT OF PIKe's PEAK The journey to the summit was begun early on the 13th of July. Doctor James, Lieutenant Swift, the French guide, Bijeau, and four soldiers comprised the party. The doctor and two men were to make the last climb to the top, while the others were to remain at the base to obtain measurements to assist in com- puting the elevation of the peak. Noon found the party at the foot of the peak, whence James and his two men started upon the last lap, carrying a supply of provisions and blankets. Slide rock, loose sand and gravel impeded their course very much during the afternoon and at night they were forced to make camp among the fir trees. The next morning the doctor established a cache at this point and continued up the mountain, passing the timber line about noonday. The summit was attained about 4 o'clock in the afternoon. So, the first white men, according to all historj', had reached the summit of Pike's Peak. Doctor James describes the impression made by the wonderful view : "To the east lay the great plain, rising as it receded, until, in the distant horizon, it appeared to mingle with the sky. * * * The Arkansas with several of its tributaries, and some of the branches of the Platte, could be distinctly traced as on a map, by the line of timber along their courses. On the south the mountain is con- HISTORY OF COLORADO 55 tinued, having another summit at the distance of eight or ten miles. This, how- ever, falls much below the High Peak in point of elevation, being wooded quite to its top. Between the two lies a small lake, about a mile long and half a mile wide, discharging eastward into the Boiling-spring Creek. A few miles farther towards the south, the range containing these two peaks terminates abruptly." After a half-hour's rest upon the summit the three men began the descent. They were forced to camp for the night without food or covering, hav- ing left their luggage at the cache among the fir trees. These supplies, which had been hung in a tree, were found to have been burned by some agency when they reached them the next morning. The bubbling springs at Manitou, and the beads which were thrown into the waters by the Indians, were of great interest to the explorers, also a "large and frequented road" which passed the springs into the mountains. This road was an old trail through the Ute Pass. Lieutenant Swift, after allowing 3,000 feet altitude for the base, estimated the summit of Pike's Peak to be 11,507.5 feet above the sea level. His measurement of 8,507.5 from the base to the top was not far wrong, but his error was made in the altitude of the base, which should have been 5,700 feet. The journey was then resumed and on the evening of the i6th camp was made on the north bank of the Arkansas, near the mouth of Turkey Creek. The next morning Doctor James, Captain Bell and two others started the ascent of the Arkansas to the mountains. The first day they reached a point some dis- tance below the site of Cafion City and the next day reached the lower end of the Royal Gorge. Here their journey up the Arkansas was halted by the im- passable condition of the gorge. After a short stay here James and his men returned to the Turkey Creek camp, and then preparations were made for the return journey. The journey was begun on the 19th, following down the Ar- kansas along the north bank. Pueblo's site was crossed during the day. The party proceeded down the Arkansas to about the one hundredth parallel at the intersection with the Arkansas. Keeping upon the American side of the Span- ish boundary line, they continued their journey to the end. Camping places within Colorado's domain were frequently made and the line of the state crossed on the afternoon of July 31st. Although Long's expedition was a noteworthy one in point of view of the ascent of Pike's Peak and geographical observations, his reports gave a grossly exaggerated account of the "Great American Desert" a vast outlay of land be- tween the Missouri and the Rockies, which he claimed to be an arid waste of sand and stone. Many years passed before actual settlement in this territory began, due in principal part, to this erroneous impression given by the Long ex- ploring expedition. The existence of this American Sahara was taught in the public schools of the East and it is said that, even to this late day, there are typical Easterners who believe in the existence of this "desert." Although Major Long gave the name of James' Peak to our Pike's Peak, this title did not last long. Doctor James was undoubtedly the first white man to reach the summit of this elevation, but Pike's personal popularity among the traders and trappers led them to use his name whenever speaking of the peak and so it has come down in history as Pike's Peak. Some of the early map-makers gave it the name of Doctor James, but the practice was of short duration. However, Doctor James' 56 HISTORY OF COLORADO name has since been given to another peak of the Continental Divide in the southeastern corner of Grand County. This peak is 13,283 feet in height. How little these explorers knew of the real worth of the country through which they passed, or how little they wished to know, may be understood by the following quotations from Doctor James' record: "We have little apprehension of giving too unfavorable an account of this portion of the coiuitry. Though the soil is in some places fertile, the want of timber, of navigable streams, and water for the necessities of life, render it an unfit residence for any but a nomad population. The traveler who shall at any time have traversed its desolate sands, will, we think, join us in the wish that this region may forever remain the unmolested haunt of the native hunter, the bison, and the jackal." And again : "In regard to this extensive section of coimtry, we do not hesi- tate in giving the opinion that it is almost wholly unfit for cultivation, and of course uninhabitable by a people depending upon agriculture for their subsist- ence. Although tracts of fertile land, considerably extensive, are occasionally to be met with, yet the scarcity of wood and water, almost uniformly prevalent, will prove an insuperable obstacle in the way of settling the country. This ob- jection rests not only against the immediate section under consideration, but ap- plies with equal propriety to a much larger portion of the country. Agreeably to the best intelligence that can be had concerning the country both northward and southward of the section, and especially from the inferences deducible from the account given by Lewis and Clark, of the country situated between the Missouri and Rocky Mountains, above the River Platte, the vast region commencing near the sources of the Sabine, Trinity, Brasis and Colorado rivers, and extending northwardly to the forty-ninth degree of north latitude, by which the United States territory' is limited in that direction, is throughout, of a similar character. The whole of this region seems peculiarly adapted as a range for buffaloes, wild goats, and other wild game, incalculable multitudes of which find ample pastur- age and subsistence upon it. "This region, however, viewed as a frontier, may prove of infinite importance to the United States, inasmuch as it is calculated to serve as a barrier to prevent too great an extension of our population westward, and secure us against the machinations or incursions of an enemy, that might otherwise be disposed to annoy us in that quarter." JOHN C. FREMONT The first of the Fremont expeditions in 1842 was the next to be despatched into the western country by the United States Government. John C. Fremont, a lieutenant of topographical engineers in the United States army, in his several trips to the West, covered more ground than any previous explorer and, although in many ways not the first to discover various trails and passes, has been given the sobriquet of "Pathfinder" by the majority of historians. Fremont's first expedition was organized late in the spring of 1842 and was for the purpose of exploring the frontiers beyond the Missouri River and es- pecially the Rockies in the vicinity of the South Pass, through which the Amer- ican immigrants traveled to the Oregon country ; also to locate sites for military JOHN CHARLES FREMONT This portrait, whicli is an iiiuisual one, is roproiluccd from a photographic enlargement of an engraved copy of an early ])hotoj;raph of him. Ho traversed ('olorado's soil on several of his exploring expeditions aeross tlie old-time Far Wcft, the first of which was made in the year 1842 and the last in 185.'!. Genornl Fiemont was a native of Savannah, Georgia, and died in New York City on Jnly ^2, 1890. 58 HISTORY OF COLORADO posts, in order to protect the American fur companies from the inroads of the Hudson's Bay Company. In his company upon this first expedition, and in others, was Kit Carson, the noted guide and scout of the frontier. Having gone from St. Louis to Chouteau's Landing, about ten miles from the mouth of the Kansas River, Fremont there made final preparations for the trip. Departure was made on June lo, 1842, to the westward. He proceeded along the south bank of the Kansas for several days, crossed to the Blue River, then went northwest to the Platte and along this until the great forks were reached, this occurring about the first of July. Here Fremont split his command into two sections, sending one to Fort Laramie and taking the other with him. For about a week the course led along the South Platte and on July loth Long's Peak came into view. He then continued as far as the St. Vrain trading post, which was as near the site of Denver as he came upon this expedition. After a short stay here, Fremont started northward to Fort Laramie. The homeward journey was along the North Platte to the Platte, thence to the Missouri and down that stream to St. Louis. Fremont then went to Washington, made his report, and was authorized to conduct a second expedition. In the four months he was absent upon this first trip, he surveyed the Pass and ascended the highest of the Wind River Mountains since known as Fremont's Peak. His right of discovery of the South Pass is, of course, of negligible quality, as there was a well-defined and well-trodden roadway through the pass when he arrived. Had it not been for his intrepid guide — Kit Carson — the little he did in the way of climbing mountains and exploring might never have been done quite so thor- oughly. THE SECOND EXPEDITION The second expedition was organized at Westport Landing, now a part of Kansas City, Missouri, with thirty-nine persons, well-equipped and provided with a small piece of brass artillery. On May 29, 1843, the expedition moved in a southwest direction to the Santa Fe Trail and there was joined by William Gilpin, afterwards the first governor of Colorado Territory. The Santa Fe Trail was followed, then the Valley of the Kansas and also the Republican River. Finding the progress of the expedition to be too slow, Fremont on the l6th separated his party, one division to follow with the heavier supplies while the one led by himself was to push on with greater speed. Fremont reached the South Platte on June 30th, at a point near the present southeastern corner of Logan County, Colorado. He then marched up the right bank of this river to the north to Fort St. Vrain, where he arrived July 4th. Two days later he left the fort and began his journey up the South Platte, encamping the night of the 7th "a little above Qiern,' Creek." which is a point now within the limits of west Denver. In the river bottoms here they found a large village of Arapahoe In- dians, consisting of about one hundred and sixty tepees. The next day he continued up the river almost to the mountains, then up Plum Creek, noted by him as "Vermillion Creek." a name given by Doctor James to Cherry Creek. He then crossed over to the Bijou, thence to the Fontaine-qui-Bouille, which stream he followed to the mouth. Here he again met Kit Carson and, recognizing his worth to the party, Fremont hastened to add the hunter and guide to his ex- pedition. HISTORY OF COLORADO 59 From the mouth of the Fontaine, Fremont returned northward along the stream to the springs at Manitou, thence up Monument Creek, over the divide to the head of Plum Creek, and down this waterway to Fort St. Vrain. Leav- ing St. Vrain, the expedition then went northward to the North Platte, then across the mountains to Salt Lake and the Columbia River country. Upon his return in 1844, Fremont entered the land of Colorado about noon of the 15th of June at the northwestern corner. He followed a southwest course, with the mountains on his right and the North Platte on the left. He described this phase of the journey as follows : ''The valley narrowed as we ascended and presently degenerated into a gorge, through which the river passed as through a gate. We entered it, and found ourselves in the New Park (North Park) — a beautiful circular valley of thirty miles diameter, walled in all around with snowy mountains, rich with water and with grass, fringed with pine on the mountain sides below the snow line, and a paradise to all grazing animals. The Indian name for it signifies 'Cow Lodge', of which our own may be considered a transla- tion; the enclosure, the grass, the water, and the herds of buffalo roaming over it, naturally presenting the idea of a park." Coursing up the west fork of the North Platte, Fremont crossed the Divide on the 17th and came into what is now Middle Park. By the 21st, the northwest part of South Park was reached and the course followed down the south fork of the South Platte River. During the journey down this stream "the face of an old familiar friend," (Pike's Peak), came into view, also sounds of a conflict between the Ute and Arapahoe Indians were borne to their ears. The party left the river on June 22d and "taking a southeasterly direction, in about ten miles we crossed a gentle ridge, and issuing from the South Park, we found our- selves involved among the broken spurs of the mountains which border the great prairie plains. Although broken and extremely rugged, the country was very interesting, being well watered by numerous affluents to the Arkansas River, and covered with grass and a variety of trees. The streams which, in the upper part of their courses, ran through grassy and open hollows, after a few miles all de- scended into deep and impracticable canyons, through which they found their way to the Arkansas Valley. Here the buffalo trails we had followed were dis- persed among the hills, or crossed over into the more open valleys of other streams. During the day our road was fatiguing and difficult, reminding us much, by its steep and rocky character, of our traveling the year before among the Wind River Mountains ; but always at night we found some grassy bottom, which afforded us a pleasant camp. In the deep seclusion of these little streams we found always an abundant pasturage and a wild luxuriance of plants and trees. After several days' laborious traveling we succeeded in extricating our- selves from the mountains, and on the morning of the 28th encamped immedi- ately at their foot, on a handsome tributary of the Arkansas River. In the afternoon we descended the stream, winding our way along the bottoms, which were densely wooded with oak, and in the evening encamped near the main river. Continuing the next day our road along the Arkansas, and meeting on the way a war party of Arapahoe Indians (who had recently committed some outrages at Bent's Fort, killing stock and driving off horses), we arrived before sunset at the pueblo near the mouth of the Fontaine qui Bouit River, where we had the pleasure to find a number of our old acquaintances." 60 HISTORY OF COLORADO The last stage of the journey led them down the Arkansas to Bent's Fort, eastward across country to the Missouri at the Town of Kansas, and then down the Missouri to St. Louis. Fremont was advanced by President Tyler to the rank of captain of engineers in reward for his services upon this expedition. THE THIRD EXPEDITION The third expedition commanded by John C. Fremont was equipped and organized in the spring of 1845. The object was to explore the great basin west of the Rocky Mountains, little of which had been thoroughly traversed, and did not include much work to be done within the present State of Colorado. Per- haps the great purpose of this third expedition was to see whether or not a rail- road could be constructed through the Rockies. The expedition left the old point at the mouth of the Kansas River and traveled the Santa Fe Trail to the Arkansas, thence up that river to Bent's Fort, arriving Augvist 2d. Fremont left the fort on August i6th, proceeded up the Arkansas on the north side, detoured the Royal Gorge, traversed the main mountain range at the head of Eagle River and after going down the Eagle to a point near the Town of Minturn. he turned northwest and crossed the Grand River. From here he continued northwestward to the head of White River, down which he traveled into what is now Utah. Fremont reached California in December of the same year. THE FOURTH EXPEDITION The fourth expedition commanded by Fremont was not a government enter- prise, but a private scheme in the interest of the City of St. Louis and for the purpose of surveying a route for a railroad to the Pacific Coast. Fremont and Senator Benton were those chiefly interested in the affair, Fremont having pre- viously resigned his position of lieutenant colonel in the United States army. The expedition was fitted out at Westport, now a part of Kansas City, in the autumn of 1848, and numbered thirty-three men, most of whom had traveled before with Fremont. Departure was made on October 19th and a route taken across the plains of Kansas by way of the Kansas River. From the headwaters of its Smoky Hill fork Fremont journeyed southwest to the Arkansas and then to Fort Bent. Up the Arkansas to the Pueblo the caravan went and here the party was enlarged by one "Old Bill" Williams, trapper and guide, whom Fremont engaged to lead the party through the mountains. After reaching the mouth of the Hardscrab- ble, Fremont turned southwest, crossed the Sangre de Cristo Range by Roubi- deaux's Pass, and about the first of December entered the San Luis Valley. Shortly the explorers found themselves at the mouth of the Rio Grande Cafion, among the most rugged of the mountain ranges, but intrepidly they followed Williams across this divide. Ever>' day they encountered more difficulties and now that the range was crossed their hardships became greater and more bitter. Fremont's narrative of the journey at this point contains many passages which show the extreme suffering endured by the men, a portion of which story fol- lows: HISTORY OF COLORADO 61 "We pressed up toward the summit, the snow deepening; and in four or five days reached the naked ridges which lie above the timbered country, and which form the dividing grounds between the waters of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Along these naked ridges it storms nearly all winter, and the winds sweep across them with remorseless fury. On our first attempt to cross we encountered a pouderie (dry snow driven thick through the air by violent wind, and in which objects are visible only at a short distance), and were driven back, having some ten or twelve men variously frozen, face, hands or feet. The guide became nigh frozen to death here, and dead mules were already lying about the fires. Mean- time, it snowed steadily. The next day we made mauls, and beating a road or trench through the snow crossed the crest in defiance of the pouderie, and en- camped immediately below in the edge of the timber. The trail showed as if a de- feated party had passed by; pack-saddles and packs, scattered articles of clothing, and dead mules strewn along. A continuance of stonriy weather paralyzed all movement. We were encamped somewhere about twelve thousand feet above the sea. Westward, the country was buried in deep snow. It was impossible to advance, and to turn back was equally impracticable. We were overtaken by sudden and inevitable ruin. It so happened that the only places where any grass could be had were the extreme summit of the ridges, where the sweeping winds kept the rocky ground bare and the snow could not lie. Below these, the animals could not get about, the snow being deep enough to bury them. Here, therefore, in the full violence of the storms we were obliged to keep our animals. They could not be moved either way. It was instantly apparent that we should lose every animal. "I determined to recross the mountain more towards the open country, and haul or pack the baggage (by men) down to the Del Norte. With great labor the baggage was transported across the crest to the head springs of a little stream leading to the main river. A few days were sufficient to destroy our fine band of mules. They generally kept huddled together, and as they froze, one would be seen to tumble down and the snow would cover him ; sometimes they would break oflf and rush down towards the timber until they were stopped by the deep snow, where they were soon hidden by the pouderie. The courage of the men failed fast ; in fact, I have never seen men so soon discouraged by mis- fortune as we were on this occasion. * * * i^i this situation, I determined to send in a party to the Spanish settlements of New Mexico for provisions, and mules to transport our baggage to Taos. With economy, and after .we should leave the mules, we had two weeks' provisions in the camp. These consisted of a store which I had preserved for a hard day, macaroni and bacon. From among the volunteers T chose King, Brackenridgc, Creutzfeldt (the botanist of the expedition), and llie guide Williams; the party under the command of King. In case of the least delay at the settlements, he was to send me an express. In the meantime, we were to occupy ourselves in removing the baggage and equip- age down to the Del Norte, which we reached with our baggage in a few days after their departure (which was the day after Christmas)." Fremont waited sixteen days without news from King or a relief party. One of his party froze to death, which event determined the leader to go in search of the missing men. Leaving part of the men with instructions to follow after a certain time, Fremont and three others set out on foot, intending to either 62 HISTORY OF COLORADO find King or to reach the nearest Mexican settlements and send back assistance. A week later Fremont met a small band of Indians, from whom he secured a guide and four horses, and in the evening of the same day discovered Creutz- feldt, Brackenridge and Williams, almost frozen to death and unable to go farther. King had died from the combined effects of starvation and cold a few days before. They had lost their way soon after leaving the Fremont party and for days had wandered aimlessly over the San Luis Valley. The stricken men were placed on the horses and the southern journey resumed. Small Mexican settlements were reached on January 20, 1849, and from there Fremont and a companion hurried to Taos on horseback. From Taos a posse of Mexicans, led by Godey, a member of Fremont's expedition, started back along the trail to bring in the remainder of the party. These latter, who had been left at the Del Norte, had waited the arranged length of time, then started down the river. Food was low and after a few days the band broke up into small parties which separated, three or four men having died in the meantime. It is said that their hunger became so severe that a few were forced to cannibalism in order to avoid certain death. Godey and his Mexicans succeeded in assisting them to the settlements, but when the roll was finally called eleven men were missing. Fremont remained at Taos for a time as the guest of his former guide and friend. Kit Carson, then, in the middle of February, with a new outfit and com- pany, left Santa Fe for California, routing his journey down the Rio Grande and westward through southern New Mexico and Arizona. He reached the coast in April. Fremont always blamed the guide, "Old Bill" Williams, for the dis- aster in the mountains, but Williams claimed that Fremont ignored his repeated warning not to enter the mountains at such a season. The so-called "explorers" of the West who were sent out by the Government owe much to the picturesque guides and trappers who accompanied them. It is doubtful whether or not any degree of success could have been attained by these men had it not been for the sagacity and knowledge of the frontiersmen. More shall be said in a later chapter of this type of men. THE GUNNISON EXPEDITION By an act approved March 3, 1853, Congress authorized the Secretary of War, under the leadership of the President, to employ engineers to find a prac- ticable route for a railroad from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Coast, also appropriated $I50,CXX) for this work. Fremont was supposed to be the logical man to survey this route, but, contrary to expectations, Jefferson Davis, then Secretary of War, appointed Capt. John W. Gunnison, of Vermont, to head the expedition. In the instructions issued to Gunnison, defining the purpose of the journey, he was told "to explore and survey the pass through the Rocky Moun- tains in the vicinity of the headwaters of the Rio del Norte, by way 'of the Huer- fano River and Coo-che-to-pa, or some other eligible pass, into the region of Grand and Green rivers, and westwardly to the Vegas de Santa Clara and Nicol- let River of the Great Basin, and thence northwardly to the vicinity of Lake Utah on a return route, to explore the most available passes and canyons of the Wasatch Range and South Pass to Fort Laramie." The party was organized at Westport and the journey begun on June 23d. CAPT. JOHN W. GUNNISON Captain Gunnison, of the Uiiito lifl 1 g- t^ Bn o ^ El t-t> r*- ^ llnl cr c> > IVN'B ct- ^ ■' w ■ d o p — ' ' iJ (D ^*' Q3 ; 5* •^ r+- O 'i\^B cr (p -: •'-TF' o — '1 ■ a a On s °S 5' P ^ ^ w e: o f3 W cr- t-i to 1— I pj M cr M Q hH S! O 1^ O 3 CO r*- -t •^ G a > s- S) p< » o* o «< d o H S w Mi ^ b w 1 CD 1-3 ff W 1^ W S s; 68 HISTORY OF COLORADO the mesa and its canyons in all directions. They have thus gained a more thor- ough knowledge of its ruins than anyone. Together with their brothers, John, Clayton and Wynn, they have also carried out excavations, during which a num- ber of extremely interesting finds have been made." THE DWELLING In many cases the word dwelling is misleading, for most of the dwellings, or buildings, were in reality whole villages. Spruce Tree House, for instance, was undoubtedly a town of importance, harboring at least three hundred and fifty inhabitants. The arrangement of houses in a cliff dwelling of the size of Cliff Palace, for example, is characteristic and intimately associated with the distribution of the social divisions of the inhabitants. As mentioned before, the population was com- posed of a number of units, possibly clans, each of which had its own social or- ganization more or less distinct from others, a condition that appears in the arrangement of rooms. The rooms occupied by a clan were not necessarily con- nected, although generally neighboring rooms were distinguished from one an- other by their uses. Thus, each clan had its men's room, which was ceremonially called the "kiva." Here the men of the clan practically lived, engaged in their oc- cupations. Each clan had also one or more rooms, whidi may be styled the living rooms, and other inclosures, for granaries or storage of corn. The corn was ground into meal in another room containing the metate set in a bin or stone box, and in some instances in fireplaces, although these were generally placed in the plazas or on the housetops. All these different rooms, taken together, constitute the houses that belonged to one clan. The conviction that each kiva denotes a distinct social unit, as a clan or family, is supported by the general similarity in the masonry of the kiva walls and that of adjacent houses ascribed to the same clan. From the number of these rooms it would appear that there were at least twenty-three social units or clans in Cliff Palace. The kivas were the rooms where the men spent most of the time devoted to ceremonial meetings, councils and other gatherings. In the social conditions prevalent at Cliff Palace the religious fraternity was limited to the men of the clan. Apparently there was no uniformity in the distribution of the kivas. As it was prescribed that these rooms should be subterranean, the greatest number were placed in front of the rectangular buildings, where it was easiest to exca- vate them. But when necessary these structures were built far back in the cave and inclosed by a double wall, the intervals between whose sections were filled with earth or rubble to raise it to the level of the kiva roof. In that way they were artificially made subterranean, as the ritual required. The highest part of the Mesa Verde National Park is Park Point, 8,574 feet above sea level, while Point Lookout, the most prominent point on the Mesa Verde, has an elevation of 8,428 feet above sea level. The northern edge of the mesa terminates in a precipitous bluff, averaging two thousand feet above the floor of the Montezuma Valley. The general slope of the mesa is to the south, so that a person on the northern rim has a view in all directions. The park is placed under the exclusive control of the Secretary of the In- HISTORY OF COLORADO 69 terior and he is represented in the actual administration of the park by a super- intendent, assisted by a hmited number of park rangers who patrol the reser- vation. The principal and most accessible ruins are the Spruce Tree House, Cliff Palace, Balcony House, Tunnel House and Sun Temple. Spruce Tree House is located in the head of Spruce Tree Canon, a branch of tlie Navajo Caiion. It originally contained about 130 rooms, built of dressed stone laid in adobe mortar, with the outside tiers chinked with chips of rock and broken pottery. Cliff Palace is located about two miles east of Spruce Tree House, in a left branch of Cliff Canon, and consists of a group of houses with ruins of 146 rooms, including twenty round kivas, or ceremonial rooms, and a taper- ing loopholed tower, forming a crescent of about one hundred yards from horn to horn, which is reputed to be one of the most famous works of prehistoric man in existence. Balcony House, a mile east of Cliff Palace, in Ruin Canon, contains about twenty-five rooms, some of which are in almost perfect condition. Tunnel House, about two miles south of Spruce Tree House, contains about twenty rooms and two kivas connected by an elaborate system of underground passages and a burial ground of 5,cx30 square feet. In each of these villages is an elaborate system of fortification, with, in some cases, walls 2.3 feet thick and twenty feet high, watch towers thirty feet high, and blockhouses pierced with loopholes. The Sun Temple was discovered in the summer of 191 5 and is located on the mesa opposite Cliff Palace. SPRUCE TREE HOUSE The total length of Spruce Tree House is 2t6 feet, its width at the widest part 89 feet. There were counted in the Spruce Tree House 114 rooms, the majority of which are secular and eight ceremonial chambers or kivas. Spruce Tree House in places was three stories high ; the third-story rooms had no arti- ficial roof, but the wall of the cave served that purpose. Several rooms, the walls of which are now two stories high, formerly had a third story above the second, but their walls have now fallen, leaving as the only indication of their former union with the cave lines destitute of smoke on the top of the cavern. Of the 114 rooms, at least fourteen were uninhabited, being used as storage and mortuary chambers. If we eliminate these from the total number of rooms we have 100 inclosures which might have been dwellings. Allowing four inhabi- tants for each of these 100 rooms would give about four hundred persons as an aboriginal population of Spruce Tree House. But it is probable that this esti- mate should be reduced, as not all the 100 rooms were inhabited at the same time, there being evidence that several of them had occupants long after others were deserted. Approximately, Spruce Tree House had a population not far from three hundred and fifty people, or about one hundred more than that of Walpi, one of the best known Hopi pueblos. CLIFF PAL.\CE Cliff Palace lies in an eastern spur of Cliff Canon, under the roof of an enormous cave which arches fiftv to one hundred feet above it. The floor of this 70 HISTORY OF COLORADO cavern is elevated several hundred feet above the bottom of the canyon. The entrance faces the west, looking across the canyon to the opposite side, in full view of the promontory upon which stands the Sun Temple. The floor of the recess in which Cliff Palace is built is practically covered with buildings, some of which, especially those at each end, extend beyond the shelter of the cave roof. The total length ' of the Cliff Palace is approximately three hundred feet. The floor of the cave in which CHff Palace was built had practically one level, determined no doubt by a layer of comparatively hard rock, which re- sisted erosion more successfully than the softer strata above it. The floor was strewn with great angular boulders that in the process of formation of the cave had fallen from the roof. These were too large to be moved by primitive man and must have presented to the ancient builders uninviting foundations upon which to erect their structures. The spaces between the rocks were better suited for their purposes. These were filled with smaller stones that could be re- moved, leaving cavities which could be utilized for the construction of subter- ranean rooms. The upper surfaces of the large rocks, even those which are angular, served as foundations for houses above ground and determined the levels of the plazas. From the bases of these rocks, which formed the outer edge of the level cave floor, a talus extended down the canyon side to the bottom. The rooms forming the front of the ancient village were constructed in this talus, and as their site was sloping they were necessarily situated at lower levels on terraces bounded by retaining walls which are marked features in this part of Cliff Palace. At least three different terraces, indicating as many levels, are recognized. These levels are indicated by the rows of kivas, or ceremonial rooms, which skirt the southern and middle sections of this ancient village. An examination of the correct ground plan of Cliff Palace shows that the houses were arranged in a crescent, the northern extension of rooms corre- sponding roughly to one point. The curve of the village follows, generally speaking, that of the rear of the cave in which it was constructed. There is little regularity in the arrangement of the rooms, which, as a rule, are not crowded together; most of the subterranean chambers are situated on terraces in front of the secular rooms. There is one passageway that may be desig- nated as a street ; this is bordered by high walls. No open space of considerable size is destitute of a ceremonial chamber, and the largest contains five of these rooms. It is not possible to count the exact number of rooms that Cliff Palace formerly had, as many upper stories have fallen and a considerable number of terraced rooms along the front are indicated only by fragments of walls. Roughly speaking, two hundred is a fair estimate. The Cliff Palace kivas, provided with pedestals or roof supports, furnish examples of some of the finest masonry in prehistoric buildings of our South- west. Every kiva of the first type has a ventilator, firehole and deflector. There were two types of ceremonial rooms, which might indicate a division of the ritual into two distinct parts performed by the summer and the winter people, re- spectively, a specialization still perpetuated among some modern Pueblos. Secu- lar rooms in Cliff Palace may be classified as living rooms, storage rooms, mill rooms, granaries, dark rooms, probably for sleeping, towers both round and square, and round rooms not towers. 72 HISTORY OF COLORADO THE SUN TEMPLE The Sun Temple is the latest of the Mesa Verde ruins to be explored and re- claimed. This was discovered in the summer of 191 5 and since then the work of excavating and repairing the Temple has been continued, under the direction of J. Walter Fewkes. Professor Fewkes describes the work as follows : "At the close of a report on field work at Clif? Palace in 1909 I called atten- tion to a mound of stones on tjie point of the mesa directly across Cliff Canon and suggested that it might conceal an ancient pueblo ruin. The majority of stones strewn over this mound showed pecking on their surfaces and other well- marked signs of having been worked artificially, indicating the character of the masonry in the walls of the ancient building buried beneath it. Enough soil had accumulated on the mound formed by these stones to allow the growth of red cedar and pinyon trees, the size of which indicated great age. A more important consideration was that it presented evidences that the buried building belonged to an unique type of ruin in the Mesa Verde, and gave promise of adding an important chapter to our knowledge of the prehistoric people who formerly made their home in the Mesa Verde National Park. These hopes were realized and the results of three months' work on this mound were more striking than had been expected. There was brought to light a type of ruin hitherto unknown in the park, and, as well expressed by a visitor, the building excavated shows the best masonry and is the most mysterious structure yet discovered in a region rich in so many prehistoric ruins. Although at first there was some doubt as to the use of the building, it was early recognized that it was not constructed for habitation, and it is now believed that it was intended for the performance of rites and ceremonies; the first of its type yet recognized in the Southwest. "The ruin was purposely constructed in a comm.anding situation in the neigh- borhood of large inhabited cliff houses. It sets somewhat back from the edge of the canyon, but near enough to present a marked object from all sides, especially in the neighboring mesas. It must have presented an imposing appearance rising on top of a point high above inaccessible, perpendicular cliffs. The mound is situated on a spur of the picturesque Chapin Mesa separating two deep canyons. From it one can look southward down Soda Canon to the Mancos River, on the banks of which a group of cottonwood trees can be seen on a clear day. This superb view is rivaled by one of almost equal beauty, looking east across Cliff Caiion into the cave in which is situated Cliflf Palace. In a cave of the precipice below Sun Temple there is a solitary, almost inaccessible cliff house, and in a cavern not far up the canyon is Oak Tree (Willow) House, and the mysterious dance plaza, called Painted House. Other clifT dwellings are visible from the ruin, which is practically situated near the central point of a considerable pre- historic population. No better place could have been chosen for a religious building in which the inhabitants of many cliff dwellings could gather and to- gether perform their great ceremonial dramas. "The ground plan has been well compared to the letter D. The building is formed of two sections, the larger of which, taken separately is also D-shaped and may be called the original building, while the smaller, forming the west end, is of later ( ?) construction. The foundation walls of the building, throughout most of their length, rest on the solid rock of the cliflf. There are about one HISTORY OF COLORADO 73 thousand feet of walls in the whole building and its inclosed kivas ; it has 28,000 cubic feet, or 1,292 perches, of stone masonry in its present condition, and had not far from 1,900 perches before the walls began to crumble. The width of the ruin at its widest portion is sixty-four feet. The walls average four feet in thickness and are composed of a central core made of rubble and adobe, with two facings made of well-dressed rock, which, however, were not tied to the core and present a serious architectural defect. "The rooms in this building vary in form and type, one kind being circular, the other rectangular. The circular rooms are identified as kivas or sacred rooms ; the purpose of the rectangular room is unknown. * * * We f^nd in this ruin numerous examples of an early attempt to embellish the walls of a building by geometrical figures cut in their surfaces. Many cliff houses are known to have their walls painted, but designs sculptured on component stones are rare. Several stones with incised figures were set in the walls, but the ma- jority were found on rocks that had fallen from the top of the walls. No uni- formity in their position in the rooms was noticeable, and the figures were not continuous enough to form a band about the room. * * * There are two circular rooms or kivas of about equal size in the original building and a third occupied the center of the Annex. There are twenty-three other rooms, four- teen of which are in the original building. "One of the most remarkable structures built on the outside walls of the building is near the southwest corner of the Annex. This corner stands on a solid rock that projects one and a half or two feet above the otherwise level foun- dation of the wall. The cornerstone or foundation of the corner wall protrudes two feet beyond the building, and on its upper surface is a fossil with central depressed zone with sharp radiating ridges. The figure is not artificial, but is possibly helped out by artificial means. A natural object with these characters would greatly affect a primitive mind, and no doubt was regarded with more or less reverence by the builders. At all events they have partially inclosed this emblem with walls in such a way as to inclose the figure on three sides, leaving the inclosure open on the fourth or west side. There can be no doubt that the walled inclosure was a shrine, and the figure in it may be a key to the purpose of the building. The shape of the figure on the rock suggests a symbol of the sun, and if this suggestion be correct there can hardly be a doubt that solar rites were performed about it long before the Sun Temple was built." Professor Fewkes estimates the antiquity of the Sun Temple to be about 1300 A.D. "From absence of data the relative age of Sun Temple and Cliff Pal- ace is equally obscure, but it is my firm conviction that Sun Temple is the younger, mainly because it showed unmistakable evidences of a higher socio- logical condition of the builders ; but here we again enter a realm of speculation which merely adds to the mystery of the building." The Mesa Verde ruins are now readily accessible to tourists. The Govern- ment has just completed a thirty-two mile automobile road from the Town of Mancos. Much of the increased interest shown in the cliff dwellings by students and visitors alike is due to the reclamation efforts of Prof. J- Walter Fewkes, of the Bureau of Ethnology. Under his direction the ruins have been cleared of debris, reconstructed so far as practicable and described in more comprehensive language than has ever been used before. The greater part of the above de- 74 HISTORY OF COLORADO scriptions are taken bodily from his reports to the Department of the Interior and pubHshed by the latter for the benefit of those interested. Future years will bring to light many other clifT dwellings and Sun temples which are known to exist under the mounds in the vicinity; governmental support and investigation will eventually add much to the knowledge we have of the primitive peoples of southwestern Colorado. ORIGIN OF THE CLIFF DWELLERS The exact origin of the ClifT Dwellers is in doubt, although it is generally supposed that they were descendants of a race which had disappeared as such, just as the Cliff Dwellers themselves were fated to do. Toltecs these ancient peoples were called ; then again, the Cliff Dwellers were supposed to have de- scended from the Aztecs. They might have descended from the Mound Build- ers or, in fact, from one of the many other tribes which occupied the south- western countr}' ages ago. There is no doubt today, if the racial and ethnological similarities may be considered, that there is a distinct relationship between the Clift' Dwellers and the modern Pueblo Indian. Their ceremonies seem to be similar and their houses are greatly alike. The Pueblo Indian may be the remnant of the Cliff Dweller race, which was either driven out of the country now in southwestern Colorado or migrated when food became unobtainable. As stated in a preceding paragraph, future investigations may disclose the great riddle of these dwellers of the cliffs, of whose life no written record or tradition exists. THE AMERICAN INDIAN The phrase "American Indian" has been criticized by a number of writers. Columbus gave the red men the name of "Indios," a Spanish word, believing the country he discovered a part of India. This led to the adoption of the word Indian, or its equivalent, in practicallv all the principal languages. Then came the classification of the Indian as we know him as the American Indian, a name that has remained despite the efforts to abolish the use of the title. The name "Amerind-' enjoyed a short prestige as a compromise expression. However, for our purposes, the name "Indian," simple and self-explanatory, is sufficient. The history of Colorado is chiefly concerned with the Indians who came under the classification of Shoshonean and Siouan stocks. These tribes cov- ered all of what is now the states of Colorado, Wyoming, Texas, Oregon, Ne- vada, Montana, California, Idaho and New Mexico when the first white settle- ments were made in this state. In what is now Colorado the tribal divisions comprised the Utes, Arapahoes, Cheyennes and Kiowas. The Sioux warred continually upon the Cheyennes and forced them into other parts of the country, while, on the other hand, the Utes were bitter enemies of both the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. The Potawatomi, Pawnee, Arkansas, Choctaw, Creek, Chero- kee, Padouca, Sac, Kickapoo, Osage, Delaware, Otoe, Missouri and Omaha, with other tribes, also occupied land now in Colorado at different times, but not to the extent of the Utes and Arapahoes. The Shoshonean Indians were in greater numbers west of the Missouri VIEW OF THE "CLIFF PALACE," WHICH 18 SITUATED IN A BRANCH OF CLIFF CANON, AS IT APPEARED IN 1899 The building is about 425 feet in length and in the central part is about 80 feet in depth. VIEW OF CLTFF DWELLERS' TOWERLTKE STKI^CTUIiES THAT STAND AT THE VERCE OF A CANON PliF.ril'lCE AND OVKK'LOOK A MKSA l!A<'K(i ROUND, IN THAT PART OF MESA VERDE DISTRICT Wlllcl! LIES IN THE FAR SOUTH- WESTERN SECTION OF COLORADO 76 HISTORY OF COLORADO River when explorations were first made to the Rockies and foothills. The seven tribes of the Utes camped in the valleys and on the mountains of Colo- rado, and along the Platte and Arkansas rivers. East of the Front Range and north of the Arkansas were the Cheyennes and Arapahoes, while south of the Arkansas were the Kiowas and Comanches. The Navajoes and Apaches, of the Athabascan group, later came to the Rockies. It is said that the Spaniards found Navajoes along the Rio San Juan in the Sixteenth Century, at which time they were hostile to the Utes. The early Spanish and French explorers came into frequent contact with the Indians, with whom they traded and from whom they obtained information, often fanciful, of the country. These foreigners gave the Indian tribes names which have long since disappeared from use. The early maps gave to the various tribes certain sections of the country' such, for instance, as that of Delisle's map of Moscosco's journey west of the Mississippi. Here what is now Colorado and the northern part of New Mexico was designated as the "Country of the Apaches and Padoucas," and upon a later map the country between the North and South Platte is occupied by the "White Padoucas" and the valley of the Arkansas by the "Black Padoucas." The Padoucas apparently were in the majority at the time of French exploration, as the name predominates in every French descrip- tion of the country. Upon other old charts of the country the Platte River has been given the name of Riviere des Padoucas. The central part of Colorado, in the vicinity of Denver, was occupied largely by the Arapahoes. Of this tribe little can be said in commendation. They com- bined all the characteristics which go to make up the "bad Indian." Crafty, treacherous, cruel, pugnacious, dishonest and even murderous they were. The site of Denver was a favorite camping ground for them and when the first set- tlements were made there arose many difficulties between them and the white people. The contact of civilization did them no good, as it brought to them all the vices, including whiskey, to further inflame their warlike propensities. Left Hand, Little Raven, and Bufifalo Billy were noted Arapaho chiefs of this day ; the former met his death when Chivington massacred the Indian band at Sand Creek in 1864 and the latter was killed in i860 during a drunken spree at the camp southeast of Denver. The Pawnees occupied only a part of what is now Colorado, to be exact, the northeast corner. Their country was along the Platte River principally, in the west half of Nebraska, but their excursions took them over into Colorado many times ; whence they were generally driven back by the enemy tribes. The Cheyennes, probably of the Algonquin family, were so relentlessly warred upon by the Sioux that they were driven from their native habitat along the Cheyenne River and a large number of them came southward to form an alli- ance with the Arapahoes. They were good warriors and hunters and consider- ably strengthened the latter tribe. Roman Nose, whose name is identified with the history of Colorado, was a Cheyenne chieftain who fomented a large amount of trouble wherever he went, and whose activities eventually cost him his life on the Arickaree while attacking Forsyth's troops. The Crows, an exiled branch of the Sioux, were feared in Colorado on ac- count of their depredations. The Sioux Indians considered a Crow a natural HISTORY OF COLORADO 77 enemy despite the distant relationship and, for that matter, the white settlers never trusted one of the tribe whose raids reached as far as the site of Denver. The Kiowas, thought by many writers to be of Shoshone blood, were once inhabitants of the upper valley of the Arkansas and on the South l^latte. From here the Arapahoes, with the Cheyennes, compelled them to migrate southeast- ward, where they found refuge on the lower Arkansas and its tributaries. The Utes, of the Shoshone family, were closely identified with Colorado's period of settlement and were the cause of most of the Indian troubles of the time. They once occupied all of the mountain country of Colorado, the south- western part of Wyoming and a great part of Utah. They were at peace with no other Indian tribe, except the notorious Apache on the South, with whom they were allied mostly for defensive purposes. The Ute Indian was of a high order and possessed many qualities not ordinarily associated with the American In- dian. At least two chieftains of more than ordinary intelligence were produced among the Utes. Ouray, without question the best of the Utes, was a man of great sagacity and administrative ability. He was a pacifist and continually strived for peace between his people and the whites. The White River massacre by the Utes was contrary to his advice and his services in the investigation after- wards were meritorious. Ouray was born in 1839, the son of a Ute father and an Apache mother, and died at the Southern Ute Agency in Colorado during tlie year 1883. Ignacio, of the Weeminuche tribe of Southern Utes, was another- chieftain of high intellect and wisdom. He succeeded Ouray as the head of the tribe and always followed in his predecessor's course of promoting peace and prosperity among his people. He understood thoroughly that the Indian could not with- stand the civilization of the white man, also that hostile opposition only hastened the doom of his people. With this view strongly inculcated into his every pur- pose, he performed a notable work during his life — that of keeping his subjects at peace. On the other hand there were a number of Ute chieftains who were personi- fications of everything despicable — treachery, cruelty, immorality, inebriety and love of bloodshed. Captain Jack, chief of the Yampai White River Utes, was a man of this character. He refused to acknowledge the wisdom of keeping peace with the whites, was forever an cnf-my of the settlers, and strongly resisted any attempt to civilize his race. Land cultivation or, to his mind, manual labor, was very distasteful. He led the band of Utes which ambushed Major Thornburg and his troops in 1879, at the time of the attack on the White River Agency. Captain Jack was killed in October, 1897, during a drunken carousal at Navajo Springs, Colorado. Douglas, who led the attack on the White River Agency in 1879, was a chief- tain of ability and intelligence, but combining with those laudable qualities others of criminal character, which made him all the more dangerous. Until the time of his dastardly attack on the Meeker family he iiad professed a desire for peace with the whites. However, the opportunity had no sooner arrived than he changed and literally bathed his hands in blood. Douglas was never punished for this act and lived until 1885, dying at the Uintah Agency, While Rocks, Utah. 78 HISTORY OF COLOR.