LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA GIFT OF Class PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS; OR, INQUIRIES CONCERNING SOME OF THE GREAT PEOPLES AND CIVILIZATIONS OF ANTIQUITY, THEIR PROBABLE RELATION TO A bTILL OLDER CIVILIZATION OF THE ETHIOPIANS OR CUSHITES OF ARABIA. BY JOHN D. BALDWIN,/AlM) NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, FRANKLIN SQUARE. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year I860, by HARPER & BROTHERS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Copyright also secured in Great Britain, and entered at Stationer's Hall, London, and translation reserved. THIS WOKK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED TO THE AMEKICAN OKIENTAL SOCIETY, OF WHICH THE AUTHOR HAS THE HONOR OF BEING A MEMBER. Montesquieu says: "II y a des choses quo tout le monde dit, parce qu'elles ont ete dites un fois." Many stupidities of history and dog- matic denials of the past have no other warrant. Instead of repeating anything "because it has been said once," it is better to accept the results of conscientious investigation. CONTENTS. I. INTRODUCTORY GENERALITIES II. PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS RELATIVE TO THE CURRENT CHRONOLOGIES, THE RELATION OF HELLAS TO CIVILIZA- TION, AND THE MEANING OF PRE-HISTORIC TIMES ......... 23 The current Chronologies .................................................. 24 Hellas and Civilization .............................................. ~ ..... 39 Pre-Historic Times .......................................................... 49 m. PRE-HISTORIC GREATNESS OF ARABIA .......................... 65 An early Civilization in Arabia .......................................... 56 Arabia was the Ancient Ethiopia ........................................ 57 Misapprehension concerning Arabia ..................................... 67 The two Races in Arabia .................................................. 73 Concerning the Old Race...... .............................................. 78 Ancient Arabian Ruins and Inscriptions ............................... 80 The ancient Arabian Language .......................................... 88 Concerning the Origin of Alphabetic Writing ......................... 91 Ancient History of Arabia ................................................. 95 Greek Notices of Arabia .................................................... 99 Arabian Recollections of the Past ........................................ 102 Fragments of Old Arabian History ........................................ 108 The Cushite System of Political Organization ........................ 112 Cushite Science, Astronomical and Nautical ........................... 116 IV. THE PHOENICIANS ................................................... 129 Origin of the Phoenicians .................................... . ............. 130 The Immigration doubted ................................................. 135 Kenan's Theory ............................................................... 137 Their Cushite Religion and Architecture ................... . .......... 141 vi Contents. Page Antiquity of the Phoenicians 145 Periods of Phoenician History 147 The Building of Gades 156 Extent of Phoenician Influence 158 The Pelasgians 162 Minos and his Conquests 165 Phoenician Language and Literature 167 V. CUSHITE OR ARABIAN ORIGIN OF CHALDEA. 173 Chaldean Civilization and Learning 174 History of Chaldea by Berosus 180 Chaldean Antiquities and Traditions 185 The Chaldean Ruins and Inscriptions 188 The Origin of Chaldea 192 The Cushite Language in Chaldea 194 Political Changes in Ancient Chaldea * 190 The Year 2234 B.C 199 Concerning an old Chaldean Temple 202 Assyria and the Semitic Race 204 A Theory concerning the Chaldeans 205 Concerning Chaldean Ancient History 206 Hypothetical Scheme of Chaldean History 209 n. INDIA, SANSKRIT, AND ANTE-SANSKRIT 216 The Indo- Aryans preceded by the Cushites 218 The Rock-cut Temples of India 228 The Dravidian Race and their Language 238 Aryan History and Antiquity 243 The Veda and the Vedic Age 247 Religious History of Sanscrit India I'.Mt Modern Brahmanism ." 258 Indian History and Chronology 260 The Ancient Malayan Empire 263 VII. EGYPT PREVIOUS TO MENES 267 Manetho's History of Egypt 268 Origin and Antiquity of Egypt 271 The old Sanskrit Books on Egypt 277 Contents. \ii Page Dionysus, called Osiris and Bacchus 233 Mythology and Mythological Personages 292 The Ages before Menes 296 Antiquity of Writing in Egypt 300 Attempts to measure Egyptian Antiquity 303 VIII. AFRICA AND THE ARABIAN CUSHITES 30G The Races in Africa 307 A brief Essay on Eaces 311 The Arabian Cushites in Africa 322 Traces of African Ancient History 326 Northern Africa in Pre-Historic Times 335 The Berbers, especially the Touaricks 338 Navigation round Africa 345 IX. WESTERN EUROPE IN PRE-HISTORIC TIMES 352 An ancient Civilization in Western Europe 353 The Age of Bronze in Western Europe 358 The Ancient Race in Western Europe 368 The Ancient History of Italy 371 Western Europe anciently called Africa 375 The old Sanskrit Books on Western Europe 378 The Ancient History of Ireland 381 The Keltic Language 389 Ancient Communication with America ..392 PRE-HiSTORic NATIONS. L INTRODUCTORY GENERALITIES. THE origin of man, and the date of his first appearance on earth, have always been subjects of speculation. We see this in the cosmogonic myths and legends of antiquity, and in the dogmatic chronologies that have been allowed currency in modern times ; but, so far as we know, it is only in very recent times that visionary speculation on these topics has given way to enlightened inquiry. The cyclical schemes of the ancient Eastern world, which computed by tens of thousands and hundreds of thousands the years of man's existence on earth previous to the regular begin- nings of history, may be treated with small ceremony now ; but they are quite as scientific as Archbishop Usher's scheme of chronology, for the men who invented them were skilful astronomers ; and whoever undertakes to show that they are not quite as reasonable, may discover that some- thing can be said on the other side of this question. These cyclical estimates of the past may turn out to be as near the truth as Usher's system of chronology, but neither the one nor the other can now be accepted as an intelligent and truthful exposition of the antiquity of the human race. The whole tendency of scientific investiga- tion and discovery, at the present time, is to class them to- 10 Prc-Historic Nations. gether as alike unwarranted and worthless. We moderns have underrated the antiquity of man. This is shown more and more clearly in two departments of inquiry, where the greatest results are yet to be realized geology and the science of language. Conscientious geologists are forced to say, " The date of man must be carried back far- ther than we had heretofore imagined ;" and accomplished scholars and thinkers respond from the field of linguistic science, " Late discoveries are showing us that the antiq- uity of the human race upon earth must be much greater than has been generally supposed." These two sciences bring important aid to the study of pre-historic times, by compelling us to throw off the tram- mels of false chronologies, and by showing us room hi the past for those great pre-historic developments of civiliza- tion, and those long pre-historic ages of human activity and enterprise, which are indicated by the oldest monuments, records, and mythologies. It is impossible to study faith- fully the ancient mythologies, or the results of exploration in the oldest ruins, or the fragmentary records in which tin* ancients speak of what to them was misty antiquity, with- out feeling that, to accept all they signify, we must enlarge the past far beyond the limits of any scheme of chronology known to modern times. If we luck strength and boldiu to break down the barriers of unreason and pursue inquiry with unfaltering reverence for truth, we may find refuge in the oracular cave of historical skepticism, where little or nothing is seen, beyond the first Greek Olympiad save bar- barism, lying fables, and general chaos. But human intel- ligence cannot remain imprisoned there, especially in this age, when so much is constantly added to our knowledge of the past, and when increasing means for a careful and I The Oldest Writings. 11 hopeful study of antiquity so stimulate inquiry as to make it irrepressible. The oldest writings in existence are inscriptions found in the ancient ruins of Egypt and Southwestern Asia. The oldest books, leaving out those of China, are those preserved by the Indian and Iranian branches of the Aryan family the Rig- Veda, a translated fragment of the Desatir, and portions of the works of Zoroaster ; next to these come the Hebrew Scriptures ; then follow the works of Homer, and some other books and fragments of books, in the Greek language, representing the culture of the lonians of Asia Minor. These books show us the civilization of the com- munities in which they originated, but they do not tell us when or where civilization first appeared. The mytholo- gies, the ruins, the discoveries of linguistic science, and the general voice of tradition, lead us to the conclusion that, so far as relates to the Cushite, Semite, and Aryan races, its first appearance was somewhere in the southwestern part of Asia ; but we can not describe the agencies and methods of its first development, nor give the date of its origin. We nowhere find a continued and permanent advance- ment of any nation or community of these races, but we see a constant progress of civilization from lower toward higher degrees, from the few to the many, and from limited and special toward many-sided and all-embracing develop- ment. Nations rise, flourish, and sink again to obscurity. The Egypt of to-day is not that Egypt which we see in the monuments of its Old Monarchy ; Chaldea is not now the ancient Chaldea which we study in its ruins; to-day we inquire in vain onthe coast of Asia Minor for that Ionian confederacy whose marvelous culture, passing over into 12 Pre-Historic Nations. the Hellenic peninsula, illumed Athens, and made that city the glory of Hellas. It is long since Carthage and Rome ceased to exist. But, while communities and nations have disappeared, this old civilization has remained ; sometimes checked and lowered for a succession of ages, but always reappearing with new developments of its forces and new forms. The Reverend Dr. Lang, in his " View of the Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Nation," is led by the sub- ject to make this observation : " In Tuscany and in Egypt. in India and in China, and, I will add, even in the South Sea Islands and in both Americas, we behold the evidences of a primitive civilization, which, in some instances, had run its course anterior to the age of Homer, but which, at all events, acknowledged no obligation to the wisdom or refinement of the Greeks." Few will question the fact he states, so far as relates to Italy and Asia, although not many who carefully study the past will describe all that civilization as "primitive." Dr. Lang himself is not quite satisfied with this description ; for, in attempting to ex- plain the origin of the ancient civilization which had near- ly run its course in different countries previous to the time of Homer, he adopts the notion of Bailly and others, that it was originated by the antediluvians, and brought through the Deluge to their successors by the family of Noah. Without fully exploring it, he saw a fact that was much too large for his chronology a fact for which there was not sufficient room in the past, as he measured it. The great civilization, so apparent in various nations of antiquity that present themselves to view just beyond the borders of regular history, was not the work of a single !e nor of a single period of national existence. Those Whence came Civilization? 13 nations were preceded by others no less great and impor- tant, although more hidden from observation by their great- er distance from us in time. The civilization of the Phoe- nician!, Egyptians, and other nations of the East passed to the Greeks, the Romans, and the magnificent empire of the Caliphs, making some losses and receiving new develop- ments. Without speaking of what we received from the Kelts, whose civilization was greater than history has ad- mitted, the civilization of modern Europe has grown part- ly out of that of Greece and Rome, and also out of that of the Saracens to a much greater extent than is generally recognised. So has the mental and social cultivation, first seen in Western Asia, flowed on through the ages, from people to people, from the civilizers of Egypt, Chaldea, and India to Europe and America, never defeated entirely, and always surviving the " dark Cages'' that obscured it. We have the highest and widest development it has ever reached. To find its starting-point and write its early his- tory, we must be able to explore the obscurest deeps of antiquity. And yet what seems in these inquiries to be the obscur- est antiquity becomes extremely modern when considered in connection with what geology says of the antiquity of man. Those familiar with the later discoveries of this sci- ence know how slowly, and against what persistency of incredulity and doubt, geologists themselves have been brought to admit the evidence which shows the existence of the human race in the latter part of the geological peri- od which Lyell and others describe as Post-pliocene. This period, which next precedes the " Recent," or that in which, we live, seems as modern as yesterday in relation to the countless geological ages that went before it; but some 14 Pre-Historic Nations. ' tentative efforts at computation make us feel how far away it is from yesterday. Sir Charles LyelFs lowest estimate of the time required to form the present delta and alluvial plain of the Mississippi is more than 100,000 years, It be- longs almost wholly to the Recent period. The lower portion of the peninsula of Florida has been created by a constant growth of coral reefs toward the south, and this growth is still in full activity. "The whole is of Post-ter- tiary origin," say Agassiz and Lyell, " the fossil zoophytes and shells being all of the same species as those now in- habiting the neighboring sea ;" that is to say, the com- mencement of the growth was later than the beginning of the Post-pliocene formation, and probably not much older than the beginning of the Recent period. Agassiz, having ascertained as nearly as possible the average rate of this coral growth, estimates that the gradual formation of the southern half of Florida must have filled a period of not less than 135*000 years. It is no part of my purpose to discuss geological ques- tions. The questions presented in this volume, and the conclusions reached, do not in any way depend on geolog- ical estimates of past time. It may, however, be obse that the discoveries of geology show plainly that the pre- historic ages in Western Europe were not wholly barbar- ous. They show us the remains of a very remote "Age of Stone," in which there is no trace of civilization; but they also bring to light manufactured articles, sepulchral cus- toms, and old structures, the remains of other remote ages when civilized peoples inhabited that part of Europe; such are the monuments of the "Age of Polished Stone" and the "Age of Bronze." Western Europe has its an- cient ruins that invite careful study. Its antiquities of Tioo ancient Civilizations in Asia. 15 this kind are not as grand as those at the East, although the old temple at Abury was not destitute of grandeur in the days of its glory. They have nothing to rival the amazing architecture or the multitudinous inscriptions found in the old ruins of Egypt and Chaldea, but they show us remains of civilized peoples of whom history gives no account. We must turn to Asia to discover the earliest manifesta- tions of civilized life, and ascertain how far they can be traced back into the past. Here we see two great devel- opments of ancient civilization, entirely disconnected from each other, and, so far as we can see, nearly equal in age. The origin of each is hidden by the shadows of very re- mote antiquity. At the East is China, with literary rec- ords claiming to be more than nineteen centuries older than the Christian era, and with a culture in science, in- dustry, literature, and the arts of civilized life scarcely in- ferior to that of the most enlightened nations that have ap- peared in history. Tried by the standards of modern Eu- rope, it takes a very high place in the respect and admira- tion of those best acquainted with it. Professor Whitney, in his " Language and the Study of Language," says very justly, "No race, certainly, outside the Indo-European and Semitic families, and not many races of those families, can show a literature of equal value with the Chinese." This Chinese culture is one of the most remarkable facts in the world's history. Instead of passing from nation to nation, and taking new forces and new forms in a grand progress round the globe, it has neither wandered far from home, nor shown any remarkable variety of development. It has remained chiefly in the country where it grew up, and in the hands of the people by whom it was originated 16 1* re-Historic Nations. dwelling apart from what we call history, as if China were a world by itself. At the West arose another civilization, that seems to hare originated somewhere near the waters of the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Unlike the Chinese in character and history, it was enterprising ; it went forth into the world ; it established communication with all peoples within its reach ; it colonized and occupied other lands ; its influence became paramount " from the extremity of the East to the extremity of the West ;" it changed its seat from nation to nation, ever developing, more and more, a wonderful power of life; it created India and Egypt; its light was kindled all around the Mediterranean ; and, finally, by way of Western Europe, it travelled to America, where it seems likely to have its widest and richest development. It is not in our power to explain with certainty those primitive groupings of mankind which determined the ori- gin of diverse races, and created distinct families of lan- guage. The diverse races exist, although, at the present time, there are not anywhere on the face of the globe many communities where any original race is found entirely free from mixture with some other; and the separate families of language exist, so radically and absolutely unlike that we find it impossible to believe they all proceeded from a common source. The essential unity of mankind in all the peculiar characteristics of humanity is an incontestable fact which cannot be affected by any differences of race or language. Whatever theory denies this fact, or makes it uncertain, is false to human nature, as it appears and speaks for itself in every race and in every language. This is not questioned by those who attempt to solve the prob-, lem by adopting the hypothesis that the human race came Hebrew Tradition concerning Three Races. 17 into existence, originally, at different points on the earth, by simultaneous or successive creations, each primordial group being the source of a separate race and a separate family of languages. Those primeval traditions of the Hebrews, which Moses deemed truthful and worthy of record in the sacred books of his nation, relate almost entirely to the Semitic, Cush- ite, and Aryan families, which, on any hypothesis, must have had a common origin. Their languages constitute three distinct families, for linguistic scholars are making the discovery that the Cushite tongues are a family by themselves, although they more closely resemble the Se- mitic language than that of the Aryan race. Neither of these families differs from the others as they all differ from the Chinese. Between these three races there is no physi- ological difference whatever ; and their differences in other respects are not so great as to exclude entirely the possi- bility of their having issued from a common primordial source, and separated in the early infancy of their first di- alects. They have played connected parts in the work of human development ; and now the Aryan race, enriched with the acquisitions of their combined influence, seems destined to possess and rule the whole planet on which wo live. The Cushite race appeared first in the work of civiliza- tion. That this has not always been distinctly perceived is due chiefly to the fact that the first grand ages of that race are so distant from us in time, so far beyond the great nations of antiquity commonly mentioned in our ancient histories, that their most indelible traces have long been too much obscured by the waste of time to be readily com- prehended by superficial observation. In the earliest He- 18 Pre-Historic Nations. brew traditions, older probably than Abraham, and imme- diately connected with a description of the " land of Eden," where " the Lord God planted a garden" for Adam, Cush (translated Ethiopia) is mentioned as a country or geo- graphical division of the earth ; the" Hebrews saw nothing geographical more ancient than this land of Cush. In the tenth chapter of Genesis, the names recorded are professed- ly used, for the most part, as ethnical and geographical des- ignations ; but this ethnical geography of Genesis, which, excepting the interpolations, was probably more ancient than even the Hebrews themselves understood, must be re- ferred to a period anterior to that great immigration of Cushites from J\rabia into the valley of Mesopotamia, the primeval home of the Semites, which brought civilization and gave existence to the old cities of Chaldea. It seems to me impossible for any free-minded scholar to study the traditions, mythologies, fragmentary records, mouldering monuments, and other remains of the pre-his- toric ages, and fail to see that the people described in the Hebrew Scriptures as Cushites were the original civilizers of Southwestern Asia ; and that, in the deepest antiquity, their influence was established in nearly all the coast re- gions, from the extreme east to the extreme west of the Old World. This has been repeatedly pointed out with more or less clearness, and it is one of those incontestable facts that must be accepted. In nearly all the recorded investi- gations of scholars for the last two centuries, it lias ap- peared among those half-seen facts which dogmatic criticism could treat as fancies without troubling itself to explain them. It could not be otherwise ; for, to see and fully comprehend the significance of Cushite antiquity, we must have greater freedom in the matter of chronology, an I a Conservatism of " Orthodox" Scholarship. 19 more accurate perception of the historic importance of Ara- bia, than have usuully appeared in such investigations. Neither Usher's chronology, nor the little country known to the Greeks and Romans as Phosnicia, will suffice to ex- plain that mighty and wide-spread influence of the Cushite race in human affairs, whose traces are still visible from Farther India to Norway. Here, as well as everywhere else in the' advancement of learning from the old to the new, from the explored to the unexplored, the investigator must settle his relations with the professional conservatism of what passes current as " orthodox" scholarship. This conservatism, like all other conservatisms, has its eminent oracles, whose influence is too frequently allowed to limit inquiry and shape its re- sults. It is less malignant than some other conservatisms, but no less self-assured, and no less ready to chastise bold inquiry. In the history of mankind, it has been common to see wig mistaken for wisdom, while authority usurped the place of reason ; but nothing else has the force of truth ; it may wait for recognition, like Boucher de Perthes on the field of geological science, and, while waiting, be rudely treated as a visionary ; yet it will surely sweep all obstruc- tions out of its way, and constrain the oracles to pronounce in its favor. The influence of what is accepted as " orthodox" learning sometimes deals very summarily with both the work and the reputation of venturesome innovators, who flout its or- acles, question its wisdom, criticise its methods, and under- take to show that important additions can be made to its stock of knowledge. Controversies with such all-wise con- servatism, however, are incident to all inquiry by which progress is maintained. Each profession instinctively dis- 20 J > re- Historic Natiom. allows and resists any interference with its established creed, and becomes a castle where the old is vigorously defended against the new. So it is in theology, in law, in politics, in medicine, in science of every kind, and in every department of learning. \Ve can not reasonably expect our archaeological and historical studies to escape this in- fluence; nor should we very much desire it. If conserva- tism needs movement, innovation needs to adjust its rela- tions with whatever truth is already established. The in- novator proceeds by means of the sharpest methods of criticism; therefore he can afford to endure criticism. Soon or late, whatever investigations sweep away venera- ble rubbish and open the way to progress in knowledge will enforce their claim to respectful consideration ; and nowhere is this surer to be realized than among enlight- ened scholars,' where no ardor of feeling can become fanat- icism, nor any prejudice or pride of opinion be transformed into cureless bigotry. One purpose of this volume is to point out what may be known of the ancient Cushite people, and of the great part they played in developing and spreading civilization. In doing this, it becomes necessary to criticise and discredit some influential theories, speculations, and methods of in- vestigation, which I find to be obstructions in the path of inquiry; and also to show that Usher's chronology is a very false measure of the past, that the antiquity of the human race is much greater than he supposed, and that there can be no intelligent study of antiquity where his or any similar scheme of chronology, or any other dogmatic falsification of the past, is allowed to paralyze inquiry and dictate conclusions. I do not write for learned archaeologists. They have The Aim of this Work. 21 written for me. It is possible, however, that those most deeply learned in archaeology and the science of language may find in this volume suggestions worthy of their at- tention. Perhaps it will enable them to discover a, more satisfactory solution of certain ethnical and linguistic prob- lems with which they are familiar. It can hardly fail to do this if it shall succeed in convincing them that the original Ethiopia was not in Africa, and that the ancient home of the Cushites or Ethiopians, the starting-point of their great colonizing and civilizing movements, was Ara- bia. I do not write for historical skeptics. Their use of reason is so poor and their credulity so great, when they deal with antiquity, that no common influence is likely to break the spell that makes them incapable of looking wise- ly into the past, and studying pre-historic times with any hope of enlightenment. Their habit of accepting prepos- terous and monstrous absurdities, in order to deny the his- torical significance of myths and traditions, and discredit the discoveries of linguistic and archaBological science, must be left to play out its comedy without interference. Others, whose interest in these studies may be stimula- ted anew, or for the first time awakened, by reading this work, will perhaps desire to pursue the subject in a more minute and elaborate way. If so, they can find in the works of German, Danish, French, and English explorers and scholars abundant materials to aid investigation ; and in the department of linguistic science, which in these in- quiries is of the highest importance, there are very valua- ble works by several American scholars, such as Whitney, Marsh, and others. On looking over what I have written, I find that I have criticised many of the linguistic and arch- aeological theories of that eminent and accomplished inves- 22 Pre-Historic Nations. tigator, Ernest Renan, without properly expressing my sense of his great services in these departments of science. If his works relating to the subjects I discuss were not so rich and attractive, or if his style of writing were not so perspicuous and eloquent, it may be that I should have given him less attention. n. PRELIMINARY SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE CURRENT CHRONOLOGIES, THE RELATION OF HELLAS TO CIVILIZA- TION, AND THE MEANING OF PRE-HISTORIC TIMES. HUMBOLDT says in his Cosmos, " What we usually term the beginning of history is only the period when the later generations awoke to self-consciousness." It requires an enlightened view of the past and considerable mental free- dom to see and accept what this signifies; but the ten- dency of scientific studies at the present time is to make it clear and establish it as a commonly accepted truth. Our studies of Ancient History have been embarrassed by two strong but not very wise influences a false chronol- ogy, and a false estimate of the Hellenic people in their re- lation to civilization. These influences have been sup- ported until lately by the theological training and the scholarship of modern times, and they have mutually sup- ported each other; for those who maintain that enlight- ened civilization began in Hellas very easily accept the rabbinical notion that man was created only about 4000 or 5000 years previous to the Christian Era, while those who uphold this unwarranted system of chronology very readily accept the belief that mankind did not get far away from barbarism previous to the literary and artistic devel- opment that brightened Athens. It is impossible to think correctly of the past, or to comprehend the testimony of its monuments, where these views are received as infallible 24 Pre-Historic Nations. oracles and allowed to regulate investigation ; therefore it seems necessary to make them the subject of few prelim- inary observations. THE CURRENT CHRONOLOGIES. Rollin, writing Ancient History, and giving his view of the time and greatness of Ninits and Semiramis, whom lie described as the immediate successors of the first founder of the Assyrian empire, made this confession : "I must own that I am somewhat puzzled by a difficulty that may be raised against the extraordinary tilings related of Ninus and Semiramis, as they do not seem to agree with tin: near the Deluge; I mean such immense armies, such a nu- merous cavalry, and such vast treasures of gold and silver, all of which seem to be of later date." According to Rol- lin's chronology, the Assyrian empire began its great career 2234 years before Christ, or about 115 years after the Dei- ugc, and 235 years previous to the death of Noah. The Hebrew Scriptures inform us that " Noah lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years." Rollin never doubt- ed this record, and did not revise his chronology. There- fore he must have believed (although lie carefully avoided saying so) that Noah outlived the founders of that empire, and saw its progress and grandeur during more than two centuries. It is not surprising that he was puzzled by chronological difficulties. His system afforded no relief from them. It is true that in writing of Ninus and Semir- amis he followed that ready fabler, the Carian physician Ctesias, The first princes of the celebrated Assyrian mon- archy lived nearly a thousand years later. The great em- pire existing in that part of Asia at the date given by Rollin was Chaldean ; but there is nothing in this to re- Chronological Embarrassments. 25 move his perplexity, and later researches afford it no relief, for it is now certain that there were great monarchies in Asia much older than the year 2234 B.C. Such embarrassments as that felt by Rollin multiply as we increase our knowledge of ancient times by a more care- ful study of the mythologies and traditions of the ancients, by investigating the monumental records of the older na- tions, by exploring the oldest ruins (the oldest now, be- cause others that were much older have gone to dust), by comprehending the great revelations of linguistic science, and by searching intelligently the memorials of past time presented in the discoveries of geology. The absurd chro- nology by which they are created, not capable of serving as a guide, becomes an obstruction that must be removed. Could we have the literary records of all the pre-historic nations, or even the lost libraries of the Phoenicians, Chal- deans, and Egyptians, its most confident supporters would become ashamed to urge its claim to respect, and scholars everywhere would hasten to disown the absurdities it has introduced into Ancient History. As it is, enough is known, without calling in the testimony of geology, to show that the period between the creation of man and the birth of Christ is much longer than any of the current chronologies are able to measure. I can not wonder at the amazement, trepidation, and even rage with which some of the dogmatic chronologists behold the revelations of geology. My purpose, however, does not require an appeal to what geology says of the an- tiquity of man. It is manifest, without such aid, that the time between the beginning of the. human race and the Christian Era may have been, as Bunsen maintained in his work on Egypt, five times 4004 years, and even much Ion- B 26 Pre-Historic Nations. ger than Bunsen supposed. The great past was certainly long enough for all that human existence and activity iu pre-historic ages of which so many traces are found. There is nothing to require, indicate, or suggest that the current chronologies should be treated with the smallest degree of respect, while, on the other hand, there is much that de- mands for the pre-historic ages the longest measure intel- ligent inquiry has ever proposed. The business of constructing systems of "biblical" chro- nology has furnished employment for a large amount of learned ingenuity which otherwise might have been led to tvrite great folios on the word " Selah" in the Psalms, or to expound the natural history of ancient giants, or to in- terpret in a very marvelous way the prophetic mysteries of the Apocalypse. It has been chiefly the work of monks and rabbins, and its relation to historical science is very much like that of conjuring astrology to the science of as- tronomy. But it is not wholly useless. It lias undoubt- edly furnished many satisfactions to those whose calling- did not afford a more profitable occupation for intellectual activity, or whose learning had not introduced them to a more enlightened study of antiquity. The authority of what is falsely called "biblical" chronology is no !<. very potent. It can not maintain itself against thai prog- ress of science which constantly increases our knowledge of the past. It must soon disappear, and take its place in the rubbish of the ages with other legendary absurdities which in their time dishonored religion, oppressed the hu- man intellect, and misled honest people by claiming im- mortal reverence. Any system of chronology that places the creation of man only about 4000 or 5000 years previous to the birth The Bible misused and falsified. 27 of Christ is a mere invention, a scholastic fancy, an elab- orate absurdity. There is nothing to warrant it, and not much to excuse it. Those who profess to find it in the Bible misuse and falsify that book. We may as well seek in the Bible for a perfected science of astronomy or chem- istry. It is not there ; and no such chronological scheme ever grew out of scientific inquiry. Moreover, there is a remarkable want of harmony among those who have con- structed such schemes. The various systems of "biblical" chronology claiming attention are at variance among them- selves. According to the Jewish rabbins, man was created 3761 years before Christ ; the Greek and Armenian church- es have been taught to say 5509 years; Eusebius said 5200 ; Panadoras, a learned Egyptian monk, having solved the problem, with great care and exactness of demonstra- tion, said 5493 ; we and the nations of Western Europe have followed Usher, a romancing archbishop of Ar- magh, who maintained, with great particularity of dog- matic demonstration, that the human race began to exist on earth precisely 4004 years before Christ; others have* argued, with ingenuity quite as marvelous, to establish the validity of figures different from any of these. In all these attempts to construct systems of " biblical" chronology, nothing is more apparent than utter lack of scientific method and purpose. The aim has been, not to discover facts, allow their influence, and accept the result, but to compel facts to harmonize with a preconceived the- ory and support g^iven conclusions. A point has been as- sumed in the past beyond which the date of man's first appearance on earth must not be carried ; and this assump- tion, not having the support of science, has feloniously sought that of revelation. Thus chronological dogmatism 28 Pre-Historic Nations. has perpetrated an atrocious outrage on the Bible by im- piously claiming for itself the reverence due to religion. Even learned and religious men have sought to identify this false chronology with Christianity itself, and have pur- sued their investigations of antiquity with a purpose, de- liberately expressed, to force every fact of science, and ev- ery date of ancient history, to agree with it. Maurice's "Indian Antiquities," and his "Ancient History of Hindu- stan," are valuable works. They were first published about eighty years ago, but no one can read them now without respect for the author's learning and ability; yet the- style- in which he upheld this dogmatism of the " biblical" chro- nologists is nowise likely to be imitated at the present nim- by any scholar having the same enthusiasm for archaeolog- ical researches. In his preface to the "Antiquities" he wrote thus : "The daring assertions of certain skeptical French phi- losophers with respect to the age of the world (whose ar- guments I have attempted to refute arguments founded principally on the high assumptions of the Brahmins ami other Eastern nations in point of chronology and astrono- my), could their extravagant claims be substantiated, would have a direct tendency to overturn the Mosaic system, ami with it Christianity." In his first volume of the ''His- tory," on page 2V6, he renewed the subject as follow - am not inclined violently to dispute any positions on this head (chronology) that do not tend to subvert the Mosaic chronology, and I am decidedly for allowing the Eastern his- torians, as a privilege, the utmost latitude of the Septuagint chronology. It is not for a century or two, more or less, that we wage the contest with infidelity, but we cannot al- low of thousands and millions being thrown into the scale." A Crime against Christianity. 29 There was a time when it was deemed a sacred and in- contestable proposition that Hebrew, given by miraculous inspiration, was the original language of mankind, and the primeval mother of all other languages. To assume, as a vital thing in religion, that linguistic inquiry must not be allowed to show any thing contrary to this proposition, would be just as rational as this violent assumption of Maurice in behalf of what he calls the " Mosaic" system of chronology ; and yet with what lordly arrogance of au- thority his " Mosaic" system was set forth ! It would con- descendingly allow its own largest limits " as a privilege," but facts must take care to exist in submissive accordance with its permission, or they would be treated as infidel heresies, for inquiry can have no legitimate aim but to show its infallibility ! What crimes against Christianity have been committed by some of its zealous friends ! and not the least $f these crimes is that which makes it responsible for such follies as this. Nothing can be more unwarranted than to assume that any scheme of chronology is " Mosaic" or " biblical ;" nor does it seem possible to do infidelity a greater service than to use Christianity as the antagonist of honest inquiry and intelligent progress in knowledge, or to talk as if she were not sufficiently great and comprehensive to Avear her crown of glory in presence of any development of science or any progress of civilization. Modern astronomical dis- coveries were at first treated as grave heresies that should be supposed by the Inquisition. Geology, the most rev- erent of sciences, has been treated as an infidel. It is not surprising that discovdtfes relating to pre-historic times, which set aside the current chronologies, have encountered similar criticism ; but it would be very surprising if this 30 Prc-IRstoriG Nations. unchristian dogmatism could maintain itself anywhere much longer. At any rate, truth is not discovered by such methods as that indicated by Maurice. There are many considerations which should have check- ed the confidence with which dogmatic chronology lias limited and falsified the past. The origin of nearly every- thing in our civilization is lost in the obscurity of ages that go back far beyond the oldest historic period. The arts of writing, building, spinning, weaving, mining, and work- ing metals in a word, nearly all the arts and appliances of civilized life, came to us from pre-historic times. They were brought to Europe chiefly by the people known in history as Phoenicians, or through their agency; but, as I have already stated, neither history nor tradition can tell us when or where they originated. Evidence of the riches and magnificence they had created in very remote abound^ in the records, ruins, and other remains of antiq- uity, but neither Chaldea nor Egypt could give a clear ac- count of their beginnings and early history. One thing, however, is certain: they indicate the existence, in pro-his- toric times beyond the reach 'of tradition, not only of civil- ized communities and nations, but also of long periods of civilized life; and they give special significance to such statements of the old writers as the following from Diodo- rus Siculus: "Asia was anciently governed by its own na- tive kings, of whom there is no history extant, either as to any memorable actions they performed, or so much as their names." He says this at the beginning of his attount of Ninus, and applies it to the ages preceding Nineveh and Babylon, The great antiquity of some of the sciences is incontesta- ble. If there were no monumental records of ancient Chal- Antiquity of Civilisation and Science. 31 dea, Egypt, Arabia, and India, we should still have convinc- ing evidence of their great attainments in that knowledge which was " the excellency of the Chaldees" and " the wis- dom of the Egyptians ;" Euclid, an Egyptian, would still be recognised as one of the foremost writers on geometry, and W T C should find it necessary to refer the origin of the science to an age more ancient than the oldest date of even Egyptian chronology. At the same time, it could be shown by authentic quotations from the literary remains of antiq- uity that some of the scholars of Ionia, which preceded Hellas in civilization, taught by the PhcBnicians, Egyptians, and Chaldeans, had a knowledge of astronomy and of other sciences that was not retained by the scholars of Hellas, and seems to have disappeared from the Grecian world with the disciples of Pythagoras. The most ancient peoples of antiquity, at the earliest pe- riods in which we can see and study them, show us thifc civilization was older than their time. It is apparent in their architecture, in the varied possessions and manifesta- tions of their civilized life, in their riches and magnificence, and in the splendor of their temples and royal palaces, that they had many of the arts and sciences, which we deem modern. Meanwhile, we can not easily deny their great at- tainments in astronomy, in presence of the general admis- sion that the sphere filled with constellations, and the zodi- ac with its twelve signs, are at least as old as the Chal- deans. Humboldt, stating the result of inquiry on this point, says : " The division of the ecliptic into twelve parts originated with the ancient Chaldeans." They had the zo- diac, and gave it to the Western countries. So much is eas- ily seen. But the Chaldeans themselves may have received the zodiac from the-more ancient civilizers of their country. 32 Pre-Historic Nations. During the present century, much has been added to our knowledge of the past by exploration in the ruins of Egypt and Chaldea, The researches in Egypt have given us dates as authentic as the monuments themselves, which confound the current chronologies, and open the past to our view somewhat as the discoveries of Columbus opened the world to the geographers of modern*Europe. It is now as cer- tain as anything else in ancient history that Egypt existed as a civilized country not less than 5000 years earlier than the birth of Christ. The monumental and sepulchral rec- ords of that country, marvelous! v abundant, have substan- tially confirmed Manctho's history of Egypt. Tin-re mm never any good reason for doubting the correctness of his dynastic list, as prepared by himself, lie was an Egyptian of great learning and wisdom; he wrote with the libraries and monuments of Egypt before him; his dates are as au- thentic as those of any other historian; ar.d the only ob- jection to them, of any account, comes from the dogmatism of that false chronology which assumes with oracular con- fidence that the past has not room for such dates. We meet here, much less awful than formerly, the same blind arrogance of old prejudice that could see nothing but here- sy in the astronomical discoveries of Galileo. But prejudice is not reason ; false chronology is neither science nor relig- ion ; and the lesson of every age is, that sure defeat awaits those who forbid progress in knowledge, and employ against it the menaces of any tribunal of intolerance. The magnificent discoveries in Egypt, by confirming Manetho's history, have seriously troubled this dogmatism. How can it allow that Menes, who first united all Egypt under one government, began his reign not less than 3893 years previous to the Christian Era? And where can it Egypt and the Chronologists. 33 find respectable logic to discredit such dates against the evidence by which they are supported ? It is amusing to observe the effect of these discoveries on certain eminent and admirable English scholars who have given much at- tention to studies of this kind, one of them being an accom- plished Egyptologist. They cannot deny the facts, and have no inclination to deny them ; but their Oxford and English Church associations seem to have interfered to prevent a frank acceptance of the incontestable antiquity the Old Monarchy of Egypt. For a time they sought to reconcile it with the current chronology which orthodox churchmen hold in great reverence. When this became impossible, and compelled their acknowledgment of the im- possibility, they adopted silence as the best policy under the circumstances, intimating that they could not solve this Egyptian problem in a satisfactory manner. Meaner men can sneer, deny violently, falsify the record, and, with godless infatuation, denounce the whole investigation as "business fit only for infidels." Christianity must be di- vine, for it is able to survive the championship of these meaner men. It will not be questioned that blind reverence for this false method of chronology has been very powerful to dis- credit facts and dates against which there could be no val- id argument, solely on the ground that they seemed disas- trous to its authority. It has controlled the judgment of learned and conscientious men more than they could admit to themselves more than will seem credible a few centu- ries hence, when its character will be explained chiefly by recollection of its absurdities. It comes into every archaeo- logical investigation, to mislead inquiry and hide the true explanation of every fact that implies great antiquity, too B2 >-i Pre-Historic Nations. frequently sure of success because it has been incorporated with the investigator's thought and imagination from the moment when he began to think and acquire knowledge. Its influence grows weaker every day, and yet those who are sufficiently free in thought to disregard it entirely fre- quently find it moving them to utter apologies for doing so. A free-minded and accomplished archaeologist, speaking of the dates furnished by the chronology of Egypt (Revue des Deux Mondes, tome Ivi., p. 666), says : "I know how appalling these figures are, and what grave apprehensions* they awaken. I have shared these apprehensions ; but what can we do against the concurring lists furnished by .Mmietho, Eratosthenes, the Turin papyrus, and the Egyp- tian tablets of Abydos, Thebes, and Sakkara V" This tone of apology may have some good use, perhaps, but does it express anything that can actually be found in his own conviction or feeling ? Such dates can alarm nothing but false chronology, for which he cannot feel much concern. Instead of being hostile to any thing else in which a hu- man interest is possible, they are friendly and full of satis- factions. It seems astonishing that the authority of false chronol- ogy should ever have been sufficient to secure toleration for some of the absurdities it has originated. Take, for in- stance, its very surprising representations concerning the time of Zoroaster. It was necessary to recognise Zor ter as a real personage, representing a great religious epoch of the Iranian people. It was seen that all accounts of him placed the time of his appearance far back in the past, the Greeks saying that he lived 5000 years before the Trojan War, and 6000 years before the death of Plato. But facts must not be stubborn, for here, as everywhere else, the cur- Absurdities of false Chronology. 35 rent chronology, being supreme, must read the testimony and construe the facts in its own way ; therefore it was as- sumed falsely that Zoroaster lived in the sixth century be- fore Christ, during the reign of Darius Hystaspes, or during that of his father, who, as we know, was not a king, and never reigned at all. And this absurdity, already inex- pressible, was heightened by a miraculous operation of " Mosaic" zeal, which transformed the great Iranian teach- er into a Jew. The Rev. Drs. Hyde and Prideaux (the former in his " Veterum Persarum et Medorum Religionis Historia," and the latter in his " Connexions"), with sol- emn gravity befitting the wonderful announcement, repre- sented Zoroaster as a native of Palestine, born of Jewish parents, who first appeared in Persia as a menial servant in the families of Ezra and Daniel. Here was brilliancy almost equal to that of a Rev. Dr. Joshua Barnes, of the last century, who published an elab- orate work to prove that Solomon wrote the Iliad.* It is not common to see Zoroaster transformed into a Jew, even by those wno refuse to see that he lived many ages before Abraham. Even a hundred and seventy years ago, when Dr. Hyde wrote, not many " biblical" chronologists were " Mosaic" to this extent. Anquetil du Perron, and others who followed him, adhered to the incongruous chronologi- cal dicta already established, although larger information should have qualified them to apply the proper criticism and present a more intelligent vlfew of Iranian antiquity. * Scientific investigation is accustomed to the remarkable brilliancies of this kind of learned acumen. Dr. Hitchcock says in a work on Geol- ogy : ' ' Felix Plater, professor of anatomy at Basle, referred the bones of an elephant found at Lucerne to a giant at least 19 feet high, and in En- gland similar bones were regarded as those of the fallen angels !" '><> Pre-Historic Nations. According to the Desatir, the Dabistan, and the old Ira- nian histories, there was a great king of that branch of the Aryan people known as Kai Khusro, who was a prophet and an ascetic. He had no children, and after " a glorious reign of sixty years" he abdicated in favor of a subordinate prince named Lohorasp, also an ascetic, who, after a long reign, resigned the throne to his son Gushtasp. It was during the reign of Gushtasp that Zoroaster appeared. Gushtasp was succeeded by Bahman, his grandson ; Bah- man by Darab, who was slain by rebels ; and Darab by Se- kander, who restored order and became famous in Iranian history. Tljese were not kings of Persia; they reigned at Balkh, and HVCM! many centuries before Persia became- an independent kingdom. The Desatir calls their realm the kingdom of Hiras, and their people the Hirasis, names that seem to be modifications of the word Arya. All this implied that the time of Zoroaster was far away in the past. The current chronologies were " frightened" at the mention of its possible distance from us.| Such an- tiquity must be disallowed; therefore the kingdom of Hi- ras was transformed into the kingdom of Persia, Kai Khus- ro into Cyrus the Great, and Gushtasp into Darius II \ pes or his father. And why was this, done ? The answer is, " Because this period is less subject to chronological dif- ficulties than many others." This is the only reason that can be given for a stupidity that is wellnigh matchless. The chronological system used does not allow room in the past for the true period. The time of Darius Hystas]>r< or his father is the best it can afford, although the true pe- riod may have been several millenniums previous to that time. It was certainly many ages before either Media or Pgrsia was heard of as a distinct nation. The kingdom of Our Chronologies and China. -J7 Hiras belongs to re-mote ages previous to Babylon and As- syria, and, it may be, previous to Chaldea and Egypt, so far as relates to its origin and the first periods of its history. The time has come when our current chronologies must more definitely adjust their relations with the history of China. This has already been attempted without satisfac- tory results, and there have been efforts to discredit the great antiquity implied by the civilization and literary rec- ords of that country. It is nowise likely that a more com- plete acquaintance with Chinese historical literature will make the task easier. It seems evident now that actual harmony between our chronology and Chinese antiquity is impossible. Heretofore we have seen China from a dis- tance, heard reports of its civilization from mariners and merchants who have been permitted to visit some of its ports, from missionaries who have seen something of the interior, and from embassies that have seen its magnificent roads and its royal court ; and Chinese books collected and brought to Europe have engaged the attention of scholars. But the commercial intercourse with Eastern Asia now opening across the Pacific begins a new era in the history of the world, and China, withdrawn from a seclusion no longer possible, will become as familiarly known to us as any other cultivated nation with which we have inter- course. It is impossible to deny the vast antiquity of that coun- try without using methods of criticism that would destroy the credibility of all history. Litse, an eminent Chinese historian, after describing the fabulous and mythical ages, comes to " the reigns of men" during long periods of time of which there is no chronology, although some knowledge of those old rulers is recorded. One of them, named Sui- '' i Prc-lRstoric shin, " took observations of the stars, and investigated the five elements." 'Next come the " Five Rulers," who are mythical representatives of historical epochs in " the peri- od before Yao." They arc named as follows : 1. Fu-hi, who cultivated astronomy, religion, and the art of writing, and whose dynasty consisted of fifteen kings : he repre- sents a great epoch in Chinese history; 2. Shin-nung, who promoted agriculture and medical science, and had a line of successors. 3. Hoang-ti, a great sovereign, who put down a revolt, and in whose time the magnetic needle was discovered, the written character improved, and many ap- pliances of civilized life carried to greater perfection ; the 4th and 5th of these "Rulers," or heads of dynasties, were descendants of Hoang-ti. The "Five Rulers" were fol- lowed by the second period, called "the period of Yao and Shin." Next came the period of the " Imperial Dyna> which be^an with the Emperor Yu, or Ta-yu, the great and good Yu. The great historical work of Sse-ma-thi-an, writ- ten about 2000 years ago, narrates events chronologically from the year 2637 B.C. to 122 B.C. In the earliest times brought to view there appears a degree of civilization and culture which mu>t have U-eii the growth of many previous ages. One fact stated is im- portant in its relation to "the period of the Five Rulers." It is said that the Chinese cycle of 60 years was established in the 61st year of Hoang-ti's reign. This being so, it fol- lows, by mathematical demonstration, that Hoang-ti's reign began in the year 2698 B.C., for the 75th recurrence of this cycle was completed with the year 1863 A.D. The time of Fu-hi was probably 500 years earlier; and previous to him were the more ancient rulers, some of whom cultivated the science of astronomy. It seems impossible to avoid Hellas and Civilisation. 39 the conclusion that Chinese civilization is as old as Usher's date for the beginning of the human race, and, perhaps, much older.. I assume, in these inquiries, that the current " biblical" chronologies have no warrant from either science or the Bible, and that they must not be allowed to pass for more than they are worth. HELLAS AND CIVILIZATION. The false chronologies, and slowness to admit that pre- historic times were not necessarily barbarous, have troubled our histories of the people called Greeks. Heretofore the scholarship of modern Europe has too much fostered, a be- lief that enlightened civilization, science, and art all began with the people of Hellas, arid had their first great devel- opment at Athens. Hellenic egotism, inherited with Hel- lenic literature, has not served as the best qualification for writing or reading histories of the Greek race. What be- longs to several families of this brilliant group of the great Aryan people has been given to one, and that the latest in development ; and what they all received from the Phoeni- cian or Cushite culture, which immediately preceded them in the same regions, has not been well considered. This* influence has sometimes made it difficult to see that even Babylon, Egypt, Assyria, and Persia had any thing higher or more enlightened than a certain greatness of " barbaric pomp and splendor." That interpretation of antiquity which begins its history of civilization with the Hellenes and the Romans, and ex- cludes every thing not recognized and celebrated by their literary oracles, is not entitled to the highest degree of re- spect. Neither the Hellenes nor the Romans gave an in- io P re-Historic Nations. telligible account of the beginnings of their own history. Their literature betrays no clear consciousness of the bril- liant civilizations that preceded them in Thrace, Asia Mi- nor, and Etruria, and furnishes only confused and uncertain notices of the Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Persians previ- ous to Alexander the Great. This is not altogether true of Herodotus, who was an Ionian ; but it is true of what has heretofore passed current as most orthodox and au- thoritative in Greek literature, and has done most to regu- late modern opinion. In certain respects Mr. Grote's history of Greece is ad- mirable, so far as it professes to be a history of the Hellenic peninsula; but his treatment of what is usually termed tin- "Legendary and Heroic Age of Greece" is chiefly remark- able as an elaborate display of unphilosophical skepticism. lie begins the history with the year 776 B.C., and finds nothing but " interesting fictions" in the myths and U-gi -nd> representing the previous ages. The history of Hellas did not go back into the past many generations beyond that date. Hellas was scarcely as old as Homer, who was n i a native of that country, and did not represent its culture. Grote's positive and not always ingenuous skepticism may l>e as reasonable as that theory of Greek antiquity which finds in the myths and legends nothing more than a "le- gendary and heroic age" of the Hellenes. It is false to the past, but not much more so than this theory itself. The Greek race settled around the ^Egean Sea, in Asia Minor, Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Epirus, and through- out the Grecian peninsula consisted of a group of tribes or families as closely related in origin and language, prob- ably, as the Scandinavian group in Northwestern Europe. They inherited the culture of their predecessors, the Pluu- Historical Skepticism and the Greeks. 41 nicians, or Cushites, and the Pelasgians, who, in more an- cient times, established the oracle of Dodona, made Thrace eminent as a seat of civilization and science, established enlightened communities in Asia Minor, andcarried their civilizing influence into the Grecian peninsula itself. The earliest and greatest known development of the Greek race was that which created the Ionian confederacy of Asia Mi- nor ; the latest was that of Hellas. Very true it is that the Argonautic expedition, the le- gendary sieges of Thebes, the oracle of Dodona, the cities of Mycenae and Tiryns, and such personages as Orpheus, Musaeus, Olen, Linus, Cecrops, Cadmus, Pelops, and many others, have very little to do with the history of Hellas ; but it is not true that they are all mere fictions or illusions. Criticism that destroys narrow and false interpretations of the legendary lore of the Greeks deserves respect, but it should not be content with skepticism, and assume too readily that " the curtain is the picture." It may be true, as Cousin says in his lectures on the History of Philosophy, that skepticism is the first appearance of common sense in our philosophizing ; but it is not the only appearance of common sense on that field, for skepticism is neither the middle nor the end of true philosophy. Historical criti- cism should be able not only to destroy falsehood, but also to establish truth. Mr. Grote might reasonably find in the Hellenic myths and legends nothing belonging to the history of Hellas ; but, however brilliantly or weirdly arrayed by imagination, they are the children of Fact; they contain recollections, not of the first ages of Hellenic history, but of communities and nations more ancient. True interpreters of antiquity see this ; it could not be seen by Mr. Grote, who adopted 42 Pre Historic Natiom. what he describes as " the just position long ago laid down by Varro," and wliicli he states thus : " First, there was the time from the beginning of mankind down to the first del- uge a time*vholly unknown. Secondly, the period from the first deluge down to the first Olympiad, which is called the mythical period, because many fabulous things are re- counted in it. Thirdly, the time from the first Olympiad down to ourselves, which is called the historical period^ he-- cause the tilings done hi it are comprised in true historic." According to this "position," mankind did nothing im- portant, and appear not to have risen much above barba- rism previous to the first Greek Olympiad. It assumes that actual history begins with the Hellenes ; and Grote appears to take for granted that civilization, culture, and even lan- guage were in their infancy when Hellas rose. lie finds in the mythical traditions nothing to indicate previous eiv- ilization or previous nationalities; he fails to recognise the influence of the Phoenicians and Egyptians ; and his eyes are blind to the fact that the civilization of Ionia was older and greater than that of Hellas, lie finds "prodigious im- probability" in the legendary account Herodotus gives of the oracle of Dodona, not seeming able to comprehend that no " prodigious improbabilities" can exceed those put forth in support of this scheme of confident skepticism, which sees nothing but "fictions" in the traditions and mytho- logical legends of antiquity, and attributes them wholly to the " creative imagination" of the Greeks. He states very justly that, in Hellas, or Greece proper, " physical astronomy was both new and accounted impious in the time of the Peloponnesian war," and that even Plato " permitted physical astronomy only under great restric- tions and to a limited extent." And yet he fails to notice, The earliest Greek Culture was Asiatic. 43 in such a manner as faithful exposition of Greek history demanded, that Thales, Pythagoras, and many other lonians had a science of astronomy which included correct knowl- edge of the solar system. It seems impossible to inquire carefully without perceiving that Hellenic culture was pre- ceded by a great development of civilization, science, and art, which it inherited, but could not wholly make its own, and which, in Ionia, w r as superior to anything known af- terward at Athens, excepting, perhaps, in elegant literature, sculpture, and certain forms of philosophical speculation. What is usually talked of as Greek culture had its origin in Asia Minor, and was richly developed there long before its light appeared at Athens. The earliest intellectual movement that found expression in the. Greek language was wholly Asiatic. It appeared in Ionia, the country of Homer, Thales, Pythagoras, and Herodotus, where, during many ages before the lonians and their language became predominant, another people had richly brightened the land with their culture. The literature, language, and sway of that older people were superseded or absorbed by the Ionic family of the Greek race, just as in Italy, some centuries later, the speech, culture, and dominion of Etruria were su- perseded by the Romans. The cities of Ionia, and of the whole coast of Asia Minor, were built and occupied origin- ally by the race represented by the Phoenicians, followed by the Pelasgians ; and in that beautiful region, whatever culture was known to Arabia, Egypt, Chaldea, and the East, received its most elegant development. The scholars of Ionia itself studied in the schools of Phoenicia and Egypt. They Cached a degree of intellectual independence and of progress in science never equaled by- any community on the other side of the ^Egean. 44 Pre-Historic Nations. Only a small portion of the literature of Ionia has Leer. preserved ; but the earliest Greek writers known or men- tioned were all natives of Asia Minor, or representatives of its culture. Homer was born and educated there ; He- siod's parentage and literary training were both Ionian ; Archilochus, " the first Greek who composed iambic verses according to fixed rules," was born on that coast in the eighth century before Christ, and had a fame " second only to that of Homer." There appeared the first development of what has been called the "Greek philosophy," and He- rodotus tells us that Thales, " the father of Greek philoso- phy," was "of Phoenician extraction;" he was born at Miletus in the seventh century before Christ. Pythagoras was a native of Samos, one of the most important Ionian cities. All the early historians who wrote in Greek were born and educated in Asia Minor ; Herodotus was a native of Halicamassus ; Hecateus was a native of Miletus. Tyr- taeus, born at Miletus nearly 700 years before the Christian Era, was one of those who carried Ionian culture to Athens; and in the same century appeared, on the Asiatic side of the ^Egean, Terpaixler, Airman, Alneus, Sappho, and other brilliant Grecian lyrists. In Asia Minor rose the most ele- gant and beautiful order of Greek architecture the Ionic. At the beginning of the sixth century before Christ the Greek world had two matchless temples that moved all beholders with admiration and wonder : they were both in Asia Minor, one being the temple of Hera, at Samos, the other the temple of Diana, at Ephesus. Artistic architec- ture had not then made its appearance in Hellas. The intimate relations of Athens with Ionia contributed more than anything- else to make that city superior in cul- ture to any other community on the Hellenic peninsula. What the Greek Myths signify. 45 In this region, the people generally, like the Spartans, nev- er reached a very high degree of cultivation ; but the Hel- lenic writers left no histories of literature to show what the Greek race inherited from the enlightened civilization of other and older peoples, or to point out distinctly their own relation to Ionia. Herodotus showed that religion, letters, and civilization came to the Greeks from the Phoe- nicians and Egyptians ; but in Hellas his statements were severely attacked, Plutarch describing them as " the malig- nity of Herodotus ;" and, until recently, modern scholars, swayed by Hellenic influence, took a similar torie, and treat- ed him as an untrustworthy fabler. It is now understood that no Greek historian was more truthful or more intelli- gent, We should study the Greek myths and traditions, not as indications of a " legendary and heroic age of Greece" nor with that stultifying skepticism which represents them as nothing more than " interesting fictions," but as imper- fect, confused, and idealized recollections of civilizations, peoples, events, and persons that had become ancient be- fore the time of the first Olympiad. Without the aid of regular history, w^e can see that ancient Thrace and Phryg- ia were enlightened and important nationalities, that flour- ished and declined several ages before the period to which the Trojan War is usually assigned. To their time be- longs the later period of the oracle of Dodona ; and con- temporary with them, probably, were MycenaB and " sacred Tiryns." It is quite as absurd to call Olen, Orpheus, Mu- saeus, Eumolpus, and Minos, Greeks ; as to call Livy, Virgil, Cicero, Pliny, Hannibal, and Scipio, Frenchmen. They did not belong to the nation or age of Plato, Euripides, Xeno- phon, and Socrates. Some of them were Thracians ; and 46 J > re- Historic Nation*. the Thrace of Orpheus must have been nearly as distant in time from Hellas, as the Rome of the Caesars was from the France of Philip Augustus. Between them were " middle ages" to which belonged Troy, Argos, the origin of the or- acle of Delphi, with the earlier periods of the kingdom of Lydia and of the Ionian confederacy. The language of Thrace and Dodona must have been a dead language be- fore the time of Homer; and the hymns of Olen, Orpheus, and MUSDDUS, preserved by use in celebrating the- Elcusinian Mysteries, must have needed translation in the time of Onomacritus, even if the language in which they were writ- ten had been neither Pelasgic nor "Ammonian," but, in- stead, some ancient dialect of the Greek family. It is not a fortunate circumstance that our studies of an- tiquity have been so much influenced by Hellenic narrow- ness and egotism; nor is it m-ditable to the scholars of Hellas that they said so little, and appeared to know ao little of the ancient history of that beautiful region around the .Kgcaii, Avhcre civilization was as old as the commer- cial enterprise that created Sidui. Their influence has giv- en us histories of Greece in which nearly everything in that region is made subordinate to Hellas, which is set forth as the beginning, middle, and end of all the enlightened cul- ture it ever knew. It should be sufficient to appeal to the Greek language itself against this method of writing ] ries of the Greeks. The extraordinary development of this language appears in its oldest literary monuments that have been preserved, making us feel that they cannot be the oldest in its history. Its substantial identity in all the dialects shows that it was the speech of a civilized and cul- tivated people before dialects began to appear. Whence came this development ? It shows a history hi which Hel- Future Ignorance and American History. 47 las occupies only the last ages. "We know something of Ionia and the other Greek communities on the coast of Asia Minor, and we are sure that the beginning of that his- tory cannot be made a " fiction" by the obscurity in which it is hidden. Three thousand years hence, when all the living lan- guages of the present time have been long dead, and all the literature connected with them lost, some writer be- longing to a nation and using a language that will first ap- pear in the world two thousand years after our time may undertake to write the history of America. To do it as some have written the history of Greece, he will begin with some great epoch in our history yet to come, perhaps, pre- vious to which authentic history will be found impossible ; but mythical and traditional recollections of Europe and of the first ages of American history will remain, and these will be grouped together and referred to a " legendary and heroic age" of America. Alfred the Great, William the Conqueror, Shakspeare-, Napoleon Bonaparte, Luther, Dante, and possibly Julius Caesar, Alexander the Great, and Ma- homet, will all become mythical Americans. Another his- torian of that future age may protest, with the air of ex- cessive wisdom, that the mythical and legendary recollec- tions are merely " interesting fictions," and signify nothing. They will agree, however, that actual history begins with the given epoch. The Hellenes are not the only people whose audacious egotism has assumed and believed them to be the selectest people on earth the matchless blossom and glory of hu- manity, while all others were outside barbarians; but it may well be doubted whether this weakness in any other people ever had such a powerful and far-reaching influence. 