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Mechanical Equipment of 
 School Buildings 
 
 HAROLD L. ALT, M. E. 
 
 MILWAUKEE 
 THE BRUCE PUBLISHING COMPANY 
 

 Copyright 1916 
 The Bruce Publishing Company 
 
Introductory Note 
 
 THE chapters of this book appeared origi- 
 nally as a serial in the American School 
 Board Journal and the interest aroused among 
 school board authorities and architects has led 
 to the present republication in a more per- 
 manent form. 
 
 Schoolhouse design and construction have 
 advanced remarkably during the past genera- 
 tion due largely to the intensive study of 
 architects and engineers who have specialized 
 in this branch of building and have developed 
 a large body of well tested theory and prac- 
 tice. It has been the privilege of the author 
 to share in this development as a designing 
 and supervising engineer and more recently as 
 a consultant of school boards and architects. 
 The book is therefore the outgrowth of ex- 
 perience and wide observation of successful 
 domestic engineering as applied to school 
 buildings. ^ q ^ 
 
 357309 
 
Table of Contents 
 
 Chapter I. Page 
 
 Heating and Ventilating Business Organization in Schoolhouse Construction General 
 Principles of Heating and Ventilation Types of Ventilating Systems Location 
 of Supply and Exhaust Openings in Classrooms 7 
 
 Chapter II. 
 Ducts and Flues Types of Duct Systems Arrangement of Flues Breathing Walls 13 
 
 Chapter III. 
 
 Heating and Ventilating Special Rooms Assembly Rooms Down and Up Systems of 
 
 Ventilation Automatic Temperature Control 19 
 
 Chapter IV. 
 
 Ventilating Toilets and Laboratories Methods of Installing Toilet Exhaust Systems 
 
 Exhaust Systems for Chemical Laboratory Hoods School Kitchen Ventilation . . 25 
 
 Chapter V. 
 
 Toilet Fixtures Traps Vitreous Ware Fixtures Types of Closets Ventilation of Fix- 
 tures Flushing Devices 32 
 
 Chapter VI. 
 
 Plumbing Fixtures Flush Valves Urinals Ventilation of Urinals Types of Bubbling 
 
 Fountains Sinks 37 
 
 Chapter VII. 
 
 Number and Location of Fixtures Basement Toilet Rooms Types of Toilet Room Ar- 
 rangement Methods of Figuring Number of Fixtures Special Arrangement of 
 Toilet Rooms 43 
 
 Chapter VIII. 
 Toilet Partitions and Shower Baths Types of Partitions Types of Shower Bath Stalls 
 
 Arrangement of Stalls Metal Fittings 48 
 
 Chapter IX. 
 Water Supply Systems Types of Pneumatic Systems Gravity Systems Water Filters 
 
 and Sterilizers Pumps Pressure 54 
 
 Chapter X. 
 Hot Water Systems Down Feed and Up Feed Systems Methods of Heating Water 
 
 Control of Hot Water Systems Mixing Valves Forced Circulation 61 
 
 Chapter XI. 
 
 Fire Protection General Equipment Sprinkler Systems Standpipes- Fire Pumps 
 
 Hand P'ire Extinguishers 68 
 
 Chapter XII. 
 
 Drinking Water Water Coolers Refrigeration Systems Ammonia Systems Special 
 
 Drinking Fountains 73 
 
Chapter XIII. Page 
 
 Sewage Disposal Septic Tank Systems Operation and Arrangement of Septic Tanks 
 
 Disposal Fields 78 
 
 Chapter XIV. 
 The School Power Plant Economy of the School Power Plant Typical Arrangement of 
 
 Plant Boilers and Engines Electric Current 84 
 
 Chapter XV. 
 The School Swimming Pool General Considerations Cleanliness Filters and Sterilizers 
 
 Arrangement of Pools Waterproofing 90 
 
 Chapter XVI. 
 Pool Equipment Water Heaters Circulation Pumps Filters Electric Sterilizers 
 
 Rules for Operating Pools 95 
 
 Chapter XVII. 
 Electric Lighting The Need of Illuminating Systems Types of Lighting ^Types of Fix- 
 tures Standards of Light Intensity Location of Lighting Outlets Illumination 
 of Special Rooms 99 
 
 Chapter XVIII. 
 Vacuum Cleaning High and Low Vacuum Systems Floor Outlets Arrangement of 
 
 Piping Special Pipe Fittings Types of Vacuum Cleaning Machines 104 
 
Mechanical Equipment of School Buildings 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 Heating and Ventilation 
 
 The school laws of every state in the Union 
 make the erection and maintenance of proper 
 schoolhouses the first and one of the most im- 
 portant duties of school boards. The laws recog- 
 nize tacitly that while the schoolhouses are only 
 a physical accessory to the education of future 
 citizens, it is nevertheless true, that neither 
 children nor teachers can perform their respec- 
 tive part in the educational process unless the 
 schoolhouses are convenient, sanitary, safe and 
 comfortable. 
 
 To school-board members and citizens individ- 
 ually, the educational aspect of erecting and 
 equipping schoolhouses may not appear as an 
 intimate duty so much as the more vexing duty 
 of securing funds and of using those funds to 
 the best advantage. The pecuniary problems in 
 turn are not less troublesome to members of 
 school boards than the actual architectural and 
 engineering problems, bound up as they are 
 with the educational demands of teachers and 
 superintendents, the hygienic requirements of 
 sanitarians and the limitations of knowledge 
 and experience on the part of the members 
 themselves. 
 
 Several millions of dollars of the taxpayers' 
 money are spent every year on new buildings, 
 and whether this vast amount is spent wisely or 
 unwisely is dependent, almost entirely, on the 
 wisdom and care of the school boards. Consid- 
 ering the fact that comparatively few members 
 ever have previous experience in construction 
 work of any kind beyond, perhaps, the erection 
 of their own homes, it is remarkable that the 
 various communities thruout the country are not 
 loaded up with a large number of well-meant, 
 but absolutely unfit, school buildings. That this 
 is not 80 is due, without doubt, to the pains- 
 taking attention given by the average board in 
 handling building problems. Still, even care 
 cannot produce the results obtained by exper- 
 ience. 
 
 It is the purpose of this and succeeding chap- 
 t<^^s to present to school-board members, both in- 
 dividually and collectively, the various problems 
 arising in almost every new schoolhouse which 
 is erected and to discuss these problems with 
 
 their solutions in a simple, plain and straight- 
 forward manner easily appreciated by the un- 
 initiated. 
 
 It is not desired to enter into the discussion 
 of the arrangement or construction of school 
 buildings so much in this book as it is to dis- 
 cuss the equipment and mechanical end. The 
 erchitectural end should be left to the architect 
 selected by the board with the school board act- 
 ing as an advisory and criticising committee. 
 The school board which tries to undertake the 
 erection of a sediool building without an arch- 
 itect is not only going to get into a lot of diffi- 
 culties but will end up by wasting the public 
 money. 
 
 Yet the employing of an architect will not 
 necessarily solve all the problems. The modern 
 school has developed into such a distinctive 
 type of building that problems ordinarily solved 
 by standard methods in other structures require 
 totally different treatment for school use. The 
 boards thruout the country should employ not 
 only competent architects but should assist the 
 architects after they are employed by turning 
 over the responsibility of the mechanical equip- 
 ment to engineers, thoroly experienced in such 
 work. "The best is the cheapest" in the long 
 run and the best engineer is the one whose ex- 
 perience on schools has been the largest and 
 most successful. No school board can go wrong 
 in following this procedure and the larger the 
 building the greater the emphasis which must 
 be laid on this point. 
 
 Even then, the boards should be familiar with 
 the various points involved as in almost every 
 instance they make the final decision as to 
 the results justifying the expenditure and un- 
 less they know what the results will be and the 
 value of such results there is great chance of 
 financial waste. 
 
 In Fig. 1 is shown the normal business or- 
 ganization of school construction and one which 
 gives the most satisfactory results. Here the 
 school community appoints the school board 
 which in turn selects the site and the architect 
 end engineer. The site (according to the safe 
 bearing load of the soil) determines the foun- 
 
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 1. 
 
 BUSINESS ORGANIZATION IN SCHOOLHOUSE 
 CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 dntion and the architect must not be held re- 
 srtonsible for expensive foundations necessitated 
 by poor bearing soil. All school boards should 
 take borings to determine the character of the 
 vinder strata before purchasing as the necessity 
 of expensive foundations will often make a 
 higher priced site really cheaper. 
 
 After the contracts are let the engineer con- 
 trols the heating, plumbing and lighting con- 
 tractors' work, while the masonry, carpentry, 
 steel, painting, plastering, roofing and miscel- 
 laneous work is under the control of the archi- 
 tect. The work of these contractors is united 
 to form a finished and complete building, and 
 all disputes are carried back thru the architect 
 or engineer to the school board for judgment. 
 It is better that the engineer be selected and 
 appointed by the board as he is then better able 
 to serve the board's interest alone than when he 
 is selected by the architect and is therefore un- 
 der obligations to him. It goes without saying, 
 however, that the selection of an engineer who 
 is antagonistic to the architect is not good busi- 
 ness policy since they must co-operate. 
 
 Let us take first the matter of heating and 
 
 ventilation since this is the most important of 
 all the mechanical contracts amounting from ten 
 to fifteen per cent of the total cost of the build- 
 ing. Of course, the problem of ventilation con- 
 sists of supplying a reasonable and proper 
 amount of fresh and warmed air to each class- 
 room and other occupied rooms in such a way 
 as to least inconvenience the occupants and so 
 as to produce the most beneficial results. After 
 this air has been breathed or otherwise con- 
 taminated the logical continuation of the prob- 
 lem consists of the removal of such foul air 
 from the locations where it naturally collects, 
 thus raaintaining a circulation in the atmos- 
 phere. 
 
 Before the subject of ventilation can be in- 
 telligently considered the composition of the 
 atmosphere must be noted, together with the 
 changes produced which render it unfit for fur- 
 ther use. 
 
 In the first place, air is a mixture of gases 
 being normally about one part nitrogen and 
 four parts oxygen with some ozone and car- 
 bonic acid gas; besides this there are usually 
 present small quantities of ammonia, sulphuric 
 and nitric acid, floating organisms and inor- 
 ganic matter, together with various local im- 
 purities. 
 
 The oxygen is by far the most important of 
 the various gases, it being the gas required both 
 in combustion and respiration. The nitrogen 
 serves as a dilutent of the oxygen and does not 
 enter actively into any of the processes in which 
 we are interested. 
 
 Carbonic acid gas, while in itself not especi- 
 ally harmful, is a sort of gauge on the purity of 
 the air. This is owing to the fact that, while 
 in the open country the proportion of this gas 
 
 I- 
 -I- 
 
 Te/7?permp 
 
 \/fotof 
 
 Fig. 2. PLAIN FAN APPARATUS. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION 
 
 9 
 
 is only 3 to 6 parts in 10,000, in the process of 
 respiration its proportion is increased in almost 
 direct ratio with other more harmful, but less 
 easily detected, impurities. Therefore, the pro- 
 portion of carbonic acid gas is almost an in- 
 variable indication of the degree of foulness 
 reached by the air. 
 
 It is a generally accepted standard that not 
 less than 30 cubic feet of fresh air per minute 
 
 This much being decided upon, the board 
 must next decide if the air is to be supplied 
 exactly as it comes from the outside dust 
 laden, smoky or odorous as it often is or 
 whether money shall be spent for a filter or air 
 washer. 
 
 In Fig. 2 a ventilating apparatus, or "fan 
 room arrangement" as it is often termed, is 
 shown in which no modification of the air is 
 
 KVVVVVVVVVX\VVV\v^\V\V^vXVV\ \S'^VVsSVVVV 
 
 Fig. 3. FAN AND COKE SCREEN. 
 
 Ap^\\\V\VVV\\V\VV^V\^\V\V\V'v^VV^^\\\V'^V\\Vv.V\SV.VS 
 
 Fig. 4. FILTER SCREEN AND FAN. 
 
 should be supplied for each pupil in a classroom 
 in fact, this is required by law in some states. 
 Another authority gives 50 cubic feet per min- 
 ute for high schools and 40 cubic feet per min- 
 ute in grammar schools. It is not just apparent 
 why the high school student who generally is in 
 the building for a shorter period, should be thus 
 favored. From practical experience and general 
 practice no school board will go wrong, or can 
 even be subject to criticism, in adopting the 
 80 cubic foot standard. 
 
 made beyond that of raising its temperature 
 slightly by the "tempering heater." Then it 
 goes to the "fan" and is pumped thru the 
 "heater," which warms it, into ducts to the 
 classrooms. In Fig. 3 a coke screen is shown, 
 this consisting of vertical wire mesh partitions 
 12 in. or 18 in. apart, between which coke is 
 placed and the air drawn thru the mass. The 
 filtration obtained by this method is not partic- 
 ularly effective and the process of cleaning tht- 
 filter is difficult. 
 
10 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 nH 
 
 IdAl 
 
 h 
 
 ii m^ 
 
 k 
 
 A/f Washer 
 
 Jfeotef 
 
 Fig. 5. AIR WASHER AND FAN. 
 
 In Fig. 4 a cloth filter is shown which con- 
 sists of a large number of frames, across which 
 cheese cloth is stretched as a massive strainer 
 and thru which the air is drawn before being 
 sent to the rooms. The filter will not do any- 
 thing beyond catching the larger dust particL^S; 
 etc., which would otherwise be carried along 
 with the air, but it is easier to clean and pre- 
 ferable to the coke filter. 
 
 Fig. 5 shows an "air washer" which is a de- 
 vice for washing the air by means of a fine 
 water spray that removes not only dust but 
 also a large proportion of smoke and odors which 
 at times may be carried in from the outside. 
 Besides this, the air washer can be procured 
 with a regulating device which maintains the 
 humidity or moisture in the air at any desired 
 degree, doing away with the excessively dry and 
 Ijarching steam heat effects ordinarily experi- 
 enced. By all means install an air washer un- 
 less financial limitations absolutely prohibit its 
 use. Fig. 6 shows an elevation of Fig. 5 giving 
 an idea of the appearance of the apparatus when 
 properly set on foundations. 
 
 In order to properly introduce the fresh air 
 into a schoolroom and also to withdraw the foul 
 air, the location of the supply and exhaust open- 
 ings must be carefully determined. Of course, 
 the main object is to circulate all the air in 
 the room, or to put it another way, to circulate 
 air in all portions of the room, while a secondary 
 object is to circulate the air in such a manner 
 as not to make air currents disagreeable or 
 even perceptible. 
 
 Let us take Fig. 7 which shows the plan of a 
 typical small room with the approximate cir- 
 culation of air indicated by arrows between the 
 supply and exhaust registers which are located 
 fairly close together. It will be seen that owing 
 to the narrowness of the room this arrangement 
 is fairly good but entirely out of place when 
 a room is of greater width, as shown in Fig. 8, 
 v/here fully two-thirds of the room is stagnant. 
 
 In Fig. 9 is shown the normal method of 
 treating standard sized classrooms for say 40 
 or 50 pupils. It will be readily seen that the 
 amount of stagnant area is comparatively small. 
 The diagrams hold reasonably true regardless of 
 
 
 "' >*'? < * -. \t^^!'i.\. 
 
 Ifeo/'e/' 
 
 Air 1 1 
 
 p/oshcr ' j 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 ('.i 
 
 /{eo/^er 
 
 jL. 
 
 ^7bC/os3 
 Reheater 
 
 y'F/oo/' 
 
 . ? >.>? . I . ' . > ...-I. 
 
 -.'>x.-' 
 
 Fig. 6. SIDE VIEW OF AIR WASHER AND FAN. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION 
 
 11 
 
 
 u ^ 
 
 Fig. 7. Plan of schoolroom showing effect of locating 
 supply and exhaust openings near one corner of narrow room. 
 
 lUL 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 r-J-l-^ 
 
 
 <c^ 
 
 Fig. 9. Plan of schoolroom showing effect of locating 
 supply and exhaust openings at inner corners. 
 
 1 
 
 
 Ceiling 
 
 S L-( 
 
 
 
 r'vi 
 
 Fig. 8. Plan of schoolroom showing effect of locating 
 supply and exhaust openings near one corner of large, square 
 room. 
 
 Fig. 10. Section of classroom showing effect of locating 
 both supply and exhaust openings at floor line. 
 
 r\ 
 
 ^ 
 
 Ce///nq 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 '/^yy-' 
 
 / 
 
 <y 
 
 .\ -J- .1 ".'.f-^ S-< 
 
 
 Fig. 11. Section of classroom showing effect of locating 
 both supply and exhaust openings above breathing line. 
 
 Fig. 12. Section of classroom showing effect of locating 
 supply opening above breathing line and exhaust opening at 
 floor line. 
 
12 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 the height of the openings above the floor, but 
 the exact motion of the air is affected by the 
 movement of the occupants, the opening and 
 closing of doors, the shape of the inlet and the 
 velocity of the entering air. 
 
 In Fig. 10 is shown a" typical room in eleva- 
 tion with both the supply and exhaust openings 
 at the floor. It will be seen that with such an 
 arrangement the circulation is likely never to 
 reach the "breathing line," BL, which is the 
 approximate level from which the air is drawn 
 into the lungs. In Fig. 11 a similar effect is 
 shown with both openings located about 8 ft. 
 in. above the floor. 
 
 Fig. 12 shows the circulation with the supply 
 register 8 ft. in. above the floor and the vent 
 outlet at the floor. It can readily be appreciated 
 that this is the best method for circulating verti- 
 
 cally across the breathing line, and is known as 
 "downward ventilation" since the general move- 
 ment of the air is in this direction. The re- 
 versing of the supply and exhaust openings 
 would result in a similar effect but in an upward 
 direction being known as "upward ventilation." 
 This is seldom used, however, (owing to 
 draughts produced at the floor) except in audi- 
 toriums. The arrangement shown in Fig. 11 
 is the regular standard generally adopted. 
 
 A combination of Fig. 9 and Fig. 11 produces 
 the best all-around results; that is, the supply 
 inlet should be at one end of the rooms about 
 8 ft. 0. in. above the floor to avoid draughts be- 
 low the head line, and the vent outlet should be 
 at the other end of the room close to the floor. 
 No draught, of course, is ever felt in front of 
 a vent outlet. 
 
 A TYPICAL CLASSROOM. 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 Ducts and Flues 
 
 After the manner of treating the air at its 
 intake and the method of introducing it into 
 the rooms have been decided, there still remains 
 the matter of conveying the air from the fan 
 room to the classrooms and of disposing of the 
 foul air which is withdrawn at the exhaust 
 registers in other words the duct system. 
 
 In connection with fan operated ventilation 
 systems there are three general distribution 
 methods in use. These are known as the "trunk 
 line" or single duct system, the "double duct" 
 or hot-and-cold-air system and the "individual 
 duct" or separate duct system. The differences 
 between these three methods are readily per- 
 ceived by reference to the figures accompany- 
 ing this cliapter. 
 
 In Fig. 13 is shown a plan view of a trunk 
 line system in which the main duct is run on 
 the basement corridor ceiling and supplies risers 
 to the various rooms, these risers being con- 
 cealed in a double wall (called a "breathing 
 wall") from the first floor up. 
 
 In Fig. 14 is shown an elevation of this sys- 
 tem which makes clear the manner of tempera- 
 ture regulation of the air and also the limita- 
 tions of such regulation. The air is assumed 
 in this case to have already passed thru a 
 tempering heater which raises the temperature 
 to a little above freezing point before it enters 
 the fan. It is then discharged by the fan both 
 directly thru the heater and also under the 
 heater by means of the bypass shown. The air 
 passing below the heater is, of course, un- 
 affected by the heater while the air passing thru 
 
 the heater has its temperature raised to a 
 rather high degree. 
 
 The air furnished the classrooms is a mixture 
 of these two hot and cold currents of air which 
 is controlled by the damper in the bypass under 
 the heater which produces a combined tempered 
 air supply all the tempered air, however, being 
 of the same temperature and delivered to the 
 classrooms thru the flues and outlets indicated. 
 
 This system, while the cheapest to install, 
 has its chief drawback in the fact that a class- 
 room on the north side of the building will be 
 supplied with air at exactly the same tempera- 
 ture as one on the south side. Similarly, a room 
 on the windy side and a room on the sheltered 
 or lee side will receive exactly the same service. 
 This is radically wrong as the rooms will require 
 air of temperature at considerable variance to 
 maintain the proper 68 or 70 degrees Fahr. in 
 each. 
 
 It is often necessary or cheaper to connect 
 the bottom of the vertical flues with a duct run 
 near the base and then to unite the ducts at the 
 fan room. A plan of this kind is shown in 
 Fig. 15. This splitting up of the main duct 
 does not alter the character of the system, as 
 a trunk line system, since this type may be de- 
 fined as a system which supplies all the flues 
 (vertical risers) from a main duct or branch, 
 the air being all of the same warmth as its 
 temperature is determined in the fan room. Of 
 course, a trunk line may have auxiliary heaters 
 placed in the base of several flues which will 
 
 C/oss 7?oomj 
 obowc 
 
 Figure 13. 
 
 13 
 
14 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fir a t Flo or-y F/cies to 7?ooins- 
 
 ^~~X : : r-7 r ; -. ^ . * . 
 
 7, * - ' * ^ & 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 ,o^-. ', /<;: ."^y. o.'.v 'o''o. '-.''. /o'- *,'} 
 
 C/ossTZooma 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
 Fig. 16. 
 
 vary the temperature in the individual flue, but, 
 in general, the above definition holds. 
 
 The double duct system really consists of two 
 trunk lines, one above the other, in plan view 
 appearing the same as the ordinary trunk lines 
 shown in Figs. 13 and 15. In elevation, how- 
 ever, as shown in Fig. 16, there is a radical 
 difference. 
 
 The air is blown partially thru the heater and 
 partially thru the bypass under the heater. 
 There is no damper in the bypass so that the 
 air passing below the heater enters the lower 
 duct unhampered while the air passing thru 
 the heater enters the upper duct, which has to 
 
 be made large enough to supply all the air neces- 
 sary in extremely cold weather. Any modification 
 of this hot air, which it is desired to obtain in 
 milder weather, or for protected rooms, is 
 procured by the use of mixing dampers located 
 at the base of each flue, these dampers being 
 arranged to gradually cut off the warm air sup- 
 
 7?ooms 
 
 Fig 17. 
 
DUCTS AND FLUES 
 
 15 
 
 r/ae ^oKoom 
 
 Duct 
 
 ^ Co/c/A/> ''\Uuct 
 
 Fig. 18. 
 
 ply and open up the cold air inlet from the 
 lower duct. Typical arrangements of this kind 
 are sho'wn in Figs. 17 and 18. 
 
 vital consideration as it may require the drop- 
 ping of the whole basement floor level a foot 
 or more in order to obtain proper headroom. 
 
 To obviate the disadvantages of the trunk 
 line and double duct systems the individual duct 
 system has been devised. So far as piping goes, 
 this system resembles the common hot-air fur- 
 nace, each flue or room having an individual 
 supply duct carried back to the heater. (Fig. 
 
 19.) 
 
 The temperature of the air in this system is 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 rirsrr/oor 
 
 f/ues toJ^ooms - 
 
 Duct 
 
 -JIofj4/r Chamber 
 CoMAitChombe/' 
 
 t ' t, . * 
 
 S/=iSE/^-/^T Co/^/T'/ao/z 
 
 r'/oor-^ 
 
 'v.-tf*-''>:-o i<>;' ov-i'-'i 
 
 A . <4' 
 
 !>.. <...'. 
 
 Fig. 20 
 
 The air in the lower duct is usually at a 
 temperature of 35 to 40 degrees Fahr. in ex- 
 treme cold weather, as in this case also all air 
 is previously drawn thru a tempering heater. 
 When the outside temperature rises above 35 to 
 40 degrees the tempering heater is shut off and 
 the temperature of the air in the lower duct is 
 then the same as the outside air. The cold air 
 duct is usually made from 50 to 66 2-3 per cent 
 of the size of the hot air duct. 
 
 It can be seen that the double duct system 
 renders possible the control of the temperature 
 of the air to each room by the use of the mix- 
 ing dampers but the headroom in the basement 
 is cut down by a little more than the exact 
 height of the second duct. This is often a most 
 
 regulated at the heater (as in a trunk line sys- 
 tem) but is governed by the double damper ar- 
 rangement (similar to that in a double duct 
 
 Fifsf F/oorj 
 
 f- 'if- - - " * - ..'^f 
 
 r^ 
 
 rTTTTTTTTmrTfTTHIl 
 
 B/13MA/r COf?RIDOf^ 
 
 .o -.o .,. 
 
 Fig. 21. 
 
16 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 \;. '.'^.'."rr <: 'I' <a r*^.' '.*?< .'V-:vg^';Q\^ 
 
 Vc^f Space 
 
 Figure 23. 
 
 system) indicated in the elevation of this sys- temperature regardless and independent of every 
 tem (Fig. 20), this being done separately, how- other room in the building. The mixing 
 ever, for each and every duct. dampers are controlled by thermostats in the 
 This arrangement permits each and every various rooms which throw the dampers auto- 
 classroom to receive air at its own required matically and maintain (if the room radiators 
 
DUCTS AND FLUES 
 
 17 
 
 are similarly controlled) a temperature varying 
 not to exceed three degrees. 
 
 Since classrooms for a given school in gen- 
 eral seat about the same number of pupils, it 
 follows that most of the flues will be a certain 
 standard size and only those of larger or smaller 
 rooms will be of odd size. This fact makes 
 possible the compact arrangement on the base- 
 ment ceiling indicated in the cross section of 
 the basement corridor shown in Fig. 21. 
 
 It would seem at first that the cost of an in- 
 dividual duct system would greatly exceed that 
 of a trunk line or double duct system, but such 
 has not proved to be the case in practice. This 
 system can be designed so that the difference in 
 cost on a heating contract involving, say, $10,- 
 000.00 to $20,000.00 would not exceed $300.00 
 to $800.00 according to the design. This is 
 owing largely to the fact that the smaller ducts 
 can be constructed of lighter gauge metal, do 
 not require bracing like the larger trunk lines. 
 
 Certain advantages are secured in the ar- 
 rangement of flues in the breathing walls to 
 supply fresh air from the basement and ex- 
 haust foul air from the attic. One of these is 
 the saving of space in the breathing wall which 
 is often very crowded owing to numerous open- 
 ings for doors, chutes, pipe shafts, etc. As 
 shown in Fig. 22 (which is a cross section of a 
 typical breathing wall) the space used for a 
 supply flue going to the first floor could be 
 utilized for an exhaust flue from the second or 
 third floor to the attic, while a supply flue stop- 
 ping at the second floor could be used as an 
 exhaust space for a third floor exhaust flue. If 
 both the supply and exhaust were carried to the 
 basement this would of course be impossible 
 and would overcrowd the breathing wall at the 
 lower floors with just double the number of 
 flues. 
 
 An elevation of three typical classrooms one 
 above the other is shown in Fig. 23 with the 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 and can, to a great extent, be built in the shop 
 where all facilities for quick completion are at 
 hand. 
 
 This system is at present being installed in 
 the Bridgeport, Conn., High School, in the 
 Montclair, N. J., High School, the Schenley 
 High School of Pittsburgh, and many others; 
 no school board should allow any other to be 
 used unless forced by financial limitations. 
 
 Flues are vertical air pipes run usually in the 
 breathing walls so as to be concealed. In almost 
 all cases the warm, fresh-air flues come from the 
 basement and the vent flues go to exhaust fans 
 in the attic. A few schools are arranged to 
 have both the supply and exhaust flues run to 
 the basement. None are arranged with the sup- 
 ply flues run to the attic as this necessitates 
 carrying the large steam pipes for the heaters 
 from the boilers (which are always in the lowest 
 portion of the building) up to the attic level 
 and also places the heaters where they are not 
 accessible for the engineer. 
 
 customary flue runs and outlets. Of course a 
 slight advantage in air circulation would be 
 obtained if the supply outlets could be located 
 close to the left hand wall similar to the loca- 
 tion of the vent outlets at the other side. This 
 is a manifest impossibility unless the door to 
 the room is thrown practically into the center 
 of the wall which is generally out of the ques- 
 tion. 
 
 In the vent space above the classrooms are 
 placed discharge fans which draw the air out 
 of the vent space and discharge it into the outer 
 air where it is dissipated. 
 
 Oftentimes cases are met with where the 
 amount of money available or appropriated for 
 a school building does .not nearly cover the work 
 involved so that rigid cutting of many desirable 
 features is imperative. In such cases the ten- 
 dency is to turn toward what is known as grav- 
 ity heating. The writer of these articles does 
 not feel justified in advocating this system 
 which consists of bringing in a cold air supply 
 
18 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 to a heater set near the base of the flue, as de- 
 tailed in Fig. 24, the hot air rising in the flue 
 by expansion, after being heated. 
 
 The sliding damper on the chain is one 
 method of controlling the air temperature in 
 the flue, the rising of the damper cutting off 
 the hot air coming from the heater and at the 
 same time opening up the cold air bypass under 
 the heater. Thus the tempered air in the flue 
 can be graduated to any desired degree within 
 reasonable limits. Of course, the operation of 
 this system depends entirely on the tendency of 
 warm air to rise, and therefore the circulation 
 is better in extremely cold weather than at any 
 
 other time. Such a system, altho producing 
 fair results at times, is dependent too much on 
 outside weather conditions. It is never possible 
 to say that any certain amount of air per pupil, 
 is introduced into a room as the amount con- 
 stantly varies with the wind and outside tem- 
 perature. It is not impossible to even have a 
 strong wind reverse the air flow in a classroom 
 from its supply register into an exhaust, driv- 
 ing all the bad air in the room back into the 
 fresh air duct and thence into some other class- 
 room. More than this the gravity system lacks 
 sufficient motive power to allow the use of air 
 filters or even air washers. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 fiLjUH^^^^^P'^l^^^^lH'^'^^HI^Hir^^u^ ' ^^ 
 
 
 1 
 
 Ji mS^^^^^ff^mll^^K^^^^^^^^h^H-'LJMl 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 A TYPICAL HIGH SCHOOL AUDITORIUM. SCHENLEY HIGH SCHOOL, PITTSBURGH, PA. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Heating and Ventilating Special Rooms 
 
 The first step in the traiisitioai wihicli occurs 
 in scboolhouses between the common cliassroom 
 and the auditorium, is the enlarged classroom 
 or, as it is generally termed, "study room". This 
 is often obtained by simply omitting the parti- 
 tion between two of the common classrooms thus 
 making the study room of approximately twice 
 the size of the ordinary room. Since the study 
 room will then be of the same width but twice 
 the length of the regular classroom, it may be 
 ventilated in the same manner so long as the 
 distance is not increased between the registers 
 and the outside w^all. The increase in length is 
 taken care of by installing double the number 
 of registers in order to obtain good distribution 
 of air for instance, two supply registers (or, 
 one of twice the normal size) might be placed 
 in the wall about the middle of the room and 
 an exhaust outlet at each end. This arrange- 
 ment can also be reversed, if desired, and a 
 supply register placed at each end of the room 
 with a double exhaust outlet in the middle. 
 
 The next step toward the auditorium is the 
 "assembly room" or "school hall" which is 
 usually larger than a study room and is gen- 
 erally equipped with a platform or small stage. 
 The width of the assembly room is often greater 
 than the study room so that registers on one 
 side of the room are not sufficient to throw the 
 air across and properly supply the farther side 
 of the room. For this reason supply and ex- 
 haust registers are generally placed on both 
 sides of the room. Where a stage or platform 
 is installed the registers should be changed 
 somewhat to accommodate the occupants of the 
 platform and also to take care of the low por- 
 tion of the hall, this being especially important 
 if the floor is inclined so as to form a pocket 
 in front of the stage. In this case wall supply 
 registers should be located eight feet, or so, 
 above the stage level and a large portion of the 
 exhaust shouM be taken out from registers lo- 
 cated in the vertical front of the stage and at 
 the lowest part of the floor level. In fact, the 
 entire front of many stages and platforms is 
 turned into a continuous line of registers, the 
 balance of the exhaust air being drawn off by 
 
 other registers located at the floor level in the 
 middle and rear of the hall. 
 