\DO Colorow was a chieftain who was more thoroughly dishked, both by the whites and the Indians themselves, than any other leader of the Utes. He had the qualities of a wolf and a coyote, with not enough character to inspire respect even among his kinsmen. It is said that he traveled around the country alone, visiting ranch houses when the men were absent and frightening the women. After the White River Agency massacre, he was taken to the Uintah Reserva- tion in Utah. He declared boastfully that he would not stay in Utah and in 1887 he, with his small band, left and came back to southwestern Colorado. He speedily got into a quarrel with the authorities of Garfield County and state troops were sent there to subdue him. The troops came into conflict with the Utes, killed several of them and suffered slight casualties themselves, but old Colorow was taken back to Utah. He died there in 18S8. Buckskin Charley, a chieftain of the Southern Utes, was a natural leader. He was very tactful and shrewd, but did not rank with Ouray and Ignacio in intelligence. Having had an Apache father, it was hardly possible for him to be wholly good. However, he did not antagonize the whites to any extent and always managed to maintain a high position of leadership among his people. He was a familiar figure in Denver during the later years of his life. COL. HENRY DODGE's EXPEDITION The desire of the United States Government to bring about a peaceable re- lationship and amicable understanding with the Indian tribes of the Great West and also to encourage friendship between the tribes was the foundation of sev- eral military expeditions to the western country about the middle of the Nine- teenth Century. The first of these was that of Col. Henry Dodge, of the First Regiment of United States Dragoons, in 1835. This was the first expedition of strictly mili- tary character to march to the Rockies. The personnel of the expeditionary force, as described by Colonel Dodge's own adjutant, was as follows: "Company G, 37 men, commanded by Captain Ford. "Company C, 40 men, commanded by Captain Duncan. "Company A, 40 men, commanded by Lieutenant Lupton. "Lieutenant Wheelock doing duty in Company C ; Lieutenant Steen, ord- nance officer, in command of two swivels. Lieutenant Terrett. assistant commis- sary of subsistence, etc. Lieutenant Kingsbury, acting adjutant, and Doctor Fellows, assistant surgeon. Major Dougherty, Indian agent, was to accompany the command as far as the Pawnee village ; and Captain Gantt, Indian trader, who was well acquainted with the country over which we were to march, accom- panied the detachment in the capacity of guide. "The companies were directed to take sixty days' rations of flour, and ten days' rafions of pork; and the assistant commissary of subsistence to take twenty- five beeves and two wagon loads of flour." The Dodge, expedition left Fort Leavenworth on May 29th and proceeded to the Platte River at a point forty miles above its mouth, where a grand council was held with the Otoe Indians. Later, the Omaha Indians under Big Elk met Colonel Dodge here and another council was held. The journey was then con- tinued up the south side of the Platte to the camp of the Grand Pawnees (below 80 HISTORY OF COLORADO the foot of the Grand Island). Although the Pawnees distrusted the Americans, they received Colonel Dodge with all Indian hospitality and despatched messen- gers to outlying Indian villages, calling the chiefs in to a grand council. This formal gathering was held on June 23d and was a success. The Indians promised to be more friendly among themselves and also to make peace with the Chey- ennes and Arapahoes. Upon the continuation of the march up the Platte, negotiations were opened with the Arickaras, considered to be the most warlike of the tribes west of the Missouri. A council was held with this tribe a short distance beyond the forks of the Platte, when Dodge assured them of the Whites' friendship and desire for their welfare. Nothing of interest or pertinent to the history of Colorado occurred at this meeting. On the afternoon of July 9th the expedition entered Colorado at the north- eastern corner of the state, following the right bank of the South Platte. The command went up the east side of the river, crossing Denver's site, and pro- ceeded almost to the Platte Canon mouth, then up Plum Creek, over the ridge to Monument Cr.eek, down the Monument to the Fontaine qui Bouille, thence down the stream to a place within fifteen miles of the mouth, thence south- east to the Arkansas and down this stream into Kansas. Bent's Fort was visited on the route. In his formal report to the Government, Colonel Dodge writes as follows : "On the 28th of July, I encamped in full view of Pike's Peak, on the Rocky Mountains. The next morning two Spaniards arrived at my camp and stated that they had been sent by traders from the Arkansas River in search of the Arepaha (Arapaho) Indians. On the 30th of July, I arrived at the Arkan- sas River, about five miles from the point where that river leaves the Rocky Mountains. Here I saw about sixty lodges of the Arepaha Indians with their families. This nation claims the country from the south fork of the Platte River to the Arkansas, and numbers about eleven hundred warriors. They have never entered into a treaty with the United States. They are said to have come from the Rocky Mountains, and are the descendants of the Blackfeet Indians, whose tongue they speak. I found them desirous of cultivating the most friendly understanding with me. From this place I despatched a messenger, with a few dragoons, in search of some of the principal chiefs of the Arepaha, with some of the Cheyenne and Blackfeet Indians, who were on the waters of the Platte. "On the 31st of July, I commenced my march down the Arkansas, and arrived at the fort of Bent and St. Vrain on the 4th of August. This fort is built on the Arkansas River, about one hundred and thirty miles from the Rocky Moun- tains, and its owners are trading under a license from the superintendent of Indian affairs at St. Louis. They erected the fort to protect them against a sudden attact of the Indians, and have a six-pounder and several light field- pieces; they trade with the Arepaha and Cheyenne Indians, and also with the Camanches of the Red River. At this place I met a number of the Cheyenne Indians. On the 6th of August, my messenger arrived with one of the principal chiefs of the Arepaha Indians and some of the Blackfeet who reside with the Arepahas. At Fort William (Fort Bent), on the 7th of August, I met a large assembly of Indians in council, and endeavored to explain to them the views HISTORY OF COLORADO 81 and wishes of the Government in relation to them. A small deputation of Pawnees accompanied my command from the Pawnee village, and had a friendly understanding with their old enemies, the Arepahas and Cheyenne Indians. I made a few presents to them, in the name of the great father, the President of the United States, which appeared to have a great effect upon them, they being the first ever made to the Arepaha or Blackfeet. At this council, I learned that the Osages and the Arepahas, who had been at war for many years, had made peace, and that a party of the Osages had gone to the Camanches, on the Red River, to confirm the peace made between them last year. Mr. Bent, of the trading-house of Bent and St. Vrain, arrived at Fort William, on the Arkansas, the day after I had held the council with these Indians. He had visited the Camanches on the Red River, and stated that he had seen upwards of two thousand, and they treated him with great kindness, and expressed a desire to be included in the peace made by me with the Camanches last year. "When the boundary line is run between the United States and Mexico, I believe that more than one-half of the country now claimed by the Camanches will be within the territorial limits of the United States. "On the I2th of August, I took up my line of march down the Arkansas, and on the 14th arrived at a village of the Cheyenne Indians, composed of about sixty skin lodges. In the evening after my arrival, I held a council with the principal braves of this band. About eight o'clock, next morning, my attention was directed to the firing of a number of small-arms in quick succession, at the distance of about one-half mile; more than one hundred guns were fired in one or two minutes. Supposing this firing to be an attact on the Cheyenne Indians by some of their enemies, and that this band might ask protection from me, I instantly formed the dragoons in order of battle, until I could be informed as to the cause of the firing. It was, however, soon ascertained to be a party of the Pawnees and Arickaras, about one hundred 'V. number, under the command of one of the principal chiefs of the Pawnees, which Indians, upon arriving in the vicinity of their enemies, the Cheyennes, had fired their guns, to prove to them their friendly disposition, by approaching with empty guns. I was much gratified to meet the Pawness and Arickaras at the village of the Cheyennes, on the Arkansas River. I had advised them in council, on the river Platte, to make peace with their old enemies, the Arepahas and Cheyennes. This I con- sidered a fortunate meeting of the old enemies, as it enabled me, as the mutual friend of all, to effect, I hope, a lasting peace between them. The Cheyennes made presents to the Pawnees and Arickaras, of upwards of one hundred horses; and the latter made a present of fifty of their guns to the Cheyennes. I en- deavored to impress strongly on tlie minds of these Indians, the mutual advantage that would result to them by making a lasting peace." Lieutenant Kingsbury was the chief journalist of the expedition and recorded in excellent language the appearance of the Colorado country through whidi they passed and the Indians with whom they became acquainted. He found the country literally blackened with buffalo herds, also saw droves of wild horses. The sight of the mountains, with their snow-capped peaks extending above the clouds, impressed him with their "beautiful and splendid appearance." Not- withstanding the intelligence of the members of the Dodge expedition, the description of the route taken, distances, and names of rivers are recorded 82 HISTORY OF COLORADO incorrectly many times. The official map published after the return is also seriously in error. Of the Indian descriptions, however, more confirmation can be given. Colonel Dodge and Lieutenant Kingsbur}' both made accurate and colorful narratives of the red man, his life and habits. Naturally, as their principal object was to make friends with the native, their observation was both thorough and unbiased. Of the Cheyennes the record states : "The Chey- ennes are a bold and warlike band of Indians, and at the time of our arrival were in a state of great disorganization. They had just killed their principal chief, and had separated into three villages, and were wandering about the prairie without any leader. They were at war with the Camanches, Kiowas, Pawnees and Arickaras ; a large war party had gone out against the Camanches, and had not returned at the time of our arrival. The Osages had visited the Cheyennes and Arepahas early in the summer, and had made peace with them. A party of the Arepahas then went with the Osages to visit the Camanches, with whom they wished to establish friendly relations. The Cheyennes are a better looking race of Indians than any we have seen, and more cleanly in their appearance. The women are remarkable for their beauty and the neatness of their personal appearance. The Cheyennes formerly lived on the Missouri River, where they were visited by General Atkinson in 1825. They left that country shortly after, and came to the south fork of the Platte, and have since been living with the Arepahas, with whom they have entered into the strictest terms of alliance, both offensive and defensive, and will, doubtless, in a few years, become incorporated with that nation. They are now about two hundred and twenty lodges, six hundred and sixty men, or two thousand six hundred and forty souls in all. They range between the Platte and Arkansas, near the mountains, and subsist entirely upon buffalo and the wild fruit they gather along the moun- tains. "Of the Arepahas, there are about three hundred and sixty lodges, one thousand and eighty men, or three thousand six hundred souls in all. They are a less warlike nation than the Cheyennes, and appear to be a small and more delicate looking race of Indians, and are governed in their war movements almost entirely by the Cheyennes. The names of their principal chiefs: Ena- cha-ke-kuc, or buffalo bull that carries a gun ; Oe-che-ne, or old raven ; E-thaw- ete, or strong bow ; Waw-lau-nah, or black dog ; Waw-hin-e-hun, or mad bear ; Naw-tuh-tha, or buffalo belly. They are less neat in their appearance than the Cheyennes, and make their clothes of buffalo skins. They range with the Chey- ennes between the Platte and the Arkansas, and subsist entirely upon buffalo. The bow and arrow is the principal weapon they make use of in war, and in killing game. Some few of them have guns and ammunition that they have bought of the American traders for robes and fur. They kill their buffalo upon horses, by running at full speed into a large gang and shooting them with their arrows. The Arepahas formerly lived upon Maria's River, near the forks of the Missouri, but emigrated to this country a long time since. "The Gros-ventres of Fort du Prairie, now living with the Arepahas, are a band of the Blackfeet. They speak the same language with the Arepahas, emigrated from the same country, and have the same manners and customs. There are now about three hundred and fifty of them living with the Arepahas. Seven hundred lodges came to the Arkansas in the summer of 1824 and returned HISTORY OF COLORADO 83 in 1832, and are expected again on the Platte and Arkansas, in September, 1835. The names of their principal chiefs are Nash-hin-e-thow, or elk tongue; Ka-aw- che, or bear tooth. There is also a small band of the Blackfeet proper, consisting of about fifty, who live with the Cheyennes and the Arepahas. A band of Kiowas, called the upper band, consisting of one thousand eight hundred or two thousand, and another who are called the Apaches of the plains, consisting of about twelve hundred, also frequent this portion of the country. All these Indians frequent the Arkansas and the Platte near the mountains, for the pur- pose of killing buffalo, upon which they subsist, and make their clothes of the skins. They all have large numbers of horses, upon which they hunt buffalo and pack their baggage. The women do all the work, and wait upon the men, who do nothing but kill the game." Throughout his journey among the plains Indians, Colonel Dodge never was met with hostility. He was an emissary of peace and as such he was ex- tremely successful; for the time being he aroused better feelings among the Indians, both toward the white men and toward each other. He pointed out to the savage the economic benefits to be gained by friendly intercourse. Maj. Gen. Edmund P. Gaines, writing to the adjutant-general at Washington, stated that the results obtained "are not only altogether deeply interesting, but are, in part, extraordinary, and I may add, unprecedented. For example, the ex- pedition embracing a traverse of 1600 miles of continuous wilderness, alternate prairie and woodland, in which many nations of Indians were conferred with, and most judiciously impressed with the justice, humanity and poiver of our Government and Country, and then passed by without sustaining any injury or loss by any casualty, excepting only the short illness and death of one of the brave dragoons, and without loss or any material injury done to the horses of the battalion." Henry Dodge reached the rank of colonel, which he bore at the time of his expedition; served in the War of 1812 and the Black Hawk war; was the first governor of Wisconsin Territory; elected the first junior senator from the State of Wisconsin in 1848 and continued until 1857. He died July 9, 1867. THE KEARNEY EXPEDITION Of slightly different character was the military' expedition commanded by Col. Stephen W. Kearney, which visited the plains Indians in 1845. Wherein Colonel Dodge effected his purpose by conciliation and mediation, Colonel Kearney sought to accomplish his purpose by an exhibition of the "mailed list." Indian raids had been made upon the emigrants traveling to the Oregon country and more were anticipated, so it was believed by the governmental authorities at Washington that a lasting impression should be made upon the Indians by proving to them the military power of the white men. Colohel Kearney was in command of the First Regiment of United States Dragoons. With several companies of this regiment, Kearney left Fort Leavenworth on May 18, 1845, and pursued a westerly course until he arrived at the Oregon Trail in the valley of the Big Blue. He followed this trail to the Platte River, thence up the North Fork to Fort Laramie, from where he journeyed beyond the South Pass. He returned to Fort Laramie during the middle of July, then 84 HISTORY OF COLORADO struck out in a southerly direction through what is now Colorado, along the foothills, to the Arkansas. The expedition then turned eastward, followed the river to the Santa Fe Trail, thence to Leavenworth. In his official report. Colonel Kearney stated : "During our march we met with the Pawnees — with several tribes of the Sioux Indians — with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. They were distinctly told that the road opened by the dragoons must not be closed by the Indians, and that the white people traveling upon it must not be disturbed, either in their persons or property. It is believed that the Indians will remember to observe what has been told to them on this subject. * * * "There are a number of white men from our own states, who have nomin- ally their residence near Taas (Taos) and Santa Fe, and who come frequently into the Indian country between the upper Arkansas and the Platte, between 'Bent's Fort' and 'Fort Laramie' ; bringing whiskey with them, which they trade to the Indians ; consequently causing much difficulty and doing much harm. This should be prevented; and possibly might, by the appointment of a sub-agent, which I recommend, located at 'Bent's Fort,' who, under instructions from the War Department, might put a stop to that traffic in that section of the country." Colonel Kearney strongly advocated placing the entire Indian country under martial law ; in fact, he believed in controlling the Indians with threats, and with brute force, in general with an iron hand. The relative value of the Kearney and Dodge theories of Indian government is a matter of debate, but the prepon- derance of opinion seems to be in favor of Dodge's conciliatory methods, for ultimate ends if not for immediate. In 1846 Colonel Kearney was again present upon Colorado soil, but with a different purpose. He had with him the forces which he employed in the "blood- less" conquest of New Mexico in August of that year. The soldiers marched from Leavenworth to a point nine miles below Fort Bent, where all were assembled. The army thus gathered went into New Mexico by way of the Raton Pass. Shortly after, Colonel Price's command, consisting of 1700 men, followed practically the same route and crossed Colorado ground. BEGINNING OF DEPREDATIONS The presence of such great bodies of United States troops upon the plains thor- oughly aroused the militant spirit of the Indians of the central and south west. The Comanches, Kiowas, Apaches, Osages and Pawnees soon began to attack the wagon trains on the Santa Fe Trail. The depredations committed along this great highway, the cold and ruthless murders and the accompanying atrocities were many during the summer and autumn of 1847. The Utes and Navajoes, also the Apaches, began to don their war-paint in northern New Me.xico and make trouble. TrlDops from New Mexico were despatched in detachments to drive out these bands of Indians and were more or less successful. One particularly successful command was given to Lieut. -Col. William Gilpin, afterwards the first governor of Colorado Territory. Gilpin had taken part in the conquest of New Mexico and the march to Chihuahua City as a major in the First Missouri Volunteer Cavalry. He returned to Missouri in 1847 ^"^ then was given the command of a volunteer force organized for the purpose of VIEW OF A SMALL PAHT OK TlIK CLIFF DWELLKHS' "CLIFF PALACE," IN THE MESA VERDE DISTRICT, IN THE FAR SOUTHWESTERN SECTION OF COLORADO 86 HISTORY OF COLORADO suppressing the Indians who were committing the depredations along the Santa Fe Trail. There were three companies of infantry and two of cavalry, com- prising about eight hundred and fifty men, in Gilpin's new command. The expedition started from Fort Leavenworth in October and on November ist reached a point where Walnut Creek enters the Arkansas. Colonel Gilpin stated in his report that "By careful inquiry, I estimated the losses sustained from Indian attacks during the summer of 1847 to have been: Americans, killed, 47; wagons destroyed, 330; stock plundered, 6,500. The greater amount of these losses were sustained by government trains, passing with supplies to and from Santa Fe. * * * Such had been the losses sustained from the Pawnees, and from the allied tribes and Camanches and Kiowas, upon the Arkansas and the Cimaron, and from the Apaches, upon the Canadian River, farther west. Rumors reached me from all directions, that, inflamed by these excesses, an arrangement was negotiating between the latter people, and the powerful tribes of the Cheyennes and y\rapahoes to carry on the war with their united strength, as the season of 1848 should open." Gilpin decided that the best strategy would be to enter the Cheyenne and Arapaho country boldly. He proceeded to the abandoned Fort Mann, where the Santa Fe Trail crossed the Arkansas, there left a portion of his troops as a garrison, and then took the remainder of the command directly into the hostile country. He encamped on the north side of the upper Arkansas, near what is now Pueblo City. "Being without provisions and transportation, my command, dismounted for the most part, endured in tents the rigors of the long winter, subsisting the men upon such provisions as could be procured from New Alexico and the Indians, and the horses upon the dead winter grass. The Indians were, however, overawed by this immediate contrast of a military force, abandoned all intercourse with the southern tribes, and invited the Kiowas to withdraw from the Camanche alliance ; to unite with them in pacific relations with the Americans." The Kiowas obeyed the request of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes and ceased their warlike activities for the time. The two divisions of American troops were again united and a definite campaign begun upon the Comanches and Apaches along the Santa Fe Trail. Many encounters occurred between the troops and Indians, none of them in Colorado, however, and the savages suffered heavy casualties. Colonel Gilpin reported: "It will be perceived, then, in what manner so many tribes of Indians inhabiting an immense and various territory, have been defeated by a single battalion. By the winter march and residence of my cavalry command at the foot of the Rocky Mountains, the Kiowas, Cheyennes and Arapahoes were forced to abstain from hostilities. These tribes being cut off and kept in the rear by the subsequent operations during the spring and summer upon the Canadian, Cimaron and middle Arkansas, the Camanches, Apaches, Pawnees and Osages were attacked, defeated and driven off in opposite directions. As neither treaties of peace nor fortified points nor troops now exist to control this numerous cloud of savages, it is clear that all of the atrocities of a very severe Indian war may be momentarily looked for, and are certain to burst forth with the early spring. * * * The continually crippled condition and destitution of supplies caused by the ignorance, the laziness and the vicious character of the HISTORY OF COLORADO 87 officers in the frontier depots, has fatally retarded the pacification of the Indian country, and heaped up unmeasured trouble for the national government." In 1 85 1 the Comanches again went upon the war-path, not only against the Americans, but against several other Indian tribes. This outbreak was quelled by the military force under Col. John B. Sanborn. From the Arkansas River crossing of the Santa Fe Trail, Colonel Sanborn and his troopers marched north- ward through Colorado to Fort Laramie, after the Indian trouble was quieted. Thereafter several other small military expeditions came through the Colorado country, generally following the foothills; the destination of these detachments was usually Fort Laramie. One of these, that of Captain Marcy in November, 1857, followed the route through the San Juan Mountains, and hardships and sufferings only comparable to those of Fremont were experienced. An account of Marcy's hazardous journey is given elsewhere. The gold-seekers of the late '50s had very little trouble with the Indians. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes were disposed to be friendly with the prospectors who had located along the eastern slope of the mountains, as the latter formed a sort of buffer between them and the Ute tribes. For the same reason, the Utes were strongly opposed to the new white settlements. A lone prospector named Banker was killed during the summer near the site of Golden, also several other miners in the Clear Creek district were murdered by the Utes. On June 26th a party of prospectors consisting of J. L. Shank, J. L. Kennedy and William M. Slaughter were attacked while they were working just south of Mt. Evans. The first fire from the Utes killed Kennedy and mortally wounded Shank, but Slaughter escaped. Another tragedy was reported in September. The bodies of six white men and one Indian, scalped and mutilated in Indian fashion, were found in Dead-men's Gulch, Gunnison County. THE UPRISING OF 1864 The Indian uprising of 1864 had its beginning in 1861, when the North and South became locked in warfare. The Indians of the plains did not fully under- stand this great struggle which had begun east of the Missouri River; they thought that the "tribes" of the North and South would quickly exterminate each other and leave them in complete freedom of the great plains as of yore. The Indians were not slow to take advantage of the opportunity. In order to facilitate the redemption of their hunting grounds and the expulsion of the Americans they began quietly to prepare for a concentrated attack. They were wise enough to realize that only in united effort could their wish be gratified, and not by desultory attacks or unorganized movement. In this they were only partially successful. Some of the larger tribes were willing to confederate, but others hesitated to ally themselves with those hitherto their bitter enemies. An- other factor which prevented an expeditious union was the lack of guns and am- munition. The day of the bow and arrow as an offensive weapon was past. Accordingly, with stealth and diplomacy, all of the plains Indians began to accumulate weapons from the white men. They would either steal, trade or buy rifles and ammunition. The suspicion of some ominous occurrence to fall upon the settlements became general among the Americans, but all questions put to the Indians in regard to their consuming desire for ordnance were an- 88 HISTORY OF COLORADO swered evasively or by skillful falsehood. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes, although of the most peaceful attitude apparently, were also making prepara- tions for war. The Utes did not conceal their true feelings so well, but main- tained an openly hostile front. The small depredations and killings reported from the mining districts in the late '50s and the early '60s were all perpetrated by the Utes, generally small bands acting independently of the main tribe. By the summer of 1862 the necessity arose of making a serious effort to counteract the growing restlessness of the Indians of the plains. On July 18, 1862, Governor Evans, in his message to the Territorial Legislature, strongly advocated the organization of a militia force and recommended a statute for that purpose. The Legislature immediately complied with this request. But action upon the new law, with immediate advantage to be gained from its enact- ment, was impossible of accomplishment and the settlers were left during the re- mainder of the year with inadequate protection. It is true that the Second Colo- rado Volunteer Infantry had been organized, but this regiment was poorly equipped and in all probability could not have withstood a very severe attack. In August, 1862, several stage stations along the Arkansas River in Kansas were plundered by Indian bands, but no men killed. In the same summer, northwestern Iowa, southwestern Minnesota and southeastern Dakota received their baptism of blood at the hands of the Sioux. New Ulm became history and over a thousand men, women and children were slaughtered. Hostilities there really began as early as 1855, when the massacre at Lake Okoboji, Iowa, occurred and four white women were carried away to hideous captivity. The first raid within the borders of Colorado occurred in March, 1863. At this time a band of Cheyennes and Kiowas appeared at the settlement located at the mouth of the Cache a la Poudre and confiscated every iiorse and g^n they could find. No murders were committed here, showing, without question, that the Indians had decided upon a definite course and were not yet ready to begin killing. Other raids of similar nature were conducted by the Indians along the Platte and the South Platte during the remainder of the year, all the time enlarging their means of warfare. Governor Evans appreciated the neces- sity of quick and forceful action on the part of the government and repeatedly conveyed his fears and knowledge of conditions to Washington. However, the government had its hands full fighting the Southern Confederacy and was unable to hasten any material aid to the western plains. From reliable sources in- formation had come that the Indians were to be ready the following spring and would then turn loose with all their pent-up ferocity and hellish purposes, beginning with the sparser settlements and gradually consuming the larger centers of population. With the coming of spring in 1864 the Indian activities began to assume definite character. A central ground was established on the Smoky Hill fork of the Republican River, in western Kansas, and here the Indians gathered, sending out raiding parties on the eve of their offensive, both to learn of the disposition of the Whites and to gather more supplies. The only military organization in Colorado Territory then was the First Colorado Cavalry. A detachment of this regiment, consisting of a hundred men armed with two howitzers, met fully three hundred Cheyennes about ten miles from Fort Earned. The Indians immediately attacked openly, but were repulsed with heavy loss HISTORY OF COLORADO 89 and were scattered. About the same time a smaller detachment of soldiers of the First met a half hundred Cheyenncs at the mouth of Kiowa Creek, in Morgan County, Colorado, engaged in rustling a drove of horses. The soldiers de- manded the surrender of the animals and were answered by a volley, which killed one cavalryman and wounded three others. The troops did not have their carbines, so permitted the Indians to escape with the stolen horses. These skirmishes resulted in the quick despatch of a full company of the First Colorado down the South I'latte. At Cedar Canon, in what is now Logan County, the company encountered an encampment of about three hundred In- dians and quickly opened fire upon them. The engagement became bitter, but at last the Indians were defeated, with a loss of thirty-eight killed. One cavalryrrtan was shot during the melee. Quite a number of horses were captured by the troops, more than recompense for those stolen by the Indians just previous. Governor Evans then sent word to Fort Leavenworth, requesting of Gen. S. R. Curtis, commander of the Department of Kansas and the Indian Ter- ritory, a sufficient number of troops to protect the settlers in Denver and vicinity. Curtis replied that he had no soldiers to spare. Governor Evans then repeated the request to the authorities in New Mexico, but again was refused. ALARM IN DENVER To increase the general alarm, a report came to Denver, during the first week of June, that a large body of Indians was approaching the city from the north and east, with the intention of massacring the inhabitants and sacking the homes. Governor Evans practically placed Denver under martial law, and ordered all business houses to close at 6:30 o'clock in the evening, in order that the citizens might assemble at the corner of 14th and Larimer streets for drill. The women and children were congregated in the brick buildings during the night and a close network of sentinels established on the outskirts. The report soon proved to be false, however, although the situation was rapidly becoming desperate. Just one company of the First Colorado was left at Denver, the remainder of the regiment haying been sent to Fort Lyon a few days before. It is easy to understand that a concerted attack by even a thousand Indians at this time would have resulted in a massacre greater than any which after- wards occurred during the Indian wars. The people of Denver were not in a position to defend themselves to any extent and would have been quickly overcome by the savages. The bloodshed which would have followed is hor- rible to contemplate. Under the provisions of a territorial act of 1862, Governor Evans attempted to form a military force and began by appointing Henry M. Teller as major- general of such force and with the authority to organize the same. At the same time he requested the authorities at Washington to allow him to organize a volunteer cavalry troop for the period of one hundred days, .^ftc^ much delay this was granted. In the meantime the citizens of Denver fortified every available building in the town and made all preparations for an attack. On June i8lh word came to Denver of the massacre of a .settler named Hungate, with his wife and two children, at his ranch on Running Creek, twenty- 90 HISTORY OF COLORADO five miles east of the city. A band of savages led by Roman Nose, a northern Cheyenne chieftain, had committed the deed and burned the houses after taking all the plunder and stock desired. The scalped and terribly mutilated bodies of the Hungate family were carried to Denver and here exhibited to pub- lic view as a rather ghastly warning to the people. REIGN OF TERROR By autumn of 1864 the Indian uprising was in full force. The whole plains region between the Rockies and the Missouri River and from the Canada boundary to the Rio Grande was in the throes of Indian war. All routes of travel were the scenes of bloody massacres and running fights. Lurking bands of Indians awaited the stages and either compelled them to seek safety in headlong flight or submit to capture, which meant slow torture for the passengers and driv- ers until death relieved them. Freight caravans traveled only in large groups and even then they were subject to attack and in some cases the Indians killed all the defenders and carried oft" the women and merchandise. During this "reign of terror" on the plains the Indian mind devised every known means of inflicting torture upon his captives. Bodies of white men were found in an vmmentionable state of mutilation, this having been accomplished before death. Ranch houses were raided and the owners killed or carried into captivity. The latter recourse applied only to women and their fate was even worse than death. iVIany of the American women were driven insane or to suicide by the inhuman and brutal treatment accorded them by the savages. When one reads of the whole- sale slaughter by the Indians, the tortures inflicted upon helpless people, the destruction of property, the acts committed upon the white women — and all of it according to the plan they had so carefully wrought during the pre- ceding years, the massacres just for the pure love of killing and sight of blood, the heavy toll exacted by Chivington at Sand Creek seems to have been, as pun- ishment, a mere reprimand. Notwithstanding the Indians' apologists in later years, the savage was at heart a beast, of primitive impulses and atrocious motives. Had not their deeds of crime during the uprising proved this, their life, personal habits, and their customs would have substantiated the fact. Governor Evans sent messages to certain Indians whom he thought to be peaceable and advised them to seek safety at some military post, but none of them so warned heeded his words. At the same time the governor gave all citizens of Colorado authority to kill Indians wherever they were found and to take their property, but to avoid attacking peaceful Indians, if there were any. Col. J. M. Chivington was the commander of the Colorado Military Division, subordinate to General Curtis at Fort Leavenworth, but little aid was expected from this source, as the Confederates in Missouri under Price compelled the re- tention of all Federal troops there. In the latter part of August a large force of Indians congregated on Beaver Creek, near its junction with the South Platte, with the intention of attacking the white settlements along the foothills through Colorado. Word of this came to Denver on the night of the 20th of August. Colonel Chivington immediately called together all the available military forces, including a company of home guards which had been organized by Attorney General Samuel E. Browne and 92 HISTORY OF COLORADO Gen. Henry M. Teller. This force of men was sent down the river to prevent the raid at all costs. The Indians, who had counted greatly upon the element of surprise, gave up their plan when they learned of the approach of the troops and returned to their depredations on the Platte River Trail. In September, 1864, a proposal was made to the commander of the Fort Lyon post by the Indians in the Smoky Hill district to make peace, provided that the agreement included the Kiowas, Comanches, Arapahoes, Apaches and Sioux. This written proposal, coming from a mere encampment of five or six hundred Indians, was signed by Black Kettle and other chiefs. The sincerity of the proposal was questioned, as the matter seemed to have been presented too casually to bear much weight. The Indians also agreed to surrender some white women and children whom they had captured. One of the women, a Mrs. Sny- der, had hung herself a few weeks before rather than endure the shameful treat- ment accorded her. COUNCIL AT DENVER Finally, an arrangement was concluded whereby five of the chieftains were to go to Denver for a peace conference. These turned out to be Black Kettle, his brother. White Antelope, Bull Bear, a Cheyenne, Neva and Bosse, Arapahoes. Before going to Denver the Indians gave up four prisoners to the Fort Lyon com- mander and then on the 28th of September a council was held with Governor Evans, Colonel Chivington and others of the white leaders. Black Kettle and Bull Bear addressed the meeting ; the former blamed the murders upon the young men of the tribes, while the latter stated that the uprising originated with the Sioux. Governor Evans spoke to the Indians then and warned them against further warfare, but it remained for Chivington to end the meeting with his characteristic strenuosity. He told the Indians plainly and in nOne too mild language that to continue their depredations would mean just one of two things — submission to the white man's will or extermination. Nothing definite was decided at this council and the Indians returned to Fort Lyon under escort. Within the week, Governor Evans left Denver for Washington, leaving the administration in the hands of Acting Governor Elbert and Colonel Chivington. He remained in the East for seven months. By this time the Third Colorado Volunteer Cavalry had been organized. This was the organization of one-hundred-days' men which Evans had requested per- mission to organize. George L. Shoup was the colonel of the regiment and the encampment was located in Denver. A few small reconnaissances were made, but no serious conflict was had with the Indians during the recruiting stages. Camp was moved to the head of Bijou Creek about the first of November. During the autumn months Indian activities had increased alarmingly along the Missouri River trails and on the Arkansas. People ceased to travel overland and freighters refused to move unless adequately protected by the military. Hundreds of emigrants from the East waited at the Missouri River during the summer, until the conditions upon the plains became better. The more adven- turous pushed on despite all warnings and generally came to grief. The total loss of life during this time has never been accurately computed, but it is safe to say that over one hundred white people lost their lives while traveling through the plains country. HISTORY OF COLORADO 93 THE AFFAIR AT SAND CREEK Black Kettle and his four companions returned to the Smoky Hill rendez- vous after the council in Denver. The Arapahoes under Left Hand, to which band Neva and Bosse belonged, went to Fort Lyon in October and surrendered much of the plunder that had been taken, to the officers of the post. The com- mander kept them at the fort for a few days, then advised Left Hand to take his warriors to an encampment upon Sand Creek, a tributary of the Arkansas. The Arapahoes did as they were bidden and proceeded to a point forty miles west of the fort, where they were joined by Black Kettle and his Cheyennes. The whole band formed a village of some eight hundred men, although the In- dians claimed after the massacre that there were only about two hundred of them. The real purpose of the Indians at this time is not known for certain. Some writers have claimed that they believed themselves to be under the protec- tion of the forts and that they were peaceable, while other historians have ad- vanced the theorj' that the Indians were simply taking a breathing spell and were planning to go upon the warpath again. After the conference at Denver, Colonel Chivington began to make preparations for dealing a severe blow to the Indians before winter. General Curtis, at Fort Leavenworth, advocated ruthless measures to punish the savages for their past crimes, consequently Chivington felt secure in whatever he might do. Soon he developed a plan to attack the Cheyennes and Arapahoes encamped on Sand Creek and so carry into effect the threats he had made to Black Kettle in Den- ver. For his campaign he selected the greater part of the Third Colorado Cavalry and several units of the First Cavalry ; two field-pieces of light artillery were also taken. With this outfit he marched rapidly toward the Sand Creek encamp- ment, first going to Fort Lyon. He arrived at the fort on November 28th and after a few hours' rest here he continued toward the Indian village, with 125 extra men and two more cannon. He came upon the Indians at sunrise the next morning. Chivington had given definite orders to his men while at Fort Lyon and these orders in a word were — no quarter! They were to kill without mercy, sparing neither man, woman nor child. His intentions had been a secret before reaching Fort Lyon, as he desired more than anything to take the Indians com- pletely by surprise. The hour was early and many of the Indians had not come from their lodges. A raking artillery and musketry fire met them as they ran wildly about, endeav- oring to organize for defense. Their horses were stampeded by a detachment of soldiers. Many of the Indians, thinking the soldiers had mistaken them for a war party, ran toward the troops, with their hands raised in token of peace. This was of no avail and they were shot down without consideration. Fully a hundred of the other warriors began to fight and continued desperately, but against such heavy odds that they were quickly slaughtered. White Antelope and Left Hand fell early in the fight, the former with his hands raised in sur- render and the latter standing motionless, refusing to fight men whom he had always considered friends. The women and children crowded together for safety, but the troopers killed them as they stood. Nor were the wounded spared; the white men scalped and mutilated the bodies in a manner unsurpassed by any 94 HISTORY OF COLORADO bloodthirsty savage in the past. By the testimony given during the Federal in- vestigation of this massacre it would seem that the soldiers became fiends incar- nate. The condition of the bodies and the evidence of frenzied butchery is hard to believe as the work of Americans, but such it was. Not content with merely killing the savages and their families, some of the soldiers insanely cut the bodies to pieces, mashed the heads of others, and in numerous ways satiated their abnormal desires. Black Kettle and 200 of the warriors succeeded in escaping about midday and were not apprehended. By 2 o'clock in the afternoon the soldiers ceased their bloody work, as there were no more Indian.s left to kill. A few women were found hidden in the lodges, but these were quickly murdered. Then began the work of pillage. The results of this massacre were far-reaching and many. Chivington, after a few days' search for another band of Arapahoes supposed to be under the leadership of Little Raven, returned to Denver where he was received with ac- claim. His losses had been small, ten men killed and thirty-eight wounded, of whom four died. He reported boastfully that he had captured no prisoners and that he had left between five and six hundred Indians dead upon the field. In the matter of estimating the number of Indians engaged, the number killed, etc., there is a wide variance of opinion. Deeds committed in white heat are not easily reduced to figures afterwards. A trader by the name of Smith, who was in the Indian encampment at the time of the massacre, said there were only about two hundred fighting men engaged. One person actually "counted"' four hundred and fifty corpses on the ground, while Major Anthony, of Chivington's force, esti- mated that there were one hundred and twenty-five Indians killed. As to the whole number of Cheyennes and Arapahoes in the encampment, there is a still greater variance. From a study of all reports, it is believed that there were not over six hundred men, women and children in all. Colonel Chivington reported that he had with him "about five hundred men of the Third Regiment, and about two hundred and fifty of the First Colorado; Anthony's battalion of the First Colorado, and Lieutenant Wilson's battalion of the Third Colorado ; in all about one thousand men." THE AFTERMATH The people of Denver welcomed Chivington and his troops when they re- turned, proclaiming him as their deliverer. But it was different in other parts of the country. Chivington was denounced with the same terms as had been hitherto applied to the Indians. In January, 1865, Congress took heed of the wave of indignation which had spread over the land and ordered an investiga- tion to be made of the massacre. Many things of interest were brought out at this formal probe into the details of Sand Creek. The testimony showed that Black Kettle hoisted a white flag over his lodge when the troops were first seen and that it was disregarded by Chivington. On the other hand, it was proved that numerous scalps taken from the heads of white people were found in the lodges, some of them still fresh. Other articles of plunder which were recognized as having come from Americans were discovered. Various bits of testimony were given and the circumstances of the tragedy were built up detail by detail. HISTORY OF COLORADO 95 Notwithstanding the fact that the people of Colorado, that is, the majority of them, stood up for Chivington and the Territorial Legislature passed resolu- tions of approbation, Congress took a different view of the matter. The com- mittee which had conducted the investigation reported the following May and in no uncertain terms condemned the act committed by Chivington. The report stated that "it is difficult to believe that beings in the form of men, and disgracing the uniform of United States soldiers and officers, could commit or countenance the commission of such acts of cruelty and barbarity as are detailed in the testi- mony." In regard to the leader the committee stated: "As to Colonel Chiving- ton, your committee can hardly find fitting terms to describe his conduct. Wear- ing the uniform of the United States, which should be the emblem of justice and humanity ; holding the important position of commander of a military district, and therefore having the honor of the Government to that extent in his keeping, he deliberately planned and executed a foul and dastardly massacre which would have disgraced the veriest savage among those who were the victims of his cruelty. * * * The truth is that he surprised and murdered, in cold blood, the unsuspecting men, women and children on Sand Creek, who had every reason to believe they were under the protection of the United States authorities, and then returned to Denver and boasted of the brave deeds he and the men under his command had performed. * * * j^ conclusion, your committee are of the opinion that for the purpose of vindicating the cause of justice and uphold- ing the honor of the nation, prompt and energetic measures should at once be taken to remove from office those who have thus disgraced the Government by whom they are employed, and to punish, as their crimes deserve, those who have been guilty of these brutal and cowardly acts." After the governmental investigation, the reaction came to the people of Colorado. There arose a constantly growing group of citizens who condemned Chivington. The matter became a political issue, a social question and, in fact, pervaded the very life of the territory. The question of statehood was before the people then and those favoring statehood were Chivington men ; conse- quently, those opposed to statehood became anti-Sand Creek men. Colonel Chivington stoutly defended his actions, claiming that he had un- doubtedly saved Denver and other Colorado communities from imminent attack and suffering and that such treatment was the only kind the Indians appreciated. In»this radical view, Chivington had many supporters, particularly among those familiar with the Indian and his character. On the other hand, he held many enemies throughout the remainder of his life, enemies in such number that his future activities were failures. Chivington left Denver in 1867 and went to San Diego, Cal. In 1873 ^^ moved to Cincinnati, O., remained there until 1883 and then returned to Denver. He held a few minor public offices here before he died October 4, 1894. It may be interesting to note that he was a Methodist minister before entering the Government service. EFFECT UPON TITE INDIANS Instead of cowing the plains Indians into submission, the Sand Creek mas- sacre only added fuel to the flame of their hatred and hostility. The killing of their tribesmen brought all the tribes together in a unity otherwise impossible 96 HISTORY OF COLORADO and in hundreds of ways they exacted their toll from the Americans. They cre- ated a reign of terror unknown before and the whole plains region from the Colorado settlements to those of Kansas and Nebraska became an untenable space. Stage stations were burned and the keepers killed, all livestock had been captured, the overland telegraph line was destroyed, and even the troops occupy- ing posts were compelled to remain behind their stockades. The absence of any freighting upon the trails brought about a panic in Colorado Territory. Sup- plies were low, prices arose exorbitantly and the winter months were of extra- ordinary severity. The Third Colorado Cavalry had been mustered out previ- ously and there arose the necessity for more troops. Acting Governor Elbert issued a call for several companies of volunteers, mounted, but the sentiment against Sand Creek was too strong and the volunteering was negligible. Colonel Chivington was succeeded as commander of the Colorado District by Col. Thomas Moonlight, of the Eleventh Kansas Volunteer Cavalry, in January, 1865. Colonel Moonlight suggested amendments to the territorial militia law, so as to provide pay and bounties, also horses, for the proposed volunteers, and while the Legis- ture filibustered for a fortnight over the bill, he declared martial law in the ter- ritory and closed all business houses and industries except those dealing in necessities. Governor Elbert now asked for seven companies ; two from Ara- paho County, two from Gilpin County, one from Jefferson, one from Clear Creek and one from Boulder, Weld and Larimer counties together. The outcome was satisfactory and the companies were quickly recruited to full strength and placed under the command of Samuel E. Browne. The Indian depredations continued without abatement. Colonel Moonlight, in his report to Gen. Grenville M. Dodge, then in command of the Department of Missouri, said : "The Indians are bold in the extreme. They have burned every ranch between Julesburg and Valley Station, and nearly all the property at the latter place ; driven off all stock, both public and private. These Indians are led by white men, and have complete control of all the country outside my district, so that I am hemmed in." It is said that the glare of flaming homes could be seen at night from Denver ; in fact, almost all of the surrounding coun- try was in the hands of the redskins. The stage route from Denver to Julesburg had been devastated every mile of the way, every ranch and every station de- stroyed. Warehouses and the station at Julesburg were burned. It is needless to describe the fate of the Americans who were captured by the Indians. The Wisconsin Ranch, about one hundred miles northeast of Denver, was attacked by a large force of Cheyennes and defended by the owner, Holon God- frey, and three other men. Four women were there and assisted in every way during the fighting which continued all day, the attack having been made in the morning. After nightfall, one of the defenders, Perkins, escaped from the ranch and rode for help to an encampment of soldiers near Fort Morgan. Four soldiers and a corporal accompanied Perkins back to the ranch and succeeded in stealing into the house unmolested. With this reinforcement Godfrey repelled the Indians and won for himself a reputation among them as "Old Wicked." Another ranch owned by Elbridge Gerry, located about seventy miles north- east of Denver, was attacked at the same time as that of Godfrey. There were five men, one woman and a child, there at the time and they made a heroic de- fense of the house before the Cheyennes and Arapahoes forced an entrance. The VIEW OF A TOWER OF THE CLIFF ])WKLLi;i{S, STANDING UNDER THE BROW OF A PRECIPICE ON MoELMO CREEK, IN THE MESA VERDE DISTRICT IN THE FAR SOUTHWESTERN SECTION OF COLORADO It is probable that in its original height the top of the tower afforded a wide view of the mesa that lies back of it. 98 HISTORY OF COLORADO Indians killed all but the woman, whom they carred away to a worse fate. These are but instances, two of the countless stories which could be told of the incidents which happened in Colorado during this period. The efficiency of General Dodge began to have effect shortly after he took office. Many of the more important trails were opened, including that along the Platte River, and before summer the Santa Fe Trail was again a comparatively safe highway. The Colorado volunteers engaged in guarding the Denver-Jules- burg stage route until the last of April, when they were mustered out of service. They were the last of the Colorado volunteers to see active service against the Indians. The close of the Rebellion released many troops for service in the West and several military posts were established, more for the purpose of protecting the trails than to carry on an organized warfare against the Indians. This gave the Indians the opportunity to continue killing white men, holding up stages and capturing women, which they did to the full extent of their ability. Hardly a day passed but some new atrocity occurred ; and it is equally safe to say that not a stage, nor an emigrant train, succeeded in crossing the plains without one or more fights with the Indians, sometimes winning and other times suffering an- nihilation. Although a treaty was made in October, 1865, between the hostile tribes and the United States, the Indians considered their agreement as a "mere scrap of paper" and in the next year resumed their old tactics. 1866 was not a year of such intense activity as 1865 and during the greater part of the time emigrant and freight caravans crossed the plains to Colorado without serious interrup- tion. However, the year 1867 brought a renewal of the Indian outbreaks. The depredations, burnings, killings and other deeds once more grew common and the trails through Colorado again became impassable. Several stage stations in northern Colorado were destroyed. This resumption of hostilities led the United States Government to inaugurate a more extensive and enlarged campaign against the savages, the details of which are not associated with the history of Colorado. The courses of the Platte and Arkansas rivers continued to be dangerous coun- try for Americans, as the Indians maintained their warfare against small bands of settlers and travelers despite the expeditions launched against them by the Government. But they were doomed to complete and utter defeat; the white troops hunted them down in all parts of the great plains; tribe after tribe was compelled to sue for peace, until finally, late in the spring of 1869, ^^^^ '^^t of the tribes had been subdued. The Cheyennes and Arapahoes were moved from their reservation in Colo- rado to Oklahoma in 1867, which ended the occupancy of Colorado by the plains Indians. In 1868, however, having been reinforced, the Cheyennes and their allies again went upon the warpath, confining their ravages to the western part of Kansas. In August a number of the Cheyennes and Arapahoes came into eastern Colorado, bearing letters which certified that they were peaceable In- dians, these letters having been issued the year before when their treaty was made and which were now void, or rather, forfeited by their behavior. They attacked and killed a number of settlers on Bijou and Kiowa creeks. Some of them penetrated into the South Park by way of the Ute Pass and there attacked HISTORY OF COLORADO 99 their old enemies — the Utes, kiUing several of them. In the meantime, they had secured entrance to Colorado City by their letters, the citizens believing them to be peaceable. After their skirmish with the Utes, the supposed friendly In- dians stole all the livestock they could in Colorado City and escaped. A short time afterward several attacks were made along Monument Creek, in which a num- ber of the white settlers lost their lives. Three men were murdered in the southeast part of Larimer County by a small band of Cheyennes. No troops were available in the territory and appeals to General Sheridan, at Fort Hays, in western Kansas, were fruitless. On August 2Sth a small force was hastily thrown together in Denver and before daylight on the following morning had started for Bijou Creek, led by Maj. Jacob Downing. But the Indians had gone, taking their plunder with them. Forsyth's b.\ttle One of the most remarkable battles between United States troops and hostile Indians during the whole plains war occurred on Colorado soil. The details of this singular engagement follow. Brev. Col. George A. Forsyth, serving on the staff of General Sheridan during the sunmier of 1868, requested to be appointed to active service in the field. Forsyth had won his spurs and was considered a good Indian tighter, con- sequently his request was granted. Sheridan ordered him to organize a company of fifty trained scouts, for duty along the Colorado-Kansas frontier. Forsyth speedily recruited his men, fifty in number, in addition to himself. First Lieut. Frederick H. Beecher, of the Third United .States Infantr}', and Acting Assistant Surgeon J- H. Mooers, unattached. Forsyth left Fort HayS on August 29th and campaigned for a few days with- out noteworthy result. On the evening of September i6th he and his men pitched their tents on the Arickaree, or Middle Fork of the Republican River, at a f)oint about fifteen miles south of tlie Town of Wray, Yuma County, Colorado. They had reached this place by following an Indian trail which appeared to be fresh and to denote rather a strong aggregation. The soldiers opened their eyes the next morning to see hundreds of Indians on the bluffs overlooking the river on the opposi<:e side. Men, women and chil- dren there were, literally swarming along the bank. At the head of the band was Roman Nose, a notorious character, who had participated in the Indian war since the beginning. The Indians immediately opened fire upon the troops, whereupon Forsyth selected a small, sandy island in the center of the river and there moved his men. In this way he had the protection of water on all sides. The men quickly dug rifle pits in the sand, also using the bodies of some of the horses which had been shot for barricades. Then ensued a battle which consti- tutes one of the most heroic and brilliant features of American military history. ROM.\N NOSK Forsyth received three wounds early in the fight, but protected himself as nnirh as possible and directed his men. Charge after charge of the Indians was broken up by the accurate fire of the .