48 Pre-Historic Nations. I do not believe the history of America can be written, three thousand years hence, as ignorant ly and meanly as I have supposed. The culture of the present time, with all its defects, is so much larger and nobler, so much more ob- servant of what is true and just, in its treatment of the past and the present, than was evqr realized in Hellas, that it cannot transmit to future ages the same misleading in- fluence. Bryant, in his " Analysis of Ancient Mythology," dis- cusses the narrowness and self-conceit of the Hellenic spir- it with much intelligence and force. He points out ;_ mistakes in Ilrllenie writers on Mythology, and shows that they were too ignorant of their predecessors, and too big- oted and egotistic, to treat this subject in a proper manner. He maintains that the most useful Greek writers on sub- jects relating to antiquity are those who did not reside in Hellas, and names Lycophron, Callimachus, Apollonius I Jlu xlius, Homer, Nonnus, who wrote " Dionysiaca," Porphy- ry, Proclus, lamblicus, Diodorus Siculus, Pausanias, and the Christian fathers Theophilus, Tatianus, Athenagoras, Clemens, Origen, Eusebius, Theodoret, Syncellus, and oth- ers. In such writers he finds a more unprejudiced refer- ence to antiquity, and a more candid record of what was known of the older nations. It would, however, be too much to expect, anywhere in Greek literature, a just and cordial appreciation of the great civilization that prevailed around the ^Egean and the Mediterranean for ages before the Greek race came into history. It is not there. The lost literature of Thrace, Phrygia, Ionia, Etruria, and Phoe- nicia would tell us more ; but its beginnings were in very remote times, and successive changes of race and language so wasted the early records and monuments, that a com- Lost Books of the Greeks. 49 plete history had become difficult, if not impossible, to the later generations. Some of the most important Grecian works on archaeo- logical topics are lost, or known only in preserved frag- ments of them. Who that is drawn to these studies would not like to have a complete copy of the Ethnica of Stepha- nus of Byzantium ? or of the more ancient mythological history of Pherecydes, who is said to have obtained his knowledge from the secret books of the Phoanicians ? or of the genealogical, chronological, and historical works of Hellanicus of Mytilene ? or of that very ancient work of Thymsetes, of "Asia Minor," written in a language older than the Greek, to which Diodorus Siculus and others re- fer in their accounts of Dionysus or Bacchus ? A vast li- brary of such lost works would fail to satisfy half our ques- tions, but it would add much to our knowledge of the past ; and how greatly would this knowledge be extend- ed could we add to it the lost mythological and historical literature of Phoenicia, Arabia, Egypt, and Chaldea, with those " ancient histories of Iran" mentioned in the Dabis- tan and other Eastern writings ! PEE-IIISTORIC TIMES. Those " ancient histories of Iran," long since lost, would tell us much that we desire to know, not only of the early history of the Aryan people, whose great antiquity it is now impossible to deny, but also of the great people of an- cient Arabia, whose civilization was much older and more enterprising, and who were known to the Hebrews as Cush- ites, and to the early Greeks as Ethiopians. It seems to me impossible to inquire carefully without being led to the conclusion that Arabia, in very remote antiquity, was the C 50 Prc-Historic Nations. seat of a brilliant civilization, which extended itself through- out Southwestern Asia, and spread its influence from the extreme east to the extreme west of the known world. The wonderful people of ancient Arabia the revered and mys- terious Ethiopians of ancient tradition seem to have filled the world, as they knew it, with their commercial activity, their maritime enterprise, their colonies, and the light of civilized life. Their traces are still found everywhere. Their civilization may have originated in Southern Arabia; it may have been due to the influence of some older peo- ple. This problem cannot be solved; but those who are using the disentombed records of Assyrian and Chaldean culture to reconstruct linguistic, ethnic, and political his- tory, may see in them that "third race, neither Indo-Euro- pean nor Semitic," which "laid the foundation of the cul- ture which was adopted and developed there by the other races, as they later, one after another, succeeded to the su- premacy." By pre-historic times I mean the ages between the crea- tion of man and the beginning of authentic history. If we .irrupt the usual method, and begin regular history with the Greeks and Romans, we must exclude from it the his- tory of China, and pretty much the whole of Rawlinsou's history of the "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World ;" we must place in pre-historic times all that relates to the old Egyptians, since Menes as well as before his time, not to speak of the older Aryans and Cu>h- ites, or Ethiopians, who belong there ; and we must find nothing historical in any part of Western Europe beyond the accounts given by the Romans. This method is open to very effective criticism. The limit of history should be moved farther back into the past, and more importance P re-Historic Times not wholly unseen. 51 should be allowed to some existing documents which it dis- regards; but it is unnecessary to engage in controversy with those who begin history with the first Greek Olym- piad, provided they do not deny all previous civilization, and maintain that everything in human affairs previous to that date is either unknown or fabulous. We know much of the history of times more ancient. Egypt has been unveiled. We know much of the Assyrian empire from its beginning to its close ; and when the in- scriptions discovered in the Assyrian and Mesopotamia!! ruins, amounting now to " whole libraries of annals, and works of science and literature," shall be fully explored and deciphered, the veil may be partly withdrawn from the history of that great race which created Egypt and Chal- dca, and whose characteristic traces still show the extent of its influence. The Cushite element is already clear to the best interpreters ; and, apart from linguistic inquiry, what was known already, rightly studied, was sufficient to warrant a prediction that it would be found there. The great period of the Cushite or Ethiopian race had closed many ages previous to the time of Homer, although separate communities of that race remained, not only in Egypt, but also in Southern Arabia, in Pho2nicia, in Africa, and elsewhere east and west. The distance in time from our age to that of Homer is much less than that from his age to the very remote period when the Cushites of Ara- bia colonized Chaldea. When we consider the exclusive- ness of the Hellenes, and their lack of disposition to study and comprehend the past, it is not surprising that they knew so little of the history of more ancient nations ; on the contrary, we can see more reason for surprise that their literature and traditions furnish so much to indicate the an- 5*2 Pro-Historic Nations. cient civilization and greatness of the people whom they called Ethiopians. We cannot write an authentic history of the ancient peo- ple of Arabia, nor of any other pre-historic people ; but we can study what is known of them, inquire at every new source of information, and draw such conclusions as the facts may warrant. Inquiry concerning the condition of the human race in pre-historic times cannot now be avoid- ed. It is forced upon us by the constant and increasing influence of progress in linguistic and j.liy-i. al science. That thi antiquity of man is much greater than our chro- nologies have allowed is coming to be an established fact. Should the later reports of geology on this subject be fully confirmed by future discoveries, this inquiry will become more active, and assume higher importance. Advocates of what is called the " development theory," as well as champions of the narrow r chronologies, find it convenient to assign the first appearance of civilization to a very modern' date in the great pre-historic past. Their hypothesis, surest ed by speculation on the origin of spe- cies, and unsupported by any facts, sets forth that the "hu- man race was evolved out of the most highly organized and endowed of the inferior mammalia ;** and that " the farther back we trace man into the past, the more shall we find him approach, in bodily conformation, to those species of the anthropoid quadrumana which are most akin to him in structure." Brutes became men by virtue of the assumed "tendency of varieties to depart indefinitely from the orig- inal type," brute instinct, meanwhile, by a like wondrous change, being transformed into all the great attributes of the human soul. According to this theory, the first ap- pearance of man on earth was followed by a vast period The Development Theory. 53 of human savagery, which lasted until the ever-progressing development had made the race capable of civilization. It is mere hypothesis, accepted by its advocates as true, but, as they admit, not proved. Geology says nothing in its favor, for the oldest human remains discovered by ge- ologists are those of men already capable of improvement, and most of them consist of arms, implements, and uten- sils of human manufacture. Sir John Lubbock and others mention only two human skulls that can be referred to the most ancient period of the Age of Stone, and the antiquity of one of these is doubtful. Of the other, known as the Engis skull, Mr. Huxley says, in his " Man's Place in Na- ture," " There is no mark of degradation about any part of its structure. It is, in fact, a fair average human skull, which might have belonged to a philosopher, or might have contained the thoughtless brains of a savage." Sir J. Lubbock says " it might have been that of a modern European, so far, at least, as form is concerned." This seems to be an explicit contradiction of the "development theory." Moreover, it cannot be shown that communities more or less civilized did not exist on some portions of the globe at the oldest period to which these remains can be as- signed. Northwestern Europe is but a small portion of the globe we inhabit. To suppose the existence of such communities at that time is inconsistent with nothing but this unproved hypothesis ; and to say they did not exist, because W T C have no record of their existence, is mere as- sumption, with no more claim to the consideration due to ascertained fact than the supposition itself. Archaeological investigation has brought to view civil- ized peoples much farther back in the past than history ~>-i l*rc-ILtxtf the great divisions of the world, not on account of its position, which alone could not have given it such importance, but evidently on account of the importance and power of the civilized people by whom it was inhabited. A later divi- sion of the world added MX new dwipas, or, rather, sub- dwipas, contained within the seven great dwipas. Anmu- these we find a second Cusha-dwipa, situated in Africa In - yond the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and called Cusha-dwipa without, or the exterior Cusha-dwipa, because it had been created by emigration and colonization from the original Cusha-dwipa, now called Cusha-dwipa within, or the inte- rior Cusha-dwipa. The great or primal Cusha-dwipa is de< scribed as extending" from the shores of the Mediterranean and the mouths of the Kile to Sirhind on the borders of India." The Sanskrit CusJia-dwipa. 65 The old Sanskrit geographers applied the term Cusha- dwipa to very nearly the same regions which the ancient Greeks described as Ethiopia. It included Arabia, Asia Minor, Syria from the mouths of the Nile, Armenia, the countries on the Euphrates and Tigris, a large part of the region north of the Persian Gulf, and, finally, an extended region in Africa. In remote pre-historic times it was the richest, most populous, and most enlightened portion of the world. Cusha-dwipa was in two parts ; so, according to Homer and the Greeks, was Ethiopia " divided" into two parts, one being Asiatic and the other African. All ac- counts agree in stating that this African Cusha-dwipa was created by emigration from Arabia and from countries con- nected with it, and it seems to have extended not only northward, but also down the southeastern coast of Africa, and so far into the interior as to include the Soma- Giri, or Mountains of the Moon, and the lake regions around the sources of the Nile. The geography found in the old Sanskrit books is mani- festly that of the Aryans before they entered India, and not that of the more enterprising and traveled Cushite race. It describes the world as a circular plain, with a slightly convex surface, sloping gently on all sides to a surrounding ocean. Beyond this ocean, which inclosed the world in a vast river-like circle of waters, was a circular range of mountains supporting the ocean, called the Loca- loca Mountains, beyond which none but the most powerful gods could pass. In the centre of the world, at the high- est point of its surface, stood Mount Meru, with Jambu- dwipa, the primeval home of the Aryan race, spread out around it, bordered with the other six dwipas or grand di- visions of the earth. At a later period the Hindu scholars <;; Pi-e- Historic Nations. obtained more correct notions of the world. Ages before Copernicus, Aryabhatta taught in his writings that " the earth is a sphere, and revolves on its own axis." He learned this, probably, from the Cushites. That the other scheme was the ancient geography of the Aryan race is shown by the fact that it was carried to the Mediterranean by those families of the race who migrated westward before the Sanskrit people occupied Northern In- dia. We find it in Homer and Hesiod, and it is mentioned and ridiculed by Herodotus, who says (bk. iv., ch. xxxvi., Rawlinsmfs translation) : "I cannot but laugh when I see numbers of persons drawing maps of the world without having any reason to guide them, making, as they do, the ocean stream to run all round the earth, and the- earth it- self to be an exact circle, as if described by a pair of coin- passes." This is said to have been the geographical scheme of the Greeks in their early times ; Herodotus seems to say it was prevalent among " the Greeks who dwell about Pon- tus." Its existence in both India and Greece shows that it mustbe older than the period when these branches of the Aryan family separated. It would be unreasonable, in my view, to deny or doubt that, in ages farther back in the past than the beginnings of any old nation mentioned in our ancient histories, Arabia was the seat of a great and influential civilization. This fact, so clearly indicated in the remains of antiquity, seems indispensable to a satisfactory solution of many problems that arise in the course of linguistic and archaeological in- quiry. It is now admitted that a people of the Cushite or Ethiopian race, sometimes called Hamites, were the first civilizers and builders throughout Western Asia, and they are traced, by remains of their language, their architec- The ancient Arabian Civilization. 67 ture, and the influence of their civilization, on both shores of the Mediterranean, in Eastern Africa and the Nile val- ley, in Hindustan, and in the islands of the Indian Seas. These people had a country which was the home of their civilization. These civilizers, this " third race," now so dis- tinctly reported by scientific investigators, but not yet well explained, must have been very different from a swarm of nomads, or a flood of disunited tribes moving from region to region, without a fixed country of their own. Those wonderful builders, whose traces reveal so plainly the habit of fixed life and the spirit of developed nationality, were not a horde of homeless wanderers. They had a country of their own, from which their enterprise and cul- ture went forth to other lands, and this country must have been Arabia. It is apparent that no other race did so much to devel- op and spread civilization ; that no other people had such an extended and successful system of colonization ; that they seem to have monopolized the agencies and activities of commerce by sea and land ; and that they were the lord- ly and ruling race of their time. The Arabians were the great maritime people of the world in ages beyond the reach of tradition ; as Phoenicians and Southern Arabians they controlled the seas in later times, and they were still the chief navigators and traders on the Indian Ocean when Vasquez di Gama went to India around the Cape of Good Hope. IGNORANCE AND MISAPPREHENSION CONCERNING ARABIA. It can be objected that the common estimate of the Ara- bian peninsula does not accord with such views of its an- cient history as I have indicated. The reply is, that no GS Pre-Historie Nation*. part of the globe has been so little known or so greatly misapprehended in modern times as Arabia. It is com- monly assumed that the whole interior of the country is a dreary waste of deserts, and that the only portions of it where civilized communities can exist are certain districts on the coast, the. rest of this great peninsula being given up to nomads, or " wandering Arabs." This assumption, though very old and very confident, is wholly incorrect; its picture of Arabia is a fancy sketch to which the reality has no resemblance. That lack of knowledge which makes such pictures possible is due partly to the extreme isolation of the Arabian peninsula, since the rise of Western Europe changed the route to India, and took away its commanding importance as the central country between India and the West, and partly to Mahometanism and the decline of civ- ilization in Western Asia. But its isolation from the West- ern countries began earlier. The later Greeks knew but little of Arabia, the Romans knew less, and in modern times intelligent travelers have journeyed along the coast in some districts of the Hedjaz, Yemen, Hadramaut, and Oman without making an actual discovery of the coun- try. Lieut. Wellsted surveyed nearly the whole coast-line of Arabia, and traveled extensively in Oman, and yet so lit- tle did he know of Central Arabia that the printed record of his travels begins as follows: "Arabia has been aptly compared to a coat of frieze bordered with gold, since the only cultivated or fertile spots are found on its confines, the intermediate space being filled with arid and sandy wastes." Even Humboldt, relying on the old assumption and the reports of travelers, supposed " the greater part of the interior of Arabia was a barren, treeless, and sandy Ignorance of Arabia. G9 waste." Ptolemy, living at Alexandria, gained some knowl- edge of the country, which appears in his geography, where cities and towns are located in the interior; but in Mr. Forster's work it is pointed out as a very grave mistake that " the Ptolemaic map prepared by Mercator" repre- sents the " uninhabitable desert as clothed throughout with towns and covered with inhabitants." In the same way modern ignorance has criticised and discredited the Ara- bian geography of El Edrisi, because, as it alleges, through " invincible dislike to large blanks in a map," he filled up " the uninhabited country" of the interior with towns and villages. Mr. Forster's notion of the extent of this " unin- habited country" may be seen in his account of one of its deserts, which, according to his description, fills two thirds of the whole peninsula. Meanwhile it remains true that Ptolemy and El Edrisi had a much better knowledge of Central Arabia than is possible to the invincible assurance of such imaginative constructors of its geography. In 1862-3, Mr. William Gifford Palgrave, whose long residence at the East, intimate knowledge of the Mahometan world, and perfect knowledge of the Arabic language gave him admirable qualifications for such a tour of observation, spent six months in Central Arabia, traveling through it from west to east. He tells us that he began this journey " supposing, like most people, that Arabia was almost ex- clusively the territory of nomads." His preparations for " traffic and intercourse with the natives" were made in ac- cordance with this supposition, which, he adds, was " a grievous mistake, of which we soon became aware." In- stead of nomads and " uninhabitable wastes," he found a rich and beautiful country, a settled and civilized popula- tion, and, throughout nearly the whole of his journey, cities, 70 P re-Historic Nations. towns, tillage, and regular government, " where Bedouins stand for little or nothing." The nomads, found chiefly at the north, constitute scarcely one seventh of the population ; and he seeks to impress upon his readers that the wander- ing Bedouins must not be taken as representatives of the Arabian race, for " they are only a degenerate branch of that great tree, not its root or main stock." In a word, they are a debased and roving population, "grown out of and around the fixed nation," and nowise like the fancy- formed "sages and noblemen of the desert" shown us in the portrayals of romance. Mr. Palgrave discovered that Central Arabia is an in- tensive and fertile table-land, diversified by hills and \ al- leys, and surrounded by a circle of waste and desert soil. He estimates that, this great plateau comprises nearly half of the whole peninsula, or about 500,000 square miles, which is twiee the extent of France. He found it occupied by two kingdoms, Shomer and Nejed ; the former contain- ing five provinces, Djebel Shomer, Djowf, Kheybar, Upper Kasseem, and Teyma ; and the latter eleven provinces, 'Aared, Yenianiah, Ilareek, Alia], Wadi Dowfisir, Seley'yel, Woshem, Sedeyr, Lower Kasseem, Ilasa, and Kateef. In reality, there seemed to be but one nation there ; and, in times not very distant, when Kasseem and Sedeyr were metropolitan provinces, there was, probably, but on> preme government. The industry, culture, and general condition of the people seemed to be above what is found in the neighboring countries of Asia. " The soil belongs in full right to its cultivators, not to the government, as in Turkey ; nor is it often in the hands of large proprietors, like the zemindars of India or the wealthier farmers of England." He noticed that the show of civilization in- Palgrave on Central Arabia. 71 creased as he proceeded eastward. In the province of Sedeyr, where Mr. Palgrave seems to have had very cordial communication with the people, he found " elegant and co- pious hospitality," with much dignity and politeness in the manners of the people. He says, " The dominant tone of society, especially in Sedeyr, is that of dignified and even refined politeness." He touched the kingdom of Shomer first at Wadi Serhan, and came soon to the Djowf, an oasis or valley belonging to that kingdom, described as the western vestibule to the central country. It is fertile and very beautiful, and has, besides many smaller towns and villages, two cities con- taining over 30,000 inhabitants. Hayel, the capital of Shomer, "surrounded by fortifications twenty feet high, with bastion towers, some round, some square, and large folding gates at intervals," had from 20,000 to 22,000 in- habitants ; but " its area would easily hold 300,000 or more, were its streets and houses close packed like those of Brus- sels or Paris." It has spacious gardens and pleasure- grounds within the walls, while the plain "all around the town is studded with isolated houses and gardens, the property of wealthy citizens." All along the route he traveled were towns and villages, " clean and pleasant, and not unlike those of Jafnapatam and Ceylon." Coming to the plain of Lower Kasseem, he saw it as follows : " Before us*, to the utmost horizon, stretched an immense plain, studded with towns and villages, towers and groves, all steeped in the dazzling noon, and announc- ing everywhere opulence and activity." Kasseem is an ancient seat of Arabian civilization. Two of its cities which he saw contained, one over thirty thousand inhab- itants, and the other over twenty-five thousand. Riad, the 72 . Pre-Historic Nations. capital of Nejed, is " large and square, with high towers and strong walls of defense, a mass of roofs and terraces," with " edifices of remarkable appearance here and there breaking through the maze of gray roof-tops ; and " for full three jniles over the surrounding plain waved a sea of palm-trees above green fields and well-watered gardens, while southward the valley opened into the great and even more fertile plains of Yemamah, filled with groves and villages, among which Manfoohah, hardly inferior to Riad itself, was clearly distinguished." Such, in reality, is that " uninhabited country," that " and dreary wojd" of "arid and sandy wastes." that iinng- iiH-d land >f " treeless and waterless deserts'" Central Ara- bia. The extent of the fertile countries along the coast had already become known. The whole peninsula contains over a million square miles, and probably three fourths of it are now excellent for cultivation. In the great days of Kthiopian supremacy a still larger portion of Arabia was used for agricultural purposes, and for the various wants of a settled population. Even now a sufficient supply of water for irrigation would transform most of the <1 districts into luxuriant fields and gardens. The ancient Arabians provided for this want by means of immense tanks similar to those still existing in "Ceylon. Mr. Pal- grave speaks thus of the Syrian desert : " These very lands, now so utterly waste, were, in old tirrtcs, and under a bet- ter rule, widely cultivated, and full of populous life, as the numerous ruins strewn over their surface still attest." The same may be said of other desert districts in and near Arabia. There is no reason to doubt that very consid- erable portions of the desert region between Nejed and Hadramaut, usually called "the Dahna," were formerly The Races in Arabia. 73 cultivated, and occupied by towns, villages, and planta- tions.* This remarkable country had no lack of fitness to be the home of a great people, and in the days when Balbec and Petra were flourishing cities, and Arabia was the busy com- mercial centre of the civilized world, it could have sup- ported a hundred million people as easily as France now sustains forty million. It had no lack of resources for the great part played by its people in human affairs. If En- gland and Spain could colonize and fill the whole Ameri- can continent in the space of two or three centuries, what might not be done by the ancient Arabians in the course of twenty centuries ? The great power and far-reaching activity of this people had declined many ages before the time of Ptolemy, and yet he enumerated 170 cities, ports, and large towns existing in his time within the region de- scribed by him as Arabia Felix. THE TWO RACES IN ARABIA. At the present time Arabia is inhabited by two distinct races, namely, descendants of the old Adite, Cushite, or Ethiopian race, known under various appellations, and dwelling chiefly at the south, the east, and in the central parts of the country, but formerly supreme throughout the whole peninsula ; and the Semitic Arabians Mahomet's race found chiefly in the Hedjaz and at the north. In some districts of the country these races are more or less * According to Arabian tradition, Ad, the primeval father of the pure Arabians, settled in the region occupied by this desert, where he built a city that became great and powerful. The Mahometans say the city and people were destroyed on account of the unbelieving wickedness of the Adites. D T-i Pre-Historic Nations. mixed, and since the rise of Mahometanism. the language of the Semites, known to us as Arabic^ has almost wholly superseded the old Ethiopian or Cushite tongue ; but the two races are very unlike in many respects, and the dis- tinction has always been recognised by writers on Arabian ethnology. To the Cushite race belongs the oldest and purest Arabian blood, and also that great and very ancient civilization whose ruins abound in almost every district of the country. To the Semites belong the originators and first preachers of Mahometanism, and also the nomads. The Semites claim to be descendants of Ishmael, and they first appeared in Arabia at a period comparatively modem, probably not much older than the time of the He- brew settlements in Canaan; the Cushites are connected with the oldest traditions of the country. For this reason, the Semitic Arabs, who settled at the north and in the Iledja/, have always given precedence to the Arabians of the central and southern districts, and conceded their su- perior antiquity. In Arabic speech the Arabians of the old race are called Aril.ah, that is to say, Arabians of pure* blood, Arabians par excellence, while those of Mahomet's race are described as Jtroustarribca* people of foreign origin, who were grafted on the pure stock by the marriage of Ishmael with a princess of the Cushite race. Heretofore both tradition and the Oriental historians have agreed in saying that in ancient times a language was spoken in Arabia wholly different from the Arabic of Mahomet. Modern research has confirmed this statement. That old language has been discovered. "NVe have it in what are called the Hiinyaric inscriptions ; and modern dialects of it are still spoken in two or three districts of the peninsula, and to a considerable extent in Eastern and Mahometanistn and the old Race. 75 Northern Africa, where it is written as well as spoken. It is found, also, in the ruins of Chaldea ; and, in remote an- tiquity, it seems to have been spoken throughout most of Western Asia, and also in Hindustan, where it is probably represented at the present time, in a corrupted form, by the group of languages called Dravidian. It cannot prop- erly be classed in the same family with the Arabic, but is closely related to the old Egyptian. It has been called " a new form of speech," because it was new to those who first discovered it; but it is very ancient, existing now only in disentombed inscriptions, in sentences preserved, without history, on the stones and rocks of old ruins, and in frag- mentary and obscure communities representing the great pre-historic people by whom it was used. In the termin- ology of linguistic science, this language is called Ethiopia, Cushite, and sometimes Hamitic. Mahometan fanaticism applied the term "Djohal," or " Ignorants" (or anti-Christ, as Christians might say), to all who dwelt in Arabia previous to the advent of its prophet ; and the fierce blaze of this fanaticism consumed the old Cushite or Ethiopian literature, in which it saw nothing represented but accursed thoughts and feelings of the previ- ous ages of" heathenish wickedness." The strange tongue of the " godless Djohal," which gradually fell into disuse, made this destruction easy; but, as we can see in Ma- hometan literature, there remained a prevailing conscious- ness of the great eminence, influence, and antiquity of tie old race ; and the wealth of the old culture in Arabia, Plioe- nicia, and Syria is seen in the superior development of the Arabic language, in the civilization that gave such lustre to the empire of the caliphs, and in the knowledge of sci- ence and philosophy brought to Western Europe by the 7l P re-Historic Nations. Saracens. This ineradicable consciousness of a great an- cient history of the Arabian Cushites appears in the studi- ed attempts of Mahometan historians and traditionists to connect with them the origin of Mahomet's race. Mahomet, they say, inherited the purest of the " blue blood" through the marriage of an ancestor with a princess of Yemen ; and one tradition, which has been issued in many editions, rep- resents that Joktan, son of Heber, recognised for this pur- pose as the most ancient father of the Semitic Arabians, was identical with Kahtan of Cushite history, described a the first king of Yemen. These Mahometan inventions have confused and falsified the traditions of Arabian antiquity. William Muir, in the introduction to his learned and elaborate life of Mahomet, says: The identification of Joktan with Kahtan "is one of those extravagant fictions which the followers of Islam, in their zeal to accommodate Arabic legends to the Jewish Scriptures, have made in defiance of the most violent im- probability and the grossest anachronisms." lie ad-Is: "It is no better than that of the Medina party, who tried to prove that Kahtan was a descendant of Ishmael, and therefore had no connection with Joktan." The Joktan invention is treated in the same way by Caussin h- en. Some writers mention only nine ancient tribes of pure, unmixed Arabians; others mention more than twelve. As these t radii ions were not created by Mahometan assump- tion, they may preserve recollections of ancient nam tribal communities, or of cities and districts organized as separate municipalities, and governed by hereditary chiefs subordinate to the supreme authority. I shall end* to show that this method of political organization -\\ marked peculiarity of the Cushitcs. One of the names Amlik, is biblical, being the same as Amalek. The saying, "old as Ad," is used in Arabia to designate the remotest period in the past ; but we have no means to determine ei- ther the antiquity or the historical facts that may be indi- cated by these traditional names. In the traditions, the ancient people to whom they are applied are described as wonderful builders, who were rich in gold, silver, and pre- cious stones. They have glowing descriptions of the mag- nificent cities and sumptuous palaces of the Adites and the Thamoudites. But, as I have shown, we have more conclusive testimony than Arabic tradition to indicate that Arabia was the land of Cush, or Ethiopia ; and the great and extended influence of tlr. 1 Cushite race in distant pie-historic times is now ad- The pa-re Guskitc-i /r-;f t'ly extinct. 79 milled by all careful investigators. The Arabic Semites were a foreign people, very modern in Arabian history, and had nothing to do with the country in the ancient times concerning which we inquire. That old Cushite race, so great and influential in its time, and so intimately connect- ed with the most ancient civilization of which we have any knowledge, has almost wholly disappeared from the earth by mingling with other races in the widely-separated re- gions where it established colonies and civilization ; with the Aryans, and perhaps with an aboriginal population, in Southern and Western Europe ; with Semites and Aryans in Western Asia ; with Semites in Arabia, and with a dark brown race found by the ancient Cushites in India and Africa. But few communities of pure Cushite blood can now be found even in Arabia. Its great mission was ful- filled in the grandest way centuries before the beginning of what is called authentic history, and now we have only scanty remains of either the race or its language. The great natural superiority of this race is still manifest wher- ever it is found with a tolerable approach to purity of blood. Some communities of the old race found in Arabia claim to have unmixed blood. They strongly impressed Mr. Pal- grave, who invites attention to them. At the northwest, where the Semites settled, there has been a greater decline of civilization than elsewhere. Mr. Palgrave points out that the show of civilization increased as he proceeded through the peninsula from Ma'an towards the east ; and, after much communication with the inhabitants of cities and towns along his route, he recorded and published his opinion of the people as follows : " After having traveled much, and made pretty intimate acquaintance with many 80 Pre-Historic Nations. races, African, Asiatic, and European, I should hardly be in- clined to give the preference to any other over the genuine unmixed clans of Central and Eastern Arabia." He say* they represent " one of the noblest races earth affords," but does not appear to comprehend the real significance of these fragments of the old Cushite race, once so grand and powerful, now almost hidden from observation among living races. He says again, in another part of his book, "I am inclined to regard the Arabians, taken in themselves and individually, as endowed witli remarkable aptitude for practical and material science, and liardiy le.-s adapted to the railroad, to the steam-ship, or to ::ny other nineteenth century invention or natural research, than the native- <>i Sheffield or Birmingham themselves; but lack of commu- nication with other countries has kept them back in the intellectual race." It would not be reasonable to doubt the natural capacity of a race whose people were anciently represented by the marvelous manufacturing skill and com- mercial power of Sidon and Tyre. Arabia, once foremost, has been made the obscurest of countries by great changes in the seats and routes of commerce. The C'ushite race lias not been "kept back" from a givat part in human affairs; it has declined from a great position, and was made ob- scure by that influence of time which brought the world's great changes and made another race imperial. ANCIENT ARABIAN RUINS AND INSCRIPTIONS. . Ruins representing ancient civilization exist in every part of Arabia, from Balbec and Petra to Mareb and Zha- far. They have not been carefully explored, and only a few of them have been visited. No excavations have been made, but a considerable number of Cushite or Ilimyaric First Discovery of Inscriptions. 81 inscriptions have been secured that furnish important in- formation concerning the language and race of the ancient inhabitants of the country. None of the ruins already vis- ited belong to the earlier periods of Arabian ancient histo- ry, and it is nowise likely that ruins representing times so very remote still exist for examination ; nevertheless, some of those to which attention has been drawn are very old. The discovery of these antiquities, especially the inscrip- tions, seems to have been connected incidentally with meas- ures taken by the English to facilitate communication with India through Egypt and the Red Sea. About thirty-five years ago, nearly the whole coast-line of Arabia was sur- veyed or carefully explored by naval expeditions fitted out by the British East India Company. Some of the accom- plished officers engaged in these surveys traveled in Oman and Hadramaut, and visited ruins in Yemen and along the shores of the Red Sea. Among those w T ho made important discoveries were Lieutenants Wellsted and Cruttenden, Dr. Hulton, and, later, Captain Haines. Carsten Niebuhr had previously reported the existence of inscriptions, and two or three had been very imperfectly copied by Dr. Seetzen. Wellsted and Cruttenden made the first discovery of Himyaric inscriptions that were carefully copied. Well- sted visited important ruins at Nakab-el-Hadjar, between Hadramaut and Yemen. He found there the remains of an immense wall, originally from thirty to forty feet high, and ten feet thick at the foundation. It was built around a hill of considerable extent, on a line above the base, and was flanked by square towers standing at equal distances from each other. The blocks of grayish marble, of which it was built, were hewn and fitted by the builders with surprising nicety, indicating science and skill in construc- ^ 82 1* re-Historic Nations. tion of a high order. Within tiic inclosurc were the re- mains of edifices by which the slopes of the hill had been covered. Wellsted says of the wall: "The magnitude of the stones used, and the perfect knowledge of the builder's art exhibited in the ctylc and mode of placing them to- gether, with its towers and great extent, would give this structure importance in any part of the world." Describ- ing one of the ruined buildings, IK- says : " That it o\v origin to very remote antiquity is evident by its appear- ance alone, which bears strong re- nnblance t<> Mmilar edi- fices found amidst Egyptian ruins. We have the same in- clination of the walls as in them, the same form of entrance, and the same Hat roof of stones." Important inscriptions in the old language and diameter, found on the smooth liicc of the great blocks of stone at this place, were copied. M. Fulgcnce Fresnel, in the Journal Asiatique, diseu- Wdlsted's discoveries at \akab-el-IIadjar, is sure, and with good reason, that these ruins mark the site of the ancient city of Meyfah, which, lie thinks, is the same as the "' Mem- pha" of Ptolemy. It is undoubtedly the same as the old dty of "Mepha," not "Mempha," which Ptolemy places in the valley of Meyfah, where these ruins are found. Among the ruins visited by Wellsted are those at lli>'n (iliorab, on the coast in the same region. Ilis'n or Hawaii Ghorab is a hill about five hundred feet hiirli. It is now connected with the main land by a low, sandy isthmus, but was formerly an island. All around it, and scattered over its slopes to the summit, are ruins of houses, walls, an. I towers. It is a remarkable field of ruins, some parts of which are almost inaccessible. Everything indicates that a commercial emporium formerly stood here a city which i:i ancient times must have been of the first importance. The Ruins at Zhafar. 83 It is doubtless, as Fresncl and others suppose, the site of that celebrated commercial emporium anciently known as the city of Kana. Here, too, Himyaric inscriptions, en- graved on the smooth face of the rock, were discovered and copied by the English visitors. On the coast, in the northern part of Hadramaut, are the ruins of a great commercial city called Zhafar, the Sapphar of Ptolemy, and supposed to be the Saphar of the Hebrew Scriptures. The name Zhafar is now applied to a series of villages situated on and near the coast. It is supposed that the ancient Zhafar, or Saphar, stood at some distance from the sea, and was connected with it by a port or second city at the place called El Belid in Arabic, and Kharekham in the Ehkkili or Himyaric tongue ; but these ruins, said to be very remarkable " splendid ruins" Fresnel calls them have not been explored as carefully as their importance demands. Perhaps what have been mentioned as sites of the city and its port are in reality sites of an old and a new town, a Paelus-Zhafar and a New Zhafar. Both are now desolate. The " splendid ruins" are found at the place called El Belid, where the blocks of stone used by the arch- itects, cut with geometrical precision, show marvelous per- fection in the workmanship of the builders. It is evident that the whole district now called Zhafar would yield rich results to careful investigation by competent explorers. In July, 1 843, Thomas Jos. Arnaud, a French gentleman, visited the ruins of the very ancient city in the interior of Yemen known as Saba, and also as Mareb and Mariaba.* * Abulfeda says: "There are some who say that Mareb was the sur- name of a king who reigned over Yemen ; but others say that Mareb was the royal arsenal, and that the city was Saba," which seems most probable. 3-1 P re- Historic Nations. He is the first European who has visited those ruins in modern times and returned in safety. Arnaud went to Saba from San'a, remained there four days, and returned to the coast by the same road. He was five days on the road from San'a to Saba. "Within a day's journey of Saba he found very extensive and noteworthy ruins of a great city, which he could not examine carefully. They occupy "a spacious site" on the great plain of Kharibah. lit- was told of other ruins in that part of the country, which he did not see, and particular mention was made of ruins of an ancient city situated about a day's journey northea>hr- ly from Kharibah. A village called Mareb, surrounded by extensive ruins, is all that now remains of the ancient and celebrated Saba, once the populous and magnificent capital of Southern Arabia. At one period the whole country was known to the Greeks as Saba (called Sheba in the Hebrew Scriptures), and the people as Sabaeans ; and language scarcely sufficed to express their conception of its riches and magnificence. At Mareb Arnaud examined what remains of the "Great Dike," or tank, so famous in Arabic tradition, but he does not describe it satisfactorily. The embankment appears to have been a very long and exceedingly massive struc- ture, and he tells us that the basin of the tank or reservoir was a depression between two mountains called "Balak." This dike is probably one of the oldest structures in Ara- bia of which we have any knowledge. The history of its origin was lost before the time of Queen Belkis, who is sup- posed to have lived in the age of Solomon, but may have lived at an earlier period. It was then so very ancient that the solid and vast embankment was going to decay Antiquity of the Dilte Arim. S3 through age.* Queen Belkis repaired it, but her repairs did not restore its original strength, for, a few ages later, it burst with such disaster to the whole district as made the event an epoch in the history of Yemen. Some writers, whose facility in reading Oriental lan- guages is far superior to their capacity for comprehending archaeological facts, and studying antiquity with penetrat- ing intelligence, have allowed themselves to talk in a doubtful, hesitating way in support of the strange and most incomprehensible vagary that this dike was not built earlier than the beginning of the Christian Era. They for- get that it was incontestably as old as the ancient city of Saba, if not much older, and that both the city and the dike had decayed long before Christ. Mahometan assump- tion itself never invented a more unwarranted, a more ex- travagant, or a more senseless fiction. Wellsted mentions the ruins of Kilhat, on the southern coast of Oman, which " cover an extensive tract," and he was told of other ruins in the interior which he could not visit. Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, and others, as well as the Hebrew writers, speak of great cities in Arabia which no longer exist. We can not well doubt that diligent explo' ration would bring to light numerous ruins of great impor- tance to archa3ologists which at present are entirely un- known, and which the present inhabitants of the country cannot explain. The Mahometan natives residing near the * Ilamza of Ispahan says : " The Himyarites relate that Belkis, having become qeeen, built in Saba the dike called Arim. The other inhabitants of Yemen dispute this, and maintain that the dike Arim was constructed by Lokxnan, the second son of Ad ; and they say that time having brought it to a condition of decay, Belkis, on becoming queen, repaired the dam- age it had suffered." See UUnivers, vol. x., p. 53. 8G P&e-Hi&tori ruins visited by Wellstcd said, in reply to his inquiries, that these old cities were built by their " infidel" ances- tors. He pointed out to them that their " infidel" ancestors must have been vastly superior to the present generation of Arabians, and capable of much greater works; to which 1 hey answered that their ancestors were assisted by " Jins,'' or "Devils." Wellsted's suggestion has more significance than lie himself seems to have appreciated. AVhether we study Arabia in its traditions, i:i its ruins, in the remains of its old language, or in the present characteristic* and condition of its people, we cannot easily evade the conclu- sion that this country was anciently the seat of a irivat civ ili/ation, that declined from its highest condition long be- fore the Christian Era, and of which only traces the religion of almost every country that was yet inhabit- ed." Sir Henry Kawlinson, directed by the influence of scientific inquiry, and with the facts before him in a clearer light, says: "So great is the analogy between the first principles of the science (of writing), as it appears to have been pursued in Chaldea, and as we can actually trace its progress in Egypt, that we can hardly hesitate to assign the original invention to a period before the Hamite race had broken up and divided. A system of picture-writing, which aimed at the communication of ideas through the rude representation of natural objects, belonged, as it would si'cm, not only to the tribes who descended the Nile from Ethiopia, but to those .also who, perhaps, diverging from the same focus, passed eastward to the valley of the Iv.i- phrates." (See Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. i., p. 443.) It seems reasonable, therefore, to infer that Taut or Thoth represents the origin of the art of writing among the Hamitic or Cushite people in the earlier ages of their existence, when they still dwelt together as a single unit- ed people, before the time of Egypt and Chaldea ; but the home of their civilization, from which their colonies The oldest Forms of Writing. 03 went forth east and west, was not an African country, as Sir Henry Rawlinson appears to assume ; it must have been Arabia, as I have shown. Alphabetic writing w r ould naturally have its earliest de- velopment in the country where the hieroglyphic or pic- ture style originated ; and, this country being Arabia, the development of the simpler and more practical alphabetic style must have been hastened by the commercial habits and wants of the people. The nation that became mistress of the seas, established communication with every shore, and monopolized the commerce of the known world, must have substituted a simple phonetic alphabet for the hiero- glyphics as it gradually grew to this eminence; while iso- lated Egypt, less affected by the practical wants and ten- dencies of commercial enterprise, retained the hieroglyphic system, and carried it to a marvelous height of perfection, deriving from it, however, two simpler forms of writing first the hieratic, and at length the demotic. The ruins of Egypt are covered with hieroglyphics, the perfected Egyptian style appearing on the oldest monu- ments. That this form of writing was laid aside very early by other branches of the Cushite or Hamitic race is evinced by the fact that the only fragments of it found in remains of other peoples of this race appear on a broken tablet 'from the Mesopotamian ruins, now in the British Museum. Sir Henry Rawlinson finds in the writing on this tablet " several of the primitive forms of natural objects from which the cuneiform characters w T ere subsequently elabo- rated." There are not less than six different styles of the cuneiform writing,,that found in the Chaldean ruins seem- ing to be the oldest. There is nothing to show how many forms of hieroglyphical writing came into use before this .94 P re-Historic Nations. style was perfected in Upper Egypt, and superseded else- where by alphabets. The oldest Cusliite alphabet known to us is that which the Phoenicians carried' to Southern and Western Europe, which, however, was not preserved without modification. The names of its letters, and some of their forms, show that it was derived originally from- hieroglyphics. Aleph means an ox ; Bit, Bith, or Beth, a house or temple ; and Ganu-1 or Gimcl, a camel, an animal very naturally represented in ancient Arabian hieroglyphics, but not likely to appear in a hieroglyphical system originating in any country where the camel is not found. The invention of this alphabet, from which all the alpha- bets of modern Europe have been derived, was attributed to the Phoenicians. Pliny (lib. v., ch. xii.) ascribes to the Phoenicians "the great glory of inventing letters 1 ' u //'*'/ gens Phoznicum in gloria magnet litcrarum inventionis." This appears to have been commonly said among Greeks and Romans. They could have said, more correctly, that letters originated in the country of which anciently Phti-- nicia was one of the more important districts. An- when Pliny described the Phoenicians as "the firM d; erers of the sciences of astronomy and navigation," he would have been more accurate if, instead of "the Phoeni- cians," he had said the ancient Ethiopians or Cushites of Arabia. The original country of the CY.shite race, to which the Phoenicians belonged the original home where this culture had birth, and from which the Cnshite colonies and influence went forth in every direction to spread civiliza- tion, and create such nations as Egypt and Ohaldea, was not merely the little district of Phoenicia it was the whole Arabian peninsula. Arabian Antiquity Remote. 95. ANCIENT HISTORY OF ARABIA. I can imagine nothing that would shed so great a light on the pre-historic ages as an accurate history of Arabia from the beginning of its civilization. Histories of that country were undoubtedly written before and after the time when Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt under one government, for in that old time, so far away from us in the deepest antiquity, Arabia was the foremost country of the world. The people that originated the art of writing did not fail to have writers of their own annals. Never- theless, their ancient history cannot HOW be produced, for not only their own literature perished, but also that of the next succeeding nations, and, for more than twenty-five hundred years, no other country with which our civiliza- tion is connected has been so completely withdrawn from the observation of what we call history. It has been a mystery, an unreal country, and failure to see its historic importance has left many important problems of Ancient History without proper solution. And yet a weird influence of its great past is felt when- ever inquiry turns to its ancient history ; and now and then a writer wonders that " a nation whose history ascends without interruption to so remote an origin, and whose name has been so celebrated, should have its political in- fancy shrouded in so thick a mist of doubt and oblivion." Even .from this writer its grandest ages are hidden under that phrase " its political infancy." These ages are shroud- ed in doubt and oblivion, partly because they are so re- mote. We consider Egypt and Chaldea very old, but the culture and political organization of the Arabian Cushites were much older; they belong to what both Egyptians 96 Pre-Historic Nation*. and Chaldeans regarded as antiquity. Time, that wastes all things human, and buries nations out of sight, has not spared the primeval history of this oldest of civilized peo- ples. Add to this that the distance from us in time of the beginnings of the Cushite civilization is so vast as to fright- en the current chronologies into absolute lunacy, and we shall cease to wonder that the early histoiy of Arabia has been so buried in oblivion, and so discredited by the chro- nologists that it has failed to command much attention, or even to be thought of as a reality. This antiquity of civilization in Arabia is necessary to explain the facts that, in the oldest recorded traditions, Arabia is the land of dish, the celebrated Ethiopia of vcry remote times, and that, according to the testimony of lin- guistic and archaeological science, the first civilizers in Western and Southwestern Asia and in the Nile Vallcy were a people described as Cushites or Hamites. These facts are incontestable; but, while it is necessary to accept what they signify, we have no chronology for the scheme of Arabian history which they suggest. Guided, however, by what we know of the antiquity of civilization in Egypt and Chaldea, we may suppose as probable that the his- tory of the ancient Cushite civilization was somewhat as follows : 1. There was the primeval period of first development and growth. Did the original culture of the Cushite civ- ilizers come to them from a still older civilization? or was it originated entirely by themselves, without assistance or stimulus from abroad ? We cannot answer these ques- tions. Man was created capable of improvement, and no very long period could have elapsed before the use of reason and the almost spontaneous activity of the aptitude for in- Was it 8000 Years B.C.? 97 vention in providing for the wants of life began to create civilization. This development would necessarily be great- est and swiftest in the most highly gifted families and un- der the most favorable circumstances. If the first appear- ance of the human race on earth be as far back in the past as it seems necessary to believe, the Cushite civiliza- tion could not have been the oldest development of civil- ized life in human history, It is, however, the oldest of which we have any trace. It may have been original ; and therefore the period of its beginning, and its growth to the condition out of which grew its eminence in commercial and colonizing enterprise, may have been very long. 2. The period of colonizing enterprise, commercial great- ness, and extensive empire. Early in this period Cushite colonies were established in the valleys of the Nile and of the Euphrates, which in subsequent ages became Barbara, Egypt, and Chaldea. Its beginning could not have been later than 7000 or 8000 years before Christ, and it may have begun much earlier. The Cushites occupied India, Western Asia to the Mediterranean, and extensive regions in Africa. In this period they brought to full development that knowledge of astronomy and of other sciences, frag- ments of which have come down to us through the nations they created and by which they were succeeded. The vast commercial system by which they brought together " the ends of the earth" was created, and that unrivaled emi- nence in maritime and manufacturing skill was developed, which the Phrenicians retained down to the time of the Hellenes and the Romans. In this period were the grand- est ages of the great empire of Ethiopia, or Cusha-dwipa. 3. The period of disintegration, when Egypt and Chal- dea became separate countries, and the Sanskrit branch of E 98 Pi'c-llistoric Nations. the Aryan race invaded and occupied Northern India. This period may have begun about 5000 years before the Christian Era. But the Arabian Cushites, having control of Arabia, Southern India, many colonies on the Mediterra- nean, and extensive districts in Africa, were still unrivaled in power and commercial dominion. At length came a time, for which there is nothing to suggest a probable date, when, under control of the people called Phoenicians, North- ern Arabia, Syria, and the -connected communities on the Mediterranean became a separate dominion. There is some reason for supposing (as I shall presently show) that the rest of the peninsula was divided into two kingdoms, not later than from about 3000 to 3500 B.C. one includ- inir Yemen, Hadramaut, the Hedjaz, and other western dis- tricts; and the other consisting of Oman, the districts to- \\anK the Persian Gulf, and the whole region known as Irak Arabi to the Euphrates, of which Zohak, celebrated in Iranian history, was a famous ruler. 4. The period of continued decline, which finally brought the Arabian peninsula to its present condition. Much of what is usually written as "the History of Arabia before Islamism'' belongs to this period. The country was di- vided into five or six separate kingdoms, of which that de- scribed by the Greeks as Saba was the most important. The Phoenicians, finally restricted in Asia to the little dis- trict immediately connected with their great cities, and the rich and still enterprising people of Southern Arabia, called Sabeans and Himyarites, continued to represent what remained of the old Cushite civilization down to a period comparatively quite modern. But the ancient glory of the country departed previous to the rise of the Assyrian em- pire, in the thirteenth century before Christ; and, not long The Greeks on Arabia. 99 before the beginning of the Assyrian period, the whole northern portion of the peninsula was invaded and over- run by Semites, chiefly nomadic, who occupied the Hedjaz, became permanent inhabitants, and finally originated Ma- hometanism. The Land of Cush was transformed. In the absence of regular historic annals, any scheme of Arabian history that takes in all its periods must be chiefly hypothetical. Beyond a few important facts that may be used to guide supposition, there is nothing to enlighten us. We learn something from the traditions of antiquity ; the Hebrew Scriptures tell us something ; the old ruins of the East furnish some light ; and in Mahometan histories of Arabia there are passages that seem to present a few con- fused recollections of what was written in the lost annals of the country ; but a regular and accurate historical ac- count of ancient Arabia is no longer possible. If the Greeks had studied the country carefully, and written its history with such intelligence as the libraries of Egypt and Phoenicia then made possible, it would have had a prom- inent place in our studies of ancient history. But to them Arabia was already very obscure, and their knowledge of the peninsula was nearly as vague and visionary as that which has prevailed in modern times. GREEK NOTICES OF ARABIA. Herodotus, writing more than twenty -three centuries ago, had no perception of the historic importance of Ara- bia. To him it was a land of rare and marvelous produc- tions, but he seems to have had no knowledge whatever of the great commerce with India and other countries at the East, still monopolized by the Southern Arabians. He says: "Arabia is the farthest of the inhabited countries 100 Pre-Historic Nations. towards the South ; and this is the only region in which grow myrrh, frankincense, cinnamon, and ledanum. All these, except myrrh, the Arabians gather with difficulty." Then follows a rehearsal of certain cunning stories, worthy of the " Thousand and One Nights," put in circulation by the Arabians to hide their commerce from the Western nations. It was understood that all spices and perfumes, and most other rich and royal products, came from that country; and Herodotus, like others of his time, supj.nM.-d they were all produced there. His knowledge and appre- ciation of the country seem to have been fully expr in his exclamation, " There breathes from Arabia a divine odor!" He knew no more, and nowhere else in the Greek litera- ture of that age, or of any subsequent age, do we find a more intelligent account of Arabian history, geography, or commerce. Enough was known of the country to create a feeling of something rich and strange, something iincom- prehended and mysterious, and Greek writers who gained some general knowledge of Southern Arabia were moved to exhaust the power of language in attempts to describe its riches. There may have been something more in the lost geographical work of Artemidorus of Ephesus, al- though the extract in Strabo indicates little more than vis- ionary ignorance ; but nothing beyond this has been pre- served. Diodorus Siculus, after an extravagant descrip- tion of" the perfumes of Arabia, which ravished the senses," and " were conveyed by the winds to those who sailed near the coast," proceeded (bk. iii., ch. iii.) as follows : " Having never been conquered, by reason of the large- ness of their country, they flow in streams of gold and sil- ver; and likewise their beds, chairs, and stools have their Vast Hiches of the Arabians. 101 feet of silver ; and all their household stuff is so sumptu- ous and magnificent that it is incredible. The porticoes of their houses and temples, in some cases, are overlaid with gold. The like wonderful cost they are at throughout their whole buildings, adorning them, in some parts, with silver and gold, and in others with ivory, precious stones, and other things of great value, for they have enjoyed a constant and uninterrupted peace for many ages and gen- erations." Agatharchides is quoted thus : "The Sabeans surpass- in wealth and magnificence not only the neighboring barbarians, but all other nations what- soever. As their distant situation protects them from all foreign plunders, immense stores of precious metals have been accumulated among them, especially in the capital. Curiously-wrought gold and silver drinking vessels in great variety ; couches and tripods w T ith silver feet ; an incredi- ble profusion of costly furniture in general ; porticoes, with large columns partly gilt and capitals ornamented with wrought silver figures ; roofs and doors ornamented with gold fretwork set with precious stones ; besides an extra- ordinary magnificence reigning in the decorations of their houses, where they use silver, gold, ivory, and the most precious stones, and all other things that men deem most valuable. These people have enjoyed their good fortune from the earliest times undisturbed." These descriptions bring out one important fact. The Greeks believed Arabia had been a seat of enlightened civ- ilization and of a great commerce " from the earliest times ;" and yet, so far as we know, it never occurred to any Greek scholar to study the history of this land of marvelous wealth, and trace " from the earliest times" the develop- 102 Pre-IIistoric Nations. ment of its civilization and commercial enterprise. The Greeks of the Hellenic period knew less of distant coun- tries than was known in the time of Homer. Their geo- graphical knowledge was confined chiefly to the regions around the JEgean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The prevalent ignorance of more distant regions is shown by a statement of that insatiate reader and collector of informa- tion, the Elder Pliny, who says (lib. vi., ch. xxiv.) : " Tapro- bane (Ceylon), under the name of the 'land of the Autoch- thones,' was long looked upon as another world ; the age and arms of Alexander the Great were the first to give satisfactory proof that it is an island/' Telling what he had learned concerning the Arabians, he says, "Arabia is in- ferior to no country throughout the whole world." Speak- ing of the "Omani," or people of Oman, he refers to " their once- famous cities," which "at the present time are wil- dernesses." He mentions " Homna and Attana, which, our merchants say, are at the present time the most famous towns on the Persian Sea." His estimate of the Arabians is summed up as follows : " Take them all in all, they are the richest nation in the world." ARABIAN RECOLLECTIONS OF THE PAST. Mahometan writers on the history of Arabia give us a lew vague recollections of the ancient condition of the country ; but the old Cushitc literature, locked up in a strange tongue, and fiercely cursed by their religion, had all disappeared long before they began to study the sub- ject. Moreover, their first writings on the history of Ara- bia were several centuries later than the time of Mahomet. The Arabian Semites were probably the rudest and least civilized inhabitants of the peninsula. Most of them were Mahometan Histories of Arabia. 103 nomads, although they had some settled communities, and some knowledge of reading and writing. The first Ma- hometans were not a literary people, and no attempt was made to write even the life of their prophet until more than a century after his death, towards the close of the Ommiade dynasty of caliphs. The culture for which the caliphate was celebrated did not come from Koreish Arabs, nor did it greatly affect them, but it affected the Arabic language ; and the literary activity it created produced not only poetry, philosophy, and science, but also biogra- phies of Mahomet and histories of Arabia. Among those who wrote on Arabian history and geography with most care and ability were Al Tabiri of Tabreez, who w r rote in the 10th century of the Christian Era; El Mas'udi, who died about 957 A.D. ; Nuwayri, surnamed Al Kendi, who died about 1340 A.D. ; Abulfeda, prince of Hamah, in Syria, who died in 1345 A.D. ; Hamza of Ispahan, who died about 968 A.D. ; and El Edrisi, who was born about 1099 A.D. The time of Mahomet was becoming ancient when these men wrote. They had no materials for a regular and in- telligent history of even the later periods of the coun- try, and, if they had been supplied with such materials in abundance, the overwhelming influence of Mahometan prejudice and assumption would have made a proper use of them impossible. Mahometanism, treating everything Arabian but itself as antichrist if it could not be made tributary to the Prophet and his race, was incapable of being a faithful historian of the old Cushite civilization. Nevertheless, Mahometan writers give us traditions and facts, in which successive periods of the ancient history of Arabia are clearly indicated. They all agree that Kahtan, celebrated in the most authentic traditions, represents a 104 Pre-Historic Nations. great epoch, which was preceded by the misty ages of Ad and other representative persons or names, and followed by historical periods beginning with great political changes, represented by Saba and Himyar. The Mahometans, by substituting the Semitic Joktan for Kahtan, and by at- tempting to reconstruct all Arabian history around the Ilimyarite kings, have entangled the subject in great con- fusion. This was quite sufficient; but the rabbinical spirit and chronological dogmatism of modern times have ne farther, and made this confusion a hopeless jungle of ab- surdities. To see anything clearly, wo must put aside 1 IK-SI- perverting interpretations, and consider the traditions and facts for ourselves without regard to what has been said of them by Mahometan egotism, rabbinical ignorance, or (also chronology. 1. The traditions quoted as authentic by all Mahometan writers on Arabia describe a period of civilization before the time of Kahtan. To this period are assigned Ad,Tha- moud, and the representative names of persons and peoples associated with them. Arabian tradition knows nothing older than Ad. It associates with him and with his time the beginnings of civilized life. It represents the Adites, Thnmoudites, and their contemporaries as enterprising, rich, and powerful, says they had great cities and wonderful magnificence, and declares that they finally disappeared from the earth under the curse of heaven on their pride and arrogant idolatry. Mahometan ardor tells romantic stories of their marvelous cities, and of the miraculous judgments by which they were blasted. This traditional lore evidently preserves faint and confused recollections of a great period of civilization that had decaying monu- ments, ruined cities, and mysterious antiquities before the KaJitan in Arabian History. 105 time of Kahtan. Its wondrous creations and grand politi- cal supremacy disappeared, not in fiery storms of wrath from heaven, but under the influence of time and change. 2. In Arabian tradition Kahtan occupies a position simi- lar in some respects to that of Kaiamors in Iranian history. It is pointed out that there were ages of civilization before his time, and yet he is described as the ancestor of nearly the whole Arabian people. According to the traditions as reconstructed by Mahometanism, his descendants repeo- pled the country with the race known as the Aribah, or Arabians of pure blood, and he is celebrated as the primal personage of the Arabian world. Laying aside the Mahom- etan fables, we may suppose, not unreasonably, that Kah- tan represents the time when the old Cushite communities in Southern, Eastern, and Central Arabia were politically separated from those at the north. That must have beeft a very important epoch in Arabian history. Egypt and Chaldea had already become separate empires ; the Aryans had entered Northern India ; other important changes had occurred ; and now what remained of the old Cushite em- pire was divided, by a line running through Arabia itself, into two separate dominions one at the north, under Phoe- nician supremacy, the other at the south and cast,, reorgan- ized, we suppose, by Kahtan. Whether Kahtan actually represents the beginning of this new era must, however, be left to conjecture ; an accurate history of that time might give- the historical significance of this personage a diflerent explanation. He belongs to a remote age, and could not have been later than the time when Martu or Marathus, mentioned in the earlier Chaldean inscriptions, was the ruling city at the north.* * Among the notes which El Mas'udi added to his "Meadows of Gold E2 106 Pre-IIistoric Nations. 3. In the traditions, Saba, described as a descendant of Kahtan, is the next personage who represents an important historical epoch. The legends connect him with the south- western quarter of the peninsula, and with a kingdom that seems to have included Yemen, Hadramaut, the Hedjaz, and other districts. That very ancient Cushite temple the oldest temple in existence known as the Caaba was situated in the Hedjaz, and for this reason, it may be, the traditions say much more of this kingdom than of any other part of Arabia. Saba may represent the time when the provinces included in the kingdom of Saba and the I limy a rites were separated from those in the opposite quar- ter, including Oman and the districts on the Persian Gulf. It is known that such a division existed long before the Christian Era, and that the southwestern kingdom, less af- fected by the great changes in Western Asia, and more largely devoted to commerce and maritime enterprise, pre- served its existence much longer than the other. Saba was probably the first sovereign of this monarchy alter the separation. Xuwayri makes him its founder and first ruler; and Djennabi, who wrote in the sixteen! li century of the Christian Era, gives it a duration of three thousand years. 4. Himynr, a descendant of Saba, is another royal per- sonage to whom special but unexplained historical impor- tance is attached. He begins the line of Himyarite kings, and Mines of Gems" is the following: "There are two famous places on earth, the Iwan (of the Kosrous at Ctesiphon), and the Ghomdan (of the kings of Yemen) at Sana ; and there are only two great royal families, the- Sassanians and the Khatanites. " We have not been accustomed to see in Arabia one of the greatest and most ancient royal families. It was differ- ent in El Mas'udi's time. Harith, Belkis, and Chronology. 