 Since halls and study rooms are usually of 
 one, or, at the most, one-and-a-half story height, 
 they should be supplied with the same amount 
 of air per minute per pupil as the ordinary 
 classroom. With an auditorium running up 
 two, three, or even four stories high the large 
 amount of air contained will usually help out 
 to a considerable extent the amount required 
 for ventilation so that unless the auditorium is 
 intended to be continuously occupied for three 
 or four hour periods a supply of 20 cubic feet 
 per minute per occupant is sufficient; but for 
 long period use the supply should not be less 
 than the standard thirty cubic feet. 
 
 It is impossible to go into the proper means 
 of ventilating the auditorium in all phases of 
 its developmemit in a book of this size but to 
 show the progress being m'ade in this line it is 
 desired to call attention to a high school recently 
 under oonstruiction, the auditorium of which 
 is shown at successive levels in Figs. 25 to 29 
 inclusive. This school has cost about $750,- 
 000, and has probably the most carefully ven- 
 tilated auditorium of any school in the country. 
 In the plan shown in Fig. 25 is given a view 
 of the vent space under the floor of the audi- 
 torium (this space being seven or eight feet 
 high) and underneath which is located an ap- 
 paratus room with the fans, air washers, heat- 
 ing coils, motors, etc. The air is supplied by 
 a fan situated in the apparatus room which dis- 
 charges into the large duct marked "from sup- 
 ply fan" and the air is exhausted thru the other 
 large duct marked "to exhaust fan". The bad 
 air is gotten rid of by the exhaust fan discharg- 
 ing it into the duct marked "discharge" which 
 leads to the outer air. 
 
 In the main floor plan (Fig. 26) are shown a 
 large number of small black circles, these being 
 floor openings with mushrooms so as to con- 
 nect the floor with the vent space below at every 
 other seat, while under the balcony registers are 
 placed in the gallery ceiling as shown in dotted 
 lines. 
 
 A plan is shown in Fig. 27 of the vent space 
 
 19 
 
20 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 /:i> 
 
 Fig. 27. 
 
 Fig. 28. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATING SPECIAL ROOMS 
 
 21 
 
 in the balcony with the balcony floor removed 
 and the ducts connecting to the registers in the 
 ceiling under the balcony indicated. In Fig. 
 28 is shown a plan of the balcony with the 
 mushroom inlets the same as the ground floor. 
 Fig. 29 gives the vent space above the audi- 
 torium ceiling and shows the connections to the 
 ventilating girdle a cross section of which is 
 given in Fig. 30. This girdle allows air to 
 enter the auditorium all around its entire length 
 and also serves to conceal a row of electric 
 lights for indirect illumination. 
 
 The pipe coils shown in Fig. 29 are for the 
 purpose of keeping the roof slab warm over the 
 auditorium as experience has proven that where 
 the air is properly humidified the presence of a 
 cold ceiling is liable to cause condensation. 
 These coils together with radiators shown in 
 Tigs. 26 and 27 make it possible to keep the 
 auditorium warm during periods of dis-use and 
 also to heat it up prior 
 to time of use without 
 the expenditure of elec- 
 tric power to circulate 
 the air; that is, the heat- 
 ing is accomplished in 
 all normal weather by 
 direct radiation without 
 the use of the ventilat- 
 ing air, and it is not 
 necessary to start either 
 the supply or exhaust 
 fan until the occupants 
 are actually assembled. 
 This cuts the electric 
 power down to a mini- 
 mum and is a most eco- 
 nomical operating ar- 
 rangement. While in 
 many auditoriums the 
 heating is accomplished 
 entirely by the hot air 
 
 these are not as economical to operate unless 
 kept constantly in use and even then require 
 more electric power than auditoriums supplied 
 with direct radiators. 
 
 It will be noted in the plan Fig. 25 that a 
 revolving damper is shown. This damper is 
 arranged so that all the fresh air supply going 
 to the auditorium above is carried thru on one 
 side of the damper and all the exhaust air com- 
 ing from the auditorium is carried thru the 
 otiier side. The damper is arranged in such a 
 
 way that one of the large ducts is connected to 
 all ceiling registers, the light girdle and other 
 openings above the floor, while the other duct 
 is connected to the vent spaces under the main 
 floor and under the gallery floor into which all 
 mushrooms and other floor outlets are connected. 
 A simple turn of this damper will change the 
 supply fan so that the fresh air will enter all 
 of the top outlets while the exhaust air is pulled 
 out of the floor outlets by the exhaust fan. 
 Reversing the damper causes a reverse of the 
 entire system that is, the fresh air is then 
 directed into the vent space beneath the audi- 
 torium floor and under the gallery floor issuing 
 into the auditorium thru the mushrooms while 
 at the same time the foul air is withdrawn from 
 the ceiling registers under the gallery and the 
 light girdle in the ceiling, changing in the brief- 
 est possible time from what is termed the "down- 
 supply" system into an "up-supply" system. 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
 Now the desirability of this will not at first 
 Le apparent until it is remembered that the 
 presence of a large audience in an auditorium 
 makes the problem one of cooling rather than 
 heating. This at first would seem to require 
 only that the radiators be shut off and the ven- 
 tilating air be allowed to enter at a low enough 
 temperature to accomplish the desired cooling 
 effect. While this in reality would accomplish 
 the cooling required, the cold air falling on 
 the unprotected heads of the audience results 
 
22 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 It'oofy 
 
 Duc/'Connec/zony 
 Ver?/ 
 
 A vrnTORiUT^ 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
 in unpleasant and dangerous draughts quite 
 similar to those obtained from opening an out- 
 side window, except perhaps that they are of 
 greater volume and not so low a temperature. 
 The result, however, is decidedly undesirable. 
 This can be obviated by simply turning the 
 damper when the temperature in the auditorium 
 begins to rise enough to demand cold air and 
 feeding air from the bottom. This air does not 
 come in at low enough temperature to cause 
 discomfort to the feet and lower portions of the 
 body which are better protected against the cold 
 than the head and neck. By the time the cooler 
 air his risen to the breathing line it has been 
 more or less tempered both by the bodily heat 
 and the mixture with the air already in the 
 room so that it is not only less noticeable but the 
 
 draft dropping towards the floor has been en- 
 tirely eliminated. 
 
 If the reader is not familiar with what is 
 meant by a mushroom in the floor a reference 
 to Fig. 31 will indicate its construction clearly. 
 The ordinary mushroom is six inches in diam- 
 eter. 
 
 The school boards who place direct radiators 
 in their buildings including the auditorium and 
 supply air for ventilation only have the most 
 economical system to operate. Those who install 
 the reverse damper in their auditorium systems 
 have not only the most economical but at the 
 same time the most satisfactory system. 
 
 Fig. 31. 
 
 Fig. 32. 
 
 All that has been said regarding heating sys- 
 t'frms in the foTegodng diapters has been stated 
 with a presumption that automatic regulation 
 will be installed. By this it is meant that on 
 each radiator will be placed a valve similar to 
 that shown in Fig. 32, and that each mixing 
 damper will be controlled by an air motor sim- 
 ilar to that shown in Fig. 33. It has been 
 proven that it is an absolute impossibility to 
 maintain proper temperature thruout a school 
 v.'here the radiators or in fact any other source 
 of heat must be controlled by the individual 
 teacher or by the janitor. This is largely due 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATING SPECIAL ROOMS 
 
 23 
 
 Ifot 
 
 Douh/e 
 DofTfper 
 
 Aif Motor 
 
 Fig. 34. 
 
 to the personal preferences of the various indi- 
 viduals in charge of the rooms, some preferring 
 a cool room perhaps, 65 or even lower, and 
 others preferring a hot room, 75 or slightly 
 higher. Trouble is also caused by the teachers 
 neglecting to maintain proper temperature when 
 interested in their other duties. An immense 
 amount of school money is wasted because the 
 average teacher when feeling warm finds it 
 much easier to pull the window down from the 
 top or raise it from the bottom than to go 
 around and manipulate two or three radiator 
 valves. Thus, the heat obtained by burning coal 
 
 under the boiler is radiated in room after room 
 vrhere it is not required simply because it is 
 impossible to force the attention of those in 
 charge to the difficult proposition of keeping 
 their thermometers between 68 and 70 degrees. 
 
 Automatic regulation is obtained generally by 
 compressed air which is run thru the building 
 in very small pipes, to instruments located in 
 each room, called thermostats. These thermo- 
 stats are adjustable so that they will (at any 
 desired temperature) open a valve in the air 
 line. This valve permits the compressed air to 
 enter a pipe which connects to^ diaphragm valves 
 on the radiators similar to that shown in Fig. 
 32. The air operates the valve in one direction 
 and a spring in the other. When the tempera- 
 ture gets too hot the thermostat closes off the 
 radiator and saves the school board's steam. 
 
 At the same time the temperature oi the ven- 
 tilating air (if supplied thru a double duct 
 system with a mixing damper, or thru the indi- 
 vidual duct system with similar equipment) is 
 also changed. The compressed air enters the air 
 
 ^UT 
 
 / \ 
 
 ki 
 
 Fig 33. 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
24 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 motor shown in Fig. 33 thru the pipe P, raising 
 the diaphragm D, which moves the plate T and 
 raises the lever L which is pivoted at point C. 
 The lever L is connected to the mixing damper 
 lod at R and moves the dampers so as to shut 
 off the hot air and turn on the cold air if the 
 room is too warm and vice versa if the tem- 
 perature is too low. When the air supply is 
 cut off the spring S brings the lever arm back 
 to its original position. The method of con- 
 necting up one of these air motors to move the 
 dampers in the flues is shown in Fig. 34. 
 
 The steam which is saved by such eiiuipment 
 is prevented from leaving the boiler and raises 
 the pressure so that the damper regulator shown 
 in Fig. 35 will shut the damper in the main 
 boiler flue and thus check the fires. This dam- 
 per regulator is nothing but a cylinder C in 
 which the piston R is pushed up by the steam 
 pressure, the pressure point at which it moves 
 being determined by the number of weights 
 which are piled on S. 
 
 It can easily be seen that with this equip- 
 ment a rise in temperature outside of the build- 
 
 ing or the heating up of the rooms by the pres- 
 ence of the pupils conserves the steam the in- 
 stant it is possible without underheating the 
 rooms. In fact, it is claimed that automatic 
 regulation has been known to save 25 per cent 
 of the fuel which would otherwise have been 
 lest. 
 
 In Fig. 36 is shown a photograph of ther- 
 mostatic control applied to a radiator, while 
 Fig. 37 shows an air motor controlling two 
 dampers such as are used in the double duct 
 system. 
 
 Figure 37. 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 Ventilating Toilets and Laboratories 
 
 Possibly of even greater importance than the 
 air supplied to and exhausted from classrooms 
 is the method of ventilation employed in the 
 toilets, since this has a direct bearing upon the 
 health of the pupils. It is a well-grounded 
 theory that no fresh air should be supplied to 
 a room in which odors of any sort are created. 
 This applies not only to toilet rooms but to 
 locker rooms, kitchens and all other apartments 
 which are operated under similar conditions. 
 The reason for this is apparent when we con- 
 sider the condition which results from not sup- 
 plying such a room with fresh air, altho at first 
 glance this treatment seems likely to result in 
 just the opposite effect from that desired. 
 
 When a room is not supplied with fresh air 
 and when at the same time air is withdrawn, 
 a condition is created and maintained which is 
 known as an "unbalanced air pressure" that is 
 to say, the air within the room (owing to the 
 resultant partial vacuum), is of slightly less 
 pressure than the surrounding atmosphere. As 
 a result of this, every crack and leakage space 
 thru which air can pass between the room and 
 either the surrounding apartments or the out- 
 side of the building carries an air current pass- 
 ing inward toward the room in an effort to 
 make up this unbalanced condition. The room 
 in this case really becomes an actual partial 
 vacuum of very limited degree and draws air 
 into it from every side; this also results in an 
 inward draft when the door is opened instead of 
 a current of air in the opposite direction. 
 
 Under all normal conditions where air is ex- 
 hausted from a toilet room and no fresh air is 
 supplied, the odors created therein do not pass 
 into the rest of the building but, on the con- 
 trary, the air from the rest of the building con- 
 stantly passes inward to replace that withdrawn 
 from the room by the vent flue. This, id prac- 
 tice, has been found to give the best results of 
 any known method of treatment of toilet rooms. 
 Unless, however, a fan is connected to the toilet 
 room exhaust its action is not likely to be 
 positive. 
 
 It is true a great many schools install heaters 
 in these "aspirating" flues consisting of steam 
 
 pipes or radiators which heat the air after it 
 leaves the room and create a suction somewhat 
 like a chimney. This, however, is not as posi- 
 tive as the fan and the highest class of school 
 work invariably employs separate toilet exhaust 
 fans. Care is also taken that the toilet exhaust 
 flues, while they may be connected with each 
 other, are never in any way connected to the 
 flues from other rooms in the building. It 
 has happened more than once (when such an 
 experiment has been made) that the exhaust air 
 from the toilet room, at periods when the fan 
 was out of commission, passed up its own flue 
 to the flue from another room and then dropped 
 back down the second flue into the building 
 again. Therefore, the toilet exhaust system 
 should be kept absolutely separate and distinct, 
 and, at the same time, the maximum beneficial 
 effects should be obtained by the use of the ex- 
 haust fan to secure positive movement of the 
 air. 
 
 The only subject remaining for discussion on 
 the toilet room exhaust system is the location 
 of the exhaust outlet. On this point there is 
 great difference of opinion, many preferring the 
 exhaust outlet at the ceiling, near the door, 
 while others, equally positive, advocate the loca- 
 tion of the outlet near the door but at the floor 
 instead of at the ceiling. In the opinion of the 
 writer this disputed point is quite immaterial 
 as the ideal point to catch an odor is at the 
 place of generation and not after it has floated 
 perhaps across the entire length of the room 
 before passing into a register. 
 
 One good method of installing toilet outlets 
 consists of concealing the flush tanks over the 
 water closets with a boxing made of the same 
 material as the closet partitions, this boxing 
 having an opening over each closet as shown in 
 elevation Fig. 38. 
 
 A cross section of this box, which will make the 
 construction much .clearer, is given in Fig. 39. 
 There are, however, objections to this casing 
 among which may be mentioned that it usually 
 makes the tanks inaccessible, it is rather un- 
 sightly and, besides this, it is not so efficient as 
 a register placed directly back of the water 
 
 25 
 
26 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 I I 
 
 I i 
 
 n 
 
 1 ri I 
 
 Q 
 
 I 
 
 Oper./nq 
 
 kEZ^ 
 
 <Q 
 
 J 
 
 m^ 
 
 Fig. 38. 
 
 ^ 
 
 I 
 
 
 i 
 
 Vent 3poce 
 
 L. 
 
 Vent 
 Open I no 
 
 zJVx 
 
 i: 
 
 .V 
 
 Fig. 39. 
 
 i 
 
 ^/7/ Space 
 
 -Vent 
 Opening 
 
 
 <:^fc!V-f 
 
 
 Fig. 41. 
 
VENTILATING TOILETS AND LABORATORIES 
 
 27 
 
 ^\ 
 
 l:^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 L^ 
 
 r^ 
 
 L^ 
 
 Fig. 42. 
 
 closet in the manner shown in Fig. 40. This 
 register opens into a vent space which is formed 
 by setting the alberene, marble or slate lining 
 (which forms the rear of the stall) out a dis- 
 tance of six or eight inches so as to form a vent 
 space, this being clearly indicated in the cross 
 section, Fig. 41. 
 
 Still another method of ventilation for water 
 closets is obtained by the use of the local vent, 
 which will be taken up later under the discus- 
 
 V-Venf 
 Opening 
 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
 sion of plumbing fixtures. This local vent con- 
 nection extends from the back of the closet into 
 the partition which is located some distance out 
 from the wall the same as indicated in Fig. 41, 
 the local vent connection serving identically the 
 
 inn 
 
 
 rlnsfrucfor's Tab/e 
 
 _J" 
 
 I 
 
 
 ^y=. 
 
 e5 
 
 j-"l'_''^Vi..jjL ;_i-_:'i il'4::_j 'i_.i^ l - 
 
 
 ^JI 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
28 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 same purpose as the registers in Fig. 40. There 
 are also certain sanitary objections to the use 
 of the local vent. These will be treated later. 
 
 In the boys' toilet rooms will occur a type of 
 fixture which is even more exacting in its ven- 
 tilation requirements than the water closet; 
 this is the urinal which is built in several forms. 
 Fig. 42 shows an elevajtion of three "stall" 
 urinals in which a vent opening is provided 
 near the bottom of the fixture and a vent space 
 is located behind (cross section, Fig. 43). These 
 vent spaces must in every case be connected 
 with the vent flue, and the sum of all the vents 
 niust equal a total area sufficient to pass out 
 the required amount of air to secure satisfactory 
 ventilation in the room. 
 
 Where "trough" urinals are used the construc- 
 tion is largely similar to Fig. 43 with the ex- 
 ception that the back slab of the urinal is 
 stopped off a few inches above the bottom of the 
 trough, allowing the air to pass under this 
 slab and into the vent space behind. With the 
 use of the "lip" urinal the best results are ob- 
 tained with registers placed immediately above 
 the fixtures similar to the arrangement shown 
 for water closets in Fig. 40 with the exception 
 that the registers, of course, come much higher 
 above the fixture. 
 
 Another part of the school which requires 
 careful treatment for ventilation is the chemis- 
 try laboratory where poisonous acid fumes are 
 developed. In general, it may be said that the 
 
 (Wj'reMesh ^P/oof 
 
 chemistry laboratory may be arranged in one 
 of two ways. First, the mixing and handling 
 of chemicals may be done by the pupils at the 
 tables. In this case each pupil should be pro- 
 vided with an individual exhaust hood which 
 has a gooseneck connection to a pipe running 
 underneath the table. Second, the experiment- 
 ing may be done in a group of glass covered 
 cases having sliding glass sash, the tops of 
 these cases being connected into an exhaust sys- 
 tem which discharges to the outer air. ' 
 
 Where the mixing is done at the tables it is 
 growing to be the custom to omit the hoods and 
 use a grating in the table into which many of 
 the fumes fall naturally owing to the fact that 
 they are heavier than air. When such an ar- 
 rangement is used the greatest difficulty comes 
 in getting the exhaust pipes from the tables 
 over to some common point where an exhaust 
 fan can be located to discharge these fumes to 
 the outer air. 
 
 It is never desirable to run this piping on the 
 ceiling of the room below, altho this is the 
 ideal location from a purely engineering stand- 
 point. When the pipes are so run, they are acces- 
 sible, can be easily inspected and require no 
 tearing apart of the structure for renewal. 
 These pipes, however, must in all cases be con- 
 structed of acid proof material or at least 
 
 
 Copp erP/pe thro Koof. 
 C/oss Room 
 
 Duct undef Step 
 
 L--^---^ T^ 
 
 Fig. 46. 
 
 Fig. 47. 
 
VENTILATING TOILETS AND LABORATORIES 
 I I 
 
 Chem/sffy Lectofe 
 
 - I 1 ^ 
 
 . 1f 
 
 Room JH 
 
 i \ \^ r t 
 
 Prep 
 
 Em. 
 
 ^ 
 
 HI 
 
 ,' 
 
 T T^^ 
 
 m 
 
 HI 
 
 Che/rr/stry 
 
 . O T 
 
 
 zr 
 
 29 
 
 J^oom 
 
 Co/'/^/c/cr' 
 
 1 J A l: 
 
 |//|//|//|//|[1]|>V|/V|>V|//| 
 
 E/ementofy 
 
 CL XI, XI 
 
 S 
 
 tr XT HIT 
 Che.mJst/'y 
 
 I- 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fig. 48. 
 
 
 
 r^r/ue 
 
 FonondNbhA U 
 
 Q. 
 
 fe/^pA I I 
 
 fl 
 
 ^Konge ^Jfood Oyen 
 
 
 Toh/e 
 
 I 1^.^/ocy^ 
 
 Tcfb/e 
 
 Tod/G 
 
 u 
 
 ^ F^ P ^" 
 
 Fig. 50. 
 
30 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 material which is nearly acid proof. The ideal 
 fume exhaust is made either of tile pipe or con- 
 crete. Where it is impractical to use either of 
 these two, copper pipe is substituted. The fan 
 is usually made of oast iron coated with acid 
 proof paint and has a wheel made of "monel 
 metal," which is a practically acid-proof metal- 
 lie composition. 
 
 A laboratory using the individual method is 
 given in Fig. 44, the fumes in this case being 
 carried under a concrete step which is made 7^ 
 inches high all along one side of the room and 
 extending over to the fan. 
 
 A cross-section of this step on line "A-A" is 
 shown in Fig. 45, in which S is the top of the 
 concrete step, F the finished floor, D the duct 
 under the step and P a piece of tile pipe into 
 which the flue running under the table is con- 
 nected. A small flue is also extended over the 
 instructor's talble, a cross section of this on 
 line "B-B" being shown in Fig. 46. The duct 
 under the step connects into a copper box open- 
 ing into the suction side of the fan which is 
 located in an adjoining room. The fan dis- 
 charges thru a copper pipe out of a copper ven- 
 tilator set well above the roof. An elevation of 
 this apparatus on line "C-C" and the connec- 
 tion between the duct and the fan is given in 
 Fig. 47. 
 
 Fig. 48 is a typical layout taken from a new 
 high school in which the glass case arrangement 
 is utilized. In this plan the tables are indi- 
 cated by T, the sinks by S and the glass cases 
 with hoods by H. Owing to the fact that this 
 chemistry laboratory is on the top floor (a com- 
 mon location in modern schools) it was possible 
 to connect these hoods with three inch copper 
 pipes run straight thru the ceiling to a main 
 copper duct located in the attic space above, a 
 
 l)]an of which is given in Fig. 49. All the main 
 ducts in this space are connected into a suction 
 box from which the fan draws the fumes and dis- 
 charges them thru a roof ventilator. In an in- 
 stallation of this kind it would have been pos- 
 sible to use tile pipe had it not been for the 
 fact that the ceilings over the classrooms are 
 only "hung" ceilings and were not regarded as 
 substantial enough to support a tile duct with 
 its accompanying concrete slab. With the ex- 
 ception of the special chemical fume exhausts, 
 all chemical laboratories should be ventilated 
 with supply and exhaust ducts the same as other 
 classrooms. 
 
 Kitchen ventilation follows out the general 
 rule, previously laid down, of exhausting the air 
 and not supplying fresh air to the room. This 
 may be done by an exhaust flue with a register 
 located at any convenient point. Much better 
 satisfaction is given when the odors are caught 
 "at the point of origin" which is generally over 
 the stove, soup kettles, vegetable boilers and 
 similar odor producing kitchen equipment. Ow- 
 ing to the fact that most of the odors are given 
 off in a heated condition so that their tempera- 
 ture is higher than that in the room they tend 
 to rise and seek the ceiling, where after a time, 
 they become cooled and drop back to the floor 
 again, reaching all parts of the room by this 
 method of circulation. 
 
 'a 
 
 (puctftomFonfo C/?//r?r?ey 
 
 Fig. 51. Cross Section X-X of Fig. 50. 
 
VENTILATING TOILETS AND LABORATORIES 
 
 31 
 
 To arrest these odors as soon as possible a 
 hood is generally extended over all the trouble- 
 some equipment. A graphic example on a small 
 scale is shown in the little kitchen plan given in 
 Fig. 50, where a hood is placed over the range 
 and has an exhaust duct (connected to a fan) 
 placed between the hood and the ceiling. This 
 is shown more clearly on the cross section along 
 the line X-X given in Fig. 51. Numerous out- 
 lets connect the hood into the exhaust duct to 
 the end of which is connected a small exhaust 
 fan. This fan discharges into a small duot car- 
 ried along the inside of the hood, as shown. It 
 opens into the chimney flue. By using indi- 
 vidual hoods and exhaust equipment of this sort 
 the odor from a soup kettle can be killed with- 
 out making it necessary to run the entire ex- 
 haust system for the whole kitchen until later. 
 
 In the lunch room, owing to the large number 
 of pupils present at times, it often proves im- 
 practical to follow out the scheme of exhaust 
 only, inasmuch as the quantity of air will be 
 excessive on the "30 cu. ft. per minute per 
 pupil" basis. Therefore, in lunoh rooms a com- 
 promise is often made by exhausting the full 
 30 cu. ft. and supplying say 15 or 20 cu. ft. 
 This will still cause an inward leakage at all 
 points and yet does not absolutely rob the pupil 
 of fresh air. These exhaust registers are pre- 
 ferredly located near the doors, the idea being 
 to catch any air of the room which might be 
 moved toward the openings leading to other 
 portions of the building by the swinging of the 
 doors or by other causes. 
 
 A HIGH SCHOOL LUNCH ROOM. 
 (Grover Cleveland High School, St. Louis, Mo.) 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 Toilet Fixtures 
 
 The subject of plumbing is one in which every 
 school board is vitally interested. While the 
 heating and ventilation of a. building contribute 
 largely to the comfort of the occupants, the 
 plumbing acts directly, and almost immediately, 
 upon their health. Altho it is undoubtedly true 
 that the lack of ventilation may in time have a 
 bad effect on the physical welfare, epidemics and 
 serious diseases are not likely to be created; 
 with faulty plumbing epidemics and diseases are 
 bound to occur and few parents, indeed, when 
 such an event stirs them deeply, are inclined to 
 be lenient in their judgment of the authorities 
 at fault. 
 
 Strange to say, the average architect has but 
 a very hazy idea of the mysteries of plumbing, 
 while iJersons not directly interested in con- 
 struction work are completely beyond their 
 depth. One of the most remarkable facts in 
 connection with modern sanitation, (and un- 
 doubtedly the cause of much of the general ig- 
 norance on the subject) is the recent date of the 
 development of sanitary science. It has in fact, 
 progressed to its present state, almost from its 
 infancy, within the last fifty years, and the 
 modern syphon-jet water closet can hardly be 
 said to have been in common use previous to 
 1900. Today, even among sanitary engineers 
 of acknowledged standing, there are radical dif- 
 ferences on what shall constitute correct and in- 
 correct plumbing work. 
 
 To a great extent, especially in cities of mod- 
 erate size, the piping of plumbing fixtures is 
 regulated and controlled entirely by local ordi- 
 nances. The requirements of these local enact- 
 ments vary widely, sometimes even conflicting 
 in important details. 
 
 Such being the case, the writer is unwilling 
 to make hard and fast statements regarding 
 many sanitary details, but will rather present 
 accepted generalities and some warnings against 
 positive dangers upon which no question can be 
 logically raised. 
 
 The primary purpose of the modern plumbing 
 system is to supply water in the proper condi- 
 tion and at the proper temperature to the var- 
 ious points in the building where required, and 
 
 to remove such water, together with other waste 
 m.atter, in an inoffensive and sanitary manner. 
 A proper system includes all fixtures, piping 
 and other equipment necessary to accomplish 
 this in the most satisfactory way. 
 
 Modern plumbing is based on the theory that 
 drainage pipes and sewers become foul and gen- 
 erate a gas (commonly termed "sewer gas") 
 which is most dangerous to health. Upon this 
 accepted fact the waste pipe from every fixture 
 is trapped at the closest possible point to the fix- 
 ture. A trap is usually a bend in the waste 
 pipe (Figure 52) somewhat like an inverted 
 syphon with waste water standing in the bottom 
 and thus "water-sealing" the pipe so that no 
 air can pass from the room into the sewer and 
 (what is more important) so that no air or sewer 
 gas can pass from the sewer into the room. 
 Figure 53 also shows a common type of trap 
 known as a "pot" trap often used for bath tubs, 
 shower baths, etc., its purpose and action being 
 similar to the first type described. 
 
 To prevent a "slug" or rush of waste water 
 from drawing out, by syphonage or suction, the 
 water which should remain in the trap, prac- 
 tically every trap is "relieved" or "back vented." 
 This relief is afforded by a vent connected to a 
 pipe opening into the outer air and serves to 
 break the syphonic afction so that the contents 
 of the trap are always intact. 
 
 Some traps, such as floor drains, leader traps, 
 etc., it is not desirable to vent, since a vent line 
 causes a current of air and makes the evapora- 
 tion of the water in the trap much more rapid. 
 On fixtures in common use this evaporation is 
 negligible as the water in the trap is renewed 
 with every discharge of the fixture. Where traps 
 are liable to remain for considerable periods 
 without use, and therefore without renewal, it 
 is customary to omit the vent. 
 
 The division of plumbing work with which the 
 school board members are most intimately con- 
 cerned is the selection of the type of, and mater- 
 ial for, the plumbing fixtures. For instance, 
 water closets may be of the local vent type; they 
 may be of the range type, syphon jet, or wash 
 down ; they may be vitreous, porcelain, or enam- 
 
 32 
 
TOILET FIXTURES 
 
 33 
 
 ToF/xTure. 
 
 Sewer* (jo s 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
 eled iron. Urinals may be of the stall, lip, or 
 trough type, either locally vented or not; they 
 may be made of vitreous ware, porcelain ware, 
 slate, glass, alberene stone, etc., etc. 
 
 To begin with, what is the distinction between 
 vitreous ware, porcelain ware, and enameled 
 iron? All are white, all are used for various 
 fixtures and, to the casual observer, might easily 
 be mistaken for a ah other. 
 
 Vitreous ware is plain, glazed china, similar 
 in makeup to the well-known china tableware. 
 It is produced by firing a clay core in a kiln 
 until it vitrifies, and then glazing it by dipping 
 in a glazing solution which is fused to the clay 
 body by another firing. The chief advantage of 
 this ware is its impervious and non-absorbent 
 body which is thoroly vitrified. It may be dis- 
 tinguished most positively from porcelain ware 
 by what is known as the "aniline ink test" in 
 which a chip is immersed in aniline dye for a 
 period of several hours. At the end of that time 
 the piece is broken thru the fractured side and 
 the distance that the ink has penetrated the 
 fractured surface is measured. Good ware will 
 not show a pink discoloration over 1-32 inch 
 deep. 
 
 Of course, for plumbing fixtures this mater- 
 ial is almost ideal, altho the fixture design is 
 limited by the potter's skill to form the clay, and 
 the ability of the kiln to fire such forms with- 
 out distortion. This ware is the most expensive 
 of any used for fixtures, but should be required 
 wherever the financial considerations permit, 
 and where the fixture designs can be produced in 
 vitreous form. 
 
 As an example, water closets are almost uni- 
 versally vitreous ware and should he other 
 materials for water closets being prohibited by 
 many of the first-class plumbing codes. No 
 school board should allow other than vitreous 
 closets in any school under its control. 
 
 Porcelain ware, solid porcelain or "porcelain 
 china" as some manufacturers delight to char- 
 acterize an inferior ware is produced in much 
 the same manner as vitreous ware, except that 
 the body is composed of a clay mixture which is 
 fired at much lower temperature than the vitre- 
 ous ware, and which does not vitrify. There- 
 fore, while porcelain looks and feels like vitre- 
 ous ware, the slightest chip of the glazed sur- 
 face exposes the porous base. This base quickly 
 takes up water and impurities and soon becomes 
 foul. It will not stand the aniline ink test with- 
 out the ink penetrating a much greater depth 
 than 1-32 inch. 
 
 Porcelain ware is largely used for lavatories, 
 washtubs, and other fixtures where the sanitary 
 requirements are not as exacting as in water 
 closets. 
 