^mericans. Several of the troopers were 100 HISTORY OF COLORADO hit, one of them killed. Roman Nose, a magnificent type of Cheyemie, led the warriors, but in one of the earlier charges received his death wound. Forsyth, in Harper's Magazine, June, 1895, described Roman Nose thusly : "As Roman Nose dashed gallantly forward, and swept into the open at the head of his superb command he was a very beau ideal of an Indian chief. Mounted on a large clean- limbed chestnut horse he sat well forward on his bare-backed charger, his knees passing under a horse-hair lariat that twice loosely encircled the animal's body, his horse's bridle grasped in his left hand, which was also closely wound in its flowing mane, and at the same time clutched his rifle at the guard, the butc of which lay partially upon and across the animal's neck, while its barrel, crossing diagonally in front of his body, rested slightly against the hollow of his left arm, leaving his right free to direct the course of his men. He was a man over six: feet three inches in height, beautifully formed, and save for a crimson silk sash knotted around his waist, and his moccasins on his feet, perfectly naked. His face was hideously painted in alternate lines of red and black, and his head crowned with a magnificent war bonnet, from which, just above his temples and curving slightly forward, stood up two short black bufifalo horns, while its ample length of eagles' feathers and herons' plumes trailed wildly on the wind behind him; and as he came swiftly on at the head of his charging warriors, in all his barbaric strength and grandeur, he proudly rode that day the most perfect type of a savage warrior it had been my lot to see. * * * he drew his body to its full height and shook his clenched fist defiantly at us ; then, throwing back his head and glancing skyward, he suddenly struck the palm of his hand across his mouth and gave tongue to a war-cry that I have never heard equaled in power and intensity. Scarcely had its echoes reached the river's bank when it was caught up by each and every one of the charging warriors with an energy that bafiles description, and answered back with blood-curdling yells of exulta- tion and prospective vengeance by the women and children on the river's bluffs, and by the Indians who lay in ambush around us. On they came at a swinging gallop, rending the air with their wild warwhoops, each individual warrior in all his bravery of warpaint and long braided scalp lock tipped with eagle's feathers, and all stark-naked but for their cartridge belts and moccasins, keeping in line almost perfectly, with a front of about sixty men, all riding bare-back, with only a loose lariat about their horses' bodies, about a yard apart, and with a depth of six or seven ranks, fonning together a compact body of massive fighting strength and of almost resistless weight." beecher's death The charge was received with a galling fire from the troops and after a half- dozen volleys the Indians broke ranks and retreated. The ambushed Indians maintained a fusilade upon the troops while the charge was in progress and suc- ceeded in killing at least two of the Americans and wounding several others. After the failure of the attack and the death of Roman Nose, also the medicine man of the tribe, the Indians were disconcerted and rode wildly about, while the squaws kept up an unearthly wailing in grief over the loss of their men. Other charges were attempted during the day, but like the first, were not successful. ^B^^^f^^^^Hfr jH^& ^^■k I^^Pi^^Hl "/-3 P 5 y, ?,^ O SI" 3 » r r C O o »-td » £. w 106 HISFf^RV OF COLORADO at Cheyenne, Wyo., and immediately four troops of the Fifth United States Cav- alry were sent to Rawlins by railroad, thence overland to the battleground on Milk Creek. At Rawlins four companies of the Fourth United States Infantry joined the cavalry. On the morning of the 5th of October this force reached the besieged men, passing a short distance back a destroyed wagon train, with the murdered and mutilated bodies of the men who had accompanied it. These bodies had been partly burned, without doubt while the \ictims were still living. Under General Merritt, with the infantry and three troops of the cavalry, an advance was made toward the Indians, who had not tired at the newcomers. A few scattering volleys met the troops, but did not t.top them, and all the morning a desultory fire was maintained. About noon a white flag was shown by the In- dians and one of them approached General Merrill, stating that word had come from Ouray, chieftain of the whole Ute tribe, that the fighting had to stop. This ended the engagement on both sides. The Americans had lost thirteen killed and forty-seven wounded. After a rest and attention had been given to the wounded, Merritt's men moved on toward the White River Agency and the troops under Payne and Dodge started on their homeward journey. THE ATT.VCK AT THE AGEXCV On the same day that Thornburgh and his men were ambushed on Milk Creek, the agency at White River had been subjected to a brutal attack by a band of twenty or thirty Utes, led by Douglass. This was on the 29th of September. All of the men were killed, most of the buildings burned, and the women carried into captivity. General Merritt arrived at the agency on the nth of October and dis- covered the bodies of the slain lying near the buildings and along the trail. They were for the most part stripped, obscenely mutilated, and presented a horrible sight. The men killed here were: N. C. Meeker, agent, William H. Post, assistant agent, Henry Dresser, Frank Dresser, George Eaton, E. W. Eskridge, Carl Gold- stein, E. L. Mansfield, Julius Moore, E. Price, Frederick Sheppard and W. H. Thompson — twelve in all. Eskridge's body was found upon the northern trail leading from the agency and in the pocket of his coat was found the following letter : "White River. September 29. i o'clock p. m. "Major Thornburgh; — I will come with Chief Douglas and another chief and meet you tomorrow. Everything is quiet here, and Douglas is flying the United States flag. We have been on guard three nights, and will be tonight — not that we expect any trouble, but because there might be. Did you have any trouble coming through the canyon ? "N. C. Meeker, United States Indian Agent." Evidently this was written but an hour or so before the attack and Eskridge despatched northward to meet the troops. Eskridge was accompanied by two Utes, one a chieftain named Antelope, and it is believed that they murdered him when a short distance from the agency buildings. The white women sought refuge in one of the outbuildings when the Indians began their ghastly work. The Indians fired the building and compelled them to HISTORY OF COLORADO 107 * give themselves up. Douglass was compelled bj- Ouray, the head chieftain of the Utes, to surrender his captives in November. During this time they had suffered untold miseries. In the Federal investigation of the massacre, Mrs. Price, Mrs. Meeker and Josie Meeker, the agent's wife and daughter, testified of the cruel treatment accorded them by Douglass, Pahson and other of the Indians. These chiefs repeatedly outraged the white women, confined them to the lodges, and in addition they were made the sport of the squaws and children of the band. No punishment was ever meted out to the offending Indians as individuals, al- though Congress assigned to the rebellious Utes a new reservation in eastern Utah, known as the Uintah Reservation. The Southern Utes, who had taken no part in the trouble, were left upon the reservation in southwestern Colorado, where they yet remain. The prompt intervention of that splendid chieftain of the Southern Utes — Ouray — undoubtedly ended what would have otherwise been a widespread slaugh- ter of white men. He ended the fighting at Milk Creek by a word and afterward forced Douglass to surrender the white women. By these acts, and many others, Ouray has taken place as one of the greatest characters in Colorado history, a man of attainments and intellect immeasurably superior to his race. CHAPTER V TRADERS AND TRAPPERS THE CHARACTER OF THE TRAPPER THE FIRST TRADERS — CHOUTEAU AND DE MUNN THE GLENN-FOWLER EXPEDITION THE BENTS THE PUEBLO THE FIRST POST ON THE SOUTH PLATTE FORT LANCASTER FORT ST. VRAIN ANTOINE ROUBI- DEAU FORT LARAMIE THE SANTE FE TRAIL THE LAST TRADER ^DR. F. A. WIS- LIZENUS' JOURNEY THE CHARACTER OF THE TRAPPER The period from the latter part of the Eighteenth Century until the middle of the Nineteenth may be termed that of fur trading and trapping. In no way was this period constructive, nor was it a period of notable events; on the contrary, during this time, what is now Colorado was but a part of an immense area over which roamed the traders and trappers and, consequently, no permanent settle- ments were made, except at the trading posts. These were not permanent set- tlements in fact, but supplied the only community life of this vast territory then. The prosaic life of the trapper was occasionally interspersed by days of excite- ment ; the Indians at times become obstreperous ; but otherwise few things hap- pened which could be called factors in the life of Colorado. But what romance and what legend have been written about the frontiers- man, the Indian fighter and the trapper ! The lore of these picturesque characters occupies a large place in American literature. Tradition has made of the frontier and its inhabitants a colorful and thrilling story. Never again will such life be duplicated in this country or upon this globe, so it has been the effort of all writers of the Great West to preserve the history of those days and the stories which have been told of the frontiersman. The history of the great fur companies which occupied the West before per- manent settlements were made is one of great interest. Bitter rivaln,^ existed between these companies — rivalry which assumed the proportions of organized warfare. Trading posts were established at advantageous points and here the hunters and trappers brought their pelts after a season had closed. Then the trapper himself. He has been immortalized, it is true, but generally he was not a man to invite intimate companionship. In the first place, he was illiterate and uncultured, but generally with "five strong senses, which he knew how to use." Secondly, he was a nomad. He cared not for a home ; wherever he found hunting and trapping he called his place of abode. The pinch of civiliza- tion drove him farther along the trail, ever seeking the openness and freedom of the frontier. Long seasons he spent in the solitude of the mountains and forests, 108 HISTORY OF COLORADO 109 gathering his furs; then came the return to the post — and Mexican whiskey, a drink venomous to the extreme. A wild, dissipated orgy followed, which was continued so long as the money lasted or the factor would advance additional funds. Many of the fur dealers held the trappers perpetually in their debt in this way, thereby having full rights for their services. It was customary for the trap- per to have an Indian wife, as much of his trading was done with the Indians whom he unmercifully cheated. In general, the trapper and Indian were indis- pensable to each other. From the Indian the white man secured valuable pelts for a pint of whiskey or similar articles of little \alue and from the white man the Indian obtained flour, cloth and tobacco which he desired. In another class altogether must be placed the so-called "free" trapper. This type of trapper worked independently of all the fur companies, quoted his own prices for furs and sold to all the posts. They were men of higher character and among them were such as Christopher "Kit" Carson, who have lived through history by their reputations as trappers, guides, Indian fighters and red-blooded adventurers. Much of the credit received by such explorers as Fremont should have been given to the frontier guides who conducted them across the mountains and pointed out trails which they had discovered long before. They were expo- nents of law and order and sturdily fought the encroachments of banditry and crime which overran the West for so many years. THE FIRST TRADERS The Missouri, Platte and Arkansas rivers were familiar to many of the early French trappers during the latter part of the Eighteenth Century. Just how many of them reached the land now in Colorado is unknown, but it is to be pre- sumed that some few did. One of the first expeditions of this character of which any record exists was that of Maisonneuve and Preneloupe in 1799. In the spring of the year this expedition, consisting of perhaps a score of men, left St. Louis and proceeded up the Missouri to the mouth of the Platte, taking with them a quantity of goods, which they exchanged with the Indians for furs of all kinds. The two leaders despatched the furs back to St. Louis under guard and then, with a small detachment, continued westward via the Platte and South Fork. By the middle of July they reached what is now the site of Denver, where they found numbers of Indians and a small Spanish scouting party. In the History of Colorado (1913) Jerome C. Smiley writes: "The great body of the American people believed for many years that the western and northwestern parts of the Louisiana Purchase formed a region that was practically unknown by any of their countrj-mcn before Fremont put forth to explore it. It was the common supposition that all previous knowledge of this vast domain by American citizens was limited to the somewhat meager results of the going and coming of Lewis and Clark through its northern section, and to those of the expeditions of Captain Pike and Major Long across the central plains to the mountains in what is now the State of Colorado; Colonel Dodge's being unknown outside of military circles. From the voluminous and fulsome exploitations of Fremont as 'the Pathfinder of the Far West,' most of the people in the older parts of the United .States were given to understand that until he began to search this wide land of plains and mountains its paths were few and hard to find. no HISTORY OF COLORADO "Some Americans from Illinois had been trading on the Missouri River before Lewis and Clark ascended that tortuous stream upon their way to the Pacific C oast ; and prior to Pike's expedition others had been well up on both the Platte and Arkansas. It is known that one American had been in the mountain section of Colorado before Pike saw the Rockies, and some French traders from St. Louis doubtless had built cabins upon soil of our state in advance of Long's summer visit to our eastern foothills. A great merchandizing business, carried on in fortified posts and stations, large and small, scattered between the northern border of New Mexico and the headwaters of the Missouri, and that gave employment directly and indirectly to hundreds of American citizens and caused the western plains as well as the recesses of the mountains to be seamed by many paths and trails, had reached its prime when Fremont set out upon his first expedition into the Far West. The trans-Mississippi fur trade of that period attained relatively a large development within the bounds of Colorado, the trading-posts upon the up- per Arkansas and the South Platte, together with Fort Laramie, which was located seventy-five miles north of the site of the present City of Cheyenne, Wyo., forming a chain of business establishments that made this part of the West rather a busy region as long as the trade flourished." History has stated that the first American to tread Colorado soil was James Purcell, a trader among the Indian tribes. Pike mentioned him prominently in his Tournal, calling him "Pursley," and strongly recommended his character after their meeting in Santa Fe. Purcell was a native Kentuckian and came to St. Louis to enter the trapping business in 1799. Purcell and some companions, while engaged in trapping along the South Platte in 1803, were attacked by Sioux In- dians and driven into the mountains. It is thought that Purcell reached the South Park by way of the Platte Canon when fleeing from the Indians. Purcell later went to New Mexico and for many years was a citizen there. Many other traders and trappers, both French and American, came into the West at this period and until the first of the American expeditions. Few of them gained much notoriety or left any record of their work here. Ezekiel Wil- liams, a Missourian, came to this vicinity in the fall of 181 1, in company with nineteen other trappers. They experienced much difficulty with the Indians and were plundered several times. Shortly after all but six left this country and went elsewhere, leaving Williams as one of the half dozen who elected to stay. Three of these were killed by the Arapahoes, but Williams and the other two were protected by friendly Indians on the Arkansas. He spent one winter at the camp and then returned to his home in Missouri. In 1812 other adventurers of like character, including Joseph Miller, John Hoback, Jacob Rezner, Edward Rob- inson and a Mr. Cass, came within the boundaries of Colorado. Their hardships were many and in addition they were robbed on several occasions by the Arapa- hoes. One of the party — Cass — was lost in some mysterious fashion, presumably killed by the Indians, while the others were rescued when upon the verge of starvation. In 1814, in the forepart of the year, "Phillebert's Company," consisting of Phillebert, a trader of St. Louis, and a score of French hunters and trappers, en- tered the mountains in Colorado upon a fur-gathering expedition. From all ac- counts, this party of men made a large haul during the season. Ezekiel Williams, DENVER PUBLIC LIBRARY THE STATE MTREUM, DENVER 112 HISTORY OF COLORADO mentioned before, was a member of the party, having returned to the Colorado countr}' to secure some furs which he had hidden two years previously. CHOUTEAU AXD DE MUNN The experiences of Chouteau and De Munn in Colorado and their conflict with the Spaniards forms an interesting incident in the history of Colorado. Auguste Pierre Chouteau and Jules de Munn were St. Louis traders and were interested together in a scheme to trap extensively around the headwaters of the Arkansas and Platte rivers. Li September, 1S15, they started for the mountains, with nearly a half-hundred Frenchmen with them, including Phillebert, who was going back to get a quantity of furs he had cached the year before. Chouteau and De Munn learned that he had left a portion of his men behind with the furs and, desiring to increase their own outfit as much as possible, bargained success- fully with Phillebert for the furs and also for the services of his men. After a grand council with the Indians on the Platte, a few miles north of Denver's site, the party went to the junction of the Arkansas and the Huerfano, where Phille- bert's men were to wait. But in this they were disappointed, learning from the Indians that the men had waited until provisions had become scarce and then gone to Taos. De Munn was appointed by the others to go to Taos for the men and also to obtain permission from Governor Maynez, of New Mexico, to trap upon Spanish territory south of the upper Arkansas and along the headwaters of the Rio Grande. De Munn was successful in finding Phillebert's men at Taos, but in his other quest he was not so fortunate. The Spaniards were not trustful of the American inten- tions in the Southwest, a suspicion which had been heightened by Pike's expedi- tion. Also the southwest boundary of the Louisiana Purchase was yet in doubt, so the Spanish were alert and watchful of any move from the states. The gov- ernor was evasive with De Munn, so the latter returned to his companions. He then went to St. Louis for supplies and equipment, while Chouteau and the rest were to remain until spring and then take the furs to the mouth of the Kansas, there to be joined by De Munn. By September, 181 6, the expedition had again reached the Huerfano, thence proceeded southwest to the base of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, where they encamped. From here De Munn started for Santa Fe, again to request his former favor of the Spanish. Governor De Allande had, in the meantime, succeeded Maynez as the administrative head of the Province and was not so gracious with the American "intruder." He peremptorily ordered him to remove himself and his men from Spanish soil. De Munn returned to the Sangre de Cristo and withdrew his men to the Arkansas, where the winter was spent in hunting and trapping — part of the time on the Spanish side, contrary to the governor's orders. In the spring of 181 7 De Munn went to Taos, still endeavoring to obtain the desired permission from the Spanish governor at Santa Fe. He was received at Taos in hostile manner and was conducted back to the Arkansas by 200 Spanish soldiers. It is said that Governor De Allande had received the startling news of a force of 20.000 Americans upon the upper Arkansas who had fortified them- selves strongly. The leader of De Munn's military escort was to ascertain tlie truth of this report and. if found to be without foundation, was to drive De Munn HISTORY OF COLORADO- 113 and his exploring expedition to the Missouri. In this he did not obey orders strictly, as he permitted the Americans to remain so long as they trapped only upon the American side of the river. But Chouteau and De Munn, anticipating further trouble with their Latin neighbors on the south, decided to strike out for the Columbia River country. The impassable condition of the mountain trails prevented this journey, however, and the decision was made to remain on the Arkansas and South Platte, to continue their operations as heretofore and to take the furs already gathered back to St. Louis — De Munn to perform this task. Just as he was about to k'a\'e, though, there appeared a company of Spanish troopers, with positive orders to take Chouteau and De Munn, with all their men, supplies and furs, back to Santa Fc. Once in Santa Fe, they were seized and cast into prison, their belongings were confiscated and in other ways they were subjected to insult. Two months later they were tried by court-martial and or- dered to leave New Mexico without further ado or loss of time. F.ach man was given a horse in order to expedite this sentence. Their treatment by the Spanish authorities was severe and is well described by De Munn in a letter written to William Clark, governor of Missouri Territory, on November 25, 1817. De Munn states : "After forty-eight days' imprisonment, we were presented before a court- martial, composed of six members and a president who was the governor him- self. Only one of the six members appeared to have any information, the others not even knowing how to sign their names. Many questions were asked, but particularly why we had stayed so long in Spanish dominions. I answered that, being on the Arkansas River we did not consider ourselves in the domains of New Spain, as we had a license to go as far as the headwaters of said river. The president denied that our Government had a right to give such a license, and en- tered into such a rage that it prevented his speaking, contenting himself with striking his fist several times on the table, saying, 'Gentlemen, we must have this man shot.' "At such conduct of the president I did not think much of my life, for all the members were terrified in his presence, and tmwilling to resist him ; on the con- trary (were ready) to do anything to please him. "He talked much of a big river that was the boundary line between the two countries, but did not know its name. When mention was made of the Mississippi he jumped up, saying that that was the big river he meant; that Spain had never ceded the west side of it. It may be easy to judge of our feelings to see our lives in the hands of such a man. "That day the court did not come to any determination, because the president (as I heard him say to Lieutenant de Arce) had forgotten everything he had to say. Next day we were again presented to the court, but as I knew the kind of man we had to deal with, I never attempted to justify myself of any of his false assertions. We were dismissed, and Mr. Chouteau and myself put in the same room. "Half an hour afterward the lieutenant came in with a written sentence; we were forced to kneel down to hear the citure (recital) of it. and forced, likewise, to kiss the unjust and iniquitous sentence that deprived harmless men of all they pos.sessed— of the fruits of two vcnrs' labors and perils. Vol. 1— « 114 HISTORY OF COLORADO "What appears the more extraordinary is that the governor acknowledged to me afterward in the presence of Don Pedro Piero, the deputy of New Mexico to the Cortes, and several otliers, that we were very innocent men ; yet notwith- standing this, all our property was kept and we were permitted to come home, each with one of the worst horses we had." Notwithstanding the visible unfairness of the Spaniards, De Munn never received reparation. Following the experiences of Chouteau and De Munn in Colorado little fur traffic occurred here until after 1821. The site of the City of Pueblo became a mecca then for fur-gatherers, adventurers and traders and continued as the favored spot for this class until the middle of the Nineteenth Century. THE GLENN-FOWLER EXPEDITION The expedition headed by Hugh Glenn and Jacob Fowler, the former from Cincinnati and the latter a native of Kentucky, entered the land of Colorado on November 5, 1821, by way of the Arkansas River. The party, numbering twenty in all, carried a stock of merchandise which they intended to take to Santa Fe. Their entrance into Colorado was inauspicious, except for the fact that one of their men — Lewis Dawson — was killed by an enraged grizzly bear and a meeting was had with a large encampment of Comanches, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Kiowas and Snakes. The journey was continued up the Arkansas to a point near the mouth of the St. Charles, where Glenn decided to leave Fowler with the goods and a few companions, while he went to Santa Fe In company with some Mexican trad- ers whom he met to investigate conditions in Mexico. No history of Colorado would be complete, nor has one ever been written, without quotations from Fowler's diary. This classic bit of English, if such it may be called, has been published in recent years, and forms an interesting nar- rative of frontier life. In regard to Glenn's departure for Santa Fe from the Arkansas and other matters Fowler wrote : "Jany 2nd 1822 this morning the Spanierds Began to Collect their Horses and load for their departure — Conl glann and four men Set out with them — leaveing me with Eight men in an oppen Camp With the ballence of the goods after takeing Some things With Him to Sell So as to pay their Exspences. We are now in the Hart of the Inden Cuntry and Emedetly on the great Ware (war) Road — not only of one nation against the others — in the road to all the Spanish Settlements With Which the Indeans on this Side of the mountains are at War — So that our Setuation is not of the most Plesent kind — We Have no meet In Camp — and Con elude to Send two Hunters out with Horses in the morning to kill Some meat Intending to Set the ballence of the Hands at Work to build a Hous and a Strong Peen (pen) for the Horses at night. "Jany the 3rd 1822 Roas Early to Start the Hunters ordered two of the men to Prepare the Horses While the Hunters got Readey — but the men lay Still I maid the Second Call but With no better Sucsees — I then discovered that a mutney Was Intended — and Emedetly drew one of the men from His heed by the top of His Head, but (some) of his friends in the Plott asisted Him — and We Ware Soon all In a Scoffel, but Robert Fowler Soon Came to my assistance — and the bisness as Soon Ended — tho it Was Some time before the gave up their In- HISTORY OF COLORADO 115 tended muteney and five of them Separated to them Selves and declared the Wold do (as) the plased and Wold not be ordered by. any other person — 1 soon discovered that the Exspected the Spanierds Wold not let Conl glann Return and that they Intended to make the best of the goods the Cold — aledgeing the Ware the Strongest party and that the Wold pay them Selves — on Which discovery I told them that un less the Wold Return to their dutey I Wold send for the Arra- poho Cheef Who Wold be gld to asist me to take Care of the goods and that the might go Whare the plased — and that I Wold not Suffer them to meddle With the goods — the then Held a Councle and sent one man to tell me that if I Wold be acountable to them for their pay — the Wold go to their dutey and do What I ordored them — to Which I toled them I wold make no new Bargen with them — and that If the Chose the might go on With their mutenous Seeen — that I could protect the goods till the Indeans Came for Which I Wold Soon Send — the then All Came and Stated that the Wold do What I told them and Wold go to Work Emedetley — and asked me to think of them and Secure the pay for them If Conl glann Shold not Return Which the Espected He never Wold, and that it Wold be Heard for them to loos all their Wages — to Which I toled them if the Continued to do as good and Honest men aught that as fare as the goods Wold Reech they Shold be paid — the two men Went out to Hunt but Returned With out killing any thing — now all Hands Went to Worke Willingly and by night We Head the Hors Peen finished and the Hous With two pens four logs High — Which maid part of the Hors Pen and the door of the Hous in the Hors Peen Which Was So Strong that a few Indeans Cold not take the Horses out With out Choping Some of the logs — and must Waken us all tho We Slept Ever So Sound — "Friday 4th Jany 1822 Went to Work Early got our House nine loggs High — and began to pitch the tents on the top by Way of a Roof Just Wide Enof for that purpose. * * * "Saterday 5th Jany 1822. * * * this day finished our House and Packed in all the goods." A fortnight later, having become worried on account of no news from (Jlenn, Fowler decided to abandon the south side of the Arkansas, where the above de- scribed camp had been located, and occupy a new site farther up the river on tho north side. This new location was on the site of the City of Pueblo. Fowler wrote of this: "tusday 15th Jany 1822 * * * j then Went to look out a good Setuation for a new .Settlement on the north Side of the River — Intending to move tomorrow Should no acoumpt Reach us from Conl glann — as We began to Sopose He is now not at liverty to send or Return there being the full time Elapsed in Which He promised to Send an Exspress — and We think that a party of Spanirds may be Sent to take us prisnors — for Which Reason Intend makeing a Strong Hous and Hors Pen on the Bank of the River Wheare it Will not be In the Powe of an Enemy to aproch us from the River Side — and Shold the Spanierds appeer In a Hostill manner We Will fight them on the Ameraken ground, the Riyer Hear being the line by the last tretey — "Wensday i6th Jany 1822 moved Camp Early up the River on the north Side to the Spot I looked out yesterday — We P.uiit a Strong Hors Peen and i)ut up the Horses at night — no Word from Conl glaim^We begin to Conclude as Is not Well Him. * * * 116 HISTORY OF COLORADO "Friday i8th Janv 1822 * =^- * We built the Hoiis With three Rooms and but one out Side door and that Close to the Hors Pen So that the Horses Cold not be taken out at night Without our knowledge We got the Hous Seven logs High and Well Chinked the goods all stoed a Way before night. * * * " Glenn, having found that the Spanish rule in New Mexico had been overthrown by the Mexicans and that the feeling toward the Americans had become cordial, despatched messengers back to Fowler. They arrived at the Arkansas "Hous" on January 28th and requested Fowler to proceed into New Mexico, there to join- Glenn. On the 30th Fowler started for Taos with the men and supplies and reached there nine days later. The party remained in New Mexico until June ist and then returned to the United States, crossing southeastern Colorado while en route to the Arkansas River. The Glenn-Fowler expedition was a success, in that it accomplished its original purpose of trading and merchandizing in New Mex- ico. John McKnight was another trader who established a small post upon the upper Arkansas. McKnight met his death at the hands of the Comanche In- dians in 1823 and the post was never occupied again. THE BENTS The Bent brothers were the most prominent of the traders who established posts in Colorado. In 1826 Charles, William W., Robert and George Bent, of St. Louis, built a small post on the Arkansas River, half way between Pueblo and the foothills. Associated with the Bents in this small undertaking was Ceran St. \'rain, a young Frenchman, and who was later to make a natiie for himself as a trader. The post which was thus established was but a small affair, consist- ing of little more than a stockade, for protection against marauding Indians. A few years later it was deserted. In 1829 the Bents, in company with St. \^rain, established a larger and more important trading post on the north bank of the Arkansas, at a point near the eastern boundary of the present Otero County. The firm was known as Bent & St. Vrain, also as Bent, St. Vrain & Company. Four years were spent in com- pleting this new trading station and in the fall of 1832 the company moved into it, at which time the old post on the Arkansas, built in 1826, was abandoned. The post was a strongly fortified one. The dimensions were 100 by 150 feet; the stockade was seventeen feet high and six feet in thickness at the base. One gate opened to the outside and at the northeast and southwest corners there were bastions, ten feet in diameter, upon the top of which were cannon. The walls of these fortified towers were filled with loopholes for the use of the defenders in case of attack. The interior of the post, or fort, was as comfortable as the condi- tions would permit. Except the rafters and the gates, which were of wood, the adobe construction was used throughout. Something of the general appearance of the post is described by Doctor Wislizenus, excerpts of which article are given later in this chapter. The post was first named Fort William, in honor of William Bent, but this name soon became obsolete and the place was thereafter known as Fort Bent or Bent's Fort. This post became the largest and most popular of the Rocky Mountain fur stations. From here great trading operations were, launched. HISTORY OF COLORADO 117 not only with the Comanches, Arapahoes, Cheyennes, Pawnees, Utes, Sioux, Crows and Snakes, but with the Mexicans and the hordes of French and Amer- ican trappers who infested the region. In certain seasons, June, August and Sep- tember, thousands of Indians came to the post and encamped in the vicinity. At these times no little apprehension was felt by the dwellers of the post; a certain amount of safety lay in the fact that the Indians were not agreeable to one another, but there remained the omnipresent fear of attack. Fort Bent was even more than a trading post. Next to Fort Laramie, in what is now the State of Wyoming, it was one of the few touches of civilization sought by the droves of emigrants bound for the Great West. Military expeditions such as those of Col. Henry Dodge, Gen. Stephen W. Kearney and Gen. Sterling Price stopped at Fort Bent and there left those of the forces incapacitated. It was a rendezvous for every type of humanity. William Bent was the principal trader at this post, the other brothers, also St. Vrain, remaining at Taos most of the time. He began negotiations in the late '40s for the sale of the post to the Government and demanded the sum of $16,000. However, the Government agreed to give only $12,000, which was far from satis- factory to the owner. Bent desired to establish a new post at another location and the Government wished the property on the Arkansas to convert into a military station. Finally. Bent became so disgusted and enraged over the dilatory tactics of the Government and his inability to obtain his price that he deliberately de- stroyed his whole property. After removing everything of value, he set fire to the buildings and the flames soon reached the magazine, resulting in a heavy explo- sion, which destroyed the walls and left only a heap of smoking ruins. This ended the active era of fur trade in the land of Colorado — indeed, some years previous the business had declined, for many reasons. One writer places the year 1838 as the last period of active fur-gathering and marketing. There were six of the Bent brothers in all^William W., Charles, John, George, Robert and Silas, the sons of Silas Bent of St. Louis. All, except John and Silas, engaged in trading. John resided in St. Louis, while Silas enlisted in the United States Navy service. Charles and William Bent were the most prominent of the large family of boys and both engaged in trafficking between Santa Fe and the northern settlements in addition to their regular vocation of fur trading. Charles was appointed the hrst American governor of the Province of New Mexico in 184!') and was the incumbent of this office when killed January 19, 1847, during the revolt of the Pueblo Indians. William Bent died at Las Animas, Colorado, May 19, 1869. Gantt's trading-post, or "fort," was another ])ioiieer post on the ui^per Arkan- sas, established in 1832 by two St. Louis traders named Gantt and Blackwell. From the best of sources, it is believed that this post was situated on the north bank of the river about five miles above the mouth ()f h'ountain Creek. Little else is known of this post. M. Le Doux, a French trader, Ijuilt a small habitation which might lie called a post in 1830 at the junction of the Arkansas and .Xdobe Creek, in what is now Fremont County. A number of Mexicans were ciuartered near this place during this time and shortly afterward. 118 HISTORY OF COLORADO THE PUEBLO The Gantt-Blackwell fort was succeeded by the trading-post known as "the Pueblo," a habitation built in the style of Bent's Fort, of adobe, and which became a meeting-place of various desperate characters as well as Indians and bona fide traders. The identity of the founder of this post is somewhat in doubt. Writers of history are nearly unanimous in designating George Simpson, an Indian trader, and his two companions, Doyle and Barclay, as the founders of the fort. James P. Beckwourth, a notorious personage of the times, claimed that he erected tlie post about the first of October, 1842. His veracity in this and other matters has been seriously doubted, however, and it is generally conceded that Simpson established "Pueblo" in the summer of the year 1842. The post eventually became a harbor- age for a motley collection of individuals. The Hardscrabble post was built by Simpson, Doyle and Barclay the year after the Pueblo was established and was located on the north bank of the Arkan- sas, near the mouth of Hardscrabble Creek. The similarity of population and the general character of the community caused it to be considered as a part of Pueblo, or an adjunct, although there was a distance of twenty-five or thirty miles be- tween the two. Francis Parkman, in his book, "The Oregon Trail" (Boston, 1847), described his visit to the Pueblo in August, 1846, during his journey through the Far West. He wrote : "The Arkansas ran along a valley below, among woods and groves, and closely nestled in the midst of wide corn-fields and green meadows, where cattle were grazing, rose the low mud walls of the Pueblo. * * * Jt yf^^ 3 wretched species of fort, of most primitive construction, being nothing more than a large, square inclosure, surrounded by a wall of mud, miserably cracked and dilapidated. The slender pickets that surmounted it were half broken down, and the gate dan- gled on its wooden hinges so loosely that to open or shut it seemed quite likely to fling it down altogether. Two or three squalid Mexicans, with their broad hats and their vile faces overgrown with hair, were lounging about the bank of the river in front of it. They disappeared as they saw us approach; and as we rode up to the gate a light, active little figure came out to meet us. It was our old friend Richard (a Fort Laramie trader). * * * Shaking us warmly by the hand, he led the way into the area. Here we saw his large Santa Fe wagons standing together. A few squaws and Spanish women, and a few Mexicans, as mean and miserable as the place itself, were lazily sauntering about. Richard con- ducted us to the state apartment of the Pueblo, a small mud room, very neatly furnished, considering the material, and garnished with a crucifix, a looking-glass, a picture of the Virgin, and a rusty horse-pistol. There were no chairs, but in- stead of them a number of chests and boxes ranged about the room. There was another room beyond, less sumptuously decorated, and here three or four Spanish girls, one of them very pretty, were baking cakes at a mud fireplace in the comer. They brought out a poncho, which they spread upon the floor by way of a table- cloth. A supper, which seemed to us luxuriant, was soon laid out upon it, and folded buffalo-robes were placed around it to receive the guests. Two or three Americans besides ourselves were present. * * * When we took leave of Richard it was near sunset. Passing out of the gate, we could look down the little u M O >^ Cl H W O ^ /ih> ''V vV-* ^n ■/-'■-;. 120 HISTORY OF COLORADO valley of the Arkansas; a beautiful scene, and doubly so to our eyes, so long ac- customed to deserts and mountains. Tall woods lined the river, with green meadows on either hand ; and high bluffs, quietly basking in the sunlight, flanked the narrow valley. A Mexican on horseback was driving a herd of cattle towards the gate, and our little white tent, which the men had pitched under a tree in the meadow, made a pleasing feature in the scene." Frederick Ruxton, who visited the Pueblo in 1847, describes it briefly as fol- lows : "The Pueblo is a small square fort of adobe with circular bastions at the corners, no part of the walls being more than eight feet high, and around the in- side of the yard or corral are built some half-dozen little rooms inhabited by as many Indian traders and mountain men. They live entirely upon game, and the greater pa^-t of the year without even bread, since but little maize is cultivated. As soon as their supply of meat is exhausted they start to the mountains with two or three pack-animals and bring them back in two or three days loaded with buff^alo or venison. In the immediate vicinity of the fort game is very scarce, and the buffalo have within a few years deserted the neighboring prairie, but they are always found in the mountain valleys, particularly in one called Bayou Salado, in the South Park, which abounds in every species of game, including elk, bears, deer, big horns or Rocky Mountain sheep, buffalo, antelope, etc." Among the better class of trappers and hunters the Pueblo suffered a decreas- ing popularity. Dwellers at this whiskey-ridden and immoral post became fewer and fewer and 'those that remained comprised only the riff-raff of the frontier, many of whom found safety here which would have been denied them elsewhere. Then, on Christmas Day, 1854, occurred the Indian massacre at the Pueblo, which forever afterward caused the fort to be deserted and shunned. Accounts of this massacre differ materially ; there are as many as a half-dozen versions of the story. One story is that the fort was occupied on Christmas Day by a few Mexicans and seventeen Americans, all of them hunters and trappers. They were engaged in celebrating the season with a generous supply of ^Mexican whiskey and had reached the stage of inebriety when a large band of Indians appeared, were invited to join the festivities and accepted. When the Indians had fairly caught up with the white men a quarrel arose, which culminated in a general fight, with the result that fifteen white men were killed in cold blood. According to this story the only survivor was a teamster, who had gone from the Pueblo in the morning and did not return until after nightfall, in time to escape the massacre. Another account places the date as tlie morning of the 24th of December, rather than Christmas. A large war-party of Utes appeared before dawn at the post and asked to be admitted inside the stockade. When the white men refused this, they attacked and forced an entrance, killing all the men and carrying off a Mexican woman and two children. The woman they murdered shortly afterward, but the children were recovered. Milo Lee Whittaker, in his book, "Pathbreakers and Pioneers of the Pueblo Region" (1917), describes the massacre with the following words : "The most notable Indian massacre occurring in the immediate vicinity of Pueblo was the one which took place on Christmas Day, 1834, when the entire population of the old Pueblo fort was massacred. "The Utes who occupied the foothills region west of Pueblo had been restless for several days before the date above mentioned and had begun wandering away HISTORY OF COLORADO 121 from their usual confines out into the valley. Uncle Dick Wooten, who lived down at the mouth of the Huerfano, had been out on a hunting expedition to the Hardscrabble region above Pueblo. Noticing indications that an Indian outbreak was imminent, he put out immediately for home to make ready for a visit from these savages. This was the day before Christmas, and as Wooten passed the Pueblo fort he stopped and warned its inhabitants not to permit any Utes to come within the fort. From this place he hastened on to his home on the Huerfano to make ready for the expected attack. "Unfortunately, the inhabitants of the fort did not take this warning seriously, as we shall see. On the afternoon of Christmas a single Indian was seen gallop- ing his horse up the trail to the fort. Upon his arrival he met the men with a friendly greeting and suggested to Sandoval, who was in charge of the fort, that they set up a target and try their skill as marksmen. Sandoval, believing that no danger could possibly arise from the presence of one Indian within the enclosure, permitted him to enter. A target was set up and with the entire group of men standing by the shooting began. Sandoval fired first and was followed immedi- ately by the Indian; whereupon, two more Utes appeared riding up the trail. Upon their arrival they greeted the group with a friendly 'How' and took their places among the other spectators. The next time four shots were fired and four Indians appeared. It was evident that the firing of the shots was a signal for more Indians to appear. The shooting was resumed and in a short time the entire band of Indians, fifty in number, had arrived and were intently watching the contest. "Blanco, the Ute chief, requested food for his followers, whereupon the entire group entered the fort. Food was given them as well as a liberal quantity of 'Taos lightning.' Suddenly, at a given signal, the entire band of savages fell upon the occupants of the fort and begun their massacre. "Against such odds these men were unable to contend and in a few minutes they were all killed except four, one woman, the two sons of Sandoval, seven and twelve years old, and one man who was shot through the cheek and left for dead. The woman was killed at a spring near by as they were leaving the fort, but the boys were kept as captives, and were finally restored to their people after peaco was made." No attempt was ever made to renew life at this post, and, among the Indians and trappers, the deserted rooms and walls were believed to harbor the spirits of the slain, whose wailings and moanings could be heard almost any night. The place was regarded with superstitious dread and rapidly fell into decay and demo- lition. Reliable authorities have placed the exact site of this post adjacent to the spot where the Ferris Hotel in Pueblo stood for many years. The other frontier post at Hardscrabble had disappeared several years before the massacre at Pueblo, El Pueblo, or Fort Pueblo, was another small post established upon the north bank of the Arkansas, about live miles above Bent's Fort. This is not In be con- fused with the Pueblo trading-post mentioned in the preceding paragraphs. Two other small stations were built during this same period — both near the mouth nf Timpns Creek, on opposite sides of the river. These three posts were inhabited and utilized mainly by Mexicans and Frenchmen, wliosc principal business, accord- ing to the general knowledge of the frontiersmen, was the snniggling of had whiskey across the international boundary. 122 HISTORY OF COLORADO FIRST POST ON SOUTH PLATTE In 1832 the first fur-trading station was built along the South Platte. Vas- quez, a trader, brother to Pike's interpreter, is thought to have been the builder of this post, using cottonwood logs which he obtained in the vicinity. The site was about opposite the mouth of Clear Creek, almost within the present city limits of Denver. In this connection, it may be said that Clear Creek bore the name of \'asquez Fork at that time and until the middle of the Nineteenth Century. Dr. F. A. Wislizenus in his narrative treating of his trip through the Rockies in 1839, and from which extensive quotations have been used in another part of this chapter, wrote of a fort owned by Vasquez and Sublette, located on the South Platte five or six miles above Fort St. Vrain. This was undoubtedly the same Vasquez and the other owner, William L. Sublette, one of the builders of Fort Laramie. In 1833 Peter A. Sarpy, a St. Louis Frenchman, erected a log trading-post on the South Platte, five miles down the river from that of Vasquez. Little is known of this post, or that of Vasquez, as the amount of business transacted was small and the posts themselves were short-lived. Both Sarpy and Vasquez were veteran fur traders; the former afterward entered the employ of the American Fur Com- pany on the Missouri, while \"asquez was known as a "free" trapper in the moun- tains until the late '40s. FORT L.\NC.\STER In 1836 or 1837 Fort Lancaster was constructed on the east side of the South Platte, "about seven miles north of the south line of our Weld County." The builder was Lancaster P. Lupton, a lieutenant attached to Col. Henry Dodge's ex- pedition to Colorado in 1835 and in command of Company A, First Regiment, U. S. Dragoons. Lieutenant Lupton resigned from the United States service March 31, 1836, for the purpose of entering the fur-trading business, which, he had convinced himself, held great opportunities for money-making. It is not known whether Lupton made money with his trading-post, but it is known that he abandoned it within the decade. Hunters and trappers called it "Fort Lupton" and "Lupton's Fort" rather than the original appellation of Fort Lancaster. In fact, some writers have stated that Lupton built two forts in the vicinity, one known as Fort Lancaster and one as Fort Lupton. J. C. Smiley states in his History of Colorado (1913) that "The change gave rise in our settlement period to rather a general belief, which has been transmitted to the present time, that Lupton had built two trading-posts in that vicinity, the earlier being Fort Lancaster, which was supposed to have stood upon the eastward side of the South Platte, several miles above the mouth of St. Vrain Creek ; and that the trader had bestowed his given name upon the first, and his surname upon the second. But some of our pioneers thought that Fort Lancaster was the prede- cessor of Fort Lupton, upon the same site. "In a 'Table of Distances from Omaha, N. T. (Nebraska Territory), to the Cherry Creek and South Platte Gold Mines,' by way of the Platte and South Platte rivers, originally compiled and printed at Omaha in the winter of 1858-59, and pulilished in the Rocky Mountain News, in the settlement at the mouth of HISTORY OF COLORADO 123 Cherry Creek, in April and May, 1859, and which contained various references to the character of the route and also indicated the better camping-places, 'Fort Lancaster' is located seven miles above (south of) Fort St. Vrain; and 'Fort Lupton,' six miles above (south of) Fort Lancaster. Each of the two is noted as affording 'good camp.' " Fremont visited Fort Lancaster and described it as it appeared on July 6, i843,' when he stopped to visit the lieutenant, as in a fairly prosperous condition with an abundance of live stock and poultry. Fremont, in his Memoirs, also mentions that, after leaving Fort .St. Vrain for Fort Lancaster, he passed "two abandoned forts," one of which was undoubtedly that of Vasqucz and Sublette. The other, it is thought, once belonged to obscure traders. FORT ST. VRAIN The trading-post known as Fort St. Vrain was the largest of its kind on the South Platte and was the third largest in the whole fur-trading region of the Central West, Fort Laramie and Fort Bent being of greater size and importance. It was constructed on the right side of the South Platte, about a mile below the mouth of St. Vrain Creek, by the Bent brothers and Ceran St. Vrain. The post was built of sun-dried bricks (adobe) and measured approximately seventy-five by one hundred and twenty-five feet in width and length, with fourteen-foot walls. The construction, or architecture, of the fort was similar to that of Fort Bent, having a central court, picketed walls, one gate and corner bastions. During the few years of existence Fort St. Vrain was a lively competitor of Fort Lancaster, and was the half-way point between Fort Bent and Fort Laramie. It was located on the well-beaten trail which led from the upper Arkansas to Fort Laramie. This trail, of which 15th Street in Denver is a part, became one of the most important of the frontier highways and was for several years part of a pony-express route from Fort St. Vrain to Fort Bent, thence to Taos. Six and a half years Fort St. Vrain maintained its popularity among the emigrants, traders, trappers, adventurers and other what-not of the frontier. Parkman visited the place after its abandonment and in his "Oregon Trail" speaks of it thusly: "At noon we rested under the walls of a large fort, built in these solitudes some years since by M. St. Vrain. It was now abandoned and fast falling into ruin. The walls of unbaked bricks were cracked from top to bottom. Our horses recoiled in terror from the neglected entrance, where the heavy gates were torn from their hinges and flung down. The area within was overgrown with weeds, and the long ranges of apartments once occupied by the motley concourse of traders, Canadians and squaws were now miserably dilapidated." Like many of the frontiersmen, Ceran St. Vrain was of French descent and a native of St. Louis. All of his life he engaged in the fur-trading and trafficking business, operating a wagon-train over the !-!anta Fc Trail in trading with New Mexico. His death occurred at Mora, New Mexico, in 1870. ANTOINE ROUBIDEAU .^ntnine Roubideau was another St. Louis Frenchman who built for himself a log trading-station on the left shore of the Gunnison River, a distance of between 124 HISTORY OF COLORADO one and two miles below the mouth of the Uncompahgre, near the present Town of Delta, Colorado. Roubideau started this small post some time in the '30s and continued his lonely trade for several years. He became unpopular with the Utes and finally they mercilessly burned his buildings and drove him from the vicinity. This intrepid Frenchman, in honor of whom a pass in the Sangre de Cristo Range has been named, was a wanderer over the entire West, following his trade and undergoing hardship and adventure wherever he went. He is known to have been in the western part of what is now Colorado as early as 1824, and in 1844 he was the proprietor of Fort Uintah, a hundred miles southeast of Salt Lake City. His garrison here was annihilated by the Indians, but Roubideau himself hap- pened to be absent on that particular day. In the extreme northwestern corner of Colorado stood Fort Davy Crockett, or just Fort Crockett, on the left bank of Green River, just on or near the present state line. Three Americans — St. Clair, Craig and Thompson — constructed this post. Doctor Wislizenus visited the post and described it as a one-story adobe building, with three wings, but no stockade. This fort was abandoned in the early '40s. Fraeb's Post, built by "Jim" Bridger and Henry Fraeb about 1840, was located on St. Vrain's Fork, but several miles beyond the northern boundary of Colorado. Fraeb and several of his men were killed during an engagement between his garri- son of over half a hundred men and a band of hostile Sioux. It is thought that the post was abandoned shortly after this occurrence. FORT L.^RAMIE Although Fort Laramie's history properly belongs to the history of Wyoming, within whose boundaries it was located, this historic fort played such an important part in the drama of the Great West that a few words must be said of it in con- nection with the other forts, which were situated within Colorado. Fort Laramie was located near the junction of the North Platte and Laramie rivers, and received its name from Jacques Loramie, or Laramee, a French trader who was killed in 1821. In 1834 William L. Sublette and Robert Campbell constructed a trading- post near the confluence of the North Fork and the Laramie, and named it Fort William, after Sublette. In the next year the firm of Fitzpatrick, Sublette & Bridger, with strong affiliations with the American Fur Company, purchased the post and renamed it Fort John in honor of John B. Sarpy. Notwithstanding the official cognomen of the post, the trappers soon began to call it Fort Laramie. Then, in the early '40s the owners of Fort John built a larger and stronger post a short distance farther up the Laramie River and called it Fort Laramie, old Fort John being abandoned at the same time. This new fort became the strongest and most important in the Central West. Surrounded by a sixteen-foot wall of stone and adobe, with bastions at two corners and a tower above the gate, the fort pre- sented an imposing appearance. Fort Laramie was a stopping point for all the emigrants to Oregon and California, and in 1849 the United States Government purchased the property, improved and enlarged it. and utilized it as a military post until the end of the Indian wars. HISTORY OF COLORADO 125 THE SANTA FE TRAIL The Santa Fe Trail, that great highway of trade and travel, which extended from the Missouri River to the capital of New Mexico, crossed the southeastern corner of what is now Baca County, in the State of Colorado. This trail was the principal highway through the Great West. Adventures of infinite variety and numerically greater tlian could be recorded in a work of this scope were experi- enced by the hundreds who journeyed along this trail. When trade first began with New Mexico the traders usually followed a route straight west from the Missouri River to the mountains, then turned south to Santa Fe by the trail from Taos. It was not long, however, until the amount of travel increased to such an extent that an easier and quicker route had to be devised. The road then followed along the left bank of the Arkansas River until the stream turned to the northwest, and then crossed the river and went southwest to Raton Pass. Baptiste La Lande and James Purcell (Pursley), in the years 1804 and 1805 respectively, were the first to open a regular trade with the New Mexicans, while _ representing American interests. Purcell liked the New Mexican countr}' so well that he became a permanent resident of Santa Fe. In November, i8og, three other American traders — McClanahan, Patterson and Smith — left St. Louis for Santa Fe. for the purpose of trading, but were never heard of afterward. Whether they were killed by Indians or met other mishap is not known. Another and larger party of Americans, including Samuel Chambers, James Baird and Rob- ert McKnight, went to Santa Fe to trade in 1812, but they were received as enemies and imprisoned at Chihuahua, where they remained for nine years, or until Mexico revolted successfully from Spanish rule. After the downfall of the Spanish administration in New Mexico the Santa Fe Trail as a route from the Missouri to Santa Fe became an established highway. The revolution occurred in 1821 and late in the same year William Becknell, of Missouri, with a large party, went to the capital. He has been termed "the founder of the Santa Fe trade and the father of the Santa Fe Trail." His journey was undoubtedly the first of any importance after the Spanish were downed by the Mexicans, and for this reason was probably the first to obtain unmolested entrance to the markets of the southern province. His route led him straight west to the mountains, all the time following the Arkansas River, and then turned southward. In 1822 several caravans followed the trail to Santa Fe and in tlii"^ year the trade may be said to have opened in earnest. The original eastern terminus of the Santa Fe Trail was. the small hamlet ol Franklin, located on the Missouri River, about one hundred and fifty miles west of St. Louis. After ten years or so the terminus was changed to the town of Inde- pendence, Missouri, near the present Kansas City, then in the '50s to Westport and to Kansas City. From Independence the Trail ran southwest to the extreme northern point of the great bend in the Arkansas, then along the north bank to the looth meridian. .