107 and his name has been given to both the people and lan- guage of the country. Nuwayri places the beginning of his reign in the year 1430 B.C., and says there were six- teen sovereigns between him and Queen Belkis, whose reign began in the year 991 B.C. This makes Belkis con- temporary with Solomon. According to Hamza of Ispa- han, the Himyarite monarchy was divided " during fifteen generations," at a very indefinitely dated period after the time of Himyar. This division was the result of a feud between the descendants of Himyar and those of his broth- er Kahlan. During the time of this division, one family reigned at Saba, while the other reigned at Zhafar. Other writers mention this fact. The kingdom was finally re- united under Harith-el-Raisch. He was called Tobba, as the Egyptian kings were called Pharaohs, " because," it is said, " the united people followed (tabbahou) his laws ;" and all his successors bore this title. This explanation of the title, however, may not be correct; -it is not shown that it was not in use before the separation. The rule of the Himyarite kings was terminated nearly a century and a half before the time of Mahomet by an invasion from Abyssinia. The varying and contradictory dynastic lists of kings after the time of Saba, constructed by Mahometan writers, would be masterpieces of confusion and absurdity if they were not outdone by the insane chronology, and worse than Mahometan assumption, of those learned Orientalists who place Himyar only 381 years before Christ, and bring Bel- kis into the first century after Christ. It seems necessary to remind these astonishing chronologists that the Hebrew Scriptures make it certain that a " queen of Sheba" ruled this kingdom in the time of Solomon. This must be ac- 108 Pre-Historic Nations. cepted as an established fact ; but, while the dates of the Mahometan historians are more credible and respectable than those of some modern scholars, who have applied a, false chronology to the history of Arabia, it is necessary to admit that neither their dates nor their dynastic lists can be trusted. Their dates lack the evidence that would make them authentic, and their lists of Sabean and Himyarite kings include sovereigns who evidently belong to ages more ancient, while in other respects they are confused, ar- bitrary, and unwarranted. Nevertheless, among the mate-- rials collected by these writers there are royal names and brief historical fragments that engage attention. i KA,MI:NTS OF OLD ARABIAN HISTORY. An ancient Arabian sovereign, usually called -Zohak, is mentioned in the traditions as an enterprising and power- ful conqueror. He is sometimes connected with the most ancient people of the country, but there is nothing in Ara- bic literature to make certain the time of his reign. It is stated in the chronicle of Tabiri that " Zohak was in pos- session of the whole of Irak Arabi, with Tabristan, Khezlan, Gurgan or Jurgan, and, in short, of all the territory in this direction to the very borders of Hindustan, which he (and his successors) governed with paramount sway during a period of 260 years." The Iranian historians give a more particular account of Zohak. According to some of them, he was the son of an Arabian king named Mirtas. Others add that his mother was a sister of Jemshid. All acjree that he was an Arabian. It is stated that he dethroned Jemshid, and made himself master of the kingdom of Iran or Hiras ; that " he slew and partook of all animals indif- ferently, whether destructive or harmless" (which was in Iranian History on Zohak. 109 violation of the religious code of Iran), " so that the detesta- ble practice became general ;" and that, long afterwards, " when Feridun had purged the land of Zohak's tyranny," the " detestable practice" could not be entirely overcome. In the Iranian books Zohak is described as Deh-ak and Dizakh, "the Tasi," usually translated "the Arabian." A note in the Desatir says, " Taz is the supposed father of the Tasis (or Arabians)." The word Taz reminds us of the original Arabian tribe of Tasm. Zohak probably claimed descent from Tasm. The commentary on the Desatir tells us that " Zohak was of the race of Taz," and that " he paid assiduous worship to Yezdam (the Supreme Being) and to the stars, on which account Yezdam granted him his wishes ; but, during his reign, he annoyed harmless animals." He is also charged with grave crimes. Much of the accusing execration bestowed upon Zohak is probably due to the fact that his religion was that of the Arabians, and not that of the Iranians or Hirasis. According to Berosus, a foreign dynasty of kings, called "Median," ruled Chaldea during 224 years. This dynasty was probably the result of a conquest of the country by Zohak. The term " Median" has occasioned much doubt- ful speculation; some supposing it to "mean Turanians or Magians, and others, in despair, suggesting a corruption of the word actually used by Berosus. But Madian or Midian was the name of an important branch of the Arabian peo- ple; and in Irak Arabi there was a district and a great city called Madain. Sadik Isfahani said in his geography, " Madain was a celebrated city of Irak Arabi. It was call- ed Madain because it' was the largest of the seven Madain, or cities of Irak." Wherein is it unreasonable to suppose that Zohak, having conquered Chaldea, selected from his 110 Pi'c-Histuric Nation*. immediate followers a Madian prince to be its ruler? Or that he annexed it to the Madam territory of the prince or king who ruled under him in Irak Arabi, with which C'hal- dea was immediately connected ? I shall show, in another place, that the " Median" dynasty of Berosus could not have begun in Chaldea much later than about 3000 years be I'm v Christ; and an average of the varying statements of Irani- an writers gives this as very nearly the d.-ite of Jemshid and Zohak. An Arabian sovereign called Schamar-Iarasch, rim al><> Srhamar-Iarasch-Abou-Karib, is described by Hamza, Nu- wayri, and others, as a powerful ruler and conqueror, who carried his arms successfully far into Central Asia. It is said that he became master of all the countries in that di- rection, occupied Samarcand for a long time, and even in- vaded China. In proof of the conquests of this sovereign, llamza states that an edifice formerly existed at Samar- cand bearing this inscription in the Himyarite or Cushiu- language and characters: "In the name of God, Schamar- larasch has erected this edifice to the sun, his Lord." Ami Abulfeda says in his Geography, "Ibn-IIankal states that he saw on one of the gates of Samarcand, called KescJt, an iron plate bearing an inscription said by the inhabitants to be Himyaric ; and they told him that the gate was built by the king or Tobba of Arabia." Ibn-IIankal added that this gate was destroyed during a sedition that arose while he was there. Langles states in a note on Norden's " Travels" that such inscriptions still existed at Samarcand in the four- teenth century j and Humboldt, referring to these facts. U sure that "some connection existed between ancient Ethio- pia and the elevated plain of Central Asia." At what time in the past did these extensive Arabian Ancient Arabian Conquerors. Ill conquests take place ? Not during the time of either the Assyrian empire, or of the Persian empire established by Cyrus the Great, and, certainly, not at any later period. It was previous to the period of the Assyrian empire, which, according to the best estimates, began in the year 1273 be- fore Christ. The History of Berosus informs us that, during the 245 years previous to the rise of Assyria to imperial power, Chaldea was governed by an Arabian dynasty of nine kings. The time of these Arabian kings extended from 1518 to 1273 B.C., and this is the latest period to which the conquests of Schamar-Iarasch can be assigned. He, or some other Arabian monarch, conquered Chaldea at the beginning of this period. We may, therefore, reasona- bly suppose that the occupation of Central Asia, and the invasion of China by Arabians, was connected with this conquest. There is mention of Arabian monarchs who marched far into Africa and waged war with " Maghrib ;" and one of them, called Afrikis or Afrikin, is said to have marched his army to the Atlantic Ocean. Maghrib is an ancient name of Mauritania, which is sometimes called Maghrib-ul-Aksa. The old Arabian Cushites, in the great days of their empire, occupied or controlled the larger part of Africa, as I shall endeavor to show in another place. Doubtless their estab- lishments in Central Africa were retained down to the first period of the Himyaric kings. Under these circumstances, wars with Maghrib were not unlikely ; and a march through Africa by a monarch occupying its central countries could not have been a very difficult afiair. Harith-el-Raisch, by whom, it is said, the divided kingdom of Hadramaut and Yemen was reunited, is celebrated as a sovereign of re- markable genius and character. He made the reunion 112 Pre-Historic Nations. complete and permanent, greatly enlarged the power of the kingdom, and extended his conquests to India. None of these historical fragments and traditions, how- ever, refer to the earlier periods of Arabian civilization and greatness ; none of them reach back to the ages previous to the epoch when the northern provinces and colonial pos- sessions of Arabia were politically separated from the rest of the peninsula; but they show distinctly that the coun- try was very great and very powerful, even in its periods of disintegration and decline. The Greek and Sanskrit tra- ditions and mythological narratives relate to more anc'u-nt tinu-s, and give us the names of some of the earlier rulers of the Land of Cush, such as Dionytos, Kepheus, and others. It is unreasonable not to see what is signified by the tradi- tions concerning Dionysos. He was one of the greatest and most influential sovereigns the world has ever known, if we may judge by that ineffaceable impression of his great m-ss left behind him in Egypt, India, and throughout A\YsU-rn Asia. In Egypt he was deified as Osiris, and I shall speak of him more at length in what I have to say of the Cushite origin and civilization of that country. THE CUSHITE SYSTEM OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATION. The ancient Arabians had a peculiar system of political organization, which went with them to every land they col- oni/.ed. The traces, remains, and, sometimes, nearly perllvt forms of it still remaining in countries where their influence was most powerful and permanent, should be classed witli the characteristic and suggestive antiquities of that legen- dary race. "We see the Phrenicians come into history with a political system radically different from that of any other people of antiquity, excepting those peoples on the Meditcr- Oman and its Municipalities. 113 ranean who were originally formed by their influence. Their cities, with connected districts, were separate municipalities, completely organized, and controlled more or less by popu- lar influence. They established the same system in Greece, and along the coast of Asia Minor, long before either Greeks or Pelasgians were mentioned in those -regions. They car- ried it to Italy and Northern Africa. It prevailed ancient- ly in Arabia from Phoenicia to the Indian Ocean, and it ex- ists there still. We see it in Mr. Palgrave's account of the political organization of the kingdom of Oman. He says : " Oman is less a kingdom than an aggregation of muni- cipalities ; each town, each village, has its separate existence and corporation ; while towns and villages, in their turn, are subjected to one or another of the ancestral chiefs, who rule the provinces with an authority limited, on one side, by the traditional immunities of their vassals, and, on the other, by the prerogatives of the crown. These preroga- tives [of the crown] consist of the right to nominate, and (on complaint) to depose local governors, although the office re- mains always in the same family ; to fix and levy port and custom-house dues ; to have exclusive management of the navy ; to keep a small standing army of six or seven hun- dred men ; and to transact all foreign affairs, for alliance or treaty, peace or war. The administration of justice and the decision of criminal cases are reserved to the kadis and the local royal judges. In short, the whole course of law is considered to be entirely independent of the sovereign, ex- cept in very extraordinary circumstances. Again, the taxes levied on land or goods (sea-port commerce excepted) are fixed and immutable save by local or municipal authority ; the sultan enjoys, but can not change them." Here we have the remains of that ancient political system r re-Historic Nations. of the Arabian Cushites which regulated the organization of the Pho3nician communities, created similar communities in Asia Minor and around the ^Egean Sea, and thus determined the conditions that, in later tunes, brought into existence the Ionian confederacy, and the " fierce democracies" of the Grecian peninsula. Some of the best preserved forms of this system ar.e found among the African Berbers, such as the McZabs and the Touaricks ; but remains or traces of it appear, with other antiquities of that old race, in India, as well as in Africa, and even in Western Europe. The local municipalities, or "village republics," as they have been called, still existing in India, were noticed by Arrian. ami they are described in English accounts of the country ; but I shall speak of them more particularly in another place. The "free cities" of the Middle Ages of Europe, which were recognised but not created by the governments of the new- ly-organized nations, must have had their origin in this old system, especially those of France and Spain.* They were organized municipalities long before Spain and Franc. isted, as we know them. The same system has been uni- versal among the Basques from time immemorial ; and their right to live under their own laws, and manage their own affairs without dictation, was not interfered with until, un- der the late sovereign of Spain, Queen Isabella, their muni- cipal prerogatives were suppressed because they took the side of Don Carlos in the civil war. Could we have a complete and authentic history of the * The maritime towns of the south of France entered into separate al- liances with foreign states, as Narbonne with Genoa in 11C6, and Mont- pellier in the next century. At the death of Raymon VII., Avignon, Aries, and Marseilles affected to set up republican governments, but were soon brought into subjection. Halhwis Middle Ages, vol. i., p. 206. Remains of the Cushite System. 115 various municipalities of Phoenicia from the time of Martu to the beginning of the Carthaginian period, the actual character of this old Cushite system might be seen more clearly. Probably it was not very democratic. Very like- ly there were " principal classes" who controlled the com- monwealths. There may have been a more or less exclu- sive system of citizenship. At the head of each munici- pality there appears to have been a hereditary local prince or chief. Among the Phoenicians, as we see them in his- tory, the general organization seems to have been a loose fraternal confederacy, much looser probably than circum- stances made possible under the great kings of ancient Ara- bia, much farther removed from consolidation than the pres- ent governments of the Arabian peninsula. But a people so active and enterprising, and so largely devoted to manu- factures, commerce, and maritime undertakings, would nat- urally demand and secure a political system based on mu- nicipal organizations that would allow them to manage their own aifairs. The traditions of the Cushite race in Arabia indicate that they had this system from the beginning. Their tra- ditionary myths and legends, unlike those of most ancient peoples, do not describe a national beginning when they were formed and organized by a great sovereign who taught them civilization, overwhelmed their enemies, and gave them national existence. On the contrary, they tell us that this Cushite nation first appeared in Arabia in nine or more tribes or communities, separately organized, and governed by chiefs whose names are given. At the head of these chiefs or princes was Ad, who appears to be rec- ognised as the first ruler of the nation. The significance of these traditions is unequivocal. They show us that, in 116 P re-Historic Nations. the earliest times, the Cushite system made the nation con sist of an " aggregation of municipalities." There is no recollection of any other system, and we find no other that can be traced to this race in any part of the world where their colonies and their influence were established. CU6HITE SCIENCE, ASTRONOMICAL AND NAUTICAL, There is a passage in Aristotle's De Coelo, lib. iL, cap. xii., frequently cited or mentioned, which reads as follow-: T)}y ct fft\iivr]v tupuKctfity CI^OTO^OV ptv ovaav' vireiffeXdoiiaui it TUv uqripuv TOV TOV "A/3OC, ml airoKpvfyivra. ptv TO piXav UVTI'IC, t&Xdoi'Ta. ce *rara TO tyavov KOI Xa^nrpov' o^to/wc %t KOI -rrepl ro7c oXXoic ucrrtpag \tyovatv of TrdXat TtrriprjKOTtG IK TrXtt'orwv trwr AlyvTTTioi KOI Ba/3vXa)vio(, Trap' uiv TroXXac Tr/oretc t^ofjiev irepl ika- nicians. The 111:11;- lu-t was described as " the stone of Hercules ;" and we have very significant accounts of "the cup of Hercules," which reminds us of the cup in which the later Arabians iloated the needle. Hercules, it is said, departed on hi< great mari- time expedition to the West with a cup which lie had re- ceived from Apollo. The cup is associated with Hercules not only in the myths, but also in sculptured and other representations, which show him with a cup in his hand. -Nothing could have been more natural to the Phoenician mariners than to associate the magnetic needle with the gods, and regard it as a divine oracle. When not in u>e, the place of the compass would be in a temple, apart from familiar approaches. The Bajtylia, or " stones having life," which, we are told in Sanchoniathon, were made by Otiranos, are supposed to indicate ancient experiments with the magnet. Knowledge of the properties of the magnet existed in very remote times. We find traces of it everywhere. It appears in the old Sanskrit myths. Wilford says: In the { 'hatur-vctrga-chint&ndni) it is said that when the daitayas, being defeated, fled before the gods and found no shelter, The Cushites invented the Compass. 125 Sucrdchdryya created an immense magnet, like a mount- ain, by which the iron-tipped arrows of the gods were at- tracted ; whereupon Indra struck the mountain-like mag- net with his thunder, shivering it into numberless splinters, which fell upon the land and into the sea, existing thereaf- ter as magnetic rocks. The credulous skepticism that believes the old Arabians, with their practical spirit, their penetrating intellect, and their nautical wants, could have the magnet and under- stand its properties without producing the magnetic needle, greatly needs the wholesome discipline of reason. It is certain that the mariner's compass was not originated in Europe, nor among the later Arabians from whom we re- ceived it. Where did it originate ? How shall we reason- ably explain its origin if we refuse to believe it was in- vented by the greatest maritime people of antiquity the great people who monopolized maritime enterprise for so many centuries, not to say millenniums, and who created the ancient civilizations? Its history, so far as we can trace it, leads us directly to this explanation ; no other is so obvious, so probable, or so necessary to a just compre- hension of antiquity itself. But, it is said, " If the Phoenicians and their predecessors had the mariner's compass, why did not the Greeks and Romans make a full record of this fact ? and how did it happen that all knowledge of the compass was lost ?" Knowledge of the compass was not lost by those who used it. Perhaps the Greeks and Romans knew more of it in a general way than they have told us ; and if they did not know enough of the compass to explain it, or if, knowing something of it, they regarded it merely as a thaumatur- gical instrument of no practical importance, they would Pro-Historic Nations. not be likely to make it a topic in their writings. The Greeks must have known much concerning the history, manufactures, enterprises, and nautical science of the Phoe- nicians which they did not write down in their books. They did say something. Strabo, referring to the oppor- tunities afforded by the cities of Phoenicia for studying ge- ometry, astronomy, and other sciences, says : " The Sidoni- ans are said by historians to excel in various arts, and they cultivate science, and study astronomy, arithmetic, and night saUiny, each of which concerns the merchant and the seaman." Night sailing ! What does that mean ? It wa< a, science peculiar to the Phoenicians. We hear of it nowhere else. Strabo himself, probably, could not have explained it. It should be remembered that, among the enlightened peoples of antiquity, the methods of communication were dill'erent from ours. The current knowledge of their time was not published every morning in newspapers. The progress of science was not regularly announced to the public either in monthly bulletins or annual reports; and, what is more, the higher studies in science and philosophy were not conducted openly before the public so much as in secret societies. Pythagoras found it necessary to undergo a very severe ordeal of initiation before he could be al- lowed to pursue his studies in Egypt. In the matter of learning and its mysteries, exclusiveness and secretive-ness were much more common among the ancient peoples than publicity and frank communication. No ancient people hastened to communicate to all others its wisdom in the arts and sciences ; on the contrary, the rule was to conceal and hold it as the exclusive possession of those to whom it belonged; and, to a great extent, the highest and bold- est developments of science and philosophy were carefully shut up in secret societies. Secrecy of Phoenician Commerce. 127 It is well known that the Phoenicians, as far as possible, drew the curtain of secrecy over the whole business of their commerce; and we see in the statements of Herodotus that the Southern Arabians pursued the same policy. Can it be supposed, or even imagined, that these wonderful navi- gators and traders, having the mariner's compass, would go into all the public places of the known world, and there an- nounce it, explain it, and, giving it to all other peoples, in- vite them to become their commercial rivals? JSTo; they would have hidden it from observation with the most jeaL ous care. Nothing else connected with their business would have been kept in profounder secrecy. A means of maritime supremacy so sure, and to other peoples so mys- terious, would have been withdrawn from the scrutiny of Greek and Roman curiosity as carefully as the most sacred things of their religion were secured against the blasphem- ing impertinence of its enemies. The people who braved shipwreck to hide the Cassiterides from the Romans were not likely to make it possible for Greeks and Romans to understand and describe their greatest treasure, the mari- ner's compass. Therefore, when the mariner's compass has been fairly traced to the Pho3nicians, it is preposterous to object, seriously, that the Greeks and Romans have given us no account of it. A good old lady living in one of the most secluded val- leys of the Green Mountains was visited one day by a little company of romantic' pleasure-seekers. She asked them where they lived when at home ; and on being told that their homes were in Boston, she exclaimed with raised hands, "How can anybody be willing to live so far off!" It is to be feared that some persons contemplate antiquity with intelligence very similar to that of this most excel- 128 Pre-Historic Nations. lent old lady. They find it difficult, if not impossible, to believe there could have been anything worthy of atten- tion in ages " so far off." They are sure that nothing of much importance could have existed previous to our time. This style of intelligence is always preposterous ; but it reaches the superlative degree when allowed to guide the judgment of scholarly gentlemen whose chief aim is to es- tablish a reputation for " critical discrimination." IV. THE PHCENICIANS. HEEREX, pursuing his inquiries concerning the nations of antiquity, was constrained to say, " The severest loss Ancient History has to mourn a loss irreparable is the destruction of those records that would inform us of the affairs, the government, and the enterprises of the Phoeni- cians." Heeren's "Researches" have great value. His eth- nic assumptions are not always correct, and his conception of antiquity was not sufficiently extensive to take in the whole career of the old Cushite race, to which the Phoeni- cians belonged; but he wrote more than fifty years ago, without aid from the later discoveries. The lost records of this whole race would indeed shed a great light on the past ; nevertheless, it will be readily admitted that a com- plete history of the people known as Phoenicians, or even a complete record of Sidon or Tyre, giving a history of its maritime operations from the beginning, its manufactures, its commerce, its colonies, and its commercial and political relations with the rest of the world, would be an invaluable acquisition. The term Phoenicia is of Greek origin. The Greeks ap- plied it to a small district on the Mediterranean, which ap- pears to have been the only Asiatic territory controlled by the people called Phoenicians after the date of the first Olympiad. This was only a fragment of their more an- cient dominion, and they themselves were only a fragment F2 130 Pre-IIistoric Nations. of the still more ancient empire of the Arabian Cushites. The term Phoenicia did not come into use until long after the Phoenician dominion in Asia Minor, on the Black Sea, and on the islands and coasts of the JEgean and Eastern Mediterranean was broken. We call certain people Moors who never knew themselves by the name we give them. So did the Greeks and Romans describe a certain people of antiquity as Phoenicians. We can not have a regular history of this people ; but we know that the early Greeks called them Ethiopians. Notices of them are found in Greek literature ; tradition gives some account of them ; traces of their character and civilization are found in the many regions where they had colonies or commercial es- tablishments ; and there is something for study in the un- explained yet unavoidable impression of their greatness felt by every student of ancient history. ORIGIN OP THE PHOENICIANS. Herodotus, beginning his record of historical events among the " Greeks and barbarians," states, on the author- ity of " the learned among the Persians," that " the Phoeni- cians migrated from the shores of the Erythnran Sea to the Mediterranean." The Greek writers frequently mention ancient historical works, relating to Western Asia, that would tell much we desire to know. Strabo mentions " an- cient histories of Persia, Media, and Syria ;" and we know from statements in Oriental books that there were " ancient histories of Iran." It is probable that Herodotus had some knowledge of such works. He states that the Phoenicians themselves had the same tradition concerning their origin. Tn book vii., ch. Ixxxix., he repeats his first statement thus : " The Phoenicians, as they themselves say, anciently dwelt What the Immigration means. 131 on the Erythraean Sea; and, having crossed over from thence, they settled on the sea-coast of Syria." Eratosthenes found the same tradition in certain islands of the Persian Gulf, named Aradus and Tyrus or Tylus, supposed to be the same as the Bahreyn Islands of modern times, one of which is still called AracL These islands are on the coast of Arabia, in a bay that extends from the Persian Gulf. It will appear that the people called Phoenicians were a branch of the great Cushite race, and that the country they occupied was originally a part of that empire of Cusha-dwipa which extended from the Erythraean Sea to the Mediterranean. At that very remote period, when the first Cushite settlements were established on the Mediter- ranean, there was undoubtedly a great movement of the Arabian Cushites in that direction from all parts of the peninsula, and especially from the commercial districts on the southern and eastern coasts ; and probably there were other migrations, at subsequent periods, whenever a new city was founded, or some new commercial opportunity stimulated enterprise to seek that coast. The tradition re ported by Eratosthenes appears to signify, at least, that, when Tyre was founded, its builders from Sidon were joined by immigrants from the Bahreyn Islands and the Arabian coast with which they are so closely connected. Political considerations may have done something to incite this mi- gration, for the unity of the ancient Cushite dominion must have disappeared before Tyre was built, and the independ- ent nationality of the Phoenicians must then have reached that great condition of prosperity which it maintained for centuries afterwards. Linguistic and archaeological research have made two points very clear : first, that the oldest traces of a civilized 132 Pre-Historic Nations. people found in Asia Minor, especially in the coast regions, are those of the Cushites, or Ethiopians ; and, second, that there was a very close relationship between the Phoenicians and the ancient people of Southern Arabia, or, to translate the words of a distinguished French explorer and philolo- gist [Ernest Renan] : " It must be admitted that singular relations exist between the ethnographic, historic, and lin- guistic position of Yemen and that of Phoenicia." These points are now so generally admitted by those familiar with the evidence on which they rest, that an elaborate discussion of this evidence is not required. Mr. Rawlinson, in his essay " On the Ethnic Affinities of the Nations of Western Asia," states the admitted re Milt of investigation to be that Karaites or Cushites preceded Semitic and Aryan civilization throughout that whole re- gion ; and he names " Arabia, Babylonia, Susiana, Philistia, Sidon, Tyre, and the country of the Hittites" as points where their traces are especially noticeable. His essay is by no means all that can be desired on this subject, while his Turanizing speculation cannot be very satisfactory to himself. Any theory that classes the languages of the Egyptians, Himyarite Arabians, early Chaldeans, and early Canaanites as "Turanian languages," should not expect much success. Nevertheless, he says: "The primeval Ca- naanites, indeed, were of the race of Ham (/.s are the remains of structures hewn out of these rocks. In Kenan's report on the ruins of Marathos there is some account of an edifice called " el Maabed," the Temple, which shows " a vast court, 156 feet wide and about 180 feet long, scooped out of the rock in such a manner as to be level with the soil of the valley." Wonderful traces of skill in rock-sculpture appear in the finish and appurtenant this temple. .*' The aspect is Egyptian, with something original." Another structure, named " Burdj-el-Bezzak," now a retreat for brigands, he describes as a mausoleum of enormous dimensions, and says : " This is the most con- siderable and best-preserved building of ancient Phoenicia still existing. It was constructed of immense blocks of stone, and was^formerly crowned with a pyramid, of which we found nearly all the materials." Another structure, hewn out of the rock, he describes as "an immense stadi- um, about 738 feet long by about 100 feet wide. Ten rows of seats surrounded the arena, and the stadium terminated in a circular amphitheatre, from which two parallel pas- sages communicated with the outside, probably to let in the chariots and horses." The Phoenicians very Ancient. 145 Other remains of rock-sculpture and Cyclopean building were noted at Marathos ; and so it is throughout Phoenicia. The Cushite origin of these cities is so plain, that those most influenced by the strange monomania which .trans- forms the Phoenicians into Semites now admit that the Cushites were the first civilizers and builders in Phoenicia. Those old builders, whose sculpture produced such aston- ishing effects in coarse rock, resorted to wood and metal for the finish and ornamentation of their work. The stone they used was not Parian marble, therefore they covered it with ornaments of another material ; and " what remains of their monuments is not the monument itself, but the gross support that served to bear the whole system of dec- oration under which the stone was concealed." ANTIQUITY OF THE PIIG3XICIAXS. The doubts and perplexities that have troubled inquiry concerning the Phoenicians are due chiefly to the influence of chronological dogmatism. Investigators have created most of them by assuming that the commonly accepted scheme of Ancient History must not be disturbed. To ex- plain the facts presented for consideration, we must disre- gard this influence, and be entirely free to admit any con- clusion that shall seem necessary. The great antiquity of the people called Phoenicians was acknowledged by the ancients. Herodotus, evidently, did not suppose it could be denied. Josephus, while pointing out that " almost all which concerns the Greeks happened not long ago," men- tions as a fact generally understood that th*e antiquity of the Phoenicians was as great as that of the Chaldeans and Egyptians. He says, writing against Apion : The Greeks acknowledge "that they were the Egyptians, the Chal- G 146 P re-Historic Nations. deans, and the Phoenicians, who preserved the memorials of the most ancient and most lasting traditions of man- kind." In the tenth chapter of Genesis, the Hebrew belief in the antiquity of the Canaanites (called Phoenicians) is shown by the statement that Canaan, Cush, Misraim, and Phut were brothers. These names are made to represent the be- ginnings of the several branches of the Hamite race. This important chapter, which preserves the earliest ethnol* traditions of the Hebrews, is, in a geographical and ethnical point of view, of great value. George Rawlinson, while a* signing his imagined Semitic Phoenicians to a comparative- ly modern period, can not deny that civilized Phoenicia it- self was very ancient. He says, in his Herodotus, vol. iv., p. 245 " Hamitic races seem to have been the first to peo- ple Western Asia, whether starting from Egypt or from 1 Babylonia it is impossible to determine. These Hamitcs were the original founders of most of the towns, which sometimes retained their primitive names, sometimes ex- changed them for Semitic appellations." This admission, however, really yields the whole question, and overthrows the chronology he desires to save. The arrival of the Israelites in the land of Canaan, from Egypt, is usually placed in the fifteenth century before the Christian Era. At that time the Phoenician cities wore very old. Some of them had declined. Arad or Arvad had superseded Martn or Marnthns. Many ages had gone by since Joppa or lopia was a royal city. The great days of Phoenician dominion in that part of Asia had departed. It does not appear that any great city was built in Phoeni- cia after this date; some of the old cities may have had new extensions, but no new city was founded. From that Scheme of Phoenician History. 147 time onward the history of Phoenicia was the history, not of young vigor and rising greatness, but of development already mature and of progress towards decline. And yet Mr. Rawlinson makes his Semitic Phoenicians begin their residence there in the thirteenth century before Christ two centuries later than the Israelites! To speak very moderately, and as respectfully as possible, this astonishing hypothesis is unreasonable. THE PERIODS OF PHOENICIAN HISTORY. There are some dates and facts which constrain us to be- lieve that the Phoenician settlements and cities, on the east- ern shore of the Mediterranean, were quite as old as Egypt. Herodotus gives us the age of Tyre, one of the latest of those cities ; and it is clear that cities much more ancient than Sidon were the earlier seats of the commerce and pow- er of that people, such as Joppa or lopia, Berytus or Berut, Byblius or Gebal, and Marathos or Martu. The history of the people called Phoenicians can be divided into four great periods ;* and the first of these periods, as described in the "Allgemeine Encyklopadie," may be subdivided into three or more. The elaborate and learned article on the Phoenicians, published in that great work, arranges Phoenician history as follows : 1. The ante-Sidonian period, or the time previous to the rise of Sidon to supremacy ; 2. The period of Sidon ; 3. The period during which Tyre was the ruling city ; 4. The period of the Assyrian, Baby- lonia, Egyptian, and Persian invasions, to the final decline of Phoenicia. The first, second, and third of these periods are greatly crowded and confused by the writer's deference *See the "Allgemeine Encyklopadie," article "Phcenizien," p. 333- 340. 148 P/'c-lIixtot'ic Sections. to the popular chronology ; and, in other respects, the arti- cle is more valuable for the learning it shows than for clear views and just conclusions ; but the division adopted is ob- vious and useful. In using this natural arrangement of the history, I shall divide the first period into thive. and the fourth I shall describe as the Carthaginian period. 1. The ante-Sidonian period. This period begins with the first commercial settlements of the Hamitic or Cushito people on that part of the Mediterranean coast with the time when the Arabian Cushites began to occupy that coast for maritime purposes. That this time was in very remote antiquity is made manifest by the uniform testimony of lin- guistic and arch^ological investigation, which shows that the Cushites preceded the other races in that part of Asia, and were the first to establish civilization there. Accord- ing to an old tradition, the first cities built were Gebal or Gebeil, which the Greeks called Byblus, and Berut, or Be- rytus as the Greeks made it, now called Beyrut ; but oth- ers may have been older. The time previous to the supremacy of Sidon must have been divided by events into several distinct historical pe- riods. 1. There was a time when Kepheufl, king of Ethio- pia, reigned at Joppa, and his kingdom is described ; tending from the Mediterranean to the Indian Ocean. Phoe- nicia or Canaan was then an integral part of the great king- dom of the Arabian Cushites ; but we cannot suppose the time of Kepheus to have been during the first ages of the maritime settlements in that district. 2. There was a time when Berut or Berytus, with its Poseidon and Cabiri wor- ship, was the great city, and the principal starting-point for commercial and colonial enterprise. The earliest col- onists may have gone forth from this city. Poseidon-wor- Antiquity of Marathos. 140 ship seems to have been a peculiarity of all the colonies previous to the time of Sidon. 3. There was a time when Martu or Marathos was the metropolitan city, and gave its name to the whole region. The ruins of Marathos show it to have been a city of great importance. Diodorus Siculus describes it as a city celebrated for the religious objects guarded in its sanctu- aries. It is mentioned in the older Chaldean inscriptions, which shows its great antiquity. Like Byblus and Bery- tus, it had ceased to be a chief city long before the time of Joshua.* It was then secondary to the later island city known as Arad or Arvad, which, however, may have been as old as Sidon. Arad, which inherited the political and commercial importance of Marathos, may have been older than Sidon, to which it finally became secondary. The Arvadites are prominently mentioned in the tenth chapter of Genesis, and Arvad had evidently been a chief city for a long time when that chapter was written or compiled. 2. The period of Sidon. There is no record to tell us when this period began. It belongs to the time when the Phoenician cities, with their many colonies on the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, had become a separate * There are indications that Marathos was one of the most primeval cities of Phoenicia, and that the Marathos whose ruins now exist was a new city, built near the site of an older Marathos. This new city was al- ready a mass of rains in Strabo's time. The French explorers say its structures were much older than the Greek epoch, and yet they found in them materials taken frcm remains of older structures that had become ruins before they were built. Throughout the vast walls of the building called Burj-el-Bezzak, blocks of stone were found, evidently taken from the ruins of more ancient structures. Dr. Gaillardot, of the French ex- ploring party, in the "Mission de Phoenicie," discusses the evidence cf this fact at length, and shows it to be conclusive. 150 J* re-Historic Nations. and independent dominion. This separation, which was probably more political than commercial, may have com- menced when Martu or Marathos was the great city, and when the ancient Chaldean inscriptions described that whole region as Martu. In Homer, Tyre is not named, but Sidon and the Sidonians are mentioned in such a way as to make two facts apparent first, that, in ages previous to his time, " the great Sidon" had been the ruling city ; and, second, that the cities in Asia Minor and around the A^-A\\ Sea had recognised its controlling influence. Kcnrick Bfcyfc very justly: "This exclusive mention of Sidon cannot re-p- resent the actual state of things when the poet wrote, for in that age Tyre had already assumed the ascendency ; but it indicates his traditional knowledge of the time when the power of Phoenicia centred in Sidon, and Tyre was insig- nificant."* Movers, shackled by submissive reverence for the popu- lar chronology, suggests that the supremacy of Sidon may have begun about the year 1500 B.C. At that date it Mas already in a state of decline. It must have begun more than a thousand years earlier. We know from the Hebrew Scriptures that, in the fifteenth century before the Christian Era, " the great Sidon" was already a very ancient city. Its greatness was mature and old ; its origin was hidden from the Israelites in the mist of remote ages ; and they spoke of it as one of the earliest cities of the land. The Hebrew writers could not have spoken of Sidon in this way if at that time its days of great power and influence 1 Kid just begun. It is possible that the cities of Asia Minor were sepa- rated from Phoenician control during the period of Sidonian * See Kenrick's " Phoenicia," page 341. The Greeks aromid the ^Egean. 151 sway, but there is nothing to suggest the date of this sepa- ration beyond the fact that, after this period, Phoenician enterprise and influence went chiefly in other directions, while throughout that region, and on both sides of the JEgean, grew up an independent political organization of the Pelasgians, old acquaintances of the Phoenicians. This was folio wed by subsequent organizations of other peoples, of the same race doubtless, until, in the eleventh century before Christ, we may suppose the famed Ionian confeder- acy came into existence.* Sidon, whose importance had depended largely on its power and commercial sway in this part of the Mediterranean world, very naturally began to decline under the influence of these changes several centu- ries previous to the year 1500 B.C. 3. The period of Tyrian supremacy. Herodotus informs us that Tyre was founded about 2760 years before the Christian Era. He learned at Tyre that the city was found- ed 2300 years previous to the time of his visit there. This date, taken from the annals of the city, is just as authentic * Ernst Curtius, in his "Die lonier vor der lonischen Wanderung," shows that the lonians and other Greeks previous to this time dwelt chief- ly in Asia Minor. \Vhen Ionia was created, many of those who had passed over into Greece returned to Asia. This is all there is to excuse the ab- surd representation of Hellenic egotism that the cities of Asia Minor were colonies established by emigration from Hellas, which was politically a much younger country. In concluding his essay, Curtius says : "In Asien sahen wir die Griechen von der phrygischen Nation sich ab- losen als ein besonderes Volk ; in Asien sesshaft, bilden sie aus, was an Sprache und Sitte als der gemeinsame Typus des Heilenischen anerkannt werden muss. Sie gliedern sich in zwei Hauptstamme ; aus dieser Glei- derung wird eine Spaltung ; der eine der Stamme bleibt in Asien und be- setzt die ganze Westkiiste, der andere wandert aus durch Thracien und Macedonien." 152 Pre-Historic Nations. as any other historical date. It excited in Herodotus nei- ther doubt nor surprise. It implies more past time than the chronologies of modern times can afford; therefore some attempts have been made to bring it into discredit, but without any show of good reason, and without success. When we fairly consider what is known of the history of Tyre, the date given by Herodotus appears not only K u- sonable, but even moderate. As known to us in history, it consisted of an ancient town on the main land, called P;i- Ije-Tyms, or Old Tyre, and a later city, or extension of the city, built on an island very near the shore, called Tyre. Herodotus, after careful inquiry, recorded the :i the old city. Those who would discredit the date hi- irivi-s put entirely out of view the building of the ancient c; the main land, and begin the existence of Tyre with the building of the new city. According to Josephus, the in- sular city, or Xew Tyre (for it was to this ho referred), was 240 years older than Solomon's Temple; that is to bay, it was built in the thirteenth century before Christ. Two hundred years earlier, when the Israelites settled in Cana- nn, the old city, described by them as "the strong city, Tyre," had evidently existed for ages. There is nothing extravagant, nothing improbable, nothing that should be doubted, in the explicit statement of Herodotus that its first foundations were laid about 2TGO B.C. Tyre was built by a colony from ,Sil>n. When it grew to be important, its enterprise seems to have been directed chiefly towards the west, and to countries that could bo reached by sailing down the Red Sea. It established relations with Spain, and with the northern and western coasts of Africa, where the Arabian Cushites estal)li>lu 1 colonies and civilization in the earlier periods of their his- The Greatness of Tyre. 153 tory on the Mediterranean, probably as early as the time when Byblus and Berut were the chief cities. Those early communities, which in Northwestern Africa and Spain may have been as old as Egypt, grew to be important na- tions, as appears in the myths, became independent, and as- sumed control of their own commerce. After a long his- tory, indicated by the myths, they must have declined greatly, for Tyre was able to resume, in those regions, the occupation and influence which the Cushite cities on the Mediterranean had lost many ages earlier. The Tyrians secured complete possession of all those countries, and went beyond them to Britain for tin, and to regions near the Baltic for amber. Without being able to determine precisely when Tyre became the ruling city, we can see that it had reached this condition previous to the Hebrew times. Its greatest em- inence is apparent in the biblical history of David and Sol- omon. With an admirable degree of enlightened civiliza- tion, with marvelous skill, in manufactures, mining, and commerce, and with a range of traffic that included most of the known world, the Tyrians became a mighty, renown- ed, and magnificent people, such as history found them such as we can see so distinctly through the lurid storm of prophetic denunciation poured forth in the 27th chapter ofEzekiel. The Tyrians built Carthage on the site of an older town which had more than once been renewed. A statement of Philistus the Sicilian, preserved by Eusebius, says it was founded " by th'e Tyrians, Zorus and Carchedon, fifty years before the Trojan war." This makes it as old as New Tyre. It is usual to assign a later date, but not with much cer- tainty. It is probable that the sites of both Carthage and G2 Pre-Historie Nations. Utica were occupied by the people called Phoenicians at a very early period, and that the reports of their having been built at various dates, in later times, refer only to subse- quent enlargements of the old towns by which they be- came important cities. 4. The Period of Carthage. The decline of Tyrian su- premacy began with those rapacious invasions of the As- syrians, Egyptians, Babylonians, and, finally, the Persians. which troubled its Asiatic commerce, and at last destroyed its independence. On the commencement of these troub- les, many of its wealthiest and most enterprising citizens removed to Carthage; and this important migration may have given rise to the common representation that Car- thage was built about 813 B.C. After this time the old security and importance of Phoe- nicia disappeared. The country was repeatedly ravaged and subjugated by invading armies of the great powers of inner Asia. The ancient condition of Phoenician greatness, no longer possible on that coast, was henceforth represent- ed by Carthage, which succeeded Tyre in the supremacy over Northern Africa and Spain, and became one of the most celebrated cities of its time. The period of its su- premacy lasted about 500 years, and was terminated vio- lently by the Romans, who, after a long and malignant warfare, overthrew its power and destroyed the city. Carthage had over 700,000 inhabitants e\en at the time of its destruction. Its vigor had not declined ; for more than a thousand years longer it might have played as grand a part in the Mediterranean world as the greatest of its predecessors, if Rome had not risen to become its rival. But the great career of the Cushite race was finished. ( 'arthage was the last representative of its enterprising The Date of Phoenician Colonies. 155 civilization. The time had come when peoples of the Ary- an race were to stand foremost in civilization and power, possess the world, and make its history. They can be great enough to see clearly, and with becoming admiration, what they have inherited from their Cushite predecessors. Ernst Curtius suggests that the order in time of the many Phoenician colonies around the Mediterranean may be traced in the particular form of religious worship estab- lished by the first settlers. The colonies of Sidon carried with them the worship of Astarte, while those of Tyre were distinguished by the worship of Melcarth or Hercules. This guidance is not sure ; but we may add to his sugges- tion that the ante-Sidonian period can be traced in the col- onies by the worship of Poseidon and the Cabiri. Bery- tus, which, according to all tradition, was the earliest met- ropolitan city, was the chief seat of this worship ; and we find that it was carried to Spain and to Northern Africa, but most abundantly to Italy, to many of the islands, and to the regions around the ^Egean Sea. In Thrace, Posei- don, and also the Cabiri, were worshipped in the earliest times. The mysterious Cabiri, called sons of Sydyk the Just, and also sons of Vulcan, were peculiarly Phcenician, or more probably Arabian ; but their worship, as well as that of Po- seidon, belonged to the more ancient period of Phoenician or Cushite civilization, the Cabiri being divinities that pre- sided over navigation, metallurgy, and mining. Traces of the worship of Hercules, nowhere wanting, are most abun- dant in the western regions on the Mediterranean and be- yond the Straits of Gibraltar, where it was established in times far more ancient than either the Tyrian or the Sido- nian period. 156 /V.-///V' '//"< Nation*. THE IJUILDIXG OF GADES. The city of Gades seems to have been founded by the Tyrians about 1]00 years before the Christian Era, in pur- suance of measures they had taken to occupy the country which had long been politically separated from the Phoe- nician cities, although commercially connected with them. \Vr are told that their aim was to establish themselves in the most western- region occupied by Hercules. That is to say, they sought to regain a country which, in the most ancient times, had belonged to the ancestors of their coun- trymen. This reference to Hercules distinctly recognises that early occupation of Spain and Northwestern Africa by the Arabian Cushites, which to the Tyrians themselves must have seemed very ancient. Gades was built near the old city of Erythia, famed in the myths in connection with Hercules and Geryon ; and north of it, on an island at the mouth of the Tartessus, now the Guadalquiver, was the equally ancient city of Tartes- sus, which no longer existed in the time of Strabo, for he says : " They say that on the piece of land inclosed between the two outlets of this river there formerly stood a city named, like the river, Tartessus." When Gades was built Spain had long been an old country, full of old cities, and rich in the monuments of an old civilization, then probably, like the political condition of the country, in a state of de- cline. Before the time of Gades, not only the colonizing enter- prises and other great events signified by the legends con- cerning the Cushite Melcarth or Hercules, but also many subsequent ages of the Cushite civilization in Spain, had become mythical. The Temple of Hercules, at Tyre, was Gades and Tartessus. 157 then nearly 1 700 years old when Gades was built, while in the myths of both Phoenicia and Egypt he was much old- er. One of the first edifices built at Gades by the Tyrians \vas the Temple of Hercules. Before going to the island on which Gades was founded, they sought a location for their city on another island, nearer the straits, which, from time immemorial, had been consecrated to Hercules. The whole region was filled with memorials of the ancient Cushite influence that gave it civilization. We can see all this in the old records and myths of the Greeks; and yet some writers have blindly assumed that the first colonizing settlements of the people called Phoenicians, in that part of Europe, were made by the Tyrians. This denial of the past is due mainly to that besotted influence of dogmatic chronology which has done so much to obscure antiquity. The more ancient times must be covered with darkness and left unseen, because its scheme of human history cannot afford to recognise them. This chronojogical infatuation is not respectable ; no deferential forbearance or compliance of eminent scholars can make it so. Strabo said of Gades, " Its inhabitants equip the greatest number of ships, and the largest in size, both for our sea and the exterior ocean." The best materials for ship-build- ing appear to have been very abundant in that part of Spain. Gades, and Tartessus at the mouth of Guadalquiv- er, were probably noted for their naval constructions, and especially for the construction of large ships suitable for use on the great " exterior ocean." If we suppose Tartes- sus to have been the Tarshish of the Hebrew Scriptures, may we not find in the great ships for which that locality was famous an explanation of what was meant by the celebrated " ships of Tarshish ?" Some of the ancients placed the 15S Pre-Historic Nations. " Pillars of Hercules" near Gades, identifying them with the " Gates of Gades ;" by others they were placed as far north as the entrance to the Baltic. These mythical pillars were supposed to be columns set up by Hercules to mark the most western point reached by his expedition; and the Tyrians, it is said, went forth to find them when they sought a location for their new city in the west. El Mas'sudi speaks of these columns as " the idols of copper." EXTENT OF PHCENICIAN INFLUENCE. In presence of the manifold traces of their influence, and of the uniform testimony of tradition, it could not be denied, with any show of reason, that the Arabian Cushites, called Phoenicians, were the first civilizers not only in Western Asia, but in Thrace, in Thessaly and Epirus, in the Grecian Peninsula, in the Mediterranean Islands, throughout South- ern Europe, and in Northern Africa. In all these regions the Phoenicians are #pparent in the oldest architectural re- mains, the earliest culture and modes of writing, and the methods of political organization. Such antiquities as the Cyclopean structures at Mycenae and Tiryns, and those in Calabria and Sicily, show at once their origin. Scarcely an alphabet has been known, during the historical period, that did not arise from that of the Phoenicians. But, if there were no other evidence, a controlling Phoenician influence, at the beginning of civilization around the Mediterranean, could be inferred from the Phoenician or Arabian method of political organization everywhere prevalent an organi- zation in which everything else was subordinate to separate municipalities, completely organized, and more or less con- trolled by popular influence. What -could be more indubi- tably Phoenician than the political methods of the Ionian The Phoenicians in Scandinavia. 159 confederacy, of Italy in early times, and of peninsular Greece as known in history ? The Phosnician establishments in Scandinavia, where so many traces of their influence are found, could not have been later than the early part of the Tyrian period ; and the earliest Cushite- Arabian establishments there must have been much older. The letters and literary culture of the ancient Scandinavians were incontestably Phoenician. It is freely admitted that the Runic letters of the Norsemen, sixteen in number, found in the old inscriptions on the rocks and stone monuments of Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and the neighboring districts of Germany, and used in Norse literature, could have no other origin. A circular of the " Royal Society of Northern Antiquaries," published in the Journal of the Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Socie- ty for January 1842, says: "From a remote antiquity commercial relations existed between Asia and the north of Europe. Abundance of Citfic coins, and other matters, are frequently discovered in excavations, which lead to the inference that such commercial intercourse had no unim- portant influence on the north, and also on the countries by which it was originated." The great article of commerce in Northwestern Europe was amber. The Pho3nicians can be traced far down the western coast of Africa, where it is well known they had cities and trading stations. They occupied the Canary Islands, and left there a dialect of the Cushite tongue closely related to the lan- guage of the Berbers, which may indicate that their settle- ments in these islands were older than the period when the language of Phrenicia is said to have been Semitized. Traces of their traffic are found on the coast of Guinea. Some suppose that " sika," as the name of gold, was carried 100 Pre-Historic Nation*. to that coast by the Phoenicians. Be this as it may, the re- markable "Popoe beads," found there in the soil, are evi- dently remains of their wares. Travelers in Western Af- rica have frequently called attention to these "beaa\ s (bk. viii., ch. xliv.), " The Athenians, when the Pelasgians possessed that which is now called Hellas, were Pelasgiaus." Sanskrit Notice of Pelasgia. 163 A knowledge of this Pelasgian nation seems to be re- corded in Sanskrit literature, which shows considerable in- formation relative to Europe and Western Asia, and a bet- ter acquaintance with Western Europe in ancient times than we find in Greek literature. Wilford, in the 8th vol- ume of "Asiatic Researches," describing what old Sanskrit books say of certain sub-dwipas, quotes and comments as follows : " The third [sub] dwipa is Placsha, or the coun- try abounding in fig-trees. It is called Palangshu by the mythologists of Bootan, and included the Lesser Asia, Ar- menia, and other countries. The name still remains in Placia, a town of Mysia, whose inhabitants, with those of Scylace, had a peculiar language (according to Herodotus), which was the same as that spoken by the Pelasgi at Ores- tone or Crotone in Italy, and by the Pelasgi who lived on the shores of the Hellespont. Thus the appellation Plac- sha, or Palangshu, appears to be the same with Placia and Pelasgia." We have no means to determine whether the Greek or the Sanskrit word most resembles the old name used by the Pelasgians themselves, but this Sanskrit sub- dwipa, or country of Placsha or Palangshu, formed in the northwestern part of the more ancient Cusha-dwipa, can mean nothing different from that ancient nation of the Pe- lasgians, which, according to the Greeks, occupied the same territory. Research has shown very conclusively that the Pelas- gians belonged to the Aryan race. Their language seemed "barbarous" to Herodotus, because it differed so much from the dialect he used that he could not understand it. The Greeks, who, it is said, were c< insignificant in the ear- lier times," were undoubtedly a family group of this peo- ple, with which many other Pelasgian tribes or communi- 104- Pre-Historic Nations. ties were finally incorporated. The Pelasgians doubt less represented a mixture of several branches of the Aryan family, and, to some extent, a mixture of races, for in later times there were, in the cities of Asia Minor, lonians like Thales, who claimed to be "of Phoenician extraction." There was probably a mixture of races in the Phoenician cities of Asia Minor in the earlier periods of their existence. The national organization known as Pelasgia or Phu>l.a could not have lasted many ages. AY hat Ilcsiod said of the Leleges, an important branch of the Pelasgian p< was doubtless true of the whole; they were "a people gathered from among the nations of the earth." Straho says: "The Telasg'ians were a nation disposed to wanner, ready to remove from settlement to settlement, and tlicy c-xperienced both great increase and sudden diminution of their number." It is nowise surprising that these IVlas- gians went in such large numbers to Italy and Southwest- ern Europe, leaving the Greek family predominant in Ionia and Hellas. Clinton (Fasti Hellenic!, vol. i., p. 5-10) says: "A dy- nasty of Pelasgic chiefs existed in Greece before any other dynasty is heard of in Greek traditions. Excepting in this line, none of the genealogies ascend higher than the ninth, or eighth, or seventh generation before the Trojan War. Danatis is in the ninth, Deucalion in the eighth, Cadn the seventh generation before that epoch. But in th lasgic branch of the nation, Phoroneus is in the eighteenth before the Trojan \Yar ; the founder of Sicyon is his con- temporary ; and the Pelasgic chief who planted the Pelas- gians in Thessaly is five generations earlier than Deucalion. Inachus, the father of Phoroneus, was the highest term in Grecian history." The lists name nine Pelasgian kimr* Dates in Pelasgian History. 165 who reigned previous to the time of Danaiis, beginning with Inachus. But none of these lists can be received as accurate in all respects, nor can it be reasonably assumed that Phoroneus, like some of the later kings named in them, reigned at Argos. The extensive Pelasgian kingdom established by Inachus and Phoroneus must have begun to break up before the time of the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt, which ap- pears to have sent several Cushite leaders and colonies into Greece. Clinton seems to favor the chronological esti- mates which give the year 1875 B.C. as the first year of the reign of Inachus, and places that of Phoroneus twenty- five years later. It is probable that the realm of the king of Argos who was displaced by Danatis was a fragment only of what had been the kingdom of Phoroneus. Ac- cording to Eratosthenes, the probable date for Danaiis at Argos is 1466 B.C. ; and he gives 1753 B.C. as the date of Phoroneus. MINOS AND HIS CONQUESTS. There is neither a record nor a tradition relative to the date of Minos that has sufficient probability to deserve at- tention. His time may have been older than any date that has been assigned for it. To claim him as a Dorian Greek is improbable and absurd. He and his people were Phoenicians or Arabian Cushites, for Crete was an important part of the territorial possessions of that people. He may have lived at the close of the Sidonian period, when, as a successful revolutionist, he may have driven the Sidonians from the islands and other regions around the ^Egean ; or he may have been the successful conqueror who broke up the kingdom of the Pelasgians. Tradition connects Minos 166 Pre-Historie Nations. with the Phoenician race. He was, perhaps, the first ruler who gave Crete a separate and independent government. This appears to be signified by the statement that " the Cretans traced their legal and political institutions to Mi- nos." The oldest traditions celebrate him as a just law- giver; and one, of later date, makes him a brother of Kluul- amanthus ; but Ephorus, quoted by Strabo, says : " Minos was an nnitator of Rhadamantlms, an ancient personage, and a just and wise man." There is an old tradition that Uhadamanthus was a king of Arabia. Herodotus says: "31 inns wa< a great conqueror, and prospered in all his wars." According to the uniform testimony of antiquity. Civil-, in the time of Minos, was a powerful maritime state; ami it is said that ho not only suppressed piracy, but also made himself master of the ^Egcan Islands. Many traditions connect Cretan supremacy with the cities of Asia Minor. For instance, the building of Miletus is assigned to Civ- tans, while the more correct representation, according to Pausanias, seems to be that a body of Cretans, led by Mile- tus, took possession of the city and changed its name. " Be- fore their arrival the place was nairn-d Anaotoria, and more anciently Lelegis." It appears most probable that Minos waged war against the Pelasgians, and that he gained con- trol of all the maritime regions around the ^Egean. Like that of the Pelasgians, the empire he established seems to have been of short duration. It must have terminated sev- eral centuries previous to the beginning of the Ionian con- federacy. An authentic history of Minos and Pelas^ia would show us something of the lost history of Phoenicia, and make clearer the "Legendary and Heroic Age of Greece." No Phoenician Book remains. 167 THE PHCEXICIAX LANGUAGE AXD LITEEATUEE. According to the uniform and explicit testimony of Greek and Roman antiquity, the art of alphabetical writing was brought into existence, or first diffused, by the Phoenicians. This art was evidently originated by the Arabian Cushites in ages older than Egypt or Chaldea. It is said, also, that the Phoenicians had an extensive literature. It could not be otherwise with the most enlightened people of antiquity a people celebrated in all the nations of their time for intellectual activity, and skill in the art of writing ; but their literature has perished. Not one book, or fragment of a book, in the Phoenician language, has been preserved. t\ r e have a Greek translation of Hanno's record of his voyage down the west coast of Africa, and translated frag- ments of a " History," imputed to an ancient Phoenician author named Sanchoniathon, but supposed by some to be a work of the later times, and perhaps a forgery. We have also extracts, preserved in Greek by Josephus and others, from Phoenician histories by writers whose names are given as Dius and Menander. In quoting them, Josephus stated as a fact well known that " there were (in his time) records among the Tyrians that took in the history of many years, and that these were public writings kept with great exact- ness." Phoenician writers were eminent for works on sci- ence, philosophy, and theology. Strabo states that, in his time, they were eminent for culture in astronomy, mathe- matics, and " night sailing" that astronomy and arithme- tic came from Phoenicia and adds : " At the present time, these cities afford the best opportunities for acquiring a knowledge of these and of all other branches of philoso- phy." 168 P re-Historic Nations. * It is generally assumed that the Phoenicians spoke He- brew, or a dialect almost identical with the Hebrew. The correctness of this assumption, however, has not been clear- ly demonstrated, while modern researches have shown that the earliest language of the country was Hamitic or Cush- ite. If we suppose, what seems necessary, that the lirst. settlements in Phoenicia were quite as old as Egypt or Chaldea, we must suppose, also, that the ancient Cushite tongue first used there underwent important changes with t!u- progress of time, and was more than once developed in new forms during the thirty centuries previous to the rise of Assyria. We have no specimen not even an epigraph to show any form of the language during that period, excepting the words that have been preserved by ge< phy and mythology, which are not Hebrew. Various epigraphs and a few inscriptions, none of them older than the sixth century before Christ, and most of them several centuries later, furnish the most important linguis- tic remains of Phoenicia. .V groat number of medals, coins, and epigraphs have been recovered, chiefly in Cyprus, Crete, Cilicia, Sicily, Malta, Southern Spam, and Northern Africa, These, with an inscription discovered at Marseilles, all belong to the Carthaginian period, when Phoenicia had declined, and when the Cushite speech of the Phoenicians, if not already superseded by a Semitic dialect, must have become so corrupted in its vocabulary, and in some of its forms, by Semitic influence, as no longer to resemble it- self.* * Sir Henry Rawlinson mentions Phoenician inscriptions, found in As- syrian ruins, that are as old as the reign of Tiglath Pileser, 744-726 B.C. I Ir says, " They are among the most ancient specimens we possess of Phoe- nician writing." See the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Phoenician Inscriptions. 160 The first attempt to explore the ruins of Phoenicia was made in 1854, at Sidon (or Saida),by the French. Gold coin of the age of Alexander the Great was found, and, also, an important sepulchral inscription on a royal sar- cophagus. This inscription, now in the Museum of the Louvre, tells us that the sarcophagus contained the mortal remains of Ashmunazer, a king of the Sidonians. Ernest Renan, who has had charge of the explorations, thinks it belongs to the sixth century before the Christian Era. In 1860, excavation in the ruins of Phoenicia was renewed by direction of the French government. Several fields of op- eration were selected ; and excavations were made at Ruad or Aradus, Tortosa or Antaradus, Martu or Marathos, Gebal or Byblus, Sidon, Tyre, and a place now called Oum-cl- Awamid. Several other inscriptions have been found, and gome important remains of ancient Phoanicia have been brought to light. In the fourth edition of his work on the Semitic Ian guages, Renan gives some account of the linguistic discov- eries made at Sidon in 1854-5. He assumes, like others, that the Phosnicians spoke a Semitic language closely allied to the Hebrew, but finds that "a great number of passages in the Phoenician texts cannot be explained by such He- brew ^is we are acquainted with," and presumes that, " in the separate development of the two peoples so opposed in character and manners, the two languages, although iden- tical at the beginning, became different." He finally takes this view of the linguistic question : " There is but little doubt that the Phoenician, indepen- dently of its similarity to the Hebrew, had its own forms, Series, vol. i., p. 243-4. He points out only that the characters are Fhcs- uician, H 1 TO Pre-Historic Nations. which gave it an individuality of its own in the bosom of the Semitic family ; but Phoenician studies are not yet suf- ficiently advanced, or, if you will, the Phoenician texts are not yet sufficiently numerous to allow us to determine those forms with precision. The epigraphists, who, by means of readings more or less conjectural, create gram- matical forms on their own authority, or combine arbitra- rily those which they find in neighboring dialects, use a method that is much too convenient." It is possible that, in the latest period of their history, when the great ages of their intelligence and enterprise had gone by, the people of the little district called Phoeni- cia used a Semitic dialect. The language of Chaldea was changed in this way during the Assyrian period. A thick veil of obscurity covers the history of Northern Arabia, Syria, and the neighboring countries of Asia Minor for more than a thousand years previous to the invasions by which all those countries were subjected to the sway of Assyria. Important political and linguistic changes may be sup- posed of which we have no record. If we allow that the Phoenicians, during the ten centuries previous to the fall of Carthage, used a Semitic dialect, it by no means follows that this was their original tongue. The change did not extend -to Northern Africa, where Cushite dialects repre- senting the ancient Phoenician language of that region are still used by the people called Berbers. There are some facts which appear to show that the lan- guage of Phoenicia, at the time of the Assyrian invasions, near the close of the ninth century, had become notably different from that of the Phoenician communities in Africa and Spain. The great emigration from Tyre to Carthago, about the year 813 B.C., seems to have earned to the lat- Two Classes of Inscriptions. 