 Up to the present time the stall urinal has not 
 been commercially produced in vitreous ware, 
 owing to the large size of this fixture and its 
 failure to stand the excessive kiln temperature 
 without serious warping. Some manufacturers 
 have sxTOceeded in producing a stall urinal eigh- 
 
 Fig. 54. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
34 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 teen inches wide of vitreous ware, bmt the reg- 
 ular 24 inch width has so far defied their art. 
 
 Enameled iron ware is produced by making a 
 fixture out of cast iron, and then coating it with 
 a white enamel glaze, which is fused in a fur- 
 nace. This results in the uniting of two dis- 
 similar substances with different co-efiicients of 
 expansion. These fixtures are exceedingly liable 
 to have the coating crack when very hot or cold 
 
 Slate is much used in schools for the con- 
 struction of trough urinals and so-called "slab 
 work" which includes toiletroom wainscots, 
 water-closet partition, shower-bath stalls, etc. 
 
 Marble is used for slab work of particularly 
 fine character, but is usually too expensive for 
 school purposes. 
 
 Alberene stone is a natural, dark-gray, mot- 
 tled stone, streaked with dark veins, and is 
 
 Fig. 56. 
 
 water strikes them. Also, the coating is very 
 brittle, a slight blow chipping it off and expos- 
 ing the iron below. This, while not absorbent, 
 is highly corrosive. It soon rusts, and produces 
 an offensive looking and unsanitary fixture. The 
 use of enameled iron today is gradually being 
 confined to sinks and slop sinks, cheap bath tubs 
 and lavatories. 
 
 Galvanized iron ware is little used except for 
 sinks and slop sinks. It is not to be recom- 
 mended for schools. 
 
 Fig. 57 
 
 much used in schools for trough urinals, slab 
 work, table tops, chemical sinks. It is partic- 
 ularly well adapted for acid demonstration 
 tables, being practically acid proof. The joints 
 are made by grooving and inserting a contin- 
 uous metal clamp which is buried in the joint 
 and made water proof by the use of litharge. 
 
 From this varied assortment the school plumb- 
 ing fixtures must be selected and their surround- 
 ings must be decided upon. 
 
 So far as the water closets are concerned. 
 
TOILET FIXTURES 
 
 35 
 
 there is only one kind which is generally ap- 
 proved for school use, this being the "syphon 
 jet" type of vitreous ware. In this type the 
 syphoning out of the contents of the bowl is 
 assisted by a jet which helps to raise the water 
 in the closet over the high point of the syphon 
 ac the time of discharge. This action is illus- 
 trated in cross section by Figure 54. 
 
 the use of the "range" water closets which are 
 now obsolete, having been recognized as radi- 
 cally bad from the sanitary standpoint. A safe 
 rule to use in selecting superior types of plumb- 
 ing fixtures is the one which says: "Each and 
 every square inch of surface on a fixture not 
 cleaned and scoured off at each flush is a dis- 
 ccunt to its sanitary properties." Just see where 
 
 Fig. 58. 
 
 The wash-down closet is quite similar to the 
 syphon jet except that the jet and its action 
 are lacking, and this closet, therefore, fails to 
 have the immediate and superior action of the 
 sypbon-jet type. It is a cheaper and less satis- 
 factory substitute for the jet closet, altho its 
 use is not by any means a serious transgression 
 of the modern sanitary requirements. 
 
 Let me warn school boards, however, against 
 
 Fig. 59. 
 
 the range water closet stands with its large ex- 
 posed and unflushed surface. It cannot even 
 be made from vitreous ware, owing to its enor- 
 mous size. 
 
 Having decided on a vitreous syphon-jet closet 
 the next matter for consideration is whether it 
 shall be locally vented or not. At the time the 
 matter of ventilation of toilet rooms was being 
 touched upon the application of local ventila- 
 
36 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 tion was mentioned, and it was noted that this 
 subject would be discussed more fully under the 
 fixture itself. 
 
 In Figure 55 is shown what is known as the 
 local-vent water closet, or closet with "raised 
 rear vent," sometimes also caP-ed a "Boston" 
 vent. This vent is formed directly as an in- 
 tegral part of the fixture and is usually con- 
 nected thru the wall into a "utility corridor." 
 This "corridor" is the space for pipes back of 
 the plumbing fixtures and is vented directly 
 into a duot carried to the outer air. 
 
 From a ventilation standpoint it is extremely 
 desirable to catch all odors at their point of 
 origin rather than to draw them across a large 
 portion of the room before they find egress thru 
 the vent register. From a sanitary standpoint 
 the use of the local vent is debatable. 
 
 Many maintain that the vent and flues con- 
 nected to it soon become so foul as to constitute 
 a detriment rather than an advantage. On the 
 other hand its use seems to be on the increase in 
 schools where the most up-to-date equipment 
 is provided. It is interesting to note that the 
 Schenley High School in Pittsburgh (under con- 
 struction in 1915-1916 and which cost nearly 
 a million dal.iars) has employed locally vented 
 water closets almost exclusively. In fact the 
 Iceal vent closet has been officially adopted by 
 the Pittsburgh School Board as the standard 
 type of closet for all their school buildings. 
 
 The Montclair (New Jersey) High School 
 costing about $700,000 and completed in 1915, 
 uses locally vented water closets for all pupils' 
 toilets. 
 
 The Elizabeth (New Jersey) High School 
 costing about $500,000 and completed in 1914, 
 d'd not employ local vents, but the remodeling 
 and enlargement of the New Lebanon School at 
 Greenwich, Conn., (completed in 1915) does. 
 
 In none of these cases, either with or with- 
 out the vent, has the mortality or health rate 
 been seriously affected, so we may rest assured 
 that the opponents of the local vent are exagger- 
 ating to a certain extent, at least. 
 
 Selecting the type of water closet also in- 
 cludes the means of flushing. Today there are 
 three standard means for flushing closets the 
 gravity tank, the pneumatic compression tank, 
 and the flush-valve. 
 
 The gravity tank may be a high tank located 
 near the ceiling or a low tank set just above 
 the fixture. Each of these tanks fills with water 
 from a small pipe which is closed off at the 
 proper time by a valve, in the tank, operated by 
 a copper float. 
 
 To flush the closet a chain pull or small lever 
 handle is used which allows the water to flow 
 out of the tank thru a good sized connection into 
 the closet, giving the required amount of water 
 within the needed time. Gravity tanks are 
 cheap but are not recommended for school work 
 owing to the ease with which they can be tam- 
 pered with and put out of order. They may be 
 installed, when protected from mischievousness, 
 as they are in the Elizabeth (New Jersey) High 
 School. A protected tank is shown in Figures 
 50 and 57, P indicates the partition, FT the 
 flush tank, VR a vent register, VS a vent space, 
 H an alberene side and T a removable top. 
 
 Far better for school work is the pneumatic 
 compression tank which is illustrated in Fig- 
 ures 58 and 59. This tank is normally full of 
 air and the closet seat is raised in the front 
 about IJ inches by a spring. When the fixture 
 is used the depressing of the seat to its proper 
 level opens the valve on the supply pipe so that 
 water rushes up and partially fills the tank, com- 
 pressing the air above it. When the seat is 
 released the supply-pipe valve is closed and the 
 flush connection into the closet is opened. The 
 water in the tank, driven both by gravity and 
 the compressed air above it, is forced down the 
 supply pipe and performs the flushing operation. 
 
 Since it is nearly an impossibility to use this 
 closet without its flushing automatically, it is 
 particularly desirable where very young chil- 
 dren are present or a foreign population is to be 
 served. The tank will not operate satisfactorily 
 on less than twenty pounds per square inch 
 water pressure sat the closet. 
 
CHAPTER VI 
 
 Plumbing Fixtures 
 
 The third type of water closet flushing 
 device consists of a flush valve so designed as 
 to permit almost the free and instant opening 
 of the water pipe into the closet and then grad- 
 ually shutting off the flow. While the shut-off 
 is automatic, the operation of the valve must be 
 I>roduced by manipulating a push button or 
 lever handle. These flush valves are used al- 
 most exclusively in larger buildings of public 
 character and are being received with more and 
 more favor in schools, altho they are more ex- 
 pensive than a compression oir gravity tank. 
 A favorite method of installation, where utility 
 corridors are used, is to place the valve in the 
 corridor and to operate it by a push button ex- 
 tended thru the corridor wall (Fig. 60). This 
 arrangement has two advantages; the valve is 
 secure from meddling, and repairs can be made 
 by the janitor without entering the toilet room. 
 This, of course, is specially desirable in girls' 
 toilet rooms. 
 
 Flush valves can be obtained which operate 
 on as low as six pounds of wiater pressure, altho 
 not less than ten pounds is recommended by the 
 writer to avoid the possibility of trouble. Small 
 piping will not do for the valves; the common 
 size of the flush valve pipe branch must be IV2 
 in., or at least iVi in. Each valve should have 
 a separate shutoff or stop valve, either entirely 
 separate or incorporated in the flush valve, so 
 
 (Jti/fry 
 
 as to permit repairs to one fixture without put- 
 ting the whole battery out of commission. This 
 feature is desirable on all fixtures altho the first 
 cost of such a large number of extra valves 
 seems excessive. 
 
 Flush valves require a steady, even pressure 
 to give the best results. For this reason they 
 are usually installed in combination with a 
 house tank a subject which will be taken up 
 later under the discussion of the water supply 
 for the school building. 
 
 One other type of water closet, which deserves 
 mention before leaving this subject, is the "wall 
 hung" closet shown in Figure 61. This closet 
 has been installed in several buildings, among 
 which may be mentioned the Reading Terminal 
 in Philadelphia and the City and County Build- 
 ing at Wihnington, Del. So far, its use in 
 school work has been exceedingly rare. Yet 
 there is no reason why it should not prove just 
 as satisfactory in educational buildings as else- 
 where. 
 
 The advantages claimed for this fixture are: 
 ease of cleaning floors beneath, absence of dirt- 
 accumulating joints at the floor, better circula- 
 tion of air and the possibility of carrying the 
 soil pipes at the back entirely above the floor 
 in the utility corridor, instead of on the ceiling 
 of the room below as is customary with the 
 common closet. 
 
 The next fixture in sanitary importance is 
 
 Fig. 60. 
 
38 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 "^F/ush P/pe 
 
 JSlob 
 
 f 3 ton e Tj^o u^h 
 \ w/f/j cf/'(7//7 of e/?d 
 
 
 Fig. 62. 
 
 'Flush ripe. 
 Vent Space 
 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 .y-LV 
 
 Fig. 64. 
 
 ^-V^--iy^- 
 
 ^q \Lv-^^ 
 
 a 
 
 a^ 
 
 cs_ 
 
 4. 
 
 :^a. r^^TT kM. .1 i I. .1 ^i\. c^F 
 
 Fig. 65 B. 
 
PLUMBING FIXTURES 
 
 39 
 
 the urinal which has shown anarked develop- 
 ment in late years. The old, standard trough 
 type (usually made of slate, glass, or alberene 
 stone) is shown in Figure 62. In this type the 
 flush pipe at the top is perforated and keeps 
 the slab and trough washed off by a constant, 
 or intermittent, flow of cold water. This type 
 of urinal is being installed in many schools, 
 but is rapidly losing favor because of its rather 
 repellent appearance and excessive water con- 
 
 A step in advance from the trough urinal is 
 what is known as the lip urinal. This fixture is 
 illustrated by the photograph. Figure 64, in 
 which it is shown with a flush valve attached. 
 The lip urinal is very popular in older public 
 building work but has been little used for 
 schools. Altho cheai>er than the stall urinal, 
 later described, it requires a more or less ex- 
 pensive partition and backing of marble, 
 alberene, or slate, so that the cost over all is 
 
 Fig. (JG. 
 
 sumption when constantly flushed. It abso- 
 lutely reqiiires, by its construction, either a 
 complete flush along its entire length or no 
 flush at all. It can be readily seen that, with 
 such a condition existing, economy in water 
 consumption is impossible. 
 
 Figure 63 shows a trough urinal of the above 
 style arranged for local ventilation and, while 
 this eliminates some of the objectionable odor 
 otherwise likely to arise from this type of fix- 
 ture, it does not help the excessive water con- 
 sumption. 
 
 nearly as much as the stall type. Moreover the 
 floor under such fixtures is liable to be in an 
 unsanitary state, requiring practically constant 
 attention to keep it in proper condition. 
 
 The most satisfactory type of urinal for 
 school use is undoubtedly the stall fixture shown 
 in Figures 65A and 65B. These fixtures are 
 flushed in this case by a flush tank FT thru 
 the flush pipe F; they waste thru individual 
 traps into the soil pipe SP, the traps being 
 vented by the vents V into the vent header VH. 
 As shown these fixtures are local vented at LV 
 
40 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 67. 
 
 into the vent space VS, altho they are common- 
 ly installed without this arrangement. 
 
 These fixtures are generally set directly on 
 the rough concrete E-C after which the finished 
 floor FF is carried up to and around them. It 
 is not considered desirable to set the tops of 
 these fixtures even with the floor owing to the 
 liability of dirty scrub water, sweepings, and 
 other foreign substances to find their way into 
 the fixture. These urinals can be flushed with 
 flush valves, and when so installed exhibit much 
 economy in water consumption. A view of a 
 typical battery installed in one of the new 
 modern high schools is shown in Figure 66. 
 
 Another method of local venting this type of 
 fixture consists of making a pipe connection 
 from this vent chamber down to the waste pipe 
 immediately under the fixture. The idea is that 
 a draft will be created not only at the bottom 
 of the fixture but in the upper part of the waste 
 pipe as well. It is hard to definitely say that 
 either method is much superior to the other as 
 both have staunch advocates, and the writer has 
 never been able to note any marked difference 
 in favor of either. 
 
 Lavatories in school buildings should be made 
 of vitreous, with spring or push button faucets 
 to avoid waste of water. It is not believed that 
 the siocalled "Fuller" type of faucet is as satis- 
 factory for school use as a good compression 
 faucet built along modern lines. A lavatory 
 with an integral back and a supporting leg is 
 recommended, somewhat of the type shown in 
 Figure 66. There is probably less chance, how- 
 ever, of going wrong on the lavatory selection 
 than any other fixture. If a cheai>er fixture 
 than the one shown is desired, the leg may be 
 omitted land the fixture supported from the wall 
 by a cast iron wall bracket and small nickel 
 plated lugs. 
 
 Still further reduction can be made in cost 
 by substituting a porcelain lavatory or an 
 enameled iron one, altho neither will stand 
 usage so well as vitreous ware. 
 
 One of the greatest problems of the modem 
 school is the drinking water. How to present 
 to the pupils an adequate supply of cool and 
 palatable water in a manner which is germ 
 proof is a question of no small importance. In 
 many states today, and in a much larger num- 
 ber in the near future, the common drinking 
 cup is, or will be, illegal. More than this, there 
 is great hygienic necessity in this prohibition 
 so that it is a matter of wisdom that new school 
 buildings be equipped with some sort of drink- 
 ing fountain not requiring the use of cups. 
 
 Of course individual paper cups can be used, 
 but there are numerous objections to this prac- 
 tice. Free cups will be wasted by the pupils 
 and used for every conceivable puipose besides 
 that for which they are intended. Cups vended 
 by the "penny-in-the-slot" method are hardly 
 practical especially in schools younger ohildren 
 attend. The supply of cups is constantly be- 
 coming exhausted resulting in the use of second 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
PLUMBING FIXTURES 
 
 41 
 
 handed cups (or worse) until the supply is re- 
 plenished. 
 
 The only practical way to avoid the danger 
 of common drinking cups and the nuisance of 
 individual cups is to install bubbling drinking 
 fountains. These come in three general styles: 
 the pedestal type, the wall hung type and the 
 trough type. 
 
 Most drinlving fountains of the trough type 
 are improvisations from the old faucet-cup sink 
 arrangement in which some sort of bubbler has 
 been attached to the faucet. There are types, 
 however, in which the trough or sink is deliber- 
 ately used for one to six bubblers, thus making 
 one waste connection serve all the fountains in 
 the same trough. 
 
 The wall hung fountain, illustrated in Figure 
 67, is a cheap and satisfactory form of individ- 
 ual fountain. It is sometimes set in batteries of 
 three, or even more. 
 
 Pedestal fountains have the advantage of 
 being set out on a floor in any desired position, 
 without regard for a wall. These can be ob- 
 tained in many forms and styles from the ex- 
 tremely rugged, such as is installed in the East 
 Orange (N. J.) High School (Figure 68), to 
 the most advanced, foot-control vitreous foun- 
 tain such as is installed in the Elizabeth (N. J.) 
 High School (Figure 69). 
 
 The type of bubblers requiring pressure by 
 the hands to operate are not likely to be as sani- 
 tary as the bubblers with a spring faucet or foot 
 control and should not be used when avoidable. 
 
 Fig. 69. 
 
 Fig. 70. 
 
 Sinks are a comparatively rare fixture in 
 schools excepting those of more advanced chitr- 
 acter. They may be divided into service sinks 
 and sinks for teachers and pupils. The service 
 sinks comprise slop sinks, kitchen and lunch- 
 room and boiler room sinks. The pupils' sinks 
 include domestic science sinks, chemistry sinks, 
 arts and science sinks, etc., the teachers' sinlvS 
 are limited almost entirely to demonstration 
 table sinks. 
 
 In general enameled iron sinl^s are fairly 
 satisfactory for service use. The boiler room 
 sink is galvanized iron almost without excep- 
 tion. Where slop sinks are installed in toilet 
 rooms adjacent to nice plurmbing fixtures they 
 are generally of porcelain, but when placed in 
 slop sink closets accessible to the janitor only, 
 galvanized iron is often substituted. 
 
 Both kitchen sinks and slop sinks should have 
 backs integral preferred ^and valves control- 
 
42 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 ling the supplies so as to regulate the flow of 
 the water and to allow repair of the faucets 
 without shutting down other fixtures. A good 
 installation of a school kitchen sink is shown 
 in Figure 70. Here the valves are set in the 
 wall with the bonnet and wheel handle exposed. 
 Drain boards on kitchen sinks are coming 
 into much wider use than formerly. The 
 favorite board is built of ash as this does not 
 
 break the amount of dishes which a board of 
 enameled iron will. 
 
 Cooking sinks are preferably vitreous, but 
 porcelain is also much used. Demonstration 
 table sinks are made of vitreous ware, porcelain, 
 alberene, etc. These usually have ground tops 
 and are set under openings cut in the tops of 
 the table. Alberene is often used where acids 
 are to be handled. 
 
 A SCHOOL LAUNDRY. 
 
CHAPTER VII 
 
 Number and Location of Fixtures 
 
 After the school hoard has reached a definite 
 decision upon the plumbing fixtures to be used, 
 the question arises. How many, and, where? 
 
 It is indeed a hard problem to state, with 
 exactness, the number of fixtures of each kind 
 required for any given building. This is due 
 to the general vagueness regarding the maxi- 
 mum seating capacity, largest probable number 
 of occupants, etc., which usually exists at the 
 time the building is designed. 
 
 Of course, the primary motive in the location 
 of plumbing fixtures in any building is to place 
 them in convenient and accessible positions 
 where, at the same time, they will be inconspic- 
 uous. It is, however, a fact to be regretted that 
 many schools, even at the present time, are 
 arranged by school boards to have their main 
 toilet rooms for both sexes in the basement. It 
 must be granted that the use of the basement in 
 this manner secures service from a portion of 
 the building which otherwise is likely to be 
 used for storage only, and also, that an equal 
 amount of space is obtained on the upper floors 
 for classrooms. On the basis of economy and 
 seclusion, the main basement toilet room is 
 desirable, but this is the only recommendation 
 which the writer has ever found for it. The 
 basement toilet is neither accessible nor con- 
 venient; it is quite likely to be poorly lighted, 
 and, owing to its distance from occupied rooms, 
 its ventilation is often neglected. 
 
 It is encouraging to note that the better new 
 schools, especially high schools, are being 
 equipped with toilet rooms for both sexes on 
 every floor. This arrangement reduces the run- 
 ning up-and-down stairs to a minimum and pre- 
 vents the congregation of large groups of pupils 
 in a room where they are not under the teachers' 
 supervision. The arrangement, also splits up 
 the congestion of a large number of fixtures into 
 six or eight sub-divisions, each located in a 
 separate room with an outside window, thus 
 securing ventilation and light in an amount 
 vastly superior to that possible in the basement. 
 
 The number of fixtures required for any given 
 school is governed entirely by the number and 
 the age of the occupants. It is probably con- 
 servative to say that about 20 per cent greater 
 toilet accommodations should be furnished in a 
 
 grade school, embracing the classes from kinder- 
 garten up to the eighth grade, than in a high 
 school in which the average age is from 15 to 
 16 years. 
 
 Regarding the number of fixtures, it is inter- 
 esting to note the table (Fig. 71), in which five 
 high schools, "HS," and three grammar schools, 
 "GS," all recently completed and placed in ser- 
 vice, are listed in a comparison of the number 
 of plumbing fixtures installed. The seoond ver- 
 tical column gives the number of pupils for 
 whidh each building is designed; the third col- 
 umn, "WC," indicates the number of water 
 closets in the building, and the fourth column, 
 "per cent," indicaites the number of water closets 
 per one hundred pupils. Thus wo see that in 
 High School No. 1, designed for 1050 pupils, 
 there aire 56 closets installed, or 5.33 closets per 
 one hundred pupils. In High School No. 2, de- 
 signed for 1150 pupils, the aooommodations are 
 not nearly so great, there being 34 closets in all 
 or 2.95 per one hundred pupils. Hig'h School 
 No. 1 is undoubtedly somewhat high (altho not 
 excessively so) while High School No. 2 is likely 
 to experience difficulty with its toilet aooom- 
 modations. 
 
 High Schools 3 and 4 may be assumed as be- 
 ing nearer the average, these having 4.58 and 
 3.67 for closets per one hundred students. High 
 School No. 5, built for 1800 pupils, has a much 
 higher percentage of toilet accommodation per 
 pupil thruout, owing to the fact that this build- 
 ing carries a large ilepartment known as the 
 "Shop Section" for manual training consisting 
 of carpentry, forge work, bench shop, wood 
 turning, etc. All of the shops are on a separate 
 floor and accommodations are provided on the 
 same level, thus to some extent duplicating 
 fixtures installed on other floors. 
 
 In the three grade schools listed, the water 
 closet accommodations are higher than in any 
 of the high schools cited, this being entirely con- 
 sistent and accounted for by the presence of a 
 large number of very small children. 
 
 The fifth column, "U," gives the number of 
 urinals installed in each school. It is estimated 
 that every running two feet of a trough urinal 
 are counted as a single fixture. It is apparent 
 that a fairly good balance is maintained in both 
 
 43 
 
44 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 the high schools and grammar schools in pro- 
 portioning these fixtures, few varying greatly 
 from the average of 1.79 per one hundred pupils. 
 In the seventh column "L" are listed the 
 lavatories, which in High School No. 5 reach 
 an excessive figure owing to the large shop 
 section previously mentioned. The ninth 
 column "DWF," shows the number of drinking 
 water fountains installed, High School No. 5 
 being excessive on this point also. Probably 1.5 
 fountains per one hundred pupils can be con- 
 sidered a very conservative and satisfactory 
 figure. 
 
 instead of the number of pupils served, and it 
 reconciles to a great extent, apparent incon- 
 sistencies shown in the first table. For instance. 
 High School No. 5 (owing to its large size to 
 accommodate the shop section) in the second 
 table figures low on both its closet and urinal 
 accommodations. It is still a little high on 
 lavatories, but even there it does not exceed 
 Grammar School No. 3, drinking water foun- 
 tains being the only fixtures which show in 
 excess in both tables. 
 
 The percentage of fixtures to cubic contents 
 in Fig. 72 is figured on the basis of 100,000 cu. 
 
 cAsr 
 
 PUPILS 
 
 WC 
 
 % 
 
 U 
 
 Vo 
 
 L 
 
 % 
 
 ijurr 
 
 % 
 
 SS 
 
 % 
 
 /fS *1 
 
 /oso 
 
 s& 
 
 S.33 
 
 Z3 
 
 Z./9 
 
 4-0 
 
 38/ 
 
 a 
 
 .7S- 
 
 8 
 
 /* 
 
 HS Z 
 
 //so 
 
 3-* 
 
 zjs- 
 
 n 
 
 /-t-J 
 
 Z(, 
 
 ZZ6 
 
 6 
 
 sz 
 
 J 
 
 .24 
 
 /fS '3 
 
 /JSOO 
 
 ss 
 
 i-.sa 
 
 Z-4 
 
 2.00 
 
 3S 
 
 29Z 
 
 M 
 
 /./i 
 
 e 
 
 .(.(. 
 
 JfS '^ 
 
 /SOO 
 
 ss 
 
 3t.7 
 
 7.2.'/2. 
 
 /.SO 
 
 -^ 
 
 3.00 
 
 /O 
 
 4,7 
 
 a 
 
 .S3 
 
 NS '^ 
 
 /eoo 
 
 ?* 
 
 s-.zz 
 
 33 
 
 /ea 
 
 /a-* 
 
 /0.2Z 
 
 84- 
 
 4-6A 
 
 io 
 
 /.// 
 
 OS "1 
 
 sso 
 
 3S- 
 
 e.os 
 
 /2 
 
 z./e 
 
 /o 
 
 rez 
 
 6 
 
 /.09 
 
 3 
 
 S* 
 
 GS 'Z 
 
 TOO 
 
 S/ 
 
 729 
 
 // 
 
 /S7 
 
 39 
 
 ssr 
 
 9 
 
 129 
 
 4- 
 
 S7 
 
 GS "3 
 
 7PO 
 
 -46 
 
 6S-J 
 
 /3 
 
 /.at 
 
 -*.r 
 
 (,.*3 
 
 e 
 
 //-f 
 
 s- 
 
 7/ 
 
 ToU/ *At 
 
 AiS^o 
 
 ^Zt, 
 
 -*9X 
 
 /SSA 
 
 /79 
 
 4-Z4- 
 
 4-. JO 
 
 /^s 
 
 /6a 
 
 S9 
 
 .60 
 
 Fig. 71. 
 
 CAS 
 
 CUMGl WC 
 
 % 
 
 cr 
 
 Vo 
 
 Z 
 
 % 
 
 jjwr 
 
 "A 
 
 3S 
 
 % 
 
 N3 * i 
 
 Z 000,000 S6 
 
 z.ao 
 
 Z3 
 
 / / 
 
 -40 
 
 Zoo 
 
 e 
 
 .4-0 
 
 e 
 
 .M.O 
 
 JfjS 'Z 
 
 l./ot.oao 34. 
 
 3.09 
 
 17 
 
 /..* 
 
 ZC 
 
 Z3i 
 
 6 
 
 * 
 
 3 
 
 Z7 
 
 JfS '3 
 
 i.iio.coo 
 
 SS- 
 
 3.3/ 
 
 4 
 
 /^4. 
 
 3S- 
 
 z.// 
 
 14- 
 
 .94- 
 
 a 
 
 4a 
 
 Jf^ *^ 
 
 Z./2S:oao 
 
 s-s 
 
 ZS9 
 
 2zy^ 
 
 /O/ 
 
 4<r 
 
 Z./t 
 
 /e 
 
 .34- 
 
 e 
 
 .30 
 
 /J 3 *^ 
 
 ^^Som, ao 
 
 94. 
 
 Zo9 
 
 33 
 
 73 
 
 /e-4- 
 
 ^o<f 
 
 84- 
 
 /ai 
 
 zo 
 
 4^ 
 
 G3 '1 
 
 5-<>.. ... 
 
 3S 
 
 y.oo 
 
 /z 
 
 Z.^o 
 
 /o 
 
 200 
 
 6 
 
 / Zo 
 
 3 
 
 .60- 
 
 as "z 
 
 (c7.*"> 
 
 S/ 
 
 *79 
 
 // 
 
 / 03 
 
 39 
 
 3.C4 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 A- 
 
 33 
 
 a^ "3 
 
 /. o jv;a<> 
 
 -*(> 
 
 4.3i 
 
 /3 
 
 1 Z3 
 
 AS- 
 
 4.-27 
 
 6 
 
 7S- 
 
 s- 
 
 ^7 
 
 Toto/a^ A V. 
 
 /jfyaiO.Of 
 
 ^Z6 
 
 3.03 
 
 /SS'/i. 
 
 /// 
 
 A-ZA 
 
 303 
 
 /4S 
 
 /.o3 
 
 S9 
 
 .AZ 
 
 Fig. 72. 
 
 The second last column, "SS," shows the num- 
 ber of slop sinks installed, High School No. 5 
 being apparently liberal on this point also. The 
 number of slop sinks, however, is determined 
 not so much by the number of pupils as by con- 
 venience of access by the janitor, the general 
 practice being to place two upon each floor of 
 a large school and one upon each floor of a small 
 school. 
 
 The table just discussed is based entirely upon 
 the relation which the number of fixtures should 
 bear to the number of pupils served. This pro- 
 portion, as previously stated, is the only proper 
 method of estimating the number of fixtures 
 required. As a check upon this, the table shown 
 in Fig. No. 72 is also very interesting. This 
 table is worked out exactly the same as the pre- 
 vious table with the exception that it is based 
 upon the cubic feet contained in the building 
 
 ft. so that a percentage of 2.80 water closets 
 m-eans that there are 2.8 closets for every hun- 
 dred thousand cubic feet contained in the build- 
 ing. Any new school checked with the average 
 of these two tables should give a high and low 
 number of fixtures which may be used as prac- 
 tical boundaries. Fixtures installed somewheres 
 between these two limits will be sufficient to give 
 practical service and yet will not be excessive. 
 Their location on the different floor levels should 
 to a large extent be determined by the propor- 
 tion of pupils located on the respective floors. 
 
 If it is absolutely necessary to install the main 
 toilet room in the basement an arrangement 
 such as indicated in Fig. 73 is probably one 
 of the best layouts which can be secured, altho 
 even the best cannot be recommended. In this 
 scheme the boys come down a stairway at one 
 end of the building into a boys' corridor to the 
 
VC 
 
 ^^@ 
 
 sJn 
 
 
 
 
 
 IP 
 
 NUMBER AND LOCATION OF FIXTURES 
 
 46 
 
 wc 
 
 wc 
 
 tj 
 
 B 
 
 wc 
 
 S 
 
 ss 
 
 rn 
 
 hrc 
 
 35 
 
 D 
 
 D LJLJ D 
 
 J 
 
 Gir/s Corr/c/or ^ oy.s' Cofridor 
 
 Fig. 73. 
 
 Fig. 75. 
 
 Corndor 
 
 L 
 
 
 (01 
 
 G I- 
 
 wc 
 
 rDss 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 Fig. 74 
 
 Cofr/dor 
 D 
 
 B 
 
 53 @rD 
 
 a 
 
 COffidor 
 
 iL 
 
 J ^ 
 
 Cor/'/do/' 
 
 Durr Dvr^^ 
 
 4 
 
 /-3 
 
 /35 
 
 ^=3C^ 
 
 55 
 
 5^ 
 
 MC 
 
 ^ 
 /'T' 
 
 iiJ2B 
 
 1 d 
 
 Fig. 76. 
 
 P ^ < 
 
 WC 
 
 TU 
 
 
 
 
46 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 main toilet room. This should be somewhere 
 near the middle of the building. The girls fol- 
 low a similar procedure at the other end, but 
 there is a solid partition at the toilet room 
 separating the boys' corridor from the girls' 
 corridor and effectually preventing any conflict 
 between the sexes below the first floor. 
 
 The fixtures should be arranged on each side 
 of a vent space V in which all valves and piping 
 can be located, the girls' fixtures in the girls' 
 toilet room G backing up against one side of 
 this vent space, and the boys' fixtures in the boys' 
 toilet room B backing up against the other side. 
 If desired the vent space V can be continued 
 to the corridor wall with an access door for 
 repairs. 
 
 In all the toilet rooins shown wibh this chapter 
 WC indicates water closets, U urinals, L lava- 
 tories, SS slop sinks, DWF drinking fountains 
 and FD floor drains. 
 