\t this point a crossing of the Arkansas was made at a place known as the Cimarron Crossing, and the course continued southwest to the Cimarron River, thence along the north bank of this river, crossing the south- eastern corner of the present I'.aca County. Colorado, over the Cimarron Pass 126 HISTORY OF COLORADO through Oklahoma, northeastern New Mexico to Santa Fe. The total distance covered by the Trail is estimated to have been 840 miles. After the Mexican War traffic upon the Trail vastly increased. Mails were car- ried over its route, troops were marched and transported along its broad stretches and caravan after caravan of "prairie schooners," pack-animals, riders and pedes- trians followed its course to the mountains and the Far West. The Bent brothers opened a branch road from their first trading-post, following the north bank of the upper Arkansas to the Santa Fe Crossing. This is now a public road from the mountains to the eastward. The trail from the upper Arkansas to Fort Laramie, via Fort St. Vrain, has been mentioned before. Another trail afterwards led from the second Bent trading-post, which was Fort Bent, into New Mexico by way of the Raton Pass, joining the Santa Fe Trail after entering the Territory of New Mexico. There were numerous other and smaller trails established during this period, iiaany of them to suit the convenience of the trappers alone. The Santa Fe Trail continued as a highway of commerce until after the Civil War and the coming of the first railroads. The Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway was built up the Arkansas \'alley in the early '70s and as its steel rails were advanced the old Trail was just so much shortened. Freighters used the Trail only so far as to reach the beginning of the railroad. On February 9, 1880, the first train over this railroad by way of the Raton Pass entered Santa Fe and the famous Santa Fe Trail became a thing of the past. THE L.XST TRADER William Bent was the last fur trader within the limits of the present State of Colorado. After he had wilfully destroyed Fort Bent, he constructed a few log houses on the left bank of the Arkansas at a point known as the "Big Timbers," in what is now Prowers County, Colorado. In 1854, having abandoned his cab- ins, he began the construction of the New Fort Bent, on the Arkansas, eight miles west of Lamar. Although smaller, in general appearance and equipment this new fort was very similar to the original Fort Bent. Bent maintained a trad- ing-post here and also negotiated with the government for its sale as a military post. In this latter he had better success than formerly, and in 1859 the govern- ment purchased the fort and renamed it Fort Wise, in honor of the Governor of \'irginia at that time. In 1861 it was again renamed Fort Lyon, after Gen. Nathaniel Lyon. Afterward it was rebuilt and relocated at the mouth of the Las Animas or Purgatory River. Of the picturesque characters developed in the Great West during the fur-trading period more shall be said in a later chapter. Such men as "Kit" Carson, "Jim" Bridger, "Uncle Dick" Wooten and Tom Tobin were classed as "free" trappers, and, although possessing many of the rough traits of the frontier, were ever staunch defenders of law and order, valiant fighters, true friends and in all men of red blood and iron sinew. DOCTOR WISLIZENUS' JOURXEV In his journey to the Columbia River region in the year 1839, Dr. F. A. Wis- lizenus saw parts of Colorado, also passed through the state upon his return jour- ney. Doctor Wislizenus wrote a narrative of his trip, which was published in the o > s a w <; w w 128 HISTORY OF COLORADO original German by W'ilhelni Weber at St. Louis, Missouri, in 1840. In 191 1 a translation was made of this book for the Colorado Historical and Natural His- tory Society by Mr. Alfred Patek. It is from this translation that the following excerpts are taken : "About the middle of April, 1839, I left St. Louis for the purpose of traveling westward. I took the steamer St. Peter up the Missouri to 'Chouteau's Land- ing.' This took six days, as the water was low and it was a trip of no particu- lar interest. The little western border town of Westport lies six miles from Chouteau's Landing, and it was there that I determined to await the departure of the annual caravan westward. This little town contains thirty to forty houses and lies hardly more than a mile from the western border of Missouri. It is the ac- customed gathering place for travelers to the Rocky Mountains. Its neighboring town. Independence, which lies twelve miles away, is also a rendezvous for those who are traveling to Santa Fe. "I bought a horse and a mule, the former to ride upon and the latter for bag- gage. I prepared myself in other ways for a long journey. On the 4th of May the company that was to make this journey had arrived and prepared itself for the trip, and the first stop was eight miles from Westport at a place called Sapling Grove. The journey to this point was through the land of the Shawnees, friendly Indians, who have settled here and who have become the owners of valuable farms. Their customs are very much like those of the whites, some of them even speaking English. My first day's travel was not auspicious, for I did not understand how to pack the baggage upon the mule's back. The usual way con- sists in dividing the luggage into two equal halves, tightening each separately and then with loops adjusting it accurately to the shape of the pack saddle. After this has l>een done a lash rope, made of bufifalo leather, is bound around the belly of the animal and then eft'ectively wound around the baggage. My entire outfit weighed from 150 to 200 pounds, wliich is the usual burden of one of the animals, but it was not properly divided, so that I was compelled to unpack repeatedly, and I did not arrive at the first stopping place until after dark and long after all the others had reached the place." Speaking of the difficulties of pack-saddling. Doctor Wislizenus states later: ■'During the first days of a journey it is the custom to lead the pack animals with ropes, but later they are permitted to run free and are driven in front of the caravan. The amateur travelers have considerable trouble with their baggage. . At one point the pack has turned to one side ; at another point it is under the very belly of the animal. At times when the animal sees its load falling, it stops and awaits the coming of the master, but some of them, frightened, start on a wild run and do their utmost to free themselves of their loads. But the caravan, like an army deserting its fallen, moves forward. The older ones repair the damage in silence, but with angry faces, and the younger ones do not hesitate to give vent to their feelings in picturesque language, to say the least." Of the personnel of the company the Doctor says: "Our caravan was small, for it consisted of only twenty-seven persons. Of these, nine were in the employ of the Fur Company of St. Louis, Choteau, Pratte & Company, and were going to the annual rendezvous on the Green River with a transport of trading goods. Their leader was a Mr. Harris, a mountaineer of no particular culture, but with five healthv senses which he knew how to use. The others had joined the excur- HISTORY OF COLORADO 129 sion for purely personal reasons. Among tliem were three missionaries, two of whom were accompanied by their wives and who were on their way to the Colum- bia, that they might aid in converting the tribes in the Northwest. Several others were talking of a permanent settlement on the Columbia River, others had Cali- fornia in mind, but nearly all were impelled by trading interests. The majority of the company consisted of Americans, the remainder were Canadians, French and Germans, with one solitary Dane. "Our direction during those first two days was due west. For one day we traveled along the broad Santa Fe Trail, then turned to our right into a narrower road, which had been blazed by the early travelers to the Rockies, but which was often so faint in its outline that even the leaders lost it, and were governed by the camps. Our path took us through a prairie with rolling and fertile ground, watered here and there by brooks and streams. Upon these shores we found as a rule a narrow strip of undergrowth. On the prairie we found no timber. For several days we were forced to drink dirty and stagnant water, but usually we found pleasant and romantic places along clear streams. We saw but little animal life and shot only a few prairie chickens. The weather-beaten elk skull and elk horn were evidence to us that at some time those old residents of the wilderness were grazing in these regions. On the fifth day we arrived at the Kansas, or, as it was called, the Kaw River. * * * -^^e were now about one hundred miles above its junction with the Missouri." On the afternoon of May 23d the party came into view of the Platte River. "A short distance below the junction of the two forks (North and South) the stream separates anew and forms a large and long island. It was at this point that we reached the Platte." The caravan proceeded along the Platte to the forks and then followed the course of the South Platte for a few days. Shortly the journey was taken in a northwest direction, to the North Platte. Nothing of importance happened along this route, except a glimpse of a drove of wild horses. Wislizenus describes the country as follows : "The North Fork and its environment is much like the South Fork — much sand, very little wood and no buffalo. * * * The bluffs on our side of the stream, and on which I noticed pine for the first time, grew smaller as we advanced and were at last merged entirely in the prairie. Farther back, however, we saw the first red cliffs, precipitous and imposing. In these the sand formation is also predominant. Many of these rows of cliffs seemed to have been telescoped into each other. Leading up to them are grass mounds which are in the nature of foothills, and these in turn flatten out. Along the range are numerous cliffs that seem thrown apart from the main range and shape them- selves into most peculiar forms. The first cliff at the beginning of the range and about eight miles from the stream had the appearance of an old castle or citadel. More remarkable still is the last one in the same range. Its tower-like pinnacle can be seen for thirty or forty miles and it has therefore been named 'The Chim- ney.' It is not more than a mile from the stream. Its cone-formed basis is about three-quarters its height, while the pyramid-like pinnacle takes up the other quar- ter. The upper part of the formation is of sandstone and the foundation is calca- reous. The entire height of the cliff is 525 feet — the pinnacle about 125 of this." Without further mishap, the party reached the Green River rendezvous and on July loth Wislizenus began his return journey. Vol. 1—9 130 HISTORY OF COLORADO "We left Fort Crockett on August i8th and moved easterly toward the North Fork of the Platte. For several miles our path led along the Green River and then turned into a gulch, six to eight miles long, known as Brown's Hole. At the end of the gulch we camped. The following morning we gathered up the shreds left in our meatsacks and ate them, hoping to come across fresh meat before long. Our path, however, led over a sand waste, sparsely covered with grass and no game. During the morning we crossed the Vermillion, a brook with reddish- looking water, which flows into the Green. * * * q^ August 25th, in the evening, we reached the left bank of the North Fork of the Platte, at a point which we had not touched in our westward journey. This was probably 100 miles in a straight line from Fort Laramie. The stream here was wide, but shallow, and we forded it with ease. We left it at once, however, going southwest to reach the South Fork. We arrived there in about eight days. On the first day we crossed over fairly high hills the range that belongs to this North Fork terri- tory. On the 5th we crossed the range which divides the terrain of the North Fork from that of the South Fork and over which there is a comparatively easy path. The mountain formation was again sand and limestone. On their sides were mostly pines. On the seventh day we reached the Cache a la Poudre Creek, which empties into the South Fork. On the ninth day we were at the South Fork. On September 3d we were unexpectedly to the left bank of the South Fork and crossed. On the right bank here there are three forts only a few miles apart. These are Penn's and Savory's Fort, Vasquez and Sublette's Fort and Lupton's Fort. They are of the customary construction, the outer walls being of doby. There is much enmity and jealousy between these places. * * * In the second I met the famous Fitzpatrick, whose adventures in the mountains have been many and marvelous. He is a slim, bony figure, with expressive face and snow-white hair. His whole being seemed to breathe emotion and passion. * * * "On September 7th we left the South Fork forts on the way to the Arkansas. For but half a day we followed the course of the former stream. At the sruth- west, along the left shore of the Platte, there came into view a mountain range whose topmost peaks were partially covered with snow. It made a beautiful background for the cottonwood lines along the Platte and for the broad prairie which stretches along its opposite bank. "On the fourth day we traveled in the country that lies between the water- sheds of the Platte and Arkansas. The country is somewhat hilly and covered here and there with pine woods. In this wide prairie which stretches to the Arkansas we came across buflfalo herds again. Here, too, we met two lodges of Arapahoes who had just killed a buflfalo cow and invited us to the repast. The squaws were still busy cutting away the meat, and we smoked for a time and assisted in gathering buffalo chips, which we had to use for fire, as no wood was available. We traveled together after our meal. The squaws pack their animals with wonderful economy. One horse carries a pack weighing 300 pounds, but also the squaw and her children, she deftly preserving the equilibrium of it all. Even one of the dogs carried a load of fifty pounds. We camj>ed at a sandy creek in the evening. The Indians were also going to the Arkansas, but they traveled too slowly for us and so we separated, reaching the Arkansas in two days. "The Arkansas and the region round about are much like the Platte country. It rises in the same range on the South Fork and courses eastward toward the HISTORY OF COLORADO 131 Mississippi. At times its shores are bleak, at times lined with cottonwoods. There is rolling country on both sides. It is a rushing stream, but shallow and navigable only for small boats. Catfish abound in it. We moved along the left shore for sixty miles toward Penn's (Bent's) Fort, the environment changing but little. Here and there along the shore we found wild grapes, which, though sour, were extremely palatable. They were larger than any I had seen before in the United States. We also found a red fruit, something on the cactus order, sweet to the taste. The grass was getting dryer as we moved along. Only by the side of the stream was it fresh. The -high grass burns like tinder once it is lit. Through carelessness this happened in camp, and it was with the utmost difficulty that we saved our baggage. Buffalo were no longer plentiful. On September 15th we reached Penn's (Bent's) Fort. This lies on the left bank of the Arkan- sas River and is the largest and most beautiful fort we had visited on our entire journey. The walls are doby (adobe) and a watch tower, with loop-holes, rises on each side of the front wall. In the spacious center cattle are herded. They have in addition to these herds of cattle, sheep and goats and three buffalo calves that graze in the nearby fields. They have no surplus of horses, for Indians with unbelieveable boldness, recently drove oft' a hundred head. The fort lies about one hundred and fifty miles from Taos, in Mexico, and about three hundred miles from Santa Fe. Many little expeditions leave quite often for Taos to get flour, bread, beans, sugar, etc. In addition, ox wagons bring large consignments of goods annually from the Missouri border. About four miles above this is a sec- ond smaller fort called Bublo's Fort, which is occupied largely by French and Mexicans. We purchased some Spanish flour, which might better have been called bran. But our appetites had not been spoiled, so it was palatable to us. We left on the 17th. The many wagons that make the journey annually have carved out a well-defined road which lies largely along the river and joins the Santa Fe Trail about one hundred and fifty miles below. We followed this road. It was the same monotonous, treeless, sandy prairie. On the second day we reached what is called the 'Big Timber,' a spot on the Arkansas which for several miles is well-wooded. But below it is again destitute of trees. The Comanches, who here play about the same part the Blackfeet do in the North, scour the region for prey. We were fortunate enough not to make their acquaintance. On the fifth day we again encountered buffalo herds. On the sixth we reached the Santa Fe Trail. This broad road, like a chaussee, had gradually been made by the great ox caravans which annually cover the distance between the Missouri boundary and Santa Fe. The distance between Independence and Santa Fe is alxDut nine hundred miles and the direction is southwest through the prairie. "At a point less than half way between the towns is crossed the Arkansas. The stream there is shallow and is easily forded. It was at this crossing that we hit the trail. The road gradually left the river and wound its way toward smaller .streams which empty into it from the north. The first day we traveled over a broad plateau, on which there were countless buffalo, but very little water. On September 26th we reached Pawnee Fork, on the next day Ash Creek, in the vicinity of which there is a cliff right in the midst of a prairie. This is said to mark the half-way point between Missouri and Penn's (Bent's) Fort. Many travelers have engraved their names on this. "An unfortunate accident here separated mc from my companions. My horse 132 HISTORY OF COLORADO had weakened in the days that preceded and I was compelled to walk more than I care to. As there was some delay in breaking camp the next morning I took my animals by the bridle and walked them ahead in the hope that the party would soon overtake us. I tried afterwards to drive the animals ahead of me, but they ran to the side so often that I finally got into the tracks of another road, which gradually became less and less defined and finally disappeared. It was foggy and I could not see my companions in any direction. In order to lose no more time I determined to move east and thus strike the trail farther along. After going a few miles I came to a swamp. I ceuld not see clear land either to the north or south. In the east it seemed to be only a few miles in length. The water was not deep, the soil fairly solid and I therefore determined to move along. Slowly I sent my horse forward. It, however, slipped after going over the wet grass and reeds. My packhorse I led by a rope. Waterbirds of all kinds swarmed about us. I do not recall having seen such quantities of swans, cranes, pelicans, wild geese and ducks in one small area. The marsh was covered with them and they felt so secure that I could have killed hundreds of them with my gun barrel. At this time I was not anxious to hunt, but rather to get safely out of the miserable swamp. My horse was getting weaker and I barely covered a mile an hour. With a great effort I finally reached what I thought from the distance were trees, but which turned out to be high reeds, and the other half of the swamp lay before me. I could no longer get my horse to move while riding it, and I therefore dismounted and led it by the bridle. At times the water was breast high. It was with measured and slovv step that I moved along, my dog swimming after the bedraggled procession. It was sunset when I finally reached the end of the swamp. Before me lay a chain of small hills and nearby a creek with a wooded shore line. To this I led my wornout animals. The lone- someness of it all would at any other time have seriously afifected me. Now it actually had a charm. I built a fire and dried my clothes. On the following morning, just as I was at breakfast, a herd of deer visited me. They came very close, but I did not shoot at them, for I still had a supply of dried meat, nor did I care to attract the attention of the Pawnees who were accustomed to crossing this district. I still moved eastward. The grass was often man-high and going was miserable. Nowhere did I strike a sign of a road. The country looked as if it had never been traversed by a human being. I crossed several small brooks, the bottom of some of which were so treacherous that my animals sunk in them. Several times I had to take the baggage off the pack animal. In the afternoon I reached a larger wooded creek, probably Cow Creek, and camped there. My horses were tired and worn out, so I remained there all of the next day as well, dried my baggage and animadverted on the solitude. "The following morning I started again and struck the last buffalo herds of the journey. I sank into a few more creeks and camped on the Little Arkansas, a stream with a precipitous shore line. It took me a long time to find a place to water my horses. The following morning my animals were gone. On climbing a tree I spied them a mile away. It was impossible to get them across with the pack, so I dragged this over myself and then came back and got the animals over. After going eastward several hours longer I suddenly struck the Santa Fe Trail again. Even my animals seemed overjoyed. I found traces of my companions. That night I camped at a pool filled with frogs. This was for lack HISTORY OF COLORADO 133 of a better place. I had now been separated from my companions for six days. On the following morning I traveled twenty-five miles in one stretch to Cotton- wood Creek, a wooded stream which here makes a half circle. I was just about to select a camping place when I heard a shot that must have been fired from a hollow nearby. I rode toward it and found my companions. They had waited for me a day at the Little Arkansas, but finally concluded that I was ahead of them. We still had 200 miles to the Missouri River." Doctor Wislizenus reached Westport, now part of Kansas City, and from there went to St. Louis, arriving on the last day of October. How well Doctor Wislizenus prophesied the future life of the Great West and the coming of civilization is shown by his words in concluding his journal, which follow : "The fate of the western Indian may be foretold by the history of those who once occupied the eastern half of the country. Civilization will conquer even the last remnant, aided as it is by disease and whiskey. Many eastern tribes, as terrible as the Blackfeet are now in the West, have disappeared and hardly their names remain. Some have taken up agriculture and live, but as shadow pictures of a vanished people. The western tribes, it must be admitted, are protected from the advance of civilization by the vast sandy prairie which stretches from the boundary of Missouri 1,000 miles to the foot of the range. They have also the great wall of the Rockies and the sand steppes beyond to add to their security. "But civilization will not find these difficulties insurmountable. Fully half of the prairie lands can be put under cultivation, and the lack of timber, which is due less to the nature of the soil than to the many prairie fires and the great herds of game, particularly bufl^alo, will not count for much with the advance of civilization. Illinois, too, had many treeless stretches which later civilization changed to wooded sections. "When the waves of civilization from east and west will cover the vast sand dunes, and break against the mountains, the few free tribes will fight for exist- ence, but the waves will rise higher and higher until they reach and submerge them where they will make their last stand in the Rockies. The buffalo and the antelope and the bloody tomahawk will disappear in the flood. But there will be no peace pipe to smoke, for the new people will bring with the virtues all the evils of civilization. They will wallow in the lap of these Rockies to bring to light the precious metals that lie buried there. When they have found these, greed and envy and every ignoble quality will be aroused and the civilized race will find itself no happier than the vanished red brother." CHAPTER VI EARLY SETTLEMENT IN COLORADO SETTLEMENT ON DENVER SITE ST. CHARLES TOWN ASSOCIATION THE AURARIA TOWN COMPANY THE DENVER CITY TOWN COMPANY FIRST BUSINESS AT CHERRY CREEK BOULDER CITY TOWN COMPANY LA PORTE EL PASO CITY FOUNTAIN CITY TOWN COMPANY MOUNTAIN CITY GOLDEN CITY COLORADO CITY CANON CITY OTHER TOWNS OF 1859 CENTRAL CITY PUEBLO CITY LEADVILLE GRAND JUNCTION DELTA MONTROSE GLENWOOD SPRINGS GUN- NISON SILVERTON— OURAY TELLURIDE DURANGO SETTLEMENT ON DENVER SITE On September 7, 1858, the Lawrence party of prospectors, whose history is narrated elsewhere, having estabhshed their camp north of the Russell, or Platte River, "diggings," organized the "Montana Town Company." The purpose of this company was to start a town to be called "Montana City," the site of which is within the present city limits of Denver, 4V2 miles south of the state capitol on the east side of the South Platte. Josiah Hinman was elected president of this company; and William J. Boyer was chosen secretary. A few log cabins were constructed upon the site of this first Pike's Peak town and the community began to show signs of becoming the principal town of the gold region. How- ever, the creation of other communities at the mouth of Cherry Creek defeated the ambitions of "Montana City" and before the next summer, 1859, little or nothing was left of it. ST. CHARLES TOWN ASSOCIATION In September, 1858, a number of the members of the Lawrence party, be- coming dissatisfied with the location of Montana City and believing that a better site could be procured on the South Platte, separated from the Lawrence organi- zation, with the intention of forming a new town company. With the Lawrence "seceders" John S. Smith and William McGaa, Indian traders, joined; their co- operation was much desired by the Lawrence men as in that way they could hold friendly intercourse with the Cheyenne and Arapahoe Indians. On September 24th the members met at the mouth of Cherry Creek, formally took possession of a mile square tract of land, drew and signed an agreement of organization, the latter signed by William McGaa, John S. Smith, Adnah French, T. C. Dickson, John A. Churchill, William Hartley, Frank M. Cobb, William N. Smith and Charles Nichols. Upon the same day they adopted the "Constitution of the St. 134 HISTORY OF COLORADO 135 Charles Association," as their organization was named, which, with the articles of agreement and the by-laws, constitute the earliest municipal documents rela- tive to the settlement of Colorado. On the 28th of September the following first officers were elected : Adnah French, president ; William McGaa, vice president ; T. C. Dickson, secretary; John S. Smith, treasurer; Frank M. Cobb, recorder; the above officers, with William Hartley, Charles Nichols, William Smith and John A. Churchill, trustees. Still making Montana City their headquarters, the members of the St. Charles Company began the survey of the new tract. William Hartley, a surveyor con- nected with the party, superintended this work, which was done with a rude pocket-compass and chain. The survey was started from a point within the present Denver city block bounded by Larimer, Fourteenth, Lawrence and Fifteenth streets, and the general plan of the streets followed north and south and east and west lines. Stakes and claim notices were set up on the land, notwithstanding the fact that the Indians held title to all of the land in question. The name St. Charles, suggested by Charles Nichols who had lived at St. Charles, Missouri, was given to the new town, although several of the company in- sisted that the town be called "Golden City." In the forepart of October, 1858, the Lawrence members of the St. Charles Association decided to return to eastern Kansas for the winter months, leaving Smith and McGaa in charge. In this way they hoped to advertise the new country and their townsite, also to obtain a charter from the Kansas Territorial Legislature. They believed that no further immigration to Colorado would oc- cur during the winter and that the prospects of St. Charles could be greatly en- hanced before the spring months. But this decision proved to be fatal to the St. Charles Association. Shortly after the Lawrence men had departed upon their return trip to Kansas they met the D. C. Oakes party en route for Cherry Creek, where they arrived October loth, and, still further along the trail, they met another party of Pike's Peakers, also bound for Cherry Creek. Frequent bands of immigrants were encountered thereafter and before long the St. Charles members began to be ai)prehensive of their holdings. They held a consultation and finally ap- pointed Charles Nichols to return to the St. Charles plat and construct a build- ing upon the site, in order to show their priority of right, also to induce the new settlers to locate there, of course under the authority of the St. Charles Town Association. Nichols returned to Cherry Creek and there found about a half hundred new settlers encamped on the west side of the stream, around the quarters of Smith and McGaa, also the Russell men. Smith and McGaa, the two Indian traders, had become indifferent to Nichols and the St. Charles people and refused to assist in building a cabin on (he platted ground. Nichols thereupon laid four logs upon the ground, which, according to pioneer custom, was assumed to be the beginning of a log house and to serve as protection of claim rights. His efforts, though were of little value, for the others calmly proceeded in their own fashion without regard to the former St. Charles Company. 136 HISTORY OF COLORADO THE AURARIA TOWN COMPANY By-the 24th of October, the settlement on the west side of Cherry Creek hav- ing been augmented by the arrival of a number of people from Kansas, Nebras- ka and Missouri, the proposal was made to form a company and establish a "city" upon the land there. Public notice was given on the 27th that a mass meeting would be held on the 30th, at which time a town company would be organized. This meeting resulted in the formation of the company, as intended, and may be identified as the actual beginning of the present City of Denver. The record of this first meeting follows: "October 30, 1858. "At a meeting of the Citizens of the South Platte for the purpose of select- ing a suitable site for a town, Wm. McFadding was appointed as chairman, and A. J. Smith as Secretary of said meeting. The President stated the object of the meeting. "On motion of Mr. Hutchins a committee of five was appointed to select said site, with power to examine into any and all previous claims. The chair appointed the following, viz.: Hutchins, Dudley, Dr. Russell, J. S. Smith and Rooker. "The Committee reported that they were not able to report at this meeting and asked further time. Permission was granted. "On motion of A. J. Smith a Committee of five was appointed to draft a Constitution, viz.: A. J. Smith, J. H. Dudley, WilHam McGaw (meaning McGaa), L. J. Russell and S. M. Rooker. "On motion Wm. McFadding was added to the Committee. "On motion meeting adjourned to Oct. 31, 1858. "A. J. Smith, Secretary." This second meeting was officially reported in the minute-book of the associa- tion as follows : "October 31st, 1858. "Meeting met pursuant to adjournment, Mr. McFadding in the Chair. "Minutes of Meeting 30th inst. read and approved. "The Committee to whom the selection of a town site was referred reported the Following, which was adopted, viz. : "The Committee reports that they have selected a town-site upon the follow- ing lands. A tract having Cherry Creek for the Easterly line and the South Platte for the northerly line, and extending west and south sufficiently to include not less than Six hundred and forty acres. The claimants to said portions being present and acquiescing. Reserving and excepting for the Benefit of William McGaw and John S. Smith the privilege of a ferry landing within the river boundary of the town lands. "The Committee appointed to draft a Constitution and By-laws reported on the Constitution and By-laws, which were adopted with the following amend- ment, viz.: To the 9th article of the Constitution — When it becomes necessary to lay a tax for any improvement upon the town site it shall be the duty of the nr re o o S t5 CO — . o M iq -73 P ^2: B* r*^ &- ?r c o " ^ (ti ^ o p ^ "^ r* ra JJ JiT ^ o '^ p ^ - re w —- , 5'w bo" 1-ho y ^ P J°. 'wre >• re Pj cs S-S re pS- Q oS-"" 3 P 2.^> gas» s'aioii^iE.- e- P >-" re s - P ^ -. re o r- P '" 3 !^p B re f.. P *"^ rl- re c ^ p ^' 5' C c^ re 3^ Pj p B p • =5 -. tr' 2. a , to ? P re - P F 1^ <» ® S r,N g re o 1 •! & o '^ re p CO- p ^ s" :i'i > o :^^ re ! 3 S. 3 £§ O ,T) o .. Pj CD _n3 H« 1^ > w w S - S- £. c- >^ re "re r^^ ^ — •^ — S P 5 "■ P re dt! "Ore- ►i S'S^ES S-re re ® 5^ n re 'O ^^ cr S '^ r» c rep re hts p — 5. B 5 g. „ - ^ C re M H re ^. P' 3 re I » 2 3 F" ^"S.5i^g g re re •S » ^ re » " S-^o *<] r*-J^ CD (D eg§--5S.B wS S-2 » 138 HISTORY OF COLORADO Board of Directors to call a meeting, notifying the Stockholders to that effect. A majority of the quorum always being necessary to levy such tax. "On motion adjourned. "A. J. Smith, Secretary." The constitution and by-laws of the Auraria Town Company, according to the secretary's report of them, were such as the following: "Constitution of Auraria Town Company. "We, the Citizens of the South Platte, having assembled on the First day of November, A.D., One thousand. Eight hundred and fifty-eight, and agreed to associate ourselves into a Company to be known and distinguished as the Auraria Town Company, and by which name we hold ourselves liable to sue and be sued, and to transact business as an individual and legal body. "Article ist. "This Company shall be known and distinguished as the Auraria Town Com- pany. "Article 2nd. "There shall be elected by the Stockholders of said Company a President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and One Director, who shall hold their offices for the term of one year from the date hereof, at the expiration of which term there shall be a new election. "Article 3rd. "In case of any failure of such election at the expiration of said term of One year, or should a vacancy occur through resignation, death or absence, a majority of the Board may direct a meeting of the Stockholders to be called and elect others in their places. "Article 4th. "It shall be the duty of the President to preside over the meetings of the Board, to preserve order, and likewise to sign all certificates of shares, and to discharge all the duties usually devolving upon the President of meetings and companies. "Article 5th. "It shall be the duty of the Vice President in case of death, resignation, or any absence from any cause, of the President, to discharge all the duties required of the President. "Article 6th. "It shall be the duties of the Secretary to keep the books and accounts of said Company, to record all meetings of the Stockholders, or of the Board of Directors ; likewise to sig^ all shares and transfers of shares and record the same. Keep a record of all documents and papers relating to Town property, and to notify stockholders of all assessments and when to be paid. "Article 7th. "It shall be the duty of the Treasurer to take charge of all monies which the Board of Directors may place in his hands, and receipt for the same ; to collect all assessments which the Board may make, and receipt for the same ; and shall upon an order from the Board disburse any funds belonging to said company, HISTORY OF COLORADO 139 and shall submit a statement of his proceeds in office at any meeting of the Board when called upon to do so by said Board. "Article 8th. "The President, Vice President, Secretary, Treasurer, and One Director shall constitute a Board of Directors, all to be chosen from the Stockholders of said Company. "Article 9th. "It shall be the duty of the Board of Directors to superintend the surveying, platting, lithographing or mapping, of the Town Site. Printing or writing shares of stock, superintending all company improvements, and hold all Company prop- erty in trust for the benefit of said Company. And also — when it becomes neces- sary to levy a tax for any improvements upon the Town Site, it shall be the duty of the Board of Directors to call a meeting notifying the stockholders to that effect. A majority of a quorum always being necessary to levy such a tax." "By-Laws. "Article ist. "All shares donated by said Company shall be improved in such manner as the Board of Directors may contract, within Sixty days after the day of Dona- tion. But if such specified improvements be not made, then the title of such person or persons to whom such donation shall have been made is null and void. "Article 2nd. "The election of Officers shall take place on the first Monday in November in Each year, the vote shall be cast by ballot, and two-thirds of the vote cast shall be necessary to a choice. "Article 3d. "Each stockholder shall be entitled to one vote at the first election. At every succeeding election each stockholder shall be entitled to one vote for every share of stock as originally issued, providing all arrearages of assessments are paid. "Article 4th. "Thirty days shall be allowed for payment of as.sessments, and if not paid within said thirty days the Secretary shall advertise the same for thirty days ad- ditional, and if not paid within said time the Secretary shall cause such share or shares to be sold to pay such assessments. "Article 5th. "The owner or owners of any stock sold as above provided to pay assess- ments, by paying, within 90 days after such sale as aforesaid, the purchase money and fifty per centum added thereto, shall be entitled to redeem such stock. "Article 6th. "Each nacmber of the Board of Directors shall be held under IhhuI for the faithful discharge of his duties as such member, the sum of which l)oii(l not to exceed the sum of Twenty-five hundred dollars and not less than 'I'wo thousand dollars. "Article 7th. "There shall be set apart four hundred shares for the use and benefit of the Stockholders, the remaining two hundred shall be set apart for donation, public 140 HISTORY OF COLORADO improvements, etc., and it shall be the duty of the Board of Directors to take charge of such donations, and all profits arising from such donations shall be set apart for the benefit hereafter of said Company. "Article 8th. "The number of Original Stockholders shall not exceed the number of One hundred. In the absence of any stockholder he may appoint an agent to cast the vote or votes to which he may be entitled, and to act as proxy, generally. "Article 9th. "No transfer of stock shall be considered legal unless such transfer be signed and recorded by the Secretary in the books of the company at the time of making such transfer. "Article loth. "Shares of stock shall be issued to each and every stockholder when such Stockholder shall have, or caused to have been, constructed within the City Limits a house not less than Sixteen by sixteen feet, to be approved by the Board of Directors. Such improvements to be made and completed on or before the first day of July, A.D., 1859, or the shares become forfeited to the Company. "Article nth. "This Constitution and By-Laws thereunto annexed may be revised and amended at any general meeting of tlie Company by a vote of Two-thirds of the Stockholders of said Company." At a meeting of the stockholders of the Auraria Town Company held Novem- ber 6th the following officers were elected: William McFadding, president; J. H. Dudley, vice president; L. J. Russell, secretary; John S. Smith, treasurer; Henry Allen, director. The name "Auraria," meaning "Gold Town," was one of two suggested by Dr. L. J. Russell and appears for the first time in the title of the constitution. Auraria was the name of Doctor Russell's home town in Lupkin County, Georgia, where gold "diggings" existed then and which are still being worked. Auraria was in this way the first town that was established at the mouth of Cherry Creek and was the nucleus of the present City of Denver. Here many of the first features of Colorado, including the first newspaper, the first Protest- ant church and the first church school were started. Nichols, the custodian of the St. Charles Company site, in the meantime stood by and watched with grow- ing apprehension the rise of Auraria. There was nothing he could do just then to hold the interest of the others, even though he did complete a cabin which he had started with the four logs. This was near Cherry Creek in the vicinity of the present Blake Street crossing, and was located outside the mile-square plat of the St. Charles Company, but upon land which Smith and McGaa were to have obtained for the organization. THE DENVER CITY TOWN COMP.\NY The Denver City Town Company was the result of the arrival of a company of pioneers at the mouth of Cherry Creek in November, 1858, many of the mem- bers of which became very prominent in the early life of Denver. This company was really a union of two parties formed in eastern Kansas. One of them was GEN. JAMES WILLIAM DENVER For whom the city was named. He was born in Winchester, Va., on October 23, 1817, and died in Washington City on August 0, 1892. town ho had resided for many years. His tomb is at Wilmington, O., in which 142 HISTORY OF COLORADO organized at Lecompton in the summer and among the members were Hickory Rogers, Edward W. Wynkoop and H. P. A. Smith. James W. Denver was then governor of Kansas Territory and thought there should be some represen- tative government in the new Pike's Peak gold country. With this end in view he appointed Smith probate judge, Rogers chairman of the county board of commissioners and Wynkoop sheriff, of the County of Arapahoe, then nothing more than a name attached to the western end of Kansas. In this way the three "county officials" were authorized to proceed to the new country, which they did. The other half of the pioneer company was from Leavenworth, in fact be- came known as the "Leavenworth Party." This company consisted of Folsom Dorsett, M. M. Jewett, Gen. William Larimer, Jr., his son William H. H. Lari- mer, Charles A. Lawrence and Richard E. Whitsitt. The six men departed from Leavenworth on October 3d, with a prairie schooner, four yoke of oxen, and a horse for each of the party. Five weeks later they arrived at the site of Pueblo, there meeting Governor Denver's county officials and others. The two joined and traveled to Auraria, reaching there November i6th. The newcomers quickly perceived that a rival city could well be platted on the east side of the creek from Auraria and with this end in view allied them- selves with E. P. Stout, P. T. Bassett, William Clancy, Smith and McGaa, the traders, and a few others. A meeting was held in McGaa's cabin on the night of November 17th, when the Denver City Town Company was organized. Nichols was present, according to all accounts, and protested strongly over the "jumping" of the St. Charles Company's land, but later kept silent when he was threatened with being the guest of honor at a "neck-tie party." No official record of this first meeting exists. The gathering was more in the nature of a love-feast, how- ever, with the flowing bowl much in evidence, and undoubtedly no one was in the humor to keep the minutes. The minute-book of the Denver Town Company, though, contains the following as its first record : "Denver City Company adopted their Constitution on the 22 Nov. 1858, and Elected the following Board of Directors and Officers: "President E. P. Stout. "Treasurer Wm Larimer Jr. "Secty H. P. A. Smith. • "Recorder P. T. Bassett. "Directors "E. P. Stout. "Wm Larimer Jr "J (William) McGaa "C. A. Lawrence "W. Clancy "Hickory Rogers "P. T. Bassett "The Board of Directors appointed Wm Larimer Jr Secty of the Board and also Selected the Same to donate lots under the instructions from the Board "Under a previously appointed Committee of Mes.'^rs Rogers, Bassett, McGaa, Lawrence & Larimer they secured the services of — Curtis (Col. Samuel S. Cur- HISTORY OF COLORADO 143 tis) on the 22nd Inst and laid out one principle Street and further the Same Committee Set posts and bounded two miles square for a town site. Called Denver City. "Wm Larimer Jr "Secty of the Board. "Denver City "22 Nov. 1858" The new city was named in honor of Governor Denver, the head of the Kan- sas Territory administration and who played such an important part in inaugur- ating the movement which led to the establishment of the community. The identity of the individual who proposed Denver's name is not known and by many writers it is claimed that his name was chosen by acclaim as he was upper- most in the thoughts of many of the members of the Company. The St. Charles Company stockholders were given shares in the new company in recompense for the "jumping" of their townsite. The Leavenworth-Lecompton party has been accorded the honor by many authorities of being the founders of Denver, but this statement is visibly in error. The members of the Auraria Company hold much greater claim to this distinction ; in fact, E. P. Stout, one of the members of the latter company and the first Denver City president, had staked off a town upon the St. Charles site before the arrival of the Leavenworth-Lecompton party. In this work he was assisted by Smith and McGaa, who seemed to have an inter- est in every scheme broached in the Pike's Peak region. When the Leavenworth-Lecompton men arrived, there were about a dozen cabins constructed upon the site of Auraria and an equal number in the course of building. The first house actually built on the St. Charles site was the first house, necessarily, erected upon the land platted by the Denver City Company, and this was the one erected by Charles Nichols, in the attempt to hold the claim of his companions, and used for a time as a blacksmith shop by Hank Way. General Larimer occupied this cabin after his arrival, until his own house was constructed on what is now the northeast corner of Fifteenth and Larimer streets. As stated before, Montana City was gradually absorbed by the Cherry Creek towns. In December, Samuel S. Curtis laid out another paper "city" about two miles east of the present Town of Golden. This he named "Arapahoe City." Not until the spring of 1859, though, did any settlement of consequence occur here, then a portion of the great army of fortune-hunters occupied the site. FIRST BUSINESS AT ClIERRV CRKEK The first mercantile business iti the Pike's Peak region was established in 1858 at .Auraria. This was started by Charles H. Blake and .Andrew J. Wil- liams, under the firm name of Blake & Williams. These men came from Cres- cent City, Iowa, and arrived at the mouth of Cherry Creek on October 27th, with a train of four wagons, each hauled by four yoke of oxen. The wagons were loaded with merchandise of all descriptions and especially ada]>ted to the needs of the frontier coinitry. On the first day of November Blake & Williams began business in a tent, but shortly afterward moved into a double log cabin, located on the north side of the present Wewatta Street, near Twelfth Street. 144 HISTORY OF COLORADO One week later, the firm of Kinna & Nye came to Auraria with a stock of hardware. Kinna was in charge, Nye not arriving until the next spring. Kinna secured a location near the northeast corner of Eleventh and Market streets and there erected a cabin, to serve as both residence and store. The third merchant in Auraria was J. D. Ramage, a jeweler, who located near what is now the southeast corner of Eleventh and Larimer streets. On December 25th Richens L. Wooten, known as "Uncle Dick," an old Indian trader, came to Auraria with two wagon-loads of merchandise, consisting principally of New Mexican "fire-water," and called "Taos Lightning" by the Pike's Peakers. By way of establishing an acquaintanceship with the citizens of Auraria and Denver in the briefest time, Wooten placed the contents of one barrel at the mercy of the public, to be consumed as a part of the general holiday celebration. Auraria and Denver were quickly recognized as the center of the Pike's Peak gold region and nearly all of the argonauts made for the Cherry Creek settle- ments the first thing. Auraria made a better appearance during this first winter than Denver, having about fifty log houses while Denver had only a score or so. Little time was occupied in improving the condition of the towns, as gold was tlie all-absorbing topic and the settlers were impatient to get to the "diggins." By an act of the legislative assembly of Jefferson Territory, Auraria and Denver were consolidated into one municipality in April, i860. The Denver title became the most popular and the name Auraria was gradually dropped. The first territorial assembly of Colorado, by an act approved November 7, 1862, in- corporated Auraria, Denver and Highland as the City of Denver, which was largely a repetition of the consolidation act of the Jefferson Territorial As- sembly. BOULDER CITY TOWN COMP.\NY By the spring of 1859 several more town companies had been established in Colorado. These companies are to be distinguished from those mentioned in another chapter by the fact that gold-mining was the basis of their organization, their members were prospectors for the greater part, whereas colonies such as Union and the Chicago-Colorado had agriculture as a stimulus and Colorado Springs and South Pueblo were conceived by the railroad interests. The colony at Red Rock, having been enlarged considerably, organized the "Boulder City Town Company" on February 10, 1859. There were fifty-six stockholders in this company and Alfred A. Brookfield was elected president. A tract of ground covering 1,240 acres was selected, extending from the mouth of the canyon for a distance of two miles down Boulder Creek. This land was divided into 337 blocks, each of which was subdivided into twelve lots. Within a few weeks the town was fully laid out and cabin-building actively begun. There were about two thousand people then living in the vicinity of this new townsite and the stage was splendidly set for the growth of a large community. However, speculation by the most of the shareholders effectually obstructed the growth of Boulder City for some time. The larger faction desired to hold the lots for high and exorbitant prices, while the minority wished to give alternate lots to set- tlers who would improve them and in this way establish a town equal to Auraria and Denver. The high cost of the lots caused the early failure of this com- VIEW OF BOULDER CITY IN THE MIDDLE '60s VIEW OF THE MINING TOWN OF MIDDLE BOULDER, IN OR ABOUT THE YEAR 1874 The name of tlie town was changed to Nederland a few years after this picture was made. 146 HISTORY OF COLORADO munity, only a quarter section being retained finally upon which to build the future city. Had the majority of the shareholders followed the experience of the Cherry Creek towns it is reasonable to suppose that Boulder would have become a very strong competitor to Auraria and Denver. LA PORTE Coincident with the start of Boulder City, the Town of La Porte came into existence. The company which established this town, or '"Colona," as it was first called, was formed among the settlers on the Cache a la Poudre, near the present site of Fort Collins. Among those included in this organization were : Antoine Janise, Nicholas Janise, Elbridge Gerry, John Baptiste, B. Goodwin, Antoine Lebeau, Oliver Morisette, and others named Randall, Ravofire, Ray- mond, and Todd. A half hundred houses were constrticted upon the plat and the community began to take definite form. Several years afterward the town was reorganized and the name La Porte, meaning "the gate," was substituted for Colona. EL PASO CITY On the Fontaine qui Bouille, a short distance above the mouth of Monument Creek, another community organized a town company during the winter of 1858-59. This company was named the "El Paso Town Company." The site for the town which was laid out as El Paso City was located at an Indian trail, in the gateway to the Ute Pass, through to the South Park, so the name El Paso. Little is known of the character of this town organization or the names of those who were active in the formation of the same. It is known, however, that the town plat of El Paso lay within the present boundaries of Colorado City. El Paso City experienced a very short life, though, and was succeeded during the following summer and fall by Colorado City. FOUNTAIN CITY TOWN COMPANY Another of the ephemeral town companies which sprang up about this time was the Fountain City organization. This was formed among the small settle- ments on the east bank of the Fontaine qui Bouille near its mouth, a half mile east of Pueblo by the christening of the community "Fountain City." which was superseded in the winter of 1858 by the formal town company. The town plat, which was surveyed by J. M. Shafer and a Mr. Brown, was laid out immediately and about thirty cabins, of logs and adobe, were erected. Some of the material used in the construction of these small adobes was taken from the old Pueblo trading-post of former years. The people residing here soon moved to Pueblo and for a few years the huts were occupied by Mexicans, who farmed the ad- joining land. The site of Fountain City was afterwards absorbed by the City of Pueblo. MOUNTAIN CITY During the days of the gold rush the formation of "cities" and "town com- panies" was a matter of common occurrence. Wherever gold was discovered HISTORY OF COLORADO 147 and a strike made the prospectors would gather by the hundreds, make a loca- tion, and immediately proceed to organize a company and lay out a city, hoping that it would be the metropolis of the gold country within a very short time. An instance of this is "Mountain City," later absorbed by Central City, the present seat of Gilpin County. Mountain City was the result of the discovery of gold upon the north fork of Clear Creek. By midsummer of 1859 about two hundred dwellings and busi- ness houses were constructed here, but the town flourished only for a year or two, then, as stated, was merged with Central City. Nevada, two miles west of Central City, began in this summer, and still continues as a mining center. Idaho Springs and Georgetown were also laid out during this same season. Missouri City was platted a short distance southwest of the Central City site in the autumn of 1859, but did not long survive the competition from its larger neighbors. Altona was another of the unfortunate, laid out at the mouth of the Left Hand Creek canyon, eight miles north of Boulder City. The "Shiann Pass Town Company" made a great noise when they organized on June 5th to establish a town in the Cheyenne Pass through the Laramie Mountains. The company platted a tract of land and advertised it as the site for the future great city of the West. Arapahoe City, on Clear Creek, had sprung into prominence with a town organization and about sixty cabins, but the diggings in the vicinity proved valueless and before the end of i860 the city had been abandoned. Golden Gate, at the mouth of a gulch some two miles above the site of Golden, was another town to live for a space, then die. Through here the wagon road from Denver to Central City led and all the travel to the Gregory "diggins" passed over it until the railroad was built from Denver to Central City. This was the death of Golden Gate and its highway. The town company here organized is described in another paragraph. GOLDEN CITY In Jnne, 1859, the Pike's Peakers in the neighborhood of Arapahoe City had become familiar with the site of Golden, where some of them had settled and were engaged in more or less profitable placer mining. To these men this loca- tion seemed to be the ideal one, being located conveniently to the Clear Creek mining district and of great natural beauty. The founding of a "city" soon sug- gested itself to these men, the leaders of whom were members of the "Boston Company," eight in number, who had come to the neighborhood on June 12th. A meeting was held on June i6th, where the "Golden Town Company" was dis- cussed, and on the 20th the organization was effected, with George West as the first president. Prominent among these men were: W. A. H. Lovcland, J. M. Ferrell, E. L. Berthoud, David K. Wall, A. F. Garrison, William Davidson and J. C. Kirby. Land to the extent of 1,280 acres was secured for the townsite, on the south side of the creek, and one-quarter of it was surv^cycd into streets, blocks and lots during the summer. Buildings were constructed rapidly and be- fore the end of the summer this town, named after the character of the surround- ing district, had a population of over seven hundred people. Golden prospered BOSTON COMPANY A PIONEEE LOG BUILDING IN THE CITY OF GOLDEN, EEECTED IN 1859 BY THE BOSTON COMPANY, AN ORGANIZATION WHICH TOOK A LEADING PART IN THE FOUNDING OF THAT CITY The picture was given to the Society in October, 1902, by Gen. George West, of Golden, who was one of the builders of the structure. HISTORY OF COLORADO 149 as no settlement had done since Auraria and Denver and, indeed, it became a serious rival of the latter two. COLORADO CITY Another town which came into being during the summer of 1859 was that of Colorado City. This town lay along the Fontaine qui Bouille from a point near the gypsum bluffs above the mouth of Camp Creek toward the mouth of Monument Creek. Fully 1,280 acres of land, or a tract two miles long and one mile wide, were included within this townsite. Most of the founders of this "Colorado Town Company," which was organized in Auraria and Denver, were citizens of the latter communities and included such men as E. P. Stout, R. E. Whitsitt, Lewis N. Tappan, L. J. Winchester, S. W. Wagoner, Charles H. Blake, H. M. Fosdick, W. P. McClure and D. A. Cheever. L. J. Winchester was the president of the company and Lewis N. Tappan secretary. One of the founders thus described the origin of the town in the Rocky Mountain News (History of Colorado; J. C. Smiley; 1913) : "On the first day of August, immediately following the receipt of authentic information that rich and extensive gold-fields had been found in the South Park, and upon the Blue River, the only easy and natural access to which was by the old Ute Trail, passing into the mountains at the foot of Pike's Peak, at the famous Boiling Springs, a body of gentlemen, comprising some of the leading business men of the country, associated themselves together, and entered upon possession of a site lying near the old townsite of El Paso, some two miles, how- ever, nearer the mountains. It was decided to establish a town and designate it by the title of Colorado City, the recently discovered mines (evidently meaning those on the Blue River) being, as was then supposed, on the Colorado River." Despite a period of depression shortly after the founding of the town, when the prospectors poured from the South Park and from the Blue River district, claiming that the diggings there were no good, the Colorado City settlement, in its weak state, managed to survive and by the middle of autumn settlers once more began to come in, houses were erected in great numbers and in all the new town began to prosper and grow amazingly. However, Colorado City never became the metropolis which the founders hoped for and desired. A direct road was laid out from Denver and Auraria to the South Park and Blue River district, which became the established line of communication, also the Indian depreda- tions along the Arkansas trails in the years which followed diverted much of the travel to the northern routes along the Platte and South Platte rivers. CANON CITY The Town of Canon City was established about the middle of October, 1859, when a number of the residents of Fountain City and Pueblo, namely: Josiah F. Smith and his brother Stephen, William Kroenig, Charles D. Peck, Robert Ber- caw and William H. Young, being apprised of the gold discoveries in the South Park, went up the Arkansas River to a point just below the mouth of the gorge and there platted the new town. The only improvement made by them at this time consisted of a small log cabin, in which Robert Middlcton and his wife. 150 HISTORY OF COLORADO former members of the Lawrence Company of Argonauts, lived during tlie winter months following. In the spring of i860, upon the discovery of gold in California Gulch at the head of the Arkansas River, near Leadville, another and much larger party of men from Auraria-Denver, took possession of the Caiion City site and much additional land, making in all about one thousand two hundred and eighty acres. A new platting was made, but the town name of Caiion City was retained. OTHER TOWNS OF 1859 Of the many other towns founded in the year 1859, one of the principal ones was Golden Gate. In July, 1859, the "Golden Gate Town Company" was organ- ized by Thomas L. Golden, J. S. Rogers, Charles Fletcher, H. S. Hawley and W. G. Preston, 640 acres of land two miles north of Golden City was selected, and a town platted there and named Golden Gate. The town grew to some size and became a rival of Golden City, but after a few years of apparent prosperity it declined and finally disappeared. In October "Alount Vernon," another city of the ephemeral type, was sur- veyed upon a site five miles south of Golden, upon the highway to several of the better diggings. Mount Vernon existed but a few years. Three miles north of the mouth of the Platte Canon another collection of log cabins was given the name of "Piedmont." Another — "Huntsville" — on the road from Denver to the South Park, was a small settlement, also "Bradford City" which was sixteen miles southwest of the mouth of Cherry Creek. Tarryall, Jefferson City, Hamilton City, Montgomery and Buckskin Joe are other towns now but a memory, with the exception of Fairplay and Buckskin Joe, although there is a small station on the Colorado & South Park Railroad now named Jefferson City. CENTR.XL CITY Near the close of the summer of i860 Nathaniel Albertson, John Armour and Harrison G. Otis founded and platted "Central City," its site "being nearly central between the locality of the Gregory Diggings and that of the upper mines in Nevada Gulch." By the end of the year Central City had assumed great im- portance as a mining center for the North Fork of Clear Creek district and was made the county seat of Gilpin County when the latter was organized in the winter of 1861-62. Mountain City, near by, lost its postoffice to Central City and soon began to merge with the newer and more energetic community. "Empire City," near Georgetown, was another Clear Creek town which was created during i860. "Oro City," the metropolis of the California Gulch diggings and the ancestor of Leadville, rose to a height of great prosperity in i860 and was a typical mining town of the wild West. However, after a few years Oro City declined, when the richest of the placer gold had been worked out, but it continued to be a strong producer until 1877, when the discovery of the lead and silver carbonates gave it the name of Leadville and a boom of world-wide fame. Breckenridge, founded in the late spring of i860, proved to be the first town VIEWS OF CENTRAL CITY IN 1864 152 HISTORY OF COLORADO of permanence established upon Colorado's western slope. However, prior to the start of Breckenridge, there were two other town propositions in the western part of the Territory. In April, i860, a meeting was held at Mountain City by those interested, for the purpose of organizing two town companies. At an- other meeting, held May 5th in Mountain City the "Grand Junction Town Com- pany" and the "Saratoga Town Company" were organized, both to form a town in what is now Grand County. Grand Junction was located at the junction of the Grand and Blue rivers and Saratoga West, as it was called, was situated on the site of the present Sulphur Springs. Neither one of these town projects was successful, however, for within three or four years they had been completely abandoned. PUEBLO CITY It has been stated before that the City of Pueblo was preceded by "Fountain City." This latter community became demoralized to a great extent during the year 1859 and those whp composed the better class of citizens decided that a new town would be the most desirable thing. Also the California Gulch gold strikes influenced this move to a great extent, while the Fountain River trail from the north was a factor. Various accounts have placed the actual formation of the Pueblo Town Company during the winter of 1859-60, but this is in error. Milo Lee Whittaker, in his "Pathbreakers and Pioneers of the Pueblo Region," (1917) states: "On the 22nd of May, i860, a meeting was called for the purpose of con- sidering the organization of a town. "According to the records of the Southern Colorado Pioneers' Association, the following persons were present at this meeting: Jack Allen, John Kearns, Albert Bercaw, W. H. Ricker, Dr. Catterson, Wesley Catterson, Ed Cozzens, A. C. Wright, Mrs. A. C. Wright and Mrs. Mary Simms. These records further state that it was on July i, i860, that the town was formally 'laid out' and named Pueblo in honor of the old fort which had stood for so many years on the opposite bank of the Arkansas, a single prophecy of 'things yet to be'." Among the prominent founders of Pueblo City were Col. William H. Green and Albert F. Bercaw, who were associated with the organization of the Foun- tain City Company ; Dr. \Y. A. Catterson and his brother, Wesley ; Dr. George Belt, Silas Warren, Edward Cozzens and Josiah Smith. These were men who recognized the worth of the location and the need for a better and more pro- gressive city. That their dreams were of stable quality is proved by the growth of Pueblo since that time to the rank of second city in Colorado. The Pueblo site, bounded on the east by the Fontaine qui Bouille and on the south by the Arkansas, was surveyed and laid out into streets, blocks and lots in the summer of i860 by George B. Buell and E. D. Boyd, of Denver. Judge Wilbur F. Stone, who came to Pueblo in i860, has written that the site "extended from the river back two or three miles toward the divide, and from the Fontaine qui Bouille on the east to Buzzard's Ranch on the west." Fountain City, the site of which is now known as East Pueblo, soon lost her identity and the citizens became residents of the new town — Pueblo. VIEW IN PUEBLO in 1868 The street shown is a part of Santa Pe Avenue. VIEW IN rUEBLO IN 187l!, I'lioM AN ELEVATION EAST OF SANTA FE AVENUE The large building in the upper right-hand corner of the picture was the PueWo County Courthouse. 