171 ter city a language quite different from that of the native Carthaginians. It is very significant that Gesenius and others have found it necessary to recognise two classes of inscriptions in Africa : (1.) Those found at Carthage, which resemble all others that represent the direct influence of Pho3nicia in its later ages ; and, (2.) The inscriptions found in Africa at a distance from Carthage, with which those discovered in Southern Spain must be classed. The differ- ences in the writing are marked, and the fact suggests that the Tyrians who migrated to Carthage took with them a style of writing, and probably a dialect, different from those carried to Northern Africa and Spain by the Phoeni- cians in earlier times. It may be added that Sallust (Ju- gurtha, cap. Ixxviii.), mentioning Leptis, a city between the Syrtes founded in later times by the Sidonians, observes that, although its laws and worship remained the same, the language of its inhabitants had been recently changed by their intermarrying with the Numidians (Ejus civitatis lingua tnodo conversa connubis Jfatmidarum). It is not certain, however, that there was an actual change of language in Phoenicia, previous to the Christian Era, from Cushite to Semitic. There may have been great corrup- tion of the Cushite tongue used there, which filled it with Semitic words and affected many of its forms, and this may explain that Hebrew physiognomy of the Phoenician epi- graphs and inscriptions which has engaged so much atten- tion. If we had no knowledge of modern Persian beyond a few brief sentences that could be selected from its liter- ature, it might be suspected of Arabic affinities ; and mod- ern Turkish, tested in the same way, might raise a dispute between Persian and Arabic claims that would obscure its actual relation to the Turanian or Scythic family. We ll'l Pre-Historic Nations. cannot reasonably be very positive in regard to the lin- guistic significance of the few Phoenician words and sen- tences that have been recovered. As Renan says, " Phoe- nician studies are not yet sufficiently advanced" to bring the question to a satisfactory settlement. V. ARABIAN ORIGIN OF CHALDEA. HISTORICAL skepticism, standing rigidly by the first Greelc Olympiad, and refusing to see beyond that anything but a dark realm of unmeaning fiction, must at times find it dif- ficult to maintain self-respect. It cannot be entirely blind. It must now and then turn to the great past, which is not so completely shut up in darkness as it pretends and tries to believe, with a feeling that its bold denials have nothing in common with the excellency of wisdom. The historical skeptic must at times feel stirring in his mind the painful emotions of doubt when his philosophy stands looking, with the helpless stare of foolishness, at the undeniable facts that confound its reasonings and shame its credulity. For instance, how is it possible for this skepticism to con- sider honestly what is known of Egypt, India, and Chaldea, and still maintain that nothing can be seen in remote an- tiquity but fables floating in darkness ? The fact that Chaldea, in very ancient times, was a seat of enlightened civilization, has been admitted and discussed from the beginning of what is usually called the historic period. We see it also in writings older than this period the Hebrew Scriptures. The discoveries made in that country by the Greeks, after the conquest of Babylon by Alexander, gave the Western world some knowledge of the science and general culture of the Chaldeans. Their civil- ization became an ascertained fact, which subsequent ages 174 P rc- Historic Nations. have been constrained to recognise and respect. Chaldean science has furnished one of the most important and gener- ally respected dates of ancient history, while, at the same time, Ancient History, as heretofore written, has talked of Babylon, and described the wonderful Babylon of the com- paratively modern time of Nebuchadnezzar, without noti- cing the much more ancient kingdom of Chaldea, and even without admitting the existence in that part of Asia of any monarchy older than that of the Assyrians. But Chaldea, so distinctly seen through the age-. ;;nmittc(' which Aristotle was not acquainted with cither the use or the value did not happen to fall into the hands of his contemporary, Eudoxus !" The regret lie expressed was very natural. Others have felt it, and given it similar expression. It is certainly la- mentable that those important records, after being exam- ined, talked of, reported to the world for the entertainment of curiosity and wonder, should be laid away to become rubbish, and perish without farther use. Perhaps unac- knowledged uses of those records brought some benefit to the science of astronomy in Greece, where all that was known of this science came from Egypt and the East ; but they should have been transcribed and studied; Chaldean books and records should have been explored for addition- al information; and a complete account of the inve> tion should have been preserved in the works of Aristotle. Evidence of great proficiency in the science of astronomy is found in the oldest Chaldean ruins, and doubtless similar records of more ancient date could have been found in the Chaldean Astronomy. 177 older cities and temples of the country. Aristotle, in his De Ccelo, lib. ii., cap. xii., describing his observation of an occultation of Mars by the moon, refers to the records sent to him by Callisthenes, in a general way, as follows : " Sim- ilar observations have been made for many years on the other planets by the Egyptians and the Babylonians, many of which have come to our knowledge." Ideler, quoted and indorsed by Humboldt, says : " The Chaldeans knew the mean motions of the moon with an exactness which induced the Greek astronomers to use their calculations for the foundation of a lunar theory." Ptole- my, as may be learned from his Almagest, made use of that portion of the Chaldean observations which extended back to the year 721 B.C., obtained, doubtless, from an indepen- dent source. In Alexander's time, Chaldean culture was fast declining ; its great era was in the past ; the great ob- servatory of the Temple of Belus was in ruins ; but there were .eminent mathematicians at Babylon, the report of whose names is recorded by Strabo, and there were schools of astronomy. That the Chaldeans had great knowledge of astronomy was admitted by the Greeks and Romans. The Greeks, and through them the Romans, had means of being well informed on this subject. The Greeks evidently had knowledge of Chaldean books and records in which the astronomical attainments of that people were abun- dantly shown. The campaign -of Alexander formed a great epoch in the history of Hellenic culture by opening to it a wider view of the world, and bringing it into closer rela- tions with the civilization and science of the East. The gain was great, and it was to some extent acknowledged. Diodorus Siculus says the Chaldeans attributed comets to natural causes, and could foretell their reappearance. H2 173 Pre-Historic Xattom. He states that their recorded observations of the planets were very ancient and very exact. According to Seneca, their theory of comets was quite as intelligent and correct as that of the moderns. He says they classed them with the planets, or moving stars that had fixed orbits (cometas in numero stellarum errantium poni-d Chaldceis^tencriyuc cur sos eorum. Natur. Quest., lib. vii., 2). Their methods for the use of cycles and other astronomical appliances, in arranging and measuring time, showed a correct and pro- found knowledge of this science. Astronomy implies mathematics ; and the Chaldeans, like every other people of Cushite origin, had great knowledge of mathematics. Much progress in astronomy requires the telescope, or some- thing equivalent ; and it seems necessary to believe that the ancients had such aids to eyesight. Layanl and oth ers report the discovery of "a lens of considerable power" in the ruins of Babylon.* It certainly would be surprising if necessity, " the mother of invention," had not brought 8ii eh aids to the astronomers of ancient Arabia, Chaldea, Ivn'ypt, and India. I have already shown that the genius which made such attainments in astronomy must have been able to contrive whatever instruments were necessary to progress in the science. Thought and invention did not begin with the moderns. It was then quite as possible as now to sec and devise what was necessary. Even the Greeks and Romans, with lower attainments * Layard says this lens was found, with two glass bowl?, in a chamber of the ruin called Nimroud. It is plano-convex, an inch and a half in di- ameter and nine tenths of an inch thick. It gives a focus at 4 inches from the plane side. Sir David Brewster says, " It was intended to be used ns a lens, either for magnifying, or condensing the rays of the sun." V^e I.ayard's "Nineveh and Babylon." p. 1<". 17. chap. viii. Ancient Aids to Eyesight. 179 in astronomy, had aids to eyesight. They arc mentioned in De Placitis Phil., lib. iii., c. v., attributed to Plutarch; also in his Vita Marcdli ; and by Pliny, Hist. 2Tatur., lib. xxx viL, c. v., where he says that, in his time, artificers used emeralds to assist the eye, and that they were made con- cave the better to collect the visual rays (smaragdi eidem plerumque et concavi lit visum colligant). He adds that Nero used such glasses when he watched the fights of the gladiators. There is frequent mention of concave and con- vex glasses used for optical purposes, and they evidently came from Egypt and the East. lamblichus tells us, in Ids life of Pythagoras, that Pythagoras sought to contrive instruments that should aid hearing as effectually as " optic glasses"* and other contrivances aided sight. Plutarch speaks of mathematical instruments used by Archimedes " to manifest to the eye the largeness of the sun." Pythag- oras and Archimedes both studied in Egypt and Phoeni- cia, and probably in Chaldea; for Pythagoras, who lived in the sixth century before Christ, is said to have visited "Egypt and many countries of the East" in pursuit of knowledge ; and Archimedes, who lived after the time of Alexander, spent much time in Egypt, and visited " many other countries." It appears that, in the time of Pythag- oras, " optic glasses," contrived to increase the power of vision, were so common as not to be regarded as objects of curiosity, and there can be no reasonable doubt that they were first invented and used by the great men who created that profound science of astronomy for which people of Cushite origin were everywhere so pre-eminently distin- guished, and which was so intimately connected with their religion. ISO l'rf-11'ixturn'. Nations. HISTORY OF CIIALDEA BY BEROSUS. The Greeks failed to give the world such an account of Chaldea as its importance required. Much, however, may have been written on this subject which has not come down to us. Callisthenes wrote a history of Alexander's great campaign against the Persians, which has perished entirely ; and there were narratives by Megasthenes, Xearchus, and Aristobulus. Others undoubtedly wrote something on the countries he occupied, but nothing in the literature' of the ancients, as we have it, indicates that any Greek undertook to write a history of Babylon and of the country to which it belonged, although much is found in some portions of that literature relating to the Babylonians. Nevertheless, nearly 300 years before Christ, a regular history of Chaldea, in nine books, was written in Greek by Berosus, a Chaldean priest of Belus. The materials for this work were supplied by archives then existing in the tem- ple of Belus at Babylon. Like many other works of the highest importance, it was allowed to perish. What we know of its contents is found in extracts from it, f and thus preserved by writers whose works still exist. Berosus gave the oldest traditions of the Chaldeans con- cerning the origin of the human race, described Chaldea and its people, related their history, and furnished a list of Chaldean sovereigns down to the beginning of the Assyri- an empire, about the year 1273 B.C. Its chief feature was a history of the kingdom of Chaldea previous to the time of that empire a kingdom that may have counted more millenniums than the Assyrian empire counted centuries. Of course this work could not be properly accepted by any modern system of chronology ; therefore it has been set Ancient Kings of Chaldea. 181 aside as of no account by those schemes of ancient history which modern chronology has indorsed as orthodox; but it was not discredited either by the Greeks for whom it was written, or by the early Christian fathers, who gave it much attention; and modern exploration in the old ruins of Chaldea has confirmed its statements as substantially correct. Fragments of this w r ork of Berosus have come down to us in the writings of Josephus, Eusebius, Syncellus, and several of the Christian fathers. It does not appear that he gave a particular and complete account of the early ages of the Chaldean kingdom, nor is it certain that his list of the kings goes back to its earliest times. It may be that his enumeration of actual sovereigns begins with that g^eat epoch in the history of the country when the whole vas first united under one government. Nevertheless, the list, as it stands, is quite too long to please unreformed chro- nologists. The extract from his history in which it is found describes the long cyclical antediluvian ages, in which ten fabulous kings reigned 432,000 years. Then, coming to what he considered history, it enumerates 163 kings of Chaldea, who reigned successively from the time when the list begins to the rise of the Assyrian empire. Berosus begins with a dynasty of 86 kings, of whose time he knew nothing. He gave the names of these kings, which are lost. He had no history or chronology of their time, there- fore he subjected it to a cyclical calculation, which gives it more a look of myth than of history. In the religious, political, and linguistic changes of the country, the records of the first dynasties had been lost. They had suffered the usual waste of time. The extracts from his work, in pass- ing through the hands of many copyists, have necessarily 182 Pre-Historic Nations. become more or less imperfect. His list, as we have it, is as follows : First, 80 Chaldean kings history and time mythical. Second, 8 Median " during 224 years. Third, 11 Fourth, 49 Chaldean ' ; Fifth, 9 Arabian i; during 2 15 years. The rulers of the Assyrian Empire were next added as a- sixth dynasty, and the history was brought down to the capture of Babylon by Cyrus the Great. The blank spaces in the list are doubtless the result of careless copying, and of imperfections created in manuscripts by use and time. A great amount of resolute ingenuity has been employed to bring Berosus into harmony with the popular chronolo- gy, especially since archaeology has begun to remove the obscurity in which ancient Chaldea has been shrouded. Sir Henry Rawlinson, without having himself originated devices for this purpose, has embarrassed his own investi- gations by using some of the cleverest and boldest of those contrived by others. Admitting freely that " each succeed- ing discovery has tended to authenticate the chronology of Berosus, and to throw discredit upon the tales of Ctesi- as and his followers," he has nevertheless looked with too much favor on the efforts of those contrivers of "chrono- logical harmony" who have treated Berosus somewhat as Ctesias treated the facts of Mesopotamian history. He gives prominence to an " emendation" proposed in a pamph- let by Dr. Brandis, entitled "Rerum Assyriarum Tempora Emendata" and describes it as " a most ingenious sugges- tion of German criticism." The purpose of this brilliant ingenuity is to make tho old kingdom of Chaldea begin with the year 2234 !>.(' ; Chronologists on Berosus. 183 therefore its first step is to declare, in the boldest way, that the first part of the list of Berosus is " fabulous." The first 86 kings are struck out with the best air of historical skep- ticism, although nothing requires it or justifies it save the "necessities of chronological harmony." It is the same unscrupulous method that was employed against the an- cient history of Egypt. Next, the Median dynasty is " left out of consideration," as representing a Magian race who ruled in Babylon before the Cushites went there a neces- sary but most unwarranted hypothesis. To these " emen- dations" two others are added ; the next dynasty in order is described as " Chaldean" (which may be correct), and its time is given as 258 years; and a number is devised for the dynasty of 49 Chaldean kings, which makes the whole time of its duration no more than 458 years a desperate manoeuvre, which secures the date required while it insults common sense. The scheme of Chaldean history devel- oped by this operation would amaze Berosus. It is as fol- lows : First, 11 (Chaldean kings), (258) years, from 2234 to 197G. Second, 49 " " (458) years, from 1976 to 1518. Third, 9 Arabian " (245) years, from 1518 to 1273. The hundred and sixty-three kings of Berosus are re- duced to sixty-nine, the popular chronology is rescued temporarily from a great embarrassment, and " ingenuity" wears a crown of laurel. A scheme very similar to this is quoted in George Rawlinson's "Five Monarchies" as " Gutschmidt's revision." In each case it is admitted that astronomical calculations began at Babylon in the year 2234 B.C. It follows, of course, that the great Chaldean culture, the temple of Belus with its observatory, the city of Babylon, and the organized schools of Chaldean science, Pre-Historic Nations. were all in existence at the very beginning of the Cu shite occupation of the country, which is incredible. Such at- tempts to establish a compromise between Berosus and false chronology must necessarily be failures. They are false and mischievous in all respects. The hypothesis that the country was occupied by a " Magian" or Aryan race before the Cushites went there is explicitly contradicted not only by Berosus, but also by the testimony of records disentombed from the ruins, which show incontestably that the race which first occu- pied Lower Mesopotamia and introduced civilization was neither Aryan nor Semitic. Rawlinson himself admits this without qualification. That "Median dynasty" was pre- ceded by long ages of Chaldean supremacy and culture, and, according to Berosus, whose testimony cannot now be invalidated, by a line of 86 Chaldean kings. Those who are not frightened by such amounts of past time as this implies will not be in haste to discredit the testimony by which it is supported. Exploration has found some of the older cities of the country, but the oldest structures and first foundations of those cities were probably long siiu-e beyond its reach. We cannot doubt that the discovery of ancient Chaldea will be made still more complete by farther exploration in the ruins and among the records al- ready recovered. That " ingenious suggestion of German criticism" (not the most intelligent German criticism, however) invents one number which is in itself too unreasonable to win favor. According to its revision, the 49 Chaldean kings reL only 458 years, which is too improbable for belief. Raw- linson feels this, and objects that it makes the 49 kin--> reign less than ten years each, an average which he pro- The Ancient Chaldeans. 185 nounces " quite impossible in a settled monarchy like the Chaldean." Nevertheless, instead of censuring this reck- less invention of " ingenuity," he proposes to reduce the number of the kings ! and that, too, without the slightest warrant for doing so, beyond the desire to reach a given conclusion. Writers of ancient history have usually paid great respect to the year 2234 B.C. The astronomical rec- ord found at Babylon began with that date; but this was not the beginning of Chaldean history, and any at- tempt to make it so is preposterous. Rawlinson himself mentions a Cushite or Hamitic inscription, found in Susi- ana, in which there is a date that goes back nearly to the year 3200 before Christ. CHALDEAN ANTIQUITIES AND TRADITIONS. Ancient Chaldea consisted of the lower part of the rich alluvial region between the Euphrates and the Tigris, al- though it seems to have included, or to have been very in- timately connected with, other territory on the opposite sides of both rivers, especially the important district known as Susiana. The name Chaldea comes to us from Semitic languages the Aramaic and the Hebrew through the Greek. In their inscriptions the people are called Ak- kadim. Whether described as Cushites or as Hamites in linguistic reports on the inscriptions, the people represent- ed by the Chaldean ruins were all of the same race. The uniform statement is that " all the kings whose monuments are found in ancient Chaldea used the same language and the same power of writing, professed the same religion, and followed the same traditions." Tljere are traces of inter- course with other races ; Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian el- ements are noticed : and, in later ao;es of the kingdom, ' O O ISC P re-Historic Nations. there seems to have been a remarkable mixture of races at Babylon. There appears to be some evidence that the Cushite dialect of Susiana was a little different from that of Lower Chaldea, and, probably, other differences of dia- lect will come clearly to light as the investigation goes forward.* Berosus stated, as an old tradition of the Chaldean peo- ple, that their ancestors and their civilization came origin- ally from a region on the Erythraean Sea, which is confirmed by discoveries in the ruins. By the Erythraean Sea the ancients usually meant the waters of the Indian Ocean and Persian Gulf. He gives, also, an old Chaldean tradition, which seems to preserve a recollection of the first impres- sion made upon the rude aboriginal inhabitants of the country by the beginning of their intercourse witli the maritime people of Arabia who gave them civilization. In our day, some of the South Sea Islanders supposed the first ship they saw to be a living creature. This tradition, as stated by Berosus and quoted ly Alexander Polyhistor, is as follows : "In the first year there appeared from that part of the Erythraean Sea which borders on Babylonia an animal des- titute of reason, by name Oannes, whose whole bod} that of a fish; and under the fish's head he had another * The desire to make the Turanian the most ancient ethnic element in Western Asia comes from the wholly untenable theory that Chinese is the oldest language in the world ; that Turanian speech was the first devel- opment from it ; and that the Cushite, Semitic, and Aryan languages were developed from the Turanian. This is romance, not science. Mean- while, the most ancient ethnic element is so clearly Cushite, that tlioi- theorists resort to the device of classing the Hamite or Cushite group of tongues as a branch of the Turanian family. First Civilizers of Chaldea. JU:>V head, with feet also similar to those of a man. His voice, too, and language, were articulate and human ; and a rep- resentation of him is preserved even unto this day. This being was accustomed to pass the day among men ; and he gave them an insight into letters and sciences, and arts of every kind. He taught them to construct cities, to found temples, to frame laws, and explained to them the princi- ples of geometrical knowledge. He made them distinguish the seeds of the earth, and showed them how to collect the fruits ; in short, he instructed them in everything that could tend to soften their manners and humanize their lives. And, when the sun was set, this being, Cannes, retired again to the sea, and passed the night in the deep." This is plainly a mythical reference to the first remem- bered appearance in the Euphrates of ships from a civilized country, and of the first introduction into Chaldea of the arts of civilized life. The ship, Cannes, described as a wonderful being and transformed into a sea-god, appeared in that part of the Erythraean Sea which borders on Baby- lonia ; that is to say, it came from the coast of Arabia. The enlightened Cushites or Ethiopians of Arabia, the mar- itime adventurers, the princely merchants, the enlightened masters in science, the wonderful colonizers of remote an- tiquity, brought civilization to the barbarous Semites of Mesopotamia. They came in, established colonies, and oc- cupied the whole country, giving it their religion, their sci- ence, their manners and customs, and all their arts of civil- ized life. Even their language was made supreme, exclud- ing the Semitic dialects everywhere, excepting perhaps at the West, and in that part of the country afterwards known as Assyria. 1 > * Pre-Historic Nations. THE CHALDEAN EUINS AND INSCRIPTIONS. Lower Chaldea, now a desolation thinly inhabited by nomadic tribes, was formerly the most populous region on the globe. AY illiam Kennett Loftus, in his record of " Trav- el s and Researches in Chaldea," makes this statement : " In no other part of Babylonia is there' such astonishing proof of ancient civilization and denseness of population. Some lofty pile is generally visible to mark the site of a once im- portant city, while numerous little spots, covered with bro- ken pottery, point to the former existence of villages and of a rural population." George Rawlinson names the ruins of twenty-five great cities within that small territory, be- sides the cities of Ur, Nipur, Larsa, Erech, and Babylon, whose ruins have been explored. He says, in the first vol- ume of his u Ancient Monarchies of the Eastern World," " Farther investigation will probably add largely to this catalogue, for many parts of Babylonia are still, to some extent, unexplored. This is especially true of the tract be- tween the Shat-el-IIie and the Lower Tigris, a district which, according to geographers, abounds with ruins." 1 The most ancient ruins in Chaldea are those toward- south, such as Ur, Erech, and Senkereh ; and here, in the neighborhood of the Persian Gulf (which at that time reached inland nearly 150 miles farther than at present). the explorers place the primitive seat of Chaldean civili- zation. Mr. Loftus gives the following account of the pres- ent condition of the country: "The ruins ofWarka (the same as Freeh) are in latitude 39 19' X., and longitude 45 40' E., and are four miles distant from the nearest point on the eastern bank of the Euphrates. An elevated tract of desert soil, ten miles in breadth, is slightly raided above What the Ruins reveal. ISO a series of inundations and marshes caused by the annual overflow of the Euphrates. Upon this are situated not only the ruins of Warka, but also of Senkereh, Tel Ede, and Hammam all unapproachable except from November to March, when the river assumes its lowest level." How different from what Chaldea was in the great days of her glory, when populous and flourishing cities stood where we now find these almost inaccessible ruins ! Neither the soil nor the atmosphere is the same. The ruins of four of the older Chaldean cities have been explored, to some extent, with very notable results. These four are, 1. Mugheir, the same as Hur, or "Ur of the Chal- dees," Mugheir being the modern Semitic name of the ruins; 2. Larsa (now called Senkereh), the same as Ellarsa of the Bible ; 3. "Warka or Hurruk, the same as Erech or Orech of the Hebrews ; 4. Niffer, or Nipur, or Nopher, as the Talmud has it. The Talmudists conjecture, without good reason, that this last-named city was the same as Calneh of the Hebrew Scriptures. We may, with much better reason, suppose it to be the BtXfirj of Ptolemy, and the Babel of the tenth chapter of Genesis. Sir Henry Raw- linson says of it, " This city had originally the name of the god Belus, and is, perhaps, the BtX/3// of Ptolemy." He thinks " the Greek traditions of the foundation of a great city on the Euphrates by Belus refer to this place rather than to Babylon." Reports of these investigations have appeared from time to time in the various European journals devoted to Orien- tal and archaeological subjects, and in the publications of English, French, and German scholars engaged in such in- quiries, among which none are more important than those of Sir Henry Rawlinson. A good summary of what has 190 Pre-IIitstoric Nations. been found in the ruins of the Chaldean cities I have named is given in the first volume of George Rawlinson's "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World." Among the important facts discovered are the following : 1. The ruins furnish what appears to be conclusive evi- dence, that civilization was brought to Chaldea from Ethi- opia that is to say, from Arabia. In the inscriptions, the two countries are connected in such a way as makes any other conclusion impossible. Their vernacular name for Ethiopia is Mirukh, and its maritime enterprise is very dis- tinctly recognised. 2. The oldest city and first capital of the country was Ur. It seems to be understood that the settlement of the country began with the building of Ur. At a later period. Erech was for a time the royal city ; but the great city of the country, after it became independent and before the rise of Babylon, was the city which, in Semitic speech, is called Nipur and Xiffer, and which tradition descril the city of Belus, or the most ancient Babylon. 3. It is shown, as already mentioned, that the language of ancient Chaldea, found abundantly in these ruins, and that found in the ruins of Southern Arabia, belong to the same family, and that they are radically different from the Semitic tongue of the Assyrian empire. This is the n-port of all the best investigators who have studied the inscrip- tions. A Scythian or Turanian theory was started, which made Xiinrod a Turanian, and sought support in the }!(->- potamian -inscriptions. It was never anything more than a very improbable theory. 4. As already stated, the ruins confirm Berosus by show- ing that Chaldea w r as a cultivated and flourishing nation, governed by kings, long previous to the time when the city Great Antiquity of Ur. 191 known to us as Babylon rose to eminence and became the seat of empire. During that long time there were several great political epochs in the history of the country, repre- senting important dynastic changes, and several transfers of the seat of government from one city to another. Such epochs in Chaldean history are indicated by the list of Bc- rosus. The history of Berosus is confirmed and made authentic beyond reasonable question. There was never anything to discredit his account of Chaldea save the natural tendency of false chronology to discredit literary records, and even the testimony of contemporaneous monuments, which can- not easily submit to its revisions. The oldest Chaldean cities were in the neighborhood of the Persian Gulf. Ur, or Hur, represented as the first city built by the colonizing Cushites, was situated at the mouth of the Euphrates, with the open sea before it. Its ruins are now at a long distance from both. Sir Henry Rawlinson, in the 27th volume of the Royal Geographical Society's Jour- nal, says: "When Chaldea was first colonized, or, at any rate, when the seat of empire was first established there, the emporium of trade seems to have been at Ur of the Chaldees, which is now 150 miles from the sea, the Persian Gulf having retired nearly that distance before the sedi- ment brought down by the Euphrates and Tigris." A lit- tle reflection on the vast period of time required to effect a geological change so great as this will enable us tp see to what a remote age in the deeps of antiquity we must go to find the beginning of civilization in the Mesopotamia!! Valley. No discoveries made in the old ruins of the East are more interesting or more important than those which unveil to us the enrlv history of Chaldea. 192 P re-Historic Nations. THE ORIGIN OF CHALDEA. The linguistic and archaic obscurities in which some of the questions raised by these discoveries are buried, shut them out from general discussion. Only those scholars whose peculiar acquirements remove this difficulty, and whose profound linguistic studies of the cuneiform records have made them familiar with the intricacies in which these questions are involved, are qualified to speak on the subject with any degree of authority. All the best quali- fied investigators agree that the evidence already obtained shows conclusively the Cushite or Ethiopian origin of Chal- dea. A note which Sir Henry Kawlinson appends to his essay on the " Early History of Babylonia" speaks on this point as follows : "All the traditions of Babylonia and Assyria point to a connection, in very early times, between Ethiopia, South- ern Arabia, and the cities on the Lower Euphrates. In the geographical lists, the names of Minikh (Ethiopia) and Makkan are thus always conjoined with those of Ilur and Akkad. The building of Hur, again, is the earliest histor- ical event of which the Babylonians seem to have had any cognizance; but the inscriptions constantly refer to a tra- dition of the primeval leader by whom the Cushites were first settled on the Euphrates, and one of the names of this leader is connected with Ethiopia in a way that can hardly be accidental." He finds, also, that the early Chaldeans were largely de- voted to maritime pursuits in close connection with the Ethiopians. He says, in the volume of the Royal Geo- graphical Society's Journal already quoted, " The ships of Ur, at any rate, are constantly mentioned (by the inscrip- How Ethiopia is misplaced. 193 tions) in connection with those of Ethiopia ; and there is abundant evidence, among the remains of the city (Ur), of the worship of the sea-god, which alone would indicate a maritime people, and w T hich, moreover, is in exact accord- ance with the early traditions preserved by Berosus." Is it not absurd to seek at Meroe, or anywhere else on the Upper Nile, for the maritime Ethiopia of these Chal- dean inscriptions? If every competent investigator would allow himself to see and comprehend the country which the ancients designated as Ethiopia and the Land of Cush, there would be no failure to recognise Arabia as the moth- er country of Chaldea ; and there would be a more intelli- gent appreciation of the large amount of ancient tradition which brings the Cushites into that part of Asia, and some- times describes it as a part of Ethiopia. It was Ethiopian in race, language, and civilization, and constituted a portion of the wide-spread territory occupied by the Cushites, " from the extremity of the east to the extremity of the west." Mr. Loftus states the common opinion of investigators as follows : " Recent researches made in the interpretation of the cuneiform inscriptions have led to the belief that, in the earliest ages previous to the historic period which began with Nimrod, the region north of the Persian Gulf was inhabited by a Semitic race, which was gradually dis- possessed by a powerful stream of invasion or colonization from the south. The Hamitic (or Cushite) element which prevails in the most ancient cuneiform records throughout Babylonia and Susiana points to Ethiopia as the country of these new settlers." The evidence of an immigration from the south seems unequivocal, and the immigrants are everywhere called Akkadim; the terms Akkad and Akka- I 104 P re-Historic Nations. dim are constantly used as ethnic designations, and Hebrew knowledge of them appears in the Akkad or Accad of Gen- esis. Tradition says these settlers came first in ships, and made their first settlements at Ur and Erech ; but Mr. Loftus, having no just comprehension of Arabia, and fol- lowing the " common opinion," brings the Cushite immi- grants from the Upper Nile Valley, across both the Red Sea and the Arabian Peninsula, THE CUSHITE LANGUAGE IX CHALDEA. The ruins found in Southern Arabia belong chiefly to the period of the Himyaric and Sabean nationalities, which were long subsequent to the great ages of Cushite suprem- acy. Some of them are very old, but they have not been so carefully explored as their importance demands. The inscriptions secured by the researches of Wellsted, Arnaud, Fivsnel, and others, have furnished important materials for linguistic investigation important especially in connection with studies of the cuneiform records. Among those who have given them careful examination are Jules Oppert and other French Orientalists, who express in strong terms the result indicated by Sir Henry Rawlinson. They see clearly that the language of the Arabian inscriptions is genetically related to that of ancient Chaldea. Modern dialects of this old Cushite tongue are still spoken in some districts of Arabia and Eastern Africa. Fresnel is sure, on philo- logical grounds alone, that the original Cushites of Chaldea \\ civ immigrants from Arabia. These investigations have interfered with Ernest Kenan's theory of the Semitic languages and people, as set forth in the first edition of his " Histoire Generale des Langues Se~ mitiques" At first he did not appear to recognise the ex- Renan on the Cushite Speech. 195 istence of a family of Ethiopian or Cushite languages. In this omission, however, he was not original. This family of languages has not stood so directly in the path of inquiry as to command immediate attention. Renan had not stud- ied carefully the linguistic peculiarities of every branch of the people whom he classed as Semites. Like many others, he had failed to recognise the profound diiference between the old Cushite race of Arabia, so celebrated in the olden time, and the modern Semitic Arabs a difference not like- ly to be forgotten when once fairly observed. In the preface to his second edition he had become aware of this mistake; probably Oppert's Chaldean investiga- tions had now effectually engaged his attention ; at any rate, he noticed the result of these inquiries, and promised his readers an essay, in which he would " attempt to estab* lish that it is necessary to admit into the history of the civilization of the ancient world a third element, which is neither Semitic nor Aryan, and which may be called Ethi- opian or Cushite." It was quite important to notice Ham- let's part in the play ; but others before him had failed to discover and describe it. In a revision of the text of his book he referred to the explorations and studies of Arnaud, Fresnel, and Oppert, and said : " If these hypotheses shall be confirmed by a more complete investigation, it will be- come necessary to establish a group of Semitico- Cushite languages, including the Himyaric, the Gheez, the Mahri, and the language of the Babylonian inscriptions." Semitico-Cushite ! something might be said in behalf of Turano- Cushite ; and even Aryo- Cushite might find sup- porters. Renan and others will probably advance beyond all these prefixes ; and when they fully discover the great race that did more than any other to originate and spread 196 P re-Historic Nations. the civilization of the ancient world, they will probably drop them all, and include the Egyptian, the Berber, and some of the dialects of Southeastern Africa, w jth the others named, in a family group of Cushite tongues a family great in the past, but of which we now have only the per- ishing remains. POLITICAL CHANGES IN ANCIENT CIIALDEA. In the very long period that must be allowed for the duration of Chaldea, there were great epochs of political change and reconstruction of which no history can be writ- ten. These epochs are indicated in the list of Berosus by the changes of dynasty, made sometimes by "successful in- vasion from abroad and sometimes by internal revolution, and in the cuneiform records by evidence of changes of dynasty and of transfers of the seat of government from one city to another. Should an average of only 20 ; each be allowed to the 163 kings who reigned in Chaldea previous to 1273 B.C., excepting the Median and Arabi- an dynasties, whose time is given, this would carry back the beginning of the Chaldean kingdom of their time to the year 4662 B.C. It would make Chaldea as old as Egypt, which cannot be deemed improbable. Great ep< x-lis of political change would necessarily occur during so long a period of time. The first 86 kings doubtless represent several dyna-- but the past was already hazy around them in the time were expelled at that time, and that there were great polit- ical changes which made Assyria an empire, and gave it control of that part of Asia for nearly seven centuries. Those who may be disposed to accept this scheme for a hypothetical reconstruction of Chaldean history as sub- stantially warranted by probability, will very likely gest important modifications. The more they reflect ^\\ the subject, the more will they see that something like tins general outline is required by what has been learned of tin- antiquity and ancient condition of that country from Bero- sus, and by means of archaeological investigation. T!ie who may allow themselves to object, criticise, and discred- it this scheme, should turn their attention more carefully to the absurdities, incredible theories, audacious " emenda- tions" and " revisions" of facts, and unwarranted assump- tions which they must indorse if they reject it. The scheme I have presented is more reasonable, and, I will add, much more truthful, than any arbitrary scheme that Dogmatic Chronology. 215 emends, reduces, and falsifies the list of Berosus, and modi- fies or misinterprets facts in favor of dogmatic chronology. Nothing is so liable to absurd exhibitions of credulity and unreason as morbid skepticism directed by invincible prej- udice. VI INDIA, SANSKRIT AND ANTE-SANSKRIT. THE Greeks and Romans described as India the whole region beyond the Indus, including in it Hindustan, Bur- mah, Cochin China, Siam, and Malacca, with the islands of the Indian Archipelago. Their knowledge of that region was very imperfect; but then, as in later times, it had strange power to enchant imagination, seeming to marvelous land of riches, magnificence, and everything rare and wondrous. Even in modern times, the influence of this enchantment has led some learned and enthusiastic writers to describe India as the primal source of all knowl- edge and culture, the radiant morning-land of human civ- ilization. The name India, however, ia most commonly restricted to the great peninsula known in our geographies as Hindu- stan ; and it is this land that has presented so much both to incite the genius of romance and engage the attention of scholars. It is separated into two great divisions by a chain of mountains running east and west, called the Vind- hya Mountains. Strictly speaking, the northern division, including the vast and fertile valley of the Ganges, is Hin- dustan, the land of the Hindus; while the southern divis- ion is known as the Dakshin, the south country, a name which the English have transformed into Deccan. The conquests of Alexander the Great gave the Greeks some knowledge of the northern division of the country. At India not chiefly Sanskrit. 217 that time its civilization was very old, and presented clear indications of a long and important history. We are accustomed to associate India with the Sanskrit race and the Brahmanical system of religion ; but this gives a very imperfect knowledge of the country. The Sanskrit literature, the superior culture of the Brahmans, and the prominence of their race among the Indian peoples, have naturally drawn attention chiefly to the Hindus or Indo- Aryans ; and yet it may be doubted whether the unmixed Indo- Aryans were not always a small minority of the whole population of India. All over the country, at the north as well as in the south, there are communities and dialects that do not belong to the Sanskrit race. The people of this race were a long time in Northern India, and had a long history there, before they attempted to establish them- selves in the country south of the Vindhya Mountains j they have never at any time occupied the south country as they occupied the Punjab and the .valley of the Ganges. The old race constitute the great majority of the popu- lation of the Dakshin as well as of many districts of North- ern India, and they still use dialects of a language radical- ly different from the Sanskrit. The languages of Southern India, called the Dravidian family, and the aboriginal dia- lects throughout Central India, cannot be classed in the same family with the Sanskrit. The old books of the Hin- dus recognise the two distinct races ; and they tell us that the original Indo-Aryans were white, while the people they found in India were "dark-skinned." There are now no white Aryans in India save the English and other Euro- pean residents. The original Sanskrit whiteness was mixed with the darker color of the native inhabitants long before Alexander's timo. K 218 Pre-Historic Nations. THE IXDO-ARYAXS PEECEDED BY THE CUSHITES. It can be seen distinctly in the antiquities of India, and in the religious ideas, customs, and symbols of the peoples who represent the oldest inhabitants, that when the Indo- Aryans entered that country, it had for a long time been occupied by the Arabian Cushites. There are strong rea- sons for believing that the Cushites found the country in- habited by a dark-colored race, similar, perhaps, to the .Ma- lays, and to the people found on most of the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It was not the policy of the Cushite race to exterminate peoples found in countries which they colonized and occupied. Their policy w; conciliate, civilize, and absorb them. The present phv characteristics of the people of India indicate that they pursued this policy in that country. Let me state some of the indications that they occupied India long before the Indo- Aryan immigration. In the first place, it is in the highest degree probable that the Arabian Cushites occupied India. It is unreason- able to suppose otherwise. A great commercial, maritime, and colonizing people, sm-h n tin- old Arabians were in the remotest antiquity, could not fail to go as colonizers to In- dia, and to many of the islands of the- Indian Ocean. It was an ordinance of nature itself that any people control- ling the navigation and commerce of that ocean should es- tablish very close relations between India, Ceylon, South- eastern Africa, and Southern Arabia. It has been well ob- served that there are probably no other extensive and separated regions on the globe where so many causes incite to a mutual commerce. While the older Greeks assoc: " the sacred wave and coraled bed of the Erythraean Sea" Ancient Arabian Enterprise. 219 with the wonderful Ethiopians, there was neither trace nor tradition of any other controlling maritime people in that part of the world. They must have occupied all those re- gions ; for it is undeniable that they had uninterrupted su- premacy on the Indian Ocean from time immemorial, from ages away back in the deeps of antiquity, until the people of Western Europe found their way to India around the Cape of Good Hope. Vincent, in his work on the Periplus of the ErythraBan Sea, without distinctly recognising ancient Arabia, found himself constrained to speak thus : " The commerce of the Arabians has arrested our attention throughout the whole progress of our inquiry, from the first mention of imports in Scripture to the accounts of the present day. Their connection with the countries in their neighborhood is equally obvious. In the Indian Ocean they are found upon every coast and upon almost every island." There may have been some older civilization than that of the Arabian Cushites, from which they learned their skill in commerce and navigation ; but tradition does not go beyond them. It followed, necessarily, that they occupied all desirable re- gions within their reach. Not only Ceylon, the Spice Isl- ands, and all other important islands in the Indian Ocean, but also the shores, southern districts, and central regions of the continent. Ephorus stated expressly that " the Ethiopians occupied all the southern coasts of both Asia and Africa ;" and this accords with the universal testimony of ancient tradition. In the second place, the ancient occupation of India by the Arabian Cushites is seen in the revelations of linguistic and archaeological research ; in the religious ideas, customs, and symbols found there ; in remains of the oldest architcc- 220 Pre-Historic Nations. ture ; in all the antiquities of the country ; and even in re- mains of ancient municipal organizations that seem to have been peculiar to the Cushite race. Professor Rawlinson, in his work on Herodotus, book i., Essay il, says : " Recent linguistic discovery tends to show that a Cushite or Ethiopian race did, in the earliest times, extend itself along the shores of the Southern Ocean from Abyssinia to India. The whole peninsula of India was peopled by a race of this character before the influx of the Aryans ; it extended along the sea-coast through the mod- ern Beluchistan andKerman; the cities on the northern shores of the Persian Gulf are shown by the brick inscrip- tions found in their ruins to have belonged to this race." Archaeological exploration and research in the East is un- veiling the past, and careful inquirers are gradually getting eyes to see it. Thp ancient people of Arabia doubtless went first to In- dia by sea, for they were adventurous navigators and trad- ers, who traveled more by sea than by land. Professor Rawlinson is one of the scholars who misunderstand Ara- bia, lie seeks in Africa that Ethiopia from which proceed- ed such mighty streams of colonization ; but he has learned to see the ancient Cushite occupation of India. Heeren. who tailed to discover the original Ethiopia, maintained, nevertheless, that " a very ancient connection existed be- tween India and Arabia, and between India and the oppo- site coast of Africa, which was dependent on Arabian prin- ces;" and also that "from time immemorial the Arabians bad monopolized the carrying trade of the Indian Ocean/' Investigation has brought to light traces of the C'ushite religion in every part of India. Their significance was pointed out by Signer Gorresio, who edited and translated Siva a Cushite divinity. 221 the Ramayann. Tie believed the ante-Sanskrit people of Southern India to be of " Hamitic origin ;" and, in proof of this, he cited the fact that their religious symbols and devices are serpents, dragons, and the like, all peculiar to the ancient Hamitic or Cushite religion ; and that the god they prefer to all others, and whom they especially honor in their sacrifices, is " the terrible Rudra or Siva," certainly a Cushite divinity, called by the Cushites Baal, and by oth- er names. Siva is not a Vedic god. He did not belong to the religious system of the Indo-Aryans ; but he was a great divinity of the older people of the country ; and the later Brahmanism, seeking to absorb everything that could give it strength and influence, adopted him, and introduced him into its system by means of a conveniently invented avatar. Siva is not mentioned in the Rig- Veda. The legend of Daksha, in the Vishnu Purana, shows that he did not orig- inally belong to the Brahmanical system, and makes him say, " My priests worship me in the sacrifice of true wis- dom where no officiating Brahman is needed." Rev. Dr. Stevenson has published in the Journal of the Royal Asi- atic Society, and in the Journal of the Bombay Branch of that society, several papers on the religious peculiarities of the Dekhan. He discusses this point, and urges, on the strongest grounds, that neither Siva nor the Phallus wor- ship, of which traces are so prevalent in India, came into that country with the Aryan race. They existed there long before the Aryan immigration. He says : " The Lingayats are well known to have a bitter hatred towards the Brahmans, to neglect Brahmanical rules about purification for dead bodies, etc., and to have priests of their own called jangams. On the other hand, the Brah- --- P re-Historic Nations. mans call them Pakhandt, or adherents to a false religion. And although Acharya, or whoever established that com- promise of sects called the worship of Panchaitana, or the five principal divinities, has admitted Mahadeva (Siva), un- der the form of the Linga, into the number, still the person who attends to dress this image is not, as is the case with all the rest, a Brahman, but a Sudra of the caste Gurava." The intense and exclusive fanaticism of the early Indo- Aryans described the old inhabitants of the country, with their different religion, as Dasyus, Rakshasas, fiendish creat- ures, demons, and monsters. Rakshasas was a constant appellation for the people south of the VindhyaMountains. Dr. Stevenson says: "I observe in Tumour's documents relative to the religion of Ceylon that the whole of that island was overrun with devil and serpent worship pre- vious to the arrival of Buddha ; and I think analogy may lead us to conclude* that the same was the case in India be- fore the arrival of the Brahmans." To the ancient Hindus, Ceylon was a land of very terrible Rakshasas. The " dev- ils" and "demons" of the Buddhists are easily understood. The serpent worship is full of significance : this was a great feature of the old religion of the Cushites; but the word "serpent" will convey a very poor notion of its meaning to those who do not understand what it was. The serpent was regarded as a symbol of intelligence, of immortality, of protection against the power of evil spirits, and of a n - newal of life or of the healing powers in nature. It is evi- dent that Brahmanism was never established in Ceylon. The people of that island retained their old religion until they were converted by disciples of Buddha. In the same spirit and to the same effect is the statement of Fa-hian, a Chinese Buddhist who traveled in India, where he speaks The Worship of Vetal. ' 223 of Ceylon as " originally inhabited by demons, genii, and dragons, who had, nevertheless, a taste for commerce, and in time became civilized." Dr. Stevenson describes the festival of Holi, or " the wor- ship of Holika Devata," and says it has a close resemblance to the English festival of the May-pole, which originated in a religious ceremony or festival of the Cushites (called Phoenicians) who anciently occupied Western Europe. As cairns, like those in Western Europe and in other Cushite countries, are abundant in the Dekhan, we may suppose the cairn fires also were formerly known there. Dr. Stevenson and several other writers have described the "worship of Vetal," which still exists in the Dekhan, in which traces of the old Cushites are very plain. It is remarked that Vetal has no image in the shape of any creature whatever ; therefore his worship must have been introduced " previous to the custom of likening the gods to men and animals." Vetal has no temple, but is worship- ped in the open air, generally under the shade of a wide- spreading tree. " This circumstance connects his worship with that of the Canaanites, who, in the time of Moses, had no temples." The place where Vetal is worshipped is a kind of lesser Stonehenge. It is a stone circle, or inclosure of stones, generally circular in form, varying from fifteen to forty feet in diameter. This antique worship is not con- fined to the south of India ; it is found in Konkan, Kanara, Gujerat, Cutch, and other districts. The Brahmans call Vetal a demon ; he neither belongs to their Pantheon nor requires their services. The old Keltic Druids, probably, would have seen in him something very different from a demon. The great resemblance of certain customs common to *2'24: Pre-Historic Nations. the Kelts, the Canaanites, and the ante-Sanskrit people of India, strongly engaged the attention of Lieut. Col. Forbes Leslie, as will be seen in his work on the " Early Races of Scotland." It is manifest to those who have studied the subject closely, that both modern Brahmanism and modern Buddhism (for Buddhism is much older than the Buddha ot the Ceylonese records) have absorbed many elements of the old Cushite religion. We may suspect, although we have no historical records to show, that the most am-iuit form of Buddhism began the first development of its dis- tinctive peculiarities under some influence of the Cushite faith. Mr. James Bird, in his work on "The Buddha au du, Patan, Mogul, Mahratta, Sikh, English, are all masters in turn, but the village communities remain the same." An article in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1865, after citing what was said of them by Diodorus Sic- ulus, Arrian, and Quintus Curtius, says : " There are no data to determine the exact form of these constitutions, K2 Pre-Historic Nations. though they are seen to have been far beyond any mere intramural municipality. The city clearly dominated over the country around, and constituted, to all intents and pur- poses, a state." This was the Cushite method in Arabia, in Phoenicia, in Northern Africa, in Spain, in their settle- ments all around the Mediterranean. These municipal or- ganizations were not originated by Brahmanism ; they are foreign to its spirit, by which they have been modified and mutilated, but not entirely extirpated. The Sanskrit race found them in India, and they must be classed with the oldest antiquities of the country. But there are other antiquities in India which reveal the Cushite occupation. It would now be preposterous for any one familiar with the subject to deny that the remains of a civilized people who preceded the Indo-Aryans in every part of the Indian Peninsula. The actual state of the case is presented by Lieut. General Briggs, in a pa- per on "The Aboriginal Race of India," published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society for 1852, as follows : "There an' incontestable proofs of the aboriginal race having once occupied every part of India; and that, ere the Hindus came among them, they had made sufhYient progress in civilization to form large communities, estab? lish kingdoms, and become merchants and extensive' culti- vators of the soil. There are distinct remains of old ties, extensive excavations, and other monumental ruins. Several of their principalities have continued to the pres- ent day ; and history has transmitted to us, from the earli- est period of which any authentic record ional proofs of the power this race once possessed." The writer goes, on the wings of fancy, to the Scylhs iii:d Tatars for the origin of this aboriginal race. The char- Cushite Remains in India. 227 acter of these antiquities very plainly suggest a much more probable hypothesis. Professor Benfey finds " the whole Dekhan covered with remains of a nation of which, it is highly probable, the several parts were connected by affin- ity," and says, " we know with certainty" that this nation preceded the Sanskrit-speaking people. These remains of an ante-Sanskrit race in India consist of ancient temples which Europeans call pagodas, Cyclo- pean excavations in mountains of rock, Cyclopean fanes, barrows containing human remains, cells formed of large slabs, stone circles, cairns of every kind, cromlechs, dolmens, and many other antiquities of the same class all similar to those found in Arabia, Syria, Phoenicia, Northern Africa, and the western and southern countries of Europe. In presence of these remains, it is unreasonable to talk of Scyths and Tatars. They show plainly the race to which they belong. Their character and significance cannot be mistaken when carefully studied and fairly understood. Such monuments could not be found in India if the Ara- bian Cushites had not gone there in very remote times, oc- cupied the country, and filled it with the influence of their religion and their civilization. Lieut. Col. Forbes Leslie describes and discusses such antiquities of the Dekhan as appear to him incontestably the same in character and origin as those of Syria and Western Europe. He points out clearly that these monuments in the Dekhan appear " in all the varied forms in which they are to be found in France and Britain," and in all the countries where the in- fluence of the Arabian Cushites was established an influ- ence which he does not appear to comprehend. He says : "It will not be disputed that the primitive Cyclopean monuments of the Dekhan were erected prior to the arri- val of the present dominant race, the Hindus." 228 P re-Historic Nations. THE ROCK-CUT TEMPLES OF INDIA. The marvelous and long-deserted temples, formed by ex- cavating mountains of rock, must be considered by them- selves. Heeren, admitting that Arabian colonies may have been established on the coasts of Hindustan in very early times, allowed himself to make this very singular observa- tion : " And yet, up to the present time, no traces,! believe, of Arabian architecture have been discovered in India sim- ilar to those found in many parts of Spain." What have the old Adite Ethiopians to do with the Saracens of Spain, from whom they were so distant in time, and so different in religion and civilization ? Nothing whatever. But Hee- ren did not know that Arabia itself has ruins which show nothing in common with the Saracenic style of archictect ure. The Cushite Arabians left, throughout India, some won- derful specimens of their architecture ; not Saracenic in style certainly, but remarkably characteristic of their own spirit and civilization. The rock-cut temples at Elephant a, Salsette or Kanaria, Ellora, Ajunta, and elsewhere in the Indian peninsula, together with many of the old temples called pagodas, show their style, and remind us of similar structures of that race in other regions. Both pen and pencil have described them so often that I need not here attempt another elaborate description. Niebuhr was the first, in modern times, to call attention to these architectural excavations ; but his personal obser- vations were confined to Elephanta, where is found one of these rock-temples a hundred and thirty feet deep by about a hundred and twenty-three feet wide, exclusive of the va- rious rooms attached. The roof is supported by twenty- The Rock-Temples very Ancient. 229 six pillars and sixteen pilasters. The walls were once cov- ered with a beautiful stucco ; if they ever had inscriptions, these have entirely disappeared. In the neighboring isl- and of Salsette, or Kanaria, a mountain of rock is excavated in every direction. Some of the finest of these rock-tem- ples are at Ellora, in Central India, where a semicircular range of rock mountain contains a series of them, more care- fully finished and ornamented than those at Elephanta and Salsette. The rock excavated at Elephanta is described as clay porphyry, so hard that no ordinary steel can work it. It must have been worked by means of the celebrated In- dia steel called wudz. These wonderful structures are found in many other lo- calities. The ruins at Mavalipura show the remains of a city that was chiefly hewn out of solid rock. A consider- able portion of these ruins has sunk into the sea. There are remains of heavy walls, built of immense blocks of stone piled one above another, after the style called Cyclo- pean. These excavations must be very ancient. That they belong to a remote antiquity is shown by the fact that there is in India no record or recollection of their origin. They may have been changed and reconstructed in some respects, from age to age, until they were disused ; but they are very ancient, and owe their origin to that race whose traces are everywhere unmistakable. To the same race must be attributed the origin of the pyramidal temples of Cyclopean construction called pago- das, the walls of which were made of immense blocks of stone placed together in the usual style of this method of building. All these old structures remind us of similar re- mains of remote antiquity found in Arabia, Syria, Phosni- cia, Greece, Italy, Sicily, Egypt, and the Upper Nile valley. 23(1 Pre-Historic Rock excavations are nowhere else so extensive as in In- dia ; but similar rock architecture and Cyclopean construc- tions found in the other countries are in the same style, and show unmistakable traces of the same hand. The most ancient architects of Calabria, My cense, Petra, Ruad, Ma- rathos, Nubia, and India all learned in the same school. Some writers on these architectural remains have sought to deny their claim to antiquity, not because they have good or even plausible reasons for doing so, but chiefly through the influence of that amazing chronological lunacy which aims so obstinately to obscure the past, and begin the history of civilization with an age comparatively mod- ern. One writer, whose pretensions as an architect are not supported by respectable qualifications for archreological inquiry, affirms, with great confidence in his own opinion, that the structures at Mavalipura were built just previous to the year 1300 A.D. Others have maintained that none of these rock-temples can be older than the ninth century of the Christian Era. We have historical evidence that shows the falseness of these representations. Near the beginning of the Christian Era, envoys weiv sent to the Roman emperor Antoninus by a king of one of the Indian countries. In the fragment of a lost work of Porphyry, preserved in the 10th Eclogue of Stobaeus, a statement of Bardcsanes is quoted as follows: "The In- dian messengers report that there is in India a large grotto, under a lofty hill, in which is to be seen an image from ten to twelve ells high, with arms folded across the breast, the right side being man and the left side woman." This ap- pears to be a description of the image of Siva in the rock- temple at Elephanta ; and, at that time, evidently it v completely deserted, unused, and mysterious as it is Early mention of Rock- Temples. 231 Bardesanes was born about the middle of the second cen- tury, and the rock-temple mentioned must have been de- scribed by the Indian messengers, or envoys, previous to the year 200 A.*D. By general consent of geographical writers, Mavalipu- ra, the rock city on the Coromandel coast, has been identi- fied with the Maliarpha located there by Ptolemy, and by him described as a commercial emporium. Ptolemy was older than Bardesanes. His geography, however, was a re- vision of an older work by Marinus of Tyre ; and there is no good reason to doubt that, in locating the city he calls Maliarpha, he depended entirely on Phoanician geographers, who had given this city the same location at a much ear- lier date than could be claimed for the geography of Ma- rinus itself. At any rate, here is evidence that the city of Mavalipura existed more than 1100 years previous to the time when certain writers say it was built ; and that the rock-temple at Elephants was forsaken and incomprehensi- ble at least 700 years previous to the earliest date that can be allowed for the oldest of these structures by some writ- ers who speak on the subject with that tone of assurance which belongs only to positive knowledge. It is surprising that anybody should deny the great an- tiquity of these works in presence of so many indications of their age, with tradition either standing speechless or muttering nonsense to show its inability to explain them. Their origin could not be so completely forgotten if they did not belong to ages previous to the Aryan immigration. Maurice, in his " Indian Antiquities," says very justly : " One would have supposed that the construction of such astonishing works, which have been called the eighth won- der of the world, would have fixed in any country an era 232 Pre-Historic Nations. never to be forgotten." He is sure they belong to the re- motest antiquity, and that " a species of worship totally different from that now prevailing in India was anciently practiced in these caverns." They are now deserted. The people of the country cannot tell when or why they were deserted. Some of them, if not all, were in the same con- dition 1700 years ago, when, to the Indian messengers, na- tives of the country, the rock-temple they described was merely " a grotto," with a big image in it ; for if it had then been used for temple worship, their description could not have failed to say so. It is preposterous to talk of these structures as no older than the ninth or tenth century of the Christian Era. At that period such constructions were no longer possible- in India, even if their style of architecture had still been cur- rent. The great days of the Sanskrit race had gone by, and new influences were preparing to take possession of the country. In the year 637 A.D., during the califate of Omar, the crusading Mahometans began their invasion of India by sending a fleet from Oman to the Malabar coast. Not much was effected ; but in the year 696, a Mahometan army, led by " Muhammed, son of Cassem," occupied the valley of the Indus, overturned a powerful Indian kingdom, and penetrated as far as the country of the Kajputs. Xo one familiar with the history of India from this date to the reign of the great Akbar can allow himself to a i-n the-e marvelous works to any age within the period in question. The only semblance of argument against the great an- tiquity claimed for these structures comes from an assump- tion that they represent some of the later forms of Hindu worship, especially that of the Buddhists. In nearly all the rock-temples there are sculptured figures, reliefs, and Siva in the Rock-Temples. 233 decorations that are assumed to represent their original consecration; but the interpreters of these images and decorations do not agree in their conclusions, nor have they attempted to show that the images and symbolical devices are all as old as the temples. Most of the inter- pretations have been the work of fanciful conjecture. It has been confidently asserted that the temple at Salsette was a Buddhist temple ; but close and careful examination shows that, it was certainly a temple of Siva or Baal, for the Linga and Yoni appear everywhere in its interior re- cesses. Lieut. Col. Sykes, who has given much attention to the rock-temples, says : " There is not anywhere a rock- temple excavation dedicated to Brahma or Vishnu ;" and " Siva is the only god to whom honor is done at Ellora." [See vol. v. of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.] Some of these temples may have been used by the Buddh- ists during the time of their supremacy, and for this pur- pose they may have been changed in some respects. The inscriptions found in them are much later than the begin- ning of the Buddhist period. Scholars who have studied these antiquities %dmit that "the larger inscriptions at Ajunta may be long posterior to the excavations." [See Bombay Journal, vol. ii.] Similar constructions in Nubia have bas-reliefs and other decorations in the highest style of old Egyptian art, while the architecture of the original structures is entirely diiferent. Rameses the Great found them existing as mysterious antiquities in his time, and used them to display his devices and record his glories as a conquering hero ; but neither there nor in India is the vast antiquity of these structures in any way affected by the later addition of inscriptions, decorations, or images. The supposition that the Buddhists originated these rock- 23^ Pre-Historie Nations. temples is made highly improbable, and therefore inadmis- sible, by several facts that appear against it. 1. In the first place, these structures appear to have been in existence long before the Buddhism of Sakhya-Muni be- came the established religion of Magadha. They existed at the time of his death. The Buddhist books give an ac- count of three great convocations of his disciples. The first was convened by his favorite disciple Ananda imme- diately after his death. The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society [vol. vi., p. 303] has the following statement con- cerning it : " The Chinese work, the Foufa-thsanfj-ynan- Jcing, contains the following remarkable notice respecting Ananda : ' After the death of Buddha, he collected 500 pious men in the CAVERN of Pi-pho-lo [the tree of Photi], and jointly with them collected the Vinayas.' Of Kassaj >o, another of Buddha's disciples, the same work says : ' He collected a great assembly in the CAVERN of Pi-ho-lo and in other places, and arranged the Abidharmas.' From these passages it appears that cavern-excavations must have been contemporary with, or even prior to, Buddha [Sakhya]." 2. In the second place, these excavations are most nu- merous, in India, away from the region on the Ganges that was the birthplace and immediate home of Buddhism. A note in the volume of the Asiatic Journal just quoted takes notice of this fact as follows: "The remains of Buddhism in the Dekhan are even more magnificent and extensive than in its native seats on the Ganges. The cave-excava- tions are well known as wonderful monuments of art." Buddhism was never very extensively influential in the Dekhan, and in many districts its influence wa< scarcely felt. Iliiian-Thsang, a Chinese Biuldliu-t who visite^l India Buddhism and these Temples. 235 in the beginning of the seventh century, tells us what he saw in the Dekhan. In Kalinga, he says, " there were few of the orthodox and many heretics ;" but there were rock- temples. In the same part of the country he passed through a small state " where a peculiar language was spoken and Buddhism was not practiced." In another district, where the people were " black and savage," he notices " an exca- vated mountain ;" if it had been used as a Buddhist tem- ple he would have said so. It seems apparent that these rock-temples, which were not coincident with the estab- lished domination of Buddhism, and do not anywhere meas- ure the extent of its influence, must have existed long pre- vious to the time of Sakhya-Muni, and had their origin in something entirely independent of his religion. The Buddhists may have used them and perhaps remodeled some of them, but they did not originate them. 3. In the third place, the Siva-worship, to which these rock-temples were mainly devoted, had but little in com- mon with Sakhya-Muni's type of Buddhism, w^hich became the state religion of Magadha ; therefore this state relig- ion could not have originated these Saivite excavations. Eugene Burnouf was sure that nothing in the teaching of Sakhya could have produced the Saivite Tantras of the Nepaulese collection of Buddhist Scriptures. It is equally certain that nothing in his religion can be held responsible for the Saivite rock-temples ; and it was only in behalf of such Buddhism as he and his disciples preached that the power and resources of Magadha were engaged ; therefore no other school or sect of Buddhists and, certainly, no one so different from his as that of the Saivas, which had most in common with the old religion of the country could have had means to accomplish such stupendous 236 Pre-Historie Nations. works. They were originated in times more ancient, by another race, for the uses of that older system of religion of which Hindu Saivism was born. Buddhists of all sects may have used them ; but the history of Buddhism has nothing to explain their origin, or to account for their pe- culiar and very significant style of architecture. No part of India has more abundant traces of the old Cushite occupation than Ceylon. In addition to rock-tem- ples, traditions of the ancient Bali and serpent-worship, Cyclopean fanes, and other antiquities of the same cla>s, it has immense and very remarkable structures called tanks, which have been well described by Governor Ward in the 27th volume of the Journal of the Royal Geograph- ical Society. After giving some account of the ruins of two great cities, and pointing out that the east side of the island was anciently occupied by a very numerous and in- telligent population, he says : " All we know positively, or can collect from ancient records, is that there must once have been a large popula- tion on the west side of the island, in the neighborhood of .Alanaar and Aripo; that the causes which prompted the selection of this barren coast for a commercial emporium probably determined the choice of Anaradhspnra as the seat of government ; that other causes, equally obscuiv t< us, forced back this teeming population (leaving every- where traces of its industry and skill) to the neighborhood of Pollinarua, where its second capital was founded; that this second capital, like the first, is now a wilderness ; and that nothing remains to bespeak its ancient magnificence save the long line of tanks that unite it with Tamble^am Bay and Trincomalee." These tanks are artificial lakes of great size (some of The Tanks in Ceylon. 