 A toilet room laid out in tihis manner is made 
 as desiraible as a basement toilet can be made. 
 A vent space, V, should be used to ventilate the 
 rooms serving this purpose, being connected to 
 a duct, equipped with an exhaust fan, which dis- 
 charges the foul air from the building. 
 
 The ordinary school is generally constructed 
 with a corridor thru the center and classrooms 
 on 'both sides. Toilet rooms located on the upper 
 floors of such a building must 
 necessarily have an entrance 
 door from the corridor, at one 
 end, and must receive light and 
 air from a window in the out- 
 side wall, at the 
 other end. 
 
 For this reason, 
 many toilet rooms 
 are narrow in 
 
 width but are equal in length to the width of the 
 ordinary classroom. 
 
 Two toilet rooms built in this shape are shown 
 dn Fig. 74; G indicates the girls' toilet room, 
 B the boys' toilet room, and D the door. The 
 rooms are located at opposite ends of tlie main 
 corridor and have entrances directly therefrom. 
 The rooms are repeated on each floor level of the 
 building. Several criticisms can be made in 
 this arrangement, first of which is the fact that 
 no screen is present to prevent the passerby in 
 the corridor from obtaining a full viiew of the 
 toilet room whenever the door is opened. Second, 
 the slop sink, in case of the girls' toilet room, 
 is located as far from the door as it could be, 
 instead of close to the door for the convenience 
 of the janitor. In fact, the slop sink should not 
 be placed in a toilet room but s'hould be located 
 
 Cofr/do/' 
 
 Fig. 77. 
 
NUMBER AND LOCATION OF FIXTURES 
 
 47 
 
 in its own oloset. This will be shown in other 
 layouts which are much more satisfactory. 
 
 In Fig. 75 we have another similar toilet 
 room in which the slop sink is placed in a much 
 more desirable position and where the screens S, 
 which are equipped with swinging doors, effect- 
 ually shut out observation when the corridor 
 dcor, D, is open. The school, however, has made 
 a serious error in the omission of lavatories from 
 the toilet room. These should never be omitted ; 
 at least one or two are necessary in all cases. 
 
 In Fig. 76 are sihown much better rooms of 
 this type. These two toilets have the following 
 desirable paints : The opening of the door D is 
 screened by a second door S ; the lavatories L are 
 located near the window; a private toilet, FT, is 
 installed in the girls' toilet room, G; and, the 
 slop sink, SS, is placed in its own closet where 
 it can be reached by the janitor without entering 
 the toilet room. Immediately outside the toilet 
 room in the main coridor, drinking water foun- 
 tains, DWF, are hung, and the space behind the 
 fountains, FS, is used for ventilating flues. It 
 
 is to be regretted that in this school where the 
 toilet facilities have been well taken care of the 
 use of the trough urinal, TU, should have been 
 allowed. 
 
 In Fig. 77 is shown a combined toilet room 
 which, however is possible only in schools where 
 more than one main corridor exists. In this 
 particular case one wing of the building runs at 
 an angle to the main portion producing an 
 angular main corridor as shown. On the angu- 
 lar corridor, entrance to the girls' toilet room, 
 G, is obtained thru a door screened by the two 
 screens, S. A private toilet is placed in the end 
 of the room; here also is a towel chute TC. In 
 the boys' toilet room, B, a screen, S, and in- 
 dividual urinal fixtures are also provided. The 
 janitor has his own closet with a slop sink, this 
 closet being large enough in which to do con- 
 siderable washing and cleaning, if necessary. 
 There is absolutely no criticism to make in the 
 arrangement of fixtures in this toilet room, and 
 it is regretted that the layout is not such as to 
 make it applicable to schools in general. 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 Toilet Partitions Shower Baths 
 
 The matter of partitions in toilet rooms is a 
 most important one and should be given careful 
 consideration by every school board. These par- 
 titions ought to be non-absorbent, substantial, 
 pleasing in appearance, and should be built with 
 the least possible amount of metal work. For- 
 merly and even at the present time slate is 
 much used, aitho alberene stone has of late 
 years been widely adopted. Marble is seldom, 
 if ever used, in school work owing to the ex- 
 pense, while Argentine glass undoubtedly pro- 
 duces the finest kind of result. 
 
 Argentine glass is milk-white and non-trans- 
 parent. It is produced in sheets about one inch 
 thick, and gives an inviting and sanitary ap- 
 pearance attained by no other miaterial. This 
 glass, of course, will not stand so much hard 
 usage as other materials and it is therefore im- 
 practicable to build partitions of it except where 
 a reasonable amount of care may be expected. 
 For instance, Argentine glass partitions may 
 be used in high schools but never in grammar 
 schools. 
 
 Where alberene stone is employed it is cut in 
 slabs one inch or one and a quarter inches 
 thick, is polished and made up with rabbetted 
 joints. The alberene partition is of a grayish 
 color with long black veins which are likely to 
 extend thru portions of the stone. These veins 
 give the appearance of weakness with danger of 
 possible future cracks; but this danger is con- 
 fined to aippearance only, as the stone is at 
 least as strong if not stronger at the veins 
 thian in the clear material. 
 
 Slate, the old standard material, requires 
 little argument or explanation owing to its ex- 
 tensive use. Almost every school employs slate 
 partitions to a greater or lesser extent. The 
 chief objection if it is an objection ^to slate, 
 is the appearance which is dark and uninviting. 
 Slate partitions also offer much opportunity 
 for scratching and for miarking oibjectionable 
 pictures and writing on the toilet room walls. 
 This latter, of course, is highly undesirable. 
 
 One school board has, after much experimen- 
 tation, adopted the slate partition painted white, 
 and provides each janitor with a can of quick 
 
 diying white paint. Every day at the close of 
 the school session the partitions and walls are 
 inspected and all writings are disposed of in a 
 moment by a little white paint. This paint be- 
 comes dry before the beginning of the school 
 session the next morning. 
 
 The normal water closet enclosure which is 
 shown in Fig. 78 should be about 4 ft. or 4 ft. 
 6 in. deep, 6 ft. 6 in. high and should have the 
 back set out 6 in. from the wall to conceal the 
 piping and also to serve as vent space. While 
 the backs of the enclosure should extend solid 
 to the floor, the partitions between the enclo- 
 sures should be supported 12 in. above the floor, 
 to permit the free circulation of air about and 
 around the fixtures. The partition slabs are 
 usually supported by angle clips and by being 
 set into the back slab, while at the front iron or 
 brass standards are used. The standards gen- 
 erally extend down and are embedded in the 
 floor. 
 
 The wainscot is usually made of the same 
 material as the partitions and compartments, 
 aitho sometimes a tile wainscot is used. This 
 should extend the same height, namely 6 ft. 
 6 in. above the floor. It is usually provided 
 with a small cap piece for a finish. In Fig. 79 
 a view is shown of the same type of compart- 
 ments (looking the other way) indicating the 
 most satisfactory method of ventilating a toilet 
 room, namely, thru a register R placed back 
 of the water closet. This does away with all 
 discussion as to the sanitary or insanitary qual- 
 ities of the local vent closet and secures equal 
 or possibly superior ventilation results. 
 
 Let me call attention to a danger which seems 
 to be on the increase. This is the instilling 
 into the younger generation of what might be 
 termed a "lack of decency" for which some 
 boards are almost criminally responsible. It is 
 not believed that any member of any modern 
 school board would install a water closet in his 
 own home in an open hall without screens where 
 members of the family are constantly passing 
 back and forth. Yet in the school, toilet rooms 
 (in which a constant promenade is going back 
 and forth) are often provided with fixtures 
 
 48 
 
TOILET PARTITIONS SHOWER BATHS 
 
 49 
 
 1 
 
 
 ' >f:\f ..' ' *, A i. f ' J. i ^.v ' . * 
 
 
 
 >' ' / ;' ' ' 
 
 >:> ,'" > ,' 
 
 Jht'tZ-tiofi - 
 
 s 
 
 Wa/nscof"- 
 
 /r/oor 
 
 I 
 
 <*-< ; r *; . * ; ? .' ? j^" ;j ' .'*.% < ;' : ^ "v -v: ''-.'^ 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 :^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 79. 
 
 
 Wainscot 
 
 3cfecf7 
 
 /-r/oof 
 
 ."- ';'<'."i>~;e V.i* **'"-: D^;-. " e -^-'. * -: : *- 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 i 
 
 y. ^CeiJ/ng V/ 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 
 >i 
 
 ifT'art/T/on 
 
 JVo/nscot-^ 
 
 ; 
 
 2z VJ Ycyt^'kS^? ^ ^r/oor % 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
50 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 possibly with screens between them without 
 doors and provocative of a lack of modesty 
 which is far from what parents desire. 
 
 As an example of this we have toilet rooms in 
 many schools built somewhat on the scheme 
 shown in Fig. 80 in which a simple dividing 
 screen, made of sheet iron and supported on a 
 piece of bent pipe, is used to avoid the expense 
 of a proper closet partition. Arguments in 
 favor of this arrangement can be heard on the 
 basis of economy, better circulation of air, in- 
 creased light, etc., etc. But after all advantages 
 have been duly weighed, the fact cannot be over- 
 come that water closets installed in this manner 
 should be considered a nuisance by the com- 
 munity, and the board responsible for such an 
 installation should be severely censured. 
 
 It should be remembered that, where a pupil 
 is required by law to attend school a certain 
 number of hours a day, he or she must of neces- 
 sity use the toilet fixtures provided by the school 
 board and that the board, in failing to provide 
 suitable enclosures, indirectly forces a pupil, 
 willingly or unwillingly, to use the facilities 
 provided. Under such a condition of affairs 
 school boards should be doubly careful in the 
 arrangement of toilet rooms and the manner in 
 which they are fitted up. 
 
 This subject brings up another. It was for- 
 merly the custom to omit partitions entirely on 
 all types of urinals, yet it is encouraging to 
 note that the use of a slab partition between 
 the fixtures as shown in Fig. 81 and the divid- 
 ing off of the trough urinal by similar parti- 
 tions is gradually coming into practice. Fig. 81 
 is a good example of individual fixtures, prop- 
 erly partitioned, with a vent space in the rear 
 into which an integral local vent from the fix- 
 tures, or a local vent from the pipe below the 
 fixtures, can be connected. 
 
 Shower bath stalls are built in three ways. 
 The first is the individual shower bath stall as 
 shown in Fig. 82. This stall is about 3 ft. 
 square and 6 ft. 6 in. high. The walls are car- 
 ried down to the floor slab on all sides and the 
 doorway is cut down to within 6 in. of the floor, 
 the 6 in. below this point serving as a curb to 
 retain the splashing water. The top of the door- 
 way is formed by a rod which serves as a brace 
 for the slabs, and from which the curtain is 
 hung by rings. 
 
 The second type of shower bath is that com- 
 
 bined with the dressing room as shown in Fig. 
 83. This consists of a shower bath compart- 
 ment as just described, the compartment in this 
 case, however, opening into a dressing room of 
 similar size. A curtain is used between the 
 dressing room and shower and a dwarf door, 
 similar to a water closet door as shown, is used 
 to screen the dressing room. In many cases it 
 has been found desirable to cover the tops of 
 compartments with a wire screen, as indicated 
 in the drawing, to prevent the stealing of 
 clothes, towels, etc., by pupils in the adjacent 
 compartments, and to prevent skylarking and 
 the throwing of missiles into the compartments 
 when they are occupied. Care shouM be taken 
 in an arrangement of this kind to leave suffi- 
 cient room under the dwarf door so that in 
 ease of emergency access to the interior can be 
 had by the instructor by crawling under the 
 door and unlocking the same. Several cases 
 have been known where persons have been taken 
 suddenly ill or have fainted while using a 
 shower thus requiring immediate attention and 
 outside help. 
 
 The third tj-pe of shower is shown in Fig. 84. 
 This consists of a shower compartment as 
 
 Fig. 82. 
 
TOILET PARTITIONS SHOWER BATHS 
 
 51 
 
 
 J?ressing 
 Koom 
 
 Fig. 83. 
 
 Fig. 84. 
 
52 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 Fig. 85. 
 
 previously described and an outer room 18 to 
 24 in(ihes wide in which a hook is placed. The 
 purpose of this outer room is to keep dry a sheet 
 or dressing gown, bath slippers and bath towel. 
 Showers arranged in this manner are generally 
 used in connection with a girls' locker room. 
 The arrangement is somewhat as shown in Fig. 
 85, where S indicates the showers and outer 
 rooms, the unmarked compartments are dress- 
 ing rooms; P. S. is a pipe space, between the 
 two rows of shower baths, and D an access door 
 for repairs. In a scheme of this kind each girl 
 pupil is assigned a dressing room in which she 
 removes her outer clothing preparatory to the 
 use of the shower. Sheets are usually pro- 
 vided by the school to be worn in passing from 
 the dressing room to the shower bath, altho 
 some pupils prefer to use a bathrobe or dressing 
 gown. It will be seen from Fig. 85 that while 
 some of the dressing rooms are very convenient 
 to the showers others are at a considerable 
 distance. 
 
 The method of procedure for the pupils is 
 briefly as follows : Wrapped in sheets and wear- 
 ing slippers, the girls pass from their individ- 
 ual dressing rooms to the outer rooms of the 
 showers. These outer rooms may be protected 
 by a curtain or a dwarf door similar to the one 
 previously shown. The towels, sheets or gowns 
 and slippers are placed in the outer rooms and 
 the shower baths taken in the adjacent shower 
 compartments, curtains being placed between 
 
 the outer rooms and the showers in order to 
 keep the articles in the outer rooms dry. On 
 completion of the bath the pupils dry them- 
 selves in the shower compartments, step into 
 the outer rooms, don slippers and sheets or robes 
 and return to the dressing rooms to complete 
 their dressing. 
 
 There are great advantages with this ar- 
 rangement involving as it does a minimum time 
 in the shower and making fewer showers serve 
 a larger number of pupils satisfactorily. It 
 allows the showers to be placed closely together, 
 simplifies and economizes the plumbing, and 
 above all allows the pupil the privacy which all 
 are justified in demanding. 
 
 The metal work for partitions should be kept 
 down to the smallest possible amount. Such as 
 must be used is generally made to correspond 
 with the fixture trimmings. Nickel plated brass 
 is more commonly used than any other one 
 material, yet it is far from being satisfactory 
 for continued service. The nickel if polished 
 soon wears off and, if not polished, gets dirty 
 and becomes covered with verdigris caused by 
 thf splashing water which combines with the 
 copper in the brass body underneath. 
 
 Polished brass is used to some extent, this 
 material being of solid metal and always of the 
 same standard appearance when kept polished. 
 It is cheaper than nickel plated material. 
 
 Ked metal is brass with an unusually high 
 
TOILET PARTITIONS SHOWER BATHS 
 
 53 
 
 amount of copper in the composition (85 per 
 cent or more) ; this is being adopted in some 
 of the newer schools. 
 
 White metal is by far the anost satisfactory 
 of all the various materials, but it is also much 
 higher in cost. It is a metallic composition 
 which has exactly the appearance of nickel plate, 
 
 but is liable to tarnish less quickly. Its use 
 is recommended wherever financial considera- 
 tions permit. Sometimes economy can be ef- 
 fected by using galvanized cast iron piping 
 underneath the lavatories and painting same 
 with white enamel to match the color of the 
 fixture. 
 
 GIRLS' SHOWER ROU.M IN A NEW ENGLAND SCHOOL. 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 
 Water Supply Systems 
 
 There is little of greater importance in the 
 modern school than an adequate supply of clean 
 and pure water at a cost not so high as to be 
 excessive. In some dis.tricts where schools are 
 erected a good municipal or private company- 
 water system in service with reasonable rates 
 and pressure solves the difficulty, but in other 
 cases conditions must be met which involve cal- 
 culations based on the height of .the building, 
 probable amount of water used yearly, cost of 
 water per cubic foot, cost of coal, and interest 
 on pumping equipment. It is not at all im- 
 possible that it rday prove cheaper to drive a 
 well on the premises and pump all water used 
 than it would be to buy the supply from a local 
 corporation. 
 
 A water supply may require special attention 
 from any one of the following reasons : 
 
 (a) No supply of any kind available. 
 
 (lb) Proper water but insufficient pressure. 
 
 (c) Proper water but too high pressure. 
 
 (d) Proper water but with great fluctuation 
 in pressure. 
 
 (e) Water not fit for use without purification. 
 
 (f) Water supply not to be depended upon at 
 all times. 
 
 (g) Any combination of the above. 
 
 Where no water supply is available a driven 
 well and pump are the usual recourse. In this 
 case the water is either pumped into an elevated 
 tank (maintaining the proper pressure on the 
 school by gravity), or it is pumped into a so- 
 called "pneumatic" tank in which compressed 
 air is confined, the pressure of the compressed 
 
 air tending to drive the water out of the tank 
 when a faucet is opened and thus keeping the 
 building under proper pressure. 
 
 A typical pneumatic system recently installed 
 in one of the new high schools is shown in Fig. 
 86, being arranged as shown diagrammatically 
 in Fig. 87. Here the pneumatic tank T with a 
 manhole Mh and supported on the piers P is 
 filled by the water pump WP driven by the 
 motor M. The operation of this apparatus is 
 entirely automatic being controlled by the regu- 
 lator E which operates the electric switch S con- 
 trolling the wires W to the motor M. The water 
 from the pump is discharged past the air cush- 
 ion AC, the air supply being maintained in the 
 tank by the use of the little belted air com- 
 pressor C This compressor is a necessary ad- 
 jvmct to all pneumatic systems as the air in 
 the tank, when under pressure and in contact 
 with the water, becomes entrained in the water 
 in the form of minute bubbles. This process 
 results, of course, in gradually withdrawing the 
 air from the tank making necessary some means 
 of renewal. The bubbles give the water a pecu- 
 liar milklike appearance when drawn at the 
 faucet. 
 
 With an elevated gravity tank several dif- 
 ficulties and objections are likely to arise. In 
 the first place it. must be supported no mean 
 proposition when it is considered that a 5,000 
 t-.") 10,000 gallon tank (customary size for 
 schools) weighs from 45,000 to 90,000 pounds 
 or an average of 33 tons! This tank miist be 
 placed on a floor at least one story above the 
 
 Fig. 87 
 
 54 
 
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 
 
 55 
 
 Fig. 86. Pneumatic Tank in a New School. 
 
 Fig. 88. Drinking Water Filters of Good Type. 
 
56 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 90. 
 
 floor on which the highest fixture stands in order 
 to get sufficient pressure on the uppermost fix- 
 tures. The tank should be housed in and cov- 
 ered to keep it clear of dust and dirt; it must 
 be protected against freezing, and after all tliese 
 matters are attended to it will still allow the 
 water therein to become warm or tepid in hot 
 weather. 
 
 A pneumatic tank can be buried in the ground 
 so as to keep the water supply fairly cold and 
 
 (with the possible exception of an objection to 
 carrying a tank at such high pressure in the 
 basement of the school) it is undoubtedly more 
 satisfactory and certainly cheaper than an ele- 
 vated gravity tank. 
 
 When water at too high a pressure is en- 
 countered a reducing valve must be used. Water 
 delivered at more than 75 pounds pressure is 
 objectionable to use. It produces leaks read- 
 ily, and wears out faucets because they must be 
 
 Fig. 91. 
 
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 
 
 57 
 
 ^ 
 
 D 
 
 -^. 
 
 -3upp/y Main 
 
 in Koof jSpoce. 
 
 ConTfo/ 
 VoJi/e 
 
 -Aif Cushion 
 f- Connection to 
 
 / 
 
 Aif Cushion 
 
 
 Connect/on to 
 Lowest rixtute 
 
 3uppJyMo/n 
 in jBosement^ 
 
 Conttot 
 Va/ve 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
 turned off tightly; it makes more frequent the 
 renewal of faucet washers and produces '''ham- 
 mering" and undesirable splashing when the 
 faucets are opened. In fact, 45 pounds per 
 square inch pressure in the basement is a very 
 good figure to carry. Reducing valves can be 
 obtained for almost any desired reduction of 
 pressure, the usual reduction being from 80 to 
 150 pounds down to 45 to 70 pounds. 
 
 When great variations in pressure occur it is 
 often most economical to use a gravity tank, 
 allowing this to fill without pumping when the 
 pressure is high and making it large enough to 
 carry the school until the next period of high 
 pressure at which time it will be re-filled. If 
 the pressure even at the highest point is not 
 sufficient to force the water up into the tank, 
 then pumping must be resorted to and a pneu- 
 matic equipment will probably be more satis- 
 factory. 
 
 Water is sometimes obtained which is sandy 
 (for instance river water or lake water in time 
 
 of spring rains) or it may be contaminated by 
 bacteria from various sources. Sand and grit 
 are very undesirable as they get into flush 
 valves, shower valves, etc., and clog their opera- 
 tion, besides cutting washers, lodging on valve 
 seats and causing other annoyance. This trouble 
 can be disposed of by use of pressure filters 
 which employ sand, quartz, charcoal, and other 
 mediums for filtration. The filters for a large 
 sized school will cost from $1,200 to $1,500, if 
 of the best make and materials. Cheaper filters 
 can, of course, be had, but they are a poor econ- 
 omy in the long run. 
 
 For bacterial impurities, filters are also used 
 altho not so efficiently. When water is driven 
 thru a filter a sort of mat forms on the surface 
 in which certain bacterialogical processes are 
 carried on resulting in partial purification, this 
 purifying being further assisted by bone black 
 or charcoal. The use of filters, in general, may 
 be said to be at its best when confined solely to 
 clarifying water that is, removing substances 
 floating or not dissolved in the water since 
 anything in solution is affected little, if any, 
 by filtration. A double cylinder filter of the best 
 type is shown in Fig. 88, this being arranged so 
 that the water passes thru first one cylinder and 
 then the other, thus giving really two separate 
 filterings. 
 
 For sterilized water there are four standard 
 processes distillation and recondensing, boiling 
 or raising to boiling point, chemical treatment 
 and electrical treatment. Distillation produces 
 water which, however pure it may be, is at the 
 same time robbed of its salts, gases and other 
 substances. The result is a flat and unpalatable 
 tho pure product. 
 
 By boiling or by just raising to the boiling 
 point (which is better) water fairly free oi 
 bacteria can be obtained containing a large pro- 
 portion of its original characteristics. This 
 process has gained great favor. Electrical treat- 
 
 T/^htPu/Zey- 
 ^ sJioose f{j//ey\ 
 
 Z "Suct/orj 
 Z"D/sch.^T% 
 
 Fig. 93. 
 
58 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 89. 
 
 Fig. 95. Water Supply in School with Pressure Reducing Valve, 
 Temporary Meter, By-pass, Etc. 
 
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS 
 
 59 
 
 ment by means of ultra-violet rays produced by 
 a special electric lamp in a crystal bulb is more 
 expensive but at the same time more satisfac- 
 tory than any of the other methods. Positively 
 no change whatsoever is made in the water or 
 its taste but the bacteria are absolutely killed 
 within a fraction of a second after exposure to 
 the ultra-violet rays. To make this system 
 practical the water must be clear. It may prove 
 necessary, however, in some cases to install 
 filters in conjunction with the electric steril- 
 izer. A view of an ultra-violet ray sterilizer in- 
 stalled in the Bennett School, Millbrook, N. Y., 
 is shown in Fig. 89. 
 
 If for any reason, a roof tank or "house" 
 tank is decided upon, it will be more economical 
 to put the main water pipe in the ceiling, or 
 roof space, over the top floor. This is, of course, 
 provided the construction of the building per- 
 mits; if there is no such space the entire water 
 supply must be carried down and fed from the 
 basement as shown in Fig. 90. This illustra- 
 tion is an oblique projection of an ordinary 
 school system arranged with a house tank HT 
 in the pent house PH and supplying risers 
 thru a basement main as just described; the 
 pump HP is used in this case to fill the house 
 tank thru the check valve C and gate valve (t 
 when required. Fig. 91 is a view of a similar 
 system assuming that a pneumatic tank is used 
 (located in the basement as shown). In this 
 case the risers R are fed from the main supply 
 header MSH located in the basement and sup- 
 plied by water under pressure in the pneumatic 
 tank PT. The water is pumped into the pneu- 
 matic tank by the pump P. 
 
 With the roof space, or "top feed," system the 
 pipe risers are arranged as shown at "A," Fig. 
 92; but with a basement, or "bottom feed," the 
 vertical pipes are arranged as shown at "B." 
 The valves allow repairs to be made on any 
 riser without interfering with any other fixtures 
 except the ones located on that particular riser. 
 
 Undoubtedly the best type of water pump 
 (not a well pump) for schools is a little direct 
 connected, motor driven, centrifugal pump such 
 ad is shown in Fig. 93. A pump of this kind 
 does not require packing, has no pulsation (when 
 starting up it gradually builds up a pressure 
 until it exceeds the back pressure of the dis- 
 charge pipe) and has only one moving part 
 an interior rotating paddle wheel or impeller 
 which is simply a plain iron or steel casting. 
 
 Fig. 94. Centrifugal Motor Driven "House Pump" with auto- 
 matic control and pressure gage. 
 
 The pump shown has also a special tight and 
 loose pulley to allow belt drive after discon- 
 necting from the motor if at any time the cur- 
 rent is cut off. The belt can be driven by a 
 gas engine, hot air or steam engine or other 
 mechanical means which local conditions permit. 
 Provided the motor is of direct current type the 
 tight and loose pulleys can be omitted, and an 
 electric storage battery can be used to supply 
 current to the motor. A storage battery will 
 cost considerably more than a gas or steam 
 engine drive even tho the latter may not be 
 quite so convenient. A view of such a pump, 
 actually installed with automatic control and 
 pressure gage, is shown in Fig. 94. 
 
 Care should te exercised not to be deceived 
 on water pressure. For instance, a school is 
 proposed on a site where the minimum street 
 water pressure is- 35 pounds, and the highest 
 60 pounds. This means about 35 pounds in the 
 basement of the school at least with a possible 
 60 pounds at certain times. Suppose it is ex- 
 pected to use filters and compression tank water 
 closets with some of the closets located on the 
 
60 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 third floor. Let us see if the pressure is suf- 
 ficient : 
 
 Compression closets require 15 pounds to flush 
 satisfactorily. 
 
 Three stories at 12 feet equals 36 feet by .43 
 pound equals 15J pounds loss for head. 
 
 Filter loss equals 5 pounds. 
 
 Vipe loss (friction) 5 pounds to 7 pounds. 
 
 Total loss, 15, 15J, 5 and 5 to 7, or 40J to 
 42^ pounds. This shows that part of the time 
 the closets on the top floor would fail to operate 
 properly. 
 
 A view taken in a newly completed school is 
 
 shown in Fig. 95. In this school it was neces- 
 sary to reduce the water pressure for use, the 
 street supply coming in at S, passing thru the 
 temporary water meter M, the pressure reducing 
 valve PRV and into the house line H. Either 
 the meter or the pressure reducing valve (or 
 both) can be cut out for repairs by closing 
 valves on either side and opening valves on the 
 by-pass B. The fire line is taken off at F so 
 as to be subjected to the high pressure on the 
 street side of the reducing valve. The tempor- 
 ary meter was installed for use during construc- 
 tion and will later be replaced with one of 
 proper size. 
 
 TYPICAL SCHOOL SWIMMING POOL. 
 
CHAPTER X 
 
 Hot Water Systems 
 
 The school of today should be provided with 
 a hot water system whic'h will supply hot water 
 to all lavatories, shower baths, sinks and slop 
 sinks. Before the introduction of showers pro- 
 vision for hot water was often omitted from 
 schoiols, it being argued that the lavatories would 
 answer their purposes reasonably well when sup- 
 plied with cold water only. This was undoubt- 
 edly true. The introduction of showers, how- 
 ever, at once necessitates the installation of a 
 certain amount of hot water equipment, to- 
 gether with the required piping. Under these 
 conditions, it is a matter of only small addi- 
 tional expense to supply the other fixtures with 
 hot water, making the system complete thruout. 
 
 To give satisfactory service in the modern 
 school building, it is necessary for a hot water 
 system to be installed so as to circulate hot 
 water as closely as possible to the fixtures sup- 
 plied. With the plain, "dead-end" hot water 
 system, without circulation pipes, the water lies 
 stagnant in the pipes and constantly cools off 
 therein, making it necessary to draw off this 
 cooled water thru the faucet outlet before hot 
 water can be obtained. Where shower baths are 
 installed the hot water piping is necessarily of 
 fairly large size and this requires that a con- 
 siderable body of water be thus drawn off. 
 
 To avoid this waste the circulating system is 
 used, by means of which a constant circulation 
 of water thru the hot water lines is maintained, 
 this circulation extending up to the point where 
 the "dead-end" or non-circulating branch to a 
 fixture is connected to the main. To obtain hot 
 water under these conditions, it is necessary 
 to draw out only the small amount of water 
 contained in the pipe between the faucet fixture 
 and the circulation line, which (with careful 
 designing) can be kept down to so small an 
 amount as to make delivery of hot water almost 
 immediate. 
 
 Circulation systems are of two kinds and are 
 known respectively as the "downfeed" or "over- 
 head system" and the "upfeed" or "basement" 
 system. Of these two systems better results are 
 obtained so far as circulation goes, with the 
 overhead system. By this method it is neces- 
 
 sary to carry all of the hot water to the roof 
 space above the top fioor ceiling and then to 
 feed (from this roof space) vertical hot water 
 drops down and thru to the basement. Here the 
 drops are collected together into a hot water 
 return line which goes back to the hot water 
 tank. 
 
 The cooling of the water as it stands in the 
 drops causes it to contract thereby increasing 
 its weight. The weight of the water in the main 
 hot water riser carried up to the roof space is 
 not thus affected. This results in the water in 
 the drops sinking into the return line and going 
 back to the tank as fast as it cools. It must 
 be understood, however, that this cooling in a 
 well designed system amounts to only ten or 
 fifteen degrees so that even the return water is 
 plenty hot enoug'h for all ordinary use. 
 
 A graphic representation of a system of this 
 kind is shown in Fig. 96 where the circulation 
 system is used in connection with a house tank. 
 The hot water heater is located in the basement 
 B and is supplied from the house tank into 
 wihich the cold water is pumped by a pump not 
 shown in the sketch. From the hot water heater 
 the water rises up thru the main hot water riser 
 past the first, second and third floors to the roof 
 space above the third floor ceiling C and below 
 the roof R. 
 
 At this point (which is the highest point of 
 the hot water system) an air vent pipe is tapped 
 in, this being taken up into the pent house and 
 turned down over the house tank. The reason 
 for this is that all water when heated gives up 
 a certain amount of air, ordinarily contained 
 in all cold water), which collects in bubbles and 
 gradually works to the highest point in the 
 system. Of course when this air accumulates 
 in any quantity it retards or stops entirely the 
 hot water circulation. 
 
 The hot water supply then runs horizontally 
 in this ceiling space so as to supply the re- 
 quired drops which are connected into the hot 
 water return as shown. The probable method 
 of running the cold water supply with the cold 
 water drops paralleling the ones for hot water 
 is also indicated. 
 
 CI 
 
62 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 In Fig. 97 is shown the up-feed system in 
 which the main hot water supply, instead of be- 
 ing carried up to the space between C and R, 
 is run in the basement and feeds the hot water 
 supply risers from the bottom instead of from 
 th(' top. The hot water ascends in these risers 
 to a point just below the connection to the third 
 floor fixtures at which point a branch is tapped 
 off for the hot water return. This line parallels 
 
 be eliminated from consideration, especially 
 where large quantities of water are to be heated. 
 The most common method of heating water is 
 by means of a tank filled with the required 
 amount of heating surface composed of brass 
 tubing. In this tubing the steaim is condensed 
 the same as in an ordinary radiator. In fact, 
 the brass tubes are nothing but pipe coils sur- 
 rounded by water instead of air. A view of a 
 
 Alt' Vent - 
 '/fot Water Supply Ma/n 
 
 Main Hot 
 Woter Eiset-i 
 - tfofWatef 
 Drops 
 
 3^ 
 
 CM from 
 TonH to 
 H.Ur/feater 
 
 Fig 96. 
 
 the riser down to the basement and is connected 
 in the basement to the hot water return line, 
 which is carried back to the heater. Air relief 
 on this system is obtained thru the top fixture 
 connections, the air being drawn off with the 
 water as fast as it accumulates. 
 