154 HISTORY OF COLORADO LEADVILLE The founding of the City of Leadville was the direct result of the discovery of silver mines in that district. Something of the California Gulch strike and the rise of Oro City is given elsewhere in this and other chapters. After a period of depression following the exodus of the miners from this locality there came the silver strike made by the three Gallagher brothers in the winter of 1876-77 and in the following spring hundreds of prospectors came to the district, followed during the year by many more. In June a town was started and in January, 1878, this community had grown to such an extent that it was incorpo- rated as the City of Leadville. For a few years after 1880 Leadville equaled Denver in population. GRAND JUNCTION Grand Junction, the county seat of ^lesa County, was founded in the autumn of 1881 by George A. Crawford. In September of that year Crawford, with William AIcGinley, R. D. Mobley, M. R. Warner and others, went to the junction of the Grand and Gunnison rivers and on the 26th claimed 640 acres of land there for a townsite, the same now being the central part of Grand Junction. McGinley remained upon the ground, while Crawford and the others returned to Gunnison. There, on October loth, the "Grand Junction Town Company" was organized, with Crawford, J. W. Bucklin, R. D. Mobley, H. E. Rood, M. R. Warner and Allison White as the incorporators. In the meantime McGinley erected a cabin on the site, which was the first building of Grand Junction. John Allen, a settler, was living in a tent there also in October, when Crawford and Mobley returned, and was calling the place West Denver. However, within a few days fully a half hundred people had located there and at a public meeting held November 5th it was decided to name the community "Grand Junction." The townsite was platted in Januarv-, 1882, by .Samuel Wade, a surveyor, and thereafter building construction proceeded rapidly. DELTA The Town of Delta was also started by George A. Crawford, who, in Sep- tember, 1881, decided to lay out a town at the confluence of the Gunnison and Uncompahgre rivers. Associated with him was M. C. Vandeventer and others. The "Umcompahgre Town Company" was organized, the organizers being Craw- ford, H. A. Bailey, W. A. Bell, D. C. Dodge, M. C. \'andeventer and R. F. Weitbree. Samuel Wade platted the town in December of the same year upon the 500 acres selected. At the same time the name of the town was changed from Umcompahgre to Delta. MONTROSE The townsite of Montrose, consisting of 320 acres, was located in January. 1882, when the only building thereon was a cabin erected by John Baird about a month before. The town was the result of the Montrose and Uncompahgre VIEW ON FRYEK HILL, LEADVILLE SCENES IN LEADVILLE WHEN THE (iHEAT CARBONATE CAMP WAS ABOUT TWO YEARS OLD 156 HISTORY OF COLORADO Ditch Company, organized in December, 1881, and incorporated by John Baird, T. H. Culbertson, O. D. Loutsenheizer, A. Pumphrey and Joseph Sehg. GLENWOOD SPRINGS Glenwood Springs, the seat of justice for Garfield County, was founded in August, 1882, by the "Defiance Land and Town Company," an organization fonned by Judge H. P. Bennet of Denver, John Blake, Isaac Cooper, William Gelder and Frank Enzensperger. First the company named the town Defiance, but in 1883 the name was changed to the present form. The first dwelling was erected in the spring of 1883 by John Blake. Glenwood Springs has become noted as a health resort, the chief attraction being the hot springs and baths there on the north bank of the Grand River. GUNNISON The Town of Gunnison owes its inception to the silver investigations in the surrounding district which were conducted in 1873, the details of which are given in another chapter of this work. Under the leadership of John Parsons and Dr. Sylvester Richardson, a large party of. Denver people, having heard of the treasures of the country around the Gunnison site, proceeded there. Rich- ardson became enamoured with the country and resolved to found a colony there, consequently during the winter of 1873-74 he gave his full attention to this project, also enlisting the aid of several others. An organization was effected, of which Richardson was the president, and on April 21, 1874, the first group of colonists arrived on the ground later occupied by the Town of Gunnison. The land was surveyed into sections and quarter sections and each member of the company was given an allotment of 160 acres. The tract which was drawn by Doctor Richardson was made the site of a town, which he named Gunnison City, in honor of Capt. John \V. Gunnison, of exploration fame. In 1876, Rich- ardson's town not having prospered, other men laid out another town adjacent to Gunnison City, but this, too, was a failure. Not until 1879 did the community begin to take definite form as a city. In the spring of this year a rush began, as valuable ores had been found, and the prospectors made a concerted rush for the district. On June 5th an entirely new town organization was formed, the company being composed of John Evans, Henry C. Olney, Louden Mullin, Alonzo Hartman and Sylvester Richardson. During the following winter differences arose in the town company and a rup- ture occurred. Richardson and Mullin, with others, withdrew and negotiated with the Denver & South Park Railroad for the establishment of another town "West Gunnison." Alonzo Hartman and others remained the leaders of "East Gunnison." In 1880 the two rival towns were united under the name of Gun- nison City, and the community remains to this day as a prosperous center of the surrounding mining district. SILVERTON Silverton is one of the prosperous towns of southwestern Colorado which had its beginning at the start of the statehood period. Silverton was established HISTORY OF COLORADO 157 in 1874 and the plat filed for record in September, by a town company consisting of Francis M. Snowden, N. E. Slaymaker and Dempsey Reese. The first cabin was built three years before by Snowden. Silverton grew very slowly, in fact, lost prestige, until the coming of the railroad in July, 1882, whereupon the com- munity took new life and became progressive. OURAY Ouray was founded in 1875, owing to the metal discoveries in the summer of that year by A. W. Begole, John Eckles, John Munroe, R. F. Long, A. J. Staley, Logan Whitlock, M. W. Cline and others. Many prospectors thronged to the vicinity immediately, where Cline and Long had formed a town company. D. W. Brunton surveyed the plat a few weeks afterward and a few cabins were con- structed thereon. During the winter months little building occurred, owing to the fact that the prospectors left, but in the following spring the rush began again, and Ouray, named after the celebrated chieftain of the Southern Utes, began its growth. TELLURIDE The City of Telluride, county seat of San Miguel County, is another product of the mining activities in the '70s. Telluride, originally known as "Columbia," was founded in January, 1878, but had a slow growth until 1880, when the Rio Grande Southern Railway entered the town. DURANGO The Town of Durango was established in September, 1880, by the organiza- tion of the "Durango Town Company." The Denver & Rio Grande Railroad entered the town July 27, 1881, and from that time until the present Durango has enjoyed an uninterrupted life of prosperity and progress. CHAPTER VII COLONIZATION IN COLORADO BEGINNING OF COLONIZATION THE CHICAGO COLONY THE UNION COLONY THE CHICAGO-COLORADO COLONY THE ST. LOUIS WESTERN COLONY THE SOUTH- WESTERN COLONY INSPIRING IMMIGRATION SETTLEMENT OF COLORADO SPRINGS SOUTH PUEBLO BEGINNING OF FORT COLLINS BEGINNING OF COLONIZATION The first permanent settler in Colorado was William Green Russell, the leader of the Pike's Peak Argonauts, who came to this territory in the month of June, 1858. The settlements made by Russell and his brothers, as well as the numerous Others made by gold-seekers, are described in the chapters upon gold mining. It is the purpose here to treat only of the settlements made in the state under the "colonization" scheme. The completion of the railroads into Colorado and to the City of Denver in the summer of 1870 marked the end of the pioneer period and the beginning of the period of colonization. The railroad brought advantages of travel and freight-carrying hitherto impossible to obtain. The long and arduous journey across the plains, the hardships and imminent dangers connected with such a trip, had, in great measure, isolated the Territory of Colorado from the plains region. Prospective settlers thought twice before risking their lives and for- tunes by journeying across the Indian country to the mountains, especially when settlements could be made closer to the Missouri and ^Mississippi rivers. How- ever, the frontier slowly pushed westward. The gold seekers invaded the land of Colorado and established their camps. These men could not be considered permanent settlers as a class, but fortune-hunters. Then came the railways and new ambitions were born. Agriculture and livestock raising claimed an increas- ing share of attention. What had been a straggling line of colonists, creeping across the plains with no fixed purpose, became organized communities, with definite purposes, the members of which had decided upon certain locations in the new country, chiefly with a view of successfully developing the agricultural resources. THE CHICAGO OR GERMAN COLONY The first organization established for the purpose of forming an agricultural community in Colorado Territory was known as the "Chicago Colony," also the "German Colonization Society." This body was organized in the City of Chicago 158 HISTORY OF COLORADO 159 August 24, 1869, with Carl Wulstcn as the president. Later in the same year a committee was appointed and directed to proceed to Colorado Territory, there to select a suitable location for the new home. Accordingly, the committee, after some investigation, arranged to acquire about forty thousand acres of land in part of the Wet Alountain Valley. This tract is now contained within Custer County, but in 1869 Fremont County extended over it. On March 21, 1870, eighty-six families, mostly native Germans, arrived and later in the year nearly one hundred additional families joined the community. Land cultivation was begun and a town, christened "Colfax" in honor of the Hon. Schuyler Colfax, Hoosier statesman, was laid out. However, difficulties soon began to beset the new settlers. The old adage — "too many cooks spoil the broth" — was very applicable to the Colfax community. Mismanagement, ill feeling and general failure to obtain cooperation caused the unsuccessful close of this first attempt at colonization. Many of the settlers left, leaving very few to further develop their holdings, and the Town of Colfax disappeared. THE UNION COLONY The second colony to invade the Territory of Colorado in 1870, with the in- tention of devoting its time to agriculture, was the "Union Colony," a product of New York City. Those responsible for the organization of the Union Colony were Nathan C. Aleeker, agricultural editor of the New York Tribune and Horace Greeley, owner of the same newspaper. In the summer of 1859 Greeley had visited Colorado while journeying to the Pacific Coast. While here he was greatly impressed with the natural resources of the region and strongly realized the pos- sibilities of the country under development. Greeley voiced his convictions upon his return to New York City and among those becoming inter- ested was N. C. Meeker. In the summer of 1869 Meeker came to Colorado with a number of friends, to look over the ground and decide as to the exact character of the Pike's Peak region. South Park first claimed his attention and he hastily decided that upon this mountain-valley land a settlement should be made. However, after conferring with the citizens of Denver, he changed his decision in favor of the lowlands below the foothills. With this in mind he re- turned to New York City. Immediately he and Greeley began a newspaper campaign, widely advertising the merit of the Colorado country and proposing their colonization plans, asking for volunteers to go to the western country for the purpose of making a perma- nent settlement. Hundreds of readers, seeing therein an opportunity to escape the confining influences of tlie Fast and to make a new start, rallied to the cause and, at a large meeting held at the Cooper Institute in New York City December 23, 1869, the organization of the "Union Colony" was eflfectcd and the following officers elected : Nathan C. Meeker, president ; Gen. Robert A. Cameron, vice president ; and Horace Greeley, treasurer. Meeker, Cameron and A. C. Fisk were appointed as a committee to go to Colorado and fix upon a proper location for the colony. This committee came to the Territory in March, 1870. and chose a site near the confluence of the South Platte and the Cache a la Poudre rivers, in Weld 160 HISTORY OF COLORADO County, and nearly twelve thousand acres of land were purchased from the Denver Pacific Railway Company and from individuals, also provisional title was secured to about sixty thousand acres of public land, the whole necessitating an immediate expenditure of about sixty thousand dollars. At this time there were a few farmers in the vicinity chosen and near the mouth of the Cache a la Poudre was a small village named Latham. The plan inaugurated by Meeker and his associates resembled that of a stock company with equitable divisions of land among the members. Then, in May, 1870, there arrived the first party of the Union Colony settlers, numbering about fifty families. Immediately irrigating ditches were dug and the site for a town was platted and named Greeley in honor of one of its illus- trious founders. The townsite was divided into 520 business lots, 25 by 190 feet; 673 residence lots, ranging in size from 50 by 190 to 200 by 190 feet; and 277 lots reserved for schools, churches, public buildings and buildings of like character. The adjacent lands were divided into plats of from five to one hun- dred and twenty acres each, according to the distance from the center of town, and each member was allowed to select one of these plats under his colony cer- tificate of membership. All the lands were to be supplied with water and were not subject to assessment on any account, except for the nominal cost of keeping the irrigating canals and ditches in repair. A plaza, or public square, of ten acres was laid out in the center of the town, artificial lakes constructed, trees planted, and by June, 1870, the first canal was completed and water running through all the principal streets. An island in the river, just above the town, comprising nearly fifty acres, and shaded with native cottonwoods, was reserved for public uses and named "Island Grove Park." During the few months after the first company of colonists came several hundred other families arrived, mostly consisting of people from New England, New York, Ohio and Indiana. The majority of the men were farmers, but there were a few of other vocations, some merchants and a few professional men. Greeley itself prospered amazingly. Within the space of a year's time the town had become an active business center and a bank, hotels, the Greeley Tribune, several first class stores and many up-to-date dwellings had been estab- lished upon the new plat. In June, 1 871, an enumeration of the population showed 1,155 people living here. Greeley enjoyed the distinction of being the first pro- hibition town in the state. One of the stipulations in the real estate deeds, given by the Union Colony to its members, was that no intoxicating liquor should either be manufactured or sold upon the town plat. THE CHICAGO-COLORADO COLONY The Chicago-Colorado Colony was the first of three colonial organizations established in Colorado during the spring of 1871 for agricultural purposes. The two others were the "St. Louis Western" and the "Southwestern," but the Chi- cago-Colorado was the first of the trio. This colony was organized in the City of Chicago on November 17, 1870, with Robert Collyer, a Protestant preacher, as the president temporarily ; he was succeeded shortly by Seth Terry. Like the Union Colony, a committee came to Colorado, in December, 1870, and late in January of the following year selected a location in the northeastern part of A CABIN BUILT BY ANDREW SAGENDORF AND OSCAR E. LEHOW, IN THE AUTUMN OF 1858 Meetings of members of the Masonic order were held in this cabin. W^W'' ^^h^ -. A. H. BARKER'S CABIN, BUILT IN THE AUTUMN OP 1858 162 HISTORY OF COLOR.\DO Boulder County, which consisted of land well drained by the St. Vrain and Left- Hand tributaries of the South Platte River. The committee purchased fifty-five thousand acres of land at this site for the colony. The general proceedings of the Chicago-Colorado Colony were modeled greatly after the Union Colony at Greeley, as the latter had proved a success. The first members of the organization began to arrive early in the spring of 1871, and before the beginning of summer several hundreds had joined the com- munity. An elaborate system of irrigating ditches and mains was constructed and the Town of Longmont platted. Longmont quickly became a town of im- portance and well populated, also equipped with sizable stores, a newspaper and public-spirited citizens. THE ST. LOUIS WESTERN COLONY The second colony established in Colorado during the spring of 1871 was the St. Louis Western. This organization had been formed at Oakdale, Illinois, on November 29, 1870; A. C. Todd, a clergyman of Protestant faith, was the presi- dent. Shortly after the organization, the "New England Colony of Boston," united with the St. Louis Western. The first families arrived in Colorado in April, 1871, and occupied land in the vicinity of Evans, named for Governor Evans, which town had been laid out and platted in October, 1S69, and was only a straggling community of a half hundred souls. Before the end of the spring season, however, Evans experienced a great '"boom," fully five hundred people settling near by. The settlement prospered and has always been rated high. THE SOUTHWESTERN COLONY The Southwestern Colony was established at Memphis, Tennessee, in Janu- ary, 1871, and consisted mainly of people from Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois. The organization was effected chiefly through the efforts of D. S. Green, of Denver, who was elected the first president. The colony selected land in Colorado on the South Platte River, about twenty to thirty miles eastward of the Town of Evans. About one hundred families arrived during the spring, an equal number following during the summer months. Irrigating ditches were dug and a town, named "Green City," in honor of the first president of the colony, was laid out. This town was located in the vicinity of the present station of Masters, Colorado, on the Union Pacific Railroad. However, notwithstanding the efforts of the Southwestern Colony, it did not become a success, and within a few years disappeared as a distinctive community. The settlers had hoped for the construction of a railroad from Golden City to Julesburg along the South Platte, and had indulged in many grand dreams of the future prosperity of Green City. But the panic of 1873 effectually halted all railroad construction, which gave the opportunity for Evans and Greeley to absorb all the trade of the section. Green City in this way collapsed. INSPIRING IMMIGR.\TI0N The organized bands of colonists were not the only settlers in Colorado during the years 1870 and 1871. Many individuals came to the state, seeking HISTORY OF COLORADO 163 good agricultural lands, and generally sought a location near to one of the colony towns. These independent farmers, in fact, outnumbered the organized colonists during these years. Citizens of Colorado strongly urged newcomers to settle upon the land of the state and cultivate it, and great efforts were made to induce people to leave the eastern states and locate in Colorado. The Ninth General Assembly passed an act, approved February 9, 1872, which established a Bureau of Immigration, the bureau to be in charge of a board of five commissioners. The duty of this board was "to adopt and put in execution such means as will best promote and encourage immigration to the Territory, and for this purpose shall publish and disseminate such useful information as it can obtain concerning the developed and undeveloped resources of the Territory, and may provide for one of its number, or such other person as the Board may select, to attend such Agricul- tural and Institute Fairs as may be deemed expedient for the display of the Agricultural and Mineral products of the Territory." But the advertising campaign conducted by this committee, or bureau, acted in the nature of a boomerang. The advertisements and literature circulated throughout eastern states, giving information relative to the advantages to be found in Colorado were flagrant, deceptive, misrepresentative and filled with gross misstatements of fact which led the people of Other states to believe that Colorado contained opportunities for every kind of workman, whether skilled or unskilled. Colorado was pictured to be the elysium of industrial oppor- tunity and consequently thousands of people, of every profession and trade, came across the plains to the Territory, expecting to earn a quick fortune. Many of them found advantages suited to their tastes, but the great majority were bitterly disappointed, and angered at the deception which had been prac- ticed upon them. These disgruntled ones returned to their native states, told the story of their experience, and then began the back-fire. The eastern news- papers "exposed" the fraud, as they termed it, and strongly advised against further immigration to Colorado. This injured the then Territory to a great extent and considerably retarded settlement and development. SETTLEMKNT OF COLOR.ADO SPRINGS There were also in Colorado Territory at this time several settlements which might be called non-agricultural. The principal one of these was that at Colo- rado Springs. In 1870 Gen. William J. Palmer and Ex-Governor Hunt organized the Denver ^ Rio Grande Railway Company. General Palmer in addition to his promotion of the railroad, conceived the idea of developing the country of Colorado through which the railroad was to pass. One of these ideas was to establish a town near the east base of Pike's Peak, to be known as "Colorado Springs." Late in the year Palmer organized the "Colorado Springs Company," of which he was elected president, with Henry ATcAllister as executive director. This new company secured about ten thousand acres of land, the greater part along Monument Creek and east of Colorado City, with some west of the town and inrhuling the soda springs. Settlements lind been made in the vicinity ten years before, but no improvement of value had been made, and Colorado City itself, 164 HISTORY OF COLORADO once cherished with such high hopes, had shrunken to a mere village of a half- hundred people. General Palmer first visited the site of Colorado Springs on July 27, 1867, although he twice before had been in Colorado. His early efforts in establish- ing the Colorado Springs Company are well told in his own words, following: "To start a railroad under these circumstances (the fact that there were not 10,000 white people in Colorado south of Denver, Colorado City having eighty- one inhabitants and Pueblo 666) required stronger considerations than any promise of immediate returns from the business of hauling freight and passen- gers. There was no national subsidy in land or money, and no county or town aid. But one thing was not in doubt — the ef¥ect of a railway on the value of land, if judiciously chosen along its route. Our subscription paper was sent out on December i, 1870, for the first section of seventy-six miles. It provided that all who subscribed for the railway securities should enjoy the privilege of subscribing, pro rata, to a land and townsite investment, called 'The Mountain Base Investment Fund,' embracing tracts at selected points along the projected railway, where the greatest rise in values by reason of its construction was expected to occur. "This was the parent of the 'Colorado Springs Company.' It was thought that many of the first disadvantages to immigration might be counteracted by the formation of such land companies, with capital enough to construct the irrigation ditches, lay out the farms and towns, plant the trees, aid the building of hotels, and even that of dwellings in some cases, while selling the tracts and lots to arriving colonists on small annual payments distributed over several years ; that by such a system, the colonization of the country could be greatly stimulated, the railroad earnings increased and 'the work of twenty years be concentrated into ten.' Of the capital of our land company, as of that for the initial seventy- six miles of railway, about one-half was raised in America, chiefly among my own friends in Philadelphia and the East, and the remainder in Europe, chiefly among the friends of Dr. W. A. Bell. "The money was raised that winter and spring, construction began in a very quiet way in January, 1871, and the track reached a point a few miles out from Denver, when the first stake was driven at the town on July 31st, and by October 23, 1871, the railroad had reached the townsite. As soon as the money for the railroad was assured, everything was ripe to organize, and on June 26, 1871, in Denver, the Colorado Springs Company held its first meeting, elected officers, authorized the construction of roads, bridges and hotel, and on the next day the whole party, with Colonel Greenwood, the chief engineer of the railroad, started from Denver to lay out the new town, appraise the lots, and start business. We had then, or shortly afterward, secured the services of Gen- eral Cameron, of Greeley, to come to Colorado Springs to initiate and take charge of the infant colony; and with him, or in his immediate footsteps, came the first detachment, perhaps forty or fifty people, who settled on our tract and began building their homes." The first stake driven upon the site was set in place July 31, 1871. The city plat contained seventy blocks, each 400 feet square. By the end of the year 1871 there were 159 structures of various kinds erected upon the plat of Colo- HISTORY OF COLORADO 165 rado Springs, the first dwelling having been commenced on August 15th. The various improvements this first year cost about $160,000. In the summer of 1871 the "Fountain Colony of Colorado" was organized, with Gen. Robert A. Cameron as the leader. This was a subordinate organiza- tion to the Colorado Springs Company, was not incorporated, but conducted a part of the business belonging to the Colorado Springs Company. In 1872 the Town of Colorado Springs further developed. An improved roadway to the soda springs was built and a good hotel constructed there. These various improvements were made possible by the fact that the Colorado Springs Company had decided to devote all the proceeds from the sale of land to the improvement of the community. Liquor was forbidden in Colorado Springs, as it was in Greeley, but there arose some opposition to this and the case was finally brought before the Colorado courts, who eventually decided that the liquor clause in the land deeds was valid. Appeal was taken to the United States Supreme Court and in 1879 this court affirmed the decision of the Colorado courts. General Palmer wrote the following in regard to the liquor situation here : "The liquor restriction had already been adopted by Mr. Meeker for his Greeley colony. In the early summer of 1871, while we were making arrange- ments with General Cameron and some of his confreres to interest themselves in our new enterprise, I was asked by them whether we would adopt a similar restriction for the proposed Fountain colony. Having had some experience with the railroad towns of the day in the new \yest, especially those whose generally short but always lively existence punctuated the successive stages of advance westward by the Kansas Pacific and Union Pacific railroads, I answered 'Yes.' At Sheridan, especially, on the former road, where I had the privilege of a resi- dence of some eight months in 1870-71, while directing the construction of a railroad to Denver, the most noticeable suburban feature, notwithstanding the salubrity of the air and the brevity of the settlement, was a fat graveyard, most of whose inhabitants, in the language of the looth meridian, had died 'with their boots on.' " General Palmer continues: "We had, of course, the inevitable fire, until which no Rocky Mountain town feels that it has really entered the lists for a permanent race in growth; the Jay Cooke panic in 1873, after which corn was 12^ cents per bushel in Kansas and Nebraska, and potatoes here were about as worthless as they now are on 'the Divide' ; a grasshopper invasion and an Indian alarm the same year, when the able-bodied men of the town were organ- ized under Capt. Matt France, and on October 6, 1873, marched to Jimmy's Pamp to meet 3,000 Cheyenne who were killing cattle, because, as they said, 'The white man has been killing our buffalo.' This was the last Indian alarm in this neighborhood. "Distinguished visitors came along. Among the first was Samuel Bowles, the able and spirited editor of the Springfield Republican ; later on, Charles Kingsley, who helped us to celebrate the third anniversary of the town, in the tent of Mrs. Giltner, who kept the shoe shop; General Grant twice, Jefferson Davis, General Sheridan, Henry Kingsley, Lord Dunraven, Asa Gray, Sir Joseph Hooker, the Duke of Northumberland, General Sherman and many others. .Some came to witness the operations of the colony, and of the novel 166 HISTORY OF COLORADO railroad gauge. Others were attracted by the budding fame of the locahty for scenic interest and healthfulness." Colorado Springs has become known as one of the most beautifully located cities in the United States. Possessed of all the climatic advantages con- ducive to health, surrounded with the most artistic handiwork of Nature, the city has been the Mecca for tourists from over the whole world and has grown from the barren plain of fifty years ago to one of the most prosperous cities in the West. SOUTH PUEBLO The settlement of South Pueblo, across the Arkansas River from the early town of Pueblo, was undertaken in much the same manner as that of Colorado Springs. For this purpose, the "Central Colorado Improvement Company" was organized, which was auxiliary to the Denver & Rio Grande Railway Company and under the direction of Gen. William J. Palmer. This organization, in 1872, purchased a large tract of ground, the Nolan Mexican land grant, along the Arkansas, opposite Pueblo. By the middle of the year the Denver & Rio Grande Railroad was completed to Pueblo and about this same time the plat of South Pueblo was laid out, covering approximately one thousand acres. Shortly afterward the terminus of the railroad was taken from Pueblo and brought to the new town of South Pueblo, which occurrence caused much bitterness between the two communities. However, the closeness of the two towns really made them one, although for thirteen yeays each had its own governmental organiza- tion. The Pueblo of today includes the plats, with additions of both, forming one consolidated municipality. BEGINNING OF FORT COLLINS The start of the settlement at Fort Collins occurred at nearly the same time as that of South Pueblo. In the early '60s a military post was constructed on the Cache a la Poudre River, four miles southeast of the village of La Porte, and named "Fort Collins," sometimes called "Camp Collins," in honor of Lieut. Col. William O. Collins, of the Eleventh Ohio Volunteer Cavalry, portions of which regiment engaged in fighting the plains Indians. A large space of ground was included in this military reservation, and so remained until 1872, when it was thrown open to entry by an act of Congress, approved May 15, 1872. After this land had been opened for settlement. Gen. Robert A. Cameron, of fame as a colonizer, organized another colony company, of which he was elected president, for the purpose of founding a town upon the new land and developing it agriculturally. The beginnings of settlement were similar to those of Greeley and Colorado Springs, and, within a year the present City of Fort Collins had been started. Many immigrants came to the vicinity of the new town and located, also residents of other parts of the Territory moved here. Since that time Fort Collins has had a steady growth and is now the county seat of Larimer County and the center of one of the leading agricultural sections of northern Colorado, and the location of the §tate Agricultural College. VIEW OF FORT COLLINS IN 1865 It was a United States military jiost that occupied a ])art of the site of the present city of Fort Collins. The original picture was a jiencil drawing made by a soldier who was sta- tioned at the fort in 1865. The lower part of the two-story building (back of the flag-staff) was occupied by the sutler, and its ujiper story was an assembly hall. The buildings to the left of this, and also those that are ranged about the staff, afforded living quarters for the officers and men. Some of the other structures were stables for the horses and some were warehouses for supplies. CHAPTER VIII GOVERNMENT— ITS BEGINNINGS AND DEVELOPMENT UTAH, NEBRASKA, KANSAS AND NEW MEXICO LAND TRANSFERRED THE BEGIN- NINGS OF GOVERNMENT FAILURE OF FIRST STATE CONSTITUTION TERRITORY OF JEFFERSON PEOPLE'S AND MINERS' COURTS CONGRESS CREATES COLORADO TERRITORY CREATING THE FIRST COUNTIES MOVING THE CAPITAL TO COLO- RADO CITY THE CAPITAL AT GOLDEN CHANGE FROM GOLDEN TO DENVER CONGRESS PROVIDES FOR CONSTITUTION CUSTOMS OF LEGISLATURE TERRITO- RIAL OFFICERS OF COLORADO GOVERNORS SECRETARIES TREASURERS — AU- DITORS^ — SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION DELEGATES TO CONGRESS JUDGES OF THE SUPREME COURT CHIEF JUSTICES ASSOCIATE JUSTICES UNITED STATES DISTRICT ATTORNEYS— LENGTH OF SESSIONS AND NUMBER OF MEMBERS CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONS FIRST ELECTION POLL BY COUN- TIES UTAH, NEBRASKA, KANSAS AND NEW MEXICO LAND TRANSFERRED The area of the State of Colorado includes cessions by France, by Texas and by Mexico to the United States. The northeast section, bounded north and' south by the 31st and 40th parallels, east by the 25th meridian and west by the Rockies, was in the original Louisiana cession, and was transferred by Congress from the Territory of Nebraska to the Territory of Colorado. The por- tion east, bounded north by the 40th parallel, east by the 25th meridian, south by the Arkansas and west by the Rockies, was taken from Kansas and trans- ferred to Colorado. It was part of the Louisiana Purchase. The southeastern portion of the state, bounded north by the Arkansas River, east by the 25th meridian, south by the 37th parallel, and west by the 20th meridian, was in the cession from Texas and Mexico, and was transferred from the Territory of Kansas to that of Colorado. The southern part of the state, bounded by the 38th and 37th parallels, the 20th meridian and the Rockies, was a Texas and Mexico cession, transferred from the Territory of New Mexico to that of Colorado. The western portion, bounded by the 41st and 40th parallels, the Rockies, and the 32d meridian, was ceded by Mexico and was transferred from the Territory of Utah to that of Colorado. THE BEGINNINGS OF GOVERNMENT In the fall of 1858 the handful of settlers within a few miles and on the present site of Denver called a meeting "to establish security and to prevent and 168 HISTORY OF COLORADO 169 punish crime." This gathering took place November 6, 1858, in the settlement of Auraria, containing at that time about two hundred inhabitants. The assembly, though composed of immigrants from different states, acted as citizens of Kansas Territory. Out of the Pike's Peak country, as that part of the Rocky Moun- tains, and the plains around their base, were called, they formed a county, de- fined its limits, and named it Arapahoe, from a neighboring tribe of Indians. They also declared Auraria to be the county seat. They then proceeded to elect a delegate to Congress and a representative to the Kansas Legislature. H. J. Graham was chosen delegate, and A. J. Smith representative. This action of the assembly manifested a rare spirit of enterprise in politics. They declared a district of Kansas to be a county, and deputed one of their number to the leg- islature with credentials of his election, and petitions that the county be estab- lished, and their representative be received. At the same time a delegate was dispatched to Congress with instructions to have the county converted into a ter- ritory. The delegate of Kansas Territory would be duly recognized and admitted to a seat in Congress. But to the delegate of Arapahoe County no such recognition or position would be tendered. His labors would be con- fined to the advocacy of the petitions and claims of the people he represented before committees, or with individual members of the House or Senate. Never- theless, Mr. Graham hurried to Washington, impelled by the delusive hope that his mission would be successful, and that he would enjoy the honors and emolu- ments of territorial delegate. The people of Arapahoe County were 700 miles distant from Leavenworth, the capital of Kansas, without railroads or tele- graphs, and with immense uninhabited plains lying between them and the terri- torial authorities. They, therefore, naturally desired to have the Territory of Kansas divided, and the western part organized into a new territory. This arrangement, if consummated, would place the country on' a stable footing. Peace and order would be maintained, the general prosperity promoted, while Congress and the nation would be directly acquainted with the growth, pros- pects and necessities of the country. Mr. Graham exerted himself to prevail on Congress to respect the petition of his constituents, but his efforts proved unsuccessful. Their representative, A. J. Smith, succeeded in his mission, had Arapahoe County confirmed, but was not admitted as a member of the Kansas Legislature. The first election of Arapahoe County officers, under Kansas laws, was held March 28, 1859. Over seven hundred votes were polled, of which 231 were credited to Auraria and 144 to Denver. The spring months brought a great increase to the mining population. From authentic sources it has been com- puted that, during the summer, the Pike's Peak gold regions contained 20,000 souls. An established and accessible government became indispensable. The subject pressed itself more and more urgently on the public mind. Their first attempt, in 1858, to impress Congress favorably with the necessities of their situation had proven abortive. But a profound sense of their needs moved them to renew their efforts to prevail on Congress to consummate a partition of the Territory of Kansas, and to establish a separate government in this distant but even then populous region. A mass meeting was called, to convene in Auraria, April 11, 1859. In the resolutions adopted it was expressed as the unanimous sentiment of the meeting that a separate and distinct government was 170 HISTORY OF COLORADO not only important but necessary. By these resolutions, also, the several pre- cincts of Arapahoe County were requested to choose delegates, to meet in joint convention on the fourth day after the meeting, April 15th, to consider the ques- tion of organizing a new state or territory. On the day appointed the delegates met. In order to save time and determine quickly, they pursued an eminently judicious course. They resolved on one subject of debate, and only one: "The formation of a new and independent state of the Union." It must be remembered that Kansas, at this time, was only a territory, though pressing her claims for recognition and admission as a state. Thus early, and prematurely, as facts subsequently proved, did the people, who crowded into this new coun- try, seek for the honors and privileges of statehood. F.-\ILURE OF FIRST ST.ATE CONSTITUTION This Auraria convention, as a summing up of their labors, ordered a general election of delegates on the second Monday in May, such delegates to meet on the first Monday in June. At the time designated lifty delegates assembled. As in the April convention, only one subject, it seems, engaged their deliberations — the attainment of statehood. The work of drafting a constitution was en- trusted to eight committees, in order to economize time and secure a complete instrument. The committees were requested to report, and submit their labors to a fuller convention, which was enjoined to meet on the first Monday in Augtist. In the interval the several committees prepared their work. When the convention, which consisted of 167 delegates, met, the committees presented their reports. A constitution was completed, and arrangements made for its acceptance or rejection by the votes of the people. Though some members of the convention were sanguine of success, the majority thought that the result would be adverse, and sought to provide against such a contingency. The day set for voting on the constitution and movement for a state was the first Monday in September. The convention therefore resolved that should the constitution be rejected, a delegate to Congress should be elected on the first Monday in October. The delegate would represent Jefferson Territory — the name given by the convention to Arapahoe County, or the Pike's Peak gold regions. On September 4th the votes for or against the constitution were cast, and resulted in 2,007 against and 649 for that instrument. A short time before the October election it was proposed, at a mass meeting held in Auraria, that on the day a delegate to Congress was elected delegates should be chosen to form a Provi- sional Territorial Government. The proposition was adopted. Accordingly, on the first Monday in October this double election took place. The Governor of Kansas, in 1859, had issued a proclamation that Arapahoe County be established, and that a representative be elected. The Arapahoe County election for Kansas officials was therefore also held. Capt. Richard Sopris was elected representative, and was the first member from Arapahoe County admitted to a seat in the Kansas Legislature. TERRITORY OF JEFFERSON At the October election D. B. Williams was chosen delegate to Congress. He was the exponent of the August convention, and entrusted with the mis- HISTORY OF COLORADO 171 sion to memorialize Congress to separate the Pike's Peak region from Kansas and organize it into a territory under the name Jefferson. The other delegates chosen were instructed to form a provisional government. Eighty-six delegates met in convention. They entered upon their duties with great earnestness. A new constitution, called the "Organic Act of the Territory of Jefferson," was framed and adopted. Other important measures received their approval. The territory was divided into legislative districts. A full ticket was nominated, and an election ordered for the fourth Monday of October, the same month in which they had been elected, had convened, had acted. The election took place; 2,000 votes were cast in twenty-seven precincts. The provisional government was adopted, a full corps of legislators chosen, and, indeed, all but one of the entire ticket elected. The purpose of the parties who had determined on a provisional government ran swift to its fulfillment. The legislature thus suddenly and questionably brought into existence, began its sessions. The message of the governor, R. W. Steele, was received with the usual formalities, and was fol- lowed by diligent legislative labors. Many general and special laws were enacted; nine counties were organized; a poll tax of $1 was imposed, and a committee appointed to report full civil and criminal codes to an adjourned ses- sion, January 23, i860. In each of the nine newly organized counties the governor appointed a probate judge, to hold office until the regular county elec- tion on the first Monday in January, i860. The legislature met pursuant to ad- journment, and for the remainder of the session devoted its attention to the report of the committee. Full civil and criminal codes were finally adopted. An imperium in imperio was now fairly established. Right in the midst of the Kan- sas government stood the Provisional government. The first resistance to the authority of the latter, and protest against its legality, arose from the Arapahoe County officials, who were elected according to Kansas territorial law, and were, therefore, beyond a doubt, legal. Besides this, a remonstrance against the per capita tax, signed by 700 miners, was sent down from the mountains. In the valley, therefore, the Kansas and the Provisional governments held di- vided sway; and in the mountains the miners' courts and the Provisional govern- ment contended for the mastery. Golden was the only settlement that wholly submitted to the Provisional government. In truth, the authority of the Kan- sas officials was never fairly recognized, and they soon ceased to have even a nominal existence. people's and miners' courts From 1858 to 1861 two classes of courts existed in the Pike's Peak region, whose decisions were final. These were called the People's Courts and the Miners' Courts. The People's Courts were improvised assemblies of the people, who convened to adjudicate criminal cases, such as murders, homicides and other felonies. They were usually presided over by a probate judge or justice of the peace. The extreme penalties were hanging, lashes on the bare back, and banishment. The Miners' Courts were differently organized. Pursuant to a general call, all occupying a mining district met together. They fixed the limits of their district, adopted a miners' code, defined the duties of officers, and elected them for the ensuing year. A president, judge, sheriff, collector, sur- 172 HISTORY OF COLORADO veyor and recorder, who was ex officio treasurer and secretary of the district, composed the officers of the court, who were all responsible to the superior tribunal, the Miners' meeting. These courts settled all claims and offenses in mining districts. When a case was not settled in the courts it was carried to the Miners' meeting. There was no appeal from their decision. The courts organ- ized under the Provisional government were respected by the people, and their decisions accepted with general satisfaction. In Denver and some other places the People's Courts alone were recognized. But as a rule these People's Courts were orderly affairs. An illustration will bear this out. In July, i860, James Gordon, while on a spree, and entirely un- provoked, shot down a man named Jacob Gantz. Escaping to Fort Lupton, he was able to barricade himself, but finally, hard-pressed by a posse, escaped by riding through the crowd of pursuers. He was captured on the Indian Terri- tory border by W. H. Middaugh, acting as people's sheriff, and when taken to Leavenworth was acquitted in a farcical trial. A mob turned him over to the Colorado sheriff, and Gordon was brought to Denver. A People's Court was formed, and the judge in addressing it said: "The trifling of one of the highest courts of the land with the life that is now in our hands has turned the eyes of tens of thousands in the states towards Denver, where no law of the great American Union claims jurisdiction. Let us temper justice with mercy, and let no mob or unlawful attempt interfere with the 'People's Court.' " Gordon was defended by able lawyers, and twelve of the most respected men in the com- munity found him guilty. He was executed some days later, time having been allowed for friends to attempt to secure a reprieve. CONGRESS CREATES COLORADO TERRITORY On February 26, 1861, Congress created the Territory of Colorado, and the new officials, headed by Governor William Gilpin, arrived on May 29th of that year. The other coordinate branch of Federal Government had now to be estab- lished. This was the Territorial Supreme Court. On July loth, the governor assigned the judges to their districts, and the Supreme Court immediately organ- ized. On July nth he issued a proclamation, in which the Territory was de- clared to be one congressional district, and the congressional district to be divided into nine council and thirteen representative districts, and in which the election of a delegate to Congress, and of a legislative assembly was ordered. The election was held on the 19th day of August, Hiram P. Bennet being chosen delegate to Congress. The Legislature of the Territory of Colorado convened on the 9th of September. They adopted full civil and criminal codes. They rec- ognized the miners as authority in mining legislation, acknowledged the legality of their courts, adopted their laws, confirmed their decisions, and arranged for the transfer of cases to the regular courts, so that no jarring, nor inconvenience was experienced. Great praise is due to this legislative body for the laws they enacted, and though some have been found faulty and others repealed, yet they effectually served the needs of the Territory. In 1867 Congress passed an act providing that the legislative assemblies of the several territories of the United States "shall not, after the passage of this act, HISTORY OF COLORADO 173 grant private charters or especial privileges, but they may, by general incorpora- tion acts, permit persons to associate themselves together as bodies corporate; for mining, manufacturing and other industrial pursuits." In the same act it made the salary of each of the Territorial Supreme Court judges $2,500 per year. Biennial sessions of the legislative assemblies of territories were provided for in 1869. The civil and criminal codes enacted by the first territorial legislation were founded on those of Illinois, the practice act of that state being almost bodily appropriated, and the acts of the People's Courts as well as the Miners' Courts were in many instances ratified. The records of some of these early courts, kept by able secretaries, are still to be found in the court archives, and have been repeatedly reverted to in litigation. CREATING THE FIRST COUNTIES When the first territorial legislature met one of its earliest tasks was the creation of seventeen counties, as follows : Arapahoe, with Denver as its county seat. Boulder, with Boulder as its county seat. Clear Creek, with Idaho as its county seat. Costilla, with San Miguel as its county seat. Douglas, with Frankstown as its county seat. El Paso, with Colorado City as its county seat. Fremont, with Caiion City as its county seat. Gilpin, with Central City as its county seat. Guadaloupe, later changed to Conejos, with Guadaloupe as its county seat. Huerfano, with Autobees as its county seat. Jefferson, with Golden City as its county seat. Lake, with Oro City (Leadville) as its county seat. Larimer, with La Porte as its county seat. Park, with Tarryall City as its county seat. Pueblo, with Pueblo as its county seat. Summit, with Parkville as its county seat. Weld, with St. Vrain as its county seat. Many of the seventeen counties were larger than some of the eastern states, but the Arapahoe and Cheyenne Reservation, in southeastern Colorado, was not included in the division. Arapahoe extended from the Jefferson County line to the eastern limits of the territory. Weld occupied the entire northeastern part of the territory. Huerfano was even larger, extending from the Arkansas and the Pueblo County line to the New Mexico line. Douglas stretched to the territory's eastern limit. El Paso and Pueblo, Larimer and Fremont, were all big divisions, but were dwarfed by the extent of territory occupied by Summit, Lake, Costilla and Conejos counties, which extended over much of what is now the San Luis Valley, North Park, and a good part of the higher country along the Arkansas, as well as the entire western slope. The judicial districts were three in number, the first comprising Arapahoe, Boulder, Douglas, El Paso, Larimer and Weld ; the second, Clear Creek, Gilpin, 174 HISTORY OF COLORADO Jefferson, Park and Summit; and the third, Conejos, Costilla, Fremont, Huer- fano, Lake and Pueblo. The first Legislature also lost no time in clearing up the many "Jefferson" territory enactments, ratifying the consolidation of Denver, Auraria and High- lands, and the granting of a charter to Denver. Titles to real estate given in the days before territorial organization were finally smoothed out by congressional action in 1864. , MOVING THE CAPITAL TO COLORADO CITY The first Legislature, empowered by Congress to increase its membership from nine in the council to thirteen, and from thirteen in the house to twenty- six, arranged for the additional representation. Two days before it adjourned it made Colorado City the capital of the territory. This was done largely to injure Denver, the country members believing that the hustling little town was endeavoring to "do all the governing." Despite this feeling, when the next Legislature met in the log cabin provided at Colorado City it remained but nine days, resuming its labors in Denver, July 16, 1862. This was accomplished despite the southern members, who as Judge W. F. Stone, a member of that body, relates, "were finally brought together in Mother Maggart's Hotel under pretense of compromising the matter, locked in, and when the vote was finished we adjourned to Denver." THE CAPITAL AT GOLDEN Golden City was fighting for the honor, however, and before that second Legislature adjourned it specified that town as the seat of territorial govern- ment. CHANGE FROM GOLDEN TO DENVER The third Assembly met in the new capital, but adjourned almost at once to Denver. This Legislature finally changed the meeting date from the first Mon- day in February to the first Monday in January. The fourth Legislature stuck to Golden throughout its session. The fifth remained in Golden a single day. The sixth, which began its meetings December 2d, remained at Golden. The seventh first of all changed the convening date to the first ^Monday in January which is still the date for the opening of the Legislature, and then, on December 9, 1867, made Denver the permanent capital of the territory. But the work of that first territorial legislative assembly was perhaps as constructive as that of any that has since met. In giving married women con- trol of their own property and the power of making contracts they took a long step toward suffrage, which came many years later. With the enabling act pro- viding a fund, it began the work of establishing a state university. The third assembly passed the act providing for incorporation of giant stock companies. The fifth passed the important law requiring a discovery shaft of ten feet on a lode claim. But when Congress passed the mining law of 1872 Colorado adjusted its entire mining code to conform to it. This was largely the work of the tenth Legislature. FIE8T CAPITOL OF COLORADO, NOW IN COLORADO SPRINGS, FORMERLY IN COLORADO CITY, WHICH WAS ANNEXED TO COLORADO SPRINGS IN 1917 Colorado City was the capital of the state for three days. 176 HISTORY OF COLORADO CONGRESS PROVIDES FOR CONSTITUTION In the enabling act, which was approved March 3, 1875, Congress pro- vided first of all for the formation of a constitution, which was to be "republican in form, and make no distinction in civil or political rights on account of race or color, except Indians not taxed, and not be repugnant to the Constitution of the United States and the principles of the Declaration of Independence." It provided that perfect toleration of religious sentiment shall be secured, and "no inhabitant of said state shall ever be molested in person or property on account of his or her mode of religious worship; secondly, that the people inhab- iting said territory do agree and declare that they forever disclaim all right and title to the unappropriated public lands lying within said territory; that the lands belonging to citizens of the United States residing without the said state shall never be taxed higher than the lands belonging to residents thereof, and that no taxes shall be imposed by the state on lands or property therein belonging to, or which may hereafter be purchased by the United States. "That sections numbered sixteen and thirty-six in every township, and where such sections have been sold or otherwise disposed of by any act of Congress, other lands, equivalent thereto, in legal subdivisions of not more than one quarter-section, and as contiguous as may be, are hereby granted to said state for the support of common schools; fifty entire sections of the unappro- priated public lands within said state, to be selected and located by direction of the Legislature thereof, be granted to said state for the purpose of erecting public buildings at the capital of said state for legislative and judicial purposes; that fifty other entire sections of land are hereby granted to said state for the purpose of erecting a suitable building for a penitentiary or state prison ; that seventy-two other sections of land shah be set apart and reserved for the use and support of a state university; that 5 per centum of the proceeds of the sales of agricultural public lands lying within said state which shall be sold by the United States subsequent to the admission of said state into the Union, after deducting all the expenses incident to the same, shall be paid to the said state for the purpose of making such internal improvements within said state as the Legislature thereof may direct; that the two sections of land in each township herein granted for the support of common schools shall be disposed of only at public sale and at a price not less than $2.50 per acre, the proceeds to constitute a permanent school fund, the interest of which is to be expended in the support of common schools; that all mineral lands shall be excepted from the operation and grants of this act." Under this act delegates to frame a constitution were duly elected, met in convention in December, 1875, and adjourned after completing their task March 13, 1876. A complete history of the framing of the constitution will be found in the succeeding chapter. CUSTOMS OF LEGISLATURE The Legislature convened at 12 o'clock M. on the first Wednesday in January, 1879, and at 12 M. on the first Wednesday in January of each alternate year "forever thereafter," and at other times when convened by the governor. HISTORY OF COLOR.