237 them over twenty miles in circumference) formed between hills by embankments of wonderful masonry " that seems to defy the hand of time." They were agencies of a vast system of irrigation ; but " there is no visible outlet at the point from which the stream issues, yet the stream is per- ennial. * * * No doubt the run of water is regulated by those ancient sluices, placed in the bed of the lakes, which answered the purpose so admirably, although modern en- gineers cannot explain their action." The ruins of similar tanks are found in Arabia and Southern India. Wrede found such ruins in the Arabian valley of the Doan ; and Arnaud has described the ruins of the celebrated " dike" or tank near the ancient city of Saba. The tanks of Cey- lon may not be as old as most of the other Cyclopean an- tiquities of India ; some of them may be comparatively modern, that is to say, not much older than the Christian Era ; but they belong to a class of structures that must have been originated by the Arabian Cushites. Maurice, in his " Ancient History of Hindustan," speaks of these an- tiquities as follows : "At that period, when the daring Cushite genius was in its full career of glory, it was the peculiar delight of that enterprising race to erect stupendous edifices, exca- vate long subterranean passages in the living rock, form vast lakes, and extend over the hollow of adjoining moun- tains magnificent arches for aqueducts and bridges. * * * It was they who built the tower of Belus and raised the pyr- amids of Egypt ; it was they who formed the grottoes near the Nile, and scooped the caverns of Salsette and Ele- phanta. Their skill in mechanical powers to this day as- tonishes posterity, who are unable to conceive by what means stones thirty, forty, and even sixty feet in length, 238 P re-Historic Nations. and from twelve to twenty feet in breadth [and depth], could ever be raised to that wonderful point of elevation at which they are seen in the ruined temples at Balbec and Thebais. Those composing the pagodas of India are scarcely less wonderful in magnitude and elevation." [Vol. ii.,p. 241-2.] THE DRAVIDIAX RACE AXD THEIR LANGUAGE. The fact that languages exist in India radically different from that of the Indo-Aryans, and that these langu represent the aboriginal speech of the country, was admit- ted and discussed by the old Sanskrit writ ITS tl Mr.Muir has taken some pains to show this in his*' krit Texts." The native writers apply the term Desi to this aboriginal tongue, and point out that, to a greater or lesser extent, it enters into all the existing dialects or lan- guages of the peninsula. At the north the influence of Sanskrit has been much greater than at the south, but the old language is largely present in all the northern dialects, "especially among the lower orders of the people, and in the business of Common life;" and it is admitted to be the oldest clement in these dialects. In the south tl; speech is represented by a family of cultivated langi; spoken, says Rev. Dr. Caldwell, in his Comparative (J ram- mar, by thirty-one millions of people, not including the nu- merous uncultivated "hill tribes" and retired communit'u s of Central India, who use dialects closely related to this family. It is admitted by Lassen, and by all others who have given them any attention, that these language fundamentally different from the Sanskrit, and that "their grammatical forms and primary words cannot by an; sibility have been drawn from that source." The Dravidian Languages. 239 The five cultivated languages classed as the Dravidian family are used by peoples occupying the most southern part of India. They are the Tamil, spoken by people oc- cupying the extreme southeastern extremity of the penin- sula and nearly the whole of Ceylon ; the Telug.u, or Telin- ga, used in a larger region north of the Tamil people ; the Karnatika, or Carnarese, spoken in the interior region west of the Tamil and Telugu ; the Malayalam, or Malabar tongue, found in a narrow district on the western coast, extending north from Cape Comorin ; and the Turn, in a smaller territory north of the Malayalam. Linguistic scholars have not studied these languages closely. Not much is known of them beyond the informa- tion furnished by Dr. CaldwelPs excellent Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages, and Mr. A.D. Camp- bell's Telugu Grammar, with the accompanying note or es- say of Mr. Ellis. No very profound study is required to see their radical unlikencss to the Sanskrit. Linguistic investigation has not yet authorized us to go beyond this ; and, for the present, we must be content to see that this Dravidian speech, so far as relates to its distinctive charac- ter, must, like the Cyclopean remains of the more ancient race, be classed with the ante-Sanskrit Antiquities of India, They belong together, and whatever explains the one will explain the other. Dr. Stevenson, in the Bombay Journal for April, 1842, describes the Tudas, the chief tribe of the Nilgiri Hills, and says : " The language of the Tudas is a sixth Indian penin- sula language. All these languages have but one origin ; an intimate relation in grammatical construction and voca- bles runs through them all." He finds that the language of the other hill tribes has a strong resemblance to that of 240 Pre-Historic Nations. the Tudas. It is known, also, that a form of speech close- ly related to the Dravidian family is used by certain peo- ples in Beluchistan. Dr. Stevenson calls attention to one peculiarity of these languages that has some significance. He says the word " Mag," son, is used in personal appella- tions as the term "Mac," son, is used in Gaelic, and adds, " Surely, after this, the M'Phersons and M'Gregors of our Highland glens need not hesitate to claim as Scotch cous- ins the inhabitants of the Indian peninsula." There is more in this than he saw. The African Berbers use this term "Mac" in the same way. Mr. Urquhart takes notice of this fact in his " Pillars of Hercules," and infers from it an an- cient relationship between the Berbers and the Scotch High- landers. The Sanskrit is not now represented in India by any spoken tongue, as the more ancient speech is represented by these Dravidian languages. Its influence is seen every- where; its words are found in all the vocabularies; some of the dialects grew up under its direct influence, and are supposed to have proceeded from it, but their formation was so powerfully influenced l>y the old languagi' that the Desi element appears in them as an essential part of their structure. What scholars represented by the Bombay Journal have said of the Desi element of the Mahratti can- not be said of the Sanskrit element of any existing dialect, namely, that it is more used " among the lower orders of tin- people, and in the business of common life," than any other element. Between the Mahratti, the Hindi, the Ben- gali, and the (iu/erati there is a close relationship. They come chiefly from the Sanskrit through intervening tongues called Prakrits, or" derived," which, through the continued use of Sanskrit as a literary language, were left almost Origin of these Tongues. wholly unwritten. Only one of them, the Pali, or language of Magahda, the birth-place of Buddhism, has been pre- served in a distinct literature. These Prakrits doubtless grew up in mixed communities at the north, composed of the Sanskrit-speaking people and that portion of the aboriginal population that had come under their control. Thus, for the uses of common life, there came into existence, in presence of the literary Sans- krit, new forms of speech, in which the tongues of the two different peoples were assimilated, and, to a greater or less- er degree, amalgamated. This is not the history of the Dravidian languages. The primeval mother of the Dravidian languages, and of the Desi element throughout India, was much more ancient than the Rig- Veda quite as old, probably, as* the original source of the whole Aryan family. It may have been a composite language, formed by a fusion of the speech of the ante-Sanskrit civilizers with that of the ruder aborigines found in the country. If as I believe, and as the antiqui- ties of the country so clearly show these ante-Sanskrit civilizers were Cushites from Arabia, the primal source of the Dravidian or Desi speech must have been a very an- cient form of the Cushite tongue, modified by amalgama- tion with the speech of the aborigines, or by such use as was made of it in the communities created by the civilizing influence of the Cushites. Through how many changes and successive linguistic forms the Dravidian languages came down from that original source cannot be told, nor is it possible to know how many successive dialects and family branches of that old tongue appeared, flourished, and perished during the many ages of that long period. These languages have been taken in hand by the " Scyth- L --!:-' Pre-Historic Nations. iun" infatuation, but without success. The old language of Arabia has sometimes been called " Scythian" and " Tu- ranian." It would be pleasant to see those who have been carried away by this infatuation undertake to define clear- ly what is meant by the " Scythian family," and write com- parative grammars of the " Scythian" languages. The truth is, these terms, " Scythian" and " Turanian," repre- sent, in great measure, a mysterious limbo that symbolizes the mythical Babel, and into which are crowded, with a few things that are partially understood, all the vague, uncom- prehended, and doubtful peoples and tongues that linguist- ic science is not yet qualified to explain and classify. The Dravidian languages are too little known to com- parative philologists, and linguistic studies are too little advanced in this direction to allow any scholar to place them in any other family with conclusive reasons for doing so. The first civilizers found in India a dark-colored race. The " Scythians" may claim the original speech of this race if they will. I shall not attempt to discredit their claim, for it will be amusing to see them support the right of that primeval tongue to a place in the "Scythian family." No doubt it belongs there. But the languages of the Dra- vidian family must for the present be allowed to stand by themselves. Probably the most competent linguist it- scholar, if profoundly versed in the Dravidian tongues, and furnished with all possible aid to inquiry, might find it im- possible to class them with any other family. With a composite language for their original source, and several millenniums between them and that source, the genetic re- lations and distinctive peculiarities of the ancient speech from which they came must now be too much obscured for easy recognition. The oldest Aryan Dynasty. 243 ARYAN HISTORY AND ANTIQUITY. All inquiry concerning the origin of the Sanskrit race and their first appearance in India has been greatly em- barrassed by the refusal of investigators to accept the meaning of the old Iranian histories. They were histories of the Aryan people in Asia for many years before either Media or Persia became separate kingdoms. But the in- quirer, with his imagination occupied and his mind bewil- dered by historical assumptions and dates, which he does not allow himself to disturb, fails to see this, and puts ri- diculous invention in the place of truth. While the ancient history of the Aryan people, reproduced in the old Persian books, is treated as a history of Persia merely, confusion and absurdity will be inevitable. It is no more a history of Persia than a history of the ancient kingdom of Turan or Rum, of which it says so much, would, if it still existed, be a history of modern Turkey. According to the old chronicles of Iran or Hiras, the his- tory of the Aryan people began with the reign of the great Abad, who was succeeded by thirteen kings, his descend- ants. These constitute the Mahabadian dynasty. After the close of this dynasty there came a period of wild disor- der, and " everything went to ruin." At length Jai Afram, a descendant of Abad, restored order, and began a second dynasty, that was long and prosperous. Shai Giliv began a third dynasty, called the Shayian, which was " happy," and lasted many ages. A fourth dynasty, begun by Yasan, and called the Yasanian, had a line of wise and excellent princes ; but at its close, " the state of mankind fell into utter ruin," and there was a long period of frightful disor- der and bloodshed. Finally, Gilshah, known in Iranian his- 244 Pre-Historic Nations. tory as Kaiamors, " restored the institutes of justice, gave battle to the vile race," and had an illustrious reign. His successors are called the Gilshayan monarchs, and divided into four dynasties : the Peshdadian, the Kaianian, the Ash- kanian, and the Sassanian. The Dabistan says there were long intervals between the several dynasties previous to Kaiamors; and " between Yasan and Gilshah there must have elapsed 'multiplied and numerous generations." Those who can see nothing but Persia in this" ancient his- tory coolly dismiss the dynasties previous to Gil shah as fabulous, do nothing, or worse than nothing, with the Pesh- dadians, and begin the history with the Kaianian dynasty, transferring to it all the more distinguished Peshdadian monarchs. And then, by means of " emendations" in the usual style of the manufacturers of " chronological har- mony," they contrive to make it begin about 600 years be- fore the Christian era. By this process it all becomes Per- sian history, and Zoroaster is made to live in the time of Darius Hystaspcs. We are told that Anquctil du Perron treated this matter with remarkable " ingenuity," as fol- lows: "The reigns of the Peshdadian primes, as recorded in the ancient books of of the Persians, are true, or at probable, when considered in a proper point of view ; that is, the reign or dynasty of Jemshid as the Chaldean dynas- ty of Julius Africamis; that of Zohak as the Arab dynasty of the same author; and that ofFeridun as the dynasty of BeK'tanm, ending with Sardanapalus." [See the Notes to Shea's translation of Mirkond's History of Persia.] A stroke of genius, no doubt; but excessive brilliancy is imt always pleasant. It was said in the old Iranian books that the Peshdadiana governed the kingdom of Hiras, of which Balkh was the The Kingdom of Hiras. 245 capital. The Dabistan (which mentions twenty or thirty such ancient books that are now lost) places the beginning of the reign of Gilshah, or Kaiamors, 5371 years before Christ; Ferdousi's estimate was 3529; and Sir William Ouseley, in his "Epitome," taken from the Jehan Ara, states the mean of various dates referred to in that work to be 3436 B.C. There is no authentic date, but the time was far back in the past. The Greeks, who said Zoroaster appeared 6000 years before the death of Plato and 5000 years before the Trojan War, placed it farther back than either of the dates here named. We must put away confusion and accept the fact that, in ages long before Persia appeared as a nation, the city of Balkh, or Bactria, was the capital of a great kingdom of the Aryan people called Hiras, Hiran, and Iran. The date given in the Dabistan is more likely to be worth attention than the others named. The territory included within this kingdom, when it was greatest, may be indicated by the Fourteen Aryan Settlements or provinces described in the Yendidad, among which appears Bactria " with the lofty banner," indicating its metropolitan importance. These " Settlements" (following Haug's exposition) are named as follows: 1. Sughdha, or Sogdiana; 2. Mourn, or Margiana, called also Merv : 3. Bakhdi, or Bactria, with Balkh for its chief city ; 4. Nisaya, or Northern Parthia, the Nisaia of Ptolemy ; 5. Haroyu, or Aria, the Hariva of the cuneiform inscriptions ; 6. Vekereta, or Segestan, the home of Rustem, so famous in the old Iranian histories ; 7. Urva, or Cabul, as Ilaug has shown; 8. Khnenta, or Kandahar; 9. Hara- quaiti, or Arachosia; 10. Hetumat, or the district of Hil- mend ; 11. Ragha, or Northern Media, where Ptolemy and Strabo place a city of Rhaga3; 12. Kakhra, or Khorassan; 24:6 Pre-Historic Nation*. 13. Varena, or Gliilan; 14. Haptu-Hindu, or the Punjab. Ilaptu-Hindu was in India, being the region between the Indus and the Sutlej, " the land of the seven rivers," called in the Veda, also, the country of the seven rivers, and some- times the country of the five rivers. It probably included territory west of the Indus. The Iranian record of kings" and dynasties previous to Gilshah, or Kaiamors, doubtless preserves recollections of the history of the Aryan people during their residence in Upper Asia before the family separated. Kaiamors and his successors, with the great kingdom of Hiras, must rep- resent the period when the Zend and Sanskrit branches of the family still lived together as one people and used a common language. In the later ages of this kingdom the Vedic and Zend dialects were developed. There may have been both political and religious division ; but we cannot explain the circumstances that led the Vedic branch of the race to invade India beyond the Sutlej, and establish them- selves in the valley of the Upper Ganges. Kings must have continued to reign at Balkh, over a lessened kingdom, long after this movement took place; but it is plain that, previous to the movement of the Vedic family to occupy Northern India beyond the Sutlej, they dwelt a long time in Haptu-IIindu, then a province of the kingdom of Iliras. The refusal to see anything more in the old Iranian rec- ords than Persian history is so preposterous, and has cre- ated so much confusion and absurdity, that it is not easy to understand how it has been possible. Nearly a hun- dred years ago, it led an ardent scholar, John Richardson, in his "Dissertation on the Languages, etc., of the Eastern Nations," to deny the truthfulness of Greek history, and speak of it as pure romance. Having dismissed as fabulous Richardson^ Perplexities. 247 all the ages of Aryan history previous to the Kaianian dynasty, and identified the first king of that dynasty with the Median Cyaxares, he read everything in the old chron- icles as Persian history after that date ; but he was per- plexed to find it so totally different from Persian history as written by the Greeks ; he declared them to be as much unlike as " the annals of England and Japan." In what he assumed to be Persian history, there was " no mention of Cyrus the Great," nor of any king who could be forced to resemble him; " not a vestige of the famous battles of Mar- athon, Thermopyla3, Salamis, Plata3a, and Mycale," nor a single trace of "the most splendid facts of the Greek histo- rians." Therefore Mr. Richardson, instead of correcting his own falsification of Persian history, accused the Greeks of falsehood and discredited their histories. This is more logical than the "harmonies" attempted by some others who have treated Iranian history in the same way, but it is no less absurd. THE VEDA AND THE VEDIC AGE. The Rig- Veda shows us that the earliest seat of the In- do- Aryans was in the upper valley of the Indus, on both sides of that river. This was Haptu-Hindu in Zend, and Saptu-Sindhavas according to the Vedic speech. It was chiefly that country in Northwestern India now called the Punjab. They must have dwelt there a long time. The earliest songs of the Rig- Veda must have been written in Haptu-Hindu while it was a province of the kingdom of the Hirasis, or not long after the separation. The Veda shows their long residence there, and also the progress of their invading march from the Sutlej to the Sarasvati, in the upper valley of the Ganges, where they were estab- Pre-Historic Nation*. lishcd during the first great period of their purely Indian history. These invading Aryans were intense and fanatical relig- ious enthusiasts. In the Veda they are described as " the twice -born," " the righteous," "the sacrificers," and the like ; while the people they found dwelling in India are impious " Dasyus," demons, devil-worshippers, a vile race, " who observe no sacred rites." Their right to subjugate the country is explained thus : " Indra subjects the impious to the pious, and destroys the irreligious by the religious." They pray to Indra, "Hurl thy shaft against the Dasyn, and increase the might and glory of tin* Arya ;" and Indra, " armed with lightning," moves about, " shattering the cit- ies of the Dasyus," and is described as the destroyer of " the godless cities" of the Dasyus," from which we may infer that the old inhabitants of India, described as Dasj r - us, had cities, settled life, and civilization. "Ancient cit- ies" of the Dasyus are mentioned ; also cities built of stone, and cities which the invading Aryans attacked by block- ade or siege. The Dasyus, or native inhabitants of India, were not like their invaders either in race or religion. Moreover, they were " black-skinned," while the Aryans were white. This is frequently mentioned. The Aryans arc " the bright race," while the Dasyus are. described as " the dark i . and "the host of black descent;" and Indra is praised be- cause "he destroyed the Dasyus and protected the Aryan color." These expressions are used to mark the difference in color and race between the white Aryans and tho abo- rigines, or native inhabitants, whom they found in p< sion of the country. They can mean nothing else. Of course, the Veda undertakes no formal description of the The Phallic Worship noticed. 249 aboriginal inhabitants. It has no formal discussions of ei- ther their religion, language, or social condition ; but their unlikeness to the Aryans is plainly indicated. " Wealthy Dasyus" are mentioned in the Mahabharata, who lived " in a prosperous condition," and tempted Aryan saints to asso- ciate with them ; but this was at a later period, when the " twice-born" children of the Veda were beginning to hu- manize that intense and terrible fanaticism which had reg- ulated their treatment of the Dasyus at the beginning. There are some passages of the Veda that seem to indi- cate that these intense Aryan invaders saw, in the religion of the Dasyus, either Phallus worship or something akin to it, for they express a feeling like what might naturally be aroused in them by observing the rites and symbols of that worship without comprehending their significance. In the Rig- Veda, vii., 21,5, the worshipper prays, " Let not the las- civious wretches (or those who make a god of the sisna, i. e.j of the membrum virile) approach our sacred rite ;" and in x., 99, 3, we read, " When smiting the [city] with a hun- dred portals, the irresistible [Indra] overcame the lascivi- ous wretches." Mr. Muir, in his " Sanskrit Texts," calls at- tention to these expressions, and also to the Vedic word sisnadeva. He observes that " Roth thinks the word [sis- nadeva] is a scornful appellation for priapic or sensual de- mons." The Phallus-worshipping aborigines were natural- ly called demons by the " twice-born" Aryans. Mr. Muir expresses some uncertainty ; but it cannot be disputed that the Phallic worship connected with Baal or Siva prevailed throughout India in the ante-Vedic ages. The Aryans certainly found it there, and we may reasonably presume that these passages of the Veda express their execration of its rites. L2 250 Pre-Historic Nations. Scholars who have carefully studied the Yedic liteia- turc agree in the opinion that the Indo-Aryans paused in the valley of the Upper Ganges a long time probably sev- eral centuries before proceeding to occupy the country farther east, and that " there the Brahmanical institutions must have been developed and matured, and, perhaps, the. collection of the Vedic hymns, completed, and the canon closed ;" or, as Lassen has it, the germs imported from without were first planted, cultivated, and brought to ma- turity in Hindustan, in the country adjacent to the Saras- vati River. There must have been a long distance in time, between the Veda and the Brahmanas. In the matured Brahmanical system Indra is dethroned by Brahma, who does not appear in the Veda as a deity, and the leading Vedic divinities have either disappeared or been trans- formed. In the literature of that system the Vedic lan- guage itself is superseded by Sanskrit. There is neither history nor chronology of the long i >e- riod required for these changes, but their character, and what we know of the process by which snch changes aiv effected, indicate its exte'nt. I cannot suppose that the Brahmanical system matured on the Sara>vati was the same as that known to us as modern Brahmanism, which mu>t lie a late reconstruction of the old system ; but it was so ditU-r- on t from the simpler religion of the Veda, both in its divin- ities and its organization, that many ages mu>t liave been required for the gradual growth of the changes by which this difference was produced. In the next a_res, that Aryan country on the Sarasvati was the holy land of the Brahmans. They called it Brah- nfivartta. The following is from a frequently quoted j.a- ::iL r o <>f Maim: "The tract fashioned by the gods, which A Mixture of the Races. 251 /ies between the two divine rivers Sarasvati and Drishad- vati, is called- Brahmavartta. The usage relating to castes and mixed castes, that has been traditionally received in that country, is called the pure usage." He describes as Aryavartta a region north of the Vindhya Mountains, frorp the valley of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganges, saying that beyond its limits lay " the country of the Mlechhas," or Dasyus. "Twice-born men" were required to remain within the limits of Aryavartta, " but a Sudra may dwell anywhere." We see, therefore, that Manu appeared later than this first development of the Brahmanical system, and that when he wrote, the Indo-Aryans had left Brahmavart- ta to occupy the whole lower valley of the Ganges down to the Bay of Bengal. Previous to this movement they had occupied but a small part of India, and probably they were at all times much less numerous than the aboriginal population. It may be presumed that fanatical exclusiveness was beginning to re- lax its severity when they took possession of the country on the Lower Ganges, and that closer relations were estab- lished between the Aryas and the Dasyus ; for at this pe- riod, or at a period not much later, must have begun that mixture of the two races in which the white Aryan color finally disappeared. This mixture is an incontestable fact, but nothing indicates that it could have begun at any time during the Vedic age. It must, however, have begun at a very early period, for it was complete, even in the Punjab, long before the time of Alexander the Great, who found there but one color, and apparently but one race. We learn from Megastheries and Arrian that " the natives of India and Ethiopia are not much different in their features or complexion." It was noticed, says Megasthenes, that 252 P re-Historic Nations. the people of Southern India were darker in color than those at the north, and also that " the Astaceni and the Assaceni," two Indian peoples dwelling on the west bank of the. Indus, were " not altogether st) swarthy" as those east of that river. It may be inferred from passages in the Sanskrit books that after the Indo-Aryans occupied the country on the Lower Ganges known as Maghada and Behar, but more anciently as Kikata, Brahmanism was affected by some great and successful influence of the aboriginal inhabitants and their religion. Kikata was probably a civilized and important country of the Dasyus, and most of its people may have become incorporated with the Aryans who con- quered and occupied it. At any rate, after the Aryan oc- cupation of that country, the " twice-born" Sanskrit wor- shippers connected with Brahmiivartta did not regard it as a land of faultless Brahmanism, but rather as a country in which the true religion had lost the holy flavor of ortho- doxy. But it was not wholly excluded from the pale of the faithful, as may be seen in the following passage from the Bhagavad Purana, quoted by Mr. Muir in his " Sanskrit Texts," part ii., p. 363 : "In every place where those who are devoted to me, who are calm, who regard all things as alike, and who are holy and virtuous, are born, the men [of that country] are purified, even if they be KlkataV Professor Weber, noticing the doubt expressed by some concerning the origin of these Kikatas, shows, what the Sanskrit books make plain, that they wnv Aryans who did not faithfully observe the Brahmanical rites. IIu thinks " they may have been Buddhists, or the forerunners of Buddhism." It is well known that Kikata, or !Marhad:i, was the birth-place of both Buddhism and the Pali Ian The Aryans in Southern India. 253 guage ; and the inspiration of Buddhism came largely from the doctrines of the Cushite system of planet worship, which had prevailed in India previous to the Aryan invasion, and with which the phallic and serpent worship were intimate- ly associated. At a later period the Sanskrit race went beyond the Vindhya Mountains into Southern India. An invasion of that country, and a war with Ravana, king of Ceylon, fur- nish the subject of the Ramayana ; but they never occupied the Dakshin as they occupied the valley of the Ganges. The Sanskrit did not supersede the aboriginal tongues in the Dekhan, and the invaders found it necessary to absorb, or to reconstruct and modify, the old religion, which they could not exterminate. It may be doubted whether the pure and stainless orthodoxy matured in the holy land of the Brahmans, Brahmavartta, entirely escaped the modify- ing influence of the old religion in any other part of India. If its. modern representative could be submitted to the judgment of the great Brahmans of the Sarasvati, they would unquestionably regard it as a fallen creature, de- filed and transformed by unlawful association with Rak- shasas. RELIGIOUS HISTORY OF SANSKRIT INDIA. Some Oriental scholars have argued with much earnest- ness and ingenuity to show that Buddhism and the Pali language are older than Brahmanism and the Sanskrit lan- guage. They are mistaken in their conclusions, and yet not entirely wrong. .They show conclusively that Buddh- ism must be older than modern Brahmanism, but they do not show that there was not another and much more an- cient Brahmanical system, developed and matured while 25-i Pre-IIistoric Nation*. the Sanskrit was in the brightest age of its history as a spoken language, and long before the Pali made its appear- ance. What we know as the Brahmanism of India cannot be very ancient. It is full of elements foreign to the San- skrit race ; it worships gods whom they did not bring into India, and who were unknown in the Pantheon at Brahmft- vartta. Like the modern tongues of the country, it is full of materials borrowed from the "Dasyus" or " R&kshasas," in mixture with whom the Indo-Aryans themselves lost their white color. This cannot be the Brahmanism to which Manu gave laws in the "divine country" on the Sar- asvati, nor of any age while Sanskrit was still learned of mothers and nurses, and still used in all the intercourse of common life. Neither the Sanskrit nor the Pali books give us anything like a regular history of religious development, change, and reconstruction in the various countries of India; but they rnable us to see that original and pure Brahmanism the Brahmanism of the time of Manu came into existence be- fore the Sanskrit race established their supremacy in the lower valley of the Ganges, and that Buddhism did not ap- pear until the kingdom of Klkata, afterward called Ma- gadha and Behar, became important and influential. At first, and for a long time, the two systems must have exit- ed as two differing schools in the same religious commu- nion ; Buddhism being a visible but undeveloped heresy, with a very distinct and positive individuality in its ele- ments and tendencies, but not yet sufficiently matured and organized to create actual separation. Buddhism was much older than Gautama, or Sakliya- Muni, the Buddha of the Ceylonese records. He was only one of its prophets. A passage in the Raja Taringini, a re- Buddhism and the Buddhas. 255 iigious history of Kashmir, translated by Mr. Tumour, shows (for it plainly has this meaning) that in China, Thib- et, and Nepal, " six Arhatas, or mortal predecessors of Gau- tama" (Buddha), are recognised; and this accords with the fact that the Jainas, whose religious system originated in Buddhism, celebrate Kasyapa, one of these predecessors, as their great prophet, claiming that the Buddhists them- selves followed him before Gautama appeared. Eugene Burnouf found it difficult to comprehend the very intimate relations between Buddhism and Siva wor- ship. Perhaps a clearer perception of the real significance of this worship, with a more careful consideration of the circumstances under which Buddhism came into existence, might have lessened the difficulty. He recognised the an- tiquity of this system of religion by speaking of Sakhya- Muni as " the last of the seven human Buddhas of whom tradition has preserved recollections." Buddhism was the growth of many ages preceding that in which Sakhya-Muni appeared. Its system of doctrine and practice was com- pletely developed before his time, and this fact explains why the various Buddhist sects have differed and disputed so much concerning the date of his appearance. Professor H. II. Wilson, finding among these sects not less than twenty different dates for the time of his birth, varying from 2420 B.C. to 453 B.C., made this a reason for doubting whether such a person ever existed. We may reasonably deny that he was the original founder of Buddh- ism, but he was undoubtedly one of its great teachers. Burnouf thinks his teaching was oral, and doubts whether he left any writings. Fa-hian, a Chinese Buddhist who spent several years in India between 399 and 414 A.D., stated his personal knowledge of Buddhist sects there that 256 Pro-Historic Nations. specialty honored the names of three Buddhas, immediate predecessors of Sakhya-Muni, but refused to honor him as a Buddha. The successful development and final supremacy ot Buddhism in India were due, in great measure, to the power and influence of the kingdom of Magadha. In that kingdom its gradual grr wth was protected ; and when it came to an open warfare with Brahmanism, Magadha was supreme throughout Northern India. Brahmanism was defeated and driven into obscurity, and for ten or eleven centuries Buddhism was the dominant religion of the land. It is probable that both Magadha and the religion it pro- tected had much greater influence with the aboriginal in- habitants than Brahmanism, and were strengthened by their support; for Buddhism opposed the arrogance of caste, and preached equality. It drew much from the re- ligion of the primitive inhabitants, while it won their sym- pathy and support against the Brahmar.s. Buddhism ap- pears to have had a somewhat larger influence in Southern India than had been possible to Brahmunism; and it took possession of Ceylon, where Brahnianism never found en- trance. It was established in the countries of Farther In- dia; it crossed the Indus; it passed over the Himalaya, Mountains into Thibet ; it went to China ; and, although it wa< subsequently expelled from India, it is still the religion of nearly one third of the human r;i In the seventh century of the Christian era Magadha no longer existed as an all-powerful kingdom. There were great political changes, and with them eame religious ehunges. Buddhism was declining, and Brahmanism was gaining strength and influence. The reigning princes were no longer all Buddhists; the Brahmans were coming int<> Sakhya? s Buddhism overthrown. 257 power. The inscriptions began to mention them, at first with respect, as a class on whom royal favor was bestowed ; then as " lords of the earth ;" and at last their position is in- dicated by the terms used in an inscription at Chatapur, dated in the year 1016 A.D., which describes them as those " whose feet earthly kings adored." The downfall of Buddh- ism seems to have been effected by a combined and persist- ent attack of the Brahmans, the Saivas, communities repre- senting the ante-Sanskrit religion of the country, and all the Buddhist sectaries who rejected Sakhya-Muni, or mado his teachings subordinate to other features of the more an- cient Buddhism. The Buddhism of Sakhya was finally ex- pelled from India; but the Brahmanism developed by this successful crusade was no longer that of Maim and the great teachers of the ancient Bi;ahmavartta. Sakhya-Muni, instead of being the founder of Buddhism, was merely the representative of one particular and very popular development of that system. The Jainas, who still remain in India, are really Buddhists who profess to follow the teachings of his immediate predecessor. The Saivas, a numerous and powerful sect, probably had their origin in Buddhism, and represented features of that system which did not appear very distinctly in the teachings of Sakhya and his disciples. We must suppose there may have been much in ancient Buddhism that did not appear prominent- ly in that particular development of it which Asoka made the established religion of his empire. The sect called Saivas may have been anciently a Buddh- ist school in which the elements drawn from the ante-San- skrit religion of India were more fully represented than in any other. It had risen to great influence when the Buddh- ism of Sakhya-Muni was overthrown ; and after this event 258 P re-Historic Nations. it seems to have been absorbed by the reconstructed Brah- manism that took the place of the fallen system. Like the Buddhists, the Saivas rejected the Yedas ; and Burnouf re- fers to " a considerable number of gods and goddesses, ver- itable Saivite divinities, such as Mahakala, Yamantaka, Bhairava, Durga, Mahakali, and others that were really borrowed from the popular religion of the Indians." MODERX BKAHMANISM. Dr. Stevenson says : " Three different systems of belief have contributed to the formation of modern Hinduism [or Brahmanism], namely, ancient Brahmanism, Buddhism, and the ante-Brahmanfcal religion of the country." He is sure that the worship of Siva was " an aboriginal superstition of the country," and that tjie Brahmans adopted it to gain influence with people of the old race. It is plain, however, that they adopted it because the Saivas were a power in the land. As Dr. Stevenson observes, wherever the Brah- mans found among the people a god whom they deemed it politic to reverence, they straightway made him an avatar of one of their own gods. He says innumerable local ava- tars of gods have thus sprung up throughout the country, and found celebration in maiiuiartuivd legends or Mahdt- myas of the Pui'anas. The later Brahmans aimed to conciliate and absorb everv- thing; but there arc many districts where they have never l>een able to supersede the old religion ; and even the amal- gamation of Brahmanism with Siva worship is not per Dr. Stevenson states, from his own extensive observation, that, he can vouch for the fact that, in the Marat hi country, where Saivas greatly prevail, no Brahman officiates in a linga temple. The same appears to be true in the Dekhan ; Indian Ilist-ory falsified. 259 and here it may be stated that the ante-Sanskrit origin of Siva worship is plainly signified by the fact that its chief seats and most sacred places are in those parts of the coun- try where the influence of the Sanskrit race, whether as Brahmans or Buddhists, has always been weakest in the north-east and at the south, where the worshippers of Siva are far more numerous than those of Vishnu. The Brahmans could not have been wholly without or- ganization and influence during the Buddhist ages, for they kept the Sanskrit language in use as a literary lan- guage, and they carefully preserved the old Vedic and Sanskrit books ; but their endeavor to connect the origin of modern Brahmanism with the oldest traditions of their class, and make it appear to be the same system that was developed in the early times at Brahmavartta, has led them to destroy some of the books, revise and interpolate others, and to do all in their power to hide or obscure the inter- vening religious history of India. It cannot well be doubt- ed that the Puranas have been reconstructed to a certain extent. While, as Colonel Wilford pointed out, they con- tain much that bears internal evidence of great antiquity, there are other portions of their contents that cannot be very old. Wilford said : " I am sometimes tempted to be- liuve, from some particular passages in the Puranas which have the true historical style, that the Hindus have de- stroyed, or at least designedly consigned to oblivion, all genuine records militating against their system." Mr. Wathen believed that, " on the Mussulman conquest of India, the Brahmans destroyed all previous historical doc- uments," and said, "they seem, nevertheless, to have care- fully preserved, invented, or adapted such compositions ia Sanskrit as attested their own religious supremacy." 260 P re-Historic Nations. While the Puranas undoubtedly contain genuine records of great antiquity, we cannot safely trust those portions of them that relate to the connection of modern Brahmanism with ancient times. INDIAN HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGY. There is nothing in the monuments or literature of India that affords materials for a chronological history of the country, or that furnishes a basis for any hypothetical scheme of such a history. There is in the Pali language a history of Ceylon, deemed authentic, that goes back to the year 543 before the Christian Era ; and there is a history of Kashmir, the Raja Taringini, of which Professor Wilson spoke as " the only Sanskrit composition yet discovered to which the title of history can with any propriety be ap- plied." It is "difficult to believe that written annals of Magadhi, Oude, and other Indian kingdoms never existed. The Jainas accuse the Brahmans of having destroyed " all the historical books in existence wherever they gained the ascendency ;" and they assert, also, that the Puranas were originally historical works, and that Parasurama, Ramchan- dra, Krishna, and others, celebrated as divine heroes, wi-iv merely great kings who reigned in Oudc and other Brah- manical countries in ancient times. It seems very clear that these charges against the Brahmans are true. The lost history cannot be recovered; but certain facts appear, in the course of these inquiries, that engage attention, and furnish important suggestions. We see in the Veda itself that the people found in India by the Sanskrit race were a civilized people, who had im- portant cities, and, of course, settled life and political or- ganization. It is preposterous, and utterly unwarranted The ante-Vedic Civilization. 261 by any fact whatever, to approach this investigation with the mind and imagination preoccupied by the assumption that the people of India were all savages before the Aryans went there. Nothing to justify this assumption can be found in the Veda, for the terms of religious hatred and ex- ecration bestowed upon the native inhabitants by the fa- naticism of the invading Aryans cannot have this meaning. When we read in the Veda that the Dasyus, Rakshasas, and demons, as they were called, had important cities, *' cities built of stone," " ancient cities," cities that were at- tacked by siege and blockade, we see clearly that the abo- riginal inhabitants of India were civilized. It is probable that the highest condition of their civili- zation existed in the kingdoms of the southern country and on the Lower Ganges ; but civilization was found in that part of India first visited and occupied by the Sanskrit race. Fa-hian, the Chinese traveler, learned in India that the an- cient " Rakshasas" and " demons" of Ceylon were a civil- ized and commercial people. In the Ramayana, the people of the Dekhan are called not only Rakshasas, but also " monkeys ;" but there is mention of their kings, kingdoms, wealth, golden ornaments, and rich gifts to Rama, which very distinctly indicates their civilization. We see it, also, in those antiquities of the country, which must be referred to ages before the Aryan immigration, and which so clear- ly connect that ante-Sanskrit civilization with the Arabian Cushites. Civilization must have come from Arabia to In- dia at a period that was already in the misty deeps of an- tiquity when the oldest hymns of the Veda were written. The history of the Aryan race in India may be divided into four distinct periods. 1 . The Vedic age, which began when the Indo- Aryans were dwelling in Haptu-Hindu, and 262 Pre-IIistoric Nations. closed at some period after their settlement at Brahmavart- ta on the Sarasvati. During this period they occupied but a small part of the country. 2. The ancient Brahmanical period, which began at Brahmavartta, and terminated when the supremacy of Buddhism was established. This was the period of the Sanskrit language. The Vedic tongue had ceased to exist save in the old books, arid there were im- portant changes in the Vedic Pantheon. A very long pe- riod of time was required for such changes, t<> which mu>t IK- jiddi-d all the time necessary for the Sanskrit tongue to appear, receive its great development, live its whole life as a spoken language, and finally disappear from common use. 3. The period of Sakhya-Muni's Buddhism, whieh 1 about twelve centuries, counting from the time of tin ond convocation in the year 453 B.C. 4. The period of modern Brahmanism, which was beginning to take form and assume importance in the seventh century of the Chris- tian Kra, more than eleven hundred years ago. The kingdom of ^lairadho, was much older than the time- of Sakhya-Mnni, who is supposed to have been born more than Goo years before Christ. It grew up out of the Ary- an occupation of the Lower Ganges, and may have as old as any attempt to reconM rnet its chroi, claimed; but wo have no authentic chronology, nor even an authentic list of the kings from the ln-ginning. The Brahman s, who preserved the old Sanskrit and Vedic 1 have dealt most villanously with the historical and chro- nological records of the country. 31 r. Tumour, in his In- troduction to the ^lahawanso, speaking of the great i nuity that has been displayed in attempts to unravel and explain the absurdities of Hindu chronology, says : "They all tend to show that the incongruities are the result of Indian History falsified. 263 systematic perversions, had recourse to, since the time of Megasthenes, by the Hindus, to work out their religious impostures, and that they in no degree originate in barbar- ous ignorance, or in the imperfect light that has glimmered on a remote antiquity." And yet these unpardonable falsi- fiers have not been able to hide the fact that Buddhism, including all its various schools, has had a far more pow- erful and permanent influence in India than Brahmanism, nor to conceal the comparatively modern origin of their own composite system. THE ANCIENT MALAYAN EMPIEE. El-Mas'udi, in his work on history and geography, en- titled " Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems," says : " In- dia is a vast country, having many seas and mountains, and borders upon the empire of ez-Zanij, which is the king- dom of the Maharaj, the king of the islands, whose domin- ions form the frontier between India and China, and are considered as part of India," He represents that " the splendor and high civilization" of this island empire, called cz-Zanij, were greatly celebrated. Farther on he adds: " The Maharaj is lord of the sixth sea," and " king of the islands from which drugs and spices are exported;" and says, " the population and the number of the troops of his kingdom cannot be counted; and the islands under his sceptre are so numerous that the fastest sailing vessel is not able to go round them in two years." [See Aloys Sprenger's translation, p. 176, 187, 355-6, and 397.] The people of this great island empire, he tells us, were black. Five hundred and fifty years after the time when El- Mas'udi wrote, the Portuguese made their first appearance in the Indian Seas, having sailed around the Cape of Good 264 Pre-Historic Nations. Hope. At that time this celebrated empire was still in ex- istence, much weakened, and in a state of decline. It in- cluded, with the peninsula of Malacca, the great islands of Sumatra, Borneo, Java, and Celebes, and all the other isl- ands between Australia and the China Sea. Renaudot gives the reports of two Mussulman travelers who visited that part of the East in the ninth century, previous to the time of El-Mas'udi. At that time it included Arracan, Chittagong, the Gangetic provinces, and considerable terri- tory on the Coromandel coast. They called it the empire of Zapage, or Zabiija, probably a corruption of the name of the island of Java, or Jtiba, which is also an old name for the island of Sumatra, called Ja-ba-diu by Ptolemy and Marco Polo. These travelers gave an account of wars be- tween the Maha-Raja of Zabaja and the king of Al-Comr, or Comorin, and other kings in Southern India. Zaba, on the peninsula of Malacca, was a famous emporium in the time of Ptolemy; and Zabaja, as a great maritime power, was probably much older than the Christian Era. This was an empire <>f the people whom we know us the Malay 8, who, like the modern inhabitants of Yemen, Mauri- tania, and Asia Minor, no longer represent the civilization that made their nation great in ancient times. It may reasonably be presumed that in the Malays we see the race found in India by the Arabian Cushites. Mr. Marsden, who has given some attention to their literature and language, is inclined to connect them ethnically with the people of Chinese Tartary. Their color and other physiological pe- culiarities forbid this classification, and probably their lan- guage will do so strongly whenever it shall be thorough- ly understood and intelligently described. It has been ascertained that dialects of the Malayan tongue are used The Malays and America. 265 by the people inhabiting nearly all the islands from New Zealand to the Sandwich Islands, from Madagascar to For* mosa, and from the Indian Archipelago to Easter Island, on the American side of the Pacific Ocean; and that they all have certain rites and customs, which, like their related dialects, indicate a common origin. These points are discussed in a volume published at Lon- don in 1834, which was written by Rev. Dr. Lang, and en- titled " The Origin and Migrations of the Polynesian Na- tion, Demonstrating their Ancient Discovery and Progress- ive Settlement of the Continent of America." Humboldt and others have stated their belief that America was visit- ed iii pre-historic times by people from the Asiatic world, who went there across the Pacific Ocean ; the Chinese and Japanese have recorded traditions that say this ; and the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg points out that the ancient Peruvians had traditions of the arrival in their country of foreigners, who came by sea, and landed on the western coast. The ancient Malayan civilization, like that of India and so many other ancient peoples, came originally, we may suppose, from the old Arabians. Java and the other large islands have antiquities, including ruins and inscriptions, that have not been explored and studied. The Malays read and write, and have many of the arts of civilized life. They use the Arabic characters, it is said ; but formerly, it appears, they used another alphabet. Lieut. Col. Sykes stated, in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, that " there are ancient inscriptions in Java" written in a char- acter like that of" the old inscriptions in the Dekhan." If the antiquities of that old empire of Zabaja (which Dr. Lang, in the ardor of his enthusiasm, believed to be as old M 266 Pre-Historic Nations. as the Empire of China) could be intelligently and faith- fully explored, something important might be added to our knowledge of the East something that might give us a better notion of the character and importance of the Malayan people in ancient times, and aid our endeavor to make clear some of the difficult problems of Indian history. VII. EGYPT PREVIOUa TO MENES. ANCIENT Egypt is now a, fact that cannot be discredit- ed, but a fact, nevertheless, which the current chronologies cannot accept. It has always been visible, though scarcely ever fully recognised by those who have written history. Greek scholars who visited Egypt toward the close of the New Monarchy, studied in its schools, explored its libra- ries, observed its monuments, and had access to abundant materials for writing its history, were not incited to write on that country, even as imperfectly as some of them wrote about Persia. They were more disposed to appropriate Egyptian science and philosophy without due acknowl- edgment ; and we find many Greeks censuring Herodotus scornfully because he admitted that Greek thought and culture came largely from the Egyptians and Phrenicians. Hellenic egotism and exclusiveness could not allow the scholars of Greece proper to write candid histories of" out- side barbarians," and show, by clear and formal recogni- tion, that the civilization of any " barbarian" nation, or of any older time, was or could be superior to that of Hellas ; and their spirit has been allowed too great influence on the scholarship of modern times. Greek scholars had before them records and monuments of the Old Monarchy of Egypt. Had they investigated carefully, and recorded the result of their investigations in Candidly-written his- tories of the country, our notions of the great past would 268 Pre-Historic Nations. be regulated by a scheme of chronology more in accord- ance with truth than that of Usher or of any other rabbin- ical speculator, and it would be much easier to accept the facts concerning Egypt which modern discoveries have made undeniable. MANETHO'S HISTORY OF EGYPT. So far as we know, the only history of Egypt ever writ- ten in Greek was that of Manetho of Sebennytus, an Egyp- linn priest of the highest reputation for learning and wis- dom, who wrote about 300 years before the Christian Era. His aim was to give, in the Greek language, a full account of the religious and philosophical wisdom of his country, with a complete record of its history and chronology, bas- ing his work on the ancient annals and sacred books of Egypt. The history was arranged in three parts. In the first part he gave what was known of the history of Egypt previous to the time of Menes, with the first eleven dynas- ties of the Old onarchy, which Menes established. The second part closed with the nineteenth dynasty, and the third continued the history down to the overthrow of Nectanebus II., the last native sovereign, by the Persian-. According to Manetho, as usually understood, the time from the first year of Menes to this conquest of Egypt by the Persians was 3555 years. During this time there were thirty successive dynasties, and the account o them sug- gests a division of Egyptian history into three great peri- ods the Old Monarchy, the Middle Monarchy, or period of the Hyksos, and the New Monarchy, which began witli the eighteenth dynasty, and terminated with the reign of Nectanebus II. Manetho states that the rule of the Hyk- sos lasted 511 years. The reign of Menes began in the Manetho's Egyptian Dynasties. 269 year 3893 B.C., reckoning Julian years, or 3895, reckoning Egyptian years. This important work of Manetho is lost ; but fragments of it have come down to us in the works of Julius Africa- rius, Eusebius, Syncellus, Josephus, and others. Certain passages in Plutarch's treatise de Iside et Osiri are sup- posed to be extracts from that part of it in which he ex- plained the Egyptian doctrines concerning the gods. The most valuable portion of the history thus preserved is the list of Egyptian dynasties. None of the transcribers, how- ever, have preserved it entirely free from error ; but in Julius Africanus, copied by Syncellus, and in the Armenian version of Eusebius, we have copies of it so nearly correct that we can see what it was. Our dogmatic chronologists have not been able to receive this list with cordiality ; in fact, they have treated it very unworthily ; but its cor- rectness has been revealed more and more clearly at every step in the progress of modern discovery in Egypt, which, instead of reducing the time given for the duration of Egypt under all the dynasties, has led some acute investi- gators to believe it should be considerably increased by additions to the time of the Old Monarchy. Manetho's eminent character and great reputation made his work an authority in his own time. It was universally accepted as authentic. It does not appear that its accu- racy was questioned for 600 years after it was written, or until the beginning of the fourth century of the Christian Era, when certain Jewish Rabbins and Christian writers fell into an obstinate chronological controversy, the Chris- tians aiming to establish certain millennial theories, and the Jews to oppose them. Manetho's chronology found its way into this controversy, but neither Jew nor Chris- 270 - Pre-Historio Nations. tian was in a mood to accept it without revision. Both parties sought to compel his dates to harmonize with the system they profanely called biblical ; and the rabbinical dogmatist, who had not scrupled to falsify the genealogies and alter the dates of his own sacred Scriptures, could not be expected to treat Manetho with much reverence. Ma- netho's earliest chronological date, 3893 B.C., could not be tolerated; therefore it must be denied; and they pro- ceeded to mutilate and falsify his list of the dynasties. This villanous endeavor of falsehood, which was as false to the real chronology of the Hebrew Scriptures as to that of Manetho's history, was conducted in the most systematic and elaborate manner possible to those engaged in it. Manetho's lists and numbers were altered, abbreviated, and transformed in the most unscrupulous way, so as to com- press them within such limits as suited the dogmatism of rabbinical theories. This studied operation of fraud produced two spurious works the "Old Chronicle" and the " Sothis 1 ' which have, since, more than once deceived and misled honest in- vestigators. To these spurious writings which almost entirely omitted the Old Monarchy and otherwise fals'itu-d the true list is due most of the confusion introduced into the inquiry concerning Egyptian chronology and anck'iit history. Their real character is now more general!} derstood; and yet, since the year I860, a large and elabo- rate octavo volume has appeared in England, devoted to a discussion of Egyptian chronology, in which that ihlse "Old Chronicle" is used as the highest authority on this subject. But it does not belong to my present purpose to eii^ in this Discussion, or to give a history of modern explora- Lepsius on Egyptian Antiquity. 271 tions and discoveries in Egypt. My inquiries relate to more ancient times. For all that belongs to the history of Egypt since the time of Menes, I must refer my read- ers to the works of eminent Egyptologists whose names are familiar to all, and especially to the very thorough and complete essay of Professor Lepsius on " The Chronol- ogy of the Egyptians," and to the publications of M. Mari- ette in France. Lepsius shows how constantly the monu- ments confirm the history of Manetho ; and he observes very justly that "the investigation of Egyptian history will gradually exercise an extensive influence on all branch- es of archaeology on our whole conception of the past his- tory of man." ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF EGYPT. Before the time of Menes, Egypt had a civilization which must have seemed old to those acquainted with it. This is apparent to all who have studied the antiquities of that country. Sir Gardner Wilkinson refers to " the great mathematical skill of the Egyptians in the time of Menes," evinced by the change he made in the course of the Nile, and says : " It may be inferred, from their great advance- ment in the arts and sciences at this early period, that many ages of civilization had preceded the accession of their first monarch." Upper and Lower Egypt had previ- ously existed as separate countries, each being governed by its own princes. Menes was a prince of Upper Egypt, the oldest of these separate countries. He was bom at the city of This or Thinis, which appears to have been the roy- al seat of a Thinite dynasty of the upper country. That he was a man of remarkable force of mind and character may be inferred from the fact that he was able to unite the 272 Pre-Historic Nations. " Two Countries" under one government, and lay the foun- dations of a great monarchy whose monuments are still studied with admiration and wonder. There is neither history nor chronology of Egypt previ- ous to the time of Menes. We have only the fact that civ- ilization, letters, science, political organization, and kings existed there long before he appeared, with such knowl- edge of the early history of the " Two Countries" as may be gleaned from legends, traditions, and mythological nar- ratives. Annals of those early ages were undoubtedly written and preserved in the temples, but they seem to have perished long before the time of Manetho. When we consider that a civilization like that of Egypt in the time of Menes is not the work of a year or of a century, we see distinctly that Egypt had a long existence previous to his reign. Most of the great monuments of civilization now found in Egypt belong to the period of the Old Mon- archy, some of the grandest of them being as old as the time of its earlier dynasties. According to the uniform testimony of tradition, civili- zation was first established in Egypt by colonies of Cush- ites, or Ethiopians. The old civilization throughout the whole upper valley of the Nile had the same origin. It came originally from Arabia, and went onward into Egypt, in very early times, before the Cushite race had changed its color by mixture with the dark race of Africa. Accord- ing to Pliny, King Juba II. stated, in his work on Africa, that the people in the valley of the Nile, from Syene to ]Men>e, were Arabians. Those who have studied ancient Egypt carefully generally agree in the opinion that the Egyptians must have come originally from some country on the Asiatic side of the Red Sea. Sir Gardner Wilkin- son says on this point : Origin of the Egyptians. 273 " Every one who considers the features, the language, and other peculiarities of the ancient Egyptians, will feel convinced that they are not of African extraction, but that, like the Abyssinians and many inhabitants of the known valley of the Nile, they bear the evident stamp of an Asi- atic origin." And, "In manners, language, and many oth- er respects, Egypt was certainly more Asiatic than Afri- can ; and though there is no appearance of the Hindu and Egyptian religions having been borrowed from one anoth- er, yet it is not improbable that those two nations may have proceeded from the same original stock, and have migrated southwards from their parent country in Central Asia." How many difficult problems, or problems that seem dif- ficult to many learned investigators, become clear imme- diately when we recognise the pre-historic greatness of an- cient Arabia ! Sir Gardner Wilkinson goes to Central Asia to find the origin of the ancient Egyptians, and endeavors to connect them with the Aryan race, which linguistic sci- ence forbids. Professor Rawlinson and others go over into Africa, and down the Nile to Meroe, to find the original colonizers and civilizers of Chaldea, which is preposterous. These gropings in the dark will be discontinued when such inquirers have learned to comprehend Arabia, the ancient mother of nations. Sir Henry Rawlinson sees the common origin of the Chaldeans and Egyptians, and finds it even in the character of their writing, which, he thinks, must have been in existence before the two peoples separated; but he does not see Arabia, although he understands very well the impossibility of connecting the origin of either the Chaldeans or Egyptians with any people of the Aryan race. Lcpsius draws the same conclusions from the resemblance M 2 274 Pre-Historic Nations. of Egyptian and other Cushite writing, and thinks the Egyptians may have brought the first elements of theirs " from their original home in Asia." The ancient Arabians, being what they were, could not fail to occupy the Nile valley, and place colonies in Upper Egypt. It is very easy to see the course taken by their colonizing and civilizing forces. They crossed the Straits of Bab - el - Mandeb, and created a second Land of Cush. They occupied the Upper Nile valley, creating the civil- ized country long known as Barbara, and afterwards filmed as Meroe. At length they went on to the lower valley of the Nile, and planted colonies in Upper Egypt. Sir Gard- ner Wilkinson says : " That civilization advanced north- wards from the Thebaid to Lower Egypt is highly prob- able." The hieroglyphic legends which give precedence to Upper Egypt, and show that its early cities were the oldest in the country, place this beyond doubt. Civiliza- tion certainly came from the south. Memphis, in Lower Egypt, founded by Mines, has around its ruins the great pyramids, and many other wonderful remains of the Old Monarchy, which astonish beholders ; but This, or Thinis, in Upper Egypt, was a royal city, where kings reigned long before the time of Menes. The Egyp- tian name of Memphis was Misr. When another royal town rose on the east side of the river, this new city was also called Misr, and it still retains this name among the people, for Alkuhirn, the Conqueress, vulgarly called Cairo, is merely an epithet of the Mahometan Arabs. Ilosea calls the city Moph; the Chaldean paraphrase calls it Maplu-s ; Rabbi Kimchi says Moph and Noph were the same town. The Septuagint calls it Memphis, which the Copts and Arabs pronounce Menuf or Menf. Misr was the Egypt once a Bay of the Sea. 275 name of Egypt ; and Misraim, the plural or dual, means literally the Two Misrs, Egypt being described on its mon- uments as the " Two Countries." It is stated that, when civilized communities were first established in Egypt, the lower part of the country was entirely sea and marsh. Herodotus, who investigated this point and discussed it at length, believed that Egypt was formerly a bay or arm of the sea. In his second book, he speaks thus of its physical condition in the time of Menes : " They say that in the time of Menes all Egypt, except the district of Thebes, was a morass, and that no part of the land now existing below Lake Myris was then above wa- ter. To this place from the sea is a seven days' passage up the river." So it was written substantially in the an- nals of Egypt, and so it w r as stated by the voice of tradi- tion. Menes drained a part of Lower Egypt by changing the channel of the river. Diodorus Siculu^ rehearsing, in his third book, what he had learned from Ethiopian sources, makes this statement : "The Ethiopians say that the Egyp- tians are a colony drawn out of them by Osiris ; and that Egypt was formerly no part of the continent, but a sea at the beginning of the world, but that afterwards it was made land by the River Nile." Rennell, in his work on the Geographical System of He- rodotus, observes that " the configuration and composition of the low lands leave no room for doubt that the sea once washed the base of the rocks on which the pyramids of Memphis stand, the present base of which is washed by the inundation of the Nile at an elevation of seventy or eighty feet above the Mediterranean ; but when we attempt to carry back our ideas to the remote period when the foun- dation of the delta was first laid, we are lost in the con- 276 Pre-Historic Nations. templation of so vast a period of time." That Egypt is geologically a " gift of the Nile" cannot reasonably be doubted, and yet, old as it is, Sir Charles Lyell points out conclusively that it is much more modern than the " stone age" of Europe, as revealed by deposits found in the ancient gravel of the valley of the Somme. Diodorus Siculus adds to his statement that the laws, customs, religious observances, and letters of the ancient Egyptians closely resembled those of the Ethiopians, " the colony still observing the customs of their ancestors." Egypt, for several millenniums previous to his time, had been a " colony" of which the Ethiopians or any other peo- ple might feel proud without being unreasonable. It is true, however, that the origin and close relationship of the various communities established by the old Cushites were everywhere shown by the similarity of their mythologies, religious ceremonies, and social usages. These, quite :is surely as comparative philology, or records found written on old ruins, still reveal to us the ancient connection of the Cushite race with Egypt, India, and Asia Minor, and with many other countries at the East and around the Medi- terranean. The very great resemblance between tli Egyptians and the Cushites, extending to their languages, which belonged to the same family, makes it undeniable that one of these two peoples owed its civilization to tin- other. But we see clearly, in all the records and traditions of antiquity, that the civilization of Cusha-dwipa, the Land of Cush, was much older than that of Egypt much older than any other of which there is the slightest trace in the mythologies, traditions, records, or old ruins of antiquity, of which we have any knowledge. The Aryan civilization may have been nearly as old, but The Puranas on Egypt. 277 in early times it was not greatly developed ; and it was not so widely prevalent, nor so powerfully controlling in the ancient world. Certainly it had nothing to do with the formation and development of Egypt ; that was en- tirely a work of the Cushites, or Ethiopians. This is why the annals of the Egyptian priests were so full of the Ethi- opians, who not only played a foremost and wonderful part in the affairs of the world, but who had been playing that part long before Egypt became the abode of a civilized community. THE OLD SANSKRIT BOOKS ON EGYPT. Many references to the pre-historic ages of Egypt arc found in the old Sanskrit books, which contain remarkably accurate notices not only of Africa, but also of Western Europe. What the ancient Aryans knew of distant re- gions came to them probably through the more enterpris- ing Cushites, who preceded them in India, and with whom they must have maintained a constant intercourse. That the account of Egypt, given by their Puranas and other legendary narratives, is based on actual knowledge of a very early condition of the country, is evident, for it is ac- companied by accurate descriptions of the Nile, of the re- gions through which it flows, and of adjacent regions in Africa; and it is just as clear that these mythical and le- gendary narratives of the ancient Aryans of India have a historical basis. They may have been shaped, more or less, by the influence of that enchantment which distance in time and place usually works in the imagination of such a people. So it was with similar mythical stories of the Greeks, and so it has been everywhere, from the beginning of time, in all communities placed in like circumstances. 278 Pre-Historic Nations. The facts communicated must flow in the same stream of narration with the feelings, fancies, and prejudices of the narrators ; but the facts are not on this account less real, and frequently they stand out with all the clearness of un- obscured reality. Some account of what is told by the Sanskrit Puranas, or mythical stories, can be found in the very elaborate pa- pers of Major Francis "Wilford, published in several of the early volumes of "Asiatic Researches." They establish the fact that in very remote times there was a great com- munication between India and Arabia, and the countries on the Nile, and most of them relate to events that occur- red in the ages when the countries of Hindustan were still subject to the sway of the Cushites, who seem to have be- gun their occupation of India before they went to Egypt. Here is the old Sanskrit description of the Nile :* " That celebrated and holy river [the Nile] takes its rise from the Lake of the Gods, thence named Amara or Deva Sarovera, the region of Sharma or Sharma-st'han, between the Mountains of Ajagara and Sitanta, which seem part of Soma-giri, or the Mountains of the Moon, the country round the lake being called Chdndri-st'han or Moonlainl : thence the Call [Nile] flows into the marshes of Padma-van, and through the Nishadha Mountains into the land of Barbara [Nubia, still known to the natives as Barbara], whence it * Some of Wilford's papers, published in volumes of the "Asiatic Re- searches" previous to the 8th, cannot be fully trusted, he tells us, b> lie was deceived by his pundit. But this cannot apply to their account of the Nile, for knowledge of the source and character of this river was prev- alent in India and Arabia in very early time*. Moreover, Ptolemy, who studied the Phoenician and Arabian geographers carefully, stated that the Nile rose in certain Mountains of the Moon,y/-om two lakes lying east and west of each other, near the equator. Country of the Moon. 279 passes through the Mountains -of Hemacuta into Sancha- dwipa proper [i. e. Upper Egypt proper] ; there, entering the forests of Tapas [or Thebais], it runs into Cantaca-desa, or Misra-st'han, and through the woods named Arauga and Atavi, into the Sanc'habdhi." In this description we see an actual knowledge of the source of the Nile, of the lake region of Africa, and of the country near the Mountains of the Moon knowledge which we have lacked until within a few years ; and we still know much less of those regions than was known in India when these Puranas were originally written, especial- ly of the Mountains of the Moon, whose very name comes to us from Arabia and India. We have learned recently from explorers that the main source of the Nile is a lake which they call Victoria Nyanza, and that it certainly has connection with another lake, now called Albert Nyanza. They tell us, also,' that the country around the lakes, at and near the sources of the Nile, is now called U-nyamuezi or Moonland; and Speke says: "U-nyamuezi Country of the Moon must have been one of the largest kingdoms of Africa." The Mountains of the Moon, whose name is as old, probably, as the first Cushite occupation of that coun- try, have not yet been explored. Traditions of that Cush- ite invasion and occupation, as well as other traces of it, remain there to this day. The country which the Puranas designate as Barbara was situated between Upper Egypt and Abyssinia, or, ac- cording to Wilford, it included " all the country between Syene and the confluence of the Nile with the Tacazze, which is generally called Barbara and Barba at the pres- ent time." In this name, perhaps, we see the origin of that term Barbary, which has been applied to Northern Africa, 280 Pre-Historic Nations. and also of the term Berbers, used to designate numerous tribes that occupy the interior of Northern 'Africa. According to the Sanskrit books, the first settlers in Egypt were the Sharmicas, who went from Cusha-dwipa. It is said, " they found the country peopled by evil beings, and by a few impure tribes of men who had no fixed habi- tation." They were followed by other tribes and emi- grants, from various parts of Cusha-dwipa within, among whom the most numerous and important were the Pallis, who are shown to have been Cushites, and who, as Wilford points out, were of the same race as the Phoenicians. The term Sancha-dwipa, which became a designation for the whole eastern part of the continent, was originally applied to Upper Egypt. There are legends referring to other em- igrants who are said to have gone to that region from Cusha-dwipa and from India, in which we see, woven into beautiful fictions, traditional reports of occurrences there after the first settlements became established communities. Of course, they give us neither history nor chronology ; and there is usually nothing to indicate clearly either the distance or the relation, in time, between the events used for narration in one legend and those used in another. The Pin-anas describe the reign of " King It" (or "Ait," as he is often called), whose rule seems to have marked a great epoch in the history of Upper Egypt. He belonged to a very remote period. In the Greek traditions he is called ^Etus. The Puranas say he came forth from the waters of the Call, or Nile, and they speak of him as a subordinate incarnation of the god Mrira. He put an end to a period of frightful war and devastation, overwhelmed the Daityas or evil beings, protected the Devatas or good people, re- stored order, and ruled those countries with honor and The Pur a^ias on Cushite Kings. 