 For heating water several methods are in use. 
 Of these coal and steam are the cheapest and 
 most used, and gas is next. The least common 
 is electricity which is so expensive that it may 
 
 tank heater of that description is shown in 
 Fig. 98. It is often desirable, however, to have 
 heaters which can be used in the summer time 
 when the main steam boilers are not in service. 
 In a case of this kind the tank is installed as 
 before but a hot water stove is also arranged to 
 circulate water to and from the tank just as 
 the ordinary kitchen stove circulates water to 
 and from the kitchen boiler. This hot water 
 stove is used when the main boilers are out of 
 
HOT WATER SYSTEMS 
 
 63 
 
 service, but it is not used during the winter 
 when steam is available. Exceptions are made 
 of course in cases where the steam boilers are 
 overloaded, and it is advisable to conserve the 
 steam as much as possible by using the coal 
 heater. 
 
 In cases of high water pressure, say 40 lbs. 
 or over, it is not good practice to install hot 
 water heaters (which are generally made of cast 
 iron) as they are not built to stand any great 
 pressure. In cases like this, instead of the small 
 
 In cases where showers are not installed, but 
 where hot water is required only in small quan- 
 tities, for washing dishes and for supplying a 
 small number of lavatories, gas heaters are some- 
 times used. These gas heaters are automatic in 
 operation and are arranged to keep the tank at 
 a certain temperature. A thermostat in the tank 
 turns on the gas (which ignites from a pilot 
 light) whenever the temperature of the water 
 falls below a certain number of degrees and 
 turns off the gas (with the exception of the pilot 
 
 Cold Wafer J?/\sef 
 /fot ]Vote/'J?/3er 
 If of hfafer 7?eTi//'r7 
 
 3^ 
 
 Jd^" 
 
 j-HofWoferSapp/Y 1^-^ 
 
 CM from Street- 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 97. 
 
 hot water heater, a steam boiler of equal capa- 
 city is installed. The steam and return con- 
 nections are then run to the tank and cross 
 connected to the supply and return connection 
 from the building heating boilers. This results 
 in filling the brass tubes with steam at all times, 
 the steam coming from the small boiler during 
 the summer and from the heating boilers dur- 
 ing the winter. The plan avoids the use of high 
 pressure on the cast iron boiler. A view of a 
 hot water tank installed in one of the newest 
 schools, in which both steam connections and 
 a hot water stove are used, is shown in Fig. 99. 
 
 light) whenever the desired temperature is again 
 reached. In many cases steam connections are 
 made for winter service, especially when the 
 water comes in very cold and the gas heater is 
 instated for summer use only. A view of an 
 installation of this type is shown in Fig. 100. 
 
 All hot water heaters should be provided with 
 thermostatic control to prevent insufficient 
 v/arming and overheating of the water. With- 
 out the attention of the janitor, overheating is 
 apt to result in boiling and the formation of 
 steam. 
 
 Where showers are installed special provision 
 
64 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 1 ^ , ^ * . u , ** I ,, ' ' : , ' 
 
 ^/V'- i""j-f>'rY'''''"^v;v';'"f v'''r'':''''^''T'' i;\*' '" -' ': 
 
 Fig. 101. 
 
 .'i -^:^;\ v'c;.^ !^^:.A^..^:^.^:>?;^ ->--.'^,/.5>'.-- <'%-'- '^/-'^'.- 
 
 ? '',.cs",-' '-fr .'^ 
 
 Colc/Wafer^ j 
 
 WW 
 
 >y .' >/^'-' *f ^\ ''ii '.' ' -". '' 
 
 Fig. 102. 
 
 = '. V .. . i / ;< a r.',' ^. "'<'./ ."^/e'/'. '., ', ^'> I-'-^ t'a'.'^: ..''' i.'- f, >,.'0.' .'/a.' '-f.'. 
 
 s ' , _ ' ^ 
 
 . c .a 
 
 Tempefed Wo/e/'L/ne 
 
 E 
 
 dj^-^y Shoive/'Ifeoc/s 
 
 /-Dfo/f? Tfoug/7 
 
 
 i' . '* 
 
 
 Fig. 103. 
 
HOT WATER SYSTEMS 
 
 65 
 
 should always be made to prevent accidental 
 scalding. This is necessary owing to the fact 
 that hot water at a satisfactory temperature for 
 other uses is entirely too hot to be used in a 
 shower. In fact, the customary temperature 
 for satisfactory service on sinks, lavatories and 
 similar fixtures is generally assumed to be 150 
 Fahr., while many persons in a shower bath 
 (especially young children) cannot endure water 
 at more than 100 degrees. 
 
 It is, therefore, customary to install some 
 means whereby water supplied to showers will 
 not be hotter than 100 Fahr. in temperature 
 
 no hot water being supplied directly to the 
 showers. The cold water line in addition to its 
 connection to the regulator, is extended to and 
 connected with the cold water side of the show- 
 ers. Both of these pipes are usually concealed 
 back of the slab work. 
 
 In each shower stall is placed a common 
 shower mixing valve which if of the anti- 
 scalding type opens the cold water first and 
 then gradually closes the cold water and opens 
 the tempered water line until pure tempered 
 water is being delivered to the shower. Turn- 
 ing this handle back across the dial reverses the 
 
 'HW3 
 
 T 
 
 MB 
 
 ^DV 
 
 SH 
 
 -J-55 
 
 Q^ 
 
 \ 
 
 t 
 
 ~^hv7r 
 
 Fig. 104. 
 
 and also means whereby this temperature can 
 be reduced to plain cold water at will. The 
 exact method of this application depends con- 
 siderably upon the character of the shower in- 
 stallations and the desired method of operation. 
 Where individual showers controlled entirely 
 by the pupils are used, the most common as well 
 as the safest way, is shown in Fig. 101. Here a 
 thermostatic hot water regulator supplied with 
 both hot and cold water delivers tempered water 
 (at 100 Fahr., or thereabouts) into a tempered 
 water line. This tempered water line is con- 
 nected to the hot water side of all the showers. 
 
 aperation gradually shutting off the tempered 
 water and turning on the cold water, until a 
 cold water temperature is reached, then shut- 
 ting off the cold water and thus stopping the 
 flow of the shower. Showers arranged in this 
 manner allow the individual pupil to control 
 absolutely the temperature of water which he 
 is using up to 100 (or other temperature for 
 which the regulator is set) and down as low as 
 the temperature of the cold water will permit. 
 This scheme automatically keeps the showers 
 shut off in stalls that are not in use, thus pre- 
 venting the waste of water. 
 
06 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 In cases where yoiinf? pupils use the showers 
 it is often desirable to have the instructor, 
 
 rather than the pupil, control the water tempera- 
 ti^re. To make such a control possible an 
 arrangement as shown in Fig. 102 is sometimes 
 used. In this scheme the hot and cold water 
 is carried to a regulator like the one described 
 above. No mixing valves are placed on the 
 showers and no cold water connections are made 
 to the showers; the shower heads are supplied 
 solely from the tempered water line. In this 
 arrangement the instructor standing at the reg- 
 ulator, can, by watching the thermometer T, 
 
 ^- wm 
 
 
 1 
 
 t^v 
 
 ' -AC \ 
 
 
 * .^^1''' '^'''^^'W^fe^-^^MB''''"'*'^^^^"'"^- 
 
 h 
 
 Fig 99. 
 
 Fig. 100. 
 
 deliver water into the showers at any tempera- 
 ture from 100 down to the temperature of the 
 cold water suppV- The regulator will prevent 
 scalding by not supplying water above the 
 proper temperature. In case the regulator fails 
 to operate properly at any time, manipulation 
 of the valves on the bypass and close attention 
 to the temperature registered on the thermom- 
 eter T will allow temporary service until repairs 
 can be made. The chain pulls shown in the 
 showers are connected to spring valves which 
 automatically close whenever the chains are 
 
HOT WATER SYSTEMS 
 
 67 
 
 released. These are installed to prevent water 
 waste. 
 
 In Fig. 103 is shown the common type of gang 
 shower in which heads are located on the ceiling 
 and the whole group is operated as a unit. In 
 cases of this kind the number of heads is usually- 
 made sufficient to take care of an entire class 
 or subdivision of a class so that the chances of 
 not having a pupil under every head are small. 
 Of course chain pulls and spring valves can 
 bo installed on the heads, but it is usually a 
 problem to make the chains long enough to be 
 reached by the smallest without making them 
 so long as to strike the heads of the tallest 
 pupils. 
 
 The hot and cold water comes in as before and 
 goes to a regulator of different type from those 
 previously shown. All water is delivered to the 
 tempered water line by the regulator at any 
 temperature desired. The water flow is con- 
 trolled by the instructor who stands at the reg- 
 ulator and turns on the valve. As this regula- 
 tor is practically fixed after being once set for 
 a given temperature, a cold water bypass as 
 previously illustrated is necessary to reduce the 
 temperature below 100 when desired. 
 
 In some buildings it is impossible to get hot 
 water circulation by gravity. This happens 
 when two separate sections are so built that the 
 only connection is a tunnel or other passage 
 below the level of the hot water tank. This is 
 quite likely to happen where a central plant is 
 used to heat and light a group of school 
 buildings. 
 
 Where such a contingency arises, circulation 
 must be forced by means of a pump arranged 
 somewhat as shown in Fig. 104. Here hot water 
 is supplied to a building from the storage tank 
 T thru the hot water supply pipe, IIWS, re- 
 turning from the boiilding thru the hot water 
 return line, ITWR, to the circulation pump, CP, 
 which forces the water to circulate. The tank 
 is provided with a relief valve, RV, a mud 
 blowoff, MB, and a thermostat TT, with a 
 waste W. 
 
 The water is heated by the steam heater, SH, 
 having a steam supply, SS, and a drip, D. This 
 steam supply is governed by the diaphragm 
 valve DV, operated by the thermostat, and cir- 
 culation between the heater and tank is main- 
 tained by gravity thru the check valve C. The 
 cold water supply enters at CW. 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 
 Fire Protection 
 
 Every time we pick up a newspaper and read 
 of a school fire, with the occasional accompany- 
 ing casualties, we instinctively shudder. Death 
 by fire is indeed horrible, but the slaughter of 
 thf innocent seems doubly so. The number of 
 school children today housed in buildings with- 
 out proper fire protection is a very high per- 
 centage of the total; and a thoro fire drill sys- 
 tematically carried out is no assurance of safety 
 in case of actual need. Roughly speaking, 
 school buildings may be divided into four 
 classes, those strictly fireproof thruout, those 
 with fireproof ed walls and stairways and with 
 slow burning construction otherwise, those of 
 slow burning construction thruout and the 
 common frame school. 
 
 All buildings need fire protection, even those 
 which are fireproof. You can take an iron oven, 
 fill it with excelsior, touch a match to it and 
 well, the oven is fireproof, but what chance 
 would a human being have in it? A fire is not 
 so likely to start in a fireproof building, it is 
 less likely to spread to other rooms, hut the 
 interior of any building, together with its furni- 
 ture, desks, equipment and combustibles, can be 
 and often is burned. This must be guarded 
 against. 
 
 The most common method of school fire pro- 
 tection is the installation of a system of stand- 
 pipes with hose outlets and hose at each floor 
 leAel and with one or more Siamese outlets at 
 tlie building wall for the connection of the fire 
 engine upon its arrival. Like a great many 
 other things in common practice, the school fire 
 hose is rather contradictory. In the first place, 
 many schools have among their occupants only 
 two adult male employes the janitor and the 
 principal and even this number is reduced in 
 some cases. If a 2y2-inch hose is installed 
 (which is the customary size) there is little 
 likelihood of either of these two men being 
 present exactly at the very time and place to 
 operate the hose when needed. Under ordinary 
 pressure it is absolutely impossible for a woman 
 to direct the stream from a hose of this size, 
 in fact (under high pressure) it often requires 
 two or more firemen who are experts and thoroly 
 
 familiar with the handling of hose to properly 
 control and direct it. 
 
 On the other hand, if the small size hose is 
 installed (usually II/2 inches in diameter) it is 
 hardly large enough to be effective in case a fire 
 of any magnitude develops, as this hose is only 
 slight-y larger than a common garden hose. 
 Moreover, a l^^-inch thread will not fit the fire 
 department's standard hose, so that, in case of 
 fire on the second or third floor, the firemen 
 must, at a great loss in time, run their hose 
 up from the ground level to get any quantity 
 of water at the point required. 
 
 Everyone who has made a study of the origin 
 of fires and the damage resulting from the 
 same has arrived at the conclusion that the 
 time to fight a fire is in its incipient stages 
 not after a conflagration has developed. Pre- 
 vention is a thousand times better than cure! 
 Operated under the above disadvantages, how, 
 then, can we be assured that the installation of 
 fire hose will protect our building and the 
 pupils ? 
 
 This naturally leads to the question. If not 
 fire hose what? The answer to this is some- 
 thing which, up to the present time, has been a 
 considerable innovation in a school namely, 
 the automatic sprinkler system. 
 
 A system of this sort is being commonly in- 
 stalled in every modern building, be it for 
 department store, office or manufacturing pur- 
 poses. But, strange to say, the sprinkler system 
 has seldom been employed in schools. Appar- 
 ently children are not considered so valuable as 
 merchandise, for the only objection that can be 
 urged against the sprinkler system is its cost. 
 Yet in many purely commercial cases the inter- 
 est on the initial investment has been more than 
 offset by the saving in insurance premiums, 
 making it (even under the worst possible condi- 
 tions) not as expensive as it would at first 
 seem. 
 
 Briefly the automatic sprinkler system is 
 nothing but a series of cold water pipes under 
 pressure with heads located in the proportion of 
 one to about 100 sq. ft. of floor area. The heads 
 are plugged with a fusible metal which melts as 
 
 68 
 
FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 69 
 
 scon as the temperature rises to an abnormal 
 degree. This temperature varies in different 
 types of heads from 300 to 600 degrees Fahren- 
 heit. To obtain the rough cost of installing a 
 system in a school building the total area in 
 square feet of all the floors should be added to- 
 gether and divided by 100 to give the a.pproxi- 
 mate number of outlets required. The system 
 will cost somewhere between six and ten dollars 
 a head, the average being about eight dollars. 
 A view of a sprinkler system for a typical class- 
 re cm CR and wardrobe W is shown in Fig. 105, 
 
 L 
 
 w 
 
 \\ 
 
 clf 
 
 HOt l O 
 
 CR 
 
 -O Oi O II 
 
 Ji? 
 
 O* *(3^ 
 
 oi en I 
 
 <^ 
 
 'If 3 
 
 O O lOl lOt t 
 
 ^ 
 
 C 
 
 Fig. 105. 
 
 where a main M in the corridor C supplies the 
 sprinkler heads H thru the branches B. 
 
 A sprinkler system properly installed consti- 
 tutes a perpetual safeguard against fires, day 
 or night, watchman or no watchman. In case 
 a fire starts, all that is necessary is to wait for 
 the nearest head to open up. Within five min- 
 utes after the opening of the head, either the 
 fire is out or it has burned enough to open an 
 increased number of heads by a continuation of 
 the heat. This will result in such an increase 
 in the amount of water as to make the further 
 progress of the fire impossible. Valves located 
 so as to control each floor, or portion of a floor, 
 are then shut off and the flow is stopped. The 
 
 insertion of a new head and the re-opening of 
 the valves brings the protection again into serv- 
 ice with its original efficiency. 
 
 For school boards who feel that a sprinkler 
 system is entirely too much of an innovation 
 to thrust upon their local communities, I would 
 recommend the use of the standard standpipe 
 system with the pipes arranged so that the 
 farthest portion of the building is not more 
 than 75 ft. distant from the nearest hose outlet. 
 Allowing 50 ft. of hose and 25 ft. length of 
 stream, this will bring the extreme parts of the 
 
 '/-'.'Xv^v*; 
 
 EtS 
 
 Fig. 106. 
 
 building within reach. The standpipes will 
 probably figure out about 100 ft. apart, owing 
 to the distance lost in going around corners. 
 In an auditorium it is customary to place a 
 standpipe somewhere near the rear so that a 
 hose can be run in thru the entrance and serve 
 the back part of the auditorium while another 
 stt;ndpipe near the front, or in the rooms baclv 
 of the stage, takes care of the stage and front 
 portion. 
 
 The Siamese outlets are generally made two 
 in number, so as to make connection to these 
 outlets possible even should one be made in- 
 accessible by a fire located in the basement 
 close to the outlet. 
 
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 107. 
 
 Fig. 106 shows a typical standpipe installa- 
 tion with the fire hose located in the corridors C 
 just outside of the classrooms CR. This sys- 
 tem is fed by the fire pump shown or by a city 
 water connection until the arrival of the regular 
 fire apparatus. The fire engines may couple 
 their hose to the Siamese connection S and feed 
 into the standpipe system thru the check valve 
 CK, which allows water to pass inward but not 
 outward. The standpipes, as many in number 
 as required, are connected to the water main in 
 the basement corridor. 
 
 It is customary in some schools to put the 
 hose valve and hose rack in a recessed wall case 
 
 Fig. 108. 
 
 with a bronze frame and plate glass cover as 
 shown in Fig. 107. This, however, is not to be 
 considered as good practice as the plain expos- 
 ure of the ho!^c and valve, preferably in a cor- 
 ridor near tiie top of the main stairways. By 
 the latter plan, everyone who is a regular occu- 
 pimt of the building must become aware of the 
 position of the hose without any particular in- 
 struction. While it might be supposed that 
 hose exposed in this manner would be subject 
 to tampering by the pupils, strange to say this 
 does not seem to be the case. 
 
 The fact should not be lost sight of that the 
 standpipe from its very character is intended for 
 the use of the fire department. This is indi- 
 cated, first, by the Siamese connection intended 
 for coupling on fire engines to supply water; 
 second, by the common use of 2V2-inch hose 
 with thread to match the fire department's 
 
FIRE PROTECTION 
 
 71 
 
 standard; third, by the usual lack of anyone in 
 the building capable of controlling and operat- 
 ing such a hose in case of need, and last, by 
 the fact that at the beginning of a fire a hose 
 is not required, oftentimes doing more damage 
 than good. 
 
 In either a sprinkler or a standpipe system it 
 is desirable to provide some source of supply in 
 addition to the general water system. The more 
 sources, the less the chance of failure. A grav- 
 ity tank (that is to say a roof tank or a tanlt 
 on an elevated tower from which the water will 
 flow by gravity into the fire system) is regarded 
 as one of the surest sources of supply, because 
 it does not depend upon any mechanical device 
 to produce the flow of water, and the failure of 
 power does not affect it. Still a supply of this 
 sort is not by any means infallible. The tanlc 
 niay freeze; the valve in the supply from the 
 tank may be closed accidentally; something 
 may get into the tank and stop the outlet; or 
 thc' tank may become dry thru accident or over- 
 sight. 
 
 When a gravity tank is available it is gener- 
 ally considered sufficient to cross-connect the 
 standpipe supply to the water supply for the 
 building, assuming that the pressure on the 
 water supply is sufficient to operate the hose. 
 If a gravity tank is not available it is custom- 
 ary to furnish two other sources of supply. One 
 of the most satisfactory is the pneumatic sys- 
 tem simiilar to that described for a pneum'atic 
 
 Fig. 111. 
 
 Fig. no. 
 
 v/ater supply with a tank large enough to dis- 
 diarge about 3,000 gallons of water before fail- 
 ure. A second good source is a pump driven by 
 an electric motor, steam or gas engine, which 
 v.dll keep up a continuous supply after the ex- 
 haustion of the tank. 
 
 It is well to provide this pump with a suction 
 reservoir so that, in case the water supply to the 
 building fails, the fight against the fire can 
 still be carried on with the aid of the fire pump 
 and the standpipe. A steam driven fire pump 
 will not be satisfactory in a school where high 
 pressure steam is not available at all times 
 botli day and night. A gas engine cannot be 
 regarded as equal to an electric motor in relia- 
 bility. On the other hand, an electric metor is 
 usually dependent on current from an outside 
 wiring system which can never be guaranteed 
 to supply current without danger of failure at 
 a crucial time. It is only by a combination of 
 two or more sources of supply that the chance 
 of not having water when the time of need 
 ccmes is made so small that it can be safely 
 neglected. 
 
 In general, fire pumps are electrically driven, 
 especially in the newer installations. An ap- 
 proved Underwriters' pump of the motor-driven 
 centrifugal type is shown in Fig. 108, and a 
 rotary pump used for a similar purpose is shown 
 in Fig. 109. It will be noted that both of these 
 are direct connected, i.e., the shaft of the motor 
 is coupled directly to the shaft of the pump 
 without the use of gears, belts or other inter- 
 vening devices. 
 
 For the use of the occupants of the building 
 in the early stages of a fire, fire extinguishers 
 aro by all means the most satisfactory. These 
 may be the regular chemical extinguishers, 
 shov5Ti in elevation and cross-section in Fig. 110, 
 or they may be small hand extinguishers. Either 
 could be used effectively by a woman or even 
 by a twelve year old child. These extinguishers 
 are usually installed on a basis of one to every 
 1.000 sq. ft. of floor area, which means prac- 
 tically one to a classroom. This is on the basis 
 of the Underwriters' requirements, but it would 
 seem entirely practicable considering the divi- 
 sion of schools into classrooms to place one 
 
72 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 extingnisher in the corridor between every two 
 classrooms. 
 
 The commonly termed "chemical extinguish- 
 ec," shown in Fig. 110, consists of a copper shell 
 partially filled with a mixture of bicarbonate 
 of soda and water. The top is formed by a 
 screw plug, which is turned by the wheel to 
 which it is attached. On the bottom of the 
 plug is a basket in which is set a glass bottle of 
 sulphuric acid. Tipping the extinguisher causes 
 the acid to flow slowly out thru the neck of 
 the bottle and to mix with the soda and water, 
 forming a gas. The resulting pressure drives 
 the contents of the extinguisher out thru the 
 flexible rubber tube on the side of the apparatus. 
 
 To operate the extinguisher it must be in- 
 verted and held in this position while the 
 stream from the tube is directed on the fire. 
 These extinguishers cost about seven dollars 
 apiece and are, perhaps, the most common form 
 of hand extinguishers. 
 
 Another very good type of chemical extin- 
 guisher is shown in Fig. 111. This extinguisher 
 
 is only 3 inches in diameter and about 14 inches 
 long and the total weight is only 6 pounds. It 
 is primarily a hand pump filled with a special 
 chemical which is of a peculiar nature. Some- 
 what like quicksilver, it can be squirted onto 
 the fire by manipulation of the pump handle, 
 but it does not wet, stain or injure anything it 
 strikes. It is without doubt the least damaging 
 of all chemical extinguishers. 
 
 Modem development has placed one danger 
 in the way of extinguishing fires the electric 
 current. Any hose or other means used to 
 direct a stream of water in an electric fire is 
 liable to have the current follow up the stream 
 and shock the operator. This danger is present 
 with all means of putting out fire excepting 
 chemical in powder form, sand in pails, or the 
 special extinguisher shown in Fig. 111. The 
 chemical used there is a non-conductor and 
 vaporizes into a gas as soon as it strikes a fire. 
 These smaller extinguishers, while costing ahout 
 the same as the larger ones, have a more ex- 
 tended use, not only for electric fires but for 
 gasoline, oil, etc. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 
 Drinking Water 
 
 One of the peculiarities of unequal develop- 
 ment in modem school sanitation is the progress 
 made in some directions and the lack of progress 
 painfully apparent in others. It would seem to 
 one that cool drinking water which has been 
 properly filtered and sterilized would indeed be 
 one of the first requisites of a truly modern 
 school. Still building after building is con- 
 structed without carrying the matter beyond the 
 point of providing some very nice drinking 
 fountains of the latest design, carefully con- 
 nected up to the same cold water used to supply 
 the lavatories and to flush the water closets. 
 Doubtless some of this seeming inconsistency 
 is due to the fact that schools' are in general 
 use during the cooler months only. Still the 
 sessions often extend past the first of July and 
 open early in Sei3tember. 
 
 In most communities drinking water from a 
 street main or driven well will be cool to a cer- 
 tain extent. In homes and other small build- 
 ings, it will be satisfactory. In larger buildings, 
 however, where the supply must be carried in 
 pipes a distance, 'thru the basement and up 
 risers to the second and third stories, the water 
 becomes thoroly warmed in transit. It has prac- 
 tically the temperature of the building and when 
 it reaches the fountain outlets, has a disagree- 
 ably insipid, flat taste. 
 
 The newer office buiMings, department stores 
 and all new post office buildings of any size rec- 
 
 ognize the necessity of cooled drinking water 
 and are providing it. This provision assumes 
 a simple character in the post office buildings 
 (where greater economies in equipment are prac- 
 ticed than the average taxpayer is aware of) 
 and grows more complex as the number of out- 
 lets, ice boxes and ice making requirements 
 multiply. 
 
 The simplest form of water cooling consists 
 of the common water cooler tank in which ice is 
 melted in the tank to produce the desired lower 
 temperature. This is not suitable for school 
 use because the purity of the water becomes 
 dependent on the purity of the ice. It makes 
 necessary the objectionable practice of hauling 
 ice constantly thru the building to supply each 
 and every tank. 
 
 As an improvement over this there is the tank 
 which forms merely a receptacle for cracked ice 
 and its melted water, together with a pipe coil 
 thru which the drinking water passes on its way 
 to the faucet. The receiving end of this coil is 
 connected to the cold water supply line and the 
 discharge end is brought thru the side of the 
 tank and connected to the faucet. As the water 
 passing thru the pipe coil is never in direct 
 contact with the ice, and is cooled only by the 
 transfer of heat from the drinking water to the 
 water from the melted ice during its passage 
 thru the coil, the temperature of the water re- 
 ceived is liable to be much more modified than 
 
 Y* i>' 
 
74 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 ^^ A 
 
 
 Fig. 113. 
 
 in the cose where ice is melted directly in the 
 w ater. 
 
 In such a tank, dirty or impure ice may be 
 used with impunity as there is no connection 
 between the water in the coil and the water from 
 the ice in the tank. The modified temperature 
 is. Off course, an advantage as water has been 
 found to be most desirable for drinking pur- 
 pcses when about 50 F. This scheme, how- 
 ever, is not des'iraWe for schools as there is still 
 the necessity of carting ice thru the building, 
 while the coil is so small that it does not con- 
 tain any reserve supply of cold water for a rush 
 demand such as is likely to occur at a recess or 
 lunch period. 
 
 If, however, all the drinking fountains are 
 placed in the same relative position on each 
 floor a small water pipe carried directly down to 
 thf; basement from each group of fountains can 
 be connected to a large coil of sufficient storage 
 capacity for overload periods to properly meet 
 the requirements. 
 
 A tank suitable for this type of installation 
 is shown in Fig. 112 where the ice I floats in 
 the melted ice water which is kept at a constant 
 water line WL by the overflow O. The water to 
 be cooled eniters the coil C thru the upper pipe 
 S and leaves thru the lower one as indicate^d by 
 the arrows. The coil is contained in a tank 
 built of two layers of | in. wood W, with paper 
 P between, and has an interior lining L of gal- 
 vanized iron or copper. It is set in a drip pan 
 DP, which has a drain D, and the water to and 
 from the tank is controlled by the two valves V. 
 Of course the size of the pipe and the number 
 
 of loops installed determine the s-torage capacity 
 of cold water. After leaving this tank the 
 water pipe is run directly up to the drinking 
 water fountains. 
 
 This is also the scheme used in the United 
 States Post OfiSce Buildings except that the box 
 in government buildings is slightly more elab- 
 orate in construction. The government boxes 
 are built as shown in the detail. Fig. 113, in 
 which A is by 2 in. beaded and matched lumber 
 and B is finely packed granulated cork. C is a 
 No. 26 gauge galvanized iron lining which cov- 
 ers boith the interior of the itank E and the bot- 
 tom of the cover D, with soldered joints. The 
 cover is hung with iron hinges and is provided 
 with a lifting handle. The box is set on a 
 yellow pine frame which lifts it 6 in. above the 
 floor. It contains about 50 ft. of | in. block 
 tin pipe which is made continuous and without 
 fittings inside the tank. 
 
 To operate all drinking water from a central 
 point some form of refrigeration and water cir- 
 culation is required. For small insitallations in 
 which simplicity and fool proof mechanism are 
 desired, there is a patented machine known as 
 the Audiffren-Singrun, which uses sulphur diox- 
 ide as its refrigeration agent. This consists of 
 a shaft upon which are mounted two sealed 
 chambers in which the refrigeration agent is 
 compressed and expanded. By operating the 
 expansion chamber in the water to be cooled the 
 desired refrigerating effect is obtained, and 
 there is no possibility of leakage of ammonia 
 fumes or other troubles from which larger plants 
 sometimes suffer. The machine is sealed in the 
 factory and is operated by an electric motor and 
 a supply of cooling water. It should be under- 
 stood that the heat absorbed by the cooling 
 water is approximately the amount of cooling 
 effect obtained in the drinking water and that 
 the whole process of refrigeration consists sim- 
 ply of the transfer of the heat from the drink- 
 ing water to the cooling water (which often gets 
 quite hot) thru the medium of the refrigeration 
 agent used. All power which is consumed is 
 consumed by this process of heat transfer. 
 
 Probably three-quarters of the refrigeration 
 systems installed are of the ammonia type, that 
 is to say, ammonia is used as the refrigerating 
 medium. This is the case in the West Phila- 
 delphia High School in which a modem refrig- 
 eration plant is installed. In tjhis school drink- 
 ing fountains are placed in the corridors, in the 
 
DRINKING WATER 
 
 75 
 
 basement, near the pupdls' lunchrooms, in the 
 vicinity of the shower bathroom and in the cor- 
 ridors of all floors of both wings. The cooling 
 plant is placed in the basement and consists of 
 an ammonia compressor driven by a 25 H. P. 
 motor, a cooling tank 3 ft. by 6 ft. by 12 ft. 
 long, an ammonia condenser, an ammonia re- 
 ceiver, an oil separator, and a pump to circu- 
 late the water to the fountaiins and back again. 
 A plan of this equipment is shown in Fig. 114, 
 which is self-explanatory. 
 
 The cooling tank is of ^ in. steel set on a 
 concrete foundation with two layers of 2 in. 
 oork ibeneath. The tank itself is insulated on 
 the sides by cork about 10 in. thick, sheathed 
 with two thicknesses of 1 in. pine and four-ply 
 tar paper. The coil in the tank in this case 
 contains ammonia, the expansion of which pro- 
 duces an intense cold, thus cooling the water in 
 the tank. The coil is of 2 in. extra heavy am- 
 monia pipe and has a capacity of cooling 1,600 
 gallons of water from 70 degrees to 40 degrees 
 in five hours. 
 