\DO 177 Custom, so prevalent and so ancient as to have the force of law, has made it the duty of the clerk of the previous house to call to order, and to conduct the proceedings generally, until a speaker is chosen, but any member-elect is competent to perform this duty. In other states it is the custom of the secretary of state to furnish to the clerk a certified statement of the names of the members-elect, which is read. The members then advance to the clerk's desk, generally the delegation of each county by itself, and subscribe the oath of office. But in this state the usual proceeding is to choose a speaker and a clerk pro tem., and to appoint a com- mittee which examines credentials of members-elect, and reports to the House thus temporarily organized. The oath of office is then administered to the members-elect. It may be administered by the president of the Senate, the governor, secretary of state, attorney general, or any of the judges of the Supreme Court. It has been administered in this state usually by one of the judges. After all are sworn the roll is called, when, if a quorum is found present, the speaker pro tem. de- ' clares the House to be qualified and competent to proceed to business. If the members present have determined their choice for officers, the election proceeds forthwith; if not, an adjournment is had until the next day. It is determined by the House whether the election for speaker, clerk, and sergeant-at-arms and the subordinate officers shall be by ballot, viva voce, or otherwise. Candidates for speaker are nominated and the vote taken. The speaker pro tem. announces the result, and names a committee to con- duct the speaker-elect to the chair. The other elections proceed in the same manner, except that when the result is announced by the speaker the officer- elect advances to the clerk's desk and is sworn in by the speaker. A committee is then appointed to wait on the Senate, and inform it that the House is organized; or the clerk is directed, by resolution, to inform the Senate of the fact. It is customary for the speaker to appoint a committee of three to meet with a committee of three from the Senate for the purpose of forming joint rules for the government of both houses; and when completed the committees report to their respective houses. By concurrent resolution both houses meet in joint convention to canvass the vote for executive officers. When it has been determined who are the executive officers, a joint com- mittee of both houses is then appointed to wait on the governor and inform him that both houses of the General Assembly are organized, and that the houses are in readiness to receive any communication from him. The Senate and House usually assemble in joint convention in the chamber of the House upon some day and hour suggested by the governor, during the first week of the session to hear his message. The message is usually read by the executive, but may be read by his private secretary, or by anyone the governor may appoint. At the first opportunity after hearing the message read the various recom- mendations therein contained are referred, by resolution, to appropriate standing committees, or select committees. Vol. 1—12 178 HISTORY OF COLORADO Standing committees are appointed by the speaker at as early a day in the session as is possible. Each committee usually consists of five members, but the House determines the number. TERRITORIAL OFFICERS OF COLORADO GOVERNORS William Gilpin, appointed by Abraham Lincoln July 8, i86l John Evans, appointed by Abraham Lincoln April 19, 1862 Alexander Cummings, appointed by Andrew Johnson Oct. 17, 1865 A. C. Hunt, appointed by Andrew Johnson May 27, 1867 Edward M. McCook, appointed by U. S. Grant June 15, 1869 Samuel H. Elbert, appointed by U. S. Grant March 9, 1873 Edward M. McCook, reappointed by U. S. Grant August, 1874 John L. Routt, appointed by U. S. Grant March 29, 1875 SECRETARIES Lewis Ledyard Weld, appointed by Abraham Lincoln July 8, 1861 Samuel H. Elbert, appointed by Abraham Lincoln April 19, 1862 Frank Hall, appointed by Andrew Johnson May 2, 1866 Frank Hall, appointed by U. S. Grant June 15, 1869 Frank Hall, reappointed by U. S. Grant June 18, 1873 John W. Jenkins, appointed by U. S. Grant February 12, 1874 John Taffe, appointed by U. S. Grant August 16, 1875 TREASURERS George T. Clark, appointed by Governor Gilpin November 12, 1861 Alexander W. Atkins, appointed by Governor Evans March 17, 1864 A. C. Hunt, appointed by Governor Cummings January 25, 1866 John Wanless, appointed by Governor Cummings September 5, 1866 Columbus Nuckolls, appointed by Governor Hunt December 16, 1867 Columbus Nuckolls, reappointed by Governor Hunt March 17, 1868 George T. Clark, appointed by Governor McCook February 14, 1870 George T. Clark, reappointed by Governor McCook February 17, 1872 David H. Moffat, Jr., appointed by Governor Elbert January 26, 1874 Frederick Z. Salomon, appointed by Governor Routt Februar}' 11, 1876 AUDITORS Milton M. Delano, appointed by Governor Gilpin November 12, 1861 Richard E. Whitsitt, appointed by Governor Evans March 10, 1864 Richard E. Whitsitt, appointed by Governor Cummings January 26, 1866 Hiram J. Graham, appointed by Governor Cummings December 13, 1866 Nathaniel F. Cheesman, appointed by Governor Hunt Januarj' 7, 1868 James B. Thompson, appointed by Governor McCook February 15, 1870 HISTORY OF COLORADO 179 James B. Thompson, reappointed by Governor McCook February 14, 1872 Levin C. Charles, appointed by Governor Elbert January 26, 1874 Levin C. Charles, reappointed by Governor Routt February 12, 1876 SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION William J. Curtice, appointed by Governor Gilpin November 7, 1861 William S. Walker, appointed by Governor Evans November 15, 1863 *AIexander W. Atkins February 10, 1865 *John Wanless January, 1866 *Columbus Nuckolls March, 1867 Wilbur C. Lothrop, appointed by Governor McCook March, 1870 Wilbur C. Lothrop, reappointed by Governor McCook March, 1872 Horace M. Hale, appointed by Governor Elbert July 24, 1873 Horace M. Hale, reappointed by Governor Elbert 1874 Horace M. Hale, reappointed by Governor Routt February 9, 1876 DELEGATES TO CONGRESS Hiram P. Bennet, elected December 2, 1861 Hiram P. Bennet, re-elected October 7, 1862 Allen A. Bradford, elected July 11, 1864 George M. Chilcott, elected November 14, 1865 George M. Chilcott, re-elected August 7, 1866 Allen A. Bradford, re-elected September 8, 1868 Jerome B. Chaffee, elected September 13, 1876 Jerome B. Chaffee, re-elected September 10, 1872 Thomas M. Patterson, elected September 8, 1874 JUDGES OF THE SUPREME COURT CHIEF JUSTICES Benjamin F. Hall, appointed by Abraham Lincoln March 25, 1861 Stephen S. Harding, appointed by Abraham Lincoln July 10, 1863 Moses Hallett, appointed by Andrew Johnson April 10, 1866 Moses Hallett, reappointed by U. S. Grant April 30, 1870 Moses Hallett, reappointed by U. S. Grant 1874 ASSOCIATE JUSTICES Charles Lee Armour, appointed by Abraham Lincoln March 28, 1861 S. Newton Pettis, appointed by Abraham Lincoln July 9, 1861 Allen A. Bradford, appointed by Abraham Lincoln June 6, 1862 Charles F. Holly, appointed by Andrew Johnson June 10, 1865 William H. Gale, appointed by Andrew Johnson June 10, 1865 William R. Gorsline, appointed by Andrew Johnson June 18. 1866 Christian S. Eyster, appointed by Andrew Johnson August II, 1866 James B. Belford, appointed by U. S. Grant June 17, 1870 • Ex officio as Territorial Treasurer. 180 HISTORY OF COLORADO Ebenezer T. Wells, appointed by U. S. Grant February 8, 1871 James B. Belford, reappointed by U. S. Grant 1874 Amherst W. Stone, appointed by U. S. Grant March i, 1875 Andrew W. Brazee, appointed by U. S. Grant February 24, 1876 UNITED STATES ATTORNEYS FOR COLORADO Name Date of Appointment Theodore Edwards March 27, 1861 James E. Dalliba August 19, 1861 Samuel E. Browne April 8, 1862 George W. Chamberlin October i, 1865 Henry C. Thatcher April 19, 1869 Lewis C. Rockwell June 7, 1870 H. C. Alleman April 15, 1873 Charles D. Bradley June 30, 1875 Westbrook S. Decker January 12, 1877 Edward L. Johnson May 10, 1880 Andrew W. Brazee September 5, 1882 Henry W. Hobson May 28, 1886 John D. Fleming March 23, 1889 Henry V. Johnson April 15, 1893 Greeley W. Whitford April 20, 1897 Earl M. Cranston April 25, 1901 Thomas Ward, Jr February 17, 1908 Harry Eugene Kelly February 17, 1912 Harry B. Tedrow June 26, 1914 LENGTH OF SESSIONS AND NUMBER OF MEMBERS — TERRITORIAL ORGANIZATION Time of Length of Year Meeting Adjournment 1861 September 9th November 7th 1862 July 7th August 15 1864 February' ist March nth 1865 January 2nd February loth 1866 January ist February 9th 1866 December 3d January 11, 1867 1867 December 2d January 10, 1868 1870 January 3d February nth 1872 January ist February 9th 1874 January 5th February 13th 1876 January 3d February nth CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTIONS 1865 . Aug. 8 Aug. 12 1875 Dec. 20 March 15, 1876 Session No. Mems. 60 days 22 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 40 days 39 5 days 62 87 days 39 BROADMOOR HOTEL, COLORADO SPRINGS ih...'s2Bj STRATTON PARK, COLOKADO SPRINGS 182 HISTORY OF COLORADO FIRST ELECTION POLL BY COUNTIES The vote by counties at the first general election was as follows : Governor Counties John L. Routt, R. Bela M. Hughes, D. Arapahoe 2,173 i,795 Bent 250 439 Boulder 1,539 1.096 Costilla 351 173 Conejos 341 218 Clear Creek 1,072 1,031 Douglas 282 333 Elbert 84 117 El Paso 713 397 Fremont 522 531 Gilpin 1,005 763 Grand 73 147 Huerfano 410 614 Hinsdale 420 382 Jefferson 537 596 Larimer 374 300 Lake 229 234 Las Animas 669 1,271 La Plata 50 108 Park 465 423 Pueblo 543 739 Rio Grande 364 362 Saguache 306 189 San Juan 393 410 Summit 201 185 Weld 788 463 Total 14.154 13,316 CHAPTER IX THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION OPPOSITION TO STATEHOOD MEETINGS OF CONVENTION APPOINTMENT OF COM- MITTEES SUMMARY OF CONSTITUTION FRAMING AN APPEAL TO THE PEOPLE THE VOTE SUBMITTING OF CONSTITUTION TO FEDERAL AUTHORITIES STATE- HOOD It was by no means certain that the people of Colorado would accept the state- hood offered by the Federal Government under the enabling act of March 3, 1875. In fact when the constitution was finally submitted it needed no argument, for it was throughout an ably prepared document, but its defeat was looked for by many because the sentiment against statehood was still strong. This was the third effort at statehood, the others having failed respectively by reason of an adverse majority and a presidential veto. But in 1875 the popula- tion was approximately one hundred thousand, and there had grown up in the people of the territory a pride in its resources, its climate, its beauty and gran- deur, but above all in its tremendous possibilities. True, the panic of 1873 '^'^'^ J*^^*^ penetrated to the Rocky Mountain region, the locust pest had devastated the crops in 1873, and all efforts at extending ir- rigation systems had ceased for the time. But the men who came to frame this constitution were the most influential citizens of their respective communities, and, having the confidence of the voters, would each personally draw a large contingent to support the document. In the two other efforts to gain admission it was more an attempt to break into the union. This time Congress and the President had defined the exact con- ditions under which statehood was possible. The convention met for the first time in the Odd Fellows Hall, First National Bank Building, northeast corner of Blake and Fifteenth streets, on December 20, 1875. The constitutional convention was comprised as follows: From the First District, composed of the County of Weld, S. J. Plumb and J. S. Wheeler. From the Second District, composed of the counties of Weld and Larimer, A. K. Yount. From the Third District, composed of the County of Larimer, W. C. Stover. From the Fourth District, composed of the County of Boulder, Wm. E. Beck and Byron L. Carr. From the Fifth District, composed of the County of Gilpin, Alvin Marsh and L. C. Rockwell. 183 184 HISTORY OF COLORADO From the Sixth District, composed of the County of Clear Creek, Wm. M. Clark and Wm. H. Cushman. From the Seventh District, composed of the counties of Clear Creek, Sum- mit and Grand, W. W. Webster. From the Eighth District, composed of the County of Jefferson, Geo. G. White and Wm. Lee. From the Ninth District, composed of the County of Arapahoe, E. T. Wells, H. P. H. Bromwell, L. C. Ellsworth, F. J. Ebert, C. P. Elder and Daniel Hurd. From the Tenth District, composed of the counties of Arapahoe and Doug- las, P. P. Wilcox. From the Eleventli District, composed of the County of Bent, J. W. Widder- f^eld. From the Twelfth District, composed of the counties of Bent and Elbert, John S. Hough. From the Thirteenth District, composed of the County of El Paso, J. C. Wilson and Robert Douglas. From the Fourteenth District, composed of the counties of Park and Lake, Wm. H. James and Geo. E. Pease. From the Fifteenth District, composed of the County of Saguache, W. B. Felton. From the Sixteenth Dictrict, composed of the County of Fremont, A. D. Cooper. From the Seventeenth District, composed of the County of Pueblo, Wilbur F. Stone and Henry C. Thatcher. From the Eighteenth District, composed of the County of Las Animas, Jesus M. Garcia, Casimiro Barela and George Boyles. From the Nineteenth District, composed of the counties of Las Animas and Huerfano, Agapeta Vijil. From the Twentieth District, composed of the County of Huerfano, Robert A. Quillian. From the Twenty-first District, composed of the County of Costilla, Wm. H. Meyer. From the Twenty-second District, composed of the County of Conejos, La Fayette Head. From the Twenty-third District, composed of the counties of Rio Grande and Hinsdale, Wm. R. Kennedy. From the Twenty-fourth District, composed of the County of La Plata, Henry R. Crosby. Judge Wilbur F. Stone, of Pueblo, was made temporary chairman, being succeeded on December 21st, by Joseph C. Wilson, of El Paso, permanent chair- man. The secretary of the convention was W. W. Coulson. The convention was in session until March 15, 1876, and framed the present fimdamental law of Colorado, on the whole one of the best of the state consti- tutions of the Union. Throughout the sessions the men were animated by a desire to make the fundamental law as just and fair as the joint opinions of its members could frame it. The following is a list of its committees : Bill of Rights — Messrs. Marsh, Widderfield, Hurd, Ellsworth and Wheeler. HISTORY OF COLORADO 185 Legislature and Legislation — Messrs. Thatcher, Stover, Elder, James, Meyer, Wilcox, Clark, Boyles and Cushman. Executive Department — Messrs. Elder, Hough, James, Head and White. Judiciary — Messrs. Stone, Wells, Thatcher, Beck, Marsh, Rockwell, White, Boyles, Kennedy, Pease and Felton. Rights of Suffrage and Elections — Messrs. Webster, Bromwell, Stone, Beck and Vijil. Impeachment and Removal from Office — Messrs. Crosby, White, Wilcox, Meyer and Garcia. Education and Educational Institutions — Messrs. Hurd, Stone, Carr, Wheeler and Douglas. Public and Private Corporations — Messrs. Rockwell, Cooper, Ellsworth, Thatcher, Wheeler, Meyer, Douglas, Webster and Barela. Revenue and Finance — Messrs. Cushman, Yount, Hough, Plumb and Ells- worth. Counties — Messrs. Boyles, James, Stover, Hurd and Plumb. Officers and Oath of Office — Messrs. Felton, Wells, Lee, Crosby and Quil- lian. Military Affairs — Messrs. Carr, Cooper and Pease. Mines and Mining — Messrs. Clark, James, Kennedy, Rockwell, Crosby, Stover, Ebert, Carr and Webster. Irrigation, Agriculture and Manufactures — Messrs. Plumb, Head, Barela, Felton, Wheeler, Lee, Ebert, Widderfield and Cooper. Accounts and Expenditures of Convention — Messrs. Yount, Ebert and Barela. State Institutions and Buildingsi — Messrs. Douglas, Hurd, Quillian, Cushman and Kennedy. Congressional and Legislative apportionments: — Messrs. Beck, Thatcher, Quil- lian, Ellsworth, White, Meyer, Pease, Kennedy and Clark. Federal Relations — Messrs. Wilcox, White and Garcia. Future Amendments — Messrs. Pease, Elder, Boyles, Wilcox and Marsh. Revision and Adjustments — Messrs. Wells, Bromwell, Carr, Lee and Rock- well. Schedule — Messrs. Quillian, Wells, Stone, Marsh and Carr. Printing — Messrs. Hough, Bromwell and Webster. Enrolling and Engrossing — Messrs. Cooper, Crosby and Widderfield. Miscellaneous — Messrs. Head, Beck, Garcia, Lee and Elder. State, County and Municipal Indebtedness — Messrs. Bromwell, Cushman, Hough, Douglas and Yount. Forest Culture — Messrs. Ebert, Felton and Stover. SUMMARY OF THE CONSTITUTION The Bill of Rights guarantees all national and civil rights, and to the end that more power should be reserved to the people it declared that the General Assemlily shall make no irrevocable grants of special privileges or inununities; that private property shall not be taken or damaged for public or private use without just comjionsatioii ; that no preference shall lie given bv law to religious denominations; that right and justice shall be administered wilhout sale, denial 186 HISTORY OF COLORADO or delay; that aliens, who are bona fide residents of the state, shall acquire, in- herit, possess and enjoy property to the full extent as if native-born citizens. The grand jury system was modified so as to make a grand jury consist of twelve men instead of twenty-three — any nine of whom concurring may find a bill, and the question whether it may not be abolished altogether is left to the Legisla- ture. The petit jury system was modified so as to permit the organization of a jury of less than twelve men in civil cases. The right of trial by jury in all criminal cases was preserved, and for the purpose of protecting witnesses in criminal prosecutions, and that the accused may always meet the witnesses against him face to face, provided for the taking of depositions before some judge of the Supreme, District or County Court, which can be used upon trial of the cause when the personal attendance of the witness cannot be obtained. The term of office of the governor and other state officers was fixed at two years. The Governor was given the power to remove all officers by him appointed, for misconduct or malfeasance in office ; he was also empowered to grant par- dons, subject, however, to such regulations for the application of the same as may be provided by law. All the state officers were to be paid by salaries for their services, and were required to pay into the treasury "all fees by them col- lected in their respective offices." The General Assembly was required to meet once in two years. The term of office of the senators was fixed at four years; that of representatives at two. For the first session the compensation of the members of the General Assembly was fixed at $4 per day, and thereafter as may be provided by law. "No mem- ber of the General Assembly shall, during his term of office, receive any increase of salary, or mileage, above that allowed at the time of his election." The evils of local and special legislation being patent, the passage of any law not general in its provisions was prohibited. To afford protection from hasty legislation, it was required that all bills should be printed; that only one subject should be embraced in each bill, which should be clearly expressed in its title ; that it should be read on three different days in each house before being passed, and that no bill should be introduced, except for the general expenses of the Government, after the first twenty-five days of the session. It prohibited the passing of any law giving extra compensation, to any public officer, servant, agent or employe, after services rendered, without previous au- thority of law ; "nor is any officer of the state to be in any way interested in any contracts or awards by which the legislative and other departments of govern- ment are furnished with stationery, printing, paper and fuel." "It is further provided that no appropriation shall be made to any denomina- tional, sectarian or any other institution not under the absolute control of the State." The District Courts were invested with original jurisdiction to hear and de- termine all controversies in behalf of the people, concerning the rights, duties and liabilities of railroad, telegraph and toll road companies or corporations. A Supreme Court, composed of different judges from those of the District Courts, was created. "This court," it was explained, "will have three judges, and as constituted will obviate the objections long entertained and frequently expressed HISTORY OF COLORADO 187 against our present system, by which the same judge who presides over the trial of a cause- in the District Court sits in review of his own decision in the Su- preme Court." The judges of the District Courts were to be elected for six, and those of the Supreme Court for nine years. Instead of Probate Courts, County Courts were created for every county, with probate jurisdiction, and such civil and criminal jurisdiction as may be prescribed by law, their civil jurisdiction being limited to controversies in which the amount involved does not exceed the siuii of two thousand dollars. The judges of these courts were to be elected for three years. The General Assembly was empowered to create Criminal Courts for coun- ties having a population exceeding fifteen thousand, and Police Magistrates for cities and towns. Justices of the Peace were to have jurisdiction to the amount of three hun- dred dollars. The general supervision of the public schools was vested in a Board of Edu- cation. The maintenance of free public schools, and the gratuitous instruction therein for all children between the ages of six and twenty-one years, was forever guar- anteed. It was declared that the public school fund shall forever remain inviolate and intact : "that neither the State, nor any county, city, town or school district shall ever make any appropriation, nor pay from any public fund any thing in aid of, or to help support any school or institution of learning of any kind con- trolled by any church or sectarian denomination whatsoever; that no religious test shall ever be required as a condition for admission into any of the public schools, either as pupil or teacher; that no religious or sectarian dogmas shall ever be taught in any of the schools under the patronage of the State." A state census was to be taken in the year 1885, and every ten years there- after, which, with the Federal census of 1880, decennially thereafter, would en- able the General Assembly to revise and correct the apportionment, on the basis of population, every five years. It provided for the wiping out of all dormant and sham corporations claim- ing special and exclusive privileges; denied the General Assembly the power to create corporations, or to extend or enlarge their chartered rights by special legislation, or to make such rights and privileges irrevocable. It forbade the consolidation of parallel and competing railroad lines, and of all unjust and unreasonable discriminations between individuals in their business with such corporations. It retained the jurisdiction of state courts in case of consolidation of a corporation within the state with any foreign corporation, over that part of the corporate property within the limits of this state. For the purpose of defraying the expenses of the state, a tax was provided for, not in any case to e.xcced six mills on the dollar, with restrictions, that "when the valuation of property within the state shall amount to one hundred million dollars, the rate shall not exceed four mills, and when the valuation shall amount to three iiundrcd million dollars, the rate shall never thereafter exceed two mills on each dollar of valuation." Corporations and corporate property, real and personal, were required to 188 HISTORY OF COLORADO share the burden of taxation, and the power to tax the same was never to be rehnquished or suspended. The Legislature was prohibited from lending the credit of the state in aid of any corporation, either by loan or becoming a subscriber to any stock, or a joint owner with any party, except in case of forfeitures and escheats; neither could it assume any debt or liability of any party. It required that appropriations be kept within the limits of resources, and that no appropriations be made unless assessments were made sufficient to meet them, and at the same session of the Legislature. It provided that the General Assembly shall not by special law remove the county seat of any county, but that the location of county seats should always remain a question to be voted on by the qualified electors in the several counties. It prohibited under very stringent provisions the importation, manufacture and sale of all spurious or adulterated liquors. It provided liberally for the amending of the Constitution. In submitting the document to the people the committee closed its appeal with this argument, which gives a clear insight into the insidious nature of the opposition : "We do not think it necessary to enter into an elaborate argument to show why they should meet your approval; believing that you fully appreciate the inestimable prize secured by entering the sisterhood of states, whereby you gain those privileges that flow only from that form of government, which is the offspring of your choice, completely free in its principles, uniting in its powers, security, happiness and prosperity of the whole people. But it is easy to foresee that from difl^erent causes, and from dift'erent sources, an eiifort will be made, and many artifices employed to weaken in your minds the conviction of this truth, and we may reasonably assume that the chief objection made to a state govern- ment will not be founded upon the character of the instrument we have framed, but upon the alleged and supposed increase of expenses and consequent taxation. This is the old cry, and however potent it may have been heretofore, it certainly has lost its force in the facts of the present. We meet this objection directly, by conceding that a state government will, of course, involve an increased ex- pense over that of our present form, but we assert that this expense will be more than balanced by the pecuniary gain alone which we will receive by be- coming a state. We will suppose that if we are not admitted now, we will not have another opportunity of admission for at least five years. The increase in our expenses under a State government will be about $50,000 per annum, which, in five years, will amount to $250,000. This would be saved to us, or, more properly, be delayed in payment, by remaining out of the Union five years longer. "Now, let us see what we would lose in that time: The Act of Congress granting Sections Sixteen and Thirty-six for school purposes allows the State to select an amount of public land equal to that which has been sold out of said Sections to settlers prior to survey. Under this arrangement we will be entitled to select about fifty sections of land. "The Enabling Act grants fifty other sections for public buildings, fifty sec- tions for the penitentiary, and seventy-two sections for general purposes — mak- ing a total of two hundred and twenty-two sections, or one hundred and forty-two HISTORY OF COLORADO 189 thousand and eighty acres of land, which, at $2.50 per acre, amounts, in value, to $385,200. "It will also be remembered that, upon becoming a state, Colorado will be entitled to five hundred thousand acres of public land within her borders, by virtue of a grant heretofore made by Congress. This amount, if selected now, would be worth to us at least $500,000. "The Enabling Act also grants the State five per cent, of the proceeds from the sale of the public agricultural lands after the adoption of this Constitution. The amount to be derived from this source for the next five years would ex- ceed one hundred thousand dollars, which, added to the value of the land above mentioned, would make a total of about $1,000,000, which is four times the esti- mated amount of the increased expenses of the State for this period, so that we would really gain over three-quarters of a million dollars in five years by becoming a State. More than this, the revenues from sections sixteen and thirty- six will save the whole State, in our school taxes, from ten to twenty-five thou- sand dollars yearly, making a saving in five years of from fifty to one hundred thousand dollars in addition to that already estimated. Should we not be ad- mitted, and remain in a Territorial condition five years longer, most, if not all, the public agricultural and non-mineral lands in Colorado, which are worth any- thing, will have been sold by that time, so that there being none left for selection, we would lose all this, even if a like grant should be renewed at the end of that time. No one will doubt this statement who reflects upon the small amount of public agricultural lands now left within our territorial limits, and considers the probable immigration for the next five years. The five per cent, alluded to would, from the same cause, like the lands granted in the Enabling Act, be forever lost to Colorado, and we would, therefore, at the end of that time be obliged to commence our statehood with increased expenses, and at a dead loss of over a million of dollars at the lowest possible estimate. In addition to these several benefits to be derived by our admission into the Union at this time, we would also call your attention to the fact that, by cutting off special legislation, we have lessened the expenses of that department almost one-half; by reducing the number of petit and grand jurors the expenses of the judiciary department are greatly reduced, while the provisions guarding against hasty legislation at the close of the sessions of the General Assembly, will prevent great squander- ing of public money, and in many cases save more to the State than sufScient to pay the per diem and mileage of the members of that body." On July I, 1876, the vote on the ratification of the document was: For the constitution, 15,443; against, 4,062. The authenticated copy of the constitution with the certified copy of the vote was taken to Washington by John N. Rcigart, secretary to Governor Routt. On August 1st, President Grant issued the proclamation admitting Colorado to statehood. CHAPTER X GROWTH OF THE STATE GOVERNMENT THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT ROSTER OF ELECTIVE STATE OFFICERS REPRESENTA- TION IN CONGRESS THE MEMBERSHIP OF THE SUPREME BENCH DENVER BE- COMES- THE CAPITAL BUILDING THE STATE HOUSE WHEN THE NEW COUNTIES WERE CREATED THE STATE's FINANCES AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION — THE INITIATIVE AND REFERENDUM RECALL OF DECISIONS THE SUFFRAGE AMEND- MENT PROHIBITION CHANGES IN THE FUNDAMENTAL LAW The executive department of the State of Colorado consists of a Governor. Lieutenant Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor of State, State Treasurer, Attorney General, and Superintendent of Public Instruction, each of whom holds office for the term of two years, beginning on the second Tuesday of Janu- ary next after his election, and until his successor is elected and qualified. The returns of every election for state officers are sealed up and transmitted to the Secretary of State, directed to the Speaker of the House of Representa- tives, who immediately, upon the organization of the House and before proceed- ing to other business, opens and publishes the same in the presence of a majority of the members of both houses of the General Assembly. The persons having the highest number of votes for either of said offices are declared elected ; but if two or more be equal and highest in votes, one of them shall be chosen to the office by the joint votes of both houses. Contested elections for these offices are determined by both houses of the General Assembly by joint ballot. The age requirement for Governor, Lieutenant Governor, or Superintendent of Public Instruction is thirty years; for the other elective officers it is twenty-five years. The Governor nominates and, with the consent of the Senate, appoints all officers "whose offices are established by this Constitution, or which may be created by law, and whose appointment or election is not otherwise provided for." In case of a vacancy in any office which is not elective during the recess of the Senate, the Governor makes temporary appointment until the next meet- ing of the Senate, when he nominates some person to fill such office. If the office of Auditor of State, State Treasurer, Secretary of State, Attorney General or Superintendent of Public Instruction is vacated by death, resignation or other- wise, the Governor fills the same by appointment. The Governor has power to grant reprieves, commutations and pardons after conviction for all offenses except treason or conviction of impeachment. The Governor may, on extraordinary occasions, convene the General Assem- 190 192 HISTORY OF COLORADO bly by proclamation, but, at such special sessions, no business shall be trans- acted other than that specially named in the proclamation. The Governor has power to disapprove of any item or items of any bill mak- ing appropriations of money. It requires a two-thirds vote to pass a measure over the Governor's veto. The Lieutenant Governor in case of death or disability of the state executive becomes Governor. He presides over the Senate. The Auditor and Treasurer are not eligible for these offices at next succeed- ing elections. Following is a complete roster of the Governors, Secretaries of State, Audit- ors, Treasurers, Attorney Generals, Superintendents of Public Instruction, mem- bers of the Supreme Court, U. S. Senators and Congressmen elected since the granting of statehood: STATE GOVERNORS John L. Routt, (R) 1876-1879 Frederick W. Pitkin, (R) 1879-1883 James B. Grant, (D) 1883-1885 Benjamin H. Eaton, (R) 1885-1887 Alva Adams, (D) , 1887-1889 Job A. Cooper, (R) 1889-1891 John L. Routt, (R) 1891-1893 David A. Waite, (P) 1893-1895 Albert W. Mclntyre, (R) 1895-1897 Alva Adams, (D) 1897-1899 Charles S. Thomas, (D) 1899-1901 James B. Orman, (D) 1901-1903 James H. Peabody, (R) 1903-1905 Alva Adams, (D) (Sixty-six days) 1905 James H. Peabody, (R) (One day) 1905 Jesse F. McDonald, (R) 1905-1907 Henry A. Buchtel, (R) 1907-1909 John F. Shafroth, (D) 1909-1913 Elias Ammons, (D) 1913-1915 George A. Carlson, (R) 1915-1917 Julius C. Gunter, (D) 1917-1919 U. S. SENATORS OF COLORADO Henry M. Teller, (R) 1876-1882 Jerome B. Chaffee, (R) 1876-1879 Nathaniel P. Hill, (R) 1879-1885 George M. Chilcott (R).... 1882 Horace A. W. Tabor (R) 1883 Thomas M. Bowen, (R) 1883-1889 HISTORY OF COLORADO 193 Henry M. Teller, (R) and (D) 1885-1909 Edward O. Wolcott (R) 1889-1901 Thomas M. Patterson, (D) 1901-1907 Simon Guggenheim, (R) 1907-1913 Charles J. Hughes, Jr., (D) 1909 Charles S. Thomas, (D) 1913- John F. Shafroth, (D) 1913- SECRETARIES OF STATE Wm. M. Clark (R) 1876-1879 Elmer F. Beckwith (D) 1899-1901 N. H. Meldrum (R) 1879-1883 David A. Mills (D) 1901-1903 Melvin Edwards (R) 1883-1887 James Cowie (R) 1903-1907 James Rice (R) 1887-1891 Timothy O'Connor (R) . . . . 1907-1909 E. J. Eaton (R) 1891-1893 James B. Pierce (D) 1909-1915 N. O. McClees (P) 1893-1895 John E. Ramer (R) 1915-1917 A. B. McGaffey (Rj 1895-1897 James R. Noland (D) 1917- Charles H. S. Whipple (D) . 1897-1899 AUDITORS D. C. Crawford (R) 1876-1879 E. K. Stimson (R) 1879-1881 Jos. A. Davis (R) 1881-1883 J. C. Abbott (R) 1883-1885 H. A. Spruance (R) 1885-1887 D. P. Kingsley (R) 1887-1889 Louis Schwanbeck (R) . . . . 1889-1891 J. M. Henderson (R) 1891-1893 F. M. Goodykoontz (P) . . . . 1893- 1895 C. C. Parks (R) 1895-1897 John W. Lowell (R) 1897-1899 George W. Temple (R) . . . . 1899-1901 Chas W. Crouter (R) 1901-1903 John A. Holmberg (R) 1903-1905 Alfred E. Bent (R) 1905-1907 George D. Statler (R) 1907-1909 Ready Kenehan (D) 1909-191 1 M. A. Leddy (D) 1911-1913 Roady Kenehan (D) 1913-1915 Harry E. Mulnix (R) 1915-1917 Charles H. Leckenby (D) . . 1917-1919 TREASURERS George C. Corning (R) 1876-1879 N. S. Culver (R) 1879-1881 W. C. Saunders (R) 1881-1883 Fred Walson (R) 1883-1885 G. R. Swallow (R) 1885-1887 P. W. Brecne (R) 1887-1889 W. H. Brisbane (R) 1889-1891 James N. Carlile (R) 1891-1893 Albert Nance (P) 1893-1895 H. E. Mulnix (R) 1895-1897 George W. Kephart (D) .. .1897-1899 John H. Fesler (D) . . . James N. Chipley (R) . Wliitney Newton (R).. John A. Holmberg (R) Alfred E. Bent (R).... Wm. J. Galligan (D).. Roady Kenehan (D) . . . Michael A. Leddy (D) Allison E. Stocker (R) Robert H. Higgins (D) 1899-1901 1901-1903 1903- 1905 190S-1907 I 907- I 909 1(^9-1911 1911-1913 I9i3-i9'5 1915-1917 1917-1919 194 HISTORY OF COLORADO SUPERINTENDENTS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION J. C. Shattuck (R) 1876-1881 Mrs. A. J. Peavey (R) . . . . 1895-1897 L. S. Cornell (R) 1881-1883 J. C. Shattuck (R) 1883-1885 L. S. Cornell (R) 1885-1889 Fred Dick (R) 1889-1891 N. B. Coy (D) 1891-1893 J. F. Murray (P) 1893-1895 Grace Espey Patton (D) . . . 1897-1899 Helen L. Grenfell (D) 1899-1905 Katherine L. Craig (R) 1905-1909 Katherine M. Cook (D) 1909-19 11 Helen M. Wixon (R) 1911-1013 Mary C. C. Bradford {D)..i9i3- ATTORNEYS GENERAL A. J. Sampson (R) 1876-1870 C. W. Wright (R) 1879-1881 C. H. Toll (R) 18S1-1883 D. C. Urmy (R) 1883-1885 T. H. Thomas (R) 1885-1887 Alvin Marsh (R) 1887-1889 S. W. Jones (R) 1889-1891 J. H. Maupin (D) 1891-1893 E. Engley (D) 1893-1895 Byron L. Carr (R) 1895-1899 David M. Campbell (R) . . . . 1899-1901 Charles C. Post (R) 1901-1903 Nathan C. Miller (R) 1903-1907 \Vm. H. Dickson (R) 1907-1909 John T. Barnett (D) i90' C. Thatcher (R) 1876 Samuel H. Elbert (R) 1876 Wilbur F. Stone (D) 1877 William E. Beck (R) 1879 Jqs. C. Helm (R) 1882 a-id 1891 Samuel H. Elbert (R.) 1886 Charles D. Hayt (R) 1888 \'ictor A. Elliott (R) 1888 L. M. Goddard (R) 1892 Wm. H. Gabbert (R) 1892 John Campbell (R) 1894 Robert W. Steele (D) 1900 Elected in *Julius C. Gunter (D) 1905 *John M. Maxwell (R) 1905 *George W. Bailey (R) 1905 Charles F. Caswell ( R ) 1904 George W. Musser (D) 1908 S. Harrison White (D) 1908 William A. Hill (D) 1908 Morton S. Bailey (D) 1908 James E. Garrigues (R) 1910 Tully Scott (D) 1912 James H. Teller (D ) 1914 George W. Allen (R) 1916 CONGRESSIONAL REPRESENTATIVES In 1876, when admitted to statehood, Colorado was entitled to two United States senators, one congressman, and three presidential electors. In 1890 the state was entitled to two representatives in Congress. In 1900 this had grown to three, with the state fairly apportioned, giving the Western Slope one representative, the southern part of the state one, and the eastern pan of the state one. The first congressman was James B. Belford, republican, for * Transferred from Court of .Appeals. HISTORY OF COLORADO 195 the short term, Thomas M. Patterson, democrat, succeeding him for the long term. Congressman Belford was returned to the forty-sixth, forty-seventh, and forty-eighth congresses. George G. Symes, repubhcan, succeeded him in the forty-ninth and fiftieth. Hosea Townsend, repubhcan, was elected to the Sfty- first and fifty-second congresses. In the fifty-third Congress, 1893, John C. Bell, republican, represented the second congressional district, and Lafe Pence, populist, the first. In 1895, the fifty-fourth Congress, John C. Bell and John F. Shafroth, republicans, were the state representatives, serving together until 1903. In that year and in 1905 the state elected Robert W. Bonynge, Herschel M. Hogg and Franklin E. Brooks, the latter at-large. For the sixtieth Congress, 1907-9, the Colorado congressmen were George W. Cook, at-large, Robert W. Bonynge, and Warren A. Haggott. For the sixty-first and sixty-second congresses the delegation was Edward T. Taylor, Atterson \\'. Rucker, and John A. Martin, all democrafs. The General Assembly, 1913, divided the state into four districts: First, the City and County of Denver. Second: Adams, Arapahoe, Boulder, Cheyenne, Douglas, Elbert, El Paso, Kit Carson, Larimer, Lincoln, Logan. Morgan, Phillips. Sedgwick, Washington, Weld and Yuma. Third : .Alamosa, Baca, Clear Creek, Conejos, Costilla, Crowley, Custer, Fre- mont, Gilpin, Huerfano, Jefferson, Kiowa, Las Animas, Alineral, Otero, Park. Prowers, Pueblo, Rio Grande, Saguache and Teller. Fourth : Archuleta, Chaffee, Delta, Dolores, Eagle, Garfield, Grand. Gunni- son, Hinsdale, Jackson, Lake, La Plata, Mesa, Moffat, Montezuma, Montrose, Ouray, Pitkin, Rio Blanco. Routt, San Juan, San Miguel and Summit. At the election of 1912 Edward T. Taylor and Edward Keating were elected at-large, George J. Kindel and H. H. Seldomridge representing the First and Second districts. The entire delegation was democratic. For the sixty-fourth and the present Congress the delegation is : First, B. C. Hilliard, democrat; Second, Charles B. Timberlake, republican; Third, Edward Keating, democrat ; Fourth, Edward T. Taylor, democrat. DENVER BECOMES C.VPITAI. On November 8, 1881, the people of Colorado by an overwhelming vote made Denver the permanent caj^ital of the state. The matter of locating the capital was wisely left open by the men who framed the constitution. They, however, made Denver the temporary seat of state government, stipulating that "the General Assembly shall have no power to change or locate the seat of govern- ment of the state, but shall at its first session subsequent to 1880 provide by law for submitting the question" to the people of the state. After this selection is made the constitution provides that it can be changed only by a two-thirds vote of the electors. And in the election which followed 30,248 votes were cast for Denver, 6,047 for Pueblo, 4,790 for Colorado Springs, 2jSS for Canon City, and i ,()00 votes scattered in the interests of manv other a^])irants for the honor. •» 196 HISTORY OF COLORADO ERECTING THE STATE HOUSE The effort to erect a state house began in 1867, when a commission appointed by the Legislature secured from Henry C. Brown, of Denver, the deed to two entire city blocks, bounded by Colfax and Fourteenth avenues and Grand and Lincoln streets. In 1883 the capitol "Board of Directors and Supervisors" pur- chased for $100,000 the city block bounded by Colfax, Broadway, Fourteenth and Lincoln, thus completing the present site. Other sites were given which later created a fund used in the construction of the present beautiful building. But the early capitol commissions, particu- larly that of 1867, were made up of men opposed to Denver. In 1874 there was still a strong sentiment, particularly in the southern part of the state, against the selection of Denver. The growth of the present capital had been phenomenal, and it was plainly the logical site for the seat of govern- ment. The feeling, however, was yet too strong to permit of a decision in the constitutional convention. In 1874 a board consisting of M. Benedict, of Den- ver, J. H. Blum, of Trinidad, and J. H. Pinkerton, of Evans, was appointed to carry out the legislative act to erect a building on the Brown site and have it ready for occupancy January i, 1876. The officials of the territory were now realizing the necessity for housing the departments under one building, for at the time they were located in widely separated office buildings of Denver. The matter of fire-proof vaults for records, the difficulty of getting officials together for conferences, the many delays and annoyances, were under constant consid- eration. The board again found that it lacked funds for the work, and so awaited the coming of statehood. The third General Assembly, under constitutional direction, did more than put the matter of location to a vote. It authorized a levy of one-half mill for a permanent state building fund. When the fourth General Assembly met the location had been voted on and the first tax fund was about to become available. It authorized the immediate selection of "The Board of Directors and Super- visors," with the Governor as chairman, ex officio, and Alfred Butters, George W. Kassler, E. S. Nettleton, John L. Routt, Dennis Sullivan and W. W. Web- ster, members, to erect a wing of the new capitol. There were at once available Si50,ocx) voted by the Legislature and an authorized bond issue of $300,000. The board decided it could not "build properly" with the moneys at hand, The fifth General Assembly voted not to exceed a million and asked for occupancy January i, 1890. In the competition which followed the plans adopted were those of E. E. Myers, of Detroit. The eastern contractors failed to carry out their agree- ment, and the construction was finally turned over to Denver men, among whom •was David Seerie, a prominent builder, who died early in 19 18. Gunnison County granite was used and added greatly to the cost. The Board of Capitol Managers appointed in 1890 comprised the Governor, ex officio. Benjamin F. Crowell, Charles J. Hughes, Jr., Otto Mears and John L. Routt, with full power to erect a magnificent structure. The board finally ex- pended about $3,400,000 on the building, which is thought by the ablest building experts of the country to be not only one of the most beautiful, but, considering results, one of the most economically constructed state houses in the country. f—t O a d o a w 198 HISTORY OF COLORADO The corner stone was laid by the State Grand Lodge of Masons, on July 4th, 1890, and the first offices were occupied late in 1894. In 1897 a State Board of Capitol Managers was created under an entirely new enactment, but its existence was limited to the time when the capitol building would be completed. In 191 7 this Board of Capitol Managers was made a permanent body. CREATING NEW COUNTIES The following are the counties created after the first territorial apportion- ment : Archuleta County was taken from the western part of Conejos County, on April 14. 1885, its county seat being fixed at Pagosa Springs. The state honored J. M. Archuleta, Jr., head of one of the old Spanish families, in this designation. Baca County was created April 16, 1889, and named in honor of the Mexican Baca family, residents of Trinidad. It was created from the eastern part of Las Animas County. Its county seat is Springfield. In the naming and creating of Bent County out of part of Pueblo County, the Legislature of 1870 honored the old traders of the Santa Fe Trail. Its county seat is at Las Animas. Chaffee County, segregated from Lake County, was created in 1879, and named in honor of one of Colorado's first senators. Its county seat is Buena Vista. On April 11, 1889, Cheyenne County was formed out of part of Elbert and Bent counties. It was the old rendezvous of the Cheyennes. Its coimty seat is Cheyenne Wells. Delta was segregated from Gunnison, February 11, 1883. Delta, formerly known as Uncompahgre, is the county seat. Dolores County was taken from Ouray County, February 19, 1881. Its county seat is Rico. It is named after its principal stream, the Rio Dolores. Eagle County was organized February 11, 1883, and was formerly part of Summit County. Redclifif is the county seat. It is named after its principal river. Elbert County, named after Governor Elbert, was organized February 2, 1874, out of Douglas County. Kiowa is the county seat. Garfield, taken from Summit County, was organized February 10, 1883. It was named after the late President James A. Garfield. Its county seat is Glen- wood Springs. Grand County takes its name from the Grand River, and was organized February 21, 1874. Hot Sulphur Springs is the county seat. Gunnison County, named after Captain Gunnison, was segregated out of part of Lake County, March g, 1877. Its county seat is Gunnison. Hinsdale County was established in 1874. when the Legislature created three new counties out of the region known as the San Juan. Its county seat is Lake City. The others were Rio Grande and La Plata, both named after the rivers of the southern part of the state. George A. Hinsdale, a former lieutenant governor, and famous as a jurist, is the sponsor for Hinsdale County. Del Norte is the county seat of Rio Grande and Durango is La Plata's county seat. HISTORY OF COLORADO 199 The northern part of Bent County was taken to form Kiowa County, April II, 1889. This was the old stamping ground of the Kiowa Indians. Las Animas County was created out of the southeastern part of Huerfano County, February 9, 1866. Trinidad is its county seat. Logan County, named for Maj. Gen. John A. Logan, was created out of part of Weld County, February 25, 1887. County seat is Sterling. Mesa County, taking its name from the Grand Mesa, was created out of part of Gunnison County, February 14, 1883. Its county seat is Grand Junction. Mineral County, taken from Rio Grande, Hinsdale and Saguache counties, was created March 27, 1897. Its county seat is Creede. Montezuma County was created out of the western part of La Plata County, April 16, 1889. Its county seat is Cortez. Montrose County was created out of the western part of Gunnison, February II. 1883. Its county seat is Montrose. Morgan County, named for Col. Christopher A. Morgan, a Civil War hero, was created out of part of Weld County, February 19, 1889. Its county seat is Fort Morgan. Otero County, named in honor of Miguel Otero, descended from an old Spanish family, was taken from the western part of Bent County, March 25, 1889. Its county seat is La Junta. Ouray County was taken from the northern part of San Juan, January 18, 1877, and is named after the famous Ute chief. Its county seat is Ouray. Phillips County, named after a local citizen, was created out of the southern part of I^gan County, March 27, 1889. Its county seat is Holyoke. Pitkin County, taken from the northern part of Gunnison County, February 23. 1881, is named after Governor F. W. Pitkin. Its county seat is Aspen. Prowers County, created from the eastern part of Bent County, named after the late John W. Prowers, a pioneer, was organized April 11, 1889. Its county seat is Lamar. Rio Blanco County was created out of the northern part of Garfield County, March 25, 1889. Its county seat is Meeker. Routt County was taken from Grand County, January 29, 1877, and named after John L. Routt, last governor of the territory, and first of the state. Its county seat is Hahns Peak. Saguache County was taken out of the northern part of Costilla County, December 29, 1866. It is named after the river course and the mountain chain within its borders. Its county seat is Saguache. San Juan County was taken from the northern part of La Plata, January 31, 1876. It derives its name from the .San Juan Range. Its county seat is Sil- verton. San Miguel County, named from its principal mountain and stream, was created out of the western part of Ouray, February 27, 1883. Its courty seat is Telluride. Sedgwick County, named after Gen. John Sedgwick, was taken from part of Logan Cotmty, April 9, 1889. Its county seat is Julesburg. Washington County was taken from Weld County, February 9. 1887. Its countv seat is Akron. 