281 glory. Stephanus of Byzantium says he came from India, which the Puranas do not claim. He may have been a Cush- ite or Arabian prince who had been employed in India, then largely occupied by the Cushites, and who was afterwards sent to the countries on the Nile to suppress disorder and rebellion, or to defend the settlements against invasion from the interior. He may have remained there a long time as governor of those countries. The Puranas mention several kings of Arabia, or " the interior Cusha-dwipa," with whom the countries on the Nile had a very intimate connection, and to whom they were subject or tributary. One of these Cushite kings was Divodasa, pronounced Diodas in the popular dialects. It is said that he reigned over the " western districts" of Cusha-dwipa within, which extended from the shores of the Mediterranean to the banks of the Indus and the shores of the Indian Ocean. Wilford remarks that "he seems to have been the Hercules-Diodas mentioned by Eusebius, who flourished in Phoenicia." The story of another king of Cusha-dwipa is told with variations, and with more than the usual activity of imagination, indicating that at some remote period in the past he had a wide-spread fame, and was a favorite theme of popular eulogy. One version of his story is substantially as follows : On the Mountains of Jwalamuc'ha, in the interior Cusha- dwipa, reigned a virtuous and religious prince, named Charvanayanas, whose son, Capeyanas, had . a controlling passion for arms and hunting. At length Capeyanas, be- ing more devoted to his favorite pursuits than to religious observances, was exiled by his father, went to a prince whose territory was in the western part of Arabia, and married his daughter. He distinguished himself as a he 282 Pre-Historic Nations. roic warrior, rose from the position of a subordinate prince, became the supreme ruler of Cusha-dwipa, governed justly, subdued rebellious tributary princes east and west, made great conquests, and ruled his vast kingdom in glory. He had a daughter named Antarmada, and a son Bhateyanas, who succeeded him on the throne and conquered the King of Meru. Bhateyanas and his sister finally became devo- tees, and retired to the forest of Tapas, in Upper Egypt. Here Antarmada was sorely persecuted by Mayadeva, who at length chained her to a rock on the sea-shore, from which she was delivered by a young hero named Parasira, whom she married. After death they were seated among the stars, with Capeyanas and his wife CasyapL Wilford, having detected his pundit in deceptions and fraudulent copyings from the manuscripts, was for a time in doubt concerning the authenticity of this Sanskrit ver- sion of the story of Kepheus, Cassiopeia, Perseus, and An- dromeda. But, on careful investigation, the doubt was re- moved, and different versions of the story were found in the Yantra-raja and other books, " with a most ample ac- count of the thirty-six Deccani so famous in Egyptian as- tronomy, and called Drcscan in Sanskrit." In the Yantra- raja, Perseus is called Pretasira ; Andromeda, Vejara ; Cassiopeia, Lebana ; and Kepheus, Nripa or AV// 1 ///^. In other Sanskrit books Kepheus is mentioned as a great king, and described "as the father of the Kephenes. Kapt-sa is Kepheus, and Kapisd is the patronymic of their descend- ants." In the Greek legends Kepheus is celebrate*] as King of Ethiopia, which in the Sanskrit books is called Cu>h:i- dwipa; and Perseus was a prince ofArgos, who re> and married his daughter Andromeda. Here we see again, Greek and Sanskrit Mythology. 283 what is so evident elsewhere, that the Land of Cush furnish- ed both the Greeks and the ancient Aryans of India, with materials for their mythological narratives, and therefore had a civilization much more ancient than any other known to them. And a large part of these materials was furnish- ed by personages and events belonging to that period in the history of Cusha-dwipa when Egypt was a colonial de- pendency or tributary province of that country. . It re- minds one, as has been observed, of Lord Bacon's remark, that "the mythology of the Greeks, which their oldest writers do not pretend to have invented, was no more than a light air, which had passed from a more ancient people into the flutes of the Grecians" [and of the old Aryans and other peoples also], " which they modulated to such des- cants as best suited their fancies." All such narratives are " founded on fact," and reveal an ancient history that gave them birth, else they could not exist. DIONYSOS, CALLED OSIRIS AND BACCHUS. The narratives relating to Dionysos known in Egypt as Osiris, and sometimes called the Indian Bacchus refer to a period more ancient, probably, than that of Kepheus. All the legends of Egypt, India, Asia Minor, and the older Greeks, describe him as a king, very great during his life, and deified after death. The history of Dionysos seems to have been a favorite topic with some of the older Ionian writers ; and it was, undoubtedly, still more prominent in the lost literature of Egypt, Arabia, Thrace, and Asia Mi- nor. Diodorus Siculus mentions one old work on this sub- ject that appears to have come down from the ages pre- ceding Ionia, and with which he had some acquaintance. He states that it was composed by ThymaBtes of Asia Mi- P re-Historic Nations. nor, describes it as a history of Dionysos given in a poem entitled " Phrygia," and says it was written " in a very old language and character." It is added that Thymaetes took pains to secure the most accurate and complete information relative to Dionysos; that he visited Nysa, in Arabia, where he was educated, inquired of records and traditions, and studied the subject carefully. The chief particulars in his account of Dionysos are as follows : Amon, king of Arabia or Ethiopia, married Rhea, sister of Cronos, who reigned over Italy, Sicily, and certain coun- tries of Northern Africa. Nevertheless, Amon was greatly in love with the beautiful Amalthea, and Dionysos was the child of this love. Rhea, in a violent excitement of anger, separated herself from Amon, returned to Cronos, and be- came his wife. Dionysos was brought up at Nysa, a city of Arabia, and diligently instructed in the most learned arts and sciences. He was endowed with remarkable genius, and developed wonderful force and brilliancy of mind and character. The relations between Cronos and Amon were constantly hostile, and at length the former became suc- cessful in a war against the latter, defeati <1 his armies, and attempted a conquest of his kingdom. With this end in view, he marched against Nysa; but now Dionysos took the field, defeated the army of Cronos in a great battle, drove him out of the country, pursued him to his own cap- ital, dethroned him, and enthroned his son Zeus in his place. It is added that Zeus reigned nobly and won a great fame. The great career of Dionysos followed this beginning. He succeeded his father, and became the greatest of sovereigns. He powerfully extended his sway in all the neighboring countries, and completed the conquest of India, where he spent several years, and built a city called Nysa. lie aft- Dionysos, Cronos, and Zeus. 285 erwards seems to have given much attention to the Cush- ite colonies in Egypt, greatly increasing their strength, in- telligence, and prosperity. In classical tradition, Cronos and Saturn are treated as the same personage ; but the character of the Roman Sat- urn is quite different from that of the Greek Chronos. In the mythical legends of Rome, Saturn was celebrated as a very ancient king of Italy, who introduced agricultural in- dustry, social order, and the habits of civilized life. His reign filled the land with plenty, and created the golden age of Italy. He was suddenly removed to the divine abodes and became a god. These legends were ancient, in Italy, long before Rome was built. The Greek, Egyp- tian, and Ethiopian legends made Dionysos contemporary with Saturn, or Cronos, and his sons. In the legends of Egypt, Osiris, or Dionysos, was a glorious king of that country, who came to a violent death at the hands of his brother Typhon, and whose death was revenged by his wife Isis and his son Orus. He was King of Egypt just as the sovereigns of Great Britain are sovereigns of Canada ; Egypt formed a part of his empire. But the Egyptians, in their mythology, appropriated him entirely to them- selves, making him the originator of civilization, and espe- cially of the arts of agriculture. Fresnel, in the Journal Asiatique, maintains that the Dhou-Nouwas of Arabian tradition is the same as Dionysos. He quotes Pococke, who has pointed out the resemblances between the Arabian Dhou-Nouwas and the Dionysos of ancient tradition, and says "Pococke was perfectly right in seeking Bacchus in Arabia." Fresnel attempts to locate the city of N"ysa " about forty leagues from Zhafar," where there is a mountain which Edrisi calls Lous, although the 286 Tre-Historic Nations. people of Mahrah call it Nous; but Dionysos and the citv of Nysa were many centuries older than Menes, and no such attempt to locate that city can be satisfactory. The very mention of its distance from us, in time, is sufficient to give any dogmatic chronologist a very disagreeable emotion. Fresnel finally comes to the conclusion that the great colonizing and civilizing conquests, which Arabian tradition ascribes to Dhou-Nouwas, must have been the work of several great princes ; and he names " Dhou-ons or Dhou-nous, Dhoul Karnayn, Afrikis, Lokman," and oth- ers. The fact that traditions of events of such remote an- tiquity can still be found in Arabia is noteworthy ; but the ancient Arabian books that would give us an authentic history of Dionysos had perished long before the Hellenes knew how to read and write. We naturally expect to find references to Dionysos in the old Sanskrit Puranas. It is not to be supposed, how- ever, that the Sanskrit legends will correspond literally to any of those constructed in Egypt, Asia Minor, or ancient Greece. Saturn and Cronos, undoubtedly the same per- sonage, and by the Greeks and Romans admitted to be so, are differently portrayed in their mythical narratives. We must be prepared to find in all such legends not only the very ancient facts that made them possible, but also the peculiar spirit, genius, and hero-worship of the composers. Some Oriental scholars have sought to identify Dionysos with the Sanskrit Rama, but with no satisfactory result ; for Rama was undeniably a native of India, and a prince of the ancient kingdom known to us as Oude. He was much more modern than Dionysos. The most probable identification is that of Wilford, who finds Dionysos in the great and heroic sovereign celebrated in the Puranas as Dionysos in India. 287 Nahusha, or Deva-Nahusha, and evidently referred to times more ancient than the Aryan immigration. Wilford points out that Deva-Nahusha is connected with " the oldest his- tory and mythology in the world." He is said to have been a contemporary of Indra, king of Meru, who was also deified, and who appears Jn the Yeda as a principal form or representation of the Supreme Being. The warmest colors of imagination are used in portraying the greatness of Deva-Nahusha. For a time he had sovereign control of affairs in Meru ; he conquered the seven dwipas, and led his armies through all the known countries of the world ; by means of matchless wisdom and miraculous heroism, he made his empire universal. Wilford says : "It is declared in the Puranas that, when Deva-Nahusha had conquered the world, he visited the seat of his grand ancestor, Atri, on the Lesser Meru ; and, being uneasy to see it neglected, he sent for Yivasa-Carma, the chief engi- neer of the gods, and ordered him to build on the spot a superb city which he called after his own name, Deva-Na- husha- Niagara, which is accurately rendered Dionysipolis in Greek. It is called, also, Nahusham, Nahusha, and Nau- sha, from which the Greeks made Nysa. Nahusha is bet- ter known in Hindustan by the emphatic appellation of Deva-Nagara, the divine city. Not a single vestige re- mains of this ancient Nahusha or Nysa." In the fourteenth volume of the " Asiatic Researches" is the following quo- tation from Sig. Bayer relative to a passage in a Sanskrit geographical work : " Mention is made of the town called Nisadaburam in the Tamul dialect, but in Sanskrit Na- hushapur or Naushapur, from an ancient and famous king of that name, more generally called Deva-Nahusha and Deo-Naush in the spoken dialects. He appears to be the 288 Pre-Historic Nations. Dionysos of our ancient mythologists, and reigned near Mount Meru." Wilson, the English Orientalist, writing on the Dionys- iacs of Nonnus, after showing that Rama was not Diony- sos, attempts to discredit the view set forth by Wilford, but without producing any substantial reason for doing so. He urges that "the history oiT^ahusha has nothing in common with that of Bacchus ;" and he might have added that the Bacchus of the Greeks, to whom he refers, had nothing in common with Dionysos. A just appreciation of Hellenic mythology should qualify any scholar to make a proper use of this fact. The Greeks distorted the story of Dionysos, and transformed him into their Bacchus, the son of Semele, whom they celebrated as the rollicking and drunken god of wine. It was their custom to reconstruct and misuse the old Cushite mythology whenever they foil- ed to understand it, or sought to appropriate it entirely to themselves. Why should Deva-Nahusha resemble the Greek Bacchus ? Professor Wilson should not have made it necessary to :isk this question. He should have seen without effort that such a resemblance would have made it impossible to iden- tify him with Dionysos. Moreover, no one who studies and comprehends the mythical legends of different nations will expect to find exact resemblances in different portray- als of the history and character of the same personage. But in this case there is no such lack of reseinblan will justify Professor Wilson's criticism, while in certain respects the resemblances are very striking. It may be added that Wilford had made the Puranas his chief study, and had gained a more extended and thorough knowledge of the mythical legends of India than any other Oriental The Indian Myths. 289 scholar of his time. It could not fail to bring important aid to our studies of antiquity if some other competent Sanskrit scholars would emulate his enthusiasm for this kind of investigation. In Wilford's view, these passages in the Sanskrit books, and many others of similar purport, were important. He saw in them actual recollections of the earliest period of Egyptian history. That they show actual knowledge of the country is very plain, and I can find no good reason to deny that their historical significance is equally incontest- able. It would be more satisfactory to have an authentic history of the times to which they refer; but this is im- possible. We must be content with such light as can be found in traditions and myths, and may feel safe in believ- ing, with Humboldt, that " myths, when blended with his- tory and geography, cannot be regarded as pertaining wholly to the domain of the ideal world." We can see in the old Sanskrit books that the Indo-Ary- ans borrowed extensively from the aboriginal inhabitants of India materials* to enlarge their own Pantheon, and en- rich the legendary lore that supported and glorified their religious institutions. Thus Siva became one of their chief gods ; thus came into their Puranas and Epic Poems old legends, traditions, and mythical personages that did not belong to their history, and had, originally, no connection with their race. This borrowing must have begun very early ; not later, certainly, than the beginning of that mix- ture of the two races in which the "Aryan color" was lost. It appears in the great Epic Poems ; we find it everywhere in the Puranas ; it is one of the most important and signifi- cant facts in the religious history of the Indo- Aryans ; and, unless it is fully appreciated, a proper understanding of N 290 Pre-Historic Nations. their mythical lore is impossible. In many cases, this ap- propriation was carried so far as to include the aboriginal inhabitants themselves. Manu, describing certain aborig- inal peoples, maintains that they were originally Khastri- yas, or people of the military caste, who had sunk to be Urishalas, or Sudras, "through the extinction of sacred rites, and from having no communication with Brahma us."' He Specifies the " Paundrakas, Odras, Dravidas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Sakas, Paradas, Pahlavas, Chinas, Kiratas, Dara- das, and Khasas." The Mahabharata adds to this list the Kalindas, Pulindas, and others, as people who were former- ly Khastriyas, but "have become Sudras from seeing no Brahmans." [See Muir's Sanskrit Texts, vol. i., p. 177.] This doctrine was inspired by the policy that aimed to bring the Dasyus, or native inhabitants, especially those w"ho had been admitted into the caste of Khastriyas, to reverence Brahmanism and submit to its authority. We can see in the legends that Puriiravas, Xahusha, and others, had no connection with Sanskrit history. They arc referred to ages very long anterior to the Sanskrit immi- gration, and must have been great personages celebrated in the traditions of the natives, or Dasyus. It was not to glorify these personages that they were introduced into the Sanskrit legends, but rather to show that, great as they were, terrible punishments fell upon them because they failed to reverence the Brahmans. Brahmans did not exist in their time, but this made no difference. The na- tive legends were reconstructed, and the Brahmans were made to figure in them as supreme lords of the world, to whom the mightiest must submit, whether Aryan or Da- syu. Puriiravas was a king " of great renown, who ruled over thirteen islands of the ocean." Being "altogether Antiquity of Dionysos. 291 surrounded by inhuman (or superhuman) persons," he en- gaged in a contest with Brahmans and perished. Nahusha, mentioned by Manu, and in many legends, as famous for hostility to the Brahmans, lived at the time when Indra reigned on earth. He was a very great king, " who ruled with justice a mighty empire," and attained the sovereign- ty of three worlds. Being " intoxicated with pride," he was arrogant to Brahmans, compelled them to bear his pal- ankeen, and even dared to touch one of them with his foot, whereupon he was transformed into a serpent. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians placed Dionysos, by them called Osiris, near the close of that period of their history which was assigned to the gods. Conversing in a temple with the priests, he was told that 341 kings had reigned in Egypt previous to the time of his visit, and their images or statues were shown in a chamber of the temple. He was told that, at first, " gods had been rulers of Egypt ; and that Orus, son of Osiris, whom the Greeks call Apollo, was the last. Now Osiris, in the Greek tongue, means Bacchus." It is explained, also, that Osiris, or Bacchus, " was not one of the eight gods called original," nor one of the four subsequently added to these ; he was of the third order, being one of those in the early unrecorded ages (cer- tainly without record, and very mythical in the time of Herodotus), "who were sprung from the twelve gods;" that is to say, he was a human sovereign to whom divine honors w^ere awarded after death. In all this we have, at least, the fact that in Egypt the time of Dionysos was placed at a very remote period, at a very early age, in Egyptian history, which agrees with the Indian and other Asiatic legends that made him contemporary with Indra and Zeus. Pre-Historic Nations. MYTHOLOGY AXD MYTHOLOGICAL PERSONAGES. Ernest Renan, in his work on the Semitic Languages, as- sumes that "monotheism sums up and explains all the characteristics" of the genius of the Semitic race, and that this race gave monotheism to the other races. Even " In- dia," he says, " which has thought with so much originality and profoundness, has not yet reached monotheism." Tins theory, which is encouraged by certain tendencies of our education, may be very convenient for use in eloquent gen- eralizations ; but it does not accord with facts. It plainly contradicts what we know of the Aryan race. For in- stance, Professor Rawlinson, in his account of the ancient religion of the Persians, recognises clearly that it presented a very admirable form of monotheism. He says : " Evi- dently the Jews and Aryans, when they became known to each other, recognised mutually the fact that they were worshippers of the same Great Being. Hence the favor of the Persians towards the Jews, and the fidelity of the Jews towards the Persians. The Lord God of the Jews being recognised as identical with Ormazd, a sympathetic feeling united the peoples." [See his " Five Monarchies."] The Desatir, or fragment of the Dcsatir, found among the Parsees, is certainly very old, whatever may be thought of it in other respects; and its claim to antiquity is sup- ported by internal evidence. The first books inculcate the purest monotheism, with a very simple and inartificial sy>- tem of religious worship, while the later books show this religion considerably modified by the influence of planet worship. Monotheism was never taught more distinctly, in any age or by any race, than in the first book of the Desatir, called " the Book of the Great Abad." Ancient Aryan Monotheism. 293 Mythology implies monotheism, and cannot be intelli- gently explained without it. How can anything be rever- enced or thought of as a manifestation of the Supreme Be- ing where there is no faith in a Supreme Being ? It does not follow that peoples of the Aryan race are incapable of seeing the unity of God, because they have brought to re- ligion the highest and most active faculty for poetry and philosophy. Can Renan find anything more distinctly present in the oldest hymns of the Rig-Veda than belief in God and perception of right and wrong ? One of these hymns, referring to the Supreme Being, speaks of him as follows : " They call [Him] Indra, Mitra, Yaruni, Agni ; then he is the well-w r inged heavenly Garutmat ; that which is One the wise call in many ways ; they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan." We read in the Orphic Fragments that all the gods were one alone : 'Etc Zeve, etc AV^/c? ttc 'HXtoc, etc 'EtC OeOC EV TTCLVTEffffl. Hermesianax is quoted as follows : IlXovrwv, Hepo-e^o^r;, ArjprjTrjp, KvTrptc, Tptrwvec, Nf/pevc, Tr/QvCj KCLI Kua^o^atr S 1 ', 'H^ato-oc re /cXvroc, Hay, Zevg re, rat ' C)' 'Eicaepyoc ATroXXwy, etc eoc etrt^, which means that one god are Pluto, Persephone, Demeter, Venus, Cupid, Triton, Nereus, Tethys, Neptune, Hermes, Vulcan, Pan, Zeus, Hera, Artemis, and Apollo. Mythology was brought into existence by recognising the sun, the stars, the forces of nature, and great heroes and sages, as manifestations of some attribute or activity of this one God. No form of religion had a wider or more powerful influence in the great pre-historic past than planet worship, 294: Pre-Historic . Nations. with its phallic and orphic accompaniments ; and yet it would have been impossible without monotheism. It was based on the idea of one Supreme Being, who was symbol- ized or manifested in the sun and the stars, and from whom proceeded the vital forces of nature. It was easy to in- clude among these divine manifestations great heroes and sages, whose influence as deliverers, civilizers, reformers, or rulers, seemed to regulate the destiny and determine the history of peoples where they appeared. A great king or sage, whose life and influence filled and swayed nations, seemed to stand far above ordinary mortals, and thus, after his death, easily became honored as a form or manifestation of the Supreme Being, or of some recognised and greatly venerated form of that Being. lie was a man, and, at the same time, more than man ; he was an incarnation, an ava- tar, a special embodiment of divine wisdom and power. Thus were men deified; thus was mythology created. The Dabistan, citing old Iranian books, gives part of a conversation between a celebrated sage, named Dawir I lar- va r, and another person, in which they inquired whether prophets were higher in dignity than the sun. Dawir inaintaineil that they were not. They were superior to the rest of the human race, but not greater than the sun. " Be- hold," said he, " what an amount of light is diffused by the solar globe, whereas the bodies of your saints are de>ti- tute of splendor; therefore rest assured that his spirit i< more resplendent than theirs. Know, besides, that the sun is the heart of the heavens; if he existed not, this world of formation and dissolution could not continue ; he brings forth the seasons and the productive energies of nature; 7 ' therefore the sun was the highest and brightest manifesta- tion of God known to mortal <. Monotheism precedes Polytheism. 295 Polytheism can appear only where mythology has be- come so confused, corrupted, and debased, that the idea in which it originated has disappeared or become obscured. I cannot suppose that polytheism ever was, or ever could be, the first form of religion among any people, for in every case where there are records or monuments to show the earliest religious faith of any people, we find in it the least obscured form of monotheism, with the simplest system of religious worship. Compare the oldest hymns of the Rig- Veda with the later developments of Brahmanism, or the religion of the oldest Iranian books with that of the later age, when Ecbatana stood with its seven differently colored walls, symbolizing the religious system of its inhabitants, or the oldest religion that can be traced in Egypt with that of later times. But Dionysos, or Osiris, has led me to a discussion of mythology, which requires a volume rather than a few par- agraphs. What I have said may serve to explain how he became a personage of mythology. The Egyptians, and all others who speak of him, tell us he was a human sover- eign, the greatest known when he lived, and reverently de- ified after his death. "We have no right to take any other view of him. Dionysos was a great monarch of the Cush- ite Arabians. He seems to represent the epoch when the Cushite race, extending their conquests, gained entire con- trol of the northern 'and central countries of India. This occurred long ages before the Aryans went there, and many ages lay between that time and the period when Menes began the Old Monarchy of Egypt. When Diony- sos reigned in Arabia, both India and Egypt were prov- inces of his empire. He has been introduced here be- cause his power seems to have been used in the wisest and Pre-Historio Nations. most beneficent manner to develop the civilization of the Egyptians, for this must be the reason why, as Osiris, lie was so intimately associated with the religious thought and feeling of that country. THE AGES BEFORE MENES. It is not certain that Menes was the first king of united Egypt His name heads all the lists, but there is no con- clusive reply to those who maintain that this happens merely because he is the earliest king whose name has been preserved on the monuments still existing, and, consequent- ly, the earliest known to the later Egyptian annalists; for we have neither record nor inscription to show that lie was actually the sovereign who united Upper and Lower Egypt, or that he was not preceded by other sovereigns of the " Two Countries." We must, however, accept Menes as the first king, for Egyptian chronology begins with him, and, according to Manetho, the regular history of united Egypt began with his reign. From his time onward then? is nothing mythical, nothing improbable, nothing that is not supported by inscriptions found in the ruins. Ernest Renan, reviewing the discoveries of M. Marietta [Revue des Deux Mondes, tome 56], points out that Egypt at the beginning appears mature, old, and entirely without mythical and heroic ages, as if the country had i known youth. Its civilization has no infancy, and its art no archaic epoch. This was true of Egypt in the time <>f Menes. The civilization of the Old Monarchy did not le- gin with infancy. It was already mature. But Egypt did not begin with the age of Menes. There was already a very long past in the history of the country when it was united under one government, which consisted, first, of the The Date of Dionysos. 297 during which the " Two Countries" existed under separate governments ; and, second, of the vaguely indicated myth- ical ages, when, it is said, Egypt was governed by gods and demigods. The first colonists settled in Egypt were undoubtedly civilized; but the country had an infancy, and its art an archaic period, which would be found if there were history to take us back far enough beyond the Old Monarchy and its monuments to reach them. Megasthenes, reporting Indian traditions, stated that Di- onysos founded the first ^regular monarchy in India, and that he was revered as the sole ruler of the country during the three years he remained there. It is added that, when he left, he established on the throne Spartembas, one of the princes who attended him, and who was most honored with his regard and confidence. Spartembas, having reign^ ed fifty-two years, was succeeded by his son Budyas, who reigned tw r enty years, and was succeeded by Cradevas; and this dynasty continued to flourish in regular lineal descent for many generations. He reckoned 6042 years between Dionysos and Alexander an estimate that is more likely to be too small than too large. Could we go back to that age, and visit the countries on the Nile, we^ should be likely to find Egypt in its infancy. Many inves- tigators, however, are usually more frightened at the men- tion of such dates than disposed to accept and comprehend the antiquity they indicate. There is always a tendency to reduce dates and contract the past, even when investi- gators are guided by a free spirit and an honest purpose, because there is always some failure to realize and appre- ciate the whole extent of remote ages that have become more or less mythical. Although we have neither history nor chronology of N 2 298 Pre-Historic Nations. Egypt previous to Menes, yet we can not avoid the ten- dency to inquire concerning those earlier ages. They can- not be measured ; but the records tell us of a dynasty of ten Thinite kings who reigned in Upper Egypt, and of one or two dynasties that reigned in Lower Egypt, before Menes appeared ; and the previous history of the " Two Countries" appears to have been very long. There were still earlier ages, in which demigods and men were rulers ; and at the beginning, a vast period created by cyclical in- vention, in which "the gods reigned." Bunsen believed the history of Egypt previous to Menes was longer than that after his time. Without accepting Bunsen's belief, we can see plainly that the previous history was very long, and understand very well why the civilization of the coun- try was mature, and even old, at the beginning of the Old Monarchy. Learned and thoughtful Egyptologists generally agree that the empire of Menes in his own time " evidently rest- ed on a basis of previous centuries," during which there had been gradual and great development of civilization and national character; for the people of that country, al- though previously divided into separate communities, were essentially the same in religion, ideas, character, and en- lightenment. Under Menes they were already a numerous, enlightened, and powerful people, and not at all a barbar- ous nation just emerging from the darkiu >< and disorder of savage life. They had letters, science, and art. Lepsius . " We learn from the historical accounts relating to the first dynasties, which are still preserved, that even at that time they had ' Annals of the Monarchy? " Some of the greatest remains of the Old Monarchy, that chow the highest style of Egyptian art, and still engage the wonder Antiquity of Egyptian Civilization. 299 of mankind, belong to those first dynasties. Under the fourth dynasty, when the two great pyramids were built, the nation seems to have approached the highest glory of that wonderful development of intelligence and power to which, after the flight of nearly 6000 years, the ruins still bear witness, and to which they will continue to bear wit- ness for ages to come. The foundations of this greatness were not the work of miracle, therefore they were not laid in a day or a year. They were the result of many ages of preparation in the life, growth, culture, and general condition of the people. It is very true that the Cushite colonists who settled in Upper Egypt brought letters and civilization from their native country, and that their growth to great eminence as a nation was not like that of a people that rises from bar- barism by the energy of its own genius, and develops a great civilization. It is not certain, however, that any peo- ple, since the first ages of the world, has risen in this way without the aid and incitement of external influences. No people that has become enlightened, since the first ages, was left unvisited by such assistance. But the civilization of Egypt in the time of Menes had assumed a striking in- dividuality of its own. It had become essentially Egyp- tian. It was already what we find it in the monuments and ruins. This transformation, necessarily gradual and almost imperceptible in its progress, required a long period of time ; therefore centuries of Egyptian life and develop- ment must have preceded the beginning of the Old Mon- archy. This changed and reconstructed spirit and character of the people,, this essentially Egyptian individuality, which had grown silently out of the peculiar forms, conditions, 300 Pre-Historic Nations. relations, and influences of the physical nature in which they lived, was manifest in everything. Ages of gradual and unconscious development had established harmony be- tween people and country. It appeared even in their ad- mirable system of monumental writing, which, without explanation of its origin, showed already its highest per- fection in the oldest ruins. Professor Lepsius says of it : " From the choice of the pictures in the hieroglyphics, and from other reasons, it appears entirely justifiable to suppose that this wonderful picture-writing of the Egyp- tians was formed, with reference to its peculiar character- istics, in Egypt itself, without any other influence from abroad, although they may have brought the first begin- ning of it from their original home in Asia. But that a people should produce anything so perfect as this system of writing, which embraces at once all the stages of human writing, from the* most ideographical symbolic writing through syllables, to the equally direct notation of sound by means of vowels and consonants, certainly indicates a long previous development." [Introduction to " Die Chro- nologic der JEgypter.] ANTIQUITY OF WRITING IN EGYPT. In no other old nation of which we have suflicient knowl- edge to form an opinion on this point was the art of writ- ing so perfect or so largely used as in Egypt, especially for memorial and historical purposes. "Their temples were almost covered with inscriptions ; all buildings erect- ed to the gods, to the kings, and to the dead, had repre- sentations and inscriptions on all the walls, ceilings, pillars, architraves, friezes, and posts, inside as well as outside." And their book literature seems to have been correspond- Ancient Egyptian Libraries. 301 ingly abundant. The library must have been a very early institution. We hear of it even in the fragments of Egyp. tian history that still remain. Diodorus Siculus, i., 49, describes a great library of Rameses the Great, whom he calls Osymandyas, whose time was in the fourteenth cen- tury before the Christian era. The rooms of this library were in the temple of Rameses at Thebes, and they have been found, recognised, and described by Champollion and by Lepskis. The latter says, in his " Letters from Egypt :" " The description of this splendid building given by Diodorus may still be traced from one chamber to another among its ruins. At the entrance behind which, accord- ing to Diodorus, the library was situated Champollion perceived, on both sides, the representation of Thoth, the god of wisdom, and of Saf, the goddess of history ; then, behind the former, the god of hearing, and behind the lat- ter, the god of seeing. Several hieratical papyri which we still possess are dated from the ' Rameseion,' and it is also frequently mentioned in the so-called historical papyri. I found in Thebes the tombs of two librarians of the time of Rameses .the Great, and therefore probably belonging to the library described by Diodorus. They were father and son. The father was called Neb-nufre, the son Nufre- hetep, and they both bore the titles of her scha tit, ' Supe- rior over the Books,' and naa en scha tu 9 ' Chief over the Books.' We have good reason to believe this library, of which we have incidentally still farther mention, was not the first nor the only one. Thoth and Saf bear among their fixed titles, not only here, but on other monuments of all classes, the former that of Master, and the latter that of Mistress of the Hall of Books ; consequently the idea of gods of libraries had long been familiar to the Egyptians. " 302 Pve-IIistoric Nations. Books, and collections of books, in Egypt, were undoubt- edly, like the art of writing itself, much older than Menes. Among a people whose monuments show such an eminent degree of the " historical sense," we may suppose that his- torical productions in the form of Annals, written and pre- served in the temples, were the first writings. That old literature has all, or nearly all, perished, Nevertheless there still exist some Egyptian manuscripts that were writ- ten near the beginning of the New Monarchy, andrthat arc from 1500 to 2000 years older than any other original manuscripts now in existence, It was different 2500 years ago, when Solon visited Egypt. Then Egypt had books and libraries in abundance ; the old Annals still existed in the temples, and a priest at Sais said to Solon, with entire confidence in the truth of his statement, "You Greeks are novices in knowledge of antiquity. You are ignorant of what passed, either here or among yourselves, in days of old. The history of 8000 years is deposited in our sacred books ; but I can ascend to a much higher antiquity, and tell you what our fathers have done for 9000 years I mean their institutions, their laws, and their most brilliant achievements." Neither Solon, who listened to this statement, nor Plato, in whose writings it has been preserved, considered it im- probable. They saw no reason why it could not be true. Neither can we. It would have been surprising if the Egyptians, at that time, had not still preserved old records of the early periods of their history ; and whatever we, in presence of excited chronological dogmatism, may allow ourselves to think of the " 8000 years," we cannot reason- ably bring ourselves to deny that the early history of that country extended through many centuries beyond th> of Menes. Mr. Hornets Investigations. 303 ATTEMPTS TO MEASURE EGYPTIAN ANTIQUITY. In modern times attempts have been made to throw light on the antiquity of Egypt by determining the age of the alluvial deposit that forms the Nile Valley, of which the most important is that of Mr. Leonard Horner, between the years 1851 and 1854. These attempts have proceeded on the hypothesis that the age of the deposit, at any given point, could be discovered by first ascertaining the average depth of the accumulation in a single century, and then measuring the whole depth of the alluvium. Mr. Horner undertook this work at the suggestion of the Royal Society of London, and the necessary funds were furnished by this society and by Abbas Pacha, the viceroy of Egypt. Hav- ing secured the most competent assistants, he penetrated and explored the alluvium in different places by means of ninety-five pits or shafts and artesian borings. Fifty-one of these shafts and borings were on a line crossing the valley from east to west, between the Arabian and Libyan deserts, in the latitude of Heliopolis, and twen- ty-seven of them on the parallel of Memphis. The char- acter of the deposit was uniform from top to bottom. The bones of quadrupeds were found, such as the ox, hog, dog, dromedary, and ass, all belonging to living species, which shows that the formation of the Nile belongs to what ge- ologists call the Recent Period. Jars, vases, pots, a small human figure in burnt clay, a copper knife, burnt bricks, and other articles of human manufacture, were found, some of them near the bottom of the alluvium. Brick and pot- tery were found everywhere and at all depths, sometimes sixty feet below the surface, showing that men who used such things must have occupied that valley as soon as any 304 Pre-Historic Rations. part of it became habitable. It is not improbable, however, that some of the articles brought up from the lowest depths may have found their way into the sediment from boats and other water-craft from the upper country, float- ing above it, when that part of the valley, or a large por- tion of it, was still covered with water. New and interesting facts were brought to light by these explorations, but they failed to settle accurately and con- clusively the age of the Lower Nile Valley. The nearest approach to obtaining an accurate chronometric scale for ascertaining the age of the first deposits of sediment at a' given point was made near Memphis, at the statue of King Rameses. It is known that this statue was set up about the year 1260 before Christ. In 1854 it had stood theiv 3114 years, and during that tune the alluvium had accu- mulated around it to the depth of nine feet and four inches above its base, which was at the rate of about three and u half inches in each century. Mr. Homer found that the alluvium below the base of this statue was 30 feet deep. His excavations went down 32 feet, but the last two feet were through sand. Assuming the rate of accumulation previous to the erection of the statue to have been the same as afterwards, it follows that the formation of the alluvium began, at that point, about 11,660 years before the Chris- tian Era. Bunsen places entire confidence in this est imuU-, suirije-sting only that the period named is too short, because the lower part of the deposit was more pressed together and compact than the upper part. At the statue, pottery was found within four inches of the bottom, and within sixteen inches of the bottom at another point 354 yards distant from it. One thing is very clear, and does not need entire accu JBunsen on Egyptian Antiquity. 305 racy in such measurements and estimates to make it more so. These explorations show beyond question that the great structures of the Old Monarchy of Egypt, as well as those of the New Monarchy, were built on a soil which had been previously occupied, for a very long period, by a peo- ple who manufactured pottery, used copper, burnt brick, and had other appliances of civilized life ; and also that a very large part of the alluvium which forms the valley was accumulated between the beginning of that occupation and the building of those wonderful structures. Whether the first colonists went to Egypt more than 11,000 years before the Christian Era, as Bunsen supposes, which many will regard as romantic theory, or whether they went there at a later period, which appears more probable and more in accordance with other facts, it is nevertheless certain that the communities they established had a very long ex- istence, and, without doubt, an important history before the " Two Countries" they created were united under one government, and began that great career of which we have an authentic chronology, and which can still be studied in its abundant monuments. vm. AFRICA AND THE ARABIAN CUSHITES. In the popular estimation, Africa is almost wholly a con- tinent of savage negroes. Even intelligent people, who know something of Egypt, Abyssinia, and the Mediterra- nean coast of Africa, have entertained much the same no- tion of the whole interior and southern portions of the Af- rican continent. Until recently the inner regions were mostly unvisited by Europeans. They were covered with a veil of mystery. Their inhabitants were described by fancy, or were assumed to be the same in race, condition, and character as those found, or, rather, those degraded and brutalized by slave-traders, on the coast of Guinea. In recent times Africa has been extensively explored by t ravelers, and much has been dene to correct this misap- prehension. The means of gaining a better knowledge of both the geography and the inhabitants of that great and hitherto uncomprehended division of the globe are now abundant. Nevertheless, the difference between Africa as portrayed by romancing ignorance, and Africa as described by intelligent travelers, is not yet clearly understood by many persons who claim to be enlightened. The old notion that Africa is chiefly a land of black sav- ages arose from ignorance of the country, which could not be removed, but, on the contrary, was heightened by slave- trading communication with the Western Coast. Slave- traders, whose operations were confined to the coast re- The People of Central Africa. 307 gions on the Gulf of Guinea, very naturally fostered this notion. They could not describe truthfully what came un- der their own observation, but they sought to excuse their own frightful savagery by describing Africa as a land of negroes in the darkest and most hopeless condition of de- basement. When this had been repeated many times, they ventured to represent their kidnapping villanies as mis- sionary agencies, intent on transferring savages to Chris- tian countries for their own good. It was absurd to ex- pect valuable information from this source. Moreover, but little knowledge of the African continent can be acquired by communication with that part of the Western Coast. There has been no exploration of the in- terior table-land from the coast of Guinea, and only one or two travelers have penetrated the continent from any oth- er point on the Atlantic. All the great and successful ex- plorations of Central Airica have proceeded from the east and the north. / THE RACES IN AFRICA. In point of fact, the great majority of the people inhabit- ing this grand division of the globe are not negroes. Peo- ple of the negro race meaning those described as " typ- ical negroes," with all others who closely approach this type occupy but a small part of Africa. They dwell chiefly on the low coast-lands around the Gulf of Guinea, but are found in a few other narrow districts in different parts of the continent. Whether their habitat was more extensive and their number greater in remote pre-historic times cannot now be determined, although this seems im- plied by the extent of an evident mixture of this negro ele- ment with the blood of other African races. It is manifest 308 Pre-Historic Nations. that Africa at a remote period was the theatre of great movements and mixtures of peoples and races, and that its interior countries had then a closer connection with the great civilizations of the world than at any time during the period called historical. Africa, away from the coasts, is generally an elevated table-land, mostly well watered, fertile, and healthy. The great body of its people consists of a brown or olive-col- ored race, occasionally described as the " Red Race," in which some travelers and ethnologists find a resemblance to the Malays ; but in Africa this race is seldom found en- tirely pure ; in every part of the country it shows very clearly the signs of intermixture with other races, both white and black. These signs of mixed blood have been noticed by travelers who have described this race, as I shall presently show under another head. Dr. Livingstone calls attention to them while describing the brown race as he found it at the south, and insisting that the " true type" of the African people is not that found on the "Western Coast. The Arabian Cushites appear to have found this dark brown or olive-colored race in India and on the islands of the Indian Seas. In its original condition it may have been primitive in both regions, but there is nothing to ex- plain either its origin or its history. Certain writers have maintained, with great confidence and some ingenuity, that the negroes of Africa are an ex- ceptional people, and not a distinct race. The theory is. that tribes of the brown race, settling in the low districts of the Western Coast, or in other malarious regions, will gradually assume the negro type, being changed by pecu- liar physical influences permanently operating in such lo- calities j or, to state it in the words of Mr. Reed, one of its Theory on the Negro jRace. 309 advocates, "The true Africans, a red -skinned race, de- scending from the table-land into the swamps, become de- graded in body and mind, and their type is completely changed." He describes a brown tribe, called "Fans," who have lately approached the coast of Guinea, and gives a lively picture of the change that awaits them. In the course of a few generations, he imagines, their fine forms will become ugly, their long, curling black hair will become short, crisp, and woolly, and their fine, olive-colored com- plexion will turn to a coal black. This is pure hypothesis, very entertaining, it may be, to its inventors, and full of friendship for another unsupported hypothesis that under- takes to explain the origin and early condition of the hu- man race, but with no support save the ingenious devices of fancy. The reply to its advocates is obvious, and sober reason must regard it as unanswerable. In the first place, it must be said that for a long time there has been quite too much exaggeration and extrava- gant over-statement relative to the assumed natural inferi- ority and degradation of the negro race in Africa. The Negroes are chiefly on the Western Coast, where for ages they have felt the savage influence of slave-traders. De- basement could hot fail to be the -result; and yet, in the portrayals of the most unscrupulous blackguard that has ever written in the interest of slave-traders, we can see that the negroes of the Guinea Coast are nowise inferior to any other coast population of the country, where this bru- talizing influence has controlled all intercourse between the natives and Europeans. Nor can it be said. that, even as we know them, they are not superior to some of the more degraded families of the brown race, such as the Saabs or Bushmen. When these Bushmen are under con- 310 Pre-Historic Nations. sideration, their physical and social degradation is not treated as an essential characteristic of their race ; nor is it said by anybody that the great degradation of this family of the brown race has produced a new type of mankind. In the second place, if the negroes were not a distinct race, the negro type would not be permanent. If they were, in reality, nothing more than tribes of the brown race, transformed by physical influences of the localities where we find them, they could escape from this negro type and recover the lost traits of the race to which they really belong by leaving the low lands and returning to the upper country. Removal from the unfriendly regions of swamp and miasma, where they have become " typical negroes," to the wholesome lands of the interior, or to other countries, would certainly be followed by a return of the physiological peculiarities they have lost. The natural characteristics of the brown race would reappear; the fine form, the long, curling hair, and the olive-col- ored complexion would come back to reveal and vindi- cate the race which the bad locality had obscured. Hut this never happens. No such return from the negro type to the brown type is ever seen, either in Africa or any- where else; therefore it is certain that the physiological peculiarities of the former are natural and permanent, and that they indicate a positive distinction of race. In the third place, such a law of transformation as this theory assumes would not confine its operations to the low districts on the Gulf of Guinea. A natural law cannot be capricious. Its operation is uniform. It is steady, sure, changeless, with nothing uncertain or doubtful in its influ- ence. If there were a natural law by virtue of which the brown people of Africa are sure to become negroes if they Muller on the Hindus. 311 settle near the coast on the Gaboon River, all similar re- gions would be inhabited by negroes. The same trans- forming power would be felt in the great valleys of the Amazon and the Oronoco, and there would have been more negroes in South America than in Africa. The red or brown aborigines of the country could not have escaped that influence. A negro race would have filled those val- leys in the earliest times, and they would have been found there in great numbers when the Spaniards discovered and occupied the country. But they were not found there; they have never existed there as an aboriginal race. A BKIEF ESSAY ON RACES. Max Miiller, in his work on the ancient Sanskrit Litera- ture, speaks as follows : " What authority would have been strong enough to convince the English soldier that the same blood was running in his veins and in the veins of the dark Bcngalese ? And yet there is not an English jury nowadays which, after examining the hoary documents of language, would reject the claim of a common descent and a legitimate relationship between Hindu, Greek, and Teuton." This is in a strain that has been common since the dis- covery of the Sanskrit language ; it shows, however, that in Mr. H tiller's mind hypothesis had not carefully adjusted its relations with fact. The claim of " a common descent" for Hindu, Greek, and Teuton might have been well found- ed, or at least not open to serious criticism, had it been urged four or five thousand years ago, while the Sanskrit was still a spoken language, and the Indo-Aryans were not yet changed in race by intermixture with the dark-skinned people of India. It cannot now be admitted without im- 312 Pre-Historic Nations. p'ortant qualifications. The English soldier who rejects it is more nearly right than the scholar who believes " the hoary documents of language" would constrain an English jury to uphold it. The scholar falls into mistake by at- tributing to the Hindus of our time what was peculiar to the unmixed, Sanskrit-speaking Aryans of a former age. The native inhabitants of India now present, in their physi- ological characteristics, a remarkable mixture of races, in which Aryan blood is not the chief element; and this mani- fest mixture of unlike races extends, in some degree, even to the present dialects of India. In the matters of com- mon blood and intimate ethnic relationship, the people of Hindustan now have more affinity with the Malays of the Indian Archipelago, and the Arabian people of Oman and Yemen, than with the British soldier. When we consider carefully the various peoples who in- habit the earth and constitute the human family, we can- not easily avoid the conclusion that great primal races must be recognised, whose origin goes back to the first period of human existence. It is no part of my purpose to write a scientific essay on this topic, and undertake an exact classification of the many varieties of mankind; but there are physiological traits presented for consideration, so different and so strongly marked, and families of lan- guage so radically unlike, that their origin must have pre- ceded even the first humble beginnings of civilization. This is so plain, and appears to be so incontestable, that some eminent investigators have resorted to the hypothesis that the human race was originally brought into existence by the creation, in different parts of the earth, of several independent and separate family groups, unlike in physical traits and in the conditions that determined the character Original Races of Mankind. 313 of their language, but essentially and ineradicably the same in all the distinctive attributes of human nature it- self. This simplifies the question, and makes explanation easy ; but in scientific inquiries such simplifications should be used with some caution, for they do not invariably fur- nish the safest way to just conclusions. It is, however, the most reasonable hypothesis yet furnished by science, for it recognises distinctly the " one blood," or natural fraternity of all the different families of jnankind, and it does not, like the " development theory," dishonor human nature by denying the independent creation of man, and assigning the origin of the human family to a " progressive develop- ment" of lower orders of the animal creation. When we study, closely and reflectively, typical repre- sentatives of the unmixed Chinese, Malay, Negro, and Aryan or Indo-European families, the conclusion seems in- evitable that, while they all have the same human nature, they represent very distinct primordial races. If they did not, according to the simplest and readiest hypothesis, pro- ceed from separately created family groups, they must have been completely separated and subjected to very un- like conditions of existence previous to the earliest move- ments of that development which produced even the lowest forms of civilized life. This is clearly implied not only by the unlikeness of their physical traits, but also by such facts as the profound difference between the Chinese and the Aryan languages. Whether science will at length fur- nish a clearer explanation, or, without farther explanation, leave the matter to such hypotheses as it has already sug- gested, I shall not undertake to say. It has rescued the question from the control of myth and fable ; it makes us see that certain venerable assumptions have no foundation O .314 in truth and no claim to respect; but the origin of the dis- tinct races that constitute the human family is so covered with the darkness of ages beyond the reach of both history and authentic tradition, and presents so much that is now entirely beyond the sphere of human experience, that sci- ence may never be able to substitute demonstration for its most reasonable hypothesis. Moreover, the problem has some other difficulties. For instance, the physiologicqj differences that separate the primitive races are not always coincident with radical dif- ferences of language. The families of mankind usually classed as Aryans, Cushites, and Semites, with some of the peoples classed as Turanians or Scyths, in their original, unmixed condition, are physiologically so much alike that the physiologist cannot show why they should not be classed together as one race. And yet they are separated by three or four families of language, so radically different that .1 common origin seems impossible. Linguistic science suspects, and may yet be able to show, that the Cushite and Semitic tongues are related, and that they may have proceeded from the same original source. But it finds n< such relationship between the Semitic and the Aryan fam- ilies, or between either of these families and the language of the Magyars. Must the linguistic differem-rs in these cases be made to signify original distinction of race? We turn away from this conclusion to find some other solution of the problem ; we suggest that some of these peoples may have changed their original speech, or that they sepa- rated from a common stock while their speech was yet un- formed, and developed language amid associations and controlling influences that had little or nothing in com- mon; but there can be no such demonstration as will sat- isfy any close inquiry. fiaces seldom found Pure. 315 Renan and some others have sought to show that the Semites have manifested a striking uiilikeness to the Ary- an and Cushite families in their development of religious ideas and civilization, but a great deal more is assumed than can be shown ; and Kenan's hypothesis that the Sem- ites originated monotheism is explicitly contradicted by what is known of the history of other races. At the present time, the great primitive races of the hu- man family are seldom found entirely pure. In the many countries of Asia and Europe, where the influence of civil- ization has been felt to any extent, it is not common to find communities where the blood of any of these races is found unmixed with that of one or more of the others. Throughout Southern Europe we find a mixture of two or three of the light-colored races, in which there is a consid- erable infusion of blood from the dark-skinned people of Africa. Mixture of races is the rule throughout Central and Western Europe. Russia is a country where peoples of one or two other races have been added to the aboriginal Finnic element. The Russian language belongs to the Aryan family, but in the Russian people there is a very large infusion of blood which it does not represent. In Southwestern Asia, from India to the Mediterranean, the Aryan, Cushite, and Semitic races have lost or shaded their white color in mixture with the dark-skinned race that seems to have been aboriginal in India and Eastern Africa. It is now scarcely possible to find anywhere even a small community of unmixed Cushites the greatest, most influ- ential, and probably the most numerous race of remote an- tiquity, whose home wns Arabia. But in no great division of the globe is the mixture of races more general or more remarkable than in Africa, 316 Pre-IRstoric Nations. That it exists in the Valley of the Nile, from Abyssinia to Egypt, and throughout Northern Africa, is well under- stood. The fact that a mixture somewhat different in character, and more or less distinctly manifest, prevails throughout the interior, has not engaged so much attention. I shall speak of it more fully in another place, in connection with the many traces of their influence left in Africa by the old Arabian race. Humboldt, in his Cosmos, speaks of "the distressing dis- tinction of superior and inferior races." Certain dogmatic writers on this subject, whose doctrines concerning "inferi- or and superior races" are revolting to reason and unsup- ported by fact, finding criticism and rebuke in these words of the eminent German whose science they cannot tion, have sought to break their force by treating them as an " unfortunate" gush of " sentimentalism." Ilumboldt's Cosmos, however, is not a sentimental work, and nowhere in it do we find a sineerer expression of his thought, <>r a more deliberate criticism of an offensive method of treat- ing a great question. The doctrines relative to superior and inferior races, as usually inculcated, arc not the product of serene science, nor of any calm influence of reason. They have sprung either from the arrogant egotism of the race that assumed superiority) or from zeal in behalf of some institution, or of some form of social or political organization, by which un- developed races or humiliated peoples are maltreated and tyrannously oppressed. An elaborate and ingenious French work on the "Ine- quality of Human Races," written in the interest of the re- actionary party in Europe, sets forth the doctrine that the downfall of nations is effected, not by luxury and enerva- Gobineau on Human Races. 317 tion, not by corruption of morals nor by any disastrous in- fluence of misgovernment, but solely by the intrusion of in- ferior races into the positions of political influence that be- long exclusively to the superior governing races. This in- fallibly brings on degeneracy and ruin, because the blood of the proper governing class no longer flows in the veins of those who govern, or is debased by mixture with inferi- or blood. The subject classes, in the nations of Europe, are the inferior races, and the old governing classes the su- perior races. They are useful to each other while each keeps its proper place; but when the lower orders rise and a mixture of races takes place, the dangerous doctrines of human brotherhood and equality in rights immediately appear, and the nation becomes degenerate. " With the exception of what has passed in our time," says Count de Gobineau, " the idea of a natural, original, and permanent inequality of races has been the basis of nearly all theories of government. The system of heredi- tary Castes, nobilities, and aristocracies has its origin in this idea ;" but " when a mixture of the races takes place, this idea is at once disputed, natural superiority is insulted, the right of the superior race to inherit dominion is denied, and this dominion is stigmatized as a tyrannical usurpation of power. The mixture of castes obscures inequality, and gives rise to the political axiom that all men are equal, and, therefore, entitled to the same rights. Indeed, since there are no longer any distinct hereditary classes, none can just- ly claim superior merit and privileges." And " the polit- ical axiom that all men are brothers, and therefore equal, which, like the bag of JEolus, contains so many tempests, is soon followed by the scientific." Whereupon the gulf opens, and every thing sinks into 318 Pre-IIistoric Nations. the bottomless pit of ruin. He means to say, chiefly, that the governed people of Europe are inferior races, whose claim to equality of rights must be sternly denied, and who must be rigidly excluded from any assumption of po- litical influence. It is evident that, in his view, the an- cient order of things, with all that is included in what the monarchies, the aristocracies, and the Church call civiliza- tion, is seriously threatened by that progress of republican ideas which aims to make the people supreme in the poli- tics of Europe. It is wholly the result of "ethnical chan- ges," which have been " slower and less considerable 1 ' in England than in any other European country, for England has preserved "to this day the basis of the social system of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries," while "in France the ethnical elements are more numerous, and the mixtures more varied." This degeneracy, he thinks, is fearfully man- ifest in Paris, " whose population is a motley compound of all the most varied ethnical elements." Having no longer any love or respect for ancient traditions, and bein pre- pared by the influence of inferior races, meaning the peo- ple, for " a complete rupture with the past," Paris has " hur- ried France into a series of political and social experiments, with doctrines the most remote from, and the most re- pulsive to the ancient customs and traditional tendencies of the realm/' It seems expected that this doctrine, imi- tating the dignity of science and the speech of philosophy, will shame, confound, and paralyze the liberal tendencies of Europe. The doctrine of superior and inferior races, in a different form, has been used to justify human slavery, and here the question is confined chiefly to the whin- ami the- black races. The black race, it is assumed, is wholly incapable The White and Black Races. 319 of developing civilization in any form, therefore the supe- rior white race, having a natural right to be its master, may enslave it, or subject its existence to any conditions of serfdom which the governing wisdom of the natural master may see fit to impose. It is no part of my purpose to discuss this doctrine at length. I may observe, how- ever, that ethnical speculations which aim to establish a given conclusion are necessarily vitiated by this aim, and therefore cannot be trusted ; and that those who seek to give this ethnical hypothesis the authority of science can- not avoid showing that they proceed " with a purpose," and never get beyond the sphere of violent opinions. Count de Gobineau, whose purpose did not require him to depreciate the black race, takes a very different view of it. He maintains that, in the great civilizations of antiquity, the inspiration of poetry and art came from the black race. The white race organized those civilizations, and estab- lished their laws and governments ; but " the source from whence their art issued was foreign to the instincts of the organizing civilizers ; it lay in the blood of the blacks. That universal powder of imagination, which we see envel- oping and penetrating the primordial civilizations, came entirely from the ever-increasing infusion of blood from the black race into that of the whites." Again: "The negro possesses, in a high degree, the faculty of emotion from the senses, without which art is not possible." Once more : " It will be said that I am placing a beautiful crown upon the deformed head of the negro, and doing him a very great honor by thus associating him with the harmonious choir of the Muses. But the honor is not so great. I have not associated him with the highest, those in whom reflection is superior to passion." And, finally, " Certainly the black 320 Pre-Historic Nations. clement is indispensable to the development of artistic ge- nius in a race." [See De Gobineau's work, " Sur L'lnegalite des Races Humaines," book ii., chap, vii.] It will be noticed that this view of the black race is dif- ferent from that used to authorize enslavement of the blacks ; but De Gobineau, who finds the influence of infe- rior races in European liberalism, did not study th black race to excuse scornful disregard of its rights, nor witli any view to the interests of slavery. Those who take a Different course are not likely to agree with him, nor to ac- c'l-j t any other view save their own. Should we admit all that is claimed l>y certain writers concerning superior and inferior races, it would not follow that we must also accept the logic by w r hich they under- take to show that inferiority has deprived the black race of all right to any position in the human family above that of serfdom. Rights cannot properly be made to depend on a discrimination of this kind. In a justly-organized state, the most imperial intellect can have no more rights before the law than the humblest. There is a duty of the strong to the weak which requires something very differ- ent from the pretensions of mastership and the parade of superiority, and there is some great deficiency in the civ- ilization of that race or community by whii-h it is not prop- erly recognised. The logic of superiority that sets aside this duty would justify the enslavement of the weak, hum- ble, and unenlightened classes, in every state where they exist, without regard to race, and show that neither slavery, serfdom, nor any condition of abasement under the domina- tion of privileged classes should be abolished anywhere. But difference in faculty does not necessarily imply in- feriority. We are accustomed to assume, without he>ita- Each Race has its special Gift. 3'2l tion, that our race is of course superior to all other races that differ from it in faculty or development ; in this, how- ever, there may be quite as much egotism as reason. On what grounds can we safely assume that any race, no mat- ter how powerful it may seem to be, comprehends in the highest degree all the possibilities of human nature ? Prob- ably we shall find it necessary to revise our conception of what constitutes the superiority of a race. Wonderful force to attack, subdue, and sway other peoples, distin- guishes the faculty of our race, and this force is celebrated in song and romance. But is this really the highest and most admirable development of human nature ? We can- not reflect seriously without feeling that there, is something nobler, something more beautiful, something more richly fraught with blessing that increases the possibilities and heightens the charm of human existence, something that must necessarily revise our ideal of what is superior in peoples and races. Reason requires us to believe that each race and each distinct family of mankind has some peculiar gift of its own, in which it is superior to others, and that the All- wise Creator may have designed that each race and family shall bring its own peculiar contribution to the final com- pleteness of civilization. A race or family is not neces- sarily inferior to others because it comes into the history of civilization latest, nor superior because it appears there first. It was not our own proud Aryan race that created the great civilizations of Arabia, Chaldea, and the Old Monarchy of Egypt. . Our race was preceded in develop- ment by others, and it was in times quite modern that our own family of the race took its place among the foremost. And yet our mission is great greater than we have teen O 2 322 Pre-Historic Nation*. able to comprehend. The marvelous force, energy, and activity of our particular family of the Aryan race are establishing intercourse and the feeling of neighborhood between " the ends of the earth." We are bringing the races and peoples of the human family to that condition of mutual intercourse and appreciation which will teach all races and families to dismiss the old talk of " outside bar- barians," allow them to assume harmonious relations, and prepare them to play connected parts in the grand work of realizing the full-orbed, all-comprehending development of the whole united family of man. THE ARABIAN CUSIIITES IX AFRICA. That the ancient people of Arabia would pass over into Africa nearly at the beginning of their colonizing move- ments is so probable that we readily accept it as true. They could not fail to do so. They would move across the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and advance not only north- ward down the Valley of the Nile, but also towards the central and southeastern portions of the continent; for t IK-SI- regions were attractive to enterprise, and would necessarily add greatly to the resources and power of the rising commercial people on the Erythraean Sea. The ancient Greeks inform us that what was so proba- ble actually took place. They recorded the fact that the eastern countries of Africa became part of Ethiopia, and that they had been so described from time immemorial. This designation is still used, somewhat indefinitely, to in- dicate regions in Eastern and Central Africa, although it is no longer applied to Arabia. The old Sanskrit books f'irnish similar information. They tell us that the people passed over into Africa, took possession of Cushite Dialects in Africa. 