 The process in this plant consists of com- 
 pressing the ammonia gas to a high pressure in 
 the ammonia compressor, the compressor dis- 
 charging into the pipe marked "Ammonia Dis- 
 charge" on the plan. The ammonia gas which 
 is la* a high temperature owing to its compres- 
 sion, is then passed thru the oil interceptor from 
 which it is carried down to the condenser. The 
 condenser consists of double pipes, the inside 
 pipes being 1^ in. and the outside pipe 2 in. 
 in diameter. One pipe contains the ammonia 
 and the other pipe cold water obtained from the 
 city mains. The cooling of the gas passing thru 
 this condenser results in its liquefaction. After 
 liquefying, the gas is collected in the receiver. 
 The liquid gas is now of ordinary temperature 
 but lat a very high pressure. From the receiver 
 it passes thru the line marked "Ammonia to 
 Tank Coils" to tilie "Expansion Valve." This 
 valve allows the liquid to pass from the high 
 pressure of the receiver into the low pressure 
 of the cooling coil. This results in the am- 
 monia vaporizing and absorbing a large amount 
 
 Fig. 114 
 
76 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 P^ig. 116. 
 
 of heat, this heat being taken from the water in 
 the cooling tank. The gas in the coil is then 
 
 drawn thru the ammonia suction pipe back into 
 the compressor and recompressed ready for a 
 second round of the cycle. 
 
 This is the ammonia system from which the 
 drinking water circulation is entirely separate, 
 the only connection between the two being in 
 the cooling tank where the expansion coil is im- 
 mersed in the drinking water. The warm water 
 coming back from the building is carried thru 
 a hack pressure valve BPV, which prevents the 
 water from running out of the system into the 
 cooling tank. After passing thru the back pres- 
 sure valve it enters the cooling tank where the 
 water level is maintained by an automatic de- 
 vice which sup]>lies make-up water to replace 
 tl>at drawn off in the building. In the cooling 
 tank the water is brought into contact with the 
 cooling coil and chilled to the desired tempera- 
 ture. The coldest water falls to the bottom of 
 the tank from which it is drawn off thru the 
 suction pipe to the circulation pump and dis- 
 charged into the line supplying the building. 
 
 The drinking water in a system of this kind 
 and, in fact, in the previous system where sul- 
 phur dioxide is used, must be circulated by a 
 circulation pump so as to flow as continuously 
 
 Em 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 =^=^ 
 
 3^Z'Z-7 
 
 A 
 
 w 
 
 % 
 
 ;g^/^Z7 
 
 r 
 
 /^rz^Z.7 
 
 1 
 
 nzrz-zrzuz?' 
 
 TV! 
 
 JBJLSZr. 7 
 
 5 
 
 y- 
 
 r 
 
 Fig. 115. 
 
DRINKING WATER 
 
 77 
 
 as possiWe to the various outlets. The outlets 
 must be placed as near the circulating main as 
 possible 'to avoid dead water in the pipe between 
 the faucet or bubbler and the circulating main, 
 and to avoid wastage in drawing this dead water 
 off. 
 
 In Fig. 115 we have a typical system of this 
 kind installed in a three story school supplying 
 eight fountains F and circulating thru the 
 piping in the directions indicated by the arrows. 
 The return pipe coming back from the system 
 is united with the cold water make-up C from 
 which the water enters the pump P and is then 
 discharged thru the cooling tank T and then 
 thru the pipe circuit as shown. E.V is a relief 
 valve to allow for expansion in case the system 
 should be stopped and the water allowed- to 
 warm up. In the warming process there would 
 be a certain amount of expansion that would 
 exert great pressure if not properly relieved. 
 
 The fountains shown in Fig. 115 are what is 
 known as the pedestal type and may be located 
 upon the floor at any convenient point. An- 
 other very popular type of fountain for school 
 work is shown in Fig. 116. This fountain is 
 operated by what is known as the pedal control 
 consisting of a valve in the floor box which is 
 operated by stepping on a ball projecting about 
 J inch above the box. It is obvious that this 
 type of fountain can be used only on a vertical 
 
 \?JS V,' *-'-Q- 
 
 <' 
 
 JO *? a . 
 
 Fig. 117, 
 
 wall. Both the pedestal and the wall type may 
 be operated from the floor or by means of a 
 spring valve handle in the side. In cases where 
 one fountain is not sufficient to avoid undue ex- 
 pense the receptor type is generally used. A 
 typical fountain of this type is shown in Fig. 
 117. It consists simply of a supply pipe run- 
 ning to bubblers which are opened by jwessing 
 down the hand wheel around the bubbler. The 
 water from these outlets is caught in the re- 
 ceptor which has a trap to the wall and resem- 
 bles a common sink in every respect except the 
 faucets. 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 
 Sewage Disposal 
 
 The subject of sewage disposal for schools 
 located in unsewered districts is one which often 
 causes consideraible anxiety to school boards. 
 Generally the trouble is accompanied by a larger 
 or smaller amount of expense which may, or 
 may not, be necessary. A great deal of the 
 trouble and considerable expense can be spared 
 by selecting a location where the slope of the 
 ?ite and character of soil are suitable for a small 
 disposal plant. In fact, it can be proven that in 
 certain cases the ground may be so unsuited for 
 sewage disposal as to make the purchase of a 
 more expensive site (which is better suited to 
 the end desired) an economical procedure in the 
 end. 
 
 In general, sewage disposal for a school should 
 not include the water from the roof as this pro- 
 duces an excessive amount of liquid to take care 
 of in a very short time and at infrequent per- 
 iods, so that the plant must be designed entirely 
 too large for at least nine-tenths of the time. 
 This in itself will operate so strongly against 
 the requirements of the septic tank (explained 
 litter) as to make success almost impossible. It 
 will in addition require a much larger initial 
 expenditure for needless capacity. The roof 
 water should be carried to nearby dry wells, 
 spilled into a creek or gutter, or (if desired) 
 it can be collected in a cistern and pumped into 
 a tank from which it may be drawn to flush 
 Avater closets. Assuming, therefore, that the 
 roof drainage may be neglected in this particu- 
 lar discussion, the disposal system must take 
 care of all drainage for the building which will 
 average about 100 gallons per day per person in 
 ordinary structures occupied 24 hours per day. 
 A school, however, is not occupied for this 
 length of time; no laundry work is done there 
 and little water is used for culinary purposes. 
 In consideration of these facts the amount of 
 sewage per piqjiil drops from 100 gallons to 
 about one-third, to approximately 30 gallons per 
 pupil per day. 
 
 There are several methods of sewage disposal 
 which can be used; the intermittent sand filter 
 system, the contact system, the percolating filter 
 system and the field absorption system. It is 
 
 sufficient for the purposes of this discussion to 
 say that most disposal systems (excepting that 
 of field absorption) employ open tanks or filters 
 and that such installations are not desira:ble for 
 school work owing to the odors, to the danger 
 of pupils falling in, etc. How a disposal system 
 can take raw sewage and without the addition 
 01 any chemicals or other ingredients and with- 
 out any mechanical manipulation whatsoever 
 can produce a resultant, free from germs and 
 comparatively harmless is indeed wonderful. 
 That this discharge can be purified to a point 
 exceeding that of drinking water is little short 
 of marvelous ! Such are the facts, however, and 
 the results are obtained simply by the intelli- 
 gent use of the natural laws and forces which 
 we have at hand. 
 
 Sewage is composed almost entirely of water. 
 This water carries a few other substances such 
 as waste matter, soap suds, grease and other in- 
 gredients, and some insoluble minerals which 
 may get into the system. It is a well known 
 fact that animal and vegetable matter when 
 thrown upon the ground will putrefy, or rot, 
 and gradually disappear. In fact, the original 
 sewage disposal system consisted of this natural 
 process to dispose of the slops and filth. Where 
 too many slops were thrown in the same spot 
 the ground became water soaked and turned 
 sour. This process, scientists tell us, is entirely 
 due to the activity of bacteria. These bacteria 
 divide into two classes, one of which breaks 
 down or decomposes the material and the second 
 of which purifies or makes harmless the result- 
 ant. Let us see how this can be applied to the 
 modem septic tank. 
 
 The modern septic tank is generally built 
 somewhat in the shape shown in Fig. 118, the 
 sewage entering a chamber A thru the inlet I, 
 passing under a partition E, into the septic 
 chamber B. The sewage decomposes as it moves 
 slowly thru the chamber towards the division 
 wall F. When the sewage enters the tank the 
 heavier portions and those which are insoluble 
 settle to the bottom forming the sludge indi- 
 cated by X. After the tank has been in service 
 for some time a spongy, slimy mat is formed in 
 
 78 
 
SEWAGE DISPOSAL 
 
 79 
 
 ?^\\V\^/^/-<? yNV^^xy/A's\VV>V/X / <S^SV 
 
 ijS::^^F>As\'^/J^^ 
 
 Fig. lis. 
 
 A^ 
 
 c 
 
 ^^^^ 
 
 
 G 
 
 r 
 
 (0)C=l@ 
 
 o 
 
 OCCI 
 
 Of 
 
 /r-. 
 
 4? 
 
 Fig. 119. 
 
80 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 chamber B. This mat floats on the surface of 
 the water and serves to colonize and multiply 
 the bacteria in the tank. Access to the tank is 
 obtained thru the manholes MH, which are set 
 at the finished grade FG. After it is completed 
 the tank is invisible, being entirely buried 
 under-ground. Only the three manholes and the 
 vent V extend up to the surface of the ground 
 and are visible. 
 
 who think a septic tank is a sort of a sewage 
 panacea. The remaining work consists of ren- 
 dering this discharge pure and of absorbing it 
 or of taking care of it in some other inoffensive 
 manner. 
 
 Before we leave the subject of septic tanks 
 let us glance at Fig 119 which is another type 
 of tank to serve the same purpose. This tank 
 is built with a center division and has two in- 
 
 By the time the sewage reaches the dam G it 
 has become a thoroly dissolved solution which 
 pours over the dam into the chamber C known 
 as the discharge or "dosing" chamber. In this 
 chamber the outlet from the tank is located. 
 This outlet is governed by the syphon S which 
 discharges thru the drain D intermittently for 
 purposes later explained. Now the action in the 
 septic tank, it must be thoroly understood, is 
 only half of the complete purifying operation. 
 The discharge from the tank is not harmless 
 or odorless, contrary to the ideas of many people 
 
 lets, A and B, and two outlets, K and L, gov- 
 erned by the syphons, I and J. The sewage 
 entering at A passes into chamber C which is 
 known as the "settling" chamber. All the heavy 
 matter sinks to the bottom in this chamber and 
 the water overflows the dam X into chamber E 
 (known as the "septic" chamber) where the 
 septic action takes place, altho some decompos- 
 ing work goes on in chamber C as well. After 
 passing thru chamber E, the middle stratum of 
 the water passes up thru the pipe in the wall Y 
 and thru the wall into the dosing chamber G. 
 
SEWAGE DISPOSAL 
 
 81 
 
 Similar action is followed on the other side of 
 the tank where the sewage coming in at B, 
 passes thru D, F and H and then out of tlie 
 dosing chamber by means of L. It will be noted 
 in the sectional view that this tank is shown as 
 set flush with the grade M so that the whole top 
 of the tank is exposed. Either this or the method 
 used for the first tank is permissible. 
 
 For the purposes of this article a tank for 
 500 pupils has been shown. This is because few 
 elementary schools exceed this number of pupils, 
 particularly in sections where no sewers exist. 
 Therefore, it is the disposal equipment shown 
 for the maximum condition likely to be encoun- 
 tered. 
 
 The most important points of septic tank de- 
 sign relate to the cultivation of the bacteria 
 therein. It is a remarkable fact that a new 
 
 that the septic tank gives less and less satisfac- 
 tory results as the sewage discharge into it be- 
 comes more and more intermittent and irreg- 
 ular. 
 
 The sewage in passing thru the tank becomes 
 too far fermented if it remains more than 24 
 hours and on the other hand is not properly 
 acted upon if it remains less than this period. 
 This is one of the reasons why a septic tank 
 applied to schools will not give as satisfactory 
 service as one applied to an institution such as 
 a hospital or alms house where the building is 
 occupied both day and night and seven days a 
 week. In fact, septic tanks have been found to 
 be quite impracticahle for churches where they 
 are used only one day a week. Therefore, for 
 500 pupils at say 30 gallons each per day, the 
 total daily sewage will be 15,000 gallons. This 
 
 c 
 
 "7 
 
 
 y/A^^^/y^\<^y'//\ \}}/^\\'^))///^\\\^{ 
 
 '^K\\\\'^/M\\\[^V, 
 
 Fig. 122. 
 
 septic tank gives but little satisfaction for a 
 period of approximately six weeks which is the 
 time required to develop the bacteria to their 
 most active condition. The condition of inac- 
 tivity also follows whenever a tank is cleaned, 
 unless a portion of the "mat" is retained and 
 "planted" in the new tank to accelerate fermen- 
 tation. 
 
 In passing thru, the water in the tank should 
 be agitated as little as possible so as not to 
 hinder the formation of the mat, maintaining 
 the same intact after it has formed and also in 
 Older not to disturb the sludge or non-decom- 
 posing material which settles to the bottom. As 
 the bacteriological action which goes on is a 
 constant one continuing unceasingly in the 
 darkness both night and day, it has been found 
 that the best results are obtained where the 
 discharge of sewage into the tank is constant or 
 almost constant during the whole 24 hours and 
 
 6 
 
 reduced to cubic feet (15,000 divided by 7^) 
 gives 2,000 cu. ft. This is the required capacity 
 of the tank exclusive of the dosing chamber. In 
 the second tank shown the combined capacities 
 of both sides must be considered. 
 
 The discharge from a septic tank for schools 
 should be taken care of if possible by what is 
 known as a disposal field or rather two disposal 
 fields. Two fields are desirable since it is neces- 
 sary to turn the sewage into one field one day 
 and into the other field the next day, giving each 
 field a breathing space of 24 hours in which to 
 dry out. A typical case of this kind is illus- 
 trated in Fig. 120 in which the school building 
 SB is supposed to house 500 pupils. The 8 in. 
 sewer leaves the building and flows down to the 
 septic tank SB (the detail of which has already 
 been shown in Fig. A). After leaving the septic 
 tank the sewage goes to the three-way valve V 
 
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 s 
 
 wa 
 
 ^ 
 
 which throws it into one 
 of the two branches lead- 
 ing to disposal field "DF 
 No. 1" or to disposal field 
 "DF No. 2." 
 
 It is essential in order 
 to Ket a flow from the 
 building to the tank and 
 then to the field that the 
 field be located at a lower 
 level than the point at 
 which the sewer leaves the 
 school basement. If this 
 is not the case pumping 
 must be resorted to which 
 is very undesirable as well 
 as costly. The lines on 
 Fig. 120 marked 10, 9, 8, 
 7, etc., are grade lines, 
 each line indicating the 
 fall of a foot in the ground 
 level going from the build- 
 ing to tJie field. 
 
 The disposal fields them- 
 selves consist of 3 in. tile 
 ])ipe T, as shown in Fig. 
 121. The bottom of these 
 ti'es is about 10 in. below 
 the surface of the ground, 
 G. They are laid with 
 open joints covered by a 
 cap C and set in a trough 
 B, which allows a small 
 amount of leakage at each 
 joint. Where the earth F 
 is not of a porous or ah- 
 sorbent nature these tiles 
 are buried in trenches 
 which are filled in with 
 sand and gravel F so as to 
 facilitate the absorption of 
 the discharge from the 
 septic tank. Another 
 method of laying tile for 
 these fields is shown in 
 Fig. 122, where the fin- 
 ished grade is indicated by 
 G, the original earth by E, 
 a special absorbent filling 
 by F, the main distribu- 
 tion line M supplying the 
 branches B which are in- 
 
 stalled upon bricks S so as to keep them properly 
 lined up. 
 
 To prevent these fields from becoming soggy 
 and sour by constant applications they are used 
 alternately, but even this is not sufiicient. If 
 the septic tank discharged a constant flow the 
 ground in the field nearest the point of entrance 
 of the pipe line would be over saturated by the 
 constant supply during every other day and the 
 remote portions of the field would never be 
 reached. To overcome this objection the dosing 
 chamber is installed in the tank iriito which the 
 sewage passes until the chamber has been filled 
 to a predetermined level. ^Vllen this point is 
 reached the syphon is filled and once the flow 
 is started it continues until the chamber is 
 emptied to its low level. This results in supply- 
 ing enough liquid to penetrate all portions of 
 the field before it can leak out thru the joints, 
 thus, as it is technically termed, "dosing" the 
 field thoroly. 
 
 After the discharge from the tank enters the 
 soil it is set upon by the second class of bacteria 
 which require air in order to properly do their 
 work. These bacteria are thickest at the sur- 
 face of the ground and gradually disappear 
 imtil at the depth of five or six feet they are 
 practically extinct. These bacteria soon render 
 the tank discharge practically harmless so that 
 it amounts to little more than introducing an 
 equal amount of water in ithe soil. This water 
 is rapidly absorbed and vaporized in the field so 
 that no drains beyond this point are necessary. 
 
 Another method whereby more superior puri- 
 fication results can be obtained is known as the 
 intermittent filter disposal system, an idea of 
 which can be obtained from Fig. 123. Here the 
 drainage line DL enters the septic tank S as 
 before. After passing thru the tank the sewage 
 is discharged by a syphon to the distributing 
 pipe DP which is laid on top of a filter bed F. 
 This bed is made of broken material allowing 
 more or less free circulation of air down into 
 the mass. After dripping thru this material 
 which is confined in a concrete basin the liquid 
 finds its way iruto the underdrain UD which dis- 
 charges it into the manhole MH. From this au 
 outlet is taken into a nearby stream or lake or 
 into a similar secondary filter and even in some 
 cases (where the highest degree of purification 
 is desired) thru a third filter. In this figure, 
 G indicates the finished grade, I a slope down to 
 
SEWAGE DISPOSAL 
 
 83 
 
 the top of the filter bed, and E the original 
 earth. Filter beds of this type must be open and 
 while giving a greater capacity of absorption 
 for the same ground area they are not as desir- 
 able for schools as the disposal fieM. Of course 
 
 it is desirable with schools to have everything 
 covered from inquisitive pupils so far as pos- 
 sible, and for this reason the disposal field is 
 the most desirable method of taking care of the 
 septic tank discharge. 
 
 A SCHOOL LABORATORY. 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 The School Power Plant 
 
 Few school boards realize the economy of a be produced for tins special purpose and, instead 
 
 school power plant and fewer still adopt the 
 idea even after being convinced. The reasons 
 for this will appear later, but regardless of the 
 variety of objections often urged against such 
 installations, their desirability is beyond ques- 
 tion in many cases. 
 
 It must be understood at the start that a 
 power plant consists of boilers, engines, genera- 
 tors, feed water heaters and the other apparatus 
 necessary to produce electric current sufficient 
 for the needs of the school. With such current 
 available, it should be used for any and all pur- 
 poses wherever necessary in order to secure the 
 maximum advantages at minimum cost. 
 
 Electric current for motors, lights, experi- 
 ments, etc., is daily becoming a greater and 
 greater necessity in the modern school building. 
 As an example of this it may be said that one 
 of the new Pittsburgh High Schools uses for 
 ventilation alone some 23 fans, several of which 
 require motors from 30 to 50 horsepower each. 
 Having once installed a power plant, current in 
 any reasonable amount can be generated for 
 school use at little or no additional expense. 
 
 This is explained in the following manner: 
 Steam must be generated to heat the building in 
 any event and to produce this required amount 
 of steam a given amount of coal must be con- 
 sumed. Now if this steam is raised to 60 lbs. 
 Of 100 lbs. pressure (instead of only the 5 
 pounds usually carried on low pressure heating 
 systems) there is a tremendous amount of energy 
 available which can be turned into electric power 
 by passing the steam thru an engine connected 
 to a generator with a loss of only a very small 
 portion of the heating capacity of the steam. 
 After passing thru the engine about 95 per cent 
 of the original heating value of the steam is 
 available in the exhaust steam, at 5 pounds 
 pressure, for heating the building. 
 
 The steam required for heating is usually so 
 far in excess of the amount required for power 
 that little if any additional steam is ever needed 
 for power purposes, except on warm days in the 
 spring and fall when no heat is required. At 
 these times the steam required for power must 
 
 of being turned into the heating system is 
 thrown out thru the free exhaust pipe. Were 
 it not for this waste in warm weather, power 
 cculd be produced even more profitably than at 
 present. 
 
 Some one in making a comparison of the cost 
 of buying current from a lighting company and 
 producing current on the premises combined 
 with using the exhaust steam for heating, has 
 deduced the fact that even if the lighting com- 
 pany could produce its current free of charge 
 the cost of distribution alone is sufficiently high 
 as to make a private plant cheaper. This state- 
 ment however, must be limited in its application 
 to large consumers and to districts not imme- 
 diately adjacent to large central power stations. 
 
 There need be no concern for the safety of a 
 high pressure plant in a public building, such 
 an a schoolhouse. There is no reason to rule 
 against a plant in this particular. Almost all 
 large office buildings, large department stores 
 and the large majority of manufacturing estab- 
 lishments own and daily operate plants of ex- 
 actly this description. High pressure can be, 
 and is, made as safe as low pressure, while 
 greater and more numerous safeguards are in- 
 stalled to prevent even the possibility of acci- 
 dent. 
 
 As to cost: The average school can make all 
 the changes necessary to install a plant at a 
 cost approximating $10,000.00. The fixed in- 
 terest charge on this amount will be about $500 
 per year to which must be added depreciation, 
 repairs, extra coal, attendance, etc. The amount 
 of depreciation is usually considered as about 
 5 per cent per annum and the upkeep about 
 2 per cent which gives some 12 per cent (count- 
 ing fixed interest charges) of the initial invest- 
 ment to be charged up to the cost of running 
 the plant each year. There will also be some 
 additional coal used to supply power only, dur- 
 ing the warmer days of the late spring and early 
 fall. Just how much this would amount to is 
 problematical depending on the season, amount 
 of power used, fireman, etc. It would proib- 
 ably be fair to assume about 90 to 100 tons 
 
 84 
 
THE SCHOOL POWER PLANT 
 
 85 
 
 might be used costing perhaps some $400 to 
 $500. Additional labor in the boiler and engine 
 room might cost another $400 and engine room 
 supplies such as oil, waste, etc., about $100. 
 
 From this it can be seen that a plant costing 
 $10,000 initially would require 
 
 10,000 X 12% equals $1,200 fixed charges 
 
 500 additional ooal 
 400 additional labor 
 100 miscellaneous 
 
 $2,200 total operating 
 
 cost per year, 
 or a monthly average for ten months of about 
 
 $225. Just at the present owing to the abnor- 
 mally high prices, the initial cost of a plant 
 might, and probably would, somewhat exceed the 
 above estimate but this would affect the yearly 
 operating cost but little especially when dis- 
 tributed over ten months during the year. The 
 modern high school, however, has but little dif- 
 ficulty in running up an electric bill of $600 to 
 $1,200 per month depending on the rat paid, 
 amount of night school, and minimum rates for 
 summer ase when the school is not in session. 
 
 The economy of school power plants may per- 
 haps be understood better thru a description of 
 a typical power plant installed in 1915 in a 
 
 Fig. 124. 
 
86 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 high school in an Eastern city. This plant has 
 given the utmost satisfaction to the board in 
 charge. The original intention was not to in- 
 stall a plant but on the contrary to construct 
 a swimming pool. Tentative estimates on the 
 cost of the pool and of its operation caused the 
 board of education to abandon the proposed 
 plans. The space was very conveniently turned 
 into an engine room when the board realized 
 that an annual saving of more than $1,500 could 
 be made by such an arrangement. 
 
 It is always well in installing low pressure 
 heating plants to provide (as was done in this 
 case) boilers designed to stand high pressure so 
 that power can be generated in them later if 
 desired. The additional cost of such boilers is 
 not much, and their usefulness for possible 
 future power purposes is desirable. For this 
 reason cast iron boilers are not well suited for 
 large schools where power may be desired later. 
 Cast iron boilers cannot safely carry high steam 
 pressure under any condition. 
 
 In the particular case referred to, two generat- 
 ing units were installed, one of 50 kilowatt and 
 the other of 75 kilowatt capacity. One of these 
 units can te run in case the other breaks down, 
 but the larger unit must be utilized when the 
 auditorium is used at the same time as the class- 
 rooms. This condition is, of course, very rare. 
 
 The three boilers shown in the plan in Fig. 
 124, supply steam to a high pressure header 
 running across the boilers near the front. From 
 this header all steam is taken; the branch at 
 the right hand end goes thru the wall into the 
 engine room and supplies the two engines. Just 
 to the left and in front of the boiler connection 
 
 Chimney^ 
 
 xhaiJst/feo</ 
 
 Roof of 
 Main Bui/diny 
 
 Roof of Boiler Ro> 
 
 ^ Steam toH.W. Tont< 
 
 ^3team /c ui/e/in^ 
 
 Oi/ Seporatof 
 i:iih. from Sny. No. I 
 
 1= 
 
 -- \^ 
 
 Fig. 125. 
 
 h-^.'^Jt:^ 
 
 Fig. 126. 
 
 is a steam connection, passing thru a pressure 
 reducing valve PK-V and into the header ex- 
 tending across the back of the boilers. From 
 this all steam for heating the building is taken. 
 A branch from this header also supplies steam 
 to the feed water heater. 
 
 To understand the free exhaust and oil sepa- 
 rator, the plan shown in Fig. 125 must be re- 
 ferred to and the path of the exhaust must be 
 followed. This exhaust pipe is laid in a trench 
 underneath the floor to a vertical riser, marked 
 "Thru the Eoof." The exhaust steam is carried 
 from the engines into the exhaust to the vertical 
 riser. At the ceiling this riser has a branch 
 
THE SCHOOL POWER PLANT 
 
 87 
 
 E^ 
 
 ^-:' w 
 
 Fig. 127. 
 
 going thru an oil separator into the heating sys- 
 tem. In warm weather the exhaust steam en- 
 ters a second branch thru a back pressure valve 
 directly to the outside air. The method of pipe 
 arrangement is shown in Fig. 126, which is an 
 elevation of the riser with the branch to the oil 
 separator and the extension of the riser to the 
 exhaust head on the roof. 
 
 A cross section thru ihe boilers and engine 
 room is shown in Fig. 127. This view also in- 
 dicates how the exhaust pipe is carried under 
 the engine room floor. 
 
 After completion, this plant was carefully 
 tested out and has since given ev^ery satisfaction. 
 
 In this school the boilers were installed before 
 the final decision was made by the board to in- 
 stall a plant. Owing to the foresight of the 
 engineers these boilers were, luckily, capable 
 of carrying high pressure so that the changes 
 were limited to the installation of engines, pip- 
 ing, feed water heater, etc. The plant is saving 
 yearly more than $1,500 (in some years nearly 
 $2,000) per year which is equal to a 20 per cent 
 interest rate on the investment of $10,000. Of 
 course some extra ooal, attendance, oil, etc., are 
 required but these are not sufficient to seriously 
 impair the good showing made. 
 
 Objection to a school plant is sometimes urged 
 on the basis of dirt and noise. Both of these 
 charges are unfair to properly designed plants. 
 Many engines are so well built and carefully 
 balanced that a person standing just outside of 
 the engine room door cannot tell whether they 
 are in operation or not. So far as dirt is con- 
 cerned, the engine room is far cleaner than any 
 boiler room. This may be readily seen from 
 the two views accompanying this article. Fig. 
 
 128 is a view of the boiler room and Fig. 129, 
 a view of the engine room. The pictures show 
 that the latter is absolutely clean beyond any 
 possible censure. 
 
 Sometimes such seeming difficulties are en- 
 countered as a requirement for a small amount 
 of power for the operation of a small motor or 
 a few lights. In the building described it was 
 desired to run the house pump which supplied 
 \\ ater to the tank on the roof during the sum- 
 mer and also to furnish light to the offices occu- 
 pied by the school board and administrative 
 officers. For this purpose a gas engine of 9^ 
 horsepower, operating a 7^ kilowatt generator, 
 is used as an emergency. It is run only for 
 small power requirements when the main plant 
 is not in operation. A view of this equipment 
 including the house pump is shown in Fig. 130. 
 
 There are several reasons why schools which 
 are large power consumers should be built so as 
 to make the installation of a plant possible: 
 
 First 'A school, capable of economically in- 
 stalling its own plant so as to compete with the 
 local service company, can generally secure a 
 reduction in the rate charged for current, solely 
 because of this far-sighted arrangement. 
 
 Second A school so arranged can at any time 
 install a plant if the power requirements in- 
 crease or the local rates for current are raised. 
 
 Third ^A school with boilers and piping, de- 
 signed for power plant service, will have a much 
 more serviceable equipment and a better heating 
 installation at the most important point in the 
 heating system, viz., where the heat is developed. 
 
 Schools, which have large power requirements 
 and in which plants are installed, have found 
 the following advantageous : 
 
MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Fig. 128. 
 
 Fig, 129. 
 
THE SCHOOL POWER PLANT 
 
 89 
 
 First Current can be obtained in almost un- 
 limited quantities with practically no addi- 
 tional expense. 
 
 Second ^The buildings are entirely independ- 
 ent of outside trouble such as wires blown down, 
 trouble at the central station, etc. 
 
 Third No charges are incurred during sum- 
 mer closing. 
 
 Fourth Current of any kind or quality can 
 be generated whereas, with outside service, cur- 
 rent (such as the local service company decides 
 to furnish) must be accepted and used. Often- 
 times such outside current is totally unsuited 
 for school work. 
 
 Fifth It is possible to have all the above ad- 
 vantages and*still save money to a considerable 
 extent, the exact amount depending on the local 
 conditions. 
 
 It may be remarked that most of the current 
 furnished by service companies is of the "alter- 
 nating" variety which, while suitable for lights, 
 is totally unsuited for school work where motors 
 are directly connected to large ventilating fans 
 and other apparatus is used requiring slow speed 
 
 or variable control motors. Alternating current 
 in fact is so undesirable that in many schools 
 a motor-generator set is installed consisting of 
 an alternating current motor operated by out- 
 side current. This motor drives a "direct cur- 
 rent" generator which, in turn, supplies the 
 school. While the result attained with such 
 apparatus is the same as if direct current were 
 furnished by the company it is not economical. 
 Only about 90 per cent of the energy put in at 
 one end of the machine comes out of the other 
 and thus the power bill is increased by about 10 
 per cent for which no service is rendered. 
 
 The principal reason that e-ectric companies 
 continue to furnish alternating current is that 
 this current can be raised to higher voltage and 
 therefore can be transmitted on a smaller wire 
 than direct current. The current thus meets 
 most economically the requirement of the ser- 
 vice company whicli is the transmission of cur- 
 rent from the central station to the point of use 
 v/ith a minimum loss and least cost. The con- 
 sumer, however, must take it as delivered re- 
 gardless of the requirements at the consuming 
 end of the line and of his own interests. 
 
 Fig. 130. 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 
 The School Swimming Pool 
 
 Schools in which swimming pools are installed 
 are becoming more common every day, and 
 among the newer schools recently planned or 
 already in process of erection, pools are the rule 
 rather than the exception. This applies of 
 course to buildings of reasonably pretentious 
 character and where other facilities are simi- 
 larly complete. As all indications seem to 
 clearly point toward the increased use of pools 
 in the years to come, it is essential that they be 
 viewed from a proper standpoint and considered 
 with regard to their operating cost as well as 
 initial outlay. 
 
 Painful as the fact may be to the ardent advo- 
 cate of the pool, it is undoubtedly true that 
 
 ^o^\4 '^f 
 
 J.<:V''.^''4< 
 
 Fig. 131. 
 
 pools are far from being an unmixed blessing. 
 They are expensive to install, require some ex- 
 penditure to maintain, must be provided with 
 one or more attendants, must be heated, should 
 have rigid sanitary rules enforced to prevent 
 their becoming a source of danger and, alto- 
 gether, are more or less of a responsibility. 
 
 Accidents, too, have happened such as occa- 
 sional drownings, diving into a pool basin after 
 the water has been withdrawn, striking the head 
 on the bottom when diving, etc., etc. True, such 
 accidents are comparatively rare, yet they are 
 not so impossible as to have already actually 
 happened. 
 
