UC-NRLF Z2L THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA BEQUEST OF ANITA D. S. BLAKE Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/cornercupboardofOOphilrich \ THE COMER CUPBOARD FACTS FOR EVERYBODY. EMBRACING PACTS ABOUT I-THINGS NOT GENERALLY KNOWN; II.-TIHNG3 THAT OUGHT TO BE KNOWN; III.-THINGS WORTH KNOWING. THE FOOD WE CONSUME; THE CLOTHES WE WEAR; THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN: AND FACTS FROM THE ARTS AND SCIENCES, AS WELL AS FROM LITERATURE. MANUFACTURE, COMMERCE, ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, THE GARDEN AND FIELD. ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER 1,000 ENGRAVINGS. THE WHOLE FORMSG A COMPLETE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF USEFUL, KNOWLEDGE. BY THE AUTHOR OF "INQUIRE WITHIN," "THE REASON WHY," ETC. NEW YORK! DICK & FITZGERALD, PUBLISHERS, No. IS ^jSTTsT STREET. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1859, by DICK & FITZGERALD, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, in and for the Southern District of New York. GIFT AG io5- ER E FJ^G E. We present the Reader with "the Freedom of the Cupboard," one of the greatest privileges that can be conferred upon civilized and domesticated beings. The Corner Cupboard has, for many centuries, been an object cherished in the homes of the people. It has been the receptacle of the most treasured and time-honored objects. Old people have kept the keys of the Corner Cup- board with a degree of pride, and have felt themselves to be the conservators of the domestic weal by holding sacred the contents of the family treasury. When the Corner Cupboard has been opened, children have gathered round their grandmammas, and have stood on tip-toe to catch a glimpse of what the Corner Cupboard contained. So may it be with our Literary "Corner Cupboard." Every time it is opened we trust that some new object of value and interest Vvill be found ; and that the family circle, from the silver-haired grandmamma, to the auburn- haired boy, will gather in a group and rejoice whenever "The Corner Cupboard" is unlocked. Our "Corner Cupboard" contains many hundreds of Useful Facts, and useful facts, as they are commonly termed, are most properly the demand of the age ; and this demand, it is the object of the present work to si!' Besides Facts about the Food we Consume, the Clothes we Wear, and the House we Live in, we have herein — Facts from Arts, Sciences, and Literature: As, — The Liberal and Mechanical Arts — Philosophical and Musical Instruments— Chronological Di- visions — Architectural Orders — Months and Days — Poetical and Literary Terms — The Stereoscope and Photography — Drawing, Music, and Oil Painting. Facts from Commerce and Manufactures, deal with Metals, Minerals, Woods and Alkalies — Gems and Precious Stones — Colors and Paints — Curious Trees — Silk, Flax and Cotton, Pottery, Glass, and Paper — Bleaching and Dyeing — Gold Ores and Manufactures — Weights and Measures ; while our Facts from Anatomy and Physiology, relate to the Bones, Muscles, Nerves, Arteries, and Blood — The Laws of Health : How to Preserve and How to Restore it — Ventilation and the Sanitary Laws, &c. We also present Facts from the Garden and the Field: — As, the Culture and Manage- ment of the favorite Flowers, Weeds, Grasses, Vegetables, and Agricultural Operations. We have, indeed, gleaned Facts from all Subjects and for Everybody ; Including Etiquette — The Philosophy of Eating, Drinking, and Cooking — Popular Science of Com mon Things — Laws of Chess, Draughts, Billiards, Whist, Cribbage, and Cricket — Calendar of the Months — Domestic Natural History — Education — Curious Tables — Signification of known Christian Names — In short, all those things which have the magic power of metamorphosing " bleak houses" into happy homes. And thus we claim for the work universality of scope as well as utility of aim, and present it with confidence, as comprising, in a pre-eminent degree, "Things not generally known ; Things that ought to be known ; and Things worth knowing ;" the whole collated and condensed with most scru- pulous anxiety for accuracy as well as originality. In the treatment of the work, care has been taken to give the plainest and clearest definitions of whatever is described or set before the reader, so as to be neither tedious in explanation, nor so compressed as not to be intelligible and practically useful. In a word, "The Corner Cupboard" will be found to contain treasures of knowledge upon every conceivable subject, having reference to the health, happiness or amusement of the domestic circle, and it will become a household phrase, when a member of a family needs the aid of knowledge upon any subject — "You will find it in THE CORNER, CUPBOARD." INDEX. Xarie Vtiqp Paqt A^STIS • 9 • • 10 Ash . . • • . 3< 16 Bistro . 311 A t ii.i'r . • • • 10 . • • . 64 Bissextile, or Leap Year . lift • S • • . 11 As de . • • . 64 Black. . 311 Ablution . ■ • . 5 Asp . . . . 5!) tail . 311 Al) >ri ,''11109 . . . 9 Aspect . , . 69 ;\ Bramble . . 158 Absolution . 13 Aspen . 69 nlacklead Pencils . 55 Accounts, Method of Keep- tan Creed . . 68 Bleed How to . . 103 ing 25 Allien . 48 Bleeding at the Nose . 20 Acorns, Germination of t 5 Athwart . . . 40 Acidulated Drops lit 1 here 40,221 tone . 311 Acre . , 00 •n, Electrical . 69 • • . 68 tic . 878 August . 2!4 Blue .... . 307 Adhesive Composition . Itation . 7- Blue Stocking . • . 148 ve . , , . 59 liter . • . 308 bs . . 223 , to Preserve , lieirular • . :n ;: Harp . 21, 21 Avalanches . 300 Boiling . . . . 70 or \chate • . 3 1 I iria . . 68 Ketches . . . 80 Air, ( hange of . , vvoirdupoise \> 'eight. . 262 • B . , 30 Air. 1 lasticity of • . 114 . . 57 P leon . 215 . • , 1 IS . . . . 50 Book*, to preserve . 113 ster . • . Azure . . • • . 30 Water . Prince . • , proofing . 21 1 , 301 immon • • . 337 -, to Extract Cork.' . . - Mo . • • . 302 from . - . 91 Ale and Beer Measure . e . ■ . Bouquets . ' . 150 a . . 161 . . , . 7:! mes . . . 41 How Eve . . . Balloon . . . ofi . dnta . . . 21->. Halm oi ■ . 114 Brass Cuius 2' : -5 1 as . . t . 271 aa, or Plantain Tree . 188 . Allspice . . , , 65 . . 339 Of Wore Aloes . . . lis . 118 Boy his Grandfather . . 79 Wood . 301 Bank of England . 178 Bread Fruit Tree lid Alphabet . . 31 -Note . 271. Breath, to Sweeten . 68 ■ Deaf and Dumb . 31 Bantu, Sir Joseph . 185 Bride Cake . . 181 Hebrew . . 205 Itarber's Poles, t 'rigin of . 22 Brg . 80 Altimetry . . . 14 Barloy . 207 Bripantine . • 30 Amazon . . . . Barometers, Leech . . 17 Britain . . * 138 Ambulance . . . 135 Bar< .meters, How to Consult Broil ng . 72 Amethyst . . . . them 9 Bronzing . 219 Anagram . . , 116 . . 120 es, and their Treat my . . 40 . 17*2 ment 22 Anchovy . . 191 >l the E x chequer Budding 117 Is, Names of the va- Barons by Letters Patent . 172 Bulbous Bouts . LSI ' u-ts in 54 n . 219 Bullfinch,, the . 257 k-ula , , 63 . , . . 116 Burning, to Protect Child- Annatto t 310 mr Para # . . 69 ren from 29 Annealing . . , 105 . Cla.ss # , . 156 Burns and Scalds 29 Annunciation Day . , 124 . # . ... 205 Antediluvian „ . # , . I.' ! utter, to Cure 134 Anthracite . Hats • • .. ps ;uid Daisies 110 ■'• hite . 69 . . Butterfly . ~*73 lit s, to Perfume . Beef Piters . # . ism . . Beer Measure . # . i ; irds 51 Apopuothegm . 279 . . . . . Uride 181 s 1 Weigl Si • • . Is Calislhenic Kxcrciscs •1 > its and . . d HS asures 124 Beeljc T . . ura 10 April . . 15 , # . . !■; . 1 to April Fools Day. , , . ])-> ies , . >. Parlour , 3 13 Belles Lcttres # . en t < 215 Aquarius . . m . tt Hals . . i , . . Architecture # # . ' Daf . 93 . . 165 i # # . . • 68 Arrowroot . , j knots , # . re . 104 Arsenic, to Detect , ! . , . 1 of 201 Antidote lor 19 . 131 . 190 Artesian Wtils . : irds, 1»: of ! . Cardinal . (.2 pliere, yriujulj r Facts Rapid Flight of . 201 Points . . 88 about the , . Boast, an Empty • ^7 Virtues . 44 ihdex. Paqe Page Fag« Cards . • . . 44 Coffee .... 90 December . . . . U Carmine . . 308 French Method of Peck 155 Carols . 275 Preparing . . 90 I'iadeipbia . . . J2S Carpets, Management of . 67 Milk 90 Diamonds . • • • *) Carving . 253 Svrup of 10 1 Diamond Bcetla . « . 152 Caa'js, to Sweeten 35 To Make with Hot Diana . . # . 153 Catherine Wheel 35 Water . 80 Diaphanie .... 249 Cats" Whiskers, Use of . 147 Coin, Gold and silver. 293 Dilettanti .... 152 of Lebanon 303 Coins, to take Impressions Disinfecting Liquid . 278 Celery . . . \ . 131 from , 180 Dissolving Views . 231 Cements, Manufacture and Cold Cream . 112 Dissolving Vii ws 230 Use of . 119 Colossus of Rhodes . 55 DictiHed Waters 119 Centre of Gravity . 43 Colours and Paints . , 307 Dii liation 163 Ceres . . . . 129 Columbus . 184 Dividing, Powdering, and Chans . . » . 119 Complexion, to Improve 68 Grinding. 33 Cha eedony • • 315 Copper, Plate Printing ( 234 Diving Hell 151 Chameleon • • V.i Composite Order , 111 Dog Days .... 94 Champagne • a . 148 Conchology. . 128 Do^-s, Distemper in . 207 Charade . • • . ne Condiments . . 134 Domesday Book . . 100 Charcoal . . . . 190 Cone # 80 Door .Mais .... 22 Charles I G3 Conjunction 2i4 Doric 88 Chaplain . 4* Consanguinity . 116 Draughts .... 347 Cheese . 205 Con versa ion and Writing, Drawing, Practical Lessons Chemical Transmutations . 1L'9 Modes of Address in 172 in 280 Cherries . 119 Convex Lens 81 Dresden China . 111 Chesnut Tree 805 Cookery, Rudiments of 69 Dress, On proper Taste in . 357 Chess . 1«7 Cooking in a House, to re- Dresses, to Preserve the Chicory . . 117 move the Smell of . t 60 Colours of 241 Chilblains . 19, 65 Copernicus . . . , 64 Dromedary 92 Chimneys, Smoky 354 Coral .... , 87 Drowning and Suffocation 15 China and Earthenware, to Corinthian Order . . 122 Prevention of . 15 Clean . 62 Cork .... g 109 Drum 220 China, Dresden 111 Corns, Cure for . . , 62 Duke .... 141, 1,3 China or Glass, to pack . 211 Cornet a Piston . . 219 Dun 55 Chiromancy 105 Cornelian . . . , 3i5 Dulcimer . . • . 220 Chi vine . 191 Corundum . 314 Dry .Measure . • 202 Chocolate . 90 Corrosive Sublimate . , 20 D\eing, Art of . • 42 Christian Names . 175 Cosmetics . , 112 Christmas Customs . 275 Court. Plaister, to Make 217 Eagle 272 Day . 275 Crescent , 15" Karl .... 148 1/2 Christian Names, Signifi Crests . . . 119 Early Rising 13 i cation of. 296 Cribhage . . , 300 Earthenware and China, to Chromatvpe 863 Cricket, Laws of. . . 215 Cl««an .... 62 Church in tr . 119 Cromwe'l, Oliver . , 154 Earrings .... HI cities, Growth of Amen . Crucifixes . . . . 275 Earthquakes 300 can . . . . 326 Cruth .... . 220 lias! India Company . 100 Chrysididffl . . 20 1 Crvophorus . • , 26 Faster Sunday . 153 Chrysolite . 313 Crystal . . , , 312 Ebony .... 303 Cinque Ports . . 44 Cubic Measure • • . 262 Eclipses and Moons . 199 Cinnabar . • • . 307 Cuckoo . . . i 802 Eclogue .... 278 ( larion , , 21!) Cucumbers . . . 119 Eggs, < Ornamental, to make 21 Clarionet . 2:9 Cups in Pies . . . 21 1 jgs, to Preserve 113 ("la-ses of Flowers . 176 Cutter . 30 kgg Shells, Etching upon . 12 Clfmale . US Cymbal, or Cymbalum 220 Egyptian Architecture S9 Calendar, for 100 Years . 76 Elder flowers . 112 Clocks and Watches . 278 Dahlia, Cultivation of Electric Telegraph . 6 Cloth Measure . 262 toe .... , 224 Electricity .... 165 Clotlies. to Brush . 233 Daisies and Buttercups . no and .Magnetism . 539 Clouds . 118 Damp Walls # 41 Electrotyping 298 Clove Tree . . , 88 Dandelion . . • - 23 Election Ribbons 143 Cloves, Syrup of . 104 Discoveries and Invent ont 326 Elgin Marbles . 12 Clove-hitch Knot 4 Day, Division of the into Kim 305 Coach Accidents 29 Hours 53 Elm destroying Scolytus . 164 Coincidences . . 326 Days, Difference of . 165 Emblem .... 278 Coat, to Fold for Packing. 230 Days of the Week, Roman Emerald .... 313 Coats of Arms . 143 names of 339 Emery .... 169 Cochineal . 303 Deaf, Axioms for the . 61 Enamels .... 54 Cockatoos . 136 Deaf and Dumb Alphabet . 21 England, Climate of . 12 Cockroaches, to Destroy 18 Death Watch . 21 Enigma • no Cocoa . 90 Death's Head Dawk Moth • 152 Epic Poem . • 27 9 Cocoa-nut Tree . . . 144 Decanters, Cleaning . 10 Epuram • • • ■ 2U Cod Liver Oil . . . 26 Decanting Liquius 1G9 Epiloguo • r t t m FFTDEX. Vii Pane Petje P,~7« Fpifaph .... Furniture Polish . , 242 Hand .... • 13 ... 879 Fustic . . , . 310 Handel, George Frederick 164 . Handkerch ef to Perfume 86 Esquire .... 17.3 Gall Nuts . . . . 861 Hare, to Carve . 861 8 of Flowers, to Ex- Galvanic Hatfcry . . 10.J Harmonium . . 21S tract .... 176 Coil . . . i llarn .... , 219 27 Galvanism . . . , 201 Harpsichord . . 818 Etching upon Ivorv . 12 Gamboge . . . . 810 Harrow . . . , En Sheila . 12 Garnet . . . , 314 Harvey, William . , 154 Giro . . 18 Gas .... 35 Hautboy . . . 220 rating Dishes, to nomy of, for Do Hay Measure . . 868 Make .... mestie Purposes . 179 Headache, Cure for . , 49 <>r . 807 Gasometer 169 Heat and Cold . 48 Exercises, In-door 12 Gelatine . 122 11 brew Alphabet , 295 .: stances in the 13 Gems and Precious Stones. 312 Heraldry . . . Hermetic Scaling Herschel Sir William , 55 Eyes, Preservation of the . 270 Gendarmerie . 115 t 142 Gentleman . 174 , 215 Faith .... 215 Gipsies . . . 113 HidagC . 147 Falcon .... Glaciers . . . 143 1 1 ieroglyphics . . 342 Farthing .... Glass .... Hives, Cottage . . 12 Feathers, To Dye Blue 848 Ware, to clean 212 Fumigating . 12 February .... 94 to Join , 848 Holy Thursday . . , 184 Feet, To remove the Of- or China, to Pack . 241 Holly g 306 fensive Smell of 208 Etching upon . 18 Holyrood, Origin of . . 134 Ferguson, .James . 274 Cracking by Hot Hone .... , 329 Ferns ..... 2oi Water, to Prevent . 156 Honeymoon . • . 101 Fiie, or Fiffars . . 219 Painting, Transpa- Honey Soap . • , 197 Fig tree .... 176 rent, for Windows . 195 Horse . . . . 894 • 317 for using ordinary Horse Power . , , 148 Filberts .... 847 Engravings on 251 Hosiery . , . . 131 Filtering Liquids . 169 Gloves . . . 59 , 166 Hotchpot . 102 Filters .... 10 Glowworm . . . 14'. Hotte . 212 Fir 3> 16 Glue, Bice . . . . 849 Houses, Transposition of 129 Fire, Precautions in . 13 Common . . , 121 Hour Glass . 135 lips .... 30 M rme . . , 121 Hov . 30 Franklin, Benjamin . . 153 Liquid . . . 121 Hulks t 30 Fish Pouds 22 Mouth . 120 Hunter, John . . . 214 Fish, to Carre . 868 to Resist Moisture , 117 Hurricanes . . . 1«7 Flannel Shirts . . 149 Gnats . . . , 19 Hyacinth . . . ( 315 . 35 4 Gobelin Tapestry , 117 Hydrogen . . . . 1U0 Flint, or Siiex . . 328 Gold Coins . . , 2P3 Gas . , 212 Flower, the 21-6 Gold Wire Leaf . . i49 Hygrometers ( 17 Flowers, Classes of . 176 Goldfinch . . , 97 Language of 268 Gold Fish . , 101 Icebergs g 295 Essence of to Gonliau Knot . . 139 Impressions, to Copy 69 Extract .... 176 Grate Papers, Ornamental, Inclined Plane . . 174 Flute 220 to Make 251 Indian Ink . . . 239 Hying Fish 155 Granite . 327 Rubber . . 312 Food in Season . . . 23 Grasshopper . . . 158 Indigo . . . , 101 ■ Nutritions 261 Gravity, Centre of . 43 Ink, Black . . . 113 Forc.s, the Resolution of . 146 Gr< enwich Observatory , 145 Blue . . . # 113 Fountain Cheap, How to Guaiacum . . 304 Green . . . . 113 Make .... 119 Guitar , . 2-0 Marking . . . 113 Fowls, How to Keep . 299 Guillotine . . 114 Sympathetic • . tm Fox and Geese, Game of . 2 IS Gum Arabic . , 181 Invisible . . 293 Frankincense 149 Gums and Loose Teeth, to Inorganic . . 2?3 Freckle.-, to Remove . 89 Strengthen and Fasten . 65 Insect's Wings . 147 French Horn . . . 218 Gun Barrels, to Brown , 180 re Freestone or Sandstone . 328 , Varnish for 180 for Cabinets . 101 Frieze .... 302 Geographical Origine . 328 Interest . . . 104 Frijrate .... 30 Gunnery . . . . 159 Interjection . . . £34 Frog .... 88 Gutta Percha Soles . , 24 Iodine . • • . 191 Frost and Scow . 102 Ionic Order . • . 99 Fruit, Rest time for Fating 26 Haberdashers . . 128 Isinglass . • . . 157 Syrups of 104 Hackney Coaches # 147 Ivory .... . 3 4 ■ Digestive proper- Hair Oil . . 112 Black . , 311 ties of . 125 Pomatum for the 112 Etching upon . . \i to Pack for Car- Dyeing the . 112 riage . 249 Black, to Dye . 113 Jack .... . 178 Frving .... 72 Brushes, to Wash 68 117 Jackdaws . 181 Funnel, to make a . . 145 Structure of the 266 Jams, to Keep from Mould 136 Fur Clothing . , 146 Management of the 268 January . , . 63 yiii INDEX. Page Page Jasper . • • . 315 Mahogany, Artificial . Mamalukes . . . 251 JoanofAro • • . 63 . 22;) July ..... 213 Mammalia . 165 June ..... 181 Man of War 30 Jupiter .... 208 Marble 327 8 Appearance to Plas- Kali and Alkali 342 ter Figures . 88 Kermes .... 309 Marbles lOi Kettle Drum 220 M irch 123 Knife Board, to Make a . 23* Marquis . . . 145 173 Knighthood 117 Masks . 151 Knights oftheGarter.Bath, Mast .... . 199 • histle, and ->t. Patrick 182 Massicot . . . • 307 Knives and Forks, to Pre- Matter, Divisibility of . 15 serve Clean . 41 M»y .... 183 Knots .... 3 May- Day Festivities . Measures of Length, i:o- 183 Lac 309 man . 264 Lace, to Wash . . 233 . 204 Lake or Lacca . . 309 Medallion Wafers 139 Lammas Day 215 Medicine, the Nauseous Lamp Black 311 Taste of, Prevented . 39 to Prevent the Smok Medicines, Aperient . 343 tag 119 Meerschaum . . . 67 Land and Sea Breezes 186 Mensuration , 178 Larch Tree 306 Merchant Shigs. . 30 Laudanum, Antidote for . 19 Mercury . 89 Laurel .... 275 Metallic Trees . 23 Lavender Water . . . 209 Pens, to Prevent Leaden Cisterns, to Neu- Ink Damaging . 198 tralize the Effects of 91 Mile of Various Nations . 49 Leather, Morocco 165 Microjieter 146 Leaves, Functions of . 210 Microscope 80 Leech Barometers 17 Microscope Glasses, to 312 Leeches, to make Bite 101 Clean 312 Lemon .... 91 Milk .... 265 Length, Measures of . 264 of Boses . 112 Letters .... 34 to Prevent Turning Leyden Jar. 94 Sour 91 Libra, or the Balance 102 Mill Stones 328 Lighl .... 149 Milton, John 274 Light House 175 Miniatures, to Prepare Ivory Lightning Stroke 11 for . 148 11 185 Mistletoe . . . Mists . * • . 60 111 Lip Salve .... Liquids, Decanting, Strain- Mite .... . 204 ing, and Filtering of 169 Mitre . . . . 188 Literary Terms . 278 Mnemonics . . . 207 Lii hographic Stones, to Models . . . . 177 Pack .... 247 Mohair . . , . 130 Liveries .... 155 Mole .... . 3 2 Logwood .... 303 Monkey . . . • 302 Long Measure . 262 Monsoons . . . . 1S6 —Sight 92 Moon and Eclipses . . 199 Lords, Spiritual and Tem- Month . . . . 180 poral .... 157 Morocco Leather . . 165 Lories ..... 137 Moss, Formation of . . 133 Lotteries .... 59 Moth .... . 209 Lunar Month . . . 263 Mother of Pearl . 1C9 Luiher, Martin . . 274 Mule .... Muses, the Nine 272 128 Macaws . 137 Mushrooms, to Distinguish Madder .... 308 from P isonous Pungi . 37 Madrigal .... 279 Music, an Easy Method of Magic Lantern . 92 Teaching the Rudiments of ... . Musical Instruments 234 217 in;? Views 230 Magnetism . . 175, 206 to Stain 253 Magnetic Needle 102 Muslin, Painting upon 250 Chart* . 185 in Water ]ia -etude , . 354 Colours . . 250 Mahogany .... 304 Musk .... 130 Page Nails, Care of the . . 73 Names, Christian . .175 Napkins, How to Fold . 161 National Debt . . . 293 Names of the States, Origin of the .... 78 Necks, Support for Stiff . 13 Sweiling in the . 13 Neptnne .... 175 Net m king . . . 2"2 New Calendar . .293 New Year 3 1) iy . . 6 J Nile, Source of the . . 116 Nitrogen . . . .190 Nose, Bleeding at the . 28 Noun 222 November . . . .273 Numerals . . . .293 Nursery Pictures, to Pre- serve .... 353 Nutmeg .... 80 Nutritions Food . . 261 Oatmeal . . . .130 Ochre 311 Octahedron . . ,204 October . . . .214 Ode 279 . Oil Cloths, to Preserve . 91 Oil Paintings, to Clean . 1 1 :uous. . . . 292 Onyx 315 Opal 315 Optical 1 fleets . . .115 Illusion . . . 122 Orange Tree ... 81 Organ . . . .217 Organ, Mechanism of an . 193 Or omental Eggs . . 20 Osier, or Willow . . 308 Ottoman Empire, the . 139 Ourang Outang . . . 242 Oxygen ... 190 Oyster Grottoes . . .105 Paint, to Remove Smell of 35 , to Mix . . .262 , White House, to make .... 254 Paints and Colours . . 307 Painting, Oil 332 on Velvet . .131 Paintings, Oil, to Clean . 14 Paper .... 64 Palms . . . .152 Pan 272 Paper . . . .347 Paper Hangings . . 177 — ' to Clean . 247 Paper, Table . . .263 , Transparent . . 175 Paper into Parchment, How to make .... 302 Papier Machfl . . . 302 Papvrus .... 239 Parachole . . . .122 Parakeets . . . . 137 Parcels in Paper, to Tie Up 4 Parrots .... 136 Parts of Speech . . . 222 Passion Flower . , . 147 Passing Bell . . .177 INDEX. Page Paste .... 120, 211 Pa«t», Permanent . . 120 lee . 2t Pawnbrokers' Signs . . 27 4 Pea, tha . . . . 151 818 lUkl . . . 1 74 ii arks, to Preserve . 197 urn .... 157 Metallic . . . 166 . 1U •■.•45 Serpentine . 887 beading Aloud . . . 128 Seven Wonders, the . 199 Kebus. . . . . 118 Shakspeare, William . 154 Red .... . 308 Shamrock, how it came to Chalk , 30.1 be the National Emblem Lead . . 307 of Ireland , 21 Sealing Wax, to Mako 89 Shaving Soap . Shells, to Polish. . . 251 Reef Knots . 3 . . 841 Respiration . 61 shilling . . 130 eh Ships, Description of . 30 Increase . . 103 Shirts, to Fold . . 272 Restoration Day . . 164 Shoes 3,3 , Retort. . 201 Ship Tickets, Composition Revnolds, Sir Joshua. . 211 Cor ... 119 Rhubarb . 64,207 Shorthand . - 295 Uice Paper, to Model in . Mi Shrove Tuesday. . , 94 Kiddle . 116 Shuttle . 249 digging . . 200 Suk rooms, to Fumigate 42 King fast, on the Finger . 353 S Ik, to Keep . . 226 Boasting' . . 71 Silkworms and their Pro- Rocks, Transition of. . 272 ducts . 227 Remarkaole Comets . . 79 >rma Fggs . . . 117 Boiling Blinds . . 339 Silver Coins . 203 Roman Money, Weights, Silvi r Spoons . and Measures . . 283 Simple Bodies . _ . 190 Room Papers, to Clean . 247 Skin, Olive, to Dye . 112 Roots . 187 to clear a Tanned . 112 , Bulbous . . 181 Dark Colour of the . 176 Rose of Wood Shavings, to Skylark, the . 168 Make . 299 Slate . # - . 32S Pink, or Roue Lake 3.9 Sloop, or Shallop # 30 Roses, Propagation of . 200 Smacks , 30 to nestore Faded . 242 Smalt . • . 307 Rotten Stone . 99 Snails. • i;o Royal Mottoes . . . 116 Snakes, Bites of. • >v 29 .392 Reubens, Paul . , 185 Snow and Frost • • ! ubv .... , 313 Snuff Taking . • . 135 Ruddle, or Blood Stone . 311 Soap Bubble . • . 181 Shriving . • . 26 1 Sabbath . % . . 65 Sore Throats . • , 4:1 Saccharine . , . 293 Sound . • . 91 Sackbut . # . . 221 South Sea Bubble • . 62 Safety Lamp . . . 6 Spanish Black . • a j Saffron . 310 Brown . . 311 Sasyo .... . 98 Spasms . . . 118 Salamander 142 Bpiimet . • • . 218 Salt Water, to Make Fresh 16 Spirit Lamp 144 Sandal Wood . 3(11 Spiritual Peers . . 174 Sao, the ... . 24) Square .Measure . . 268 Sapphire . . . . 313 Bt. Andrew** ''ay , 274 Saturn . . , _ 64 Statistics of Tea and Cof- saucepans, Danger from lee . . 249 Copper . , 73 Statistics. Scriptural . 324 Savings' Banks . . . 155 St. Patrick's Lay St. Valentine',* Day , 181 Scalds and Burns m 29 % , 94 Scurf Skin on Face . . 112 St. Swit hiii's Day % 214 Scent. Jar . t 139 St. Denys . t 245 Scratching out Ink Marks 353 St. Luke . . 245 IXBEX. Faqe Statistics, Interesting, . '37 Statistics, Health . . 353 St, Crispin .... 2t. ; > St. Simon . . . .2.5 Bt. Ju.ie .... 245 Staining Liquids . . 16i> Stains, to Remove from the Hands . . . .251 Stammering, Cure for . 134 Stanza .... 279 Starch . . . . 9 A Steam Engine . # . 151 Navigation . . 292 Sterna ..... 209 Stereotyping . . .141 Slewing .... 73 Steel Yard . . . .242 ■ to Preserve from Rust 80 Relished ... 80 Stereoscope . . . 363 Sti kingPiaister . .212 Still 44 Stoekimrs, Mending . . 152 Stone, Mercury ... 20 Stones, various ... 327 Storm Glasses ... 24 Sub Rom . . . .160 Ltien and Drowning. 15 S ilphur .... 190 Bumao .... 310 S ramer . . . .188 Sunbeam* .... 14(5 tun dower .... 63 fjuti Stroke, Protection from 13 Dials .... 17 Swimming, Method of . 16 Belts . . 26 Symbol . . . .188 Sirups .... 104 Tamarinds . • • • 151 Tambourine . . . 220 Ti e Worms . . . 29 i T too .... 96 Tea 90 Plant .... 89 Sump of . . . 104 Teasel . . . .159 Teeth, to Make them White 88 Loose, to Fasten . 65 Telescope, Reflecting . 60, 105 Tetrahedron . . . 15i Thermometers for Compa- rison .... 13" Thimbles .... 147 Thirst, Oause off. . . 131 Thorns, How to Extract t'i 1 1 a the Flesh . .17 Tioes, the . . . .ISO Timber Trees . . . 305 TL-ne .... 50 ■ — — Jewish Method of Reckoning . . . 265 «— — lioman, Division of. 264 Time Table Tivoli, or Chinese Billiards Toad .... Toast and Water Tobacco, Virginian . Toothache . Topaz .... Tortoise . . . Tortoiseshell, to Mend Toucans Tracing Paper . Trance i ran s for Paper, to Make Transparent Paper . Transplanter, the . Tritmdria . . o Triangle . • Time. Variations of . . Troj Weight . . . Truffle Beetle . . Trumpet .... Tru.-tee .... Tubes for Chemicals . . Tulip, Cultivation of the . Turmerie . . . Turn nikes .... Turpentine ... Tuscan . . . . Twelfth Day . . Ultramarine ... Umber .... Undershot Wheels . . Unicorn . . . . Union Jack . . Utopia .... Varnish, Black, for Wood . to Colour Baskets and Old Straw Hats Vegetfibh»s, Poisonous Velvet, Painting on Ventriloquism . Ventilation . Verbs . . . Vermilion . • Violin Violoncello Vision, Deceptive Viscount Vitriol, Accidents from Voice Lozenge Voice, Human, Rauge Voltaire Vulcan . . Wafers and Wax Walking . Walnut . . Wallflower . . Warts . . Watch Watches, the Water Paqe 2>3 2: ; :i 201 170 111 130 813 249 251 137 139 175 254 175 141 209 178 8fi 26-: 178 21S 27l' 141 25- 309 130 130 Of . 3 63 30S 311 212 119 160 14* 181 185 80a lor, 75 17!) 205 177 J Water, Gleanings 16 Hard, or Soft . 16 Louse 239 Salt Water, Fresh . 16 r ii Hi Washing Linen at S a . 16 Sea, to make Artifi- cial 16 Wheel, Overshot 62 Waterproofing Boots and Shoos . 21 Washington, George 94 Wax and Wafers 181 Waxen Flowers and Fruit, How to M;ike 317 Wedding Rings, Origin of, 130, 149 Wedding Bines, Fmger 157 Wedge, Description of 14 Wee, is, Utility of 853 Weights and .Measures 262 Roman 204 Weld a;o Wesley, John . . 1^5 Wheat . 49 Whey . . . . 209 Wheels . 57 Whirlwinds . 187 Whist .... 349 White House Paint, to make Economical . . . 254 White Lead 307 lV hCcU • • • • loi Willow or Osier . . 303 Wills 3i Windlass .... 61 •Vimlmill .... l«-2 Winds .... 1»5 Windows, to Paint, to Re- semble stained Glass 160 Wine Measure . 2G2 How to Choose . 176 Winter .... 183 Woad 307 Wolsey, Cardinal 274 Wood, to ive a fine Black Colour to 241 Woods, Fine . . 303 Wool Weight . 283 Woeester, Battle of . 244 \ r en, Sir Christopher 2 to Writing .... 213 Writing and Conversation, Modes of Address in 172 Yacht ?0 Yankees • . 178 Year of our Lord . . 149 Yellow .... 309 Yew . a 304 Yule 275 Zebra . • • • - 209 Zodiac • • * . lai ^DDITIO:iNr.A.I, INDEX. PA-GK AMERICAN FLAG 78 AMERICAN TERRITORY, EXTENT OF 148 ATMOSPHERE, SINGULAR FACTS ABOUT THE, 37 AVERAGE OF LIFE AND DEATH, 219 BOOKS, LOST SACRED, 324 BOOK, AN OLD, 326 BOWIE KNIFE, 826 CALENDAR. A CURIOUS 293 CALENDAR. A COMPLETE FOR ONE HUNDRED YEARS, 76 CALCULATIONS, CURIOUS, 324 CENT, THE OLD, 34 CENT, THE CANADIAN, 215 COINCIDENCE, SINGULAR, 64 CURIOSITIES OF LITERATURE, 215 JEFFERSON S TEN RULES, 37 KNUCKLES, TO STRIKE WITHOUT HURTING THEM (a Trick), 156 MECHANICAL FORCE OF LIGHTNING 29 MOVING THE KNIGHT 48 QUAINT QUESTIONS 79 RIVERS AND OCEANS, 326 SHIPPING: OF THE WORLD, 146 TEA AND COFFEE, CONSUMPTION OF, 219 THUNDER 275 TYPE, A FONT OF, l.!S VOICE, THE HUMAN, 275 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 48 WORDS, 35 WORLD IN EPITOME, 325 THE CORNER CUPBOARD. $ fptttUsnj of Bstfal fuurtoltlrj*. KNOTS. The most simple purpose for which a knot is required, is the fastening together of two pieces of string or cord ; the Fig. 1. knot selected for this purpose should possess two important properties; — it should be secure from slipping, and of small size. No- thing is more common than to see two cords attached together in a manner similar to that shown in Fig. 1. It is scarcely pos- sible to imagine a worse knot ; it is large and clumsy, and as the cords do not mutually press each other, it is certain to slip if pulled with any great force. Iu striking contrast to this — the worst of all, we place one of the best; namely, the knot usually employed by netters, and which is called by sailors "the sheet-bend. It is readily made by bending one of the pieces of cord into a loop {a b, Fig. 2), which is to be held between the finger and thumb of the left hand ; the other cord e is passed through the loop from the farther side, then lound behind the two legs of the loop, and lastly, under itself, the loose end coming out at d. In the tmallness of its size, and the firmness with which the various parts grip together, this knot surpasses every common stout twine less than an inch being iuffioient to form the loop. Of the knot, Fig. 2 is the simplest method to describe, although not the most rapid in practice ; as Fig. 3. it may be made in much fess time hy cro?s- ing the two ends of cord (a b, Fig. 3) on the tip of the fore-finger of the left hand, and holding them firmly by the left, thumb, which covers the crossing; then the parte is to be wound round the thumb in a loop, as shown in the figure, and passed between the two ends, behind a and before b ; the knot is completed by turning the end b downwards in front of d, passing it through the loop, securing it under the left thumb, and tightening the whole by pulling d. As formed in this mode, it is more rapidly made than almost any other knot ; and, as before stated, it excels all in security and compact- ness, so firmly do the various turns grip each other, that after having been tightly pulled, it is very difficult to untie. Rbef-Enots. The only precaution ne- y in making a reef-knot is, to observe * From " Inquire York. Price $1 00. ce other: it can, moreover, be that the two parts of each string are on tied readily when one of the i the same side of the loop; if they are Qo£ b, is exceedingly short , in | the ends (and the bows, if any are formed^ Within; or, Over 3,700 Facts for the People." Dick &. FitzgeraU, New tacts roit everybody: are at right angles to the cords ; the knot is less secure, and is termed by sailors a granny-knot. Other knots are occasionally used to con- nect two cords, but it is unnecessary here to describe them, as every useful pur- pose may be answered by those already mentioned. The Binding - Knots (Figs. 5 and 6) are ex- ceedingly useful in connect- ing broken sticks, rods, &c, but some difficulty is ^ often experienced in fastening it at the tinish ; if, however, the string is placed over tho part to be united, as shown in Fig. 5, and the long end b, used to bind around the rod, and finally passed through the loop a, as shown in Fig. 6, it is rea- dily secured by pulling d, ■when the loop is drawn, in, and fastens the end of the cord. Fig. 4. Fig. 6. Fig. 5. The Clove Hitch-Knot. For fastening ft cord to any cylindrical object, one of the most useful knots is the clove hitch, which although exceedingly simple and most easily made, is one of the most puzzling knots to the uninitiated. There are several modes of forming it, the most simple being perhaps aa follows . — make two loops, precisely Hg. 7. similar in every respect as a and b, Fig. 7, then bring b in front of a, so as to make both loops correspond, and pass them over the object to_he tied, tightening the ends; if this is pronerly done, ihe knot will not slip, although surrounding a tolerably smooth cylindrical object, as a pillar, pole, &c. This knot is employed by surgeons in reducing dislocations of the last joint of the thumb, and by sailors in great part of the standing rigging. The loop which is formed when a cable is passed around a post or tree to secure a vessel near shore, is fastened by what sailors term two half hitches, which is simply a clove hitch made by the end of the rope which is passed around the post or tree, and then made to describe the clove hitch around that part of itself which is tightly strained. TheTyino Up ofPa.hcf.es in Paper is an operation which is seldom neatly performed b}' persons whose occupations have not given them great facilities for constant prac- tice. Whether the paper be wrapped round the objects, as is the case usually when it is much larger than sufficient to enclose them, or merely folded over itself, as is done by druggists, who cut the paper to the required size, it is important that the breadth of the paper should be no longer than sufficient to enable it to be folded over the ends of the object enclosed, without passing over the opposite side. It is impossible to make a neat or close parcel with paper which is too broad ; excess in length can be readily disposed of by wrapping it round; the ex- cess of bread 'eh should be cut away. With regard to turning in the ends, the mode adopted by grocers is the best. The most common cause of failure in parcels is their being badly corded. We will therefore (however unnecessary the description of so simple a performance may appear to those already acquainted with it), describe the most readily acquired mode of cord- ing. Let a single knot be made in the end of the cord, which is then passed round the box or parcel. This knotted end is now tied by a single hitch round the middle of the cord (Fig. 8) and the whole pulled tight. The cord itself is then carried at right angles A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. found the end of the parcel, and where it crosses the transverse cord cm the bottom of the box (Fig. 9), it should (if the parcel is heavy and requires to be firmly secured) be I, then bin-k under- neath it, and pulled tightly, then over Lastly, uiuler the oross cord, and on wound the other end of the box. "When it Kg. 8. reaches the top it must be secured by passing it, under that part of the cord which runs lengthways («, Fig. 8) polling it very tigut, and fastening it by two half hitches Tig. 9. round itself. The great cause of parcels becoming loose is the fact of the cord being often fastened to one of the transverse parts, (as b, Fig. 8; instead of the piece running lengthways, and in this case it Invariably becomes loose. The description may per- haps be rendered clearer by the aid "of the figures, which exhibit the top and bottom 01 a box corded as described. The cords, however, are shown in a loose state to allow their arrangements to be perceived more easily. < I ! . ilMINATIOX OF ACOltNS. Take a hyacinth glass, or a broad-mouthed bottle, and till it about-one-third With water. Cut a piece of stiff card-board, or tin, to tit closely the opening of the glass or bottle, and from the centre thereof suspend an acorn by a piece of thread just long enough to let the acorn descend nearly to the water. It will be advantageous to drop the acorn until it • water, and then to draw I It up very gently as far a» may be doue | without overcoming the attraction which be wider to the base of the acorn. Keep it now on the mantel- piece over the lire, and in a few weeks the germ will burst the shell, and a little root 0£pj ^ will appear and descend to the water, ^ •omc more - where it will be-^-J-^ l^- fully developed. W* Steep the acorn in water a Jay before suspending it. ^ Soon afterwards, another germ will be seen to strike upwards until it reaches the ^__ covering of the glass, where ^^ a contrivance may easily be or its escape, still* keeping the acorn in tiie same relative position. And thus a sappliug oak may be produced— a curiosity for the parlour. THE SAFETY LAMP was invented by Sir Humphrey Davy, and was constructed so as to burn with- out any danger in an explosive atmosphere. It is merely a common oil-lamp, the frame of which is enclosed in a cylin- drical cage of wire-gauze, sometimes made double at the upper part where the hottest portion of the gas collects, and containing about 400 apertures to the square inch. The wick is trimmed by means of a bent wire, passing tightly through the body of the lamp, so that when the lamp has been sup- plied with oil, the wick may be kept burning for any length of time without unscrewing the cage. When this lamp is im- mersed in aH explosive mixture of marsh -gas or coal-gas and common air, the gauze cylinder becomes filled with a blue flame, arising from the combustion of the gas within; but the flame does not communicate to the outside, even though the gauze may be heated to less redness, ABLUTION", or a Washing Aivay—a. re- ligious ceremony, which has been practised more or less by the followers of all creeds. The Moh.i'.r ms and Brahmins are very strict in their a dutions; and they occupy an important rank amongst other n I of India. The Ganges is considered by the natives as possessing a power of purifi- cation so great even, that if a votary cannot rea'h that river, and who calls upon it while bathing in another to cleanse him, he will be freed from all his sins. c FACTS FOIL EVERYBODY: ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. . In the de- scription of the electric telegraph, we will lay aside all technical and scientific terras, and explain clearly this greatest wonder of our day. The source of the electricity used requires our first attention This is what ii called a voltaie, or galvanic battery; and it is so called from Volta and Qalvani, its originators. We can make a very simple battery by means of two tumblers, a little Bait and water, two small pieces of zinc, and two of copper, united in the following manner : — A and B are the tumblers, c c the pieces of copper, z z the pieces of zinc ; the tumblers being partly rilled with the salt and water, the battery is complete. It Fig. 1. may be observed that the metals used are dissimilar; that a plate of copper and one of zinc unite at e, and that there ore wires fixed to the other two plates, which as yet are in no way connected. Whilst things are in' this state, nothing will take place; the battery is at rest, and no electricity is evolved by it ; but if we join the two wires, a current of electricity will immediately pass, and this current will continue till we again separate the wires. If two plates of metal are placed in a solution which will only dissolve one of them, and their upper edges aie brought into contact, whilst the others are kept apart, a current will pass from one to the other through the solution, and, passing also from one to the other at the point of contact, will continue thus circulating, till either the soluble matter is consumed, or the liquid itself is saturated — that, is, has dissolved as much metal as it is capable of dissolving. This is always the ease ; but often the effect is so slight, that it is rarely perceptible. Take a piece of silver, and a piece of zinc the size of a half-crown; place one upon the tip of the tongue, the other under it; bring their . into contact, and what is called a 6h<" k will be perceptible ; that is, the saliva acting upon the zinc and not upon the silver, a small hi-iery is made, and the electricity passes from the zinc through the tongue to the rifver, thence to the zinc a^ftin. and thus circulates till you part the edges of the metals. The shock is very l slight, being chiefly known oy an acid j taste ; nor would it be felt at all, but that | the tongue is so acutely sensitive. We have I called this a small battery, but it is scarcely | a correct term ; it is a single voltaic pair — a battery, in its proper sense, being made up by a union of two or more such pairs, as in'the case of the one above. In prac- tice, a battery consists of twelve or more such pairs ; and the following sketch repre- sents one commonly used in working the electric telegraph: — Fig. 2. 111! M Fig. 3. It contains twenty-four pairs of zinc and copper plates, about four inches square. Each pair are soldered together by means of a strap of metal, as in Fig. 3. To" make it quite clear, we have drawn but twelve pairs in section, and lettered the alternate piat.es, z standing for zinc, and c for copper, 'ihe trough in which they are placed is either made of baked wood, glass, eartlie. ware, or gutta-percha; the only requisite being that it is a non-conductor of electricity — that is, such a substance as electricity will not readily pass through. The last plate at one end is zinc, and the other copper, and a wire is soldered to each. If these wires are joined, a current of electricity will pass from the zinc plate to which one is attached, through the exciting liquid, which is here sulphuric acid and water, to the copper plate in the same cell, thence by the metal strap to the zinc of the next cell, and thus through the whole series to the other single plate, whence it passes by the wires to the first zinc plate again, liut as each pair of plates produce similar currents, their com- bined power is very great, and a large quantity of electricity passes through the terminal wires. So much for the battery. We will now go a step further, and learn an extraordinary effect which it is capable of producing. You know what a magnet is, and many of yon have, we dare say, seen a mariner's compass — if not, we must I toll you what it is. It consists of a flat piece of steel, of this shape, winch is called a needle. ^^ — — ^- .^^This is sus- pended on *^ = -- — —Z~--~*~~~'^ ** point, by means of a small hole, or rather conical in- A. MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. drntion made in its centre. This needle being magnetised, and thus impended, will always point in the tame direction, one cud being directed to the north, the other to the 6outh ; and it. thus enables the sailor to go in any direction he may desire. For if lie knows where these points are, lie can tell the east and west; and if, as is always done, a can! is placed hclow the needle, with the intermediate points carefully marked upon it, lie has no difficulty in steering exactly to any place of which he knows the posi- tion ; and thus the compass 19 to the sailor on the pathless drop just what the direct ton post is to the traveller. Now, if we take such a needle as we have described, and suspend it vertically on an axis passing through its centre, and then, by means of a wire, pass a current from our battery round it thus, the needle will take up a new posi- retnrns to the other pole of the battery; thus the current, leaving the battery by the Fig. 5. tion at right angles to that which it main- tained before, indicated by the dotted lines. "V\ lather the upper point, or north pole, of die moves to the right or left in order to attain this position depends 00 the direction of the current. 'J bus we have arrived at the principle of an electric tele- graph. We have but to agiee upon a set 01 signals that the deflection of the needle shall signify ; and if we can contrive to send the current in the direction we wish, so as to move the north pole of the needle to the right or left at will, the apparatus will be complete. But, in practice, it is necessary that we should be able to move, as we please," a similar needle to our own, at the station to which we desire to send the message. In order to accomplish this, we have but to conduct the current from one station to the other by means of an insulated wire. This will be easily under- stood by the following diagram, where the battery is represented at A, and the diffe- rent stations at B, at each of which the needles have their north poles upwards; and the wire conveying the current passes m the same direction round all, and lastly Pig.6. copper or positive end, ne right, one left. S— Two right; one left, T— Three right, one 1- ft. U— One right, two left-. V— Two right, two left. W- Three right, two left. X— One riant, three left. T— Two right, ihree left. Z— One right, four left. "With two needled the alphabet is some- what different; but you will now under- stand how the movement of the needles can shinty words; and we think you must now have a very good idea of the machinery of an electric "telegraph. We shall now show you how the alarum is rung by elec- tricity, to give the clerk at the instrument notice that a message is about to be sent to Lun, that he may be at his post, and ready to watch the needles, and read. "Wonderful as it may appear, an electric current passing round a piece of soft iron will instantly convert it into a magnet ; but its magnetic properties cease as soon as the current stops. In the telegraph alarum this effect of electricity is thus applied : — A is a piece of soft iron, bent into the form of a horse-shoe ; some covered copper wire is wound round it, the ends, U and C, being left loose for the purpose of connecting them with the battery, I) is a piece ox steel, connected with the lever, E; the other end of which forms a detent or catch, which falls into one of the notches in the wheel, F. This wheel, when the. catch is removed, Will revolve by a spring, and, like the movement in a common clock, acts on the hammer, II, which strikes the bell, Gr. B and C are connected with the distant sta- tion by a wire, as the needle apparatus. When the operator, therefore, at that sta- tion sends a current from his battery along this wire, A will become a magnet, nnd attract the keeper, 1), this, by means of the levers, will release the wheel, F, and the Fig. 9. clock-work will cause the hammer to strike the bell. This will call the attention of the operator, who will return the signal and watch the movement of the needles, road the message, and send the reply in the same manner. BAROMETERS, (HOW TO CONSULT THEM.) In wry hot weather, the fall of the mercury denotes thunder. Otherwise, a sudden fall denotes high wind. In frosty weather, the fall of the baro- meter denotes thaw. If wet weather happens soon after the fall of the barometer, expect little of it. In wet weather, if the barometer falls, ex- pect much wet. In fair weather, if the barometer falls much, and remains low, expect much wet in a few days, and probably wind. A 7 ". B. — The barometer sinks lowest of all for wind and rain together; next to that for wind — (except it be an east or north- west wind.) In winter, the rise of the barometer denotes frost. In frosty weather the rise of the baro- meter indicates snow. If fair weather happens soon after the rise of the barometer, expect but liltle«of it. In wet weather, if the barometei high, and remains so, expect continued fine weather in a day or two. In wet weather, if the mercury rises sud- denly very high, fine weather will not last long. ABORIGINES. A term by which we de- note the primitive inhabitants of a country. 10 FACTS FOE. EVE11VB0DT. FILTERS. The employment of a com- mon flower-pot, of largo dimensions, which may be suspended to a beam, or otherwise secured in an elevated situation, makes a good and inexpensive filter. Into this pot lay a mix- ture of clean sand, and some charcoal broken into bits about the size of peas, and into the hole of the flower-pot place a small plug, drilled through the centre, by which the filtered water may be conducted to the pitcher be- low. The water may be doubly filtered by employing twoflower- pots, one suspended over the pr other, with a piece of sponge in the hole of the pot, the under one being prepared as directed. The sand and charcoal should occasionally be taken out and well washed, or be replaced by new materials. CAMERA ORSCURA. The simplest form of the Camera Obscura consists of a darkened room, with a round hole in the window-shutter, through which the light enters. Pictures of opposite objects will then be seen, inverted, on the wall, or on a white screen placed so as to receive the rays. r> "We give here a very simple form of Camera, which our readers may easily construct. A B C D is a small rectangular box, closed on all sides, except the space EFGD, which is covered with a piece of ground glass. In the other end is a moveable tube, T, with a proper lens; and in the body, of the box is a mirror, E I II D, set to an angle of 45 dog. Upon this mirror the imase of the object, P Q, falls, and is re- flected upon the ground-glass plate. CLEANING DECANTERS. Those en- crusted with the dregs of port wine, will be readily freed from stain by washing them with the refuse of the teapot, leaves and all, whilst warm. Dip the decanter into a ves- eel containing warm water, to prevent the hot tea leaves from cracking the glass, then empty the teapot into the decanter, and a few strokes will clean it. The tannin of the tea has a chemical affinity for the crust on the glass. TO CLEAN PAPER OF ROOMS. Few things can be -devised better for this purpose than the old-fashioned one of rob- ing the paper with stale bread ; but where the paper is greasy, occasioned by persons reclining their heads against the wall, it ia advisable to use a piece of flannel, wetted with spiritsof wine, or Smith's scouring drops, a mixture of turpentine and essence of lemon. ABACUS. An instrument employed to facilitate arithmetical calculations. The name may be given with propriety to any machine for reckoning i w ith counters, beads, Arc, in which one line is j made to stand for units, another ior tens, and so | on. We have here given the form of an abacus, such as we may recom- mend, for the purpose of J teaching the first prin- ciples of arithmetic, the j only use, as far as we know, to which such an instrument is put in this country. Its length should be about three times its breadth." It consists of a frame, tra- versed by stiff wires, on which beads or counters I are strung so as to move : easily. The beads on\ the first right hand row || are units, those on the ! next tens, and so on. Thus, as it stands, the number 57048 is represented upon the lower part of it. There is an instrument sold in the toy shops with twelve wires, and twelve beads on each wire, for teaching the multiplication table, and for this purpose much used in our National Infant Schools. The Russians are also much in the habit of performing calcu- lations by strings of beads. In China, how- ever, where the whole system is decimal, this instrument, called in Chinese shwanpan, is universally used. The word Abax was the Greek term for this instrument. Their abacus differs from that described in having only five beads on each line, one of which is distinguished by colour or size from the rest. ABBATTOIR. The name given by the French to the public slaughter-houses, which were established in Paris, by a decree of Napoleon, in 1810, and finished in 18 i 8. These buildings, which are of very large di- mensions, Consist of slaughter-rooms, built of stone, with every arrangement for clean- liness, and with ample mechanical aids. An endeavour was made to establish thera in England, but it failed. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 11 -<=d; AESENTC (TO DETECT). Ajaenic is [y soluble in any organic mixtures, and may generally be found as a wrhi roent, which, when thrown upon ;i red-hot cinder, gives out a Btrowg odour, like that of onions, and a thick white Bmoke. The best the following: — Pour two table- ipeoted Quid into a six ounce bottle, and add seven table-spoonsful of water Then pour in one table-spoon- ful of sulphuric acid. Having prepared a cork with a piece of to- bacco-pipe run through it, drop into the bottle a few scraps of zinc. Hy- drogen gas will be evolved, which, after ■waiting two or three minutes, may be lighted. If amnio is present, the onion 6inell will be de- tected, and the llame will have a blnei-h-white colour. Upon holding a piece of glass, or a white saucer, Le point of the flame, black metallic . in fine crystals, and white arsenic, ied. Common arsenic cauuo t y the taste. LIGHTNING. To avoid accidents from rag during a thunder-storm, sit or as near the middle of the room as possible. Avoid going near the windows or walls, and put knives, scissors, and all kinds 1 utensils out of the way. Avoid standing near pipes, iron-rail. ngS, and i if caught in a storm in intry, do not shelter yourself by any under trees. On a wide and open" heath, where no house shelter can be ob- tained, the safest plan is to lie down flat on the earth. Stroke of Lightning. Throw cold ipon a person struck by lightning. It is said to be of very greatbenefit, if not a positive cure. Lightm.vg-Coxductors should be made of copper, or preferably of iron ; if of the latter metal, the pointed "extremity should be gilded to prevent rust: they "should be of ut diameter; should project some feet above the highest point of the building, and -ink some feet into the groun 1, till they meet with moisture; and should be per- fectly insulated from the building they are ■d to protect, by being made to pass through glass rings wherever they come in contact with it. ABBREVIATIONS *are of two kinds; fir \ those which are used in familiar Speech, by which two words are made one, as can't for cannot, won't for will not, and those *From " OOOBTJXIX'8 Dl< which are employed in writing only. The Rabbins carried this practice to a great ax- tent; thus for Rabbi Levi ben Gerson, they took the first letters, it. L. B. G. In the middle as * the practice of abbreviating in- many wrili; came unintelligible, and in matters of Law and government the difficulties thus created demanded prompt legislative interposition; accordingly, in the fourth year of George II.. an act was passed forbidding tli^ abbreviations in legal documents. Within a year or two this act was so far mod allowing the use of those of common occur- rence, but the old practice was never com- pletely revived. The most important are : — I1TL1 s. A.M. Master of Arts. M.D. Medicinck Doctor, Abp. Archbishop. Doctor of .Medicine. Bp. Bishop. LL.l). Legum Doctor, Bt. Baronet. Doctor of Laws. B.A. Bachelor of Arts. Messrs. Mrssiours, Att. Gen. (Law) Attor- Masters {Misters) pi. ney General. of Mr. Atty. (Law) Attorned. P.M. (Postal) Post- A.G. (Military) Adjut- master. nut General. P.M.G. Post Master A.G. (Official) Account- General. ing General. Pros. U.S. (Executive) A.G. (Law) Attorney President of the Uni- ■ ml. ted 8 Aid. (Civic) Afdertnan. Pres. U.S.S. Presi- D.D. (University De- dent of the Unreel trree) Divinitatia i- JJuc/or, Doctor of Di- Pres. (Official) Presi- vinitv. ident. Dr. (Varimis) Doctor. Pro". (Literary) Profes- Esq. orEsqre, Esquire. sor. Gen. or Genl. (Various) Rt. Rev. or Revd. General. (Episcopal) Gov. or Govt. (Official) Reverend. Governor. Sec. retary. Lieut. (Naval or Mili- S. oi the H. of i:. tary) Lieutenant er of the House of M.A. (r. A.M.) Mister Representatives. of Arts. B.TJ.S.N. Secretary Uni- Maj. (Military) Major. ted States Navy. 0OMlir.!:ciAi.. Or. Creditor. L.-.D. Pounds, Shil- Dr. Debtor. lings, and i Do. or ditto, the same. A.L.i*. Acres, itoods, No. X amber. and Poles. Fo. Folio. CwtQr. I b. Os. Ilun- 4to. Quarto. 8vo. Octavo. Pounds, and Ounces. MISCELLANEOUS. A.D. the year of our 2tf. y . New Style (after Lord. " the tear l< A.M. the year of the O.S. O.d Style (before Id. 1762). A.M. before noon. Nern. eon. without coa« !hiist, tradiction. i.e. thai is to -ay. P.M. Afternoon, ib. in the same place. P. \ Postscript. ult. the Inst month. M.C. (Legislative) v Member of Congress. F.D of the MS. Manuscript, Faith. NJJ. Observe. D.G.Bj tbegraeeoftM. i-.i'.tvi \i i.. .2 inches. A square chain is 16 square poles, and ten square chains is an acre. Four roods are an acre, each containing 1,240 *quure yards, or 37,7!S7 feet, or 24 yards, 28 inches on each side. A pole is 5j yards each way. A square mile, 1,760 yards each way, i- 640 acres ; half a mile, or 880 yards each way, is l(i0 acres; a quarter of a mile, 440 yards each way, is a park or farm of 40 acres ; and a furlong, or 220 yards each way, is 10 acres. ARDENT SPIRITS, Ten American Presi- dents, from Madison to Buchanan, inclusive, have signed a paper declaring their convic- tion that ardent spirits as a drink are not onlv needless, but, hurtful. ETCHING UPON IVORY. Cover the ivory with wax, hard varnished, or an etch- ing ground, execute the required design, border with wax, and pour on sulphuric acid, hydrocloric acid, or a mixture OI equal parts of both acids ; when etched sufficiently, wash well, remove the wax, varnish, or etching ground with oil of turpentine, and rub well with old linen rag. Some persona rub a black varnish into the etched parts to give a greater effect. The varnish is made of lamp-black and common turpentine var- nish, and the surface is rubbed clean off, leaving only the dark parts visible. Etching* (Upon Egg-shells). Cover the shells with appropriate designs in tallow, or varnish, and immerse in strong acetic acid ; they wilL then come out in strong relief. HIVES, (COTTAGE). There are various descriptions of hives in general use. With- out recommending any particular kind, we give a representation of one which is simple and effective. This is capped with a bell- glaas; the small hive used as a cover for which is raised, and has part of the side out away to show the bell-glass. The dome shape is preferable to a square or cylinder, as affording more perfect ventilation, ana as being more in accordance with the clus- tering position of the bees themselves, either in winter or during swarming. FUMIGATING BEE-HIVES. Fumiga- tion is a word employed by bee-keepers A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 13 to express the process in which, by the aid of certain intoxicating smoke, the insects become temporarily Btupified in which state they are perfectly harmless, and may be deprived of their honey with- out any risk or trouble. They subsequently soon recover from their stupification, and are none the worse for it. Rags steeped in a solution of saltpetre, or a few tobacco leaves wrapped in brown paper, Avill do. If, however, tobacco is used, care is neces- sary, lest the fumigation be carried to too great an ex- tent, so as to cause the death of some of your stock. Per- sons not accustomed to deal with bees should wear an overall of thin gauze over the head and breast, and gloves on their hands. With this, and a little bottle of aqua - ammonia, or aqua- potassa?, to be used i I case of their being stung, they have no cause for trepidation. For the process of fumigation, you should have a small tin box, with a tube extending from each of the two oppo- site ends ; one end of this tube being so fashioned that it can readily be inserted into the hive, and the other so formed that it can readily be attached to the tube of an ordinary bellows, as in the annexed engraving. EYE, (SUBSTANCES IN THE). To re- move fine particles of gravel, lime, &c, the eye should be syringed with lukewarm water till free from them. Be particular not to worry the eye under the impression that the substance is still there, which the enlargement of some of the minute vessels makes the patient believe is actually the case. — Or, bathe the eye with a little weak vinegar and water, and carefully remove any little piece of lime which may be seen, with a feather. If any lime has got en- tangled in the eyelashes, carefully clear it away with a bit of soft linen soaked in vinegar and water. Inflammation is sure to follow ; a smart purge must therefore be adminstered. 1- 1 HE. The following are among the best Precautions in Cases ofFihe. 1. Should a fire break out, send off to the nearest en- gine or police station. 2. Fill buckets with water, carry them as near the tire as possible, dip a mop into the water, and throw it in 2 showers on the fire until assistance arrives. 3. If a fire is violent, wet a blanket and throw it on the part in flames. 4. Should a lire break out in a chimney, a blanket wetted should be nailed to the upper-end of the mantel-piece, so as to cover the opening entirely, the tire will then go out of itself ; for this purpose, two knobs should be per- manently fixed in the xqipcr ends of the mantel-piece, upon which the blanket may be hitched. 5. Should the bed or window- curtains be on fire, lay hold of any woollen garment, and beat it on to the flames until extinguished. 6. Avoid as much as possible leaving any door or window open in the room where the fire has broken out, as 'he current of air increases the force of the fire. 7. Should the staircase be burning so as to cut oft' all communication, endeavour to es- cape by means of a trap-door in the roof, a ladder leading to which should always be at hand. 8. Avoid hurry and confusion. 9. In ca9e a lady's dress takes fire, she' should endeavour to roll herself in a rug, carpet, or the first woollen garment she meets with. 10. A solution of pearlash in water, thrown upon a fire, extinguishes it instantly ; the proportion is a quarter of a pound dissolved in some hot water, and then poured into a bucket of common water. STIFF NECKS, (SUPPORT FOR). This valuable support should be made of black moreen if it be worn with a black necker- chief; and of white ditto, (or mohair,) if with a light one. It is formed of a number of pieces, each one being bound with ribbon only, and being joined in the middle of each piece by a few stitches. The binding must be carried all along the top and bottom but must be sufficiently loose oetween the segments to give the neck a comfortablo freedom. SWELLING IN THE NECK. Fourteen or fifteen nettle seeds ground into powder, and taken daily, will cure the swelling in the neck known by the name of goitre, with- out in any way injuring the general habit. ABSOLUTION, a religious ceremony in use in different Christian communities, by which tht» priest declares an individual, on repentance and submission to the requisite penance, to be absolved from his sin. SUN -STROKE, (PROTECTION AGAINST.) A piece of silk, which is a non- conductor, worn as the liningof hat or bon net, is a very safe protection against sun-stroke. 14 TACTS FOE EVERYBODY: OIL PAINTINGS, (TO CLEAN). The art of cleaning oil paintings has been very much neglected, and several valuable pic- tures have been destroyed in consequence of the persons operating upon tbem employing the same means for removing all kinds of dirt, as they do for dust and varnish com- mingled, so that frequently a valuable painting has actually been scoured away. Most paintings are varnished, and as the nature of the varnish differs, so also must the means by which they are removed. In some cases it is better to allow the varnish to remain untouched, than to interfere with it, as the painting might be damaged in the latter instance. The materials required consist of water, olive oil, pearl-ashes, soap, spirits of wine, oil of turpentine ; sponge, wollen and linen rags ; essence of lemons, and stale bread crumbs. Soluble Varnishes, such as sugar, glue, honey, gum arabic, isinglass, white of egg, and dirt generally, may be removed by em- ploying hot water. To know when the painting is varnished or coated with such materials, moisten some part with water, which will become clammy to the touch. To clean the picture, lay it horizontally upon a table or some convenient place, and go over the whole surface with a sponge dipped in boiling water, which should be used freely until the coating begins to soften ; then the heat must be lowered gradually as the varnish is removed. If, however, the coating is not easily removed, gentle friction with stale bread crumbs, a damp linen cloth, or the end of the fore- finger, will generally effect it, or assist in doing so. White of an egg may be removed (if not coagulated by heat), by using an excess of albumen (white of egg), and cold water; but if coagulated, by employing a weak solution of a caustic alkali as potash. Coated dirt is removed by washing with warm water, then covering with spirit of wine, renewed for ten minutes, and washing off with water, but without rubbing. The process is to be repeated until the whole is removed. Sjmts should be washed with warm water dried with soft linen rags, and covered with olive oil warmed ; after the oil has re- mained on the spots for twenty minutes, gentle friction with the finger should be used, the foul oil wiped off' and fresh laid on, until the spot disappears. Should this fail, spirits of wine, essence of lemons or oil of turpentine may be carefully applied, observing that only such parts as are dirty must be covered with them ; they are to be cleaned off first with water and then with olive oil. Sometimes even these means fail, and then strong soup-suds, applied directly to the spots, and retained there until they soften or disappear, will prove effectual. The spots must then be washed with water. In employing these means, as indeed throughout the whole process of cleaning, the greatest care should be taken in remov- ing any coating upon the surface of a paint- ing, and it is therefore better to employ mild measures first, then if they fail, to use stronger ; or in the event of these not suc- ceeding, to very carefully apply the strongest. For our own part, we prefer leaving the painting in a half -cleaned state, as it sometimes happens that, with the most scrupulous care, under experienced persons, some of the fine touches or delicate tints of a painting are damaged by the process. "When we state this, we mean only such pictures as are covered with insoluble var- nishes — varnishes of gum-resins, or old oil varnishes, which cannot well be removed without injury to the painting. Varnishes of long standing are very diffi- cult to remove, as they generally consist of linseed oil combined with gum-resins, and if not easily taken off by the means given below, it is better to leave them as they were. To remove these varnishes, use spirits of wine in the manner recommended for coated dirt ; or, oil of turpentine, which requires greater care than the spirits of wine; or, warm olive oil : but if the vaniish is very hard, the painting should be washed by means of a sponge, with a warm solution of pearl-ash (an ounce to a pint of water), until the coating is removed, when the surface must be washed well with fresh water frequently. THE WEDGE. When the compression of a block of wood is completed by the means of driving in a wedge, it then splits, and it is on this principle that the action of the wedge is founded. In the annexed diagram the explanation of the law may be seen. The point of the engine has been inserted by the blow of a hammer into a block of wood, and the wood by compression, has been dis- placed, and the block is rending because it can suffer no more compression. All tne various kinds of cutting and piercing tools, as axes, knives, scissors, nails, pins, *».wls, are modifications of the wedge. The angle, in A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 15 these cases, is more or less acute, according to the purpose to which it is applied. DROWNING and SUFFOCATION. Dr. Marshall Hall, after careful research, shews that to induce the act of breathing is the first thing to be attended to in drowning or suffocation. And the reason is: the lungs refuse to act, not so much because the com- mon air with its ox\ gen cannot find entrance, but because the carbonic acid remains in the blood. Let us look at the mode of treat- ment which Dr. Marshall Hall recommends. Suppose the body to be taken from the watwr, it is to be at once laid on the face, not on the back, and in the open air, if houses be so far distant as to cause long delay in the removal. Every minute is pre- cious. Being laid on the face, with the head towards the breeze, the arms are to be placed under the forehead, so as to keep the face and mouth clear of the ground. In this position the tongue falls forward, draws with it the epiglottis, and leaves the glottis open. In other words, the windpipe is open, and the throat is cleared by fluids or mucus flowing from the mouth. The reason for placing the body in the prone position, on the face, will be better understood by noticing what takes place when it is on its back. The tongue then falls backwards, sinks, so to speak, into the throat, and closes up the windpipe, so that no air can possibly find its way to the lungs, except by force. The body, therefore, being laid on its face, there is a natural pressure of the chest and abdomen which causes an expiration. This may be increased by some additional pres- sure. Then if the body be lifted by an attendant placing one hand under the shoulder, the other under the hip, and turn- ing it partly on its left side, there will be an Aspiration. The air will rush into the lungs with considerable violence. Then the expiration may be repeated by letting the body descend, and so on, up and down alter- nately. And thus, without instruments of any kind, and with the hands alone, if not too late, we accomplish that respiration which is the sole effective means of the eli- mination of blood poison. It is worthy of notice that by this means a really dead body man lie made to breathe before it has become still' — as experiment fully demonstrates. About sixteen times a minute is the rate at which the body should be made to rise and fall in the endeavour to renew respira- tion. The clothes in the meantime should be changed for others dry and warm. Or, if in a warm room, four persons si ion Id seizo the limbs with their hands, and rub them with firm pressure upwards. The warm bath is not to be compared with this mode of restoring warmth, and not warmth only, but the circulation, if it be pursued with energy. The blood is driven upwards, and though venous, may stimulate the heart. The warm bath is on no account to be used until breathing has been restored. Dr. Hall says, it is "injurious;" and to place the patient in a sitting position in warm water, is "to renounce the onlv hope." In France its use has been foi bidden by au- thoritv. DROWNING (PREVENTION OF). 1. As soon as you find yourself at the surface, whither you are raised by your buoyancy, let your body quickly take its level, when the water wall reach a little above your chin. 2. Place one leg a little forward, and the other a little backward, and stretch out your arms on either side under water. By a slight paddling motion, you may regulate the position of your head, and keep the mouth and nose above the surface. Make no efforts, but wait tranquilly until succour arrives. You cannot sink. 3. Do not lay hold of your companion or assistant, or you will infallibly sink him without benefiting yourself. The best swimmer has no more natural buoyancy than you, and would he sunk by the exertion of very little force. 4. Remain perfectly passive till your helper seize you by the hair. Upon this, endea- vour to second his efforts by throwing your- self upon your back. Hold tout neck stiff, and let your hind head sink into the water. Try to propel yourself at this stage by re- gularly and slowly kicking against the water. 5. Be careful to keep every part of your body except your face under the water. 6. If two or more persons are immersed to- gether, let them keep near to each oth«\ By this means one boat may save the whole party at once ; but if they are dispensed, one at a time can only be picked up. Rules to Govern PersonsWho Attempt to Rescue the Drowning. 1. In removing a body from the water, whether into a boat or drawing it along by your own efforts, always keep the face upwards. 2. Recollect that you have no more buoyancy than the person you are attemping to rescue. Therefor" do not 16 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY! attempt to raise him out of the water, or you will sink. By a gentle traction, you may draw him towards the boat or landing- place without fatigue or danger. 3. Always aim at seizing the hind hair of the head, and keep the nape of the neck and your own arm under the water. Thus you will insure his face and your own above the surface. 4. Keep your most powerful arm disengaged for swimming, and maintain the other pro- jected forward, having hold, as directed by the hair of the hind head. In this way you may advance side by side, he floating on his back, and you on your breast. 5. As you approach the person distressed, let him know hy your voice; the prospect of his apeady succour will add to his confidence and strength. 6. Let all your movements be deliberate, .firm, and gentle. 7. Hold the hat reversed in both hands, the arms and hands of course under water. If a person has presence of mind to accomplish this, the hat will by ifa buoyancy afford him great assistance, until it becomes saturated and admits the water. SWIMMING (SAFE AND EASY METHOD OF). It may be premised, that corks of the ordinary form, and bladders, are dangerous and inconvenient in learning to swim. They impede the action of the arms, raise the body too high, and are apt to slip too low down, so as to keep the novice's head under water. By this acci- dent, many persons using corks have been drowned. The objection that it raises the body too high out of the water also applies to swimming-belts, which have the same peculiarity. The following plan will enable any one to learn to swim, or those who cannot swim, to cross deep water safely. The directions, which are simple, require care: — Take a piece of cork, or, for want of cork, light wood, such as deal, and form it into an oval shape, about eighteen inches in its utmost width. Cut a hole in the centre wide enough to admit your neck. Then divide it in two pieces, thus. Then join the two parts on one side with a hinge of gutta percha, or caouchouc, or leather, and on the other side of it with strings. The novice has only to put the two sides round his neck, tie the strings, and while he cannot sink, he has full use of his arms and legs in an upright position, which is the best of all for a beginner in the art of swimming. The shape of the cork offers no impedi- ment whatever to the progress of tho swimmer, in the water This instrument made in cork, light wood, or bark, would be very convenient to travellers crossing rivers in America, Africa, or Australia, as they could carry a con- siderable weight packed upon their heads, thus— The swimmer carries his blankets and clothes on his head, and his gun over his shoulder, swimming with one hand in the greatest freedom. For learning to swim, an India-rubber ring cushion, with an opening and string, answers well, but it is liable to get punctured. WATER GLEANINGS. Hard water, if habitually drunk, is apt to injure the diges- tive organs, and the glandular and abs< r- bent system. To this are attributed the goitres'to which the inhabitants of moun- tainous districts are liable. That which runs over gravel is always hard. To Determine whether. Water be Hard or Soft ; that is, fit or not fit for domestic purposes To a glassful of the water add a few drops of solution of soap in alcohol ; if the water be pure, it will con- tinue limpid; if it be impure, white flakes will be formed. To Make Salt- Water Fresh. The distillation of palateable and fresh water at sea was effected by P. Nicole, at Dieppe, by simply causing the steam arising from boil- ing sea- water, in a still, to pass through a stratum of coarsely-powdered charcoal, in its way to the condenser, or worm-tube. To Make Sea- Water Fit for Washing Linen at Sea. Soda put into s^a-water renders it turbid; the lime and magnesia fall to the bottom. As much soda must be in as not oily to effect a complete precipi- tation of these earths, but to render the sea- water sufficiently lixivial or alkaline. Soda should always be taken to sea for this pur- pose. To Make Artificial Sea- Water.— Take common sea-salt, two pounds ; bitter purging salt, two ounces; magnesia earth, half an ounce ; dissolve all in six gallons of river-water. These, it is said, are the exact proportions and contents of sea-water, from an accurate analysation. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 17 HYGROMETERS. These are instru- ments to determine the amount of moisture In the air. One much used is called the wet bulb hygrometer, and consists of two similar deli- cate mercurial thermome- ters, the bulb of one of which is covered with muslin, and j is kept constantly wet by water, led on to it by a ■tring from a tube in the eentre. The evaporation of the water from the wet bulb reduces the temperature of that thermometer to which it is attached in proportion to the dryness of the air, and consequent rapidity of evaporation. The other thermometer indicates the actual temperature, and the difference being noted, a mathematical formula en- ables us to determine the dew point. But the most I complete and beautiful in- strument for this use is that of Mr. Diiuiell, which m is here represented. The long limb ends in a bulb which is made of black glass, th t the condensed vapour may be more easily seen on it. It contains a portion of ether, into which dips the ball of a small and delicate ther- mometer contained in the cavity of the tube. The whole instru- ment contains only the vapour of ether,, air having been removed. The short limb carries an empty bulb, which is covered with muslin. On the support is another ther- mometer, by which we can observe the temperature of the air. When an obser- vation is to be made by this instrument, a little ether is poured on the muslin : this evaporates rapidly, and the bulb becomes cooled. After a time, through the cooling agency, dew begins to deposit on the black gla-;s, and the point at which this takes place is determined by the included ther- mometer. SUN -DIALS. Sun-dials of iron or brass may be purchased at very reasonable prices, or may be made of marble, slate, or free- stone ; and when set in an unshaded part iftt of the garden, and mounted on a column, somewhat similar to our illustration, and around which some flowering plant haa been trained to climb, it will form a very pleasing object. It is worth mentioning, that, in England, the sun-dial does not give the exact time of our reckoning, which is artificial, except at the equinoxes, being one portion of the year too fast, and another too slow, for our clocks. The French al- ways regulate by the sun, and have, there- fore, to be continually changing their time- pieces. LEECH BAROMETERS. 1. If the weather proves serene and beautiful, the leech lies motionless at the bottom of the glass, rolled together in a spiral form. 2. If it rains, either before or after noon, it is found crept up to the top of its lodgings, and there it remains until the weather is settled. 3. If we are to have wind, the poor prisoner gallops through its limpid habitation with amazing swiftness, and seldom rests until it begins to blow hard. 4. If a remarkable storm of thunder and rain is to succeed, for some days ^^ before it lodges almost continually without water, and discovers un common uneasiness, in violent ]-- throes and con vulsive-like motions. 5. In the frost, as in the clear summer weather, it lies constantly at the bottom ; and in snow, as in E^ rainy weather, it pitches its dwell-' s|= ing upon the mouth of the phial," The leech may be kept in a com- mon two-ounce phial, about thr e-fourth filled with water, and covered with a bit of linen rag. In the summer the water should be changed once a week ; and in the winter once a fortnight. THORNS (How to Extract if the Flvsh has Closed AVer Them). Apply shoemakers' wax, and a poultice over that — to remain on for twelve hours, or till the wax draws out the end of the thorn. IS FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: STING OF BEES. Although the poison which a bee emits when it inserts its sting, is proved to be a highly concentrated acid, it does not follow, that the application of all alkalies will neutralise the acid. Ammonia, for example, we have known, in several instances, to produce distressing conse- quences—such as excessive local inflamma- tion, temporary erysipelas, and general dis- tress to the constitution. The more gentle alkalies— -chalk, or the "blue bag," are much more likely to effect a cure, aud cannot injure. The same person will be variously affected by the sting of a bee; at one time, scarcely any inconvenience will attend it ; at another, much swelling ; again, but little enlargement, although gi-eat pain, &c. The eye suffers considerably, though in general the uneasiness is local ; but if the back of the ear be stung, there is frequently a ge- neral affection of the system ; sickness, giddiness, numbness, nervous trembling, &c. &c, which will sometimes continue for hours. A draught of camphor julap, and total repose, we have known to be beneficial in this latter case; and would earnestly re- commend it to our readers, should they be placed in circumstances to require as- sistance. Common whitning is an effectual remedy against the effects of the sting of a bee or ■wasp. The whitning must be moistened with a little cold water and immediately applied ; it may be washed off in a few mi- nutes, when neither pain or swelling will ensue. BEETLE TRAPS. A very simple and inexpensive snare may be construct- ed at home in the following man- ner : — Cut four or five pieces of paste- board, or strips of wood, and lay them slanting against the sides of an ordinary basin, as in the figure. Pour into the basin (taking care not to soil the sides, which must be perfectly clean and bright) a mix- ture of treacle and water, or beer and sugar. The cockroaches will be attracted by the syrup, and walking up the roadways made for them, fall headlong into the basin. Several of these traps being set night after night will ultimately put the whole of the insects in the housewife's power. Another plan, which may be pursued simultaneously with the above, is to place a few lumps cf quicklime where the cockroaches frequent — about the hearth. Care must be taken, however, that children and ignorant persons do not burn their fingers with this sub- stance. The beetle- wafers sold in the shops to poison "black-beetles" are made by mixing equal weights of flour, sugar, and red-lead ; but these wafers are liable to be picked up and sucked by children, and are therefore objectionable. COCKROACHES (TO DESTROY). Cu- cumber peelings are said to destroy cock- roaches. Strew the floor in that part of the house most infested with the vermin with the green peel cut pretty thick. Try it for several nights, and it will not fail to rid the house of their not very agreeable presence. ETC UING UPON GLASS. Procure se- veral thick pieces of clear crown glass, and immerse them in melted wax, so that each may receive a perfect coating. When quite cold, draw on them with a fine etching- needle any designs, such as landscapes, crests, initials, &c, taking care to remove every particle of wax from such parts of the designs as are intended to be corroded. When all the drawings are finished, the pieces of glass should be placed one by one (G) in a square leaden box (A), which has one side made of glass (C), carefully coated with hard etching varnish, or what is better, melted wax, or mastic varnish, and luted into the frame with bordering wax. The glass side allows the progress of the etching to be observed. The leaden box (A) should be made to drop into a leaden trough with a perforated false bottom (B), but in such a manner that the edge may be surrounded with water, and also the bottom covered with water to absorb the superabundant gas. To the bottom of the receiver or box should be carefully luted a leaden pipe (H), which is attached to the beak of a leaden retort (E) resting in the stand (F), with a spirit-lamp (D) under it. When sufficiently corroded, the glass plate may be removed, but it is ne- cessary to have gloves on, and the hands covered with grease, to prevent the acid A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 19 attacking: the flesh. Those parts that an' bit in enough, must be stopped out, as in common etchings (the plate being previously washed and dried), and the corrosive process combined until the several gradations of shade are obtained. POISONS, (ACCIDENTS FROM). When you have reason to suppose that you have swallowed poison, and proper medical advice is not at hand, take an emetic. This may be done almost instantaneously by swallow- : ig a cupful of warm water mixed with a teaspoon ful of mustard. As mustard may thus prove of so much use, it should be never wanting in any house; but even should there be no mustard at hand, warm water by itself forms a tolerably efficacious emetic. The following is a good emetic in case of Vegetable Poisons. — Twenty grains of sulphate of zinc dissolved in a little water, the whole to be taken ; or sulphate of zinc, one scruple, made into a bolus with confec- tion of roses, and taken with infusion of camomile flowers. Poisonous Vegetables. Everybody who has observed wild plants or weeds must have been struck with the resemblance many bear to parsley. Parents and nurses of chil- dren should be careful not to allow then? to pick any parsley-like wild plants, as they are for the most part poisonous. Should it appear that a child has swallowed a portion of a plant of this nature, it ia important to know what to give before the arrival of a medical man. Every ten minutes, therefore, administer a large dose of olive or salad oil, with warm water, till free sickness is pro- duced. A tcaspoonful or two of vinegar, given after vomiting has been fully excited, has been found beneficial. Antidote for Laudanum. Give twenty grains of white vitriol dissolved in water, nud assist vomiting by irritating the fauces with a leather; after the stomach is emptied, give large draughts of vinegar and water, and other vegetable acids, with coffee, bran- dy, &c, constantly rousing the attention of the sufferer, until the effects of the poison subside. Recourse may^be had to this until the attendance of a medical man can be procured. Antidote to Arsenic. Magnesia is an antidote to arsenic, equally efficacious with peroxide of iron, and preferable to it, inas- much as it is completely innocuous in almost any quantity, and can be procured in any form. Vitriol Accidi nts are not uncommon in kitchens, as when oil cf vitriol (improperly used for cleaning copper vessels) is let fall upon thehands, &c. Let a little soda or potash be dissolved in water, or some fresh soap- The top should be boilers' lees, and instantly applied; no in- jury whatever will occur to the person or clothes. PIGEON HOUSES. Dovecots, or pigeon- houses, are of several kinds. If it is in- tended to keep a large number, the upper floor of a stable, or other building may be removed from the walls, and stepping- tiles fixed. The holes should not be too large, or too numer- ous, and should al- ways have a southern aspect. Small dove- cots may be made of a cask, or boarded box, placed upon a pole, or against the wall, taking care to prevent the entrance or approach of rats, covered with thatch, so contrived as to shelter the sides from the heat of the sun, and the coldness of the wind. On the sides and top should be resting-boards, on which the birds may bask in the sun. The rearing and training of pigeons require great care, for the domesticated and fancy birds are very delicate. Cleanliness, and a plentiful supply of fresh water is, as with other tamed animals, the firstn-equisite. GNATS. The common gnat (culex pipieusj is a near relation to the musquito, but is not usually so troublesome to the human species. They both belong to the section Nemocera of the Dipterous insects, whose mouths are furnished with bristly stings, included in flexile sheaths. They pierce the skin by means of the proboscis, in order to feed upon the blood, and, at the same time, inject a poisonous fluid, produc- ing considerable inflammation and swelling, of varying intensity in different persons. Their activity usually commences towards evening, or after sunset. The Laplanders appear to be the greatest sufferers from their attacks ; but all latitudes are, more or less, troubled with the species. The Laplanders use tar-cream to prevent the insects biting them, but that could scarcely be used in this country. The common Goulard water, scented with Eau de Cologne, is the best ap- plication we know, and is useful in allaying the irritation, as also preventing the attacks. We have observed that gnats seldom or never frequent rooms or houses where chloride of lime has been exposed. We recommend those who are much troubled by gnats to try this remedy. 20 pAors for everybody: CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE, OR STONE MERCURY". The bichloride of mercury (or quicksilver) is so called on account of its peculiarly pernicious effects upon animal tissues, and the masses in which it is sold. It is used, in small quantities, in lotions for diseases of the skin, and, in a very diluted state, in cosmetics. Taken in- ternally it is powerfully poisonous. The following tests will be found available to discover this substance. 1. If it is in a solid state it may be mixed with potash, and heated in a test tube. If the corrosive sublimate is present, metallic globules will be found to condense on the UDper part of the tube. 2. If it is in solu- tion, and mixed with solid matters, the solution should be filtered before any tests are applied. If portions of the suspected fluid be put into test tubes, they will form piecipitates of various colours with the re- agents indicated: — lime water, brick red; solution of caustic potass, orange ; prussiate of potass, white. 3. The best aud readiest test is the following, to which the engrav- ing refers, viz. : — Drop the suspected solu- tion on a clean gold or copper coin, and apply a bright key so that it may at the same time touch the edge of the coin and the globule of fluid. A galvanic current is thus produced, which decomposes the corrosive sublimate, leaving a white spot of reduced metallic mercury on the surface of the coin. DIAMONDS. The diamond is found mostly in the East Indies and South America. Its chief feature consists in its excessive hardness, which far exceeds all other bodies, and by which, and its colour and briiliancy, it may be easily known from all other stones ; for whilst it possesses the property of scratching or cutting all known substances, there has been none found capable of acting in a similar manner on it. It is rather more than three times and a half as heavy as water ; it is neither volatile nor fusible, and will not dissolve in any liquid. It is generally devoid of colour ; but some- times occurs tinted of a bluish, yellow, or rose colour — these colours add to its value according to the beauty of the tint. In its rou^h state, as when found, it is of a milky or brownish colour, and of an irregular rounded form, and sometimes crystallized. The diamond has been known from the earliest ages, and held in high estimation, not on account of its brilliancy (as the an- cients were ignorant of the art of uttiug them, and wore them in the rough state), but because so few were found in nature. The art of cutting and polishing diamonds was not discovered until 1476. Up to thia time no substance had been found that would grind them. But, by accident, two diamonds having been rubbed together, it was found that they polished each other — [this is the origin of the saying, " Diamond cut diamond"] — and upon this depends the whole art of cutting them. Two diamonds are secured in handles, and rubbed against each other to grind them to the shape re- quired, and the dust that falls is used, mixed with oil, to polish them. The Romans used to pound small diamonds to powder, to cut and polish other stones ; but this does not seem to have suggested to them its use to polish itself. Diamonds are often called " rose diamonds," " table diamonds," and " brilliants ; " but this only refers to the manner in which they are cut, as there I is but one kind of real diamond. When two diamonds are rubbed together, the point of contact forms a little flat surface ; this is called a "facet." Rose diamonds have all these facets tending to a point on the sides and top of the stone, as in Fig. 1, and the under side perfectly plain. Table-diamonds have a flat, oblong top, with the sides cut in very large facets, and the under side brought to a point, also, with large facets. The brilliant, which is the most valuable form, is some- what of the same shape, but has the flat face on top very much smaller, and near- ly round; and the sides and bottom Pis - . 2. are cut into a greater number of smaller facets, which, also, are made to reflect into each other — it thus emits the greatest light, and the most variegated colours ; (see Fig c 2.) The dust that comes from the cutting of diamonds is used for cutting cameos, crests, and letters on cornelians, and other stones, and for polishing the pebbles used for spectacles ; without it they could not b» worked. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 21 I The finest diamond ever known, except the gem recently brought to England, be- longed to the king of Portugal ; it weighed 1,680 carats, and was valued at £224,000,000, though it was not cut or polished. That in the .Russian sceptre weighs 779 carats, and is valued at £4,000,000. The Pitt diamond weighed 136 carats, and cost Louis XIV. £130,000. These gems are brought from Borneo, Golconda, Bengal, the East Indies, West Indies, and Brazil. They are cut and Soliahed with their own substance. The liferent kinds of diamonds are as follows : — Rough diamond is the stone as it comes from the mine ; rose diamond is one which is fiat at the^)ase, terminating in a point above ; the table diamond has a square face at the top encompassed with four lesser facets ; the brilliant is that which is cut into fiat faces at top and bottom, and whose table, or principal face, is parallel with a line through the broadest part of the stone. The diamonds used by glaziers are usually only fragments of badly-coloured stones. ORNAMENTAL EGGS. The ornamen- tal eggs, made and sold by the German pea- santry, are manufactured as follows:— Take any large egg, and after puncturing each end, blow out the contents, until the interior is . quite clean. Then take some ~k rushes, and splitting open their ih green bark, extract the pith by j£5J running the thumb-nail along j.sf the rush ; a little practice will be ^Mii^ required. Paste circular, or sexa- gonal, octagonal, or oval pieces of coloured silk, velvet, or paper, upon dif- ferent parts of the egg, and then work the pith of the rushes around these, in any fanciful design. All that is required to make the pith adhere, is a little gum, or thin paste. The eggs look very pretty and supply neat household ornaments. Boxes, &c, may be covered in the same way. CUPS IN PIES. The cup which is placed upside down in meat and fruit pies is only filled with air when it is put into the pie. When the heat of the oven begins to act this air expands, and forces its way ander the edge of the cup at the bottom of the pie. In this action it produces a some- what similar effect to stirring with a spoon. W r hen the whole substance of the pie has attained the boiling heat, the air in the cup expands no more ; or the contrary, a3 soon as the pie is removed from the heat, the air in its interior begins to contract, and the pressure of the atmosphere without drives the gravy into the cup. It is a' mistake to suppose that the cup prevents the syrup or 2* gravy boiling over while thf dish is in the oven ; but it is useful in many ways — to support the crust, &c. THE DEATH-WATCH. Superstitions have been associated with various insect* from the earliest times, and in all countries. TLe death's-head moth has been regarded as an unwelcome omen to the homes visited by it ; and the noise of the death-watch has been affirmed to "click the hoar of death." Swift ridicules the absurd superstition in the following manner : — " A wood worm That lies in old wood, like a hare in her form With teeth or with claws it wiil bite, it will scratch, And chamber-maids christen this worm a death- watch. — Because, like a watch, it will always cry click. Then woe be to those in the house that are sick ! For, sure as a gun, they will give up the ghost If the maggot cries click when it scratches the post. But a kettle of scalding hot-water injected, Infallibly cures the timber affected; Tin: omen is broken, the danger is over, The maggot will die, and the sick wiil reenvpr!" The noise is produced by a specie; of small beetle, of thetiniber-borinj: genus, Anobium. In the spring these insects commence their tick- ing, as a call to each other. They beat with their heads, and though they are very " head-strong," they are less (in the common acceptation of the term) than the people who cling to the stupid belief that their sound is a token of coming calamity. SHAMROCK (HOW IT CAME TO" BE THE NATIONAL EMBLEM OF IKE- LAND). According to tradition, when Saint Patrick landed near Wicklow, to convert the Irish, in 433, the pagan inhabitants were about to stone him ; hut having obtained a hearing, he endeavoured to ex- plain to them the Trinity in Unity ; but they could not understand him til), plucking a shamrock— three- leaved grass, or trefoil — from the ground, he said, " Is it not as pos- sible for the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, as for three leaves to grow upon a single stalk ?" Upon which, says the legend, the Irish were immediately convinced. WATERPROOFING BOOTS AND SHOES. To half a pint of drying oil add one ounce of turpentine and half an ounce of Burgundy pitch ; mix carefully together in a glazed pipkin, over a slow fire ; lay the mixture over the boot or shoe with a sponge or soft brush, while yet warm, and when dry, repeat the process, until the leather will hold no more ; the shoes must then be put away, and not worn till they are perfectly dry and clastic. 22 FACTS FOE EYERYBODY: BRUISES AND THEIR TREATMENT. The best application for a bruise, be it large or small, is moist warmth ; therefore, a warm b.-ead-and- water poultice in hot moist flannels should be put on, as they supple the skin If the bruise be very severe, and in the neighbourhood of a joint, it will be well to apply ten or a dozen leeches over the whole bruised part, and afterwards a poul- tice. But leeches should not be put on young children. If the bruised part be the knee or the ankle, walking should not be attempted till it can be performed without pain. Inattention to this point often lays the foundation for serious mischief in these joints, especially in the case of scrofulous persons. Some consider that Tincture of Arnica is the best cure for bruises and con- tusions : a. few drops are to be dropped into a wineglassf'ul of water, and the part affected bathed often with a piece of soft cambric. Caution is necessary not to make the dilu- tion too strong, as in that case an eruption might arise on the skin, and the prevention might become worse than the cure. ' DOOR MATS. One of the most useful mats for cottage, and other doors is that termed the "chain mat," which is com- f-**--->. „ s< ■-" ^ ■ ~- ^. monly made of rope, ti \Wi$(;) ££) J 1 or of cocoa-nut fibre. PSSSSS®; : I Tnese , ma tf 1 ar e found "SSZWS^aZ>1' very durahle ' and xt m ^i^jt[ 11" mi men e ggf t*»t they do ■"■■«• comeclogcredv is sufficiently obvious from their structure not be- come cloggea with dirt, which falls into the interstices, and may easily be swept away when the mat is lifted up. We call the attention of cottagers to the fact that hay-bands, or twisted or plaited straw, may easily be converted into mats of this description. BARBERS' POLES (ORIGIN OF). In the reign of Henry VIII., who confirmed the charter of the College of Surgeons, there were few surgeons — in fact, only ten in r umber — who confined themselves en- tirely to the profession of surgery, and whose portraits have been handed down to us in one of the finest efforts of Holbein's pencil, where these ten worthies are repre- sented on their knees before the king. This celebrated painting is now in the possession of the Barbers' Company. Up to this time a co-partnership existed between barbers and surgeons; and we find a branch of the fraternity at Newcastle, in 1742, ordaining that "no brother should shave on a Sun- da} ;" and, moreover, that "no one should shave John Robinson till he pay, what he owes to John Shafto." The sign, or signal, announcing the residence of one of this fra- ternity was a long pole affixed to the door- post, as may be seen in many places in the metropolis at this hour. According to the historic account of this sign, it had its origin in "ancient Rome," where — " 'Twas ordered that a huire long pole, With bason decked, should grace the hole, To guide the wounded." "But when they ended all their wars, And men grew out of love with scars — Their trade decaying: to keep swimming They joyn'd the other trade of trimming; And to their poles to publish either, Thus twisted both tbeir trades together." FISH PONDS. It isVcessary, in making an artificial fish-pond, where the earth is of that nature that it will not hold water, to take an equal quantity of gravel, sand, and clay ; let these be spread over the proposed pond, and tempered with water, cutting the materials with a spade, and treading it well with the feet, in two courses or layers, each eight inches in thickness; after this is done, cover the whole surface with dry soil, four inches in thickness. The pool, after this process, will be perfectly retentive, and the water may be turned into it as soon as it is completed. On the opposite side of the pool to where the water flows in, should be made a. sort of waste weir with a few bricks level with the sur- face water in the pond, to take away the overflow, and prevent the water in the pool becoming stagnant. PLASTER CASTS. Take some fine wax, and melt carefully in a covered pot. Next dry your cast in an oven, or on the hob ; then take the wax, and drop it with a camel's-hair pencil on the heated cast, until it will absorb no more. This will give it the appearance of alabaster or ivory, espe- cially if you carefully burnish it with a piece of leather. W"e have seen some beau- tiful plaster heads which, eighteen years ago, were prepared according to the* fol- lowing directions. They were mounted on a black satin cushion, framed and glazed; and hung as ornaments in the drawing- room, deceiving the most curious eye. Break the edge off a plaster of Paris head [medallion], as near as you can without damaging the subject. Lay it in a soup plate, well covered with the very best sperm oil, for twelve hours. Take it out and lay it in the sun till quite dry. The drying will require about two days. Then, with a pen-knife, cut it round till the face only remains. .Polish it with a cold, clean hand. This must be well done, but not till quite dry. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 23 FOOD FN SEASON. January. Meats. •—Beef, mutton, veal, pork, house-lamb. Poultry. — Pheasants, partridges, hares, rab- bits, woodcocks, snipes, turkeys, pullets, capons, fowls, and pigeons. Fish.- Oysters, prawns, crabs, lobsters, crayfish, whitings, smelts, sturgeon, skate, turbot, plaice, thornbaok, flounders, perch, tench, and carp. Vegetable*.-- Cabbages and sprouts, sorrel, endive, spinach, beet-root, celery, Bcorzanera, potatoes, parsnips, turnips, broccoli, shalots, lettuces, cresses, salsify, cucumbers, and asparagus ; mushrooms all the year. Fruit. — Pears, apples, nuts, grapes, medlars, and walnuts. February and March. All meats and game as in tbe former month, with the addition of chickens and ducklings. Fish. — Exactly as last month, excepting cod, which is not supposed to be quite so good up to July. Vegetables. — Just the same as the previous month, only now you have kidney beans. Fruits. — Apples and pears, and forced strawberries. April, May, and June. Meats. — Beef, mutton, veal, lamb, and in June venison. Poultry. — Pullets, fowls, chickens, duck- lings, pigeons, rabbits, and leverets. Vege- tables as before, only in May early potatoes, peas, radishes, French beans, early cab- bages, carrots and turnips, cauliflowers, as- paragus, artichokes, and all kinds of salad, but this is forced. Fruits. — In June, straw- berries, cherries, melons, green apricots, entrants, and gooseberries for tarts only. Fish. — Carp, scles, tench, smelts, eels, trout, turbot, lobsters, chub, salmon, her- rincrs, crayfish, mackerel, crabs, prawns, and shrimps. * July, August, and September. Meats. « — These are not different from the former months, except pork, which commences in September. Poultry. — Pullets, fowls, chickens, and rabbits, pigeons and green geese, leverets, turkeys, poults, the two former months; wheat-ears and geese in September. Fish, — Cod, haddocks, flound- ers, skate, thornback, mullet, pike and carp, eels and shell-fish, but no oysters ; mackerel in July, it is not so good in August. Vege- tables. — As all the previous months ; peas and beans. Fruits. — July, strawberries, gooseberries, pine-apples, plums of all kinds, cherries, apricots, raspberries, melons, dam- sons, white and red currants, pears, apples, grapes, nectarines and peaches. In August and September, peaches, plums, filberts, figs, mulberries, cherries, apples and pears, necta- rines, grapes, pines and meloi s, strawberries. October. Meat* do not differ; this is the season for good doe venison. Poultry and Game. — Fowls of all kinds as the former quarter, pheasants from the 1st October, partridges, larks, hares, wild ducks late in the month, teal, snipes, widgeon, and grouse. Fish. — Dories, smelts, pike, perch, halibuts, brills, carp, salmon, trout, barbel, gudgeon, tench, all shell-fish. Vegetables are now as in January month. Fruits —Peaches, pears, figs, bullaces, grapes, apples, medlars, damsons, filberts, walnuts, nuts, quinces. November. Meats. Beef, mutton, veal, pork, house-Iamb, ' doe venison. — Poultry, Game, Fish, Vegetables, and Fruits. — As the last month. December. Meats as the former month. Poultry. — Geese, turkevs, pullets, pigeons, capons, fowls, rabbits, hares, snipes, wood- cocks, larks, pheasants, sea-fowls, Guinea fowls, wild ducks, teal, widgeon, grouse, and dunbirds. Vegetables.- As in the last month. Fish. — Turbot, gurnets, soles, sturgeon, carp, gudgeon, eels, codlings, doi-ies, and shell-fish of all kinds. [It is only a Fact to say that we are indebted for this information to " Inquire Within ; or, Over 3,700 Facts for the People."] DANDELION. The name is derived from the French M Dent de lion" or " lion's tooth," from the likeness supposed to be ob- served between the canine tooth of the lord of the forest, and the strap-shaped florets of the dandelion, or from the tooth-like mar- gins of the leaves. The flower is peculiarly sensitive to atmospheric changes. In spring the leaves are used as salad, and in France the blanched leaves are eaten with bread and butter. The root dried and roasted makes excellent chicory, and much resembles coffee, METALLIC TREES. The Lead Tree is produced as follows : — Put into a glass bottle about half an ounce of sugar of lead, and fill up to the neck with distilled or rain water ; then fasten to the cork or stopper a piece of zinc wire, so that it may hang in the centre; then place the bottle where it may remain undis- turbed. The wire will soon be covered with crystals of lead, precipitated from the solution, and assuming a tree-like form, very pleasing to the eye. For the Tin Tree, proceed as before, and put in three drachms of muriate of tin, and about ten drops of nitric acid. The tin tree has a more lustrous appearance than the lead tree. The Stiver Tree is prepared by a solution of four drachms of nitrate of silver, in distilled or rain water, as before; to which add about an ounce of quicksilver. These experiments are easy and interesting. 24 TACTS FOR EVERYBODY: AN J^OLIAN HARP, (TO CONSTRUCT.; Length thirty-two inches by six; depth one and three-quarter inches. The strings are attached to the small hooks at the end, corresponding to the pegs. The strings must be about the thickness of the first string of the violin. These strings answer well, but if too expensive, the small gut used by whip manufacturers may be used. The bottom plank of the harp should be oak, three-quarters of an inch thick, length three feet, breadth ten inches. The bridges may be any sonorous wood, (but steel will give the best sound), half an inch in height, cut angular to a blunt point; they must not be flattened down, but must be made to fit very flat to the bottom board, or it will jar, and never play well. This is the great de- fect in all harps made by amateurs. The ends of the harp should be oak, one inch thick, and must be fixed very firmly to the bottom board, but not with metal screws or glue; and in these the pins are fixed for tightening the strings. Use fiddle-pins, half at each end. The top should be half an inch thick, and sycamore wood is the best, and may be polished— it should be very slightly fastened on, for it has to be re- moved every time to tune. Common catgut does nearly as well as German. Get as thick a string as you can for one side, and a thin one for the other ; then graduate them from the thick to the thin, so as not to have two alike. They are in ge- neral tuned to $C, but it is preferable to tune to low C, and then each string an octave higher. This is easily altered, if de- sirable. The instruments should be made rery strong in all respects, for the strings exert almost incredible strength. The posi- tion for placing the harp at the window to be with the upper surface inclined towards the draft of air. STORM GLASSES. The following di- rections may serve for a storrn-glass : — Take two drachms of camphor, half a drachm of pure nitrate of potash, and half a drachm of muriate of ammonia. Triturate them toge- ther until they are thoroughly pulverised. Put these ingredients into a bottle of about ten inches in length, and one inch in diame- ter; half fill it with the best alcohol, and add distilled water, until you obtain as heavy a precipitate as you consider necessary. Cork the bottle, not cover it with perforated bladder, as recommended sometimes. The instrument should be kept in the shade, as solar light deranges it. The indications given by these glasses are as follow : — If the weather promise to be fine, the solid matter of the composition will settle at the bottom of the glass, while the liquid will remain transparent ; but previous to a change for rain, the compound will gra- dually rise, the fiuid continue pellucid, and small stars will be observed moving or floating about within the vessel. Twenty- four hours before a storm, or very high wind, the substance will be partly on the surface of the liquid, apparently in the form of a leaf; the fluid in such case will be in a state resembling fermentation. PASTILLES. There are various modes of making pastilles. The following are ap- proved recipes :— 1. Take of powdered gum benzoin 16 parts; balsam of tolu, and powdered sandal wood, of each 4 parts; linden charcoal 48 parts ; powdered traga- canth, and true labdanum, of each 1 part; powdered saltpetre, and gum Arabic, of each 2 parts ; cinnamon water 12 parts. Beat into the consistence of thick paste, and having made into shape, dry in the air. — 2. Gum benzoin, olibanum, storax, of each 12 oz. ; saltpetre 9 oz. ; charcoal 4 lbs. ; powder of pale roses 1 lb ; essence of roses 1 oz. Mix with 2 oz. of gum tragacanth dissolved in a quart of rose water. — 3. The same formula may be varied, by the substi- tution of pure orange powder for the roses, and oil of neroli for the essence of roses. — 4. By adding a few grains of camphor to the first recipe, a pastille suited to an in- valid's chamber is prepared. If the scent of the above seems too powerful, the pro- portions of saltpetre and charcoal may be increased. Never use musk and civet in. pastilles GUTTA PERCHA SOLES, (HOW TO PUT ON). Dry the old sole, and rough it with a rasp ; after which, put on a thin coat of warm solution with the finger, rub it well in ; let it dry, then hold it to the fire, and, whilst warm, put on a second coat of solution thicker than the first, let it dry. Then take the gutta-percha sole, and put it in hot water unt'l it is soft; take it out, wipe it, and hold the sole in one hand and the shoe in the other to the fire, and they will become sticky ; immediately lay the sole on, beginning at the toe, and proceed gra- dually. In half an hour, take a knife and pare it. The solution should be warmed by putting as much as you want to use in a cup", and placing it in hot water, taking care that no water mixes with the solution. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 25 a o h. c QC — 1 /. P cc ■/. < si O H «» o —> *3 M 1$ 1 T ' — - - - p 1 1.9 ©1 P a o ffi bo |.a .ti ©-■ 'g© 1^ II X) — X -1 >* iC P 1 - Is © <£ "£ © V Si* 5"w - - GO 1 - ! CO £ - - — Coo 11 w p6 «J ."ts 1! ©"? ©S *» 3 fc * | IN - &2 S3 1* rC - fe ° s © g© © S •*■> s 11 !•! a 2 ^ © . « 52; ||l gSg lis a « ~ 1 HI *4 -■ t 1 1 1 .00 pr 8 PB4 S = I 1 -". la * h r V ^ ■~ V 26 FACTS FOE EYEEYBODY: CRYOPHOPJTS. Thecryophorus, or frost- bearer, is a pleasing philosophical toy, sometimes known as a pulse glass. This instrument consists of two small glass glohes ■united by a tuhe, one of which is partly filled with water. The end of the tube is hermetically sealed while the water is boil- ing, and thus it is constructed perfectly free from air. The part of the apparatus (A) unoccupied by the water, though apparently empty, is, in reality, tilled with aqueous vapour, which checks evaporation from the surface of the water (B). If the pressure of this vapour be removed, by plunging the empty ball into a freezing mixture (which condenses the vapour), so rapid an evapora- tion takes place, that the Water in B is frozen in two or three minutes. The notion that this glass can indicate the actual state of the pulse, is erroneous : it only indicates the warmth of the hand, and then acts as a differential thermometer, i. e. indicating the difference between the heat of the globes A and B. * . SWIMMING-BELTS. The largest por- tion of the entrail of the ox, when nicely cleaned, forms an excellent material out of which to form a swimming-belt. Procure two (if them from the butcher, and having washed them in soap and water, turn them inside out, and soak in a strong solution of alum water. Then tie up one end tightly ■with waxed string, blow full of air and se- cure the other end in a similar manner. The two guts having been thus treated should be hung up to dry, and in a few days varnished. The ends where they are tied should be covered with a solution of sealing- wax in spirit. If, however, in this form the belt is not considered sufficiently port- able, the last direction may be omitted, and the air let out after each time of using. It will be liable, however, to get out of re- pair upon this plan. COD LIVER OIL. This imported oil is prepared by exposing the livers to the heat of the sun in tubs till putrefaction takes ftlace ; drawing off the oil, and boiling the ivers to obtain more oil. In this country the bland pale straw-coloured variety is ob- tained by heating the livers over a slow tire, and stirring till they break down into a pulp. When the temperature has risen to 159 Fahr., the pulp is placed in canvas bags, and in 24 hours the oil which drains out is separated from the watery liquor which accompanies it. Obtained in this way, the oil has been found to produce all the therapeutic effects ascribed to the more offensive kinds, and is less liable to disagree with the stomach. It is used in scrofula, consumption, rheu- matism, debility, &c. The dose is a table- spoonful or two, three times a day for two or three months. It may be taken in water or with a little salt. The Americans take the nauseous draught in porter. It appeai-s to be highly nutritive as well as alterative. It contains iodine and bromine. BLEEDING AT THE NOSE. When bleeding at the nose occurs otherwise than as'the result of violence, it is usually in consequence of the owr-fulness of some of the vessels about the brain, and is the con- sequence of an effort of nature to relieve the congestion. "When, however, it is the result of violence, or is continued beyond a few minutes, or takes place in excessive quantity, it should be checked as soon as possible. Of the various methods, the following is perhaps the most useful : — Let the patient sit and hold the head back while cold water is dashed over the face. Let him also sniff aromatic vinegar, or smelling salts. May be sometimes checked by the person sitting upright and bathing the nose externally with cold water, or vinegar and water, and sniffing it up the nostrils. Should it continue, a moderate pinch of powdered alum may be put into a couple of tablespoonfuls of water and thrown up with a squirt, or a plug of lint dipped in this wash and placed up the nostril, taking care to fasten a strong thread securely round it. FRUIT, (THE BEST TIME FOR EATING). The question is of some import- ance, and deserves a few remarks. Fruit is digestible in proportion to its perfec- tion, and hence the care to be observed with regard to ripeness. The drier fruits are adapted to cool and dry weather ; the moister ones to the hotter. Thus the less juicy sorts of cherries, pears, and peaches, are not only most grateful but most salutary when the weather is excessively hot; while the currant, and melon, and the moist peach, are best adapted to the hottest weather. The same may be said of the dif- ferent hours of the day. If fruits are eaten at all late in the day, especially after mid- day, they should be the more watery, as the melon. Fruit should generally be eaten in the early part of the day, and seldom late in the evening. The morning is, on the whole, best, and next to that, perhaps, the middle of the day. The worst time is the ; hour just before going to bed. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 27 LETTER PORTAGES. 1. The law re- quires the postage on all letters to be prepaid by -tamps, or stamped envelopes, except those to foreign countries, and those on official bus- iness to government officers having the frank- ing privilege. But prepayment on drop letters (not to be mailed) is optional. 2. Single letters passing in the mails dis- tances not over 3,000 miles, between offices in the United States, are to be charged three cents ; and for distances over 3,000 miles, ten cents. Double letters are charged double these rates ; treble ones treble, and so on. 3. Letters passing from one office to another within the United States or Territories, also those going between places in the United States and the British North American Prov- inces, are rated as single, if not exceeding half an ounce in weight ; double if exceeding half an ounce but not exceeding an ounce ; treble if exceeding an ounce but not exceed- ing an ounce and a half, and so on. 4. Drop letters are charged one cent each. 5. Single letters to or from any of the Bri- tish North American Provinces, are charged ten cents for distances not exceeding 3,000 miles, and for greater distances 15 cents. Double letters pay double, and treble ones treble these rates. 6. It is unlawful to place in a post-office, to be transmitted by mail within the United States, an envelope or packet containing let- ters addressed to different persons. 7. Handbills, circulars, or other printed matter, containing any manuscript writing, are subject to letter postage ; so are all pack- ets so closely enveloped or sealed that their contents cannot be known. .S. Advertised letters are charged one cent additional to the ordinary postage. !). Letters brought by ships and packets to ports in the United States, or passing from one port therein to another, are to be rated six cents each when delivered from the office at which they were first received ; when for- warded thence by mail to other offices (in- stead of said six cents) simply, two cents in addition to the ordinary rates of postage. 10. The charge to the persons addressed upon letters and packets, received at post- offices from the masters, clerks, or other employees of steamboats, on waters deemed post routes, is the same as if they had been conveyed on land routes. 11. The act of March 3, 1855, making no provision for unpaid letters to places within the United States, on the same or day follow- ing any such unpaid letter or letters being put into a post-office, the postmaster thereof is instructed to give notice, upon blanks fur- nished by the Post-Offire Department, to all persons within the United States for whom such letters shall have been deposited within their offices ; and if not attended to within one month, they return such letters to the Dead Letter Office. 12. Letters mailed in the cars can be pre- paid only by using postage stamps, or stamp- ed envelopes; and when not thus prepaid it is the duty of postmasters to treat all such let- ters as unpaid, although marked " paid," — no route agent being permitted to receive pre- payment in money. 13. Letters part paid are dispatched, charg- ed with the additional postage due at the prepaid rate, according to distance, establish- ed by said act, except where the omission to pay the correct amount is known to have been intentional, when they are treated tho same as letters wholly unpaid. POSTAGE ON PRINTED MATTER. 1. The postage on each newspaper, periodi- cal, unsealed circular, or other article of printed matter (except books), not over three ounces in weight, going by mail to any place in the United States, is one cent, and one cent additional for each additional ounce or fraction of an ounce. Only one half of these rates is charged when the postage is paid quarterly or yearly in advance. 2. Packages of small newspapers, publish- ed monthly or oftener, and pamphlets not containing more than sixteen octavo pages, sent to one address, and weighing at least half a pound, prepaid by postage stamps, are rated at half a cent an ounce. 3. All printed matter, chargeable by weight, is to be weighed when dry. 4. Books, bound or unbound, not weighing over four pounds, are chargeal tie at the rate of one cent an ounce for distances under 3,000 miles, and two cents an ounce for greater distances. 5. Each newspaper or periodical, not over one ounce and a half in weight, to any place in the State of its publication, is chargeable with half a cent postage. 6. Publishers of newspapers and periodicals may send to each other from their publication offices one copy of the same, free of postage, and may inclose therein to actual subscribers bills and receipts for such publications, with- out postage charge. 7. The publishers of weekly newspapers may send to each actual subscriber within the county of publication, one copy thereof free of postage. 8. Newspapers and other printed matter cannot be sent at the foregoing rates, unless without covers or wrappers, or in covers or wrappers open at the ends or sides, so that the character of their ci mtents may be known ; or if any word or communication be printed on the same, after their publication, or any 28 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY writing or other marks be placed thereon, or 1 sent ; or if any paper or other thing be hr on the covers or wrappers, except the names closed in or with such printed matter, and address of the person to whom they are | 9. Quarterly Rates of Postage, when paid Quarterly or Yearly in Advance, on Newspapers and Periodicals, to actual Subscribers. Weekly newspapers (one copy only) sent by the publishers to actual subscribers within the coun- ty where printed and published, Newspapers and periodicals not exceeding \% ounce in weight, when circulated in the State where published, Newspapers and periodicals of the weight of 3 ounces and under, sent to any part of the United Over 3 and not over 4 ounces, . Over 4 and not over 5 ounces,. Over 5 and not over 6 ounces,. Over 6 and not over 7 ounces,. Over 7 and not over 8 ounces,. Cents. Cents, 22f 451 91 1361 182 2271 273 1*1 117 156 195 234 Cents. Cents. 95 191 39 58i 78 97i 117 Cents. Free. 81 8* 13 92i 26 321 Semi- Mo ly M Mo'ly. 10. If the publisher of any newspaper or periodical, after being three months previous- ly notified that his publication is not taken out of the office to which it is sent for deliv- ery, continues to forward such publication in the mail, the postmaster to whose office such publication is sent is to dispose of the same for the postage, unless the publisher shall pay it ; and whenever any printed matter of any description, received during one quarter of the risen) year, shall have remained in the office without being called for during the whole of any succeeding quarter, the post- master at such office is to give such notice to the publisher ; and if he fail to pay the post- age thereon within a reasonable time, is to sell the same and credit the proceeds of such sale in his quarterly accounts in the usual manner. A similar course is to be pursued in reference to pamphlets and magazines pub- lished periodically. 11. Quarterly payments in advance may be made either at the mailing office or the office of delivery. When made at such mailing office, at the commencement of a year or of a quarter (as he may elect) the publisher must prepare and hand to the postmaster, ready for signature, a receipt for each post-office to which the papers are to be sent for delivery, stating the number of papers to be sent to such post-office, and the amount of postage to be paid thereon ; also giving the names of each of the subscribers. AUTHORS OP POPULAR QUOTA- TIONS. " Entangling alliances."— George Washington. " Where liberty dwells, there is my coun- try." — Benjamin Franklin. " The po>t of honor is the private station." —Thomas Jefferson. " Ebony and topaz." — J. Q. Adams. " The Union must and shall be preserved." — Andrew Jackson. " Better to be right than to be President." Henry Clay. " Union — now and forever, one and insepa- rable."— Daniel Webster. " Squatter sovereignty."— Lewis Cass. " To the victors belong the spoils of office." — William L. Marcy. " Hint-drops." — Thomas H. Benton. " The almighty dollar." — Wash. Irving. " Face the music."— J. Fennimore Cooper. " The largest liberty."— Wm. C. Bryant. " The bone and sinew of the country." — William Leggett. " Don't give up the ship."— Captain Law- rence. " He's got an ax to grind."— J.K.Paulding. "Valuable water privileges." — George P. Morris. " Telegram."— National Intelligencer. " He's not worth a row of pins." — Gorham A. Worth. " He's as short as a rabbit's tail." — Jacob Barker. " The loco foco party."— Charles Davis. " The whig party."— Philip Hone. " All's fair in politics."— M. M. Noah. " Happy as a clam at high water." — Wm. Mitchell. " Cotton is king." — John Randolph. " Handy as a pocket in a shirt."— Southern paper. " Upper tendom."— N. P. Willis. - " Straws show which way the wind blows.' — James Cheatham. " The Empire State."— John C. Calhoun. " A good man ; but he can't keep a hotel — Negro minstrels. A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 29 " All's not gold that glitters— Portfolio. " Northern fanatics aud southern fl ro ea t ers.'"— Tammany Hall. " United we stand, divided we fall."— Watchword of the American Revolution. " Bleeding Kansas." — Horace Greeley. " Holder ruffians." — J. G. Bennett. "Fiftv-four-forty, or Qght." — Western paper. MECHANICAL EFFECT OF LIGHT- KING. It has been proved that a flash of lightning must have struck a church — St. George's, Leicester — with a force equal to more than twelve thousand horse power. A single horse power is equal to raising thirty- two thousand pounds one foot high in one minute. The force of the lightning, therefore, was equal to three hundred and eighty-four million pounds raised one foot high in one minute. BITES (Of Snakes). The bites of the different kinds of snakes do not all act alike, but affect people in different ways. — Treatment of the part bitten : A pocket handkerchief, a piece of tape or cord, or, in fact, of anything that is at hand, should be tied tightly round the part of the body bitten ; if it be the leg or arm, immediately above the bite, and between it and the heart. The bite should then be sucked several times by anyone who is near. There is no danger in this, provided the person who does it has not got the skin taken off any part of his mouth. What has been sucked into the mouth should be immediately spat out again. But if those who are near have sufficient nerve for the operation, and a suit- able instrument, they should cut out the central part bitten, and then bathe the wound for some time with warm water, to make it bleed freely. The wound should afterwards be rubbed with a stick of lunar caustic, or, what is better a solution of this — 60 grains of lunar caustic dissolved in an ounce of water — should be dropped into it. The band should be kept on the part during the whole of the time that these means are being adopted. The wound should after- wards be covered with lint dipped m cold water. Constitutional Treatment : There is mostly at first great depression of strength in these cases, and it is therefore requisite to give some stimulant ; a glass of hot brandy and water, or twenty drops of sal-volatile, is the best that can be given. When the strength has returned, and if the patient has not already been sick, a little mustard in hot water should be given, to make him bo. If on the other hand, as is often the case, the vomiting is excessive, a large mustard poultice should be placed over the Btomach, and a grain of solid opium swal- lowed in the form of a pill, for the purpose of stopping it. Only one of these pills, should be given by a non-professional pi raon. In all cases of bites from snakes, send for a Burgeon as quickly as possible, and act ac- cording to the above directions until he arrives. Bites of Dogs. The treatment is the same as that for snake bites, more especially that of the bitten part. The majority of writers on the subject are in favour of keep- ing the wound open as long as possible. This may be done by putting a few beans on it, and then by applying a large linseed- meal poultice over them. Bites of Gnats. To cure the bite of gnats, the best remedy is to smear the part with olive oil. BURNS AND SCALDS. Dissolve in boiling water as much Epsom traits as they will take up. Letitgetcool, bottleoff, and keep in readiness for use. It will be well to label the bottle — " Solution for Scalds and Bums." When an accident of this kind occurs, wet a cloth with this solution, and place it on the scalded (or burned) place. Do not remove the cloth when the moisture is exhausted, but keep it wet while still on. Continue this treatment for four or Ave hours ; and if the accident is not very severe, a cure will then be effected. It is of the utmost value, however, in the severest cases. — Or, mix one part of lime-water with two parts of oil, and stir round quickly with the hand. Soap a piece of linen thoroughly in this, then wring it out lightly and wrap round the part injured. No cold application should ever be applied. — A little spirit of turpen- tine applied to recent burns will mitigate the pain, if not wholly remove it. — Apply black ink. BURNING, (TO PROTECT CHILDREN FROM). Add one ounce of alum to the last water used to rinse children's dresses, ana they will be rendered uninflammable, or so slightly combustible that they would take fire very slowly, if at all, and would not flame. This is a simple precaution, which may be adopted in families of children. Bed-curtains, and linen in general, may also be treated in the same way. COACH ACCIDENTS. Should the horses run off, in defiance of all restraint, while you are in a coach, sit perfectly still, and, in anticipation of the possible over- turn, keep your legs and arms from strag- gling Sit easily and compactly, so that, when upset, you will gently roll over in the direction vou are thrown. We have seen ladies in these circumstances scream wildly, aud throw their arms out of the window^ 30 FACTS FOE everybody; thus exposing themselves to the chance of broken limbs. If run away with in a gig, either sit still collectedly, or drop out at the back, so as to fall on your hands. Never jump from a rapidly moving vehicle. SHIP is a general name for all great vessels with sails, fit for navigating the sea, except galleys, which go with oars and smack sails. The invention of ships is very ancient, but the time uncertain. Some look on Noah as the first ship-builder. Ships arc usually divided into three classes, ships of war, merchants' ship, and an inter- mediate kind, half war, half merchant; being such as though built for merchandize yet take commissions for war. Ships of war are again divided into several orders, called rates : thus, a three-decked ship is called a first and second rate ; a frigate, or two- decked ship, third, fourth, and fifth rate ; a one-decked ship, sixth rate; a bomb- vessel, a fire ship, a ketch, a machine vessel, a smoker. Merchant Ships are estimated by their burthen, that is, by the number of tons they bear, each ton reckoned 20 cwt. The esti- mate is made by gauging the hold, which is the proper place of loading. A vessel is said to draw ten or fifteen feet of water, ■when it sinks so deep under water, being loaded. A vessel is said to be of 300 or 400 tons when it will carry that weight, or when immerged in water it passes the space of 300 or 400 tons of water. A Man of War, first-rate, has its gun- deck from 159 to 174 feet in length, and from forty-four to fifty feet broad ; contains from 1,313 to 1,882 tons; has from 706 to 800 men; and carries from ninety -six to 110 guns. A Frigate is a two-decked ship, of the third, fourth, and fifth rate. Third rates have their gun-decks from 153 to 165 feet long ; and from thirty-seven to forty broad ; they contain from 871 to 1,262 tons, carry from 389 to 476 men ; and from sixty-four to eighty guns. The other rates are propor- tionally less. The sixth rates have their gun -decks from eighty-seven to ninety-five feet long and from twenty-two to twenty- five feet broad; they contain from 152 to 256 tons, carry from fifty to 110 men, and from sixteen to twenty-four guns. New built ships are much larger and better than the old ones of the same rate ; whence, in the double numbers, the larger express the proportions of the new-built ships, the less those of the old ones. Yacht, or Yatch, from the Dutch, Iatcht, (signifying hunting,) a kind of vessel oom- modiously contrived and adorned, to suit it to State passengers, &c. It U furnished with masts and sails, has onedeok, carrying from four to twelve guns, with from twenty to forty men; burthen from thirty to 160 tons. They are used for running and making short trips. The Dutch yachts are chiefly used on their rivers and canals. Brigantine, a small, flat, open vessel, goes with sails and oars ; and is either for fighting or giving chace. Brigantines are principally used by the Corsairs, all the hands on board being soldiers, and each having his musket ready under his oar. There are usually twelve or fifteen benches on a side for the rowers, a man and an oar to each bench. Corsairs are pirates, parti- cularly in the Mediterranean, who plunder merchants' vessels without commission from my prince. Among American seamen this vessel is distinguished by having her main sails set nearly in the plane of her keel ; whereas the mainsails of larger ships are hung athwart, &c. Brig is a vessel with two masts, chiefly used in commerce, and carrying from 100 to 200 or even 300 tons burthen. Sloops, or Shallops, are tenders on the men of war, burthen about sixty tons, and carrying about thirty men. They are light, small vessels, with only a small mainmast, foremast, and lug-sails to haul up and let down, on occasion. They are commonly good sailors. Fire-Ships are filled with artificial fire- works and sent in amongst the enemy's ships. Bomb-Vessels have sometimes three masts and square sails, but also often ketch fashion, with one mast and mizen. Bomb- Ketch is for the use of mortars at sea, it is a small vessel strengthened with large beams. A Bilander is seldom above twenty-four tons, and can lie near the wind. Cutter, a small vessel, commonly navi- gated on the English Channel, furnished with one mast, and rigged as a sloop. Many of these are used in an illicit trade. Hulks are large vessels, having their gun-decks from 113 to 150 feet long, and from thirty to forty feet broad ; they will carry from 400 to 500 tons. A hulk "is an old ship cut dowD tb the gun-deck, and fitted with a large wheel- for careening. Hoy ; a small vessel or bark, whose yards are not across, nor the sails square, like those of ships, but the sails like a mizen, so that she can sail nearer the wind than a vessel with cross sails can do. Smacks are vessels with but one mast, and sometimes are employed as tenders on a A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 31 man of war ; they are also used for fishing npcn the coasts. C artel, an agreement between two States, for the exchange of their prisoners of war Cartel-ship is one commissioned in time of war to exchange the prisoners of any two hostile powers, &c. The officer who "om- mands her carries no cargo, ammunition, nor implements of war, except a single gun for firing signals. Galley is a low-built vessel, going with oars and sails, chiefly used by the States bordering on the Mediterranean. Galleys have usually twenty- five or thirty benches of oars on each side, and four or five galley- Blaves on each bench. The galley carries a large gun, two bastard pieces, and two small pieces. It is usually from twenty to twenty- two fathoms long, three broad, and one deep, and ha* two masts, which may be struck or lowered at pleasure. Convoy signifies one or more vessels of war, appointed to conduct a fleet of mer- chants' ships, serving as a watch and shelter from the insults of enemies; though some- times by a convoy is implied the fleet of merchant ships bound to any particular part or place of rendezvous. Squadron of Ships, a division or part of a fleet commanded by a commodore, or by a rear or vice-admiral. The number that forms a squadron is not fixed. A small number in a body and under one com- mander may make a squadron. If the ships are numerous they are sometimes divided into three squadrons, and each squadron mav be again divided into three divisions. Privateers are a kind of private ships of war fitted out by private persons at their own expense, who have leave granted them to keep what they can take from the enemy, allowing the admiral his share. Barge, a kind of state or pleasure boat, or for the purposes of merchandise, used chiefly in the navigation of rivers. Barges have various names, according to their par- ticular uses; as a company' 8 barge ; a royal barge ; a Severn trow ; and a Ware-barge. ^ ALPHABET. The most important inven - tion of man, ascribed to a Phoenician, bv means of which sounds are represented", and language made visible to the eye by a few simple characters. Previous to this in- vention, pictures, or hieroglyphics, were used to record events ; and letters were, probably, a generalization of these. At this day, the Chinese have no letters, but have 214 keys to classes of words, distinguished by the number of strokes combined in each, The English language has 26 letters ; the French 23; Hebrew 22; Greek 24; the Latin 22 ; the Arabic 28. The figures used in arithmetic are an universal character, and many attempts have been made by the learned to introduce an universal character into language, but at present there are 200 or 300 various alphabets. Deaf and Dumb Alphabet. Persons who, born deaf, and consequently not hear- ing sounds, are incapable of imitating them, are therefore dumb also. This calamity has been remedied by excellent institutions in I he various states ; and as the understand- ing of such persons is generally good, so they readily acquire many arts, and may be taught to read, write, &c. They also learn to converse with their fingers, and often with great rapidity ; and, as these signs are curious, and even useful, they are given beneath :— 82 FACTS FOB EVERYBODY : A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNTHVLEDGE. 33 DECEMBER. According to the calendar of Romulus, this was the tenth month, as the word implies ; but by the Julian calendar it was made the twelfth. Among tin- llomans this month was devoted to various festivals. On the 5th they kept the Faunalia; on the 17th the Saturnalia; on the 22nd, the Lararia; and on the last, the Juveniles Ludi. The peasants also kept the feast of the goddess Vacuna, after having got in the fruits and sown their corn. During this time all orders of the com- munity were devoted to mirth and festivity. Masters and slaves were all on an equal footing. Friends sent presents to one an- other, and feasted together at the same table. The schools kept a vacation, and nothing was to be seen lnthacity but mirth and freedom. Our Saxon ancestors called the month Winter Monath, but after their conversion to Christianity they called it Heligh Monath, or Holy month, in commemoration of the Nativity, which is always celebrated in this wonth. It was also called guil-erra, or the first guil; the feast of Thor, which was held at the winter solstice, being called guil from to/, or ol, which signified ale. This feast was even continued into January, and has been corrupted into yule. Synonymes. — In Latin, December ; French Decembre; Italian, Bicembre ; Spanish, Diciembre; and in Portuguese, Lezembro. As in our engraving, this month was repre- sented by the ancients as an old man, with a severe and fearful countenance, clothed in a coarse frieze rug, girt upon him ; his hands encased in fur gloves, and holding a hatchet, emblematical of the season, it being the time for felling timber. Instead of his head being surrounded by a garland, it appeared to be wrapped in three or four nightcaps, with a Turkish turban over them ; his mouth and beard were clogged with icicles, and at his back was a bundle of ivy, holly and mistletoe, and at his side the sign of Capricornus, the goat, svmbolical of the sun entering that constellation on the 21st. The chronology of the month, replete with interesting records of past events, is subjoined. 1. Dr. Warren died,1835 2. Fiaxman died, 1826. 3. Richelieu died, 1642. 4. Galvanism disco- vered, 1790— Mozart d. 1792. 6. Black died, 1799. 6. Nicholas, — General Monk born, 1608. 7. Dr. Aikindied, 1822. 8. Zimmerman, b., 1728 9. Scheele bom, 1742. 10. Royal Academy of Arts instituted, 1768 11. Grouseshootingends -CharlesXlI.k.1718 12. Sir J. Brunei, d. 1849 13. Lucy.— Dr. S. John- son died, 1784. 14. Washingtond,l799 15. Breraborn, 1772. 16. Leopold, King of Belgium, born, 1790. 17. Sir H.Davy b., 1773. 18. Reubens born, 1577. 19. TychoBrahe,b.l588. 20. Gray born, 1716. 21. St. Thomas; Shortest Day. 22. Poft died -1788. 23. Sir R. Ark wright, b. 1732. 24. Christmas Eve. 25. Christmas Dat. 26. St. Stephen*, Peyer born, i«53. 27. St. John. — Munro died, 1791. 28. Innocents. - Peter Bnyledied. 1706. 29. John wycliffed., 1384 30. R. Boyle, died, 1691. 31. St. Silvester.— Boer« hanve born, 1068. TheEastlndiaCompany incorporated, 1600. The Red Lettish Days of the month are as follow : — 6th. — "St. Nicholas." He was Arch- bishop of Myra, in Greece, a.d. 302. and is regarded as the patron saint of children and mariners, and consequently churches built near to the sea are generally dedicated to this saint. 13th. — " St. Lucia" was a young lady of Syracuse, who died in the year 304. and was remarkable for the devout and charitable life she led. 21st. — M St. Thomas" is said to have tra- velled and promulgated Christianity among the Persians, Medes, Parthians, and Ar- menians, and that he met with his death by being stoned, and having darts thrown at him by the Brahmins, who were incensea at his preaching. 25th. — " Christmas Day." This is kept as a solemn festival by our Church, and many curious customs prevail, which we have neither time nor space to describe, particularly as they are generallv well known. 26th.— " St. Stephen." This feast is held, according to Brady, "in consequence of St. Stephen having been the first who Buffered for his steady adherence to the faith of Christ, so that his anniversary has been fixed immediately following the day held Yf the Church in commemoration of *ne Nativity of our Saviour." 34 FACTS FOR EVETiYUDDY 27th. — " St. John the Evangelist." This feast is observed in commemoration of this evangelist, because he drank poison without dying in consequence. 28th. — " Childermas," or " Holy Inno- cents' Bay" is held in commemoration of the slaughter of the innocents by Herod, and is celebrated by the Church of Rome with masses. It is considered unlucky to begin any work upon this day. 3 1st. — " St. Silvester" was a pope, and is said to have been the author of several iites and ceremonies of the Romish Church, as unctions, palls, asylums, &c. He died in 334. BODIES (REGULAR). The nameof five solids, as the tetrahedron, or pyramid, with four triangular faces; the hexahedron, or cube, with six square faces; the octahedron, with eight faces ; the dodecahedron, with twelve ; and the icosahedron, with twenty faces. The Hexahedron The Dodecahedron. WILLS. We are favored by an eminent legal functionary with the following : — I hold that whenever two persons save money by their joint industry, the survivor is equitably entitled to the benefit of survivorship ; and that any man who dues not take the proper step for securing this benefit to his wife, in the event of her being the longest liver, is guilty of fraud upon his nearest relative and best friend. And the fact of there being children makes no difference — the woman be- ing as competent and as likely to provide pro- perty for them in case she outlives her husband as the man, if the responsibility should fall upon him. Every married man should, there- fore, make a will ; and I do not know a better form than the following, which is in effect the same as I adopted the day after I was married —above thirty years ago. It is not neces- sary to be prepared by an attorney, but may be copied by the party himself upon a sheet of foolscap < r letter paper, care being taken to w : te the names and dates correctly, and to sign the name at the fnutjta the presence of two witnesses who, in the testator's presence must-sign at the places indicated. The will of J B , of S , in the county of Y , State of New York [grocer]. I give all my real and personal es- tate and effects, whatsoever and wheresoever, to my wife. M B . her heirs, executors, administrators, and assignees, absolutely. Dated this day of , 185-. Signed and acknowledged by the 1 testator, in the presence of us, who, in his presence, and the presence [ J — B — . of each other, subscribe as wit- nesses. C T) , E F THE OLD CENT. The cent was proposed in 1782 by Robert Morris, the great financier of the revolution, and was named by Jefferson two years later. It began to make its appear- ance from the mint in 1792. It bore then the head of Washington on one side, and a chain of thirteen links on the other. The French revolution soon created a rage for French ideas in America, which put on the cent, in- stead of the head of Washington, the bead of the goddess of liberty — a French liberty, with neck thrust forward and flowing locks. The chain on the reverse was replaced by the olive wreath of peace. But the French liberty was short lived, and so was her portrait on our cent. The present staid classic dame, with a fillet round her hair, came into fashion about thirty or forty years ago. " LETTERS. The etiquette of letter- writing, should, as much as possible, be in- fluenced by principles of truth. The super- scription and the subscription should alike be in accoi dance with the tone of the com- munication, and the domestic or social re- lation of those between whom it passes. Communications upon professional or busi- ness matters, where no acquaintance exists to modify the circumstances, should be written thus . — " Mr. Gillot will feel obliged by Mr. Slack's sending by the bearer," &c. It is an absurdity for a man who writes a challenge, or an offensive letter, to another, to subscribe himself " Your obedient Ser- vant." We dislike this form of subscription, also, when employed by persons of equal rank. It is perfectly becoming when ad- dressed by a servant to an employer. But in other cases, "Yours truly," "Yours very truly," " Your Friend," " Your sincere Friend," " Your Well-wisher," " Your grateful Friend," " Your affec- tionate Friend," &c. &c, appear to us to be much more truthful, and to be more in keeping with the legitimate expression of good feeling. It is impossible to lay down a set of rules that shall govern all cases. But as a principle, it may be urged, that no A MISCELLANY 01* FST2FUL EXO-WLEDaE. 35 person should address another as " Dear Sir, or "Dear Madam," without feeling! aud relations that justify the use of the ad- iYctive. These compliments are mockeries. ■Jo one who entertains a desire to write another as "dear," need feel afraid of riving offence by familiarity; for all man- kinl prize the esteem even of their humblest fell jws too orach to be annoyed by it. And in proportion as the integrity of the forms of correspondence increase, so will these ex- pressions of good feeling be more appreciated. WORDS. There are in the English lan- guage 20,500 mums, 40 pronouns, 9,200 adjec- tives, 8,000 verbs, 2,600 adverbs, (ii) preposi- tions, l!) conjunctions, <>s interjections, and 2 articles — in all above 40,000 words. Accord- ing to Webster's Dictionary, there are 100,000 words. CATHERINE WHEELS. Infire-works, an arrangement of tubes in the periphery of a circle, the re-action of the burning of which, against the air, occasions the wheel to revolve with a pleasing effect. GAS. Gas was tn>i evolved from coal by Dr. Clayton, in 1739. Its application to purposes of illumination was first tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall, in 1792. Sir Humphrey Davy, also a Cornishman, stated his opinion before a committee of the House of Commons, that it would be impracticable to light London with gas. We see his error. The first display of gas-lights was made at Boulton and Watt's foundry, in Birming- ham, on the occasion of the rejoicings for peace, in 1802. In 1805, gas was perma- nently used, to the exclusion of lamps and candles, at the cotton mills of Phillips and Lee, Manchester, where 1,000 burners were lighted, 1805. Gas lights were first intro- duced into London, at Golden Lane, August 16th, 1807; Pall Mall, 1809; and were general throughout London in 1814. Gas lights were first introduced into New York in 1824. PAINT (TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF). 1. Take three or four broad tubs (such, for instance, as hold about eight gallons), fill them with cold water, and put into each an ounce of vitriolic acid, which you can obtain from a druggist. Place those tubs near the wainscot, in a newly painted room, Tins water will absorb aud retain the efflu- vium Of the paint. Next day (ill the tubs with fresh water, and add to each another ounce of vitriolic acid. Repeat, this a third day, and on the fourth the smell of the paint will not be perceptible. 2. Another Method: — A bundle of old dry hav, wetted and spread about, presents a* multifarious absorbing surface for this, especially if not on the floor only, but over pieces of furni- ture which allow circulation of air, as chairs laid upon their faces, &c. Large vessels of water, as travs and pans, are not uncom- monly used with good effect; but the mul- tiplied surfaces of the loose hay give it great advantage. It must be kept wet, however, or at least damp, for the oily vapour does not seem to be readily absorbed unless the air is kept moist bv evaporation. HANDKERCHIEF PERFUME. Grate to fine powder half a nutmeg ; crush one quarter of an ounce of cloves; put these together into half a pint of the best pale rum, brandy, or spirits of wine. After three or four days' maceration, add two drachms of oil of lavender, two drachms of essential oil of bergamot, one drachm of essential oil of lemons, half a drachm of otto of roses ; then strain through a small piece of wadding placed in a funnel, or through blotting-paper folded to fit the funnel, and the mixture is ready for use. This "bouquet" will cost about four shillings, but is equal to any pur- chased from the perfumers at three times the price. CASKS (TO SWEETEN). 1. When musty it is best to unhead large casks aud whitewash them with quicklime. Or they may be matched with sulphur mixed with a little nitrate of potash, and afterwards well washed. Small casks may be sweetened by washing them first with sulphuric acid anil then with clean water : afterwards let them be well swilled, until the foul smell dis- appears. Or, 2. Having first scalded it well with boiling water (letting the water stand in it till cold), fill it with cold water, and throw in a large quantity of live coals from a wood fire, leaving the cask unco- vered. By repeating this, the cask may be made perfectly sweet, provided that it has at no time contained fish. A fish barrel cau never be used for any other purpose, as it is impossible to expel the taste and smell of the fish. Scalding an old cask repeatedly in strong lye. and then with clear water, will generally sweeten it; so will boiling water in which potash and lime have been dissolved. ".6 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY : 9 ■ X, *T §sg * § il" S^ o 2 -a o^^ as o co CO T3 ** 2 * S ^ go« ° H||S| kJ o5 co c o r • cp cj O a ^ ■" o <- c L_| CC :; CO c3 r c = t . g||5j r- 1 .« o.c — CS CO -2 Hi Hi CO &D S B 23 fc fc* lag HIP o bc aj o>.2 w> -go co c.S r co ^ © be *Tt3**rfS B £ C " O » o eo "" — *° r- S ** B «i O 03 CO ©^ co C 5 te C co *| « •^ « .t; co 3 I&S8 co D.:='£" O C rt ? « •j "JI '80UapTAOJ,J •aj« 'puunjod •bj '■Biiid[apuinid •^1 'SUBOIJO AV8^ VJO 'U9A«H AY8tf •ssij^ 'zaiio^^j •UU9J, 'ajilAqs'B^ Bp^UBQ 'I'BajJUOJVI •siAi 'e^tVBA\{ij\: •A3 'a{[TASinoi •jpv c ^ooa »mn BpuuBO 'uojsSui^ •oj\[ 'uosjajap •pUI 'SjlOdTJUUTpUJ •g 'jj 'rojipH STJX8J, 'UO1S8AJ'B0 t-tOTjooc-icnot-iO(Ma®(N«!®( 10 o Tl< CN CD CO CN t* CO lO 00 r-t Ot- iOCNC5CDCN00T*'COCNrHCNCOr~« i 5Oi©'<*© OiOifl rH CO CM COrHCOrHiOCOCN'tfrHTt.CNCOCOCNCNTM-lTtfCNCN *t CO Or-OOiOCOO)Ot-iOf>Oe?lCOCBMlMH(N!Ot» 1 flO>0'dl © © O >ft CN r-ir-l rHOCOrHCOr-T»"*CO lO^iflin t* CO CO CSC-lripi CO CO •«# CO ifl> CO r-t O CO lO 00 Ol CO CO 00 ■*(< CO 00 o> 00 CO iH o o> -c »COiOt"«*CO^HC)!0!NHOrt O r-t COOl CO CDCOTfOOt^^t, CO CO O t- •<* rH 00 Ol CO CO i-H 00 r- rH r- >C t^ r-l O i-M CO CD -^ C35 O O Ol rH CO ■>* COl-H CM CNOTj* T*COeOOr-rHt-iOCOCO Ot- CO r-irH C>1 i-HoOOlrHOCOCOKt'r-OeO^rHCOeOOleOCOTfCOrHOO ^lOOlifliOWOO f CO i« 00 O t- ■>* i-h CN 00 CO rH rH CM >« Wrlrtt-H t- CO CO •* CO 00 iO ^OHC5NiO»rONilJN«iOHHHiO , *OM » ©H H t-r- t-N M O CM Tjt CO CO O CM OMI»»M 1 lO CD 00 t~ © ( f- Ol t— 10 t- 05 rH OrH CMCOlOt-Ot-COOCDCOtO OJOceiOCOHxCOINC-lNt- - •^rHCOOCMiOCM OrHCOCC CN00CN i-Ht* CIXSh^-^NCOiOM C^l 00 00 00 CO CO r-co Tf 00 00 uj ^rHeN^COCOCSOOrHcoCDrHTtO CNOCCt~C0Tjor^ot7 © CO CN © CO r- Co co co co ' >ocMeoio*+r~©c»cN'<#i OOiOt-OSCOOOCOCM^Ol' > V- i& O* GS m^TTiT 'linu'l/T 00*OCOOO£"-©COCOkOt"» H°!H 4]0-l48a CO CM-§IrHi*rHrH •<* *H "N 'pjoouoo c f- *-00©CCOCC©05©00iOC0rH00C0CCO©I > *COeOrHr-r-r-CMCM OIIJ0 J^UUIOUig ^ ,_, & g (v, ^ 3 ,_, ^,00 COCOCO rHrH-*rH(MTlH C0"*iOCN©t-'>*iC0r-c005e0t-C0r-rHC>1©'*ii505i0Oi0©© A X °I«B n a CMrH CO (MCOCNCOr-COCOCNirt OCNCOCOCNCOu^i (>>-*rHrH COCO I It-COCNCDCO-^rHrH •PH '3JO.UITH13a "BQ '■BjsnSnv CMC»TjlCOT*rHrHCOCOCNCOCN©CNCD>nCOCNrHaiiC-^OCD , ^ , ©rHC» CM rH rH -^ CO CM CM r- U3 CO CO CO CO -«CMC0lfSrHrHrHiO^"OC0©00COe0rHt-t-t~w much pain the evils have cost us that have never happened. i>. Take things always by the smooth han- dle. 10. When angry, count ten before you speak ; if very, count a hundred. SINGULAR FACT. Were the atmo- sphere at all times of a uniform temperature, there never would be hail, rain, nor snow. The water absorbed by it in evaporation from the sea and the earth's surface would descend in an imperceptible vapor, or cease to be ab- sorbed by the air when it was once fully satu- rated. The absorbing power of the "atmo- sphere, and consequently its capacity to retain humidity, is proportionally greater in warm than in cold air. The air near the surface of tiie earth is warmer than it is in the region of the clouds. The higher the ascent from the earth, 1 he colder does the air become. Hence the perpetual snow on very high mountains in the hottest climate. INTERESTING STATISTICS. The Uni- ted States are composed of thirty-one States and five Territories. They contain a popula- tion of 27,000,000, of whom 23,000,000 are white. The extent of sea-coa-t is 12,550 miles. The length of the ten principal rivers is 20,000 miles. The surface of the five great lakes is 90,000 : 000 square miles. The number of miles of railroad in operation is 20,000, which cost $78,000,000. The length of canals is 5,000 miles. It contains the longest railroad on the globe— the Illinois Central— which is 784 miles. The annual value of its agricultural productions is $200,000,000. Its most valuable production is Indian corn, which yields an- nually 40,000,000 bushels. The amount of registered and enrolled tonnage is 4,407,010. The amount of capital invested in manufac- tures is $600,000,000. The annual value of its products ot labor, other than agricultural, is $1,500,000. Its mines of gold, copper, lead and iron are among the richest in the world. The surface of its coal fields amounts in the aggregate to 138,131 'square ac res, the most prolific of which are to be found in the State of Pennsylvania. Within her holders are 3 80.000 schools, 5,000 academies, 234 colleges, and 3,N11 churches. POULTICE (BREAD - AND - WATER, OR EVAPORATING). Scald out a basin, for you can never make a good poultice un- less you have perfectly boiling water ; then having put some into the basin, throw in coarsely-crumbled bread, and cover it with a plate' When the bread has soaked up as much of the water as it will imbibe, drain off the remaining water, and there will be left a light pulp. Spread it a third of an inch thick on folded linen, and apply it when of the temperature of a warm bath. It may be said that this poultice will be very inconvenient if there oe no lard in it, for 'it will soon get dry ; ■ but this is the very thing vou want, and it can easily be mois- tened by dropping warm water on it, whilst a greasy poultice will be moist, but net wet. A poultice thus made is, to the surgeon, what well made stock is to the cooks, a foundation to be seasoned or medicined with laudanum, or poppy- water, with carrot or horse-radish juice, or with decoctions of herbs,' with which the patient or the doctor may be inclined to medicate it, instead of loading an already irritable and very sensi- tive part with a heap of hard poppy-shells, or scraped carrots, or horse-radish, called poppv, carrot, and horse-raddish poultices, but which increase rather than allay the sufferer's pains. When vegetables are used to medicate poultices, they should be bruised, put into a pot, covered with water, and Huamered for about half an hour. The liquid is then to be strained off, and mixed with bread- and- water or linseed to the consistence of a poultice. M1SHROOMS, (TO DISTINGUISH FBOM POISONOUS FUNGI). 1. Sprinkle ,a little salt on the spongy part or gills of 'the sample to be tried. If they turn yellow, they are poisonous, — if black, they are wholesome. Allow the salt to act before vou decide on the question. 2. Fake "Mushrooms have a warty cap, or else frag- ments of membrane, adhering to the upper surface, are heavy, and emerge from a vulva or bag : they grow in tufts or clusters in woods, on the stumps of trees, &c, whereas the true mushrooms grow in pastures. 3. False mushrooms have .m astringent, styptic, and disagreeable taste. 4. When out they turn blue. 5 They are moist on the surface, and generally— 6. Of a rose or orange colour. 7. The gills of the true mushroom arc of a pinky red, changing to a liver colour. 8. The flesh is white. 9. The stem is white, solid, and cylindrical. 33 PACTS foe everybody: DIVIDING, POWDERING, GRIND- ING. The operations of chopping, pow- dering, grinding, &c, are so frequently required in cooking, and the other branches of domestic economy, as to render any de- scription of their utility wholly unnecessary ; and we may therefore confine ourselves to describing the best means of accomplishing the object desired. Powdering is usually performed by the aid of the pestle and mortar. By far the best material for the purpose is the Wedge wood ware; mortars made of it are cheaper, cleaner in use, and stronger than those of marble, and are not corroded by acids or alkalies — their pre-eminence is so great, that they are invariably used by druggists. The act of powdering requires great tact and practice to perform it neatly and rapidly. After the object has been broken into small pieces by blows from the pestle, a grinding action is required ; this should at first be given by striking the fragments, not in the centre of the mortar, but towards the side furthest from the operator ; the pestle, by this means, grinds over them in its descent to the centre, and much more rapidly accom- plishes their division than if mere blows are given. After the object has been divided to a certain extent, blows are entirely use- less, and a grinding in circles becomes re- quisite ; if the circle is confined to one part of the mortar, the same portions get rubbed over and over again, the others escaping ; this is avoided by constantly and regularly altering the size of the circles. If they are commenced in the centre, they should gra- dually increase in size until the sides are reached, and then contract again, and so on. J3y this means, the whole of the powder is I ^ brought under the action 1 I of the pestle, and tbe operation is thus much /quicker than if per- formed at random. One I i \\ fill \. £ rea t foult usually com- / \ mitted in powdering, is the endeavour to operate on too large a quantity of material at one time. The operation is much more rapidly conducted if smail portions are taken ; and if the ma- terial is tough, and con- tains much fibrous mat- ter, the process may be very much shortened bv removing those parts whic'a are suffi- ciently powdered, by sifting from time to time through a sieve. This may be objec- tionable, however, from the fine powder escaping into the air. In this case, the fol- lowing contrivance will be found useful : — A cylindrical tea-canister of the requisite size is taken, with a loosely-fitting lid (or if tight, the lid may be enlarged by four slits being made partly up the sides) ; a bag of lawn is dropped into the canister, the top being turned over the edge ; the powder to be sifted is put in the bag, the lid put on, and, by tapping and shaking, the finest por- tions pass into the canister without any escaping into the air. Chopping is usually performed in the kitchen, with a large common knife ; but is more speedily done by some of the improved contrivances similar to the following: — The chopping-board should be made of hard wood, with the grain at right angles to the surface of the board, by which it is rendered much more durable than if they are parallel to it. The chopping-knives should be fixed at right angles to the handles, and may be either of the following patterns. If a large quantity of material has Jto be acted on, we would recom- mend a board as above, not less than three inches thick, and smooth on both sides, so that either may be used, of tin requisite size — say. eighteen inches 01 two feet in diameter. On this should stand a loose bottomless tub, to confine the ma- terials, and the whole resting on the floor, should be used with a knife, sufficiently long in the handle to be employed by a person standing erect, and it should have a small cross-bar for the hands, as shown in the figure below. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. Small chopping-knives are sold, consisting of throe blades rivetted together, and a very convenient one is made hv fastening, at con- venient distance! a number of flat circular discs, sharpened at the edges, on to a central axis with a handle at eat h end. Many substances, such as stale bread, dried herbs, &c, may be very conveniently powdered by rubbing them through a wire sieve, of the requisite degree of fineness. Herbs intended for use in this way, should be dried as rapidly as possible, without being scorched, in small heaps, before the fire ; paisley and others done this wav, may be powdered, retaining their bright green colour, and flavour, both of which are pre- served, if they are corked tightly in bottles, and kept in a dry dark cupboard. The use of waxed paper to preserve dried powders in, or for tying them down in jars, or generally as a very good substitute for bladder, will often be found convenient. It is readily made by laying a sheet of smooth stout paper on s warm iron plate, as the top of a kitchen oven ; on this place the thin tissue or other paper to be waxed ; put a piece of wax on it, and as it melts rub it over, spreading it evenly. One end of a cork, covered with two thicknesses of linen, answers very well for a rubber. If a hot plate is not at hand, the sheet of paper may be held before the fire, and rubbed over, as it warms, with the cut edge of a cake of white wax ; but this requires the co-operation of two persons. FOOLS' DAY. The 1st of April is termed All Fools' Day in consequence of the almost universally prevalent custom of people trying to make fools of each other on that day. This ridiculous custom prevails, not only in America, but also in Scotland, Germany, Sweden, and France : in the latter country the "fools" are called pois- sons d'Avril, or April fishes. No satisfac- tory origin has been assigned for this ancient custom, although many conjectures have been offered ; such as, that it alludes to the mockery of the Saviour by the Jews : that it arose from the stratagem practised by the Romans to obtain wives from the Sabines, when Romulus invited the latter to the celebration of certain games in honour of Neptune, at the beginning of April, and the Romans seized and carried off the Sabine damsels, who had been imposed upon by being invited with a mere pretence : that the ancient feast of the vernal equinox, the 1st of April, was formerly celebrated, equally in India and Britain, as a high festival in which unbounded mirth prevailed : that as great festivals were wont to continue eight days, the 1st of April, being the octave of the Feast of the Annunciation, may be sup- posed to have been employed in fool-making, all other sports having been exhausted in the preceding seven days: and that it is derived u from the mistake of Noah sending the dove out of the ark before the water had abated, on the first of the month among the Hebrew! answering to our 1st of April ; and to perpetuate the memory of this deliver- ance, it was thought proper, whoever forgot so remarkable a circumstance, to punish them by sending them upon some sleeveless errand similar to that iuneftectual message upon which the bird was sent by that patriach." BALLOON. A globe made of silk, and rendered air-tight by gum, which, when filled with hydrogen gas, from 10 to 13 times lighter than atmospherical air, ascends into the at- mosphere, and will convey heavy bodies suspended to it. The ascent in a balloon is a magnificent spec- tacle; but, owing to mismanagement, they have often produced fatal accidents. The first balloon ascended at Paris, in 1782 : and in London, in 1784. AZURE. In heraldry the blue colour used in coats of arms, expressed in engraving by horizontal lines. MEDICINE, (THE NAUSEOUS TASl'EOF, PREVENTED). By chewing aromatic substances, such as orange or lemon peel, cloves or other spice, before taking medicine, little or no taste will be perceived. The mouth can also be thus prepared beforehand by a peppermint lozenge, or even a lump of sugar. 2. Dr. Polii recommends a means, founded on the physiological fact that a strong impression on the nerves (whether of vision, hearing, or taste), . renders that which follows less perceptible. Instead of applying to the mouth, therefore, agreeable substances after swallowing nauseous medicines, we should prepare it before, in order that the taste of the medicine may not be perceived. — Aro- matic substances, chewed just before, or orange or lemon peel, effectually prevent castor oil from being tasted. In preparing the mouth for bitters, liquorice is the only sweet that should be used, the others creating a peculiarly disagreeable compound taste. iO FACTS FOB. EVEEY130DY: ANATOMY. The art of dissecting a body, and examining the parts of which it is com- posed. It is generally applied to the exami- nation of animals, and it has discovered the following circumstances of their structure. 1st. A system of bones, displayed in the engrav- ing, which in the human subject amount to 240 ; 2. Cartilages or gristles, which unite the bones, and contribute to their motion, assisted by liga- ments, membranes, and bundles of muscles, called flesh, all relating to the strength and motion of the animal. Anatomy also discovers nerves, or white threads, .which extend from the brain and the »pmal marrow through all the organs, and are the means of sensation, and instruments of the will. It appears, also, that the hody is sustained and warmed by means of blood flowing from the heart through the arteries, to every part of the body, and brought back by vein3. There is also a stomach for digestion, and glands for separating and assimilating the element ; and intestines to carry off what is not appro- priated. The whole is a wonderful system, ami a most interesting object of study. 1. The cranium. 17. The trochantes 2. The os frontis. major. 3 The orbits of the eyes. 18. The patella or knee- 4. The superior maxilla. 6. The inferior ditto. 6. The true ribs. 7.- The false ribs. 8. The sternum. 9. Tie unciform carti- lage. 10. The lumbar vertebrae. 11. The ilium. 12. The os pubis. 13. The os sacrum. 14. The symphysis pubis. 15. The femur. 16. The head of the femur. ATMOSPHERE. The fluid or gas which we feel on passing our hand through it, and whose force is visible in a high wind. It is 820 times less dense than water, but its elastic pressure or reaction is equal to 15 lbs. to the square inch, which is also the weight or action downward ; and it is composed of about one part oxygen, and four parts nitrogen or azote. All space is filled with gas, but the passage of the earth through it, and its rotation at the same time, condenses the rare gas of space into an atmosphere, which *t the surface of the earth is such as pan. 19. The condyles of the femur. 20. The tibia. 21. Theiibula. 22. The tanas. 23. The metatarsus. 24. The toot. 25. The clavicle. 26. The scapula. 27. The humerus. 28. The radius. 29. The ulnus. 30. The carpus. we find it, but is rarer and rarer as we ascend, till at the height of forty-five miles, it no longer reflects light; nor is it capable of keeping clouds in suspension above two or three miles. The eneigy of the oxygen- ous part of the atmosphere transferred is the cause of fire, combustion, animal heat, and life. In volume the atmosphere con- sists of 79 parts of azote or nitrogen ; of 21 of oxygen, of 1.33 of aqueous vapour, and of 0.1 of, carbonic acid. In weight, 766 of azote; 233 of oxygen; 083 of aqueous vapour ; and 015 of carbonic acid gas. ARCHITECTURE. The art of propor- tionally erecting buildings according to plans and models supplied by rules of science, uniting outward ornaments with inteiior conveniences. It embraces erections for civil, military, and naval purposes. Civil architecture has various modes of decoration, derived from the practice of various nations and different ages, called styles of archi- tecture. Of these the Roman or Italian has been reduced to a system of decoration by columns, called orders. 1. The Tuscan, (from Tuscany,) or most simple. 2. The Doric, (from Dorians, Greece,) durable and noble. 3. The Ionic, (from Ionia,) a mean be- tween the plainness of the Doric and the elegance of the Corinthian. 4. The Corinthian, (from Corinth,) most noble, rich, and delicate. 5. The Composite, (compounded of parts of the other,) is much like the Corinthian. The style called Gothic was most exten- sively used after the decline of the Romans, and first adopted in the erection of churches about the tenth or twelfth century, and dis- tinguished by its pointed arch. BLOOD. The blood takes its origin from the chyle, which is produced by the diges- tion of food in the stomach. It may take from three to seven hours to convert elemen- tary substances into blood. As the blood circulates, it deposits nourishing particles in its course, and thus repairs the tissues to which it is supplied It also removes those matters resulting from decomposition con- sequent upon vital action. Every particle of the body has a life and death independent of the life and death of the general system. And the body of man really lives and dies many times in the course of what is termed a life. Such is the rapidity of the circu- lation, that if the blood flowed at an equal rate in a straight line, it would run through one hundred and fifty feet in one minute. ATHWART. A sea phrase, signifying across a ship or the line of her course. A MTSCETXANY OP TTS15PUL !TNT>vrLEnnE. 41 GALVANIC COILS. A cheap and effec- tive galvanic coil for invalids may be con- structed as follows. — All is a rectangular p MM of board, upon which is fixed vertically a hollow cylinder of wood, CD, wider at the bottom, like a nil, but not quite so wide at the top. inside this cylinder is dropped a piece of bar iron, E, which rises slightly above its surface. On one side is a brass Upright, F, from which proceeds a piece of Watch-spring, If, having at its end a small cone of iron which nearly touches the bar, E. On the opposite side is an upright of brass, G, from which proceeds a flat piece of brass, I, through which passes a brass screw, J, having at its extremity a small piece of platinum, which comes in contact with ano- ther small piece of platinum fixed on the watch - spring, H. Kound the wooden cylinder, CD, is wound some covered copper wire (No. 12 or 14) nine times (more or less as the number of powers required) at right angles to its axis, so as to constitute nine helices, which are connected, and toge- ther form one helix continued within itself. The interior is the first, the exterior the last helix. The winding of the wire should pro- ceed from the top of the cylinder, leaving a niece about one foot in length, which, pass- ing down laterally between the interior of 5 the first helix and the wooden cylinder, and emerging at bottom, is pushed through a hole at K, passed under the board, and con- nected with the bottom of a binding screw, L. The last coil of the first helix is then laid bare, by removing the covering away a little at each side; and to this is fixed a. piece of uncovered copper wire, which is pushed through a hole at «, end con? under the board with an upright piece ••( brass wire, 1. The top of the second helix is next laid bare, and connected in a similar manner with the upright piece of br power, 2, by a piece of copper wire passing downwards between its interior and the ex- terior of the first helix, and through a Hole at b. Aud so from top and bottom alter- nately, are the remaining helices connected with the other powers ; thus, the bottom of the third helix through the hole at s of this which renders futile the attempts of many galvanists. Again, the instruments sold by philosophical instrument makers have generally two continued helices, in one of which the voltaic circuit is completed, in the other a current is induced, which is utterly useless as a remedial agent. DAMP WALLS. When damp walls pro- ceed fromdiliqueseencein the case of muriate of soda in intimate combination with the sand used for the mortar, it is merely neces- sarv to wash the wall with a strong solution of alum. This converts the diliqueseent salt into an efflorescent one, and the cure is complete ; or alum may be added to the plaster in the first instance. 42 facts fou everybody: SICK ROOMS (TO FUMIGATE). The chlorine fumigation is generally considered the best for fumigating the apartments of the sick. To prepare it, mix together equal parts of powdered oxide of manganese and common salt ; put one ounce of this powder into a basin, and pour on it a large tea- spoonful of water ; then drop into the vessel about thirty or forty drops of oil of vitriol, which may be repeated at intervals for about three or four times. This will be sufficient for the perfect exhaustion of the powder. DYEING (ART OF). The discovery of it is attributed to the Tyrians. In dyeing and dipping their own clothes, the English ■were so little skilled, that their manufac- tures were usually sent white to Holland, and returned to England for sale. The art of dyeing woollens was brought from the Low" Countries in 1608. " Two dyers of Exeter were flogged for teaching their art in the north" (of England) 1628. A statute against abuses and dyeing was passed in 1783. HEAT AND COLD. Cold is the absence of heat ; and heat is a peculiar influence of ■which we can only judge by its effect. There are two states in which we find heat. In the one case-we recognize it by the touch, in the other we cannot find it out by such means. The air has a very large quantity of heat hidden in it, even when it seems coolest to you. It contains so muob heat, even in the depth of winter, that the quantity contained in a few square inches, if squeezed out, is sufficie nt to light a piece of tinder. AVe have drawn here a figure of a solid square, or cube, that we may- be fully understood Each face has four edges, as in fig. 1, and there are six faces to the solid square, as in fig. 2. Now if you had a vessel which would " hold about twelve square inches or cubes of air, and could so manage as to squeeze it into the size of one square inch, so much heat would be given out that a piece of tinder would be set on fire by it. If you procure a piece of thick iron wire, and hammer the end of it on an anvil or hard stone, you will find that after a few blows it has become very hot. You have compressed the particles of the iron, and the latent, or hidden, heat, has become sensible to the touch. The heat kept the particles or atoms of iron apart from each other ; but when you have hammered them close, your hammering will produce no rs more heat. There is only a certain quan- tity of juice to be squeezed' out of an orange, and so the quantity of heat in the iron ia limited. You have learned by this experi- ment, which any one may perform with a piece of soft iron wire, that heat has a tendency to separate the particles of which bodies are composed, and make them larger. This separation is called expansion. A bar of iron, when heated, becomes longer ; and hence, if the iron pieces or plates upon which the wheels of the railway engines run were to be placed in winter with their ends close against each other, they would be so expanded by the warmth of the sun in summer, that they would become crooked, and the line would be unsafe to travel upon. This expansion of bodies by heat is taken advan- tage of by persons who wish to measure sensible heat. Ther- mometers are constructed of bodies which are readily ex- pansible by heat. Those com- monly in use are made of quicksilver shut up in glass. The glass tube is mounted on a piece of bone or ivory, which bears the marks of degrees, so that the amount of expansion or contraction of the quick- silver can be stated or regis- tered. There are various forms of heat measurers or thermo- meters, and I will explain to you how to construct a simple one. Take a wide-mouthed bottle, pour into it a teaspoonful of ink, and two table- spoonfuls of water, and set it upon the table. Having procured a glass tube, which has been blown into a bulb '■A t I O Sh at one end, warm it tho- roughly before the fire, and then rapidly place it in the bottle, so that the open end is plunged into the ink and Avater at the bottom. In a second cr two the air in the round bulb of the tube will begin to contract, and the __ inky water will ascend the §s tube, and perhaps rush into *JS the bulb. When all up- ward motion in the water has ceased, place your hand upon the bulb, and you will then, by warming the air in- side, cause it to expand, and the water in the tube will again descend. Pure water would answer as well as the mixture of ink, A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 43 but the latter is more easily seen as it ascends and descends the tube. If \<>u place the bulb and bottle near the tire the air in the bulb will be expended still further. Your thermometer just shows that heat has been taken from the tire and combined with the air in the bulb. But how was the heat conveyed from the fire to the bulb? By what means was it commu- nicated? Heat is conveyed in two different man- ners. A heated globe of iron, if suspended in the air, would send out rays, or straight lines of heat, in every direction, as in this diagram. When heat is given off and con- veyed to another body by rays in this manner, it is said to be by radi- ation. To illustrate the other mode in which heat travels, hold the end of a piece of iron wire, of three inches in length, in the flame of a small taper. The radiated heat from the flame you will scarcely feel, but the heat will be speedily conducted to your fingers along the wire, which will become so hot that you will scarcely be able to hold it. When heat is thus conveyed by a metal or other solid body from a fire or flame to any other body, it is said to be by conduction. Metals con- duct heat rapidly, and hence metal tools which require to" be "used while hot have the handles covered with wood, which does not allow the warmth to pass from the iron to the hand of the workman. You could hold a piece of wood of much shorter length than the wire, in the taper's flame, and feel no inconvenience. These circumstances prove that wood does not conduct or convey heat as rapidly as iron ; it is therefore said to be a bad conductor ; in other words, its power of transmitting warmth is small. Woollen cloth is a still worse conductor; and for that reason, when the flat iron is used by the laundress, she protects her fingers with a piece of folded flannel, which does not allow the heat from the handle of the iron to burn her hand. You have seen how the air is expanded by heat, and contracted by cold ; it is im- portant, morever, to understand, that in a cubic inch of cold air there are more par- ticles than in a cubic inch of heated air. The figure A represents a cold cubic inch li of air, which we will suppose contains six- teen atoms or particles, or air. If to this be applied a very small quantity of heat, it would expand to the size of B, without any increase of the number of particles, or in its weight. A cubic inch (as indicated by the dotted lines C and D), would then only con- tain nine atoms or particles of air. If the cold cubic inch weighed sixteen grains, the hot cubic inch would only weigh nine. If bodies are expanded by heat, they contain fewer particles in a given space ; if they are contracted by the removal of that heat, they contain more particles in the same space. Some of these particles would be oxygen and some nitrogen, always bear- ing the same proportion. CENTRE OF GRAVITY. As the re- action of every body to every force is directed from the centre of the masses, so bodies sub- ject to centripetal force re-act from their centres, and, if these are not supported, the body yields or falls. Hence, as "in the en- graving, when the centre of the mass is within the perpendicular of the wheels, it does not yield ; but if so inclined as that the perpendicular from the centre falls beyond the wheels, then tjbe centre falls, and the carriage is oversee. In cases of danger, therefore', as in a boat or carriage, the object should be to lower the centre of the mass by lying down. 44 FACTS FOIt EVEHYBODY. CARDINAL VIRTUES. Industry, Per- severance, Benevolence, Temperance. CARDS. Toys with which many games of chance are played, there being four kinds, and 13 of each kind, so as to cause by shuf- fling and dealing, an infinite variety of com- binations, and afford inexhaustible amuse- ment ; which, if not abused by large stakes, is, at least, an innocent mode of passing time among idle persons, and of relaxation among others of serious pursuits. They were in- vented in the age of Edward III. and their costume and mode of manufacturing by block-printing are continued to this day. In truth, the making of them must have suggested the art of block-printing to the first printers, the one being but a slight variation of the other. CHAPLAIN. A person in holy oi'ders who does the duty of a chapel ; for his own chapels, the king has 72 chaplains, and by law, an archbishop may have 8 ; duke or bishop 6 ; a marquis or earl 5 ; a viscount 4; a baron 3; and a peeress 2; each of •whom, as such, enjoys certain clerical privileges. STILL. An apparatus for vaporising compound fluids, and re-condensing the vapours of each of the component parts as they are successively raised by heat ; it con- sists of an alembic," a worm, a refrigerator, and a receiver. Worm of a Still. CINQUE PORTS. Five ancient ports of England endowed with privileges, as Dover, Hastings, Romney, Hythe, and Sandwich with Winchelsea and Rye. BEEF-EATERS. The term "Beef- eaters" is a corruption of the French buffe- tiers, (from buffet, meaning sideboard.) The French buffetiers were guards who stood around the sovereign at dinner; and the word has been corrupted gradually to "Berff- -eaters," which is now applied to the yeo- men of the guard of the Queen of Great Britain. They are stationed by the side- board at great royal dinners, and are dressed after the fashion of the time of Henry VIII. BOUTS-RIMES. This is a species of amusement generally known in France. It is pronounced '-boo-rema." A number of words that rhyme are given to a composer, who is to fill up the verse, producing good sense, and keeping the words in their stated order. Thus : — dark. where. around. strife. hark. drear. sound. life. shrill. bri-rlvt. still. night. Now, it would require considerable skill for any one to take the above and present them, in their present order, in a perfect compo- sition. Yet it may be done : — "lis nisrht ; the mourning vest of nature — dark And gloomy is the starless sky; around A melancholy stillness reigi s; but hark ! "lis but the hooting owl. A sound Again breaks on the silence : 'tis a shrill Cry from some churchyard ; all again is still. Where now the grandeur of creation ! Where The crowds that mingle in the busy strife? All's now a dismal chaos, lone and drear, Eayless and black. And thus it is with life— Awhile the scene is beautiful and bright ; Then comes one deep, and dark, and cheerless night. KNIVES AND FORKS. Handles of ebony should be cleaned with a soft cloth dipped in a little sweet oil ; and after rest- ing awhile with the oil on them, let them be well wiped with a clean towel. Ivory or bone handles ought to be washed with a soaped flannel and lukewarm water, and then wiped with a dry towel. To preserve or restore their whiteness, soak them occa- sionally in alum-water that has been boiled and then grown cold. Let them lie for an hour in a vessel of this alum-water. Then take them out, and brush them well with a small brush (a tooth-brush will do), and afterwards take a clean linen towel, dip it in cold water, squeeze it out, and while wet wrap it round the handles, leaving them in it to dry gradually, — as, if dried too fast out of the alum -water, they will be injured. If properly managed, this process will make | them very white. A WTSCELLAtfY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 45 CALISTHENIC EXERCISES. Use of Calisthenics. It is an admitted physio- logical fact, that imperfections in the female form originate, for the most part, in de- fective or irregular muscular action. The calistlienic exercises are calculated to cure deformities of the figure, especially of the chest, to invigorate the system, and. con- duce to elegant deportment and symmetry of form. Preliminary Cautions. 1st, that they should not be performed after a full meal ; 2nd, that there should not be any ligatures or tight strings, straps, &c., on any part of the body, but that the clothes should fit easily and loosely; 3rd, that the body should not be too warmly elothed during the exercises, but that an additional wrap- per should be provided, to cover the body as soon as they are finished ; by this means cold will bo avoided ; 4th, that the exercises should generally be performed in a room, in preference to the open air; 5th, that due regard must be paid to the health, age, and strength of the pupils exercised. Necessary Apparatus. The first things to he attended to are the cautions we have given above; and then the necessary appa- ratus, consisting of dumb-beils, back-board, clubs, wands or poles, triangles, and elastic- cord, must be procured. The Dumb-Bells we advise are con- structed as follows. To the staff a (which is made of oak or ash, six inches long, and Fig. 1. OTieand a quarter inches in diameter), is fixed a hemisphere (/;), with a male screw (e)\ ami to this part is attached at both ends another hemisphere (c), fitted with a female, screw, so that when these hemispheres are screwed together they form a complete sphere as represented by d, in fig. 1. Back-Boards should be fitted to the per- son requiring them, unless they are used for the hack-board exercise, in which case they will be as represented in fig. 2. When not used for this exercise, they are fastened to the back and shoulders bv means of straps (a £, c d,) which pass round the shoulders and are made to buckle in front. These straps can be lengthened or shortened by passing them through holes in the board (^» ff> 9> 9) j kft *"°r that purpose. The 3* lower part of the board is fastened round the waist by a strap (e /), winch bueklei in front. Fig. 2. The dimensions of the short back-board are as follow, for a krge size: length: twelve or thirteen inches, breadth ten inches, lower part five inches, and upper part four inches. These measurements can be reduced according to circumstances, age, &c. The Long Back-Board should be broad in the centre, as in fig. 3, so that the flat part may reach across the back of tho Fig. 3. shoulders, and the handles (a b) be long enough to hold in the hands when the arms are extended. Some of these baek-boarda vary from six feet in length to only three feet eight inches. The Clubs for calisthenics should be made hollow, as in the annexed figure (fig. 4) varying from twenty to twenty- ^-v eight inches in length, and be of a proportionate width. The top is made to screw on, so that the inside may be loaded as recom- (j winded for the dumb-bells. By this means, the weight to be forced through the air can be proportioned to the strength or ower of the individual to pro- pel it. The "Wands, or Poles, should be light, smooth, and sufficiently thick not to bend. They vary in length according to the person's height that is to use them, the (V j rule being, that the poles i-hall be FigTX of the same length as the height of the person requiring them. 46 The Triangle is a bar of wood attached to a cord at each end ; the two cords meet above, as shown in fie. 5, so as to form two TS FOE everybody: Fig. 5. sides of a triangle, of which the bar forms the third. A cord is attached to the upper part of the triangle, and this, passing over a pulley, enables the teacher to lower or raise the bar so as to suit the height of the pupil. THfc Elastic Cord is one of the latest improvements in calisthenie exercises. of it may be principally on the fore-part of the feet ; the head erect, and the eyes looking straight to the front, as in fig. 7. It consists of two handles (a b), of a tri- angular form, to which is attached an elastic cord, made of vulcanized india-rubber. They may be obtained at most toy-shops, and vary in price from two to five shillings, according to the size. The pupil should commence the exercises with the dumb-bell practice. The Dumb-Bell Practice. The dumb- bells are not to be used at first ; but when the pupil has become proficient in the following exercises, then the dumb-bells are to be held firmly in the hands, which are to perform the same motions directed below. Position of Attention. When the word attention is given by the teacher, the pupil is to draw back the shoulders, so as to make them square ; the heels arc to be placed in a line, and closed ; the knees straight, the toes turned out an angle of 60 degrees, the arms hanging close to the body, the elbows turned in close to the side, the hands open to the front, the little finger lightly touching the dress, and the thumb close to the fore- finger. The abdomen is to be slightly drawn in, and the chest advanced, but without constraint; the body upright, in- clining a little forward, so that the weight Fig. 7. Fig. 8. First Practice. One. — At the word one, raise the hands and bring the tips of the fingers in a line with, and pointing towards the shoulders, the body inclining forward, the head erect, and shoulders kept well back, with the elbows close to the side, as in fig. 8. Two. — Dart the hands straight to the front, with straight arms, the palms of the hands close together, the thumbs close to the fore-finger, nearly in a line with the chin, as in fig. 9. These two motions are to be repeated from two to one, and again from one to two, several times before commencing three. Three. — The hands are thrown back with straight arms in a line with the shoulders the palms of the hands to the front, the thumbs close to the fore-fingers, the head erect, and shoulders kept well back, the body inclining forward, the heels raised off the ground, so that the weight of the body rests on the fore-part of the feet, as in fig. 10. These motions are to be repeated from three to two, and from two to three several times before commencing /0? the side :itu1 well back, so as to square the ■boulder* ; the head is to be held erect, and the body slightly inclined forward, as in fig. 11. Fig. 10. Two.— Raise the elbows a little so as to draw them upwards and backwards ; then bring the hands smartly down to the side, as in fig. 12, and assume the position of attention (fig. 7). Fig. 11. Fig. 12. Long Back-Board Exercises. The long back-boards (fig. 3.), are to be held by the handle with the left hand, and the right hand is to be placed on the top of the back-board, while the other end rests upon the ground between the feet, as in fig. 13. Attention. When this word is given the heels are to be brought in a line, and the back-board brought across in front of the thighs at the full extent of the arms, hold- ing it by the handles with both hands (the backs of the hands to the front), as in fig. U. One. — The back-hoard is to be gradually raised from the position of attention, with the arms straight, until the flat part of it is horizontal and over the head, the tfpi of the fingers in front, and the knuckles Fig. 13. - Fig. U. behind ; the body is to be kept well forward on the fore-part of the feet, and the head erect, as will be seen in fig. 15. Fig. 15. Fig. 16. Two. — At this word the back-board is to be lowered from position one (the arms being contracted), and it is to be brought across the back part of the shoulders (as in fig. 16), still keeping the body well for- ward, and the head erect. In the last position, the pupil will then be required to walk slowly round the room, quickly, and to practise the balance-step without gaining ground. When the various exercises have been frequently repeated, the word " steady " will be given, when the position of atten- tion (fig. 14) is to be resumed, and at the command " stand at ease," that position (fig. 13), with the back-board, is at once to be taken. 48 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY '. * MOVING THE KNIGHT OVER ALL THE SQUARES ALTERNATELY. The problem respecting the placing the knight on any given square, and moving him from that/Square to any house on the board, has not been thought unworthy the attention of the first mathematicians. Euler, Ozanarn, De Montmart. De Moivre, De Majron, and others, have all given methods by which this feat might be accomplished. It was reserved, however, for the present century to lay this down on a general plan ; and the only Eng- lish writer who has noticed this is Mr. George Walker, in his " Treatise on Chess." The plan is this : Let the knight be placed on any square, and move him from square to square, on the principle of always playing him to that point, from which, in actual play, he would command the fewest other squares ; observ- ing, that in reckoning the squares commanded by him you must omit such as he has already covered. If, too, there are two squares, on both of which his powers would be equal, you may move him to either. Try this on the board, with some counters or wafers, placing one on every square ; and, when you clearly understand it, you may astonish your friends by inviting them to station the knight on any square they like, and engaging to play him, from that square over the remaining sixty- three in sixty-three moves. When the auto- maton chess-player was last exhibited in Eng- land, this was made part of the wonders he accomplished, though as the above plan was not then known here, he could not adopt it, but used something like the method laid down by Euler, and which we subjoin. Our young chess-players must remember that it 'does not matter on which square the knight is placed at starting ; as, by acquiring the plan by heart, which is soon done, he can play him over all the squares from any given point, his last square being at the distance of a knight's move from his first. It is obvious that this route may be varied many ways, and we have often amused ourselves by trying to work it on a slate. EULEK/S METHOD. B ■a/ £> .*-' <> ? > > ^ \/\7 E A A 53 * ra b l> m TT: r. v ►y, A *hk L / \ w Sit >< jS TV <^^H^>i<^ WEIGHTS OP MEASURES. The follow- ing table of the number of pounds of various articles to a bushe., may be of interest to our readers : Of wheat, sixty pounds ; of shelled corn, fifty-six pounds; of corn, on the cob, seventy pounds ; of rye, fifty-six pounds ; of oats, thirty-six pounds ; of barley, forty pounds ; of potatoes, sixty pounds ; of bran, twenty pounds ; df clover-seed, sixty pounds; of timothy-seed, forty-five pounds ; of flax- seed, forty-five pounds; of hemp-seed, forty- four pounds ; of buckwheat, fifty-two pounds; of blue grass-seed, fourteen pounds ; of castor beans, forty-six pounds ; of dried peaches, thirty-three pounds ; of dried apples, twenty- four pounds ; of onions, fifty-seven pounds 5 of salt, fifty pounds. ♦From "The Magician's Own Book; or. Over One Thousand Tricks." Illustrated with over 500 wood engravings. Dick & Fitzgerald. - Price $1 00. A. MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDCE. 49 MILE OF THE DIFFERENT NATIONS.! Bnglilh yards.. English yards. Arabian mile 8148 Irish 3038 Bohemian 10137 Italian 2025 Chinese illis 628! Poland (short) G093 Danish milo 8244 Poland (loin;) 81081 English 1700 Portuguese leaguos 6765 English (geo).. .. o 0:; , |> nisslrm m ;| 84C1 ' Flemish 6809 Roman (ancient — 1610J French art. league 4860 Roman (modern).. 2035! French legal do 4203 Russian vers to... 1167! Frenoh limine do 007o Saxon mile 9905 German mile (geo) Moo Scotch 1984 German (long) — 10126 Spanish leagnaa.. 4630 German Cshort)... 6859 Sweedtoh 11704 Dutch 6"95 Swiss 9166 Hungarian 9113 Turkey berries 1821 WHEAT." The valuable species of grain •which, in Europe is what rice is in Southern Asia. Its nutritious quality arises from the quantity of gluten, or glue-like substance "Which it contains. Its flour, mixed with water, and excited by yeast (a substance al- ready fermenting) fer- ments, and baked in an oven, constitutes bread, a wholesome food, if not whitened by alum, one- third of which is sulphu- ric acid, which destroys 'the stomach. A bushel weighs 56 lbs. and every pound vields 1£ lbs. of bread ; a sack of flour of 280 lbs. producing 348 lbs. of bread. One pound of wheat yields lOozs. of starch, * oz. gluten and sugar, and 3 ozs. bran; but other analyses give the proportion of the starch to the gluten, as 3 or 4 to 1. The cut represents a wheat-sheaf as set up and tied together alter reaping. It is then lodged in a barn, threshed, winnowed, and ground into flour. CHILBLAINS. Get a saucer half full of good vinegar, with a handful of salt in it ; cover the saucer and let it stand till hot over a saucepan of water on the fire ; the steam rising from the boiling water will soon heat the vinegar and salt ; when hot lift the whole off the fire and fix it so that spots of chilblain can be dipped into the saucer. This must be usedr*as hot as can be borne, even to smai-ting, and when the liquid cools a little^ the toe or other part affected must be kept immersed for a few minutes, then wipe gently with a soft towel. Keep the feet always warm. If the chil- blains are broken, the best cure is tincture of myrrh (the best and strongest), which entirely heals the spot in three days. "Wrap the sore in soft old linen doubled," which tie on with a worsted thread, not to be removed till the chilblain is healed; saturate this linen by dropping the tincture of myrrh over the sore till it smarts violently , this will subside in about half a minute; then bandage it up, and repeat morning and evening. CHAMELEON. An animal about ten Inches long, which feeds on insects, and which, from the capacity of its lungs, is enabled to expand its skin, and thereby varying the angle of reflected light, changes its colour to a spectator, whose eyes are fixed. ^Sr^ZZZ HEADACHE (CURE FOR THE). Mr. Thompson, a traveller in Mexico, describes an efficacious remedy used there for the headache, and also for the toothache. The head must be bent down on the side from which the pain proceeds, whilst a spoonful of rum, or any other spirit, is introduced into the opposite ear. The patient should then remain quiet till the pain subsides, which is usually in three or four minutes. The sensation is said not to be disagreeable, resembling the stunning produced by plung- ing the head in water. The relief thus experienced is caused by evaporation, which produces cold and checks the circulation in the afflicted part. SORE THROATS. For the habitual sore throat or quinsy, which is the torment of many people half their lives, and is gene- rally mistaken for a violent cold because it occasions a tickling in the throat, the con- sequence of which is coughing — take of powdered galls, three drachms; of boiling ro3e-water, three ounces. Infuse for three hours. Then filter and pour off the liquor, and add of alum thr< e drachms; of spirits of nutmeg or any other spirit, three ounces. Hold a "little of 'this frequently against the verv bottom of vour mouth. ATll EN JVX M . A literary school at Rone, said to be founded by the Emperor Hadrian; now generally applied to institutions for the encouragement oi letters. 50 PACTS FOR EVERYBODY! AZOTE. The gas of which the atmosphere contains nearly four-fifths in bulk, and three-fourths in weight ; the other fifth and fourth being oxygen, without which the air will support neither life nor combus- tion. It is also called nitrogen, and is generally considered as a compound. It converts blues into greens, and in the atmosphere may be regarded as a diluter of oxygen. TELESCOPE. An optical instrument, which enables us to dispose of the rays ■which proceed from distant objects, that we may see the image or spectrum formed in the focus of the object-glass, very near, or under an increased angle. The angle of the image is as the focal length, or the distance from the object-glass to the image, and the angle at the eye-glass is as its distance from, the image ; the magnifying power is, there- fore, in the proportion of those angles. The glass nearest the object makes an image or picture by crossing and subsequently di- verging rays, which a convex eye-glass of short focus renders parallel for vision ; or which a concave eye-glass intercepts while converging, and the image then proceeds directly to the eye with parallel rays. In the figure annexed the arrow is the" object, the rays of which cross at the object-glass, and form an image which is viewed through a convex glass by the eye. S In the following figure R is the object, rays from which cross at G, in the object- glass A D, forming an image, which is viewed bv E Y, the eye-glass, by the eye at H. D object-glass, E concave eye-glass, carry- ing parallel rays to the eye. The following represents a mounted tele- scope with rack-work for vertical and hori- zontal motions. The first and second are the common telescope and microscope, the eye-glass being usually compounded of three eye- glasses to set the object erect ; and the third is the Galilean or primitive telescope, and also the opera- glass. The following is a section of the tubes with the position of the object and eye- glasses. TIME. The measure of motion, and of the succession of thoughts, determined on our globe by the phenomena of light and dark- ness, and returning seasons of heat and cold; the earth's motion round its axis being a day, and its motion round the sun a year ; while the period from new moon to new moon determines the month. Longer periods are the moon's cycle of recurring phenomena in nineteen years; the earth's cycle, or the retrocession rf the equinoctial points round the ecliptic in 25,600 years; or the revolution of the line of apsides m 20,900 years. These are periods of duration relative to our globe and to us ; but different to different systems, and even to different animals and states on the same planet; yet- all are included in a totality of simple dura- tion, common to the whole universe, and which totality is necessarily without mea- sure, parts, begin- ing, or ending. Time is, therefore, an ac- quired plan or mode of considering mo- tions or events, and our views can have no exact relation to its absolute proper- ties as an universal totality. Everything is relative which is not infinite; and all are evolved and, absorbed by the totalities of infinite time and space. Time in the ancient mythology was drawn as an old man, with a scythe and hour-glass. A MTSCELLAKY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 51 CAGE BIRDS (DISEASES OF). Like all taine animals, birds that are kept in Confinement arc exposed to more maladies than those that live at large ; and especially as they are frequently so closely confined in cages that they have scarcely room to move. These maladies are, however, considerably increased by their having all kinds of deli- eaeies, and pastry, sugar, &c, given them, which spoils their stomachs, and usually produce! a slow consumption. The following are tbe chief maladies vhieh affect birds, and their remedies, the efficiency of which we have proved upon our own. Indeed the variety of birds, as well as the variety of their food, require also a difference of treatment in their mala- dies ; and in speaking of each species, we shall have occasion to imtice how their pe- culiar diseases may be cured, when the ge- neral remedies are not suitable to their nature. 1. The Pip. This is properly a cold, in which the upper skin of the tongue be- comes hardened by fever, and the orifices of the nose are stopped. In large birds, therefore, this skin is separated from the tongue, and in doing this, it must be com- menced beneath and behind. Thus the pores of the tongue are re-opened, and the secre- tion requisite for digestion can be repro- duced, and taste ami appetite made to re- turn. A pill, consisting of butter, pepper, and garlic, generally frees them from this complaint. They may also be made to drink pectoral tea made of "speedwell. To remove the stoppage of the orifices of the nose, a small feather is drawn through them. TLiS malady may be detected by the yellow colour at the root of the beak, the raffled feathers of the head, the frequent opening of the beak, and the dryness of the tongue. 2. 1-or Rheum, which is indicated by frequent sneezing and shaking the head, we have found no better remedy, especially when the bird has been valuable to us, and we have not desired nature to work alone, than giving it some drops of pectoral elixir in pectoral tea; or, when it would not drink of its own accord, to drench it with it. To a sick chicken we have given twenty drops in half a pint of tea. 3. Consumption. It is usually the result of unnatural food which interrupts the functions of digestion, and it is recognised by the bird inflating and distending itself. The feathers are ruffled, and their flesh dwindles. As yet we know no better re- medy than to give to such birds a common spider, which purges them, and to lay in their water a rusted nail, which strengthens the stomach. They must, at the same time, be fed with the best description of their ap- propriate food. In birds which will eat vegetables, we have always found this, and especially water-cresses, the surest remedy against consumption, or waste. Usually, birds suffering from this malady have a vo- racious appetite for green food. We fed a Siskin, which had already wasted, for three successive days with nothing but water- cresses, and on the fourth it recommenced singing. 4. Constipation. This malady is de- tected by observing the birds every moment bending the venter to evacuate, and being unable to do so. If a spider does not cure, the smooth head of a pin must be dipped in linseed oil, and gently thrust into the rectum ; such a clyster is usually effective In birds which eat meal worms, constipa- tion is removed by squeezing the inside of a meal worm and filling it with linseed oil and saffron; the bird thus willingly swallows the laxative, and the effect is cer- tain. 5. Dysentery. Birds frequently suffer from this before they become accustomed to the food of the aviary, and then generally die. They evacuate every instant a chalky substance, which usually hangs about tho feathers of the vent, and is so acrid that it intlames the rectum and anus. In such. cases, occasionally, the internal application 6f the rust of iron, by placing it in tho drinking vessel, and a' liusced-orl clyster, £2 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: have been serviceable. But we know no positive remedy vet, and have only found that ailing birds may sometimes be saved when food is supplied them which is most appropriate to their nature. Many persons pluck away the feathers of the tail and vent, and rub their hinder parts with fresh butter, and mix the hard boiled yolk of eggs with their food. But this remedy we have found rarely followed by a successful result. 6. "The Stoppage of the Fat-glands, OR the Pimples. Every bird has above the rump a gland, which secretes the oil required by the bird to smear its plumage, to retain them supple, and to prevent mois- ture passing through. In confinement, birds neglect the frequent pressure of this gland, as they are more rarely exposed to getting wet than when at liberty, and it consequently becomes hardened or inflamed. If the bird is seen sitting and drooping, the tail bending downwards, or if the feathers upon the rump are observed to be ruffled, and that the bird frequently pecks at it, it must be examined to see if the swollen gland be not the cause. This may fre- quently be softened by the application of very fresh butter, mixed up with a good deal of sugar, the aperture being enlarged by gently distending it with a needle, or a small knife ; but a lead salve, or rather a salve of litharge of silver, Avhite lead, wax, and olive oil, which must be ordered at the apothecary's, opens it best. The usual re- medy is to pierce it with a needle, or to cut off the hardened gland But this process, whilst it removes the stoppage, destroys the gland, and birds thus "healed usually die at moulting, from wanting the oil requisite to smear their feathers. Tscheiner has the following observations upon this malady : — "If this evil have not yet too severely affected the health of the bird, it may be sought to be remedied by puncturing the gland, compressing it frequently, bathing the bird with a syringe, and plucking out some of the feathers of the tail*. The accu- mulated fat is absorbed in the renewal of the feathers, when the gland resumes its natural functions." 7. Epilepsy. A very usual malady of birds. The abundance and goodness of food, and the want of exercise, whereby much and thick blood is produced, are the chief causes of this. "We have found no better remedy than to dip birds, when thus suffer- ing, frequently into ice-cold water, and to pare their nails so closely that some drops of blood start. Also a few d r ops of olive- oil given internally have been serviceable. Large birds may be bled in the veins at the side of the feet. But usually birds which suffer from this sickness die eventually of it. 8. Moulting is also a malady. At this period it is requisite to attend to thern very carefully, and to change their diet without giving them delicacies. 9. Birds in confinement also suffer much in their feet. These must be constantly so carefully cleansed that the skin is not at all ruptured. The large thick scales in front of the legs must also be removed once a-year, but with great precaution. 10. Tympany. At one part of the body, or frequently all over it, the skin is puffed up as tense often as a drum. A small punc- ture must be made with a needle, whereby the air escapes, and the bird usually becomes sound again. We have had Skylarks which suffered from this malady, and in the next quarter of an hour, when freed from the air, resumed singing, although previously they had been sick to death. 11. Twirling. This is properly no sickness, but yet a very general evil, and a habit acquired by seed-eating birds in cages, where they turn and twist their head and neck so far back as to overbalance themselves. There is no better mode of breaking them of this evil habit than, as soon as it is detected, to put a cover over the cage, and so prevent their seeing anything above them ; as this is the cause of their twirling themselves. 12. Parasites. If birds are sometimes restless, especially of a night, and if they are observed to be frequently feeling with their beak about the abdomen, back, or wings, they must be examined to see if no small yellow insects (lice or mites) may be discovered upon the body, or between the feathers. If this be the case, they must be sprinkled by means of a small syringe with water, in which quicksilver has been steeped, or with a greatly d luted infusion of tobacco, for several successive days, whereby the vermin are destroyed, or chased away. Another mode of getting rid of the lice is to bathe the birds frequently, and to give them daily fresh or dry sand, and to be very particular in keeping them exceedingly clean. 13 If it be found that the birds become unnaturally fat, which is often the ease, especially during autumn, in some species of warblers, their too nutritious food must be changed, and Swedish turnips be mixed in it, and dry ants' eggs put into their drink, which much checks their corpulency. 14. Birds in confinement are subject to another malady which we may call the amatory fever. It occurs usually in the A MISCELLANY OP TTSEFTTL KNOWLEDGE. 53 month of May, -when the sexual impulse is Strongest, Birds that an. 1 attacked by it usually oetae to sing about this time, droop, raise their feathers, waste away, and die. Birds that are confined iv cages are tirst attacked by this malady. The cause ap- pears to us to be the uniformity and tedioua- ness of confinement, as well as their desire for a tenia le. We cured several suffering thus, merely by hanging them frequently at the window. They were almost imme- diately cheered, and seemed to forget their sorrow, as well as their desire for freedom ami pairing, in the general hilarity peculiar to singing birds. CANNON. An arrangement ofiron or brass, with a hollow tube, at the bottom of which gun-powder is lodged, and exploded by hot iron at a touch-hole; and the explosion being directed by the tube, balls and missiles are carried to great distances with destructive force. According to the sized ball which they will explode, they are called 6, 12, and 48 pounders. In a field of battle they are dragged by hortws on light carriages, called field or living artillery; and, in other ways, called heavy ordnance. SUNFLOWER (THE). The value of this plant, which is easily cultivated, and orna- mental to the garden, is scarcely known in most parts of the kingdom. The seed forms a most excellent and convenient food for poultry, and it is only necessary to cut off the heads of the plant when ripe, tie them in bunches, and hang them up in a dry situation, to be used as- wanted. They not only fatten every kind of poultry but greatly increase the quantity of eggs they lay. When cultivated to a considerable extent, they are also capital food for sheep and pigs, and for pheasants. The leaves when dried form a good powder for cattle ; the dry stalks burn well, and form an abundance of alkali ; and when in bloom, the flower is most attractive to bees. POUNDS, SHILLINGS, AND PENCE. The etymology of these very necessary articles of exchange may be thus stated : — "Pound" is derived from the Anglo-Saxon yund or pond, which was generally a weight; it was then applied to a specific weight, consisting of a certain number of equal parts; to a certain number of pieces of money amounting to such a weight ; nnd to a coin equalling such number of nieces in value. "Shilling" is of doubtful etymo- logy ; but derived probably from snh'it/f/, the appellation for a piece of money amongst our Anglo-Saxon predecessors. "Penny" is also of doubtful origin ; but the name* as applied to a coin is of great antiquitv. PORCELAIN. Forcelaine, said to be derived from Pour cent annecs, it being formerly believed that the materials of porcelain were matured under ground one hundred years. It is not known who first discovered the art of making porcelain, nor is the date recorded ; but the manufacture has been carried on in China, at King-te- ching, at least since A.l>. 442, and here still the finest porcelain is made. It is first men- tioned in Europe in 1581, shortly after which time it was known in England. The fine porcelain ware known as Dresden china was discovered by M. Boeticher, who was at the time only an apothecary's boy, 1700. Services of this ware have cost many thousands of pounds each. A costly service, each piece exquisitely painted, and tie battles represented, and subjects a 11 different, was presented to the duke of Wellington, by the king of Prussia, in 181G, and is the finest in England. AMAZONS. The Amazons are said to have been the descendants of Scythians in- habiting Cappadocia, when their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscade by their ene- mies. Their widows, excited to action by the sorrows they underwent on account of their husbands, resolved to form a female state, and having firmly established them- selves, they decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. They were constantly engaged in wars. They were conquered by Theseus, about 1231, B.C. DAY (DIVISION OF THE, INTO HOURS) . The day began to be divided into hours from the year 293 B.C., when L. Papirius Cursor erected a sun-dial in the temple of Quirirus at Rome. Previous tc the invention of water-clocks, 168 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public criers. The Chinese divide the difv' into twelve parts of two hours each. The Italians reckon twenty-four hours round, instead of two di- visions of twelve hours each as we do. In England, the measurement of time was alike uncertain and difficult ; one expedient was by wax candles, three inches burning an hour, and six wax candles burning twenty- four hours : these candles were invented by Alfred, (docks and hour-glasses not being then known in England, -a.d. 886. 54 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! ASHLAR, A description of masonry where the stones are built in parallel beds with square joints, and dressed smooth upon the surfa e. ASIDE. A term used in plays to mark sentences which do not form a part of the dialogue, being supposed to be inaudible to all but the speaker. ANIMALS (NAMES OE THE VARI- OUS PARTS IN). 1.— Beef. 10. -OR? Hind Quarter. Sirloin. Rump. Aitch-Bone. Buttock. Mouse- Buttock. Veiny Piece. Thick Flank. Thin Flank. Leg. Fore-Ribs (5 ribs) 2. — Mutton Fore Quarter. 11. Middle- Rib (4 ribs) 12. Chuck (3 ribs). 13. Shoulder, or Leg of Mutton Piece. 14. Brisket. 15. Clod. 16. Neck or Sticking Piece. 17. Shin. 18. Cheek, on Lamb. 1. Leg. 2. Loin (best end). 8. Loin (chump end). 4. Neck (best end). 6. Neck (scrag end). 6. Shoulder. 7. Breast. 8. Head. A Chine is two Necks. A Saddle i3 two Loins. Pork. 1. The Spare-Rib. I 5. Hind-Loin. 2. The Hand. | 6. Ley. 8. The Belly or Spring. 7. Head, 4. Fore-Loin. 4.— VSAL. 1. Loin (best end). 2. Loin (chump end). 3. Fillet. 4. Hind-Knuckle. 5. Fore-Knuckle. 6. Neck (best end). 7. Neck (scrag end). 8. Blade- Bone. 9. Breast (best end). 10. Breast (brisket end). 11. Head. 5.— Venison. 3. Shoulder. 4. Breast. ENAMELS. White enamels are com- posed by melting the oxide of tin with glass, and adding a small quantity of manganese, to increase the brilliancy of the colour. The addition of oxide of lead or antimony pro- duces a yellow enamel ; but a more beautiful yellow may be obtained from the oxide of silver. Reds are formed by an intermixture of the oxides of gold and iron, that composed of the former being the most beautiful and permanent. Greens, violets, and blues, are formed from the oxides of copper, cobalt, and iron; and these, when intermixed in different proportions, afford a great variety of intenncdiate colours. PIN MONE1 (ORIGIN OE). This term seems to have been derived from an ancient tax in France for providing the Queen with pins, whence it has been ap- plied by us to that provision for married women, with which the husband is not to interfere. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 55 HERALDRY. For ourselves we look upon heraldry as simply one of those branches of knowledge which is useful in its proper place. Tlie origin of the science — il it may properly he called a science — is intimate] v interwoven in the origin of history. When men became distinguished, and felt themselves animated by those natural feelings of pride and ambition which distinction generates, they sought some method of marking to the eye their position ; and, as the first means of dis- tinction were military talents and courage, no readier method presented itself than that of placing a distinguishing sign or symbol on the shield, as the most conspicuous of the warrior's accoutrements. During long and glorious ages of the history of the world, such symbols were adopted amongst almost all peoples, and there can be no doubt that they constituted heraldry in the simplest acceptation of the word. But each armorial bearing was the badge of the in- dividual, and spoke of himself but not of his family. It was under the feudalism of the middle ages only that heraldry was, or perhaps could be, reduced to a system such as it presents in our days. As far as we can trace it, the adoption of armorial bearings as family badges began in the latter half of the twelfth century. This is a fact which we believe is generally acknowledged, but we doubt much whether, as some suppose, the Crusades had anything to do with it, or whether it was anything more than a natu- ral accompaniment of the peculiar progress of society in that age. BLACK-LEAD ^PENCILS. The easiest way of producing, not only blank-lead, but all sorts of pencils, is by the following pro- cess, which combines simplicity, cheapness, and quality. Take white or pipe-clay ; put it into a tub of clean water, to soak for twelve hours, then agitate the whole, until it resembles milk ; let it rest two or three minutes, and pour off the supernatant milky liquor into a second vessel ; allow it to settle, pour oft" the clear and dry the residue on a filter. Then add black-lead any quan- tity. Powder it and calcine it at a white heat in a loosely-covered crucible ; cool and carefully re-pulvcrke, then add prepared clay, prepared plumbago, equal parts. "Water to mix. Make them into a paste, and put it into oiled moulds of the size required; dry very gradually, and apply Sufficient heat to give the required degree of hardness; lastly, the pieces should be taken carefully from the moulds and placed in the grooves of the cedar. The more clay and heat employed, the harder the crayon ; less clay and heat of course produces a con- trary eflfect. The shade of black may also be varied in the same way. Each mould must be made of four pieces of wood nicely fitted together. COLOSSUS OF RHODES (THE). This celebrated statue was considered one of the wonders of the world, and was erected in honour of Apollo. It was made of brass, and was 70 cubits, or about 105 feet in height, being proportion ably big in every part. It stood' astride over the haven, so that ships could sail in and out between the legs. In one hand it held a light-house, in the other a sceptre ; and its head repre- sented a golden sun. The distance between the two feet was 1,000 yards, and two men could scarcely embrace its thumb, when their arms were extended. This extra- ordinary statue was made by Chares, a Rhodian, who was engaged 12 years in its perfection. After it had stood for 66 years, an earthquake displaced it, and the money collected by the Rhodians from the various Grecian states being embezzled, the statue was never replaced or repaired, as intended ; but the image was allowed to remain 804 years upon the ground, when the Saracens having taken the city, sold the ° world's wonder," to a Jew as old brass; its weight being 720,000 lbs. avoirdupois. The Jew broke it into pieces, and loaded 900 camels with them. At the present time there is a castle erected on one side, and a town on the other, to mark the places were the feet of the far-famed Colossus were placed. RAIN. Rain falls in drops, because the vapoury particles attract each other in their descent, and those which are sufficiently near unite and form into drops. These drops are sometimes larger than at other times, because the rain-cloud is floating nearer the earth ; when this is the case the drops are large, because such a cloud is more dense than one more elevated. The size of the drop is also increased according to the rapidity with which the vapours are con- densed. Wind may sometimes increase the size of the drops by blowing two into one. DUN. Some persons imagine this word to be derived from the French donnez—give me, implying a demand for something new; but the true origin of this expression is sup- posed to be due to one John Dun, a famous bailiff of the town of Lincoln, so extremely active in his business, that it became a pro- verb when a man refused to pay his debts, to say, " Why don't you Dun him ? " that is, "Why don't ;»u send Dun to arrest him ? " Hence it "grew into a custom, and is as old as the days of Henry VII. 56 tacts for everybody: ASPEN. A kind of poplar tree, the leaves of which have a tremulous motion which seems incessant, and has become proverbial. ANTHRACITE. A variety of coal con- sisting of vegetable carbon, and difficult to burn on account of the want of the bitumen found in the common sorts of coal. It is found in Wales and in America. PULLEYS. The pulley is a wheel, round the rim of which a groove is cut, in ■which a cord can work, and the centre of which moves on pivots in a block. The wheel sometimes passes under the name of a sheave. By a fixed pulley, we mean one which merely revolves on its axis, but does not change its place. The power is applied to one end of the cord and the weight to the other. The action of the pulley may be readily understood from that of the lever. Let c, j. fig. 1 be the axis -*» ' . ' f of the pulley, b the point to which the weight is attached ; a the point of ap- plication of the — power; draw the ■^ lines, c b, c a — they represent the arms of a lever — and the law of the equili- brium of a lever, therefore, applies Fi »- L in this case also ; and as these are necessarily equal to each other, the pulley will be in equilibrio when the weight and power are equal. If the direction in which the power is applied, instead of being P a, is P' a, the same reasoning holds good. For, on- draw- ing C a, as before, it is obvious that b c a represent a bent lever of equal arms. The condition of equilibrium is, therefore, the same. The fixed pulley does not increase the power, but it renders it more available, by permitting us to apply it in any desired direction. To prove the properties of the pulley ex- perimentally, hang to the ends of its cord equal weights; they will remain in equi- Tibrio. Or, if the power be increased, so a3 to make the weight ascend, the vertical distances passed over are equal. The moveable pulley is represented at fig. 2. Its peculiarity is that, besides the motion on its own axis, it also has a progressive one. Let b be the axis of the pulley, and to it the weight, W, is attached the power as applied at a. Draw the diameter, a c> then c is the fulcrum of a c, which is in reality a lever of the third order in which distance, a c, of the power is twice that, o c, of the weight. Consequently " the moveable pulley doubles the effect of the power," and the distance traversed by the power is twice that traversed by the weight. A moveable pulley is sometimes called "a runner;" and as it would be often in- > 7convenient to apply "the power in the upward direction, as at a, there is com- monly associated with the runner a fixed pulley, which without changing the value of the power, enables us to vary the direction of its action. Systems of pulleys are arrangements of sheaves, move- able and fixed. When one fixed pulley acts on a number cf move- able ones, equili- brium is maintain- ed, when the power and weight are to each other as 1 to that power of 2 which equals the number of themove- able pulleys. Thus, if there be, as in fig. 3, three move- Fi.ar. 3. able pulleys, the power is to the weight as 1:2' that is 1 : 8 ; consequently, on such a system, a given power will support an eightfold weight. When several moveable and fixed pulleys are employed, as in fig. 4, equilibrium is obtained when the power equals the weight divided by twice the number of moveable pulleys. The weight being 1 equally divided uetween the six lines, it follows that each is drawn by one -sixth of the weight, W. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. .07 w Fig. 5. consequently, ii sixty pounds weigh is suspended to tin bottom, each lin< would be drawn upnnbyaforceof l( pounds. If we wis], U> keep this maobini in a state of equili- brium, we must at- tach a weight, P, of ten pounds to the end of the line. In such systems of pulleys there is a groat loss of power arising from the friction of the sheaves against the sides of the blocks, and on their axles. In White's pulley this is to a consi- derable extent a- voided. This con- trivance is repre- sented in fig. 5. It consists of seve- ral sheaves of une- qual diameters, all turned on one com- mon mas3, and ■working on one common axis. The diameters of these, in the upper blocks, are as the numbers 2, 4, 6, &c, and in the lower 1, 3, 5, &c. ; consequently, they all re- volve in equal times and the rope passes without sliding or scraping upon the grooves. WHEELS AND AXLES. The wheel and axle consists of a cylinder re- volving upon an axis, and having a wheel of larger diameter immcveably af- fixed to it. The power is applied to the circum- ference of the wheel, the weight to that of the axle. [Let a b, be a wheel, c d, fig. 6, its axle, and sup- pose the circumference of the wheel to be eight times as great as the cir- cumference of the axle; then a power, P, equal to one pound, hanging by the Fig. 6. cord I, which goes round the wheel, will balance a weight, "W, of eight pounds, tanging by the rope K, which goes round the axle; ami as the friction on the pivots, E F, or gudgeons of the axle is but small, a small addition k to the power, will F cause it to descend, and raise the weight ; but the weight will rise with only an eighth part of t lie velocity wherewith the power descends, and, consequently, through no more than an eighth part of an equal space in the same time. If the wheel he pulled round by the handles, S S, the power will be increased in prouortion to their length. G, is a ratchet-wheel on one end of the axle, with a catch II, to fall in its teeth. The law of equilibrium is, that "the power must be to the weight as the radius of the axle is to that of the wheel." This instrument is, evidently, nothing but a modification of the lever ; it may he regarded as a continuously acting lever, in fact, it is sometimes called " the perpetual lever." In its mode of aotion, the common lever operates in an intermitting way, and, as it were, by small steps at a time. A mass which is forced up by a lever a short distance must be temporarily propped, and the lever re-adjusted before it can be brought into action again ; but the wheel and axle continues its operation constantly in the same direction. The inconvenience of having a large wheel and very slender axle may be avoided, without lessening the mechanical advantage, by employing a machine called the ° Chinese Fig. 7. wheel and axle," which consume of two 58 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: cylinders, one larger than the other, turn- ing about the same axis. The weight is attached to a pulley, which plays on a long cord, which is coiled round both axles in contrary directions. When the winch is turned, one end of the cord uncoils from the smaller cylinder, and is wound round the larger ; thus the weight is elevated at each turn, through a space equal to half of the difference between the circumference of the tsvo cylinders. Therefore the advantage of this machine, with its pulley, is in the ratio of the diameter of the larger cylinder to half its excess above that of the lesser one. (Fig. 7.) That this is its mode of action may be understood from considering fig. 8, in which let c be the common centre of the axle, c b, and of the wheel c a, a the point see that the weight, W, corresponds to ths counteracting force, P, in an inverse ratio to the arms of the lever ; that is, inversely to the radii, a b, and d c, of the wheel. Let us suppose that the radius, a b, of the axle, is four times less than the radius, d c, of the wheel, we may equipoise a weight of eighty pounds by a force of twenty pounds. Sometimes the wheel is replaced by a winch, as in fig. 10 ; it is then called a " windlass," if the motion is vertical ; but r P — w# Fig. 8. of application of the power P, and b dat of the weight, W. Draw the line a c b ; it evidently represents a lever of the first order, of which the fulcrum is c, and from the principles of the lever, it is easy to demon- strate the law of equilibrium of this machine, as just given. Further, it is immaterial in what direction the power be applied, as P' at the point a' for a c b still forms a bent lever, and the same principle still holds good. « The effect of the wheel depends upon the superiority of the radius, or diameter of the wheel, to that of the axle. In fig. 9 we Fig. 10. Fig. 11. if it be horizontal, as in fig. 11, the ma- chine is called a " capstan," which differs from the windlass in having its re- volving axis placed vertically. The cir- cumference is pierced with holes which receive long levers, called capstan-bars, by which it is worked by men, who walk round the capstan and make it revolve by pressing the ends of the levers forward. The tread-mill is another variety. In this case the weight of several people treading on the circumference of a long wheel causes it to revolve. The paddle-wheel of a steam- boat acts on the same principle ; the water, which offers a resistance to the motion of the paddle- boards, is the power. Wheels and axles are often made to act upon one another by the aid of cogs, as in clocKWork and mill machinery. In these cases the cogs on the periphery of the wheel take the name of teeth, those on the axh? the name of leaves, and the axle itself is called a pinion. The law of equilibrium of such machines may be easily demonstrated to be, that the power multiplied by the product of the number of teeth, in all the wheels, is equal to the weight multiplied by the product of the number of leaves in all the pinions. A system of wheel and pinion work is re- presented at fig. 12. It is scarcely necessary to ob- serve, that in it, as in all other cases, the law of virtual velocities holds good — the power multiplied by the velocity of the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 59 power is equal to the weight multiplied by the velocity of the Weight 1m the construction of such machinery, attention has to be paid to the form of the teeth, so that they may not scrape or jolt upon one another. Several of them should be in contact at once, to diminish the risk of fracture and the wear. If the teeth of a wheel be in the direction of radii from its centre it is called a spur- wheel. If the teeth are parallel to the axis of the wheel it is called a crown-wheel. If the teeth are oblique to the axis of the wheel it is called a beveled wheel. By combining these different forms of wheels suitably together, the resulting mo- tion can be transferred to any required plane. Thus, by a pair of beveled- wheels motion round a vertical axis may be transferred to a horizontal one, or, indeed, one in any other direction. When a pinion is made to work on a toothed-bar, it constitutes a rack. This contrivance is under the same law as the wheel and axle. GLOVES. "With regard to the period in which the use of gloves was tirst introduced, we have, perhaps* no better authority than that of Xenophon, who, in speaking of the Persians, mentions as a proof of their effeminacy, that not content with covering their head and feet, they also wore thick gloves to guard their hands from the effect of cold ; but some ascribe to them a much earlier origin, even as far back as the time of Ruth, as in the 4th chapter and 7th verse we read, that it was the custom for a man to take off his shoe and give it to his neigh- bour, as a token of redeeming anything. The word, they say, which is translated shoe, is by tin; Chaldean Paraphrast ren- dered glove. The royal Psalmist also uses the same word in the 108th Psalm, where it is likewise rendered shoe ; but for the same reason as above it should have been glove : "I will cast my shoe over Edoni." Yet there is good reason to suppose that the Chaldean Paraphrast has taken an unwar- rantable liberty in his version of the text. Casaubon also conjectures that gloves were in use among the Chaldeans, because, in the Talmud Lexicon, the meaning given to the word here mentioned, is "Clothing of the hands." Varro, an ancient writer of repute, fully proves their antiquity among the Romans, observing in the 2nd book, 55th chapter "De Re Rustica," that olives gathered with the naked hand are preferable to those gathered with gloves. Ilo-ner represents Laertes working in his garden with gloves on, to secure his hands from the thorns. A famous glutton is mentioned by Athe- naui as coming to table with gloves on, that, being thereby enabled to handle tl.o meat while hot, ho might devour more than any one else. But though these examples show that the use of gloves was not unknown to the ancients, yet we can- not for a moment suppose that they were at all so commonly worn as now ; and we may, moreover, infer that their U6e met with some opposition even a century after the establishment of Christianity ; for Mu8onius, the philosopher, in attacking the corruption of the age, says that it is a shame for persons in health to clothe their hands and feet in soft and hairy coverings. We may, however, conclude that their conve- nience soon rendered their use pretty general, for Pliny tbe younger, in his account of his uncle's journey to Vesu\ius, states that his secretary, who sat by him ready to write down whatever occurred remarkable, had gloves on his hands, that the coldness of the weather might not impede his employment. We then find them gradually become more common ; and in the ninth century their use was so universal, that the Church thought it necessary to make some regulations with regard to that part of dress. LOTTERIES. The first lottery in England was drawn in the year 1569. It consisted of 40,000 lots, at 10*. a lot ; the prizes were plate, and the profits were to go towards re- pairing the havens of the kingdom. It wa3 drawn at the west door of St. Paul's cathe- dral. The drawing began on the llth of January, and continued night and day till the 6th of May following. ASP. A small kind of poisonous serpent found in Africa, whose venom is said to be fatal ; celebrated in history as the means taken by Cleopatra to commit suicide. ASPECT. An astronomical term denoting the situations of the heavenly bodies with regard to each other. AUSPICES. Among the Romans a mode by which the Augurs sought to ascertain future events, principally by the inspection of tbe entrails of animals slain for sacrifice. AVE MARIA. The name given to the angel Gabriel's salutation to the Virgin Mary at the incarnation of Jesus : the chap- lets and rosaries of the Romish church are divided into ave-marias and pater-no ATIIANASIAN CREED. Ascribed to Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, and also to Hilary, bishop of Aries. It was used in France about the year 850, and first sung in our churches about 950., 60 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: ACRE. A port-town of Syria, famous for Several destructive sieges. ACRE. Four square roods, or 160 square poles, of 5h yards, or 4,840 square yards, i. e. 69.6 yards by 69.6 yards. The French acre is to the English, as 54 to 43 ; and the Irish acre is U English. MISTLETOE is a parasitic plant, found wild in England, very rarely in Scotland, and nowhere in Ireland'; and is a production of great interest to the phytologist. The seeds in germination offer an exception to a general law, that the radicle of the embryo shoots downwards, and the plumula up- wards. Thus, if a cannon-ball, to which mistletoe-seeds are glued on all sides, be suspended by a cord some distance from the earth, both the upper and under seeds, as well as those at the sides, all direct their radicle to the surface of the ball. This property ensures their growing upon the branches of trees, to. whatever side they happen to stick. The fruit, which is covered with a viscid pulp, is made by the Italians, and even in Herefordshire, into a kind of birdlime ; and, as it is a favourite food of the large or missel thrush, it is thought to have given rise to the proverb, " Tardus malm sibi cacat" applied to such as are authors of their own misfortunes. Mistletoe grows luxuriantly upon the apple or pear tribe of trees, and the oak ; and Mr. Jessie describes it as flourishing upon some lime-trees in Datchet Mead, just as Shakspeare described it in his day. The mystic uses of the misletoe are traced to the pagan ages; it has been identified with the golden branch referred to by Virgil, in infcrnis ; and it is affirmed to have been used in the religious ceremonies of the Greeks and Romans. The Druids and Celtic nations called it all-henl and guidhel. They had an ex- traordinary veneration for the number three, says Vallancey, and they chose the mistletoe, because not only its berries, but its leaves also, grow in clustei-s of three united to one stalk ; but the leaves grow in pairs only. The Druids celebrated a grand festival on the annual cutting of the mistle- toe, which was held on* the sixth day of the moon nearest their new year. Many cere- monies were observed : the officiating Druid being clad in white, cut the plant with a golden sickle, and received it in a white cloth. Kissing a fair one under the mistletoe, and wishing her a happy new year as you !»resenl her with one of the berries for luck, s the Christmas custom of our times ; and in some places persons try lots, for the bough with most berries, by the crackling of leaves and berries in the fire. But at what period came mistletoe to be recognised as a Christmas evergreen ? "We have Christmas carols in praise of holly and ivy of even earlier date than the fifteenth century; but allusion to mistletoe can scarcely be found for two centuries later, or before the time of Herrick : "Down with the rosemary, and so, Down with the bates and mistletoe; Down with the holly, ivie, ;ill, Wherewith ye dressed the Christmas hall." Shakspeare describes : "The trees, though summer, yet forlorn and lean, O'ereome with moss and baleful mistletoe." Tusser directs : "Get ivye and hull (holly), woman, deck up thine house j" And thus refers to the plant : "Ifsnowe do continue, shcepe hardly that faro • Crave mistle and ivie for them for to spare." The seeds of mistletoe ripen late, between February and April, and birds do not will- ingly feed upon them as long as they can procure the berries of hawthorn, hollies, ivy, and other winter food. No sooner, however, does a late frost set in, and the ground become covered with snow in the spring, as is often the case, than birds flock to the mistletoe, and find a ready resource thus left them when all others have failed. If the ripe berries are rubbed upon the branches of trees, between February and April, they may be readily cultivated ; and mistletoe has thus been found to germinate on the oak, several of the pine tribe, cherry, common laurel, Portugal laurel, holly, lime,- elm, hornbeam, birch, sycamore, ash, chesnut, hazel, and acacia, as well as the apple, pear, and whitethorn tribe ; but on all, except the apple and pear, the seeds soon sicken and die. ANTEDILUVIAN. A term applied to any animal or thing which existed in the world previous to the deluge. - COOKING IN A HOUSE (TO REMOVE THE SMELL OF). Smell may be avoided by making in the tunnel of the chimney a little door on a level with the ceiling of the kitchen, through which the smell will es- cape. If the top of the door is lower than the ceiling, it should be connected with an iron tube running up to the same height in the chimney, by which means it will be secure from the effect of sudden changes of weather, &c. ; or a distinct tunnel may be built up for the same purpose. A MTSCELLA.NT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 61 SCRUBBING FLOORS. Afterthe white- washing. paint-cleaning, and window- wash- ing of each, room has been completed, let the floor be scrubbed ; first seeing that it has been well swept. For this purpose have a small tub or bucket of warm water; an old saucer to hold a piece of brown soap, a iarge thick tow-linen floor-cloth, and a long- handled scrubbing brush. Dip the whole of the floor-cloth into the water, and with it wet a portion of the floor. Next, rub some soap on the bristles of the brush, and scrub hard all over the wet place. Then dip your cloth into the water, and with it wash tht' suds off the floor. Wring the clojh, wet it again, and wipe the floor with it a second time. Lastly, wash the cloth about in the water, wring it as dry as possible, and give the floor a last and hard wiping with it. Afterwards go on to the next part of the floor, wet it, scrub it, wipe it three times, and proceed in the same manner, a piece at a time, till you have gone over the whole ; change the dirty water for clean, whenever you find it necessary. For a large room, fresh warm water will be required four or five times in the course of the scrub- bing. When the floor has been scrubbed, leave the sashes raised while it is drying. For scouring common floors that are very dirty, have by you an old tin pan with some grey sand in it; and after soaping the brush, rub on it some sand also. RESPIRATION. The lungs, the organs of respiration, may be described as fleshy sponges. In human beings there are two ; one on each side the heart, fitted within the chest, and reaching from top to bottom of the ribs. These sponges are full of little holes or cells ; the number of them is cal- culated at 174 millions, and each one of these takes in air as it comes down the throat or windpipe. This large number is required for the air to act upon. A man inspires from one to two pints each time he breathes. The air enters into all the cells of the lungs, where one part of it is absorbed or taken up by the blood as it rushes through, and the remainder is breathed out again, mingled with carbonic acid gas and vapour. A man breathes from fifteen to twenty times in a minute. Thus, about 1,000 "pints of air enter the lungs every hour, or 3,000 gallons every twenty-four hours. DEAF (AXIOMS FOR THE). 1. Never syringe your ears, nor allow it to be done by others, unless for the removal of an accu- mulation of wax. 2. Be sure that such accumulation forms an obstacle to the trans- mission of sound, otherwise it had better remain where it is ; for it should always be borne in mind that the wm is a natural secretion, placed in the passage of the 1 ar for a specific purpose. Its presence, in moderate quantity, indicates a healthy con- dition of the outer passages of the ear. Its absence is the effect, and not, as is generally- supposed, the cause of the disease which, produces the deafness. Like deafness, the want of wax is only a symptom of ear disease ; hence the absurdity of attempting its restoration by stimulating drops and ointments. 3. Never pick the ears. 4. Never wet the hair, nor wash the hair with cold water — a most pernicious practice. 5. Never bathe, or use a shower-bath, without carefully protecting the head and ears; even then I question its propriety. 6 Never attempt to stop a discharge from the ears, but under proper advice ; ior it may be that the drum of your ear is open, and then the employment of a stimulating or astringent injection will risk some fatal consequence. 7- Never apply, nor sutler to be applied, anything to the outer passages of the ears, which causes heat or pain. Such applications may prove of temporary benefit, but when the stimulus has subsided you will be left worse than before. 8. Be strict in diet. Stomachic derangements are a most prolific cause of deafness. 9. Never expose yourself to wet or wintry weather. 10. Never consult an aurist, who is not an educated and diplomatised surgeon, and who does not admit that deafness is an infirmity, often difficult of removal, and, very often, incurable. WINDLASS. A common mechanical power, by which weights are raised, and water generally drawn out of a well. As power is as velocity, and as the hand at the winch makes a larger circle than the cy- linder round which the rope coils, so the power is proportionally increased. Thus, if the hand performs a circle of six feet, while the cylinder performs but one foot, so the power of the hand, friction excepted, is increased six times. 62 FACTS FOE EVEHYBODY: TUSCAN. The simplest order of archi- tecture, like the Doric, but stronger. y 3 WATER -WHEEL (OVERSHOT). A Tarietyof water-wheel, by which water fall- ing- on its upper periphery, carries it round, not only by its force, but by its accumulated weight ; for, it is so constructed as to catch and hold the water in descending, part with it at the bottom, and ascend on the other side empty, and it is a very convenient and powerful structure when the nature of the ground permits. SOUTH-SEA BUBBLE. This term is applied to a company instituted in 1710, and incorporated in 1716. Under cover of its legality, enormous frauds were carried on. Thousands of persons were ruined by it. The cunning of fhe directors had raised shares originally valued at £100, to the enormous price of £1000. The scheme ex- ploded in 1720 ; when the directors' estates, to the value of £2,014,000 were seized. Mr. Knight, thecashier, absconded with £100,000, but he compounded the fraud for £10,000, and returned to England in 1743. Such was the mania at the time, that a great many •wealthy persons in the kingdom became stock-jobbers and speculators in this ruinous scheme. CARDINAL. The highest order in the Romish Church, from which the Pope is elected. He wears a red hat, of the form represented in the engraving. .CARDINAL POINTS. Konfa, southeast and west; subdivided into intermediate parts, as N.E. north east ; N. W. north west, &c. ; to the number of thirty-two points of the compass, each \\\ degrees. CLEANING CHINA AND EARTHEN- WARE. They should be washed in plenty of soap and warm water, rinsed clean in a second bowl of water alone, either warm or cold ; should be then turned down to drain, and afterwards wiped dry with linen tea- cloths. Settlings of any liquid which have been suffered to dry up at the bottom of earthen vessels may be dissolved by a little pearl ash and water, or with soda instead of pearlash. CORNS (CURES FOR). 1. Place the feet for half an hour, two or three nights succes- sively, into a pretty strong solution of common soda. The alkali dissolves the in- durated cuticle, and the corn comes away ; leaving a little cavity, which, however, soon fills up. 2. Soak ivy-leaves in vinegar during the space of fifteen days; then place a leaf, or part of one, over the corn ; renew it every morning, and scrape off, with pumice-stone dipped in vinegar each time, the portion of hard skin which is detached. The vinegar acts by stimulating the ab- sorbents; and the friction hastens their action. The pumice-stone and vinegar will equally answer the purpose if used every morning. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 63 JANUARY. This month received the name of January from the ancient Romans. It was adopted* and retained by the early Christians, and has ever sinco been com- puted as the first month of the year in all the calendars and almanacks of Christ- endom. It was not originally in the calen- dar of Romulus, but introduced into it by Numa Tom pilius, in the place which had been -previously assigned to March. It was 60 called from a double-faced deity, called Jajuub, who was presumed to look both into the old and new year, and in this month a great festival was held in his honour. At this period the Romans laid aside all old grudges. Clients and freedmen sent presents to their patrons, slaves to their masters, and friends and acquaintances to each other; whence the custom of New Year's Gifts, still retained among us, waa originally derived. Among our Saxon ancestors the month of January was called Giulu aftera, which Signified the second Goul, Grid, or Yule; or as we should say, the Second Christmas, on account of the month commencing du- ring the joyous season of Christmas festivity, "which, as Sir Roger de Coverley good- naturedly observed, could not have been contrived to take place at a happier period. Nkw Year's Day. In most parts of America JYetc- Year's Day, like New-Year's Bre, is celebrated with great festivity ; while social enjoyment and friendly con- gratulations appear to be the order of the day. In England, the Wassail Bowl is carried from door to door, in the manner of our Saxon ancestors, with singing and merriment. According to Brand, who quotes Thomas de la Moore and old Havillan, the terms icas-haile and drinc-heil were the usual phrases of quaffing among the early English, and synonymous with the toast — "Come, here's to you," "I'll pledgeyou," etc. The most perfect fragment of the "was- sail" exists in the usage of certain domestic banquets and corporation festivals. The person presiding stands up at the conclusion of the dinner, and drinks from a flagon, usually of silver, with a handle on each side, by which he holds it ; and the toast- maker announces him as drinking " the health of his brethren out of the " loving cup." This cup, which is the ancient wassail bowl, is then passed to the guest on his left hand, and by him to his next left- hand neighbour; and as the loving cup thus passes round to all the guests in their turn, so each stands up and drinks to the president. The ceremony was formerly accompanied with a wassail song — "Here's to , let sadness disappear, God send our master a happy new year — A happy new year, as e'er he did see — With my wassailing bowl 1 drink to thee," etc. Twelfth Day, or Epiphany, which falls on the 6th January, or the twelfth from Christmas-day, is usually kept up with great spirit in family parties, as it is usually presumed that with this night the general Christmas festivities are terminated. The "Twelfth Night," is the time when the ancient amusement of " choosing king and queen," and other pleasantries are practised. " The bean found out, and monarch crown'd, He dubs a tool and sends him round To raise the frolic when its low — Himself commands the wine to flow; Each watches for the king to quail'. When all at once, upsprinu r s the laujrh ; They cry, 'the king i rinks!' and away They shout a long and loud huzza !" Of the distinguished individuals bom in the month of January, we subjoin tho following: — Joan of Arc, commonly called "the Maid of Orleans," was 'born of humble parents at Domremi, a village on the borders of Loraine, in 1402; but by her extra- ordinary talents and enthusiastic courage she was* enabled to take the command of the French forces, and repeatedly defeated the English armies, which had previously been considered as invincible. After repeated victories she was at length taken prisoner in a sally, and cruelly burnt alive by the English,' on the charge of sorcery, in the twenty-ninth year of her age. Charles I. of England is generally styled "the Martyr," from the melancholy end of his political career. He was the second son of James VI. of Scotland and I. of England, by Anne, daughter of the King of Denmark. On the death of his father, in 1612, he ascended the British throne; 64 TACTS FOE EVERYBODY: but his reign was a series of contests with, the Parliament of England, until at length his regal authority was entirely overthrown, when he was condemned to death, and executed at Whitehall, on the 30th of Ja- nuary, 1649. Copernicus was one of the most cele- brated mathematicians and astronomers of the age in which he lived. He was born at Thorn, in Prussia, in 1473, and died in 1543. His greatest work was a Latin treatise "On the Revolutions of the Celes- tial Orbs," in which, though strongly op- posed to the prejudices of the age, he repre- sented the sun as occupying a centre, round which the earth and the other planets revolve. PAl'tiR. Nowhere is paper so much used as in the United States. In France, with 35,000,000 of inhabitant*, only 70.000 tons are produced yearly, of which one .seventh is for exportation. In England, with 28,000.000 of inhabitants, 66,000 tons are produced. In America, the amount is nearly as great as in France and England together. SINGULAR COINCIDENCE. The win- ters of 1837-8, 1847-8 and 1857-8 were re- markably mild in their temperatures. RHUBARB. A valuable medicinal root, growing in China, Turkey, and Russian Tartary, of which that from Turkey is the most esteemed. Rhubarb is also cultivated in English gardens, and makes delicious spring tarts. 2m- ~ SATURN. A planet, 900,000 millions of miles from the sun, 79,000 miles in diameter, and period 30 years, or 10,746 days. Saturn has seven moons, and is also surrounded by a double ring, 205.000 miles in diameter, visible with moderate telescopes, and very beautiful. Saturn used to be considered as the outermost planet, but the Herschel has since been discovered at double the dis- tance ; and, considering the middle distance of the sun to the nearest fixed star, as fifteen millions of millions of miles, there are, pro- bably, hundreds of planets tindiscovered ; for Herschel is not 2,000 millions of miles distant, so that the space beyond Herschel to the middle distance is 80 times as great as the distance of Herschel from the Sun. Saturn, in heathen mythology, the most celebrated of the Titans, and father of Jupiter, Neptune, Pluto, Juno, and Ceres. The rein of Saturn was called the golden age — because the age of agriculture ; but it was followed by arts, refinement, ambition, wars, money, commerce, &c. PUMP. An important machine for ex- tracting the air from a pipe placed in water, which, by pres- sure of the air, rises 33 feet in the vacuum. The same principle is applied to extract air from a close glass vessel, and it is then called an air - pump ; a is a solid fitting piece drawn up from b, and leav- ing a vacuum =^» from b to #, owing to which the air presses the water through the rising valve b, and the water rushing into the vacuum escapes at an orifice ; a is then pushed down again Avhen b closes, and on being raised again makes a new vacuum. PUNCTUATION. Thediscriminatinguse of certain marks adopted to distinguish the clauses of a period, sometimes with reference to the sense, and at others to the gram- matical construction. Thus, a full point ( . ) closes a perfect sentence; a colon ( : ) indi- cates an adjunct; a semicolon (;) distin- guishes its principal part, and a comma ( , ) A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 65 parts subordinate to the semicolon. A sen- tence, which may include several periods, terminates a branch of the subject or argu- ment. A dash ( — ) within a period, calls for attention to what follows, and a series of dashes indicates the energetic feeling of the writer. A question is indicated by (?) ; an exclamation by (!) ; and it is sometimes convenient to include a collateral circum- stance in a parenthesis ( ). ALLSPICE, OR PIMENTO TREE. A native of Mexico and the West Indies. The flavour and fruit have an highly aromatic fragrance, and the tree is about 30 feet in height, and two in circumference. SABBATH. The seventh day, or Satur- day, kept by the Jews as a day of rest, in conformity to the fourth commandment of God, commencing on Friday at sunset, and ending on Saturday at sunset. Christians, in genera 1 , disregard the Sabbath of the seventh day, and keep Sunday, or the first day of the week, as a festival, "in most coun- tries, because Christ rose on that day, and in continuance of the practice of the early Christian Church. A sabbath, or weekly day of rest, is an institution, on whichever day it is kept, highly conducive to the hap- piness and comfort of mankind, and ought by all g-nod men to be re-pected. GUMS AND LOOSE TEETH (TO STRENGTHEN AND FASTEN). Dissolve an ounce of myrrh as much as possible in a pint of port wine, and the same quantity of oil of almonds ; wash the mouth with this fluid every morning. This is an excellent remedy against worms in the teeth. BAGPIPE. A musical instrument, con- sisting of a leathern bag, and pipes for ad- mitting and ejecting the, air. It is an in- strument of great force, not pleasing to those who are unused to it, but much esteemed by the Scots and Irish. The bass part never varies its tone, and, therefore, is called the drone, and the compass of the treble part, or chanter, is very limited. BEANS. This engraving is introduced to show the seed of vegetables. The left hand figure is the seed whole, and the right hand is a section displaying the germ of the future plant within the seed. The substance of the seed is its first means of nutriment, till* it burst through the skin or arillus, and finds nourishment in the soil and air. The black spot, or hilum, on a bean, is merely the part by which it was attached to the pericardium or pod. The germ is called corculum, or heart ; the side lobes are the cotyledons, or first leaves. When the seed has a downy appendage it is called the co~ ronula CHILBLAINS consist of a peculiar in- flammation of the skin of parts exposed to sudden alternations of temperature. They occur on the nose, ears, hands, but most fre- quently on the feet. The reason wh) they occur more frequently on the hands and feet is, because persons are apt, directly they come in from the frosty air, to warm those parts at the fire. The face does no! get warmed in the same manner, or its skin would be equally liable to chilblains. 66 FACTS "FOR EVERYBODY: In this inflammation, which constitutes chilblains, the sides of the small blood- vessels become paralyzed, and losing their contractility, are dilated by the pressure of the blood within them. It* the inflamma- tion be not abated, that is to say, if the little blood-vessels are not restored "to their original size, and to their natural contrac- tility, they burst, and matter will be formed, or mortification may ensue. This contrac- tility depends upon proper nervous action in those small fibres which give life to the sides of the hair-like vessels, or small blood pipes. Any sudden shock of cold or heat deprive*, these nerves of their power, and induces a local paralysis. The change from cold to heat oftener produces this shock than that from heat to cold ; but either sudden alternation will produce chilblain. It need hardly be said that the nerves of persons in low states of health, persons of scrofulous habits, and young persons in whom the tis- sues are delicate, are more liable to be lo- cally paralyzed, in the manner described, than those persons of robust constitution having a large quantity of vitality to resist such attacks. Hence we find such invalids, scrofulous persons, and children, more liable to chilblains than others. The liability to chilblain is often an indication of a low state of health, and want of healthy vital action in the system. "When the nature of chilblain is under- stood, the mode of prevention will be at once perceived, viz, — 1st, .0 protect the parts most liable to the attack (hands and feet) from sudden alternations, either from cold to heat, or from heat to cold. 2udly. To keep the constitution in such a healthy state as to make all parts possess such vi- tality as to be able to resist slight alterna- tions in temperature. 1. Protection of the Parts. Those substances which are good non-conductors of heat are the best coverings. Woollen stockings or socks, and warm boots and shoes, come under this category. Light shoes and stockings should be worn in the house, or the feet will become so accustomed to a high temperature that they will be more sensitive to cold. Warm leather gloves, being impervious to wind, are better for the hands than woollen ones, through which the dry frosty air is apt to pierce and chap the hands. Tight wristbands, tight garters, and boots which lace or button tightly about the ankles, must be avoided, because, by preventing the proper circula- tion of the blood in the hands or feet, they diminish the vitality of the part, and pro- duce an unnatural pressure on the coats or walls of the small blood-vessels. The most frequent cause of chilblain is the warming of numbed hands or feet at the fire. This habit must, of course, be relinquished en- tirely. Gutta-percha soles, by preventing the wearers from warming their feet at the fire, have saved hundreds from the attacks of chilblains ; but such soles should not be worn in the house. After walking in the snow, or in frosty weather, the coverings of the hands and feet should be removed. Dry stockings should be put on after gently rub- bing the feet with the pair which has been taken off. The fresh pair must not be warmed. It is well to wear woollen stock- ings when out, and cotton stockings when in-doors. The use of excessively hot water when the feet are cold, has produced morti- fication ; but the frequent washing of the feet in tepid water and soap, restores the powers of the nerves in the parts, and ren- ders them less likely to be affected by those alternations of temperature to which they are liable to be exposed. 2. Constitutional Means of Pre- vention. Persons in robust health are less liable to take infection, suffer less from injuries, and when wounded, are pos- sessed of greater powers of nature for repa- ration than partial or confirmed' invalids* The cold of winter ought to stimulate us to exertion ; and exercise is especially ne- cessary to health in winter. Too warm clothing of the body enervates and debili- tates; only sufficient clothing, therefore, should be worn. Eooms in winter are often made hotter than the air of summer ; this, and bad ventilation, is another blow to constitutional strength. Enough, however, has been said on this subject to indicate the necessity of general attention to the health in persons who are excessively liable to chilblains. 3. Treatment. When the inflammation called chilblain has attacked any part, it should be considered whether it is a mere local affection, or whether it shows a consti- tutional state, which renders the hands or feet, or both, more liable to the attack than those parts ought to be. If hands and feet are both attacked in several spots at the same time, and this without any very evi- dent cause, constitutional treatment is pointed out, in addition to the use of reme- dial agents locally ; where, however, there is only a single spot on the hands or feet, and a cause (such as warming the feet at the fire) is remembered, only local treatment is necessary. The hands and feet enjoy dif- ferent conditions, however, and require slightly different management. The treat- A MISCELLANY OP TJSEFT7L KNOWLEDGE. 67 ment, therefore, resolves itself into three parts: — A. Constitutional. B. Of the hioids. C. Of the feet. (A.) Constitutional Treatment Aperient medicines may be used to relieva the over- loaded blood- vessels, and lessen the pressure upon the coats of the capillaries, or hair- like blood pipes of the parts affected. After this has been done, small doses of tartrate of antimony wine (which seems to con- stringe the enlarged vessels) may be taken with advantage. This treatment (without local means) acts as a sort of charm, and re- lieves full crops of chilblains on hands and feet. A drachm of the wine may be added to half a pint of water, in which a drachm of saltpetre has been d ssolved. Dose : for an adult, one or two table-spoonfuls every four hours ; for a child, one or two tea-spoon- fuls three times a day. It should not be given in such doses as to produce vomiting. The head, neck, and chest, should be washed in cold water every morning, and brisk ex- ercise taken at regular hours. Persons of a scrofulous habit should be particularly at- tentive to their general health in winter. The addition of salt to the washing water is recommended in their cases. It is not an uncommon practice for persons, after expo- sure to cold, to drink hot elder wine, or hot negus, or warm spirits and water; all such measures, having a tendency to produce rapid and violent reaction, are likely to render persons liable to chilblain. (B.) Treatment of the Hands. Wash in cold water every three hours, and lather well with Windsor soap. When the hands are nearly dried with the towel, pour a little eau-de-Cologne, or milk of roses, into the palm of one hand, and rub it over the whole of both ; lastly, polish with the towel till every part glows'with warmth, and is so completely dry, that the lint from the towel does not stick to the skin. (C.) Treatment of the Feet. All the plans for prevention are curative. Chilblain in the feet often assumes a more serious form than in the hands, and the application of cold water is inadmissible, especially in the care of females. The three degrees of chil- blains in the feet are . — 1st. The skin is red in patches, and slightly swelled, with more or lew itching or tingling, with slight ten- derness. 2nd. Small blisters appear, sur- rounded by a livid skin. 3rd. Ulceration and mortification take place. For the first two cases, which are most common, the fre- quent application of tepid water, (using plenty of soao,) gives relief. A leech is a useful remedy to unload the overcharged blood-vessels; or the part may be pricked with a needle, or punctured with a faucet ; in such cases a soft bread and water poultice should be kept on during the night, applied warm, so us to encourage the How of blood. If this plan is objected to, the application of the following liniment is likely to be be- neficial. Take of common soap liniment, or opodeldoc, six drachms; of compound tincture of camphor, and tincture of can- tharides, each one drachm. If there are no blisters, a little of this must be rubbed in sharply with the hand ; but where vesi- cations appear, it must be applied with a feather, and care must be taken not to break the skin. MEERSCHAUM. Tie appearance of this substance, before its manufacture, somewhat resembles foam. It is stated to be found floating in the sea of Azof, and on the shores of Samos, and Negropont. From either of these circumstances its name, meaning "sea-foam," may have been de- rived. It consists of a hydrate of magnesia, with silex, carbonic acid, and water. It is dug from the earth in several places in Turkey, where it is used as soap. The tobacco-pipes are made in Turkey by a pro- cess analogous to that for making pottery- ware, and imported into Germany, where they are prepared for sale by soaking them first in wax, then in tallow, and finally polishing them with shave-grass, or crape. The latter is used to remove scratches or imperfections from those injured in packing. Artificial meerschaum is made with fine plaster of Paris baked for a few hours, and thrown, while warm, into melted wax, or linseed oil. CARPETS (MANAGEMENT OF). Pre- vious to laying down a carpet, cover the joints of the floor with stripes of brown paper; this will prevent the dust from rising between the boards. Take up your carpets frequently, and have them shaken and afterwards drawn along the surface of a lawn or meadow, to remove the dust. If a carpet is kept down too long the dust passes through it, and assists to wear it out by grinding the under surface. If you want to clean a carpet well, put one-third of a bul- lock's gall into a pint of water, and scrub the carpet with it, after it is nailed down : if the carpet is not nailed down it will shrink. If you are not particular about the pattern of your carpet, or, in fact, more disposed to study its durability than orna- mentation, choose one with small figures in it, because the two webs are closer inter- woven than in the large patterned carpets. 68 PACTS fob, everybody: ANIMALCULJE. Animals so small as not to be immediately perceptible to the naked eye. Their origin is unknown, for they rise in substances which did not previously con- tain them, and their numbers and varieties are infinite. Their existence is generally, perhaps always, preceded by that process of atoms called fermentation. Some have been discovered, not the 10,000th part of an inch long, so that a million of them might be con- tained in a cubic inch, yet perfect in their parts, and depending on air. Vinegar Eels. P. a Hay-tea Eels. HAIR BRUSHES. The use of a mode- rately hard brush for the head keeps up a health}' circulation, and is on every account to be preferred to the employment of a comb. The scurf, as it is called, which collects on the head from neglect, arises not from, at least only in a very small degree, the> dead cells or scales of the scalp being thrown oif, but from the evaporation and hardening of the secretions which are poured out on th3 scalp. Washing is much less effectual in removing this incrustation, in conse- quence of its greasv nature, than brushing. PENCIL-MARKS (TO PRESERVE). Pencil-marks may easily be prevented from rubbing out by dipping the paper into a dish of skimmed milk; then dry, andiron it on the wrong side. In ironing paper, do not let the iron rest a moment, as it" will leave a crease, or mark, but go over it as rapidly as possible. BEETLE, OR SCHARABJEUS. A genus of insects furnished with shelly wing-cases, and of which there are several species, all perfectly harmless, and in general very timid and sagacious. COMPLEXION (TO IMPROVE THE). Infuse wheat-bran, well sifted, for three or four hours in white wine vinegar ; add to this five yolks of eggs and a grain or two of ambergris, and distil the whole. When the bottle is carefully corked, keep it for twelve or fifteen days before you make use of it. Or, — Dissolve flowers of sulphur in milk, and strain clean. When used, take care not to disturb any sediment of the sulphur that may remain. TEETH (10 MAKE THEM WHITE). Take gum tragacanth one ounce ; pumice- stone, two drachms, gum arabie, half an ounce ; and crystals of tartar finely pow- dered, one ounce; dissolve the gums in rose-water, and add to it the powders ; form the whole into little sticks, which are to be dried slowly in the shade, and afterwards kept for use. BREATH (TO SWEETEN THE). Chew every night and morning a clove, a piece of Florentine orris-root, about the size of a small bean, or the same quantity of burnt alum. Or, — Rull up a little ball of gum traga- canth, scent it with some odoriferous essence or oil, and hold it in the mouth. A little musk may be added to the ball while rolling up, where that perfume is not dis- agreeable. BLOWPIPE. A tube through which air is blown, and more oxygen brought in con- tact with flame ; and, latterly, it has been, contrived to pass a jet of oxygen and hydro- gen through it, when it is called the gas blow-pipe, the heat of which disperses and melts the most refractory substances. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. ' 69 BATTERING-RAM. A machine made use of by the ancients to effect breaches in fortifications Sometimes they were swum: on ropes, and at others driven by men, who ■were protected from the besieged by suitable coverings. IMPRESSIONS (TO COPY.) To take an exact mould of any c:>in, medal, em- bossed or stamped paper, or in fact, of any device, raised or imprinted (that is, sunk on paper), cut a piece of cardboard, say to the breadth of half an inch, with which form a ring just the dimension of theimpression to be taken ; thin pour within the said ring, which surrounds the spot, melted fusible metal ; the carding will prevent the metal from running away, and ir> a few minutes it will cool and t;ike the impression, without the slightest injury to the paper from which it was taken. The impression, &c, taken will be the same as the original but re- versed. Fusible metal is a compound of eight parts of bismuth, five of lead, and three of tin, which liquefies at 212 degrees, or the same temperature as boiling water, and below that if one part of quicksilver be added. ATTRACTION (ELECTRICAL). A term used to express the phenomena by wh ch light bodies leap towards an electrified body; and the principle has been applied to effect the amusing experi- ment represented in the engraving. The upper plate has been electrified, and two light figures have been ^^ placed between that plate and another plate ; and for some time they jump and dance from one plate to another in a very surprising manner The cause is not any principle of attraction or repulsion, but arises from the atoms of air which lie between the two plates being 4* disturbed by what was done, when the upper plate was what was called electrified; whereas, in truth, it was the stratum of air lying between the two plates which was then disturbed, the plates themselves being mere boundaries of that stratum ; and the effort of the atoms on the two sides of the stratum to return to their regular natural Position, being greater than the weight of the light bodies, the light bodies yield to the lorce, and jump from side to side of the stratum, till the original natural position of the atoms of the stratum of air is restored. ANTS ( W II ITE) inhabitantsof East India, Africa, and South America, far exceeding in wisdom and policy, the bee, the ant, or beaver. Thev build pyramidal structures, divided into cnainbers, magazines, &c, as re- presented in the annexed engraving. These hills, or houses, are so strong, as to bear four men to stand upon them, and in the plains of Senegal they appear like villages. Their social economy is of the most regular kind, and large masses of them act as soldiers, trained for offence and defence, and their assault is so vigorous, that even men and large quadrupeds often become their victims. Nests of the Termites, or White Ants. COOKERY (RUDIMENTS OF). The foundation of all good cookery consists in preparing the meat so as to render it tender in substance, without extracting from it those juices which constitute its true fla- 70 FACTS FOR ETEB.YBODY: vour; in doing which, the main point in the art of making soups, and made dishes of every sort, which should form so large a portion in every well-ordered dinner, as well, also, as of cooking many of the plain family joints, is boiling, or rather steicing, which ought always to be per- formed over a slow lire. There is, in fact, no error so common among English people as that of boiling meat over a strong fire, "which renders joints hard and partly taste- less; while, if simmered during nearly double the time, with less than half the quantity of fuel and water, and never allowed to " boil up," the meat, without being too much done, will be found both pliant to the tooth and savoury to the palate. For instance : the most common and almost universal dish throughout France is a large piece of plainly-boiled fresh beef, from which the soup — or "potage," as it is there called — has been partly made, and which is separately served up as " bouilli," accompanied by strong gravy and minced vegetables, or stewed cabbage. Now this, as constantly dressed in the French mode, is ever delicate both in fibre and flavour ; while, in the English manner of boiling it, it is almost always hard and insipid. The reason of which, as explained by that cele- brated cook, Careme, who superintended the kitchen of his Majesty Georsre IV., is this : — " The meat, instead of being put down to boil, as in the English method, is in France put in the pot with the usual quantity of cold water, and placed at the corner of the fire-place, where, slowly becoming hot, the heat gradually swells the muscular fibres of the beef, dissolving the gelatinous sub- stances therein contained, and disengaging that portion which chemists term ' osma- zorae,' and which imparts savour to the flesh — thus both rendering the meat tender and palateable, and the broth relishing and nutritive; whilst, on. the contrary, if the pot be inconsiderately put upon too quick a fire, the boiling is precipitated, the fibre coagulates and hardens, the osmazome is hindered from disengaging itself, and thus nothing is obtained but a piece of tough meat, and a broth without taste or suc- culence." Meat loses, by cooking, from one-fifth to one-third of its whole weight. More is lost by roasting than by boiling meat. The use of^skewers in joints should be avoided as much as possible, as they let out the gravy ; twine will answer better. To Remove the Taint of Meat, wash it several times in cold water; then put it into plenty of cold water, into which throw several pieces of red-hot charcoal. If you fear meat will not keep till the time it is wanted, par-roast or par-boil it, that is, partly cook it ; it will then keep two days longer, when it may be dressed as usual, but in rather less time. When Meat is Frozen, it should be brought into the kitchen, and laid at some distance from the tire, early in the morning; or soak the meat in cold water two or three hours before it is used : putting it near the fire, or into warm water, till thawed, should be avoided. Meats become tenderer and more digesti- ble, as well as better flavoured, by hanging. In summer, two days is enough for lamb and veal, aud from three to four for beef and mutton. In cold weather, the latter may be kept for double that time. Legs and shoulders should be hung knuckle downwards. Articles that are likely to spoil should not be kept in, or laid upon wood. Warm, moist weather, is the worst for keeping meat ; the south wind is very un- favourable, and lightning very destructive ; so that after their occurrence meat should be especially examined. Boiling. Boiling is the most simple of all processes of cooking. Regularity and atten- tion to time are the main secrets — indeed, these are the main secrets of all successes. Much less heat is requisite to keepliquidsboil- ing in copper and iron sauce- pans than in those made of tin. There is fre- quently a great Boiling Pot. waste of fuel in cooking, which arises from making liquids boil fast, when they only require to be kept slowly boiling. Count Rumford (the in- ventor of the Rumford stove) states that more than half the fuel used in kitchens is wasted in the above manner. It is a sad waste to put fuel under a boil- ing pot. There is a degree of heat in water called the boiling-point; and all the coal or wood in the world cannot make water hotter in an open vessel : it can but boil. By this waste, the cook not only loses time, but spoils the cookery. The average time for boiling fresh meat is from eighteen to twenty minutes for every pound ; thus, a joint weighing six pounds will require from one hour and three-quar- A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 71 tcrs to two hours boiling. Salted meat re- quires rather more boiling and water; fresh killed meat longer time ; and all meats longer in Bold than in warm weather. It is, however, hotter to be guided for time, by the thickness of the joint, than by its weight. Dried or salted fish and meats require soaking in eohl water before boiling. Meat and poultry will lose their flavour and firmness, if left" in the water after they are done ; as will also fish, which will break to pieces. The water in winch fish, meat, or poultry has been boiled should be saved; this pot- liquor, as it is called, may be made into soup. Slow boiling is very important for all meats to ensure their tenderness ; fasr boil- ing always makes them hard and tough, less plump, and of darker colour, than when they are boiled gradually. Skimming the pot will alone ensure the good colour and sweetness of the meat ; a little cold water and salt will aid. in throw- ing up the scum ; milk put into the pot does good in few cases only ; and wrapping in a cloth is unnecessary, if the scum be carefullv removed. The lid of the saucepan should only be removed for skimming; and before taking off the lid, be careful to blow from it any dust or blacks from the fire or chimney. The joint should always be covered with water;' above this quantity, the less water the more savoury will be the meat. In some few instances, however, it may be necessary to boil the articles in a much larger quantity of water ; a quart of water is mostly a good proportion to a pound of meat. If meat be put into cold water, it should be heated gradually, so as not to cause it to boil in less than forty minutes ; if it boil much sooner, the meat will shrink and be hardened, and not so freely throw up the scum. Four skewers, or a plate, inside down- wards, should bo laid on the bottom of the saucepan, especially for large joints and puddings ; so that they may be equally done, and escape burning or adhering to the saucepan. When a pot boils, remove it nearly off the fire, but let the lid remain on : a very little heat will then keep up the boiling. The time of boiling should be reckoned from the time bubbles begin to rise on the surface of the liquid. As the boiling conti- nues, the water will evaporate, and in some cases it may be requisite to fill up the sauce- pan with boiling; water. Roasting. No success can be acLieved in cookery without good management of the kitchen hre : roasting especially requires a Dripping Pan. brisk, clear, and steady fire, if made up close to the bars of the grate. The spit being wiped clean, the joint to be roasted should be carefully spitted even, and tied tight ; and if it will not turn round well, balance-skewers, with leaden heads, should be used ; for if the meat be not evenly spitted, it will probably be burned on one side, and not done on the other. Avoid running the spit through the prime parts of joints. A leg of mutton should never be spitted, as the spit lets out the gravy, and leaves an unsightly perforation just as you are cutting into the pope's eye. Make up the roasting-fire three or four inches longer than the joint, else the ends of the meat will not be done. In stirring the fire, be careful to remove the dripping-pan, else dust and ashes may fall in. On no account let the fire get dull and low, as a strong heat is requisite to brown the meat. A thin joint requires a brisk fire ; a large joint, a strong, sound, and even fire. When steam rises from the meat, it is done. Large joints should be put at a moderate distance from the fire, and gradually brought nearer ; else the meat will be overdone half- way through the joint, and be nearly raw at the bone. Such meat as is not very fat should have paper placed over it, to prevent it from being scorched. Do not sprinkle the meat with salt when first put down, as the salt draws out the gravy. Old meats require more cooking than young. The longer the meat has been killed, the less time is required to roast it. Very fat meat requires more time than usual. The goneral rule is to allow fifteen minutes to a pound for roasting with a good fire, and ten or twenty minutes over, as the family like it well done or not. _ Baste *^ ^) the meat first with fre •S CI It GO I- 1—1 « a <1 "S H 5 ^ e o 3 *0 gj H i « IS B 8 P p 1 «! •« P £ & so P 1 P 6 D 8 P 3 H W £ P ^ P I 9 a 5 a « * CM CO ■«# t" rH l» CO > c t-HNUSOM^ o O 'fiooncot-H 5. c OQ CM CO -^< t- i-H ITS CO if | 3 CO r- r-l "<*( iO CM CO "*! | II CO Tj< lO rl CM CO t- § HNMOt»T*iO w ►J ffl *© CO CM CO r- rH OJ «. 3V © | CC 00 CC CC I i» co r- oi o I— r— CO I- 1— 00 00 00 00 CO OO 00 00 CO 1846 1847 1853 1850 1851 1854 o o :? 1841 1842 1839 1845 1843 1 1829 1830 1831 1833 1834 1837 1838 CC © iO CN CO CD r- r-l r-H CM CM 55 W CM 00 00 00 00 CC CO 00 O i-i i— i-H r-l i— CM 00 CC 00 00 00 00 00 1—1 CM CO iO '£ © O © 3 o o Bin 1799 1800 1797 179S 1791 1793 1794 1786 I-H P 1790 17S5 1782 1783 1775 a CC 1- r- 1779 1774 1771 1777 1769 1770 t» t~ r- t- r- 1- I • CC CC i **00~CM CO © t* 00 2 S * 00 00 00 00 CO CC CO ^ g> CM CO «* 00 £ c © © OS I I I 00 00 .S j- © . 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On the 13th of Jane, 1~77, the following resolution was adopt- ed by the American Congress : " That the flag of the thirteen United States be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white ; that the Union be thirteen white stars in a blue field, representing a new constellation." There is a striking coincidence between the design of our flag and the arms of General Washington, which consisted of three stars upon the upper portion of three bars, running across the escutcheon. It is thought by some that th^ flag was derived from this heraldic design. History informs us that several flags were used by the Yankees before the present national one was adopted. In March, 1775, a minor flag with a red field, was hoisted in New York, bearing the inscription (in one side of " George Rex and the Liberties of America," and upon the reverse, " No Popery." General Israel Put- nam raised, on Prospect Hill, July 18th, 1775, a minor flag bearing on one side the mot- to of the Commonwealth, " Qui transtulit sustinet ;" on the other, "An Appeal to Heaven," an appeal well taken and amply sustained. In October, 1775, the floating batteries of Boston bore a flag with the latter motto, and a pine tree upon a white field, bearing the Massachusetts emblem. Some of the colonies used iu 1775, a flag with a rattlesnake coiled, as if about to strike, and the motto, " Don't tread on me." On the 2d of January, 1776, the grand Union flag of the Stars and Stripes was raised on the heights near Boston, and it is said that some of the regulars made the grand mistake of supposing it was a token of submission to the king, whose speech had just been sent to the Americans. The " British Register" of 1779 says : " They (the rebels) burnt the king's speech, and changed their colors from a plain red ground to a flag with thirteen stripes, as a symbol of the number and union of the colonies." A letter from Boston, pub- lished in the " Pennsylvania Gazette" in 1776, says : " The Union flag was raised on the 2d, in compliment to the United Colonies." The various flags we have mentioned — the Pine Tree, Rattlesnake and the Stripes — were used according to the taste of the patriots, until Julv. 1777, when the Stars and Stripes were established by law. At first a stripe was added for each new state, but the flag became too large, and Comrress, foreseeing, possibly, the spirit of annexation, reduced the stripes to the original thirteen, and now the stars are made to coriespond in number with the States. Watson, in his " Men and Times of the Re- volution," says: "Soon after my arrival in England, having won at the insurance office [ one hundred guineas on the event of Lord Howe's relieving Gibraltar, and dining the same day with Copley, the distinguished painter, who was a Bostonian by birth, I determined to devote the sum to a splendid portrait of myself. The painting was finished in a most admirable style, except the back- ground, which Copley and myself designed to represent a ship bearing to America the in- telligence of the acknowledgment of inde- pendence, with a sun just rising upon ihe stripes of the Union, streaming from her gaff. All was complete, save the flag, which Copley did not esteem prudent to hoist under present circumstances, as his gallery is a constant re- sort of the royal family and the nobility. I dined with the artist on the glorious fifth of December, 1782, after listening with him to the speech of the king, formally receiving and recognizing the United States of America into the rank of nations. Previous to dining and immediately after our return from the House of Lords, he invited me into his studio, and there, with a bold hand, a master's touch, and, I believe, an American heart, attached to the ship the stars and stripes. This was, I imagine, the first American flag in old Eng- land." The American flag is one of the most beau- tiful that floats upon any land or sea. Its proportions are perfect when it is properly made — one half as broad as it is long. The first stripe at the top is red, the next white, and these colors alternate, making the last stripe red. The blue field for the stars is the width and square of the first seven stripes, viz.: four red and three white. The colors of. the American flag are in beautiful relief, and it is altogether a beautiful national emblem. Long may it wave untarnished. He who would erase one stripe or dim one star upon it, " acts a traitor's part, and deserves a trait- or's doom." ORIGIN OF THE NAMES OF THE STATES— The following information, rela- tive to the derivation of the names of the States, will be found interesting : Maine was first called Marvosheen, but about 1638 took the name it now bears, from Maine, a province in the west of France. The name is originally derived from the Cenoman- ni, an ancient Gallic people. New Hampshire was the name given to the territory granted by the Plymouth Company to Captain John Mason, by patent, in 1639, and was derived from the patentee, who was Governor of Portsmouth, in Hiimpshire, England. Ver- mont is trom verd, green, and rwnd, moun- tain. Massachusetts was named from a tribe of Indians in the vicinity of Boston. Roger Williams says the word signifies blue hills. Rhode Island was so called in 1644, in relation to the Island of Rhodes in the Mediterranean. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. Now York whs named inhonorof the Duke of York, to whom this territory was granted. Pennsylvania whs called after William IVnn. In L684, the Duke of York made a 'grant of what U now the State of New Jersey, to Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carta ret, and it re- ceived its name in compliment to the latter, who had been Governor of the Island of Jer- sey. Delaware mu so called in 171)2, after Lord De La Ware. Maryland was named in honor ol Henrietta Maria. Queen of Charles 1., in his patent to Lord Baltimore, June 3, 1632. Virginia, was called after the Virgin Queen of England, Elizabeth. The Carolina* were pained by the French, in honor of Charles IX. of France. Georgia was called, in 1692, after George II. Louisiana was named after Louis XV. of France. Florida received its name from Ponce de Leon, while on his voyage in search of the fountain of youth. He discov- ered it on Easter Sunday — in Spanish, Pascue Florida. The States of Alabama, Mississip- pi. Tennessee, Kentucky, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Arkansas and Missouri, are all named from their principal rivers, and they are of In- dian origin, excepting, perhaps, Kentucky — and their meanings involved in some obscu- rity. Tennessee is said to signify a curved epoon ; Illinois, the River of Men ; Mississippi, the Whole River, or a river formed by the union off many. Michigan was named from the lake on :ts borders. Iowa is an Indian name; also, Texas, signifying beautiful. Cal- ifornia was thus named by the Spaniards at a very early day. kEMARKABLB EVENTS PREDICTED BY COMETS. The Pays, to show the pop- ular l>elief that comets predict remarkable events is not altogether unfounded, publishes the following table of the visitations of comets, and of the events by which they have been followed : Before Christ: 480, Battle of Sal amis ; 431, Peloponnessian War; 331. Battle of Arbela; 43, Death of Caesar. Christian Era: 1, Birth of Christ ; 62, Earthquake in Achnia and Macedonia; 70, Destruction of Jerusalem; 79, Eruption of Vesuvius, which caused the Destruction of Herculaneum; 337, Death of Coustantine; 400, Invasion of Alaric in Italy; 813. [(receded the death of ( 'harlemagne ; 877, Death of Charles-le-Chau\e ; 999, preceded the disasters and terrors of the year 1000 ; 1066, Conquest of England by the Normans ; 1233. Death of Philip Augustus ; 1264, Death of Urban IV.; 1265, preceded the Death of Manfred, King of Naples ; 1273, Accession off R'dol|,h off Hapsburg ; 1293, modified char- acter and conduct of Koub ai Khan, founder of Tartar domination In China ; 1454, Taking of Constantinople ; 1500, Irruption of Tartars in Poland, Famine in Kwabia, and Expedition of Charles VIII., in Italy; 1516, announced the Misfort mes of Minister under John of Leyden. Invasion of the Tirks in Hungary, Civil War in Switzerland, Plague in England, Inundations in Holland, and an Earthquake in Portugal; 1556, Abdication of Charles V.; 1560. Death of Francois II. of France ; 1572, the llaasacre off St. Bartholomew, and Death of Charles IX. ; 1577, King Sebastian makes an unfortunate expedition into Africa, where he lost his life ; 1580, Epidemic in Italy and France ; 1793. Execution off Louis XVI ; 1804, Empire ; 1811, Birth of the King of Rome ; 1820, Napoleon considered this comet as a sign that his death was approaching ; 1858— ? Finally, the comet of 2255 is to cause the end of the world — Newton and other great men having calculated that it will come into colli- sion with the sun, and so damage it that it can no longer give light and heat to the earth. * QUAINT QUESTIONS. What is the difference between twenty four quart bottles, and four and twenty quart bottles ? Ans.— 56 quarts difference. What 3 figures, multiplied by 4, will make precisely 5 ? Ans— 14. or 1-25. What is the difference between six dozen dozen and half-a-dozen dozen ? Ans. — 792 : Six dozen dozen being 864, and half-a-dozen dozen 72. Place three sixes together so as to make seven. Ans.— 6 6-6. Add one to nine and make it twenty. Ans IX ; cross the I, it makes it XX. Place four fives so as to make six and a half. Ans.— 5 5-5-5. A room with eight corners had a cat in each corner, seven cats before each cat, and a cat on every cat's tail. What was the total number of cats ? Ans.— Eight cats. Prove that seven is the half of twelve. Ans. — Place the Roman figures on a piece of paper, and draw a line though the middle of it — the upper will be VII. A BOY HIS OWN GRANDFATHER— There was a widow and her daughter, and a man and his son. The widow married the son, and the daughther the father ; the widow was therefore mother to her husband's father, and grandmother to her husband ; thev had a sou to whom she was great-grandmother, and as the son of a great-grandmother must be either a grandfather or great-uncle, this boy was therefore his own grandfather. * From «' The Magician's Own Book ; or, Over One Thousand Tricks." Illustrated with over 600 wood engravings. Dick each other, they will be most likely to obey the call of St. Valentine, and make up their matches very early; it is therefore best, as soon as you see an inclination to pair, to shut up in separate cages such males and females as you intend to breed from ; these, however, should have passed the winter in each other's society ; or, when the happy time does come, it is quite likely that they will refuse all intercourse. Male birds for pairing should be at least two vears old, and if these are put with hens older than themselves, the majority of the progeny will be males. It requires some j udgment to choose K good breeding birds. Particular attention should be paid to temper and temperament. Some cocks are melancholy and phlegmatic ; gome fiery and passionate, so much so as to fight with the hen bird, and kill their off- spring ; others, again, are so ardent in their love-making as to teaze and annoy the female while she is silting, to tear the nest and break the eggs. The hens, too, have their faults; some are impatient, and will n<,t wait long for results of their labours, for- saking their eggs almost as soon as laid, and beginning to build and pair again; some break their eggs or destroy their young through awkwardness; some are careless, and let them die for want of attention ; others are spiteful, and bite their young and pull out their feathers, so that they die miserably ; and it sometimes happens that the hens are too weak to bear the exhausting pains and cares of mater- nity; they lay their egg3 with difficulty and at long intervals, and are unable to bestow the requisite attention on family matters, so that everything goes wrong, as our fair readers know it must do when the presiding genius of the house is sick or indolent. In selecting your birds for pairing, take it as an invariable rule that the cock and hen must not both be crested ; if they are, you will most likely have the progeny bald, or with some disfigurement about the head. With regard to the matching of colours, let it be observed that the union of opposites produces the most beautiful and harmonious results. All late experience goes to prove this ; although some of the older authorities say, put together birds of the same colour; but if you do this, you will have, not in- crease of beauty, but deterioration. The great secret of fancy breeding seems to con- sist in this — not apposition, but opposition of colours; thus, for instance, a fine, full, richly-tinted jonquecock, should be matched with a good mealy or variegated hen, and vice versa. A spangle -marked cock with a mealy hen will produce a more full-toned and regularly spangled back than if both parents had been like the father. Innumer- able instances might be cited to show how this principle operates ; but enough has been said, we trust, for the guidance of the breeders, whose stock, at first, should con- sist of about three cocks, carefully selected, and half a dozen hens; these, deducting largely for casualties, will produce twenty or thirty young birds in a season, quite aa many as can well be managed without ex- traordinary facilities. J The following directions will be of ser- vice to those who breed Canaries in cages : — "When the proper time arrives, place your birds, a cork and one or two hens, together in a breeding-cage, so constructed that you can, if necessary, separate the birds. At one end, near the top, should be hung two 84 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: nest-bags, or boxes, as far apart as the width of the cage will allow, and behind each of these let there be a square door opening outwards, by which you can at any time watch the progress of affairs without disturbing the sitters. If you find a cold- ness and disinclination to pair in the birds, place the hen or hens in one division of the cage and the cock in the other, and let them remain so that they can see each other ■without being able to come together; or else put the cock in a smaller cage, and hang it up near to, without touching, that in which the hens are. In a few days, pro- bably, the male bird will begin to sing with extraordinary loudness and energy, and peck at the bars which confine him ; he may then be placed again with the hens, and the desired results will no doubt follow. You will soon see one of the hens, whichever happens to be the favourite, busy in the construction of her nest, and in about a week the first egg will be laid, and each day it will be followed by another, until there are five or six. It sometimes happens that the attentions of the male are bestowed wholly upon one hen ; if this is the case, as soon as the favourite begins to lay, shut up the cock with the other hen in the se- parate division of the cage, and do not open the door until you see symptoms of an amicable understanding "between the pri- soners, or at all events, until a reasonable time has elapsed. Sometimes this second pairing does not take place, and the ne- glected hen has to be sent about her business. It is customary with some breeders to re- move the eggs" as they are laid, and replace them within ory imitations, putting the whole back together when the number is completed; but we do not think this is a good plan ; and the end in view, that of having the young birds all hatched together, is of questionable advantage. In these simple operations of nature the birds should be left to themselves as much as possible. Watch them without appearing to do so ; and if all is going on right, by no means interfere with them. If on the thirteenth day of sitting the young birds do not begin to make their appearance, you had better take the eggs very carefully, one at a time, and hold them for a minute or so in lukewarm water, replacing them under the hen directly they come out of the bath. The same operation may be performed on young birds, when, as is sometimes the case in cold seasons, the feathers are not developed so quickly as they should be. Great care, however, should be taken that they do not get a chill. To obviate the danger of this, it has been recommended to syringe the young birds in the nest with warm water, discharged from such a dis- tance that it falls in a gentle spray. When the fledgelings are from twelve to fourteen days old they begin to feed themselves, and the hen commences her preparations for another brood; somewhat recruited in strength by the rest she has enjoyed ; for on the cock has devolved the principle charge of attending to the young family, which by this time are scarcely fully fledged. A strong hen canary, paired w r ith a chosen cock, will produce four broods in the season — that is, from April to September — some- times five ; but this is too exhausting, and should not be allowed. Food. Canaries, like all other finches, are seed-eating birds. Kape and canary seed are the best kinds to give them as a general diet ; the summer rape is to be pre- ferred, not being so hot and oily as that sown in the autumn, which is larger and blacker than the other. When tney re- quire rich stimulating food, as during the moulting and breeding seasons, a small pro- portion of hemp seed should be mixed with the others, and also a little hard-boiled yolk of egg chopped small ; at such times, too, a little raw lean meat, scraped fine, may be given occasionally. And in some measure to neutralize the heating effects of this rich diet, let them have some green food, such as salad, water- cresses, groundsel, &c; something of this kind is good for them all through the hottest part of the year; and A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 65 while it can be had, the cage or" aviary should never be without groundsel, of which they are very fond, both green or in the ripe state. A special treat now and then, as you would give a plumcake to your children, is to mix up some millet, summer cabbage, and canary seed, with bruised oats or oatmeal, and place it in their feed- in- vessels; they will enjoy it greatly, as they will a little stale bun or sponge-cake, with a small proportion of seed of one or more of the above kinds. As a general rule, however, it is best to keep to plain diet. It is mistaken kindness to over-feed with delicacies a feathered pet. Many are killed by such treatment. The practice of keeping a piece of sugar con- stantly between the wires is a bad one; for although some birds will only peck it occa- sionally, others are immoderately fond of sweets, and will take so much as to cloy the stomach, and indispose them for food of a more healthful kind. It is bad for canaries as for children to have too many sweets ; they are sure to end in sours. Various recipes for canary paste have been given, but we can scarcely recommend any of them. Pastes and powders are apt to turn sour, or become musty, in which state the}* act like poison on the birds. Moist food should never be kept more than twenty-four hours; in hot weather give it fresh twice a-day, and wash out the vessels carefully each time. If you put into the seed vessels more than sufficient for twenty-four hours' consumption, the birds will be likely to take on the first day more than is good for them, and afterwards feed on the husks, and thus injure and weaken their digestive organs. To young birds, if you have to feed them by hand, give wheaten bread crumbled, or biscuit grated fine, and mixed with bruised rape seed and yolk of hard-boiled egg ; this should be moistened with a little water, so as to make it into a stiff paste, and about four quillfuls given to each bird ten or twelve times a-day. If fed by the pa- rents, the same preparation may 'be used, only put the seed, previously boiled to take away its pungency, in a separate vessel. As the young birds grow up and become able to feed themselves, gradually decrease the quantity of thb paste, and increase that of the seed, mixing with it canary and a little linseed occasionally ; the latter is good for the voice. Diseases. The diseases to which the canary is especially liable are not numerous ; it is by no means so delicate a bird as is generally considered; and, if properly fed and cared for, will live many years in con- 5 linement without falling ill, or manifesting any decline of strength and vigour. Surfeit or Rupture. This disease most commonly attacks young birds; it is an inflammatory state of the bowels, caused generally either by an excels of highly nutritious food which cannot be digested", or by food in a stale or otherwise improper condition. Its most marked symptom u a great distention of the skin of the body, which appears full of small red veins; through this the intestines may be seen, more particularly at the lower part, in knotty lumps, looking black and turgid. The mode of treatment will depend greatly upon whether the motions of the bird are frequent and watery, or unfrequent and hard. In the former case it should have Embden groats or oatmeal, mixed with a little bruised hemp seed, which indeed aro of a binding nature, and a small, very small quantity, once or twice a-day, of stale sponge-cake, soaked in white wine ; a little piece of alum in the water is also good. In the latter case, give mixed with the seed a few whole groats, a blade or two of saffron in the water, in which for two or three mornings also put as much magnesia as will lie upon a sixpence; bread and milk, with, a sprinkle of hemp seed, may be given once or twice a-day with advantage. In both cases the patients should be kept warm and quiet. In old birds surfeit sometimes shows itself in scabs about the head, eyes, and bill, out of which flows a humour so acrid as to destroy the surrounding feathers, and sometimes to produce total blindness. The only chance for the bird now lies in a spare, cooiingdiet; let it now eat rape seed with, ome bruised groats, and put salt in itss water. When it has been well purged and got quite thin, if the malady seems some- what subdued, you may gradually mix canary seed with the rape, and render its diet more nourishing; but this should be' done very carefully. Anoint the sores and places where the feathers come off with fresh butter, or oil of sweet almonds, and bathe them with warm milk ; a weak solution o* salt or alum is sometimes useful to dij the humour and cleanse the sores. I'.fjij ll> i pt are. Suffering under this disease, which of course attacks birds only, a bird is said to be egg-bound ; there is some obstruction in the passage which pre- vents the extrusion of the ova. You will probably find your canary crouched down in a corner of the cage, or perhaps brooding over an empty nest under the impression that she has laid. Take her up very gently, and anoint the abdominal parts with warm 86 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! salad -oil ; this will frequently afford relief in a lew hours. If it does not, administer, by means of a quill passed into the gullet, a few drops of castor-oil. Should that fail the case is hopeless. A warm bath may be tried as a last resource, but most likely the patient will die. Yellow Gall, or Scab, in the head and eyes may be cured by light cooling foods, such as lettuce and rape seed, and a little bread and milk, to nourish without heating the system. Sweating. This is a disease to which sitting hens are liable ; it is an indication of weakness, and will sometimes destroy the brood. Let the body of the patient be first washed with salt and water, and then with fresh spring water to remove the saline particles; dry her rapidly in the sun, or before a good fire ; repeat this every day until she is better; give her good, nourish- ing food, and lighten her duties as much as possible ; remove her mate if he is at all troublesome, and every cause of annoyance and anxiety. See that the breeding place be not too close and ill-ventilated, and you will no doubt effect a cure. Sneezing is generally caused by some ob- struction of the nostril, which may be removed by putting a small feather up it. This should be done very carefully, cv you may inj ure the bird ; hold it in a firm yet gentle, manner, that you may not give it unnecessary alarm or pain. The same directions will apply to the cutting of Overgrown Claws and Beak, which, on account of their bad effects upon the health and spirits of a cage bird, may well be classed among diseases. The consciousness of having these an undue length, rendering it liable to be entangled in the bars of its cage, or whatever it comes in contact with, will cause a bird to mope and refuse its food ; and if not relieved from its awkward state of embarrassment, it will be very likely to pine and die. In both bill and claws, if held up to the light, you may see by the termination of the red lines how far the veins extend. Nearly up to this point you may safely cut. Hmkiness and Loss of Voice generally proceeds from a cold ; it sometimes comes on after moulting. If not speedily attended to and cured, it will most likely become chronic. Many a fine songster ha3 been thus rendered mute and comparatively valueless. The bird suffering under this disease should be kept in a warm room, and fed upon rape and canary mixed with linseed. Ripe plantain should also be given, and every morning about a teaspoon- ful of boiled bread and milk, with maw seed sprinkled over it. Sponge-cake soaked in sherry wine is also good, and a little white sugar -candy or extract of liquorice dissolved in the water. Constipation may be cured by giving the birds plenty of green food, such as lettuce, water-cress, duckweed, &c. Epilepsy is commonly the result of fear acting upon a constitution enervated by too delicate a mode of treatment. At the slightest alarm, and often when agitated or excited in any way, the bird will drop from its perch as if dead. The quickest remedy is to plunge it in a bath of cold water, and when it begins to recover, drop a little sherry wine down its throat. The bath, if repeated every morning, will strengthen the bird, as will a few drops of spirits of nitre in its water. When in the fit, some pull a fea- ther out of the tail of the patient, but we scarcely think this of much service. Moulting Sickness. This is an inevitable visitation, which no amount of care and attention will prevent or delay beyond the appointed time. Every year, in or about the month of September, sometimes earlier, your bird sheds his old feathers and acquires new ones, and during the process, which lasts from three to six weeks, according to the strength of the bird, the state of the atmosphere, and other circumstances, it will be more or less indisposed. As the time for the annual change approaches, when you see your pet begin to lose his vivacity, and to drop liis feathers, your first care must be to have it placed in a warm situation. Let the cage be partly muffled with baize or flannel so as to exclude all draughts, as well as disturbing sights and sounds. Give it bread and milk, a little beef, raw and lean, scraped fine, yolk of egg, and now and then a piece of sponge-cake, and some ripe chickweed. Put a rusty nail in the water, with occasionally a clove, or a few shreds of saffron, or a piece of refined liquorice. Should he moult with difficulty, let him have cake soaked in sherry wine, and blow a little of the wine over his feathers every day. This will invigorate him, and assist their development. If it be a hearty, strong bird, most likely matters will go on all right, and you will have no occasion to resort to this. With all birds, however, the moulting season is a critical time, and with weakly ones especially so. Then it is that coarse sand or gravel at the bottom of the cage is more than ever essen- tial ; and also, as there is generally a loss of appetite, such delicacies as we have de- scribed, to tempt the palate and support the strength. The first moult of young birds A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 87 takes place when they are from six to twelve weeks old ; they then exchange the soft down and loose feathers with which they are first covered, for the perfect adult plumage, which in the second m rait under- goes considerable changes in colour. Diseased Feet. Swollen feet and claws in a canary nearly always result from the want of opportunity to wash and bathe, or from a dirty state of the perches and bottom of its cage; consequently they convey a reproach, mute yet eloquent, on the neglect of its keeper. Let the bird have the re- quired opportunities, and remove the ex- citing cause of the unsightly and disgraceful swellings, and they will soon disappear. Sometimes a little anointing with salad-oil may be required to hasten the cure. Cages. On this head we need scarcely trouble our readers with many special directions. Canary cages may be made of every conceivable variety of shape; and, provided the comforts of the little inmates are properly cared for, as highly ornamented as taste or fancy may dictate. Either mahogany, or some hard, close-grainea wood, should be used in their construc- tion — the former is best ; fir should never be tolerated, nor anything of a soft and porous nature, which might afford a harbour for insects. Bell-shaped cages, chiefly of wire, have been a good deal used ; they are light and pretty, and easily kept clean. Perfoiated zinc has lately come into use as a material for cages; some good examples of its application to this purpose were shown in the Zollverein department of the Great Exhibition. Very elegant effects might be produced with this metal in com- bination with glass. Of this latter material, or of porcelain, food and water vessels should always be made ; and their proper place is on the outside of the cage, the interior space of which ought to be at least a foot in height, eight inches in length, and about the same in breadth — that is, for one bird. Every cage should have at least two perches, at different heights, and these should not be placed one under the other. Breeding cages twe have already spoken of. AX EMPTY BOAST.— At Vienna there mw formerly a gate called the Five Vowels. It was a gate of the Palace, then described as A E 1 o U", meaning, Austria est imperare orbi universo ; i. e., " Austria is to govern 'he whole world." ADHESIVE COMPOSITION. Glue and water with a small admixture of sweet oil, make a good adhesive composition for labels. A little treacle, or sugar, mixed with gum, prevents the curling up and crisp- ness of the latter. The postage labels are, we think, made adhesive by "dextrine." This substance is frequently called British gum; it may be procured of chemists or oilmen. COFFEE. An evergreen shrub, growing in Arabia, the island of Java, and the West Indies. It seldom rises mere than 16 or 18 feet high ; tho flowers are of a pure white, and the berries grow in clusters, re- sembling cher- ries. Coffee is an article of but re- cent introduction It was first pub- licly sold in Eng- land in 1652, by Daniel Edwards, a Turkey mer- chant, who un- derstood the me- thod of roasting coffee, and mak- ing it into a bev- erage. At Paris coffee was nearly unknown until the arrival of tho Turkish Ambassador, Soloman Aga, In L669 : about three years after which the first coffee- house is said to have been established in that city. COllAL. A genus of zoophytae found in the sea, attached to stones, bones, shells, &c. Corals were formerly believed to bo vegetable substances-,, but are now ascer- tained to consist of animals. The islands in the South Seas are principally coral rocks covered with earth, which have been formed by them from the bottom of the ocean. These sub- marine works are still proceeding, which renders it more than probable that new islands may occa- sionally be produced. The branch repre- sented in the engraving contains several cells or apertures, each of which is tenanted bv insects, which were long mistaken for flowers. Broken branches of coral have been seen to attach themselves to other branches, and thus to continue to grow. The three varieties are red, white, and black. 68 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY CAMELEOPARD, or GIRAFFE. A] native of South Africa, usually 16 or 17 feet high, and named from its resemblance to a can el aiid a panther. These animals are exceedingly docile, and delicate in consti- tution. In 1827, the Bey of Tunis sent one each as presents to the kings of France and of England. The one in France was kept at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and attended with great care : the one to England was sent to Windsor, where the climate seemed unfavourable for it. MARBLE APPEARANCE TO PLAS- TIC FIGURES. Dissolve an ounce of pure curd soap grated in water, and add one once of white wax, cut in thin slices; When the whole is incorporated it is fit for use. Having dried the figure before the fire, suspend it by a string and dip it in the mix- ture ; when it has absorbed the varnish, dip it in a second time, and that generally suf- fices ; cover it carefully from the dust for a week, then rub it gently with soft cotton wool, and you will have a. brilliant shining gloss, exactly resembling polished marble DORIC. An order of architecture, in imitation of a wooden structure, resembling the trunks of trees in union. CLOVE-TREE. A native of the Moluccas. The blossoms are first white, then green, and at last red and hard, when they are cloves. When dried they turn yellow, and then dark-brown. The clove is also culti- vated to great extent at Cayenne, in South America, from whence more than 500. 000 lbs. were imported into England, in 1815 : the quantity imported from the East Indies in the five vears 1823 & 1827 was 1,036,057 lbs. and in the latter year sold as low as 30 cts. a pound. FROG. Ad amphibious animal, perfectly harmless, which continues growing for five years, and is very tenacious of life. Frogs are formed from tadpoles; the feet grow, and the tail is absorbed when they leave the ponds, after rain. They subsist on worms and insects ; and certain parts of a green frog are eaten in France as a delicacy. Spallanzani kept some torpid in an ice-house for 3^ years, and they revived in the sun. BEDS. In regard to the kind of beds most suitable for refreshing slumber, there are differences of opinion ; some are advo- cates for soft and some for hard beds. The difference between the two is this — the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. ?9 ▼eight of a body on a soft bed presses on a larger surface than on a hard bed, and con- sequently more comfort is enjoyed. Child- ren should never be allowed to sleep on hard beds, and parents err who supn ise that such beds contribute to health, harden- ing and developing the constitution of children. Eminent physicians, Dr. Darwin among the number, state that hard beds have frequently proven injurious to the shape of infants, liirds cover their offspring witli the softest down or the most velvety Bioaa, The softness of a bed ir. not evidence of its being unhealthy, and they have but a poor understanding of the laws of nature ▼ho think otherwise. MERC lit Y. The planet nearest to the Bun, in diameter 3200 miles, distance 37 millions, and period of revolution 88 days. It is seldom visible. Mekcuky, in the heathen mythology, the inventor of letters, and the god of elo- quence, and son of Jupiter and Maia, the daughter of Atlas. He was the messenger of Jupiter and the gods, and was furnished with a winged hat, and with wings to his feet. Mercury, or fluid of silver, a white fluid metal, the heaviest, except platina and gold. It freezes at 39° below the zero of Fahrenheit, when it is malleable, and boils at 660°. It readily combines with nearly all other metals, and is used in water- gilding, the manufacture of vermilion, the silvering of looking-glasses, the making of barometers and thermometers, and the preparation of several powerlul medicines, some of which are deadly poisons. TEA- PLANT. A small evergreen shrub, a native of Japan, China, and Tonquin. In seven years the shrub rises six feet, and being cut down to the stem produces fresh shoots, each of which bears as many leaves as a whole shrub. The culture of tea in the United States is an attempt the importance of which is not fully known. The trade with China la rapidly increasing. In 1849 we im- ported 18,000,000 pounds, and in 1858 the import reached about 40,000,000 pounds. FRECKLES (TO REMOVE). Take of Venice soap an ounce, dissolve it in half an ounce of lemon -juice, to which add of oil of bitter almonds, and deliquated oil of tartar, each a quarter of an ounce. Let the mix- ture be placed in the sun till it acquires the consistence of ointment. When in this state add three drops of the oil of rhodium, and keep it for use. Apply it in the following manner: — Wash the face at night with elder- flower water, then anoint it with the above unction. In the morning, cleanse the skin from its oily adhesion by washing it copi- ously in rose-water. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE, distin- guished by capitals like the engraving, and lately much introduced. 90 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY: COFFEE, TEA, CHOCOLATE, AND COCOA. Coffee and tea have now become such universal beverages for the morning or after-dinner meal, that beyond a few ge- neral directions little remains for prefatory matter. Coffee should be purchased in the berry, and fresh roasted, and it should always, when possible, be ground just previous to being made. After it is ground, it should not be exposed to the air, as the aroma speedily flies off. If more is ground than required for the meal, keep it in a closely- stopped glass bottle. Coffee, like tea, should be an infusion, not a decoction. The best coffee is the Mocha, the next is the Java, and closely approximating is the Jamaica and Berbice. Of Tea little need be said ; almost every one knows the rules for making it. Boiling water should alone be used. Metal tea-pots in preference to earthenware. Silver is better than either. A spoonful of tea for each person. Heat the tea-pot first with some boiling water, then pour that into the tea-cups to warm them ; put in your tea, and pour enough water on the tea to cover it ; let it stand three or four minutes, then nearly fill the tea -pot with water; let it stand a few minutes, and pour out, leaving some portion of tea in the pot when you re- plenish, that all the strength may not be poured away in the first cup. Chocolate can only be obtained pure of a first-rate house ; that commonly sold is most infamously adulterated; the best Span- ish or Italian chocolate should be pur- chased ; the Florence has a high repu- tation. Cocoa is the foundation of chocolate; it may be pounded, and either boiled in milk, or boiling water may be poured upon it. It is verv digestible, and of a fattening nature. COFFEE (FRENCH METHOD OF PREPARING). Let your coffee be dry, not in the least mouldy or damaged ; divide the quantity that is to be roasted into two parts ; roast the first part in a coffee-roaster: the handle must be constantly turning nntit the coffee becomes of a dry almond colour or bread raspings, and has lost one-eighth of its weight ; roast the second part until it be- comes the fine brown colour of chesnuts, and has lost one-fifth of its weight; mix the two parts together, and grind them in a coffee mill; do not roast or make your coffee until the day it is wanted. To two ounces of ground coffee put four cups of cold water, then drain off this infusion and put it aside ; put to the coffee which remains in the biggin three cups of boiling water, then drain it off and add it to that which has been put on one side ; by this method you obtain three cups more; when vour coffee is wanted, heat it quickly in a silver coffee- pot, taking care not to let it boil, that the perfume may not be lost by undergoing any evaporation. COFFEE (TO MAKE WITH HOT WATER). Instead of pouring cold water upon the coffee, boiling must be used, taking care the froth does not run over, which is to be prevented by pouring the water on the coffee by degrees. COFFEE MILK. Boil a dessert-spoon- ful of coffee in nearly a pint of milk a quarter of an hour, then put in a little isinglass and clear it, and let it boil a few minutes, and set it on the fire to grow fine. CHOCOLATE. According as you intend to make this, either with milk or water, put a cup of one or the other of these liquids into a chocolate-pot with one ounce of cake chocolate ; some persons dissolve the choco- late before they put it into the milk : as soon as the milk or water begins to boil, mill it; when the chocolate is dissolved and begins to bubble, take it off the fire, letting it stand near it for a quarter of an hour ; then mill it again to make it frothy ; after- wards serve it out in cups. The chocolate should not be milled unless it is prepared with cream; chocolate in cakes should always be made use of in ices and dragees. TEA. (Tea Cream.) Infuse an ounce of the best green tea in half a pint of boiling milk, simmer it five minutes, then strain A MISCLLLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 01 it through a t»mmy, pressing the leaves wel I : boil a pint of rich cream, add to it the yolks of (our erg* beaten, and sufficient quantity of clarified 1 sugar; pour this whilst hot to the milk, stir them together well, put in a^ much clarified isinglass as will tat it, and pour the cream into the mould or glasses ; place them on ice when cold, turn it out of the mould, or serve hi the glaesee. LEMON. A fruit, the product of the south of Europe, of the genus citrus, from which citric acid, lemonade, punch, &e., are made. The engraving represents a branch of the Lemon-tree. OIL CLOTIIS (TO BUY AND PRE- SERVE). In buying an oil-cloth for a floor, endeavour to obtain one that was manufactured several years before; as the longer it has been made previous to use, the better it will wear, from the paint becoming hard and durable. An oil-cloth that has been made within the year is scarcely ■worth buying, as the paint will be defaced in a very little time, it requiring a long while to season. An oil-cloth should never be scrubbed with a brush ; but, after being first swept, it should be cleaned by washing with a large soft cloth and lukewarm or cold water. On no account use soap, or take water that is hot ; as either of them will certainly bring off the paint. When it has dried, you may sponge it with milk, which will brighten and preserve the colours; and then wipe it with a soft dry cloth. LEADEN CISTERNS (TO NEUTRA- LIZE THE BAD EFFECTS OF). Sul- phate of soda, or common Glauber's salt, is as good as anything that could be employed. A few applications of this salt will be found sufficient; it will form with all the lead that ma] be contained in the water an insoluable precipitate, which, forming a crust on tho surface of the cistern, will protect the latter from the further action of the water. BOTTLES (TO EXTRACT CORKS FROM). A simple invention may exist unknown. This u illustrated in your I ase. You have "been greatly troubled by corks getting within bottles, and have waistcd hours in endeavouring to extract them." The engraving illustrates a simple instrument formed of twisted wire, with a moveable ring (A), by which its four "fin- gers" may be closed. Move the ring down to the extremities of the fingers, and insert the latter a into the neck of the bottle, still holding fast of the ring, and drawing it back as the instru- ment is pushed inward. When thus inserted, the fingers will// open, as in the engraving ; then turn the bottle upside down, and by shaking it, the cork will soon be brought within the open fingers; then draw the instrument out, the while sliding the ring again on tho fingers to secure their hold of the cork. When fairly tightened, the cork may be drawn out without any difficulty. It will be observed that the points of the fingers, (B), are sharply bent, by which, when they once lay hold of the cork, they do not re- lease it readily. The plan is very successful. PIMPLES. The following is an oint- ment recommended by Sir M. Tierney : — Take of purified lard an ounce; of citron ointment, an ounce and a half; of finest almond oil, half an ounce ; and mix all well together. The whole may be scented with oil of bergamot. MILK (TO PREVENT FROM TURN- ING SOUR IN WARM WEATHER). In Paris the milkmen are in the habit of em- ploying a little sub-carbonate of soda or of potash. This, by combining with and neu- tralising the acetic acid formed, has the desired effect, and keeps the milk from turning as soon as it otherwise would. The salt that is thus formed — viz., the acetate of sod^i or of potash — is not at all injurious ; and as pure milk does contain a small quan- tity of this salt, it is difficult to pronounce upon the addition of any alkali, except there should be some in a free or uncombined 6tate, which does not exist in milk. The addition of a little carbonate of potash will break down the curd that is beginning to form, in consequence of souring. 92 FACTS FOB, EVERYBODY*. HAND. The numerous bones of the hand prove the wonderful structure of the animal frame. It is joined to the radius and ulnus of the arm by the carpus, or wrist, which consists of eight small bones, in two rows; to these are at- tached four bones within the palm, called meta- carpal, and each of the fingeis and the thumb contains three bones, connected by cartilages : hence the hand contains twenty-seven bones. It is so important an in- strument to man, that without it his reason and speech would not have availed him against other animals. MAGIC LANTERN. An optical toy, by which light is diverged on a wall by a lens, and intercepted by coloured figures. LONG SIGHT. This is a disease of age •when the eve becomes too fiat to converge rays of light to the distance of the optic nerve ; but the light, as is shewn in the en- graving, arrives at a focus beyond the nerve, and gives a confused picture at the nerve ; nevertheless, if the object is carried further off, the conver- gency is then perfect, but the object at the increased dis- tance becomes too small to be discerned dis- tinctly, as for reading, &c, and hence it is, that such per- ■Bighted. The defect is, by means of a convex lens, by which the rays are made convergent before they reach the eye, and the eye, therefore, has less to perform. Fig. 1. ex- eons are called long- however, corrected plains long sight, and the use of a convex lens ; and fig. 2. short sight, and the use of a concave lens. DROMEDARY. The Arabian camel, with a single hunch ; a beast of burden in Western Asia, docile, patient, and hardy, but very uneasy to ride upon, though generally used for that purpose in long journeys. They are commonly about six feet high, but nine feet to the top of the head ; and they are taught to kneel when they take up their load. HARROW. The name of a very useful instrument of agriculture, employed to pre- pare ploughed land for the seed, and to mix the seed with the soil after it has been sown. The latter kind is expressed in the engrav- ing, but their structure is different, accord- ing to their purpose. PLUTO. Brother of Jupiter, and god ol the infernal regions. A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 93 FEBRUARY. It is generally known that Nun:a Pompilius altered the Roman calen- dar, by adding two months (January and February) to the year, and, also, that be assigned twenty-nine days to the latter. Julius Cesar did not make any alteration in the oalendar of Numa, but Augustus Cawai subtracted one day from February and added it to his own month of August. Every fourth year an additional or twenty-ninth day was iitterculatcd between the twenty- third and twenty-fourth of this month, and was unnoticed ; but now the intercalated day occurs every fourth or leap year, and is placed after the twenty-eighth ; it is there- fore the 29th or last day of February. Every leap-year is readily discovered by iL rJ dividing the year by four; and if there is no remainder, as in 1852, then February contains twenty-nine days, but if there is a remainder, as in 18o4, the month only con- tains twenty -eight days. The Saxons called this month Sprout Kale, or the month in which young cole- worts or cabbages begin to sprout ; but it was afterwards called Sol Monath, or sun month, because the sun returns and warns us of the approach of spring, with its fresh vegetation and balmy airs. In Latin, it is called Februarius ; in French, Fevrier ; in Italian, Febrojo ; and in Portuguese, Fc- vereiro. The usual allegorical representation of the month is a young man dressed in a dark or cloudy sky-coloured habit, symbolical of the frequent rain and gloomy sky. On his left is the astronomical sign of Pisces, or the fishes, to intimate that the sun enters that sign on the 19th of the month. February has been represented as a young man dressed in a white robe, with a wreath of snow- drops round his brows, and a burning candle in his right hand. Our Saxon ancestors painted this month as a vine-dresser pruning his trees; and, sometimes, as a man in a frieze-jacket buttoned close up to the throat, 5* throwing his arms across his body, the same as we frequently observe cabmen "and oth rs at this time of the year, when the weather is very inclement. The month of February, though generally of a cheerless and uninspiring character, has not been without its muse. The bard of the "Bhepherd'a Calendar" thus pours forth his effusion 8 : — "The sunbeams on the heda-es lie, The south wind murmurs summer soffcj file maids hang out white clothes to dry Around the elder-skirted croft; A calm <>f pleasure listens round, And almost whispers winterly; While fancy dreams ot summer's sound, • And quiet rapture fills the eye." The red-letter days of February, or its feasts, fasts, and festivals, are tolerably nu- merous and remarkable. In addition, we have day 8 rendered memorable by certain events chronicled by the antiquary and his- torian with due care. The 1st day of this month is always re- membered by sportsmen as the end of pheasant and partridge; shooting ; a happy time for part of the feathered tribe ! 2nd. Candlemas Day. — This day is cabled thus on account of its being celebrated in this and Roman Catholic countries with proccs.-rions by torchlight, and the perform- ance of mass afterwards. It commemorates the attendance of the Virgin Mary in the temple, forty days after the birth of our saviour, and it is in consequence frequently called the Day of the Purification of the Virgin Mary. The Germans say — the badger peeps out of his hole on Candlemas- day, and if he finds snow he walks abroad ; if he sees the sun shining, he draws back again. Probably the saying, that " if Can- dlemas be a shining day, the winter is not half finished," may have arisen fro u the notion of the Germans. In 1300, upon this day, Pope Boniface VIII. instituted the jubilees in the Romish Church. In 1461, Edward, Earl of March, defeated the forces of Henry VI., under the command of the Earl of "Pembroke, at Mortimer's Cross, near Ludlow, and Owen Tudor, Prince of Wales, was beheaded on the spot. In 1625, Charles I. was crowned in Westminster Abbey, with his queen, Henrietta Maria, by Abbot, Archbishop of Canterbury. On this day, Christopher Wordsworth, D.D., the celebrated poet died, leaving the British nation his beautiful compositions as a me- mento. The many varied and beautiful poems he composed rank foremost among the best productions of modern poets. 3rd. St Blaise is the patron saint of the 94 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY ■wool-combers. He was a bishop of Sebtfste, in Armenia, who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian, 289. 5th. St. Agatha was a female martyr of Sicily, put to death by order of De'cius, in2ol. 16. In 1497, tho celebrated divine, Philip Melanethon, the coadjutor of Martin Luther in the great work of the Reforma- tion of the Christian Church, was born in the small town of Brethen or Bretheim, in the Palatinate of the Rhine. He was ap- pointed by the general body of the Reformers, in the early part of 1530, to draw up the exposition of their opinions, which was pre sen ted to the Emperor at Augsburg in March of the same year; and is well known as the " Confession of Augsburg." 2'2d. In 1732 George Washington was born in Westmoreland, in the State of Virginia. In 1759 he married Mrs. Martha Curtis. He was appointed one of the delegates from Vir- ginia to the first general Congress, in 1774. He became Commander-in-Chief of the Amer- ican army on the 15th of June, 1775, and resigned his command at the close of the year 1783. He was inaugurated as the first Presi- dent of the United States on the 30th of April, 1789. lie retired from public life in 1796, and died on the 14th of December, 1799, eaving a reputation without a stain. 28 1 h. Shrove Tuesday is the day previous to the beginning of Lent. In Venice and Rome, the carnival ceases on this d".y. The name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon Scrifan, to confess, and signifies the time of confessing sins ; for which purpose this day ■was anciently set apart by the Church of Rome as a preparation for,, the austerities of Lent. After the people had confessed, they were permitted to indulge in festive amuse- ments, and hence arose the custom, yet preserved, of eating pancakes and fritters at Shrovetile, which has given this day the vulgar appellation of Pancake Tuesday. To the pastimes of this day may be traced the nearly exploded diversions of cock-fighting and cock-throwing, whipping-tops, jack of Lent, etc. St. Valentine's Bay falls on the 14th of this month. St. Valentine was an ancient presbyter of the Church of Rome, who was beheaded in the Via Flaminia, about the year 278, during the reign of the Emperor Valerianus. This is the day for choosing patron saints in Rome, and lady loves in America. Well does the poor postman re- member this day, and how eagerly the anonymous letters he bears are snatched from* his hands and perused in the quiet chamber. POPE'S HAT, or Papal Tiara, is a triple crown worn by the popes on state occasiona. LEYDEN JAR. A mere plate of glass, in the jar form, for the convenience of hand- ling ; an electrical excitement is produced on one side, and this operates on the che- mical elements within the substance of the ass, just as though it were a plate of air, or a plate of fluid in a gal- vanic combination; and the opposite side has a \f similarly opposite ex- , V citement, as acid and akaline, called positive and negative; and the excitement continued by a metal surface, from side to side, produces, when within a small distance, an explosive restoration of the two disturbed sides, considered either as acid and alkaline, oxygen and hydrogen, or sup- porter and combustible. DOG DAYS. These days commence on the 3rd of July, and end on the 11th of Au- gust. Dr. Hutton says, that common opinion has been accustomed to regard the rising and setting of Sirius, or the " dog- star," with the sun, as the cause of excessive heat, and of consequent calamities, instead of its being viewed as the sign when such effects might be expected. The' star not only varies in its risings in every one year as the latitude varies, but is always later every succeeding year in all latitudes; so that" in time the star may, by the same rule, come to be charged with bringing frost and snow." STARCH. In the vegetable kingdom starch is a very widely-diffused body. In almost every growing cell granules of starch may be distinguished by means of the microscope. These granules are of A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 95 various sizes, and assume a great variety of forms; some are round, others are flat, whilst others are even stellate. I hew granules are always found mixed with other iubstanoee, hut they are easily made dis- tinguishable by the application of a little iodine, which is one ut' the best tests for starch, and which, coming in contact with ii. produces a beautiful blue colour. Starch is found in some plants in greater quantities than in others; it is, however, Granules of Starch. (A) From wheat and barley; (B) froai arrow-root; (C) From Port- land sago. very generally found in perennial roots and rootstocks, in the stems and in the seed? of plants. I*; seems stored up in these parts for the future growth of the developing organs of the plant. There are few or no vegetables or parts of plants that are eaten that do not contain starch. We tind it in turnips, carrots, potatoes, cabbages, pars- nips be. ms, peas, wheat, barley, oats, and the rest of the Cercalia; in chesnuts, wal- nuts, ha/.elnuts, and all other seeds; in the Apple, the pear, the plum, the cherry, and all other fruits. In many of these th'ngs, however, it ia not the disl inguishing alimen- tary ingredient, but it is often separated and used pure as an article of diet. The substances in which it exists in a tolerably pure form, and of which we wish now more particularly to speak, are arrow-root, sago, and tapioca. Arrow-Root. "What is sold under this name in the shops, is a form of starch pro- cured from the rootstocks of various species of plants belonging to the family Maran- tacece. There are three kinds of arrow- root known in the shops, the AVest Indian and the East Indian arrow-roots, and Tous les Mois. The West Indian is the produce of a species of Maranta, called M. arundinacea. The East Indian is pro- Maranta arundinacea— Ashow-boot. duced by another species, the M. Indica. What is called Tous les Mois is obtained from another genus of Marantaceous plants, and is called Carina edulis. The part of the plant from which the starch is obtained is the same in all these cases, and the mode of preparation the same. Plants belonging to this family have what is called, botanically, a rhizoma or root- stock (a), an organ standing between the root and the stem. In this root-stock the 96 FACTS EOR everybody: starch is deposited, and it is separated in the following manner: — The root-stock is dug up, and then bruised and placed in water. The heavier parts, consisting of woody tissue and other matters, fall to the bottom of the water, but the starch is diffused through the water. The water, with the starch, is then separated, and allowed to stand, when at the end of some hours the starch falls to the bottom of the water ; it is then collected and dried. This is the principle on which all starch is sepa- rated from the tissues in which it is deve- loped. By the same process starch may be procured from potatoes, carrots, turnips, and the stems, leaves, and seeds of plants. Although arrow-root, sago, tapioca, and potato starch, are all composed of the same constituent, their flavour is very different ; hence the preference given to arrow-root as an article of diet. This flavour depends on some peculiar principle which is produced in the plant from which the starch is ob- tained, and by very careful preparing can be entirely got'rid of. Arrow-root is used for making cakes, puddings, and a thick gelatinous fluid in great request in the sick room. It is a property of starch to com- bine with water at a temperature of 180° and form a gelatinous compound. This pro- perty of starch renders it very useful in cookery, and seems to increase the diges- tibility of the starch itself. Arrow-root is frequently regarded as very nutritious ; but if what we have stated above is correct, it will be seen that it is not nutritious in the proper sense of the word. Those foods can alone be called nutritious that contribute to the building up of the fabric of the body, by adding those materials to the tissues which are being constantly removed by the wear of the body. Now, starch does not perform this function, and is entirely consumed in the body in maintaining its animal heat. Arrow-root, however, and the other forms of starch, are frequently mixed with nutri- tious matters, such as milk and bread; and in this way the food into which they enter becomes nutritious. Still, it may be said that children be- come fat when fed on arrow-root ; and this is an undoubted fact. The explanation is, however, easy. When the carbonaceous substances are taken into the system in larger quantities than can be consumed in maintaining animal heat, they are changed in their characters, and become converted into oil, which being deposited in the tissues, produces fat. This oil is not a living part of the body ; and a person may get fat even without having his frame nourished, or his strength increased. ^ This is an important fact to bear in mind, as many persons get fat upon cerfain kinds of diet, without getting any stronger, or more able to perform the functions of the hody._ Sago. Another form of starch sold in the shops of America is 5^*70. It occurs in little round masses, and when very white and pure, is called pearl sago. "When it is in larger and darker masses, it is called common sago. It is starch obtained from the inside of the trunks of palms, and other trees. They are cut down, and the tissue Sagus Ittimphii — Pbickly Sago Palm. containing the starch being scraped oui> the sago is prepared in much the same way as arrow-root. Many plants yield starch in their stems, which, on being prepared, is called sago by Europeans. The sago which is sold in the shops in America is principally imported from the islands of the Indian Archipelago, and is the produce of a palm called the true sago palm, or Sagus leevis. There is, however, another paim belonging to the same genus, the Sagus Rumphii (the prickly sago palm) Avliich yields the sago that is consumed by tht natives of India. Tapioca. This is anotherform of starch. It is brought to us here from South America, and is the produce of a plant known to botanists by the name of Janipha manihot. It is a poisonous plant, and the Indians in the countries where it grows extract a poison from it, which they use to poison their arrows before they obtain the starch. The mode of preparing the tapioca is as follows • — The roots of the plant, after it is dug up, are bruised and placed in a bag, to allow the juice to drain out, which is A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. M ootlected in % vessel, into which the Indian plunges his arrow, so as to poison its point. After the root is drained it is taken out of the bag, and submitted to a process such as we have above described for preparing arrow-root. Cassava, which is eaten by the natives, is procured from the same plant, but is prepared in a different way from tapioca. The starch of tapioca does not differ in chemical composition from that of sago and arrow-root, and it is used in the same way, and for the same purposes. There are many other well-known plants which owe their dietical properties to the stan h they contain ; amongst these we may mention the potato, the carrot, the turnip, the parsnip, the cabbage, the Jeru- salem artichoke. From any of these starch might be prepared. There is a plant in our hedges, known to children in the spring of the year by the name of "lords and ladies," and commonly call- ed "cuckoo-pint." This plant, the Arum maculatum of botanists, con- tains an acrid j uice ; but, nevertheless, its roots are full of starch. When cooked, the acridity of the plant is got rid of, and they are eaten with impu- nity. These roots are employed in making the substance called Portland sago ; which is the starch separated from the rest of the matter of the plant This sago is used for the same purposes as the other kinds of sago. GOLDFINCH (THE)— (Fringilla Car- duelisj . The scientific name of this" beau- tiful and well-known bird is derived from the Latin words, Fringilla a finch, and Carduus a thistle, indicating the plant on which it often feeds. The British natu- ralist, Macgillivray, calls it the Red-fronted Thistle-finch, or Carduelis elegans ; and the propriety of this latter title cannot be dis- puted, for a more sprightly and elegant songster does not exist. "Of all chamber- birds," says Bechstein, "this is the most delightful, alike for the beauty of its plumage and the excellence of its song, its proved docility and remarkable cleverness." Arum maculatum — Cuckoo-pimt. In Scotland they term it G oldie and Gold- spink. Thus Burns alludes to it as "The goldspink, music's gayest child." Others have called it " the dapper Finch." and applied to it many endearing epithets ; which our readers, we arc sure, will be ready to echo, for a universal favourite is Master Goldie. If you want to sec him in his glory you should go forth on a bi i-cht autumnal day to some common or other -round, where thistles grow abun- dantly; there he is feasting on the downy seeds, and flitting about in the sunshine from clump to dump, in hia suit of silky brown, and black, and gold, and red, as happy as a bird can be ; every now and then twittering out his lively song, as he scatters upon the gale the white flocculi, by means of which the thistle-seeds are wafted far and wide over the surrounding landscape. In nearly all parts of Great Britain may the goldfinch be found wild ; it is a perma- nent resident with us, and by no means a shy bird. Its song commences about the end of March, and continues till July or August; it is not powerful, but very sweet, and sufficiently varied to make it agreeable to the ear; for mellowness of tone and plaintiveness, it is considered by good judges to be second to few, if any, of our native songsters. Early in spring, and again in the autumn, goldfinches may commonly be met with in small flocks of from twenty to thirty ; severe winters kill a great mauy of them. In the breeding season they leave the open country, and resort to woods and thickets, orchards and groves, where they build their nests, — generally amid the higher branches of fruit and other trees ; sometimes in tall thick hedges and evergreens. They are very neat builders, and use mosses, lichens, root- fibres, and grass-stalks, closely interwoven; for lining, they usually prefer wool, hair, and thistle or other vegetable down. The nest is perfectly hemispherical, like that of the chaffinch, by which only, perhaps, it is excelled in finish and compactness. Mudie well observes that " the nest of the goldfinch is literally a cradle, and the young are rocked by the winds in their hatching-place, nearly as much as they are to be afterwards on the tall and flexible stems on which they are to find their food." And this is doubtless a wise ordination, in order that the birds may become early accustomed to the rocking motion, and acquire confidence thus to seek and to seize that which is necessary to their existence. Being frequently placed in such exposed situations, were the nest not very 98 TACTS TOR EVERYBODY: closely and compactly woven, and firmly fixed in its place, it would be liable to be torn in pieces, and scattered by the winds, or at least detached from the lofty bough on which it rests, to the destruction of its precious contents ; hut this seldom happens, and the little structure swings as safely in it.