323 the country, and established there a subordinate country of the Cushites, which they called the exterior Cusha-dwi- pa; agreeing with the Greeks, who say Ethiopia included both Asiatic and African territory. Add to this that the Cushite race created Egypt, and carried their colonies and civilization into every part of Northern Africa, and we can see that its influence on this continent in pre-histork- times must have been very extensive. We see this, also, in the fact that a majority of the in- habitants of Africa use dialects of the old Cushite or Ethi- opian languages. To this family belong the Berber dia- lects, spoken and written in all the provinces of Northern Africa, as far down as the southern border of the Sahara, The old Egyptian tongue, and the languages used through- out the Valley of the Nile, in Abyssinia, and in Somaulia, have the same origin. It is known, also, that not only the language, but, along with it, the religious ideas of that im- portant people in Eastern Africa known as the Gallas, came originally from the Arabian Cushites. Dr. Krapf states that the Gallas number " six or eight millions." He says the word " Gallas" means " immigrants," and signifies their recent migration towards Abyssinia and the coast. They call themselves " Orma," or " Oroma ;" therefore Dr. Krapf designates the country they; occupy as "Ormania." It is very probable that dialects, derived from or modified by old forms of the ancient Cushite language, are used by African peoples in the central and southern portions of th<- continent. Some linguistic scholars claim that the south- ern dialects 'belong to this family, and I see no reason to doubt the correctness of their opinion. No form of any other language known to civilization, ancient or modern . has been found in Africa, save the modern Arabic. Tlu 324 Pre-Historic Nations. prevalence of Cushite dialects is incontestable, and thig shows how extensively Africa was occupied by the Cush- ite race in the great ages of its power. The people of Arabia have been accustomed to traverse Africa in every direction, from ages of which neither his- tory nor tradition can make any report. They are found everywhere, east, west, north, and south ; usually as trad- ers, ready to deal in slaves or in anything else that gives a hope of profit, but frequently as a part of the settled population. Dr. Earth states that not less than 250,000 Arabians were settled in Bornou when he visited that king- dom, and that " this Arab population appears to have come from the east at a very early period." In that part of Africa their policy is to conciliate- the favor of the Fulans. To other peoples the interior of Africa has for ages been an unknown region, a land of mystery, of which nothing could be told beyond some Arabian notices of its ge- ography. The only reasonable explanation of this exten- sive and long-continued intercourse of tin- Arabians with the interior countries of Africa is that which assumes that it was established by the ancient Cushite occupation, has never been discontinued. "We do not always realize the whole significance of the fact that some of the most highly civilized nations of re- mote antiquity were in Northern Africa and in the Valley of the Nile. The Old Monarchy of Egypt, to which belong the grandest ages of that country, was brought to a close about 2100 years before the Christian Era, alter a duration of 1 800 years. Meroe, very ancient, though not as old as the great Egyptian monarchy founded by Mcncs, was pre- ceded by a much older and greater kingdom, described as Barbara, a name still preserved in that part of Africa. It Central Africa and the Cushites. 325 is well known that, " from the earliest times, Meroe was the seat of a great commerce carried on by caravans from all parts of Northern Africa." The Cushite Arabians, who created these countries, continued to occupy Africa down to the latest days of their power. Is it reasonable to be- lieve that neither these Arabians, nor the people of the Nile Valley, explored Central Africa ? Nothing is more improbable. On the contrary, it is evident that the an- cient Arabians occupied the lake regions, and carried their influence into the central countries as far west as Soudan ; and that they were accustomed to communicate with the northern coast through the interior. Until lately, all we knew of Central Africa came to us through Arabian geog- raphers. They could describe the sources of the Nile; and they told us of the Mountains of the Moon, which the moderns have not yet explored, nor even located with cer- tainty. The fact that ancient kings of Arabia marched armies through Africa to the ocean, and carried on wars with Maghrib or Mauretania, is not left entirely to the historic- al traditions of Arabia for support. Strabo says in his first book, "It was mentioned as a tradition among the people of Tartessus that the Ethiopians once traversed the regions of Africa quite to its western limits, and that some of them came and settled at Tartessus." This must refer to times long before Gades was built. Central Africa, fer- tile, beautiful, and, in many respects, attractive in itself, abounded in ivory, gold, and other productions adapted to engage the attention of a commercial people. If there were great navigable rivers flowing from Soudan to the Indian Ocean, or if there were great gulfs extending from that ocean far into the central regions, the ancient history 3JO 7 of Africa would have been much more important. But the Arabian Cushites, occupying the great lake regions, and controlling the central countries, would naturally commu- nicate with the coasts to any extent required by the inter- ests of their commerce ; and it is no more improbable that they were from time to time engaged in wars with "Ma- ghrib," than that, in more recent times, Muley Hamed, em- peror of Morocco, should be engaged in wars with the great Songhay Empire, which ut one time controlled near- ly all Central Africa. TRACES OF AFRICAN ANCIENT HISTORY. Modern exploration has shown clearly that the present condition of the great body of the African people is not that of normal barbarism, but rather a state of decline from a better knowledge and use of the arts and appliances ot eivili/ed lill>. The facts reported by modern travelers in that part of the globe require us to believe that, in pre- historic times, some great influence of civilization was felt throughout nearly the whole African continent for many ages, and that a large portion of the primitive African people were raised by this influence to some knowledge of the ways of civilized life. Traces of this influence are vi- ible everywhere; and, if there were nothing to indicate its origin, we could hardly fail to see that it must have come from Arabia. Arts and methods of civilized life are common through- out Central, Southern, and Eastern Africa, that cannot be accounted for by anything in the present condition of the people. The art of smelting ores and working metals is not an accomplishment of savage life. It did not originate among barbarians. And yet this art is in common use in Iron-working in Africa. 327 almost every part of Africa. Dr. Livingstone, giving an account of what he found in the regions near Lake Nyassa, makes this statement : " At every third or fourth village we saw a kiln-looking structure, about six feet high, and two and a half and three feet in diameter. It is a clay, fire-hardened furnace for smelting iron. No flux is used, whether the specular iron, the yellow hematite, or magnet- ic iron ore is fused, and yet capital metal is produced. Native manufactured iron is so good that the natives de- clare English iron ; rotten' in comparison ; and specimens of African hoes were pronounced at Birmingham to be nearly equal to the best Swedish iron." The method here described is almost precisely like that used in Southern In- dia. Dr. Barth makes similar reports of the prevalence of this art in Central Africa. He describes similar smelting furnaces found in Soudan, where they are common ; and those travelers who have explored the sources of the Nile tell us that blacksmiths, workers of metals, and remarkable skill in other manufactures, whose origin implies civiliza- tion, are common in that region. Dr. Livingstone, in the account of his " Expedition to the Zambezi" already cited, describes articles manufactured by the African people, and specifies " hammers, tongs, hoes, adzes, fish-hooks, needles, and spear-heads, having what is termed ' dish' on both sides, to give them the rotary motion of rifle-balls." He admires their skill in spinning and weav- ing, and in manufacturing certain kinds of pottery similar to pottery found in India. He points out that they have admirably-made fish-nets " nearly identical with those now used in Normandy ;" a blacksmith's bellows like that used in Central India; "fish-baskets and weirs like those used in the Highlands of Scotland ;" and other implements like 328 Pre-Historic Nations. those found in Egypt and India. He is sure that this striking similarity of manufactured articles in widely-sep- arated countries articles " from identical patterns widely spread over the globe" makes it very probable that the arts and usages of these different peoples were derived from the same source. Not seeing any other explanation, he suggests that they may have been given by direct revela- tion from God. This hypothesis is reverent, but the very interesting fact to which he calls attention can be explained without resort to miracle. The original instructor in these arts was the ancient Cushite civilization, which went into Africa from the east and the north, and was felt for a very long period of time in all its central countries. No less important are the facts relating to the social and political condition of Central Africa, reported by Dr. Earth and other explorers. Throughout that extensive central region called Soudan there is very effective political or- ganization, an active trade, and, in some districts, a remark- able condition of manufacturing industry. Here, in many places, Dr. Earth found the manufacture of cotton and LIT.-I.-S clothes, very fine leather-work, and the working of metals, carried on very skilfully, and to a notable extent. Tlu si- manufactures find markets not only throughout Central Africa, but also in the cities on the Mediterranean. lie gives a particular description of the city of Kano, which. at the time of his visit, was a flourishing manufacturing and commercial emporium, controlled by that branch of the brown African race known as Fulbc, Fulans, and Fel- latahs. A remarkable condition of industrial enterprise was noticed not only in the city, but throughout the whole district. Dr. Earth describes important kingdoms in Central Af- Central Africa has Written Histories. 329 rica whose history can be traced back nearly to the begin* ning of the Christian Era, and which are doubtless much older. These kingdoms have had considerable civilization, that is shown to have been greater in ancient times than it is at present. In Ghasr-eggomo, anciently the capital of Bornou, but now a mass of ruins, the principal buildings were made of brick ; but " in the present capital not the smallest approach is made to this more solid mode of ar- chitecture." Dr. Barth adds : " It cannot be doubted that the old capital contained a great deal of barbaric magnificence, and even a certain de- gree of civilization, much more than is at present found in this country. It is certainly a spectacle not devoid of in* terest to imagine, in this town of Negroland, a splendid court, with a considerable number of learned and intelli- gent men gathering around their sovereign, and a priest writing down the glorious achievements of his master." Written chronicles of Bornou, and of some of the other kingdoms, still exist, although the Fulans have sought to destroy them. Dr. Barth says : " Books containing a com- prehensive history of the kingdom of Katsena have been destroyed intentionally by the Fulbe or Fulans since their conquest of the country. One tradition connects the origin of the kingdom of Bornou with the Himyarite kings of Ara- bia. Other traditions say it was founded by white Ber- bers, which, of course, means that it was created by influ- ences proceeding from the old Cushite or Phoenician com- munities of Northern Africa. The records state that Sel- ma, the first black or dark-colored monarch of Bornou, began his reign in the year 1194 A.D., many centuries (no record tells certainly how many) after the kingdom was founded. That the central countries of Africa were occupied or 330 P re- Historic Nations. controlled in ancient times by a civilized white race is shown by the physiological peculiarities of the present in- habitants. The people of those countries present every- where a remarkable mixture of races. The blood of the original brown race, with its fine forms, long curling hair, and dark olive complexion, predominates in this mixture, and sometimes it is found nearly pure. It is, however, common to find it mixed with that of both the white and the negro races. I am'not speaking of the Berbers, the na- tive Egyptians, the Nubians, the Abyssinians, nor even of the Gallas. I refer only to that great body of the native population of Africa represented by the Fulans and tho Bechuanas. All these people show traits of a common ori- gin. They are divided into classes or nationalities, and called by different names, although the difference between them is less than is often created among people of the same ethnic family by time and circumstances. The Abyssin- ians, Egyptians, and Berbers are white men mixed with the brown race of Africa. The Fulans, Bornese, and Bechu- anas are this brown race, more or less mixed with the oth- er races. Traces of white blood in the African people, more or less distinct, are found everywhere, away i'mm the We>t- ern Coast. They have been noticed by all travelers, though not always clearly explained. Dr. Barth, being at a village in Adamwa, wrote thus of this mixture of races: "I was struck by the symmetry and beauty of their forms, and the regularity of their features; but I was still more astonished at their complexion, which was different in lanee to the characters of certain ancient Libyan inscriptions, particularly those of the bilingual stone of Account of the TouaricJcs. 3ttl Thugga. There is no room to doubt that this alphabet of the Touaricks is substantially the same that was used by the old Phoenician or Cushite communities throughout Northern Africa. Captain Hanoteau promised to furnish for publication a volume of selections from the Touarick literature, with a French translation. We have some accounts of the Touaricks, and of other Berber communities, in the volumes of modern travelers. In the months between August, 1845, and April, 1846, Mr. James Richardson visited Ghadames, Ghat, Mpurzouk, Sockna, and Misratah. He met the Touaricka first at Ghadames, where a large company of them had arrived for traffic. Writing in his journal while in that city, he said : " This afternoon I had a visit from Touarick women, and was astonished to find some of them almost fair. It is evident that the men are dark simply from exposure to the sun." An Arab merchant expressed to him the com- mon estimate of the Touaricks by saying, " The maharee [desert camel] always assumes the mastery over the coast camel, just as the Touarick assumes to be lord over the Arab." In the Sahara, which is much less a desert than fancy has sometimes portrayed, the Touaricks have towns, cities, and an excellent condition of agriculture. They are very skillful in the cultivation of fruit. Their method of political organization is democratic, somewhat after the fashion of the old Cushite municipalities. Mr. Richardson says : " Ghat, like all the Touarick countries, is a republic ; all the people govern." And, " The woman of the Toua- ricks is not the woman of the Moors and Mussulmans gen- erally. She has here great liberty, walks about unveiled, and takes an active part in the affairs and transactions of life." Prc-IIistoric Nations. In a letter published in the Journal Asiatique for August, 1845, M. Boissonnet stated that a native traveler told him that w the Touaricks are very white, go always clothed, and wear pantaloons like Europeans." This reminds us of the description given in the 13th century by Ebn-ed-din El Eghwaati, in his " Notes of a Journey :" " The Touaricks are a very powerful people, of very white complexion ; they wear pantaloons like Christians." Captain G.F.Lyon, whose volume was published in 1821, met a company of Touaricks at Mourzouk, and spoke of them as follows : " They are the finest race of men I ever saw; tall, straight, and handsome, with a certain air of in- dependence and pride that is very imposing. They arc- generally white, that is to say, comparatively so, the dark brown of their complexion being occasioned only by the heat of the climate. Their arms and bodies, where con- stantly covered, are as white as those of many European-.'* He gives the following account of a community of white Berlin's in Fez/an: "The inhabitants of Zucla are nearly all white, and they are particularly careful about intermar- riages with Arabs. They are certainly the most respect- able, hospitable, and quiet people in Fez/an; and their whole appearance (for they are handsome and very neatly dressed) bespeaks something superior." Rev. II. B. Tristam, whose book, entitled "Wanderings South of the Atlas Mountains," appeared at London in 1860, describes the Kabyles, the M'Zabs, the AVareglans, and the inhabitants of the Wed R'hir chain of oases, who are all Berbers, and use Berber dialects. The H'Zabs have a re- public or confederacy consisting of seven cities and dis- tricts. Gharda'ia, the capital, has 13,000 inhabitants. This city is very old, for the ruins of a still more ancient city Berber Books and Manuscripts. o43 are connected with it. Beni-Isguen, another of these cities, has 10,000 inhabitants, and not far from it are the ruins of its still more ancient predecessor. At Berryan these M'Zab Berbers told Mr. Tristam that " their nation came hither from Moroco, to which place their ancestors immigrated from Egypt or South of Egypt ; but their imauns knew all their story, and it is written in their sacred books, which are preserved in manuscripts at Gharda'ia." Being at Guerrara, another of these seven cities, Mr. Tristam writes : " The Guerrarans really understand and apply the arch, a proof certainly of more than modern Arab civilization. In many places the resemblance to Egyptian architecture is interesting, especially when combined with the similarity in shape of their vessels, jars, and household utensils to those of ancient Egypt." Speaking of his de- parture from the city of Beni-Isguen, he says : " When we were about to depart, the djemmaa requested our names and addresses, as they have a register containing all the events of the city, and a record of its visitors for nine hun- dred years. The book was produced." The M'Zabs are not the only Berbers who have books and manuscripts. It is probable that all, or nearly all, the tribes have annals and other literary records like those pre- served at Ghardaia, for they all read and write. The Tou- aricks appear to be the most cultivated branch of the fam- ily ; their literature has attracted the attention of French officers in Africa. When it can be explored carefully, im- portant historical records may be discovered, although it is nowise likely that much relating to their ancient history has been preserved. The Berbers, their language, and their books ought to be fully explored and studied. Archeology and linguistic Pre-Historic Nations. science have lavished enthusiastic and toilsome study on subjects much less worthy of attention, for these Berbers present the remains of a great civilization much older than Rome or Hellas, and of one of the most important peoples of antiquity. Here are " ruins" more promising, and, in certain respects, more important than the buried rums of Nineveh; but they have failed to get proper attention, partly because a false chronology has made it impossible to see their meaning and comprehend their importance. The Berbers represent ancient communities whose import- ance was beginning to decline before Rome appeared, and which were probably contemporary with ancient C'haMea and the Old Monarchy of Egypt. Some of them, I repeat it, may have been established by the Arabian Cushites be- fore Menes united Upper and Lower Egypt under one gov- ernment. Additional suggestions relative to the earliest civilized communities in Northwestern Africa will become nece- in what I have to say of Western Europe in pre-historic times, for there seems to have been a period in the remote past when these regions were intimately connected. Mean- while it must, I think, be admitted that the civilized com- munities, established so extensively in Africa by the Ara- bian Cushites in the pre-historic ages, occupied, controlled. or influenced to a large extent nearly the whole continent. The Cushite origin of these communities would be con- clusively manifest in the dialects' they left in Africa, if there were nothing else to show it ; and their influence explains what we see in the present condition of the African people, which is so unlike that of normal barbarism, and in which there are so many traces of former acquaintance with civ- ilization. The old Cushite Settlements. 345 NAVIGATION AROUND AFEICA. We have good reasons for believing not only that the Arabian Cushites in the early times, but also the Phoeni- cians during the Tyrian period, were familiar with every part of the coast of Africa. The old Cushite settlements were extended far down the eastern coast, nearly to the Cape of Good Hope; and, so late as 1498 A.D., when jthe Portuguese first sailed to India, there were important cities as low down as the Mozambique Channel, in the latitude of Madagascar. We have the testimony of antiquity that the Tyrians had "ancient settlements" on the Atlantic coast of Africa, " which consisted of not less than three hundred cities." It is added that they " were destroyed by the Pharusii and the Nigrita?." Strabo doubted be- cause he could not appreciate either the greatness or the antiquity of the people called Phoenicians. He frequently doubted incontestable facts because his limited view of the world did not enable him to understand them, as in the case of Pytheas and his voyage to the arctic regions. In the present case, his hesitating doubt itself confirms the testimony which he was not quite able to reject. The Cushites, or Phoenicians, so placed on the Eastern and Western Coasts, could not have failed to sail around Africa, and become familiar with the coast of Guinea, in the days of their greatest enterprise. The contrary sup- position is every way improbable. Could we have a com- plete history of the Phoenicians and Southern Arabians from the twentieth to the middle of the ninth century be- fore the Christian Era, it would probably appear that their navigation was more extensive than any of the moderns have supposed. The knowledge that Africa could be cir- P2 'Uf> Pre-Historic Nations. cumnavigated, so prevalent in countries connected with the Eastern Mediterranean at the beginning of the sixth century before the Christian Era, must have come from recollections and traditions of the navigation of the Phoe- nicians and Southern Arabians in the earlier ages. About the year 600 B.C., Necho IT., an enterprising king of Egypt, fitted out an expedition, which he ordered to sail down the Red Sea, go around Africa, and return to Egypt through the Straits of Gibraltar. He knew very well that such a voyage was possible. The same knowledge existed among the Persians, when Sataspes, one of the Achaemeni- da?, guilty of a great crime, was offered escape from capital punishment if he would sail around Africa in the opposite direction, but lacked resolution to complete the voy;i'_r . Herodotus, who gives a particular account of the success- ful expedition sent out by Necho, adds that the Cartha- ginians knew that Africa was surrounded by the ocean, and could therefore be circumnavigated. The Carthaginians sent forth several expeditions, to renew, along the African coast, the old navigation and commerce of the Phoenicians ; and there seem to have been several Hannos by win mi such expeditions were commanded. AVe have the "Peri- plus" of one, who made an extensive voyage along the coast, sailing from the west. Pliny mentions another Han- no, who sailed from the Straits of Gibraltar to Arabia, and wrote an account of his voyage in a " Commentary." Po- sidonius and others give accounts of the voyages of Eu- doxus of Cyzicus, "a learned man, much interested in the peculiarities of different countries." It is stated that he- had great enthusiasm for exploring the coast of Africa on the exterior ocean, and that he found on the Eastern C the Cape of Good Hope and Arabia, remains of Old Maps of South Africa. 347 the wreck of a ship from Gades. Strabo doubts what is said of Eudoxus, but it is not, for this reason, to be dis- credited. Phoenician commerce at the East was interrupted, and the independence of the great Phoenician cities on the East- ern Mediterranean was destroyed, in the ninth century be- fore Christ, by those Assyrian invasions that reduced to subjection all the countries in that region. In the latter part of that century there was a great migration of Phoeni- cians from the Eastern Mediterranean, and especially from Tyre, to Carthage. Phoenician navigation around Africa was discontinued. The Carthaginian efforts to renew it were made three or four centuries later. It had been dis- continued more than two centuries when the voyage or- dered by Necho was undertaken; but it was remembered, as we can see in the general knowledge that such naviga- tion was possible ; and the wreck of a ship from Gades on the eastern coast of Africa shows that voyages around Ai- rica had formerly been made from the west as well as from the east. It is known that the Arabians had an accurate knowl- edge of the configuration of the southern and southwest- ern part of the African continent, and that, through knowl- edge derived from them, this portion of the coast of Africa was accurately drawn on maps before the time of Bar- tholomew Diaz and Yasquez di Gama, and then what we call the Cape of Good Hope was described as " Cape Diab" [or Dsiab in Arabic].* It seems also to have been * Long-temps avant Bartholome Diaz et Vasco de Gama, nous voyon* Textr&nite triangulaire de 1'Afrique, repre"sentee dans le planisphere dc Sanuto, de 1306, annexe' au Secreta fiddium Crucis, et public par Bon- gars ; dans le Portiilano deHa Hfediceo Laurenziana^ de 1351, ouvrage 348 P re- Historic Nations. called " Cape Agisymba," if we may believe Ferdinand Co lumbus, who said the name Cape of Good Hope " was sub. stituted for the older name Cape Ageringua" which is a corruption of the word Agisymba, as Humboldt shows. Ten years previous to the voyage of Vasquez di Gama, Pedreio de Covilhan, who had visited Calicut, Goa, and Sofala, in Southeastern Africa, wrote from Sofala to John L, king of Portugal, that he had learned from the Arabians that Africa could be circumnavigated; and he described the course by which Portuguese ships could sail round Africa to Sofala and Madagascar. Rev. Dr. Krapf, and one or two German scholars of reputation, have supposed that the " Ophir" of the Hebrew Scriptures may have been on the eastern coast; but this does not seem probable. Max Mtiller is sure that it must have been somewhere in India, because he thinks the names of gold, ivory, and the other articles brought from Ophir by the ships of Hiram and Solomon were Sanskrit ; but his attempt to show this is not satisfactory. More- over, if we are to seek Ophir in India, it will be much more natural and reasonable to suppose the names of t ho articles of commerce mentioned came from the old lan- gcnois, que le Comte Baldelli a fait connaitre ; dans le Planisferio de la Palatina, de Florence, de 1417, discute par le Cardinal Zurla; et surtout dans le fameuse mappemonde de Fra Mauro, trare'e chins les anne'es 1 I .".7 t-t 1 i:>9. C'est cette derniere carte surtout, anterieure de quarante ans a la circumnavigation de Vasco de Gama, qui offre, avec la plus grande chute, le promontoirc de TAfrique australe sous le nom de Capo di Dial. [Ilumboldt's Examcn Critique de 1'IIistoire de la Geographic di< JY Continent, etc., vol. i.] Near the close of the same volume he pointed out that the later opinions of antiquity relative to the circumnavigation of Africa were much more incorrect than those of preceding ages : ' les anciens les opinions rccentes sont souvent moins justes qne j>l de cell?* qr.i les avaier.t pme'dees.'' Where Ophir was situated. 349 guage of the country, and not from the Sanskrit. Could it really be shown beyond question that these words are actually found in the Sanskrit language, it would be neces- sary to show, also, that their relation to it is not like that of the word " camel" to English, and " camelus" to Latin words which, as we know, came into Latin and English from the old Arabian name of the animal they are used to designate. Mr. Miiller says, very justly, that the names of the articles brought from Ophir are as foreign to Hebrew as guttdrpercha and tobacco are to English ; but this does not make them Sanskrit. It is more reasonable to assume that they came either from some native dialect of the country where they were found, or from the language of the navigators and traders who made them articles of commerce. The word " Ophir," as used in the Hebrew Scriptures, means " the West," and is the same as the words Aphar, Apar, and Aupir. Wilford says very justly, in the 8th volume of the " Asiatic Researches :" " In Scripture, Par- vaim and Ophir mean countries at the east and at the west ; but these terms are not deducible from the Hebrew. Apar and Aparica are the same as Ophir, Aphar, and Africa." Bishop Lowth pointed out that Ophir, Aupir, and Auphir were all different forms of the same word, from which he derived the name Africa. It is the same word that was used, in ancient times, to describe 'Mauritania, Spain, and other countries on the Western Mediterranean, as " the West." Therefore, when it is said that the ships of Hiram and Solomon went to Ophir, the meaning is that they went to the countries of " the West ;" and, probably, all the countries beyond the Cape of Good Hope were so de- scribed. The Ophir visited may have been the region on the coast of Guinea, where r;olcst persons among the ancients understood that most of the gods in their mythology were deified men. Diodorus Sicu- lus and others point out that the ancients held two opin- ions concerning the gods; some saying they were always heavenly and incorruptible, and others that they were orig- inally <>f earthly origin, being deified men who were wor- shipped as forms or representations of the Supreme Being. It is easy to imagine the mental characteristics of the dis- putants on each side of this question. A clear intellect, where reason was not overborne by the feeling of wonder or the tendency to illusion, could not very easily see an original, self-existent divinity in a deified hero or - Men like Euhemerus could understand why great kings, heroes, and sages had been deified and worshipped after death ; but no pious worship of the gods of Olympus, nor any classical consecration of this worship, could hide from them the fact that Saturn and Jupiter were originally kings Mythical History of the West. 357 who reigned over countries on the Western Mediterranean in the oldest times known to tradition. Even the classical dictionaries tell us that " Saturn was a mythical king of Italy." One account of these personages runs as follows : Hy- perion, Atlas, and Saturn or Cronos, were sons of Uranos, who reigned over a great kingdom composed of countries around the western part of the Mediterranean, with certain islands in the Atlantic. Hyperion succeeded his father, but was killed by the Titans. The kingdom was then di- vided between Atlas and Saturn, Atlas taking Northern Africa, with the Atlantic Islands, and Saturn the countries on the opposite shore to Italy and Sicily. Plato's account of the legend says: The Atlantes (successors of Atlas) reigned over the island of Atlantis, and also, on one side, over all the countries of Northern Africa to Egypt ; and, on the other, all the way from the Atlantic to the limits of Tyrrhenia. This version of the story, which came from Egypt, makes Saturn a successor of Atlas. According to some accounts, Saturn was dethroned. ThymaBtes said he was dethroned by Dionysos. The common statement is that Jupiter, his successor, became one of the greatest of monarchs. Another version makes Atlas the son of lape- tus, and the nephew of Saturn and Hyperion. It must be that these ancient myths, however arrayed by fancy, or varied by local prejudice or tradition, rest on a basis of fact. They cannot be pure inventions ; this is impossible ; there is history in them ; and I should feel that I was rejecting light and trifling with reason if I could refuse to see that they preserve recollections of the lost history of very ancient countries in those regions of Africa and Europe to which they refer. The traditions declare 358 Pre-IIistoric Nations. explicitly that such countries existed there. There is noth- ing whatever to make this improbable ; and when we con- sider the great antiquity and enterprise of the Cushite civ- ilization that created Egypt, we feel that the general tes- timony of these traditions must be true. But, to see it clearly, we must dismiss all narrow views of the past. THE AGE OF BROXZE IX WESTERN EUROPE. Let us now turn to a consideration of some of the facts brought to light within a few years by the investigations of geologists. These facts show that the antiquity of the human race in that part of the globe is much greater than even the boldest geologist had allowed himself to suppo-i-. Human remains have been discovered in the geological for- mation known as "the drift," and in other subsequent for- mations down to the present time. In the older format ions these remains consist chiefly of articles of human manufac- ture, such as arms and utensils of various kinds. They arc all made of stone ; at first, and for a long time, of Hint, but finally, when greater skill had been developed, various kinds of stone were used, and a higher style of workman- ship was displayed. At length there is a sudden transition from arms and implements made of stone to those made of bronze. The arms, cutting instruments, and other bronze articles, wero beautifully manufactured. In form and ornamentation they arc very similar all over Western Europe. In his work on the subject, entitled " Pre-Historic Times," Sir J. Lubbock says: "The similarity to each other of the bronze weapons found in very distant parts of Europe implies a rnon tended intercourse between the different countries than existed in post-Roman times," or in the centuries inuncdi- The Ages of Bronze and Stone. 359 ately after the Roman occupation of Gaul. This Bronze Age seems to have been of very long duration. Bronze, however, was superseded by*iron long before the Christian Era, for iron was in use in all those countries before the Romans went there. A very long time must have inter- vened between the beginning of the age of iron and the first invasion of the Romans. But I do not propose to undertake an elaborate discus- sion of these discoveries, which have been very carefully described and discussed in many volumes already publish- ed in English, French, Danish, and German. They have been made in nearly all the Western countries of Europe, and particularly in France, Switzerland, England, Ireland, Germany, and Denmark. My purpose is to draw attention chiefly to what is described as the Age of Bronze. The preceding age of Stone, according to competent geologists, must have endured for a great length of time ; but it was, in part, an age of civilization. Professor Worsaae divides this age into .three periods : First, the period of the stone implements found in the drift and in caves, with remains of the mammoth and other extinct animals ; second, the pe- riod of the stone implements found in the Danish Kjoken- moddings [or shell heaps] and coast-finds ; third, the later Stone Age, or the period characterized by arms and im- plements of stone beautifully worked, and by large tumuli or buried tombs. Sir John Lubbock divides the Stone Age into two periods : that in which the stone implements were rudely manufactured of flint, and that in which they were made with much skill ; the former he calls the Paleolithic period, and the latter the Neolithic period. The Age of Polished Stone manufactures evidently had a considerable degree of civilization. The beautifully 360 Pre-Historic Nations. worked stone arms and implements, the gold and amber ornaments, and the large tumuli or buried tombs, with massive stone walls carefully constructed, show that age to have been very different from an age of barbarism. The people who manufactured these artistic stone implements, who constructed such sepulchral tumuli as that at West Kennett, England, and those on the Danish island of Moen, and who cultivated wheat, barley, and flax, and wove tis- sues of linen, were not barbarians. They may have been much farther removed from barbarism than some peoples of our time, who, without merit or effort of their own, have received from civilization all the metals, with many of its useful arts. It appears that they had domestic animals and agriculture; and among the remains of their age, im- plements have been discovered which are supposed to be stone ploughs. [See "Hora3 Feralcs," p. 43.] The Age of Bronze, by which the Age of Polished Stone implements was immediately succeeded, has left a great variety of interesting monuments. It lias been studied with special interest in the Danish peat-bogs and in the ruins of lake dwellings in Western Switzerland; but a careful examination of the many tumuli connected with Stonehenge and with the ancient ruins at Abury, in : land, shows clearly that these structures belong to the of Bronze Abury to its earliest period, and Stonehenge to a period much later. Abury was the most extensive and imposing of these pre-historic temples. Mr. Lubbock re- marks that, according to Aubrey, Abury " did as much ex- ceed Stonehenge as a cathedral does a parish church."' When in perfect condition, the temple at Abury contained an area of 28 acres. If originally used as a temple, as i< commonly supposed, it may also have been used for great assemblies of the people for other grave purposes. The Danish Peat-beds explored. 361 The remarkable peat-beds of Denmark have been formed, during a long series of years, in hollows or depressions in the " drift," varying in depth from ten to thirty feet. Dur- ing the ages that have elapsed since these peat formations began, the trees of many successive forests have fallen into the growing deposits of peat, and been buried out of sight v as the accumulations increased. In the lowest strata the buried trees are of the species known as Scotch fir (Pinus sylvestris). This tree is now unknown in Denmark, and will not thrive there. In the peat formations next above the Scotch firs the buried trees are oak, described as " the sessile variety ;" and these, in turn, are succeeded by oaks of the " pedunculated variety." In the upper strata beech- trees are found. The beech is now the common forest tree of Denmark, and it was so in the time of the Romans. It will be seen that a very long period of time was re- quired for the growth, decay, and final disappearance, first, of the successive forests of firs, and next of the successive forests of oaks ; and yet no record or memory in Denmark knows anything of the time when the Danish forests were not beech. In the lower part of the peat-beds, with the firs and the first layers of oak, human remains are found be- longing to the later periods of the Age of Stone. In the strata with the oaks are found swords, shields, and other articles, made of bronze, with the bones of men and domes- tic animals. The beginning of the Age of Iron coincides very nearly with the first appearance of fallen beech-trees. Remains of the Bronze Age are abundant in the ruins of the pile-works or lake dwellings of Western and Central Switzerland, where there have been some attempts to esti- mate the antiquity of these memorials of the distant past, and large collections of bronze articles have been mad* Q ofi-' Pre-IIistoric Nations. from mortuary tumnli. It is manifest in these antiquities that the Age of Bronze was an age of civilization. The bronze itself implies this, not to speak of the beautiful form and workmanship of many of the articles. Bronze is a manufactured product, consisting of copper and tin, and implies skill in metallurgy ; it must have been introduced into Western Europe by a foreign people. There have been tentative efforts to estimate the antiq- uity of some remains of the Age of Bronze, especially of certain pile-works in Switzerland ; but these calculations are necessarily imperfect, and cannot produce satisfactory results. One Swiss geologist estimates that certain struc- tures of the Bronze Age in Switzerland are "from 3000 to 4000 years old." They are doubtless much older, and the beginning of the Bronze Age in that country may have been more than 1000 years older than the particular struc- tures used in making this estimate. It is not extravagant to suppose the Age of Bronze began in Britain, Gaul, and perhaps Denmark, where it was older than in Switzerland, more than 3000 years before the Christian Era ; nor is it worth while to quarrel with any archaeologist who may be inclined to add considerably to these figures, for on this point nothing can be said or assumed with certainty. We are sure only that the beginning of the Age of Bronze must be sought far back in the past. Nevertheless, there are certain facts relating to this age that furnish something like historical intimations. In the first place, during that age, or a large part of it, the countries of Western Europe, where its remains are found, must have been subject to the influence of a single government or ruling people. Everything indicates re- markable similarity of customs, ideas, and methods of life , The Bronze Age in Switzerland. 363 there was a striking uniformity of civilization ; the swords, cutting instruments, tools, utensils, and other bronze arti- cles, all seem to have been made after the same patterns, as if these bronze manufactures came originally from the same source ; and there was evidently a more intimate and constant communication between these countries than ex- isted when they were first visited by the Romans. In the second place, it is seen that the use of bronze arms and implements must have begun on thefslands and the coast, and been extended to the interior from the West. It seems evident that the Age of Bronze was older in Ireland, Britain, and the islands of Denmark than in Germany and Switzerland. That the use of bronze was spread into the interior from the West is shown very clearly by the dis- coveries in Switzerland. Remains of the Bronze Age have not been found in the eastern part of that country. It is only in Western and Central Switzerland that these bronze antiquities are discovered. Sir J. Lubbock, stating the re- sult of investigation in that country, says : " Lake habita- tions of the Bronze Age have as yet been found only on the lakes of Geneva, Luissel, Neufchatel, Morat, Bienne, and Sempach ; none in Eastern Switzerland. It has been supposed from this that the Age of Stone lasted longer in the East than in the West, and that flint and serpentine were in use on Lake Constance long after bronze had re- placed them on the Western lakes." These facts make it necessary to believe that bronze came to Switzerland from the West, and was introduced into those districts only which became intimately connected with the other coun- tries where the remains of bronze manufactures are found. It may be added here that no remains of the earliest period of the Stone Age are found in the Scandinavian Pre-Historic Nations. countries, which leads some geological archaeologists to believe that these countries were not inhabited until after the beginning of the Age of Polished Stone. Also, it does not appear that either the Age of Stone or the Age of Bronze can be studied in Spam or Italy, or in any part of the territory occupied by the old Iberians, where, as I sup- pose, the Cushite civilization was established much earlier than the beginning of the Age of Bronze farther north. I will not undeftake to say what discoveries geological archaeology can make in these regions, but the distinction between them and the northern countries is manifest, and it must be due to a much earlier civilization in Italy and throughout the Iberian territory. In the third place, the sudden transition from stone to bronze indicates that the change wasproduced by the in- fluence of a foreign people, to whom bronze, and the art of manufacturing bronze arms and implements, were already known. A knowledge of copper and tin, and the art !' working these metals, must have preceded the appearance of bronze, an article produced by combining them in cer- tain proportions. There must have been necessarily a con- siderable period of time between the first discovery of both copper and tin, and the development of that knowl- edge of the peculiarities and uses of these metals which suggested the possibility of producing a more useful mate- vial by combining them, and led to the skillful and artistic manufacture of bronze articles, such as now represent the Age of Bronze. If bronze had been an original production of Western Europe, it must have been preceded by an age of copper and tin. Therefore it is necessary to believe, with the most competent archaeologists, that bronze is one of those great discoveries which Western Europe owes t< Bronze came from the East. 365 the East. Professor Nilsson states that the oldest bronze articles show the most perfect workmanship, seeming to have come from abroad; while inferior workmanship ap- pears in those of later date, indicating that they were manufactured in the countries where they are found. It is certain that bronze had been carried everywhere through- out the East long before the beginning of the historical period by the commercial enterprise of those marvelous manufacturers and traders, the Arabian Cushites, and also by their representatives, the Phoenicians. What we call brass, an article made of copper and zinc, was unknown to the ancients ; but they had bronze, which must have been introduced by the Arabian Cushites, who may have dis- covered and worked the tin mines of Banca at an early period in their history, before they had sailed to the Cas- siterides. In the fourth place, there is much in these antiquities which appears to show in a very conclusive manner that the Bronze Age in Western Europe was introduced by a for- eign people of the Cushite race, culture, and religion, and that for a very long period it was controlled and directed by their influence. Professor Nilsson, whose learning, ex- cellent judgment, and thorough study of the subject have made him the highest authority on most questions relating to it, is sure that bronze was brought to that region by the Phoenicians, meaning the race they represent. The Arabian Cushites, or the communities they established in Spain and Africa, are the only people of antiquity who can be supposed to have done this ; but he sees their presence and influence throughout the Bronze Age in the peculiar character of the manufactured articles, in the ornaments on the bronze implements, in the engravings found in tu- 36G . Pre-IIistoric Nations. muli of the Bronze Age, in the indications of peculiar methods of reaping and fishing, in the general use of war- chariots, and in the many clear traces of the worship of Baal. He calls attention to two stones from a tumulus near Kivik, on which are representations of human figures that even Sir J. Lubbock admits " may fairly be said to have a Phcenician or Egyptian appearance." An obelisk symbolizing Baal is represented on another of the stones. The festival of Baal, or Balder, celebrated on midsummer night in the upper part of Norway, reveals the Cushite race, for the midnight fire in presence of the midnight sun did not originate in that latitude. This festival of Baal was celebrated in the British Islands until recent times. Baal has given such names as Baltic, Great a*nd Little Belt, Belteburga, Baleshaugen, and the like. Professor Nilsson calls particular attention to two vase carnages, one found in Sweden and the other in Mecklenburg, which arc strik- ingly like the " vases" made for Solomon's Temple, and de- scribed in the first book of Kings. But, to appreciate the whole force of his statement of the case, one must read it carefully, without abridgment. Sir J. Lubbock urges " two strong objections" to t views of Professor Nilsson, which in reality an- very weak. He states them as follows : " The first is the character of the ornamentation on the bronze weapons and implements. This almost always consists of geometrical figures, and we rarely, if ever, find upon them representations of animals or plants ; while on the ornamented shields, etc., described by Homer, as well as in the decorations of Solomon's Tem- ple, animals and plants were abundantly represented. Sec- ondly, the Phoenicians, so far as we know them, were well acquainted with the use of iron ; in Homer we find the Lubbock's Objections criticised. ;>(*> 7 warriors already armed with iron weapons, and the tools used in preparing the materials for Solomon's Temple were of this material." These objections assume too much. It does not accord with either reason or probability to suppose the materials, methods of manufacture, or styles of ornamentation pecu- liar to the Phoenicians in the time of Homer and Solomon were in all respects precisely the same as those used by another people of the same race more than two thousand years earlier.* The Phoenicians may have had iron in the time of Homer, and they may have introduced the Iron Age of Western Europe, but the older Cushite peoples had bronze long previous to that date. Moreover, these objections do not undertake to deny that people of the Cushite race are directly connected with the Age of Bronze by the religious significance of its remains. What other people could have brought the worship of Baal to West- ern Europe in pre-historic times? We see them in the stone circles, in the ruins at Abury and Stonehenge, in the festival of Baal that lingered until our own times ; and there is something for consideration in the fact that Ara- bia has still the ruins of ancient structures precisely like Stonehenge. It is probable that the Arabians, or their representatives in Spain and North Africa, went northw r ard and began the Age of Bronze more than 2000 years before Gades was built. * In his Introduction to Professor Nilsson's "Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia," Sir John Lubbock adds this suggestion: " If Professor Nilsson be correct, the bronze weapons must belong to an earlier period in Phoenician history than that with which we are partially familiar." The suggestion is important. He is not likely to deny that the beginning cf the Age of Bronze is much older than Gades. 368 Pre-Historic Nations. THE ANCIENT KACE OF WESTERN EUEOPE. What race of the human family was found in Western Europe by the people who introduced the Age of Bronze? This question has engaged much attention. The inhabit- ants of those countries had created the Age of Polished Stone, therefore they had risen from barbarism to a con- siderable degree of civilization. It is generally agreed among those who have inquired most carefully that the race now represented in Europe by the Finns and the Hungarians was anciently spread throughout nearly all the European countries. It is seen that the Finns ha\v re- tired or been driven towards the north since the opening of the historical period; and it seems probable that the branch of this race now represented by the Finns and the Esthonians occupied all the countries of Western Europe before the Arabian Cushites went there, and all the coun- tries so far south as to include nearly the whole of France, at the beginning of the Age of Bronze. Doubtless the old Iberians and Ligurians, with the Siculi and Sicani of Italy, belonged originally to this race, but they were formed l>y the Cushite civilization at a much earlier period. This Finnish race is the oldest in Europe of which we have any clear trac Previous to the beginning of the Keltic age, and prob:-.- * Sir John Lubbock suggests that there may have been " two distinct r:uv>" in Western Europe in the Stone Age, because two skulls belonging to that age are differently shaped, one being "long" and the other "round." Craniology is not the surest guide, here or anywhere t-l.-e. There is not a civilized race in Europe that cannot furnish specimens of skulls of nearly every shape specified by craniologists, while among un- civilized peoples the shape of the skull is by no means so uniform as many The Iberians a mixed Race. 369 bly before the time of the Bronze Age, Spain, with a nar- row district of Southern France extending to Northern Italy, was separate and distinct from the countries farther north, not because it was inhabited by a different race, but evidently because, in the earliest times, some great influ- ence from abroad had modified the character and condi- tion, and perhaps the speech of the people. It appears tt> show the first occupation of Southwestern Europe by the Cushite Arabians in ages quite as old as Egypt, as signi- fied by the myths relating to Hercules. Before the Finnic race, farther north, had passed from the Age of Stone to the Age of Bronze, Spain and Italy, as well as Northern Africa, came under control of the most enlightened people of what, at that time, was known as the civilized world. The original inhabitants of Spain (meaning by original the oldest of whom we have any trace) were the Iberians, represented in our time by the Basques who occupy the western slopes and valleys of the Pyrenees in Spain and France. They are the most remarkable, and, in some re- spects, the most mysterious communities in Europe, for they represent a people who have disappeared, and of whom no other fragmentary group remains on the face of the earth. This people may be, like the Dravidians of India, the only remaining representatives of a very ancient mixture of the Arabian Cushites with the aborigines of the country where they are found. Their language, like that of the Dravidians, seems to have no genetic relationship to any other known language, so far as comparative phi- lology has been able to ascertain. In its structure it has more in common with certain American languages than any others. Some resemblances to languages of the Finn- ish family have been traced, but nothing that makes it Q 2 370 Pre-Historic Nation*. possible to class the Basque tongue with languages of that family. It appears to represent a very ancient group or family of languages, of composite origin probably, that had passed away before the beginning of the historical period, leaving only this fragment of the group in a narrow dis- trict on the Bay of Biscay, where it has maintained its ex- istence with wonderful tenacity. It has been shown, by a careful collection and analysis of local names, that the Basques or Iberians anciently oc- cupied the whole of Spain, and also the southern part of France, where the Acquitani belonged to this race; and they arc traced to Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia, where the aboriginal population, or the people found there in the most ancient times, seem to have belonged to the same family, for there are many old names of rivers, places, and tribes that evidently came from the Iberian language. This philological testimony is not without historical sup- port. Thucydides and several other Greek writers who had carefully explored the old records and traditions of their time tell us that the most ancient inhabitants of Italy and Sicily were the Sicani, and that the Sicani were Iberians. Nevertheless, we cannot suppose Thucydides was able to give an authentic account of the oldest times. The people found in this part of Europe by the ancient civilizers must have been greatly changed by the mixture of races and languages. So it was farther north at a later period, especially in Gaul and the British Islands. In all these countries the aboriginal inhabitants were originally of the Finnish race, we must suppose. It is very certain that they were neither Aryans nor Semites, and that the remote age when they first came under the control of the Cushite influence had become mythical long before the first irrival of the Pelasffinns in Italy. The Pelasgians in Italy. 371 THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF ITALY. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, justly described as one of the most diligent and accurate antiquaries of his time, states that the first Pelasgian immigrants who settled in Italy went from Arcadia "seventeen generations before the Trojan War." Their leader was CEnotrus; on this ac- count they were called CEnotrians. There is no record or trace of the appearance in Italy of any people of the Aryan race previous to this date, and yet the Pelasgians ma} have gone there earlier. Dionysius says : "Antiochus, an ancient historian, relates that the CEnotrians were the first [Pelasgic] settlers known to have come into Italy ; that one of this race, called Italus, was a king ; and that Italus was succeeded by Morges, from whom the CEnotrians were called Morgetes and Italians." The CEnotrians were fol- lowed by other Pelasgian colonies from Thessaly, and prob- ably from other districts of the wide region occupied by the Pelasgic race. Italy was known to the Pelasgians as Tyrrhenia, and Un- people were called Siculi, Umbrians, and Tyrrhenes. It is said that long and bloody wars ensued between the Pelas- gians and the Tyrrhenes ; the Pelasgians " pressed the Sic- uli [or Tyrrhenes] on all sides ;" they seized Croton, " ji town of the Umbrians, a very ancient people dispersed over many parts of Italy prior to the arrival of the Pelasgians ;" and "driving out the Siculi, they took many towns of the Tuscans, the Siculi passing over into Sicily, at that time possessed by the Sicani, an Iberian tribe." But "the Pe- lasgians, having established themselves in Italy, fell into great calamities." The native inhabitants rose against them, overthrew their dominion, and resumed control oi 372 Pre-IIistoric Nations. the country. The Pelasgi, it is said, greatly declined; some of them returned to Greece ; some may have fol- lowed others of the race who had previously gone farther west. Neither Kelts nor the Keltic tongue appeared in Italy through their influence. Those who remained after these troubles were settled chiefly in Latium, and " after- wards founded Rome." There is no good warrant for believing that any people of the Aryan race appeared in Italy as immigrants except the Pelasgians, who doubtless went there not only from the Hellenic peninsula, but also from Asia Minor. Among the various opinions expressed by scholars and archaeolo- gists concerning the original inhabitants and ancient his- tory of Italy, none deserves more respect, or has stronger support from reason and probability, than that of Professor Lepsius, who is sure there was no invasion or occupation of Italy by any foreign people after it was conquered by the Pelasgians. After a duration of several centuries, prob- ably, the Pelasgian power was overthrown by a succv rising of the original inhabitants. This restoration of the Siculi, Umbrians, or original Tyrrhenes to power created what is known to us as Etruria. At a later period, the Pelasgians of Latium rose successfully against the Tyrrhe- nian race, and established Rome. Nielmhr's theory that the Etrurians were a tribe from the Rhaetian Alps is not supported by any record of antiquity, and it overlooks the more obvious and probable explanation of the origin of Etruria. Doubtless there was a close ethnic relationship between the tribes of the Rhaetian Alps and the original inhabitants of Italy, but Etruria did not owe its existence to their agency. We know by their language, preserved in the Euguvine Origin of the Tyrrhenes. 373 tablets and in other inscriptions, and by their religious and social customs, that the original inhabitants of Italy did not belong to the Aryan race. This was manifest to Dionysi- us of Halicarnassus, who says : " That the Tyrrhenes and Pelasgi were different peoples is proved by their languages, which had no resemblance; neither do I think the Tyr- rhenes were a colony of Lydians, for there is no resemblance here in language. These two people differed in laws, in manners, and in institutions." The religious ideas and cus- toms, and the institutions of the Tyrrhenes, had a striking resemblance to those of the Eastern nations that had been formed by Cushite influence. This has led many writers into attempts to show that they came to Italy from the East; but,. when Cushite antiquity and enterprise are prop- erly recognised, it becomes much more probable that this unmistakable resemblance is due to the fact that the Siculi, or Tyrrhenes, were civilized, and formed, socially and po- litically, by the Cushite people called Ethiopians. Their civilization appears to have been superior to that of the Pelasgian race. The founders of Rome, in comparison with them, were little better than semi-barbarians ; and it may be doubted whether Rome, which far transcended Etruria in political and military power, could justly claim any oth- er superiority to the Etruscan civilization. I have pointed out that the original inhabitants of Italy, whom Dionysius calls the "Aborigines," were a branch of the Finnic race, anciently spread over nearly the whole of Europe. To the same race probably belonged not only the Iberians and the Ligurians, but also perhaps the most an- cient Illyrians, before they were intermixed with tribes of the Aryan race. If the various branches of the Finnic race separated before they were civilized, a very close identity Pre-Historic Nations. of language and customs, at the period when they first en- gage the attention of history, would not be possible. The earliest establishments of the Arabian Cushite race in Italy, Spain, and Northwestern Africa may have been more than 3000 years older than the first arrival of the Pelasgians in Italy. Their aims were commercial, their methods of com- munication with other peoples were peaceful, and we must suppose that the civilization of the Tyrrhenes was origin- ally created by their influence. So far as appears at the present time, the civilization of the Etruscans was much higher than that of the Iberians. But, in this case, appear- ance is not a safe guide to reality. The Basques do not show us the whole extent of the ancient civilization of their remote ancestors, and it requires no small amount of gratu- itous assumption to believe that the pre-historic civiliza- tion of Spain was inferior to that of Italy. The Etruscan language, like that of the Basques, pre- sents a problem which no philologist has been able to solve. It has engaged much attention, and from time to time there have been confident announcements that this and the other ingenious scholar had penetrated the mystery, and found the clew to its genetic relationships, but it remains still without an interpreter. Otfried Mtlller's learned illations on the ancient dialects of Italy are worth no more than the curious and very amusing attempt of Sir William Betham to translate the Euguvine tablets ; and Bethanf s translation, which fills them with directions for night-sail- ing to Ireland, is quite as confident, and perhaps nearly as correct, as that which finds on these tablets " the prayer^ and ceremonial rules of a fraternity of priests." The Um- brian and Etruscan inscriptions show us what remains of the language of a people who were developed and formed The word Africa explained. 375 by the Cushite civilization many ages before the Aryans entered Italy, and, it may be, before the Pelasgian tribes came from Inner Asia to the Mediterranean. Of course, this language underwent many changes during the long and eventful history of the ancient people by whom it was used. How much the original tongue of this people was changed or influenced by the Cushite speech of their civ- ilizers, and to what extent it was aflected by other influ- ences, can not be known. WESTERN EUROPE, ANCIENTLY CALLED AFRICA. Major Wilford's investigations led him to remark, in the 8th volume of the " Asiatic Researches," that " it is well known to the learned that, at a very remote period, Eu- rope and Africa were considered as but one of two grand divisions of the world, and that the appellation Africa was even extended to the western parts of Europe, all along the shores of the Atlantic." His fact will not be questioned ; there may, however, be some question relative to its sig- nification. He points out that the word Africa comes from Apar, Aphar, Apara, or Aparica, terms used, in times almost forgotten by tradition, to signify " The West," just as we now, continuing the ancient method of designation, call most of the Asiatic world " The East." It is only since the time of the Romans that the word Africa has become a name for one of the grand divisions of the globe. In the most ancient times the eastern part of that grand division was called " Sancha," a term that still remains in the w r ords Zengh, Zenghbhar, Zanguebar, Zin- gis, and the like ; while the northern, and especially the northwestern part, was designated as Apar, Aparica, Afari- ca, and finally Africa. We must suppose that, in early pre- 376 Pre-Historic Nations. historic times, Northern Africa and Western Europe had strongly engaged the attention of civilized nations in Asia ; that in Asia they were described as " The West ;" and that this remote Western world had risen to such eminence be- cause it was, to a large extent, occupied by civilized peo- ples who had made it important. Spain, as Heeren re- marks, " was the Peru of antiquity;" but in that Western world there was much besides gold and silver to command attention and attract commercial enterprise. It seems to me impossible to study the Greek literature carefully without perceiving that the people on the east- ern shores of the Mediterranean knew more of Western Europe in the time of Homer than in the time of Strabo, and much more in the ages previous to Ilonu T than when he wrote. I have discussed the fact that many of the old- est myths relate to Spain, Northwestern Africa, and other regions on the Atlantic, such as those concerning Hercules, the Cronida?, the Hyperboreans, the llesperides, and the Islands of the Blessed. Strabo, while admitting that Ho- mer described the Atlantic region of Europe in his account of the wanderings of Ulysses, shows, nevertheless, a very remarkable ignorance of that region, which comes out in what he says of Ireland, and especially in his ill-tempered and coarse attack on Pytheas of Massilia, an eminent as- tronomer and navigator, who, about the time of Alexander the Great, sailed to Thule or Iceland, and to a point in Northern Europe where, from a mountain, he Leheld the midnight sun. In the ages previous to the decline of Pho3- nician influence in Greece and around the ^Egean Sea, the people of those regions must have had a much better knowl- edge of Western Europe than prevailed there during either the Ionian or the Hellenic period, when actual information Diodorus on the Hyperboreans. 377 seems to have given place to imperfect recollections of what had been known in the earlier times. Diodorus Sicu- lus (bk. ii., ch. iii.) records some of these recollections as follows : "Among those who have written old stories that sound like fables, Hecataeus and some others say there is an island in the ocean, over against Gaul, where the Hyperboreans dwell, so called because they are beyond the north wind. The soil is very rich and fruitful, and the climate temper- ate. They say Latona was born there, and that Apollo is worshipped in that island above all other gods. In very ancient times the Hyperboreans had a special kindness for the Greeks, especially for the Athenians and the Delians ; and in those times some of the Greeks visited the Hyper- boreans and left presents, and Abaris, from the Hyperbo- reans, traveled into Greece, and renewed the ancient league with the Delians." It is said, also, that in this island Apollo " had a stately grove and a renowned temple, of a round form, beautified with many gifts." The story of Abaris is told by other writers, and there are repeated accounts of sacred embassies and offerings from the Hyperboreans to the temple at Delos. Some of the Irish antiquarians, whose facts are frequently better than their judgment, cite an old Irish poem which describes a journey of Abhras and others from Ireland to Greece, and they claim that this Abhras was the Abaris of Heca- taaus. Probably the British Islands were all known as Hy- perborean Islands ; but that supposition seems most prob- able which identifies the circular temple of Apollo described by Hecataeus with the great temple at Abury, in England. The Arabian Cushites, who created the Age of Bronze on the western shores and islands of Europe, must have had 378 Pre-Historic Nations. an accurate knowledge of that region many centuries be- fore the Aryan people became important in Asia Minor and Greece, and, through their influence in both regions, sacred embassies from the Hyperboreans to Delos were quite possible. Apollo, according to Herodotus the same as Orus of the Egyptians, was a Cushite deity, borrowed from the Cushites by the Greeks with nearly all the rest of their gods and their mythology, or rather received with many other great gifts of the Cushite civilization. Sun- worship, represented by Apollo under various names, was likely to appear in some form wherever the influence of this people was established. THE OLD SANSKRIT BOOKS ON WESTERN EUROPK. This ancient knowledge of Western Europe cxtendi'd to India. Recollections of it are recorded in the old Sanskrit books, of which Major Wilford gave an account in the elev- enth volume of the Asiatic Researches. The Brahmanical mythology, as we have it, combines the gods and mytho- logical legends brought into India by the Aryan race with those of the Cushites which the invading Aryans found there. This may explain why the Sanskrit records tell us so much of Africa and Europe. According to the Puranic traditions, there was, in very remote times, much commu- nication between India and the western part of Europe. The Varaha Purana describes that region with the accu- racy of actual knowledge. AVilford, quoting this descrip- tion, and reproducing an old Puranic map of AVi>t( rn Europe, says: "Here we may trace the Bay of Biscay, the German Sea, and the entrance into the Baltic ; but, above all, the greatest resemblance appears in the arrangement of the British Islands and Iceland ; this surely cannot be merely accidental.'' Sanskrit Names of IT eland. * 379 England is variously designated, but is usually called Sweta or Swetam : " Sweta-Saila, or the White Cliffs, is oft- en used, which is literally the Leucas-Petra of Homer, and Al-Fionn in Gaelic." Homer placed his Leucas-Petra at the extremities of the earth, in the ocean, near the settino- f - J O sun. The Argonautics, ascribed to Orpheus, call England Leucon- Cherson, the White Country, and it is placed in the Western Ocean, with lerne or Ireland. The Sanskrit " Su- varna-dwipa, the land of Suvarna or of gold, is also called Hiranya, a denomination of the same import. Hiranya and Suvarneya are obviously the same as lerne, Erin, and Ju- vernia, ancient names of Ireland. Another name for Ire- land is Surya-dwipa, Island of the Sun [or the land of sun- worship] ; and it was probably the old garden of Phoebus of the western mythologists." England, " the White Island, is considered as the abode of the mighty; Havana, in the Ramayana, inquires where the mighty ones dwell, and is told by Narada that they dwell in the White Island. The most ancient inhabitants of Britain, in their romances, called it the White Island, and Ynys-y- Ceideirn, the Island of the Mighty Ones." In the Sanskrit books the British Islands are described as " The Sacred Isles of the West." The White Island, or England, was " the land of Tarpana" or of " libations to the Pitris ;" and it seems to have been the Therapnse of the Argonautics. It is called the land of Tapas, or the most proper country for performing tapasya (religious aus- terity), which Wilford identifies with the blessed Theba or Thebai of the ancient Greeks. "In the Santiparva, one of the greater divisions of the Mahabharata, Narada goes to Sweta-dw.ipa, in the far northwest, to worship the original form of Narayana, which resides in that island." Wilford 3SO * Pre-Historic Nations. stated that, in modern times, Hindu pilgrims have attempt ed to visit the " Sacred Islands of the West," and added : "A Yogi now living is said to have advanced with his train of pilgrims as far as Moscow ; but, annoyed by the great and troublesome curiosity of the Russians, he turned back. He would probably have been exposed to similar inconveniences in the Sacred Isles, not excepting Breta- sfhan, or the place of religious duty." Before Old Tyre was founded before Martu or Mara- thos became the ruling city of the people called Phoeni- cians, it may be in the ages when Beirut, Byblos or Ge- bal, and Joppa or lopia, were the chief cities of that people on the Eastern Mediterranean, or oven previous to the time of their greatness an important civilization had grown up in Northwestern Africa, in Spain, and in some other places on the Atlantic coast of Europe, under Cushite influence, with which the great civilized peoples of Southwestern Asia were well acquainted. There was constant communi- cation with that region until this intercourse was inter- rupted by political changes throughout the Mediterranean world, of which history can give no explanation. All this was very much older than Assyria. Traces of it remain in the oldest myths and records of Greece, India, and Egypt, which, however, do not fully reveal their significance to those who cannot see the antiquity and importance of the Cushite civilization of Arabia. Its origin and history wt-iv doubtless fully described in the* ancient Phoenician records, but the language in which these records were written must have become a dead language before the Assyrian empire appeared. The old Keltic Civilization. 