 On the other hand the increasing popularity 
 of the pool shows its capability for assisting 
 hygiene by promoting bodily cleanliness not so 
 much with the idea of actually washing in the 
 pool as by making the pool act as an induce- 
 ment to take the good shower bath required he- 
 fore entrance into the pool is permitted. Many 
 schools are also making their pools serve others 
 besides the pupils of the building, each building 
 being thrown open on evenings and Saturdays 
 to the entire adult population of its respective 
 district. This is falling directly in line with the 
 increasingly popular idea of making a school, 
 not only a place of learning, but in truth a com- 
 munity, or civic, center. 
 
 ^Vhile accidents are indeed possible, the pres- 
 ence of an instructor, combined with clear water 
 in the pool and good light will make the danger 
 sufficiently remote to be reasonably neglected. 
 Undoubtedly the greatest danger is from the 
 spread of disease thru the medium of the pool 
 water. This, if not guarded against, is indeed 
 a most serious danger. Yet it can be effectually 
 guarded against, and science has made the pool 
 operated along modern sanitary lines entirely 
 safe. 
 
 The simplest method of obtaining pure water 
 in the pool and one that readily suggests itself 
 when contamination of pool water is considered 
 is to run in fresh water! This seems so simple, 
 so efficient and so satisfactory a solution of the 
 problem that it should be entirely unnecessary 
 to go farther. Now, there is little to be said 
 against such a procedure until the bills for water 
 (and coal to heat the water) begin to come in; 
 and the worst of it is that these bills will keep 
 growing and growing, as the pool becomes more 
 and more popular, until they become excessively 
 large. 
 
 Yet facts are facts ! In dollars and cents the 
 ordinary pool costs about $5 to heat with coal 
 at $5 per ton and about $7 for water with water 
 ac $1 per thousand cubic feet. This makes a 
 total cost of changing the water in the pool of 
 $12 each time, and this brings up the question 
 
 90 
 
THE SCHOOL SWIMMING POOL 
 
 91 
 
 of how many times the water must be changed 
 in a year. 
 
 When it is remembered that with this method 
 the water enters the pool directly from the city 
 mains (or other source of supply) and from the 
 time the first user enters the pool until it is 
 finally run off and a new change of water run in 
 constantly and continuously increases its bac- 
 teria and other impurities, it can be seen that a 
 considerable quantity of fresh water must be 
 used to dilute the impurities a sufficient amount 
 so as to render them negligible. Actual experi- 
 ments in pools operated under this plan show 
 that about 25 gallons of fresh water are required 
 for each bather who uses the pool, and the fre- 
 quency of change, therefore, depends almost en- 
 tirely on the number of users. Supposing 200 
 persons use the pool each day. This means 5,000 
 gallons of fresh water per day, or a complete 
 change of water once every ten days. With four 
 hundred users the pool would have to be changed 
 every five days, etc. The average practice seems 
 to require a change about once a week so that in 
 a year the cost of coal and water will amount to 
 about $12 X 52 or $624 per year. And remember, 
 with this method there is no guarantee of free- 
 dom from bacterial dangers for while the dan- 
 ger is lessened it is not entirely removed by any 
 means. 
 
 On the other hand a pool can be equipped 
 with mechanical devices which render the use of 
 heat practically nil and which keep the water 
 in a purer condition than when it originally 
 entered from the city main. So far as cost is 
 concerned these devices can be paid entirely in 
 three or four years out of the saving made over 
 the cost of operation when raw water is used all 
 the time. This plan of operation involves the 
 use of heaters, filters, sterilizers, aeration, and a 
 CG-agulant feed into the water. 
 
 In purifying swimming pool water it has been 
 found necessary to 
 
 (a) Inject a co-agulant which causes the im- 
 purities to lump or clot together so as to be 
 easily strained out. 
 
 b) Strain out all coarser impurities by driv- 
 ing the water thru a filter just as water is fil- 
 tered in nature by passing thru the porous 
 rocks. 
 
 (c) Kill various dangerous or undesirable bac- 
 teria by means of sterilization, either by the ad- 
 dition of a chemical or by electrocution. 
 
 (d) Mix the water with air called aeration 
 to oxidize certain bacteria and to combine 
 minute particles of air with the water so as to 
 m.ake it bright and sparkling. 
 
 While these processes sound rather formidable 
 they are comparatively simple, the co-agulant 
 being a simple solution injected into the water 
 on its way to the filter so as to make the impuri- 
 
 Fig. 132. 
 
 ties more easily caught thru co-agulation or the 
 formation of larger particles. The co-agulant 
 (usually alum is used for this purpose) is 
 placed in a plain iron cylinder and part of the 
 pool water going to the filter is bypassed so as 
 to run thru the alum chamber. As a result a 
 small part of the alum is dissolved and mixed 
 with the pool water before it gets to the filter. 
 
 The filter is a common cast iron shell in which 
 sand, quartz, bone black, charcoal or other 
 medium is used and thru which the water is 
 forced. A sectional view of a common type of 
 filter used for this purpose is shown in Fig. 131 
 in which I indicates the inlet, O the outlet, 
 B a breaker to stir up the bed and WO a wash- 
 out pipe for running off the discharge when 
 washing out the filter bed. 
 
 The sterilizer may be similar to the co-agulat- 
 ing receptacle except that hypochloride of lime 
 is used. The sterilizer may be of more preten- 
 tious character utilizing electric current and 
 killing bacteria by means of the ultra violet rays, 
 similar to the process described for the sterili- 
 zation of drinking water. 
 
92 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 Aeration is secured by allowing the water to 
 shoot thru the atmosphere. It is generally 
 effected by spraying the water as it enters the 
 pcol or by letting it fall from some high point 
 into the pool, as shown in Fig. 132. In this fig- 
 ure, I indicates an ornamental inlet such as a 
 lion's head, etc. 
 
 Supposing this equipment is installed, how 
 long will it be possible to retain the water in 
 the pool and in what condition would it be at 
 the end of the period? In answer to this the 
 ri!ther surprising statement can be made that 
 the water may be used indefinitely and, more 
 astonishing still, that the water can be main- 
 tained at even a higher degree of purity than 
 its original natural state! In other words a 
 pcol of water after being in use constantly by 
 bathers for even as long a period as three years 
 is in a purer state than any natural drinking 
 water. This has been proven by actual scientific 
 tests on pools after such periods of use. From 
 this it can be seen that when pools are properly 
 installed and operated they can be maintained 
 at such a degree of purity as to make talk of 
 contamination a joke, except to the ignorant. 
 
 In connection with this it is interesting to 
 note the existing practice along this line, as 
 shown by queries sent to some five hundred 
 pcols taken at random thruout the country. 
 While replies were received from over 50 per 
 cent of the pools the results shown by these 
 answers may be assumed to cover the average 
 conditions in the United States especially on the 
 older pools. 
 
 The answers showed that roughly, 
 
 (a) The average capacity of pools is 50,000 
 gallons and 94 per cent are rectangular in shape 
 running in size from 20 x 10 feet to 140 x 65 
 feet. 
 
 (b) Some 68 per cent receive natural light 
 either from skylights or windows. 
 
 (c) The average temperature maintained is 
 about 74 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 (d) The pools where purity is maintained by 
 re-filling with fresh water amount to about 66 
 per cent of all the pools. 
 
 (e) Out of such pools only 4 per cent refill 
 daily, 14 per cent every other day, 18 per cent 
 twice a week, 2 per cent every five days, 50 
 per cent every week, 8 per cent every ten days, 
 5 per cent every two weeks and one pool only 
 every 30 days. 
 
 (f) Some 34 per cent of all the pools employ 
 filtration of which 100 per cent filter the water 
 entering the pool, 64 per cent use re-filtration to 
 maintain purity, 20 per cent use lime and 2 
 per cent sulphate of copper in addition; another 
 2 per cent employ all these three methods. 
 
 (g) About 60 per cent have scum gutters. 
 Certain accessories accompany a pool such as 
 
 shower baths, lockers, towels, suits, etc. Lockers 
 must be provided for each occupant of the pool, 
 and showers should be arranged for bathing pur- 
 poses besides the ones installed exclusively for 
 pool use. As a general thing the locker rooms 
 are designed so as to be utilized either for gym- 
 nasium or pool purposes as desired. Of course 
 where outsiders are allowed to use the pool this 
 is not possible but where school pupils alone are 
 to be considered such an arrangement is usually 
 adopted. 
 
 In connection with the locker rooms and often 
 in the same room individual showers are in- 
 stalled for rinsing off after gymnasium practice 
 and for the use of those who do not desire to 
 enter the pool. Such showers are not used in 
 any way connected with the pool and are solely 
 for gymnasium or other outside use. 
 
 The showers for the pool users are commonly 
 installed between the entrance to the pool room 
 ?nd the pool itself; the idea being to force all 
 users to remain at least a full minute under the 
 shower before entering the pool. By this means 
 the shower washes off and disposes of much of 
 the coarser impurities which would otherwise 
 be carried into the pool and where they would 
 contaminate the water very rapidly. 
 
 Supposing that it has been decided to install' 
 a pool, the first thing to be determined is the 
 location and size of the room. ^Vhile it is en- 
 tirely practical to install a pool on an upper 
 floor this having been done in more than one 
 case it can hardly be recommended as an eco- 
 nomical proposition owing to the great weight 
 of water and walls to be supported. In fact in 
 a 50,000 gallon pool the weight of water alone 
 approximates 250 tons. On this account the fav- 
 orite pool location is in the basement where it 
 can be set directly on the ground and no other 
 structural supports are needed. 
 
 For a school pool where both sexes are to be 
 served, it has proven a great success to locate 
 the pool in the middle of the building making 
 one end of the basement a "boys" section with 
 the boys' lockers, showers, play room, toilets, etc.. 
 
THE SCHOOL SWIMMING POOL 
 
 93 
 
94 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 and the other end of the basement a "girls" sec- 
 tion with similar equipment for the girls. Then, 
 by opening a door from either side into the cor- 
 ridor leading to the pool, direct access for either 
 boys or girls into the pool can be obtained as 
 desired without danger of conflict between the 
 sexes. 
 
 Fig. 133 shows a typical school pool of stand- 
 ard size, viz., 20 feet wide by 60 feet long. 
 Usually the shallow end is made with 3 ft. 6 
 in., to 4 ft. 6 in., depth of water, and the deepest 
 portion with 7 feet to 7 feet 6 inches depth. The 
 pool showers are shown in the shape of three 
 heads set over a gutter directly at the door enter- 
 ing the pool room. These heads should be con- 
 trolled by a valve operated by the instructor who 
 should see that each pupil gets a thoro drench- 
 ing. It will be noted that the boys' locker room 
 and girls' locker rooms are located adjacent but 
 on opposite sides of the pool room. 
 
 The most economical way to build a pool of 
 substantial construction consists of erecting con- 
 crete retaining walls with a reinforced concrete 
 
 bottom, thus forming the rough shell to retain 
 the water. Concrete and other masonry, how- 
 ever, is not watertight by any means and on the 
 inside of this shell must be placed a waterproof 
 membrane to retain the water and to prevent 
 leakage. 
 
 The waterproofing is most commonly obtained 
 by coating the walls and bottom with hot pitch, 
 on which are laid successive layers of tar felt, 
 each layer being covered with, a coating of hot 
 pitch before the next is applied and all joints 
 overlapped about eighteen inches. To protect 
 this membrane from mechanical injury and also 
 to form a proper base on which to erect the tile 
 or enameled brick lining, an eight inch brick 
 wall is built inside of the membrane along the 
 sides and a cement floor is laid over the bottom. 
 Then the tile, terra cotta or enameled brick lin- 
 ing as the case may be is placed to form a 
 sanitary flnish on the inner surfaces of the pool. 
 A section of a completed pool wall is shown in 
 Fig. 134. Here, C indicates concrete, B brick, 
 M mortar, W waterproofing, P pool, E earth 
 and T tile or enameled brick facing. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 
 Pool Equipment 
 
 Having constructed a pool the next problem is 
 the matter of supplying water to it. The most 
 ideal water supply and one that gives water in 
 almost unlimited quantities is an artesian well, 
 but owing to the fact that wells are often im- 
 practical and also because cold water is always 
 at hand for use in the toilets and showers the 
 pool is usually supplied from the general source 
 from which the building is supplied. 
 
 When the water enters the pool directly, the 
 temperature is entirely too low for use and 
 some form of heating is necessary. The sim- 
 plest method is to heat it by an injector using 
 high pressure steam and shooting the pool water 
 mixed with the steam condensation into the pool 
 as shown in Fig. 135, which is self-explanatory. 
 Owing to the necessity of having steam at 30 or 
 40 lbs. pressure in order to operate this appa- 
 ratus properly and to rather unsatisfactory re- 
 sults attained by this method it is little used in 
 the new pools now being built. 
 
 Another method giving more satisfactory re- 
 sults is shown in Fig. 136. It consists of hot 
 water heating boilers which circulate the water 
 between the pool and the boilers by means of 
 gravity. This requires that the boiler be set 
 lower than the pool level the lower the boilers 
 are set the better such circulation becomes. Pro- 
 vided it is possible to get the condensation back 
 to the steam boiler, a steam heater could be sub- 
 stituted in place of the hot water boiler shown 
 in Fig. 136; this, however, is a very uncommon 
 arrangement. 
 
 Having supplied the water into the pool and 
 raised it to a satisfactory temperature, how shall 
 it'c purity be assured and maintained? Shall it 
 be used in a constantly increasing state of im- 
 purity for three to seven days (at the end of 
 which time it must be wasted and a new supply 
 run in) or shall it be filtered before entering 
 and then refiltered daily, to keep it in fairly 
 good condition? 
 
 Assuming that filters are to be used this im- 
 mediately necessitates the use of a pump which 
 is commonly termed a "circulation pump" to 
 force the water thru the filters in refiltering. 
 The best type of pump for this purpose is a cen- 
 trifugal pump direct-connected to a small elec- 
 
 tric motor. A IJ in. pump is entirely sufficient 
 for the standard size pool. 
 
 The circulation pump takes the water from 
 the deepest part of the pool (and from the bot- 
 tom thereof, thus securing the coldest water) 
 and discharges it thru a heater (usually of the 
 steam type and hung on the ceiling) from which 
 the water passes to the filter and then back to 
 the pool. On re-entering the pool it is desir- 
 able to insert the water at two or three different 
 points preferredly at the opposite end from 
 which the pump is drawing out the water. This 
 results in a gradual movement of the water from 
 the shallow toward the deep end, and prevents 
 localizing the inflow of warm water. 
 
 If a filter is used its operation should be 
 assisted by the use of a co-agulant feeding appa- 
 ratus. This is very inexpensive and consists 
 simply of a cast iron reservoir in which alum 
 is placed. The amount of alum fed is con- 
 trolled by allowing a smaller or larger stream 
 to pass thru the receptacle dissolving the alum 
 and carrying it back into the circulation line so 
 as to mix with the circulating water going to 
 the filter. 
 
 After leaving the filter the water should pass 
 thru a sterilizer in order to kill the remaining 
 bacteria. It must be remembered that the filter 
 is in fact little more than a strainer while the 
 sterilizer is a germicidal agent, neither being 
 complete without the other, as it is desired to 
 return the pool water both clean and pure. The 
 sterilizer is also an inexpensive feature. If one 
 of chemical type is used, it is similar to the 
 co-agulant chamber in construction and opera- 
 tion except that it uses lime instead of alunf. 
 
 The arrangement of such apparatus is shown 
 completely in Fig. 137 where the water coming 
 from the pool goes to the circulation pump and 
 is then discharged thru a check valve either to 
 the sewer (if it is desired to empty the pool) 
 or to the steam heater. If it is desired to by- 
 pass the heater for repairs, or any other reason 
 the valve in the heater by-pass HJB is opened 
 and the other two valves are shut. The water 
 then goes to the filter and rises toward the top 
 connection where the larger part bypasses thru 
 C'B, the two small lines leading to and from 
 
 95 
 
96 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 --^) >' M-, i; ..<^\o 
 
 j/i^/p Fres. S/'eom^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 a 
 
 Injector Tee- 
 
 . -' V'.O '^ 
 
 Fig. 135. 
 
 'J^oo/ Room JT/oo/' 
 
 FiK. 13fi. 
 
 Sfeom 
 
 Fig. 137. 
 
POOL EQUIPMENT 
 
 97 
 
 the co-agulant feed so that a small portion goes 
 thru the co-agulant receptacle as explained. If 
 it is desired to bypass the filter, the filter by- 
 pass FB is used, the water passing on to the 
 sterilizer where the main portion goes thru the 
 sterilizer by-pass SB and then back to the pool. 
 While this is the outfit in use in a large num- 
 ber of the pools where re-filtration is used, the 
 
 proper refiltration it has proved by test to be 
 purer than the average drinking water as drawn 
 from the faucet in the cities of the country. 
 
 Where the electric sterilizer is used a box is 
 usually placed at some high point into which 
 the water is pumped and then after passing thru 
 the ultra-violet rays overflows into the pipe 
 leading down to the pool inlet. Such an equip- 
 
 
 
 
 
 L 1 jL ^-' 
 
 
 
 
 
 P LA/SI 
 
 ELEVATIO/^ 
 Fig. 139. 
 
 electric type of sterilizer has made such great 
 strides in recent years and has produced results 
 60 remarkable that it deserves most emphatic 
 recommendation. This apparatus employs an 
 electric lamp emitting invisible ultra-violet rays 
 to kill all germs in the pool water which is forced 
 to flow past within the required distance of the 
 lamp. After water has been in use sometimes 
 for as long as three years with this sterilizer and 
 7 
 
 ment is shown in Fig. 138 where a plan view 
 and two cross sections are given. The water 
 is pumped into the box thru the inlet I and 
 enters compartment A ', from compartment A to 
 compartment B the only connection is by means 
 of a rounded opening in the middle of which 
 opening the quartz lamp is set. To make assur- 
 ance doubly sure a similar partition and lamp 
 are placed between compartment B and com- 
 
98 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 partment C so that the germs must twice run 
 the gauntlet of electrocution. The water passes 
 from chamber A to chamber B thru the open- 
 ing, and then to chamber thru the second 
 opening. In chamber C the water overflows 
 into the outlet pipe O which carries it down to 
 the pool inlets. 
 
 It is also recommended that a scum gutter be 
 provided for the pool in any case. As a matter 
 of fact with re-filtration properly carried on 
 there is little or no scum to take care of and 
 water splashed into the scum gutter is lost by 
 going down the overflow. Yet if, at any time, 
 it is desired or necessary to operate the pool 
 without the use of the filter, this can be done 
 in a much better manner by using the scum 
 gutter and overflowing the water into it. 
 
 The gutter itself is formed in sections of 
 glazed terra cotta blocks with drain pipes con- 
 nected every twenty feet or so. Its use not only 
 frees the pool itself from scum, etc., on the sur- 
 face but it also catches all drippage from the 
 pool room floor that would otherwise run down 
 the sides of the pool and help contaminate the 
 water. 
 
 The piping for the overflows consists of 2 in. 
 or 3 in. drain pipes carried down and united 
 into a 4 in. overflow line which is carried out 
 and connected to the pool drain beyond the drain 
 valve. From a sanitary standpoint it is much 
 better to carry the overflows immediately to a 
 trap located just below the scum gutter, and in 
 some cities this is an absolute requirement. 
 There are manifest disadvantages to this as can 
 be readily seen on account of the traps being 
 located in the solid masonry walls of the pool 
 and requiring cleanouts in the pool room floor. 
 It is therefore common practice and is generally 
 permissible to pipe the overflow, as shown in 
 the plan and elevation given in Fig. 139, where 
 O indicates overflows and CO. cleanouts. 
 
 The valve on the drain is necessarily located 
 below the pool bottom and should be placed in 
 a manhole to make access possible. The handle 
 may be extended up to a point just under the 
 manhole cover or if the manhole is in an unim- 
 portant position may even be extended thru 
 the cover with the wheel mounted above the 
 fl.oor. 
 
 Now as to cost : The average pool room should 
 be about 75 ft. long, 35 ft. wide and not less 
 than 10 ft. high; this gives a cubic footage of 
 26,250 cubic feet which, at 20 cents per cubic 
 foot, means a cost of $5,250 for housing the 
 pool. To build a modern pit for a pool includ- 
 
 ing walls, waterproofing, enameled brick, scum 
 gutters, etc., amounts to $3,000 to $4,000, The 
 piping, valves, heater, pump, etc., will run to 
 $750; a filter capable of properly handling a 
 50,000 gallon pool about $1,500 including co- 
 agulant feed and chemical sterilizer; an electric 
 sterilizer will cost about as much as a filter but 
 cannot be substituted for it. 
 
 This gives approximations as follows: 
 Pool without filtration 
 
 Pool pit $3,500 
 
 Piping 500 
 
 Pool with re-filtration plant ' 
 
 Filters $1,500 
 
 Additional pipe 500 
 
 2,000 
 
 Pool with electric sterilization $6,000 
 
 Sterilizer $1,500 _, . . 
 
 l,oUU 
 
 $7,500 
 
 It can readily be seen from this that even the 
 cheapest pool is pretty expensive and a good 
 pool is only more so. Still, if a pool is to be 
 installed, by all means put in a good installa- 
 tion and do not render a questionable service to 
 the community by providing a disease carrier 
 and germ developer in its midst. 
 
 All boards operating pools in their schools 
 will do well to follow the nine commandments 
 laid down in a paper recently read before the 
 American Association for Promoting Hygienic 
 and Public Baths. They are as follows: 
 
 1. Maintain the water in the pool pure and 
 clear; employing both refiltration and chemical 
 disinfection. 
 
 2. Have the pool well lighted; natural light 
 by day sunlight when possible. 
 
 3. Keep an attendant always on duty when 
 the pool is in use; prohibit admission at other 
 times ; allow no one to enter the pool alone. 
 
 4. Maintain a strict supervision of the bath- 
 ers, medical examination if practicable; pre- 
 venting persons with communicable diseases 
 from entering the pool. 
 
 5. Enforce the scrubbing of each bather be- 
 fore entering pool. 
 
 6. Prevent all clothing or provide sterilized 
 clothing. 
 
 7. Surround the pool with a scum gutter and 
 prevent expectoration in or about the pool. 
 
 8. Prevent visitors carrying dirt and disease 
 germs on their footwear into the pool room. 
 
 9. Do not have any obstruction in the pool, 
 or along the edge of the pool, nor adjacent to 
 the pool. 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 
 Electric Lighting 
 
 The importance of providing for the proper 
 lighting of classrooms is one which should not 
 be underestimated. The need of illumination 
 for day classes on dark days and the require- 
 ments of night schools both combine to render 
 satisfactory lighting an essential of schoolhouse 
 planning and equipment. It is not within the 
 province of this discussion to argue the pecu- 
 liarities of the eye, or the diseases resulting from 
 a lack of proper or sufficient lighting. These 
 topics are distinctly within the province of the 
 school hygienist, the physician and the oculist. 
 It may not be out of place, however, to note that 
 the eyes of average pupils are subjected to their 
 first concentrated use in the schoolroom and that 
 the eyes of children of school age are only in the 
 transitory period of growth succeeding baby- 
 hood and are far from possessing the visual 
 strength which is acquired in later life. Eye 
 troubles developed during this time are likely to 
 become chronic weaknesses later and should be 
 carefully guarded against. 
 
 There are in all some twenty-one million 
 school children in the United States of whom 
 not less than two million are troubled by defec- 
 tive vision. Of course, this is a dry and statis- 
 tical statement. Yet the fact is conducive to 
 thought, even tho it does not necessarily follow 
 that these two million pupils are visually defec- 
 tive on account of poor light in the schools. 
 Some children develop eye troubles before en- 
 tering school and still others abuse their eyes 
 by overstudy or by other means for which the 
 schools could not possibly be held responsible. 
 But admitting that the trouble is there, it cer- 
 tainly should not be aggravated in the classroom 
 A\here the school boards are responsible. 
 
 Artificial illumination has always been de- 
 signed with the idea of producing a condition 
 approximating sunlight. How poorly such an 
 approximation really is (when obtained from 
 various sources of artificial light) the reader is 
 fully aware of, yet the modern systems of light- 
 ing.' more nearly approach such an ideal condi- 
 tion than any methods previously developed. 
 
 The natural lighting of the modern classroom 
 has worked down to a fairly consistent design in 
 
 which the windows equal in area 14 to 25 per 
 cent of the floor area and are arranged on the 
 left-hand side. It has been recommended by 
 experts on illumination that the depth of class- 
 rooms (perpendicular to the window wall) should 
 not be greater than twice the height of the win- 
 dow above the top of the desks; also that the 
 walls be light colored and the ceiling white. 
 With such design the most satisfactory results 
 will be obtained, and the light walls and white 
 ceiling will also assist the artificial illumina- 
 tion. 
 
 Other items also enter into the matter of 
 making artificial light satisfactory. Installa- 
 tions, perfectly correct so far as design may be 
 concerned, will give considerable trouble and 
 result in much unnecessary eye strain if other 
 matters are not made to harmonize with the end 
 in view. For instance, the use of highly glazed 
 paper in the school books is bound to fatigue the 
 eye in a very short time, regardless of the ar- 
 rangement of the lighting. The size of type, 
 the spacing of lines, the color of print and paper 
 similarly affect the eye. Still worse, is the con- 
 stant reflection from highly polished desks, 
 glazed walls and glazed blackboards. 
 
 The development and perfecting of the tung- 
 sten filament for the incandescent electric light 
 have revolutionized lighting in the last few 
 years. The tungsten lamp has produced a whiter 
 light, far more nearly approximating sunlight 
 than the old carbon filament. It does this at a 
 cost of about 31 per cent of what the old carbon 
 filament required, when compared candle power 
 for candle powei*. It has made commercially 
 practical the "indirect" method of illiunination 
 which, while vastly superior to the old direct 
 style, is not as efficient a method of illumina- 
 tion. That is to say, it takes more current for 
 ii- direct lighting but the rays are so diffused as 
 to make such lighting very desirable. 
 
 There are three, general methods of lighting 
 consisting of: 
 
 (a) Direct illumination, in which the light 
 shines directly on the surface illuminated. 
 
 (b) Indirect illumination, in which the source 
 of light is entirely concealed by a shade and the 
 
 99 
 
100 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 illuminating effect is secured by reflection from 
 some white diffusing surface which is usually 
 the ceiling, and 
 
 (c) Semi-direct illumination, in which the 
 majority of the light is indirect but a portion of 
 the shade is made translucent so that the balance 
 is "direct," but Avell diffused. 
 
 Diffusion of light is accomplished by breaking 
 up the rays of light emitted from one or several 
 sources so as to have a more even light of lesser 
 brilliancy emitted from a larger area than the 
 prime source. A clear glass globe gives prac- 
 tically no diffusion but the same globe in frosted 
 glass diffuses to a very satisfactory extent. 
 
 In Fig. 140 is shown a standard type of direct 
 lighting fixture which is inexpensive and of good 
 design. In this case a glass, metal or porcelain 
 reflector may be used and the rays of light from 
 the lamp are thrown directly down onto the floor 
 and furniture. The use of this fixture in long 
 corridors, stairways, wardrobes and similar cir- 
 culation passages, where the lights are almost 
 always burning but where no one's eyes are ex- 
 posed to the light for any long period of time, is 
 recommended owing to the high efficiency of the 
 direct light. 
 
 Fig. 141 is a similar fixture with a bowl of 
 translucent glass which tends to diffuse the light 
 to a great extent. This fixture is recommended 
 for such rooms as the principal's main office, 
 waiting room, medical examination room and 
 similar locations where pupils or instructors may 
 have their eyes subjected to the light for longer 
 periods. 
 
 Fig. 142 is a frosted or semi-transparent shade 
 covering lights where the headroom is low as 
 under stairways, etc., and where longer fixtures 
 would be in the way. 
 
 Fig. 143 indicates a fixture with an opaque 
 nietal reflector that throws all the light up to 
 the ceiling from which it is reflected downward. 
 This is the common type of indirect fixture and 
 is recommended for classrooms, art rooms, dress- 
 making, typewriting rooms, etc., including all 
 places where pupils are likely to be subjected to 
 artificial light for long periods. Its chief disad- 
 vantage consists of the rather dark and gloomy 
 ai>pearance of the under part of the reflector. 
 
 Fig. 144 shows a type of semi -indirect fixture in 
 which the illumination of the glass bowl results 
 in some light passing directly downward while 
 the balance is reflected onto the ceiling by the 
 bowl the same as in the indirect fixture just dis- 
 cussed. This fixture is recommended where the 
 cost of current is an important feature. With 
 less cvirrent consumption, the lighting results of 
 this fixture are almost as satisfactory as with 
 the purely indirect fixtures. 
 
 Besides the ones illustrated, there are other 
 derived variations and designs for fixtures ad 
 infinitum. All are based on the types of fixtures 
 shown and on combinations thereof. Many such 
 fixtures possess real merit but it is impossible 
 to discuss all here. Their characteristics are 
 largely the same or similar to the typical fixtures 
 already cited. 
 
 After the question of fixtures is decided the 
 matter of their location becomes imperative. 
 Usually school authorities do this backwards; 
 tliat is, they locate the outlets long before they 
 know what kind of fixtures will be purchased. 
 Be this as it may, the outlets must be located 
 ^hen a building is built and right or wrong 
 they are therefore located. 
 
 It has been proven by experience that for the 
 standard sized classroom measuring up to 24 ft. 
 
 Fig. 140. 
 
 xVnWXWWxxxxxxvs 
 
 Fig. 141. 
 
 Fig. 142. 
 
 Fig. 143. 
 
 Fig. 144. 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHTING 
 
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102 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 by 32 ft., or thereabouts, four outlets will give 
 fair, six good, and nine excellent results with 
 direct illumination. With the four outlets, 150- 
 watt lamps are generally used, giving 600 watts 
 for the room. With six outlets, 100 watts are 
 usually installed giving 600 watts for the room. 
 With nine outlets, lamps of 60 watts each, or 
 540 watts, are sufficient. Philadelphia, New 
 York and Boston use nine outlets, and twelve 
 are unusual but not unknown. With direct 
 lighting the effect of nine 60-watt lamps is much 
 easier on the eyes than six 100 or four 150-watt 
 lamps, as the nine outlets distribute the sources 
 of light and render the illumination more even. 
 With indirect fixtures four outlets should be 
 enough, but the new gas filled lamps of 200-watt 
 size should be used. As a general thing when 
 outlets must be installed before the kind of 
 lighting is decided upon six outlets are adopted, 
 these being very satisfactory for direct fixtures 
 and ideal for indirect or semi-indirect work. 
 
 It might be explained parenthetically here 
 that common tungsten and carbon filament 
 lamps raise their filament or incandescence in 
 a vacuum of more or less perfect intensity. The 
 lamps known as "gas filled" raise their filaments 
 to incandescence with the aid of a gas, inside 
 a gas-tight bulb; hence the term "gas filled." 
 Gas filled lamps are entirely too bright for 
 direct lighting, being used in the larger unit 
 sizes, for indirect and semi-indirect fixtures. 
 One 150-watt vacuum bulb is generally consid- 
 ered as approximating one 100-watt gas filled 
 lamp. 
 
 From this it can be deduced that the current 
 per classroom for various combinations will run 
 about as follows: 
 
 Method of Approx. Watts 
 
 Illumination Type of Bulb Per Room 
 
 Direct Lights Vacuum Tungsten 600 
 
 Indirect or Vacuum Tungsten 900 
 
 Serai-indirect Gas Filled Tungsten 800 
 
 This means that while indirect lighting adds 
 over 50 per cent to the candle power, gas filled 
 bulbs cut the current per candle power to about 
 50 per cent, thus making the actual increase in 
 current consumption over direct lighting only 
 about 30 per cent. With indirect and semi- 
 indirect illumination it is necessary that the fix- 
 tures be installed so as to bring the top of the 
 glass approximately three feet from the ceiling 
 in rooms eleven to fourteen feet high. 
 