200 HISTORY OF COLORADO Yuma County, named for the Town of Yuma, was created from the eastern part of Washington County, March 15, 1889. Its county seat is Wray. Adams County was created out of part of Arapahoe County, April 15, 1901. It is named in honor of former Governor Alva Adams. Its county seat is Brighton. Jackson County was created out of part of Larimer County, May 5, 1909. Its county seat is Walden. Kit Carson County was created out of part of Elbert County, April 11, 1889, and is named after the famous frontiersman. Its county seat is Burlington. Lincoln County was created out of part of Elbert and Bent counties, April II, 1889. Its county seat is Hugo. Teller County, named in honor of the late Senator Teller, was created out of El Paso and Fremont counties, March 23, 1899. Its county seat is Cripple Creek. Crowley County, named in honor of State Senator Crowley, was created May 29, 191 1, out of part of Otero and Kiowa counties. Its county seat is Ordway. Alamosa County was created out of parts of Conejos and Costilla counties, March 8, 1913. Its county seat is Alamosa. Moffat County, named in honor of David H. Moffat, was created February 28, 191 1, out of part of Routt County. Its county seat is Craig. FINANCES OF THE STATE The State of Colorado derives its main income from the 4-niill levy, which in 191 7 was $2,509,037.89. This is now, and has been since 1913, assessed on a full valuation. From inheritance tax the state received in 1917 $358,330.15; the insurance department, after defraying its own expenses of operation, turned over to the general fund $247,500. The interest on bank deposits, which range from 2J/2 per cent for daily balances to 3 per cent on deposits, amounted in 1917 to $65,346.31. The Board of Land Commissioners turned in for 1917 the total of $1,196,165.59. This represented the sums paid on state lands from sales, rentals, royalties and fees allowed for transaction of business. Out of this total part of the land board expense is paid, but the bulk of it goes for educational and road-building purposes, under constitutional acts and original grants in the enabling act, which have been covered in another chapter. Under an act passed by the General Assembly in 1915, revised in 1917, the land board now has power to make farm loans from school funds. The loaning power is carefully circum- scribed in the legislative enactment. The state received in 191 7 from the premiums on compensation insurance, under the state compensation insurance act of 1915, $183,683.19. This is used to pay indemnities and death benefits under that act. The state oil inspector turned into the state treasury in 1917, $34,817.78. This was from fees of one-tenth of a cent per gallon of all oils used in the state. Of this sum, $27,299.67 went into the general fund. The state's share of the motor vehicle tax for 1917 was $134,982.46. This is used exclusively for road-building purposes. The other half collected goes to HISTORY OF COLORADO 201 the various counties in which it originates, and is used by them for road-building purposes. The fees collected by the Secretary of State for 1917, all of which goes into the general fund, was $217,000. This includes the flat tax paid by corporations. The corporation tax for 1918 under the act passed at the extra session of 1917 will go to pay the interest on the authorized bond issue of two and a half millions passed at the extra session as a war emergency measure. The excess above required interest will form a sinking fund to retire the bonds. The coal mine inspection fund in 1917 amounted to $39,954.38. This is used exclusively to pay expense of protection of employes and inspection of coal mines. It is a tax of a third of i cent on the tonnage shipped. The "Brand" department fees collected by the Board of Live Stock Commissioners in 1917 amounted to $44,628.27, used only for the up-keep of that department. The State Game and Fish Department turned in $68,850.76, fees from hunt- ing and fishing licenses. This is used exclusively for the department. The escheat for 1917 amounted to $19,153.14. After twenty-one years this goes to the school fund. The United States Forest Reserve turned in to the state in 191 7 $76,594.93, which is 25 per cent of the earnings of the forests in the state. The state received from tuition fees, earnings and miscellaneous fees from educational and penal institutions and state departments the sum of $372,059.27. The various trust and permanent funds of the state earned in 19 17 from interest on state bonds and warrants, $118,337.06. The military department, from rental of armories, poll tax, etc., turned into the state treasury $106,896.48. Including the sale of $791,500 of the war bond issue, the state received in 1917 a total of $6,639,569.26. now THE COXSTITUTIO.N' II.-\S RKEN .\MENDED The Initiative and Referendum was submitted to the voters in November, 1910, and carried by a vote of 89,141 to 28,698. By this amendment "8 per cent of the legal voters shall be required to propose any measure by petition." The referendum may be ordered, "except as to laws necessary for the immediate preservation of the public peace, health or safety." by 5 per cent of the voters or by the General Assembly. The initiative and referendum is expressly re- served to all cities, towns and municipalities as to all local, special and municipal legislation. The initiative rcciuires in these instances a 10 per cent petition, the referendum one containing 15 per cent of the names of legal voters. This was an amendment to Article V, Section i, of the constitution. On November 10, 1910, by a vote of 39,245 for to 31,047 against, the people amended Article V, Section 6, providing a payment of $1,000 to each legislator and traveling expenses for the biennial period. This is paid at the rate of $7 per day of service, with the balance payable at the end of the biennial period. Article V, Section 19, was amended in November, 1884, providing "that no bill except the general appropriation hill for the expenses of the Govcrnnient, only, which shall be introduced in cither hou.se of the General .Assembly after the first thirty — it had been twenty-five — days of the session, shall become a law. In 1916 this was limited bv amendment to fifteen days. 202 HISTORY OF COLORADO On November 7, 1884, Article V, Section 22, was amended to read : "Every bill shall be read at length on three different days in each house." The "eight-hour" amendment was adopted in November, 1902, by a vote of 72,980 for and 26,266 against. It provided eight hours' labor "for persons em- ployed in underground mines or underground workings, blast furnaces, smelters, and any ore reduction works or other branch of industry or labor that the General Assembly may consider injurious or dangerous to health, life or limb." On November 7, 1882, by a vote of 32,861 for and 8,378 against, Article V, Section 30, which fixed the salaries of the Governor and judges of the Supreme and District courts, the latter at $4,000, the former at $5,000 each, and which provided that "no law shall extend the term of any public officer or increase or diminish his salary or emolument after his election or appointment" was amended. It provided in its new form that "this shall not be construed to forbid the General Assembly to fix the salary or emolument of those first elected or ap- pointed under this constitution." In November, 1908, the amendment to increase salaries of Governor and judges of the Supreme and District courts was voted down. Article 6, that defining the duties and powers of the jtidiciary, was first amended on November 21, 1886, to read: "The judicial powers of the state as to matters of law and equity, except as in the constitution otherwise provided, shall be vested in a Supreme Court, justices of the peace and such other courts as may be provided by law." It had read, "and such other courts as may be created by law for cities and incorporated towns." On November 5, 1912, by initiative petition, .this article was again ainended. the vote being 55,416 for and 40,891 against. This is the now famous clause, giv- ing the people the power of reviewing certain court decisions. It provides that "None of said courts, except the Supreme Court, shall have any power to declare or adjudicate any law of this state or any city charter or amendment thereto adopted by the people in cities acting under Article XX (the Denver charter) hereof as in violation of the constitution of the state or of the United States; provided that before such decision shall be binding it shall be subject to ap- proval or disapproval by the people." Within sixty days 5 per cent of the voters of the state can obtain submission of the decision to the people of the state. On November 2, 1886, Article YI, Section 2, was amended to read: "It (the Supreme Court) shall have power to issue writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, quo warranto, certiorari, injunction and other remedial writs, etc." This had read "other original and remedial writs." In November, 1904, the term of judges of the Supreme Court, now seven in number, was made ten years. The termination of the Court of Appeals was fixed on the first Wednesday in April, 1905, and "the judges of said court whose regular terms shall not then have expired shall become judges of the Supreme Court. All causes pending before the Court of Appeals shall stand transferred to and be pending in the Supreme Court." The original State Supreme Court consisted of but three members. The Court of Appeals had been created to ex- pedite the business of the Supreme Court. In these amendments, carried in 1904. provision was also made for future elections of Supreme Court judges. Article VI, Section 14, which empowered the General Assembly to create judicial districts not oftener than once in each six vears and onlv bv a two- MONUMENT VALLEY PARK, COLORADO SPRINGS NOin'll I'll i:-, K.N NK CANON, COLORADO SBHIMiS 204 HISTORY OF COLORADO thirds vote, was amended, eliminating the words "not oftener than once in each six years." The vote on this amendment at the election November 2, 1886, stood: For, 14,568; against, 14,022. An attempt to empower the General Assembly to increase the salaries of the judges of the Supreme and District courts "to not more than $7,000 each" was defeated by a vote of 16,095 to 20,377 i" 1890. In 1904 the terms of district attorneys and District Court judges were fixed at four years. Article VI, Section 29, was amended in 1878, but no record appears save in the action of the General Assembly. It provided for the appointment to vacancies "on the Supreme and District benches by the Governor, in the office of district attorneys by the judge of the district, and of all other judicial officers by the county commissioners." The suffrage amendment is to Article \"II, Section i, and provides that "He or she shall be a citizen of the United States (over the age of twenty-one)." This was carried in November, 1902, by a vote of 44,769 for and 27,077 against. An amendment to Article VII, Section 8, permitted the use of voting machines. An amendment permitting the State University to conduct a medical depart- ment in Denver was adopted in November, 1910, by a vote of 59,295 for, and 15,105 against. The reorganization of the land board by constitutional amendment was effected in November, 1910, the vote being 42,218 for, and 21,300 against. The amend- ment created a board of three land commissioners, appointed by the Governor, one of whom is designated as president, the second as register, and the third as engineer. The salary is fixed at $3,000 for each, and the term of office is six years. The section of Article X referring to uniform taxation and exemption has been amended three times. In 1880 a purely technical change was made. In 1892 the word "household goods" was adopted instead of "personal property," and this proviso added: "The provisions of this section shall not affect such special assessments for benefits and municipal improvements as the corporate authorities of cities, towns or improvement districts may assess and collect under provisions to be prescribed by law. This was later, 1904, eliminated. On November 8, 1893, Article X, Section 11, was adopted and reads: "The rate of taxation on property for state purposes shall never exceed 4 mills on each dollar of valuation." On November 6, 1888, the effort to increase the rate to 5 mills for 1889 and 1890 was defeated by a vote of 10,102 against and 762 for. In 1910 the outstanding unpaid warrants, covering extraordinary expenses in strike and other emergency causes had reached the sum of $2,115,000, and by a close vote, 40,054 for and 39.441 against, the people authorized a 6 per cent funding bond issue. Earlier the bond issue for the state capitol building had been voted as an amendment to this clause. But in most instances the effort to amend this clause of the constitution for the creation of a bonded debt failed to carry. In 1904 the effort to create a funding bond issue of $1,500,000 was de- feated by a vote of 51,711 against and 26,334 for. Article XI, Section 6, was amended in November, 1888, permitting counties to create, by consent of voters, refunding bond issues. HISTORY OF COLORADO 205 In November, 1902, the term of county commissioners was fixed at four years. In counties of over 70,000 the board may consist of five members. In others there must be three commissioners. In November, 1902, Article XIV, Section 8, was amended, creating the office of county attorney, appointive or elective, and changing the election of all elective county officers to conform with the biennial election period for legis- lators. In November, 1900, Article XIV^ of the constitution was adopted, providing for the method of electing delegates to a convention to revise the constitution. By a two-thirds vote the General Assembly may submit the proposition to the people. If carried the next Assembly arranges for the election of constitutional convention to consist of twice the number of state senators. It also provides for the submission of the revised constitution to the people. Article XX provides for the consolidation of the city and county govern- ments of Denver, and is now, with amendments, the charter under which it operates. The original consolidation measure was adopted in November, 1902, and was known prior to this as the Rush bill from its author, John A. Rush. The section known as the "Home Rule" amendment, empowering the munici- pality to "make, amend, add to or replace the charter of said city or town'' was adopted by initiative petition November 5, 1912. The "Recall," empowering the people, on petition of 25 per cent of the electors, to vote upon the question of recalling any elective public officer of the state, is now Article XXI of the constitution. It was adopted by initiative peti- tion, November 5, 1912. The vote was: For, 53,620; against, 39,554. In November, 1913, Article XI, Section 8, was amended to permit cities and towns to provide for payment of bond issues within sixty but not less than ten years. This had been "within fifteen years." The valuation clause in the section was changed from 3 per cent to 10 per cent. In November, 1912, Article XIX, Section 2, was amended, compelling the publication of all proposed constitutional amendments with the next issued session laws and also empowering the Assembly to arrange for their more general pub- lication. It also limited proposed amendments to the constitution to six at the same session. Article XXII, the prohibition amendment to the constitution, provided that "From and after the 1st day of January, 191 6, no person, association or corpora- tion shall import into the state any intoxicating liquors; and no person, association or corporation shall within this state sell or keep for sale any intoxicating liquors or offer such for sale, barter or trade." This was voted on November 3, 1914. and adopted by a vote of 129,589 for, and 118,017 against. In November, 1916, the voters approved Article XXIII of the constitution. This provides that "proposed constitutional amendments and proposed initiated and referred bills shall be published in two issues of two newspapers of opposite political faith in each county of the state." CHAPTER XI THE GROWTH OF STATE DEPARTMENTS THE PUULIC UTILITIES COMMISSION — BOARD OF EQUALIZATION TURNS POWERS OVER TO A TAX COMMISSION- — THE STATE INHERITANCE TAX BOARD OF STOCK INSPEC- TION COMMISSIONERS STATE BOARD OF HE.-\LTH CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION — STATE BUREAU OF CHILD AND ANIMAL PROTECTION CHARITIES AND CORRECTION THE INDUSTRIAL COMMISSION COAL INSPECTION STATE HISTORICAL AND NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY FISH AND GAME COMMISSION INSURANCE — IM- MIGRATION BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS BANKING COMMISSION — CAPITOL MANAGERS — STATE LAND BOARD — ENGINEER THE STATE SEAL THE PUBLIC UTILITIES COMMISSION As early as 1862 the Territorial Legislature passed an act relating to corpora- tions, including those engaged in constructing and operating wagon and rail roads, and in a provision of this act, which prescribed the maintenance of toll roads in good repair, and withheld the right to collect toll and fixed a penalty if they were not so kept, the foundation was laid for later legislation designed to secure the proper maintenance of roadbeds of railroads and the rendering of good service to the public. The Constitution of the State of Colorado, adopted in 1876, gave specific authority relating to supervision of railroads. In 1881 an act was passed requiring every railroad company to keep an agent in the principal town or city along its line in this state, to adjust and settle claims for overcharges and for all loss or damage. The penalty fixed for failure to comply was a fine of $3,000 for each month of neglect. A further provision of this act, prescribed the settlement by railroad companies of all claims within sixty days after presentation. In 1883 an act was passed providing that no railroad corporation transacting its own express business, or express company doing business, in this state, shall charge, demand or receive from any shipper more than double first-class freight rates, and "All individuals, associations and corporations shall have equal rights to have their express, freight and material transported over such railroads in this state." In 1885 the Legislature established a Railroad Commission, consisting of but one member, and granted him extensive powers. The first state railroad commissioner under this act was Henry Felker. He as well as his successor had a difficult time starting the work of state regulation. W. A. Hamil, in his report dated December 31, 1892, when it was known that the Legislature would repeal the act creating a commission, said : 206 HISTORY OF COLORADO 207 "True it is, that during the last live sessions of our Legislature, the members of both House and Senate have been besieged by some of their constituents to refrain from passing any railroad legislation ; but when these protests are ana- lyzed, and the names become known of the signers thereto, it is at once seen that they are persons who either act from purely selfish and personal motives, many of them being large receivers and shippers of freight, who have received from the different railroad corporations large sums of money in the way of re- bates, others being the attorneys of the several corporations within the State." Governor Buchtel appointed Frederick J. Chamberlin, Halsted L. Ritter and Bulkeley Wells the first commissioners under the act of March, 1907. The exemption of a few roads with small mileage gave an opportunity for legal entan- glements. The Supreme Court finally declared the act constitutional. But, on August 12, 1914, under a new act the state railroad commission was merged into "The Public Utilities Commission," with eft'ective supervision over rate and service of all utilities, including municipally-owned or operated utilities. The first commission under this act was composed of A. P. Anderson, Sheridan L. Ken- dall and George T. Bradley. It is now composed of George T. Bradley, Leroy J. Williams and A. P. Anderson. STATE BOARD OF EQUALIZATION There have been several amendments to the article creating the state board of equalization, whose powers at first were limited, and to a large extent advisory to county boards. The board consists of the governor, auditor, treasurer, at- torney general and superintendent of public instruction, and until 1912 its fre- quent sessions interfered seriously with the conduct of departmental business. On May 20, 1912, a tax commission, created by the Legislature, assumed the statutory power of the board of equalization, the latter retaining only general supervision and the constitutional power of final adjudication. The new law gave the tax commission general supervision over the county assessors and of the tax system generally. The Legislature of 1913 placed the assessment of local public utilities in the hands of the tax commission. The most notable result was the equalization of the state at full cash value. The equalization of 1913 was brought about by the addition of $186,551,658 to the valuations as returned by the local assessors. This was sustained by the Supreme Court. The first tax commission consisted of J. I'laiik Adams, John B. I'hillips and Celsus P. Link. The tax commission in 1918 is as follows: Celsus P. Link, Edward B. Mor- gan, and Charles S. Glascoe. S. E. Tucker is secretary. THK STATE INHERITANCE TAX The law creating a revenue from an inheritance tax was passed in ii)02, ant! amended in ((x>). The work of appraising is done througli the office of the attor- ney general, who appoints one inheritance tax appraiser for eacli of three dis- tricts. The law provides a graduated tax, which has since its inception amounted to $3,078,289.48. The record by years is as follows: 208 HISTORY OF COLORADO Inheritance tax collections for 1902 $ 53977 Inheritance tax collections for 1903 3,435.18 Inheritance tax collections for 1904 8,486.02 Inheritance tax collections for 1905 46,189.08 Inheritance tax collections for 1906 51,103.72 Inheritance tax collections for 1907-1908 438,135.68 Inheritance tax collections for 1909 91,249.85 Inheritance tax collections for 1910 133,116.04 Inheritance tax collections for 191 1 228,476.85 Inheritance tax collections for 1912 184,701.06 Inheritance tax collections for 1913 141,874.47 Inheritance tax collections for 1914 323,188.55 Inheritance tax collections for 191 5 295,479,47 Inheritance tax collections for 1916 773.983-55 Inheritance tax collections for 1917 358,330.19 $3,078,289.48 THE BOARD OF STOCK INSPECTION COMMISSIONERS Every General Assembly since the beginning of statehood, as well as nearly all of the Territorial legislatures, had framed laws upon the subjects of stock inspection and protection. Laws relating to stock generally were passed in 1861, 1862, 1864, 1865, 1866, 1868, 1870, 1872, 1874, 1876, and 1877, and the first effort at a comprehensive system of round-up districts was passed in 1879. I" 1881 this was again changed. By 1908 it was found necessary to revise all legislation on this subject, and twenty-eight districts were defined. All laws with reference to round-up districts, obsolete by this time, were repealed in April, 1915. The laws relating to the state board passed in 1881, 1883 and 1885 were revised in 1903 by the passage of the law creating the Board of Stock Inspection Commissioners, whose powers have been greatly extended by each successive General Assembly. To-day the entire regulation of the live stock industry, the right to establish quarantine, the brand department, the control of abandoned stock, regulation of freight shipments, etc., etc., is in the hands of this board. The board in 1918 consists of the following: A. E. de Ricqles, Denver; M. J. McMillin, Carlton; W. T. Stevens, Gunnison; A. E. Headlee, Hooper; Sam Gamm, Ramah; Coke Roberds, Hayden; Harry J. Capps, La Veta; R. C. Callen. Silt; W. C. Harris, Sterling; E. E. McCrillis, Denver, secretary. THE STATE EO.XRn OF HEALTH The subject of public health, one of the most important matters in the scope of the men who made laws, was the subject of continuous legislation. In the terri- torial days much was left to local officers, but in 1876 the first general law per- taining to the public health was passed by the Legislature. The General Assembly, in 1877, 1878 and 1883, created public health officials and made futile efforts at legislation. In 1893 the first carefully framed law creating a state board of health and HISTORY OF COLORADO 209 defining its duties was placed on the statute books. From that period on the public health has been practically in the hands of the well organized State Medical and County Medical societies of the state, whose representatives are on the State Board of Health. From year to year the jurisdiction has extended until now it supervises all maternity hospitals, licenses embalmers, inspects foods and drugs, gathers vital statistics, prosecutes for adulteration, distributes anti-toxin, has power to establish quarantine, controls local boards. The State Board of Health on January i, 1918, consisted of Dr. L. G. Crosby, president ; Drs. E. E. Kennedy, A. W. Scott, C. A. Bundsen, A. C. McCain, C. G. Hecker, W. H. Sharpley, F. R. Coffman, C. O. Booth, S. R. McKelvey and John J. Connor. THE CIVIL SERVICE COMMISSION The General Assembly passed its first civil service act in 1907, amending it in 1908. and in 1913. While drastic in its provisions, the litigation over its classifi- cations and decisions continued during the first five years of its existence. In 19 15 the law was repealed, and an. entirely new act passed, which appears to correct mistakes of the previous law. The commission is composed of W. W. Grant, Jr., Anna Wolcott Vaile, Lawrence Lewis and Eleanor F. Young, secretary. STATE BURE.MI OF CHILD AND ANIMAL PROTECTION The State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection is the successor of the Colorado Humane Society. It was incorporated in 1881 to obtain for children and dumb animals the protection which they could not procure for themselves. For twenty years, from 1881 to 1901, the society existed as a private corporation, whose jurisdiction covered the state with local officers in various districts. In 1901, by act of the Legislature, the Colorado Humane Society was constituted the State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection. With the exception of the Juve- nile Court laws relating to delinquent children, all laws for the protection of chil- dren and dumb animals were passed at the suggestion of the State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection. Its secretary throughout its notable career has been E. K. Whitehead. The president of the board is E. A. Colburn. Its other members are Frank S. Byers, Frank N. Briggs, Mrs. Elizabeth Cass Goddard. and William Smedley. STATE HOAR!) OV r TIARITIES AND CORRECTION The State Board of Charities and Correction was created by the General Assembly in 1891, and its first president was Myron W. Reed. The other mem- bers were W. F. Slocum, J. C. Hay, J. S. Appel, B. F. Johnson and Dennis Sheedy. At that time there were in existence the Colorado State Penitentiary, at Canon City; the State Industrial School for Roys, at Golden: the Colorado State Reformatory, at Buena Vista ; the State Home and Industrial School for Girls, at Denver ; the State Insane Asylum, at Pueblo ; the Mute and Blind Institute, at Colorado Springs, and the -Soldiers' and Sailors' Home, at Mnntr \'ista. 210 HISTORY OF COLORADO The new board was given supervision of these institutions, and was also the State Board of Pardons, but its duties as such were purely advisory. In 1895, at the urgent request of the members, the act creating a distinct Board of Pardons, consisting of four, was passed, thus segregating the work. But the secretary of the Board of Charities and Correction remains secretary of the new Board of Pardons. In 1895 ''^ '^^s enabled to secure the passage of an act creating a Home for Dependent Children, largely through the efforts of its president, J. Warner Mills. During the presidency of Mrs. Sarah Piatt Decker the indeterminate sentence and parole law, advocated for many years, was enacted and became effective in August, 1899. In 1901 the General Assembly passed an act providing for annual reports to the board of all private charities in the state, and the licensing by the board of all such institutions. In 1899 Colorado enacted its first juvenile law, providing that "children under sixteen who are vicious, incorrigible or immoral in conduct, or habitual truants from school, or who habitually wander about the streets and public places during school hours or in the night time, having no employment or lawful occupation, shall be deemed disorderly persons, subject to the provisions of the act." The earliest Juvenile Court laws of Colorado were enacted in 1903. These created the court, giving original jurisdiction to county courts in all criminal cases against minors, and provided for the punishment of persons contributing to the delinquency of children. This last-named provision was the first of its kind to be put upon the statutes of any state in the Union. Since 1903 these laws have been amplified and made more effective by neces- sary amendment. In 1909 the act penalizing persons responsible for juvenile de- linquency or for neglect was passed. The creation of these courts was largely the work of the State Board of Charities and Correction. The appointment of probation officers by the court under the law was in fact at this time made subject to the approval of the State Board of Charities and Correction. Its work has increased greatly with the growth of the state, and the creation of many private, municipal and county institutions, which it inspects, licenses and reports upon. The members of the board January i, 1918, were: Mrs. James Williams, president ; Owen F. Beckwith. Dr. Elizabeth Cassidy, Mrs. Sarah J. Walling, Rev. Dr. W. S. Friedman, Rev. William O'Ryan. Among the state institutions which have been founded since the creation of the board are the State Home for Dependent and Neglected Children, the Indus- trial Workshop for the Adult Blind, and the State Home and Training School for Mental Defectives. The State Board of Pardons in 1918 consists of the governor, ex-officio, Allan F. Wright, C. J. Morley, IMrs. Martha J. Cranmer, Harry C. Riddle. ST.^TE BO.\RD OF CORRECTION The General Assembly, in 191 5, abolished the district boards of control which had been known respectively as the State Board of Lunacy Commissioners and the VIEW OF THE INTERIOR OF A NOTED GAMBLING ESTABLISHMENT IN PIONEER DENVER (Roproduced from a ])hotographie enlargement of a wood engraving published in Harper's Weekly, New York, March 10, 1866.) AN JNCIDKNT IN TIIK CIliNKSK KIOT IN DK.W KH oN tMTOHKU .■(0, IHHil— TIIK FIRE DEPAKTMKNT DISI'KUSI N(. A MOH AT TIIK I XTKHSECTION OF SIXTIOF.NTII AM) WAZKK STIfKKTS 212 HISTORY OF COLORADO Board of Penitentiary Commissioners, and created a State Board of Correction, which now has direct charge of the Colorado Insane Asylum, at Pueblo, the State Penitentiary, at Caiion City, and the Colorado State Reformatory, at Buena Vista. The appointive members are Frank D. Hoag, of Pueblo, Bulkeley Wells of Tel- luride, and Helen L. Grenfell, of Denver. The chief officers of the institutions are ex-officio members. : THE STATE INDUSTRIAL COM MISSION In 1915 the General Assembly created an Industrial Commission, with powers "to inquire into and supervise the enforcement, as far as respects relations be- tween employer and employe, of the laws relating to child labor, laundries, stores, factory inspection, employment of females, employment offices and bureaus, mining, both coal and metalliferous, fire escapes and means of egress from places of employment, and all other laws protecting the life, health and safety of em-* ployes in employments and places of employment."' In 191 7 the Workmen's Compensation law was passed, mapped to a large extent on the most advanced legislation of eastern states on this subject, and its enforcement was entrusted to the Industrial Commission In 1913 a temporary state wage board had been created for the purpose of investigating wages and conditions of labor in the state. W. H. Kistler was ap- pointed chairman, and Mrs. Catherine Van Deusen, secretary. This went out of existence in 191 5. At that session a permanent State Wage Board act was passed by the General Assembly, but vetoed by the governor as in his opinion "the act creating the Industrial Commission practically duplicated this work." The new act empowers the Industrial Commission "to investigate and ascer- tain the conditions of labor surrounding said w'omen and minors, also the wages of women and minors in the different occupations in which they are employed, whether paid by time rate or piece rate." The commission can then, either directly or by the appointment of a wage board, consisting of employer, employe and disinterested parties, fix a "minimum living" wage. The Industrial Commission, as well as the Minimum Wage Commission, con- sists of Hiram E. Hilts, chairman, George W. Densmore and Joseph C. Bell. The secretary of the former is ^^'alter E. Schwed ; that of the Minimum Wage Commission is Gertrude A. Lee. The Industrial Commission also has general supervision over the operation of what is known as the "Mothers' Compensation Act." This was approved April 2, 1907, and was made effective by a referendum vote January 22, 1913. It empowers "county commissioners or like officials in cities working under Article XX (Denver)" to create a fund for the care of neglected or dependent children, which is to be paid to parent or parents. In many cases, notably Denver, such funds have been regularly created. INSPECTION OF CO.-^L MINES The first specific law enacted to provide for the health and safety of those employed in and about the coal mines and the protection of property was in HISTORY OF COLORADO 213 1883, and as a result of the enactment of this law, Gov. James B. Grant appointed John McNeil the first State Inspector of Coal Mines. He was allowed one deputy inspector. This law was slightly amended several times, until in 1913 it was found to be wholly inadequate, for the industry had grown by leaps and bounds. In 1883 the production was 1,220,593 tons, and in 1910 it was 12,104,887 tons and the field force had been increased from one to three deputy inspectors. But as none of the few provisions that applied to safeguarding could be put into effect because the law was not supported by any police authority, the department was hopelessly handicapped, and there was a general dissatisfaction among the oper- ators and mine workers. In the winter of 1913, the present State Inspector of Coal Mines, James Dal- rymple, with a member of the United Mine Workers of America, John R. Law- son, drafted a new law, which was presented for enactment to the nineteenth General Assembly then in session. The Senate, before which body the bill came up, referred it to a mining committee, which in turn appointed a sub-committee, composed of Messrs. James Dalrymple; E. H. Weitzel, manager of the fuel de- partment of the Colorado Fuel and Iron Company ; George T. Peart, general superintendent of the Rocky Mountain Fuel Company ; John R. Lawson, repre- sentative of the United Mine Workers of America; and Senator John Pearson, who was chairman of the committee. These gentlemen revised and amended the bill to the satisfaction of all the members of the sub-committee, who advised that the Assembly pass the bill as amended. It received the unanimous approval of both House and Senate. Under the present law coal mining has become a positive science, requiring careful training on the part of both the operators and mine workers. The chief and the five deputy inspectors are required to qualify by a rigid and competitive examination showing both practical experience and theoretical knowledge. Mine workers acting as mine officials take competitive examinations showing fitness to serve as first-class mine foremen, or second-class mine foremen, or assistants to such, or as fire bosses. Even the men who fire the shots after the miners have prepared the coal take a shotfirer's examination. The consequence is that only certified men now hold official positions in the coal mines. STATE HISTORICAL AND NATl'RAL HISTORY SOCIETY The State Historical and Natural History Society was organized February 10, 1879, by a coterie of professional and business men, who felt that much informa- tion then available concerning the old records of the territory and the history of early explorations could be saved to posterity by such an organization. This first meeting was held in the office of Joseph C. Shattuck, then state superintendent of public instruction. In July, 1879, ^^e articles of incorporation were filed with this splendid list of citizens as sponsors: J. F. Frueatiff, William Halley, F. J. Bancroft, Wilbur F. Stone, Richard Sopris, William D. Todd, Roger W. Wood- bury, Fred J. Stanton, John Evans, Fred Z. Salomon, R. G. Buckingham, H. A. Lemen, William N. Byers, R. E. Whitsitt. Paul II. Hanus, William E. Pabor, J. Harrison Mills, Scott J. Anthony, B. F. Zalinger, Edward .'\. Stiinson, Joseph S. Shattuck. Edwin J. Carver, A. Stednian. W. B. Vickers. TI. K. Steele. N. A. P.aker, William F, Bennecke, /Xaron Gove. S. T. Arcnslnirg. 214 HISTORY OF COLORADO The first board of directors consisted of Richard Sopris, John Evans, VViUiam N. Byers, Roger W. Woodbury, F. J. Bancroft, H. K. Steele, Aaron Gove, William D. Todd and William E. Pabor. On February 13, 1879, the General Assembly had passed an act donating $500 and "the use of the supreme court or state library room * * * when- ever there shall be organized within the state, a State Historical and Natural His- tory Society." With Doctor Bancroft as its first president, and Dr. H. K. Steele, Aaron Gove and W. E. Pabor as joint curators, real progress was made particularly in the beginnings of what is now the State Museum. In 1886 this was placed on exhibition in the upper floor o.f the Chamber of Commerce building, corner of Fourteenth and Arapahoe streets, and remained there until installed on the lower floor of the State House. This grew to such proportions that in 1909 the General Assembly passed an act providing for a State Museum building, which was finally completed, at a total cost of $487,000, in 191 5. It is located directly south of the State House. In this the Historical Society occupies the east side of the basement for its news- paper files, these dating back to April 23, 1S59, when the Rocky Mountain News was founded. The entire main floor is filled with one of the finest ethnological collections of its kind in the country. It is remarkable for the variety of speci- mens covering prehistoric periods in Colorado. Nothing equal to its collection of cliff dwellers' utensils is found anywhere else in the United States. The collection covers with much thoroughness pic- tures of pioneers and pioneering establishments all over the territory. Its collec- tion of books on early and later history of various periods in the development of this western country has been greatly enhanced by such additions as those in the gift of Edward B. Morgan. The society also is custodian of the Dean Collection of Civil \Var and other war relics. In 19 1 5 the General Assembly by enactment declared it to be "one of the educational institutions of the state." The appropriation for the work of the society has never, however, been in any way commensurate with its needs. Its officers and directors are : L. G. Carpenter, president ; Wm. N. Beggs, vice president ; Ellsworth Bethel, vice president ; John Parsons, secretary ; A. J. Flynn. treasurer: George L. Cannon, E. A. Kenyon, H. C. Parmelee, Hugh R. Steele. Jerome R. Smiley, the historian, is custodian. THE INSURANCE DEP.VRTMENT In 1883 the state passed the law creating the office of Insurance Commis- sioner, making it part of the auditor's office. The first commissioner under this act was John C. Abbott. There were then operating in the state thirteen life, three accident, fifty-four domestic fire and marine and twenty-six foreign fire and marine insurance companies. The total fire risks written in 1882 in Colorado amounted to $22,178,195.30. The department was segregated and made a dis- tinct part of the state government in 1907. According to the last report the total fire risks written in 1916 were $330,612,720. All insurance companies HISTORY OF COLORADO 215 operate in the state under a license from the department, and must file annual reports. At present the insurance commissioner is Claude W. Fairchild. In 1882 the amount carried in the shape of old line life policies in Colorado was $5,538,751. In 1916 there was in force in the form of old line life poli- cies $217,273,539. Fraternal organizations also report to the department; and on January i, 19 1 7, there was in force in Colorado in life insurance of all classes, $369,000,000. There were in 1917 operating in Colorado, 51 life companies, 178 fire com- panies, 69 casualty companies, and 61 fraternal societies. STATE BOARD OF IMMIGRATION The State Board of Immigration was first established in 1872, and was lim- ited to the publication of statistics covering production and acreage of land avail- able for homestead entry or outright purchase from the state, railroad companies or private individuals. It was in existence only two years. In 1909 the General Assembly again created the State Board of Immigra- tion, and its first members were : Alva Adams, of Pueblo, D. T. Dodge, of Den- ver, J. F. Mahoney, of Grand Junction, and the governor, ex-officio. This board began active work early in 1910, and for two successive years exhibited the products of the state at the land shows in Chicago, Pittsburgh, New York, Colum- bus, Ohio, and Omaha. It also assisted in the now famous "Western Governors" tour of the East, in which the products of all the states were exhibited in specially designed cars. All the Colorado exhibits were in charge of Alfred Patek, Com- missioner of Immigration. For some years the department was without funds, but was recreated in 1916, and is now amply supplied with money, and is furnishing information con- cerning state lands, products, resources, etc., to prospective settlers and investors. The present commissioner is Edward D. Foster, of Greeley. The members of the board are Thomas B. Stearns, of Denver, H. E. Wallace, of Boulder, L. Wirt Markham, of Lamar, and the governor, ex-ofiicio. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS The Bureau of Labor Statistics was first created in 1887, the commissioner to be an appointee of and under the secretary of state. It was given the task of compiling statistics covering agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transporta- tion, labor and kindred matters. Gradually much of this work was transferred to various bureaus, and the Bureau of Labor Statistics became in fact a Bureau of Labor. The first commissioner under the law was C. J. Driscoll. Factory inspection is perhajis the most important of the added duties. This was created in 1909, and in 1910 was amended, eliminating the fee system. There are now four factory inspectors, one of whom is a woman. The free employment offices, of which there are four, two in Denver, one in I'ueblo, and one in' Colorado Springs, were created in 1907. A superintendent is in charge of each office, with an assistant, who is a woman. During the fruit .season a free employment office is opencrl at Grand Junction, which is in opera- tion four months of each vear. 216 HISTORY OF COLORADO The collection of wage claims has been a continuously growing branch of the department. In 191 7 over $25,000 in disputed claims was collected for wage earners of Colorado. This branch now takes up fully half of the time of the office force at Denver. The department works in conjunction vyith the schools of the state in enforc- ine the child labor laws. Under these laws no child under fourteen is allowed to work at any gainful occupation while schools are in session. Children between fourteen and sixteen must have a permit to work from the school authorities. No child under sixteen is permitted to work at any dangerous occupation. The hour limit for working children in all cases is eight hours. No night work is allowed. The enforcement of the woman's eight hour law, which was enacted in 1912, as an initiated measure, is under this department. This limits the employment of women to eight hours in a calendar day in mercantile, mechanical or manu- facturing establishments, hotels, restaurants or laundries. This law does not apply to domestic or farm service. The department also has the enforcement of the eight hour law applying to underground mines and work in mills, smelters, reduction plants, etc. The department also has supervision over all private employment offices in the state working under a license from the bureau. The statute defines in detail the manner in which they must conduct their business. This is perhaps one of the most important branches of the department, as it gives complete protection to the laborer who now has dealings with a licensed private employment agency. Mediation of labor disputes, formerly in the Labor Bureau, is now the work of the State Industrial Commission. The Federal Bureau of Labor has notified the State of Colorado that a com- pliance with the state law covering employment of children will be considered as a compliance with the Federal law on this subject. The state law preceded the Federal enactment by six years. The present commissioner is W. L. Morrissey. The statistician is C. J. Moorhouse. ST.^TE B.^NK COMMISSIONER Until 1907 the regulation of banking by the state was confined to statutes requiring reports to the secretary of state and to county officials. In that year the General Assembly created the office of State Bank Commissioner, and the first official under the act was Henry M. Beatty. In 1909, the date of his first report, there were in the state seventy-three state banks, forty-six private banks, eleven trust companies, ten savings banks, and three banks in the hands of re- ceivers. A compilation of all laws relating to banking was sent with report blanks to every bank coming imder the jurisdiction of the state bank commissioner. Supervision followed, examinations being compulsory twice each year. The banking laws of the state were further revised and made drastic in their opera- tions by the General Assembly in 1913. and the powers of the state commissioner were greatly extended. "S o =5 C p •^ >n ra ( ) g 1^ O re K >l M kJ ft) •-* Kl K- o o w P M M > W irq to o 218 HISTORY OF COLORADO STATE BUREAU OF MINES The State Bureau of Mines, created by the General Assembly in 1895, was in fact a segregation of the mining department from that of the state geologist, an office first created by the Territorial Legislature in 1872. Until 1895 the re- port of the state geologist covered the work now done by the State Bureau of Mines. In 1899 the powers of the bureau were extended, and the appointment of additional inspectors was authorized. Numerous changes were made in the law in 1903 and in 1913. The first Commissioner of Mines was Harry A. Lee. The present commissioner is Fred Carroll. STATE BOARD OF CAPITOL MANAGERS The State Board of Capitol Managers was the final evolution in the various steps leading to actual supervision and work upon the new capitol building, de- tailed in full in the History of the State House. In the act of 1897 the "State Board." to succeed the "Board of Capitol Man- agers," was expressly named: John L. Routt, Otto Mears, C. J. Hughes, and John A. Cooper, with the governor a member ex officio. The board under the act was "to continue until the entire completion and furnishing of said capitol build- ing, and shall announce by proper proclamation the same as accepted by and through the said board on behalf of the state, and thereafter the said board shall cease to exist." The board continued in office under this provision notwithstanding the eff^orts made repeatedly to annul it, and finally in 1917 the General Assembly made it a permanent body with supervision of the state house, the state museum, and the property purchased for the adjutant general's department north of the state house, at Sherman and Colfax avenues. The board now, January, 1918, con- sists of the governor, ex officio, Otto Mears, one of the original members, James Williams, Hiram E. Hilts, and Marshall B. Smith. THE STATE LAND BOARD On April 2, 1877, the State Board of Land Commissioners held its first meet- ing under the constitutional provision creating it. The new state in the enabling act had been given 32,000 acres for the erection of public buildings, 32,000 acres for the creation and maintenance of a peniten- tiary, 46,080 acres for a state university, and sections sixteen and thirty-six or lieu lands in each township for school purposes. This amounted to 3,715,555 acres. In addition to this under the act of 1841 the state was granted "for purposes of internal improvement so much public land as, including the quantity that was granted to such state before its admission and while under territorial govern- ment, will make 500,000 acres." The enabling act furthermore allowed the state 5 per cent from the sale of all agricultural public lands, except those disposed of under homestead laws. This was to go to the fund for internal improvements. Later Congress gave the state 90,000 acres for the agricultural college. The state land board consisted of the governor, superintendent of public instruction, secretary of state and attorney general. On April 2. 1877, the board HISTORY OF COLORADO 219 organized by the election of the governor as chairman, and the secretary of state as secretary. William M. Clark, the first secretary of state, thus became the first secretary of the State Land Board. On February 12, 1879, the board elected Rob- ert G. Howell secretary, who then practically assumed the duties afterwards per- formed by the register. The General Assembly, in 1887, in a revision of the land laws, created the office of register, who was elected by the State Land Board. The first register was A. Sagendorf, appointed at the meeting of March 22, 1887. In 1909 the constitution was amended providing for a State Board of Land Commissioners, appointed by the governor, one of whom is called the register, one is president, and one is engineer. The term is for six years. The state lands cannot be sold at less than $3.00 per acre, but the average price has been far beyond that. RECEIPTS OF ST.\TE BOARD OF LAND COMMISSIONERS AS PAID TO STATE TREASURER DURING THE FOLLOWING BIENNI.vL PERIODS 1877-1878 $ 44,000.00 1879-1880 112,000.00 1881-1882 112,184.09 1883-1884 239,508.89 1885-1886 291,251.99 1887-1888 642,044.87 1889-1890 758,37776 189I-1892 479,705.74 1893-1894 255,757.28 1895-1896 231,561.96 1897-1898 238,008.60 1899-I9OO 355.305-97 I9OI-I9O2 372,37279 I903-I904 574,176.04 1905- 1906 684,683.62 1907-1908 825,901.67 I9O9-I9IO 1,294,064.08 I9II-I912 1,590,428.96 I913-I9I4 1,364,763.66 I915-I916 1.788,430.54 LAND SALES SHOWING ACREAGE AND AVERAGE PRICE PER ACRE OBTAINED DURING THE FOLLOWING BIENNIAL TERIODS Acres I885-I886 12,836.00 I887-I888 67,738.00 1889-1890 78,464.00 1 891 -1892 28.320.00 I893-I894 9,621.00 I895-I896 41,980.00 I897-I898 12,148.00 Average price $ 7.80 7.85 4-57 14.71 220 HISTORY OF COLORADO Acres Average price 1899-1900 3.130-00 $4.35 1901-1902 10,329.00 6.25 1903-1904 11,120.00 6.25 1905-1906 29,926.00 6.90 1907-1908 60,356.25 8.31 1909-1910 .• 287,340.63 1 1.59 191 1-1912 79.639-33 10-38 1913-1914 91.215-57 7-35 1915-1916 134,218.87 10.27 STATE ENGINEER With the first appropi lation of streams for irrigation purposes came the need of state regulation. In the "Decree Book" in the office of State Engineer, the Brantner Ditch, appropriating 29.77 cubic feet per second from the South Platte near Brighton, was dated April i, i860. There was a small appropriation of the waters of Clear Creek in February, i860. The first decrees in the Arkansas River \^alley were taken out during the same year. Regulation under territorial legis- lation was at first confined to county officials, with appeals to the courts; the amount of water decreed to or claimed by the several early ditches and canals being filed with the county and district court clerks. In 1879 the office of Water Commissioner was created. This was appointive by the governor, and the duties were "to divide the waters of the public streams in times of scarcity among the several ditches and canals, according to prior rights of each. In such districts as have had their rights adjusted by the courts, he has, under the law, but little discretion of his own in the matter of dividing water." Under the act of 1881 three water divisions, the South Platte, the Arkansas, and the Rio Grande, were created. These were increased from time to time, and on March 5, 1881, the General Assembly created the office of State Engineer, "to be appointed by the governor for a two-year term." The principal task was the making of "careful measurements and calculations of the maximum and mini- mum flow in cubic feet per second of water in each stream from which water shall be drawn for irrigation." The first state engineer appointed under this act was Eugene K. Stimson, who could do little owing to lack of funds. Under his immediate successor, E. S. Nettleton, the office was' thoroughly organized and the first records made. In 1889 the General Assembly created the office of State Engineer as it exists at present, giving this official general supervision over the public waters of the state, the right to inspect and approve or disapprove designs and plans for the construction of all dams and reservoirs, embankments which equal or exceed ten feet in height, giving him general charge of division water superintendents and district water commissioners. There are now five division engineers and seventy district commissioners. The laws governing the engineering work of the state were revised in 1903, 1909, 191 1, 1913. 1915 and 1917, but only in what may be termed minor details. The matter of fees was regulated by amendment in 1911. In 191 1 the office of superintendent of irrigation was abolished and the governor was empowered to appoint five irrigation division engineers. The boundarie; of the water districts are fixed by legislative enactment. At present, 1918, the state HISTORY OF COLORADO 221 engineer is Addison J. McCune; deputy, John R. VVortham; division engineers: F. Cogswell, Denver; E. R. Chew, Pueblo; D. A. Norton, Alamosa; II. C. Getty, Montrose; A. J. Dickson, Glenwood Springs. ST.\TE DEP.VRTMENT OF S.\FETY At the extraordinary session in 1917 the General Assembly created a State Department of Safety, appropriating for its establishment during the biennial period the sum of $650,000 out of "Defense Fund, National Defense Bonds, Series 1917-" The first superintendent under this act is Frank Adams, former police commissioner of the City of Denver, who in 1918 is organizing the vari- ous companies under the act. Enlisted men are paid $720 a year, together with board, lodging and equip- ment. Officers are paid as follows: Captain, $1,500 per year; lieutenants, $1,200 per year; sergeants, $1,000; corporals, $900 per year. ST.\TE G.\ME .\XD FISH COMMISSION The territorial government was early made aware of the great need of pre- serving the game of the state. By 1870 the buffalo had been pretty nearly ex- terminated, a few herds still finding shelter in the mountains. But the plains had been cleared. Deer and elk were, however, plentiful, and the sportsmen of that day relate that it was not unusual to find whole carcasses fed to hogs. The streams of the state were thick with trout, the big streams west or north- west of Denver, such as the Larimer, the Poudre, the North Platte, contained both trout and pickerel. There was no restriction, and the hunter took all the license his needs or pleasure prompted him to take. Gordon Land was the first state fish commissioner, later taking also the title of game and fish commissioner. But the protective laws were few and not care- fully compiled. In 1899 D. C. Beaman revised the game and fish laws of the state, and the department was then able to show real growth. The open season on mountain sheep was closed twenty-nine years ago, the first determined effort to save the game of the country. Large numbers of tour- ists visit Ouray annually, attracted by the bands of mountain sheep cared for and fed by the citizens of Ouray. Pitkin, Garfield, Clear Creek, Teller, Grand, Chaffee and I'Vemont counties all report bands of mountain sheep. The open season for elk was closed seventeen years ago, and today there are large bands in Routt, Moffat. Rio Blanco and Grand counties. There arc now (1018I nearly four thousand elk in the state. The open season for deer was not closed until 191 3, and the bands of deer are gradually increasing, the largest being in Garfield and Rio Blanco counties. In 191 1 between seven hundred and eight Innidred were killed. In 1912 not over four hundred were killed. This brought the state to a sudden realization of the need for protection of its game. While there has been no o|)en season for antelope since I3, it is a difficult matter to protect this animal, as the peo])ling of the plains is fast clearing them out from their prairie habitat : l)nt i\VC4- >i^ iSr^, ?' /vi l,'^<-^<, U'/:\".'r ;, K; 7 ^.r-CE This agTceiiieiit «as one of the coiiseinionpes of the discovery of k"''' on the site of tho City of Denver by the KusscU iirospc'ctiiii; ox|ioiIitinn into the Pike's I'eak country in the summer of 1808, "and which was followed in the imtunin of that year liy the founding of Denver. When the "jiartios of the first |iarl " to this agreement arriveil at the site of Den- ver (which was the iiriiicijial rendezvous of the Tike's Peak Arsionants) they ioinod with others, who were on the {rround, in a town coniiiany enter]iri>-e tliat was n part of the city's beginning and thus complied, to some extent, with the purpose of the agreement. 