3S1 THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF IRELAND. The Keltic countries of Western Europe, when first in- vaded by the Romans, were all civilized countries. In this respect their condition was much higher than history, directed by Roman influence, is accustomed to admit. It would be unwarranted and improbable assumption to sup- pose they had, at that time, the highest condition of civil- ization they had ever known. They must have declined with that decline of Phoenician power and commercial en- terprise which interrupted their communication with the East. But they still had intelligence, wealth, and import- ance. We can see that their skill in many of the arts of civilized life was nowise inferior to that of the Romans themselves. They had a literature which, in some of the countries, was abundant and important, although the Ro- mans give us no account of it. If Roman scholars had carefully studied the Keltic language, literature, and an- tiquities, and faithfully recorded the result of such studies, we should not now begin our histories of Great Britain with the invasion of Caesar, nor would the most presuming historical skepticism fail to treat the ancient history of that part of Europe with some respect. In the time of Julius Caesar, Turdetania and Ireland ap- pear to have had the most advanced condition of the Keltic civilization. Turdetania, like most of the Keltic countries in Spain and elsewhere on the Continent, became entirely Romanized. The Turdetani forgot their language, lost their literature, changed their manners, and were so entire- ly transformed by the conquerors that Strabo said of them, " they have, for the most part, become Latins." The Ro- mans did not go to Ireland, although, in their time, its com- 382 Prf-instoric Nations. merce, wealth, and culture made it the most important of the Keltic countries. On this point Tacitus says, in hi? life of Agricola: "Melius (Hiberniae quam Britannia?) adi- tus portusque per commercia et negociatores cogniti ;" that is to say, "the ports of Ireland are better known through commerce, and more frequented by merchants, than those of Britain." Ireland escaped the destructive influence of a Roman in- vasion, outlived the Roman empire, and maintained its in- dependence until the time of Henry Second of England more than 1200 years after the invasion of Britain by Ju- lius Caesar, and about 750 years after the Romans retired from that country. It retained its Keltic institutions, laws, and literature for more than 1200 years after all the other Keltic countries had been subjugated and transformed. There was but little internal change in Ireland for a long time after the princes of that country, with their king, sub- mitted to the sway of Henry Second. The old Irish lan- guage has not yet wholly disappeared from the country, an overthrown by the sons of Milidh. It can bo seen in all these narratives that, in the earlie>( times to which the records relate, Africa, Spain, and other countries had commercial intercourse with Ireland. The great provocation that led the people of Spain, frequently called Milesians in the Annals, to invade the island. received during a friendly visit of some of their people t<> the Tuatha-de-Dananns. They conquered the whole isl- and, and held it until Ireland ceased to be an independent kingdom. Their language and culture were made pre- dominant, being gradually adopted by all the races an. I Irish Ancient History neglected. 387 peoples in the island. These Milesians were Kelts; but some of the earlier invasions must have taken place pre- vious to that Aryan immigration into Western Europe which, by absorbing the civilized Finnish and Cushite peo- ples found there, in Spain, Gaul, and the British Islands, created the Keltic race. Perhaps the Milesians were the first Kelts that appeared in Ireland. It is not creditable to English scholarship that those who represent it have given no more attention to the old language and literature of Ireland, but the explanation is not difficult. We find it in that invincible scorn and dis- dain of the English for everything Irish by which the rela- tion between the two countries has been made so unprofit- able to both, and so injurious to Ireland in all respects. Without friendly and careful investigation, it has been rudely assumed that the Irish language and literature were not worth attention ; therefore they have been neg- lected. It is to be lamented that this important field was not worked carefully two or three centuries ago, when the old manuscripts were more abundant and the language was in general use among the Irish, for much has been lost. Without accepting either the dates, the glosses, or the ethnical speculations of the later Irish writers, we must admit that the general outline and main facts of Irish his- tory furnished by the old records of the country cannot reasonably be discredited nor shown to be improbable. On the contrary, they are in harmony with what we know > or may reasonably presume, concerning Western Europe in p re-historic times. The monuments of the Age of Bronze, as well as v, ^d{i we know of the antiquity and the colonizing enterprise of the Arabian Cushites, make this Irish claim to antiquity probable, and forbid us to treat it 388 Prc-Historic Nations. with such contempt as has been so largely bestowed upon it. This is a case where contemptuous skepticism dishon- ors those only who indulge it. We know very well, without reading the Irish Annals, that Ireland was an independent nation, having its own kings, institutions, and civilization more than two thou- sand years ago, and that it remained so until its princes, moved by papal influence, submitted to the English. It was an independent monarchy in the time of the Romans. Ptolemy described its cities ; Tacitus mentioned its import- ance ; and it is prominently mentioned by writers of earlier ages. We cannot reasonably discredit that portion of the Irish Annals which relates to the ages since the Romans began their subjugation of the Keltic countries; nothing but the intolerance of contemptuous prejudice is capable of doing this. It is no more reasonable to reject the Irish claim to antiquity, and treat with disdain the older annals of the country. The Irish people seem to have reached the highest con- dition of their civilization and culture in the time of the great sovereign known in their annals as Ollamli Eodhla, who reigned long before the Christian Era ; but they were eminent for culture in times ablate as the \<>rman Con- quest of England. No one familiar with what is recorded of the history of England between the time ofllenirist and that of William the Conqueror has failed to observe that Ireland at that time was the most enlightened country of Western Europe. It had the best scholars and the most advanced condition of learning. Mosheim says in his Ec- clesiastical History, "The philosophy and logic taught in the- European schools in' the ninth century scarce!;. served such honorable titles, and were little better than Craik on* the Keltic Tongue. 389 empty jargon. There were, however, to be found in vari- ous places, particularly among the Irish, men of acute parts and extensive knowledge, who were well entitled to be called philosophers." Among the learned Irishmen of that age was the celebrated Scotus. Gildas, according to his bi- ographer, went to Ireland for education, and studied in its schools " the highest forms of philosophy and literature ;" and Camden tells us that " the Saxons, from all places, flocked to Ireland as the emporium of letters." If the Nor- mans had failed to conquer England, the language and cul- ture of the English race would now be different, and we should have been taught greater respect for the language, antiquities, ancient history, and old literature of the Irish race. THE KELTIC LANGUAGE. Philologists arrange the known Keltic tongues in two divisions : the Gadhelic, embracing the Irish, the Gaelic of Scotland, and the dialect of the Isle of Man ; and the Cym- ric, comprising the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Armorican of Brittany. There may have been other branches of this family that became extinct under Roman influence. The language of the Kelts after much doubt concerning its character, that has been removed by careful investigation is now classed as a branch of the Aryan family. Its Ary- an characteristics were not immediately obvious. Profess- or Craik, in his " Manual of English Literature," says : " Probably any other two languages of the entire multi- tude held to be of this general stock [Indo-European or Aryan] would unite more readily than two of which only one is Celtic. It would be nearly the same case with that of the intermixture of an Indo-European with a Semitic 390 Pre-HistoTiG Nations. language. It has been suggested that the Celtic branch must, in all probability, have diverged from the common stem at a much earlier date than any of the others." An accomplished American scholar, Professor Whitney speaking of Professor Schleicher's scheme of relationship for all branches of the Aryan family, observes that the po- sition assigned in it to the Keltic languages repels rather than attracts assent. According to Professor Schleicher, their development was later than that of most other branch- es of the family, and they are more closely related to Latin than to any other Aryan tongue. This close relationship of the Aryan elements of the Keltic speech to that of the Latins cannot be denied ; the more carefully and thorough- ly the two languages are compared, the more clearly will this fact be presented to the investigator. It suggests that the Aryan people, whose influence in Western Europe cre- ated Keltica and the Keltic tongues, were Pelasgians from Italy. These Pelasgians found in those Western countries a people of another race, who, long before their arrival, had been civilized by the Arabian Cushites. What hap- pened in England at a later period, when the Saxons and Norman French were brought together in that country, must have occurred in this case, with results still more re- markable, for here the peoples were not of the same race. There was a fusion of two races, and of two languages that did not belong to the same family. This fusion developed the Keltic tongues. The Pelasgian language, while retain- ing most of its fundamental characteristics, and thus pre- serving its relationship to the Aryan family, was, to a great extent, transformed. It became the Keltic tongue. The decay and new growth that obscured its Aryan features may thus be explained, without assuming that the Keltic The Aryans in Western Europe. 391 tongues constitute a branch of the Aryan family, which " separated from the common stem at a much earlier date than any of the others." Keltica consisted only of Gaul, Spain, and the British Islands. According to the Irish records, the Keltic peo- ple and language went to Ireland from Spain, and from Ireland to Scotland. They may have gone to England and "Wales from Gaul. In Spain and a portion of Southern France the fusion of races and tongues was never com- plete. Large communities of the old Iberian people, now represented by the Basques, were entirely unaffected by it. This may have been due not only to the position of the districts they inhabited, but also to some difference in blood and language, caused by important changes in the othei Iberian communities, which did not reach the Basques, but left them to represent more accurately the speech and blood of the earlier ages. An authentic record of the ancient times would explain much that is now left to conjecture. Even a history of 1 the Keltic tongues would give us im- portant historical information. But we have no such his- tory, and no trace of any Keltic dialect that does not be- long to either the Gadhelic or the Cymric family. It may be that the Gadhelic family represents the language as it was spoken in Spain, and the Cymric the form in which it appeared in Gaul ; but our knowledge of the Keltic speech, which is limited to the Irish and Welsh, with a few kindred dialects, does not allow us to speak on this point with any degree of certainty. There was no such fusion of tongues in any other coun- try of Western Europe. The other branches of the Aryan family kept their language free from corrupting mixtures. In some cases they fiercely expelled the old inhabitants of 302 Pre-Historic Nations. the countries where they settled. So it was in Scandina* via, where the old Norse immigrants treated the Finns with perpetual hostility, and described them as " jotuns," demons, beings of an accursed race. There is no record or tradition that tells when the first group of the Aryan race appeared in Central or Western Europe. The people rep- resented by the Lithuanians and the Letts appear to have been the earliest immigrants ; the old Prussians belonged to this group. Next probably came the Slavonians, who settled in Poland and other countries of Central Europe. The Teutonic family, including several distinct groups, came later to the countries where history found them. It may be that all these immigrations preceded that of the Pelasgians into Spain and Gaul, but it does not seem prob- able that any group of the Teutonic family appeared in Sweden, Denmark, or even Germany, previous to the be- ginning of the Keltic age. It is more likely that this fam- ily came latest, and that it arrived in Germany and the more Western countries but a few centuries in advance of the Roman invasion, or at a period considerably later than the beginning of the Age of Iron. All these families of the Aryan race, however, may have been in Eastern Eu- rope a long time before any of them appeared at the West. ANCIENT COMMUNICATION WITH AMKKICA. Was America known to the ancients? I shall not un- dertake here a full discussion of this question, wli id, re- quires a careful consideration of the monuments and liter- ary remains of the ancient civilizations found in America when this continent was discovered by Columbus. What I have to say on the subject will be limited to a brief state- ment of the grounds on which those whose inquiries have The Cushite Religion in America. 393 been conducted with most care and intelligence believe there was communication between the Old World and America in very remote times. They find the evidence of this communication in the ruins and traditions of the an- cient American civilizations, as well as in the traditions and myths of classical antiquity. We will begin with what is found in America. 1. The antiquities of Mexico and Central America reveal religious symbols, devices, and ideas nearly identical with those found in all countries of the Old World where Cush- ite communities formerly existed. They show us planet worship, with its usual orphic and phallic accompaniments. Humboldt, having traveled in America, and observed re- mains of these civilizations, was convinced that such com- munication formerly existed. Pie found evidence of it in the religious symbols, the architecture, the hieroglyphics, and the social customs made manifest by the ruins, which he was sure came from the other side of the ocean ; and, in his view, the date of this communication was older than " the present division of Asia into Chinese, Mongols, Hin- dus," etc. [See his "Researches concerning the Institutions and Monuments of the Ancient People of America."] Hum- boldt did not observe symbols of the phallic worship, but the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg shows that they were described by Spanish writers at the time of the Conquest. He points out that they were prevalent in the countries of Mexico and Central America, being very abundant at Colhuacan on the Gulf of California, and at Panuco. Col- huacan was a flourishing city, and the capital of an im- portant kingdom; "there," he says, "phallic institutions had existed from time immemorial." At Panuco phallic symbols abounded in the temples and on the public mon- R 2 394 Pre-IIistoric Nations. uments. These, with the serpent devices, the sun worship, and the remarkable knowledge of astronomy that existed in connection with them, show a system of religion of which the Abbe is constrained to say: "Asia appears to have been the cradle of this religion, and of the social institu- tutions which it consecrated." The Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg has studied American antiquities more pro- foundly than any other investigator. He has a very im- portant collection of the books of the ancient people of .Mexico and Central America, one of which, "The Popol Vuh," he has translated into French ; and he has written in the same language, and published in four octavo vol- umes, a " History of the Civilized Nations of Mexico and Central America during the Ages before Christopher Co- lumbus," the materials for the work being taken from the old books he has collected or examined. 2. The traditions of these countries are still more ex- plicit. Their uniform testimony is, that the ancient Amer- ican civilization came originally from the East across the ocean. In Sahagun's history, it is stated that, according to the traditions of the people of Yucatan, the original civ- ilizers came in ships from the East. A similar tradition was communicated to the Spaniards by Monte/uma. The Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg, speaking of the earliest civ- ilization of the Mexicans and Central Americans, says : " The native traditions generally attribute it to bearded white- men, who came across the ocean from the cast." The native histories he has examined describe thr of ancient inhabitants. First, the Chichimecs, who to have been the uncivilized aborigines of the country; second, the Colhuas, who were the first civilizers, and ly wliom the Chichimecs were taught to cultivate the earth, Ancient American Traditions. 395 cook their food, and adopt the usages of civilized life ; and, third, the Nahuas or Toltecs, who came much later as peaceable immigrants, but after a time united with un- civilized Chichimecs, caused a civil war, and secured power. The Colhuas were the bearded white men, who came in the earliest times across the Atlantic. They built Palenqu > and other cities, originated the oldest and finest monu- ments of the ancient civilization, and established the great kingdom of Xibalba, which is celebrated in the histories and traditions. It comprised Guatemala, Chiapas, Yuca- tan, and probaJbly other countries. Desire Charnay, speak- ing of the ruins at Mitla, points out that the most ancient architecture, paintings, mosaics, and artistic designs are ii the highest style, and show "marvelous workmanship,"' while the later additions are in a much lower style, and seem to be the work of a people less advanced in cultuiv and skill than the original founders of the city. The finest and most remarkable monuments in these countries seen; to be remains of that ancient kingdom of Xibalba. It i; said repeatedly that "the Colhuas came from beyond the sea, and directly from the east." The Abbe makes this statement also: "There was a constant tradition amon<.' the people who dwelt on the Pacific Ocean that peoplt from distant nations beyond the Pacific formerly came to trade at the ports of Coatulco and Pechugui, which b( - longed to the kingdom of Tehuantepec." The traditions of Peru told of people who came to that country by sea, and landed on the Pacific coast. The reader will remen; ber that there was anciently a great maritime empire of the Malays, and that dialects of the Malay language ni < scattered across the Pacific Ocean as far as Easter Island. Such, very briefly stated, are the chief points in the ti-s- 396 Prc-IIistoric Nations. timony of the antiquities and traditions found in America. We will now turn to the ancient myths and traditions of the Old World. In the traditions, legends, and mythical geography of the ancients, there is much that has no meaning if it does not preserve vague recollections of very ancient knowl- edge of America. The mythical references to a great con- tinent beyond the " Cronian Sea," meaning the Atlantic. Plutarch's mention of a great Cronian or Saturnian con- tinent, the Atlantis of Solon and Plato, and the Merope of Theopompus, all belong to a circle of very ancient tra- ditions, with which many are familiar. There is nothing in the history of the human mind that allows us to treat them as pure fictions. The mythical story of the Atlantic Island which Solon brought from Egypt was not entirely new in Greece. The invasion of the East, to which it re- fers, seems to have given rise to the Panathensea, the old- est, greatest, and most splendid festivals in honor of Athe- na celebrated in Attica. These festivals are said to have been established by Erich thonius in the most ancient times remembered by the historical t radit ions of Athens. Bocckh says of them in his Commentary on Plato : "In the greater Panathena3a there was carried in proces- sion a peplum of Minerva, representing the Avar witli the giants and the victory of the gods of Olympus. In the lesser Panathenaea they carried another /";//'//// [co\ with symbolic devices], which showed how the Athenians, supported by Minerva, had the advantage in the Avar with the Atlantes." A scholia quoted from Proclus by Hum- boldt and Boeckh says, " The historians who speak of the islands of the exterior sea tell us that in their time then- were seven islands consecrated to Proserpine, and three Atlantis and Xibalba. 397 others of immense extent, of which the first was consecrated to Pluto, the second to Ammon, and the third to Neptune. The inhabitants of the latter had preserved a recollection (transmitted to them by their ancestors) of the island of Atlantis, which was extremely large, and for a long time held sway over all the islands of the Atlantic Ocean. At- lantis also was consecrated to Neptune." [See Humboldt's Histoire de la Geographic du Nouveau Continent, vol. i.] The knowledge of America signified by these myths and traditions must be referred to a very remote antiquity to a period as much older than the time of the Tyrians as that of the first civilization of Spain and Northwestern Africa was older than the building of Gades. If, as seems prob- able, this knowledge was a reality, the people who com- municated with America must have gone from the great nation created on the Western Mediterranean by the ear- liest Cushite communities established in that region. If that communication lasted a thousand years, the age in which it was discontinued would have been mythical long before the time when the Tyrians began to establish settle- ments at the West. What we know of the rise and de- cline of important nations, and of the great political chan- ges to which such nations are liable, suggests how it may have been interrupted. The Goths and Vandals did not continue the great enterprises of the Romans. There may have been dark as well as bright ages in the history of these great countries at the West. De Bourbourg, in one of the notes of the Introduction to his translation of the Popol-Vuh, which gives a mythical history of very ancient times in Central America, presents for consideration a remarkable analogy between the king- dom of Xibalba and the mythical account of the island of Atlantis. He says : 398 Pre-Histomc Nations. "Without seeking to advance any particular opinion on the subject, it seems to me useful to call the reader's attention to the analogies presented between the empire of Xibalba and that of Atlantis as described in Plato's Critias. Both countries are magnificent, exceedingly fer- tile, and abound in the precious metals ; the empire of At- lantis was divided into ten kingdoms, governed by live couples of twin sons of Poseidon, the eldest being supreme over the others; and the ten constituted a tribunal that managed the affairs of the empire. Their descendants gov- rrm-d after them. The ten kings of Xibalba, who reigned [in couples] under Hun-Came and Vukub-Came [and who together constituted a grand council of the kingdom], cer- tainly furnish curious points of comparison. And there is wanting neither a catastrophe [for Xibalba had a terrific inundation] nor the name of Atlas, of which the etymol* ogy is found only in the Nahuatl tongue ; it comes from i- ty, some of them crossed the ocean and visited the Hyper- boreans. De Bourbourg, referring to those who talk of these distinct references to America as " fictions," says very justly, "If the story of Theopompus is a fiction, it is, like 'The Incas' of Manumit el, founded on fact." It is now a historical fact that the Northmen, sailing from Iceland, not only discovered America in the tenth century, but also established colonies on the coast of Ne\v KiiLrland, and that they preserved communication with these colonies for two centuries. Most readers are familiar witli the story of these discoveries and settlements of the Northmen. It is not so well known, but is, nevertheless quite true, that they were preceded in Iceland by the Iri>h, and in voyages to America by the Irish and the Basques Eastern Asia and America. 401 The Basques, being adventurous fishermen, and extensively engaged in the whale fishery, were accustomed to visit the northeast coast of America long before the time of Colum- bus, and probably " from time immemorial." [See Michel's "Les Pays Basques," and De Bourbourg's Introduction.] There is no scarcity of reports and traditions of Irish voy- ages to America, but I will do no more than cite a fact re- corded by the Abbe Brasseur de Bourbourg in a note to his translation of the Popol-Vuh. He says : " There is an abundance of legends and traditions con- cerning the passage of the Irish into America, and their habitual communication with that continent many centu- ries before the time of Columbus. We should bear in mind that Ireland was colonized by the Phoenicians [or by peo- ple of that race]. An Irish saint, named Yigile, who lived in the eighth century, was accused to Pope Zachary of having taught heresies on the subject of the antipodes. At first he wrote to the pope in reply to the charge, but aft- erwards he went to Rome in person to justify himself, and there he proved to the pope that the Irish had been accustomed to communicate with a trans-Atlantic world." This fact seems to have been preserved in the records of the Vatican. It is known that knowledge of the American continent existed in China and Japan long before the time of Colum- bus. The Abbe de Bourbourg says in his Introduction to the Popol-Yuh, " It has been known to scholars nearly a century that the Chinese were acquainted with the Ameri- can continent in the fifth century of our era. Their ships visited it. They called it Fu-$ang, and said it was situ- ated at the distance of 20,000 li from Ta-Han" M. Leon de Rosny has ascertained that Fasang is the topic of " a 402 P re-Historic N-atiom. curious notice in the WaJcan-san-tai-dzon-ye" (which is the name of the great Japanese Encyclopaedia). In that work Fusang is said to be situated east of Japan, beyond the ocean, at the distance of about 20,000 li (7000 miles or more) from Ta-nan-kouek. De Bourbourg, who quotes the notice, adds : " Readers who may desire to make compari- sons between the Japanese description of Fusang and some country in America will find astonishing analogies in the countries described by Castaneda and Fra Marcos de Xiza, in the province of Cibola." The Chinese and Japanese do not give us myths ; they tell us what they have actually known for many centuries. The Welsh prince Madog, about the year 1170 A.D., was just as certain of the existence of America when " he sailed away westward, going south of Ireland," to find a land of refuge from the civil war among his countrymen. The Welsh annals tell us that he found the land he soiurht. Having made preparations for a settlement, he returned to Wales, secured a large company that "filled ten ships,'' and then sailed away again, and "never returned." In 1GGO, Rev. Morgan Jones, a Welsh clergyman, seeking to go by land from South Carolina to Roanoke, was captured by the Tuscarora Indians. He declares that his life was spared because he spoke Welsh, which some of the Indians understood; that he was able to converse with them in Welsh, though with some difficulty ; and that he remained with them four months, sometimes preaching to them in Welsh. John Williams, LL.D., who reproduced the state- ment of Mr. Jones in his work on the story of Prince Ma- dog's emigration, published in 1791, explained it by assum- ing that Prince Madog settled in North Carolina, and that the Welsh colony, after being weakened, was incorporated Ancient America still undiscovered. 403 with these Indians. If we may believe the story of Mr. Jones (and I cannot find that his veracity was questioned at the time), it will seem necessary to accept this explana- tion. It will be recollected that, in the early colony times, the Tuscaroras were sometimes called "White Indians." The Northmen had settlements in New England long be- fore Prince Madog's colony went to America. But I must leave this topic, which requires a volume instead of a few pages. The Abbe de Bourbourg thinks ancient America " is still to be discovered." Perhaps he will advance the discovery by finding means to interpret the inscriptions at Palenque. Certainly there is nothing unreasonable or improbable in the supposition that the countries on the Western Mediterranean, associated in the myths with Atlas and the Atlantides, communicated with America in very remote antiquity; nor is it improbable that there was communication across the Pacific. The objec- tions raised against it come chiefly from the gratuitous as- sumption that such enterprise was impossible in ancient times, and from the influence of thought and imagination preoccupied, perhaps unconsciously, by an invincible de- termination to deny it. GENERAL INDEX. [The figures in this Index refer to pages.] AnAitrs the Hyperborean, 377 ; Irish anti- quaries on Abaris, 377. Abraham and Hebrew, 140. Abury, its rains of a vast temple, 15, SCO ; this temple belonged to the first period of the Age of Bronze, 360; described by Aubrey, 360 ; by Hecataeus, 377. Ad and his contemporaries, 78 ; nothing Alphabetical- writing, 91-94 ; the styles Arabian older than Ad, 104 ; he repre- sents the oldest Arabian civilization. 1(14,105; political periods between Ad and the Himyarites, 104-106, 115. Africa not a continent of savage negroes, 306 ; our knowledge of the interior re- cent, 306, 325 ; negroes chiefly on the Guinea coast, 307, 309 ; races in Africa, 307-311 ; exploration proceeds from the north and east, 307; the brown race most numerous in Africa, 308 ; African ancient history, 326 ; the Africans make and work iron, and have arts of civili- zation, 326-328 ; mixture of races in Af- rica, 330, 331 ; written histories of Cen- tral African kingdoms, 329 ; the Gallas, :-;-':: ; the Wahuma, 331 ; the Fulans, Earth's statement, 332 ; Eichwaldt and I'.arth on their origin, 332, 333; more civilization in Africa formerly than now, 333-337 ; North Africa in ancient times, 335-337 ; what the Portuguese found in East Africa, 334 ; navigation around Africa in ancient times, 345-350; origin of the name Africa, 375. Age of Bronze in Western Europe, 358- 361 ; it began on the West Coast, 363 ; a foreign people introduced it, 362, 364 ; it was of long duration, 359, 361 ; bronze implies civilization, 362; antiquity of the Bronze Age, 362, 364, 367 ; was in- troduced by the ancient Phoenicians or Cushites, 355, 365-367; it reveals Baal worship, Cushite manufactures, etc., 365,366; it was contemporary with a much higher and older civilization in Spain and Southern France, 369; its oldest remains show the highest man- ufacturing skill, 365. A:c of Iron traced in the Danish peat, 359; was introduced by the Tyrians. 356, 367. Age of Stone, it has two or three periods, 359 ; its latest period shows civilization, 359, 360, 368 ; it was contemporary in Eastern Switzerland with bronze at the West, 363. used anciently all from one source, 91 ; the Phoenicians and Egyptians on its origin, 91, 92 ; Sir William Drummond's theory, 92 ; Sir Henry Rawlinson's state- ment, 92, 93 ; alphabetic writing orig- inated in Arabia, 93 ; it was preceded by hieroglyphics, 92, 93 ; the art of writing in Egypt, 93, 94 ; six styles of cuneiform writing, 93 ; the oldest known form of the Cushite alphabet, 90, 94 ; the names and forms of the letters show their or- igin in hieroglyphics, 94 ; Pliny on the origin of alphabetic writing, 94. America discovered by Asiatics in pre- historic times, 265, 395, 401, 402 ; Atlan- tis meant America, 354, 397, 398 ; Mexi- can and Central American traditions indicate ancient communication be- tween America and countries east of the Atlantic, 392-395, 397 ; planet wor- ship and phallic symbols in America, 393; tradition in Yucatan, 394; the three ancient races, 394; the Colhuas who came first in ships were bearded white men, 394 ; they built Palenque and the oldest and finest monuments, 394, 395; the earliest ancient civiliza- tion in America the most advanced, 395, 398 ; legends, traditions, and myth- ical geography of the ancients, 395-400 ; the Athenian Panathenrea and Atlan- tis, 396; Proclus,396; a Phoenician ves- sel finds America, 399 ; Aristotle and Plutarch, 399 ; statement of Theopom- pus, from ^Elian, 400 ; the Northmen in America, 400 ; the Irish and Basques, 400,401; Vigile on Irish voyages to America, 401 ; Chinese and Japanese statements, 401 ; Prince Madog and America, 402; Rev. Morgan Jones and : was much older than Roman times,' | the " w'e'lsh Indians," 402 ; the Cushite 406 Index. people on the Western Mediterranean must have gone to America, 39T, 403 ; how the communication was interrupt- ed, 397 ; antiquity of ancient knowledge of America, 397. Ancient History, how it is embarrassed. 23; ancient history of Arabia, 95-117; of Hiras or Iran, 36, 243-247 ; ancient historical works that are lost, 130 ; of Ireland, 382. Antiquity of civilization and science, 30, 31, 116-125; antiquity of man under- rated, 25; antiquity denied because "so far off," 127, 128, 135. Arabia a very ancient seat of civilization, 21, 49, 50. 56, 57, 66, 67, 76, 86 ; the an- cient Ethiopia, 57-63 ; origin of the term Ethiopia, 57, 58 ; Hebrew Scrip- tures on Arabia, 58, 59 ; earliest civili- y.ation in Arabia, 61, 62; Arabia misun- derstood, 67-69 ; \Vellsted, Forster, Ptol- emy, and El Edrisi on Arabia, 68, 69 ; Palgrave on Central Arabia, 69-72 ; its settled population, kingdoms, cities, and condition, 70-72 ; the nomads few and unimportant, 70; the desert dis- tricts formerly cultivated, 72, 73 ; its an- cient capacity for coloni/.iiiL: enterprise, 73 ; the two races in Arabia, 73-78 ; its ancient language, 74, 75; its superior geographical position, 56, 57 ; its pres- ent isolation explained, 68; Arabian inscriptions in El Ilarrah, 86, 87 : 1'al- gravu'd notice of Arabian antiquities Egyptian Science, 116, 177; Dr. Long on Aristotle and Eudoxus, 176; Aris- totle on ancient knowledge of Amer- ica, 399. Arnaud's visit to the ruins of Saba and the dike Arim, 83, 84. Aryan or Iranian ancient history, 36, 243- 247 ; inquiry embarrassed by refusal to see it, 243 ; how it is mutilated, 244 ; a "brilliant" scheme of Anquetil du Perron, 244 ; the kingdom of lliras witli its "fourteen settlements" and its cap- ital at Balkh, 244-246 ; dates in Iranian history, 245; the Zend and Sanskrit Aryans dwelt together in the kingdom of lliras, '24(5 ; the whole Aryan family together under the dynasty of Ab;ui, 24'> ; the Vedicracc dwelt lirst in Haptu- llindu, 246, 247 ; Hichardsou's trouble with Aryan history, '246, '-'47. Aryans in Europe, order of their coming, 391,392; the Pelaagians came through Italy and mixed with the old (Jaul and Spain, 890. 898 ; this fusion created Keltiea and the Keltic tongues :.e Lithuanians, slavoni . Teutons came through C'entral Europe, ::'.!: may have stopped lomr at before coming West, 892 ; tb % tongues in Central and North- * rope unmixed with those of the old race, :;'.>!. ruins and inscriptions, SO-SS; Arabian Assyria, its origin, 190, 204; its r'. empire, L>"4. '/1 4: it changed the lan- of C'haldea, 205. s7; ancient science originated in Ara- Astronomy in ancient times, 116-1- Arabian" origin, 11*; the later Arabi- bia, 118; its nautical science, 190-126; the mariner's compass, rjl-l.'::. i-jr, ; mathematical science and the nine dig- its came from Arabia. 11'.' : Vincent on Arabian enterprise, 219; the Arabians in Africa, 324. Arabian Ancient History lost, 95; weird influence of Arabian antiquity, 95, 96; its extent, 97: what liiiL'uistic and ar chseological science sav of it, \>6 ; hypo- theticalscheme of Arabian ancient his- tory,96-99 ; ita grand period, 9T; it- riods of decline, 97-99 ; the Greeks fail- Baal in Western Europe, 366. ed to study Arabia, 99, loo ; what they Babylon, that of the ancient Greeks was said of it. 'imt, mi; Arabian tradition at Niffer, ISO, 190, 19-. -jim; the more an astronomy. 119; suppose t; Babylonian observatory had Athens, 117; astronomy in China. 119, l.ii; astronomical observations at Bab- ylon. 17:., 170; Dr. Long on these dis- coveries, I7d; (ireek astronomy came from Eirypt and the East, if'.'; the ancients had aids : lens found at Babylon. , Athens learned of Ionia, I on the past, 102-108 ; Mahometan writ- ers of Arabian history, in-_M04; frag- ments of Arabian ancient history. Ids- modern Babylon of Nebuchadne/./ar, '-''I : and of the later kingdom of Chal- dea, 213. 112; Zohak and the ".Median" dynasty Banca tin mine- of Berosus, lo^-lio, 212; Schamar-Iar- Barbara described,279; this ancient name a acy and their books, 342, 343; their Burnouf on the Saivite Tantras, 235; Egyptian style, 343 ; their history, 343 ; the Touaricks, 340-342. Belkis, queen of Saba, 84, 85. Berosus on the "Arabian" dynasty in Chaldea, 111 ; his history of Chaldea 180-185 ; his dynastic list, 182-184 ; dog matic chronology on Berosus, 182-185 he enumerated 163 Chaldean kings pre vious to Assyria, 181 ; Berosus on the origin of Chaldean civilization, 186 ; his history confirmed, 190, 191; he shows two great periods of Chaldean history, Urahmanism, where first developed, 250 ; Maim on Brahmuvartta, 250, 251 ; Brah- manism in Kikata, 252; ancient Brah- manism very unlike the Vedic religion, 250; very unlike modern Brahman isir>, 253, 254, 257, 258 ; how Buddhism grew to power, 256; Brahmanism never weut to Ceylon, 25(5 ; modern Brahmanism explained, 258-2CO ; its eclectic policy, 258, 289, 378 ; its union with Siva-wor- ship not perfect, 222, 25S, 259. Brasseur de Bourbourg, his study of American antiquities, 393, 394; trans- lated the Popol-Vuh, 394 ; his compari- son of the government of Atlantis with that of Xibalba in Central America, 397, 398 ; his account of Mexican and Central American traditions, 394; of phallic worship, 31)3 ; of Peruvian tradi- tions and antiquities, 398 ; of Vigile's statement, 401. British Islands called Hyperborean, 377; described in Sanskrit books, 378, 379 ; Sanskrit name of Ireland, 379 ; the Sa- cred Isles of the West, 379 ; a Yogi's at- tempt to visit them, 380. Buddhism, its probable origin, statement of James Bird, 224 ; it did not originate the rock-temples, 233-230 ; the Buddh- ism of Sakhya-Muni very different from the Siva worship of the rock-temples, 235; Burnouf on Buddhism and the Sai- vite Tantras, 235 ; how Buddhism was originated in Kikata, or Maghada, 252, 253 ; it was later than ancient Brahman- ism, but older than modern Brahman- ism, 253, 254 ; older than Sakhya-Muni, 254; many previous Buddhas, 255; Bur- nouf and Wilson on the BoddhaSj W, ; Buddhism now the religion of a thiul of our race, 256; how it was overthrown in India, 256, 257; Sakhya-Muni was merely the oracle of one very popular development of Buddhism, 257 ; the Saivas were more ancient Buddhists, 257, 25S ; the Chinese Fa-hian on the more ancient Buddhas, 255, 256. Bun&en on the date of man's creation. 25, 26 ; on Chaldean chronology, 207, ' on Egyptian antiquity, 298, 305. per- plexed by the intimate relations of Buddhism and Siva-worship, 255 ; his notice of the "Seven Buddhas, 255; his statement concerning the Saivite divin- ities, 258. Chaldea and the Greeks, 173-176, 180 ; Chaldea discovered in its ruins, 174 ; Chaldean astronomy, 175-179; Chalde- an history by Berosus, 180-185 ; Chal- dea much more ancient than Assyria, 180, 196; the Cushites were first in Chaldea. 184; Chaldean traditions and antiquities, 185-191 ; tradition of Can- nes, 186, 187 ; the Turanian hobby, 186 ; Chaldean ruins and inscriptions, JSS- 191 ; present condition of the country, 188, 189; the ruins of four cities ex- plored, 189-191 ; Cushite origin of Chal- dea, 192, 193 ; language of Chaldea, 194- 196; discussed by Kenan and the French philologists, 194, 195; political and lin- guistic changes in Chaldea, 196-199, 204,205; it may have begun 4662 B.C., 196 ; Tower of Babel, 198 ; Nipur, the more ancient Babylon, the capital in the great days of Chaldea, 198 ; Nimrod and this capital, 198, 199 ; the year 2234 B.C. discussed, 199-202; a Sin dynasty in Chaldea, 198 ; history of an old tem- ple, 202, 203 : Babylonia became subor- dinate to Assyria, 204, 205; Chaldea misunderstood because it is not seen, 206; Chaldean history and chronolo- gy considered, 206-214 ; a hypothetical scheme of the history, 209-214; time of the old kingdom, 207, 209-211 ; the later kingdom, 212, 213. China, its civilization, 15; its history and historical works, 37, 38 ; its chronology, 38 ; the Chinese cycle of 60 years, when established, 38; China invaded by an Arabian king, 110, 111. Chronology discussed, 24-38; Kollin's chronological difficulty, 24; the past is larger than the current chronologies admit Bunsen's view, 25, 26 ; the busi- ness of making schemes of chronology, 26 ; the current chronologies have m is used and insulted the Bible, 27-20 ; "biblical" chronologists disagree, f 7 ; the dicta of Maurice, 28: Christianity wronged by these chronologist?, 9; 408 Index. ite religion traced in India, 220-227 : Siva a Cushite god, 221 ; Cushite politi- cal system iu India, 225, 226 ; the Cush- ites m Africa, 322-326 ; Cushite dialects in Africa, 323 ; Cushite traces in Amer- ica, 393. considerations that should have check-] ed this chronological dogmatism, 30-33; it has been powerful to discredit facts and dates, 33, 34; its absurdities, 34-30 ; its relations with Chinese history must be adjusted, 3T-39 ; Egyptian chronolo- gy, 32-34 ; chronological stupidity con- cerning the dike Arim, 85; concerning Development theory can not admit very the time of Zoroaster, 34-37; concern-| ancient civilizations, 52; its assump- tions, 52; geology has no favor fur it, 53; the Eugis skull described, 53 ; this theory admitted to be unproved hy- pothesis, 53 ; if we must have a hypoth- ing Arabian history, 104, 107, 108; con- cerning Gades, 157; chronology emends Berosus, 182-185, 191 ; chronological dogmatism on Manetho, 269, 270. Civilization, where did it begin? 11 ; its history, 11-13; its earliest manifesta- tion in Asia, 15, 16; the oldest peoples mentioned in history did not originate their civilization, 55; they had it from a common source, 55; Arabia civilized Chaldca, Ku'ypt. and India, 56; civiliza- tion of the Tyrians, 153; civilization, since the first ages, usually aided by external influences, --".''.i; traces of for- mer civilization in Africa, 326-329; an old civilization in Western Europe, 351, :;:.-' : a very aucieiit civilization in Spain and Northwestern Africa, 355, 364 ; and in America, 394, 395. Clinton's Fasti Helleuici on Pelasgian dates, 1G4, 165. Craniology criticised, 368. Curtins, Ernst, on the Greek race, 151; his \\c.\y of the chronological order of Phoenician colonies, 155. Cii-Oia-dwipa. of Sanskrit geography the -Mine as Ethiopia of the ancient Greeks. IT.; an African Cusha-dwipa, iVl ; it in- cludes the Mountains of the Moon, 65. v'ushitcs the first known civili/. i7 ; their greal periods had closed many ages before Homer's time, M. 79; the rhuMiirians were a portion of the great people of Arabia, 4, 12i>, i:5:t, 135; did the Cushites originate civilization ? 96; Cushite literature, how lost, 102; Arabia the Land of Cush. 18, 68, 59, 63-66, 96 ; the Cushites the oldest race in Arabia, 74; vastness of their antiquity, 95, %; the grand period of their historv, 97; they were the first civilizers and build- ers in Southwestern Asia, 66, 67 ; orig- inally twelve tribal comnmni pure Cushites now nearly extinct, 7!V : algrave's opinion of the race, 79, 80; the Cushites originated science,! 116; the Cushite religion and architect- ure, 141-1 45; Cushite colonies in North-; western Africa and Spain very ancient. 152, 153; Cushites civilized Chahlea, 192, 194; a Cushite family of tongues, !'.:>: the Cushites preceded the San- esis, let It be nobler, 54, 313. Dionysos, what he represents in the past, 112, 285 ; how the legends describe him, 283 ; an old ante-Ionian book on Dio- 2*4; Fresnel on Dionysos and Nysa, 285, 286 ; Dionysos not Rama, -M; : he was the Deva Nahusha of In- dian tradition, 2S6-2SS, 290 ; contempo- rary with Indra. 2*7; his city in India, 2S7 ; Professor Wilson on Dionysos and Bacchus, 288; Dionysos belonged to ante-Sanskrit history, 291 ; Die: Egypt, 291, 295; Megasthenes "on his history and date, 297. Dravidian people and tongues, 238-242 ; these tongues radically different from Sanskrit, 238, 239 ; they represent the ante-Sanskrit speech of the country, 0: their use of the word Mag or Mac, 240 ; the speech of the Tudas and hill tribes belongs to this family, 238, 239; the Sanskrit writers call this speech Dati, 238 ; Sanskrit not now rep- resentod in India as the old speech 18 ivpre-nited by these tongues. .'}< : how the modern Indian dialects grew up, 211 ; probable origin of the Dravidian tongues. 2-U; these tongues and the Basque, 369. Egypt an incontestable fact, 207; Mane- tiio's 1 _>,.,. bin dynastic list and date-. 'J<^. -M> . how dogmatic chro- nology has treated them, 269, 270 ; the " Old Chronicle" and the " Sothis" spu- rious works, 270 ; Lepsius and Mariette on Egypt 271; origin of the Egyptians, ; : Sir Gardner Wilkinson on this point, 27:;; comprehension of Arabia removes difficulty, 273 ; common origin of Chaldeans and Egyptians shown by their writing. Sir Henrv Kawlinson, Lepsius, 8T8.V74: the ancient Arabiann colonized EL'ypt. 272, 274. -275. H Memphis, 274"; Menes, a Thinite prince, united the "Two Countries," 271; Egyptian civilization old in the time of ".Menes. '271, 272, 296, 298, 299, 305; 195; the Cushites preceded tne san- ot Meues, srn. '2r-', -"Jt>, '-^s, '^yy, suo; skrit race in India. 2ls--_'-_'7: Kawlin- Kirypt anciently a bay of the sea. Hero- son's testimony, 220; testimony of) archaeological research, '219-'JJ7 ; dotus, Diodorus, and Rennell, 275; old Sanskrit books on E.-ypt, 2TT-8S Index. 409 the Nile and Moonland, 278, 279; on 'Gobineau on Races, 316-320. King It, 280 ; on Divodasa and Kephe- Greek race, a closely-related group of Ar- tis, 281, 282 ; Menes drained part of Low- er Egypt, 271, 275 ; the infancy of Egyp- tian civilization was long before" his time, 296, 298, 299; he may not have been the first king of united Egypt, 296 ; Egyptian libraries, 301, 302 ; Egyp- tian writing, 300 ; attempts to measure Egyptian antiquity, 303-305; what Mr. Homer found in the alluvium, 303 ; his estimate and Bunsen's opinion, 304, yan tribes, 40 ; their relation to the Fe- lasgians, 163, 164; their civilized prede- cessors, 40-45; what the Greek myttis signify, 41, 45 ; the earliest Greek writ- ers were Asiatics, 44 ; Greek culture in Ionia preceded that of Hellas, 40-42, 46. 47 ; Hellas generally less civilized thai; Ionia, 42-45; the extraordinary devel- opment of the Greek language expose false theories of Greek history, 46 ; loss \ 305- Egyptian manuscripts the oldest! Grecian books on archaaological topic in existence, 802 ; Solon and the priest j 49, 50. at Sais, 302; Diogenes Laertius on Grote's historical skepticism, 40; ht Egyptian astronomy, 116, 117. El Mas'iidi, 103 ; his statements relative to Arabian and Iranian royal families, 105, 106 ; his description of India and the ancient Malayan empire, 263. Ethiopia, meaning of the word, 57, 58 ; was the ancient Greek name for Ara- bia, 59-61 ; Joppa one of its ancient capitals, 133 ; Homer and Strabo on Ethiopia, 59-61 ; Heeren on the Ethio- pians, 62 ; they were not Africans, 57, 58, 193 ; why countries in Africa were called Ethiopia, 58. Etruria, how it originated, 372 ; its civil- ization, 373, 374; the Etruscan lan- guage, 374 ; it had a long history, 375 ; vain attempts to translate the Eugu- vine tablets, Otfried Miiller, Betham, 374; the Etrurians may have been a mixture of Finns and Cushites, 373-375. 1 Euguvine tables, 374. Euhemerus a Rationalist, 356. Finns the oldest known people of Eu- rope, 368 ; their relation to the Iberians, 368, 369 ; they have been driven north- ward, 368; they were in Italy and Illy- ria, 373. Formorians the oldest known people of Ireland, 355, 3i?5 ; their resistance to in- vaders, 385 ; their probable origin, 385. Fresuel on the ancient Mepha, 82 ; on the Himyaric language, 90 ; on the origin of Chaldea, 194, 195 on Dionysos, 285. Fusang, a Chinese and Japanese name of America, 401 ; a Japanese Eeucyclo- paedia on Fusang, 401. Gades, when and why it was built, 156, 354; was preceded in Spain by a very old Cushite civilization, 156, 157 ; its ship-building, 157. Geology on the antiquity of man, 10 ; its estimates of past time, 13, 14 ; how its testimony has been received, 25 ; geo- logical changes in Lower Chaldea, 189, 191 ; borings and excavations in the Nile Valley, 303-305 ; Geology on the history of Western Europe, 353, 358. adopts the position of Varro, 41, 4'-' ; his account of the science of astrono- my in Hellas, 42. Heeren on Ethiopia, 62 ; on the first seat.-* of civilization, 57 ; his sagacity, 63 : what he said of Arabians and Phoeni- cians, 63 ; he failed to see the Cushitet-. 63; on the Phoenicians and their an- cient cities, 129, 134; on Indian archi- tecture, 228; on the connection of In- dia with Arabia, 220. Hellas, its relation to civilization misrep resented, 39^9; Hellenic egotism and ignorance of the past, 39, 40, 46, 48; it treatment of Herodotus, 45, 267 ; Olcn. Orpheus, and others not Greeks or Ilei- lenes, 45, 46 ; how the history of Hella> has been written, 39, 46; suppose Amer- ican history so written 3000 years hence. 47 ; Bryant's opinion of Greek writers on Mythology and Antiquity, 48; lim- ited geograpliic knowledge of the Hel- lenic people, 102 ; their scholars neg- lected the history of Egypt, 267. Hercules, Pillars of, 157, 158 ; Hercules at the West, 152, 153, 124, 355 ; he died in Spain, 335 ; his stone and cup, 124 ; in the myths, 353, 355. Himyaric inscriptions, when first discov- ered, 81, 82 ; they preserve the old lan- guage, 89 ; their probable age, 90, 91 , 194; Himyaric inscriptions at Samar- cand, 110 ; Mr. Birch's criticism, 91. Himyarite kings in Southern Arabia, 106 ; date given for the time of Himyar, 107 ; the Himyarite kingdom divided, and, after " fifteen generations," reunited by Harith-el-Raisch, 107 ; chronological stupidity relative to the time of ilim- yar, 107; Mahometan attempts to re- construct all Arabian history around the Himyarite kings, 104 ; the Himyar- ite kingdom destroyed by an invasion from Abyssinia, 107. Historical skepticism, its hopeless incre- dulity, 21 ; illustrated in Grote's histo- ry of Greece, 40, 41 ; must doubt itself at times, 173. 410 Index. Jlumboldt on ancient civilization!!, 23, 54;! 243; their notice of the Phallic \vorehip on the Ethiopians in Central Asia, 110 ; on the mariner's compass, 122, 123; ou myths, 289 ; on superior and inferior! races. 316; on old maps of South Afri- ca, 347, 348; on ancient knowledge of America, 393, 399. Hyperboreans, 377 ; their emb . Delos, 377, 378 ; where they dwelt, 377 ; visited by the Meropes, 400. Iberians, probably a mixture of Cushites and Finns, 368-370; the Ligurians and Sicani of this family, 368; the old Ibe- rian territory in Spain and Fra 369; the Iberians in Italy and Sicily, 370; antiquity of Cushitc* influence m Spain, 369, :;: India, what it includes, 216, 217 ; the San- skrit people were a small minority of its inhabitants, 217; its ante-- people were dark skinned, -.'IT. ! Cushite Arabians preceded the San- skrit race, and found a dark-colored race in India. 21^ : India naturally con- nected with Arabia and Ka-te '.*!-; Cu-hite remain- in India. 219-227 ; the rock-cut tcinj I-MO on of the natives, 24H ; Mann's description of Aryavartta, '-'51 ; the Indo-Aryaus on the Lower Ganges, 252 ; in Southern In- dia, 253; when they began to mix their color with the natives, 251 ; this mix- ture in Alexander's time, 251, 2. r > periods of Indo-Aryan history, 261, 2G2 ; the Indo-Aryans and the old mytholotry and religion of India, -'<-. 289, -J'.". Ionia had the earliest known Greek civ- ilization, 40-4-J, 4(5, 47 ; its cities origin- ally built by the Phoenician- Ernst Curtius on the lonians, l.M. Ireland, its, ancient history. : mnrians the oldest people of Ireland, 355, 385; More the Formoriau and >,<- imhidh, 385; the Fir-Bolgs and the Tti atha-de-Dananns, 385, 386 ; Kuadha's silver hand, 386 ; Ireland conquered and held by the Milesians, :;SG; it i-i discreditable to iieirlect Irish ancient history. 887; its probability, ;;-7 : \\> know from other sources that Ireland was an Independent nation 20o )7, 888; reiirn of Ollamh Fo'dhla, iand and its learning in theSth and lth centuries, 3SS, 389 ; M> the ante-Sanskrit religion of India, 220, and Camden on this point, 3-- 221 ; early Sanskrit or Vedic fanaticism on its prede. .248; the Cuafa- ite eerpcnt-worship in India and Cey- lon, 2--'2; statement oflheC'h:. hiau, festival of lloli and ; I he worship of Ye- mblance Toland on Irish manuscr the Senchns-Mor,383; Patricias falsely called St. Patrick,'- itus on Ireland, :>> ; Ireland outlived the oth- . and even Kome it- f ;he Four M ".M: t: --.3S4; how the old . : : date of the :;shite people of North Afri ii voy- I, -PI. of (:: the anle-Sa:i-kiii people of India. .-.'. '.,net worship I he rarliesi reliir- 1 Mah'im- i India (|;i. : Indian mnnidpali:' MO first civilization of Iii' I;.iiy. :;T1 ; how Etruria Professor Benfey on the ante people of the Dekhan, 2J7 ; Rev. Dr.( formed by t! Stevenson's statement-. : aj'sius < - n the ancient ante-' 'ndia and tl.eii people of It;. nnj&b and ended on l'47-'-'. r .l: Ye-lie noti.-e -f Jhe 1'i itie To;.. worship, -'!' > : history Yf In;iia biau ancient histoi . falsified by modern Brahmanism, \\'ilford.Wathei), r !'un)our. and the Jainas on this point, 809.260, - Indian history and chronology. 'jr.ii-.' the two historical works deemed an- Kaiamors in Iranian histor thentic, 200; the kingdom of Magadha. Keltic language and com; M, Indo-Arj'ans, they belonged originally to very il miUC Joktan, 76 ; a .n eiv- .i/.ation beiore his time, 104, !(: ; his :i in Arabian history like the kinedoin (if Hiras, '240.; their Ve- of the K die age, 247-2SO; tlieir fanaticism, '2-1S : remain. : age, their eettleinenl of the 381,382; Keltic civilization, 3: what constituted Keltica, 390 ; laniruagc of the Kelts, two branches of the ettlcmcnl in the npjier valley its probable ori:is, 12 ; on the Ma- lays, 265. Language of the Ctishite Arabians, 88-91 ; the Turanian fancy, 88 ; this old tongue found in the Chaldean ruins, 89 ; the countries where it was used, 88, 89 ; it is still used in some districts, 89, 00 ; Dr. Carter's opinion of its sweetness, 89 ; it remained long at Zhafar, 90 ; how Fresnel and Forster spoke of it, 90. Lepsius on Egyptian history and chro- nology, 2T1 ; on the origin of alphabet- ic writing, 274 ; on the ancient history of Italy, 372. Livingstone on African iron-making and manufactures, 3-27, 328 ; on the mixture of races in Africa, 331 ; on the " true type" of the African people, 331. Loftus on Chnldea, 188, 193. Lnbbock on implements of the Age of Bronze, 358; on periods of the Age of Stone, 359 ; on the temple at Abury, 360; on the limit of the Age of Bronze in Switzerland, 363 ; on Nilsson's views of the origin of the Age of Bronze. 366, 367. Mahomet's race Semitic, 73, 74 ; destruc- tive influence of his religion in Arabia, Arabia, 76 ; the Joktan hometanism incapable of writing his- tories of the Cushite civilization, 103 ; its destructiveness in North Africa, 337. Malayan empire, 263-266 ; El Mas'udi's ac- count of it, 263 ; how the Portuguese found it 550 years later, 263, 264; account of it as it was in the 9th century, 264 ; Marsden on the Malays, 264 ; wide dif- fusion of Malay dialects, 264, 265 ; Rev. Dr. Lang on this empire, 265 ; origin of Malayan civilization, 205; Malayan an- tiquities, inscriptions, etc., 265, 266. Mariner's compass, erroneously claimed as an invention of Flavio Gioja, 121 ; it was much older than his time, 121-124 ; described by Raymond Lully and Peter Adsiger, 121 ; by Guyot de Provins in 1180 A.D., 122 ; supposed mention of it by Plautus, 122 ; it was brought to Eu- rope by Arabians, 122, 123; theoia Cii.-h- ites more likely to invent it than the ancient Chinese, 123 ; the date of its first use iu Western Europe not the date of its origin, 123 ; Di Gama found it in use on the Indian Seas, 123, 334 ; it existed among the Phoenicians, 124- l-_'ti ; ancient knowledge of the magnet, 124, 125 ; the mariner's compass invent- ed by the ancient Arabians, 125 ; why it was held as a scientific and commer- cial secret, 125, 126, 127 ; "night sail- ing," 126; the stone and cup of Hercu- les, 124; the old lady and "so far off," 127, 128. Martu, or Marathos, its antiquity accord- ing to the Chaldean inscriptions, 143 ; its ruins, 144, 145; it was much older than the Hebrew immigration, 146 ; irmch older than Sidon, 149 ; its ruins indicate that the very old city they rep- resent was built of materials taken from ruins of a much older city, 149; Diodo- rus Siculus on Martu, 14'.C "Median" dynasty of Berosus, attempts to explain it, 109, 212 ; it was.probably established by Zohak, the Arabian, 109, 110, 197. Minos and his time, 165, 166; he was not a Dorian Greek, 165 ; he may have con- quered Pelasgia, 166 ; he made Crete a powerful maritime state, 166. Monotheism the earliest form of religious faith, 2D5; Ilenau, Ilawlinson, and the Desatir on Aryan monotheism, 292; the Veda, the Orphic Fragments, and Hcr- mesianax on this point, 293; its relation to mythology, 294. Mythology and mythological persons, 922 -296; it implies monotheism, 293; how r> ; Mahometan literature conscious o the preceding civilization, 75; Mahom- et and the old race, 76 ; Mahometans have confused and falsified the past in Myths and traditions, they show facts fable, 76 ; Ma- mixed wi " it originated, 294 ; it precedes polythe- ism, 295; Euhemerus on mythology, 356. ith fancies and prejxidices of the people who transmit them, 277, 283, 286; the Greek myths, 41, 45; Wilforcl and the Indian myths, 288, 289 ; myths relating to Northern Africa and West- ern Europe, 335, 336, 338, 353, 354, 356- 358, 376 ; Atlas and Saturn reigned over countries in the West, r>53, 357 ; the myths contain history, 857, 358 ; ancient opinions concerning the gods, 356. Navigation around Africa in pre-historic times, 345; the Cushite settlements on the East and West Coasts made this cer- tain, 345; how this navigation was inter- rupted, 347 ; attempts to resume it sev- eral centuries later, 346; a ship of Gades wrecked on the eastern coast, 347 ; the Arabians had maps of South Africa long before the Portuguese went there, 347, 412 Index. 348; the old name of the Cape of Good Hope, 347; what the Portuguese hadj learned of the Arabians, 348; the oldest] opinions of antiquity concerning South Africa the most correct, 348 ; Ophir, 348- B00. Negroes a distinct race,30S-311 ; the Bush- men not negroes, 309, 310; Gobineau on the black race, 319. Nilsson on the Age of Bronze, 366 ; he shows LtflCofthite origin, 866, S66; Lub- bock on his views, 366, 367. Nimrod discussed, 198, 199. Northern Africa in pre-historic times, 335 its civili/ation be^an in very re- mote times, 335, 355, 374, 380 ; Carthage, 335,336; Tacitus on North Africa,:;:;';; its ruins, 33G; Leo Africanus on the city of Moroco, ,'{H7 ; on the destructiveness i if Mahometan fanatic-ism. :;::7 ; the Ber- e remain- of the old I'ushitecom- inuni: :.14; Leo on the Ber- myihical kings aud kingdoms of Northwestern A Southwestern I-!;:: :;.%"; Ire- land tifst colonized from Africa, 355; the term Africa originally meant the \\e-t, and became a name of the conti- nent in Roman times, 375: this name anciently applied to Western Europe, Oman, its political .-ystcm, 113. Ophir, where it was situated, 348-360; Dr. Krapf.Max Miiller, and others on Ophir. :'.{-( Miiller's philological argument has no force, 34'J: ' ms "the \\Vst," Wiin.nl. I.owih. : B : it was some country west of the I ;ipe of Good Hope, 349,350; voyages to Ophir were made from Tartessus as well as from Bzton-geber, :><>; it was probably on the Gold Coast of Africa, 350. Origin of separate races and families of language. 10. :;i'-'-314; the Cushite. Se- mitic, and Arvan races seem to have had u common Origin, 17; Hebrew tradi- tions, 17, IS; origin of civilization lost in obscurity, 11, i::. :;o ; origin of Phu?- niein. 12H-141 ; of Carthage, 153, 1M : of the Ivjyptians, -J71 ; of Greek and San- skrit mythology, 283; of Etruria, 372; ofKelti'ca, 390. "Orthodox" learning and progress in knowledge, lit, -jo. Palgrave on Central Arabia, G9-72. Past, the, schemes for measuring it, 9. I'a'ncins the bishop not the tme St. Pat- rick. 2S3, 2S4; he was three centuries la, e:- than St. Patrick, >: ins, their dominion around the n, 151 ; on their history, lf.-2-Ktt ; Greek writers on the Pelasgij 162 ; San- skrit notice of Pelasgia, 1C3; the Pelas- L r \ were Aryans, their character, 103, 104; Greek account of Pelasgian khrj>, 104, 105; dates in their history, 105; the Pelasirians in Italy, 871, 374 ; th ated Keltica, 390. Peru, its antiquities, 39S. Phoenicia, origin of the name, 129, 130; it was anciently called Ethiopia, 133, 134; how it became a small district. 135; its ruins, 141-14. r >; its antiquity ac- cording to Sir Henry Rawlinson, 14:;; Sidon in Hebrew times, 150; Old Tyre in Hebrew times, 152; earcopL a king of Sidon, 109. Phoenician Language and Literature, lf>7 to remains of the literature in the Phoenician language, 107 : fragments in Creek. II;T; the 1.. assumed to be Semitic, 108; the oldest epigraphs and inscriptions no; than the Carthaginian period, 168, 16v ; Kenan on the Phoenician langi; 17d; writin-j- and dialc and nati\e ' Gesenins a:<,l Salliist, 170, 171; if a change occurred in Phoenicia, it did not extend to Northern Africa, 17(); lan- guage of Sidon not like that of North- ern Africa, 171; what the eh. Phoenicia may actually have be 17.'; language of the Canary : \v u Phoenician, 159 : of the Berbers,338. Phoenician people :.'id history, origin of the Phoenicians d leu and !!: dotu> on I'lia-ni- cia.i history, l. nician immigration, what it mea: i:.l, i:.T ; the Phoenicians a fragment of the old Cushite race, 131 ; Voltaire and Movers on the immigration, l when Tyre was built. 138. l.M ; what the Phoenicians were called bv the more ancient did not make them Sem their great antiquity. 1 1::, 14. r >, 1 i of Phoenician history, i , three or more great periods piv . the rise of Sidon. !-;>. M'.t : the period of Sidon older than Homer. 1; . iod. and sway of '1 Carthage represents the last period of Phoenician history. 154, 155; Berut.Hyh- lius, Joppa, and Martu represent ante- Sidonian periods', 147, 14S, 155 ; Arvad or Kuad very old, 149 ; Move; chronology, and Sidon, 150; why the Tyrians emigrated to Carthage, the early Cushite colonies at ;: and the later Tyriau occupation, i.v. 1 , 153. Phoenicians, the political system with which they come into history, ; 115, 158 ; tlxey attributed letters and sci- Index. 413 ence to Taut, 91, 118, 119; their nautica t-cieuce, 120; they had the mariner's compass, 123, 124 ; it was one of their commercial secrets, 125-127 ; secrecy of Phoenician and Arabian commerce, 127 Poseidon and the Cabiri, 155 ; great ex tent of Phoenician commerce, 158-161 its influence traced around the Medl terraneau, 158; in Scandinavia, 159 ; in Western Africa, 159, 100 ; in Centra" Asia, 101. Piiny on the origin of alphabetic writing, 04 ; on Ceylon, Arabia, and Oman, 102 on Hanno's voyage to Arabia, 346. Political system of Ancient Arabia, 112- 116; its remains to be classed with Arabian antiquities, 112 ; where they are found, 112-114 ; probable charactei of this system, 112 ; it is the earliest in Arabian tradition, 115, 116; its remains in India described, 225, 226 ; iu North Africa, 341, 342. Popoe beads Phoenician, 160. Pre-historic times defined, 50, 51 ; in then remote ages, unrecorded civilizations may have existed, 53, 54, 96, 97; inqui- ry concerning pre-historic times no\\ forced upon us, 52 ; what they include as history IB written, 51. Ptolemy's Geography, 231. Pytheas of Massilia, 376; Strabo's false "view of his voyage to the north, 376. Races in Arabia, 73-78 ; Wm. Muir and Caussin de Percival on the Joktan-Kah- tau f.ible, 76 ; races in Africa, 307-311 ; a theory of the negro race criticised, 308- 311; "a brief essay on races, 311-322 ; r.I.ix Mailer's theory cf English and Beir'alese brotherhood, 311 ; origin of races, 16, 312-314; races now seldom found pure, 315 ; Aryans, Cushites, and Semites physiologically alike, 314 ; in- ferior and superior races, Gobineau, 310 -320 ; each race has its peculiar gift, 321, 322 ; falsely assumed superiority, 316, 320, 321 ; mixture of races in Europe, 315. son, George, on the ethnic charac- ter of the Phoenicians, 132, 133, 146, 147 ; his Turanian theory, 132 ; on the earli- est race of civilizers and builders in Chaldean civili- Phoenicia, 143, 146 ; on zation, 174, 175; on Chaldean ruins, 188 ; Sir Hi Rawlinson on Nipur, 189 ; on geological changes in Chaldea, 191 ; on the Cushite origin of Chaldea, 192 ; G. Rawlinson on linguistic changes in Chaldea, 205 ; on the Cushites in India, 220; Sir Henry on the origin of the Egyptians, 273 ; G.Rawlinson on Aryan monotheism, 292. Kenan, his great services in archaeologi- cal and linguistic science, 21, 22 ; his view of the relation of Phoenicia to Ye- men, 132 ; his theory of the origin of the Phoenicians, 139, 140 ; his specula- tions on their race and language, 137- 140 ; his explorations in Phoenicia, 141- 145, 169 ; what he says of the Phoenician language, 109, 170 ; of monotheism, 292 ; of Egyptian civilization, 296 ; on the Semites, 315. Rock-cut temples of India, 228-236 ; Elc- phanta, Salsette, Ellora, and Mavalipu- ra, 2->S, 229 ; these works Cushite in character, 229, 237 ; denials of their an- tiquity, 230; early notices of them which confound these denials, 230, 231, 234; what Maurice said of them, 231, 232 ; they could not have been built as late as the denials say, 232 ; they were de- serted and mysterious more than 1700 years ago, 230, 232 ; they were made for the worship of Siva or Baal, 233, 235 ; are older than what we know as Buddh- ism, 234; they are older than their in- scriptions, 233 ; not coincident with the domination of Buddhism, 234, 235 ; the Nubian rock-temples older than their inscriptions, 233 ; the Indian rock-tem- ples not Buddhist works, 234-236. Ruins, in Arabia, 80-88 ; how they were discovered, 81 ; remains of the ancient city of Mepha, at Nakab-el-Hadjar, 81, 82 ; the ancient Kana, or His'u Ghorab, 82 ; the ruins at Zhafar, 83 ; at Mareb or Saba, 84; ruins of the dike Arim, 84, 85 ; vagaries of some writers relative to the age of this dike, 85 ; the Mahomet- an natives refer the ruins to their infi- del ancestors, 85, 86 ; Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, and others describe Arabian cities that no longer exist, 85; ruins in Phoenicia at Arvad, Marathos, etc., 142 -145 ; in Chaldea, 188-191 ; ruined cities in Ceylon, 236- ruins in North Africa, 336, 337. Saba the old capital of Yemen, 84; Saba, a king in Arabian history, what his kingdom included, 106. Saivas, an ancient religious sect in India, 235, 257, 258 ; they adopted ante-Vedic gods, 258 ; their influence in developing modern Brahmanism, 257, 258; Siva- worship ante-Vedic, 258, 259. Sancha, an ancient name of Upper Egypt and Eastern Africa, 280 ; traces of the name still exist, 375. Sanchoniathon, 136. Sanskrit or Aryan geography, 63-6G; it was that of the early Greeks, as found in Homer and Hesiod, 66 ; the seven chvi- pas,64; Cusha-dwipa important, though not a great division of the earth, 64; the Sanskrit language older than the Pal', 254; Sanskrit books on Egypt, 277; <;u S* Index. Dionysos, 287; on Pelasgia, 163; on 189,190; was the oldest Chaldean city, Western Europe, 378-380 ; why Sanskrit 191,192, 209; was the first capital of books say so much of Africa and West- Chaldea, 189, 209. eru Europe, 378. Science in ancient times secret and ex-jVambory on rains in Central Asia, 101. elusive, 126; Pythagoras in Egypt, 126;i science in ancient Arabia, 118-VJft; Stra- Welsh books noticed, 383. bo on Phoenician science and " night- Western Europe, its antiquities, 14, 15; sailing," 126. how we begin its history, 361 ; the Kelts Semites in Arabia called Moustarribes, Tl. 77; they have chiefly occupied the attention of the moderns, 77, 99 ; they are comparatively modern in Arabia, 77; they have appropriated the repu- tation of the old race, 76, 77; the Ara- bian Semites were not a literary people, 102,103; the life of their prophet not written until more than a century after his death, 103 ; Semites found in Chal- dea by the civilizing Cushites, 187, 204, 205. Solon on Atlantis, 353, 334 ; Atlantis and the Athenian I'anathen;' Spain and Northwestern Africa ancient- ly closely connected, 375, 376 ; great an- tiquity of their first civilization, 355, 364, 374, 380; they were known as " the West," 375, 376 ; were better known to Greeks before Homer's time than after it, 376; the oldest people in Spain, 369, 370. Stonehenge a temple of the Bronze Age, !'.<'><>; Stouehenges in Arabia, 87, 88. Su- i^; in Spain and Northwestern Africa civilization much older than the Age of Bronze, 864, 809, 880 ; a foreign people began this age, 364; it began on the \\Y-t Coast, :;<53, ::64: Western ! described in Sanskrit b.> Homer, 376, 379; its ancient coimmm.- cation with Amen Whitney on Chinese literature, ir,; on Pn.f. Schleicher's theory of ti- tongues, 389, 390. Writings, the oldest, 11. Xibalba, a pre-Hstoric kingdom in Cen- tral America, :;'.':>: it wa< established by men from the East who came in 394, 395 ; its government resembled that of Atlantis, 397, 898. Yemen, Ehatan its first kitiL'. 7r, ; its ri- ins, 81; its ancient capital and great ;, 85; its relations with Phoeni- cia, 132. Zodiac, its antiquity, 117-119; came to us from the Chaldeans, 118; zodiacs used in India, Chaldea, and Egypt similar, 118; they came from the a'ucient Ara- bians, 118. Zohak. famous in Arabian and Iranian history, was an Arabian king, K^; Ins kingdom, iK, 108; he conquered the kingdom of Hiras or Iran, 108; what the Iranian books say of him, 1' he probably established the "Median" dynasty in Chaldea, 109, 110. Unity of mankind, 10, 312. Ur of the Chaldees, where Renan seeks Zoroaster and chronology, 34-37, it, 139, 205 ; its ruins in Lower Chaldea, THE END. A xr T TOT? RETUI This Re. 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