- apparently dangerous position, as the Bailor-boy upon the mast, when the wild blasts howl and whistle fearfully around him. The eggs, of which there is rarely more than one laying in a season, are from four to six in number, of a bluish gray colour, sometimes inclining to green; they are - sparely marked with light and dark reddish spots and stripes. The young birds, if taken, should be fed on poppy or well-soaked rape- seed, mixed with crumbs of white bread moistened with milk. Wild goldfinches may be caught in spring by means of a decoy-bird, placed in a cage set round with limed twigs or nooses. In autumn and winter bundles of thistles will best attract them. If these are fastened to a tree, and armed with springes or limed twigs, they are most likely to be successful. They may also be taken in nets ; as many as one hundred and fifty having been caught in this manner on a single morning. the pinion-feathers; but this must by no means be taken as a distinctive mark. The hen bird is generally smaller altogether, the red about the beak is neither so broad nor so vivid, the beak is a deeper brown, and there is more of this latter colour diffused over various parts of the body. In shape, as well as in markings, the head somewhat varies, as will be seen by the engravings. Male. Some goldfinches are smaller than others ; but the standard size may be stated at five inches and a half, the tail measuring about two inches. It is scarcely necessary, with so familiar a bird, to describe its peculiar conformation and markings ; the bright scarlet in front of the head and round the base of the beak ; the glossy black crown, vertex, wing-coverts, and tail-feathers, so beautifully relieved by the white and golden spots and interlacings, and contrasted by the soft brown of the back, all go to make up a picture at once striking and harmonious ; and which, aided by the sprightly motions, sweet song, and engaging qualities of the bird, produce a powerful effect upon the mind and imagination. Bird-catchers tell us that the female may be distinguished from the male goldfinch by its smaller size, and deficiency of some of the white tips of Female. Although there is but one species, there are several distinctly marked varieties of the goldfinch, such as — 1st, the yellow- breasted ; 2nd, the white-headed ; 3rd, the black- headed ; 4th, the white ; 5th, the black goldfinch. These latter are sometimes en- tirely black, or they retain a yellow spot upon the wing ; age*, or a too constant feed- ing upon hemp-seed, will often cause the plumage to assume this sombre hue. It has also been produced in young birds, by a careful exclusion of light from them ; but at the first moulting, after the cage was un- covered, they assumed their more natural colours. Dealers speak very learnedly about these several varieties, and recommend this or that for certain good qualities peculiar to itself ; but it is all a matter of accident, and the dress is no indication whatever of dis- position or ability, although it may be, in some cases, of age or state of health. If one goes to purchase a goldfinch, he will most likely hear of what are called "speckled birds," which have a white spot under the throat; of " whitethroats,'.' or " eheverels," and "bastard whitethroats," — the former having a white streak entirely down the throat, and the latter about half way down. For these, high prices will be asked, as they are scarce birds ; but they are no better, as songsters, than others. Young goldfinches, that have not moulted have no crimson about the h«ad, and in this state are called " graypates." "When they have attained their full age and perfect plumage, "gold- wings" is a term frequently applied to them. If you have a good teacher to put them under, it is well to get the younger birds, and, when the moulting season comes on, to cover the cage with flannel, so as to keep them very warm ; they will then throw off A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. &9 their old and assume their now feathers quickly, and be fresh and vigorous for their educational fatigues. ''Stopping," "back- ing," or, more properly, " pushing l biit) on," is the n:ime given to the process above described. In the wild state the goldfinch feeds upon all kinds of seeds, more especially those of the cruciform plants; beetles and other insects it takes occasionally ; like the pigeon, it prepares in the crop the food intended for its young. In confinement it should have canary, rape, maw, or poppy- Beed, and hemp-seed now and then, espe- cially when breeding or moulting. It should also be supplied with green food, and have plenty of water for bathing as well as drink- ing. It is a voracious eater, and when put with other birds will often mount guard over the feeding-trough, and drive away all comers ; yet it is not. quarrelsome, but lives in harmony with its companions, especially if they belong to its own genus. The health of the bird is very much promoted by an occasional treat of thistle-seed, which it likes to pick out itself. It is rather subject to epilepsy, and to bad and swollen eyes. The former should be treated according to the directions given for the canary, and the latter anointed with fresh butter. Captive goldfinches have been known to live to the age of twenty-four years. When old they lose the bright red and yellow of their plumage, and frequently become blind. A goldfinch's cage should not be less than nine or ten inches long, by seven broad, and about the same in height ; its breeding ac- commodations should be the same as those provided for the canary. IONIC ORDER. Invented by the Ionians, and applied to the temple of Diana, at Ephesus, and the height of its column is nine times the diameter. Its capital is adorned with volutes, or ram's horns, but it has no leaves of the acanthus, like the Composite. ROTTEN - STONE. Rotten -stono, or tripoli, is used in the arts for polishing metallic and other surfaces. It consists entirely of the remains of animals, whose bodies were covered with an envelope of earthy matter, and whose siliceous coverings have been preserved. The following are sketches of the fossil remains of animaculea, 2) and are drawn from a microscopic view of the particles of rotten-stone. The above are specimens of the Diatomacea still more highly magnified. "With the siliceous shells has been entombed, in some instances, so much of animal matter, that, in the berg, or mountain meal of Sweden, there is nu- tritious quality in sufficient quantity to render the mineral production edible with bread and flour. RED SEALING WAX (TO MAKE). Shell-lac, 4oz. ; cautiously melt in a bright copper pan over a clear charcoal fire, and when fused, add Venice turpentine, 1J oz. ; mix, aud add vermilion 3 oz. : remove the pan from the fire, cool a little, weigh it into thin pieces, and roll them into circular sticks on a warm marble slab; or pour into moulds while in a state of fusion. Fine wax is made by using the very best ingredients. The addition of a little camphor, or spirita of wine, makes it burn more readily. TOO FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: DOMESDAY BOOK. This book is a register of tlie lands of England, framed by- order of William the Conqueror. It was sometimes termed Rotulus JFt'ltonioe, and was the book from which judgment was to be given upon the value, tenures, and ser- vicer of the lands therein described. The original is comprised in two volumes, one a large folio, the other a quarto. The first begins with Kent and ends with Lincoln- shire, aud is written on three hundred and eighty-two double pages of vellum, in one and the same hand, in small but plain cha- racters, each pa«;e having a double column. It contains thirty-one counties. After Lincolnshire the claims arising in the three ridings of Yorkshire are taken notice of and settled ; then follow the claims in Lincoln- shire, and the determination of the jury upon them ; lastly, there is a recapitulation of every wapentake or hundred in the three Hidings of Yorkshire, of the town in each hundred, what number of carncates and ox-gangs are in every town, and the names of the owners placed in very small characters above them. The second volume, ill quarto, is written upon four hundred and fifty double pages of vellum, but in single column, and in a large fair character, and contains the counties of Essex, Norfolk, and Suffolk. In these counties the liberi homines are ranked separate ; there is also a title of invasiones super regem. The two volumes are preserved, with other records of the p]x- chequer, in the Chapter House at West- minster ; and at the end of the 2nd is the following memorial, in capital letters,, of the time of its completion: — "Anno Mil- lesimo Octogesimo Sexto ab incarnatione Domini, vigesimo vero regni Willielmi facta est ista descriptio, non solum per nostres comitatus, sed etiam per alios." From internal evidence, there can be no doubt that the same year, 1086, is assignable as the date of the first volume. EAST INDIA COMPANY. This asso- ciation originated from the subscriptions (trifling in amount) of a few private indi- viduals. It gradually became a commercial body, with gigantic means ; and next, by the force of unforeseen circumstances, as- sumed the form of a sovereign power, while those by whom it was directed continued, in their individual capacities, to be without power or political influence, thus presenting an anomaly without a parallel in the history of the world. The company was formed in London, in 1599, when its capital, amount- ing to £30,000, was divided in one hundred and one shares. In 1600 the adventurers obtained a charter from the crown, under which they enjoyed certain privileges, and were formed into a corporation for fifteen years, with the title of "The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading to the East Indies." Under this charter, the management of the company's affairs was entrusted to. twenty- four members of a committee, chosen by the proprietors from among their own body ; and this committee was renewed by election every year. The first adventure of the association was com- menced in 1601. In the month of May, in that year, five ships, with cargoes of mer- chandise and bullion, sailed from Torbay, to India. The result was encouraging; and between 1603 and 1613 eight other voyages were performed, all of which were highly profitable, with the exception of the one undertaken in the year 1607. In the other years the clear profits of the trade varied from one hundred to two hundred per cent, upon the capital employed. The charter of the company was renewed for an indefinite period in 1609, subject to dissolu- tion, on the part of the government, on riving three years' notice to that effect. In 1611, the company obtained permission from the Mogul to establish factories at Surat, Abmedabad, Cambya, and Goga : in consideration of which permission it agreed to pay to that sovereign an export duty upon all his shipments at the rate of three- and-a-half per cent. The functions of government were first exercised by the com- pany in 1624, when authority was given to it by the king, to punish its servants abroad, either by civil or martial law ; and this authority was unlimited in extent, embrac- ing even the power of taking life. A rival association was formed in 1636, but, after two years competition, was united with the former company, and the new company as- sumed the title of M The United Joint Stock." In 1652 the compan}' obtained license for carrying on unlimited trade throughout the province of Bengal, without payment of duties. The first factory of the English was at Bantam, in Java, established in 1602. At the close of the seventeenth century the three presidencies, Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, were distinguished, as they still are; but it was not till 1773 that Bengal became the seat of the supreme government. The first occasion on which the company was brought into hostile collision with any of the natives of India occurred in the be- ginning of 1664. A serious dispute arose in Parliament upon the powers of the com- pany in 1666. In 1682-3 a project was set on foot for the establishment of a rival com- pany, but it did not obtain the sanction ot A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 101 government. A new charter, to have effect for twenty-one years, was granted in L693. The home government of the company con- sists of— tirst, the court of proprietors; second, the court of directors ; and third, the board of control. The board of control consisted, formerly, of six privy councillors: and the chancellor of the exchequer, ami principal secretaries of state, were, by virtue of their office, members of the board; but, by ;»n act passed in 1793, this became no longer necessary. By an act of Anne's Parliament, the company had the exclusive right of trading to all places eastward of the Cape of Good Hope, to the Straits of ACagal- haens; and these privileges were continued by successive acts of Parliament till 1814, but were afterwards modified. In 1833, the charter was renewed for twenty years, but by an act which took away from the com- pany the right of exclusive trading to its own territories, or to the dominions of any native power in India or China, and threw the whole open to the enterprise of indivi- dual merchants. HONEYMOON. The word "honey- moon 1 ' is traceable to a Teutonic origin. Among the Teutones was a favourite drink called metheglin. It was made of mead of honey, was mcruh like the mead of European countries The same beverage was also in use among the Saxons, but flavoured with mulberries. These honeyed drinks were Used more especially at marriage festivals and which were kept up among the nobility one lunar month ; the festive board being well supplied with metheglin. "Honah Moon," signified the moon or moonath of the marriage festival. Alaric the Goth, cele- brated by Southey's poem, died on his wed- ding-night, from a too free indulgence in the honeyed drink. INDIGO. Indigo is obtained from an Asiatic and American plant, which is bruised and fermented in vats of water. During the process, a blue powder is de- posited, which is collected and dried so as to form the cubic cakes in which it occurs in commerce. Indigo is quite insoluble in water; when heated it yields a purple vapour, which condenses in the form of deep blue acicular crystals When it is ex- posed to the action of certain deoxidizing agents, it becomes soluble in alkaline solu- tions, losing its blue colour, and forming a given solution, from which it is precipitated white by the acids ; but it becomes blue on exposure to air. This white indigo has been termed indigogene, and indigo appears to be its oxide. When indigo is dissolved in con- centrated sulphuric acid it forms a deep- blue liquid, known to the dyers under the Dame u ftwren blue. Bengal is the great mart for this drug. GOLD FISH. Great care must be taken of gold fish, as they are very susceptible ; and hence a loud noise, strong smell, violent or even slight shaking of the vessel, will oftimes destroy them. Small worms which are common to the water, suffice for their food in general : but the Chinese, who bring gold fish to great perfection, throw small balls of paste into the water, of which they are very fond ; they give them also lean pork drieel in the sun, and reduced to a very fine and dedicate powder. Fresh river- water must be given them every day. Care must be taken to collect the spawn, when seen floating on the water, as otherwise it will be destroyed by the Hsh themselves. This spawn is put into a vessel, and exposed to the sun, until vivified by the heat. Gold fish, however, seldom deposit spawn when kept in vases. In order to procure a supply, they must be put into reservoirs of con- siderable depth, in some parts at least well- shaded at intervals with water-lilies, and constantly supplied with fresh water. At a certain time of the year numerous baiks are seen in the great river of Yangft-se- Keang, which go thither to purchase tho spawn of gold fish. This is obtained with no small care, for towards the month of May the inhabitants close the river in several places with mats and hurdles, which extend nine or ten leagues, and leave only a space in the middle sufficient for the passage of boats. The spawn is stopped by these hurdles, and the water being afterwards drawn up, and put into large vessels, is sold to merchants, who send it to all parts. Gold fish were introduced into England about the year 1 69 1, but remained exceedingly scarce till 1728, when a great number were brought over, and presented to Sir Matthew Decker, by whom they were generally distributed round London. LEECHES (TO MAKE THEM BITE). Leeches may usually be induced to tate more readily than otherwise by rubbing the surface to which they are applied with a little milk. Previous to their application the skin should be carefully cleansed, not with soap, but with plain warm water. A wine-glass is the best thing to keep them over the spot where they are to be applied. When they have performed their office, they may be made to disgorge the blood by put- ting a few grains of salt upon them. 'I hey are often killed bv the application of too much salt. Probably, were they put into salt and water for a little time it would be better. 102 FACTS FOR. EVERYBODY! FROST AND SNOW. Occasionally in Lapland the phenomenon of the formation of snow is witnessed when the door of an apartment in which persons are assembled is suddenly opened and a blast of cold air admitted, the watery vapour exhaled by their respiration being instantly frozen into flukes. Snow is a bad conductor of 1'eat, or cold, and therefore acts as a most valuable covering for vegetables and seeds ; wheat continues to grow beneath its cover- ing, though every blade would be cut off' if lit exposed to the frosty air. Let us not forget how beautiful and varied are the forms of its flakes, when looked at through a magni- fying glass, or microscope. (See Heat and Cold, p. 42). MARBLES. You may tell your boys that the marbles with which they play are mostly imported from Holland, where they ure made by breaking various kinds of stone into pieces of a suitable size ; these pieces arc put into an iron mill, worked either by water or stesun ; there are several divisions in the mill, with rasps, which turn round with great swiftness; thus they are made round, and then they fall out of the mill. They are brought from Nuremburg to Rot- terdam, down the Rhine, and from thence distributed over America, The " allies" are cut from superior marble. MAGNETIC NEEDLE. A small bar of iron, to which, by artificial means, the peculiar arrangement of the magnet has been transferred, by which it points in the magnetic meridian ; and, the direction of this meridian being known, the course of ships at sea is thereby determined. It, also dips or inclines from the plane of the horizon, pointing in the northern hemisphere down- ward at the North Pole of the magnet, and in the Southern hemisphere contrarily. HOTCHPOT. The word has thus been quaintly explained by Littleton: — "It seemeth that this word hotchpot is, in En- glish, a pudding, for in a pudding is not commonly put one thing alone, but one thing with other things together." It was a rule of the common law, that where a daughter, to whom lands had been given in frank marriage, claimed a portion of the lands descending upon her together with her sisters from the father in fee simple, she should not take any share unless she mixed and blended the lands given to her in frank marriage with the descended estate, so that they might be equally divided among all the* daughters. The statute 22 and 23 Chas. II. c. 10, s. 5 (the Statute of Distri- bution), provides that.in making distribution of the personal estate of intestates, advance- ments made by them in their lives to their children shall be brought into hotchpot. LIBRA, OR THE BALANCE. This is the first of the autumnal signs, and the seventh amongst its brethren. Emblematic of that equality which subsists between the day and night, its denotive character =^= is aptly represented by a pair of scales in Libra, or the Balance. eguilibrio, because the days and nights aro nearly equal, except at the poles. In poetic fiction, the Balance belongs to the goddess Astraea, and is referred to by Homer, Virgil, and Milton. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 101 RADIATED ANIMALS. Our illustra- tion represent! the- figure of a common Star- fish, or "Fivo-1'inm is." The limb9, or arms, are arranged like rays proceeding from a centre, and from this circumstance it is termed a " rayed," or "radiated animal." All with this rayed appearance have, of course, the same appellation, and, along with others, constitute class Radiata. The rayed appearance is not, however, so obvious in many of these animals as in the Star- fish. Radiated animals are divided into four classes, viz — Infusoria, or Infusory Animalcules. £utozoa, or Internal Parasites. Zoophyta, or Polype*. Radiaria, or Raved Animals. HUW TO BLEED. In cases of great emergency, such as the strong kind of apoplexy, and when a surgeon cannot possible be obtained for some considerable time, the life of the patient depends almost entirely upon the fact of his being bled or not. We therefore give instructions how the operation of bleeding is to be performed, but caution the reader only to attempt it in cases of the greatest emergency. Place a handkerchief, or piece of tape, rather but not too tightly round the arm, about three or four inches above the elbow. This will cause the veins below to swell, and become very evident. If this is not sufficient, the hand sbould be constantly and quickly opened and shut for the same purpose. There will now be seen, passing up the middle of the fore-arm, a vein which, just below the bend of the elbow, sends a branch inwards and outwards, each branch shortly joining another large vein. It is from the outer branch that the person is to be bled. The right arm is the one mostly operated on. The operator should take the lancet in his right hand, between the thumb and first finger, place the thumb of his left hand on the vein below the part where he is going to bleed from, and then gently thrust the tip of the lancet into the vein, and, taking care not to push it too deeply, cut in a gently curved direction, thus ^_y and bring it out, point upwards, at about half an inch from the part of the vein into which he had thrust it. The vein must be cut length- ways, and not across. When sufficient blood has been taken away, remove the bandage from above the elbow,, and place the thumb of the left hand firmly over the cut until all the bleeding ceases. A small pad of lint is then to be put over the cut, with a larger pad over it, and the two kept in their places by means of a handkerchief or linen roiler bound pretty tightly over them and round the arm. When a person is bled, he should always be in the standing, or at any rate in the sitting, position ; for if, as is often the case, he should happen to faint, he can, in most cases at least, easily be brought to again by the operator plac- ing him fiat on his back, and stopping the bleeding. This is of the greatest import mice. GALVANIC BATTERY (TO FORM). For quickly forming a good, cheap, and powerful galvanic battery, we believe uo method to be more available, than that on Mr. Grove's principle, first given by Dr. Goldingbird. " Procure the bowls of six tobacco-pipes, and stop up the holes, left by breaking off" the pipes, with sealing wax. Place on the table six small glass tumblers, ^ ^ mwm a, glass tumbler ; I, zinc cylinder ; c, pipe bowl ; d, platinum foil, each an inch high, like those used by chil- dren as toys; place in each a cylinder of amalgamated zinc ; let a pipe-bowl rest in each cylinder, and place in everv one a slip of thin platinum toil, one and a-quarter inches long and half an inch wide, 'jonnccfed at the zinc cylinder by platinum wire; fill the pipe-bowis with nitric acid, and the tumblers with dilute sulphuric acid, and an energetic current of electricity will be set free, capable of rapidlv decomposing water, igniting wire, charcoal points, &c. RESPIRATION (AGENTS WHICH INCREASE). Walking and running at various amounts of speed, walking in the 104 FACTS FOll EVERYBODY sea, riding on horseback in the various paces, riding in carriages and on the rail- . way in different classes, and on the engine at various rates of speed, the labour of the tread-wheel, ascending and descending steps; rowing, swimming, (Marshall Hall's ready method), reading and singing, car- rying various weights at a certain speed, cold bathing, albumen (egg), gelatine, beef- steak, oatmeal, wheaten bread, potatoes, milk, suet and milk, sugar, rum, tea, coffee, ether, sunlight, heat. Aufnts which Decrease the Quan- tity of Am Breathed. Darkness, cold air inspired, all fats, as cod liver oil, olive oil, butter, beef fat, arrowroot, brandy, wine, kirchen-wasser, compound and foetid spirits of ammonia, opium, morphia, hydro- cyanic acid, tartar emetic, and salines, as chloride of sodium, and febrifuge medi- cines. Agents which have a Mixed Effect. Chloroform, chloric ether, and amylene. Digitalis first increases and then decreases the quantity. STRUPS. Although these preparations are so little used in America there is no reason why they should not become a regular article in the housekeeper's store-room; they are easy to prepare, and are very agreeable to the palate ; also economical, as they su- persede the use of ardent spirits and wine. With Frenchmen it is a common practice to drink simple syrup (which is called eau Sticree, but which we term capillaire) diluted with water, to the taste of the drinker. Capillaiiie is made thus : — Dissolve about two pounds of the best refined white sugar in one pint of water ; boil the mix- ture for five or ten minutes, then strain it through lawn, or a hair sieve j when cold, it is fit for use. Syrup of Cloves. Proceed in the same way as for making capillaire, but with the sugar add thirty or forty cloves that have been broken or ground. All the syrups of spices, as cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger, &c, can be made in the 6am e way. Syrups of Fruit. These are prepared in a similar manner to capillaire, substi- tuting the juices of the fruit in place of the water ; in this way, it is very easy to make Sy '■•up of Oranges. Before the oranges are squeezed, to express their juice, each orange should be well rubbed or grated with the lump sugar ; by so doing the fine flavour of the rind is preserved. All these syrups are drank by diluting them with water ; about a wineglassful of syrup to a tumbler of water will be found to make a pleasant draught. Syrtjp of Coffee. Take about an ounce of the finest coffee, ground, and a pint of cold water; allow them to stand together for twelve or more hours, then strain, and add one pound and a half of sugar ; boil for one or two minutes, not longer, and again strain. Syrup of Tea. One pint of water, two pounds of sugar, an ounce of black tea; boil together for five minutes, or rather less; strain. A wineglassful to half a pint of cold water makes very good cold tea. INSECTS (TO PREPARE FOR CABI- NETS). The mode adopted for killing in- sects for preservation in cabinets varies with the dilferent tribes. Dark coloured beetles may be plunged as captured into a bottle containing spirits of wine, and, on reaching home, they may be dipped for an instant into scalding water, dried on blotting-paper, and are ready for the cabinet. Those of delicate colours may be fixed in a tight tin box, which may be plunged for a few mo- ments in boiling water. Butterflies, moths, and dragon-flies, may be killed by sharply pressing the thorax without injuring the wings, and then pinned ; or the pin may be dipped in a strong solution of oxalic acid before being used. Large moths and dra- gon-flies, which are exceedingly tenacious of lifo, may be instantly killed by holding the wings above the back, and dipping merely the under surface of the body for an instant into scalding water ; or they may be fixed to a cork, tightly wedged into the bot- tom of a gallipot, which is to be then in- verted, and plunged mouth downwards into boiling water. By far the greater number of insects are killed immediately, if a few bruised laurel leaves, which exhale prussic acid, are kept in the collecting box. The fumes of burning sulphur should not be em- ployed, as they injure the colours of insects considerably. Parasites, which infest birds, and others of small size, may be conve- niently put into a quill, which, after corking, may be dipped into boiling water. INTEREST. Interest is the money paid for the loan of a sum, denominated the principal, for a given time according to a fixed rate. Interest is distinguished as simple and compound. Simple interest is that which is paid for the principal, or sum lent, at a certain rate or allowance made by law or agreement of parties, whereby so much as $5, $6, or any other sum is paid for $100 lent out for a year; and the same amount of interest per cent, per annum for any longer time. Compound interest is that which accumulates when the simple interest is added to the principal, and the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 105 subsequent interest calculated on the con- stant accumulation. In this manner the principal nearly doubles every fourteen years. The accumulation of money when placed at compound interest, after a certain number of years is exceedingly rapid, and, in some cases, truly astonishing. One penny put out at live percent, compound interest, at the birth of Christ, would, in 1810, have amounted to a sum exceeding in value 357,000,000 of solid globes of standard gold, each in magnitude as large as this earth. REFLECTING TELESCOPES. The refracting astronomical telescope is formed of two convex lenses in a tube, and is the simplest form of telescope. In the Galillean telescope a concave eye-piece is used. Re- fracting telescopes for land objects are a compound form of the first-named, and are so constructed as, by the use of different qualities of glass, to prevent the decompo- sition of the light rays at the edges of the picture presented to the eye. When this is accomplished perfectly, such instruments are called achromatic (without colouring). Telescopes are not difficult to construct, and some of the finest have been made by ama- teur opticians. OYSTER GROTTOES. The grottoes of ovster-shells, built by children at the street sides, were formerly erected on the festival of St. James. They were originally set up by poor persons, who solicited alms from the pious persons that were unable to visit the celebrated shrine at Compostella. WALLFLOWER, OR GILLIFLOWER. There has been a curious confusion with respect to the clove-pink and the wallflower. The former belongs to the natural order Ca- ryophyllw. the latter to Crucifera. The clove-pink (not the cultivated double flower of the garden) grows upon old walls and ruins, as at Norwich, and on the castles of Deal, Sandown, and Rochester, flowering in July; hence it was said to be a "wall- flower," and a " July-flower." Chaucer calls it " clove-gilofre," or, " clove-gilli- flower." Thus the clove-pink, Dianthns caryophyllus, came to be named "gilli- flower" (July-flower), and "wallflower." The true wallflower belongs to the same tribe of plants as the stock, mustard, cress, &c, which have their petals arranged in the form of a cross, and hence named Crueiferm (cross-bearers). It grows on old walls, and begins flowering in April, having a delicious scent. It has been improperly called "gilli- flower," and "sweet-william," neither of which it resembles. ANNEALING. Annealing is a process by which the extreme brittlencss common to glass and some metals, when cooled sud- denly after melting, is avoided or removed. Such brittlencss appears to be occasioned by some disturbance in the regular arrange- ment of the constituent particles in rapid cooling, and is remedied by cooling very slowly and regularly. Glass-houses aro furnished with large annealing -ovens, in which this object may be attained by the gradual removal of the glass articles from a hotter to a cooler part, or by allowing the heat of the oven to subside slowly. Ana- logous operations are employed in the manufacture of cast-iron and other metals. Some malleable metals which crystallize on cooling are brittle in their crystalline state but are rendered tough by heating and rolling. Zinc, for example, though in- capable of more than very slight extension under the hammer, without cracking, becomes almost as flexible and tough as copper after being rolled at a moderate heat. CHIROMANCY. Chiromancy, or Palm- istry, the art of foretelling future events, or deciphering a person's disposition by the lines naturally impressed on the human hand, has, in ail ages, received the implicit faith of numbers of mankind. Aristotle taught that the duration of life depended on the length of the lines on the hand ; the Pythagoreans were of the same opinion; and in ancient Rome it was the most im- portant branch of the Angur's mysterious profession. In the credulous middle ages it was elevated to the dignity of a science ; and such men as Cardan and Melanchthon were not ashamed to practise it. We will now submit a conversation be- tween a sceptic and a believer in the science of chiromancy, and leave our readers to form their own opinions as to the amount of truth involved in it . — "Your last proposition," I observed, " approaches very closely to the chiromancy of the ancients; if, indeed, it be not chi- romancy itself." " It matters little by what term you de- signate a knowledge of the relations which exist between the hand of an individual, and his intelligence, temperament, pas- sions, and diseases. It is sufficient for me to know that there are such relations, and that to learn them only require* patience and penetration. From the earliest anti- quitv, man has ever given his open hand to a friend, but presented it closed towards an enemy. The open hand has ever been the emblem of friendship ; the closed hand, the svmbol of hostility. I tell you that all IOC FACTS FOR ETEErBODYI physiology, all psychology, and even patho- logy is written in legible characters upon the human hand. Here," he continued, taking some plaster casts out of a glass case, "is the cast of the hand of an in- telligent man, of a philosopher (fig. 1). Fig. 1. Observe the regularity of its form and the harmony of its lines. The disengagement of the thumb permits it to be opposed to all the fingers ; and it rises in height to nearly the second joint of the fore-finger. The lingers are ail of different lengths; but close your fingers upon your palm, or grasp a cricket ball, and you will find that they all appear equal. Thus it is that the hand of an intelligent man can use the Bword, pen, pencil, hammer, needle, graver, and creases there are in the palm — like the elevated intelligence it appertains to, it is neither empty nor broken. Compare this hand of an idiot (fig. 2) with the former. Observe its general thickness and clumsi- ness of form, and the great depth of its lines. The muscles of the thumb being rendered useless by callosities, it cannot be opposed to the fingers. Thus deprived of its principal function, that of prehension, this hand, incapable of grasping material objects, well represents the brain of an idiot incapable of sustaining an idea. "If lunacy really be, as it is generally supposed, an undue elevation of the intel- lectual faculties, even to their perversion and overthrow, this hand of a lunatic (fig. 3) admirably exemplifies such a state and other tools which the intelligent mind has invented. Observe, also, how few lines Fig. 3. of the mind. "What confused and irregular lines cross each other in all directions ! Do they not seem like the confused imagina- tions of a madman ? Observe particularly the clumsy thickness of the hand, like that of the idiot, a sure token of the loss of the reasoning faculties. " Here, again, is the hand of a monomaniac (fig. 4), whose intelligence is not totally obscured, but whose every faculty is con- centrated upon one single object. Observe how it is traversed by only one line, deeply marked, like the one predominating idea of the maniac. All the fingers are involuntarily inflected to that one line, as all the faculties of the maniac are A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 107 towards the one object of his mania. But nature shows that this unhappy mind still retains a certain degree of 'sanity. W« see none of the clumsy thickness which the hands of the idiot and lunatic exhibit ; yet, at the same time, the shortness of the thumb and little tinker proves that, like the mind of the maniac, his baud is abnormal and incomplete. "As nature has marked the intellectual gradations from the intelligent man to the idiot, so she has established in the confor- mation of the hands of all men infinite shades of distinction, which faithfully re- present the innumerable shades of mental energy that distinguish the characters of mankind one from another. It would be impossible for me to go farther into this subject at present, as it would occupy several hours to explain even" a few of those nice shades of distinction. I shall therefore proceed to show you two more links in the chain of degradation. This brings me back to zoology," — he continued, as he spread on the table a number of specimens, — "Be- tween the first and second links of the animal chain — that is to say, between the intelligent man and the monkey tribe, nature has placed an intermediate race, whose forms resemble man, but whose 6avage instincts approach the inferior ani- mals. This double similitude is portrayed in their hands. Here is a cast (fig. 5) from the hand of a Bosjesman. Compare it with this preserved hand of a Chimpanzee (fig. 6) and this other cist .fig. 1), the first I showed you of a civilized European. In the hands of the Bo?jesman and Chim- panzee the thumbs are shorter than in the hand of an intelli- g< nt man. Observe, they barely reach to the first joint of the fore-finger, an inva- riable si>;n of want of intelligence. The narrowness of these two hands also indi- cates an instinct of theft and rapine. Yet the Bosjesman, "being more nearly allied to the intelli- gent man than to the Chimpanzee, the hand of the former does not present the rude energy of the latter, constructed to climb the loftiest trees of a tropical forest. "The farther we penetrate into the study of animals, we shall find mure and more of the irregularities of zoological classification. Fig. e. Here are five paws of animals placed by naturalists in the same order — the carni- vorous. This order, which is considered one of the most natural, is at the same time full of contradictions. True, it has been sub- divided into classes and families ; but even in those subdivisions nature is not better respected. Even with the little knowledge we possess of the habits aud instincts of animals, who can \vitness without astonish- ment such dissimilar creatures as the mole, lion, dog, bear, and cat, placed in the same order ? How much more plainly than their teeth do the paws of those animals pro- claim their proner classification ? At the first sight of this paw (fig. 7), short and Fig. 7. thick, with claws long and hooked, cfm you not read the history of the enimal it belongs to ? You require no book — no long, finely-worded description. You see that it is constructed to scrape and burrow in the earth, or to seek food and a shelter from its enemies. In short, the whole history of the mole is legibly in- scribed on this one solitary claw. Again, examine these paws, belonging to the four best-known species of the carnivora, whom man has placed together in one family group, though nature has most difl« 108 PACTS FOH everybody: tinctly separated them. Admire, in this paw of a iion (fig. 8), the striking provision of nature, which applies a tendon to ench claw to prevent them being blunted by contact with the earth. Does rot this arrangement pro- claim to us that the lion tears his prey be- fore he devours it. On the contrary, the claws of the bear (fig. 9) are Bunk in a clumsy mass Fig. 8. of flesh; decidedly that animal does not tear its prey. Observe this paw of a cat Fig. 9. (fig. 10) ; the toes and claws are partly concealed by hair. You know a cat has a velvet paw, but its claws are sharp and cntting- Fig. lo. -a significant proof of the dissimu- lation and cunning of the animal. In the paw of the dog (fig. 11), the friend and Fig 11. companion of man, the claws are blunt and harmless, and the length of the toes denote his docility and intelligence. " If time permitted, I could detail a great many traits in the character of these ani- mals, clearly pointed out in the forms of their fore-paws ; but you must be satisfied with this hasty sketch at present, and I will pass on to the well-known order termed by naturalists, from the peculiar form of their incisor teeth, the rodents. All the animals of this order have four toes on their anterior paws, though seme have as many as five, and others only three on their hind feet. This regularity of conformation in the fore- paws of so manv animals is an evident proof of the importance attached by nature to those organs. Now, notice these three paws, and tell me if the animals to which they beiong can have the same habits or the same intelligence? Decidedly not! With the exception of some slight analogy in th eir teeth, naturalists have no grounds for placing the squirrel (fig. 12), the Fig. 10- A MISCELLANY OF T7SF.FIJL KNOWLEDGE. 109 jerboa (fig. 13), and the marmot (§5. H), in tin- same nlass. Destined to live in forests, to leap from bough to bough at a Fig. 13. Fig. 14. great height, the squirrel exhibits a paw admirably adapted for such a state of existence. Its crooked claws can be easily inserted into the bark of the hardest tree ; and the length of the hinder part of the paw permits the animal to suspend itself from the thickest branch. Moreover, as if nature wished to show that it was the most intelligent animal of its class, it is furnished with the rudiments of thumbs. No appear- ance of such organs can be detected on the paws of the jerboa or marmot, and their toes being united by a ligament, as far as the tirst joiut, clearly indicates that their intelligence is likewise contracted." "Excuse me for a moment," I said, in- terrupting him. one spatula, or paper-knife, and watched till it nearly boils. The pan then being re- moved from the fire, • quarter of an ounce of tartaric acid may bestirred in, till a com- plete mixture is effected, Place it upon the tire again for half a minute, and then, with a or wire dipping out small quantities from the pan, let them fall us (hops upon a clean tin plate; in two hours the drops should be loosened with the blade of a knife, and will be ready for use in twenty-four Lours. OPTICAL EFFECTS. The following diagram will perhaps explain why the in- side part of a spoon represents an inverted image, and the back being the reverse. G 11 is an object placed at some distance from a concave mirror A B, whose centre is C, and whose principal focus is E. The rays from (i fall diverging upon the mirror, and are reflected to a locus at ff, where they A «■ form an image of the extremity at G ; in the same way, a repre>entation of the ex- tremity II will be formed at h, so that a complete but inverted image of C II will be thus formed. The above will explain the inverted image formed in the hollow part of the spoon. The rays from the external parts of the arrow A B flow converging!)' along ^\ AflE/t upon the mirror, and are reflected long a E and the ray B b along b E, and ^s the image of the object is always seen in the direction in which the rays approach the eye, the reflected image of A 1! is seen along- the lines Y. A and E A behind the E is supposed to be the eye of a tor, and 1' is the point where the rays from A B would meet if the -lass had not reflected them, or, properly, had not been there. Convex mirrors always form mirrors of diminished size, the rays from them coming convergent to the eye of the spec- tator; or, in other words, the rays from the object proceed to a virtual or imaginary focua behind the mirror; theme the image seems to be reflected to the eye; this will explain the reflection on the convex pari of the spoon. Two images are seen upon the canafestiok in consequence of the concavities and convexities of its surface, eacb part acting as a concave or convex mirror. Bays passing through a convex surface, diverge, or spread them, and a concave one con- verges them, or brings them to a point. When a ray of light falls upon any body, it is reflected so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection ; and this is a fundamental fact, upon which all the properties of mirrors depend. Let a ray of light, passing through a small hole in a dark room, be reflected upon a plain mirror at equal distances from the point of reflec- tion, and the incident and reflected rays will be at the same height from the surface; the same will happen when the rays are reflected from a convex or concave surface. (See Optical Illusion, p. 122). BATHS are arranged thus :— The very cold bath, when the temperature of the water is below 50 deg. ; the cold bath, above 50 deg. ; the cool bath, from 60 to 75 deg. ; the temperate bath, from 75 to 85 deg.; the tepid bath, from 85 to 92 deg. ; the warm bath, from 92 to 98 deg. ; the hot bath, from 98 to 112 deg. The most useful bath is u the warm bath," but the temperature must be varied in accordance with the dif- ferent constitution of each patient. GENDARMERIE. Gendarmerie (from Gens d'Armrs, men-at-arms) was a chosen corps of cavalry under the old monarchy of France. The gendarmerie were afterwards formed into a body of soldiers intrusted with the police all over France ; it furnishes patrols, arrests criminals, examines the pass- ports of travellers, and contributes to the maintenance of good order. They are divided into foot and horse. They form a distinct corps in the army, under their own superior officers, who are under the orders of the ministers of the interior and of police; but, in ease of war, they may be called into active service like the other corps of the army. The gendarmerie is mostly recruited from old and deserving soldiers of other regiments, who consider it as a promotion, as they have better pay and enjoy greater Lib rty. This explains why the gendarme*; generally speaking, are remarkably well- behaved and trust v men. The same de- Bcripti n of troops exists in the Italian states, where they are called Carabineers. 116 FACT3 FOR EVERYBODY NILE (SOURCE OF THE). This great river rises in the Mountains of the moon, in about ten degrees of N. lat., and in a known course of 1,250 miles receives no tributary streams. The travels of Bruce were under- taken to discover the source of the Nile ; lie set out from England in June, i?08 ; on the 14th November, 1770, he obtained the great object of his wishes, and returned home in 1773. The Nile overflows regularly every year, from the 15th of June to the 17th of September, when it begins to decrease, having given fertility to the land; audit must rise 16 cubits to ensure that fertility. In 1829 the inundation of the Nile rose to 23 instead of 22 cubits, by which 30,000 people were drowned, and immense property lost. ENIGMA. Not necessarily given in the form of a query, though it may be so, and is written either in verse or prose. It is more complicated than a riddle, involving greater contrasts and more propositions, and is solved by one letter or word : not a sen- tence. For example : — 'Twas born in affliction, 'twas cradled with care, And has lived ever since in the midst of despair. It dwells in the valley, it glides on the wave, And is highly respected by those who are brave. It darkens, not brightens,— in sunshine it dies, And far from the smile of enjoyment it (lies. In the rainbow it sits, in the stars it has birth, And with angels descending it visits the earth. With Adam it dwelt, and to Paradise came, But Eve knew it not, tho' it sh .red in her shame. From the dream of our childhood it ne'er can depart, Having fixed its abode in the core of our heart. By the wandering peasant 'tis carried along, [song. And the nightingale loves it, though strange toner From the .joy of our mortal existence 'tis driven, To find an enchanting asylum n heaven. It mingles in war — as if bound by a spell, And it comes to my lips as 1 utter — farewell ! [.4ms.— The letter A. CHARADE. This is quite distinct from a riddle or an enigma; and is made, or acted, as the case may be, by taking the several syllables of a given word, each having a different meaning, and describing them separately, and afterwards the whole word. As, per example : — If you have watched the rolling seas, or gazed upon the sky, [searching eye. My firgt cannot have failed to meet your ever- Beneath the brow — the noble brow —or yon stu- pendous tower, [proaching hour. My second's seen— a warning true of night's ap- My whole is found in wood and dale— a pretty iittie gem, That is, in my opinion, fit, to grace a diadem. [Am — Blue-bell. RIDDLE. A complicated question, in- volving one or more ideas, which can, how- over, be solved by one reply. The oldest on record is in the book of .Judges, chap. xiv. verse 18. We are told by Plutarch that the girls of his time worked at netting and sewing, while the most ingenious " made riddles." The following is an example . — Formed half beneath and half above the earth, We sisters owe to art a secon 1 birth: Th ■ smith's and carpenter's adopted daughters, Id .ile on the earth to travel o'er the waters. Swifter we move as lighter we are bound, Y 't neither touch the water, air, nor ground. We serve the poor for use, the rich tor whim : Sink when it rains, and when it freezes swim, [Arta.—Paix of Skates. REBUS. Not intended to be guessed or revealed in the same manner as the above ; but is, on the contrary, as its name implies, a saying with its rejoinder; as the following example will bear out : — One hundred and fifty, if rightly applied To a place where the living did once all residej Or a consonant joined to a sweet singing bird, Will give you a name that you've oftentimes heard, And one which, I've no doubt, some friend of your's owns, — 'Tis the rival of Smith, and as common as Jones. [Am — (Cl-ark, C-lark,) Clark. ANAGRAM. The transposition of the letters of any particular word or name in such a manner as to form a striking contrast, or an apt commentary on the original word. For example : — An article famous for lightness transpose, And a substance of infinite weight 'twill disclose. ' [ dns.— Cork, ltock. PUZZLE. Anything intricate, embar- rassing, or difficult to put right. The under- mentioned will serve as an example : — One-third of twelve if you divide Hy just one-fifth of seven, The true result -which has been tried — Is sure to be eleven. [Am. — One-third of twelve is lv. or 55; one-filth of seven ia v. or 5 ; and 55 divided by 5, gives 11. CONSANGUINITY. Consanguinity is a term which implies the relation which subsists between persons who are sprung ' from the same stock or common ancestor, in distinction from affinity or relation by marriage. It terminates "in the sixth or seventh degree, except in the succession to the crown, in which case it is continued to infinity. Marriage is prohibited by the ecclesiastical law to the fourth degree of consanguinity inclusive. RO X&L Mi ) T !0 ES. Lieu ct mon Droit was first .used by Richard I. a.d. 1193. The Bohemian crest, viz. throe ostrich feathers, and the motto Ich Dicit, "I serve," was adopted by Edward the Black Prince at the battle of Cressy, the king of Bohemia being slain in the battle, 1316. Honi soit qui mai A IflSCBLLANY OP T78EEUL KNOWLEDGE. 117 y pm»e, was made the motto of the Garter. 1319-50. Js maintiendrai. "I will main- tain,' 1 was adopted by William III.. 1688. And Semper tadtm was ordered by Queen Anne t«» be used as her motto. CHICORY. Chicory is usually obtained from 'lie roots of the wild endive [chioorium Intybus, Linn.) It is not the same plant as the common dandelion (taraxacum dent . bat belongs to the same family. The dandelion possesses similar properties, but its roots are not so large, and, con- sequently, not so well adapted for the uses to which chicory is applied. The wild en- dive may be found growing by the road- side, upon dry stony places. Its roots may be laid up in winter in a warm cellar, and if preserved from the frost, will soon send out a crop of blanched leaves, from which a salad tor the table may be obtained. For this purpose it is often taken on ship-board ; the mots are put into a cask, with sand, the sides of the cask being pierced with nume- rous holes, the leaves make their way through. A common, loosely-made hamper will do as well as a cask. This method of forcing is extensively carried on in France, where the salad is much esteemed. SILK-WORMS' EGGS. Place the eggs in drawers made of wood, or strong paper; and when the leaves of the mulberry are f/tl-f/roicn, hatch them, either by the heat of the sun, or in a small room where there is a fire. In about six or seven days the silk-worm will issue from the eggs, in the of a small black hairy caterpillar. In feeding them, take great care that the mul- berry leaves are dvy ; for this purpose gather a quantity required for two or three days, if the weather looks showery, and lay them in an earthen vessel in a cool airy place, but not exposed to draught. Keep everything about silk-worms as clean as posMble, and remove all extraneous sub- stances. When the silk-worm refuses its food, and makes silky traces on the leaves, pin together papers in the .hape of inverted cones, open at the top, and fix them against the wall. ITace a worm in each, and leave them to spin. GLUE THAT WILL RESIST MOIS- TURE. Dissolve gumsandarac and mastic, of each two ounces, in a pint of spirit of wine, adding about an oun e of clear tur- pentine. Then take equal parts of isinglass and parchment glue, and having beaten the isinglass into small bits, and reduced the glue to the same state, pour the solution of the gums upon them, and melt the whole in a vessel well covered, avoiding so great a heat as that of boiling water. When melted, 6* strain the glue through a coarse linen cloth, and then put it again OVeT the tire, adding :ihniit iii! ounce of powdered glass. Tins preparation may he best managed by hang- ing the vessel in boiling water, whii prevent the matter burning to the i or the spirit of wine taking tire; ami. in- deed, it is better to use the same method lor all the evaporations of nicer glues and hut, in that case, less water than the pro- portion directed should be added to the materials. GOBELIN TAPESTRY. Gobelin Ta- pestry is so called from a noted house in Paris', in the suburb of St. Marcel, formerly possessed by famous wool-dyers, whereof the chief, called Giles Gobelin, who lived in the reign of Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing scarlet, which was from him called the scarlet of the Gobelins : the house and river that runs by it also took the same name. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. for a manufactory of all manner of curious works for adorning the royal palaces, under the direction of Mons. Colbert, especially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by the celebrated Le Bran, by appointment of the king, a.d. 1666. AMETHYST. When this stone was first prized is not known; it was the ninth in place upon the breastplate of the Jewish high priests, and the name Iuoehar was engraved upon it. It is of a rich violet colour, and, according to Plutarch, takes its name from its colour, resembling wine mixed with water. One worth 2oO rix- dollars having been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond -in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. -De Boot Hist. Gcmmarum. Amethysts were discovered at Kerrv, in Ireland, in 1?5.5. KNIGHTHOOD. The institution of the " Order of the Bath" originated in the custom of the Franks, who, when they con- ferred knighthood, bathed before the; formed the ceremony, and from this habit came the title of the '"'Knights of the Bath." Henry IV. instituted a degree of knighthood of the Bath, and on his coronation, in the Tower, he conferred the order upon forty- six esquires, who had watched the night before, and had bathed. HAIR-BRUSHES (TO WASH). Never use soap. Take a piece of soda, dissolve it in warm water, stand the brush in it, taking care that the water only covers the bristles ; it will almost immediately become white and I clean ; stand it to dry in the open air with the bristles downwards, and it will be found to be as firm as a new brush. 118 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY JJB E AD-FRUIT-TREE. A native of the South-Sea Islands. It grows to the thickness of a man and upwards of 40 feet high. The fruit is the size and shape of a. child's head. the surface reticulated, covered with a thin skin, with a core the size of a small knife- handle ; the eatable part is between the skin and core, as white as snow, and of the con- sistence of new bread. When perfectly ripe, it is pulpy, sweetish, putrescent, and, ^mi£i\ by some, thought to be too laxative; but when green it is farinaceous, and esteemed very wholesome food, either baked under the coals, or roasted over them. BANDANAS, OR BANDANNAS. This name, originally applied to a peculiar kind of silk handkerchief made by the Hindoos, is now given to silk and cotton handker- chiefs manufactured in this country de- corated with patterns of similar character, though by a very different process. A bandana handkerchief has a dyed ground, usually of bright red or blue, ornamented with circular, lozenge-shaped, or other simple figures, either white, or, in some cases, of a yellow colour. These spots are said to be produced, in real Indian bandanas, by tying up the parts intended to be white or yellow with bits of thread before ex- posing the hankderchief to the action of the dve, and thus protecting them from it. In the process followed by British manufac- turers, which was invented in 1810 by M. Kochlin, of Mulhausen, the whole sur- face of the handkerchief is dyed of one uniform eolmr; a number of pieces thus dyed are laid between two leaden plates, perforated with holes wherever white spots are intended to be, and while the several thicknesses of cloth are compressed in this manner by the power of an hydraulic press, a fluid capabie of discharging the dye is caused to percolate through the holes in the leaden plates, removing, in its passage, the dye from such parts of the cloth as are ex- posed to its action. By varying the dis- charging fluid the spots may be made yellow instead of white; and arrangements are sometimes made for combining white and yellow spots in the same handkerchief. BISSEXTILE, OR LEAP-YEAR. An in- tercalary day was thrown into every fourth year to adjust the calendar, and make it agree with the" sun's course. It originated with Julius Caesar, who ordered a day to be counted before the 24th of February, which among the Romans was the sixth of the calends, and which was therefore reckoned twice, and called bissextile : this added day we name the 29th of February every fourth year, forty-five years B.C. FARTHING. Farthings were one of the earliest of the English coins. Farthings in silver were coined by King John ; the Irish farthing of his reign is of the date 1210, and is valuable and rare. Farthings were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. ; first coined in copper by Charles 11. 1665 ; and again in 1672, when there was a large coin- age of copper money. Half- farthings were first coined in the reign of Victoria, 1843. CLOUDS. The varied forms of the clouds depend upon the modes of their formation — that is, whether they are condensed into visible forms in a quiet or a disturbed atmo- sphere. It is likely also that the electrical condition of the vapour itself may have an influence upon the shape it may assume. The cloud is a collection of vapours sus- pended in the atmosphere, and consists chiefly of water converted into the gaseous form by heat. The round massive cloud which looks like a distant mountain is called cumulus. The name is a Latin work, sig- nifying a heap, and is the derivative of 09- cumulation^ The flat long cloud is called strains, a layer (hence the word stratifica- tion, f March dost is worth a kind's ransom;" and '•a dry March never begs its bread." Both these proverbs signify thai a dry March is favourable to the agriculturist and gardener; and this is borne out by another proverb. which says that "March grass never did good;" hence we infer that a wet March, which would be necessary tor the grass to grow so early, is prejudicial to the farmer and florist. Our Calendar contains many days of observ- ance in March. The 1st is called St. David**- day. St. David is the patron saint of Welsh men. lie was Archbishop of Miney, and died in 644, his remains being placed in the church of St. Andrew, and afterwards removed to Glastonbury Abbey. The custom of Welsh- men wearing leeks in their hats on St. David's- day is said to owe its origin to their having gained a great victory over the Saxons, from whom they distinguished themselves by wearing leeks during the battle. 2nd. St. Chad was an English bishop, educated at the monastery of Lindisfame, and was fifth bishop of the Mercians and third bishop of Lichfield, where he died in 673, being buried with great pomp in the cathedral, his shrine costing upwards of £2,000 for decorations. 7th. Perpetua was a Roman saint, mar- tyred in 205, by order of the Emperor Serverus. 17th. St. Tat rick' s-day.— St. Patrick is the tutelary saint of the Irish, who wear a bunch of trefoil, or shamrock, upon this day. Biographers do not agree with respect to the date and place of birth of Ireland's saint. Usher and Tillemont stating that he was born in the year 372, while Moore, in his "History of Ireland," states that he was born in the year 387. The same discrepancy occurs with regard to the date of his death, Usher fixing it on the 17th of March, 493; Tillemont, on the same day in 455, Nenius in 4G4, and Moore in 405. Most biographers maintain that St. Patrick was born in a village called Bonavon TaberunB, supposed to be the town of Kilpatrick, at the mouth of the Clyde. between Dumnarton and Glasgow; hut Mr. Moore states that the saint was burn in the neighbourhood of Boulogne in the an- cient Armoric Britain, ami that the Irish monarch, Nial of the Nine Hostages, having ravaged some of the maritime districts of Gaul in the vear 403, St. Patrick was taken prisoner and carried to Ireland, where he was sold to a person residing in Antrim, who employed him to tend sheep. Having con- ,34 PACTS FOK EVERYBODY: timied in this place for six years, he made his escape in a vessel bound, for Gaul, and afterwards entered a monastery at Tours. It is said that he constantly dreamed that he. was invited to return to Ireland hi the name of its people, and accordingly he set sail for that purpose, and landed at Dublin about the year 422. His adventures upon landing; his conversion of Dicho, a pagan chieftain ; his performance of Divine service in a barn; his celebration of Easter, by lighting the Paschal fire on Easter-eve before the halls of Tara; his conversion of. multitudes of King Logaire's followers, and the destruc- tion of the great Druidical god, are all points of interest in the life of this saint. St. Pa- trick ereeted several rude Christian churches, and occupied the see of Armagh, which was founded to organize his new system. The origin of the Irish wearing the shamrock on this day is said to be from St. Patrick having used some of this plant as an illustration of the Trinity, when he was endeavouring to convert the Irish, after his second landing, in 422. 21st. St. Benedict was born in Umbria, about 4S0, and sent to school at Rome. He founded the order of Monks of St. Benedict, and died 543, at the age of sixty-three, after having performed, according to the state- ments of his followers, a host of extraordi- nary wonders and cures. 25th. Xlt-t Annunciation-day of the Vir- gin Mary, which is kept as a festival in the Church of England, in commemoration of the incarnation of our Saviour. APOTHECARY (Creek apothek(e,&S\\oy, or Store-room). This term appears to come from the above root, although we now apply it chiefly to one who compounds or prescribes medicines, and not to the vendor or shopkeeper. The apothecary of our day is the regular "Family Doctor," who, having obtained a licence to practice from a chartered incorporation, puts after his name the letters L.A.C., meaning Licentiate of the Apothecaries' Company, of London, incorporated by James L, in 1606 ; the association was then united with the Grocers' Company, but in 1617 it was formed into a leparate company, with the exclusive right of dealing in and compounding drugs. At the close of the 17th century, the members of this association began to prescribe as well as dispense medicines; they soon alter be- came the common medical attendants of the sick, and performed the functions both of the physicians and surgeons of our day. As their calling became gradually elevated into a profession, there arose a new class to supply their place, those called chemists and druggists, who now deal in urugs, and com- pound medicines, as the apothecaries used to do ; of these we shall have to speak by and by. Several Acts of Parliament for re- stricting or extending the power of the Apothecaries Company have been passed at different times ; the last was in 1815, and this, as every medical practitioner is to a certain extent an apothecary, gives the company a large amount of control over the profession throughout the kingdom. No person is legally qualified to practise unless he shall have served an apprenticeship with a licentiate of this company, passed before its board of examiners, and paid certain fees which they are empowered to demand for a licence. The French apothecaire, and the Latin apotheca, come very close to the Greek original in sound and signification : there is no Apothecaries' Company across the channel, and the apothecary there is more of a medicine vendor and compounder than he is with us. We may observe here that apothesia in Botany signifies a repository, and is applied to the cases in which the organs of repro- duction of many of the algce, or sea- weeds, are contained. Apothecaries' "Weights and Measures, are those which arc constantly used in the compounding and dispensing of medicines in this country. As a knowledge of them is essential to those who would attempt Ihe domestic treatment of diseases, we give them in extenso. Weights. One pound contains 12 ounces, or 5760 grains ; one ounce 8 drachms, or 480 grains; one drachm 3 scruples, or 60 grains; one soruple 20 grains. Measures. One gallon contains 8 pints, or 70,000 grains of water ; one pint 20 ounces, or8,750grains; one oum-eS drachms, or 437*5 grains; one drachm 60 minims, 54 - 7 grains. Symbols and Characters, lb. represents a pound ; § an ounce ; 3 a dnuhm ; £) a scruple ; gr. a grain ; C. for congius, a gal- lon ; O. for Octavius, a pint : the prefix fl before 3 or S> mcans a ^hud drachm or ounce ; 1T\, a fluid minim ; gtt. for gutte, a drop. The letters ss put after either of these characters signifies a half; thus, gss is half an ounce. It should be borne in mind that minim and drop are not the same quantities, the former containing nearly half as much more as the latter, thus 10 minims- of Tincture of Opium are equal to 15 drops ; formerly it was customary to pre- scribe all medicines by drops as let fall from the mouth of a bottle; but the quantity in a certain number of these differed so consider- ably, according to the density of the fluid, or A. MISCELLANY OF USEFUL Ktf0v7LFDGE. 125 the vessel it was dropped from, Chat an alteration in the plan whs found necessary, and that of admeasurement was adopted : ■we give here a cut of a minim measure, Minim Measure, and also of one used for larger quantities. These may be purchased of any drug| a low price; they are made of glass, some are Large enough to contain a pint. \t 1 \ 1 r "3 | i _^=- ~1~^ yHlF of as many different sizes ; m one case, there- fore, the dose will be much lessened, and in the other considerably augmented — a varia- tion which might iu many instances be at- tended with had consequence*. 2 Ounce Measure. "We give also a cut of a graduated medicine glass which is a useful article in the nursery or sick chamber; it should be explained that -spoonful is considered to be halt an ounce, a tea-spoonful 1 drachm, a dessert- spoonful is 2| drachms, a wine-glassful is 2 ounces. In compounding medicines mea- sures and weights should always be used, as articles of domestic use frequently vary so much in size and capacity that it is impossi- ble to convey through them the correct in- structions fur the various doses to be taken. In twenty different houses the tea-spoons, po >ns, aad wine-glasses will perhaps be Graduated Medicine Glass. FRUITS (DIGESTIVE PROPERTIES OF). With the exception of strawberries. there is no dessert fruit, produced in a wild state, easy of digestion. The crab-apple an I the sloe, the parentsof the cultivated apple a ml plum, are wholly unfit Tor use, except in the shape of jams or conserves, having a plentiful addition of sugar to correct their astringent nature. Commencing with the Apple— the fruit in most general use, of which we have many varieties— the best being suitable for different purposes, but all containing more or less of saccharine, acid, mucilage, soft woody fibre, and water, the quality of the fruit being de- pendent upon the proportion in which ono or other of these prevails. The aroma of apples, on which their flavour seems to de- pend, is supposed to act as a mild stimulant, and to assist digestion; therefore, those apples which have the finest flavour are the most esteemed. The American sorts and the rennets abound in this quality, and they also contain a greater than ordinary pro- portion of sugar and mucilage, consequently are more nutritive; while the pippins and all hard varieties possess much woody fibre,, difficult of digestion. The dry mealy kinds, although not so much relished, are highly nutritive, while the watery sorts are gene- rally crude, cold, and ill-adapted to weak Stomachs in their raw stale. 15ut apples of very inferior quality are made palatcable and wholesome by the appli- 126 PACTS FOR everybody: cation of heat, and the fruit of apple pie, if not too much spiced, or even the roasted apple, is highly nutritive and digestible. Before this fruit is subjected to heat, it is composed of a very great number of little cells and vessels, containing the acid juice and the pulp — probably in a separate slate. When heated, the juice expands and bursts through the cells, and as the temperature increases, the watery portion of the moisture is partly converted into steam, and evapo- rates through the rind. When the acid and pulp of the apple are thus set free from their confinement, they enter into more intimate union, and the taste of the acid is mellowed by its mixture with the pulp, in the same manner as rum is mellowed by being mixed with milk : as the pulp also contains saccharine, this is disengaged by the heat, and mixes with the acid. Ripe, sweet, and mealy apples, produce a laxative effect on the bowels, while those which are sour and astringent should be avoided by the sedentary, as they are apt to induce costiveuess, griping, and flatulency, particularly when eaten after meds by persons indulging in wine or spirits. Pears have but little of the acid usually found in apples, but they generally possess more saccharine, and also more woody fibre, which renders some kinds indigestible. Those which are not hard and solid contain, along with their sugar, a considerable pro- portion of mucilage, which — although nou- rishing — is apt to ferment in the stomach, and produce flatulence. The Maria Louisa and the Old Burgundy are easy of digestion, the former perhaps the best and handsomest pear produced, and these when ripe may be eaten freely, being sweet, mellow, and laxa- tive, and very salutary to some constitutions, but heavy to cold stomachs when taken in excess. The very hard sorts should be pro- hibited to the weak, and moderately in- dulged in by the robust, having little nutri- ment, and their great quantity of woody fibre serving to overload and fatigue the stomach. Strawberries. The strawberry was esteemed by the late Dr. Abernethyas the most whole?ome of all fruits, "balsamic and refreshing, and one of 'the most precious gifts of Providence!" It is mildly acid, contains a medium proportion of sugar and mucilage, and the seeds act on the bowels imilaily to those of the fig. In some cases the seeds are said to have accumulated in the stomach and produced alarming disease. The occurrence is rare, however, and need no more deter us from eating strawberries than the fact of a person being choked with a fish-bone should deter us from eating fish. According to Linnaeus, strawberries are an excellent prevention of gout and gravel. Wine is supposed to be injurious to the beneficial action of strawberries when taken in connexion ; and the usual appendage of Cream and sugar, although highly nourishing to the robust, is not adapted to weak Btomachs. The fruit should not be too freely indulged in after dinner, or any other full meal. In warm weather strawberries are very grateful for breakfast or lunch, and a foreign fashion of preparing them has lately been adopted : it is as follows : — Take off the stalks from as many berries as will form one layer at the bottom of a dish; sift some fine loaf-sugar over them, then place another layer, and Bift again, each layer being smaller than the other, and the heap raised in a pyramidical form. When you have several lavers, squeeze the juice of afresh lemon over the whole. Before they are served out, they should be gently disturbed so as to receive the full benefit of the lemon-juice and sugar. They may be eaten of heartily when thus prepared, without danger. Raspberries resemble strawberries in most of their qualities, and may be used in the same manner ; but their flavour is too strong to be agreeable when eaten fresh : they are, therefore, mostly used for tarts or preserving. In picking, great care must be taken to abstract the small worm which will generally be found on withdrawing the stalk when quite ripe. Gooseberries. According to Dr. John, an eminent continental chemist, the ana- lysation of this fruit gave the following sub- stances, but in what proportion he does not state : — Water, sugar, citrate of lime, ditto of potash, malate of lime, ditto of potash, resin, gum, fibrin, ammonia, phosphate of lime, and phosphate of magnesia. Next to the strawberry the gooseberry is esteemed as the most wiaolesome and digestible of our native fruits. Like that, it possesses a good mixture of sugar and acid, but abounds more in mucilage and hard seeds. The skin besides is astringent, acid, fibry, and indi- gestible ; from the latter of which qualities it acts upon the bowels by irritation, and proves laxative; for which reason some have recommended the skins to be eaten. Of this we do not approve, for the seeds answer the purpose sufficiently well without loading the bowels with a mass of indigestible and irritable substances. Gooseberries are re- commended in cutaneous diseases — being cooling to the blood — and also in deficiency of bile. Heat, whether applied to the A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KyniVLFTifiF. 12- stoning or baking, proves (as in the case (if an excellent corrector of the crude of unripe or inferior fruit, and the shoots oi rhubarb, which are likewise i id and saccharine, make u wholesome n toques ami puddings in the early part of Bummer. (. i ui:a.\"is rank next in quality, and particularly the black, nave a much r principle of astringencj than any of the preceding fruits; consequently, though they contain sugar and mucilage, they prove less laxative than strawberries or I i Ties. The seeds and skin being nearly indigestible should not be swallowed, or if so eaten, with great moderation, and the black are considered the most wholesome. GRAPES can only be classed to a certain degree as a native .fruit ; for although vast quantities are grown against walls, they do not always ripen sufficiently for use in a raw state r l he grape contains the same chemical principles as the fruits enumerated, with the addition of super-tartrate of potass, the substance which, according to Maculloch, makes the chief difference between grape wine and all others. It has also less of the malic acid than our native fruits, while it -' •> a pleasant and wholesome aromatic flavour, and most sorts have also a principle oi astringency which counteracts in some degre< the laxative tendency. For this reason, ripe grapes may be eaten without reserve even bj the sick and convalescent; for although the stones or seeds possess a very strong astringent principle, so long as they are unbroken it is not brought into action, and they pass through the bowels without producing any injurious effects. The large portion of sugar in grapes renders them nu- tritive, while the acidity facilitates their digestion ; and for bilious complaints or dry temperaments they are found to have a very beneficial effect. Cherries differ exceedingly in quality, its containing much water and sugar, which, from being easily fermented, occasion colic and flatulence. Others contain a large portion of water and acid, which slightly stimulating the stomach, proves digestible and wholesome — but the most nutritive are the pulpy mucilaginous sorts. "When cher- ries are quite ripe they may be eaten freely without danger, but care 'should be taken not to swallow the stones, which sometimes lodge in the bowels, and produce obstruc- tions. The kernel yields a portion of that deadly poison prussic acid. Plums, Pea hes, Nectarines, and Apricots. TJ i ,■ stone-fruits contain the elements of sugar, water, mucilage, acids. and woody fibre, varying in proportion ing to their kind and quality. They are all highly injurious to the stomach in ! an unripe slate, in consequent e of their acid juices acting as astringents, and producing gripes and colic, tin '(lore they should never Be ventured on until the pulp can be easily separated from the stone. When quite ripe, they are wholesome and easy oi digestion, acting on the bowels as a mild laxative. It sometimes happens that one-half the fruit — the sunny side — is ripe, the other not, in which case the unripe part should be re- jo, nd. It has been generally remarked that a plentiful year for plums is rife of fevers and dysenteries, which proceed doubt- less from incautious indulgence. Heat, however applied, renders the fruit whole some and digestible, ltipe apricots are considered refreshing and laxative, and peaches are best raw and stewed with sugar; or, for cold heavy stomachs, stewed peaches are found to be gratifying. Oranges, Lemons, and Limes. — Unfor- tunately these delicious cooling productions of warmer climes come in season here during the winter, whan their fragrant and re- freshing qualities cannot be so well appre- ciated as in sultry weather. They all abound in water, acid, mucilage, and woody libre, with a very variable proportion of saccharine. The peel, "or rind, besides woody fibre, con- tains a strong indigestible oil, the basis apparently of their line aroma. The inner, or white rind, as well as the outer, should be carefully removed before eating, for it is proved to be highly deleterious to weak stomachs. The acids of these fruits, properly corrected with sugar, are light, cooling, and wholesome. Like other acid and saccharine vegetables, they are also of a laxative nature. The weak stomach, however, may very readily be injured by too copious a use of them. When eaten in too great quantity after dinner, they impede and sometimes stop digestion. In fever, these fruits are very grateful and advantageous. In scor- butic cases they are good, and in the sea- scurvy invaluable, as a certain remedy. Oranges have been said to produce a cure in some case of consumption, when eaten in the proportion of at least half a dozen a day, acting on the stomach as a mild tonic, when too weak to bear elixir of vitriol. Haisins, Currants, Figs, French PLUMB, and other liuits, imported in a dry state, should be indulged in with moderation, and the skins invariably rejected, being highly indigestible, and producing flatu- lency. "Walnuts, Almonds, Nuts. The che- 128 FACTS FOB EYEEYBODYI jmical elements of the various species of nuts differ considerably from that of other fruits. In these we have the farinaceous principle of the grains, with an oil which is rare in other vegetable productions. Both the farina and the oil, besides a small portion of sac- charine, are nutritive; but the oil renders them hard of digestion, and fatal conse- 2Uf.nces occur from eating quantities of nuts. II nuts ought to be used as fresh as possible, for the oil becomes randd by keeping. It is of great importance thai the kernel should be well chewed, for the unbroken portion cannot be digested by the strongest stomach. Salt is a good condiment, and improves the flavour. The French use pepper and verj uice with new walnuts. Almonds, more especially the hitter, and all nuts which possess the peach-blossom or bay-leaf flavour, contain a portion of that deadly poison prussicacid, and should there- fore be eaten with extreme caution. In persons of weak digestion, they frequently produce griping, cramp, nausea, and some- times fainting. Sugar taken with them is supposed to counteract this to a certain de- gree, but the best way is to avoid eating substances of so questionable a character. Pine-Apple. The flavour of this fruit is confessedly exquisite, but its acidity and astringent qualities make it unfit for the delicate; although, on account of its rarity, most persons are tempted to eat it when attainable. I f s acrid juices are mellowed by dipping the slices in wine or brandy, saturated with sugar; but it is generally eaten fresh, seasoned with the finest sugar en poudre. CONCHOLOGY. The natural history of shells and mollusca, or zoophytes. A is a trochus, or top-shaped shell; B is a species of whelk. READING ALOUD. This is no doubt an excellent exercise, and it has been much recommended by the ancient physicians. 'To this also may be joined that of speaking. They are both of great advantage to those who have not sufficient leisure or opportuni- ties for other kinds of exercise. To speak very loud, however, or exercise the voice immediately after a meal, is hurtful to the lungs, as well as to the organs of digestion. Singing, as by the vibratory motion of the air it shakes the lungs, promotes in a remark- able degree the circulation of the blood. Hence those sedentary mechanics who, from habit, almost constantly sing at then- work, unintentionally contribute much to the preservation of their health. DIADELPHIA. The 17th class of the Linnaean system of plants, containing four orders, Pentandria, Hexaudria, Octanc'ria, and Decandria, with the stamina united into two bodies by the filaments. ** HABERDASHERS. The haberdashers (hurriers or cappers of old time so called), were originally a branch of the mercers. Haberdashersof small wares, siichas ribands, laces, &c, were called millainers (milliners), an appellation derived from their dealing in merchandise chiefly imported from Milan, in Italy, such as brooches, agglets, spurs, capes, glasses, &c. Amongst other ware3 also which constituted a part of the haber- dashery of the period, were pins, before the introduction of which the English ladies are stated to have used points or skewers made of thorns, to fasten their garments with; but long before the decease of Eliza- beth they were manufactured in great num- bers in England. In the reign of Henry VI. [1422 — 1461] there were not more than a dozen haberdashers' 6hops in the whole city. The business of the haberdasher was not, however, confined to the lighter articles of a lady's wardrobe, but extended to the sale of daggers, swords, knives, spurs, glasses, dials, tables, balls, cards, puppets, inkhorns, tooth-picks, fine earthen pots, salt-cellars, spoons, tin dishes; and even mouse-traps, bird-cages, shoeing-horns, lanterns, and jews' harps. MUSES (THE NINE). The Muses ori- ginally consisted of three in number: name- ly, Mnemosyne, memory; Melete, medita- A MTSCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 120 tion; Acde, eong. They were augmented to nine, became the inhabitants of their ancient town, being desirous of piecing in the Temple of Apollo the statues ox the three muses, and these being of extraordinary beauty, they ordered three of the most skilful Sculptors to execute, each, the statues of the three muses, which made up the number of nine, and from which it was proposed to se- lect the three most perfect statues. But •when the choice came to be made, they found the. whole nine 60 beautiful, that it was agreed to take them all, and call them the "nine muses," and place them in the Temple of Apollo as such. From this accident (it is thought) they derived their origin, and the six other attributes of poetry were given as additional sisters. CERES, in heathen mythology, the god- dess of corn, and daughter of Saturn and Cybele. Ceres is also a Bmall planet which revolves round the sun in four years, seven months, and ten days, at the distance of 260,000.000 of miles. BARON. A title of honour granted by the king or queen, and secured to the re- ceiver's descendants; the lowest rank of the peerage. His wife is a baroness. In France, Germany, &c. the title of baron is only equivalent to the English baronet. HOUSES ('1 K AJ SS POSITION OF). The annexed diagram will explain the method by which houses are removed. The building, of course, must be a detached one. Openings are made in the end walls, just above the ground, large enough to insert beams about fifteen inches square arross tho building (1) ; the < ml of each beam is sup- ported cm blocks of wood, fixed into the ground, and clear of the walls, and each beam made firm and tight by driving wedges between the beams and the up- right block. A\* 1 h n this has been done, the foundation is cleared away, and a clear space left. Then other beams (2) arc placed under the first, and resting like them on blocks of wood, and by this means the front and back walls are sup- ported ; and now the whole foundation is exposed. The screws (3) are placed under the ends of the second beams (2), which are forced upwards by their means, and the weight of the whole building sustained by them. The ground underneath being ail removed, a set of grooved-ways, or beams (6), are placed where the end walls formerly stood, and the cradles (5), which are beams with a projection corresponding to the groove in the ways, are placed on them, both being previously well greased. Largo beams (4) are placed over the cradles, between them and the beams (2) which support the ends of the house, and wedges driven in to render the whole tight and secure, which is also effected by additional blocks (7)- The screws are now removed, and being placed horizontally, are made to act to- gether against the cradles, and move them i along the ways, at the rate of four feet a day, to the place the house is to occupy. Then, by inverting the operations, the beams are removed, and the house firmly fixed, without sustaining any injury, and often without even moving us much as a chair from the house. CHEMICAL TRANSMUTATIONS. Linen can be converted into sugar; sugar into alcohol (spirits) and carbonic acid ; alcohol canbechanged intoethortmd water; sugar, can also be converted into oxalic acid, also into pure charcoal (carbon) and water. Alcohol (spirit*) will readily change into vinegar (acetic acid) Starch may be trans- muted either into gum, alcohol, sugar, acetifl or oxalic acid, as well as many other sub- stances, to which, however, the chemists have given such hard names that we cannot find a pen strong enough to write them. 130 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: TOOTHACHE. The cause of toothache may be thus explained : — Within the tooth is a cavity filled with a nervous pulp — of course highly sensitive— and under the in- fluence of injury, exposure, and disease, affords one of the sources of " toothache." The roots of the tooth are surrounded by a membrane, a similar one to which lines the socket into which they are planted." In- flammation in these membranes is another source of toothache. They become filled with blood, but cannot expand, and conse- quently compress the nerve with the power, almost, of an hydraulic press, causing most severe agony. SHILLING. This word is supposed by Bome to be derived from the Latin — silicas, ■which signifies a quarter of an ounce, or the forty-eighth part of a .Roman pound. At the time of the Conquest, the shilling was worth fourpence. Afterwards, the French tottdus of twelve-pence was called by the name of shilling, and the Saxon shilling of fourpence took the name of groat, ox great coin, because it was the largest English coin then known. -MUSK. Of all odours the most intoler- able to those who do not use it is musk. Many persons are inconvenienced by it to such a degree that they could not stay for five minutes in a room containing the mi- nutest quantity of it. It is also the odour jyhich adheres the longest. A coat upon •which musk has been thrown will smell of it at the end of two years, though it may have been during the whole time exposed to the open air; but in apartments it will en- dure almost for ever. The Empress Josephine was very fond of perfumes, and, above all, of musk. Her dressing-room at Malmaison was filled with it, in spite of Napoleon's fre- quent remonstrances. Twenty-five years after her death, M. Hagerman, who became the owner of Malmaison, had the walls of that dressing-room repeatedly washed and painted; but neither scrubbing, aquafortis, nor paint, were able to remove the smell of the good Empress' musk. W E I ) I) IN ( x RINGS (ORIGIN OF) . The singular custom of wearing wedding-rings appears to have taken its rise among the Jtornans. Before the celebration of their nuptials there was a meeting of friends at the house of the lady's father, to settle arti- cles of the marriage contract, when it was agreed that the dowry should be paid down on the wedding-day, or soon after. On this occasion there was commonly a feast, at the conclusion of which the man gave to the woman, as a pledge, a ring, which she put on the forth finger. TURPENTINE. Common turpentine is the natural resinous juice which exists in trees of the fir tribe. It is obtained in large quantities from the wild pine, or Scotch fir, but it is brought to us phieflv from the northern countries of Europe. To procure the turpentine, the trees are stripped of their outer bark in the month of May, to the ex- tent of about six inches, so as to expose the inner smooth bark, near the foot of the tree, where an incision is made. VENTBILOQUISM. The main secret of ventriloquism simply consists in first making a strong and deep inspiration, by which a considerable quantity of air is intro- duced into the lungs, to be afterwards acted upon by the flexible powers of the larynx, or cavity situated behind the tongue and the windpipe ; thus prepared, the expiration should be slow and gradual. Any person, by practice, can, therefore, obtain more or less expertness in this exercise, in which, though not apparently, the voice is still mo- dified by the mouth and tongue ; and it is in the concealment of this aid that much of the perfection of ventriloquism lies. PORCELAIN. The name of porcelain is derived from the Portuguese word porcelana, which signifies a cup. It was adopted from the 'circumstance that the Portuguese were the first importers of porcelain from China. In America the term China, or China-ware is more commonly used. OATMEAL. The oat, though not much cultivated in America as an article of food for man, still furnishes one of the most important and productive crops of the farm. Its scientific Latin name avena is of doubt- ful interpretation ; from it the French derive their word /'avoine. The native country of the oat is also considered quite unknown; though it appears certain that all the culti- vated species flourish most in cold climates. In Scotland, for example, it arrives at great perfection, as well as in the northern coun- ties of England To the Scots its meal is important: they use it in great quantities, not merely in the form of water-gruel, but in porridge and puddings. But Scotch oat- meal is a very different thing from the poor perishable article which is sold in America ; the grain is dried and husked by a peculiar process; and then is ground to three degrees of fineness It will keep and improve in qualify during any length of time: and the more it is pressed the better. .M 0.1 AIR. This is the hair of a variety of the common goat, famous for being as soft and fine as silk, and of a silvery white- ness It is not produced anywhere but in the vicinity of Angora, in Asia Minor. A MISCELLANY OF TTSEFEL KNOWLEDGE. 131 THIRST (CAUSE OK). Intense thirst la said to be caused by the extreme dryness o\' the air when the temperature u low. In ii.is state it abeti nets a large amount of mois- ture from the human body. The soil ami extensive surface which the Lungs expose twentj -fire times or oftener every minute to nearly two hundred cubic inches of dry sir, must yield a quantity of vapour which one can hardly spare with impunity'. The hu- man Bkin throughout its whole extent, even where it was brought to the hardness of horn, as well as the softest and most dedicate parts, is continually exhaling vapour, and tins ex- halation creates in due proportion a demand for water. Let a person out examine the inside of his boots aftei a walk in the open air at a low temperature, and the accumula- tion of condensed vapour which he finds there will convince him of the active state of the skin. In cold countries, the stockings have been found adhering to the soles of the boots after a walk of a few hours. The hoar frost and snow which they contained could not have been there by any other means ex- cept exhalation from the skin. CELERY. In earthing up celery the greatest care is necessary to prevent any portion of the earth from falling into the heart, of the plant, which would prevent the upright growth of the inside leaves, and •noil its appearance for the table; nor should the earth be pressed too closely round the Upper part of the plant, as frequently, when such is the case, it bulges out below. The best practice is to tie each plant up loosely •with matting (having previously removed the suckers and small leaves), and then a little earth can be added every week, as the plant increases in height. Another common error arises from earthing celery up too soon. It should be allowed to grow to a consider- able size before earthing up is attempted, and be frequently soaked with water, as but little rain will reach the roots afterwards; it should likewise never be touched when the plants are at all damp. E\RLY RISING. Dr. Wilson Philip, in his "Treatise on Indigestion," says — '• Al- though it is of consequence to the debilitated to go early to bed, there are few things more hurtful to them than remaining in it too long. Getting up an hour or two earlier often gives a degree of vigour which nothing else can procure. For those who are not much debilitated and sleep well, the best rule is to get out of bed soon after waking in the morning. This at first may appear too early, for the debilitated require more sleep than the healthy ; but rising early will gra- d aally prolong "the sleep on the succeeding night, till the quantity the patient enjoyd is equal to his demand fur it. Lying late is Hot only hurtful by the relaxation it occa- sions, DUt also by occupying that part of 'he ■ hich exercise is mosl benefioial." HOSIERY. All hosier} is to be judged by the fineness of the thread and the ness of the texture, which, in the ft I stockings especially, may be partly apre- ciated by weighing, as it were, the articles in the hand, in ribbed stockingsa deception is sometimes practised, against which it is necessary to guard. The spaces between the ribs, which ought to be formed by an inver- sion of the Stitch, contains no st'itch at all, but an open range of threads pervious to the weather, and utterly destitute of durability. As the ribs of stockings exposed to sale are necessarily almost in contact, the fault can- not be detected without introducing the hand and opening the tissue, when it will be in- stantly apparent; and, indeed, will exactly resemble the Haw caused by a dropped stitch in a stocking in wear. In cheap cotton stockings the feet are often cut out and sewed together, but these seams invariably hurt the foot. TAINTING ON VELVET. Among the various accomplishments of the present day, no fancy-work is j erhaps more elegant, pro- duces a better effect, and is, at the same time, more easily and quickly performed, than painting on velvet. Possessing all the beauty of colour of a piece of wool-work, it is in every way superior, as the tints used in this style of painting do not fade; and an article which it would take a month, at least, to manufacture with the needle, may be completed in four or six hours on white velvet, with the softest and most finished effect imaginable. The first thing necessary to be done, after obtaining the colours and the velvet (which should be cotton, or more properly vel- veteen, as most common cotton velvets are not sufficiently thick, and silk velvet, be- sides the expense, is not found to answer), is to prepare the formula for the group in- tended to be painted. Get a piece of tracing or silver-paper the size of the cushion, mat, or screen you wish to paint, then lay it carefully upon the group you wish to copy and trace through. Should the paper slip, the formula will be incorrect ; it will be therefore well to use weights to keep all flat. Having traced your flowers, remove the thin paper, and laying it on a piece of cartridge paper the same size, go over the pencil-marks by pricking them out with a fine needle, inserted in a cedar stick. Now that you have your whole pattern pricked 132 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY! out clearly upon a stiff paper, take eight or nine more pieces of cartridge paper, of the game size as the first, and laying them, one by one, in turn, under the pricked pattern, shake a little powdered indigo over, and then rub with a roll of list or any soft ma- terial. The indigo, fulling through the punctures, will leave the pattern in blue Bpots on the sheet of paper beneath; then proceed in like manner with the remaining formulas until you have the self-same pat- tern neatly traced, in blue dots, on them all. Next, with a sharp penknife, you mutt cut out the leaves, petals, and calices of the group, taking care to form only a few on each formula, and those not too near together, lest there should not be suf- ficient room to rub between the spaces, and that, for in-tame, the green tint intended for the leaf should intrude on the azure or crimson of the nearest convolvulus ; for in this sort of work erasure is impossible. The following diagrams will show how the formulas should be cut, so as to leave proper spaces, as above-mentioned. The shading denotes the parts cut out. Formula 1. Some leaves may be cut out in two halves, as the large ones in the pattern ; others all in one, as the small leaf : but it is chiefly a matter of taste. The large leaves should, however, generally be divided. In each formula there should be two guides — one on the top of the left-hand side, the other at the bottom of the right-hand corner — to enable the formulas always to be placed on the same spot in the velvet. For instance, as in Formula 2, A and B are the two guides, and are parts cut out, in Formula 2, of leaves, the whole of which were cut out in No. 1 ; and therefore, alter No. 1 is painted, and No. 2 applied, the ends of the painted leaves will show through, if No. 2 be put on straight ; if, when once right, the formula is kept down with weights at the corners, it cannot fail to match at all points. Care should, however, be taken never to put paint on the guides, as it would necessarily leave an abrupt line in the centre of the leaf. "While cutting out the formulas, it is a good plan to maik with a cross or dot those leaves which you have already cut out on the formulas preceding, so that there Formula 2. will be no confusion. When your formulas are all cut, wash them over with a prepara- tion made in this manner : put into a wide- mouthed bottle some resin and shell-lac — about two ounces of each are sufficient; on this pour enough spirits of wine or naphtha to cover it, and let it stand to dissolve, shaking it every now and then. If it is not quite dissolved as you wish it, add rather more spirits of wine ; then wash the formulas all over on both sides with the preparation, and let them dry. Now taking Formula No. 1, lay it on the white velvet, and place weights on each corner to keep it steady ; now pour into a little saucer a small quantity of the colour called Saxon green, shaking the boitle first, as there is apt to be a sediment ; then take the smallest quantity possible on your brush (for if too much be taken, it runs, and flattens the pile of the velvet; the brush should have thick short bristles, not camel-hair, and there ought to be a separate brush for each tint : they are sold with the colours). Now begin on the darkest part of the leaf, and work lightly round and round in a circulai motion, taking care to hold the brush up- right, and to work more as it were on the formula than on the velvet. Should you find the velvet getting crushed down and rough, from having the brush too damp, continue to work lightly till it is drier, then brush the pile the right way of it, and it will be as smooth as before. Do all* the green in each formula in the same manner, unless there be any blue-greens, whtvi they should be grounded instead with the tint called grass green. Next, if any of the leaves are to be tinted red, brown, or yellow, as autumn leaves, add the colour over the A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 133 Saxon green before you shade with full viiirli will be title next thing to be done ; blue-g • to be shaded also . while tip- green is yet damp, wih a small camel hair pencil vein the leaves with ultramarine The tendrils and stalks are also t<> be done with the small brush. You can now begin the Sowers; take, for instance, the convolvulus in the pattern. It should be grounded with azure, and shaded with ultram urine (which colour, wherever used, should always be mixed with water, and rubbed on a palette with a knife); the stripes in it are rose- •olour, and should be tinted from the rose earner. White rosei ami camellias, lilies, ire only lightly shaded with white ■hading; and il surrounded by dark flowers and leaves so U to stand out well, will have a very good e!h\ >. era can easily be taken from nature in the following manner. — A A, D D, is a frame of d ft al, made light, and about two ng, and eight or ten inches in width. The pa it D D is made to slide in a groove in A A, so that the frame may be Lengthened or shortened at pleasure. A vertical frame, C, is fixed to the part D, and two grooved upright pieces, B B, fixed to the other part. 3 uprights should be about nine inches high, and C half that height. There is piece of wood at the end A of the frame, marked E, with a small hole for the eye, and tiiere is a hole in the top C oppo- site to it. S is a piece of gbis^, sliding in the grooves in B B. In the hole II is placed the tiower or flowers to be copied. If a group is wished, more holes should be made, and the flowers carefully arranged. The eye being directed to this" through the hole in E. it can be sketched on the glass bv means of a pencil of lithographic chalk. It is afterwards copied through by slipping the gl ass out, laying it on a table, and placing over it a piece of tracing-paper. When traced on the paper, proceed as before to make the formulas. Of course, so delicate a thing as white velvet will be found at length to soil. "When this is the case, it can be dyed without in any way injuring the painting. F' r this a 7 dye is prepared bv the manufacturer of the colours, and can be procured with them. Dye thus: — Get an old •late-frame, or make a wire frame; add to it a handle, as in annexed figure; then tie over it a net- work of packthread; next cut a piece of cardboard the exact size of your group, so as to completely cover it, the hedges of the cardboard being cut into all the ins and outs of the outer line of the group ; then placing it carefully over the painting, so as to lit exactly, lay a weight on it to keep it in place. Then dip a large brush into the dye, hold the flame over the velvet (which should be stretched out flat — to nail the corners to a drawing-board is best), and by brushing across the net-work, a rain of dye will fall on the velvet be- neath, Do not let the frame touch the velvet; it should be held some little way up. Then just brush the velvet itself with the brush of dye, to make all smooth, and leave the vel- vet nailed to the board till it is dry. Groups, whetherfreshly done, or dyed, are greatly im- proved, when perfectly dry, by being brushed all over with a clean and rather soft hat-brush, as it renders any little roughness, caused by putting on the paint too wet, completely smooth and even as before. Music-stools, the front of pianos, ottomans, banner- screens, pole-screens, and borders for table- cloths look very handsome done in this manner. MOSS (FORMATION OF). In order that moss may be renovated, when dug, it is requisite that the pits be left full of water; that they be not too large nor deep, and that the water in them be stagnant. It ap- pears that similar requisites are necessary to the original formation of that substance, either from ligneous or aquatic plants. Moisture seems to be absolutely requisite. Without it no moss is formed of these ma- terials. Let a congeries of ligneous or aquatic plants be formed, however great they may be, if left dry, or not immersed in water, it never will be converted into peat. Such a mass indeed will, even in this case, undergo certain chemical changes, and form new com- binations, but the result will be different from that substance. When exposed to the influences of the atmosphere, it will under- go the putrid fermentation, and be reduced to vegetable mould. In this form it will be destitute of the distinguishing quali- ties of moss, inflammability, tenacity, and others. 134 PACTS FOR EVERYBODY, STAMMERING (CUKE FOE). The philosoph}' of the cure is simple. Stam- mering is occasioned by the effort to speak while inhaling ; and utterance is only ob- tained when the lungs become full of air, and the process of breathing out begins. The lesson given is, never to attempt to epeak until after taking breath. So long as the individual can think of this law, and carefully apply it, no impediment would occur; but the habit of years is not to be overcome by a few days, or even weeks, of perseverance, and, in most cases, the stam- merer returns in a little time to the old order of things. It is known that stam- merers can sing without manifesting the slightest impediment ; and the reason is plain — the chest has to be constantly sup- plied with air, like an organ, in order to produce the desired musical sounds. It is unquestionably true, that stammering may be prevented by carefully observing the directions above given. That the cure does not remain is not, we think, so much a defect in the means as a failure on the part of the individual to use them long enough. The habit of years is not to be overcome in a week or a month. There must be per- severance, and for many months, perhaps years. BIRD-STUFFING. Bird-stuffers, in pre- paring and skinning a bird or other annual ready for preserving, use burnt alum to rub over any wet or bloody part, that it may not soil the rest. In this case its peculiar astringency assists in tanning or rather hardening the skin, so that it is not so liable to contract mouldiness, nor to become the prey of the moth and other destructive in- sects. All that is necessary is to put some powdered alum in a ladle or fire-shovel over the fire. It will soon melt, boil, and swell up. It is to be kept on the fire till all the water has evaporated, and until it becomes so brittle as to break easily into a fine powder. BUTTER (TO CURE). Take two quarts of the best common salt, one ounce of sugar, and one ounce of common saltpetre ; take one ounce of this composition for one pound of butter, work it well into the mass, and close it up for use. The butter cured with this mixture appears of a rich and marrowy consistence and fine colour, and never ac- quires a brittle hardness nor tastes salty. I)r. Anderson says : "I have enten butter cured with the above composition that has been kept for three years, and it was as sweet as at first." It must be noted, how- ever, that butter thus cured requires to stand three weeks or a month before it is used. If it is sooner opened, the salts are not suf- ficiently blended with it, and sometimes the coolness of the nitre will be perceived, which totally disappeara afterwards. CONDIMENTS. Thenameof condiment is usually given to those substances which are taken with food for the immediate pur- pose of improving its flavour. But most of them serve other and much more important purposes in the animal economy than that # of gratifying the palate. They are, in effect, mostly alimentary substances; as salt, sugar, oil or fat, and vegetable acids. RICE-PAPER (TO MODEL IN) Rice- paper is principally applied to the formation of groups of flowers, either on cardboard, or atlixed to small vases, baskets, &c, in fes- toons and clusters. The rice-paper may be procured in various colours, and interme- diate tints may be made by colouring the white. Several pieces of rice-paper are laid on each other upon a tablet of lead, and the leaves and component parts of flowers are cut out with small steel punches, which may be procured in every variety of form at the fancy-tool warehouses. A sufficient quantity of the different leaves having been thus formed, and placed on separate trays, each leaf is to be held by a delicate pair of tweezers, and its end affixed, with stiff gum water, to the article lequiring ornament. Thus, the heads of roses and thick clusters of flowers are formed, and tine delicate parts may be drawn in colours afterwards. Water- colour drawings are frequently made on leaves of rice-paper, for scrap-books, screens, &c. The effect of the colours, if properly managed, on this material, is very soft and delicate. PLATED WARE. The manufacture of plated ware is peculiarly English. At all periods a thin sheeting of silver may have been used as an outer coating to inferior substances in order to save expense, but such coating did not intimately connect with the under material. In referring to Hunter's " Hallamshire," the part of York- shire in which Sheffield is situated, it appears that the first introduction of plating on copper was in the year 1742, by a Mr. Thomas Bolsover, of the body of the Corpo- ration of Cutlers, at Sheffield, and, like most other ingenious arts, was discovered by acci- dent. He was repairing a knife-handle, composed of silver and of copper, and was struck with the possibility of uniting the two metals so as to form a cheap substance presenting an exterior of silver, and which might be used in various articles in which silver onlv had bef>re been emploved. HOLYROOD (ORIGIN OF). "The story BLLAHT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 135 is thus 6tatcd : — King David T., being OB I hunting match in the forest of Drumselch, near Edinburgh, on a rood-day. was attacked by a largo hart, and his life was in the utmost danger. While lie was endeavour- ing to defend himself with his hands against the furious assaults of the animal, a mira- culous Dross from heaven slipped into his haul, which so frightened the .