 It should be pointed out here that while in- 
 direct and semi-indirect fixtures approximate 
 ideal lighting they have certain objections pecu- 
 liar to school work. The objections have been 
 regarded so seriously as to prohibit their adop- 
 tion in at least one case, viz.. New York City, 
 and there are others who have had similar 
 troubles. 
 
 These faults mainly lie in the fact that the 
 pupils find the fixtures good receivers for paper 
 wads, erasers, pencils, rubbers, waste paper, etc. 
 Difficulty is also experienced in making the 
 janitors keep the bowls clean, as these are con- 
 cealed from view, and very rapidly collect dust. 
 This dust, if not removed obscures the light to 
 such an extent as to reduce the efficiency 50 per 
 cent. 
 
 For the proper location of outlets the room 
 should be divided into as many rectangles as 
 outlets, and an outlet should be placed in the 
 center of each rectangle. Some school boards 
 make it a practice to set the lights slightly off 
 center toward the windows so as to have the 
 artificial light rays fall on an angle somewhat 
 in imitation of the natural rays of light from 
 the windows. It is of course impossible to actu- 
 ally produce enough change of angle to be of 
 any importance and the location of the outlets 
 in such unbalanced positions makes a very bad 
 appearance in the room. One economy which 
 CAcry board may practice is that of putting the 
 row of lights along the windows on a separate 
 switch. There are many dark days when there 
 may be plenty of light adjacent to the windows 
 but not farther away. In this case the farther 
 outlets only are used. The lights along the 
 windows are on a second switch and are used 
 only at night and on very dark days. 
 
 The arrangement of outlets for a classroom 
 having four lights, together with the wiring and 
 switches for the same, is shown in Fig. 145. The 
 more common six light classroom is shown in 
 Fig. 146 which also indicates a floor outlet for 
 the teacher's desk. The room with nine outlets 
 is shown in Fig. 147, but this arrangement is 
 seldom used. In all cases the lights in the coat 
 rooms should be on a separate switch. Where 
 two coat rooms are adjacent one light can be 
 made to do for both by using a dwarf partition 
 and installing the light high and directly over 
 the partition. 
 
 It has also become the practice in some cities 
 to place a floor outlet under the teacher's desk 
 
ELECTRIC LIGHTING 
 
 103 
 
 to allow for the use of a desk lamp, if desired. 
 In such cases the outlet is made in a box, flush 
 with the floor, into which an extension cord for 
 the desk lamp is plugged. Such outlets are in- 
 stalled only with direct lighting. In some schools 
 in which visual instruction is emphasized a wall 
 plug is provided in the rear of the room for a 
 small stereopticon. 
 
 In corridors, of course, illuminating require- 
 ments are not so exacting, being only one-third 
 to one-fourth the requirements of classrooms, 
 and outlets are seldom spaced over 40 feet apart. 
 Usually 100-watt lamps are employed spaced 
 about 30 feet apart. Shorter spacing and smaller 
 units (60 watts or less) will give more uniform 
 light than longer spacing and higher powered 
 lamps, but the first cost is greater. 
 
 In lecture rooms the light should be particu- 
 larly good at the front of the room where experi- 
 ments will be carried on and at the rear an 
 outlet of 5,000 watts capacity is usually pro- 
 vided for stereopticon use. 
 
 It is also a good idea in locating wall switches 
 to place them six feet from the floor to prevent 
 their manipulation by the younger pupils. 
 
 For those interested in the eccentric location 
 of outlets for classrooms the plan shown in Fig. 
 148 is given. Here the normal locations of a six 
 light arrangement are shown in dotted lines and 
 the eccentric locations are indicated in full lines, 
 the distance between the normal centers and the 
 modified centers being given in each direction. 
 
CHAPTER XVI 11 
 
 Vacuum Cleaning 
 
 The newest mechanical equipment to be al- 
 most universally adopted for school use is that 
 for vacuum cleaning. The modern vacuum 
 cleaning machine is a distinctly recent develop- 
 ment and because there are comparatively few 
 buildings in which vacuum cleaning has been 
 installed for any great length of time, there is 
 but little practical data on the subject. The 
 results obtained depend largely on the individ- 
 ual operator, and few school boards have enough 
 machines in service to give any fair comparison 
 between them. Still fewer school boards have 
 made any effort to compare the results which 
 have so far been reached. While much testing 
 has been done by the individual manufacturers 
 of the various makes of apparatus their con- 
 clusions cannot be accepted as wholly unbiased, 
 and with the exception of tests made by the 
 federal goverment there is little data of depend- 
 able nature. 
 
 Some information on the use of vacuum 
 cleaning in schools has been collected by the 
 author and will undoubtedly be a help to those 
 who are not familiar with this kind of equip- 
 ment. 
 
 In the first place vacuum cleaning, as its name 
 implies, is a system of cleaning by means of a 
 vacuum partial vacuum would be more correct 
 and is suitable for the removal of dust, 
 snialler particles of refuse and other material 
 such as sand, small nails, matches, splinters, 
 etc. This removal is effected without causing 
 the slightest dust to fly and settle at some other 
 objectionable point. 
 
 In order to operate such a system a vacuum 
 producer (or machine), a system of piping, a 
 flexible hose, and various cleaning tools are 
 necessary. The vacuum producer exhausts the 
 air of the piping system thus producing the 
 required degree of vacuum. The flexible hose 
 connected to the various outlets on the pipe 
 lines serves to carry the vacuum from the pipe 
 outlet to the desired cleaning point, and the 
 actual removal of the dirt is accomplished by 
 the cleaning tool attached to the end of the 
 hose. 
 
 The theory of operation is that the pressure 
 of the atmosphere (which is about 14 pounds 
 per square inch) tends to drive the air into the 
 
 end of the cleaning tool where the vacuum open- 
 ing is located and thus to diminish or entirely 
 break the vacuum. As the machine on the other 
 end of the piping is constantly withdrawing the 
 air, the vacuum, however, is not entirely broken 
 by the continuous rush of air. The constant 
 continuance of this action makes possible clean- 
 ing by vacuum. 
 
 If the vacuum opening in the end of the tool 
 is laid against a piece of carpet, rug, or even 
 the bare floor the obstruction acts as a plug 
 and causes the air to enter the opening thru 
 every possible leak either around the opening 
 or thru the material itself. During its passage 
 into the tool the air engages every particle of 
 loose dust and dirt in the neighborhood of the 
 opening. The action is much like the winter 
 wind blowing the ground clear of snow in spots 
 vs'here the fury of the gale is concentrated. 
 Vacuum cleaning, however, will not remove ink 
 spots, stains, grease or other similar uncleanli- 
 ness; it is able to carry only loose particles of 
 dry matter. 
 
 Vacuum cleaning systems are generally 
 classed as "high" vacuum or "low" vacuum, 
 according to the degree of vacuum maintained 
 by the machine, and as "large volume" or 
 "small volume," according to the amount of air 
 handled per "sweeper." The size of the plant 
 is based on the number of "sweepers" or tools 
 which the machine can operate effectively at 
 one time. Thus a "two sweeper" plant can 
 operate two tools run by two different men from 
 any two outlets desired, but will not be able to 
 remove the air as fast as three sweepers would 
 admit it. Three sweepers on a "two sweeper" 
 plant would result in a loss of vacuum on the 
 whole system to so great an extent as to put 
 all the tools out of commission. The effect is 
 the same as putting too many faucets on 'a 
 small water pipe resulting in a great loss of 
 pressure when all are opened and a consequent 
 reduction in the amount of water delivered by 
 each. 
 
 A "high" vacuum plant is one which operates 
 at a vacuum equal to about 10 or 12 inches of 
 mercury (5 pounds per sq. in. less than atmos- 
 phere) while a "low" vacuum system operates 
 on about 5 or 6 inches of mercury (2V2 pounds 
 
 104 
 
VACUUM CLEANING 
 
 105 
 
 per sq. in. less than atmospliere) . While high 
 vacuum is more effective for thick carpets, rugs, 
 upholstery, etc., it has little, if any, advantage 
 for bare floor cleaning. 
 
 An excellent form of tool for bare floor work 
 is shown in Fig. 149. It is provided with slots 
 to prevent the pads from sticking too tightly to 
 the floor on account of the vacuum suction. 
 To get into corners a rubber pointed tube which 
 is equally efficient to clean desk boxes, pigeon 
 holes and other small places is used. The hold- 
 ers for the tools are generally of aluminum and 
 are hollow, so that the air and dirt passes thru 
 the handle to the hose connected at the upper 
 end. The size of the hose may be 1% inch, but 
 1^/^ inch is better as it reduces the friction 
 loss an important factor in low vacuum sys- 
 tems. 
 
 on the opposite side of the building. This 
 arrangement still leaves the middle portion be- 
 yond reach of the hose. Therefore, outlet V. 
 C. O. No. 4 is placed in the corridor on the 
 center line of the building, and the radius from 
 this outlet covers the balance of the building. 
 Theoretically these outlets would be sufficient 
 but they must be tested out for the location of 
 doors to see that the hose will reach when run 
 around the actual path which it must follow. 
 On outlet No, 1 it is found that the hose will 
 not quite reach to the extreme corner of the 
 lower lefthand classroom; but the distance is so 
 small that the tool length (4 ft. in.) may be 
 counted upon to cover the dotted space. A 
 similar laying out of hose thru the offices O and 
 the toilet T from outlets Nos. 1 and 2 shows no 
 trouble; but on outlet No. 4 it is found impos- 
 
 re// 
 
 Fig. 149. 
 
 The piping for vacuum cleaning must be run 
 so as to have outlets at certain convenient 
 points. These points are located on the various 
 floors directly over one another so that one verti- 
 cal riser will serve one or two outlets on each 
 floor without any horizontal piping. As a typi- 
 cal example the plan of the small school shown 
 ill Fig. 150 may be taken to determine the loca- 
 tion of the vacuum cleaning outlets. In the 
 drawing, C indicates classrooms, A auditorium, 
 O office, TR teachers' room and T toilet. 
 
 Beginning at the lower lefthand corner a 
 circle can be swung with a fifty foot radius 
 (the desirable length of hose) the center of the 
 circle being at the vacuum cleaning outlet V. 
 C. O. No. 1. It is found that this circle will 
 not cover the entire lefthand end of the build- 
 ing so another outlet, V. C. O. No. 2 is placed 
 so that its 50 foot radius will cover the balance 
 of this end of the building. Similar outlets 
 V. C. O. No. 5 and V. C. 0. No. 6 are located 
 
 sible to get into the auditorium A. Neither 
 will hose run from outlets Nos. 1 or 6 cover it. 
 Consequently another outlet in the auditorium 
 (No. 4a) is necessary to cover the dotted por- 
 tion shown. Had the auditorium been provided 
 with a door near outlet No. 4, the hose could 
 have been run thru the door and outlet No. 4a 
 omitted. Trouble also develops in the rear 
 classroom between outlets No. 4 and 5 but the 
 portion not covered (shown dotted) is so small 
 that the length of tool may again be considered 
 sufficient to make up the required distance. 
 
 In the basement (Fig. 151) the lines are con- 
 nected together into a main fitted with clean- 
 outs, (C. O.) and to the vacuum cleaning mach- 
 ine. In the machine the air and dirt are sepa- 
 rated, the air escaping usually into a fine or 
 outdoors, but sometimes, on small machines, in- 
 to the basement itself. The piping should all 
 be black iron with recessed screwed drainage 
 fittings to avoid clogging. The cleanouts should 
 
106 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 \ 
 
 
 ^\ / 
 
 ^fr^^-^-^m 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 150. 
 
 1 I 
 
 Fig. 151. 
 
VACUUM CLEANING 
 
 107 
 
 be brass plugs screwed into the pipe fittings. 
 It is also a good plan to have cleanout Ys' in 
 any long straight run say at fifty foot intervals 
 to permit easy access in case of trouble. Flan- 
 ges as shown at "FLG," Fig. 152 also permit 
 disconnecting when desired. 
 
 Fig. 152. 
 
 The elevation of the typical riser shown in 
 Fig. 152 shows how the piping is run to the 
 upper floor, picking up the first floor outlet on 
 the way down. Some engineers advocate that 
 
 '^BfOSS P/uf 
 
 Fig. 153. 
 
 Fig. 154. 
 
 no riser or main be less than 2% inches in size 
 so that matches cannot become lodged cross- 
 wise in the pipe as they are liable to in the 
 smaller sizes. 
 
 In putting in vacuum cleaning piping several 
 points should be kept in mind: Install clean- 
 outs as shown in Fig. 153 but never as in Fig. 
 154, as the dirt will be thrown into the plug 
 pocket collecting there and gradually building 
 up a stoppage in the pipe. Never joint two 
 branches with a "bull-head" tee as shown in 
 Fig. 155, nor even with a double Y as shown in 
 Fig. 156 as the air will throw the dirt into the 
 opposite branch so as to plug it up. Instead, 
 use two Y's as shown in Fig. 157. Always 
 joint a branch to the main with a Y as shown 
 in Fig. 158 but never with a tee as shown in 
 Fig. 159; also see to the very important point 
 of having every pipe carefully reamed before 
 erection to avoid burrs which will catch lint 
 and dust. 
 
 
 Usf 
 
 Fig. 155. 
 
108 
 
 MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 
 \_L-^j5ro/7 c/7 T-J_3 
 
 Fig. 156. 
 
 Where outlets are put in for basement use 
 they are below the level of the main and must 
 pull the dirt up to the level of the main. This 
 is entirely practical but the basement drop 
 pipes must be connected so that the dirt passing 
 thru the horizontal line cannot fall into it. A 
 connection like that shown in Fig. 160 should 
 never be made. Either connect the basement 
 pipe hach of the upper floor riser or bring it 
 into the main sideways so that dirt will not 
 drop down as it passes in the main. 
 
 It is impossible in a discussion of this kind 
 to recommend any particular machine for 
 school use as there are several good machines 
 on the market. The most practical method for 
 a board to use is to decide upon the number of 
 sweepers they will want operated at one time 
 and then to receive manufacturer's proposals 
 as to the details of their particular apparatus, 
 power consumption under full load, cost, etc. 
 This gives the greatest opportunity to get a 
 good machine at the lowest cost and will per- 
 mit any manufacturer to compete. 
 
 In order to determine how many sweepers are 
 necessary something must be known of what 
 
 Fig. 157. 
 
 can be done with one sweeper. On bare floors 
 vacuum cleaning is much more rapid than with 
 carpets and an ordinary schoolroom can be 
 cleaned in about fifteen minutes so that eight 
 classrooms could be easily cleaned by one man 
 after school sessions. It can also be assumed 
 that the corridors, special rooms, etc., can be 
 cleaned during school hours. Therefore, the 
 sweeper capacity will run close to one for every 
 eight classrooms or fraction thereof. 
 
 Another way to figure is that a good operator 
 can clean 4,000 sq. ft. per hour. Allowing 21/2 
 hours for cleaning after sessions,* would give 
 4,000x21/2, which equals 10,000 sq. ft. per 
 sweeper capacity. 
 
 The cost of vacuum cleaning systems varies 
 widely with the type of machine, length of runs, 
 etc. As an idea it might be said that a one 
 sweeper plant with piping, tools, etc., will cost 
 in the neighborhood of $1,500, a two sweeper, 
 $1,800 and a three sweeper, $2,100. 
 
 p^"*^ K/ser to Upper T/oora 
 
 Qr^ 
 
 J3/^an ch 
 
 -Tfo/n 
 
 Fig. 158. Fig. 159 
 
 Sosement 
 
 Fig. 160. 
 
INDEX 
 
 Aeration, Swimming Pool, 93 
 
 Air, Composition of, 8; Pressure Unbalanced in Rooms, 25; 
 
 Standard for Lunchroom, 31 
 Air-Motor for Temperature Regulation, 22 
 Air- Washer, 10 
 
 Alberene Stone Fixtures, 34; Partitions, 48 
 Alternating Current, 89 
 Ammonia Systems of Refrigeration, 74-76 
 Architects, 7 
 
 Argentine Glass Partitions, 48 
 Arrangement of Lighting Outlets, 102; Pool Equipment, 95; 
 
 Shower Bath Stalls, 52; Toilet Room Fixtures, 46; 
 
 Vacuum Cleaning Outlets, 105-108 
 
 Artesian Well, 95 
 Artificial Illumination, 99 
 Assembly Room, Ventilation of, 19 
 Auditorium Radiators, 21 
 Auditorium, Ventilation of, 19 
 Automatic Sprinkler System, 68-71 
 Automatic Temperature Regulation, 22-24 
 
 Bacteria, 78-82 
 
 Basement Toilet Rooms, 44-46 
 
 Baths, Shower, 93 
 
 Boilers, 86-87; Hot Water Heating, 95 
 
 Bottom-feed Water System, 59 
 
 Breathipg Walls, 17 
 
 Bubblers, 41 
 
 Carbonic Acid in Air, 8 
 
 Centrifugal Pump, (Pool), 95; (Water), 59 
 
 Chemical Fire Extinguishers, 71-80 
 
 Chemical Fume Exhaust, 30 
 
 Chemical Laboratory Hoods, 30 
 
 Chemistry Laboratory, Ventilation of, 28 
 
 Circulation, Down-feed System of Hot Water, 61; Forced 
 Hot Water, 67; Up-feed System of Hot Water, 61-63 
 
 Circulation Pump for Drinking Water, 76; for Pool, 95 
 
 Classrooms, Location of Air Registers in, 10-12; Natural 
 Lighting, 99 
 
 Cleaning, Vacuum, 104 
 
 Cleanouts, Vacuum, 105-107 
 
 Closet, Local Vent, 36; Partitions, 48-50; Range, 35; Syphon 
 Jet, 35; Wall Hung, 37; Wash-down, 35 
 
 Cloth Filter, 10 
 
 Coke Screen, 9 
 
 Compartment, Shower Bath, 50-52 
 
 Cooking Sinks, 42 
 
 Cooling Water Tank, 75 
 
 Conditions of Swimming Pools in the United States, 93 
 
 Construction of Swimming Pools, 93-94 
 
 Contact Sewage Disposal System, 78 
 
 Control of Water Temperature, 66 
 
 Control, Thermostatic, 24 
 
 Corridors, Illuminating, 103 
 
 Co-agulant, 91 
 
 Co-agulant Feeding Apparatus, 95 
 
 Cost of Pool, 98; Power Plant, 84; Power Plant Operation, 
 85; Swimming Pool Operation, 90-91; Vacuum Clean- 
 ing Systems, 108 
 
 Current, Alternating, 89. 
 
 Damper Regulator, 24 
 
 Damper, Revolving, 21; Air Mixing, 13-14 
 
 Diffusion of Light, 100 
 
 Direct Illumination, 99 
 
 Direct Lighting Fixtures, 100 
 
 Disposal Field, Sewage, 81 
 
 Disposal System, Contact, 78; Intermittent Filter, 82-83 
 
 Double Duct Systems, 13-14 
 
 Down-feed System of Water Circulation, 61 
 
 Down Supply Systems of Ventilation, 21 
 
 Drain Boards on Kitchen Sinks. 42 
 
 Dressing Room, Shower Bath, 50 
 
 Drinking Fountains, 40-41, 77 
 
 Drinking Water, 73 
 
 Duct Systems, 13-18 
 
 Economy of School Power Plants, 84-87 
 
 Electric Current, 84 
 
 Electiic Sterilizers (Water), 97-98 
 
 Electric Power, 84 
 
 Enameled Iron Fixtures, 34 
 
 Engineers, 8 
 
 Engines, 87-88 
 
 Exhaust and Oil Separator, Free, 86 
 
 Exhaust, Chemical Fume, 30 
 
 Exhaust Outlet in Toilet Room, 25; in Classroom, 10-12; 
 
 in Assembly Halls, 19; in Lunchroom, 31 
 Extinguishers, Chemical, 71-80; Fire, 71-72 
 
 Fan Room Arrangement, 9 
 
 Fans, Toilet Exhaust, 25 
 
 Faucets, 40 
 
 Fields, Sewage Disposal, 81 
 
 Filters, 57; Coke, 9; Cloth, 10; Intermittent Sand, 78; 
 Percolating, 78; Pool, 91-95; Pressure, 57 
 
 Fire Extinguishers, 71-72; Chemical, 71-80 
 
 Fire Hose, 68 
 
 Fire Protection, School, 68 
 
 Fire Pump, 71 
 
 Fixtures, Arrangement of Toilet Room, 46; Direct Light- 
 ing, 100; Location of Lighting, 100; Location of Plumb- 
 ing, 43; Number of Plumbing, 43-44; Objections to 
 Indirect and Semi-indirect Lighting, 102; Selection of 
 Plumbing, 32-35; Semi-indirect Lighting, 100; Toilet 
 Room, 28 
 
 Flexible Hose (Vacuum), 104 
 
 Floor Outlets, Lighting, 102-103 
 
 Flues. 17; Toilet Exhaust, 25 
 
 Flushing Devices, 36 
 
 Flush Valves, 36-37 
 
 Forced Circulation of Hot Water. 67 
 
 Fountains, Drinking, 40-41, 77; Pedestal, 41; Wall Hung, 41 
 
 Free Exhaust and Oil Separator, 86 
 
 Galvanized Iron Fixtures, 34 
 
 Gang Shower, 67 
 
 Gas Heaters, 63 
 
 General Considerations of School Swimming Pool, 90 
 
 Generators, 86; Motor Set, 89 
 
 Gravity Tank, 36, 54-57; Fire, 71 
 
 Gravity Ventilation, 17-18 
 
 Gutter, Scum, 98 
 
 Heaters, Gas, 63 
 
 Heating, 8 
 
 Heating Plant, High Pressure. 84; Low Pressure, 84-86 
 
 Heat, Steam, 84 
 
 High Pressure Heating Plant, 84 
 
 109 
 
110 
 
 INDEX Continued 
 
 High Vacuum Cleaning System, 104-105 
 
 Hoods, Chemical Laboratory, 30-31; Kitchen, 30-31 
 
 Hose, Flexible (Vacuum), 104; Fire, 68 
 
 Hose Rack, 70 
 
 Hose Valve, 70 
 
 Hot Water Heating Boilers, 95 
 
 Hot Water Systems, 61 
 
 House Pump, 87 
 
 House Tanks (Water) 59 
 
 Illuminating Corridors, 103 
 
 Illumination, Artificial, 99; Direct, 99; Indirect, 99-100; 
 Semi-indirect, 100 
 
 Importance of Proper T,ighting of Classrooms, 99 
 
 Indirect Illumination, 99-100 
 
 Individual Duct Systems, 13-17 
 
 Individual Shower Bath Stall, 50 
 
 Injector, 95 
 
 Intermittent Filter, Sewage Disposal System, 82-83 
 
 Intermittent Sand Filter System, 78 
 
 Iron, Enameled Plumbing Fixtures, 34; Galvanized Fix- 
 tures, 34 
 
 Kitchen and Slop Sinks, 41 
 Kitchen Ventilation, 30 
 
 Lamps, Tungsten, 99 
 
 Lavatories, Vitreous-Porcelain, 40 
 
 Lecture Room Lighting, 103 
 
 Light, Diffusion of, 100 
 
 Lighting Fixture, Direct, 100; Indirect, 100; Semi-indirect, 
 100 
 
 Lighting, Lecture Ro.om, 103 
 
 Lighting of Classrooms, Importance of Proper, 99; Na- 
 tural, 99 
 
 Lighting Outlets, 101-102; Arrangement of, 102; Location 
 of, 102-103 
 
 Light Intensity, Standards of, 102 
 
 Local- Vent Water Closet, 36 
 
 Locution for Sewage Disposal Plant, Selecting a, 78 
 
 Location of Air Registers in Classrooms, 10-12 
 
 Location of Disposal Field, 82 
 
 Location of. Exhaust Outlet in Toilet Room. 25 
 
 Location of Exhaust Registers, in Lunchroom, 31; Lighting 
 Fixtures, 100; Lighting Outlets, 102-103; Plumbing 
 Fixtures, 43; Swimming Pools, 93 
 
 Locker Rooms, 93 
 
 Low Pressure Heating Plant, 84, 86 
 
 Low Vacuum Cleaning System, 104-105 
 
 Lunchroom, Location of Exhaust Registers, 31; Standard of 
 Air, 31 
 
 Marble Fixtures, 34 
 
 Material and Heighth of Wainscot in Toilet Room, 48 
 Metal Work for Shower Bath Partitions, 52-53 
 Mixing Dampers, Air, 13-14 
 
 Motor, Air for Temperature Regulation, 22; Generator 
 Set, 89 
 
 Mushroom Inlets in Auditoriums, 19-22 
 
 Natural Lighting of Classroom, 99 
 Number of Plumbing Fixtures, 43-44 
 
 Oil Separator, Free Exhaust and, 86 
 
 Operating Cost of Power Plant, 85; Swimming Pool, 90-91 
 
 Organization of Schoolhouse Construction, 7 
 
 Outlets, Arrangement of Lighting, 102; Floor, 103; Vacuum 
 
 Cleaning, 105-108; Location of Lighting, 102-103 
 Overflows, Pool, 98 
 
 Partitions, Alberene Stone, 48; Argentine Glass, 48; Closet, 
 
 48-50; Slate, 48 
 Pedestal Fountains, 41 
 Percolating Filter System, 78 
 Piping, Installing Vacuum Cleaning, 107 
 
 Plumbing, 32 
 
 Plumbing Fixtures, Location of, 43; Number of, 43-44; 
 
 Selection of, 32-35 
 Pneumatic Compression Tank, 36 
 Pneumatic Tank, 54 
 
 Pneumatic Water Supply Systems, 54-56; for Fire, 71 
 Pool, Cost of Equipped, 98 
 Pool Equipment, Arrangement of, 95 
 Porcelain Lavatories, 40 
 Porcelain Ware, 33 
 Power, Electric, 84 
 Power Plant, Cost of, 84; Economy of, 84; Operating Cost 
 
 of, 85 
 Pressure Filters, 57 
 Pressure, Water, 59-60 
 Producer, Vacuum, 104 
 Protection, School Fire, 68 
 Pump, Centrifugal (Pool), 95; Centrifugal Water, 59 ; 
 
 Circulation for Drinking Water, 76; Circulation (Pool), 
 
 95; Fire. 71; House, 87 
 
 Rack, Hose, 70 
 
 Radiators, Auditorium, 21 
 
 Range Water Closets, 35 
 
 Reducing Valves, 56-57 
 
 Refrigeration Systems, 74 
 
 Registers, Assembly Halls, 19; Supply and Exhaust, 10-12 
 
 Regulation, Automatic Temperature, 22-24 
 
 Regulator, Damper, 24; Thermostatic Hot Water, 65 
 
 Revolving Damper for Auditorium Ventilation, 21 
 
 Rooms, Locker, 93 
 
 Rules for Operating Swimming Pools, 98 
 
 Sand Filter System, Intermittent, 78 
 
 School Boards, 7 
 
 Scum Gutter, 98 
 
 Selection of Plumbing Fixtures, 32-35 
 
 Selecting a Location for Sewage Disposal Plant, 78 
 
 Semi-indirect Illumination, 100 
 
 Semi-indirect Lighting Fixture, 100 
 
 Semi-transparent Shades, 100 
 
 Separator, Free Exhaust and Oil, 86 
 
 Septic Tanks, 78-81 
 
 Sewage, 78-81 
 
 Sewage Disposal, Contact System, 78 
 
 Sewage Disposal Plant, Selecting a Location, 78 
 
 Shades, Semi-transparent, 100 
 
 Shower Bath and Dressing Room, 50; Compartment, 50-52 
 
 Shower Baths, 93 ; Metal Work for Partitions, 52-53 
 
 Shower, Gang, 67 
 
 Shower Mixing Valve, 65 
 
 Siamese Outlets, 68-69 
 
 Sinks, Cooking, 42; Kitchen and Slop, 41 
 
 Slate Fixtures, 34; Partitions, 48 
 
 Slop and Kitchen Sinks, 41 
 
 Sprinkler System, Automatic, 68-69 
 
 Standard of Air Change, 9; in Assembly Halls, 19; Lunch- 
 room, 31 
 
 Standards of Light Intensity, 102 
 
 Standpipe System, 68-71 
 
 Steam Heat, 84 
 
 Sterilizers, 57-59; Electric, 97-98; Pool, 91-95; Ultra-violet 
 Ray, 57-59 
 
 Study Room, Ventilation of, 19 
 
 Supply Registers, 10-12; Assembly Halls, 19 
 
 Sweepers, Vacuum Cleaning, 104 
 
 Swimming Pool, Construction of, 93-94; Length of Time 
 Water Can be Retained in, 91-93; Location of, 93; 
 Operating Cost of, 90-91; Pure Water, 90; Rules for 
 Operating, 98; Waterproofing, 94 
 
 Swimming Pools in the United States, Average Conditions 
 of, 93 
 
mDEX Continued 
 
 111 
 
 Switches, Location of Wall, 103 
 Syphon Jet Water Closet, 35 
 
 Tank. Cooling Water, 75; Gravity, 36, 54-57; Gravity 
 Fire, 71; Pneumatic, 54; Pneumatic Compression, 36; 
 Septic, 78-81; Water House, 59 
 
 Tempera ture, Control of Water, 66 
 
 Temperature Regulation, Air Motor for, 22; Automatic, 23 
 
 Thermostatic Control, 24 
 
 Thermostatic Hot Water Regulator, 65 
 
 Toilet Exhaust Fans, 25; Exhaust Flues, 25 
 
 Toilet, Normal Enclosure, 48 
 
 Toilet Outlets, Installation of, 25 
 
 Toilet Room Fixtures, 28; Arrangement of, 46 
 
 Toilet Rooms, Arrangement of, 4G-47; Basement, 44-46 
 
 Toilet Room, Wainscot, 48 
 
 Toilets, Ventilation of, 25-27 
 
 Top-feed Water System, 59 
 
 Traps, 32 
 
 Trunk Line Duct System, 13 
 
 Tungsten Lamps, 99 
 
 Ultra-violet Ray Sterilizer, 57-59 
 
 Unbalanced Air Pressure in Rooms, 25 
 
 Up-feed System of Hot Water Circulation, 61-63 
 
 Up Supply Sytem of Ventilation, 21 
 
 Urinals, 28, 37-40; Ventilation of, 40 
 
 Vacuum Cleaning, 104 
 
 Vacuum Cleaning Machine, Method of Purchasing, 108; 
 
 Operation of, 104 
 Vacuum Cleaning Sweepers, 104 
 
 Vacuum Cleaning System, High, 104-105; Low, 104-105; 
 
 Cost of, 108 
 Vacuum Cleanouts, 105-107 
 Vacuum Producer, 104 
 
 Valves, Hose, 70; Shower Mixing, 65; Flush, 36-37, Reduc- 
 ing, 56-57 
 
 Ventilating Toilets, 25-27 
 
 Ventilation, 8; Auditorium, 19; Down and Up Supply 
 Systems, 21; Chemistry Laboratory, 28; Kitchen, 30; 
 Study Room, 19; Toilet Fixtures, 36; Urinals, 40 
 
 Vitreous Lavatories, 40 
 
 Vitreous Ware, 33 
 
 Wainscot in Toilet Room, Material and Heighth of, 48 
 
 Wall Hung Closet, 37 
 
 Wall Hung Fountain, 41 i 
 
 Wash-down Closet, 35 
 
 Water Cooling Tank, 75 
 
 Water, Drinking, 73; in School Swimming Pools, 90; Methods 
 
 of Cooling Drinking, 74; Methods of Heating, 62-65 
 Water Pressure, 59-60 
 Waterproofing, Swimming Pools, 94 
 Water Pump, Centrifugal, 59 
 Water Supply, 54 
 
 Water Supply System, Pneumatic, 54-56; Fire, 71; Hot, 61 
 Water Temperature, Control of, 66 
 Well, Artesian, 95 
 
* 
 
 ^' 
 
 
 MAY 13 1919 
 "AVIS f92, 
 
 NOV 6 1931 
 
 FEB 24 1932 
 
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