238 HISTORY OF COLORADO bough-house he had made to shelter him. The following day being pleasant, the ambitious prospector started out in the trackless wilderness to search for traces of gold. He wandered up a gulch, finding no traces of colors. Jackson's first day's quest was unsuccessful but, hero that he was, he resolved to stay and try again, although supplies of provisions were running low. He put in another day, tramping up and down creek and canyons, without seeing any gold. He returned to camp after dark, tired and hungry, only to find that a marauding cougar had stolen all his meat. The man went to bed sup- perless, for he had eaten the last of his bread that morning. He did not lose heart, however. He got up early the next morning and shot a wild sheep before sunrise. H-e drank the last of his coffee and started out to do some more prospect- ing. This day, January 5, Jackson found a place a half-mile up stream where the gravel looked good. Here he made a new camp under a big fir tree. The ground was frozen hard, and he built a big fire on it. All day (January 6), he kept the fire going until the ground was thawed. The next day he had his reward. "Clear day," — he cheerily writes in his diary, January 7 — -"removed fire embers and dug into rim on bed-rock, panned out eight treaty cups of dirt and found nothing but fine colors ; ninth cup I got one nugget of coarse gold ; feel good to-night." Jackson worked another day, digging and panning until his hunting knife was worn out. He then had about a half ounce of gold worth ten dollars. "I've got the diggings at last," he wrote in his journal. Having no mining tools — pick, shovel and pan — the man had to quit. He marked the spot of his discovery and trudged back to his shack. In the spring, Jackson returned to the spot, where he had marked a tree so that he could locate it, and took out between four and five thousand dollars' worth of placer gold. Jackson Bar was the first large deposit of gold ever uncov- ered in the Rockies. The site of this bonanza is near the mouth of a little stream, Chicago Creek, flowing into Clear Creek. A monument marks this spot in the town of Idaho Springs. This discovery was an event of vast moment in the history of the West. Meanwhile John H. Gregory, of Georgia, was prospecting only a few miles away from Jackson, although neither knew of the presence of the other. Gregory discovered rich placer ground, near Blackhawk, in the gulch that bears his name. The Jackson Diggings and the Gregory Diggings were some thirty-five miles to the west of Denver. CLE.^R CREEK PRODUCTION These were the beginnings of the mineral industry of Colorado, which leads all states of the Union, except California, in. gold production. Clear Creek County was organized in 1861. One mining camp after another had its day, and mil- lions of treasure, mostly placer gold, was obtained. The mines of Empire, Georgetown. Idaho and other diggings were famous in Territorial days. Many rich quartz veins were discovered, and fortunes were made. There was not much deep mining done then, the shafts being from fifty to 300 feet deep. The -Argentine district produced both gold and silver in large quantities many years ago. Lead and copper also were found in some of the mining districts of Clear VIEW OF BLACKHAWK, LOOKING UP GREGORY AND CHASE'S GULCHES This picture was dra%vn by A. E. Mathews in the latter part of the year 1865. 240 HISTORY OF COLORADO Creek County. Not until about 1903 was much zinc obtained. Around George- town, silver-lead-zinc ores predominate. So long ago as 1870, Clear Creek County was one of the leading producers of the precious metals in Colorado. Says Hall in his "History of Colorado," Vol. HI., p. 323 : "While exact figures are not at hand, the mines of this county have contributed about $40,000,000 in gold, silver and lead to the mineral wealth of the world, the greater part during the last two decades (1870-1890). The product is from two to two and a half millions per annum." Since 1S90, the mineral production of Clear Creek County has fallen oflf somewhat, and yet it is one of the best mineral counties of Colorado. Its mines are still yielding an abundant harvest of the precious metals. The past score years, the annual production has ranged from one to two million dollars, and some years over two thousand men have been engaged in the mineral industry in this county. In 1895, the State Bureau of Mines was established. Its biennial reports con- tain statistics which may be quoted as trustworthy. During the past eighteen years, Clear Creek County's gold output has amounted to over ten million dol- lars; the output of silver has been about nine million dollars; that of lead has exceeded three millions ; and a half million dollars' worth of copper has been obtained. The past dozen years, 1903-1914, the zinc harvest has exceeded one million dollars. The grand total of these five minerals during the years 1897- 1914 is nearly twenty-four million dollars. During fifty-nine years — 1859-1917 — the Clear Creek mining region has pro- duced over $100,000,000, mostly gold and silver. But few other counties of Colorado have made a better showing. THE FIRST MINING REVIEW The report on the mining outlook of the Pike's Peak region after a few months of operation was prepared at the "Diggings" by Horace Greeley, A. D. Rich- ardson and Henry Villard. And here is that famous report, which gives an accurate picture of the men and the mines of that period: Gregory's Diggings, near Clear Creek, in the Rocky Mountains, June 9th. 1859. The undersigned, none of them miners, nor directly interested in mining, but now here for the express purpose of ascertaining and setting forth the truth with regard to a subject of deep and general interest, as to which the widest and wildest diversity of assertion and opinion is known to exist, unite in the following statement: We have this day personally visited nearly all the mines or claims already opened in this valley (that of a little stream running into Clear Creek at this point) ; have witnessed the operation of digging, transporting, and washing the veinstone (a partially decomposed, 'or rotten quartz, running in regular veins from southwest to northeast, between shattered walls of an impure gran- ite), have seen the gold plainly visible in the riffles of nearly every sluice, and in nearly every pan of the rotten quartz washed in our presence ; have seen gold (but rarely) visible to the naked eye, in pieces of the quartz not yet fully decom- HISTORY OF COLORADO 241 posed, and have obtained from the few who have already sluices in operation accounts of their several products, as follows: Zeigler, Spain & Co. (from South Bend, Indiana), have run a sluice, with some interruptions, for the last three weeks; they are four in company, with one hired man. They have taken out a little over three thousand pennyweights of gold, esti- mated by them as worth at least $3,000; their first day's work produced $21 ; their highest was $495. Sopris, Henderson & Co. (from Farmington, Indiana), have run their sluice six days in all with four men — one to dig, one to carry, and two to wash; four days last week produced $607; Monday of this week, $280; no further reported. They have just put in a second sluice, which only began to run this morning. Foote & Simmons (from Chicago), one sluice, run four days; two former days produced $40; two latter promised us, but not received. • Defrees & Co. (from South Bend, Indiana), have run a small sluice eight days, with the following results : first day, $66 ; second day, $80 ; third day, $95 : fourth day, $305 (the four following days were promised us, but, by accident, failed to be received.) Have just sold half their claim (a full claim is 50 feet by lOO), for $2,500. Shears & Co. (from Fort Calhoun, Nebraska), have run one sluice two hours the first (part of a) day; produced $30; second (first full) day, $343; third (today), $510; all taken from within three feet of the surface; vein a foot wide on the surface ; widened to eighteen inches at a depth of three feet. Brown & Co. (from De Kalb County, Indiana), have been one week on their claim; carry their dirt half a mile; have worked their sluice a day and a half; produced $260; have taken out quartz specimens containing from 30 cents to $13 each in gold ; vein 8 to 10 feet wide. Casto, Kendall & Co. (from Butler County, Iowa), reached Denver March 25; drove the first wagon to these diggings ; have been here five weeks ; worked first on a claim, on which they ran a sluice but one day ; produced $225 ; sold their claim for $2,500; are now working a claim on the Hunter lead, have only sluiced one (this) day; three men employed; produced $85. Bates & Co., one sluice, run half a day; produced $135. Colman, King & Co., one sluice, run half a day; produced $75. Shorts & Collier, bought our claims seven days since of Casto, Kendall & Co. for $2,500; $500 down, balance as fast as taken out. Have not yet got our sluices in operation. Mr. Dean, from Iowa, on the 6th inst., washed from a single pan of dirt taken from the claim, $17.80. Have been oflfered $10,000 for the claim. S. G. Jones & Co. (from eastern Kansas), have run our sluices two days, with three men ; yield, $225 per day. Think the quartz generally in this vicinity is gold- bearing. Have never seen a piece crushed that did not yield gold. A. P. Wright & Co. (from Elkhart County, Indiana), sluice, but just in oper- ation; have not yet ascertained its products. Our claim prospects from 25 cents to $1.25 to the pan. [ohn II. Gregory (from Gordon County, Georgia), left home last season en route for Frazier River, was detained by a succession of accidents at Ft. Laramie, and wintered there. Meanwhile heard of the discoveries of gold on the South Platte, and started on a prospecting tour on the eastern slope of the Rocky Momitains, early in January. Prospected in almost every valley from 242 HISTORY OF COLORADO the Cache la Poudre Creek to Pike's Peak, tracing many streams to their sources. — Early in May arrived on Clear Creek, at the foot of the mountains, thirty miles southeast of this place. There fell in with the Defrees & Zeigler Indiana companies, and William Fonts, of Missouri. We all started up Clear Creek, prospecting. Arrived in this vicinity, Alay 6; the ice and snow prevented us from prospecting far below the surface, but the first pan of surface dirt, on the original Gregory claim, yielded $4. Encouraged by this success, we all staked out claims, found the "lead" consisting of burnt quartz, resembling the Georgia mines, in which I had previously worked. Snow and ice prevented the regular working of the lead until May 16. From then until the twenty-third, I worked it five days with two hands, result, $972. Soon after, I sold my two claims for $21,000, the parties buying to pay me, after deducting their expenses, all they take from the claims to the amount of $500 per week, until the whole is paid. Since that time, I have been prospecting for other parties, at about $200 per day. Have struck another lead on the opposite side of the valley, from which I washed $14. out of a single pan. Some forty or fifty sluices commenced, are not yet in operation ; but the owners inform us that their "prospecting" shows from 10 cents to $5 to the pan. As the "leads" are all found on the hills, many of the miners are con- structing trenches to carry water to them, instead of building their sluices in their ravines, and carrying the dirt thither in wagons, or sacks. Many persons who have come here without provisions or money, are compelled to work as common laborers, at from $1 to $3 per day and board, until they can procure means of sustenance for the time necessary to prospecting, building sluices, etc. Others, not finding gold the third day, or disliking the work necessary to obtain- ing it, leave the mines in disgust, after a very short trial, declaring there is no gold here in paying quantities. It should be remembered that the discoveries made thus far, are the result of but five weeks' labor. In nearly every instance, the gold is estimated by the miners as worth $20.00 per ounce, which, for gold collected by quicksilver, is certainly a high valuation, though this is undoubtedly of very great purity. The reader can reduce the estimates if he sees fit. We have no data on which to act in the premises. The wall rock is generally shattered, so that it, like the veinstone, is readily taken out with the pick and shovel. In a single instance only did we hear of wall rock too hard for this. Of the veinstone, probably not more than one-half is so decomposed that the gold can be washed from it. The residue of the quartz is shoveled out of the sluices, and reserved to be crushed and washed hereafter. The miners esti- mate this as equally rich with that which has "rotted" so that the gold may be washed from it ; hence, that they realize, as yet, but half the gold dug by them. This seems probable, but its truth remains tc be tested. It should be borne in mind that, while the miners here now labor under many obvious disadvantages, which must disappear with the growth of their experience and the improvement of their now rude machinery, they at the same time enjoy advantages which cannot be retained indefinitely, nor rendered uni- versal. They are all working ven,^ near a small mountain stream, which affords them an excellent supply of water for washing at a very cheap rate ; and, though such streams are very common here, the leads stretch over rugged hills and con- VIKW OF GEORGETOWN IN 1874 VIEW OF (ii;()i;iii;'ix)WN (IlcproduccU from a iiliotograpliic cnlarKiincnt of n |Oioto>;iiiiili inaili' in 18(i!t. I 244 HISTORY OF COLORADO siderable mountains, down which the veinstone must be carried to water, at a serious cost. It does not seem probable that the thousands of claims already made or being made on these leads can be worked so profitably in the average as those already in operation. We hear already of many who have worked their claims for days (by panning) without having "raised the color," as the phrase is — that is, without having found any gold whatever. We presume thousands are destined to encounter lasting and utter disappointment, quartz veins which bear no gold being a prominent feature of the geology of all this region. We cannot conclude this statement without protesting most earnestly against a renewal of the infatuation which impelled thousands to rush to this region a month or two since, only to turn back before reaching it, or to hurry away imme- diately after more hastily than they came. Gold-mining is a business which emi- nently requires of its votaries capital, experience, energy, endurance, and in which the highest qualities do not always command success. There may be hundreds of ravines in these mountains as rich in gold as that in which we write, and there probably are many ; but, up to this hour, we do not know that any such have been discovered. There are said to be five thousand people already in this ravine, and hundreds more are pouring into it daily. Tens of thousands more have been passed by us on our rapid journey to this place, or heard of as on their way hither by other routes. For all these, nearly every pound of provisions and supplies of every kind must be hauled by teams from the Missouri River, some 700 miles distant, over roads which are mere trails, crossing countless unbridged water-courses, always steep-banked and often miry, and at times so swollen by rains as to be utterly impassable by wagons. Part of this distance is a desert, yielding grass, wood and water only at intervals of several miles, and then very scantily. To attempt to cross this desert on foot is mad- ness — suicide — murder. To cross it with teams in midsummer, when the water courses are mainly dry, and the grass eaten up, is possible only to those who know just where to look for grass and water, and where water must be carried along to preserve life. A few months hence — probably by the middle of October — this whole Alpine region will be snowed under and frozen up, so as to put a stop to the working of sluices if not to mining altogether. There then, for a period of at least six months, will be neither employment, food, nor shelter within 500 miles for the thousands pressing hither under the delusion that gold may be picked up here like pebbles on the seashore, and that when they arrive here, even though without provisions or money, their fortunes are made. Great disappointment, great suffering, are inevitable; few can escape the latter who arrive at Denver City after September without ample means to support them in a very dear country, at least through a long winter. We charge those who manage the telegraph not to diffuse a part of our statement without giving substantially the whole; and we beg the press generally to unite with us in warning the whole people against another rush to these gold-mines, as ill- advised as that of last spring — a rush sure to be followed, like that, by a stampede, but one far more destructive of property and life. Respectfully, Horace Greeley, A. D. Richardson^ Henry Villard. HISTORY OF COLORADO 245 HoUister in his "Mining in Colorado" writes as follows of that tirst season in the newly opened mining region : "It was not unusual lor four or live men to wash out from the Gregory, Bates, Bobtail, Mammoth, Hunter and many other lodes then newly discovered, one hundred and titty dollars a day for weeks together. Single pans of dirt could be taken up carefully from any of a dozen lodes, that would yield five dollars. Zeigler, Spain & Co. ran a sluice three weeks on the Gregory and cleaned up 3,000 pennyweights; Sopris, Henderson & Co. took out $607 in four days; Shears & Co., two days, $853, all taken from within three feet of the surface. Brown & Co., one and a half days, $260; John H. Gregory, three days, $972; Casto, Kendall & Co., one day, $225; S. G. Jones & Co., two days, $450; Bates & Co., one and a half days, $135; Coleman, King & Co., one-half day, $75; De frees & Co., twelve days with one sluice, $2,080. In one day Leper, Gridley & Co. obtained $1,009 from three sluices. One sluice washed out in one day $510. Foote & Simmons realized $300 in three days. The Illinois Company ob- tained $175 in their first day's sluicing from the Brown lode in Russell district. Walden & Co. took in one day from a lode in the same district, $125. John Pogue took $500 from a lode in the same district in three days. Three men took from the Kansas lode in two days, $500. Kehler, Patton & Fletcher aver- aged with five hands on the Bates lode, $100 a day for two months. Day & Crane on the same lode with seven or eight hands, sluiced for ten weeks, their smallest weekly run being $180, their largest $357. J. C. Ross & Co. with four hands, averaged $100 a day on the Fisk lode for four months. F. M. Cobb & Co. on the Bobtail lode with four men, averaged from $75 to $100 a day for two months. Heffner, McLain & Cooper worked four men at a sluice on the Clay County lode, averaging $100 a day for ten weeks. Shoog & Co. averaged $100 a day for three months' sluicing with five men on the Maryland lode." GILPIN COUNTY .\ND JOHN H. GREGORY As soon as the news of Jackson's discovery spread, a resistless tide of "pil- grims" surged up the winding banks of Clear Creek, in search of the "golden fleece." In the summer of 1859, the gulches and canyons of the Front Range swarmed with prospectors and miners. At the same time there was a stampede to the Gregory Diggings in what is now Gilpin County, one of tlic richest mineral- bearing districts of Colorado. John H. Gregory, of Georgia, was an adventurous fellow who knocked about on the frontier in the summer and fall of 1858, finally reaching Fort Laramie. Here he seems to have heard of the gold discovery in Dry Creek. In January, 1859, he set out southward, determined to prospect the streams of the Front Range. Gregory was no tenderfoot. Like Jackson, he had real grit and heroism in his make-up. In the wintry weather he put up with many discomforts in the wilderness. He must have found the cold hard to bear, for he had been used to the mild, sunny clime of the South. Gregory was an experienced miner, and he knew where to look for colors. Working gradually south along the foothills, he prospected the Cache la Poudrc and other streams. Following up the Vasqucz Fork of the Soutli Platte, lie came to the vicinity of the Blackhawk of today. Hereabouts lie got some colors. 246 HISTORY OF COLORADO "Gregory now felt certain that he had found gold," says HoUister in "The Mines of Colorado" (1867), "but before he could satisfy himself a heavy snowstorm occurred, during which he nearly perished." On account of the snow and the lack of supplies, the man was forced to leave the little ravine where he had obtained a small quantity of fine gold. He found his way down into the valley and subsisted upon venison and other game that he got by hunting. He finally turned up in the short-lived mining camp or town of "Arapahoe" on Clear Creek, a little below the Golden of today. Says Hollister: "At one time there must have been fifty houses in this town; today not one remains." Gregory was discouraged. Apparently he was down and out. At this crisis in his life he chanced to meet David J. Wall, of Indiana, who had faith in the Georgian and "grubstaked" him for another prospecting tour in the hills. The Hoosier's confidence was not misplaced. Gregory made good. Accompanied by a small party of men, he set out in April and reached the place where he had seen indications of gold deposits the previous winter. A little south of Black- hawk, the discovery of Gregory Lode occurred May 6, 1859. This was the discovery of the season. In '59-'6o "Gregory's Diggings" had a great reputation, yielding millions of dollars. Was it a chance, or superior judginent, that led Gregory through a maze of broken mountains to a ravine two or three miles in length? In this gulch and on the bordering hills he found the heart of one of the richest mining regions in the world. From poverty he suddenly attained affluence. He sold his claims for twenty- one thousand dollars. Four months later, he left Denver with gold dust valued at twenty-five thousand dollars, and he had previously forwarded five thousand dollars to his family in Georgia. Not much is known of his later history. He returned home, drifted to Texas and disappeared. We have not even a photo- graph of this man, who did so much for Colorado. A town or a county should be named in his honor. There are those who think Gilpin County should have been named Gregory County. First came the discovery of float gold in Dry Creek, between Denver and Littleton, in the month of July, 1858. The news of this find, with other rumors, started the rush to Pike's Peak in the spring of 1859. The great majority of the fortune hunters who flocked to the hills and mountains that memorable year were disappointed. They found no gold worth mentioning, and many of them turned their faces toward the rising sun, discouraged. The golden treasure ■was here, but they could not locate it; so they gave up in despair and disgust. The tide of the "go-backs" was checked by the discoveries of Jackson and Gregory. Others made valuable finds. About June r. Green Russell arrived at Central City with 170 followers. Immediately he struck out into the neighboring hills, and soon he located the gold-bearing gulch that was named in his honor. At the end of the season, Russell took back $21,000 in the glistening grains that formed the currency of the new mining region yclept "Pike's Peak," although the dig- gings were all located seventy-five miles or more to the northwest of the majestic monarch of the Rockies. The discoveries of Jackson and Gregory settled the fate of the straggling VIEW OF A STREET IN GREGORY 'S GULCH, GILPIN COUNTY (Reproduced from a photo^aphic enlari;eineiit of a wood engraving published in Frank Leslie's lUustrated Weekly, March 24, 1860.) 248 HISTORY OF COLORADO frontier settlement. The section of the Eastern Slope embracing Clear Creek and Gilpin counties is called the birthplace of Colorado. These were the beginnings of the mineral industry in Colorado. Gilpin is one of the smallest counties in the state, and yet it has produced a hundred millions in metallic wealth, mostly gold. There is a silver belt in Gilpin County, but it has never been largely devel- oped or very productive. The past eighteen years the annual output of silver has averaged something over $166,000, while the gold production during that period has averaged $1,275,000 a year. The yearly production of lead has ranged from $20,000 to $69,000. The copper output has averaged about $114,000 annu- ally. Gilpin County has produced no zinc to speak of. COLOR.ADO's FOUR MINING EPOCHS The mining history of the state divides itself naturally into four epochs. The first, a placer mining period, which began with the discovery of gold by the Russell party in 1858 and in the following year by Jackson and Gregory was wholly crude and spasmodic, and cleaned up what was on or near the sur- face. Ihe second period was that which exploited along constantly improving scientific lines, the fissure veins, the chief sources of production. The third period was that in which the methods of ore treatment were revolutionized — the era of modern mills and smelters — a cyanidation period. The fourth might well be termed the deep-mining epoch, in which vast capital was invested in the proper and widely extended development of the state's deeper mineral resources — a period which is yet only in its inception. It is the epoch of great tunneling projects, of scientific unwatering, and of new treatment methods that are as revolutionary as was the beginning of the cyaniding era. To this time also be- longs the exploitation of masses that had been discarded upon dumps as worth- less. It is advisable to go over the periods in a general way before narrating the interesting episodes which brought the gold-seekers to Colorado and welded them into a powerful community. The tracts bearing free gold were extremely limited and each crowded at the outset by hordes of men impatient to dig out their fortunes as quickly as possible. But the gradual decrease in earnings was the sieve which sent impa- tient thousands to othe? fields and left the development of the country to the few whose pluck and faith seemed equal to the task. From 1863 to 1870 there was a gradual but certain decrease of population, and in view of the facts this is not at all strange, for it took much patience and hard work to initiate mining enterprises on legitimate development lines. J. Alden Smith, state geologist, to whose early reports we are indebted for much of this information, asserts that the population in 1870 was " a little over 35,000." He adds : "The small amount of solid wealth accumulated meanwhile was due rather to hard work and the closest economy than to the productiveness of the resources under operation." Prior to 1870 or even as late as 1874 the prospector did all his work with a gold pan. If the required number of "colors" were not present, the district was deserted bv him. HISTORY OF COLORADO 249 From 1874 to 1890 the gold pan was almost entirely discarded by the pros- pector and he depended upon the returns given him by the assayer to determine the value of his hnd. So complete was the change that comparatively few men engaged the assayer to determine more than the silver and lead content, assuming that there was no gold. With the discovery of Cripple Creek the prospector again changed his method. He used both the pan and the assay. E. S. Bastin, C. W. Henderson and J. M. Hill in a government publication issued in 1917 by the U. S. Geological Survey, thus discuss these early methods: "Entering the mountains with little equipment beyond shovel, pick and pan, the first miners in this district saved the gold by the usual pioneer methods of sluicing, cradling, and panning. These methods were fairly satisfactory when applied to the stream gravels and the oxidized surface ore of the veins, but the miners soon discovered that as depth was gained on the veins the yield of gold fell off rapidly. For this there is an excellent geologic reason, as the early work- ings were in the outcrops of the veins, in which the action of air and water had distintegrated the ore, freed much of the gold from its sulphide matrix, and converted it by solution and redeposition into a coarser form. In the deeper portions of the veins- the ore was harder, and most of the gold being finely dis- tributed through sulphides was much less readily amalgamated. "Appreciating the ditficulty, even if not cognizant of its causes, the miners sought a remedy in various appliances for fine crushing of the ore. An early device consisted of a small mortar whose pestle was attached to a sapling, the spring of the sapling raising the pestle. Another device was the "woodpecker mill,' which was an iron-shod wooden trip hammer, worked by water power, which fell in a wooden iron-lined trough. The arrastre early made its appearance, the first one being constructed near the mouth of Gregory Gulch in July, 1859. Five of them, each six feet in diameter, and constructed of granite, may still be seen in the valley of Clear Creek just below Dumont. This device was followed the same summer by the first stamp mill, a home-made affair with six stamps, set up at the mouth of Chase Gulch and run by water power. It had wooden stems, shoes, and dies, but the dies were shod with iron plates. Its operation in the summer and fall of 1859 is said to have netted its owner about $6,000. The first imported mill appears to have been a little three-stamp mill erected in 1859 by T. T. Prosser in Prosser Gulch. "During the first year of the development of the region near Central City the scarcity of water for ore treatment became troublesome, and a company was formed to bring water in from Fall River. The ditch built to accomplish this end had its head above the mouth of Silver Creek, at the base of the high peaks of the range, was twelve miles long, and traversed some rough country. The early miners, however, were deterred by no obstacles and had the work com- pleted and water flowing at Russell Gulch, Ncvadaville, and lilackhawk early in the spring of i860. The ditch later came under the control of New York people, who, through short-sighted management, so antagonized tlie miners that the enterprise was of short usefulness. "During the summer of i860 there were sixty stamp mills and thirty arrastrcs run by water power in operation between Nevadaville and Blackhawk. These were all working on oxidized ores, Init bv the end of that vear tlic heavier sul- 250 HISTORY OF COLORADO phide ores were reached and the percentage of savings by the mills immediately dropped. "The year 1861 saw the construction of the first mill on South Clear Creek. In Gilpin County the savings from sulphide ores continued to diminish, and dur- ing 1 861 it was found necessary to close mine after mine which could not he made to pay. Numerous experiments were tried, both with stamp mills and leaching processes, none of which was markedly successful. In fact, this change at so shallow a depth from free-milling ores to stubborn sulphides was a calamity that crushed the hopes of many prospectors and caused a suspension of opera- tions by numerous companies operating in the district. "In 1861 Caleb S. Burdsall built the first smelter of the region at Nevada- ville. This was a crude affair that was unfortunately destroyed too soon after its erection to prove its worth. "The difficulty in amalgamating- the sulphide ores led to what Raymond has called the 'process mania.' "The process mania, commencing in 1864 and lasting till 1867, was one of the main causes which damaged the reputation of the mines to such a degree that the country was nearly ruined by the reaction. Upon the first failure of the stamp mills, the people came to the conclusion that the ore must be roasted before the gold could be amalgamated. One invention for this purpose followed another ; desulphurization became the abacadabra of the new alchemists, and millions of dollars were wasted in speculations based on sweeping claims of perfect suc- cesses put forward by deluded or deluding proprietors of patents." Exploitation even of the fissure veins proceeded slowly because of the uni- versal ignorance concerning perfected methods of mining and reduction of refractory ores. The mineral broken by hand, struggling with adverse condi- tions, however rich in gold or silver, returned meager profits to the producer, because no one had applied the better knowledge of milling and smelting employed even then to good effect in the older mining sections of the country. The beds of streams into which the crushing mills poured their refuse were choked with concentrates bearing the enormous wastage of imperfect appliances. Excepting the few districts in Gilpin, Clear Creek and Boulder counties, very little beyond the determination of the permanency of the lodes was accomplished during the first decade. The remoteness of industrial centers from the bases of supply east of the Missouri River, and the total absence of railways, compelled the trans- portation of all commerce, including heavy machinery, across the plains at a cost for freightage of from ten to forty cents per pound. The coming of the railways in 1870 and the years immediately following inaugurated a new mining era. Then began the practical demonstration of the character and value of the fissure veins at great depths, which has been prose- cuted to this time. The system of milling the sulphuret bearing gangues (quartz or rocky non-metallic material) from which the heavier mineral had been pre- viously assorted for treatment by fire, advanced briskly under the improvements added by science to the work of amalgamation and concentration, and the smelters were soon enabled to pay higher prices for the grades best adapted to their use, and to multiply their facilities to keep up with the growing demand. In a report made in 1882 by A. N. Rogers on gold milling in Gilpin County the methods in vogue then betray the fact that there had been little, if any, ad- HISTORY OF COLORADO 251 vance in California methods and that the great progress in treatment is in the history of later years. Mr. Rogers says in this report of 1882: "Most of the gold ores are reduced by stamping, and amalgamated, both inside and outside of the batteries, after which blanketings are caught, to be panned or returned to the batteries and put through a second time with the coarse rock. Below the blankets, suitable sluices and buddies are used to collect and concen- trate the outflowing tailings, which, being reduced to a 10 per cent gangue limit, become marketable product for smelters, because of their fluxing qualities more than their value. The richer sulphurets are hand-picked and cobbed for the smelters and some grades of ore which are not free milling are concentrated and likewise sold." In 1867, or perhaps a year or two earlier, stamp milling in Gilpin County barely escaped disastrous failure because of the refractoriness of the very heavy sulphide ores. Stamp mill products, which contained $20 to $50 per ton, under the best skill and methods then at command would rarely yield more than 50 per cent and in some cases less than 25 per cent of their value. In 1882, of upward of 2,000 tons of ore which was weighed, sampled and assayed before treatment in the Bobtail mill, the saving, by amalgamation above the blankets, was 70 per cent of the contained values of gold and about 6 per cent of the silver. "This milling," says George H. Gray, assayer and metallurgist, in his report on this particular item, "was done at an average cost of but little more than one dollar per ton, embracing all items of current expense, repairs, and removals of the plant, but not covering interest on its cost." Mr. White, state geologist, in his report for 1882, says of concentrates: "Mills have been erected in dififerent quarters of the state expressly for concen- trating ores, but, with few exceptions, were closed in a few weeks after com- pletion, or operated spasmodically without satisfactory results." Mr. White attributes the causes of failure to ignorance of the essential principles involved, to defective machines, to machinery with insufficient capacity, and to concentrates which, when perfectly cleansed, were of too low a grade for existing markets." Amalgamation, too, at this period secured only an average of about 70 per cent of the gold contents. Colorado led in the introduction of the cyanide process through a company known as The Gold and Silver Extraction Mining and Milling Company, owners of patent for the McArthur- Forrest process, obtained in May, 1889, and in May, 1890. In November, 1893, the above Colorado company sold to The Gold and Silver Extraction Company of America, Limited, a corporation organized under the laws of Great Britain, with home office in Glasgow, Scotland, and the American agency in Denver. Robert B. Turner, in the State Bureau of Mines report for 1897 thus writes of the process: "A second cyanide company wa.s organized in September, 1894, known as The American Cyanide Gold and Silver Recovery Company, which is strictly an American and state organization, being incorporated under Colorado laws, with hendf|iiartprs in Denver. This company operates what is generally known as the American dioxide-cyanide process, which is the addition of sodium dioxide to a potassium cyanide solution. "A third company, The General Gold Extraction Company, Liiiiit<^d. has head- 252 HISTORY OF COLORADO quarters in Denver, and represents the Pelatan-Clerici process, under the United States patents issued in 1894, 1895 and 1896. The mode of treatment of the crushed ore is by agitation with a dilute solution of potassium cyanide in a large pan, and while such agitation is in progress, the gold is precipitated by an elec- trical current and mercury on copper plates. "At present time the writer knows of no mill in operation in Colorado using the Pelatan-Clerici process, but the company has an experimental or testing plant in Denver. Therefore, all the cyanide mills working in the state are using either the American dioxide-cyanide or the McArthur-Forrest process. "The Cripple Creek district has been one of the best in the state for the treatment of its ores by the cyanide process, and has five mills, as follows: The Colorado Ore Reduction Company, Elkton, chlorination, 50 tons ; cyanide, 60 tons per day. The Brodie Gold Reduction Company, Mound City, cyanide, 400 tons per day. The American Reduction Company, Florence, cyanide, 50 tons per day. The London, Florence, cyanide, 50 tons per day. "As all the above mills are custom plants, it becomes necessary to sample the ores in a well equipped sampling works, so as to establish their values for pur- chasing purposes before going to the fine crushing department of the mill. Therefore, all the Cripple Creek mills have their own sampling department and storage bins ahead of the cyanide mills, and ores are held until satisfactory settle- ments are made." In 1897 the chlorination process was considered the best for the telluride ores of Cripple Creek and Boulder counties. The record of the largest mills using that process was as follows: Tons per day. The Colorado-Philadelphia Reduction Company, Colorado City 250 The Gillett Reduction Company, Gillett 75 The Kilton Reduction Company, Florence 40 The El Paso Reduction Company, Florence 100 The Delano Reduction Company, Boulder 50 There are to-day no chlorination plants in Colorado. The process has been superseded by cyanidation and roasting. The two largest mills in the state have been changed over into newer process plants. In discussing amalgamation Harry A. Lee, commissioner of mines, in 1897, says : "While no radical changes have occurred the old custom of feeding the battery by hand is almost wholly replaced. New equipment of crusher, rolls and automatic feeders at the 'bead' of the mill being quite common and is now con- sidered an essential part of the modern mill. The stamp battery as a reducing device has stood the test of generations, but its operation is almost as variable .as the mills operated. The old reliable slow-drop Gilpin County mill still holds sway in that region and the question of utility as compared with the more modern compromise or quick-drop mills still remains unsettled except with the various parties." In this report for 1897 he says : "A number of stamp mills have been erected ■ during the past year in various sections of the state, and as previously stated, differ materially in their method of operation. The tendency, however, is towards heavier stamps, faster drop and depending more upon the outside plates (the in- side plates being often omitted) to collect the gold and the appended devices for VIEW OF A GULCH MINING LOCALITY ADJACENT TO THE TOWN OF IDAHO SPRINGS (Eeproduced from a photograiihic enlaigpmcnt of a photograph made in 1867.) VIEW OF NEVADA IN 1865 This picture was drawn liv A. E. Mathews in the latter port of 1865. Nevada is situated ill fiilpin rounty, and w;is one of tlic faino\is mining towns in Color.odo "s pioneer t.ime.s. 254 HISTORY OF COLORADO concentration to recover the remaining values. The weight of stamps varies from 650 to 1,100 pounds, the drop from ten to twelve inches, and screens from twenty to sixty mesh. The amalgamation plates are, with few exceptions, silver- plated but vary in size and pitch." In 1897 concentration methods had made a considerable advance. The in- creased use of the canvas tables was a long-considered proposition, but was finally very generally adopted. Another departure of this period was the separation of the zinc from lead and iron sulphides and the making of a marketable zinc prod- uct as well as lead and iron. Mr. Lee, however, adds: "While it may be said that concentration has advanced during the past years, there is still room for im- provement, and it must be improved before some of the largest ore bodies can have commercial value." By 1900 Colorado recovered its "stride," so to speak. For the panic of 1893. the shutting down of most of its silver mines, introduced a long period of tragic depression, and during the closing quarter of 1902 the market price of silver reached the lowest point in its history, 49'/8 cents per ounce. Yet by this time the transition had been made from the leading silver-producing to the leading gold-producing state of the union. There was a slow but certain process that had brought about the change. Prior to 1900 a movement had begun to make the mining of low grade ores profitable. Up to a period between 1895 ^""^ 1900 only ores with values sufficient to bear the toll of labor, transportation and smelting were sought or mined. The high-grade segregated ore shoots, chambers, pipes or pockets were eagerly sought, mined and marketed. The intervening ore bodies of lower grade were either left in the mine or, from necessity, removed to the mine's dump. To realize profit from the low-grade ore. the introduction and erection of metallurgical plants and the installation of improved and enlarged mechanical equipment were necessary. Many changes of this kind were effected, and mining methods show a decided advance. By this year the processes had been greatly improved, cyaniding was thoroughly modernized and concentration was given a great impetus by many new and ingenious devices. In these years the eyes of the mine owners were also turned upon the old waste dumps and mill tailings, and out of these have in recent years come vast fortunes which by the earlier and cruder methods had been discarded with the mine refuse. As the shafts attained deeper levels the cost of production in many districts soon became so heavy that mine after mine was shut down. In fact in many districts work was confined to cleaning up old stopes and prospecting surface areas formerly considered imworkable. but now made possible by lower cost of ore treatment. Then there came the solution of the problem, viz. : the deep drain- age tunnel. Perhaps the most important of these first undertakings was the New- house tunnel, located at the lower edge of Idaho Springs, and wi'th its objective Nevadaville in Gilpin County. The tunnel is now known as the Argo. It pene- trates Seaton and Pewabic mountains, Quartz Hill and Gunnell Hill, crossing under the county line into the Central City district, and has its present terminal under Prosser Mountain. It intersects the mineral veins at an average depth of seventeen hundred feet, and is over twenty-two thousand feet long. Part of it is double-tracked and electric locomotives are used for hauling ores and waste rock which are automatically dumped. The production of Gilpin and Clear Creek gives some conception of the value of this tunnel. HISTORY OF COLOR/VDO 255 T. J. Dalzell, commissioner of mines, in his report for 1909 and 1910, writes thus of the mining tunnels : "The largest mining tunnels in the state are the Newhouse, at Idaho Springs ; the Roosevelt, at Cripple Creek; the Yak, at Leadville; the Revenue, at Ouray, and the Big Five, at upper Idaho Springs. Their use has given the mining in- dustry the highest kind of conservation. They have in many cases closely demon- .strated the existence of the veins at considerable depths. They have drained the surrounding area, and are constantly increasing the drainage area they afifect. They have reduced the cost of mining ore by largely removing the necessity of hoisting, and they have practically eliminated the wagon transportation. They have assisted ventilation of mines; and, in the Clear Creek district particularly, the methods and cost of ore treatment have been improved and reduced by as- sembling the ores of the various mines at centrally operated plants located at the mouth of the tunnel, at which points the entire ore product is treated by the usual methods which have for years proved serviceable in this district. The yearly output of Clear Creek and Gilpin counties was in the neighborhood of four million dollars twenty years ago, but has declined gradually, until that for 1908 was $2,500,000. The improvements and advances which will now mark the completion of the Newhouse tunnel will go a long way toward bringing a return of the old prosperity to these two pioneer mining districts. The drainage tunnel will also have a present effect on the new mines opened, making the work easier and of less cost, by reason of relievuig the operator of the necessity of pumping. "In the Cripple Creek district the enormous help of the Roosevelt Drainage tunnel lies in this, that practically all the mines are drained an additional 754 feet, and the use of many separate and expensive pumping plants is made un- necessary. The tunnel is 14,000 feet in length, and was finished in Kovember, 1910, to the extent of first drainage connection being made. Laterals will now be nm to tap the various hills or sections of the di.strict. The Cripple Creek district has produced, in its life of .seventeen years, approximately two hundred and ten millions. More than half of this sum was produced in the first eight or nine years of its history, from the zones in which little or no drainage was neces- sary or effected. In late years, the production of more than fifty thousand tons of ore monthly has shown what has been made possible by tunnel drainage, and there is every reason to suppose that the present tunnel, and other enter])rises of like character, will maintain the reputation of the district as the greatest gold- producing section ever known. "The water has begun to fall at a regular rate per day or week — a rate that is practically the same all over the district. Measurements extending over periods of thirty days give a subsidence of three inches per twenty-four hours. While this seems small now, it must be remembered that it is the drainage from but the one water course thus far cut. Very soon another important channel will be intersected and connected with the drainage course, and the heading of the tunnel will also be advanced. It is likely that the drainage will settle itself to a subsidence of six inches daily, at which rate the 754 feet additional mining terri- tory afforded will be drained in eighteen 'months. This period will not only suffice to develop the productiveness of this new territory, but also serve to per- mit plans and organization for the driving of a still lower tunnel, for which the 256 HISTORY OF COLORADO site is already available and the project shown to be feasible at a length of about thirty thousand feet." The Roosevelt deep drainage tunnel in the Cripple Creek district, the Yak tunnel at Leadville, the Raymond, the Sandy Hook, the Carter in the Pitkin and Ohio Creek districts, and many others which are fully covered in the history of the districts, have proven beyond a question that the mineral wealth of Colorado is perhaps largest at depths that could not be worked profitably save by the aid of tunnels. The first dredging for gold in the United States, aside from some experi- mental work in Montana, was done in the Breckenridge district in Colorado. But the project failed because of the inferior quality of the material used in their construction, manganese and other self-hardened steels being then unknown. But in 1907 the project was again revived. In 1910 five dredges were in operation in Breckenridge, most of them work- ing even through the winter, and capable of handling up to three thousand yards per day. The Reliance was the largest dredge in the district, and was one of two dredges operating in French Gulch ; the others were working on the Blue River. The yield was in the neighborhood of 20 cents or 30 cents per cubic yard, and the field offered extremely promising opportunities to the investor and placer miner. In the annual State Mining Bureau report for 1916, the commissioner, Fred Carroll, says : "Dredging, wherever the depth and character of the gravel will permit, is gradually replacing other methods of placer mining, but when the gravel beds are shallow or the size and percentage of boulders too great, the older methods of ground sluicing or hydraulic mining are still in vogue ; however, in detenuining the method best adapted for the economical working of any placer deposit, the factor governing is largely that of grade, i. e., the value of the gold contained in a cubic yard of the gravel. "The Tonopah Placer Company, operating three dredges in the Breckenridge district, employs about seventy men on the boats, on the surface and in the machine shops. "The French Gulch Dredging Company is employing about fifteen men in the operation of a dredge, which is equipped with buckets of five cubic feet capacity and which is digging gravel at a point opposite the Wellington mill in French Gulch. The gravel bed at this point has an average thickness of about thirty feet and carries values higher than ordinary in the area mined this season. "The Derry Ranch Dredging Company during last year installed a dredge in the Arkansas Valley, at a point about twelve miles from Leadville, and has operated very successfully for the past two seasons. This boat, which is equipped with buckets of 5J^ cubic feet capacity, is working- gravel which has a thickness of about thirty feet. "The only hydraulic operations of any magnitude carried on in this state dur- ing the past two seasons are those at the head of Tarryall Creek in Park County. "The Fortune Placer Company started operating in the spring of 191 2 and has worked every season since then with a force of from fifteen to twenty men. About thirty thousand cubic feet of gravel are handled each season with the use of three Number 2 Giants, working under a pressure of from eighty to ninety- HISTORY OF COLORADO 257 five pounds. The gravel now being handled has a thickness of from twelve to eighteen feet. "The Bumhart Placer was worked with a few men this season. A ditch and pipe line were completed and a pit started at a point a short distance above the pit of the Fortune Placer. "The Colorado Gold and Platinum Placer Mining Company has spent a large sum during the summer of 1916 in ditches and placer equipment on their prop- erty in the Hahns Peak district, and is now ready to start actual mining as soon as the season of 1917 opens." The output of placer gold from thirty-five placers in 1915 was $693,310, an increase of $50,950 over 1914. Summit County, with four dredges and seven hydraulic and sluice mines, produced nearly 88 per cent, and one dredge in Lake County produced 10 per cent of the placer yield. English capital became more heavily interested in Colorado ventures immedi- ately after the opening of Cripple Creek, when the entire world listened with in- terest and amazement to the stories of fabulous fortunes that were made there. But there had been large ventures and big dividends from English monies invested in Clear Creek and Gilpin counties long before this. In fact foreign capital had many engineers on the ground looking over likely propositions and made many investments. It is not the purpose of this history to cover in detail these foreign undertakings in Colorado, but to mention two in particular which stand out as the solid evidences of a wonderful faith by careful foreign investors in the per- manence of Colorado's mineral resources. The first of these was the purchase of the Independence mine at Cripple Creek from W. R. Stratton, by the Venture Corporation of London in 1899 for $10,000,000. The second great venture was the sale to a group of London capitalists of the Camp Bird mine in what is known as the Imogene Basin about twelve miles north of Silverton. Thomas F. Walsh sold this property to the English syndicate in 1902 for $5,100,000. In 1909 the finding of enormous bodies of carbonates of zinc in the old upper workings of Leadville mines opened a new era of prosperity for that camp. These bodies were supposed for years to be spar and valueless. In 1910 the discovery increased the production of the Leadville district over one third. Since then the increase has been much greater. In the State Bureau report for 1912 the district inspector says: "Lake County has enjoyed a prosperous period during 191 1 and 1912, due in great measure to the recent carbonate-of-zinc discoveries, which now total at least one-fifth of the output of the district. This new class of mineral has not only increased the tonnage, but has added to a large extent to the number of men employed underground. In the year 1910 there were employed in mines, smelt- ers, and mills a total of 2,460 men, of whom 1,810 worked at mining, 575 worked in smelters, and 75 worked in mills. A recent enumeration shows that at the present time there are 2,130 men working at mining, 625 in smelters, and 15 in mills and sampling works ; a total of 2.770 in all the industries pert.iining to the mining business. This is an increase of 310 men over the last biennial period, notwithstanding the fact that the American Zinc Extraction Company shut down its works, which formerly employed seventy-five men in the district." Since 1015 there has been a new prosperity era for practically all the mining 258 HISTORY OF COLORADO camps save that of Cripple Creek. In this camp the production is confined to gold, and with increased cost of production, the output has not had the added values which obtain elsewhere in the state. The total production of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc in 191 5 in Colorado amounted to $44,060,052.47, an increase of nearly 30 per cent over 1914. This increase was undoubtedly due to the high price of metal prevailing in 191 5, together with an increase in tonnage of about sixty thousand tons over that made the previous year. The total produc- tion in these metals in 1916 was but $49,000,000, an increase of only 13 per cent over the previous year, although the average yearly market price of silver for 1916 was 30.3 per cent higher; that of lead was 45.6 per cent higher; that of copper 55.4 per cent higher; and that of zinc about the same, $13 as compared with $13.05 in 191 5. This condition was the result of a decrease in both quality and grade of the gold ore mined in the state. OIL FLOTATION In December, 1916, there was handed down by the Supreme Court of the United States the now historic decision in the oil flotation case. For years it had been known that oil and oily substances had a selective affin- ity and would unite mechanically with the minute particles of metal and metallic compounds found in crushed or powdered ores, but had no attraction and would not unite with quartz or rocky non-metallic material, called gangue. Patents had been granted to various individuals, and the oil flotation process had been used in Colorado for some years. This consisted in mixing finely crushed or powdered ore with water and oil, sometimes with acid added, and then in vari- ously treating the mass,— the "pulp" thus formed, so as to separate the oil, when it became impregnated or loaded with the metal and metal-bearing particles from the valueless gangue. From the resulting concentrate the metals were recovered in various ways. The Minerals Separation, Limited, of London, had obtained patents in the United States and all foreign countries in igo6 on a new flotation process in which the oil used was infinitesimal and ''the lifting force was found not in the natural buoyancy of the mass of added oil, but in the buoyancy of the bubbles, which, introduced into the mixture by the more or less violent agitation of it, envelope or become attached to the thinly oiled metallic particles." The decision in both the Supreme Court of the United States and in the House of Lords was in favor of the Minerals Separation, Limited. Oil flotation is purely an ore-dressing process, which has supplemented and revolutionized concentration methods of sulphide ores. It can be used on any bright sulphide or flaky metal. On the sylvanites of Cripple Creek it is used with splendid results. Under the decision of the Supreme Court the most ad- vanced oil flotation process is subject to license by the original patentees or their agents. At present the control in the United States is in the hands of the Min- erals Separation, Xorth American corporation, with headquarters in San Fran- cisco. VIEW OF THE HUS1NK8S SECTION OF TRINIDAD IN 1869 j.-.xr '-^a^ VIEW OP TRINIDAD IN 1881 260 HISTORY OF COLORADO PRODUCTION OF BIG PROPERTIES UP TO 1880 The following from Fossett's "Colorado" was published in 1880 and makes a fairly complete record of production of gold and silver from the earliest periods to the year 1880. Fossett introduces his tables with the following explanation : "The yields given for a majority of mines are close estimates in coin value — not currency, as was the former custom. This list embraces all mines in Colorado whose product had exceeded a quarter of a million prior to January, 1880, and but very few whose yield was less than that. Gilpin and Clear Creek counties have many lodes that yielded from one to two hundred thousand dollars, but they don't think a mine prominent in those counties unless its yield exceeds such fig- ures. Most lodes in Gilpin have several distinct mines on them, but each lode is combined here. Leadville has new mines now producing largely that did not appear below, and many of those mentioned have doubled their product since January i, 1880. So that in this comparison the new Leadville mines do not appear to the advantage that they will another year." Name oT Uine County diaraoter When Diacovered Tears < Active Work >t Total Yield to 1880 Chrysolite Lake Silver 1878 iM $2,100,000.00 Little Pittsburgh Lake Silver 1878 1/2 3,800,000.00 Little Chief Lake Silver 1878 1/2 2,056,292.00 Iron-Silver Lake Silver 1877 2l^ 700,000.00 Morning Star Cons. Lake Silver 1877 2 600,000.00 Robert E. Lee Lake Silver 1878 K2 600,