-tag, that he retreated immediately. This wonderful circumstance haying, of course, put an end to the (diase, David repaired to the castle ot Edinburgh, where, in a dream, he was in- structed to erect an abbey, or house, for Canons Regular, on the place where the d ci os-; was put into his hands. In obedience to this visionary command, the king erected an abbey for the said purpose, and dedicated it to the Holy-Rood, or Holy- Cross, and deposited the same therein, where it is said to have remained till the rei?n of David IT. THERMOMETERS FOR COMPARI- SON should all be placed at a certain height from the ground — they should all face the north (except those which are re- quired to register the maximum temperature in the sunshine, which should face the south); they should not be influenced by radiated heat, by currents, by reflected heat (such as is communicated from an opposite wa-U) by absorption of heat from the wall, or wood-work to which the th rmometer is attached ; and, in short, they should be situated where there is a free passage of air. "With regard to the height that a thermo- meter is placed above the ground, it is ascer- tained that an inch occasionally makes a difference of a few degrees. JAMS (TO PRESERVE FROM MOULD). Cut a round circle of writing paper, the size of the interior of the pot, and one about an inch and a half larger. Take the white of an eg?, and a pastehrush, and lay a coating of white of egg over the surface of the smaller circle, and then lay that piece on the top of the jam, with the untouched side of the paper next to the jam. Take- the larger piece, and coat that on one side with white of egg. and let the surface thus coated be the one turned inwards. This circle is to cover the Eot ; and the white of egg renders it ad- esive. and pastes it firmly down all round the edge of the crock. HOUR-GLASS. An hour-glass may be made thus: — Procure a cork that will fit the nocks of two oil-flasks, and make a neat hole through it with a round file. In the middle of this hole fasten a bead, or £iece of tobacco pipe, a quarter of an inch mg. Dry some common house-sand in a ladle over the lire, and shako it through a tine sieve or muslin hag; fill one of tho flasks with it, fit in the cork, and rami it over a jug or the neck of a.wine-bottle ; let it run for an hour; collect the sand that has passed through, pour the rest away; return the sand to the flask, and lit in the other. Place the whole in a wooden frame for sup- port. Egg-glasses are to be made with two small phials, furnished with sand to run for three minutes. The flasks should be well dried by the fire, and the cork sealed in. If oily, they may be cleaned with a little hot water, sand, and salt of tartar. AMBULANCE. A light caravan, fur- nished with surgeons' assistants and order- lies for attending the wounded on the battle field. During the disastrous Crimean war, the readers of the illustrated papers had frequent opportunities of realizing the utility of these moveable field hospitals; several new amb lances were at that time invented and constructed, both by the English and French, some of them very complete in their arrangements and ap- pointments ; and the poor wounded soldiers had often cause to bless the humanity which planned, and the mechanical skill which constructed, these carriages for con- veying their mutilated and agonized bodies to the more permanent hospital. SNUFF-TAKING. Snuff is said to have originated with the French ; and indeed it is very probable that no other nation in the world would have imagined so sine I mode of using tin; tobacco pi int. During the last century it was indispensable for every French gentleman to carry a snuli- box, and the sale of snuff was found so ad- vantageous, that the Trench Government created a monopoly of snuff manufacture in its own favour, which monopoly subsisted for many years. As to the use of snuff', it can- not bui be pernicious, for it acts upon the brain, causing intoxication and sickness. Besides this, a full third of the powder taken into the nostrils enters the stomach, creating a truly distressing disturbance of that organ. As to breaking off the habit, half-resolution will not suffice J nothing but total abstinence will eradicate it. QUAKER. This was a title applied in derision when George Fox, the first of this sect, was committed to Derby gaol for pro- mulgating their opinions openly, by preach- ing the necessity of the life of God in tho soul. When brought before the magistrate, he told him to trtmbU at the word of tho Lord. The derision has long since passed away, and the term Quaker is become re- spectable. I ! 6 facts ron evebybody: thers and the tail very long, in which latter respect they resemble the Parakeets, than which, however, they are generally larger birds They are usually more sedate and less given to mischievous practices, such as biting and tearing things to pieces, than other members of the family, although they are vivacious birds, and withal very noisy ones, occupying a great deal of their time in discordant screeching. There is much of grace in their motions, and the rich metallic reflections which play over their plumage renders them extremely ornamental in the hall or drawing-room. These Macaws are mostly natives of the tropical parts of America, where they nestle in the holes of decayed trees, which some are said to ex- cavate in the same way as do our Wood- pecker* It is certain that one species burrows in the elevated banks of rivers and streams, and perhaps others may do the same, for of their habits in a wild state but little comparatively is known. With regard to food, they appear to prefer dry seeds to succulent berries; in the neighbourhood of cultivated lands they feed much on coffee. They can scarcely be called gregarious, being found mostly in pairs ; sometimes two or throe of these pairs form a little commu- nity, but there does not seem to be much sociability among them. PARROTS. In works on natural history, we generally h'nd the mem- bers of this family of levirostovs, or large billed birds, ranged under six divisions ; but it will be sufficient to enumerate only those that are usually treated as household pets, viz. the Macaws, which in- clude the Cockatoos and Toucans; the Parrots, wb ; ch include the Pa- rakeets; and the Lories, which have, perhaps, the most gorgeous plumage of any. Let us commence with the first-named division — The Macaws, which) for gracefulness of form and richness of plumage, may vie with the most beautiful members of their tribe. They are distinguished from the true Parrots by having the cheeks bare of fea- Cockatoos. These birds are among the largest of the Parrot tribe, and nmst of them are distinguished, in a greater or less degree, by the beautiful crest of feathers on* the head, which they can elevate or depress at pleasure. The name of the group is de- rived from the loud and distinct call-note of some of the species belonging to it, sound- ing xike the syllables cock-a-too very dis- tinctly uttered. They are mostly natives of Australia and the Indian Isles, where they breed in the holes of decayed trees, like many Parrots and Macaws ; they have short and powerful bills, remarkably deep at the base, and often nearly concealed by the projecting feathers of the face; the upper mandible, which is much arched, projects considerably over the lower, nearly enclosing it like a sheath ; near the tip it becomes narrow and acute, the cutting edges are sinuated or toothed. The Cock- atoos feed upon the seeds of various trees and plants, being able to crack the stones of the hardest fruits , they form a well-marked genus, distinguished from other groups of the Pvitticinee by the above-named charac- teristics, and also by their light and uniform colour, which is mostly white, tinged more or less, in different species, with sulphur- yellow, or rose-red. Like the true Parro s, they have a short and even tail; and tie A MISCELLANY OF TJSEETJL KNOWLEDGE. 137 massive and powerful bill, and robust scan- Borial or climbing feel may be taken as typical marks oi their scientific ola tion. They do not possess the imitative powers of the Parrots generally ; their own peculiar name, or cry', being all that they are able to acquire or utter. TOUCANS. These birds are all distin- guished by their enormous bills, which are convex above, and much hooked towards the point; although very light, they are of great strength, and, being toothed at the edges, they are formidable instruments of destruction, when used, as they sometimes are, in attacking other birds, which the Toucans ehase from their nests, in order to get at the eggl and young, which they de- vour in sight of the unhappy parents. During the season of incubation they are ,6aid to live chiefly on this kind of food, although at other times they eat fruits, insects, and the tender buds of plants. The Toucans are found chiefly in the warmer regions of America, where they go in little flocks of from six to ten ; although heavy flyers, they reach the top of the highesttrees, where they are fond of perching. Tbey make their nests in the hollows of trees. The female lays but two egg s, like other Parrots. The young are easily reared and tamed; they will eat almost anything; their mode of eating solid food is very pecu- liar. When the morsel is presented, they take it on the point of the bill, throw it up- ward, and then catch it in the open mouth so dexterously that it goes at once into the aperture of the gullet, and is tlien swallowed witiiout difficulty. The Toucans are so sensible to cold that they dread the night air, even in tropical countries; it is there- fore necessary to keep them in a warm tem- perature. Their tongues are more hard and inflexible than those of other Parrots; con- sequently they do not shine as speakers — their utterance is usually confined to a kind of croak. Pakkotn. We now come to the Parrot proper, forming what is called the tvpical group, or I'sii/ir/'/ur, of the great family. In this group are included all the short and even-tinted species whi found distributed throughout all parts of tho globe, but chiefly in the tropical countries, and especially those of America. Their general form may be described as rather strong and compact than elegant. 'I ho colours of their plumage are not so varied and brilliant as those of the Macaws and Lories, although some of the Parakeets, which are usually classed with them, may vie in this respect wit!i the most superb of the tribe. But the true Parrots are chiefly valued on account of their aptitude for imi- tation and extraordinary power of articulat- ing words and sentences, in which art they are the greatest proficients of any. Pabaxfetb. The term Parakeet, or, as it is sometimes spelled, Paroquet, is a kind of diminutive of Parrot, and is usually applied to the smaller species of those beau- tiful and interesting birds of which we are now treating; as a distinctive term, how- ever, it is of little value, as some species which are called Parrots are of smaller size than others known as Parakeets. As a general rule, it may be understood that those known bv the latter name are not only the smaller, hut also the more slender and ele- gantly-proportioned birds, with long pointed tails ; several of them are distinguished by rings round the necks, and these are mostly Asiatic and African species. The Parrots commonly— indeed, all the true Parrots — are stout, heavy birds, with short and even, or slightly rounded tails. LOBTBB. The name "Lory," is, like " Cockatoo," derived from the call-note of some of the species of birds to which it is applied. These are among the n of ihe PaiTot family ; they are all na : the East, and are, generally speaking, more 138 TACTS FOE EVERYBODY: delicate in their nature than the Macaws, Cockatoos, &c. Hence it is, that, although plentiful in their native climes, they.;. no means common here, most attempts to hring them alive to Europe being failures. It will, therefore, be understood, that much care is necessary to their preservation when in confinement, In this group of birds the tongue is not so thick and fleshy as in other Parrots, and the tip, instead of being smooth and soft, is rough and horny, being thus better adapted for extracting the nectar of flowers, and sucking the juices of soft fruits, on which they chiefly feed in a wild state ; the bill, too, is mo; e\veak and slender in its proportions. There are other structural differences, into which we need not here enter. Food. Bread and milk should form the chief diet for these birds, and this is how it should be prepared : — take best white bread, moderately new, cut it into slices and place it in hot water : let it stand for a short time, then drain off the liquid, and pour over it as much boiling milk as it will absorb with- out being too moist ; place this food in the feeding vessel, which should be of porcelain, or glass ; and give it fresh twice a day, taking care that the vessel is carefully washed each time before the food is put in. In the winter time a supply for the whole day may be made, but in hot weather it should not he more than ten or twelve hours obi. This kind of soft food should not be exclusively employed, but have occasional variations in tiie shape of biscuit, broken small farinaceous grain, and nuts of any kind, fruit both soft and hard ; if Indian corn is given, it should be first boiled, then drained dry, and suffered to cool: this is for the larger kinds of Parrots ; to the smaller give, besides bread and milk, soft fruit, with hemp and canary seed, and millet. A cayenne pepper .-pod, chopped small, is good occasionally for all kinds; but meat should be avoided ; and so should pastry and sweets generally. It is a mistaken kindness to feed feathered pets too highly ; the digestive organs of birds in confinement never have fair play, for want of that exercise which, in a wild state, they would take : therefore, let them have easily digestive food; do not overload their stomachs, and so engender diseases which will render their lives mi>e- r'V ■. if they do not bring them to an un- timely end. .—Let them have plenty of this, both to drink and bathe in, and be sure that it is at all times clean and sweet. Lodging. We need not say much upon this head ; everybody knows what a Parrot requires—a good roomy cage, if he be kept ;n one (the bell-shape is the best), made of metal wire, not painted ; a loose ring to swing on above, and a perch or two below, .vith proper eating and drinking vessels, not of zinc or pewter, but, as we said before, of glass or porcelain. Sprinkle the bottom with coarse sand, and in warm weather clean out every day; in cold, twice a week or so will do, or even once. Bear in mind that Parrots are mostly tropical birds, and care- fully guard them from exposure to cold. Let them have as much sunshine as possible, and whenever the weather will permit, place them in the open air amid flowering shrubs : at other times, where a greenhouse is available, let them go there. An aviary with myrtles and other odoriferous plants about it, and the temperature well up, will make them think they are in their native spice isles of the Eastern Seas. For the larger kinds of Parrots, Macaws, and Cocka- toos, the open perch is the thing ; let the chain of attachment be of a good length, and as slight as is consistent with strength: no silken cord will do, for the strong man- dibles of the bird will soon sever this, be it ever so thick ; tin vessels for food and drink may be aftixed to the perch ; but take care that, they do not get rusty and corroded. Teaching and Training. Be patient, be gentle, — and if the pupil can learn, he will; repeat the lesson frequently, and give rewards for diligence and attention (some choice morsel), but never threaten or punish — no good is effected by this, but much harm. Never let your bird be teased or trifled with — many a good temper has been spoiled by such means— many a fond, affec- tionate creature rendered spiteful and morose. Think of the deprivations to which the poor captive is subjected for the plea- sure of its possessor; of what he would enjoy if he were at liberty in his own home, of warm sunshine and luxuriant vegetation; and do all you can to make his prison-life pleasant and agreeable to him. A " FONT" OF TYPE. As a scrap of information we give the proportions in which the different letters are cast to a font of type, and in which they occur in print : Letter e, 1500 ; t, 000 ; a, 850 ; n, o, s, i, 800 ; h, G40 ; r, 620; d, 440 ; u, 340 ; c, m, 300 ; f, 250; w, y, 200 ; g, p, 170 ; b, 1G0 ; v, 120 ; k, 80 ; q, 50 ; j, x, 40 ; z, 20. Besides these are the combined letters, fi,50 ; tf, 40 ; fi, 20 ; ffi, 15 ; ffl, 10 ; a3, 10 ; ce, 5. The proportion of the different letters of capitals differs very mate- rially from that of the small letters, the letter I being used most frequently, then T, then A and E. &c A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 139 MEDALLION WAFERS. Colour (lie best and most transparent glue or gelatine with Brasil wood, tumeric, Prussian blue, lap given, or other colour. Pill up the hol- low part of a seal with gum water, mixed with a powder, Buehaa white-lead, red-lead, chrome yellow, lampblack, &C. Leave the flat part of the seal clear; then pou** as much ol" the melted coloured glue on the seal as will lie upon it; let it dry by a gentle heat. When used, wet the paper to which the water is to be applied, and place the wafer upon it. DRAWING. The principle of light, shadow, and reflection, for solid objects, may be studied by a very simple process. Select a white globe, — a billiard-ball will answer the purpose, — place it in a room in which there is one window; then turn it in different lights, and it will be observed that there La only one part of it which can be re- presented perfectly white, the other rays falling obliquely upon a receding surface, it fails at last into p. rfect shadow, and is only relieved by the reflection of surrounding ob- jects on tile opposite side. An oval may be rej resented by an f^^, a cone by rolling up paper in the form of an extinguisher. It is by these simple models that the pupil can readily study all the general principles of shadowing. The same principles of light anil shade is applicable to each study of the art ; simplicity is one of the leading cha- racteristics of beauty in every object for the study of a young artist. TRACING PAPER This is made of the refuse of the flax-mills, and being formed into a semi-transparent stuff, yields a trans- parent paper. The same material is used for the paper of bank-notes; but for this latter purpose it is bleached with chlorinated lime. BRITAIN. The etymology of this word is the country of tin; as there were great quantities of lead and tin found on the ad- jacent islands. The Greeks called it Albion, which signifies, in the l'henician tongue, either white or high mountains, from the whiteness of its shores, or the high rocks on the western ■ OTTOMAN KMPIRE (TTIE) The total number of square miles belonging to this empire is 904,233, which is made up as follows — European Turkey contains 180,074 square miles; Asiatic Turkey, 417. 079; and the African domini Population i sated at 24,690,000; of this number European Turkey has 9.700,000; Turkev, 12,500,000, and Egypt -2,490.000. 8AFFR< )X. Saffron is produced in Sicilv, France, and Spain, as well as in Eugland. The Spanish in generally detciiorated by having been dipped in oil, to ensure its keep ing. fhe Sicilian ami French are better, but the English is superior to all. Iris, however, sometimes adulterated with the petals of the Oarthamtu tinctoruU) or with the common marigold, calendula ojfieinalu; this may be detected by infusing the cake in hot water, when the expanded stigmas will be easily distinguished from the petals of the other flowers. TURN PIKES. Turnpikes were so called from poles or bars swung on a staple, which allowed them to turn any way when the dues were paid. A turnpike-road by law is twenty yards wide. SCENT JAR (RECEIPT FOR A). Gum benjamin, storax, -sweet orris, nutmeg and cloves, of each one ounce, all bruised in a mortar; throw in a handful of baysalt (at the bottom of a large jar), mixed with some of the spices ; then lay in flowers, and upon every layer of flowers or herbs a handful of baysalt and the rest of the spices. No more spices need be added to the jar, but fresh salt as long as you put in fresh flowers; and as the flowers blow at different times of the year, you must collect them as they appear to have attained perfection, pick them clean from their stalks, and cut the herbs. The best for a jar are violets, roses, geranium flowers and leaves, sweet-scented verbena or lemon-plant, sweet-brier, thyme, lavender flowers, rosmary, clove-pinks^ sweet-mi r;o- ram; keep it close shut for three months, and on opening it will require to be well stirred up with a small wooden spoon or a stick, and will be found to possess a delight- ful odour. GORDIAN KNOT. This was a knot made by Gordian, in one of the cords of his yoke, or, as some have it, in the leathers of his chariot harness, which was so very intri- cately twisted, that it was impossible to dis- j cover where it began or ended. The oracle j of Apollo having declared, that whosoever J should untie the knot should be master of all Asia, many attempted it. but without success, till at last Alexander the Great, afterattempt- ing in vain to untie it, cut it asunder with his sword, and thus either eluded or fulfilled the prediction. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM. The word electricity is derived from the Greek electron, which signifies "amber.' This name was given from the circumstance that the discoverer of electricity, Thales, of Miletus, found it to arise from the friction of amber. Magnetism comes from the Latin word maanes, which means " the loadstone," , or stone that attracts iron. HO PACTS FQ-R EVERYBODY! PLANTS (NOURISHMENT OF). Plants are not so much nourished by their roots as many persons suppose ; indeed, many plants are rootless. The leaves, and the soft green covering of the stem, perform a much more important part in supplying the plant with food. Plants grow by the absorption of water and the fixation of carbon — of carbon and water plants are almost entirely composed; and unless these two substances are supplied, the plant will die. The leaves are the principal agents in the absorption and decomposition of car- bonic acid and the retention of carbon, as a very simple experiment will prove. Gather a sprig of any succulent plant, and keep it in a dark place, while you prepare the ma- terials for your experiment. Fill a tumbler glass three parts full of clear water, and with a clean tobacco pipe breathe carbonic acid gas through it for four or five minutes at least ; then fill up the glass carefully, without wetting the edges, and drop in the sprig you have gathered. The glass should be so full as to make the water stand a little above the edges. A flat piece of ■writing paper having been laid upon the top, and aflat plate above that, the whole should be turned up-side down, as in ~ the figure. If you now place your ap- paratus in the sun- _ shine, you will see small bubbles form upon the leaves of the sprig, and rise to the upper part of the inside of the tumbler ; this is pure oxygen gas. The carbonic acid, which the water absorbed, is undergoing de- composition ; that is, the materials, oxygen and carbon, of which it is composed, are being separated or ^-composed ; the oxygen is set free, and the sprig having used the carbon would be found to be exactly so much heavier, in proportion to the oxygen set at liberty. This operation requires light, and in a natural condition only goes on during the day. This should be borne in mind with regard to flowers in sick rooms ; in the day their presence has a purifying effect, but at night this ceases. Besides this chemical change, the leaves of plants take an active part in the function of per- spiration while exposed to sunshine. The similarity between this function in plants and animals is singular. The quantity of ■water thrown out by plants may be proved by the simple experiment of placing a tum- bler inverted' upon the grass-plot on a fine sunn day. The sides of the glass will pre- sently be covered with the condensed vapour of water, then drops will form, and presently run down in little streams. This fluid has, in most cases, been derived from the root. The nutritious fluid of the plant, like the blood of animals, needs exposure to the air before it is tit to take a place in the organized tissue of the body . and this con- tact with air is brought about in the leaf, the anatomy of -which 1 will now endeavour to make plain to you. If you split a stem down carefully, exactly at the point where a leaf is attached, you will be able in many instances without a magnifying glass to detect that the stalk of the leaf is connected with the central pith or medulla. A leaf is composed of four layers of tissue, or two layers folded upon themselves, as these pieces of paper are folded. The outside represents the skin, or cuticle, of the stem, which is continued from the stem first along the upper surface, then turned over the edge, and so along the under surface to the stem again. This skin is colourless, or nearly so; and like our own; filled with pores. Viewed beneath a powerful magni- fying glass, it is found to be ^ composed of very small bags, ©T^oSfo or cells, pressed very closely j/;v"c ■; yf; ',>} together : hence it is said to fcjfw > '{] "< ;y$^, be composed of cellular tissue. ^eSS^^cS Our own bodies are chiefly ' composed of this tissue, and all growth is effected by means of the addition of these little cells. The skin, or cuticle of the leaf, is composed of compressed, or condensed, cellular tissue. Beneath it run the vessels which bring the sap up from the root, which, coming from the medulla, or pith, pass first over the upper surface of the leaf, and then, having been turned under towards the stem, deposit the new wood within the bark. Here we find, , jw~* n under the microscope, beautiful f s f^Ua vessels with twisted or spiral H f^piJ fibres within them. These tubes j^|r£y are called spiral vessels, and are ££ rGl/1 the agents in bringing about that Snk • ' j wonderful change before spoken tejj of. All the juices of plants ItfOffH are the same, till they pass along '^ 'f- these vessels in the leaf, where they undergo a change. After having been exposed to light and air, in the myriads of vessels which run along the leaf, the juice, passing downwards on the A MISCELLANY OP TTSE?TTL KNOWLEDGE. 141 outside of the stem, deposits woody fibre in ils downward course. This is ehiotly composed of the carbon of the air, which has been taken from the air by the leaves, which have really much more to do nourishment of most plants than i-^ a strong bough in the hedge, round which a pii re of woodbine has been tightly U 7 hound, and which will illus- trate this matter. The Stem is swelled above the wviod- hine, not below, proving that the growth of the tree takes place from above downwards. You may prove this also hv a simple experiment, in which apiece of* strong string may be substituted for the woodbine : — If round the stem of 6ome rapidly-crowing young tree you tie a piece of string, you will find, in a short time, that the fibres sent down from the leaves and buds will swell the stem above the ligature, while the portion of the stem below where you have tied the string will not have increased in size. Never, there- fore, pluck the leaves from plants, with the idea that they have got more than their roots can nourish ; for, on the contrary, the leaves are the support of the plant. The beautiful green colour of leaves de- pends upon the decomposition of earbonic acid in its vessels, and what we are breath- ing out of our lungs to-day will probably be incorporated with the tissues of a beau- tiful plant to-morrow ; perhaps with some blade of grass ; on that grass the cow will feed, ami again appropriate the carbon, by absorbing it into its circulation, and form- ing the butter of milk; and of that butter, whose chief component part you breathed out from your lungs a week before, you may eat, digest, and again breathe out into the atmosphere. Such are the wonderful jour- nevs of a particle of carbon. i)UlLE. The highest rank of a British subject, wilh the title of lord, duke, and grace. TRANSPLANTER (THE). This useful 7* implement is perfectly cylindrical, open at, both ends; about twelve inches in length, and six in diameter; made of the best tin plate, and furnished with two strong per- pendicular iron handles, fl . a a. It is first applied to ' the plant requiring to be taken from the bed, by being forced into the soil its full depth, and drawn up with the plant and sur- rounding earth enclosed in its iron grasp. A hole being thus made in the bed for the reception of a better plant, the latter is lifted from the reserve bed in the same manner,^and with the transplanter is inserted in the hole previously occupied by its less beautiful pic- decessor. It will be seen by the figure, that one side of the transplanter is held to- gether by the pin b ; now, when the flower is placed in its proper position, and this pin drawn out, the edges of the tube spring open a little, and allow the instrument to be withdrawn from the soil without disturbing the plant. Some, who do not use a trans- planter, cut a flower from the reserve bed, and insert the end of its stalk in a phial of water, sunk out of ordinary vision in the grand bed; these cut flowers will keep in bloom several days, and can be renewed when requisite. A Ql' A I! [US. The form which Aquarius, or the Water-carrier, takes in the heavens, is best, illustrated by the annexed diagram. It belongs to the month ^^^ S> of January, and is be- cd^J ^ lieved to refer to the showery character of that month, from its being a derivative of the Latin word aqua, signifying water. However this maybe, we have no reason to believe that the name assigned to it as a con- stellation symbolizes any benefactor of our species or any one who has signalised himself amongst mankind by the exertion of un- common qualities. At least, on this point, the ages of the past have transmitted to us no light v. hat ever. , STEREOTYPING. The first idea of catting in metal plates emanated from one 142 FACTS fou everybody: William Ged, a printer, of Edinburgh, in 17'2o. About fifty years afterwards it was revived by Tillooh; and was subsequently adopted by the celebrated Didot of Paris, and' ultimately brought to perfection by Earl Stanhope. The convenience of this method is very great, as a reprint of a book can take place at any time, and any required number of copies, however small, can be taken off; and the expense of recomposition is thus asved. PRINTS (TO TRANSFER TO WOOD). First varnish the wood once with white hard varnish, which facilitates the transferring; then cut off the margins of the print, which should be on unsized paper; that is, paper that absorbs like blotting-paper — and wet the back of it with a sponge and water, using enough water to saturate the paper, but not so as to be watery on the printed side. Then, with a flat camel-hair brush, give it a coat of transfer (spirits of wine) varnish on the printed side, and apply it im- mediately, varnished side downwards, on the wood-work, placing a sheet of paper on it and pressing it down with the hand till every part adheres. Then, gently rub away the back of the print with the fingers, till no- thing but a thin pulp remains. " It may re- quire being wetted again, before all that will come (or rather ought to come) off is re- moved. Great care is required in this ope- ration, that the design or printed side be not disturbed. When this is done, and quite dry, give the work a coat of white hard varnish, and it will appear as if printed on the wood. HERMETIC SEALING. We cannot better explain this process than by showing how finely-divided lead may be got into a glass tube closed at both ends. This seems no easy matter at first glance, but it be- comes easy, just as all other things come easy, when ice know the way. We will suppose our readers universally to be well aware that the apple got into the dumpling when the crust was soft dough; which fact being known, they may easily comprehend how lead or anything else may be got into a crust of glass, pro- vided only the glass can be reduced to a state of doughy consistence — a condition most easily effected by means of heat. To proceed, then, with our experiment. Procure some goulard-extract, and throw into it some tartaric acid, dissolved in water, until nothing more falls down, or, to use a chemical term, until all is pre- cipitated. That which falls is tartrate of lead. Collect it on a filter of blotting- paper, and set it in a warm place to dry. 1 Whilst it is drying, proceed as follows: Procure a piece -of English flint glass tube (which is the sort that most readily melts), somewhat of this diameter and thickness. A thicker piece, or a tube of larger bore, a beginner in che- mistry could not manage to work. Let the piece be about \ r ^ eight inches long. Next light """" ■ " ■ •■**■* the spirit-lamp, having trimmed the wick in such a manner as to yield a good flame. Hold the tube in the flame and near its point, somewhat about three inches from one end of the tube. Whilst the tube is thus 2. exposed to the heat, <& never allow it to rest for an instant, but keep revolving it, pulling at the same time. Very soon the tube will as- sume this appearance, which, when observed) the two pieces of the tube, 1 and 2 respectively, being twi-ted in reverse directions, and a final pull being given, No. 2 will se- __ — —■ - ■■ ; ■ - . h parate like this — « i i " « That is to say, closed at one end, open at the other. Allow it to cool. When eold, put in the tartrate of lead (provided it be quite drv). and when in, carefully draw out the tube like this- *mm^ that is to say, permitting a very fine tube at the point (a). Next apply the'spirit lamp flame to the tartrate as long as any smoke escapes, by which means the tartrate of lead is what chemists term decomposed, every portion of it except lead and charcoal resulting from the operation being evolved in the gaseous form. When this point is arrived at (known by the cessation of smoke), re-melt the fine tube at (a) and separate the two pieces of tube with a twist. The lead in a very fine state of subdivision, and intimately mixed with charcoal, will be now what is called hermetically sealed into the glass tube, and may be caused to inflame at pleasure by breaking oft' one end of the closed tube, ana shaking it into the air. < ELGIN MARBLES. These precious re- lics of ancient art were named after Thomas, Earl of Elgin, who brought them from Athens, with incredible pains and toil, to England, when they were purchased by the Government, and deposited in the British Museum. These sculptures were imagined and directed by Phidias, and executed in part by his chisel. A MTSCELLA.NY OP USEFUL XXOTVT.F.T)fjtf. 113 THE POUND STEELING. So far as record goes, this term \v;is firtt established by William the Conqueror. Ii then applied to m pound weight or fine silver, which was divided into 20 shillings and 240 pel ver pieces, representing the latter denomi- .. and vailed pennies, were the only •ied by that monarch and his BUCCes- ■on for several years. Although the quan- tity of line silver in these was progressively • .!. still they represented the same prop >i tion of the pound sterling, which continued the term by which the value of nil exchangeable property in the kingdom listed. Groats, or pieces equal to four pennies, were next coined; and at last shillings, or pieces equal to twelve pennies, were issued to pass for one-twentieth of the pound sterling'. '1 Lis these coins have con- tinued to do, although the quantity of fine silver in them was gradually diminished until it became less than one-third of what was originally fixed. The proportion of fine silver equivalent to a penny nas in conse- quence become so small that these coins have long been withdrawn from circulation, aud their place supplied with copper pence. EXTENT OF AMERICAN TKRRITORY The territory of the United States extends • ver an area of more than 2,000,000 square in lea. Its extreme length is nearly 2,700 miles, and its greatest breadth 1,600 miles. Its general shape may lie considered a paral- . ii, 2,400 miles by 1,800. The value of our harvests in the year l^oO exceeded $1,000,000,000. At that time there were i acres under cultivation, and 180,000,000 more were included within the Km ta of farms, unking, in all, 293,000,000 acres. It will thus he seen, by a comparison with European census statistics, that this fell short, by only some 30,000,000 acres, of the total amount of the improved lands within the limits of the lour great European powers V12.,— Great Britain, France, Austria aud COATS OF ARMS. Harry, surnamed the Fowler, Emperor of the West, who regu- lated the tournaments in Germany, was the first who introduced those marks of honour, armouries, or coats of arms. Before that time we find nothing upon ancient tombs but crosses, with gothic inscriptions, and decorations of persons entombed. The time of Clement IV. who died a. d. 1268, is the first whereon we find any arms; nor do they appear struck upon any coins before the year 1336. Camden refers the origin of hereditary arms in England to the time of the first Norman kings. Chronology say.-. coats of arms and heraldry were iutioduceci in 1100, and that the arms of England and France were first quartered by Edward III. 1368. GLACIEBS. The ice of glaciers is en- tirely different from that of sea and river water, and is not formed in layers, but con- sists of little grains of congealed snow; hence though perfectly clear, and often smooth on the surface, it is not transparent. As gla- ciers in some positions, and in hot summers, decrease, the}- often also increase for a num- ber of years, so as to render a valley unin- habitable. Their increase is caused partly by alternately thawing and freezing, then; decrease by the mountain rivers, which often flow under them and thus form an arch of ice over the torrent. In the Tyrol, Switzer- land, Piedmont, and Savoy, the glaciers are so numerous, that they have been calculated to form altogether a superficial extent of 1484 square miles. GIPSIES. This peculiar race of people first appeared in Germany about the year 1517, having quitted Egypt when attacked by the Turks. They are the descendants of a great body of Egyptians, who revolted from, the Turkish yoke", and being defeated, dis- persed in small parties all over the world ; while their supposed skill in the black art gave them a universal reception in that aire of credulity and superstition. Although ex- pelled from France in 1560, and from most countries soon after, they are yet found in every part of Europe as well as in Asia and Africa. Having recovered their footing, they have contrived to maintain it to this day. In England an act was made against their itinerancy in 1530; and in the reign of Charles i . thirteen persons were executed at one assize for having associated with gipsies for about a month, contrary to the statute. There were in Spain alone, previously to the year 1800, more than 120,000 gipsies, and many communities of them yet exist in England; and notwithstanding their inter- course with other nations, they are still, like the Jews, in their manners, customs, visage, and appearance wholly unchanged. GLOW- WORM. It is said" that the male glow-worm emits, in a slight degree, a phosphorescent light, — but it is chiefly the female from which the brilliant light pro- ceeds, and which we so often see on banks, beneath hedges, and in various other situa- tions. The light comes from the uirder-part of the abdomen. It appears that the animal has the power of varying its intensity. Glow-worms will live a long time in vacuo, and in different kinds of gases,— the nitrous acid murhitic and sulphureous gases ex- cepted, for in these they soon expire Ill FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: COCOA NUT-TREE. Common in Asia and the warm parts of America, rising 50 feet, with leaves or branches often 14 or 15 feet long, and producing a shelly fruit, which hangs in clusters. The natives draw from the tree a very agreeable liquor ; the leaves are wrought into sacks, hammocks, &c, and the filaments of the outer coat of the nut are made into cables. UTOPIA. This was the title of a work written by Sir Thomas More, describing an imaginary republic. The word has been adopted in the same sense to signify what- ever is unreal or visionary. PRACTICAL SCTKtfCE. 1.— Spirit Lamp (To Construct). Procure a wide- mouthed bottle, such as is shown in the accompanying figure (d), and fit the mouth with a good stout cork (b) ; now take out the cork and make a hole through the centre of it, by means of a red-hot wire, but be careful not to make it too large for the tube to be fitted to it. Cut off a piece of brass-tubing, one-quar- ter of an inch in dia- meter, and of sufficient length to allow half an inch below the cork and three-quarters of an inch above it, Push the tube in (a) through the hole made in the cork by the red-hot wire, and be sure that it fits well. Pass a piece of cotton used for lamps through the tubing, and be sure that it is long enough to reach the bottom of the bottle. Fit a tin cap (e) to the cork so as to keep the spirit of wine or naphtha from evaporating, and your spirit lamp will be complete. 2. — Temporary Retort (To Make a). Procure a Florence flask, such as olive oil is usually sold in, and clean it out by wash- ing the inside well, first with a strong solu- tion of soda and small pieces of brown paper, and then with clean water; turn it up mouth downwards, and let it drain well. Fit the mouth with a sound cork and bore a hole in it with a red hot wire, as directed in section 1. This hole is intended to re- ceive a bent tube, which we will now pro- ceed to form. 3. — Bent Tubes tor Chemtcal Experi- ments (To Construct)- Take a piece of glass tubing one-third of an inch in diame- ter, and of the proper length — light your spirit lamp (section 1), and hold the tube diagonally in the flame, taking care to turn it round all the time, and to move it back- wards and forwards, so as to heat about four inches of it in the part where it requires to be bent. When the glass begins to get soft, place the two thumbs against the glass so as to form fulcra, as in the annexed figure, and bend it slowly backwards,— that is, towards your body, until it acquires the proper form. When the tube has been bent into the proper shape, heat each end of it in the flame of the spirit-lamp for a minute, so as to round off the edges. 4.— Evaporating Dishes (To Make). Procure a Florence flask, clean it as directed in section 2, and be sure that it is thoroughly dry. Take a triangular file, and slightly scratch the flask with the end of it, then run the point of a piece of heated wire in the required direction. Thus, if passed in the direction d e, orfff, in the annexed figure, you will have deep evaporat- ing dishes ; if in the direc- tions a o and b o, you will have shallow ones with tips; if from b to <7, you will have a Aery shallow one for evapo- rating small samples of fluid. Portions of a Florence flask will be quite as useful, or remnants of re- torts, which may be cut into circular dishes A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 145 by bending a piece of stout Iron wire into to one another. When the object isacces- tne from given in the annexed diagram, Bible, its height is considered as one of the sZ=Z?k sides of the triangle; but when it is itiaeoa- fitting it into a wooden handle, and then, making it hot, apply it suddenly to the por- tion or flask or retort, and then remove it. This will cause the srlass to crack in a cir- cular form (See Section 3.) 5. — Funnel (To Makb a). Scratch the flask in a line parallel to h (in the figure above), commencing at d } and pro directed for making evaporating dishes. FOBCES (THE RESOLUTION OF). The resolution of forces is the process by which we can find forces that will produce a motion equal to that of a single force ; to illustrate which we refer you to the following diagram. Let ef represent a boat, ft the rope by which it is drawn along, and also the force of draught. It may then be assumed that there are two forces acting, fa which draws the boat forward, and jh which would draw the head in the direc- tion fh, were it not counteracted by the helm e d, which is parallel to the line/t. When the boat is moving, the resistance of the water acts upon the helm, which may be explained thus : If c a represents the re- sistance, it may be resolved into a d and ec. How, as a d produces no ett'ect upon the helm, it is evident that the pressure is in the line e c, which tends to turn the stern of the boat in the direction bek, and thus counteracts the force of /A. MARQUIS. A peer, in rank between an earl and a duke, and wearing a coronet on state occasions as beneath. AITIMETKY. The art of taking heights Bible, then two observations are made in a rigtit line, and the distance measured be- tween them is the basis of the calculation. GREENWICH OBSERVATORY. The Royal Observatory at Greenwich was built in 1675. It may'be seen by obtaining leave from the Lords of the Admiralty; but it must be obvious to any person that it is ab- solutely necessary to prohibit idlers lounging about thi establishment at all times. The instruments are first-rate ; but the building is badly contrived for the purposes to which it is applied. The salaries of the various officers at Greenwich Observatory are as follow: — the Astronomer Royal, £800 per annum ; the first Assistant to ditto, £400 ; the second Assistant £250 ; the third Assistant, £200; fourth, sixth, and seventh Assistants, each £100 ; and thefifth Assistant by menns of a quadrant, and founded on £120. The apparatus in use for denoting the the principle that the sides of triangles i exact time at which a heavenly body crosses having equal angles are in exact proportion the wire of the telescope consists of a Hd FACTS tor everybody: cylinder, in circumference about three feet, and over which a covering of paper is to be placed. This cylinder will be made to re- volve uniformly by means of a clock move- ment, governed by a centrifugal pendulum. The paper will tiavel a distance of about one-third of an inch in a second of time, but of course it can be made to travel a greater or less distance if desired. A pricker or marker, to be actuated by means of electricity, will be placed immediately over this paper. "Wire will extend from this marker, and terminate in a key by the side of the observer at the telescope. On pressing down this key a mark will be made on the paper on the revolving cylinder, in the same way as marks are made by Morse's telegraph. At the instant that the observer notices that a heavenly body is crossing. one of the wires in his telescope, he will touch the key, and thus cause a mark to be made on the moving paper. Each second of time will, by clock-work mechanism, be also marked by dots upon the same piece of paper, so that, by measuring the distance of the dot made by the observer from the nearest second dot made by the clock-work, the exact instant of time at which the ob- server's mark was made will be ascertained. By this means the observer will be enabled to record the exact period at which such heavenly body crosses the respective wires of his telescope, and that with a degree of nicety which can be measured to the frac- tional part of a second cf time. Without such apparatus it would be almost impossi- ble to denote the time of an observation to a degree much less than that of a whole second of time, but by its means it will be perfectly easy to ascertain the exact instant, even to the"one-hundredth or one-thousandth part of a second. cUNBEAMS. The sunbeam is composed of three distinct and separate rays, one of heat, one of light, and one called the che- mical ray. Ttiese three agencies exist in ddferent proportions in the sunbeam, in the spring, summer, and autumn. The blue or chemical ray is greater in the spring; the light greater in the summer. The chemical ray is less in autumn, and then the heating ray predominates. The proportion of these rays varies in different seasons of the year, in order that the growing plant may arrive at maturity. It has also been ascertained that the proportions of these agents vary in different climates FUR CLOiTIlNG. It is very ancient. The method of manufacturing wool into articles of Clothing seems to have been early transplanted into Greece, and thence to Italy, as we find the use of raw skins accounted by each of these nations a sign of barbarism. It appears that neither of them in the time of their prosperity, when the arts and sciences were cultivated among them, made much use of fur clothing. It, was worn at that period only on certain festivals (the Bacchffi clothed themselves in fox-skins), and merely by the poorer classes and rustics; or employed in the time of war. The ancient physicians make no mention of furs ; and Suetonius, in describing the winter clothing of Augustus, who was ex- tremely sensible of cold, does not name any articles of fur. Pliny relates an un- successful attempt to manufacture the fur of the hare, which would scarcely have been made bad the skin been used in its natural state. It is worthy of remark, that, in the 27th chapter of Ezekiel, where the merchandise of Tyre is so minutely described, no allusion is made to furs. THE SHIPPING OF THE WORLD. The following is the relative tonnage of the ship- ping of the world : United States, 5,512,000 tons. England and Colonies, 5,042,270 tons. France, 710.140 tons. Italian States, 546,010 tons. Austria, 322,447 tons. Holland and Belgium, 456,402 tons. Spain, 879,421 tons. Prussia, 308,729 tons. Denmark, 208,109 tons. Sweden, 147,928 tons. South America, 193,735 tons. Bremen, 190,000 tons Ham- burg, 119,884 tons. Russia, 103 509 tons. It will be seen that the United States has more tonnage afloat than any other m.ai- itime power in the world. MICROSCOPE AND MICROMETER. The size of objects is expressed usually in parte of an inch, as one-fifteenth, one- hundredth, or one-thousandth part of an inch. In order to ascertain this actual size, various modes are employed. The most simple is to place on the. stage of the microscope a piece of glass which has fine lines ruled on it, perhaps an hundredth part of an inch apart, and comparing these divisions with a rule seen by the naked eye. In this way we may learn how much the microscope magnifies. If we compare the apparent size of an object on the stage with the rule as before, and divide that apparent size by the magnifying power of the instru- ment, we shall learn exactly how large it is. The piece of glass with the fine lines ruled on it is called a micrometer, which means an instrument to measure small things, as the word microscope means an instrument to observe small things. If we find by the micrometer that the microscope magnifies two hundred and fifty times, and a small object at which we are looking appears an A MISCELLANY OF TSLFTTL KNOWLEDGE. 147 inch in diameter, wo know tli.it it really is but the two hundred and fiftieth part of an inch in diameter. CATS' WHISKERS (USE OF). The whiskers on a out's upper lip are very import- ant They are organs of touch. They are at- tached to a bed of close glands under the skin, and each of those long hairs is connected with the nerve of the lip. The slightest con- tact of these whiskers with any surrounding abject is thus felt meet distinctly by the ani- mal, although the hairs of themselves are Insensible, They stand out on each side of the lion as well as in the common cat, so that, from point to point, they are equal to the •width of the animal's body. If we imagine, therefore, a lion stealing through a covert of wood, in an imperfect light, we shall at once see the use of these long hairs. They indi- cate to him, through the nicest feeling, any obstacle which may present itself to the passage of his body; they prevent the rustle of boughs and leaves, which would give warning to his prey if he were to attempt to pass through too close a bush; and thus, in conjunction with the soft cushions of his feet, and the fur upon which he treads (the retractile claws never come in contact with the ground), they enable him to move to- wards his victim with a stillness even greater than that of the snake, which creeps along the grass, and is not perceived until he is coiled around his pre v. insects' Wings (rate at which THEY MOVE). The buzzing and hum- ming noi-es produced by winged insects are n-t as you suppose vocal sound. They re- sult from sonorous undulations imparted to the air by the dapping of their wings. This may be rendered evident by observing that the noise always ceases when the insect alights on any object. The sirene has been ingeniously applied for the purpose of ascer- taining the rate at which the wings of such creatures flap. The instrument being brought into unison with the sound produced by the insect, indicates, as in the case of any other musical sound, the rate of vibration. In this way it has been ascertained that the wings of a" gnat flap at the rate of 15,000 times per second. The pitch of the note produced by this insect in the act of Hying is, therefore, more than two octaves above the highest note of a seven-octave piano- forte. HACKXEY COACHES. They are of French origin. In France a strong kind of cob-horso was let out on hire for short jour- neys. These were latterly harnessed, to accommodate several wayfarers at once, to a plain vehicle called roche-a-haqwnct ; hence the name. The lejjenrt that traces their origin to Hackney, tu ar London, is a error. They were first licensed in 1(102, and subjected to regulations during the reign of William and Mary. Cabriolets are alsoof French origin. It was, however, the aristo- cratio taste of Englishmen that Bug I the propriety of oblig ng the driver to bo seated on the outside of the vehicle. PASSION-FLOWER. It derives its name from the idea that all the instruments of Christ's passion are represented in it. Most of the passion-flowers are natives of the hottest part of America. The rose-coloured passion-flower is a native of Virginia, and is the species which was lirst known in Europe. It has since been, in a great mea- sure, superseded by the blue passion-flower, which is hardy enough to flower in the open air, and makes an elegant tapestry for an unsightly wall. The leaves of this, in the autumn, are of the most brilliant crimson; and, when the sun is shining upon them, they seem to transport one to the gardens of fairy-land. THIMBLE8. They arc a Dutch inven- tion. The art of making them was brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, from Holland,*who setup a workshop at Islington, near London, and practised the manufacture with profit and success about 1695. HIDAGE. Hidage was a royal aid or tribute, raised in such a proportion on every hide of land. William the Conqueror im- posed a hidage of six shillings upon every liide; William Rufus, four shillings; and King Henry I., three shillings. "When the lord paid hidage to the king, the tenants paid a proportion to the lord of the manor. When the Danes landed at Sandwich, King Ethelred raised the hidage, bo that every 310 hides of land found an armed ship, and every eight hides found a "jack and saddle." The hide of land, or plough-land, was as much as one plough could cultivate in a year — for the quantity was never expressly determined; some fix it at CO, others 80, and some again at 100 acres. One hide of land at Chesterton, in the fifteenth year of the reign of Henry II., contained ()\ acres; and in the thirty-fifth of Henry III., the yearly value of a hide of land at Biechesdon, in Oxfordshire, was forty shillings. Vn de calls it Familiam — implying by it that it was as much as would maint.in a family. The distribution of England by hides of land is very ancient, as we find mention made of it iii the laws of King Ina ''cap. 14)- and Henry I., to many his daughter, had three shillings from every hide of land. 148 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY t AIR-PUMP. A machine which operates on the air just as a common pump operates on water;' and by means of which a con- siderable portion of the air under a glass receiver may be extracted, and a number of amusing and instructive experiments per- formed, by which the uses of atmospheric air are discovered, and many phenomena shown to arise from its action and re- action. NUMERAL FIGURES. The learned, after many contests, have at length agreed that the numeral figures, 1 to 9, usually called Arabic, are of Indian origin. The numeral characters of the Bramins, the Per- sians, the Arabians, and other eastern na- tions, are similar. They appear afterwards to have been introduced into several Euro- pean nations, by travellers who returned from the East. MINIATURES (TO PREPARE IVORY FOR). Take the ivory leaves or tables on which the painting is "to be made, and hav- ing cleansed them, rub them over with the juice of garlic. This takes off' the greasiness which is so much complained of. EARL. A title of nobility between a marquis and a viscount, authorised to wear and bear a coronet like that in the engraving. BEET-ROOT SUGAR. Marggraf, an eminent Prussian chemist, first drew the at- tention of the public to this subject, in 1747. lie was successful in obtaining from the roots of the white and red beet a sugar nearly in the state of Muscovado, or raw cane sugar. Afterwards Chaptal, a celebrated French chemist, established a manufactory of beet- root sugar, and in 1825 there were twenty- five establishments in France. BLUE STOCKING. The term blue stocking, applied to literary ladies, was con- ferred on a society which was called the Blue Storking Club, in which females were ad- mitted; and so called owing to a Mr. Benja- min Stillingtleet, one of its acting members, wearing blue stockings. "We have seen an account, however, that ascribes the origin of the term to a beautiful lady of eminence who was a member of the club, but we be- lieve the above is the correct origin. CHAMPAGNE. Champagne contains least spirit, and contains more or less car- bonic acid; the effect of which latter is to carry off quickly the effect of the spirit, and stimulate somewhat the system, without subsequent depression. It contains little mucilaginous matter, is essentially a thin wine, and therefore requires little digesting. As a gentle stimulus it is therefore prefer- able to all other wines; as a tonic, it ranks much lower than most of the others. ALOES. A valuable and salutary medicine, distinguished by its pungent bitter flavour, and distilled from the leaves of the aloe-tree. That which grows in Socotora is used for the human constitution, and that which grows in Bar- badoes is used for horses. In the East, the part of another species, called tambac, is a perfume highly valued. The Ame- rican aloe is a plant which, when vigorous, rises upwards of twenty feet high, and branches out on every side, forming a kind of pyramid of greenish yellow flowers, erect, and in thick clusters at "every joint. HORSE POWER. It is well known among engineers, that a horse is capable of raising a weight of about 1501bs. 220ft. high in a minute, and to continue exertions enabling him to do that for eight hours a day. Multiply the number of lbs. by the height to which they are raised in a minute, 150 by 220, gives 33,000 lbs., and the power of a horse is generally expressed bv a sum, varying from 30,000 lbs. to 36,000 lbs. raised one foot high in a minute. One horse can draw horizontally as much as seven men. In trains of machinery from one-fourth to one-third is allowed for friction in calcu- lating its equivalent of horse power. ? A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. CAMOMILE. The dried flowers of the common camomile are sumcientlyfamiliar to every one. They have stom::rhie and tunic properties, which render them very useful ui dyspepsia and general debility. ' l mile tea, as the infusion is generally called, is a most agreeable bitter, and is of almost m« universal use and acceptance. Taken warm it promotes the action of emetics. The flowerssteepedin boiling waterare frequently need as fomentations for abscesses and inflamed parts, to promote suppuration and relieve pain ; flannels dipped in the hot de- answer the same purpose. — Family 1 JTEAB OF OUR LORD. The first sove- reign who adopted this distinction was I s III., Emperor of Germany, he adding "in the year of our Lord" to his reign A.D. 879. It was followed by the French and afterwards by the "English; and is the mode of des gnating the year from the birth of the Redeemer, in all Christian count; LP i UTS. At the religious assemblies of Christ ia is, lights were first used, it is said, in order thereby to avoid the scandal of their meeting in the dark at night, during times of persecution. They were introduced into churches about the middle of the tiist cen- tury, and were continued afterwards in the Romish churches at noon-day. Lamps were in use previously to candles." 1-19 GOLD Wl RE, LEAF, &c. Gold wire was first made in Italy, about A.n. 1350. An of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above thirteen hundred miles in length; and such is its ten i.-ity that a wire I b nth part of an inch thick will bear the weight of Are hundred pounds without breaking. A single grain Of gold may be extended into a leaf of fift\-six square . and gold leaf can be reduced to the 330,000th part of an inch, aud gilding to the 10,000,000th pan. WEDDING-KOTO. The ring finger is the fourth one, or the finger next to the lit- tle one. In the ancient ritual of marriage, the ring was placed by the husband on the top of the thumb of the left hand while re- ? eating the words — "In the name of tho ather;" he then removed it to the fourth finger, saying, "and of the Son; " then to the middle finger, adding-,' 1 and of the Holy Ghost;" and, finally, placed it on the fourth finger, with the closing word, "Amen." FRANKINCENSE. Frankincense, which was used in the worship of the tiue God, and on the altars of the heathen temples, was obtained from trees which grew in Arabia Felix. The incense trees grew only in that part of Arabia inhabited by the Sabamns; and so strict were their laws respecting them, that no persons were permitted even to see the trees, except those appointed to take care of them. CHAINS. Links of iron formed within one another in ditlerent shapes, so as to pro- duce the greatest strength of tension. FLANNEL SHIRTS. Flannel has not been in general use until within the last sixty years. It was first used in Boston, as a dress next the skin, by Lord Percy's regiment, which was encamped on the common, in October, 1774. There was hardly flannel enough then in the whole town for that one regiment. Some time after Lord Percy began with flannel shirting, Sir Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) published a pamphlet in America, assuming to have discovered the utility of this prac- tice. He might, perhaps, Lave sug ge ste d the use of it to Lord Percy. 150 VENTILATION means the act of ad- mitting air into any place, or of causing a draught or current of air to pass through it. When any one speaks of ventilating a room or building, it is understood to refer only to pure air. Unless we breathe pure air con- tinually, our blood cannot be purified and invigorated; impure blood causes disease and death. The easiest and quickest way of ventilating ordinary rooms is to open the doors and windows, whereby the fresh air outside rushes through and purifies the place. But it is not always safe to ventilate in this way; for if a person is ill or heated it would he "hurtful for him to feel a sudden rush of air from without; besides which, it is always more or less dangerous to sit in a draught. Unless in very warm weather, the door and window should only be opened now and then, and for a short time, and the persons in the room should take care to sit out of the draught. The best time for admitting air is in the morning, between eight and twelve, but earlier than this in dry sunshiny wea- ther. People who have but one or two rooms to live in should make it a rule lo ventilate their rooms thoroughly after every meal, because it is desirable to get rid of the smell of cooking as soon as possible. But the chief causes of impure air are the breath and perspiration of persons who live in the room, and tiie smoke and vapour of lamps and candles. Perspiration adds considerably to the impurity of apartments, for as it goes slowly away from the surface of the skin it mingles with the air and vitiates or spoils it. While in health, day or night, we are constantly perspiring. In hot weather, or after severe exertion, we can see it plainly ; but besides this, there is an invisible or in- sensible perspiration; this perspiration spoils the air rapidly, but more rapidly in summer than in winter. If a man were sitting in a room which contained sixty feet of air, the insensible perspiration from his body would spoil the whole in ten minutes and render it unfit to be breathed a second time, if pure air were not admitted. But there are other methods of ventilating rooms besides those already described; a sheet of wire gauze or nine pierced full of small holes may be put into the place of an upper pane in the win- dow, so as to admit fresh air, or Arnot's chimney-ventilator may be used. The latter is thus constructed : An opening of the size of one or two bricks is made from the room quite through the breast of the chim- ney, as near to the ceiling as possible; into this opening a metal frame is fitted, which has a balance-door that opens inwardly of itself, so that heated or foul air passes FACTS FOE EVERYBODY from the room through the opening, and goes away with the smoke of the chimney. Ventilators ought to be fixed at the top ot a room, because it is the nature of warm or breathed air to rise; and they are therefore fixed in or near the ceiling, so that the air on its ascent may pass off without interrup- tion. Ten feet of fresh air is required for each person every minute. One fact is cer- tain — we cannot retain our health, nor have any enjoyment of life, unless we continually breath pure air. UNION JACK. The etymology of the term Union Jack has never, it is presumed, been explained; for it does not occur in any lexicon or glossary. The word "union" obviously arose from the union of the three kingdoms in one great political power. As an alteration in the banner of St. George occurred in the reign of James I., it may, with great probability, be supposed to "have been a corruption of the word "Jacques." Such is the opinion of Sir Harris Nicholas, the eminent antiquary. B^UUUETS. There are many ways of planting a flower-garden, and as many methods of arranging flowers in a large nosegay ; but with the exception of wedding nosegays, which should always be made of the whitest flowers, the arrangement) of the flowers may be reduced to three heads. First, to make choice of flowers all of one colour, or nearly so, and then using a small quantity of other flowers that will make a strong contrast with the ground-colour. Secondly, shading the flowers from the centre to the sides ; and, thirdly, quartering the circle with four kinds of colours that harmonise well together, or with two colours in contrast — one quarter of the nosegay being of the same flowers as the quarter opposite to it — or, better still, the colours to be the same in each pair of quartering, but the flowers to be from two different kinds of plants. Thus, one quarter of some pea- flower of a given colour and the quarter opposite to it to be of pea-flowers also, but from a different plant. The size of the in- dividual flowers to be as nearly alike as can be ; then the other two quarters may be of composite flowers in the same way. This is the most difficult kind of nosegay to make well. When you have a choice and abun- dance of flowers, shading them is the easiest way ; and when llowers are very scarce, the mixed nosegay is the safest to attempt; but it should never be without a ground-colour if artistic effect is at all attempted. MATTER (DIVISIBILITY OF). It is scarcely credible, yet a slip of ivory, of an inch in length, may be divided into a hun- A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL TvN T mVT.T:r>fitf. 151 divd equal parts, each of which is distinctly visible, hut by t' e application of a very fine screw, 5,000 equi-distant lines, in the space of a quarter of an inch, can be traced on a l oi steel, or glass, with the tine point of a diamond, producing delicate ami varied colours, thereby proving that the beautiful bues of mother-of-pearl, peacock pearl, and the less delicate appearance of whit are termed watered fabrics, are the effect of irregularity of surface, nut. as might be sup- posed in the ease of mother-of-pearl and peacock pearl, the result of variety oi sub- stance. A single pound of cotton has been spun into a thread seventy-six miles in length, and the same quantity of wool has been extended into a thread of ninety-five miles, the diameters of those threads being onlv the 350th and 400th parts of an inch. TAMARINDS. This fruit is slightly nu- tritive, refrigerant, and gently laxative, and having an agreeable flavour will generally be eaten by children when they will not take other medicines. You need not be afraid to allow your children to partake of this fruit in moderation. The usual from half an ounce to one ounce of the fruit; but a veiy pleasant drink, called tamarind whey, is made by boiling one ounce of tamarind pulp with a pint of milk, and then ■training it. The common drink is made by dissolving one ounce of the pulp in a pint of warm water, allowing it to get cold, and then straining. JACKDAW 8. These birds may be easily tamed, and taught to say several words, or even sentences. They can be reared from the nest, and should lie fed upon the crumbs of white bread soaked in cold water, and squeezed dry. and boiling milk aiided to it afterwards. Now and then you should give them a little raw meat chopped fine. The old birds will eat anything, and are very fond of picking a raw beef bone; they also enjoy a boiled potato. You should keep one wing cut for several months, and then pull out. the feathers of the wing, so as to let Others grow. If the bird you have is reared from the nest, there will not be any occasion to adopt this plan. PEA (Till-]). The native country of the common pea is not known. France has been named with some probability, or it may have been brought to that country from Egypt or Syria. Neither do we know the exact ; eriou at which the common pea was first cultivated here, but most probably it the reign of Henry VIII., as Tusser Bames it as a dainty, and savs it is "good for her purse and the pot." Peas were still X eat in the early part of Elizabeth's reign, when Fuller observes they were seldom scon those which were brought from Holland, which "were dainties for ladies;" but in the latter part of the same reign gar- dening made rapid progress in this country, and Gerard describes the runcival, tl den and field peas, the tutted or Scottish, • without skin in the pods, the wild pea and the e\ erlasting pea. CRESCENTS. The crescent was the symbol of the city of Byzantium, now Con- stantinople, which the Turks have adopted. This device of the O; toman Empire is ot great antiquity, as appears from several medals, and took itsiise from an event related by Stephanos the Geographer, a native of By- zantium. He tells US that Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, meeting with mighty difficulties in carrying on the siege of that city, set the workmen in a very dark night to undermine the walls, that his troops might enter the place without being perceived; but luckily for the besieged, the moon ap- pearing, discovered the design, which accord- ingly miscarried. In acknowledgment of this deliverance," says he, "the Hyzantines erected a statue to Diana, and thus the cres- cent became their symbol." PAIN- WAT Kit. " Not only is rain-water the best for making tea, &c, but it is useful in culinary operations. The belief that it is unwholesome for this purpose is incor- rect. The softer water is, the more adapted it is to all domestic uses, if we except that one which has been so much insisted on of late — its use as an habitual potation; even this is not an exception, so much on account of its unwholesomeness as its insipidity. MASKS. Poppa;a, the wife of Nero, is said to have invented the mask to guard her complexion from the sun.' But theatrical masks were in use among the Greeks and Romans, Modern masks, mull's, fans, and false hair for women, were devised by the loose females of Italy, and brought to Eng- land from France in"lfi72. THE DIVING-BELL. The oldest in- formation we have respecting the use of the diving-bell in Europe is that of John Tiiisnier, quoted by Schott. The former, who was born at Ilainault in 1509, had a place at court under Charles V., whom he attended on his voyage to Africa. He re- lates in what manner he saw at Toledo, in the presence of the emperor and several thousand spectators, two Greeks let them- selves down under water, in a large inv. rted kettle, with a bunting light, and rise up again without being wet. It appears that this ait was then new to the emperor and the Spaniards, and that the Greeks were 152 FACTS FOR EYEfiYEODY: induced to make the experiment in order to prove the possibility of it. The principle of the diving-bell depends upon the impene- trability of atmospheric air, and may be ex- plained by a very familiar experiment. Bring the edge of an inverted tumbler, or any close vessel, to the surface of water, and, keeping the mouth horizontal, press it down in the ■water. It will be seen that though some portion of the water ascends into the tumbler, the greater part of the space remains empty, or only filled with air ; and any object placed in this space, though surrounded on all sides with water, would remain perfectly dry. In fact, the quantity of air remains the same, but it is compressed into a smaller volume, in proportion to the depth to which it is made to descend. DILETTANTI. This is an Italian word, applied to an admirer or lover of the fine arts — one who delights in that _ pursuit. The word is almost synonymous with ama- teur, but does not imply so much practical knowledge. DIAMOND BEETLE, (Curoulio Impc- rialisj. A most beautiful insect, decorated with golden, green, and black streaks. The Si \* This abdomen is green, with silvery rings. rich and curious insect forms a most splendid and dazzling object under the microscope. DIANA. In heathen mythology, the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, sister of Apollo, and goddess of hunting. MENDING STOCKINGS. Worsted and lambswool stockings should never be mended with worsted or lambswool; because, the latter being new, it shrinks more than the stockings, and draws them up, till the toes become short and narrow, and the heels have no shape left. Soft coarse white cotton should be employed for white worsted stock- ings and socks, and coloured cotton to match those of other hues. PAL M S. Palms are the most useful pro- ductions of Ceylon. First the cocoa-nut, in universal use for food, drink, and the arts of life. The fc palmyra, nearly m as valuable. The areca catechu, whose nuts, the betel and the chunan, are the universal lux- ury of Asiatics. A tree produces from 500 tol,000 ( nuts. The sago palm, whose pith, dried and granulated, is in use through Eu- rope, is also pro- 1 i ric in sugar. The talipot is famous for its large leaves, (one of which shelters from fifteen to twenty men,) and its fruit. The jack produces fruit as large as a man's body, filled with delicious pulp, anj with seeds as large as chesnuts, of which many dishes are made. A Cingalese family live at ease on the produce of a dozen cocca-nuts and three or four jack-trees. I IT. \ XV OF rSF.FUL KN'nv 153 ArUIL. Since the time of Xuma Pom- pilius, this month has retained the same ■laoe in the calendar tliat it docs HOW. iiomulus assigned thirty days to tin- month, but Numa reduoed it to twenty-mine. Julius i . however, restored it. to its original length, which lias not been altered since. The came of the month is derived from the Latin word Ajierio (to open), and was do doubt bestowed in allusion to the season, for the earth opens her bosom, and sends forth her riches, and the young buds open under the influence of April showers Symbol or Allegory of the Month. — A young man, with a cheerful and youthful' lace, clad in green, with a garland of myrtle and hawthorn in buds crossing his left 6houlder, allegorical of the verdure at this period of the year. In his right-hand he holds a bunch of prize roses and violets, while his left-hand rests upon a bull's head, of the sign of Taurus, or the Bull, • the sun enters that constellation on the 19th of the month. Synonymes. — In Latin, this month is ealied ApriUa; in French, Avrii: in Italian, Aprile ; in Portugese, Ahrll ; in ancient Cornish, J'prell ; and in Saxon, -Monath, or Easter month. There are several remarkable days belong- ing to the month. The 1st day is called All -lay. The well-known practice of making persons go on some foolish errand, Buch as to inquire for "pigeon's-milk," |' strap-oil," &c, or playing some practical joke upon them, has given rise to the name of All Fools'-day. The person so deceived is called an April fool in America, a gowk in Scotland, and un poison (VAvril (an April fish) in France. 12th. Henry Clay was horn in Virginia, in the neighborhood of a region known as the "Slashes," (heuce the sobriquet of '-The Mill- the Slashes,") on the 12th of April, 1777. in lsll he was elected a member of the House of Representatives at Washington, and chosen by that body as their Speaker, which office lie tided with great ability until 1814, when lie was appointed one of the Com- missioners to negotiate at Ghent a treaty of peace with Great Britain. On the ;i of John Quincy Adams to the presidency, Henry Clay was appointed Secretary of State. and continued in that oflice until the election uf Andrew Jackson as President, in 1 s J : < . In 1831 Clay was elected United States Sena- tor from Kentucky, and served several terms in that office. He died on the 29th of June, L852, at the age of 75 years. 17th. Benjamin Franklin, born in Boston, (tih January, 1706, died on the 17th of April, 1790. The' name of Franklin has long been a household word in America. He was her moralist, statesman, and philosopher, and he deserves highest honor from all mankind for his services to the cause of national liberty, and the independence of nations. 19th. The battle of Lexington was fought April 19th, 1775, and claims distinction as being the first fought between Great Britain and the United States of America in the war of independence. The British troops, under Major Piteairn, Bent from Boston to destroy the American stores at Lexington were at- tacked by the Americans, and 27 J of them were killed and wounded. On the eighth anniversary of the battle of Lexington, on the 19th day of April, in the year 1782, a cessation of hostilities was pro- claimed in the American army, and the first war between the United States and the mother country brought to a close. 30th. On the 30th day of April, 1780, George Washington was sworn into office as the iii-t President, and John Adams as the first Vice President of the United Sti America. 21st. In the old almanacks this day is dedicated to St. Axxhii, who was born at Aoust, in Piedmont, and created Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093, by William Kufus, He died on this day, 1109, aged seventy- six. In 1142, Peter Abelaru, a learned doctor in the Church, died, aged sixty-three. He was the celebrated lover of the no less celebrated Heloise. 23rd. St. George' s-day. St. George is the patron saint of England, and is s aid to have been born in Cappadocia, of Christian parents Every sehoolboy has read iho fabulous history of St. George rescuing the King of Beyrout's daughtei from a desperate dragon, and all that befel him m hi> Bojourq in Palestine, lie is represented on our old sovereigns and fire-shilling puces in. the act of slaying the dragon. Historians agree that he "was beheaded on this day, 290, 154 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY after being drawn through the city of Lydda, for having openly avowed himself a* the champion of the Christians. St. George was the ancient word of attack of England, as St. Andrew was that of Scotland, nod the figure of this saint is attached to the Order Of the Garter, which was instituted by Edward III., after the battle of Calais, in the year 1349. 25 th. This day is dedicated to St. Mark, whose Gospel was written in the year 63. The order of Knights at Venice, taking his name, was instituted in 737 ; their motto was "Pa* tibi, Marce, evangeHnta meut." There were many peculiar customs kept upon this day, but they have now become obsolete. Among others was that of blessing the corn, and also watching in the church- porch on the eve of St. Mark, to see the ghosts of those who should die in the follow- ing year. Tour illustrious individuals were born in this month, viz., Handel, Harvey, Shak- speare, and Cromwell. George Frederick Handel was one of the most distinguished musicians that ever lived. He composed "Israel in Egypt," "The Messiah," "Judas Maccabaeua," and several other oratorios, which have im- mortalized his name. He was born at Halle, in Saxony, and died on the 13th of April, 17-39, in the seventy-fifth year of his age. William Harvey was the celebrated discoverer of the circulation of the blood, and physician to James I. and Charles I. He was born at Folkestone, on the 1st of April, 1578, and died in 1658. "Of William Siiakspeare, the immortal dramatist, it is unnecessary to say more than that he was born in 1564, and the entry of his baptism in the register of the parish church of Stratford-upon-Avon is upon the 26th of April, 1564 ; and the date of burial is registered as the 25th of April, 1616. " Each chancre ot many-coloured life he drew — Exhausted worlds, and then imagined new." Oliver Cromwell, as a soldier and a statesman, was one of the most extraordinary characters in English history. He was born at Huntingdon, on the 25th of April, 1599, and died at Whitehall, 3rd Septem- ber, 1658. STEAM-ENGINE. An arrangement of mechanism, by which, by the alternate generation and condensation of steam, or by making it act above and below the forcer of a piston, a lever is raised and depressed with any degree of power, from that of one horse to 300, every 19 cubic inches of water pro- ducing 20 feet of steam, which is equal in expansive force to the power of one horso, produced by less than a quarter of a pound of coal, with from 30 to 40 strokes per minute; and, in general, a chaldron of coal works 100 horse-power for four hour*. Steam-engines are divided into low-pres- sure and high pressure; in the latter, the steam being excited by the heat of 212, that of boiling water, is re-condensed by cold, and a valve provides for its escape, when it raises the thermometer above 30 inches. But if the valve is loaded with a second 15ib., equal to another atmosphere, then the mercury will rise to 60, and the force be doubled, steam being 20 times its former bulk; if it be loaded with 28 lbs. it will be again doubled, and so on; but, of course, such augmentation of force tries the strength of the engine. Of course, the energy of the steam rises from the motion of the oxygen transferred to the combustible, and by it to the water, the atoms of which evolving, in consequence, form moving circles, and hence the expansive force. The boiler is on the right-hand, and communicates the steam to the piston O A, whence it rushes into X and G, and raises the rods X Q, and G C, which force up the beam ; and the beam carries round a small wheel O, which works in the small one, S, connected with the large one, R, and with R the works are connected. TETRAHEDRON. A triangular pyra- mid, with four faces. aim ELM-DESTROYING SCOLYTUS. Scarcely has the elm begun to leaf, than the Scolytus destructor, or elm-destroying Scolytus begins her operations; and most dex teroualy does she effect her purpose, bne A MTPCTT.T.AXY OF USEFUL KNOV 155 jnny be mot with in dry weather, even amid the stir and hum of London; and wherever the tree whole name she bean lifts up its green head, in squares or gardens, there ii ■he, Y"u may see this formidable Utile in- eeot upon then- trunk-, making a passage i the bark, and then dexterously ex- oavating a kind of tunnel between th and wood, wherein she deposits her eggs, thns forming a nest for her future progeny, and for herself a tomb; for she dies when her work is dune, and is generally found at the extremity of her channel, as if conscious that herend was approaching, and unwilling to impede the future operations of her pro- geny. Scarcely, however, have the lavae emerged from their e~gs than they begin to feed, working nearly at right angles from the path formed by their careful parent, and proceeding almost parallel to one another. They may even be found alive in January; and it is therefore probable that they work during the whole winter, when, iu conse- quence of the sap being down, the hark ad- heres less firmly, and the progress of the grub is consequently not impeded. SAVINGS' BANKS. The origin of these admirable institutions has been attributed to the Rev. Joseph Smith, of Wendorer, who, in the year 1799, circulated proposals, in con- junction with two of his parishioners, in Which they offered to receive from any inha- bitant of the parish, any sum from twopence Upwards, every Sunday evening during the Bummer months; to keep an exact account of the money deposited; and to repay at Christ-. mas to each individual the amount of his do- posit, with the addition ol one-third to the sum. The next institution Of this kind of which We have : u 1 \ account, was founded in 1804, at Tottenham, in Middlesex, by Mrs. Priacillu Wakefield. l'l.Y 1 N< i-l i. II . A s eciesoffish, common in the Mediterranean and Atlantic seas, with very largo tins, by which they are enabled to spring from 200 to 300 feet, or until their tins become dry. WHEAT — Pennsylvania is our greatest wheat State, estimated to raise 18,250,000 bushels per year. Ohio is next, raising 16,800,000. New York next, raising 16,200,000 Illinois next, raising U.600,000. Wisconsin, 14,000,000 ; Virginia, 12,600,000. LIVERIES. The prec;se period when liveries were first worn by domestics is un- known. In olden times tradesmen as well as servants wore these badges. Anterior to Richard II., tradesmen who served a nobleman's family wore his livery, and the placing of royal and noblt arms over tradesmen's shops to this day is a relic of such a custom. The livery of London, be- sides the dress of their companies, often wore on great occasions, from compliment, that of the king, noblemen, lord mayor. &c. DECK. The floor of a ship, from'stcm to sterr.; half-deck, from the main-mast to ' T 7 ' ' the stern ; and quarter-deck, that cabin and steerage, to the stern. the 1C3 FACTS poii everybody: *TO STRIKE THE KNUCKLES WITH-' into a glass with a round bottom, the ex- OUT HURTING THEM.— Sole ft a marble! pawnoo produced by the heat of the water mantel or any hard surface, then tell the spec-; will cause the bottom of the glass to enlarge; tatora th it by a certain preparation you Bare while the sides, which are not heated, retain Diade your the knuckles in proof »t medium in which t'i apply the essence; a lit;. glass La also mixed with it, which oa to adhere better. The pearis are blown singly at the lamp ; b drop of the essence is then blown into them through a thin tube, spread out by rolling; and the dried varnish is then covered in a similar manner by a layer of wax. LORDS SPIRITUAL AXI) TEMPO- RAL. This term applies to the persons who sit in the House of Lords. The ,4 Lords Spiritual" are tie archbishops and : of the EngH ah Church, and one archbishop and three bishops of the Irish Church. Before the Reformation, superiors, priors, and abbots, satin the douse of Lords, ami the " Lords Spiritual" at that time often exceeded in number the " Lords Temporal," though they now form only about a thir- teenth part. The "Lords Temporal" are all the peers of England of age and sane mind, sixteen peers of Scotland, and twenty- eight of Ireland. The number of peers of Ireland and Scotland is fixed, but that of England is variable, depending upon the ies of minorities and the will of the Sovereign. ISINGLASS. Isinglass is a preparation formerly made only from the great sturgeon ; but is now obtained from the entrails oi most other fishes. When good, it consists almost wholly of pure gelatine, or glue, which is nutritious. It is free from taste and smell, and is soluble in warm water. Being nothing more than the membraneous parts of fishes, it can probably be made from the fish on the coasts in this country'. The sounds or air-bladders of fresh-water fish are generally preserved for this purpose, and it is best made in the warm season. It is sometimes used as a medicine; but boiled in milk it forms a nutritious jelly, and is the substance of blancmange. It is also used for refining coffee, vinous liquors, and Lder. PENDULUM. The pendulum is a time- keeper, because the times of the vibrations are very near equal, whether it be moving much or little ; that is to say, whether the arc described by it be large or small. A common clock is merely a pendulum, with wheel work attached to it, to record the number of the vibrations; and with a weight or spring, having force enough to counteract the retarding effects of friction and the resistance of the air. The wheels show how many swings or beats of the pendulum have* taken place, because at 8 every beat, a tooth of the last wheel is allowed to puss. Now, if this wheel has i\ty teeth, as is common, it will just turn round ome for sixty beats of the pendulum, i-.d a hand fixed on its axis, projecting through the dial-plate, will ho .id-hand of the clock. The other wheels are so connected with this first, and the numbers of the teeth on them so pro- portioned, that one turns sixty times slower than the first, to fit its axis to carry a minute-hand; and another, by moving twelve times slower still, is fitted to carry the hour-hand. WEDDING-RING FINGER. The origin of wearing the wedding-ring upon the fourth finger of the left hand has been much dis- puted. Tho most reasonable inference as to the origin of wearing the ring on the left hand, however, appears to be a matter of convenience. Macrobius, a Latin author of the fifth century, says : — "At first it was both free and usual to wear rings on either hand ; but after that luxury increased, when precious gems and rich insculptures were added, the custom of wearing them on the right hand was translated unto the left; for, that hand being less employed, there they were best preserved. And for the same reason they placed them on this linger, for the thumb is too active a finger, and is too commonly employed with either of the rest." SEDAN-CHAIRS. These contrivances, formerly much in use among our ancestors, were not of English origin. As the name implies, they were introduced into this country fromSedan, a city in France, about 1664:, by Sir Saunders Duncombe, a traveller of some reputation at that period. BUDDING. Is the insertion of a bud, taken from one tree, into the bark of another; and, as in grafting, the operation will not succeed unless the bud and the tree to which it is united are varieties of the same species, or genera of the same natural family. In fact, the only difference between grafting and budding — the principle of each being the same — is that in the former a shoot, or as it is technically termed a scion, is inserted into the stock or stem that is grafted; and iu the latter a bud, which is simply a scion in embryo. The latter part of June, the month of July, and on to the middle of August, is the best season for balding. When you pe-ceive the buds well formed in the axilla of the leaf, that is, between the foot-stalk of the leaf and the stem, and when the fcark of the stalk can be freely and easily raised from the wood, then you have a sure criterion that you may safely com- 158 FACTS FOE, EYEHYEODY : mence to bud. Select a smooth part of the stock at the height you wish, and the side least exposed to the sun ; with your budding- knife make a horizontal cut across the bark through to the wood, but not deeper; from the centre of this cross-cut make another of a similar kind, perpendicularly downwards, about an inch, or rather more, in length— these two cuts will be in the form of a T. Then proceed to take off the bud — or as it is technically termed, the shield— first cutting off the leaf, but leaving a part of the leaf- stalk. The shield must be carefully sliced out of the stem at one cut. (Figures a and b represent the stem and shield after their separation). A portion of the wood must be taken off with, and attached to, the shield ; the greater part of this wood must be care- fully picked out, but it is essential that a portion should be left at the back of the bud —if you do not do so, but make a hole through the shield at the eye, or root of the bud, you may throw it away as useless. Then, with the handle of the budding-knife, separate and turn back the bark from the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut (it will then resemble figure d), and insert the shield close to the wood, and between it and the turned-back bark. Cut off the top part of the shield horizontally (in the di- rection of the dotted line c), and fit the re- maining upper-part of the shield accurately, and closely, to the cross-cut in the stock — on this close contact of the two barks (he success of the operation principally depends. You must now lay down the turned-back bark over the shield, and with a worsted thread, or bit of bass, bind it down, leaving the point of the bud clear. (Figure e re- presents the bud in the stock previous to its being bound). A friend informs us that he uses common adhesive plaster for binding, and that it answers admirably. If the wea- ther be very warm, a handful of damp moss should be loosely tied over all, leaving, as be- fore, the point of the bud exposed. In about a month, or six weeks, the ties may be removed ; and, to throw the whole strength of the plant into the bud, all shoots must be cut off, and suckers, whenever they make their appearance, carefully eradicated. By budding, you may produce several kinds of roses upon the same plant. The more ten- der exotic roses would scarcely exist in this country if they were not budded on our more hardy kinds. Indeed, it is now generally acknowledged that all roses bloom finer, and last longer, when budded on the com • mon wild rose. Budding is also extremely useful for filling up the vacancies which so frequently occur in peach and apricot Strees, when trained to walls, by branches dying. Variegated shrubs, as holly, &c, are propa- gated by budding on the plain kinds. FALCON. A bird of prey, once much esteemed as an auxiliary of the savage arts of man in destroying the feathered race. Falcons were formerly tamed and trained, just as pointer-dogs are at present trained; and hawking, or falconry, was, to a certain class of minds, as interesting as shooting or hunting is to the same class in our day. They are carnivorous, the beak hooked, the head covered with feathers, and the legs and feet scaly. GRASSHOPPER. A species of the genus Gryllus } to which belong the locust and cricket. The grasshopper of our fields 18 innocent and harmless. BLACKBERRY BRAMBLE. fRubua fruticosusj, whose rich black fruit attracts many a loitering urchin, yields abundantly a delicious fare for such birds as remain sta- tionary through the winter. All children A. MTSCT.LLANT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 159 ▼ell know where the blackberry best flou- rishes. They love to go forth with their email baskets to gather the ripe cluster-*; and he who looks upon them, ami hears their ringing laughter ami merry voices, may scarcely deem that either sin or sorrow is abroad. Yet, not only in woods and hedges, on village commons, and beside the road, grow wild brambles in abundance; for they arc found on mountains, at an elevation of at least two thousand feet, and where, in order to give shelter to those small birds and quadrupeds which affect high places — as the grouse and Alpine hare— they become nearly evergreen. G T N X E RY. A science uh ich d Irects the elevation in which a piece of cannon should be placed, so as to strike a certain object. The gun is elevated to a certain fixed angle, given in tables accurately calculated, and then the ball passes through a curve, and reaches the proposed spot. BEAVER HATS The entire hat is now rarely made of so costly a material as beaver fur, which is only used to cover the outside. This fur is almost exclusively found in North America. It, is gradually becoming Boarce and dearer, being now obtainable only in inconsiderable quantities from the most northerly and inaccessible districts. The fur of the middle-aged or young; animal, called CUb-beaver, i-- most esteemed, it bem- the finest, most glossy, and taking the best dye. There are also used for hatting the lui-s of the musquash, or mu.sk-rat, otter, neutria. hate, and rabbit. GASOMETER. The capacious receptaclo of gas, after it has been evolved in the re- torts, and whence it is pressed into pipes foi consumption. It consists of a vessel in- verted in water, and the gas pas?<»s njder it, and raises it up by its elasticity 01 mo- menta, till it is full, and waen w-nted, weights are placed upon it. 1) is the pipe from the retort, or furnace, A ; F is the tank filled with water; G is the gasometer or vessel inverted; and V the pulleys by which the weight, W, regulates the gaso- meter in ascent and descent. TEASEL. The vast woollen-clothing fabric materially depends on the fuller's teasel, which is found in hedges and wild sterile spots, and is cultivated to a large extent in the stiff clay lands of Gloucester- shire and Somerset- shire, of Wiltshire and Essex. This plant, with the Dutch rush, or shave-grass, of which the stems have long been im- ported from Holland to polish cabinet- work, ivory, plaster- cast.-j, and even b ass, are the only known instances of natural productions being applied to mechanical purposes. - T«he teasel is aloue available to 160 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY raise the nap from ■woollen cloths, and for this purpose the heads are fixed round the circumference of a large broad wheel, which is made to turn in contact with the cloth ; if a knot, or roughness, or projection, catch the ho>>ks, they break immediately, without Injury; but any mechanical invention, in- Btead ofyielding, tears them out, and mate- rially injures the surface. Teasel crops require both labour and close attention, and are precarious in their returns ; they sutler considerally from dripping seasons, and therefore cultivators who have heavy rents to pay seldom raise them. They consequent ly become the care of the more considerable cottagers; and as the members of a family unite in attending to them, they are fre- quently a source of considerable profit. Tra- vellers who pass through districts where this {)lant is cultivated, relate that the teasel tarvest is one of considerable interest. Some way-side cottage; with its garden and apple orchard, where also a small plot of ground is covered with teasels, presents a oheerfol and animated scene when the labourer and his wife are bu-ily employed in cutting the prickly heads from their tall angular stems with teasel-knives affixed to poles, and their children are seen joyfully running in all haste to place them in the sunbeams. The terminating heads, which ripen first, are called kings ; they are large and coarse, and are adapted only for the strongest kind of cloth. The collateral heads then succeed, known by the name of middlings, and are used for the finest pur- poses. When dyy, the older children pick and sort them into bundles — ten thousand of the best and smallest make a middling pack — nine thousand of the larger, the pack of kings. This valuable plant is known in alniust every country throughout Europe by a name expressive of its use. Gerard tells us that its old English name was the carding teasel. The French call it cardon defoullon; the Danes and Swedes, carde tidscl ; the Spaniards and Portuguese, car do and car- dencha ; the Hollanders, caarden ; and the Flemings, Garden distel. WINDOWS (TO PAINT TO RESEMBLE STAINED GLASS). 1. Draw the design upon paper the size required, then colour it, and affix b} r means of a little gum to the outside of the window, and paint the inside over the design with varnish colours. 2. By this method the same design may be mul- tiplied as often in fig. 6. The bread is placed underneath the part K. 4. The Cinderella — (Fig. 9). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the two sides as in tig. 7 ; turn the napkin over, and roll up the lower part as in fig. 10, A, B. Now turn the corner B upwards towards C, so that it shall appear as in D ; repeat on the other side, and then bring the two parts E together, so that they shall bend at the dotted line ; and the ap- pearance will now be as at fig. 9. The bread is placed under the apron part, K, fig. 9. 5. The Flirt— (Fig. 11). Fold the nap- kin into three puts longways; then fold across the breadth, commencing at one ex- tremity, and continuing to fold from and "o yourself in folds about two inches broad, until the whole is done ; then place in a tumbler, and it will appear as in the illus- tration. 6. The Neapolitan— (Fig. 12). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then fold one of the upper parts upon itself from you; turnover the cloth with the part hav- ing four folds from you, and fold down the two sides so as to appear as in fig. 7 ; then roll up the part A underneath, until it ap- pears as in the dotted lines in fig. 15, at B. Now turn up the corner B towards C, so that the edge of the rolled part shall be even with the central line : repeat the same upon the opposite side, and turn the whole over, when it will appear as in fig. 14; the bread being placed underneath the part K, as re- presented in the illustr ition. 7. The "Favourite"— (Fig. 14). Fold the napkin into three parts longways, then turn down the two sides as in fig. 7, and roll up the part A on both sides, until as represented on the right-hand side in fig. 14; then turn it backwards (as A B) on both sides ; now fold down the point C towards you, turn over the napkin, and fold the two other parts from you so that they shall appear as in fig. 15. Turn the napkin over, thus folded, and raising the centre part with the two thumbs, draw the two ends (A and B) together, and pull out the parts (C and D) until they appear as in fig. 13. The bread is to be placed as represented in K, fig 13.— From * 4 Inquire Within." 162 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY. S &' ft "Xi c < r~-^ X o r" e Syll A MISCELLANY OF FSEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 16$ DISTILLATION. The process of distil- lation is one which is used for separating liquids from each oilier which boil ;it dif- ferent degrees of luat. In domestic economy, it is most frequently employed to obtain Bjiirit, more or less flavoured*, or •with some volatile essential oil, The appa- ratus conimi nly used is the Still, for boiling the liquid to generate the vapour, and a long spirally-twisted tube termed the Worm. which is placed in a tuh of cold water, and through which the steam passes to be con- densed. The worm is the most objectionable part of the modern still; its great evil is the difficulty with which it is cleaned, so as to prevent one strong-flavoured substance spoiling those which arc distilled afterwards. If the coils of the worm are not very nu- merous, a bullet, with a string attached, may he passed through it, and a sponge or small bottle-brush, fastened to the string, may be worked backwards and forwards; but if there are several coils, it will he found im- possible to do this, from the resistance caused by friction. In this case, the only plan is to close one end of the worm with a cork, and rill it with a solution of caustic alkali, a lowing it to remain for some hours, and rep ating the application with fresh liquid, v it be required. In Germany, the worm is being super- seded by an excellent condenser, whieli is so superior that we are induced to give a sketch of it, hoping that it may lead to its adoption in this country. The vapours from the still pass into the tube A (fig. 1 ), by which they are conducted into B, a hollow globe, made to unscrew at its centre. The Fig 1. vapours, pass- ing along the tubes C, are condensed, and the distilled liquid drops from 1). The pipe E should convey a constant stream of cold water to the bottom of the tub, and this, rising as it is warmed by abstracting heat from the id globe, should escape by F. All the tubes being straight, it is obvious that thev can be readily (leaned from their ends. In the laboratory, distilling is most, fre- quently performed with vessels termed re- torts, or even from flasks ; but as these are not very applicable to domestic purposes, we pas- them over. In domestic practice, the still is usually employed to obtain some water or spirit fla- voured with essential oil, or the oil itself, and the process should be slightly modified so as to suit each ease. The vegetable sub- stance should not be placed on the bottom of the still itself, as in that case it might become burnt, and so give an unpleasant flavour to the whole ; but a bottom of wicker- work should be placed in the still in the first instance for it to rest upon, or a perforated board. The substance to be distilled should be placed in the still, covered with water, for some hours before the fire is lighted ; no more water being added than sufficient to cover it, if the preparation of oil is the object. Herbs, for distilling, should be collected on a dry day, and — unless the oil resides in the seeds, as in the case of caraway, anise, &c, or in the flowers, as in the rose, la- vender, &c. — just before the flowers have opened, as at that period there is the greatest quantity of essential oil in the plant All plants cultivated for distillation should be grown in a situation where they can receive a full amount of sun-light, as shade or dark- ness very much tend to prevent the forma- tion of essential oil. The liquid which conies out of the worm is a mixture of water highly-flavoured with the substance, and some undissolved oil. This latter is sometimes heavier and some- times lighter than water, either sinking or floating; in the latter case the oil may be readily separated by filling a bottle with the mix- ture, and, when the oil is col- lected at the top, carrying it off by a few threads of cotton placed as in fig. 2, taking care that they are moistened with oil be- fore arranging them ; the cot- ton acts as a syphon, and re- moves the whole of the oil. If the object of the operation is to obtain the oil and not the distilled water, the la'ter should he preserved, and used again and again with .fresh herbs; because, bavins in the first operation dissolved up as much oil as it is capable of doing, it causes no lo>s in the subsequent distillations. Itmav, perhaps, be thought that our article is incomplete, from our not giving any parti- cular directions as to the manufacture of spirits, both as regards the first fermentation and subsequent distillation ; but our readers should bear in mind that the manufacture of spirit is illegal, and the result is most Fig. 2. 164 IT ACTS TOR EVERYBODY! frequently a heavy fine and imprisonment, to which, we have no wish that our articles should be introductory. ELECTRICITY. The word Electricity denotes a peculiar state, of which all bodies are susceptible, and which is supposed to de- pend upon the presence of a substance called the electric fluid. Some of its phenomena -were known to the ancients, particularly those attractions and repulsions which a piece of amber, after being rubbed, exhibits, with regard to hairs, feathers, and other light bodies; and it was from its power of drawing light substances to it when rubbed that the Greeks gave amber the name Elek- tron, which is the origin of the word Elec- tricity. Thales, who lived six centuries before the Christian era, was the first who observed the electrical properties of amber ; and he was so struck with the appearances, that he supposed it to be animated. Mr. Boyle is supposed to have been one of the first persons who got a glimpse of the elec- trical light, or who seems to have noticed it, by rubbing a diamond in the dark. Sir Isaac Newton was the first who observed that excited glass attracted light bodies on the side opposite to that on which it is rubbed. An electric is any substance, which being excited or rubbed by the hand, or by a woollen cloth, or other means, has the power of attracting light bodies. If a piece of sealing-wax be rubbed briskly with the sleeve of your coat, a silk handkerchief, &c, for some time, and then held near hair, feathers/bits of paper, or other light bodies, they will be attracted ; that is, they will jump up, and some of them will adhere to the wax. If a tube of glass, or small phial, be rubbed in a similar manner, it will answer much better. If this operation be performed in the dark, something luminous will be seen, which is called the electric matter or Jluid ; and all bodies that we are acquainted with have more or less of it in them ; though it seems to lie dormant till it be put into action by rubbing. The air, and everything, is full of this fluid, which appears in the Ehape of sparks ; the rubbing of the glass with the hand collects it from the hand; and the glass, having now more than its natural share, parts with it to any body that may be near enough to receive it. The substance rubbed and that with which it is rubbed are always found to be oppositely electrified — the one body having more and the other less than its natural share ; indeed, one kind of Electricity is never obtained without, at the same time, the productions of the other. Those bodies which have been called Elec- trics, will not convey electricity from one body to another, and therefore they are termed Non-Coxductok.s. The most re- markable are — glass, raid all vitreous sub- stances, precious stones, resins, amber, sul- phur, baked wo id, whx, silk, cotton, wool, hair, feathers, paper, white sugar, air, oils, metallic oxides, all dry veg< tabic substances, and ail hard stones. Those bodies, which, when rubbed ever so much, do not exhibit electricity, are called Non- Electrics. They convey electricity from one body to another, and therefore are denominated Conductors; they are as capable of having electricity de- veloped upon them by friction as those bodies which have been called "electrics," but it is conducted away as fast as it is produced. Some of them conduct electricity much better than others. The principal conductors are the metals, charcoal, all fluids except dry airs and oils, most saline substances, and stony substances. Woollen and silk, when wet, will, by means of the water, conduct electricity. When a body has more than its natural quantity of this fluid, it is said to be electri- fied positively, or plus; and when it has less than its natural quantity, it is sa J to be electrified negatively,, or minus. When bodies are electrified either of these ways, they repel each other; but if some be electri- fied plus, and others minus, they mutually attract; or if one body be electrified plus, and the other not electrified in either way, they also attract each other. "There are some fishes which possess the extraordinary faculty of being able, at plea- sure, to communicate shocks like those of an electric battery or galvanic pile, to any animal that comes in contact with them. They are called the torpedo, the gymnotus clcctricus, and the siherus Indicus. The most remarkable of these is the Gymnotus Electricus, or Electric Eel, which is fre- quently found in the marshes and stagnant pools of Guiana, and other countries of South America. The shocks they give are exceed- ingly severe ; and Humboldt mentions a road which has been totally abandoned, because the mules, in crossing a wide ford, were, by these violent attacks, often paralyse d and drowned. Even the angler on the bank was not exempt from danger, the shock being conveyed along his wetted rod and fishing- line. The Electric Eel is sometimes twenty feet long. The electricity of all those fishes I is exerted by them only when they please, i and of course only while they are alive. I After the animal has discharged its electrical I matter, the next shock is weaker; and I when the animal is exhausted, it has lost A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 16-5 all the power of producing any effect for some time. Then u no longer any doubt that the cause of thunder is the same with that which produces the ordinary phenomena of elec- tricity. The resemblance between them is indeed so great, that we cannot believe thunder itself to be any other than a grander species of electricity. WALKING. To walk gracefully, the body must be erect, but not Stiff, and the bead held up in such a posture that the eves arc directed forward. The tendency of un- taught walkers is to look towards the ground near the feet; and some persons appear always as if they were admiring their shoe- ties. The eyes should not thus he cast down- ward, neither should the chest bend forward to throw out the back, making what are termed round shoulders; on the contrary, the whole person must hold itself up, as if not afraid to look the world in the face, and the chest by all means be allowed to expand. At the same time, everything like strutting or pomposity must be carefully avoided. An easy, firm, and erect posture, are alone de- sirable. In walking, it is necessary to bear in mind that the locomotion is to be per- formed entirely by the legs. Awkward per- sons rock from* side to side, helping forward each leg alternately by advancing the haunches. This is not only ungraceful but fatiguing. Let the legs alone advance, bear- ing up the body. DIFFERENCE OF DAYS. There is a vast difference in the length cf days. A sidereal day is the real and invariable period of the diurnal rotation of the earth on its axis, and contains 23 hours, 5Q minutes, 3 5 seconds, of mean solar time ; the lunar day is 24 hours, 48 minutes ; and the solar slaty, which is the mean apparent time of one revolution of the earth on its axis, is 24 hours. GLOVES. Before the art of weaving them was known, gloves were sometimes made of velvet, tiffany, and satiu. as well as of various kinds of leather; at present, the skins generally made use of are chamois, kid, lamb, doe, dog, beaver, elk, and buff. Yeovil, in Somersetshire, is famous for their manufacture, as are Worcester and Wood- stock ; the latter for driving-glove*. Of laie years, the silk gloves of Derby have been much in request, and manufactories of thread, cotton, worsted, and other woollen f loves, have sprung up ; but for dreas, kid ave always been most approved. MOROCCO LEATHER. Is not so called from its being brought from Morocco, but from the art of dressing it being 6* originally introdiK -d from that coun- try. The true DlOleOfO leather is made of goat-skins tanned, and dyed on their out- sides; sheep-skins are also similarly treated. The goat-skins are not only more pliant, but their surface is smoother ; they are also more durable than those of sheep, but their employment is restricted on account of their high pri( e. GALL-NUTS. The gall-nuts used in making ink are produced by the insect which punctures the leaves of a spe oak verv common in Asia Minor, where they are collected in considerable quantities by the poorer inhabitants: from the dil ports of the Levant they are exported to various parts of the world. The galls held in the greatest estimation are those kno\%n in commerce under the name of blue galls. These are the produce of the first gathering, before the fly has issued from the gall. MAMMALIA. Vertehrated animals hav- ing an internal, bony, cartilaginous skeleton, and a brain, with a double heart and warm blood, and suckling their young. This hist Linmean class is divided into seven orders, viz. : primates, bruta, ferae, glires, pecora. belluuj, and cete ; including not only all the viviparous quadrupeds, but also the bat tribe, and seals and whales. PENS (M ETALLIC). This description of pens came into use about the year 1830. Quills are said to have been first used lor pens in -5o3, or, as some say, in 63o. SKYLARK (THE). The common lark, field lark, or laverock, as this bird is variously termed, is one of the best known and most highly-esteemed of our native songsters; its .shrill music, so sprightly and joyous, has been listened to with delight by everyone. This little brown bird is one of the plainest, and even meanest, of all tho feathered choir — a bird that, though it builds its uest low in the gorses, hath, as Elizabeth Barrett says, " Ds song in tho stars' courses," to show, as our poet tells us, what " honour hath humility." This is the A/auda arvot.sis of naturalists; and tho largest of our native larks, measuring, com- monly, seven inches in length, allowing about three inches for the tail. It is a handsome, sprightly-looking bird, with a silky crest, ereetable at. pleasure. It looks sadly out of place in a cage, although it is often so kept, for the sake of its shrill, clear melody, which may be heard rising above the -'iii of the busy street, and suggesting images and scenes of country life. We need not describe the colours and markings of the plumage, for they must be sufficiently familiar to all our readers. The female ma v 166 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! be distinguished from the male bird by its smaller size, and more thickly and darkly- spotted breast, which has, too, less of a ferruginous tinge than that of the male. Black and white varieties of this bird occa- sionally occur : the plumage of the fonner is of a motley hue, with a tinge of dull red showing through ; the latter is either pure white or yellowish. Specimens of this variety are sometimes found wild. In February or March these flocks brmk up, and soon after commences- the work of incubation. The nest is generally built in a hole scraped in the ground, or a natural hollow between two ridges in a corn or hay-field. The Scottish poet, Grahame, thus describes it : — "On tre*> or bush no lark is n?ver seen : Tlie daisied =ea he loves, where tufts of grass Luxuriant crown the ridge; there, with bis mate, He founds his lowly house of withered bents, An t coarsest spcargrass; next the inner work With finer and still liner Sbnw lavs, Rounding it curious with his speckled breast." And in this little fabric, which Macgillivray says is rather loosely put together, may be found four or five eggs, of a greenish gray- colour, freckled and marked with grayish brown. There are generally two broods in the year, the first young appearing some- times as early as the end of April; the second come out in June or July. They frequently leave the nest before they are fully fledged; and, therefore, should be taken for rearing in good time. Thev should be fed with white bread, soaked in milk, and crushed poppy seed; a few ants' eggs conduce much to make them healthy. The males may be known by the yellow tinge of their plumage In confinement they should have poppy seed, crushed hemp, barley- meal, and bread crumbs, with an occasional supply of green food, such as water-cresses, cabbage, lettuce, &c. A little lean meat, with ants' eggs, now and then, by way of a treat, tend to make them lively, and "more inclined to sing. Adult birds, introduced into the aviary, will become immediately reconciled if they have some oats an J poppy seed thrown to them; afterwards they will do very well on the universal paste. Any air or melody which it is desired they should learn m ist be whistled to them before they are fully fledged, as the males commence practising their natural song very early. They must also be kept separate from other birds while under this system of tutelage. Naturalists say that adult larks will some- times acquire the song of the chaffinch and nightingale. Larks are subject to the ordinary maladies which afflict birds, and are especially liable to yellow scurf about the beak; generous diet, such as ants' eggs, meal worms, with green food, and universal paste, are most likely to cure this. These birds will live eight or ten years in confine- ment. We have heard of instances of ex- treme longevity; as many as thirty years being mentioned. They require a cage at least a foot and a half long, nine inches wide, and fifteen inches high ; the shape is im- material, and it is best to cover the top with cloth, as the birds have a habit of springing upwards, especially when they are at all wild, and s> may injure themselves. Their food and drinking- vessels should be of glass or porcelain ; a piece of fine turf, renewed at least once a week, should be placed in the bottom of the cage; and great attention should be paid to cleanliness, as, if the feet get dirty, they are apt to acquire disease. JL MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 1G7 K77Z?.:: I,i|l.ii;l;i ^~^ WHITK. The names of the eight pieces are as fol- lows : — King, Queen, two Rooks or Castles, two Bishops, and two Knights. These are placed in the first rank of each player's side of the board, the Pawns being placed before them in the second rank. The pieces are arranged in the following manner : — In each corner square stands a Rook, or Castle, next to these a Knight, a Bishop, and the two middle or centre squares are occupied by King and Queen, so that the White King always stands on a black square, and the Black King on a white square, the Queen standing on a square of her own colour, Retiinn gervat colorem. The diagram repre- sents the board and men, neither side having made a move yet. Movement "of the Pieces and Pawns. The King can move in any direction, but only to a square adjacent to the one he oc- cupies. He can also capture any adverse man that comes near him, unprotected by any other piece or Pawn ; #**&->. but he cannot place himself YiTJrf on any square which is at- tacked by an adverse man, king for the 'King is the only piece that is never taken ; he is the soul of the game, and a player may have all his men, and being checked (the meaning of CHESS. The g, Chen is played by two pei - sons upon a board which is square, divided into sixty-four smaller squares. One-halt' of these sixty- four squares is coloured white; the other half black. The two plaj en sit opposite each other, with the hoard between them ; and care must he taken that a white corner square he at the right- hand of each player. When tho board is thus placed, the horizontal straight lines, running from right to left, are termed ranks ; the perpendicular ones, running from one player to the other, are called files ; the oblique ranges, of which the two prin- cipal ones run from one corner of the board to the opposite one, — one on white, the other on black squares, — and the other adjoining, are named dia- gonals. which will be explained hereafter), without being able to remove the attacking or check- ing man, he is checkmated — that is to say, tbe game is lost. Though the King can only move one square at a time, there is one ex- ception to this rule, which is only permitted once in a game, that is, the act of castling. For this a player has two choices ; he may castle to the right or to the left. This is done by moving the King two squares in either direction towards the Rook with which he castles, and placing the Rook on the other side of the King on the square next to him. For instance, supposing white to have his two Rooks in each corner, and the King on his original square, the King can castle on the left, which is called his Queen's side; or on the right, termed the King's side. In the former case he would be placed on the square originally occupied by a Bishop, and his Queen's Rook would have to stand on his Queen's square ; in the latter he would be moved to a square where his Knight stood, and his Rook would occupy the square of his Bishop. There are, how- ever, certain conditions attached to the pri- vilege of castlinjr. 1. You cannot castle after having mo\ed your King, or the Rook, with which you wish to castle. 2. There must be no piece between the King and th§ 168 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! Rook, whether your own or your adver- sary's. 3. You cannot castle while in check, nor to a square where the King would be in check ; nor can the King castle, if, in doing so, he passes a square which is attacked by an adverse piece or Pawn. The two Kings cannot, of course, come close to each other, but must have at least one square between them. The Queen is by far the most powerful of all pieces, combining the action of the Hook and the Bishop. It moves in a straight line, rank or tile, backwards and forwards, and also diago- nally, but only over empty squares, like ail other pieces, queen. except one. Place a Queen on the empty board, on the fourth square, counting from the King's square upwards , and thus placed in the centre of the board, Ehe will be found to bear upon twenty-seven squares, exclusive of the one she occupies. Placed in one of the four corners, where her action is most limited, she will still com- mand twenty-one squares besides the one she stands on. The Rook, also called the Castle, is next in importance to the Queen. She moves in a straight line, backwards or forwards, or sideways, al- ways over empty squares. It "is a peculiarity of this piece, that, whether it is middle of the board, or in a corner, it always commands the same num- ber of squares, fourteen, besides the one it stands on. The Bishop moves diagonally, backwards and forwards, as far as the squares are j^ «, empty. It never can change MM w}^ its colour; and as each 1 - g J$sL* pl aver nas * w0 » ^ey are placed, one on a black square, eishop. an( j t j ie jjjJjqj, on a ^jte one, the former called the Black Bishop, the latter the White Bishop. The move of the Knight is very peculiar, and difficult to describe. The Knight is the only piece that has the privilege to leap over another piece. It moves one square in a straight line, and one ob- liquely. Thus, for instance, the White Knight, which at the beginning of a game K.MtrHT. stan( j s to the right of the White King (see diagram), can at once be moved to the third square of the Bishop, or to the third square of the Rook, thus spring- ing over the intervening Pawns. This movement, being of a complicated nature, should be practised carefully by the student. The Pawn moves only in a straight- forward direction, one square at a time . but, unlike the pieces, which take an ad* verse man in the same way they move, the Pawn captures diagonally. It never moves nor takes backwards. Any Pawn can, on starting from its original place, which, as the diagram shows, is the second rank, make two steps, PAWIf - but, in doing so, cannot capture an adverse man, but is liable to be taken in passing the intermediate square by an adverse Pawn, but not by any piece or officer. For ex- ample . — your opponent, playing the black, has a Pawn of his on the fourth square, counting upwards from your Queen. You advance your Pawn in front of your King two squares; he has the option of either allowing it to pass or to take it with his Pawn, as if you had moved it only one square, and in "thus capturing your Pawn in passing, he must place his own on the third square from your King— not on the fourth. On Taking an Adverse Man. — The art of capturing an adverse man is by removing it from the board and placing your man on the square which the captured piece or Pawn occupied. All the eight men standing in the first rank of the board take in the same direction in which they move ; not so the Pawn, which, as stated above, captures dia- gonally. Any of your men can be captured by an "adverse one, except the King : he is never taken, but checkmated. The King being, as before mentioned, the soul of the game, each player directs his efforts towards attacking the adverse King, and carefully surrounding his own by his officers and Pawns. Any piece or Pawn attacking the adverse King, this is called giving check or checking, and such an attack must be notified by saying, check; whereupon your opponent must attend to this im- mediately, by either capturing the man that thus attacks or checks him, or by interposing some of his men between the checking-piece and his King, or lastly by removing his King to another square. But, should you be unable to get out of check by either of the above ways, then your King is checkmated, —that is, you have lost the game. Captur- ing is optional in all cases save one — when your King is in check, and you incapable to move out of check, except by taking the Pawn or piece that checks, you are obliged to do so. ALIQUANT PARTS. Numbers which will not divide or measure a whole number exactly. Thus, seven is an aliquant part of sixteen. (See Aliquot Parts, p. 161.) 1 1118 OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 1C9 MEALY AND WAXY POTATOES, Ad examination of the potato with a mi i has proved the relative worth of the mealy oik! waxy kinds of this useful vegetable. On examining a thin slice, It La Been to be almost entirely composed of cells, which are sometime! filled with, and sometime* con- tain clusters of, beautiful little oval grains. These grains remain unohanged in cold Water; out when it is wanned they dissolve in it, and the whole becomes a jeliy, and occupies a Larger space than it did in the form of grains. When a potato is boiled, then each of these cells of which it is com- posed becomes a little vessel full of jolly ; and, if there be not a great quantity of Starch in the cells, it may be gelatinized without bursting them. But, if the number of grains or their size be very great, the cells of the potato are broken on all sides by the expansion of the little masses of jelly, and the appearance of mealiness is produced. Hence we see that mea'y potatoes are the Biost valuable, and waxiiiess denotes a de- ficiency of starch or nourishing matter. MO fHER-OF-PE IRL. This is the hard, silvery, brilliant, internal layer of several kinds of shells, particularly oysters, which is often variegated with changing purple and azure colours. The large oysters of the In- dian seas alone secrete this coat of sufficient thickness to render their shells available to the purposes of manufactures. CORK. Cork is the exterior bark of a tree belonging to the genus of the oak, and •which grows wild in the southern parts of Europe, particularly France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. When the tree is about twenty- six years old, it is fit to be barked, and this can be done successively every eight years. The bark always grows again, and its quality improves with the increasing age of the tree. EMERY. This sul>tance is the most powerful for grinding down surfaces, from the extreme hardness of its particles, which are harder thin sand. It is a variety of co- rundum, the hardest known substance except diamond. It comes from the Isle of Naxos in the Archipelago. LIQUIDS (DECANTING, STRAINING, AND FILTERING OF). The decanting of liquids is, under ordinary circumstances, an opcation sufficiently simple to require no explanation; but the ease and certainty with which it can be performed depend entirely upon the form of the vessel from which the liquid is poured, the adhesion existing between liquids and solids giving i tendency in the former to run down the outside of the vessel ; and, if the latter is nea-ly full, or very largo in circum- ference, or the sides approach the perpen- dicular direction, this accident almost always occurs. The difficulty of returning i of wine to the decanter, or of pouring from one lull tumbler into another, are well- known examples of this inconvenienoe. Advantage may, however, he taken of the adhesion of liquids to solids, and by it tho former may be led into the required direc- tion. This cannot be better illustrated than hv a description of the moans by which a ^lass of Wine may he returned, without spilling, to the decanter If a teaspoon is dipped into the wine, so as to become wetted with it, and then held perpendicularly with the bowl downwards, and the point over, but not touching, the en I ranee into the de- canter, and the edge of the glass be made to touch the back of the spoon, it will bo found, on inclining the former, that tho wine, having a perpendicular solid body to adhere to and run down, will do so in pre- ference to trickling along the ohlique outer surface of the wineglass; and, in this mode, a liquid may be poured steadily out of any similar vessel with so little disturbance ai not to agitate any sediment that may exist in it. In the laboratory of the chemist, a piece, of glass rod is usually employed for this purpose ; but a spoon, or pencil, or any simi'ar suhstance having a surface capable; of being wetted by the liquid, answers well. If, however, the vessel out of which it is wished to decant is large, very full, or the sides, on pouring, are nearly perpendicular, the plan is not successful ; thus, it could not be employed in aiding the transfer of the liquid from one full tumbler to another. Even this may be accomplished without tho aid of a funnel, or without spilling, by pre- venting the adhesion of the liquid to tho edae or side of the vessel out of which it is poured, which may be readily done by greasing the rim, when it will be found quite practicable to pour out of a nearly full tumbler without spilling. In many instances, the employment of a syphon in decanting will be found very ad- vantageous, particularly when the contain- ing vessel is large, and cannot be readily moved, or when there isany sediment which it is desirable not to disturb. The most simple form of this instrument consists of a tube, bent as in fig. 1, with one leg shorter than the other; this may be made of glass, pewter, or, in fact, of any kind of stiff* tubing that will retain its form — a piece of gutta-percha pipe, carefully bent by a mo- derate warmth, whilst a piece of stout cord is in the interior to prevent the sides closing together, answers very well. Before use, m FACTS for everybody: the syphon must be filled with liquor ; this is best accomplished by turning it upside down, with the opening to the short leg raised on a level with that of the long one, ■when the liquid should be poured into the former. When both legs are tilled, they should be closed with the fingers: the shorter leg introduced into the liquid it i3 wished to draw off; and the opening of the louger leg brought to a lower level than that of the shorter, and on remov- ing the fin- gers, the li- quid will flow as in fig. 1, until it is be- low the level of the short leg. If the sy- phon is made of small tub- ing, or is less- ened at the apenings so as not to exceed a quarter of an inch in diameter, there will be no occa- sion to close the end of more than one leg with the fingei-, as the liquid will not flow when it is brought to the proper position, unless both orifices are open ; and thus the necessity, of plunging the finger into the liquid is obviated, and the syph'.n can also be used with a narrow-necked bottle, into ■which the hand could not be passed. To do away with the necessity of tilling the syphon before use, the instrument is usually made with a sucking tube, as in fig. 2 ; La this case, all that is requisite is, to intro- duce the short leg, close the opening to the long one, and, by the action of the mouth, draw up the liquid until both legs are full, when, on removing the finger, Fig. 2. the stream will flow. A very ingenious syphon of this kind is de- scribed by the German chemist Mohr ; it is thus constructed : — Take a long Eau-de-Co- logne bottle, and with a file and turpentine, make a deep notch across, about an inch and a-half from the bottom ; then, with a char- coal point or pastile, or hot iron, produce a crack, and cut off the bottom, grinding it smoothly ; then take a tube bent at an angle of forty-five degrees, and, by means of a good cork, perforated with a rat-tail rasp, fit it tightly in the bottom of the bottle, and add also another piece of tubing for the suction Fig. 3. tube; the whole will then have the appear- ance represented in fig. 3, and will form an exceedingly useful and very convenient syphon. " In emptving large stone bottles or car- boys, the following plan may be had recourse to : — Perforate a sound cork with two open- ings by a rat-tail rasp, and fit, air-tight, Fig. 4. two tubes bent as in fig. 4. On blowing through the upper, the liquid will be forced to ascend and run over the bend of the other, which will then act as a syphon. This plan is exceedingly useful in emptying carboys of corrosive liquids, as oil of vitriol, &c. ; * and if all the joints are — as they should be — air-tight, the flow may be arrested by closing the upper tube with the A. LrflSCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 171 ftDger. In the figure, the outer legof the l\phon is shortened, to save space ; in prac- tice, it must be of sufficient length to be Iowt than the inner leg within the vessel. rf a syphon is required frequently for decanting the same kind of liquid, it is found troublesome to be constantly filling it before each time of using; this trouble is ob- viated by the use of an instrument formed with legs of equal length. which are turned up at the ends, as in fig. 5 ; this, having been tilled, may be hung up in the erect position, and the Fig. 5. liquid will not esc ape ; but, on plunging one end into a liquid, it will be found immediately to flow from the ether, provided that the "latter is below the level of the surface of the liquid. n.ning and Filtering. The ope- rationo of straining and filtering are fre- quently required in domestic manipulations, aii'I the apparatus employed usually consists of rieves and a jelly-bag. As in many other instances, it will be found advantageous to import several contrivances from the labo- ratory to the kitchen. One of the most useful (because most simple) strainers consists of a square frame, formed of four pieces of wood nailed together al the corners, with apiece of calico, linen, or canvas, of suitable fineness, tacked to the four sides. This strainer is particularly useful in separating any solid substance — as the residue in making wines; or if grated potatoes are put on one made of Coarse cloth, the starch can be readily washed through, leaving the useless portion on the strainer; the cloth should not be tacked very loosely, as it bags down when any sub- stance is put on it, and the liquid runs away below from the centre. This strainer is a most useful one ; it is readily made, of any of fineness, and of any ;-ize ; and it also possesses the great advantage, that, if ry, the tacks fastening the cloth can easily be withdrawn, when the substance remaining can be rolled up in the cloth, and tightly squeezed, to express the last portions of liquid, which are frequently the most valuable. In cases where a finer filtration is required than can be obtained by means of a cloth, as in cleaning turbid wirie or spirit, the use of j filtering- paper is recommended. This paper ■■ is merely a stouter kind of blotting-paper, ! thick varieties of which answer very well for domestic purposes ; it is most simply used by taking a square piece, folding it into half — by bringing the two opposite edge? to- ge her — and then folding the oblong so ob aired across its length. By this means a small square is obtained, one quarter the original size, which may be opened into a hollow cup, having three thickie paper on one side, and one on the other; this is to be placed, With the point down- wards, in a funnel, and the liquid poured in ; and as soon as the pons of the paper are expanded by the moisture, it will be found to llow through perfectly clear. Care must be taken, in making the filter, not to finger it much where the two foldings cross each other, as a hole is readily made at that part, and the filter spoiled. The objection to this simple contrivance is, that from its fiat sides applying themselves closely to those of the tunnel, the flow of the liquid is impeded, and is therefore slow. This effect may be obviated by the use of the plaited filter, the construction of which we will endeavour to describe. A square piece of filtering or stout blotting-paper, is to he doubled, and the oblong so obtained is to be again folded in half, when, if the last fold is opened, it will have the appearance of fig. 6. From the corners, b b, folds are to be creased in the direction towards «, but not reaching it for half-an-inch ; these are . d by the dotted lines, which divide b b d Fig. 6. the double paper into four triangles, each of which is to be again folded into eights; and care must be taken that all the folds are made the same way, that is. projecting to the same side of the paper. When complete, the doubled and creased paper will appear as fig. 7. Now divide each eighth into half, Hg.7. by a fold in the opposite direction to those previously made, when it will be found that the whole will readily fold up like a paper fan. The projecting loose ends which are formed by the corners b, should be cut off, FACTS FOB. EYERYIiODY Fig. 8. and the double sides separated for the first time by blowing them apart, when the whole may be readily opened out as in fig. 8. In making this filter, which takes a much less time than to fol- low the description, two precautions are , requisite. The folds should be made at once with one firm pressure, and not with a ser.es of rubbings ; and all the creases should stop short of the middle, otherwise a hole will be made at that point long before the filter is completed. The advantages of this filter are, that it exposes a large sur- face for the liquid to pass through ; and from its only being in contact with the funnel where the angles project, the current flows always readily From Inquike Within. WRITING AND CONVERSATION (MODES OF ADDRESS IN). There are many who well know how to use the pen as far as handwriting is concerned, but when they are called upon to address their supe- riors in life, they are quite ignorant as to the proper and polite mode; and having seen much perplexity manifested from not knowing how to accomplish this art, we shall enter somewhat largely on prescribed forms of superscription. The Baronetage. This order, instituted by King James I., 1611, is said to have been suggested by the minor barons, so called, to distinguish them from the great barons, though both barons by tenure ; the one re- taining their territorial possessions, the other having alienated them. The title is, however, of very ancient standing, both in England and France, and was used in the i former for banneret, when it was meant to j designate a knight-banneret, who had the j privilege of sitting in parliament. When this herxlHary order was instituted, or revived — for we read concerning knights going forth in quest of adventures as far back as the feudal times — it happened that a rebellion raged in the northern province of Ireland, and it was therefore deemed ex- pedient that each newly-created baronet should, after the example of the ancient knights, who rendered due service to the king, pay into the exchequer a sum of money adequate to the maintenance of thirty Soldiers for three years, at eight-pence per finy ; this sum, increased by fees, amounted to nearly twelve thousand pounds. It was required further, that the candidate should be a gentleman by birth, and in possession of a clear estate of one thousand per annum. The word "Sir" is affixed to the christian name of a baronet, as it is used before that of a simple knight; and his wife is en ti: led "Lady, " Madam," or " Dame," according to the custom of speaking. Baronets and their heirs male, have place in battle near the royal standard, which they are bound to defend. Baronets lose all distinction of rank when they sign their names; even the "lordly line of high St. Clair," being simply baronets, affix merely their christian names. A letter to a baronet is superscribed— "To Sir X. Y., Baronet, or Bart.;" — to a knight, "To Sir A. B." Barons by Letters Patent. The king, in olden times, used to invest a newly-created baron in open parliament ; and so late as the time of King James I., that monarch, in person, solemnly enrobed each peer in scarlet, with a furred hood; but in the same year it was determined to discontinue these ceremonies in future, the delivery of letters patent being deemed sufficient. Barons, when addressed officially by the crown, are styled, "Right trusty and well-beloved." Letters sent to them, by private, persons, must bear a superscription as follows : — "To the Right Honourable." (For a baron's coronet, see p. 129.) Viscount. The next grade in the ascending scale to.vards the highest estate of the realm, is that of vice 'omes, or viscount, which title was formerly applied to the sheriff of a county, but was not used as a designation of nobility before the reign of Henry VI. A viscount is uniformly created by patent, and descends from father to son, unless especially provided against. The honour was originally conferred as an advancement to barons; but afterward! created frequently with the barony ; and, in modern times, it has been conferred on private gentlemen, as a reward for dis- tinguished services. Thus, for example, Viscount Sid mouth, Viscount Leinster, Viscount Goderich, Viscount Exmouth, &o. Viscounts are addressed by the crown as "Our right trusty and well- beloved Cousins." Letters to them bear the super- scription — "To the Right Honourable Viscount A. or B." The sons and daughters are simply "the Honourable." Earl. The dignity of earl, which ex- isted in this country previous to the time of William the Conqueror, was originally annexed to a particular piece of land, and comprised three descriptions of earldoms. First — pertaining to an entire county, in which case the county became palatine, cr A MISCELLANY OP IREFUL KNOWLEDGE. 173 the possessor of royal privileges. Secondly — derived only from a oounty, but without Che privilege of holding high courts, and and without any sioua; and with revenues ariaii participating in profits derived from the pleas id' the oounty court. Thirdly— a kind of earldom constituted by a grant of laud from the crown. The titles in eacb are often . nor ouly from towns or counties, but from pr 9, or villages, and family surnames. When officially addressed by the crown, earls are termed "Our right fan sty and right well-beloved Cousin." This mode of address was first adopted by Henry IV. The king being either by his wife, his mother, or his sisters, actually re- late.!, or allied to every earl in the kingdom, i:ly acknowledged that connexion in all his letters, and other public acts; from Whence, according to Riaekstone, the usage has descended to his successors on the British throne, though the same reason does not exist. An earl, on some special occasions. also the title of "Puissant Prince." When addressed by letter, as follows — "To the Bight Honourable the Earl of — " The eldest sons of Earls are Lords ; the sisters also have the title of Ladies. (For Coronet, see p. US.) Mahquis. A marquis (marchio), is the next degree of nobility. His office, formerly, guard the frontiers and limits of the kingdom, which was called the marches, from the Teutonic word marehe, a limit; as in p irticular were the marches of Wales and Scotland, before those countries were an- to Britain. The persons who guarded the frontiers were called Lords Marches, or Marquises; their authority was abolished ue in the time of Henry VIII. as no longer necessary. Ruins on the border- lands still attest the power and extent of those strongholds, where lords of the marches presided in nearly regal splendour. Such is Ludlow Castle, on the borders of "Wales, amid scenes of sylvan beauty, where Milton wrote his "Co'mus." and among whose fields and woods he laid the scene of that inimitable poem. The first English marquisate was conferred by King Richard II., in 1386, upon Robert de Vere, after- wards created Duke of Ireland; the second creation occurs in the same reign; after wldch. the dignity remained dormant till the reign of Edward VI. , but thenceforward it became a regular and common grade of nobility. His otlicial address is ''Our right trusty and entirely-beloved Cousin.'' I bears the title, on some occasions, of " Puis- sant Prince." His sons are Right Honour- able, and Lords; his da ^liters Right Honourahles, and Ladies. 'I he style of a Marquis is "Most Honourable." If addressed r, the direction should be asfollows: — ( ' To the Most Honourable the Marquis of — ." (For ,i marquis' coronet, see p. 14o.) IH'kk. The dukedom, the most elevated in the British peerage, was first in- i by Edward III., who created his eldest son," Edward the Black Prince (so called on account of his sable armour), Duke of Cornwall, and subsequently Prince of Wales; when the dukedom merged in the principality, and has ever since been rest d in the heir-apparent to the throne, who, at his birth, becomes Duke of Cornwall. A. duke is officially addressed by the crown, "Our right trusty and right entirely beloved Cousin and Councillor." He is also entitled upon .some occasions, "Puissant Prince." All letters to him are thus superscribed: — "To His Grace the Duke of — ," or "To the Most Noble the Duke of — ." His sons are Right Honourables, and Lords; bis daughters Right Honourables and Ladies. Thus, in addressing them by letter — "To the Right Honourable Lord A or B." The sons of a royal duke are, however, styled princes. In writing to a duke or marquis, it is usual to distinguish him from nobility of minor rank by using the words, "My Lord Duke," or "My Lord Marquis." in writing to an earl, a viscount, or a baron, you simply say "My Lord." In like manner, an archbishop who takes prece- dence of a duke, and is "Ilia Grace," is addressed by letter in no other form than, simply "My Lord " You give him, and a duke, the title of "Grace" at the termi- nation of the letter, when you say, "I re- main, my Lord, your Grace's most obedient, &c." To all others, the marquis included, you simply say, "Your Lordship's most obedient," &c. And yet, notwithstanding such high-sounding titles are addressed to different orders of nobility, and as if the simple word "Sir" was after all the highest title of respect, the term "Sire," which is precisely the same word as "Sir," or "Sieur," in its original meaning, exclu- sively belongs to the king. He stands alone at the apex of society, and hence to him is assigned, as by Tight, an appellation signi- fying hud, or master. (For a duke's coronet, see p. 141.) The addition of squire, after a surname, formerly belonged solely to a man of con- siderable landed property, next in rank to a knight; to an attendant on some nobie wan ior ; or to one who had a place at court. Since the days of Shakspeare, who thus 174 FACTS FOE EYEEYBODY: applied the word squire, it has been very generally appropriated, and is now given as a term of courtesy, to every one who holds a respectable position in society. The word "gentleman," on the contrary, is more restricted ; it pertains to persons of good and honourable birth. In reference to which, and the great changes that take place in society, are the verses of an old song, which we quote from memory : — "The king can make a belted knight, With banner bold, and spurs so bright, All meet for tournament or light — But not a gentleman." According to rules established in the Herald's Office, a person is entitled to the rank of gentleman, whatever may be his condition, or however dispossessed of broad lands and ancestral homes, who can show a coat of arms for five generations. Spiritual Frees. Archbishops have the ducal title of "Grace," and take precedence of all dukes, next to those of royal birth. The Archbishop of Canterbury ranks as lirst peer of the realm, and the Archbishop of York as third, coming immediately after the Lord Chancellor. His Grace of Canter- bury st3 T les himself "by divine providence;" ■while the Archbishop of York, and the bishops, adopt the term " permission " in- stead of "providence." Bishops are styled " Lords," and "Eight Reverend Fathers in God." The wives of ecclesiastics are not designated by the titles of their husbands. "Reverend," belongs to all clergymen under the rank of archdeacon. The archdeacon is addressed as — " The Venerable the Arch- deacon ." The dean as — "The very Reverend the Dean of ." The bishop as — "The right Reverend the Bishop of " The archbishop as — "The most Reverend the Archbishop of ." But the arch- bishop being equal in rank to a duke, his letters are addressed as follows: — "To his Grace the Archbishop of Y. or Z." " Worship" is a title that belongs to magis- trates and municipal corporations. The corporation of London is "right worship- ful," others are only "worshipful." "Your Worship," is a term addressed to a magis- trate sitting in judgment; even a justice of the peace is entitled to this form of ad- dress, when engaged in official duties. The superscription of letters sent to ladies, follows the same rule as that which serves for gentlemen, merely changing the pro- noun from him to her. thus — "To her Grace the Duchess of B. The wife of a baronet or knight is. styled "Lady." A lady who derives the title* of " Honourable" by "descent, as the daughter of an earl or viscount, if marrying a private gentleman, is always addressed by her Christian name; thus — "The Honourable Charlotte de Courcy." Whereas, the wife of a gentle- man who boars the title of "Honourable" by virtue of birth, or some offieial situation, is addressed as — "The Honourable Mrs. C. In writing to the Queen, the form of ad- dress runs thus: — "Madam, may it please vour Majesty;" the superscription on the ktter being uniformly — " To your Majesty." It is presumed that her Majesty listens to the request of the petitioner; she is there- fore feigned to be present, and being pre- sent, is addressed with the pronoun you. To write otherwise is an utter breach of etiquette. INCLINED-PLANE. A natural mecha- nical power, which deflects a body aside, when moving perpendicularly towards the centre of the earth, by which the force "'ilito-'fi'ttaJiillM towards the centre is modified. Its common application is to elevate bodies, which are raised perpendicularly while they are moved up the plane ; and the force gained is as the increased distance moved over, that is, as the length of the inclined-plaue is to the per- pendicular height gained. BEAVER. An interesting and intelligent animal, which builds substantial dwellings on rivers, and is hunted and destroyed by man for the down of which hats are made; i but silk and fine wool are now substituted. The engraving represents a colony of these creatures in a sort of council, before they begin any work. A MISCELLANY OF FSFFFL KNOWLEDGE. 175 TRANCE. Magnetic deep, or trance, ! red at all times to perplex the world by the Strange breach it seems to make be- tween the bodily and mental functions, by its unexpectedness in some cases, and by the peculiar agency producing it in others. l)r. Holland observes that, "as respects magnetic Bleep, or trance, in all its alleged ihtipes, there is no well-authenticalod fact making it needful to believe that an in- fluence is received from without beyond those impressions on the senses which are capable, according to the temperament and other circumstances, of exciting disordered as well as healthy actions, throughout every part of the nervous system, and especially in the sensorial functions." NEPTUNE. The god of the ocean, in the Greek mythology. izj£&* TRANSPARENT PAPER. Paper can be made as transparent as glass, and capable of being substituted for it for many purposes, by spreading over it with a leather a very thin layer of resin dissolved in spirits of wine Fine thin post paper is best, and the mixture must be applied on both sides MAGNETISM. A phenomenon of the ^action and reaction of the gases which till "space, and to which the surface of iron presents a peculiar reaction. The plate represents the curved forms in which par- ticles of steel-dust range themselves when %; . ■ ?: ? sifted on paper laid over a magnet. There is no mystery in it, nor anv fluid circulating, because every particle of the steel is to be regarded as a magnet with two poles ; and it is found that if a considerable number of magnetized needles were placed round the same magnet, they would be directed into curves just like those of the steel-dust. The whole lis a mere mechanical affection. FIG-TREE. A tree which, in warm cli- mates, produces delicious and nutritive fruit, and succeeds in America in warm situations, and against walls. CHRISTIAN NAM ES. Christian names are so called from their having originally, been given to converts at baptism, as sub- stitutes for their former pagan appellatives, many of which were borrowed from the names of their gods, and therefore rejected as profane. LIGHT-HOUSE. Aloftybuilding,erected on sea-coasts to warn and guide ships by night. They are very curious structures, consisting of an intense body of light, ra- m fofc... , ,i :____—. diated by concave reflectors and convex lenses, sometimes coloured for distinction'! sake, and made to change and revolve M further means of distinction. 176 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: SKIN (DARK COLOUR OF THE). Darkness of complexion has been attributed to the sun's power, from the age of Solomon to this day, — " Look not upon me, because I am black, because the sun hath looked upon me;" and there cannot be a doubt, that, to a certain degree, the opinion is well founded. The invisible rays in the solar beams, which change vegetable colour, and have been employed with such remarkable effect in the Daguerreotvpe, act upon every substance upon which they fall, producing mysterious and wonderful changes in their molecular state, man not excepted. ESSENCE OP FLOWERS (TO EX- TRACT). Procure the petals of any flowers that have an agreeable fragrance, card thin lavers of cotton-wool, which dip into the finest Florence or Lucca oil, sprinkle a small quantity of fine salt on the flowers, and lay them on a layer of cotton and a layer of flowers, until an earthen jar or ■wide-mouthed glass-bottle is full ; tie the top close with bladder, then lay the vessel in a south aspect to the heat of the sun, and in fifteen days, when you uncover it, a fra- grant oil may be squeezed out of the cotton mass altogether, which will be found little inferior to the celebrated otto of roses, if those flowers have been used. FLOWERS 'CLASSES OF). Flowers are commonly classed as bulbs, tubers, herbaceous perennials, biennials, and an- nuals. The first are chiefly, as well as a few of the tubers, spring flowers, and of course require to be planted in prepared beds, boxes, or pots, in the autumn, sooner or later, according to the place or purpose for wliich the flowers are wanted. Tulips, hyacinths, polyanthus-narcissus, are the principal bulbs'; and together with crown- imperials, gladiolas, crocuses, snow-drops, scillas, &c, are all planted in autumn, sooner or later, according to the option or judgment of the manager. Of tubers, the anemone, and ranunculus are the chief of the bed flowers ; and when a succession of these are wished for, the tubers may be put into the ground at the end of every two months, which will bring their blossoms at corresponding intervals. S.NA1LS. In France the snail is becom- ing a fashionable article of diet, and for some time past a particular place has been appropriated for their sale in the Paris fish- market, in the south-east angle, near the lobsters and fresh-water fish. "Snails," says one of the French journals, " were highly esteemed by the Romans, our masters iu gastronomy, and are now raised in many of the departments with success. In the sixteenth century, the Capuchins of Fri- bourg recovered the art of breeding and fattening snails, an art which is not lost in our day; fa- in Franehe-Comte, Lorraine, and Burgundy, they raise excellent snails, which find a sure demand in the Paris mar- ket. There are now fifty restaurants, and more than twelve hundred private tables in Paris, where snails are accepted as a deli- cacy by from eight thousand to ten thousand consumers. The monthly consumption of this molluscan is estimated at half a million. The market price of the great vineyard snails is from 2f. 50c. to 3f. 50c. per hun- dred, while Jhose of the hedges, woods, and forests, bring only from 2f. to 2f. 25o. The proprietor of the snaillery in the vicinity of Dijon is said to net over 7,000 francs an- nually. WINE (HOW TO CHOOSE). Choose port wine which runs smooth on the palate, and is free from all heat and harshness. It should be soft as velvet, if for immediate consumption, and have none of that astriu- r a clergyman, as many times as he had orders; and, at the conclusion, a peal on all the bells, to distinguish the quality of the person for whom the people are to* put up their prayers. A bell, too, must be rung when the corpse is conducted to church, and during the bringing it out of the church to the grave." Shakspeare, in one of his poems, says : — " Come list and hark, the bell doth toll For si>;i:e but now departing soul, "Whom even now those ominous fowle, The bat, the night-jar, or screech-owl, Lament ; hark ! 1 bear the wiide wo lie howle In 'his black night that seems to scowle, All these my black book shall enscrole. For hark! still, still the bell doth toll For some but now departing soul." MODELS. The first models were figures of living persons, and Dibutates, the Co- rinthian, was the inventor of those in clay. His daughter, known by the designation "of the Corinthian Maid, being about to be separated from her lover, who was going on a distant journey, traced his profile by his shadow on the wall; her father filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, about nine hundred and eighty-five years before Christ. One of the urprising efforts ever achieved by human industry was that undertaken by General Plifi'ner, to model the mountains of Switzerland. It, was begun in 1766, and completed in 178-5, a period of nearly twenty years. Bonaparte was a patron and lover of this art, many admirable performances in which, as a reward to the artist, he purchased, weight for weight, according to their hulk, in silver or gold. On one occa- sion, a humble price of 400 francs being set upon a work, he erased the word francs, in hen of which he inserted Napoleons, and directed them to be paid. WATER. A fluid, of which a cubic foot weighs 1,000 ounces, ar 8.!."; times more than foot of atmospheric air: the con- stituents of which are one part, by weighty of hydrogen, and 7h of oxygen; and two parts, by bulk, of hydrogen, and one of It becomes solid at '■> 2° of Fahren- heit, and boils or evaporates, ami becomes no hotter, at 212°, though, by compression, ithas been heated red-hot. When expanded in steam, at 212°, it acquire* 1,800 tunes its bulk, and presses with the force ot atmo- spheric air ; at 2'2G° it expands 9,000 times, and 36,000 times at 2.J7°. A volume of ice is made fluid by as much excitement as will raise an equal volume of water 140°. Vegetables decompose it, the hydrogen forming their unctuous, resinous, and sac- charine principles, in combination with the arbon of the soil ; the oxygen being evolved by the leaves, and a supply thereby kept up of what is fixed by animal respiration and combustion. In the ocean, it is combined with l-30th of its weight of muriate of soda, or sea-salt; but, as salt does not crystal- lize so soon as water, sea-water remains liquid till the thermometer is 3.5 Lower than for other water. In like manner, the salt does not evaporate at the heat which va- porizes water, and, therefore, the two processes of crystallizing and evaporating separate the water from the salt. Hence, the clouds which rise from the sea. rain, fresh water, and water evaporated by art, yield salt in the proportion of one ton from 3o of water. In crystallizing, Faculties arise, which enlarge the bulk : hence, frozen water splits roeks and trees, and ice floats upon water. Water combines with iron, sulphur, lime, and various substances, under a great variety of names; hard water arises from carbonic acid in water which then combines with lime. Waters are called hard when they contain a salt which de- composes the soap instead of dissolving it. The deductions drawn, in regard to the decomposition of water, from the experiment of discharging a galvanic battery through. water are erroneous; for the poles of t ho hat! cry themselves produce the oxygen and hydrogen supposed to be produced by the water, being, in fact, the constituents of the solution lying between the plates, and identical with positive and negative elec- tricity in all cases and circumstances. (See p. 16). PAPER-HANGINGS. A safe rule with regard to paper-hangings is to choose no- thing that looks extravagant or unnatural: no staring pattern or colour, which would only be fit to make caps for May-day sweeps. 178 FACTS tor everybody: Kegard should be had to the uses of an apartment s a drawing-room should be light and cheerful, a parlour should look warm and comfortable without being gloomy : bed-room papers should be cool and quiet, and generally of that usej Fig. 3. for blinds,on which, as shown in fig. 3, may be placed uonie 180 FACTS FOR EYEltYBODr: piecesof pumice -stone, surrounded and kept together by a broad ring — neither the pu- mice-stone nor the ring, however, are essen- tial parts of the contrivance. The action of this arrangement is as follows :— When the gas is turned on it escapes from the pipe, rising through the tube, and mixing with the air contained within it ; this mixture then escapes through the wire gauze, and may be lighted on its upper side, without passing through it to the gas below. The ilame should be perfectly free from smoke, which indicates too much gas — should be pale, colourless, and not soil any bright metal placed in it. If the dame is in the slightest degree yellow, it will do this, and then the gas should be partly turned oil'; on the contrary, if there is notenough gas, the flams will be extinguished. When lighted, the pumice becomes red-hot, and throws out a great heat When used in boiling, the vessel should be supported a short distance over the flame by a trevet ; if it is made to rest on the top of the ring, and is sufficiently large to close it entirely, the current is stopped and the flame extinguished, whilst the unburned gas still escapes below. This contrivance is most useful, it is lighted in an instant, is perfectly free from smoke, and no unburned gas escapes; it throws out great heat; and may be employed to heat bright tools with much more convenience than a charcoal fire. The objections to its use are, that, inhuming, it produces, as all gas does, a Quantity of carbonic acid gas, deterio- rating the air, and that the flame cannot be very much enlarged or diminished ; so that if fires of different power are required, two or more of the contrivances must be put in order. Otherwise, the instantaneous action, small cost, great heating power, and clean- liness of the plan, strongly recommend it. In 81111111101- weather, in many small families, it can be made to dispense altogether with the use of a fire. By a little variation, the whole contrivance may be made to stand on the table like fig. 1. In this and other cases, vulcanized India-rubber will be found to form by far the best kind of flexible tube, being quite impervious, very durable, and excessively pliant. Those who wish to try the experiment of heating on this plan may readily do so by covering the top of the giass chimney of any common burner with a piect of wire gauze, folding it over the fides; the gas may then be turned on, and lighted above the gauze, after it has min- gled with the air in the chimmy; a small burner, however, does not afford sufficient gas for the purpose, and, there being too tn ueh air, the flame is weak aud liable to go out. GUN BARRELS (TO BROWN). Take of nitric acid, half an ounce ; sweet spirit, of nitre, half an ounce; blue vitriol, two ounces; tinctireof steel, one ounce; mix all together in eight gills of water; apply this mixture with a sponge, then heat the barrel a little, and move the oxide with a hard brush. This operation may be repeated a third or fourth time, till you have the brown required ; it is then to be carefully wiped and sponged with boiling water, in which there has been put a small quantity of potass. The barrel, being taken from the water, must be made perfectly dry, aud then rubbed smooth with a burnisher of hard wood ; afterwards heated to the height of boiling water, and varnished with the fol- lowing varnish : — Varnish for Gun Barrels that have Undergone the Process of Browning. Take of spirits of wine, two parts ; dragon's blood, powdered, three drachms; shellac, bruised, one ounce; dissolve all together. This varnish, being laid on the barrel, and become perfectly dry, must be rubbed with a burnisher to render it smooth and glossy. AUTOGRAPHS (TO PRESERVE). The best plan to preserve autographs is to fix them in what is usually known as an invoice-book, in such a manner as to enable the collector to take them in and out at pleasure. The thin India-rubber thread may be used conveniently, running from corner to corner across the note or letter. The thread should be passed through a bit of card on the other side of the paper (to prevent the knot tearing the paper), and knotted. If the autographs are gummed or pasted, they cannot be removed without injur v. COINS (TO TAKE IMPRESSIONS FROM.) Procure tin or lead-foil, as thin as possible, place it on the coin, and with a pin's head, or any small smooth instrument, work it into e ery part ; then take it off, re . ert it into a shallow box, and pour plas- ter into its concave side. A durable plaster cast is thus obtained, covered with tin-foil, which will resemble silver. MONTH. The calendar month is a twelfth division of the year. A solar month is the time in which the sun passes through a whole sign of the zodiac — it is .30 days, 10 hours, 29 minutes, and 5 secor.ds. A lunar month, or the period of one moon, is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, and 3 seconds. A civil month consists of a cer- tain number of days, according to the laws and customs of different countries. In the year there are twelve solar months, and thirteen lunar months. A. MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 181 70DTA.C. A space round the heavens am" ig the fixed stars, L5 degrees wide, the Centre of u I i i ( h Is the plane Leo, the Lion, 22nd of July. TTT Virgo, the Vir- gin, 22nd of August. Southern Signs — s£ Libra, the Balance, 23rd of September. JT\ Scorpio, the Scorpion, 23rd of October. jt Sagittarius, the Archer, 22nd of No- vember. V? Capricorntts, the Goat, 21st of December. ££ Aquarius, the "Water-hearer, 20th of January. X 1'isces, the Fishes, 19 th of February. As we reckon the year by the earth's motions, and the solar year is 5025" ol a degree shot ter t ban the sidereal, so the time when the sun is on our equator is earlier every year by 20' 23" of time; hence the equinoctial points recede among the stars; but as we always call the ascend- ing point Aries, so the original stars go for- ward, and the equinoctial, with reference to them, recedes 50' 25" in a year ; 1° 23' 45" in a century; a sisrn in 2,150 years; and the whole circle 25.791 Tears. "It is, how- ever, a mere change in relative appearances, and produces no mundane affection what- ever. GUM ARABIC. The purest and finest gum arabic is brought in caravans to Cairo, by the Arabs of the country round Mounts Tor and Sinai, who bring it from this dis- tance on the backs of camels, sewn up in b^gs, and often adulterated with sand, &c. The gum exudes spontaneously from the bark and trunk of the branches of the tree, in a Boft, nearly fluid state, and hardens bv exposure to the air, or heat of the sun. It begins to flow in December, immediately after the rainy season, near the flowering time of the tree. Afterwards, as the wea- ther becomes hotter, incisions aie made through the bark, to assist the transuda- tion of the juice. "WAX AND YvAFEBS. Francis Kous- 9 seau, a native of Auxerre, who travelled a long time in Persia, Pegu, and other parts ol the East Indies, and who, in 1692, resided at St. Domingo, was the inventor of seal ir.g- wax. A lady, of the name of Longueville, made this wax known at court, and caused Louis XIII. to use it ; after which it was purchased and used throughout Paris. By this article, Rousseau, lu fore the expiration of s year, gained 50,000 livres. The oldest seal with a red wafer ever yet found is on a letter written by Dr. Krapt, at Spires, in the year 1624, to the Government at Bareuth. SOAP-BUBBLE. A soap-bubble, as it floats in the light of the sun, reflects to the eye an endless variety of the most gorgeous tints of colours. Newton showed, that to each of these tints corresponds a certain thickness of the substance forming the bub- ble : in fact, he showed, in general, that all transparent substances, when reduced to a certain degree of tenuity, would reflect these colours. Near the highest point of the bubble, just before it bursts, is always ob- served a spot which reflects no colours and appeal's black. Newton showed that the thicknesses of the bubble at this black point was the 2,500,000th part of an inch ! Now, as the bubble at this point possesses the properties of water as essentially as does the Atlantic Ocean, it follows that "the ultimate molecules forming water must have less dimensions than this thickness. BRIDE CAKE. Bride cake is used at weddings, because of its origin in confarrea- tion^ or a token of the most firm conjunction between man and wife, with a cake of wheat or barley, from far (Latin), bread or corn. Dr. Mofl'att tells us, that "the English, when the bride comes from church, were wont to cast wheat upon her head." Her- rick says, speaking to the bride : " While some repeat Your praise, and bless you, sprinkling you with wheat." BULBOUS ROOTS. The time to put these in is from September to November, and the earliest ones will begin blowing about Christmas. The glasses should he blue, as that colour best suits the roots; put water enough so as to cover the bulb one- third of the way up, less rather than more; let the water be soft, change it once a week, and put in a pinch of 3alt every time you change it. Ki dp the glasses in a'place mo- derately warm, and near to the light. A parlour window is a very common place for them, but is often too warm, and brings on the plants too early, and causes them to be weakly. 182 FACTS FOlt EVERYBODY KNIGHTS of the Garter, Bath, Thistle, and St. Patrick, are installed members of those orders entitled to wear stars and ribands, and ore limited in number. All Knights Bachelors, or Knights of Foreign Orders recognized in the "London Gazette," bear the title of Sir, and their wives that of Lady. The engraving represents an ancient Knight in his armour. (See Knighthood, p. 117.) DEATH'S-HEAD HAWK-MOTH. That beautiful creature is the bee-tiger, or death's- head hawk-moth (Acherontia atroposj, frequently seen during the month of Sep- tember. Men in old times regarded her ■with superstitious dread. " The ill-omened insect," said they, "bearing the impress of a death's-head upon her shoulders, is a messenger of ill; wherever she alights upon the sill of a window, sorrow is coming fast; or sickness will seize upon some member of the family." Thus they spoke ; but the lover of insects now rejoices when this magnificent moth crosses his way. Her home is not, indeed, within yonder glittering oak ball, though well it might become her ; she rather prefers to hide beneath the leaves of creeping plants, or underground, by which means she is protected from the piercing rays of the sun, and the attacks of unfriendly ich neum ontda. WINDMILL. A machine erected in ele- vated positions, and provided with vanes or sails, which, placed in a certain angle to the wind, turns millstones, by which corn if ground, and apparatus worked by which it is sifted and prepared for use by the baker. BARONS OF THE EXCHEQUER. The four judges who officiate in the Court of Exchequer, at Westminster or London. PNEUMATIC APPARATUS. An appa- ratus for generating, collecting, and ex- hibiting gases. A, is a vessel containing some ingredients for generating gas ; B, a pipe to convey it to the glass vessel; D t tilled with water, which is driven out as the gas enters ; C, is a resting bar, and a vessel of water to let in D when full of gas for use. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 183 MAT is the third month of Romulus' s year; but the fifth month as reformed by Numa and Julius Ca Bar. Romulus assigned thirty-one daya to this monih; Numa re- duced the number to thirty; and Julius Gaeaar restored it to the original length, which it now retains. There is some doubt about the origin of the name of this month ; because, although the Romans offered sacri- Maia, the mother of Mercury, upon the first day of this month, yet it appears pretty evident that the name was fixed long before the time of Romulus. Among our British and Saxon ancestors this month was hailed as the genial har- of approaching summer, and cele- brated sometimes with religious observances, and at others amid general festivity. On May-eve the Druids made large fires on eminences, in honour of Real, or Bealan, the Celtic or Irish word for the sun. Two of these fires were kindled in every village, between which the men and beasts devoted to sacrifice were compelled to pass, one of them being killed on the kairn, and the other on the ground ; hence the Irish pro- verb applied to a person in a dilemma, " Itter dha teine Bhcil" (between Bel's two fires). Synonymes. — In Latin, Mains ; French, Mai; Italian, Maggio ; Portuguese, Maio ; Saxon, Tri+milchi; and ancient Cornudi, Me. Yerstegan says, that " the pleasant month of May they (the Anglo-Saxons) termed by the name of Iri-milchi, or Tri- miUi. because in that month they began to milk their kine three times in the day. Symbol or Allegory of the Month. — A young man, with a beautiful face, clad in green, embroidered with various bright flowers, and a garland of white and damask roses upon his head. In one hand he held a lute, and on the forefinger of the other a nightingale, allegorical of the "eve 6ong" of this bird, which is first warbled durin? the month. The sign of Gemini, the Twins, also accompanied him, aUuding to the sun entering that sign on the 20th of the month. (See our engraving). There is not a day in the year that is devoid of historic interest, and May has her fair share of the number. The 1st, commonly called May- day. is a very remarkable one in our calendar. It is dedicated to St. Philip and St. James the Less. St. Philip was horn at Bcthsaida, near Tiberias, and U supposed to have been the first of our Saviour's disciples and an apostle ; he died at Hierapolis, in Phrygia, St. James the Less underwent martyrdom in a tumult in the temple, about the year a.d. 62. May-day festivities are said to have ori- ginated with the Romans, who worshipped Flora, aud celebrated her festivals by re- joicings and offerings of spring flowers, and the branches of trees in bloom. In our own country, in former times, the village lads and lasses left their homes at break of day — "On a May-day morning, to fetch in May." These good old times have long since parsed away, and are now little more honoured than in mere remembrance. Then we had the May-pole, painted with various colours, dressed with garlands and streamers, and surmounted by a large crown ; and there was the village fiddler, seated upon a cask, and vigorously scraping away for the lads and laa*ea to skip round the May-pole. In May. 1773, the ports of New York and Philadelphia were closed against vessels with cargoes of tea, and they were compelled to return to England. At Boston, a party of men disguised as Indians hoarded several ves- sels, and broke open 342 chests of tea, which they emptied into the harbor, iu the presence of thousands of spectators. May 10, 1775. The Continental Congress assembled at Philadelphia, and, after electing John Hancock president of the body, among other important measures, voted to raise an army of 20,000 men. May 11, 1771). General Provost, with a large British force, having invented Charles- ton, summoned the city to surrender ; but the approach of General Lincoln, who. had been appointed to the command of the south- ern arm} 7 , compelled him to retreat. May 16, 1811. The British ship-of-war, Little Belt, Captain Bingham, was hailed in the evening on the coast of Virginia by the United States frigate President, Captain Bodgen, but instead of receiving a satisfi - tory answer, a shot was fired hi return, when a brief engagement followed, in which eleveu of the enemy w'-re killed and twenty-one wounded. The President had only one uau wounded. 184 FACTS FOR r.TKTJYBOTJT: In May, 1782, the independence of America was acknowledged by Holland, Sweden, Den- mark, Spain and Russia. Early in May Sir Guy Carletou, successor of Sir Henry Clinton, as coiuinander of all the forces in America, arrived in New York, with instructions to promote an accommodation with the United States, aud of course there were no subsequent military operations of importance. The treaty of Ghent, which terminated the war of 1812, had scarcely been ratified, when it became necessary to commence an- other war for the protection of our commerce and seamen against Algerine piracies, and in M iy, 1815, a squadron under Commodore De- catur sailed for the Mediterranean, where the naval force of Algiers was cruising for Amer- ican vessels. After capturing two of the enemy's best frigates in that sea, Decatui proceeded to tiie Bay of Algiers, and there dictated a treaty of peace which secured the United Slates from any further molestation from that quarter. Similar treaties were also concluded with the other Barbary powers securing to the United States her just de- mtud tor the protection of American com- merce. The 26th dny is dedicated to St. Augus- ti», a monk sent to England by Pope Gregory the Great, to convert the Saxons, lie accomplished his mission satisfactorily, for he converted King Ethelbert, who ap- pointed him Archbishop of Canterbury, which he held until his death, in 610. The 29th day is commonly called the Re- storation-day, because in 1660 Charles II. was brought back to England, and restored to the throne of his ancestors. In some parts of England people wear oak-leaves and oak-apples (gilt) in their hats, in commemo- ration of the concealment of Charles in an oak tree at Bo.5 by the peasantry in East Friesland, while holding a confirmation. The 11th day is dedicated to St. Bar- nabas, whose proper name was Jores. He was descended from the tribe of Levi, and was bom at Cyprus, but educated under Gamaliel, at Jerusalem, and was associated with St. Paul, preaching the Gospel in various coun- tries, for upwards of fourteen years. He suf- fered martyrdom at Salamis, in his native isle, by being stoned to death by the Jews. The festival of this saint used to be observed with great ceremony, garlands cf roses and woodroof being worn during the observance. The loth day is dedicated to St. Vitas, who was a Sicilian martyr, under Diocletian. Formerly it was a custom to offer fowls on the festival of this saint, to avert the disease called St. Vitus's dance. The 17th day is dedicated to St. Alban, who Buffered martyrdom in 303, and was the first Christian martyr in this island. He was converted to Christianity, by Ampliialus, a priest of Caerleon, in "Monmouthshire, who, flying for protection from persecution, was hospitably entertained by St. Alban, at Verulam, in Hertfordshire, now called, after his name, St. Alban's — Ampliialus, being closely pursued, made his escape, dressed in Si. Alb m's clothes. This, however, being 6oon discovered, exposed St. Alban to the fury of the Pagans, and he, refusing to per- form the sacrifice to their gods, was first miserably tortured, and then put to death. John Wesley, the founder of the religious sect called after him Wesleyan Methodists, was born at Epworth, in 1703. 19th. On this day, in 1215, the Barons of England compelled King John to sign the Magna Charta, or Great Charter, ;«t Runny- ni' de, a meadow between Staines and Windsor. In 1820 died Sir Joseph Hanks, the naturalist, in his seventy-seventh year. The 21st of this month is the longest day in. the yean Jane 17, 1776. A sanguinary battle took ;>lace on Breed's Hill, (,n>vv generally regard- ed us Hunker Hill), in which the British were severely cut up, hut they finally gained DOS? melon of the hill, the Americans retiring icross Charlestown Neck with inconsiderable 'oss. The 24th day is Midsummer-day. It is also called St. John's-day, being held in commemoration of the nativity of John the Baptist, who was beheaded by the stratagem of the wife of Herod. 28th. In 1577, Peter Paul Rubens, the most celebrated painter of the Flemish school, was born at Cologne. His " Village Fete," in the Louvre, and his " Battle of the Amazons," and " Last Judgment," at Munich, are considered by many judges as his best paintings. The 29th is dedicated to St. Peter, and is kept with great pomp at Rome, beinge high festival of the Roman Catholic Church. 30th. In 1474 the first book printed in England was completed on this day by ('ax- ton, and was called "The Game and Play of the Chesse." Ludovico Ariosto, one of the most dis- tinguished poets of Italy, at a period when Europe was in a state of semi-barharism, was also born in this month, at Reggio, in 1474, and died at Ferrara, in 1533. His principal production was the incomparable poem of " Orlando Furioso." LIP-SALVE. White wax, two and a half ounces; spermaceti, three quarters of on ounce; oil of almonds, four ounces. Mix well together, and apply a little to the lips at night. Another — A* d< ssertspoonful of salad oil in a saucer, hold it over a candle, and drop melted wax over it till the oil is thinly covered; when they are incorporated, pour it into boxes. (Wax taper will do.) WINDS. A change in the temperature of a portion of air; an increase or a diminu- tion of the quantity of water which it holds in a state of vapour ; in short, any circum- stance which causes it either to contract or expand destroys the equilibrium among the different parts of the atmosphere, and occa- sions a rush of air, that is, a wind, towards the spot where the balance has b"en destroyed. 18(5 PACTS FOIt everybody: "Winds may be divided into three classes: those which blow constantly in the same direction; those which are periodical; and those which are variable. The permanent winds are those which blow constantly be- tween, and a few degrees beyond, the tropics, and are called trade-ivinds. On the north of the equator, their direction is from the north-east, varying at times a point or two of the compass each way : on the south of the equator, they proceed from the south- east. The origin of them is this: — The powerful heat of the torrid zone rarefies, or makes lighter, the air of that region ; the air, in consequence of this rarefaction, rises, and to supply its place, a colder atmosphere from each of the temperate zones moves to- wards the equator. But these north and south winds pass from regions where the rotatory motio7i of the earth's surface is less to those where it is greater. Unable at once to acquire this new velocity, they are left behind, and instead of being north and south winds, as they would be if the earth's sur- face d:d not turn round, they become north- east and south-east winds. The Monsoons belong to the class of pe- riodical winds. They blow half the year from one quarter, and the other half from the opposite direction : wnen they shift, variable Minds and violent storms prevail for a time, which render it dangerous to put to sea. The monsoons of course suiter partial changes in particular places, owing to the form and position of the lands, and to other circum- stances ; but it will be sufficient to give their general directions From April to October, a south-east wind prevails north of* the equator, southward of this a south-east Wind. From October to April, a north-east wind north of the equator, and a north-west between the equator and 10° of south latitude. The Land and Sea- Breezes, which are common on the coasts and islands situated between the tropics, are another kind of periodical winds. During the day, the air, over the land, is strongly heated by the sun, j and a cool breeze sets in from the sea ; but In the night, the atmosphere over the land gets cooled, while the sea, and consequently the air over it, retains a temperature nearly even at all times ; accordingly, after sun.-et, a land-breeze blows off the siiore. The sea- \ breeze generally sets in about ten in the j forenoon, and lasts till six in the evening; at seven the land-breeze begins, and con- tinuea till eight in the morning, when it dies ' away. These alternate breezes are, perhaps, felt more powerfully on the coast of Malabar \ than anywhere; their effect there extends to a distance of twenty leagues from the land. Thus, within the limits of from twenty- eight to thirty degrees on each side of the equator, the movements of the atmosphere are carried on with great regularity ; but beyond these limits, the winds are extremely variable and uncertain, and the observations made have not yet led to any satisfactory theory by which to explain them. It appears, however, that beyond the region of the trade- winds, the most frequent movements of the atmosphere are from the south-west, in the north temperate zone. This remark must be limited to winds blowing over the o^ean, and in maritime countries; because those in the interior of continents are influenced by a variety of circumstances, among which, the height and posit on of chains of moun- tains are not the least important. These south-west and north-west winds of the temperate zones are most likely occasioned in the following manner: — In the torrid zone there is a continual ascent of air, which, after rising, must spread itself to the north and south in an opposite direction to the trade-winds below: these upper currents, becoming cooled above, at last descend and mix themselves with the lower air ; part of them may perhaps fall again into the trade- winds, and the remainder, pursuing its course towards the poles, may occasion the north- west and south-west winds of which we have been speaking. '1 his interchange between the heated air of the tropics, and the cold air of the polar regions, greatly tends to moderate the climate of each. Be- sides, the air from the tropics being richer in oxygen, on account of the more luxuriant vegetation decomposing a larger quantity of carbonic acid, is well calculated to supply any deficiency in the amount of this most important substance, which might occur from the barrenness of a less favoured climate. Hurricanes have been supposed to be of electric origin. A large vacuum is suddenly created in the atmosphere, into which the sur- rounding air rushes with immense rapidity, sometimes from opposite points of the com- pass, spreading the most frightful devasta- tion along its track, rooting up trees, and levelling houses with the ground. They are seldom experienced beyond the tropics, or nearer the equator than the 9th or lOih parallels of latitude ; and they rage with the greatest fury near the tropics, in the vicinity of land or islands, while far out in the open ocean they rarely occur. They are most common among the West India islands, near the east coast of Madagascar, in the islands of Mauritius and Bourbon, in the Bay of Bengal, at the changing of the monsoons, and on the coasts of China. A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 187 Whirlwinds sometimes arise from winds | Moving among lofty Rnd precipitous moun- tains, the form of which influences then- direction, and occasions gnats to e discerned. The flower forms a spike in the centre, often nearly four feet long and nodding on one side. The fruit, or plantains, are twelve incbes lonir and two in diameter; at first green, and afterwards of a pale yellow. The spikes of fruit weigh frow 30 to 40 pounds. They are generally cut before ripe, the green stud pulled o!i; and the heart roasted, and served at table as bread. The negroes almost live upon them, and they serve, likewise, to fatten all domestic animals. Every other part of the tree is useful, and the leaves are used as napkins and table-cloths. Of another sort, the fruit is rounder and more lucious, and, when ripe, eaten raw or fried in slices, is relished by all ranks in the West Indies. It is only perennial in its roots, for the stalk dies down to the ground every year; but, by cutting them down, suckers rise from the root, and there is a constant succession of fruit all the year. SUMMER. The season of long days and warm weather, arising from the inequality with which the circles of rotation are cut by lines of darkness, owing to the pole being turned towards the sun. WINTER. The season of long nights, owing to the revolving circles being more in the dark than in the light, and to the pole turned from the sun. SYMBOL. An emblem; thus, the eer- nent is a symbol of Time or Eternity. Symbols were the bases of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, and of the ancient alpha- bets ; thus, a mirror was the symbol of Beauty, and when a planet was called Venus, the symbol ^ of a mirror was assigned to Venus ; and so with other things. A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 189 TIDES (TTIE). Thetides are produced by the attraction of the moon. The cohesion of fluids being much leai than that of solid bo- dies, they more easily yield to the power of gravity, in consequence of which, the wafers Immediately below the moon are drawn up in a protuberance, producing a full tide, or what is oommonly called high-water, at the spot where it happens. According to this theory, you would imagine we should have full tide only once in twenty-four hours — that is, every time that we were below the moon — while we find that we have two tides in the course of twenty- four hours, and that it is high-water with us and with our anti- podes at the same time. This opposite tide is rather more difficult to explain than that which is drawn up be- neath the moon. In order to render the explanation more simple, let us suppose the earth to be everywhere covered by the ocean. B M is the moon, A B C D the earth. Now, the waters on the surface of the earth about A being more strongly attracted than in any other part, will be elevated, the attraction of the moon at H and C, being less; but still it will be greater there than at D, which is the part most distant from the moon. The body of the earth will, therefore, be drawn away from the waters at D, leaving a protu- berance similar to that at A ; so that the tide A is produced by the waters receding from the earth, and the tide D by the earth receding from the waters. The influence of the sun on the tides is less than that of the moon ; for observe that the tides rise in consequence of the moon attracting one part of the waters more forcibly than another part ; it is this in- equality of attraction which produces full and ebb tides. Now, the distance of the sun is so great, that the whole globe of the earth U comparatively but as a point, and the difference of its attraction for that part of the waters most under its influence, and that part least subject to it, is but trifling; and no part of the waters will be much ele- vated above or much depressed below their general surface by its action. The sun has, however, a considerable effect on the tides, and increases or diminishes them as it acts in conjunction with, or in opposition to, the moon. 9* The moon is a month in going round the earth ; twice during that, time, therefore, at full and at change, she U in the same direc- tion as the sun. Both then act conjointly on the earth, and produce very great tides, called spring-tides as represented at A and B; but when the moon is at the interme- diate parts of her orbit, the sun, instead of affording assistance, weakens her power bv acting in opposition to it ; and smaller tides are produced, called neap-tides. Since attraction is mutual between the moon and the earth, we produce tides in the moon ; and these are more considerable, in proportion as our planet is larger. Neither the moon nor the earth in reality assume an oval form, for the land which intersects the water destroys the regularity of the effect. The orbit of the moon being nearly parallel to that of the earth, she is never vertical but to the inhabitants of the torrid /one ; in that climate, therefore, the tides are greatest, and they diminish as yon recede from it and approach the poles ; but in no part of the globe is the moon immediately above the spot where it is high tide. All matter, by its inertia, offers some resistance to a change of state ; the waters, therefore, do not readily yield to the attraction of the moon, and the effect of her influence is not complete until some time after she has passed the meridian. The earth revolves on its axis in about twenty-four hours; if the moon were sta- tionary, therefore, the same part of our globe would, every twenty-four hours, return beneath the moon ; but as during our daily revolution the moon advances in her orbit, the earth must make more than a complete rotation in order to bring the same meridian opposite the moon : we are about three-quarters of an hour in overtak- I'M) PACTS FOR eveeybody: ing her. The tides, therefore, are retarded, for the same reason that the moon rises feter, by nave-quarters of an hour every day. This, however, is only the average amount of the retardation. The time of the h|ghest tide is modified by the sun's attrac- tion, and is between those of the tides which would be produced by the separate action oi the two luminaries. The action of the sun, therefore, makes the interval different on different days, but leaves the average amount unaffected. SIMPLE BODIES. Oxygen is one of the most important of the elementary bodies. In a simple state, it is obtained only in the form of gas. It is an exceedingly abundant body; the air of the atmosphere contains cne-fifth, and water is resolveable into a mixed gas, one-third of which, by bulk, is oxygen, and the remainder hydrogen. It al^q exists in most natural products— animal, vegetable, and mineral. Oxygen gas is, like common air, colourless, invisible, taste- less, inodorous, and elastic. But it is heavier than common air, in the proportion of 11^ to 10. It is a powerful supporter of com- bustion ; that is to say, when any inflamed body, as a lighted candle, is put into it, it burns very vigorously — much more so than when in common air; indeed, it is owing to the oxygen it contains that common air supports combustion at all. Its presence is also necessary for the eontinuanee of animal life. We cannot breathe air which has been deprived of its oxygen. Hydrogen is known only in the state of gas, and is sometimes called inflammable air. It is the lightest of all bodies that can be weighed. It is one of the ingredients which form water — from which it can be easily procured. Hydrogen gas, when pure, po-sisses ail the mechanical properties of common air. It does not support com bustio , though it is itself one of the most combustible of all bodies ; for if a lighted candle be put into a vessel containing hydrogen, the candle will be instantly extinguished, while the gas itself will be inflamed. It is not fit for respiration, for animals which breathe it die almost instantaneously. If pure oxygen and hydrogen be mixed together, and the mix- ture set fire to, it explodes with great vio- lence, and forms water. Hence we see the origin of the term hydrogen, wh : ch literally signifies the water- former. Hydiogen gas is, on account of its greater levity, employed to fill balloons. Nitrogen, called also Azote, is a gaseous body, rather lighter than common air ; of which it forms four-fifth parts, the remaining one-fifth being oxygen. It has neither co- lour, smell, nor taste. It does not support combustion, nor is it combustible itself, for if a lighted candle be put into a vessel con- taining nitrogen, itis instantly extinguished, and the gas 'tself does not take fire, as is the case with hydrogen. Nitrogen is fatal also to animal life ; any animal put into it dies in a very short time. Carbon. When wood is heated to a cer- tain degree in the open air, it takes fire, and forms, whilst burning, water and carbonic acid gas, till the whole of it is consumed. A small portion of ashes is the sole residue. But if the wood be heated to redness in close vessels, so that the atmospheric air cannot have free access to it, a large quantity of gaseous and othervolatile matters isoxpelled, and a black, hard, porous substance is left, cal.ed charcoal. Charcoal may be procured from other sources. When the volatile matters are driven off from coal, as in the process for making coal gas, a peculiar kind of charcoal, called coke, remains in the retort. Most animal and vegetable substances yield it, when ignited in close vessels. Thus a very pure charcoal may be procured from starch or sugar, and from the oil of turpentine or spirit of wine, by passing their vapour through tubes heated to redness. When bones are made red-hot in a covered crucible, a black mass remains, which consists of char- coal mixed with the earthy matters of the bone. It is called ivory-black, or animal charcoal. Carbon is the name given to the pure in- flammable part of charcoal, of which sub- stance the diamond is only a variety in a pure crystallized state; for pure charcoal and diamond, when treated in the same manner, produce .precisely the same results. Carbon is insoluble in water, and infusible by the most intense heat, provided air be excluded. Animal and vegetable oils are composed almost entirely of carbon and hy- drogen. The same may be observed of gum, sugar, and starch. These bodies, however, contain oxygen. Charcoal absorbs the odoriferous and co- louring principles of most animal and vege- table substances. When coloured infusions of this kind are digested with a due quantity of charcoal, a solution is obtained, which is nearly if not quite colourless. Tainted flesh may be rendered sweet and eatable by this means, and foul water may be purified by filtering through charcoal. Sulphur occurs as a mineral production in some parts of the earth, particularly in the neighbourhood of volcanoes, as in Italy and Sicily. It is commonly found in a massivo A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 191 elate; but is sometimes met with in a crys- tallized rorm. It is procured abundantly in combination with several metals, such as silver, copper, antimony, lead, and iron. It is obtained in large quantities by exposing the common iron pyrites to a red* heat in disc reaaels. Sulpbnr is well known under the name of oriinstone. It is B brittle solid body, of a greenish-yellow colour, emits a peculiar odour when rubbed, and has little taste. It is insoluble in water; but, if poured. into it when liquified, it retains its softness, and is in this state employed for taking impressions from seals and medals. Phosphorus was discovered about the year 1609, by Brandt, an alchemist of Ham- burgh. It is a semi-transparent yellowish matter, of the consistence of wax. It is procured, in general, by the decomposition of bones. It is exceedingly inflammable. Sxpoeed to the air at common temperatures, it undergoes a slow combustion; it. emits a dense white smoke, which has the smell of garlic, appears luminous in the dark, and is gradually consumed. On this account, phos- phorus should always be kept under water. On account of its very combustible nature, it requires to be handled with great caution ; gentle pressure between the fingers is suffi- cient to kindle it. It burns rapidly, emitting a splendid white light, and earning an in- tense heat. Chlorixe was discovered in 1770. It is a substance of much importance, being, in combination with other substances, exten- sively used in the arts. Chlorine is a yel- lowish-green coloured gas, which has an astringent taste, and a disagreeable odour. It is one of the most suffocating of the gases, exciting great irritability in the windpipe, even when considerably diluted with air. "When strongly and suddenly compressed, it emits both heat and light — a character which it possesses in common with oxygen gas. Under considerable pressure it assumes the form of a limpid liquor of a bright yellow eolour. Chlorine is a supporter of com- bustion. If a lighted taper be plunged into chlorine gas, it burns with a small red flame and emits a large quantity of smoke. Phos- phorus takes tire in it spontaneously. Se- v-era lof the metals, 6uch as tin, copper, ar- senic, antimony, and zinc, when introduced into chlorine in the state of powder, or in fine leaves, are suddenly inflamed. Chlorine, though foimerly called an acid, possesses no acid properties. It has not a sour taste, nor doe9 it redden the blue colour of plants, which nearly all acids do. One of the most important properties of chlorine is its bleach- ing power. All animal and vegetable colours are speedily removed by chlorine ; and when the colour ia once discharged, it can never be restored. Chlorine, however, cannot bleach unless water be present. Chlorine is useful also for the purposes of fumigation, and is used to purify the air in fever hos- pitals The infection of the small-pox is also destroyed by this gas, and matter that has been submitted to its influence will no longer generate that disease. Iodine is a substance much resembling chlorine in some of its properties. It may be procured by drying and powdering com- mon sea- weed, and heating it with sulphuric acid and peroxide of manganese : a violet coloured vapour rises, which, if received in a cool vessel, will condense on its sides, and will form scaly crystals of a somewhat me- tallic lustre. 'These crystals are the sub- stance : from the violet colour of its vapour it is called iodine. It has the property of forming a beautiful blue colour, when mixed with a little powdered starch, diffused through cold water ; hence iodine and starch are used as tests of the presence of each other. Iodine stains the fingers yellow, but not permanently. Like chlorine, it destroys vegetable colours, though not so powerfully. Iodine is used in medicine : in small doses it increases the appetite ; but in large doses, or continued too long, it produces remark- able emaciation. To these simple non-metallic bodies we might add bromine, selenium, boron, fluorine (the base of ftuor spar), and silicon (the base of flint). But as they are of less importance, and as the nature of some of them is still a subject of dispute with chemists, we shall omit the consideration of them for the present. ANCHOVY. The anchovy is abundant in the Mediterranean, and along the coast* of Spain and Portugal and France. It occurs also on various parts of our coast, as Hampshire, Cornwall, Wales, &c. The anchovy has been celebrated from the earliest times, and a sauce or condiment called garum, prepared from it, was held in high estimation among the Greeks and Romans. In preparing this fish for use, the head and viscera are removed, otherwise the pickle would be intensely bitter ; the anchovy was in fact once supposed to have the gall in its head. A fish called the sardine, common in the Mediterranean, and belonging to the same genus (E. melletta, Cuv.) is frequently mixed v/ith real anchovies, or even sold salted and barrelled as the genuine fish. The sardine may be known by its long taper form, its brown" colour, and pale flabby flpsh. 192 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY ORGAN (MECHANISM OF AN). Since the bellows are of so much consequence, we ■will begin by explaining their construction. They are what is termed double bellows, consisting of two moveable parts and keeping up a continual blast. Fig. 1 shows them in section as they appear when full of wind. Fig. 1. They consist of three boards, A, B, C, united by leather as in a common pah- used in a house. The two lower boards have a hole in them, covered by a valve of leather, opening upwards. The upper board is weighted, the middle one being fixed, and the lowest capable of moving up and down by the handle G. In the dia- gram, the valves are shown in the position which they take just as the lowest board begins to be raised by the handle ; the air contained in the lower part will close E, and open F, through which it enters the upper compartment: Thus, all the air will pass upwards, till the board C reaches its highest position ; then, on letting go the handle G, C will full by its weight, more air will enter from without by E, and that contained in the upper part, closing F, is driven through D into the organ by the falling of the upper board : thus, if C is again raised before the air in this upper chamber is exhausted, a constant blast will be kept up. (Whenever double bellows are used, whether for organs, forges, or other apparatus, they are always constructed with three boards and valves in this way.) From these bellows, the air passes into a box, called the wind-chest; this also has a valve, opening inwards, and placed just over the hole at whi^h the nozzle of the bellows enters. Over this is placed the sounding board, which forms a cover to it throughout its length, but extends, as to its Width, far beyond it. This sounding-board is the most important part of the organ, and must be very carefully made, and all its parts, as well as the wind-chest, made perfectly air-tight. The construction, how- ever, of" this part being somewhat difficult to describe without a diagram, we have made a sketch of it as it would appear if open, and shall add another, placing it in its pro- per position, and connected with the wind- chest, which is dotted in fig:. 2. It will here be seen that the sounding- board is a shallow box, divided lengthwise Fig. 2. into as many compartments as there are to be notes. At the part where the wind - chest is joined to it, a portion of the bot- tom of each division is cut away ; under each of these slits is a valve, opening downwards, and held up till the key is pressed down by a spring, as well as by the wind in the wind -chest. This will be shown in a separate figure. In fig. 2, A is the sounding-board, B the wind-chest, C the nozzle of the bellows, with its valve ; A A the slits to be covered below by the valves connected with the keys. Now, if we suppose this sounding-board to be covered by a flat board, and the wind- chest filled, and one of the key-valves opened, the air will flow into the compart- ment belonging to that valve ; and if, in this cover-board, a ho"le were made and a pipe inserted, the air would escape into it, and cause it to sound. But, our readers are probably thinking that all this grooved apparatus would not be needed to sound a row of pipes ; nor is it, but in An organ there are several rows, and we shall pre- sently find, that, for the purpose of sounding or stopping certain pipes at pleasure, the above arrangement is absolutely necessary. Take, for instance, the compartment ou the right side, and say that it represents the note A. In the flat cover we supposed, let six holes be bored in the direction of the length of the compartment, and let six pipes of different construction, some wood and some metal, be inserted in these holes, all turned to A. Then, by opening the first valve, all these will sound' that note, and, by arranging pipes over the other compart- ments in like manner, any tunes can be and the effect will, from the nura- of pipes to each note, be very grand. But in this way we eould only play very loudly, and with what is termed the full organ. We must, therefore, describe the plan bALwhich any row of pipes can be played alone ;^hr instance, a row of wooden ones, &/• )Y Will V 1 MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 108 or metal, or both together. Instead of covering the sounding-board, already drawn, with a solid flat board, let another be put over it, divided in the same way, but shal- lower, and with the compartments running in the contrary direction. In the figure below, A is the wind-chest; B, the part of the sounding-b ^ard shown in fig 2 ; C, the upper part, forming its cover, and divided, as shown at L, E (the dotted lines show the position of the compartments beneath). It will be seen that a scries of holes are made in the bottom of this upper tray corresponding with the compartments, both in itself and those below. Some boards, like F, slide into these upper divisions, the holes in which tally with those below, and also with others in the flat board, which covers the whole, shown at K and H. These boards, however, oj^t tally when pulled out a little by me^^if the stops. G represents one so pulled out. Now, sup- pose all the slides pushed in but one, and ^^ • • « • ^ Fig. 3. the outer board put on, and, in the holes in this latter, pipes* placed. If a valve is opened by the key pressed (say the first to the right, as before), the air will pass from the wind-chest into the channel between 1 and 2, and its only vent being through the first hole in the slide that is pulled out, it will pass by it into the pipe that is placed over it in the board covering the whole (shown at H and K) ; and so, in every note played, the row of pipes only over the slide that is drawn out can sound, as none of the other sets of holes tally. Thus we can, by means of stops or handles connected with these slides, use one or more at pleasure, a, b, c are wires by which the valves are connected with the keys, which valves we will now explain. (Fig. 4). G is a part of the wind- chest, and F the sounding-board ; H the valve, K the spring, B the key, turning on a centre, as does also the lever C. 1) is the wire from the valve. The divisions wc stated in the sounding-board would run lengthwise between the valves, as shown by the dotted line. We think a glance at the diagram will make it all quite clear ; and we would advise our young friends to read over, as far as this, several times, so as to get a Fig. 4. clear idea of the construction before pro- ceeding to learn about the pipes and other matters. We will now describe the construc- tion of the pipes, beginning with the wooden ones. Fig. 5 represent s one of these. It is made square, of seasoned wood ; the front is cut oil", near the bottom, and be- velled, as seen more plainly by the section at e; the lower part is a solid plug of wood, and bo cut that when the piece a, fig 6, Fig. 7. Fig. 6 Fig. 5. is put on (marked b in fig. 5), a narrow slit is left just below the edge of the bivel. Through this slit (shown in the section and at o, fig. 7), the air rushes from the wind- chest, and being cut, as it were, by the bevel*, produces a sound, deep or shrill, according to the length of the pi] e; if the upper part is stopped by a plug, o. fig. 6, the sound is still more sharpened, ard a higher note produced. In this way the wooden 194 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: pipes may be tuned to any pitch. One set of the metal pipes are also ntadi in a similar way ; but there is another kind, called reed-pipes, the principle of which is some- what different, and the sound of them more like that of a clarionet. Indeed, the latter instrument is made in a similar way, ex- cept that its reed is not made of metal. The following diagrams represent one of this kind. In figs. 8, 9, 10, B is the primary tube of metal, like the one in the last diagram ; within this is a half tube, c, of which a sec- tion is given a$ A. The flat part of this tube is covered by a slip of brass, the lower part of which is left to vibrate ; this is marked o. In figs. 8 and 10, a piece of wood, S, is iuserled in the outer pipe, forming a plug, and also a support for the inner tube, which is passed into it. Thus all the air that enters the outer pipe must pass through the inner tube, and in so doing it causes the part o to vibrate, which produces a sound. The tone is regulated by the wire d, shown dotted in fig. 8. The lower part of this wire rests on the reed, or vibrating slip o, and thus any length may be left to vibrate ; and according as a long or short piece is & M Fig. 10. Fig. 8. A This is an- Fig. 9. left loose, the tone is deep or shrill wire passes through the plug S ; E other tube, also inserted in the piece of wood S, and is, in fact, a continuation of the inner tube. The shape of it varies according to the different style of tone required. These are the "chief ppcs in an organ. There are others, especially in large instru- ments ; but we must not lengthen this paper by describing them. We need only add that if a pipe of 12 inches long gives a certain note, one of 24 inches will give its octave below, and one of six'inches an octave above. So, also, if an open pipe gives C, it will give the C above if closed. Thus it is easy to arraiTge the pipes, after one of a certain known length is fixed on for a fundamental note. We will conclude this explanation of the pipes by stating that they are often 32 feet long in large organs, and so numerous that at Weingarten, in Germany, they number no less than 6,666; and "in that organ are no less than 63 stops. At Haarlem also is one containing 60 stops.. The flute-stop in the Temple church in London is very sweet ; and any of our friends that get the chance should hear that organ, as they will, if fond of music, find there a great treat. We must now tell you about two additions to the mech^msm of an organ — the swell and trembmU The first is usual in good organs, but the latter is not so often used in this country. The swell consists of a number of open pipes placed in a box in the organ. This box has a moveable cover, connected with a pedal in front. By put- ting the foot o i this pedal the cover is slowly raised, by which means the tone comes forth gradually, swelling louder and louder till the box is quite open ; and by slowly letting the pedal go, the tones sink and grow softer and softer, till they die away by degrees. The effect is beautiful, if the player has good taste, and introduces ■he swell with judgment, which however is often not the case. The tremblant is a valve situated over the entrance of the bellows,- by which the air is allowed to enter by fits, giving a trembling mournful sound to the notes. There is a tremblant in the organ at the German chapel at the Savoy. There are two or three ether contrivances that we must explain, as they are of great use, the first of which is the tell-tale, by which the organist can see how much wind there is in the organ. To the top board of the bellows a cord is attached, which passes over a pulley, as in fig. 11. A is a section Fig. 11. of the bellows; B, the pulley; C, a gra- duated piece of board, placed in front of A. MISCELLA.KT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 195 the organ, and in si^ht of the player : D, a jiir . I lead attached to the eord. It will thus be Been that when the upper board of the bei OWI is at its height, the lead will have sunk on the hoard to a mark made on it, showing the bellows to be full of wind; but as this wind is expended, the upper board sinks and the lead rises. At Eisa safety-valve, to prevent the bellows from bursting. It opens inwards as soon as the board is raised so high that a peg or piece of wire attached to it eomea into contact with a stop placed over it. There is usually a tell-tale in front of the organ, and one by the bellows-blower. Such is the organ in its simplest form, as constructed for churches, and sometimes also for private houses; but of late years the grinding, or barrel organ, has come into use to a great extent, being constructed^ for the use of those who are nofl^acquainted with music, or are incompetent to play upon those made with keys. When in- tended only for street-playing there is but one set of pipes ; but "when made for churches there are stops as in the finger organs. In each case the bellows are worked by a crank upon the axis on which the playing-handle is fixed, and the valves are opened by levers communicating with t series of pegs on a barrel turn' d by the same handle. Fiji. 12 is'a section of such a Fig. 12. Carrel, with the pegs and levers. The different notes and tunes depend on the position of the pins in the barrel, each pin, as is evident, acting on the particular lever under which it revolves. The duration of each note depends on the length of each pin, for the long ones, as a, necessarily Keep the valve open longer than such as b. Several tunes are arranged on one barrel, the barrel being shifted lengthwise at each, and retained in the same position by a catch acting on notches cut in one end of the axis. It is usual, also, when a irivat number of tunes BK desired, to have several different barrels fi.ted to the same organ, either of which may be used at pleasure. There is a great advantage in barrel or- gans, inasmuch as any one can play them, the only thing necessary being to turn the handle at the same rate; and for this reason they are often used in churches where music would otherwise have been imprac- ticable on account of the difficulty of finding a person able to play upon a finger organ, At the same time, it is impossible to play the various tunes with as great effect as on the latter, which is certainly a drawback, when it is considered how much effect adds to the grandeur of any piece of music exe- cuted. GLASS-PAINTING' (TRANSPARENT) FUR WINDOWS, &c. The producing a transparent pattern on the semi-opaque sur- face of ground-glass is thus effected: — Having determined on the kind of win- dow which is to be made, and the size of its panes, we cut out in drawing-paper the shape of the pane or panes, and sketch the pattern on this paper with Indian-ink in clear distinct lines. The pattern should he something bold and artistic; a scroll; any variety of star, or style of diamond, or lat- tice-work; or groups of vine-leaves and grapes, or oak-leaves and acorns ; or mottos, or initials in old English letters. It is by no means necessary that all the panes should be alike in pattern or in size, diversity in these points, if tastefully managed, being an improvement rather than an inj ury to the effect. When the pattern is drawn, lay the pane of ground-glass on it, with the rough or ground 8ide upwards, and with a fine camel- hair pencil, moistened in copal varnish, trace the outlines of the pattern on to the glass. This done, remove the pane of ?lass on to a sheet of pure white paper, which will enable the tracing to be seen, and then, with appropriate brushes, put in the shading and the clear parts, and perfect the pattern. Wherever it is intended that the "lass shall be clear, there with copal varnish fill up the space, as every touch of the vanish clears the glass; the untouched portions, by re- taining their whitish, :-emi-oi aque appear- ance, serve as a back-ground, and throw up the pattern. The varnish used should be obtained at an artists' colourman's, and should be as 196 FACTS FOR EYEEOODl : clear and devoid of colour as possible. The camel-hair pencils should be only moistened with it, for if loaded or saturated, they are apt to make blots, or jagged, uneven out- lines and strokes ; enough varnish to render the glass transparent, but no more than enough, is to be laid on, or the pattern will look rough and unequal, instead of smooth and even. A small phial ot spirits of tur- pentine should always be standing by, in which the camel-hair pencils may be washed before they begin to dry, for if suffered to dry, or put away with any varnish in them, they harden, and become utterly useless. They must, therefore, be immediately well washed in spirits of turpentine, and. then carefully wiped in a soft lmen rag, or an old Bilk handkerchief. When the pattern has been duly elabo- rated, in the manner described, the pane of glass must be set aside for eight or ten hours, in a warm dry place, where nothing is likely to touch it, and where dust cannot settle upon the sticky surface. After it has thus had time to become slowly and thoroughly dry, it must be immersed in clear cold spring water for five or ten minutes, and then be placed on edge to drain itself. If the varnish is good, the pattern will now be firmly set, and stand out in clear relief on the semi-opaque ground. Exposure to moderate heat will turn the transparent parts of the glass from crystal- white to orange-brown ; but this is an ope- ration requiring great care, as too great heat will often split the glass, or at least render it very brittle. A pretty window may be easily and quickly prepared thus : — It may contain twelve square panes, and thirty-one long narrow ones ; or six square panes and thir- teen long narrow ones ; or any number of each which will admit of each square pane being set in, or framed by, four of the narrow ones. The square panes are to contain a transparent pattern on the ground glass; the narrow ones are all to be of one colour, as rich blue, or carmine, or yellow, or violet. To render them thus we must use waier- colours in cakes, as Prussian blue, carminr, gamboge, or, for the violet, Prussian blue and carmine. Having rubbed down the paint we intend to use on a China palette, with a full camel-hair brush, we lay the shade evenly and smoothlx over the whole of the narrow pane, and, when the paint is dry, varnish it with the copal varnish, and then, having allowed the varnish the re- quisite number of hours to dry, immerse the pane in water, aud again dry it, when it will be fit for use. The cake water-colours are those used for this transparent painting. We need not add that the best will alone produce such effects as will confer pleasure. Those which are opaque must be avoided. The following, with the combinations they are capable of producing, will be found sufficient for most purposes : Prussian blue, ultra-marine, indigo, gamboge, yellow-lake, burnt-sienna, purple-lake, carmine, scarlet or crimson- lake ; Vandyke-brown, madder-brown, and ivory-black. The greens must be made by combining gamboge with one of the blues; as almost all cake greens, except verdigris are opaque. We lay the square of glass which is to be painted on the copy, with the ground side towards us, and the glassy one downwards; with a fine lead pencil we then trace the * A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 197 outlines on to the ground surface, and fcaying done so, remove the square on to a eliect of white paper, and proceed to work txaetly as if we were about to paint a group of flowers, or a landscape with water colours ou card-board, working it up as artistically, an.) ms carefully avoiding all that looks like daubing. , It is generally as well to let one shade dry before we add another to it, or work it np by deeper touches ; for if the paint is washed out, or taken otf by the touch of the •rush, a patchy appearance is given to the thing. When the painting is completed and thoroughly dry, it is to be smoothly var- nished all over with the copal varnish ; but this is a manipulation requiring great care, for if the outline be not perfectly kept, the transparency extends to the white parts of the glass, and mars the effect of what should be the ground- work of the picture. When the varnish is dry, the pane is to be im- mersed in water as before directed, and placed to dry. In the design exhibited in page 196, the square panes have a transparent pattern on the white ground glass, and the narrow-side panes contain wreaths of convolvulus, painted and thrown up in transparency on the ground glass. All the black lines and marks in the cut are intended to represent the transparent or varnished parts of the pattern, while the white is the untouched ground glass. In the following design, the square panes contain transparent groups of painting, while the narrow ones have a pattern in clear glass on the white ground ; or the ovals and lozenges in the narrow panes may be made of some transparent colour, while the lint-s and dots are simply transparent. All kinds of armorial bearings and heraldic devices may be given with great brilliancy and effect in this transparent glass- painting. Scriptural subjects, either with the quaint, hard outlines and glowing tints which we see in some illuminated missals, or deli- cately worked up and finished off'; groups of brightly-plumaged birds, or gorgeous butterflies, mottos, devices, shaded scrolls; in short, anything fancy and taste may dic- tate and combine, and skill wqrk out, can be produced. Brilliancy of effect must be aimed at, and at the same time a lightness and smooth- ness of colouring maintained. The simplicity of this art, and its perfect adaptation for a drawing-room occupation, as well as its usefulness in beautifying an abode, and giving an air of elegance to what would else be merely common-place, render* it one that ought to become generally known. HONEY-SOAP. Cut thin two pounds of yellow soap, into a double saucepan, oc- casionally stirring it till it is melted, which will be in a few minutes if the water is kept boiling around it; then add a quarter of a {)ound of palm oil, quarter of a pound of loney, three penny-worth of true oil of cin- namon; let all boll together another six or eight minutes; pour out and stand it by till next day, it is then fit for immediate usp. PENCIL MASKS (TO PRESERVE). If you have anything drawn or written with a lead pencil that you wish to preserve from rubbing out, dip the paper into a dish of skimmed milk. Then dry it, and iron it on the wrong side. In ironing paper do not let the iron rest a moment, (as it will leave a crease or mark,) but go over it rapidly. 198 PACTS FOR everybody: SEASONS (THE). The variation of the j seasons and the difference of the length i of days and nights in those seasons, result j from the same cause. In moving round the sun, the axis of the earth is not perpen- dicular to the plane of its orbit — in other words, its axis does not move round the sun nj an upright position, hut slanting, or ob- lique. This may be understood more cleVrly by carrying a small globe round a candle, which is to represent the sun. You must consider the ecliptic drawn on the eniall*globe as representing the plane of the earth's orbit ; and the equator, which crosses the ecliptic in two places, shows the degree of obliquity of the axis of the earth in that orbit, which is nearly 23£ degrees. The points in which the ecliptic intersects the equator are called nodes. The globe at A is situated as it is in the midst of summer, or what is railed the summer solstice, which is on the 21st of June. The north pole is then inclined towards the sun, and the northern hemisphere enjoys much more of his rays than the southern. The sun now shines over the whole of the north frigid zone, and, notwithstanding the earth's diurnal revolu- tion, it will continue to shine upon it as long as it remains in this situation, whilst the south frigid zone is at the same time completely in obscurity. Let the earth now set off from its position in the summer solstice, and carry it round the sun ; observe that the axis must be al- ways inclined in the same direction, and the north pole point to ths same spot in the heavens. There is a fixed star situated near that spot, which is hence called the north p^lar star. The earth at B h"te gone through one quarter of its orbit, andl^ ar- rived at that point at which the eclip incuts or crosses the equator, and which is c^led the autumnal equinox. The sun now shines Iroin one pole to the other. At this period in the year, the days and nights are equal of every part of the earth ; but the next step she takes in her orbit involves the north pole in total darkness, whilst it illumines tliat of the south. This change was gra- dually preparing as th ! earth moved from sum juer to autumn. The instant the earth pa>ses the autumnal equinox, the long night of the north pole commences, and the south pole begins to enjoy the light of the sun. As the earth proceeds in her orbit, the days shorten and the nights lengthen throughout the northern hemisphere, until it arrives at the winter solstice, on the21si of December, when the north frigid zone is entirely in darkness, and the southern enjoys uninter- rupted daylight. Exactly half «;f the equator, it will be observed, is enlightened in every position, and consequently the day is there always equal to the night. Observe, that the inhabitants of the torrid zone have much more heat than we have, as the sun's rays fall perpendicularly on them, while they shine obliquely on the temperate, and almost horizontally on the frigid zone; for during their long" day, the sun moves round at no great elevation above their horizon, without either rising or setting. To a person placed in the temperate zone, the sun's rays will shine neither so obliquely as at the poles, nor so vertically as at the equator; but will fall upou him more ob- liquely in autumn and in winter than in summer. Therefore, the inhabitants of the earth between the polar circles and the equator will not have merely one day and one night in the year, as happens at the pole ; nor will they have equal days and equal nights, as at the equator, but their davs and nights will vary in length at differ- ent times of the year, according as their respective poles incline towards or from the sun, and the difference will be greater in proportion to their distance from the equator. During the other half of her orbit, the same effect takes place in the southern hemi- sphere as wehave just remarked in the north- ern. When the earth arrives at the vernal equinox, D, where the ecliptic again cuts the equator, on the 22nd of March, she is situated with respect to the sun exactly in the same position as in the autumnal equinox ; excepting that it is now autumn in the southern hemisphere, while it is spring time with us ; for the half of the gh.be, which is enlightened, extends exactly from one pole to the other. On the two davs of the equinox the sun is visible at both poles, but only half of it is seen from either, the other half being concealed by the horizon. METALLIC PENS (TO PREVENT INK DAMAGING). Throw into the ink- A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 109 gland, or the ink bottle, a few nails, or any of iron i.ot rusted. The action of t lie iu id n die ink will be expended on the iron. -MOON AND ECLIl'SES (Ofl TDK). This satellite revolves round the earih in the ipaoe of i wen!} -.-even days eight noun, in us orbit nearly coinciding with the plane of the ettrth's orbit, and%ccoinpiuiefl tn in our revolution round the sun Her motion, therefore, is of a complicated nature ; for, as the earth advances m her orbit,* whilst the moon goes round her, the moon proceeds in a sort of progressive circle. # The moon always presents the same face,, to us, by which it is evident that she tdfns but once upon her axis while she performs a revolution round the earth ; so that tl»e in- habitants of the moon have but one day and one night in the course of a lunar month. Since we always see the same hemisphere of the moon, the inhabitants of that hemi- sphere alone can see the earth. One half of the moon, therefore, enjoys our light every night, while the other half has constantly nijjhrs of darkness; and we appear to the inhabitants of the moon under all the changes, or phases, which the moon exhibits to ns. When the moon is in the same direction from us as the sun, we cannot see her, as her dark side is towards us ; but her dis- ippearnnee is of very short duration, and as she advances in her orbit, we perceive her under ti:e form of a new moon. When she ha- gone through one-ntxlh of her orb.t, one quarter of her enlightened hemisphere •will be turned towards the earth, and she will then appear horned. When she has performed one quarter of her orbit, she shows us one half of her enlightened side. She next appears gibbous; and after that full. As she proceeds in her orbit she be- comes again gibbous, and her enlightened hemisphere turns gradually away from us, till she completes her orbit and disappears ; and then again resumes her form of anew moon. When the moon is full, she is always in Opposition to ihe sun — when a new moon, in conjunction with it. At each of theso times the sun. the moon, and the earth are in the same right line; hut in the first case, the earth is between the Run and the moon ; in the second, the moon is between the sun and Ihe earth An eclipse can only take place when the sun, moon, and earth are in a Straight line, or nearly so. When tho moon passes between the sun and the earth, she intercepts his rays, or iu other words, easts is passing over us. Wlion, on the contrary, the earth is between the sun and the moon, it is we who intercept the sun's rays, ana east a shadow on the moon ; she then disap- pt an from our view, and is eclipsed. Why, it may be asked, have we. not a solar and a lunar eclipse every month? Because tJ.e planes of the orbits of the earth and moon do not exactly coincide, but cross or intersect each other; and the moon gene- rally passes either on one side or the other, w.hen she is in conjunction with, or in op- position to, the sun ; and, therefore, does not intercept the sun's rays, or produce an ellipse; for this can only take place when the earth and moon are in conjunction near those parts of their orbits which cross each other (called the nodes of their orbits), be- cause it is then only that they are both in the same plane, and in a light line with the sun. A partial eclipse takes place when the moon, in passing by the earth, does not en- tirely escape her shadow. When the eclipse happens precisely at the nodes, they art; not onlv total, but last for some length of time. When the sun is eclipsed, the total dark- ness is confined to one particular spot of the earth, as the moon's shadow is not large enough to cover the earth. 'Ihe lunar eclipses, on the contrary, are visible from every part of the earth, where the moon is above the horizon. MAST. An elevated pole in a ship, to which are attached the sails to catch the wind. It is supported hy an ingenious com- bination of ropes, adapted to ascend for the purpose of adjusting the sails. Masts are divided into fore, main, and mizen ; and the middle or main-mast in huge ships is divided into lower, top, aivd top-gallant. 6 E V EN WONDERS (1 11 K) . They were the Egyptian pyramids; the mausoleum erected bv Artemisia; the Temple of Diana at Ephesus; the walls and hanging gardens of Babylon; the Colosstis at Rhodes; the a shadow on the earth : this is an eclipse of ' statue of Jupiter Olympus ; and the Pharos, the sun, and it continues whilst the shadow ! or watch-tower, at Alexandria, 200 FACTS FOTt EVERYBODY' RIGGING. The system of ropes belonging to a ship, by which the masts are sustained and ascended, and the sails managed. The names and uses of the several ropes, and the dexterous management of them, constitute an able sailor. ROSES (PROPAGATION OF). Roses require a strong, loamy soil, and the deeper it is the better, if the subsoil be dry. Where the ground is not naturally rich, a quantity of rotten manure should be added to it, and, every spring, manure forked in about the plauts. Roses are propagated chiefly by cuttings, layers, and buds. Cuttings of the hardy kinds of roses, such as the hybrids of the Chinese and Bourbon, the BoursauH, Ayrshire, Evergreen, Multiflora, and the Hybrid Perpetual, may be struck in the open ground. The best time is in autumn, just before the fall of the leaf. The cutting may be from nine inches to a foot in length, and should be taken oil' close to the old wood, with what gardeners term, a heel. Fig. 1 represents a cutting ready for planting, a is the heel. "When, the cutting is planted, Fig. I. two or three eyes should be left above the ground. If you have a quantity, they may be inserted about an inch apart, and a few small boughs, or fern fronds, stuck in amongst them, as a shelter from sun and frost. In spring, those that have not struck root, should be pulled out; and in autumn, those which have succeeded may -be transplanted to where it is intended they are to flower. Cuttings of the more tender kinds— as the Bourbon, Noisette, Chinese, and Tea-scented, should be placed under a hand-glass. The glass should be occasionally lifted on fine days, to admit air, and dry the soil ; any decayed leaves or cuttings should at such times be removed ; water will seldom be required till the spring. About April these cuttings will have rooted ; they should then be taken up, potted singly, and removed to a frame, or a close shaded room, for a few days. Such as are intended to be grown in the open air should be planted out in May. Roses grown as dwarfs, or bushes, are the kinds most generally layered. The soil about the plant should first be loosened ; the ', selecting a good shoot, strip off a few leaves at a distance varying from six inches to two feet from the point of the shoot (see fig. 2 a a) ; then, taking the shoot in the left-hand, insert a sharp knife just behind an eye, at b, on the upper side of the shoot, and pass it evenly and carefully upwards, cutting about half through the shoot, and for an inch and a half or two inches in A MISCELLANY OF UST.FUL KNOWLEDGE. 201 length. Bend down the sl^ot, so that you may see the proper place to bury it ; then ■en ■ hole, press the shoot into it, peg it down two or three inches beneath the but- face, ami cover with the soil. It is well to twist the shoot a little after the cut is made, so that the end of the tongue, b, from which the roots will be emitted, may have a down- ward direction when in the* ground. It is also a good plan to split the tongue, and keep the split open by inserting a small stone in it. Each layer should be tied to a small stake, c, to prevent its being agitated by the wind. June, July, and August, are Fig. 2. the best months for layering ; if the weather be dry, the layers should be watered. About November they will be ready to be taken from the parent plants, by cutting them off within two inches from the tongue; then transplant them to wherever they are in- tended to flower. In spring they should be pruned down to three or four eyes • some of them will bloom the same summer or autumn. Standard roses are well-known ornaments of the garden ; they look well in any position, but appear to the greatest ad- vantage when planted in opposite and paral- lel lines in the centre of two beds, one on each side of a central or principal walk. In pruning, the young shoots should be annually shortened to about two or three inches from the point they started from ; and if the head should become too large and straggling, 6ome of the old wood should be cut out. and its place supplied by young shoots, which spring from the centre; keeping in view, as you prune, that the beauty of a standard consists principally in its having a round compact head, so as to present a favourable appearance when seen from any side. Weep- ing roses form beautiful objects when planted singly on lawns ; they are tobcs of a pen- dulous habit, such as the Ayrshire and Ever- greon, budded on stocks iour feet and up- wards in height. The main shoots (Might not be shortened, after the second year, until they reach the earth: prune the laterals only, and flowers will bo produced all uU og the branches from the head to the ground. When they attain their full size, a hoop, a* Fig. 3. in fig. 3, should be attached, to prevent the branches being injured by the wind. Fig. 3 represents a weeping rose of full growth, without leaves, to show how it should be trained and pruned. TOAD. A harmless, but unsightly amphi- bious animal ; very tenacious of life, and believed, when enclosed in stones and trees, to be able to exist for many centuries ; being torpid during the winter, they creep into crevices, and sometimes become enclosed by petrifactions or concretions. They live on small worms and insects, and are great enemies of wasps. The Pipa, or Surinam toad, is larger than our toad, and more ugly ; but its young grow in cells on its back from eggs to tadpoles, and then to perfect toads in large numbers. GALVANISM. Galvanism is so intimately connected with electricity, that it may be 202 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY: considered as a branch of that science. It was first accidentally discovered in the che- mical laboratory of M. Lewis Galvani, pro- fessor of anatomy in the university of Bologna, upon the following occasion : The lady of the professor being of a delicate habit, was occasionally supported by soup made from frogs as a restorative. Some of these animals, skinned for that purpose, were lying upon a table in the laboratory of the professor, in which stood an electrical machine. One of the assistants, in experiment, by accident brought the point of the scalpel near the crural nerves of a frog recently killed, lying not far from the conductor; the muscles of the limb were instantly set in motion, being agitated with strong convulsions. By a long series of new experiments, the law of nature, as far as respects the influence of this principle, was investigated, of which mere accident had at first afforded him a glimpse only. Galvani published a treatise on the subject, addressed to the Institute of Bologna, in the year 1791. On the appearance of this work, the universal attention of the philoso- phers of Europe was arrested. This discovery was made at a time when something more than hypothesis was necessary to satisfy the mind of the inqei*itivc inquirer after sci- entific truth. To this desire may be referred the almost innumerable experiments which were made in every district in Europe, in consequence of this publication ; by which means the science became considerably en- riched by the addition of a great variety of new facts, by contemporaries and successors, insomuch that it is said the labours of Gal- vani, the original discoverer, bear but a comparatively small proportion to what have been since adduced for its illustration. Galvani found, that, by the mere agency of a metallic substance, where he had no reason to suspect the presence of electricity, the limbs of a recently-killed frog were con- vulsed ; and having ascertained the fact by a number of experiments, he in the course of his inquiries found that the convulsions ] or contractions were p'roduced only when disimilar metals were employed. It was now inferred that electricity is not only pro- duced by the friction of bodies, but even by the mere contact of certain substances. At the same time it was admitted, that these substances must have some chemical agency or action upon each other, and that the effect produced seems to be proportionate to the degree of chemical action. The following well-known facts were now supposed to be explained by this science. Porter taken from a pewter pot has always been held by connoisseurs in that liquor to be better than j when taken from china or glass: this was now said to arise from a certain decomposition effected by means of the liquor in the vessel — the porter and the saliva on the under lip coming in contact with the metal. Pure mercury retains its metallic splendour a long time, but its amalgam with tin, &<•., is almost immediately oxy dated or tarnished. In- scriptions of very ancient date, on pure lead, have been found in a perfect state, while others of modern times, made on compound metals, are corroded and scarcely legible. Works of metal, whose parts are soldered together by means of other metallic sub- stances, soon tarnish, or are oxydated about the places in which the different metals are joined. So likewise is the copper on ships, which is fastened on by means of iron nails. Zinc also may be kept a long time under water, with scarcely any change; but if ft piece of silver touch the zinc while under water, there will be very soon a sensible oxydatiofT. Take a piece of zinc and place it under the tongue, and lay a piece of silver as big as half-a-crown on the tongue, and no particular taste will be observed ; but, bring the outer edges of the metals together and a very disagreeable taste will be per^ ceived, which is said to arise from the de" composition of the saliva, a watery tluid. The same thing may be noticed with a guinea and a piece of charcoal. These fact's have been thus explained, and the theory generally admitted: — The conductors of electricity, however they may differ from each other in their conducting powers, may be divided into two classes. 'Lliejirst class, which are denominated the dry and more perfect con- ductors, consist of metallic substances and charcoal • the second class, called also im- perfect conductors, are waters, acids, &c. From these, or some of them, all Galvanic Circles, as they are named, are formed. Hitherto this influence or agent had been chiefly investigated with reference to its operation on animal substances. Hence its popular name was for a long time, Animal Electricity : but it being soon found that its agency was more extensive, that it possessed powers not indicated by this denomination, and that of course the retention of this name wou'd lead to error, the word Galvanism was adopted in its stead. This extension of the Galvanic principle was connected with new discoveries, and improvements from various quarters; these, however, for a considerable time, were generally small, and unimportant in their nature. But among all the recent discoveries in Galvanism, that made by Professor Volta, in 1800, is most remarkable in its nature, and most interesting in its re- A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 203 Iations. Yolta set out with the idea, contrary it of Galvani, that the electricity did not belong to the animal but to the different BMtale employed. Galvani was not likely to produce any greater effect than what could be obtained by two pines of metal, because he believed the electricity to be in the animal. Volt! v. as led to the discovery of the battery, by combining a number of pieces of metal together, because he was persuaded that the electricity was in the metals or fluids em- ployed. These repeated combinations ob- tained the name of Galvanic, or more pro- perly, Voltaic batteries : and the science itself is usually denominated, from the discoveries resulting from these batteries, Yo/taism. The simplest galvanic apparatus consists of a set of tumblers, containing water slightly mixed with nitric or sulphuric acid, which are connected by bent wires with a piece of zinc at one end, and a piece of copper at the other ; connect the tumblers by placing these in them all in the same order— one metal in the first and last, and both metals in each intermediate one : — touching the first copper and the last zinc with the fingers will occasion a shock. The pile is made thus : Take twenty or thirty pieces of zinc, eacn as large as a penny. Get as many pieces of cupper about the same six \ and also as many pieces of paper or cloth, which are to be dipped in a solution of salt and water. In building up the pile, place zinc, paper, copper, &c, constantly in the same order until the whole be finished. The sides of the pile may be supported with rods of glass, or varnished wood, fixed in the board on which it stands. The following experiments may then be performed : — Having wet both hands, touch the lower part of the pile with one hand, and the upper part with tlte -other; a slight shock of elec- tricity will be felt as often as one hand is renio\ed. If the hand be brought back, a similar shock will be felt Put a basin of water near the pile, and put the left hand into it, holding a wire, the one end of which touches the top of the battery or pile ; then put the end of a silver spoon between the lip and the gum, and with the other end of the spoon touch the lower part of the pile; a strong shock is felt in the gum and in the hand. Take the left hand from the "water, but still keep hold of the wire, and then perform the last experiment in the same manner, and a shock will be felt in the gum only. Hold a silver spoon in one hand, and touch with it the battery at the lower part, then touch the upper part with the tongue, the bitter taste is extreme. In per- forming the above experiment, if, instead of the two ends of the pile, the one end uA the middle of it be touched, the sensations will not be nearly so strong. The Galvanic trough in a very powerful apparatus ; it is composed of zinc and copper plates placed in pairs, so th.it all those ol (.me metal lie toward the same end. The end plates have connecting wires; and when the trough is filled with water, impregnated with nitric or muriatic acid, and the points of the wires brought together, the action is remarkably powerful ; any number of troughs may be united and made to act at once. In this way substances have been decomposed on which the strongest fires had no effect. Modern research has considerably aug- mented our knowledge of Galvanism. It was, after some time, discovered that the efficiency of a Galvanic Circle depends on its being formed of three bodies, two of which have a powerful effect on each other, but neither of them, if possible, any on the third. Hence perfectly pure zinc, or (what, answers extremely well) zinc amalgamated with mer- cury, platina, and dilute acid ; or charcoal, zinc, and acid ; form batteries which are very effective, and which from their long-con- tinued actions are called constant batteries; indeed, the zinc in them is not at all acted upon by the acid in which it is immersed, unless when connected with the platina, &c., by means of a wire or some other conductor, and then only to an extent proportioned to the goodness of the conductor which connects them. Galvanic action is now applied to a very interesting and useful purpose, which is called the Electrotype process. This enables us with great facility, and the most perfect exactness, to copy medals, engraved copper" plates, &c, and to cover almost any substance with gold, silver, copper, kc. In Its simplest form it maybe illustrated by a small Gal- vanic batterv, consisting of a vessel of un- glazed porcelain, within which is a piece of zinc immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and outside of it a plate of copper immersed in a solution of blue vitriol (sulphate of copper) ; when the zinc and copper are connected together by a wire, . cr golden fly, a crea- ture partially enwrapped in a sinning coat of mail; the head, thorax, and first segment! of the abdomen and legs bright blue, varie- gated with green and purple; the second and third segments of a bright crimson, re- flecting gold and green ? Thus gaily attired, the insect no sooner attains perfection, than he finds a ready supply for all his wants in the humble-looking shepherd' s-purse, a i small way-side plant, which presents a | striking contrast to his own brilliant invest- | ments. About sixteen species of the tribe i pertain to Britain; among which the golden fly may be seen during the warm days of June merrily running with his companions up and down the southern side of walls and pailins:s, glittering in the sun beams, and delighting the lover of nature with his resplendent hues. OCTAHEDRON. A solid figure with eight faces. It is very prolific, and will live many months without food. CHRYSIDID^E. These are the humming- birds of entomologists. They are adorned with the most splendid and effulgent colours, FERNS. Begin to unfold in March, and the botanist who seeks for them in woods A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 205 and bank-sides may often discover round flowers, the violet and the meek soft-eye I hairy-looking hulls, of a rich brown colour, primrose. The mezereum, that tills the air emerging from anion;,'- the gram and :h fragrance, and daffodils — contain some infant fern, care- „, n full} folded up. but Boon to yield to the j«>int ministry of showers and sunbeam-, and to stand forth in its singleness and beauty. "That come before the Sw:d)o\v (lures, and tint The winds of March with beauty," Oak fern prows generally in wild and moun- tainous districts, and although one of the most elegant and attractive of our native species, seems instinctively to avoid the abodes of men, and fixes itself in places over- hung with rocks, or thick foliage. The roots are black and fibrous, and the young fronds make their appearance in March and April; they each resemble three small balls, upheld on wires, which gradually unfold and display a triple di ision; the fronds ar- rive at maturity early in the summer, and entirely disappear before the storms of win- ter. Tlrs species, the Polypodium dryop- ten's of botanists, derives its specific name from being occasionally found among the mossy roots of u<;i>d oaks. Its localities are often associated with local scenerv and time-haunted ruins, with the remembrance of Diuidic observances and rites, and places renowned in history. Dry, stony heaths, in Yorkshire, Lancashire," Westmoreland, and Scotland, are some of its favourite re- sorts, though growing in great luxuriance bes.de the fall of Lodore, on the side of Der- wentwatcr, in Cumberland. The unfold- ing of this graceful species is ever welcome. Its emerging from the earth uniformly in- dicates the passing, by 01 winter storms, and is accompanii d by the les-er celandii its glossy yellow cups— the speedwell, and hawthorn, and those two most fragrant 10 often affect the same locality. Fronds of the Broad fern (La*tr. Mr. Lowe published the art of remem- dates and figur< s by converting them into syllables, and joining them to their proper words, or parts of them. lie used r consonants as they best suited the formation of a syllable: — a e i o u au oi ei ou y 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 1000 1,000,000 bdtflspknz g th m Therefore we remember the dates of the following events, and any others, thus :— Deluge.... 2,348 we call Del. difk. Troy 1,184 „ Tro. balco. ates .. 306 „ Socra. tons. Alexander.. 323 „ Alexan. tet. making as many as we please: and in this 10 or 300 dates and numbers may easily be remembered through life. The gative system of education is partly founded on the same principle of asso- I RHUBARB. Good rhubarb may be thus distinguished from the inferior descriptions. neral characters of good rhubarb are, its having a whitish or clear yellow colour, dry, solid, and compact; moderately heavy and brittle; when recently broken", appearing marked with yellow o"r reddish :aixed with white;" being easily pul- Vcrizable ; forming a powder of a tine bright yellow, having the peculiar, nauseous, aromatic smell of rhubarb, and a sub-acrid, bitterish, somewhat astringent taste, and when chewed, feeling gritty under the uring the saliva, and not appearing very mucilaginous. The size and form of the pieces are of little consequence; only you must break the large ones to see that they are not decaved or rotten within, ami also observe that they are not musty or worm-eaten. This is the more nee as damaged pieces are frequently so artfully dressed up, and coloured with powdered 'hubai b, as to impose on the buyer by their appearance. DOGS (DISTEMPER IX). 1. To six grams of calomel add ten grains of jalap made up into a pill with a little fat. if no favourable change takes place, repeat the dose in three or four days. The greatest care must be taken to keep the dog warm and dry (with Buffl ifii t ventilation I ; and, even when perfectly, recovered, do not BUfftT hi" into w< t grass for a short time, as it tain to be attended with fatal results. In ordinary case> of illness from cold or over- work, the best medicine is good syrup of buckthorn, about two tabiespoonfuhj. — 2. Sixty grains of gamboge, sixty -ruins of calomel, sixty grains of jalap, a'nd twelve grains of tartar emetic; make into twelve pills. One to betaken every day for three days; then rest a day, and begin again. Keep the dog warm, and give him warm broth. Nothing to be taken for two hours alter the dose. Regularly used in York-hire, and found most beneficial. — i. As soon as the disease is discovered, give, for a small dosr, one teaspbonful of common salt, and then one drachm of JEthiop's Mineral in three doses, one each morning. Mix the mineral with a piece of dripping on the bottom of a (date. If a large dog," the dose must be increased accordingly. — 4. As the death of four-fifths of young puppies from distemper is the result of over-feeding, espe* cial care should be taken to have them in as poor a condition as possible. Previous to their being attacked by this disease they should not taste butcher's meat ; and, when seized, allow them to bleed very freely, by making an incision with a pair of sharp scissors on the ear. Give them a little sul- phur with their food, and keep them dry and warm. EXCELSIOR. The word is derived from the Latin, and is the comparative of theadiective excelsus, high, lofty. Itsi ing, therefore, is— "still higher;" and in the beautiful poem by Professor Longfellow, it is adopted as the motto of a genius whose world experience is thus illustrated. BARLEY. In its prepared state ot pearl-barley, it is a most useful adjunct to the medical practitioner; its decoction, commonly called barley-water, is an agreeable and efficacious demulcent in affections of the mucous membrane, and a grateful and nutritious beverage in fevers; for the former purpose it is required much thicker than for the latter. Ttie following is a good recipe for making plain barley- water: Take 2\ ounces of pearl-barley, wash it, and boil for a short time in half a pint of water, which pour off and thiow away ; then pour in fair pints of hot water, boil down to two pints, and strain. This is an excellent diluent drink in fevers; it is very soothing tor inflamed mucous surfaces, especially those of the urinary organs; it may be rendered more pleasant and useful 208 FACTS FOR EVEKTIJODY-; as a fever drink by the addition of a few glides of lemon. If a laxative is required, the compound decoction, prepared as fol- lows, may be given : Slued figa and stoned raisins of each 2| ounces ; bruised liquorice- root 4 drachms; water 1 pint; barley- water, as above, 2 pints; boil down to a quart and strain. The demulcent properties of either of the above formulas may be in- creased by the addition of an ounce of gum- arabic to each pint of the liqur\ As a food for infants brought up by hand, simple barley-water and milk, equal proportions, sweetened with a little refined sugar, has been recommended ; care should be taken to stop it, if the bowels should become relaxed -with this diet. Gruel, for children, may be made of the pearl -barley, or Robinson's prepared groat-i ; for most, however, this diet, as a continuance, will be found too heating. A Barley Pudding, good for invalids, may be made as follows : Add to 4 table spoon- fuls of prepared barley sufficient cold milk to form a thin paste; pour on it a quart of boiling milk, then add a small slice of but- ter, a tablespoon ful of powdered lump sugar, sufficient lemon-peel to flavour it, and two eggs, previously well beaten up ; mix well, and let the whole bake for an hour and a half in a slow oven. This is very nutri- tious and easy of digestion ; it may be ren- dered more palateable to some by ike addi- tion of a slice or two of lemon. JUPITER. Thelarge«t planet of the sola* system, being 91,522 miles in diameter, or 1,400 times larger than the earth. It re- volves round the sun in 4,332 davs and 14 hoxirs of our time, and on its own axis in 9 hours, 56 minutes, inclined to the eliptic 8b° 54A'. It is attended by four sa- tellites. JUPITER. The chief of the gods, wor- shipped under that and other names by all the nations of antiquity. The temple and statue of Jupiter at Athens was. one of the wonders of Greece, aud he was worshipped under the names of Jupiter Olympus, and Jupiter Tonans, or the Thunderer. lie was the Osiris of the Egyptians, the Bramah of the Hindoos, the Amnion of Ethiopia, the Woden of the Scandinavians; and some ascribe the Greek model to the Jehovah of the Jews. FEET (TO REMOVE THE OFFEN- SIVE SMELL OF). The object of perspi- ration is to remove carbonic acid, and other noxious matters from the blood ; these, in ordinary cases, escape through our clothing. But as shoes and boots are but very sligbtly porous, the free discharge of the offensive perspiratory matter is prevented, and con- sequently it has an unpleasant smell. There A MISCKTJ.ANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 209 Is no remedy for this but cleanliness. Wash the feet night and morning with Lukewarm wat< rand soup ; put on dean stockings every possible; keep two or three pairs of ■ho s in wear instead of one only, and change every other day, — attend to these inatruc- nd the annoyance complained of-will lie much lessened, it' not removed. The evil of bad-smelling feet will be found, in nearly all cases, to arise from au uncleanly habit. MOTH (Phahena). An elegant species of insect, whose changes correspond with those of the buttertly. # LAVENDER WATER. Take of English oil of lavender, and essence of bergamot, of each one ounce, four cloves, and rectified spirits of wine one pint. Shake them well together, and let them stand a month, then add two ounces of distilled water, and distil. WHEY. Ninety-two parts of rue hundred of cream, the remaining -eight being equal proportions of butter and cheese, or suet and curd. PRISM. A triangular form of glass, or any refracting medium, by the oblique action of which the atoms whose propul- sions, called light, are decomposed, and ex hi bit a coloured spectrum, which is divided into 360 p irts. The upper side ishot, r d, and oxygenous, and 45 parts; ».mx the lower violet, cold, and hydro- genous, and 80 parts ; ' with the intermediate colours and qualities, as orange 27. yellow 48, green 60, blue 60, and indigo 40. The whole being a mechanical and perfect decomposition of the elementary atoms of the atmosphere, the excitement of which constitutes, light. TBIANDBIA. The third class of the Li nn aean system of plants, containing three orders: moaogynia, digynia, and trigynia, with three stamina. ZEBRA. An animal the size of an ass, distinguished by its striped skin, and wild and common in Southern Africa. STEMS. Every plant has a stem through which the sap circulates, and from which the haves and flowers spring. This stem is not always apparent: it is sometimes con- cealed under ground, sometimes disguised under an extraordinary form: the stem of the tulip, for instance, is contained within the bulb, which is commonly, but improperly, called its root: that of the fern is subterra- neous. The functions of the root and stem are totally different : the former merely sucks up nourishment from the soil, and transmits it to the leaves; the latter is supplied with organs to distribute it to the several parts of the plant, the' leaves, the Sowers, &C The stems of plants are divided into two classes; tho-e winch grow internally, hence calied endogenous — they are also called mo- nocotyledons, from their seed having only one cotyledon, or lobe: and those whicn grow externally, called exogenous, or dico- tyledons, from their seed having two lobes. There is a third class, denominated tutjty- Icdous, which have no cotyledons, and no vascular system, such as fungi, lichens, &c. Bi J facts For. everybody; The date, the palm, and the cocoa-nut tree, the Sugar-cane, and most of the trees oi' tropical climates, belong to the monocoty- ledons, or endogenous plants. Their stems are cylindrical, being or the same thickness from the top to the bottom. Their mode of growth is this: a hollow stem shoots up to a certain height, and there stops; layer after layer grows in the iiterior of this hollow stein, till at length a period arrives when the outer coats are so hardened and distended, as to yield no longer; the stem has then at- tained its full growth in horizontal dimen- sions, and oilers a broad, fiat, circular surface to view, which has scarcely risen in height above the level of the ground. In this .-tage it resembles the stump of the trunk of a tree which has been cut down. The follow- ing spring, there being no room for a new layer of wood to extend itself horizontally, it shoots up from the centre of the stem ver- tically ; fresh layers every year successively perforate this central shoot, till it becomes hard, compact, and of the same horizontal dimensions as the base; the second period oi growth is then complete. The leaves and fruit of this class of plants grow from the centre of the last shoot, and form a sort of cabbage at the top of the tree, on cutting off which, the tree perishes. Endogenous plants have no real bark, the external coats of wood are so much hardened as to render such a preservation unnecessary. These plants have usually no branches. Corn, and all gramineous plants, the lila- ceous tribe of (lowers, and bulbous roots, are all endogenous. Some of these send forth n shoots, but they are not fiom the stem, but th from a knot or ring upon the stem. The sugar-c;:ue, which grows in this manner, is the largest of the gramineous plants. '1 he structure of the exogenous plants, or dicotyledons, to which the trees of our tem- perate climes belong, is much more com- plicated. The stem is composed of two separate fiarts: the one ligneous, the other cortical ; n other words, it is formed of wood and bark. The wood consists, in the first place, of the pith, a soft medullary substance, which Occupies the centre of the stem, and is almost always of a cylindrical form. This soft, pulpy body, does not grow or increase in size with the tree, but retains the dimensions it originally had in the youu-g stem. The first layer, surrounding the central pith, grows freely during a twelvemonth, hut the following year it is enclosed by a new layer; being, by the pressure of this layer, prevented from extending laterally, it makes its way where there is no pressure ; thai is to say, vertically. When, during the third year, a third layer surrounds and com- presses the second, this, in its turn, escapes from the bon 'age by rising vertically. This process goes on year after year, so that the stem grows in height at the same time that it increases in thickness. This mode of growing renders the form of the stem conical, the layers diminishing as the stem rises. These layers of wood attain a state of maturity, when they become so hard by continued pressure as to be no longer sus- ceptible of yielding to it. Previous" to this period, the layers bear the name oi alburnum, signifying white wood, for wood is always white, until it reaches this degree of con- sistency. The length of time requisite to convert the alburnum into perfect wood, varies from five to fifty years, according to the nature of the tree. The vegetation of the bark is precisely the inverse of that of the wood; that is to say, it is endnr/t'itom, its layers growing inter- nally : the new soft coat of bark, therefore, lies immediately in contact with the new soft layer of wood. The outer coats of bark, when they become too hard to be further distended by the pressure of the internal layers, crack, and becoming thus exposed to the injury of the weather, fall off in pieces: it is this which produces the ruggedness of the bark in some trees. The other Layers, as they become external, and exposed tothesame sources of injury, experience the same fate. It has long been a disputed point what part of the stem the sap rises through ; some nave maintained the opinion that it ascended rough the pith; others, that it rose through the bark; but they have both been proved to be wrong. By colouring the water with which the plant was watered, it has been traced within the stem, and found to ascend almost wholly in the alburnum, or young wood, and particularly in the latest layers. (See Roots, p. 187). LEAVES (FUNCTIONS OF). If the leaves of a tree be stripped off, the fruit comes to nothing, which is exemplified every year in gooseberry bushes, the leaves of which have been devoured by caterpillars ; and though the fruit trees of warm climates, partly naturalized with us, grapes and peaches, for instance, ripen their fruit sooner, perhaps, if partially deprived of their leaves ; yet if that practice be carried too far, the fruit perishes. The white mul- berry, indeed, cultivated in the south of Europe, for the food of silk-worms only, bears wonderfully the loss of its foliage three or four times a year. These facts have led some to think, tliat A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 211 leaves were merely a clothing, nm protection against cold and beat. Though this is un- doubtedly true, >ti!l it is a very small part of the use of leaves. That leaves give out moisture, or are •rgana of insensible perspiration, is proved by the simple experiment of gathering tin; leafy branch of a tree, anil hum. stopping the wound at its base, with wax, or any other tit substance, to prevent the effusion of moisture in that direction. In a very short time, the leaves droop, wither, and are dried up. 1 f the same branch, partly faded, though not dead, he placed in a very damp cellar, or immersed in water, the learee revive, by which their power of absorption is also proved. The great annual sun-flower is said to have lost by perspiration 1 lb. 14 oz. weight, in the course of twelve hours, in a hot dry day. In a dry night, it lost about three ounces; in a "moist night, scarcely any alteration was observable; but in a rainy night it gained two or three ounces. The cornelian cherry is most remarkable in this respect : the quantity of fluid which evapo- rates from its leaves, in the course of twenty- four hours, w said to be nearly equal to twice the weight of the whole shrub. The perspiration of aquatic plants seems to be remarkably copious. Of these some grow constantly, immersed in water. Their leaves are peculiarly vascular, and dry rery quickly in the air, withering in a few minutes after exposure to it. Other aquatics float with only the upper surface of their leaves exposed to the air, which surface is so con- trived that wa'er will scarcely remain upon it. These leaves, though extremely juicy, dry with great rapidity, as does every part of "the plant, when gathered. It is probable that they imbibe copiously by their under 6ides. and perspire by their upper. Light has a very powerful effect upon plan's. The green colour of the leaves is owing to it, so that plants raised in the dark, are of a sickly white; and it is well known that the blanching of celery is effected by cove nng the plant and excluding the light. ' acts beneficially upon the upper nf leaves, and h artfully upon the under side ; hence the former is always turned towards the light, in whatever situa- tion the plant may happen to he placed. Plants, in a hot-house, present the fronts of their leaves to the side where there is most :iot to the quarter where most air is admitted, or to the flue, in search of heat. It has been found, that vine leavds turn to the light, even when separated from the stem, if suspended by a thread. Nor is this effect of light peculiar to leaves •lone. Many Sowers are equally sensible to impound radiate;; ones, as the daisy, sun -flower, marigold, &c. !:i their funis. Nature seems to have delighted to imitate the radiant luminary, in the ab- sence of whose beams many of them do not expand their blossoms at all. The stately annual sun-flower displays this phenomenon more conspicuously, on account of its size: the flower follows the sun all day, and re- turns, after sunset, to the east, to meet the sunbeams in the morning. A great number of leaves also folio .v the sun in his course. A clover field is a familiar instance of this. The chemical actions of light, heat, and the component parts of the atmospheric air, upon leaves, are now tolerably well under- stood. It is agreed that in the day-time plants imbibe, from the atmosphere, carbonic acid gas (which is a compound of oxygen and carbon), that they decompose it, absorb the carbon as matter of nourishment, which is added to the sap, and emit the oxygen. The burning of a candle, or the breathing of animals, in a confined space, produces so much of this gas, that neither of these operations can go on beyond a certain time; but the air so contaminated serves as food for vegetables, the leaves of which, assisted by light, soon restore the oxygen, or, in other words, purify the air again. This beautiful discovery shows a mutual depen- dence of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and adds another to the many proofs we have of the wisdom and wonder-working power of the Creator of all things. In the dark, plants give out carbonic acid, and absorb oxygen ; but the proportion of the latter is small, compared to what they exhale by day, as must likewise be the pro- portion of carbonic acid given out; else the quantity of carbon added to their substance would be but trilling, especially in those climates in which the proportion of day to night is nearly equal, and which, notwith- standing, we know to be excessively luxu- riant in vegetation. There can be no question of the general purpose answered to the vegetable consti- tution by these functions of leaves. But when we attempt to consider how the peculiar secretions of different species and tribes of plants are formed; how the samrj soil, the same atmosphere, should, in a leaf of the vine, or sorrel, produce a wholesome acid, and in that of a spurge, or manchineeL a most i Undent poison — how sweet, and nutritious, herbage should grow among tne acrid crow-foot, and aconite — we rind our- selves totally unable to comprehend the 212 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: existence of such wonderful powers in so small, and, seemingly, simple an organ, as the leaf of a plant. Ihe agency of the vital principle alone can account for these wonders, though it cannot, to our understanding, ex- plain them. The thickest veil coveis the whole of these processes; and so far have philosophers hitherto been from removing this veil, that they have not even been able to approach it. All ihese operations, indeed, are evidently chemical decompositions and combinations: but we neither know what these decompositions and combinations are, nor the instruments in which they take place, nor the agents by which they are regulated. WRITING. A most important art, the successful practice of which arises from holding the pen properly, when beginning to learn, as represented in the engraving. HOTTE. A basket of wicker-work, much used in France, for carrying burdens on the back. It is slung over the arms by means of straps, and great weights are thus carried with much facility. HYDROGEN GAS. A variety of atoms, in motion, which fill a space, and which Bpa«:e, when filled with them, is from fifteen to sixteen times lighter than if the space were filled with common atmospheric air. The engraving represents its manufactory in large quantities for the purpose of filling a balloon. The casks placed round are partly rilled with water, from which hy- drogen is extracted, by putting pieces of zinc into it, and two-fifths of sulphuric acid, or vitriol. This producing an enerrescence, the light gas passes out of the casks through the bent tubes which puss through a vessel of cold water under the cask placed ih the centre, from which it parses through the bent tube into the balloon, and being so much lighter than atmospheric air, it rises with great force, and carries the balloon with it into the upper regions of the atmosphere. UNDERSHOT WHEELS. Those winch are acted upon by a stream at the bottom*, overshot ones acting by a stream at the top. Undershot wheals require a much greater body of water than overshot ; the former are con-equently constructed in rivers, and the latter in streams of water. The appli- cation of water to mechanical purposes in the grinding of corn, fulling of cloth, dress* j ingof leather, spinning of cotton, wool, &c, ' &c, deserves to be ranked among the most | important inventions of man. A. MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 213 JULY. In the ndent calendar of the Romans this m< nth was called Quintilii, to denote Ha numerical position— being, in fact, t lie tilth month <>f the old Latin year; whereas now it is our seventh. It was to Jupiter, and consisted Of thii!\-si\ hich Romulus reduced to thirtj -one, and Niuiia Pompilius to thirty; hut Julius d the day which Numa had taken away from it. In const-quince of the alterations made in the calendar by Numa, July became the seventh month in the year, hut' retained the name of Quintilis, until Marc Antony changed its name to Julius; as a compliment to Julius Caesar, who had done 60 much to improve the calendar. The Synonyme* of the month are as fol- low* — 1» Latin, Julius; French. Juillet; Italian, J.uylio ; Portuguese, Julho; and Saxon, Id u Monuth, Hey MouatA, or Hay month, because the hay-harvest of our Saxon ancestors was held in this month. It was aiso called Maed Moutch, because at this season the meadows are covered with bloom. The allegorical representation of the month (as exhibited in our illustrative engraving) consisted of a young man in a light jacket eating cherries ; his face and rhest sunburnt, and his head surmounted by a wreath of wild thyme. He bore a 'scythe on his shoulders, symbolical of the hay-harvest, while an ample bottle hung at his girdle, and at his side was the sign of Leo, the lion, alluding to the sun entering that sign on the 23rd of the month. The month of July is usually very hot, especially during the first fortnight of the I). g-days; but this excessive temperature often g'ves way to the ajstival rains, which begin about St. Swithiu's-day. If showery weather set in about the middle of the month, the chances are that the great part of th^' period will be wet; and hence the 10* popular proverb which ascribes forty days' rain to St. Swithin. It is at I hi that the most beautiful and picturesque skies are seen, and that small meteors uios*i abound. The solstitial Benson this month may perhaps be considered as the most de- lightful ; for though the vegetable world in the month of June is perhaps more adorned with blossoms, yet the days are now at their full length: a beautiful twilight takes the place of night, and we seldom or never feel cold, except in particularly unseasonable years, lh sides this, the air is general l\ calm and wholesome; and though sometinu heat, prevails, yet it is relieved by thunder- showers, and the evenings are refreshing and delightful. Full-grown grass in the meadows, the flowering of the purple clover, of the midsummer daisy, of the red poppy ill the corn-fields, of the lilies, and of the w hole of that beautiful tribe, the roses, numerous others of the floral family, dis- tinguish this delightful season of the year. At this period, also, sheep-shearing forms an important branch of rural industry. II ay- makingisanothergreat feature of rural industry for which the month of July is dis- tinguished. It is always a source of pleasure to the young, and even to the aged, who delight to tell their oft-told tales of love, whispered at eve after the well-tilled wag- gons have been carried to the yard to in- crease the snu>; stacks of sweet new-mown hay. Haymaking is most assuredly one of the most pleasing occupations of an Eng- lish summer. We shall now proceed to notice a few of those days which are the most remarkable in the calendar for this month. The 3rd day commences with what are termed the Dog-day** which continue until the 1 1th of August. The name was first given in reference to the heliacal rising of the con- stellation of Ganis major, called Sirius, or the Dog-star, which was formerly thought to make the sea boil, dogs to go mad, wine to turn sour, animals generally to languish, and to originate fevers and cholera. The name applied to this period probably took its origin from a festival having been formerly held at Argos. expressly instituted for the killing of dogs during this season. July 4, 1770, the declaration of American ia I pendeuce was proclaimed, and was hailsd with great enthusiasm and rejoicing by the American people. July 4, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the declaration of independence. Ittiuark i s coincidence, in the death of John Ad mis and Thomas Jellcisun, who died on lli.it day. *14 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: lath. Dedicated to St. Swithin, who lived in tlif ninth century. He, was the deviser and originator of tithes in England, and (he priest of Xi g Egbert. Being very pious and learned, he was created Bishop of Win- chester, and, dying in the year 860, wai canonized by the Pope. He requested that he might be buried in the open churchyard, which was a singular request, inasmuch as the bishops were generally buried in the chancel of the minster. The story runs, that the monks, wishing to translate the remains of the saint, on his being canonized, resolved to do so on the loth of July, with a solemn procession and great pomp ; but as it rained violently on that day, and the forty days succeeding, they looked upon it as a mark of disapprobation of the saint, and erected a chapel over his grave instead, at which many miracles are said to have been Eerformed. Ever since then a popular notion as prevailed, that if it rains on St. Swithin's day there will be rain for the forty ensuing days. 20th. Dedicated to St. Margaret, an Italian virgin, who was martyred in 278. Although the name is retained in our calen- dar, the day i> not kept. 25th, Dedicated tn St. James the Apostle. T »rmerly the Catholic priests blessed apples on this day; and a popular belief prevailed, that, whoever ate oysters on this day would not want money for the remainder of the year. 26th. Dedicated to St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary.— In 1830 the disturb- ances in Maris commenced, and lasted for several days, ending in the abdication of Chaj les X., and the acceptance of the crown of France by Louis Philippe. The celebrated anatomist and surgeon, John Hunter, was born July 14, 1728, at Long Calderwood, in Kilbrid. near Glasgow ; and in 1755, the distinguished tragic actress, Mrs. SlDDONS, was born at Brecknock. She died in 1831. Sir Joshua Reynolds was born July 16, 1723, at Plympton St. Mary, Devonshire. As a painter he stood unrivalled in his day, and did much to improve the art. It has been said of him, that he "exalted portrait to the dignity of history;" and North cote remarks, that "to the grandeur, the truth, and simplicity of Titian, and to the daring strength of Rembrant, he has united the chasteness and delicacy of Vandvck." He died in 1792. AUGUST is said to have derived its name from the Roman Emperor, Augustus Caesar, to whom it was dedicated in honour of his being created Consul in this month, and having triumphed three times in Rome, subjected Egypt to the Roman power, and put an end to civil wars. It was called Scxtilis, or the sixth month, in the Album 5? calendar, in which it had only twenty-eight days assigned to it. Romulus added two days, and Augustus Caesar a third, which number it, has since retained ; and from the time that Numa Pompilius revised the calen- dar, it has continued as the eighth month of the year. The Anglo-Saxons called it Arn-mc,iat, or Barn-m&nat. alluding to this being the period when their barns were commonly iiiled, the Saxon word Am signifying har- vest. It wa,s also called li T eo'd-monath, clothing month, alluding to their fields being then clothed with corn, just as the Romans dedicated this month to Ceres, the goddess of harvest. The Synonym** of the month are as fol- low : — In Latin, Augustus ; French, Aout; Italian and Portuguese, Agosto. The allegorical representation of the month is a young man of rustic and cheer- ful countenance, with a flame-coloured habit; upon his head is a garland of rye and wheat ; upon his arm a basket of ripe fruits; at his belt a sickle; and at his side the sign Virgo, the Virgin, because the sun enters that constellation on the 23rd of the month. The month of August is the most glorious and resplendent of the year, for it is then that Ceres, with her golden-eared corn, gladdens the hearts of men. Sheaves of wheat are now piled upon the carts, and the whole field is astir. August 15, J 824. Gen. Lafayette arrived in New York, from France, and spent the year in traveling through the country, being received at every place with unbounded en- thusiasm. A MISCELLAJTY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 215 Angus •t 1-;. 1777. Battle of Bennington, oi *• K " ,ms ' { , hu , vch nmmto l!mm in whiu i the Americana, led by Colonel Siark, preaching in the Indies, and concluding his d an important victory over Colonel ni '' "> 1,( ' in - ,,a . v, ' d i,llV1 ' by order ol As- Baum, who had been sent by General Bur- tyage*, brother to Palemon, the ting „f lo capture some stores .it that place. Armenia.— Ihis day has a horrible celebrity i.i Auguat, LSI 4, Washington City anr- to connexion with the massacre of the Pro- •t< s of (he night- Ulgale, ami distributes alike to every ear the pleasures which arise from the harmonious sounds of a concert. It produces the blue colour of the sky. and is the cause of the morning and evening twilight, by its pro- perly of bending the rays of light, and re- flecting them in all directions. It forms an essential requisite for carrying on all tho processes of the vegetable kingdom, and serves for the production of clouds, rain, and dew, which nourish and fertilize the earth. In short, it would be impossible to enumerate all the advantages we dei i\ e from this noble appendage to our world. Were tli- earth divested of its atmosphere, or were only two or three of its properties changed or destroyed, ii would be left altogeth* I for (lie habitation of sentient beings. Were it divested of its undulating quality, we should be deprived of all the advantages of speech and conversation, of all the i of the feathered songsters, and of all the pleasures of music; and, like the deaf and dumb, we could have no power of communi- cating our thoughts but by visible signs. its reflective powers, the sun world. appear in one part of the sky of a dazzling brightness, while all around would appear as dark as midnight, and the stars would be visible at noon-day. Were it de- prived of its refractive powers, instead of the gradual approach of the duv and the night, 222 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: ■which we now experience, at sun-rise we should be transported, all at once, from mid- night darkness to the splendour of noon-day; an 1, at sun-set, should make a sudden tran- sition from the splendours of day to all the honors of midnight, which would bewilder the traveller in his journey, and strike the creation with amazement. In line, were the oxygen of the atmosphere completely ex- tracted, destruction would seize on all tribes of the living world, throughout every region of earth, air, and sea. PAEfS OF SPEECH (GENERAL AC- COILN r OF). In every thing we study, as well as in every tiling we do, where we have to deal with a multitude of objects, Classi- ficaiion — that is, arranging the objects into division* and subdivisions, each having some peculiar point about it that distin- guishes it from the others — is of the utmost importance, and should be set about first. The General has his army in battalions — these are divided into regiments — these into companies, and so on : while some are cavalry, some infantry, eome sappers and miners, some artillery-men, some sharp- shooters The Botanist divides his thou- sands of different plants first into dowering and tiowerless tribes, and he then sub- divides these into many classes, orders, and oilier divisions and subdivisions. So it is with the Grammarian. There are nearly sixty thousand words in the English language; and the first thing we must do is to marshal them in order: in divisions and subdivisions. In speaking or writing we must have a KAME for that about which we speak or write. Fust, then, we observe a very great num- ber of words which are NAMES of things, as the words by which we would name or designate the objects shown in the adjoining cut, if we wished to speak of them. The man shown here may be spoken of as a man, a gentleman, an American, a father, a husband, a friend, a merchant, a master, a householder, Sidney, or George l Sidney. All these are name-words, or Nouns. In like manner, the words woman, ! Mrs. Sidney, Jane Sidney, lady, wife, mo- ther, boy, Henry, girl, child, cat. book, John, tongs, fire, rug, fireside, are NOUNS, or aames of tilings. As all i hose obn cts are represented in the engraving, it might be supposed that we might define a noun to be "the name of whatever we can see;" or use the old de- scription, that ''a noun is the name of a person, place, or thing." It is true that the name of anv thing we can see isu noun; but there are many things which we cannot see, the names of which are nouns. In the scene represented in the above cut, them would be sound fvom the girl who is reading, which eannot be seen; yet the word sound is a Noun. Also, the names of actions and states of being are Nouns — as reading, or sleeping. The name of whatever we can think of or speak about is a Noun ; or, a Noun is the name of whatever can be perceived by the outward senses, or by the inward mind. The Noun, then, is the first division of words, or, as each division is often called, a part of speech. The term "noun" is de- rived from the Latin word nomen, signify- ing " a name." The next part of speeeh is the Adjective, a word used along with a noun, to express some quality or property of it — that is, to qualify it. In the above cut, we see several objects, the names of which are nouns ; as the man, the woman, the boy, the balls, the chair, the clock. But we observe that the man is old, the woman is young, the boy is little / one ball is black, and the otlu r ball is white. Those words in italics are adjt ctives, for they Qualify the nouns, that is, tell us some qua- lities or properties of the nouns. They may be used along with the noun*, either in tho way given above, or as follows : an old man, a young woman, a little boy, a white bail, a hack ball. k MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 22J An Adjective is often described aa a word used slonjc with a noun, to limit it* siyniji- cation. Thus the worda " a man." may mean any man whatever in the wide world. But if we say " an old man," we now limit thr meaning of the word "man" to one that U old, shult ng out from our considera- tion any man that is not old. The word adjective is derived from the Latin words jactam, thrown, — and ad, to; signifying that it is added to, or placed . the noun. It is also called the ad a nun. The next part of speech is the Pronoun, the name of which tells its meaning dis- tinctly. It is from the Latin wordjo>o, for, — and* the word noun, and means for a noun. It is a word used for, or instead of a noun. •1 Iter por.y, while her papa walks at her side, holding Tommy by the hand :< — The words in italics make assertions; they are vbbbs In the engraving we see a little boy who has taken his brother's ball, and the latter is complaining to his mamma. He would very likely say to her — •* Please, mamma, would you speak to Tommy; Al has taken the pretty white ball that grandpapa gave me, and he won't let me have it; and he won't let me play with him." And mamma probably replies'—" Well, John, we will go to him. and hear what he will say to us about it." The words in italics are pronouns. They are used instead of nouns: — you instead of mamma : he and him instead of Tommy ; me instead of John himself, who is speaking; it instt ad of the ball ; ice and us instead of mamma and John taken together. Verbs. Whenever we speak or write, we assert or affirm something, or we command, or we ask a question. The word in the m-h- tence that does any of tho-e is called a Verb. Thus, in the sentences — Victoria reign* in England — Louis Napoleon is Emperor of France — II:s uncle Napoleon died at St. Helena, in 1821; the words, reign*, is, died, are verbs; these make the assertion. The words in italics, in the description of the adjoiuing cut, illustrate the verb. Jane The word verb is derived from the Latin, verbum, a word ; this part of speech being called the verb, or the word, as being the principal word in a sentence. The verb was formerly defined as "that part of speech which signifies to be, to do, or to sutler;" and a respectable modem grammarian defines it as follows: — "A verb implies action, or the doing of some- thing." But these definitions are, in some respects, applicable to certain nouns; and the true idea of the verb is, that it is the word by which we assert, or can assert. The next part of speech is the Adverb, a word usedaumg with a verb, to express some circumstance relating to it — i. e., to Qualify it ; as, She rides well, she writes badly, they came soon, he fought, bravely he ran auratf. The Adverb is also used to qualify an adjec- tive; as, She is very good, lie is not tall. And it is also used to qualify another ad- verb ; as, She rides uncommonly well, she writes very badly, they came too soon. Adverbs may be known in this way : they answer to the questions, How? When"? Where? — as, How does he write? Will, very well, or very badly. The Preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun, to show its relation to tomething mentioned previously. Thus.— John went to France; he came with me; this Utter is for Jane. The words in italics, to, with, and for, are prepositions, showing the relation between the words "France," " me." and " Jane," in these sentences, and something thai is pieviously mentioned, aa that "John went." — that '-he came," — and " this letter." The following sentences also illustrate Prepositions : — lie is in the house. She 18 sitting on the sola. The letter was written by him. He threw a stone at me. The Preposition is easily distinguished in 224 FACTS FOIt FVETITBOPT : this way: it makes sense with any of the words me, us, him, them, placed alter it; as with me, to us, from him, after them. The derivation of the word preposition partly explains its nature. It comes from the Latin words, positum, placed— pne, be- fore. A Gov junction is a word used to connect words and parts of sentences; as — He and I went out, bat she stayed at home, that her mother might, not be Left alone. 'Ihe vords in italics are conjunctions. The word conjunction is fror^ the Latin words cum, with, or together— and jungo, I join. An Interjection is any abrapt exclama- tion, as ah! oh! a/as! oh d'ir .' oc any such expression used to indicate p.iin, grief, joy, or surprise. It has been observed that it is not properly a part of speech, but re- sembles the wild, inarticulate cries of ani- mals. Its name is from the Latin words, inter, between— factum, thrown ; indicating some expression thrown^ a* it were, abruptly between words. Adverh, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. — What do we see in the figure ? The pony has thrown Jane, and scampered away ; but she is not hurt, for she fell ON the soft grass, and is only frightened. She merely cried, "Oh!" Tommy is more frightened than she is, and is crying bitterly. She will soon recover FROM her fright, for her papa is speaking kindly TO her, and holding her hand IN his, and her mamma is running TO her, and I dare say they, will soon laugh AT it, and AT the dog, who is barking loudly. The adverbs are in italics; the conjunctions in email capitals ; the prepositions in large capitals, Many grammarians consider the little words, a, an, the, as forming another part of speech, which they call the Article. But they are now more usually considered as a kind of adjective. These eight, then, are all the parts of speech. Each of the GO, 000 words belongs to one or other of theab OV e kinds of words. Let us shortly describe them :— The noun is the name of anything. The adjective qiotli- fies the noun. The pronoun is used in place of the now".. 'Ihe verb asserts, commands, or asks a fmestion. The adverb qualifies a verb, adjective or other adverb. The prepo- sition snows the , elation of a noun or pro- noun following it. to eomethmg which lots gone efore , no conjunct ion connects words or parte of sentences. The interjection is an \ abrupt exclamation. DAHLIA (CULTIVATION OF THE). 1 Dahlias do not require too rich a eoii — except ' those intended forexhibition, or show flowers, I the management of which we shall treat of presently— in very nutritious ground they exhaust' their vigour in producing strong stems and leaves, thereby causing the flowers to be poor, ill-formed, and few in number. A very barren, light soil, is equally unsuit- able, and should be strengthened by a judi- cious addition of leaf-mould, before the plants are placed in it Where the soil is wet, heavy, clay land — the most, unsuitable of all — it must be rendered friable by an admix- ture of drift or river sand, or, what is still better, road-scrapings. About November, the sand or scrapings should be laid over the soil to the depth of two inches, and well dug in, the ground being left rough through the winter; in spring two more inches should be laid over, and dug in as before. A moderately rich, light loam, is indisputably the best soil ; but it must be borne in mind that this plant exhausts the ground to a remarkable degree, and consequently will not succeed, if grown too frequently on the same spot. A clear, open situation, freely exposed to the sun, without either shade or shelter, is indispensable for the production of fine blossoms. Those who have but limited space and few plants should place them singly, or otherwise, in the situations most advantage- ous for cultivation and display which their ground affords. No general directions can apply to particular localities. But where there is plcuty of room, and a large collection of plants, no mode of growingthe dahlia has such an imposing effect as when planted in a mass by themselves, unmixed with any ofher flower. When planting in a mass, two important objects must he kept in view, or else the effect will be spoiled. The first is to place the plants according to their re- spective heights ; the second is, to associate them so that their colours may harmonise agreeably. If the clump is to be on a border backed by a wall or hedge, so that it can be seen only from one side, the tallest-growing A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KKOWI.EDOK. pirate must be placed in the rear; the next Paiton for Baying, thai plants raised ac- tallesl in front of those; and so down to the shortest, which must hold the front rank of all. But If the clamp is to be form (don a be 1 w lich run be viewed from all sides, the tallesl musl be placed in the centre, ana the next m height successively downwards, till the shortest are placed in the front To har- monise the colours— purples and crinison;, ana crimsons and scarlets, should b rated by yellow, white, or butt*; the salmon- coloured and bull' separated by white. The plants should be placed three feet from each other every way; this space will keep each plant sufficiently distinct when close to them, and yet so muted that at a short distance the whole clump will appear as a solid mass; it will also afford room to get amongst and attend to tbe plauts. Another mode of j planting dahlias, which exhibits a grand effect, is to place a row on each side of a walk as an avenue; in such position the plants need not be more than two and a half feet apart. Dahlias are propagated by dividing the tubers when they have formed incipient ■hoots, by seed, and by cuttings. As tbe last method is comparatively useless to the amateur, we shall not take up space to describe it, but, proceed to the first two. The roots — or more properly speaking, the tubers— should be kept cool, inactive, and eir ire, until the beginning of May, when they should be planted out in the open bor- der, barely buried in the soil, and covered with a hand-glass. The eyes of the tubers will soon push forth young shoots, and when these have attained" the length of two or three inches, the tuber should be cut with a sharp knife, so as to retain a portion of the tuber attached to each shoot. These young plants may be placed in pots with light soil, and kept in the bouse for a short time; or they may at once be planted in the borders where they are to flower, sheltering them from the sun by day, and from cold at night, until they are established. Another method, slightly different indeed, is to place the roots in a warm situation— in a south border for instance— covering them all but their eyes with rotten bark, leaf-mould, or other light material; when the buds break, divide as before described. It is a safe plan when dividing the roots, to cut so as to secure, if possible, more than one promisiug bud on each ]>■■ itisfaoiory to know, thai except in florists' gardenaand large establiiui* mems, wherequantities of plants are required early in the season, artificial heat is not re- quired for propagating the dahlia from the tuber. We have the high authority of Mr. cording to these methods, frequently grow stronger and flower better than those, which have been raised earlier in I son by the application of beat When the young plants, by wh mode obtained,are finally planted dul where they are intended to flower, the upper part of the root should not be less than three in- ches beneath t lie surface,and the soil should be carefully settled down about the roots by gently pouring in water as the hole is being tilled up. A large sized flower-pot invert d over the young plant makes an excellent protection at. night; and shade may be afforded in the day-time by branches of fir or laurel stuck in the ground. A stake suitable to the full height of the flower must be inserted and fixed firmly into the ground close to the stem, at the time of planting. This is imperatively necessary; for the insertion of the stake after planting is sure to injure the roots, cheek the growth of the plant, and destroy its beauty. The leading shoot, as it advances, must be tied to the stake with strips of bass. These bands must not in the first instance be tied too tight, and frequent attention must be given to sec that they do not hinder the stem from swelling to its full size. During the whole period of growth, the 6oil about the roots should be kept moderately moist, but not over-drenched, with water, which to this plant is equally as injurious as drought .. If the soil be light, and the summer excessively dry and hot, a layer of fresh cow manure for about two feet round the base of the stem of the plant, is highly recommended as a pre- ventative to too rapid evaporation. Having described the culture of the dahlia, from the tuber to the flower, we shall now turn to its most interesting mode of propa- gation. It is from the seed alone that all new varieties are obtained, and it is only from the seed that the plfnit has been, and, no doubt will be, so greatly improved. .About the middle or end of January, the seeds should be sown in shallow pans placed in a hotbed frame, near the glass, and. exposed to the light ; as soon as the seed-leaves are properly developed, the young plants should be pricked out into other pans, at the diatance of an inch from each oilier; they should then lie watered, and shaded for a few days un il they recover the shuck of this, the. removal, and are briskly thriving again* When they have attained the height ol two inches, they should be potted, singly, into smalt pots, and gradually inured to a temperature. As they increase in size, they require to be shifted 'into larger pots ; and 226 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! advantage taken of all opportunities of hard- ening them for the open sir. The seedlings nviy be planted out, in the open air. ;ibout the end ot May, ami the course of culture already detailed must be followed. Until the seedlings show their flowers, there u:e no means of ascertaining, with certainty, their quality or colour; though it has been observed that plants with wholly green Bteraa produce white flowers, those with brownish stems the darker coloured flowers, and those with light-coloured stems pale or blush-coloured flowers. When the blooming Beason arrives, the seedlings should be ex- amined early each morning before the sun has shone upon the flowers, as their true colours are better ascertained at that time of day. ' Such plants as are considered un- worthy of preservation should be at once pulled up and thrown away, for they will only exhaust the soil to no purpose; and thotie which having proved good are worthy to be retained, should not be suffered to bloom profusely, in order that the tubers may retain more nutritive matter, and thereby be better able to produce strong and healthy plants in the following season. The tubers must never be subjected to the de- structive influence of frost. About the end of September, some ashes, saw -dust, pens- hauhn, or other protective materials, should be laid over the roots; and win n the stems and leaves turn black, the plant should he cut devil to within six inches of the ground. A few days afterwards, taking advantage of a tine morning, the tubers must be lined, and laid exposed to the sun during the re- mainder of the day. When the soil about the roots is dry, all that can be removed without injury should be taken off. The tubers may then be buried in dry sand, or laid on a shelf or boarded floor where they will be perfectly free from frost and damp, and in a moderately cool temperature, being at no time, through the winter, higher than forty-five, nor lower than thirty-six degrees. MAMALUKES. The name of an ancient dynasty, who ruled in Egypt for many cen- turies, and still applied to the soldiers re- presented in the engraving. SILK (TO KEEP). Silk articles should not be kept folded in white paper, as the chloride of lime used in bleaching the paper will probably impair the colour of the silk. Brown or blue paper is better — the yellowish smooth India paper is best of all. Silk in- tended for a dress should not be kept in the house long before it is made up, as lying in the folds will have a tendency to impair its durability by causing it to cut or split, par- ticularly if the silk has been thickened by gum. A wliife satin dress should be pinnei up in blue paper, with coarse brown paper outside, sewed together at the edges. GLASS CRACKING BY HEAT (MEANS OE PREVENTING). If the chimney-glass of a lamp be cut with a diamond on the eon- vex side, it will never crack, as the incision affords room for expansion produced by the heat, and the glass, after it is cool, returns to its original shape, with only a scratch visible where the cut is made. A MISCELLANY OF TSHFTL KNOWLEDGE. 227 ft. ^faffifKdfiS&Z£> body slightly raised. It remains in this torpid condition a sufficient time lor the new «kin, which is now forming, to become sufficiently mature and strong to enable the caterpillar to burst through the old one. n as the moulting is over, and the caterpillar h,s recovered from the exhaus- tion which its efforts have produced, it com- mences eating voraciously and increases in size very rapidly. THE SILKWORM AND ITS PRODUCTS. The Silkworm is the caterpillar of one of the family Bombycida, systematically known by the name of Bombyx Mori". The eggs are globular, and about the size of mignionette-secd ; The good ones are of a pale slate or ash colour ; whilst, the imperfect ones are of a light yellow tint. The moth is of a light cream colour, with transverse bands of a darker tint on the anterior wings, and a erese. nt- shaped central mark ; the body, which is encircled by rings of a darker tinge, is covered, as are also the wings, with long velvety feathers, giving a particularly soft, thick, and warm look to the m*eet; the antenna; are also thickly feathered. The eg^ are hatched in the spring, simultaneously with the bursting into leaf of the mulberry-trees, upon which they live, and the little worm imme- diately commences eating the young leaves which are placed for its nourishment. It is about eight weeks in arriving at maturity, and during that period changes its skin at four or rive different moulting*. When about to cast, its skin it ceases to eat for some length of time, and exists in a state of perfect repose or stupor, with the forepart of the The silkworm when full grown measures about three inches in length, and is at first of a slate colour; but as it increases in size it becomes paler, until at maturity it arrives at nearly the same tint as the moth itself. When it has arrived at this state, about ten days after the last moulting, the cate pillar seeks some convenient. spot for the spinning of its we"b or cocoon. The silk is elaborated in two long tubular vessels lying on either side 228 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: of the utomaeh and intestines, and termi- nating in a single tube opening in the lower lip of the caterpillar. The silk bags, as the vessels containing the liquid gum of which the delicate thread of .-ilk is composed an called, arc closed at their lower extremity from whence they taper gradually to a greater width in the middle, and contract towards the head, where they unite with the spinnare', or spinning tube. Having now described the insects them- selves, we will proceed to watch their pro- gress from the eggs to 1he spinning and winding of the cocoon! During the winter months the silkworm-grower preserves the eggs in linen bags with great care, and as soon as i hey begin to burst into life in Lhe spring, they are gently laid in flat wicker baskets lined with sun-baked clay, where they are supplied with the young and deli- cate leaves of the mulberry. At this time the tiny worms are scarcely larger titan cheese mites, and therefore, for the first few days, a small quantity of food is con- sumed. As it is essential that the whole of the eggs should be hatched at about the same time, so as to ensure the tender bud- ding leaves for the young brood, if any of the bags, from cold or otherwise, are later than tiie others in bursting into life, the peasants carefully wrap small quantities of the eggs in woollen materials and carry them about their persons, until the artificial warmth thus applied produces the desired result. For the first week the worms arc kept in these wicker-baskets, fresh leaves being given to them three or four times daily. At the end of the first week they have gene- rally grown to the size of about half an inch in length, when the period of the first moulting has arrived, and the worms lie in a t >rpid state for a period of two days. The caterpillars which have survived this opera- tion are then carefully removed from the wicker badcets and placed in the kokh, •which has been arranged for their reception. The kokh, or silkworm home, is a low thatched building formed of sun-dried bricks, with treilised windows covered with myrtles and other trees, so as to exclude bir.ls and serpents ; but at the same time so as to admit of a free circulation of air. In these kokhs are long ranges of mat shelves, attached to poles, and ranged one above another, with about one foot space between each range. On these shelves the sUkworms are placed by the attendant peasants, and plentifully supplied with mulberry leaves, which are now devoured in such quantities as to ren- der it necessary to lop oil', and supply them with, the small twigs from the trees. During the two weeks succeeding the first moulting, huge branches are lopped from the trees every morning and brought to the kokhs, and by this means the leaves are preserved in greater freshness, and are profusely sprinkled along the shelves by the peasants. About this period the second change of skin Lakes place, and after this torpid condition the worm wakes up with renewed strength and vigour, and with considerably increased voracity of appetite. From this period the caterpillars grow prodigiously; they never cease eating, day or night, and the noiso oi their eating, on" first entering the kokh, is said to he quite as loud as a heavy shower of rain falling on a thatched roof, and to re- semble the incessant clipping of thousands of little scissors. By the time the worms have attained their full maturity and growth, they have generally denuded of their foliage the whole plantation of mulberry-trees, and the at- tendants therefore look anxiously for the time when they shall cease eating; this they do suddenly, and again fall into a state of stupor, which lasts about two days. On again awaking to activity, the silkworm, for the first time since it came into life, shows signs of restlessness, and crawls has- tily about in search of a retreat. As soon as this restlessness is perceived, the attend- ants carry in a quantity of dried twigs and branches, and carefully scatter them over the worms, who take to them with such avidity, that, in the course of an hour or two, not one will be found who has not se- lected for himself a spot whereon to weave a silken bed. As soon as the caterpillar has fixed upon a place for the formation of its cocoon, it attaches long threads of glutinous matter or silk from side to side, to form a support for itself, and thus continues to work until it has woven around itself a hollow envelope of light tissu,e-like texture. As it does not move or change the position of the hinder part of its body, but continues moving its head from side" to side, attaching and draw- ing the thread from point to point, it fol- lows naturally that, after a time, its body becomes enclosed by the network th is pro- duced. The work is then continued from one thread to another, the caterpillar moving its head and spinning in a zigzag manner, bending the forepart of its body back so as to spin in all directions within reach; and the position of the body is only changed for the purpose of covering the part which was beneath it with silk. As the web is thus spun by bending the forepart of the body A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 229 back, it follows that the silkworm vcrv soon encloses itself in a cocoon very much shorter than its own body, and the work is thus continued with the worm in a bent position. Thus the worm, by pure instinct, forms a cocoon which is of just suflicient size for its purposes in the chrysalis stage, and not guided by its present proportions. During the time of spinning, the silkworm decreases considerably in length, and, by the time it has completed its cocoon, has diminished its size by one-half. The cocoon consists of three distinct layers of silk ; the first loose and flossy, the second of a closer texture, and the inner coating finer, and glued or gummed closely together and forming a compact surface. After building the cocoon, the silkworm divests itself of its caterpillar garment, and is at once transformed into a chrysalis. In the chrysalis state the animal remains for about a fortnight, during which period the deli- cate and beautiful limbs of the moth are being formed. At the end of this period a slight swelling of the chrysalis indicates that a new life is about bursting forth ; a rupture down the back succeeds, and, by degrees, the snowy moth emerges from her homy shell into the hollow silken chamber of the cocoon. There, after fluttering for a few minutes, it emits a fluid which has the power of soften- ing the silk at the pointed end of the cocoon, through which the moth soon afterwards bursts into life and activity. The cocoon takes about five days' incessant and un- ceasing labour in its formation, and, when finished, is egg-shaped, and about an inch and a-half in length. It must be borne in mind that the silk composing the cocoon is spun out by the animal in one continuous thread, from the first commencement to the completion of the fine lining ; the length of this thread of course varies in some small degree, but generally the continuous unbroken thread produced and spun by each worm is about one thousand feet. Of course, as the value and use of the silk depends upon its perfect length being preserved, it would be very prejudicial to allow the moth to be formed m those cocoons which are intended for use. A sufficient quantity having been set aside for producing eggs for the next season, the rest are either exposed to the broiling sun, or placed in a furnace until the poor little animal is stifled in the very beautiful edifice which his ingenuity has formed, and which is so soon converted into a tomb. This done, the grower opens the soft external covering of Jioss-silk, and removes the 11 harder cocoon. This floss-silk is afterwards brought to a manufactured state by spin- ning. The cocoons are now formed into hanks ready for use by the manufacturer. For this purpose small furnaces are raised, adapted to the purpose, on the top of which is placed a vessel of water. Into this water a number of the cocoons are thrown, and the heat of the water soon softens the gum or glue, and renders the separation and proper winding the delicate threads a matter of easy accom- plishment. The reeler is provided with a whisk of fine twigs bound together and cut ofi evenly at the ends, and with this she gently stirs and presses the cocoons in the water till the loose threads become entangled on its points. She then raises the whisk with the threads attached, removes them from it, and draws their ends through her fingers. The operator collects ten, fifteen, or twenty threads together, and passes them through small loops or eyes in a reeling machine. This apparatus is very simple, consisting only of a hollow wheel, upon which she attaches the ends of the threads, while another female turns the handle. By this means fifteen or twenty cocoons are unwound at one time, and as each is drawn off another is substituted, and thus a con- tinuous thread, composed of many cocoons, is produced. To give a more clear insight into the wonderful capacity of the silkworm for the 230 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: operations it has to perform, Ave place before the reader engravings of the animal and its transformations, re- ferring to our previous remarks for the expla- nations how these changes are effected. In the annexed illus- trations we have — A, the female silkworm moth; B, the male moth ; C, the eggs ; D, the pupa removed from the cocoon ; E, the* caterpillar; F, position of the silk bags and spinnaret in the worm ; and G, the cocoon. See Silkworm? Eggs, p. 117. MAGIC LANTERN AND DISSOLVING VIEWS. The principle of construction is very simple. It consists of a tin box, with a bent funnel at the top, which serves for the double purpose of allowing the smoke and heat to escape, and preventing the light dispersing in the room, and thus interfering with the reflected image. It has a door at the side, a polished tin concave reflector at the back of the inside, and a powerful light placed in the focus of the reflector; the light being supplied by an argand, oil, or gas lamp, or by the com- bustion of oxygen and hydrogen gases thrown upon lime. For private exhibi- tions, the oil argand lamp is generally and more easily employed. Opposite to the light and focus of the reflector is a moveable or telescopic tube, containing a hemispherical illuminating lens near to the reflector, and a convex lens at the ex- tremity of the tube ; and between the two lenses is a slit for the introduction of the painted glass slides. The general form of the magic-lantern is shown in figure 7, which represents two lanterns (B and L) arranged for exhibiting the dissolving views. To use the Magic-lantern. Light the lamp, polish the reflector with a dry cloth, and also carefully wipe the lenses to re- move any moisture ; then place the lamp in the focus of the reflector, close the door of the lantern, and place it upon a table ready for use. Suspend a wet sheet from a line stretched across the room, or have a screen made of calico stretched tightly upon a frame; in the event of not using either of them, you must reflect the images upon a smooth white-washed wall. Slip in a slide with the figures, and other subjects, inverted, or upside down, — then advance or recede with the lantern, and by moving the tube in front of the slide you will be enabled to adjust the focus, and obtain a magnified image of the paint- ing upon the slide reflected upon the screen, sheet, or wall. When the room is large enough, it is better to place the screen between the spectators and the lan- tern, as it renders the deception more complete. The Magic-lantern Slides may be formed of long strips of glass, cut of sufficient width to pass freely in and out of the slit in the tube of the lantern, and if the de- signs are not valuable, the edges of the slides may be simply ^ bordered with paper to prevent them injuring the tube. Fig 1. If, on the contrary, the paintings are good and worth preserving, the glass should be placed in a wooden frame, similar to that shown in the above figure, each slide being numbered or labelled ; and the painted surface protected by another slip of glass placed over it, and fixed in the frame. The most amusing objects for the slides are grotesque figures ; sudden transforma- tions, such as a cabbage turning into a tailor, or a basket of eggs into a nest of birds ; and moving figures and objects, such as a cobbler at work, a tight-rope dancer, a storm coming on at sea, in which the ship appears to be struck by lightning and con- sumed ; the eruption of Vesuvius ; or a railroad with the train passing along. The movements of the figures and objects are obtained by painting the subject upon two glasses, which are fixed in the same frame, and so arranged, that, when one is drawn aside or moved upwards or downwards, the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 231 first design is concealed, or else another one is added to it. Sometimes several figures are contained in the same slide ; and when the subjects are distinct, such as objects of natural his- tory, or small interior views, &c, the slide is made of mahogany or deal, with circular Fig. 2. pieces cut out in such a manner as to leave a rabbet on one side. The paintings, pro- tected by a plain piece of glass, are then dropped into the holes, and confined by email brads, or a thin piece of wood turned to tit in the hole, and each painting num- bered or labelled, so as to prevent mistakes, and for the convenience of reference. Dissolving Views. We have already seen, that, when a magic-lantern is used, a view painted upon the slide employed may be produced in a magnified form upon a screen, sheet, or wall. Now, if we employ two lanterns instead of one, it necessarily follows that we shall have two views dis- tinctly thrown upon the screen. Practice will soon enable you to observe, that, by altering the focus of the lens after the clear image has been reflected upon the screen, the view becomes dim, and gradually dis- solves if the focus is still further altered. If the lens of the second lantern, which is supplied with another view, is gradually brought up to the proper focus, the first view may then be said to have dissolved, and assumed the form of the second. The second view then dissolves, and a third takes its place, and so on — the chief object being to show a view which is made to fade graduallv, and blend with a second view, which then becomes clear and bright, and fades, in its turn, to blend with a third. The dissolving process may be effected in several ways : 1st. By altering the focus — a plan that succeeds for exhibitions on a small scale. 2nd. By placing the hand gradually over the nozzle of the lantern, and thus obscuring the view by degrees while a second slide is introduced, and, by gradu- ally withdrawing the hand from before the nozzle, the second view is seen developing itself slowly and perfectly. These two plans are applicable for either single or double small lanterns. The best method of dis- solving is undoubtedly that employed in all large apparatus, viz., by means of dissolvers or fans, which may be shaped like the one F in fig. 1. 1) in tig. 7, or else like the one (fig. 3) in the margin. The first kind will be explained when describ- _ ing the apparatus re- S~ quired for theoxyhydro- / gen lanterns; the last are simply twopieces of card- board or tin, mounted Fig. 8. upon metal stems (£), which are fixed in a piece of wood at such a distance from each other, and with the part (A) turned to the outside, so that the one fan obscures the light of one lantern, while the light of the other is displayed. By pulling or pushing the wood in which the fans are fixed, before the nozzles of the lanterns, the views will be dissolved easily and gradually, in such a manner that one view will merge into another so slowly that the change will appear almost supernatural, producing an effect peculiarly beautiful and attractive. We have had three diagrams engraved of the apparatus necessary foi* producing dissolving views on a large scale suitable for a lecture-room, or exhibition of any kind. . Our first figure (fig. 4) represents the form of lantern used at the Eoyal Poly- Fig. 4. technic Institution, London. It consists of a box (A) with a projecting part(B), having an opening (o) between the back part and the condensers of the two lanterns contained in the box. The painted slides are inserted at (o), and thus pass between the light and the condensers or lenses. In this apparatus the lenses are made of the best glass, so as to avoid achromatic refraction. The top of the box is fitted with two chimneys (Gr G) made of japanned iron to allow the smoke and heat to escape. In front of the box wc observe the barrels of the lanterns (EE), with the rack- work which 232 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: regulates the focus by means of a screw (c) placed above them. The box con- taining the two lanterns is placed upon ft firm stand (D D), having a slide passing underneath, which is fitted at one end with an upright piece having the dissolving fans placed on either side of a central point (F). By this arrangement the fans can be raised or depressed at the will of the exhi- bitor, and retained in their position by means of the screw (If), and they may also be made to advance or recede from the nozzles of the lanterns by means of the slide which passes under the table. In shutting off the light, it is necessary to pay attention to the following observations : When the light is thrown from one lan- tern we obtain a large circle or disc of light thrown upon the screen ; and our object in exhibiting is always to have a disc of this size, or nearly so, reflected upon the screen ; therefore, in shutting off the light, it will be necessary to adjust the fans, so that the under part of one lens is only obscured as much as the upper part of the other is dis- played. By this means we are enabled to preserve the brilliancy of the views and pre- vent the disc being irregular and dusky at the upper and lower parts. As it is some- times necessary to use both lanterns at the same time, the fans or dissolvers are movable. The light used in these lanterns is sup- {)lied by the combustion of oxygen and lydrogen gases in a combined state, the flame being thrown upon a cylinder of lime, so as to produce the Drummond Light ; and in order that the manner in which this is done may be perfectly under- stood, wc have had a diagram engraved. Fig. 5. It represents the interior of the box and the back part of the condensers (B B). About 8 inches from the condensers are cylindci-s of lime placed upon a pivot which has a small cog-wheel at the lower part of it, and which is connected with another wheel at the lower part of the key (K), used to wind up the machinery. The object of employing this machinery is to cause the lime cylinders to revolve slowly upon their axes, so as to expose a fresh surface to the action of the flame, which is so intense that it will even melt a diamond. Close to the lime cylinders you will see the blow-pipes by which the gases are thrown upon the lime ; these issue from the receivers (1) D), where the gases are mixed after being supplied bj the pipes (E E) connected with large caoutchouc bags (fig. 7, F,) placed be- tween press-boards, which are loaded with weights to force the gas out of the bags. After the gases have been mixed, they may be safely ignited at the end of the blow- pipe, and the flame allowed to play upon the cylinder; but you should be careful not to' allow a flame "to approach these gases in a mixed state, without they are connected with a receiver or a Hemming' s safety-tube, for if this precaution is neglected, a very dangerous explosion will ensue. It is the method now generally employed to prevent accidents of this kind, and one that is extremely simple and valuable. A square receiver of brass (K) is filled with fine brass wire, which is pressed tightly together, so that when the gases enter the receiver by the tubes (0 and H), which are connected with the caoutchouc bags containing the oxygen and hydrogen gases, they then pass through the spaces be- tween the brass wires, which are now, in fact, narrow tubes. After the gases have been mixed, they pass out of thercceiverand through the blow-pipe (B), to be thrown upon the lime cylinder, and thus produce a most intense, pure, and beautiful light, well- known as the Drammond Light. The lime cylinders should be wrapped in paper singly, and the whole kept in bottles with well-greased stoppers. To make the lime cylinders, procure a piece of chalk or limestone, and cut it into pieces about \\ inches long, and f inch in diameter, and as round as you can ; then drill a hole through the centre of each, in the long axis ; and, having placed them in a crucible in the centre of a good fire, keep them red-hot for about four hours. Cool them gradually, and wrap in paper as soon as possible. A convenient form of dissolving apparatus B B I l| II || !• ) H Fig. 6. A MISCELLANY OF TJ8EFUL KNOWLEDGE 233 for a private exhibition, and also for lec- turers who have to travel from town to town, is that shown in fig. 7. It consists Fig. 7. of a stand (A) with folding tripod legs (E E E E), and having a slide underneath, and, as in the former one, supplied with dissolvers or fans (D). The lanterns (BL) are made of mahogany, with japanned iron tops, having a place (S) for the reception of the slide?, before which are the moveable tubes (C) with the necessary lenses. A caoutchouc bag (F) fitted with a stop- cock, and flexible or vulcanized india- rubber-tube (0) unions, and press-boards, is filled with oxygen gas; the boards are loaded with weights (W) to maintain an equal pressure of the gas, and another similar bag (G) filled with hydrogen gas is also loaded with weights, and connected with the apparatus by a flexible tube (H). This apparatus is so constructed that it may be packed away with the tubes, pressure- boards, lanterns, slides, &e., into a com- paratively small space; and as it may be exhibited with as much ease as an ordinary lantern, it is extremclyuseful for the general purposes of schools, lecturers, and families. Hie small magic-lanterns may be pro- cured of almost any optician, and vary in price. Magic lanterns of every description, with a large a ud well-selected assortment of Sliders, beautifully painted, Slides illustrating the ni'-.st prominent events in Scripture, and particularly appropriate for S.mday -school ex- hibitions. Also, Astronomical, Temperance, and Humorous designs. They can be found at the store of McAllister and Bro.,728 Chest- nut-street, Philadelphia. CLOTHES (TO BRUSH). Have a wooden horse to put the clothes on, and a small cane to beat the dust out of them ; also a board or table long enough for them to be put their whole length when brushing them. Have two brushes, one a hard bristle, the other soft; ust the hardest for the great coats, and for the others when spotted with dirt. Fine cloth coats should never be brushed with too hard a brush; this will take off the nap, and make them look baro in a little time. Be careful in the choice of the cane ; do not have it too large, and be particular not to hit too hard ; be careful also not to bit the buttons, for it will scratch, if not break them; therefore a small hand- whip is the best to beat with. If a coat bo wet, and spotted with dirt, let it be quite dry before brushing it : then rub out the spots with the hands, taking care not to rumple it in so doing. If it want beating, do it as before directed ; then put the coat at its full length on a board; let the collar be towards the left hand, and the brush in the right . brush the back of the collar first, between the two shoulders next, and then the sleeves, &c, observing to brush the cloth the same way that the nap goes, which is towards the skirt of the coat. When both sides are properly done, fold them together ; then brush the inside, and last of all tho collar. LACE (TO WASH). Cover a bottle (the larger the better) with a linen case made to fit tight : calico will not be found to answer Roll the lace round it, taking care that the edge is kept smooth, and that the head of the succeeding round covers it; tack the lace if there are several lengths, in the slightest possible manner, and without any knots. When the lace is rolled round the bottle, cover it tight with linen* Then rub it well with soap (the best curd); or, if very dirty, make a strong lather, and let the bottle remain in it for a night ; rinse it well by pouring water over it. If possible, ex- pose the bottle to the sun, watering it fre- quently, and also to the night air, and let it dry thoroughly before you open it. Do not, on any account, use" hot water, as it destroys the look of newness. COAT (TO FOLD FOR PACKING). Lav the coat at its full length upon a table, with the collar towards the left hand; pull out the collar so as to make it lie quite straight; turn up the coat towards the collar, letting the crease be just at the elbow; let the lap- pel or breast on one side be turned smoothly back on the arm and sleeves. Turn tho skirt over the lappel, so that the end ot the skirt will reach to the collar, and the crease or folding will be just where the skirts part at the termination of the waist. When you have done on one side, do the same on the other. Turn the collar towards the right- hand, and fold one skirt over the other, ob- serving to let the fold be in the middle of the collar. 234 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! COPPER-PLATE PRINTING. An art practised by means of what is called a roll- ing-press. The engraved plate (copper or Bteel) is covered with ink, made of oil and lamp-black, then cleanly wiped on the smooth parts, and laid on wet soft paper ; and on being passed between two cylin- ders with great force, the impression of the engraved part is perfectly transferred to the paper. MUSIC (AN EASY METHOD OF TEACHING THE RUDIMENTS OF). The Staff— Let the pupil be provided with a pencil and a moderate-sized slate on which has been previously drawn, with the point of a pen-knife, the five lines of the Btaff thus : — The pupil should then be desired to count these lines, commencing from the lowest, which is called the first-line, to the highest, which is called the fifth line ; and after that, the spaces between them. He must then be informed that the five lines and four spaces he had first counted form a staff, and that every line or space is called a degree, bo that the staff contains nine degrees, namely, five lines and four spaces. On these lines, and in these spaces, the heads of notes are placed, which are formed either in the shape of an open oval, or a circular blot. The teacher should illustrate this upon the slate, thus : — VS BPACBS. This must be repeated until thoroughly impressed upon the' memory of the pupil, and until he is able to make the notes upon the lines and within the spaces himself. The Treble, or G Clef — Names op the Notes. — For the second lesson the slate should be prepared thus : — And the pupil must be told that each of the notes just made are named from the first seven letters of the alphabet, — namelv, A, B, C, D, E, F, G ; but that, in order to tell the names of these notes, a cfo/must be S laced at the commencement of the staff, ut as it is our object not to burden the mind of the pupil with more than is at pre- sent absolutely necessary, it will be sufficient here to observe, that there are two clefs, namely, the Treble or G clef, and the Bass or F clef. The Treble or G clef turns upon the second line of the staff, and all the notes on that line are called G. The notes before made upon the staff' mvst now be removed, and the teacher will write the Treble clef thus : — • on the clef line. The names of the notes upon the five lines of the staff in the Treble or G clef must now be learnt, the teacher first adding the other four to the one already written on the second or clef line. The pupil must repeat after the teacher — E on the first line within the staff in the Treble clef ; G on the second line within the staff in the Treble clef ; B on the third line within the staff in the Treble clef ; D on the fourth, &c. ; and F on the fifth, &c. Afterwards, at the dis- cretion of the teacher, the notes in the spaces may be introduced, their names being also repeated in the same manner, namely, F in the first space within the staff in the Treble clef; A in the second space within the staff in the Treble clef ; C in the third, &c. ; E in the fourth, &c. The names of the notes in the spaces will be very easily learnt, as the letters combined will be found to spell the little word "Face." The slate should then be left thus : — ;^r«: -on the clef line. BFGABCDEF And the pupil will now, no doubt, feel sufficient interest to conquer any little difficulty that may remain before the next lesson. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 235 The Bass or F Clef— Names of the Notes. — The pupil should be carefully ex- amined in the first and second lessons Before the third is commenced. After which, any notes or letters that may be Left upon the slate must be removed, aiid tbe Bast clef written at the commencement of the staff, thus: — p._£^rri^j: ~ ~ — on the clef line. The pupil must now be shown that the Bass or F clef is placed upon the fourth line of the staff, so that the two little dots are in the third and fourth spaces, and all the notes on that line are called F. The names of the notes upon the five lines, and within the four spaces of the staff in the Bass or F clef must now be taught in a manner exactly similar to that given for those of the Treble in the preceding lesson ; the teacher being particularly careful that the pupil repeats, after each note, the name of the clef. The Bass notes are generally found to be more difficult to leam than those of the Treble ; the principal reason of which is that they are too often attempted before the Treble have been i horoughly mastered ; and years afterwards, when playing, the pupil will frequently mistake an A for ?.n F, or an F for a D. It cannot, therefore, be too fully impressed upon the mind of the teacher, that, even should it take six months to teach a child his notes upon the slate, they are at last really thoroughly learned ; that knowledge will, at a future time, more than compensate both pupil and teacher for the time and patience expended in acquiring it. The slate must now be left thus : — F-3I -on the clef lino. GABCDEFGA and the names of the notes well studied by the pupil before the next lesson. The Ledger-Likes in the Treble Clef. — Another staff may now be drawn with the penknife upon the slate below that one previously used for both clefs, and the Treble clef written at the commencement of the upper staff, and the Bass clef at the commencement of the lower The pupil is now required to write any of the notes already learnt in cither clef, without hesitation, when directed by the teacher; and if this can be done with ease, the pupil mav now be taught the Ledger-lines. When more than nine notes are required, short lines are added above or below the stall", called ledger-lines. The teacher must illustrate this upon the slate, thus :— Ledger linei above. Ledger Hues below; These lines, like those of the staff, are placed at equal distances from each other, and are reckoned, omitting a letter for the space between every two, in the same way. Example in the Treble clef. — Ledger lines above. c ■ ,-t --2---^ on fio 'clef lias. Ledger lines below. The spaces also may be continued above and below the staff, the heads of the notes being placed in the spaces left between the Ledger-lines, thus: — Space* above. on the clef line T B D Spaces belcvr. The Rotes upon the Ledger-lines must now be learnt, and the pupil requested to look upon the slate, and at the note to which the teacher will point, at the same time repeating after him the names of the notes, thus : C on the first line below the staff in the Treble clef; A on the second line below the staff in the Treble clef ; F on the third line below the staff in the Treble clef; the teacher observing that the Treble clef is repeated distinctly each time. The notes on the Ledger-lines above the staff must now be repeated after the teacher also, thus : A on the first line above the staff in the Treble clef; C on the second line above the stall* in the Treble clef ; E on the third lino above the staff in the Treble clef. Then the names of the notes in the spaces above and below the staff in the Treble clef must be learnt, the pupil still looking upon the slate, and repeating after the teacher, thus: D in the-first space below the staff in the Treble clef, &.c. i G in the first space above the FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: staff in the Treble clef, &c. The note3 must now be left upon the slate thus : — Lines below the staff. Lines within the staff. 3 2 1 12 3 4 5 *~Z=Z- Z&Z. •*%• E G B D F Lines above the staff. 1 2 3 Spaces betoto the staff. Spaces within the staff. Spaces above the staff. ' * I 2 3 4 . JL _ C E 5 B D And the pupil must study them perfectly before the next lesson. Of the Ledger-Lines in the Bass Clef. — For the fifth lesson the pupil must be thoroughly examined in all the notes of the Treble clef, both above, tcithin, and below the staff, and each note written upon the slate by the pupil himself, commencing from F on the third line below the staff, to E on the third line above the staff, and the spaces in the same way ; then he should write both linos and spaces consecutively, making the heads of the notes on the lines in the shape of an open oval, and those in the spaces a circular blot, thus : — ? - _ - is: T '-*+- CDEF GAB CDE Then these should he removed from the elate, and the pupil directed to write the notes at all imaginable distances, the names of which he may easily ascertain by counting the intervening lines or spaces. If the teacher finds that these are all now perfectly learnt and understood, he may proceed to teach the pupil the names of the notes in the Bass clef; but, again, it may be well to warn him that, if he commences to teach the Bass notes before those in the Treble hare been thoroughly learned, it will be doubling his own labour, and injuring his pupil, in exactly the same manner as in the directions given for those in the Treble clef; not forgetting, particularly, to observe that the pupil repeats above, within, or below the staff in the Bass clef, after the name of every note. Ledger lines a' ove. i-»- — — P — i\* ■ on the P~— _ clef lin«. 8 "T c E Ledger line* below. Spaces abot*. *-ei^HH?E^ :^TZ1_. on the clclliuo. •b > * Spaces below. Then the Bass notes must be written by the teacher, and left upon the slate thus. — LiiiM below like start'. _3 2 1 l.int s ivilliin tin: suiif Lines above the staff. 1 2 3 *-Dh Spaces belou) Space* mthin Spaces abovt the staff. the staff. tb« staff. 1 3 3 3 2 11 e c 4 ■=p- ^^M And the pupil must commit them to memory before the next lesson. The Notes and their Names in both Bass and Treble Clef. — The teacher will now examine the pupil in the Bass notes taught in the preceding lesson ; after which, the pupil must write each note upon the slate, thus : — D E F G A B C D -**- A BCD A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 237 Ami if. after this, any note called for by the teacher above, urithin, or below the staff in cither clefs C02. be immediately given by the pupil, with its name, 6c., upon the slate, he may next be taught the www of the note*, Of the Six diffkrf.xi Sorts of Notes. — There are six different kinds of notes used in music, which are expressed by adding additional marks to the open oval and the circular blot. They are called the Semi- breve, Minim, Crotchet, Quaver, Semi- quaver, and Dcmisemiquaver, and are made thus (the teacher must now write these six different kinds of notes upon the slate); — Bemibr***. Minim. |" ii 1 ■ " "ro tenet. q a ... ri " — "* Quaver. Semiquaver. 1 )«mieemiquaver. q il rf~ '' « 1 The pupil must now repeat after the teacher the following description of these notes, at the same time pointing to them upon the slate thus : — The semibreve is an open oval ; the minim is an open oval with a stem ; the crotchet is a circular blot with a stem ; the quaver is a circular blot with a stem and a dash; the semiq '■aver is a cir- cular blot with a stem and two dashes ; the demisemiquaver is a circular blot with a stem and three dashes. These ought now to be written several times by the pupil him- self upon the slate, and he may afterwards be told that these notes are of various lengths, and also that the semibreve is the longest note used in music, and the demisemi- quaver the shortest : these he should make at once upon the slate, and will find no difficulty in remembering. The teacher must now show that every one of these notes is equal to two of the next in value, thus — A ■emibreve is equal A mi um is cjual A crotchet is equal A quaver is equal A semiquaver is equal fe to two minims. rn "I — a— to two crotchets. to two quavers. to two semiquavers to two demisemi- quavera. — i 1 1 -4—4— When several notes below the crotchet in value follow in succession, it is not neces- sary to put separate dashes to their stems, but they may be united in groups and the dash continued thus — rg-ifEwri 1 ZMMM44M .^J-.ri!3:S5;--.i:eJ- W The six different kinds of notes, with their names, must again be written upon the slate by the teacher, and left for the pupil to learn before the next lesson. Of the Value of Notes. — The teacher must now carefully explain to the pupil that as the semibreve is equal to two minims, it must also be equal to four crotchets, or eight quavers, or sixteen semiquavers, or thirty-two demisemiquaver s, which must then be written on the slate, thus — 3=£ MzMz*-4-4-*oiz i=g ^^.4^:4lt ^^i.t4^Mjr.4:4:4.4:9.i-M : ictf^ti ] And that the minim also, which is next in value to the semibreve, is equal, not only to two crotchets, but to four quavers, or eight semiquavers, or sixteen demisemi' quavers, thus — ^^^^^SS^^m f-iz--- The crotchet, which is next in value to the minim, is also equal not only to two quavers, but to four semiquavers, or eight demisemi' quavers thus — * 4 3 ^ 3rzfeJzrr ir±aJiMt«jJ:i;fc>:«_»z>-tfr: And the quaver, which is next in value to the crotchet, is also equal, not only to two semiquavers, but to four demisemiquaver* % thus — 2 4 and the semiquaver, which is next in value to the quaver, is equal to two demisemi~ quavers, thus — These must all be left upon the slate, for the pupil to study before the next lesson.* • In order to do which, two additional btaves mu»t b* drawn on the other sida of the tUte. 238 FACTS FOIL EVERYBODY Of the Dotted Notes, and of the Rests. — When a dot is placed after a note, it makes the note half as long again as it would be without it, thus — A dotted semibreve A (Jotted minim A dotted crotchet :^=rzz^-rrdz^z^--rL— =z^jzrrr=.- is equal to three crotchets. is equal to three minims. is equa. to three quavers. rad— d—ri- =£=tst= =*=£=£ A dotted quaver A dotted semiquaver is equal to three semiquavers. is equal to three demi semi quavers. The teacher should inform the pupil that each note has its rest, or silence, of which there are six, named after the six different kinds of notes, and are made thus — (the teacher must now write the six notes, with their respective rests beneath them, upon the elate) — ;5) ___ The pupil must then repeat after the teacher the following description of these rests, at the same time pointing to them upon the slate, thus: — The semibreve rest is a mark placed under a line ; the minim rest is a mark placed above a line; the crotchet rest turns to the right ; the quaver rest turns to the left ; the semiquaver rest has two marks ; the demisemiquaver three. The teacher may now show the pupil that a dot placed after a rest lengthens it in the same manner as U does the note from which it derives its name. This lesson must also be left upon the slate for the pupil to study. Of the Bkace, the Bah, and the Measure, and of Triple and Common Time.— Music for the pianoforte is written upon two staves, which are joined together by a brace, made thus : — m J The upper staff is used for the Treble or G clef, the notes in which are played with the right hand ; and the lower staff for the Bass, or F clef, the notes of which are played with the left hand. Every musical composition is divided into equal portions of time, call measures, by means of upright lines drawn down the staff, called Bars, thus : — Measure. E^==l Every measure must contain a certain number of notes, according to the Time marked at the beginning of the staff. There are two principal sorts of Time; viz. -.—Common or Equal Time ; and Triple, or Unequal Time. Common time is expressed either by the initial letter of the word com- mon, or by the figures f . The former indi- cates that every measure will consist of notes to the value of a semibreve, thus : — 2i§H^! The latter, that every measure will consist of notes to the value of a minim. The upper figure showing how many, and the under figure showing what kinds, of notes the measure should contain. Thus, for example, in the figures f we know, by the under figure being four, that crotchets are to be counted, four crotchets only being equal to a semibreve ; and the upper figure being two shows us that the number of crotchets ?ach measure must contain will be two, thus : — ^k^>,.fH ^i^^gjy^ E^ +5t3-rr — i Triple time is expressed by the figures f, f , and |. By the figures f, we know that every measure must consist of notes to the value of three minims, two minims being equal to a semibreve, and the upper figure showing that three are to be counted, thus : — ^:gjy £r^^g By the figures | we know that every measure must consist of notes to the value of three crotchets, four crotchets being equal to a semibreve, thus : — 553 Jrirrrrn s*^=i=H A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 239 And by the figures f we know that every measure* must consist of notes to the ralue of three quavers, tight quavers being equal to a sent ibr eve, thus : — iSilp^pplI The pupil may now practice by filling up the measure with notfs of a proper length himself, while the teacher looks on. In these ten short and simple lessons we have endeavoured to render the rudiments of music as easy to the pupil as possible ; and must now 'leave him entirely to the care of his teacher, who may begin at once to point out to him the different notes upon the piano, with their Sharps and Flats, &c But we cannot conclude these remarks with out strongly advising that no time, however simple, be taught the pupil for the first tieelve months at least, but that his practice should be entirely confined to scales and exercises ; great care being taken (especially at the commencement) by the teacher to form the proper position of the hand, without which, although the pupil may have much natural taste for the art, he will never be able to arrive at any degree of perfection in his execution. [We have to acknowledge our obligations for this valuable article to that universal favourite "The Home Circle."] KNIFE-BOARD (TO MAKE A COM- MON). Cover with thick buff' leather, on which are put emery one part, crocus martis three parts, in very fine powder, mixed into a thick paste, with a little lard or sweet-oil, and spread on the leather to the thickness of a shilling. This gives a superior edge and polish to knives, and will not wear the knife near so much as the common method of using brick-dust on a board. WATER LOUSE. A small creature of great activity, in most waters, shaped like the engraving. PLANTS (WATER FOR). It is well known that rain-water is far better than spring-water for promoting the growth of plants; this is from the former containing that which is a necessary ingredient in their formation — namely, ammonia — and which is abundant in liquid manure. The efficacy of this may be soon developed by sprinkling one-half o*f a grass-plot with spring- water, and the other half with water in which pounded corbonatc of ammonia (about one ounce to the gallon) has been dissolved; the former will keep it alive, but the latter will give it vigour and luxuriance. PRESERVES (COVERING FOR). The material used by the trade for covering preserves (instead of bladder), is made by brushing over sheets of paper, of the thick- ness and strength required, with linseed oil which has been previously boiled. The sheets must be hung upon a string, and he thoroughly dried before using. This material is sometimes used (a strong paper being selected) to cover tulip shades, and as a substitute for glass in workshop windows. PAPYRUS. A reedy grass, on which the ancients wrote. CANDLES (HOW TO MAKE GOOD). Candle-wick, if steeped in lime and saltpetre, and dried in the 6un, will give a clear light, and be little apt to run. Good candles may be made thus : melt together ten ounces of mutton tallow, a quarter of an ounce of camphor, four ounces of beeswax, and two ounces of alum; then run it into moulds, or dip the candles. These candles furnish a beautiful light. INDIAN-INK. Indian-ink, equal in quality to that imported from China, may be made by holding a plate over the flame of a lamp or candle so as to receive the fine soot, and mixing this with size made from parch- ment or uncoloured leather. The Indian- ink is made from fine lamp-black and size, with the addition of a little perfume, whish latter is by no means essential to its quality. 240 FACTS FOR EYEKYISODT SAP (THE). The sap of trees maybe obtained, by wounding a branch, or stem, in spring, just before the buds open ; or in the end of autumn, though less copiously, after a slight frost, yet not during the frost. It has always been observed to flow from the young wood, or alburnum, of our trees not from the bark. A branch of the vine, cut through, will yield about a pint of this fluid, in the course of twenty-four hours. The birch also affords much sap. It flows equally upward and downward, from a wound. This great motion, called the flowing of the sap, which is to be detected principally in the spring, and slightly in the autumn, is, therefore, totally distinct from that con- stant propulsion of it going on in every growing plant. Thisflowing of the sap has been thought to demonstrate a circulation ; because, there being no leaves at the time to carry it off by perspiration, it is evident that, if it were at these periods running up the sap vessels, it must run down again by other channels. But as soon as the leaves expand, its motion is no longer to be detected. The effusion of sap from plants, when cut or wounded, is, during the greater part of the year, com- paratively very small. It is thought, there- fore, that this flowing of the sap is nothing moi-e than a facility of the sap to run, owing to the peculiar irritability of the vegetable body at that period ; and that it runs only when a wound is made — being naturally at rest till the leaves open and admit of its proper and regular conveyance. As soon as the leaves expand, insensible perspiration takes place, very copiously, chiefly from those organs : but also, m some degree, from the bark of the young stem and branches. The perspiration of some plants is very great. The large annual sun- flower is said to perspire about seventeen times as as fast the ordinary perspiration of the human skin. The sap, in its passage through the leaves and bark, becomes quite a new fluid, pos- sessing the peculiar flavour and qualities of the plant; and not only yielding woody matter for the increase of the vegetable body, but furnishing various secreted substances more or less numerous and different among themselves. These, accordingly, are chiefly found in the bark. In herbaceous plants, the stems of which are only of annual du- ration, the perennial roots frequently con- tain these fluids in the most perfect state ; nor are they, in such, confined to the bark, but deposited throughout the substance, or wood, of the root, as in rhubarb and gentian. Gum, or mucilage, a viscid substance, of little flavour or smell, and soluble in water, is a very common secretion. When super- abundant, it exudes from many trees, in the form of large drops, as in the plum, cherry, and peach trees, and different species of the mimosa, or sensitive plants, one of which yields the gum arabic, others the gum Sene- gal, &c. Resin is a substance soluble in spirits, as the turpentine of the fir and juniper. Mo.st vegetable exudations partake of a nature between resin and mucilage, being partly soluble in water, partly in spirits ; and are therefore called gum-resins. The more re- fined and volatile secretions, of a resinous nature, are called essential oils ; and are often highly aromatic and odoriferous. One of the most exquisite of these is afforded by the cinnamon bark. They exist in the highest perfection in the perfumed effluvia of flowers, some of which, capable of combi- nation with spirituous fluids, are obtainable by distillation, as those of the lavender and rose. Acid secretions are well known to be very general in plants. The astringent principle is a species of acid ; it may be derived from various sources — for instance the tanning from the oak, willow, &c. An acid is found united with even the sugar in the sugar cane. Sugar, more or less pure, is very generally found in plants. It abounds in various roots, as the carrot, beet, and parsnip; and in many plants of the grass or cane kind, be- sides the famous sugar cane. It is curious to observe not only the various secretions of different plants, by which they differ from each other in taste, smell, quali- ties, and medical virtues, but also their great number and striking difference, frequently in the same plant. Of this, the peach tree affords a familiar example. The gum of this tree is mild and mucilaginous : the bark, leaves, and flowers abound with a bitter se- cretion, than which nothing can be more distinct from the gum. The fruit is replete, not only with acid, mucilage, and sugar, but with its own peculiar aromatic and highly volatile secretion, on which its fine flavour depends. How far are we yet from understanding the vegetable body, which can form, and keep separate, such distinct and discordant substances ! The odour of plants is, unquestionably, a volatile, essential oil. Its general nature is evinced by its ready union with spirits or oil, not with water. To all the foregoing secretions of vegeta- bles may be added those on which their various colours depend. We can but imper- A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 241 fectly account for the green, ro universal in their herbage; butwe may gratefully acknow- ledge the benefit en< e of the Creator, in cloth- ing the earth with a colour the most pleasing, and the least fatiguing to the eye. We may be dazzled with the brilliancy of a flower garden, hut our eyes repose at leisure on the verdure of a grove or meadow. DRESSES (TO PRESERVE COLOURS OF). The colours of merinos, mousscline- de-laincs, ginghams, chintzes, printed lawns, &c, may be preserved by using water that is only milk- warm ; making a lather with white soap, before you put in the dress, in- stead of rubbing it on the material; and stirring into a first and second tub of water a large tablespoonful of ox-gall. The gall can he obtained from the butcher, and a bottle of it should always be kept in every house. No coloured articles should be al- lowed to remain long in the water. They must be washed fast, and then rinsed through two cold waters. Into each rinsing water, stir a tcaspoonful of vinegar, which will help to brigmen the colours ; and after rinsing, hang them out. immediately. "When ironing- dry (or still a little damp), bring them in ; have irons ready heated, and iron them at once, as it injures the colours to allow them to remain damp too long, or to sprinkle and roll them up in a covering for ironing next iay. If they cannot be conveniently ironed immediately, let them hang till they are quite dry ; and then damp and fold them on the ■ following day, a quarter of an hour be- fore ironing. The best way is not to do coloured dresses on the day of the general wash, but to give them a morning by them- selves. They should only be undertaken in clear bright weather. If allowed to freeze, the colours will be irreparably injured. We need scarcely say that no coloured articles should ever be boiled or scalded. If you get from a shop a slip for testing the durability of colours, give it a fair trial by washing it as above; afterwards, pinning it to the edge of a towel, and hanging it to dry. Some colours, (especially pinks and light greens,) though they may stand perfectly well in washing, will change as soon as a warm iron is applied to them ; the pink turning purplish, and the green bluish. No coloured articles should be smoothed with a hot iron. WOOD (TO GIVE A FINE BLACK COLOUR TO). Steep the wood for two or three days in luke-warm water, in which a little alum has been dissolved; then put a handful of logwood, cut small, into a pint of water, and boil it down to less than naif a pint. If you then add a little indigo, the colour will be more beautiful. Spread a layer of (his liquor qujte hot on your wood, with a pencil, which will give it a violet colour. When it is drvj spread on another layer; dry it again, and giv e it a third ; then ho'il verdigris at discretion, in its own vine- gar, and spread a layer of it on the wood; when it is dry, rub it with a brush, and then with oiled chamois skin. This gives a fine black, and imitates perfectly the colour of ebony. GLASS OR CHINA (TO PACK). Pro- cure some soft straw or hay to pack them in, and if they are to be sent a long way, and are heavy, the hay or straw should be a little damp, which will prevent them slip- ping about. Let the largest and heaviest things be always put undermost, in the box or hamper. Let there be plenty of straw, and pack the articles tight; but never at- tempt to pack up glass or china which is of much consequence till it hashecn seen done by some one used to the job. The expense will be but trifling to have a person to do it who understands it, and the loss may be great if articles of such value are packed up in an improper manner. SHELLS (TO POLISH). This may be done by either hand-labcur or by varnishing; in both cases all the rough parts must be well rubbed down with emery and water. If they are to be polished by hand (which is the best and most lasting way), after they have received two or three courses of emery, of different degrees of fineness, they must do finished with buff-leather, dressed with rot- ten stone and oil. PASTE. Good and durable paste maybe made with flour in the usual way, but rather thick, with a proportion of brown sugar and a small quantity of corrosive sublimate. The sugar keeps it flexible, and prevents it scaling off from smooth surfaces, and the corrosive sublimate, independently from pre- serving it from insects, is an effectual check against its fermentation. This salt, how- ever, does not prevent the formation of mouldiness ; but a drop or two of the essen- tial oil of lavender, peppermint, anise, or bergamot, is a complete security against it. Paste made in this manner and exposed to the air, dries without change to a state re- sembling horn, so that it may at any time be wetted again, and applied to use ; and if kept in a close covered pot may be preserved in a state fit for use at all times. POLISHED IRON (TO PRESERVE). Polished ironwork may be preserved from rust by a mixture not very expensive, con- sisting of copal varnish intimately mixed with as much olive oil as will give it a degree 242 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: of greasiness, adding thereto nearly as much spirit of turpentine a^of varnish. The cast- iron work is best preserved hy rubbing it with blacklead. But where rust has begun to make its appearance on grates or fire- irons, apply a mixture of tripoli with half its quantity of sulphur, intimately mingled on a marble slab, and laid on with a piece of soft leather- or emery and oil may be ap- plied, with excellent effect; not laid on in the usual slovenly way, but with a spongy piece of the fig-tree fully saturated with the mixture. This will not only clean but po- lish, and render the use of whiting un- necessary. S fEEL-YARD. An instrument depend- ing on the principle that equal multiples of matter and motion produce equal momenta; so that a lever revolving at the centre D, 2 3 4 S & and moving a body at one inch from the centre equal to six pounds, will be balanced by another body of one pound at six inches from D. STICKING-PLASTER. Take half an ounce of benzoin, and six ounces of rectified spirit, dissolve and strain; then take one ounce of isinglass, and half a pint of hot •water; dissolve and strain apart from the former. Mix the two, and cool. This jelly is to be brushed ten or twelve times over black silk, stretched smooth. Dry, and finish with a solution of four ounces of chian turpentine, in six ounces of tincture of benzoin. SALAMANDER. A species of lizard of deep black and orange colours, and perfectly harmless. Superstition ascribed to it the power of resisting fire. FURNITURE-POLISH. Melt beeswax in spirits of turpentine, with a very small proportion of resin. When it is entirely dissolved, dip in it a sponge, and wash the mahogany lightly over with it. Imme- diately afterwards, rub it off with a clean soft cloth. For carved furniture, spread the mixture on with a small soft brush, and rub it off with another brush, a very little harder. OURANG-OUTANG. An ape without a tail, like a dwarf man, but without organs of speech, or muscles for laughter. PORCELAIN OR GLASS-WARE (TO CLEAN). The best material for this pur- pose is fuller' s-ear tli ; but it must be beaten into a fine powder, and carefully cleared from all rough or hard particles, which might endanger the polish of the brilliant surface. In cleaning porcelain it must also be observed that some species require more care and attention than others, as china- ware in common use frequently loses some of its colours. The red, especially of ver- milion, is the first to go, because that colour, together with some others, is laid on by the Chinese after burning. ROSES (TO RESTORE FADED). Throw some sulphur on a chafingdish of hot coal, hold a faded rose over the flames of the hot sulphur, and it will become quite white ; in, this state dip it into water; put it into a box or drawer for three or four hours; when taken out it will be quite red again. PLIERS. An instrument, or double lever, the fulcrum of which is at the centre, and it enables watchmakers and other artisans to take firm hold of any small objects. A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 243 SEPTEMBER is literally the seventh month of the year according to the ancient Roman calendar, as established by Romulus, but the ninth of Nunia's year * It derives its name from Septan, seven, and intier, a shower of rain, as this is generally the com- mencement of the rainy season. The Senate of Rome would have. named it Tiberius, in honour of that emperor, but he rejected the compliment. Domitian called it Ger- manicus. It was also named Antoninus in honour of Antoninus Pius; and Commodus called it Herculeus; but the name of Sep- tember, though improper if we consider its {dace in the number of months, has out- ived every other appellation. Originally the month had only sixteen days assigned to it in the old Alban calendar ; but they were increased to thirty by Romulus, and to thirty-one by Julius Cwsar, while Augustus reduced the number of days to thirty, as they exist at the present time. Our Saxon ancestors called this month Gerst Monath. Verstegan informs us that the reason it was thus called was, "that barley, which that monath commonly yeelded, was antiently called gerst, the name of barley being given unto it by reason of the drinke therewith made, called beere, and from bcerlegh it came to be berlegh, and from berlegh to barley. So, in like manner, beere h eg m — to wit, the over- decking or covering of beere — came to be her ham, and afterwards barme, having since gotten I wot not how many names be- sides. This excellent and healthsome liquor, beere, antiently also catled ael, as of the Danes it yet is (beere and ale being in effect all one), was first of the Germans in- vented and brought into use." The Synonymes of the month are — in Latin, September; French, Septembre ; ltalian,Settembre;andPoTtugvieae,Setembr(>. This month is allegorically represented as a young man dressed in "purple, with a wreath of white and purple grapes upon his head, and with a merry countenance. Under his left arm he holds a bundle of oats, and in his right-hand a cornucopia of the ripe fruits of the season. The sign of Libra, the balance, on his right, is sym- bolical of the sun entering that constellation on the 23rd of the month. *On Monday, the 5th day of September, 1774, there were assembled at Carpenter's Hall, In the city of Philadelphia, a number of men who liad been chosen and appointed by the several colonies in North America to hold a Congress For the purpose of discussing cer- tain grievances imputed against the mother country. This Congress resolved, on the next day, that each colony should have one vote only. On Tuesday, the 2d July, 177G, the Congress resolved, " That these United Colo- nies are and of right ought to be free and in- dependent States," etc., and on Thursday, the 4th of July, the whole Declaration of Inde- pendence having been agreed upon, it was publicly read to the people. Shortly after, on the 9th of September, it was resolved that the words " United Colonies" should be no longer used, and that the " United States ok America/' should thenceforward be the style and title of the Union. On Saturday, the 15th November, 1777, " Articles of Con- federation and Perpetual Union of the United States of America" were agreed to by the State delegates, subject to the ratification of the State legislatures severally. Eight of the States ratified these articles on the 9th July, 1778 ; one on the 21st July ; one on the 24th July ; one on the 2Gth November of the same year ; one ou the 22d February, 1779 ; and the last one on the 1st March, 1781. Here was a bond of union between thirteen iude- {>endent States, whose delegates in Congress egislated for the general welfare, and execu- ted certain powers, so far as they were per- mitted by the articles aforesaid. The follow- ing are the names of the Presidents of the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1788. Peyton Randolph, Virginia, 5th September, 1774. Henry Middleton, South Carolina, 22d October, 1774. Peyton Randolph, Virginia, 10th May, 1775. John Hancock, Massachusetts, 24th May, 1776. Henry Laurens, South Carolina, 1st No- vember, 1777. John Jay, New York, 10th December, 1778. Samuel Huntingdon, Connecticut, 28th September, 1779. Thomas McKean, Delaware, 10th July, 1781. John Hanson, Maryland, 5th November, 1781. from Wells' " Illcstratbd National Handbook. New York: J. G. Wells. Price 50 Cts. 244 FACTS POit EVERYBODY! Elias Boudinot, New Jersey, 4th Novem ber, 1732. Thomas Mifflin, Pennsylvania, 3d Novem- ber, 1783. Richard Henry Loe, Virginia, 30th Novem- ber, 1784. Nathaniel Gorham, Massachusetts, 6th Jan- uary, 1786. Arthur St. Clair, Pennsylvania, 2d Febru- ary, 1787. Cyrus Griffin, Virginia, 22d January, 1788. The seat of government was established as follows : At Philadelphia, Pa., commencing Septem- ber 5, 1774 and May 10, 1775. At Baltimore, Md., December 20, 1776. At Philadelphia, Pa., March 4, 1777. At Lancaster, Pa, September 27, 1777. At York, Pa., September 30, 1777. At Philadelphia, Pa., July 2, 1778. At Princeton, N. J., June 30, 1783. At Annapolis, Md., November 26, 1783. At Trenton, N. J., November 1, 1784. At New York, N. Y., Jan. 11, 1785. The Constitution was adopted on the 17th of September, 1787, by the Convention ap- pointed in pursuance of the resolution of the Congress of the Confederation, of the 21st of February, 1787, aud ratified by the conven- tions of the several States as follows : By convention of Delaware, 7th December, 1787. By convention of Pennsylvania, 12th De- cember, 1787. By convention of New Jersey, 18th Decem- ber, 1787. By convention of Georgia, 2d January, 1< 88. By convention of Connecticut, 9th Janu- ary, 1788. By convention of Massachusetts, 6th Feb- ruary, 1788. By convention of Maryland, 28th April, 1788. By convention of South Carolina, 23d May, 1788. By convention of New Hampshire, 21st Juue, 1788. By convention of Virginia, 26th June, 1788. By convention of New York, 26th July, 1788. ' By convention of North Carolina, 21st No- vember, 1789. By convention of Rhode Island, 29th May, 1790. The first ten of the amendments to the United States Constitution were proposed on the 25th day of September, in the year 1789, and ratified by the constitutional number of States on the 15th of December, 1797. The eleventh amendment was proposed on the 8th of January, 1798, and the twelfth on the 25th of September, 1804. OCTOBER was the eighth month of Romulus' s year, as the name implies, being derived from Octo, eight, and imber, a shower of rain ; but in the calendar of Numa, and of Julius Caesar, it was classed as the tenth month of the calendar, as at the present time. The Senate of Rome gave this month the name of Faustinus, in compliment to Faustina, the wife of the Emperor Antoninus ; and Domitian called it after himself; but, in spite of all attempts to alter the name, it has continued to pre- serve the one originally given by the old Romans. The number of its days, in the time of Romulus, was the same as at pre- sent. Numa Pompilius reduced them to twenty-nine ; but Julius and Augustus Ctesar each added one day, so that the original u umber of days was restored, and has not been altered since. Among our Saxon ancestors this month was called Wyn Monath, or wine month, wyn signifying wine ; and Verstegan ob- serves: — ''Albeit they had not antiently wines made in Germany, yet in this season had they them from divers countries adjoin- ing." They also called it Winter fulleth, or fylleth, from the approach of winter. Synonymes. — In Latin, October ; in French, Octobre; in Italian, Ottobre; and in Portuguese, Outubro. The Symbol, or Allegory of the month is * young man, dressed in a garment of carna- tion and yellow, indicative of the hue of the trees at this season ; his head is decorated with a garland of acorns and oak-leaves, and his face "Full of merry glee, For yet his noule was fotty of the must, "Which he was treading, in the wine-fat's lec, And of the joyous <>yle, whose gentle gust Made him so frollick." In his right-hand he held a basket of medlars, chesnuts, mushrooms, and other fruits, "ripe and rare;" while in his left A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 245 hand ho grasped the sign Scorpio, tho Bcor.iion, symbolical of the buii entering that constellation on the 23rd of the month. On the 17th day of October, 1777, Bar- goyne, finding himself surrounded, and de- spairing of recieving reinforcements, Barren* dered his army to (Jeneral dates, who had shortly prior been appointed to the command of the Northern division, whereby the Amer- ican army came into the possession of a fine train of brass artillery, 5,(100 muskets, and Immense quantities of other munitions of war. 6th. Faith. — This name, in tho Church of England calendar, was given in honour of a female at Aquitaine, who was put to death under Dai ian. She was the titular Mint of several churches in France, parti- cularly that of Longueville, in Normandy, which was erected by Walter Giffard, Earl of Buckingham. 9;h. St. Dcmjs, or Denis, is the patron saint of France," and the legend informs us, that lie was beheaded, with some other martyrs, in the year 272, upon an eminence in the neighbourhood of Paris, since called Mons Marty rum (MontmartreJ , in honour of them. 11th. Old Michaclmas'day. — A custom formerly prevailed in Hertfordshire for young men to assemble in tho fields, and choose a leader, whom they were obliged to follow through fields and ditches. This occurred every seven years, and every pub- lican then supplied a gallon of ale and a ganging cake— -a plum cake — so called from the day being termed a ganging-day. 17th. St. Ethel drcda was the daughter of Annas, king of the East Angles, and born about 630, at Ixning, formerly a noted town on the western border of Suffolk. Having taken the veil, she ultimately be- came an abbess, and acquired celebrity for having saved herself and nuns from the outrage of the Danes by mutilating their faces, which so exasperated the Danes, that they fired the convent, and destroyed its inniatcs. 18th. St. Luke.— This festival was ap- pointed in the twelfth century, in honour of the Evangelist. He is said' to have died about the year 70, at the age of eighty-four, having written his gospel when seventy-six years of age. 20th. On this day, in 1632, was bcrn the celebrated architect, Sir Christopher WreW. He was the son of the Dean of Windsor, and first drew his breath at East Knoyle, in Wiltshire, llis mathematical talents were precociously manifested; and at the age of fifteen ho wrote "A New System of Spherical Trigonometry ;" but it was in 1663 that his architectural genius was first called into action, when he was commissioned to prepare designs for tho restoration of St. Paul's cathedral, the building of which was begun in 1675. Besides this magnificent pile he erected tho hospitals at Chelsea and Greenwich, various public edifices, and about sixty churches. He died in 1723. 26th. St. Crispin.— Formerly St. Cris- pinian's name was coupled with St. Cris- pin's, but it has long been disjoined from it. These two saints are said to have been two Roman youths of good birth, brothers, who in the third century went as Christian mis- sionaries to France, and preached for a long time at Soissons. In imitation of St. Paul, they supported themselves by working at the trade of a shoemaker by night, while they preached during the day. 28tb. St. Simon and St. Jude is a festival of the English Church. Simon is said to have suffered martyrdom in Britain. St. Jude, also called Thaddeus, suffered mar- tyrdom in Persia. 29th. On this day was beheaded the illustrious navigator and historian, Sir Walter Raleigh. He was born at 11 ud- leigh, in Devonshire, and did eminent service for Queen Elizabeth, particularly in his discovery of Virginia, and in the defeat of the Spanish Armada ; but on the acces- sion of James I. he lost his interest at Court, was stripped of his preferments, un- justly accused of high treason, tried, con- demned, and executed on the 29th October, 1618. The grand work which has esta- blished his fame is "The History of the World," to the end of the Macedonian Empire, B.C. 323. 31st. All-hallow Even, or Hallow E'en, is the great festival of the month, and is tho vigil of All-Saints' -day. Many curious customs are connected with this day. Burns informs us, in a note to his poem on "Hallow E'en," that "the first ceremony of the festival is pulling each a stock or plant of kail. They must go out, hand in hand, with eyes shut, and pull the first they meet with; its being big or little, straight or crooked, is prophetic of the size and shape of the grand object of all their spells — the husband or wife. If any yird, or earth, stick to the root, that is tocher, or fortune ; and the taste of the custoe, that is, the heart of the stem, is indicative of the natu- ral temper and disposition. Lastly, the stems, or, to give them their ordinary ap- pellation, the runts, are placed somewhere above thi head of the door ; and the Chris- 240 PACTS for everybody: tian names of the people whom chance brings into the house are, according to the priority of placing the runts, the names in question." FLOWER (THE). The flower consists of several parts. The calyx, or flower cup, forms the ex- ternal integument which protects the bud before it expands : it consists of several parts, called sepales, resembling small leaves, both in form and colour. These sepales are, in general, more or less soldered together ; sometimes so completely as to form a cup apparently of one piece. Above and wit bin the calyx rises the corolla, which is tbe coloured" part of the flower. It is composed of several petals, either separate or cohering, so as to form a corolla of one single piece : in the latter case, the flower is called monopetalous. When the petals first burst from the calyx, and expand in all their beauty, they still serve to protect the central parts of the flower. They are at first curved inwards, forming a concavity around the delicate organs which occupy the centre. This not only shelters them from external inj ury, but reflects the sun's rays upon them, like a concave mirror; thus rearing them, as it were, in a hot-house. When these parts are full grown, the arti- ficial heat being no longer necsssar)', aud the admission of light and air being not only safe but advantageous, the petals ex- pand ; leaving the internal organs exposed to the free agency of these elements. At the base of the petals is generally situated an organ, called the nectary. This is the store whence the bee derives honey. The most important parts of the flower are those organs which occupy the centre. It is here that the seed which is to propa- gate the plant is lodged, in a vessel called the ovary, or seed-vessel. From its summit rises a little threadlike stalk, called a style ; which, at its extremity, supports a small, spongy substance, denominated the stigma. These three parts form a whole, which bears the name of carpel. Immediately surrounding the pistils are situated the stamens; each of which consists of a slender filament, supporting a little bag, or case, called an anther, filled with pollen, which is a species of dust or powder. The anthers, when ripe, burst; and, being more elevated than the stigma, shed their pollen upon it ; Avithout which no seed can be per- fected. In some vegetables the stamens are in one flower and the pistils in another ; in others, the stamens and pistils are upon separate plants. In these cases the pollen is con- veyed from the one to the other by means of the wind, or by winged insects, which, in penetrating, by means of their long and pliant proboscis, within the recesses of the corolla, in order to obtain the nectar, cover their downy wings with the pollen. This unheeded burden they convey to the next flower on which they alight ; and in working their way to the nectary, it is rubbed off and falls on the stigma. Every insect, however ephemeral, every weed, however insigni- ficant, ha3 its part assigned in the great system of the universe. In Persia, very few of the palm and date trees, under cultivation, have stamens, those having pistils being preferred, as alone yielding fruit. In the season of flowering, the peasants gather branches of the wild palm trees, whose blossoms contain stamens, and spread them over those which are cul- tivated, so that the pollen comes in contact with the pistils, and fertilizes the flower. There were two remarkable palm-trees in Italy. The one, situated at Otranto, had no stamens; the other, at Brindisi, which is about forty miles distant, had no pistils; consequently, neither of those trees bore seed. But when, after the growth of many years, they not only rose superior to all the trees of the neighbouring forests, but over- topped all the buildings which intervened, the pollen of the palm-tree at Brindisi was wafted by the wind to the pistils of that of Otranto ; and, to the astonishment of every one, the latter bore fruit. SEED. The seed, from which the future plant proceeds, is the sole end and aim of all the parts of fructification. It consists of c-everal parts, the most essential of which is the embryo, or germen, called by Linnieus, co) culum, whence the life and organization of the future plant originate. The -cotyledons, or seed lobes, are imme- diately attached to the embryo, of which they form, properly speaking, a part. They are commonly two in number, and, when the seed has sufficiently established its root, generally rise out of the ground, and form a kind of leaves. Hilum, the scar, is the point by which the seed is attached to its seed-vessel, or receptacle, and through which alone nourishment is imparted for the per- fecting of its internal parts ; it is also the point through which the radical is protruded in the first stage of germination. There is no part of the vegetable kingdom which offers so many striking proofs of ad- mirable contrivance as the seed. The care which Providence has bestowed upon it is astonishing. Independently of the innumerable means A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE* 247 which are adopted for maturing and pro- tecting tlu> organs on which the production of the Med depends, and which ferna part of the system of provision for perfecting it— Independently, too, of the countless con- trivances, some highly artificial, for the imme.liate purpose of perfecting it, — the mode in which this organ is preserved after it is matured evinces consummate care and wisdom. Sometimes it is packed up in a capsule, a vessel composed of tough and strong coats ; sometimes, as in stone-fruits and nuts, it is closed in a strong shell, which again is enclosed in a pulp ; sometimes, as in grapes and berries, it is plumped overhead in a glutinous syrup, contained within a skin or bladder ; at other times, as in applet and pears, it is embedded in the heart of a firm fleshy substance ; or, as in strawberries, pricked into the surface of a soft pulp. These and many other varieties exist in what are called fruits. In pulse, and grain, and grasses, — in trees, and shrubs and flowers, — the variety of seed-vessels is incomputable. "We have' the seeds, as in the pea tribe, regularly disposed in parchment pods, which completely exclude the wet ; the pod also, not seldom, as in the bean, lined with a fine down distended like a blown bladder; or we have the seed enveloped in wool, as in the cotton-plant ; lodged, as in pines, between the hard and compact scales of a cone ; or, barricadoed, as in the artichoke and thistle, with spikes and prickles; in mushrooms, placed under a penthouse ; in ferns, within slits in the back part of the leaf; or, which is the most general organization of all, we find them covered by a strong close tunicle, and attached to the stem, according to an order appropriated to each plant, as is seen in several kinds of grain and of grasses. Equally numerous and admirable are the contrivances for dispersing seeds Who has not listened, in a calm and sunny day, to the crackling of furze-hushes, caused by the ex- plosion of their little elastic pods, or watched the down of innumerable se^ds floating on the summer breeze, till they are overtaken by a shower, which, moistening their wings, stops their further flight, aud at the same time accomplishes its tinal purpose, by im- mediately promoting the germination 01 each seed in the moist earth ? How little are children aware, as they hlow away the seeds of the dandelion, or stick burs in sport on each other's clothes, that they are fulfilling one of the great ends of nature. The awns of grasses answer the same end. Pulpy fruits serve quadrupeds and birds as food, while their seeds, often small, hard. and indigestible, pass uninjured through the intestines, and are deposited, far from their original place of growth, in a condition per- fectly fit for vegetation. liven such seeds as are themselves eaten, like the various sorts of nuts, are hoarded up in the ground, and occasionally forgotten, or carried to a distance, and in part only devoured. The ocean itself serves to waft the larger kind of seeds from their native soil to far distant shores. LITHOGRAPHIC STONES (TO PACK). The accompanying figure will explain this more readily than any description. A and B represent two stones secured in a box, C, I), E, F, by slips of wood, c, d, e, f, which are screwed to the sides of the box. The stone B is placed in the box with its face upwards, then the slips of wood (c, d,) screwed in, and then the next stone (A) face upwards, and lastly the slips (/, The men are divided into seven- j3 teen geese and one fox, the latter of which is distinguished by its size and colour. The men may be cut out of a piece of wood, and should be somewhat like the an- nexed figure and size. They may be turned for a few pence." Instead of having a wooden board, the above figure may be drawn upon a piece of cardboard, 1,111 and chequer or draught-men used instead of the others, distinguish- ing the fox by placing one man above the other, the same as a king in draughts. Sometimes this game is played with sixteen men instead * of eighteen— viz. fifteen geese and one fox. "When about to play, arrange the fox in >ard, the centre of the board, as indicated by the square black mark, and the geese at the stations or points marked thus ■ — 9 ; if seventeen men are used, the two extra geese must be placed in the two blank points — O. I brush (a hogs-bristle brush) lay it all over The fox can move both ways, either backwards or forwards ; the geese can only move forward, in the direction of the right lines ; but they cannot pass over two spots at one time. The object of the game is, for the geese to pen up the fox so that he cannot move, and for the fox to reduce the number of the geese by taking as many as he can, which he does by jumping over every one that has a point or hole before or behind him that is not filled up. The geese cannot take the fox if he stands close to them ; but the fox may always take the geese, provided there is a blank point before or behind it, as described above. Neither fox or geese can move more than from one point to another at a time, unless previously agreed upon, and they must always keep along the line. If a skilful player has the geese, the fox is almost sure to be penned up, and there- fore the fox should not be too hasty in his moves. GLASS (TO JOIN). Melt a little isin- glass in spirits of wine, and add a small quantity of water. "Warm the mixture gently over a moderate fire. When mixed, by thoroughly melting it will form glue per- fectly transparent, and which will reunite broken glass so nicely and firmly that the joining will scarcely be perceptible to the most critical eye. Lime mixed with the white of an egg forms a very strong cement for glass, porcelain, &c, but it must be done neatly, as, when hard, the superfluous part cannot easily be smoothed or taken off. FEATHERS (TO DYE BLUE.) The feathers must be first well washed in soap and water, then exposed to the air for several days. Lastly, after being well rinsed in pure warm water, they must be dipped in hot alum-water. A solution of indigo composition, commonly called chemic blue, having been prepared, the feathers are to be dipped therein. The immersion in alum-water, and in the dye-water, to be alternately performed till the requisite shade is obtained. VARNISH (TO COLOUR BASKETS AND OLD STRAW HATS.) Take either red or black sealing-wax ; to every two ounces of sealing wax add one ounce of rec- tified spirits of wine ; pound the wax fine, then sift it through a fine lawn sieve till you have made it extremely fine ; put it into a large phial with the spirits of wine ; shake it ; let it stand near the fire forty- eight hours, shaking it often ; then with a A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 249 the baskets. Let it dry, and repeat the ap- plication a second time. BRONZING. Rronse of a good colour acquires by oxidation a tine green tint, called path/a antiqtta. Corinthian brass receives in this way a beautiful clear green colour. This appearance is imitated by an artificial process called bronzing. A solution of sal-ammoniac and salt of sorrel in vine- gar is used for bronzing metals. Any number of layers may be applied, and the lliade becomes deeper in proportion to the number applied. For bronzing sculptures of wood, plaster-figures, &c, a composition of yellow ochre, Prussian blue, and lamp- black, dissolved in glue-water, is employed. SHUTTLE. A piece of wood which in weaving passes a cross thread through the wrap. GLUE (RICE). Mix together rice-flour and cold water to a thick paste, pressing out all the lumps with a spoon, and making it verv smooth. Then dilute it with a little more "water (altogether, you may allow a gill of water to a tablespoonful of rice-flour), and boil it slowly as long as you would boil starch, stirring it frequently. When done, set it to cool. Use it for pasting fine paper, and for any little ornamental articles made of pasteboard. It is a very nice and durable cement. The water in which rice has been boiled for the table will afford a cement for slight purposes. LIFE AND DEATH AVERAGE. In Turkey, the deaths are to the population as 1 in 30. In Prussia, 1 in 39. In Portugal, 1 in 40. In Spaiu, 1 in 40. In Switzerland, 1 in 40. In Austria, 1 in 40. In Norway, 1 in 41. In Sweden, 1 in 41. In France, 1 in 42. In Belgium, 1 in 43. In Russia, (Europe), 1 in 44. In Denmark, 1 in 45. In "England, 1 in 46. In the United States, 1 in 74. In Lower Canada, 1 in 92. In Upper Canada, 1 in 102. CONSUMPTION OF TEA AND COFFEE. The number of pounds of tea and coffee au- nually consumed by the inhabitants of the world is estimated to be 80,000,000. FRUIT (TO RACK FOR CARRIAGE). If fruit is to be sent to any considerable distance, great care should be taken in packing it: it should net be done in baskets, as they are liable to be bruised among heavy luggage, and the fruit of course will be im- paired. Forsyth, therefore, recommends boxes made of strong deal, of different sizes, according to the quantity of fruit to be packed. In packing, proceed thus :— First put a layer of fine, long, dry moss in the bottom of the tin box, then a layer of cur- rants or cherries, then another layer of moss, and so on alternately fruit and moss, until the box is so full that when the lid is hasped down the fruit may be so firmly packed as to preserve them from friction. Then make a layer of tine moss and short, soft, dry grass, well mixed, in the bottom of the deal box; pack in the melons with some of the same, tight in between all the rows, and also between the melons in the same row, till the layer is finished ; choosing the fruit as nearly of a size as possible, filling up every interstice with the moss and grass. When the melons are packed, put a thin, layer of moss and grass over them, upon which place the tin box with the currants, packing it firmly all round with moss to {>revent it from shaking ; then put a thin aver of moss over the box, and pack the pears firmly (but so as not to bruise them) on that layer, in the same manner as the melons ; and so on with the peaches, necta- rines, plums, and lastly the grapes, filling up the box with moss, that the lid may shut down so light as to prevent any friction among the fruit. The boxes should have locks, and two keys which may serve for, them all : each of the persons who pack and. unpack the fruit having a key. The moss and grass should always be returned in the boxes, which, with a little addition, will serve tho whole season, being shaken up and well aired after each journey, and keeping it sweet and clean. After the wooden box is locked, cord it firmly. If fruit be packed according to the above directions, it may be sent to the farthest part* of the kingdom with perfect safety. TORTOISE. A very harmless animal, with a shelly covering, which sleeps through the winter, and lives to a great age. Its flesh is eaten in the West Indies, and its covering serves for ornaments. DIAPIIANLE. This beautiful art is so simple in its elements that it will not take much space to initiate the reader into its mysteries. The principal purposes to which it is applicable are for the decoration of hall 260 PACTS FOB everybody: windows, churches, lamp-shades, stair-cases, hand-screens, windows, and window-blinds, Chinese lanterns, and conservatories ; but it is equally available for every purpose in which the combination of transparency and ornament enter. Although the chief fea- tures of this art are the decoration of glass to the resemblance of stained windows and painted transparencies, it may be used for the adornment of window-blinds, &c, upon muslin or silk. The materials are glass, muslin or silk, a roller, brushes, designs, one bottle of clcarin';: liquid, prepared gum^and a bottle of washable varnish. Be sure that the glass ia free from im- perfections, such as specks or bubbles, and scrupulously cleansed. Of course, if it is already fixed in window-frames, you must take it as you find it. Muslin for pictures is preferable to silk, for its cheapness and possession of great transparency. "Which- ever may be chosen, observe that it must be tightly stretched upon a frame, and that the muslin be free from coarse threads. Much of the beauty of the work depends on the careful selection of the designs. In experi- ments, choose a simple design, the subject of which must be left to the fancy of the person engaged in the work. The brushes (hog's hair) will be sufficient for the appli- cation of the varnish and cement. Starch, mixed with cold water, and boiled, is the best cement that can be used to make the designs adhere to the glass ; but gum or size will do, if more convenient. The cement must be thinly laid on. The washable varnish renders the picture easy to clean, and the clearing liquid is used to destroy the opacity of the paper. It must be applied to the blank side of the picture. Lay the glass fiat upon a folded cloth; then cut out the subjects, and placing them upon the blank side of the grounding paper, (the plain side upwards), trace the outline by rubbing on with the finger a small quantity of blacklead ; after this, cut the paper so that the subject may clearly fit it. Much care must be exercised in these operations. The next process in order will be the fasteninq of the papers on glass. This is done with a sponge and water ; the uncoloured part of the paper must be made quite damp ; then put on the glass and the printed sides a thin coating of the cement. Take care that no air-bubbles remain be- tween the glass and print, and also observe that the papers must be kept damp while the operation is carried on ; for, if the cement is allowed to dry, it will destroy the trans- parency when the clearing liquid is used. The cement requires about six hours to dry, when two coatings of the liquid should be applied to the back of the print. As a remedy, if it is not clear, rub on an additional supply of clearing liquid on the opaque parts. Let the glass remain for twelve hours, that the paper may dry, after which apply the washable varnish. There are other methods, but they are somewhat inferior. After stretching the muslin or silk tightly on a frame, take the sheets, laying the plain sides upwards to receive the clearing liquid, which put on with a brush, and when dry, give it another coating. A coating of cement will now be necessary to apply to the coloured side of the paper, taking great care to press it equally with the roller. There is now nothing left to the completion of the transparency but to varnish it. If the picture be misty, again use the clearing liquid. Painting upon Glass or Muslin. For this purpose you will require the following colours: — Raw and burnt sienna, brown pink, Prussian blue, yellow lake, crimson lake, rose madder, French ultramarine, ivory black, burnt umber, gamboge, verdigris. In using these colours, should they work stiffly, work a little turpentine with them. If your painting is on glass, after laying it flat on the print you have chosen to copy, with ivory black and a fine sable-pencil trace the outlines, and after it is dry, let the colouring commence. There is but little difference in the operations of painting on glass or muslin. The latter material should have a coating of parchment size after it has been tightly stretched ; but the process of colouring is precisely the same as in the process on glass. Painting Glass and Muslin in Water- Colours. The same colours are used as those previously enumerated, omitting the verdigris. First, see that the glass is free from grease, and if not, wash it with a little gall. If the operations are to be on muslin, better apply a thin coating of size before working. Add a little gall to your cake colours after they are diluted with water on the slab, and then proceed as in oil colour. Between each layer of colour, as water- colours quickly dry, give the glass a coating of mastic varnish. After the outline is com- plete, the glass should be placed on a frame, and supported on both sides by an upright piece of wood. The colours may be heightened by applying others of the same tint; and, for the sake of durability, a second sheet of glass should be placed over the work in all departments of this art. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KXOWT.FDOE. 251 For using oudinauy Enc.kavings on Or. ass. The paper they are printed on should contain no size. 1 amp the plain side of the picture with a sponge, and apply to fche other a coating of washable vxrni&h; then warm the glass, lay on the print, picas with the roller, and place it at some distance from the fire to dry. The next process requires great care, or the beauty of the engraving will be injured. Damp the print agjiin with water, and rub off the super- fluous paper ; after this, and when the mi. na- ture has been absorbed, apply the clearing liquid with a camel-ha r brush. When it is thoroughly hardened, the washable varnish can be applied, and the work is finished. Imitation of Gkotjnd Glass may be effected by taking equal quantities of ground white lead and sacrum, and mixing with one part of boiled oil and two of turpentine, slightly tinted with yellow or blue. When this is done, take a painter's clean duster, and gently dab with the ends of the hair, until the work has assumed the uniformity of appearance necessary to its perfection. Bi'AINS (TO REMOVE FROM THE HANDS). Damp the hands first with water, then rub them with tartaric acid, or salt of lemons, as you would with soap; rinse them, and rub them dry. Tartaric acid or salt of lemons will quickly remove stains from white muslin or linens. Put less than half a teaspoonful of the salt or acid into a table- spoonful of water; wet the stain with it, and lay it in the sun for at least an hour; wet it once or twice with cold water during the time. If this does not quite remove it, repeat the acid- water, and lay it again in the sun. SHAVING SOAP. Good white soap (in thin shavings), three pounds; palm soap, one pound ; soft water, three quarters of a pound; soda, one ounce. Melt carefully over a slow fire, in an earthen vessel ; then add oil of lavender sixty drops, oil of lemon forty drops ; bergaraot, fifty drops. Mix weli and make it into forms. M A1IOGAXY (ARTIFICIAL). The fol- lowing method of giving any species of wood of a close grain the appearance of mahogany in texture, density, and polish, is said to be practised in France with success. The sur- face is planed smooth, and the wood is then rubbed with a solution of nitrous acid ; one ounce of dragon's blood is dissolved in nearly a pint of spirits of twine; this, and one- third of an ounce of carbonate of soda, are then to be mixed together and filtered, and the liquid in this thin state is to be laid on with a soft brush. This process is to be re- peated, and in a short interval afterwards the wood poatessea the external appearance of mahogany. When the polish diminishes in brilliancy, it may be restored by the use of a little cold-drawn linseed oil. GKATK PAPER (ORNAMENTAL). The accompanying illustration,* when drawn upon paper and cut out, will require some amount of patience and perseverance ; but the paper, when completed., will amply repay the operator for all the trouble, as it is extremely elegant, and at the same time inexpensive. The materials required for each paper are, two sheets of white tissue-paper, and some paste or mucilage. The instruments required are, a sharp pair of fine-pointed scissors, a lead pencil (F,"or F F), needle and sewing cotton, and a circular punch (o). To prepare the materials, take two large sheets of tissue-paper, and paste or gum them very neatly together by their longest sides, so as to form a large sheet. When dry, fold the paper in the centre, and double it again ; mark off the exact distance of each bar or pattern with a pencil, and rule the paper according to the des*gn given ; then tack it along the spaces between each bar, so as to prevent it moving during the process of cutting out. Sketch the design according to pattern or taste, and then proceed to cut out all the shaded parts with a sharp pair of scissors, taking care not to sever the connecting pieces ; but if they should be divided by accident, the two parts must be neatly joined with a little gum or paste and tissue paper. In marking off the design, it may be some guide to our readers to inform them of the dimensions of each part of a paper according to the accompanying design. When the paper is folded and tacked — No. 1 should measure i)\ in. long and 2 in. wide. n 2 9 4* ., 3 H|, Si * 4 15 3* m 6 m * • ,. « m u „ n 7 171 * - 8 19J 2 When all the shaded parts have been cut out, and the design finished by punching the parts that require it in Nos. 5, 6, 7, and 8, the basting-threads must be removed, the Saper carefully opened out; and, the top eing neatly tied with a piece of thread, the ornament should be suspended to a nail driven in the chimney, hung over a piece of wood like a cross, and placed over a heap of faded grate shavings, or thrown over a stiff sheet of datk-coloured paper arranged on purpose. (* See next page.) 252 FACTS foe eveeybody: 7 8 A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 253 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS (TO STAIN). Crimson — Boil one pound of ground Brazil-wood in three quarts of water for an hour; strain it, and add half an ounce of cochineal j boil it again for half an hour gently, aud it will be fit for use. Pukple — Boil a pound of chip logwood in three quarts of water for an hour ; then add four ounces of alum. TTVOLI, OR CHINESE BILLIARDS. This is a very interesting game, and is easily played. The board with which you play varies in length from 2 feet 6 inches to 4 feet or upwards, and is shaped as shown in the accompanying figure. It may be easily made by any ingenious person, by attending to the following directions : par- tition off a space on each side of the board (a b) sufficiently wide for the marble or ball with which you play to run freely along. Place a piece of wood, about 3£ inches in length, at the lower end of each" passage (c), and fix it at an angle of about ten degrees. Divide the space between the two passages at the lower end (c) into ten compartments, and paint a number before each, in the older observed in the figure. 12 | Six specs are to be left in the board for the marbles or balls to drop into, and these are to have a central portion sunk in the board a (as c in the annexed figure), into which the marble or ball (Jb) drops ; a wire (a) is bent over the circle so as to form an arch, and proper numbers are to be painted before each, as shown in the figure. A small dent is to be made in the board, midway between the 30 resting- point and the arch of the board, and 10 painted in front of it. The space between the two passages (a b) must be ruled into a diamond -shaped pattern, as seen in the figure, each diamond measuring one inch on all its sides ; and when this is done the lines must be painted black, and a thick pin driven into each of its angles (indicated by a dot in the figure). It now only re- mains to finish the board by affixing a thin piece of wood («?), which extends from / to f ; and to provide two balls or marbles, one dark and the other white ; and two small cues, or tapered sticks, with which the game is played. Before the game is commenced, the upper end (d) of the board must be slightly elevated (about two inches) from the table. 1. Any number of persons may play, and if more than two, sides, or partners, are to be chosen. 2. The number of the game is previously agreed upon by the players, being some- times fixed as low as 2,000, or at 10,000, or 30,000. 3. The dark ball counts ten times the number into which it falls. For example : if it lodges in 50 cup it counts 500, and so on. 4. The white ball only marks those numbers into which it falls. 5. If a ball lodges against a pin, the player striking the ball does not mark any thing. 6. If a ball makes the circuit of the board, that is, from c on one side to c on the other, the player loses 10. 7. If a ball is not struck with sufficient force, so that, instead of leaving the passage, it returns again to the starting point, c, the player loses 10. 8. The choice of first player is decided by the highest number obtained by the first throw, the winner to have the option of scoring the number. 9. The player who obtains the highest number first, wins the game. 254 FACTS for .everybody: TRANSFER PAPER (TO MAKE). 1. Take starch, 6 ounces; gum arabic, 2 ounces; aim i, 1 ounce. Make a Btrong solution of each separately in hot water. Mix, and apply it to one side of the .leaves of paper while warm, by means of a clean painting-brush: and when dry, a second and a third coat may be given; lastly, press it, to make it smooth. 2. Give the paper three coats of thin size, one coat of good white starch, and one coat of a solution of gamboge in water: the whole to be applied with a sponge, and each coat to be allowed to dry before the other is applied. The whole 'of the solutions to be fresh made. 3. (M. Bregeaut's recipe). Take of starch, 2 drachms ; gum arabic in powder, 2 scruples ; alum, 10 grains ; yellow berries pounded, 10 grains. Some hours previous to making the transfer-paper, put the gum to dissolve in water; dissolve the alum separately, and make the starch rather thin, then add successively the gum and the alum, stirring well. Boil the berries well in water, strain, and add the residue to the mixture. Apply the mixture warm to the paper (which should be unsized), by means of a flat brush : when a sufficient coating is given, the paper must be either glazed, or run through the pres3, the yellow face downwards, on a clean lithographic stone. Before writing, the paper must be rubbed with some powdered gum-sandarach, to prevent the ink spreading, afterwards wipe it off with a hare's-foot. If you have any difficulty in using the steel pen, use a crow-quill or common quill. WHITE HOUSE-PAINT (TO MAKE ECONOMICAL). Skim-milk, two quarts; fresh slaked lime, eight ounces ; linseed-oil, six ounces; white burgundy pitch, two ounces ; Spanish white, three pounds. The lime to be slaked in water, exposed to the air, mixed in about one-fourth of the milk ; the oil in which the pitch is previously dis- solved to be added a little at a time ; then the rest of the milk, and afterwards the Spanish white. This quantity is sufficient for twenty-seven square yards, two coats, and the expense not more than tenpence. TOETOISESHELL (TO MEND). Bring the edges of the pieces to fit each other, ob- serving to give the same inclination of grain to each ; then secure them in a piece of paper, and place them between hot irons or nincers ; apply pressure, and let them cool. I'ake care that the heat is not too great, or it will burn the shell. TULIP (CULTIVATION OF THE). The tulip is a native of Persia, and was first introduced into Europe at Constantinople, where it was, and still is, a great favourite with the worshippers of Allah. In 1554, Auger Gislem Busbec, better known aa Busbequis, being at the Porte as ambassador from Ferdinand I., Emperor of Germany, procured some seeds and bulbs, which he transmitted to Vienna, with the remark that " the Turks charged a high price for them." Several amusing stories are related about these bulbs ; how they were at first eaten as onions, but found unpalateable ; how they were then made into a conserve with sugar, but their flavour not improved ; and how, at last, being thrown out on a manure-heap, as worthless, a few bloomed, revealing the true use of the plant. This was its first introduction into "Western Europe. In the first half of the seventeenth cen- tury occurred that remarkable historical episode, the " tulipomania." It commenced in Holland, from thence it spread to France ; and, no doubt, would have invaded England if the inhabitants of that country had not been fully engaged with the more sanguinary mania of civil war. The peculiar habit of the tulip not permitting it to be freely and quickly propagated, is no doubt the reason why some particular varieties have been so highly esteemed. From the time of sowing the seed, five years at least must elapse before the flower appears, and this first bloom is almost invariably a self, or mere ground colour. In this state the plant is termed a breeder; and when in the course of a few years, more or less, the petals become striped and' variegated, it is then termed broken. There are two species of tulips extensively cultivated in America — the earliest of which is the Van Thol. The late-flowering variety is the garden tulip — the T. Gesncriana, the prize flower and tulip par excellence. Our florists divide this species into three classes, viz., roses, byblomens, and bizarres. The roses are marked by crimson, pink, scarlet, or cherry-colour, on a white ground. The byblomehs are marked with black, lilac, or purple on a white ground. The bizarres are marked with purple or red, on a yellow ground. These clashes are still further divided into Ranted and feathered. A flamed tulip is one that has a dark-pointed spat, somewhat in shape like the flame of a candle, in the centre of each sepal. Though it has become almost conventional among amateurs and gardeners to speak, and write too, of a tulip's petal, yet the word is a gross botanical misnomer. A tulip has neither A MISCELLANT OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 255 oorolla nor petal, but merely a calyx of coloured sepals. A feathered tulip has a dark-coloured edge round it, gradually becoming lighter on the margin next the centre of the sepal; the feathering is said to be tight* if narrow ; heavy, if broad ; and irregular ) if its inner edge has a broken outline. In some instances a tulip may be both feathered and flamed. To display tulips to the best advantage, they must be grown in beds, situated in an open, airy part of the garden. The exact size of a oed is, as the reader will presently see, easily determined by the number of plants it is intended to contain. The re- quired dimensions being marked out, the soil should be removed to the depth of twenty inches: and a layer of sound fresh loam, ten inches thick, placed in the bottom of the excavation. Over the loam must be laid twelve inches in depth of thoroughly rotten two -year-old cow-manure ; and over this last, another layer of loam, two inches deep at the sides and three in the centre, thus leaving the surface slightly convex. The bed should be prepared in the beginning of October, so as to allow it to settle before the time of planting, which is from the first to the tenth of November; and at this time the bed will be about two inches higher than the circumjacent walks. Mr. Groom, of England one of the first tulip-growers in the world, and who, no doubt, possesses the best collection extant — the Dutch having completely lost their pre-eminence in the finer varieties — culti- vates these plants in beds of four feet in width. When the bed is ready to receive the bulbs, its surface is brought to an accu- rate convex curve, by means of a piece of board, in the required form, termed a strike. This being done, the places of each and every bulb are exactly marked by the same implement, which is divided into eight spaces of six inches each. On the flat side of the strike, at the marks between the spaces, are small staples which receive seven small peg- ; fliese, when the strike is laid across the bed, mark the places for one row of bulbs. From this first row, which is six inches from one end of the bed, six inches are measured at each side, and the strike being again laid over the bed at the termi- nation of these measurements, gives the places of the plants in the next row — the same method being continued till every place is accurately determined. From the foregoing, it will be seen that there are seven bulbs in each row across the bed ; that each bulb is six inches apart, every Wj v from another ; and that the side and end ones are six inches from the edge of the bed — the length of the bed depending v.yon the number of bulbs the grower possesses, or chooses to plant in it ; a bed twenty -live feet in length is said to have the most brilliant effect. The places for the bulbs having been thus found, a little clean sand should be sprinkled on each position, the bulb placed on it, and a little very sandy earth put over, so as to envelope each bulb in a cone. The bed should then be covered with a sound, fresh loam, and the surface* smoothed off with the back of the strike, which for this purpose is formed with a curve and shoulders ; the former taking in the breadth of the bed, while the latter slides against boards placed at each side ; the whole moved onwards, takes off the redundant soil, leaving the surface regularly rounded, the centre being six inches higher than at the sides. The tallest-growing flowers must be placed in the centre; the nearest in size next, and so decreasing in height, the shortest are placed at the sides.. The convexity of surface permits the bulbs to be covered with a depth of soil pro- portionate to the size of the plant. No tulip bulb, however strong the plant may be, should bq covered by more than four inches of soil, measuring from its upper part ; nor should it be buried less than two inches, however small or weak it may be. It is a most important object to arrange the bulbs in the bed, so that when in bloom the plants will make the greatest possible display. If symptoms of frost appear after the bulbs are planted, the bed must be covered with fern, straw, or other similar protection; for though the tulip can scarcely be de- stroyed by the most rigorous frost known in this climate, yet a short exposure to even a slight congelation will injure the bulb, and it", effects will be plainly apparent in the blooming season by the split discoloured sepals, and other imperfections of the flower. When the plants appear above ground, the protecting material must be removed, the surface of the soil slightly stirred, and a covering of hoops and mats, or waterproof transparent cloth, which is much better, placed over the bed, as heavy rain, hail, or frost, are equally injurious ; air and light, however, must be ireely admitted on all favourable occasions. In March, the bed should be again stirred, and the soil drawn close to the stems of the plants. The cover- ing should be removed on fine days only, until about the latter end of April, when it must be taken away altogether to make room for the top -cloth or awning, which 156 TACTS FOR EVERYBODY! should then "be erected oyer the hed. A cheap and simple awning, consisting of a few uprights and rafters, and a piece of canvas, may be erected by any one possess- ing the minutest development of the organ of constructiveness ; the subjoined figure, which we trust requires but little explana- tion, is intended to represent f^TT n — n €~L m i 1 J '""*.* ,i// -774 i — An Economical Awning. The canvas is fastened along the ridge a a, and should be long enough to reach down to the ground. A roller, b b, is fixed to the lower edge of the canvas, and a cord attached to the ridge is brought down under the canvas, round the roller, and up over the canvas to a pulley at e ; so that by pulling or slackening the cord d, the canvas is rolled up or let down. On the other side of the frame there is also another cord, canvas, roller, and pulley, used in the same manner, and for the same purpose. The blooming sea- son draws on apace in May, and from the moment that the flowers commence to show colour, neither sunshine nor rain must be allowed to fall upon them. Still, a free cir- culation of air must be constantly kept up, and therefore the canvas should not be let down close to the ground except in windy weather, which is exceedingly prejudicial to the flowers; then the canvas should be let down close on the windy side. If any bulbs have perished, or failed to produce bloom — a great eyesore in a bed — the de- ficiency may be supplied by transplanting others with the transplanter (see p. 141). During the time that the flowers are in bloom, each one should be particularly examined, tulip-book in hand, and memo- randa made according to their individual and general appearance. As soon as the bloom commences to fade, the awning should be removed, and the plants exposed to the full influence of the sun and air. When the sepals drop, the seed-pods should l»e picked off; and about the end of June, or beginning of July, when the foliage has turned yellow and shrivelled, the bulbs may be taken up, the offsets separated from them, and the stems out off with a sharp knife, about half an inch from the bulbs, and the latter put in drawers placed in the shade, there to dry and harden. In August the bulbs should be cleaned free from dirt; their skins and the bit of stem adhering to them taken away: each one placed in its own division of the drawer, and the drawers placed in the cabinet. About this time, too, the compost should be thrown out of the bed, and the fresh com post for next season carefully turned ove and searched, for those destructive pests, tht wire-worm and grub. In September, the bed may be planned and arranged in the drawers. In October the offsets should be planted out in the reserve garden. Choose a dry, airy situation; the soil should be fresh sandy loam, with a little rotten cow- manure, placed from seven to twelve inchea beneath the surface. The beds should be raised six or eight inches above the alleys, formed rather convex on the surface, and provided with hoops and mats, to use as occasion may require, as protection from heavy rains, hail, and frost. Tulips never require to be artificially watered, even in the driest seasons, at any period from plant- ing to taking up. At the same time mo- derate, gentle showers in spring, before the flowers appear, are most beneficial to the plants, and at such times the covers should be removed. Tulipa Gesneriana, var.— Duke of Sutherland, (a Bizarre), The tyro, when purchasing bulbs, should select those that have not lost the brown skin — are not mouldy nor soft at the root end, and are full, solid, and rather pointed at the other. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGES. 257 GHOUP OV MNCHB3. BULLFINCH (THE). Bullfinches are permanent residents with us ; not very plentiful in any loeality. They may be round in most places where there are leafy coverts, and especially near fruit gardens, to which they do much mischief by picking the buds off* the trees. The gardeners call them " pick-a-buds," and wage a war of extermination against them. It should be remembered, however, that these birds are great insect-destroyers, and, perhaps, do as much good as harm. It is, indeed, con- tended by some authorities that every bud which they pick off envelopes a grub, that being the object sought for, and that alone eaten, and the vegetable covering rejected. "We cannot say whether this be the case or not, but would fain give our friond "bully" the benefit of the doubt. The bullfinch's nest is sometimes found in the apple or some other fruit tree ; it is usually at a considerable height from the ground. The young should be taken early, if they are to be taught to pipe, or imitate the songs of other birds. Just as the tail feathers begin to appear, that is, when they aie about twelve or fourteen days old, is perhaps the best time. Bolton says much younger, but we think this injudicious, for several reasons. The best food for the young bird is crumbs of white bread, satu- rated with boiling milk, and mixed with an equal quantity of soaked and bruised rape- seed. As they grow up, poppy and millet- seed, sprouting corn, lettuce and water- cresses, fruit and nuts, should be given them; they may also have, when fully grown, such food as they chiefly take when in a wild state — viz. fir and pine-seeds, most berries that have kernels, buds of the beech, maple, oak, and other trees, and seeds of the nettle, and any of the oruciform plants. The young males may be distin- guished from the females by the red tinge on the breast ; the latter can be taught to pipe, but never so easily and so well as the former, and they are never such handsome birds, being destitute of that beautiful car- mine tint which gives such warmth and richness to the plumage of the cock bull- finch. Bechstein advises that the young birds should have buckwheat grits, 6teeped in milk, and mixed with rape-seed ; and while recommending for the old ones hemp and rape-seed, says that they live longest if fed on the latter oi.ly, with now and then a little plain biscuit, the former being so 253 PACTS FOB everybody: heating aa sometimes to produce blindness, and bring on atrophy. If loose in the room or aviary, they will do very well on the food given to the other birds. Grown bullfinches are easily caught by means of limed twigs, or a common trap. In spring they readily answer to the call of the decoy bird, or even a gentle "tui, tui!" uttered by the fowler. In autumn, wild berries will perhaps prove the most effectual bait. Birds thus caught are generally more healthy, and attain a greater age than those brought up in confinement, simply because they feed, when young, upon their natural food, and are not weakened by the bits of sugar and other delicacies usually given to feathered pets ; under any circum- stances, however, this does not appear to be a long-lived bird, eight years being the maximum age attained by the captive bull- finch, which more commonly does not live beyond six. Of course there are exceptions to this, as to all other rules, but they are few. The chief maladies to which bullfinches are subjected are, constipation, dysentery, epilepsy, melancholy (or dejection). in this latter state, without exhibiting any particular marks of disease, they sit apart, mope, and refuse to sing ; they should then be fed exclusively on steeped rape-seed, all delicacies or exciting food being avoided; change of scene is good for them. When moulting, they should have a rusty nail in the water, and good nourishing food, in- cluding a few ant's eggs, if they can be procured. The other maladies may be treated in the same way as directed for the canary. (See p. 85.) . CARVING. How often is a well-spread dinner disfigured by blundering awkward carving. It is a duty most shun, because most are unskilled in the art. Yet one of the most important acquisitions in the rou- tine of daily life is the ability to carve well, and not only well but elegantly. It is true that the modes now adopted of sending meats, &c, to table, are fast banishing the necessity for promiscuous carving from the richly-served boards of the wealthy ; but in the circles of middle life, where the refine- ments of cookery are not adopted, the utility of a skill in the use of a carving-knife is sufficiently obvious. It must not be supposed that the neces- sity for this acquirement is confined to the heads of families alone, it is as important for the bachelor visitor to be familiar with the art as it is for the host himself ; indeed, he is singled out usually for the task of carving a side dish, which happening to be poultry of some kind, becomes a task most embarrassing to him, if he should happen to be ignorant of the modus operandi of skilfully dissecting a fowl. Ladies ought especially to make carving a study ; at their own houses, they grace the table, and should be enabled to perform the task allotted to them with sufficient skill to prevent remark, or the calling forth of eager proffers of assistance from good- natured visitors near, who probably could not present any better claim to a neat per- formance. Carving presents no difficulties; it simply requires knowledge. All displays of exer- tion or violence are in very bad taste ; for if not proving an evidence of the want of ability on the part of the carver, they pre- sent a very strong testimony of the tough- ness of a joint or the more than full age of a bird : in both cases they should be avoided. A good knife of moderate size, sufficient length of handle, and very sharp, is re- quisite ; for a lady it should be light, and smaller than that used by gentlemen. Fowls are very easily carved; and joints, such as loins, breasts, fore-quarters, &c, the butcher should have strict injunctions to separate the joints well. The dish upon which the article to be carved is placed should be conveniently near to the carver, so that he has full con- trol over it ; for if far off, nothing can pre- vent an ungracefulness of appearance. In serving fish, some nicety and care must be exercised ; here lightness of hand and dexterity of management is necessary, and can only be acquired by practice. The flakes which, in such fish as salmon and cod, are large, should not be broken in serving, for the beauty of the fish is then destroyed, and the appetite for it injured. In addition to the skill in the use of the knife, there is also required another de- scription of knowledge, and that is an acquaintance with the best parts of the joint, fowl, or fish being carved. Thus, in a haunch of venison, the fat, which is a favourite, must be served with each slice ; in the shoulder of mutton there are some delicate cuts in the under part. The breast and wings are the best parts of a fow r l ; and the trail of a woodcock on a toast is the choicest part of the bird. In fish a part of the roe, melt, or liver should accompany the piece of fish served. The list, however, is too numerous to mention here ; and, in- deed, the knowledge can only be acquired by experience. In large establishments the A MISCELLANY OF USF.FTJL KNOWLEDGE. 25U gross dishes are carved at the buffet by the butler, but in middle society they are placed upon the table. BOILED TONGUE. Carve across the tongue, but do not cut through; keep the slices rather thin, and help the fat from underneath. SUCKING PIO. The cook should send a roast pig to table as displayed here, garnished with head and ears; carve the joints in the direction shown by the lines in the diagram, then divide the ribs, serve with plenty of sauce : should one of the joints be too much, it may be separated : bread sauce and stuffing should accompany it. An ear and the jaw are favourite parts with many people. BOILED BABBIT* Remove the legs and shoulders, they very easily separate ; divide the back into two parts, and by holding the fork firmly in the back, and passing the knife underneath near the middle, and bending it back, this is accomplished readily. The most tender part is on the loins, the meat there is of a very delicate flavour; liver should be helped with it. BOAST TUBXEY. Poultry requires skilful carving; the requisites are grace of manner, ease in the performance, a perfect knowledge of the position of the joints, and the most com- plete mode of dissecting, so as to obtain the Largest quantity of meat. In no case is the ability more demanded than in carving a roast turkey. Unless this is done well, there is not only much waste, but the appearance of the turkey is spoiled. You will com- mence by carving elices from each side of the breast, in the same directions as the lines marked in the engraving, cutting from A to B. Now remove the legs, dividing the thighs from the drumsticks ; and here an instrument termed a disjointer will be found serviceable, for unless the turkey be very young, and the union of the joints very accurately taken, dislocation becomes diffi- cult : the disjointer effects the separation at once, and it possesses also the advantages of enabling the carver to divide a thigh into two, thus permitting a less bulky portion of a part much esteemed to be served. The pinions and that portion of the body re- moved with it are always a delicacy, and care should be taken to carve them nicely ; the joint of the pinion will be found at b. The stuffing, whether truffles or whatever it may be made of, you will obtain by making an opening at c. BOILED TUBXEY. Boiled turkey is trussed in a different fashion to the roast, but the same directions given for the first applies to the second. The legs in the boiled turkey being drawn into the body may cause some little difficulty at first in their separation, but a little prac- tice will soon surmount it. TUEKEY POULTS. Kefer to directions for carving pheasants BOAST FOWL. c This operation is a nice and skilful one 260 to perform ; it requires both observation and practice. Insert the knife between the legs and the side, press back the leg with blade of the knife, and the joint will dis- close itself : if young it will part, but at best, if judiciously managed, will require but a nick where the joints unite. Remove your wing from D toB; cut through and lay it back as with the leg, separating the joint with the edge of your knife; remove the merrythought and neck-bones next; this you will accomplish by inserting the knife and forcing it under the bones, raise it, and it will readily separate from the breast. You ■will divide the breast from the body by cutting through the small ribs down to the Tent, turn the back uppermost ; now put your knife into about the centre between the neck and rump, raise the lower part firmly yet gently, it will easily separate, turn the neck or rump from you, take off the side bones, and the fowl is carved. boiled fowl (breast) . boiled fowl (back) . FACTS FO-R EVERYBODY : In separating the thigh from the drum- stick, you must insert the knife exactly at the joint we have indicated in the engraving; this how- ever will be found to re- quire practice, for the joint must be accurately hit, or else much difficulty will be experienced in getting the parts asunder. There is no difference in carving roast and boiled^ fowls, if full grown ; but in a very young fowl, when roasted, the breast is served whole. The wings and breast are in the highest favour, but the leg of a young fowl is an excellent part. Capons, when very fine and roasted, should have slice3 carved from the breast. ROAST GOOSE. Follow with your knife the lines marked in the engraving, a to n, and cut slices ; then remove the wing, and if the party be large, tb a legs must also be removed ; and here the disjoint er will again prove service- able. The stuffing, as in the turkey, will be obtained by making an insertion at the aprcm c. PHEASANT. Clear the leg by inserting the edge of the knife between it and the body, then take off the wings, B to A, but do not remove much of the breast with them ; you are thus enabled to obtain some nice slices; the pheasant is then carved, as a fowl. The breast is first in estimation, then the wings, and after these the merry- thought ; lovers of game prefer a leg. Guinea Fowl are carved in the same manner. PARTRIDGE. Separate the legs, and then divide the bird into three parts, leaving each leg and ^s. #.. wing together. The breast is then divi- ded from the back, and helped whole, the latter being assisted with any of the other parts. When Hk the party consists en- ^tirely of gentlemen, _i ^i the bird is divided into two by cutting right through from the vent to the neck. Quails, Landrail, Wheatears, Larks, and all small birds are served whole. Grouse and Plover are carved as par- tridges. Snipe and Woodcock are divided into two parts; the trail being served on toast. Wild Duck and Widgeon. The breast of these fowls being the best portion is carvel in slices, which being removed, a glass of old port, made hot, is poured in ; the half of a lemon seasoned with cayenne and salt should then be squeezed in, the A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 201 Bliccs relnid in their places, and then served, the joints being removed the same as in other fowl. riGEON (breast). (pigeon back). Like "Woodcock, these birds are cut in half, through the breast and back, and helped. Trussing. — Run a skewer through the two shoulders, at 2; another through the head at 1, or pass it into the mouth and through the body, to keep the head in its place ; two others should be passed through the roots of the ears, to keep them erect ; and another through the legs at 3. The inside of the ears should be singed out with a hot poker before roasting, and the eyes extracted with a fork. Many people let a hare soak in cold water all night before trussing, but a few hours is quite sufficient to extract the blood. Carving. — Insert the point of the knife inside the shoulder at 6, and divide all the way down to the rump, on both sides, in the line 6, 7, 8, which will separate the hare into three pieces. Sever the shoulders in the direction of 5, 6, 7, and the legs in a similar manner; as the latter is too large for one person in a large hare, it should be divided from the thi^h. Now behead it, cut off the ears close to the roots, and di- vide the upper from the lower jaw ; then place the former on a plate, put the point of the knife into the forehead, and divide it through the centre down to the nose. Cut the back into several small pieces in the lines 9 — 10, and proceed to assist, giving Borne stuffing (which is found below 10) and gravy to each person. This can only be done easily when the animal is young ; 12* if old, it must be cut up as follows: Cut off the legs and shoulders first, and then cut out long narrow slices on each side of the back-bone in the direction 7—8 ; then di- vide the back-bone into three or more parts, and behead the hare us usual. The prime parts are the back and legs; the ears are considered a luxury by some, and 60 are the head, brains, and bloody parts of the neck. The best part of the leg is the fleshy part of the thigh at 8 RABBITS, Whether for roasting or boiling, ara trussed and cut up the same as a hare, except that the back is divided into two or three parts, without separating it from the belly. The best parts are the shoulders and back ; the head should not be given unless asked for. In conclusion, we may observe, that all printed directions must fail without constant practice; yet, with practice, and due at- tention to the rules we have laid down, we doubt not that many of our readers will speedilv become good carvers. NUTRITIOUS FOOD. The following statement shows the proportion of nutriment contained in various articles of food: — Greens and turnips contain 8 lbs. in the 100: carrots, 14 lbs. in the 100 ; potatoes, 25 lbs. in the 100; butcher's meat sorted, about 35 lbs. in the 100 ; wheaten bread, 85 lba. in the 100 ; broad beanc, 89 lbs. in the 100; peas, 92 lbs. in the 100 ; lentils, 94 lbs. in the 100; French beans in grain, from 92 to 94 lbs. GALL-NUTS. The gall-nuts used in making ink are produced by the insect which punctures the leaves of a species of oak very common in Asia Minor, where they are collected in considerable quantities by the poorer inhabitants ; from the different ports of the Levant they are exported to various parts of the world. The galls held in the greatest estimation are those known in commerce under the name of blue galls. These are the produce of the first gathering, before the fly has issued from the gall. BIRDS (RAPID FLIGHT OF). A. vulture can fly at the rate of 150 miles an hour. Observations made on the coast of Labrador convinced Major Cartwright that wild geese could travel at the rate of 90 miles an hour. The common crow can fly 25 miles ; and swallows, according to Spallanzi, 92 miles an hour. It is said that a falcon was discovered at Malta twenty-four hours after the departure of Henrv IV. from Fontuinebleau. If true, this bird must have flown for 24 hours at the rate of 57 miles an hour, not allowing him to rest a moment during the whole time. PACTS FOR everybody: PAINTS (TO MIX). In mixing paints, observe that for out-door work you must use principally, or wholly, boiled oil, unless it be for the decorative parts of houses, &c, then mix as for in-door work. For in-door work use linseed- oil, turpentine, and a little " driers," observing, that the less oil, the less will be the gloss ; and that for "flatted white," &c., the colour, being ground in oil, will scarcely require any further addi- tion of that article, as the object is to have it dull. The best "driers are ground litharge and sugar of lead ; the former for dark and middle tints, and the latter for light ones. (To Remove the Smell of Paint, see p. 35.) WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. AVOIRDUPOISE WEIGHT. 16 Drams 1 ounce, oz. 16 Ounces 1 pound, lb. 14 Pounds 1 stone. 28 Pounds 1 qr. of cwt. 4 Qrs. or 112 lbs. ... 1 cwt. 20 Cwt, or 2240 lbs. . . 1 ton. 19£ Cwt. or 2184 lbs. . . 1 fother of lead. AH coarse and heavy goods, subject to waste, are weighed by this weight. TROY WEIGHT. 4 Grains 1 carat. 6 Carats or 24 grs . . . 1 pennyweight. 20 Pennyweights or 480 grs. 1 ounce, oz. 12 Ounces 1 pound. By this weight are weighed Gold, Silver, Jewels, Amber, Precious Stones, &c. The proportion of a pound Troy to a pound Avoirdupoise is as 14 to 17. — 14 oz. 11 dwts. 16 grs. Troy, or 7000 grains, are equal to a pound Avoirdupoise. A pound Troy con- tains 5760 grains. CLOTH MEASURE. 2\ Inches 1 nail 4 Nails . 1 qr. of a yard. 3 Quarters 1 Flemish ell. 4 Quarters 1 yard, or 36 in. 5 Quarters 1 English ell. 6 Quarters 1 French ell. The English Ell is used in Holland, but most articles are measured by the Yard. CUBIC MEASURE. 1728 Cubic inches 1 foot. 27 Feet 1 yard. WOOL "WEIGHT. 7 Pounds 1 clove. 2 Cloves, or 14 lbs 1 stone. 2 Stones, or 28 lbs 1 tod. 64 Tods, or 182 lbs 1 wey. 2'Weys, or 364 lbs 1 sack. % Sacks Hast. This weight is used for wool only. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 20 Grains ... 1 scruple, 20 grs. Troy, 3 Scruples. . . 1 drachm, 60 „ • 8 Drachms . . 1 ounce, 480 „ 12 Ounces . • . 1 pound, 5760 „ Apothecaries and Chemists use this weight in compounding medicines, but they buy their drugs by Avoirdupoise weight. The pound and ounce are the same as in Troy weight, only differently divided and sub- divided DRY MEASURE. 2 Pint* 1 quart. 2 Quarts, or 4 Pints . 1 pottle or \ peck. 2 Pottles, or 4 Quarts . 1 gallon. 2 Gallons 1 peck. 4 Pecks, or 8 Gallons . 1 bushel. 4 Bushels 1 coomb. 2 Coombs, or 8 Bushels 1 quarter. 5 Quarters, or 10 Coombs ) ■• __,_ _. . » or 40 Bushels. j 1 wey, or load. 2 Weys, or 80 Bushels . 1 last. Corn, Fruit, Oysters, Seeds, and other dry goods are measured by this measure. HAY, ETC. 36 Pounds .... 1 truss of straw. 56 Pounds .... 1 truss of hay. 60 Pounds .... 1 truss of new hay. 36 Trusses .... 1 load. LONG MEASURE. 3 Barley-corns in length 1 inch 4 Inches .... 1 hand's breadth. 12 Inches .... 1 foot. 3 Feet 1 yard. 5 Feet 1 pace. 6 Feet or 2 Yards . . 1 fathom. 5£ Yards, or 16*> Feet 1 rod, pole, or perch 4 Rods, or 22 Yards . 1 chain of laud. 40 Poles, or 10 Chains 1 furlong. 8 Furlongs, or 1760 Yds. 1 mile. 3 Miles 1 league. 60 Gcographical,or 69| \ , j. >p . rpp English StatuteMiles ) l dt S ree - This table refers to things of length only. ALE AND BEER MEASURE. 2 Pints 1 quart. 4 Quarts 1 gallon. 9 Gallons 1 firkin. 2 Firkins 1 kilderkin. 2 Kilderkins 1 barrel 54 Gallons 1 hogshead. 108 Gallons 1 butt. SQUARE MEASURE. 144 Inches 1 foot. 9 Feet 1 yard. 30} Yards 1 pole. 40 Poles ....... 1 rood. 4 Roods ...... 1 acre. 30 Acres ...... lyd. of land 100 Acres ....... lhide. 640 Acres 1 mile. A MlSCFLLANY OF USEFFL KNOWLEDGE. 263 WINE MEASURE. 2 Pints 1 quart. 4 Quarts 1 gallon. 10 Gallons of brandy . . . 1 anker. 18 Gallons , 1 runlet. 42 Gallons ...••. 1 tierce. G;> Gallons ...... 1 hogshead. 81 Gallons 1 puncheon. 2 Hogsheads 1 pipe or butt 2 Pipes 1 tun. paper. 20 Sheets ..... 1 quire of outsides 24 Sheets . • • . . 1 quire of insides. 25 Sheets . • • • . 1 quire of Printers 20 Quires . . • . . 1 ream. 2 Reams . • • . . 1 bundle. 10 Reams 1 bale. TIME. 60 Seconds 1 minute. 60 Minutes 1 hour. 24 Hours 1 day. 7 Davs 1 week. 4 Weeks 1 month* 13 Mouths 1 day 6 hours . 1 year. 365 Days 1 common year 366 Days 1 leap year. 100 Years 1 century. *A Lunar Month contains 28 days, being the time in which the moon revolves round the earth. A Solar Month is the space of time in which the sun passes through a sign of the zodiac. A Solar Year is generally reckoned to contain 365 days, 6 hours ; but the exact time in which the earth performs its annual revolution round the sun is 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes, and 11 seconds. Dividing the year of our Lord by 4, we know whether or not it is leap-year, by there being, or not being, a remainder. Thus, 1824 divided by 4, leaves no remainder and is therefore leap-year. The year 1800 was an exception, and so will be 1900, a day dropt in a hundred years being necessary to keep the calculations accurate. In the year 1582, it was observed by Pope Gregory XIII., that since the commencement of the Julian calculation of 365£ days to the year, it had exceeded the true time 10 days ; and there- fore he ordered 10 days to be taken from the calendar, and the 11th of March to be ac- counted the 21st. The Pope's edict was generally observed by the nations subject to nis authority, but the Protestant countries continued the use of the Julian reckoning, which gave rise to the two modes of compu- tation that yet prevail in Europe, called the old style and new style. The New Style was adopted in Britain, by Act of Parliament, in the year 1752, when the 1st of September was called the 12th. Still the calendar, according to the present calculation, will exceed the true time by 3 hours in every 400 years. ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, AND MEA8URE8. Money. — The Romans, like other ancient nations, at first had no coined money, but either exchanged commodities with one another, or used a certain weight of un- coined brass, or other metal. Hence the names which indicated certain pieces of money, when coin came to be used, were the. same as those which were used to indi- cate weights. Brass Coins.— The first brass coin that was used at Rome was called As, made in the reign of Servius Tullius; and being stamped with the heads of oxen, sheep, swine, &c, was called pecunia, from pecus. Hence JEs* brass, is often put for monev ; JErarium, for treasury, &c. Sometime afterwards the stamp was changed, and on one side it bore the figure of Janus ; on the other the beak of a ship. The As originally weighed a pound, but was gradually reduced, and in the first Punic war, Asses were coined of only two ounces in weight ; in the second Punic war, of only one ounce ; and. in the year of the city 563, of only half an ounce. The other brass coins were the Semissis, the Triens, the Quadrans or Teruncius, and the Sextans. The As, invalueof ourmoney } a J a °$JJ™ Semissig .... half an As. Triens .... one-third. Quadrans, or Teruncius . one-fourth. Sextans .... one-sixth. Silver. — Silver was first coined in the year of the city 484, five years before the first Punic war: the impressions upon which were usually, on one side, carriages drawn by two or four beasts, and on the reverse, the head of Roma, with a helmet. On some were stamped the figure of Victory. The coins of silver were the Sestertius Quinarius, Denarius, and Centussis. Sestertius, marked L.L.S. for libra libra semis, or by abbreviation H.S., worth 2\ Asses, or in our money . . 2£ Quinarius, marked V, worth five A3ses 8 Denarius, marked X, worth ten Asses 15} Centussis, worth ten Denarii . . $1 60 Gold. — Gold coin was first struck in the year of the city 546, in the second Punio war, and called Aureus, the stamps upon it were chiefly the images of the Emperors. The Aureus, at first, was equal in value to 25 Denarii, or 100 Sestertii j or in our money, 2G4 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY to $3 98. Soon afterwards it was de- based, and under the later Emperors was worth only $3 70. Accounts were kept in Sestertii and Ses- tertia. The Sestertium was not a coin, but a shorter expression for 1000 Sestertii, or in our money about $40. AVe find also mentioned the Libra, con- taining 12 oz. of silver, worth $15, and the Talentum, worth about $965. Besides the ordiuary coins, there were various medals struck to commemorate im- portant events, properly called Medallions ; for what we commonly term Roman medals were their current money. MEASURES OF LENGTH. The Roman measures of length or dis- tance were feet, cubits, paces, stadia, and miles. Foot . . . . . . 12 Cubit 1 6 Passus, or Pace . . 6 Stadium, or Furlong 208 3 8 Stadia, or 1000 Paces 10 The Roman Acre contained 240 feet in length, and 120 in breadth, that is, 28,800 square feet. WEIGHTS. The chief weight among the Romans was the As, or Libra, a pound, equal in English Troy weight to 10 oz. 18 dwt. 13 grs. ; this Libra was divided into 12 parts, tJnciae (ounces), and these Uncise into several less weights. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. The most common measure of capacity was the Amphora, called also Quadrantal or Cadus, containing nearly 9 English gallons. They had also a measure called Congius, equal to & of an Amphora, or lg of a gallon English ; and another called Sex- tarius, equal to £ of the Congius, or about a pint and a half. ROMAN DIVISION OF TIME. Romulus is said to have divided the year into ten months, beginning with March; Numa added the other two months. "When Julius Csesar became master of the State, he adjusted the year according to the course of the sun, and assigned to each month the number of days which it still contains. This is the famous Julian Tear which con- tinues in use to this day in all Christian countries, without any variation, except that of the Old and New Style, occasioned by Pope Gregory, A. D. 1582. The Romans divided their months into three parts, by Calends, Ides, and Nones. The 1st day was called the Calends, the 5th day the Nones, and the 13th the Ides ; except in March, May, July, and October, when the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on the loth. The custom of dividing time into weeks was introduced under the Emperors, being derived from the Egyptians ; and the days of the week were named from the planets, •viz.: — Dies Solis Sunday Luna? Monday Martis ^ Tuesday Mercurii Wednesday Jovis Thursday Veneris Friday Saturni Saturday. In marking the days, they counted back- wards; thus they called the last day of December, Pridie Calendas Jamiarii, or the day before the Calends of January : the 30th day they called the 3rd day before the Calends of January ; and so on through the year. In leap-year the 24th and 25th days of February were both called the 6th day before the Calends of March, and hence this year is called Bissextilis. The day, as with us, was divided into 12 hours, and lasted from six o'clock in the morning till six in the evening. The night was divided into four watches, each consist- ing of three hours. The Romans had no clocks or watches, and the first dial is said to have been erected in Rome so late as 447 years after the building of the city. Tables of Weights and Measures mentioned in Scripture. MEASURES OF LENGTH. m. yds. ft. in. d.e. A Finger .... 2£ AHandbreadtk . 3 If A Span .... 10 2\ A Cubit .... 1 9 2h A Fathom. ... 2 1 3 \\ Ezekiel's reed . . 3 Do. according to others 3 1 11 0| The Measuring Line 48 1 11 A Stadium or Furlong 243 0| A Sabbath-day's Journeyl216 The Eastern Mile . 1 672 A Day's Journey . 33 288 LIQUID MEASURE. gals. qts. pts. The Log Of The Firkin or Metretes . 3 ' l| The Hin 1 1 The Bath 7 2 O* The Homer, or Cor . . 75 2 l| A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 2G5 The Cab The Ome: . The Seah . The Ephah . The Lethech Tho Homer . DRY MEASURE. bush. pks. pts. .... 2J WEIGHTS. lbs. oz. dwts. gr. A Shekel 9 2\ AManeh 2 3 6 10 A Talent 113 10 1 10 MONEY. $ Gts. A Gcrah . • • . • 2 A Zuzah . • • • • 12 ABekuh 25 A Shekel (Silver) . . 50 Golden Doric, or Dram" , \ 5 18 A Shekel of Gold . . 9 00 A Maneh or Mina . . 29 50 A Talent of Silver . . 1,707 00 A Talent of Gold . . 27,320 00 THE JEWISH METHOD OF RECKONING TIME. The day, reckoning from sun-rise, and the night, reckoning from sun-set, were each divided into 12 equal parts, called the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, &c, hours. THE WATCHES. The First Watch was from sun-set to the third hour of the night. The Second, or Middle Watch, was from the third hour to the sixth. The Third Watch, or Coekcrow- ing, was from the sixth hour to the ninth. The Fourth, or Morning Watch, was from the ninth hour to sun-rise. MILK. Milk consists of water holding in solution casein or cheese, sugar of milk, various salts, and, in suspension, fatty matter in the form of myriads of semi- opaque globules, to which the colour and opacity of milk is due. Skim-milk, butter-milk, cream, butter, curd3 and whey, cream-cheese, and ordi- nary cheese, are mere modifications of milk, differing only from each other either in the abstraction of one or more of its constituents, or else in the variation of their proportions. Butter differs little from cream, but is more completely separated from the sugar, cheese, and salts ; and the fat globules in place of being free and distinct have all run together, so as to form a semi-solid substance. Cheese is made from skim-milk, entire milk, or cream: it consists of the casein and butter. The cheese prepared from skim-milk containing the smallest quantity of butter; that from entire milk, as Clu shire ( hi esc, .i larger quantity ; and that from cream, as Stilton cheese, the most of all. Now, although the casein and sugar of milk, as well as the butter, vary in quantity in different cases, yet ordinarily tho quality of milk is estimated by the amount of cream which it yields. For the determination of tho quality of milk it is, however, requisite not only to ascertain the amount of cream which it yields, but also to take the specific gravity or density of the milk. In estimating the specific gravity of any liquid, distilled water is taken as tho standard, being reckoned at 1,000. Now milk, holding as it does in solution a large quantity of sugar, casein, and salts, is of course much heavier than water ; and it is stated that milk of good quality should have a specific gravity of about 1,031. But milk, as we have seen, contains also a large proportion of fatty matter, and which, being much lighter than distilled water, serves when equally suspended through the fluid, to decrease its density. The larger therefore the quantity of cream, the lower will be the specific gravity — some milks, owing to the large quantity of cream con- tained in them, possessing a density of only 1,020, or even less. We have said that the butter is suspended in milk in the form of innumerable drop- lets of various sizes ; in rich milk, these are particularly abundant, so that when a drop of such milk is viewed under an object-glass of high magnifying power, the field is crowded with myriads of these globules, as shown in fig. 1. Fig. L— Good Milk. 266' facts ron eteetbodt: In an impoverished milk, the globules ■will be smaller in size and fewer, and the field of vision will present the appearance of fig. 2 Fig. 2.-Poor Milk. "When curd of milk is examined under the microscope, the butter is still seen as droplets of fat, and the cheese as a granular substance of a yellowish colour. See fi £fc So ?^t«l|^^» *** Fig. 3.— Curd of Milk. Of all articles of food, none is so much adulterated as milk. We find different ■writers naming a variety of ingredients as commonly employed in the adulteration of it— amongst which may be mentioned ■flour, milk of almonds, gum arabic, gum tragacanth, chalk, turmeric carbonate of socfa, sugar, emulsion of hemp-seed, and sheep and horses' brains, rubbed up with ■water into an emulsion. HAIR (THE STRUCTURE OF THE). 1. Hair is found to grow on all parts of the surface of the body, except the palms cf the hands and the soles-«f the feet. 2. The hair differs considerably in length, thickness, shape, and colour; according to situation, race, family, sex, and age. 3. As hair is a bad conductor of heat, it is obviously one of the most appropriate cover- ings for the bodies of animals, or the head of man, because heat escapes very slowly through it. The surface of the body is protected from the influence of excessive heat, moisture, and electricity, by means of the hair. 4. "The hair," says Mr. Paget, the emi- nent anatomist, "in its constant growth, serves, over and above its local purposes, for the advantage of the whole body, in that, as it grows, it removes, from the blood the bisulphide of protein and other consti- tuents of its substance, which are thus ex- creted from the body." It is therefore evident that the hair performs an important part in the animal economy. It has been remarked that shaving or cutting the hair assists in the removal of carbon and hy- drogen from the system ; consequently long hair is injurious. 5. If we but look at the back of our hands we shall observe the hair issuing from small de- pressions in the skin. These depres- sions are the orifices of the hair - follicles, which extend to various depths, in the corium, and are always lined with cells of the same kind as those found in the epi- dermis. 6. Here is a diagram that will explain how the hair is retained in the skin, an | ipart of its substance. In $ J! ( 'lif I or ^ er t° observe this appear- ' " ' * ance, we must use a sharp Fig. 6.t razor to make the section, and a magnifying power of about 150 ; but as every person is not able to do so, we have given a diagram of the appearance of the longitudinal section of the hair. 16. If we take a hair, and cut it across with a sharp razor, so as to make a very '-^^^v thin section of it — a mere a0y*|/|p5»S. shaving, in fact — we ••H^./^^-f-v^ shall observe three parts : first, a thin varnish-like layer of flattened cells; then asetof fibres, which are placed further apart Vig.O.t as they approach the centre, which is dotted here and there with pigment-cells in some hairs, but is always loose, and looks like pith. 17. The hair varies in length according to situation, sex, and race. In the Kurilian race, there are individuals who have hair growing down the back and covering nearly the whole body. The average length of the • Fig. 4- A portion of hair magnified so as to show the imbrication of the outside. t Fig. 5. Longitudinal section of a hair, showing the imbrication of the cortex, and the pigment cells in the fibrous part. t Fig. 0. Transverse section of a hair, showing tbj three different textures. 268 FACTS FOE EVERYBODY: beard is ten inches, but some men have had beards that swept the ground. Women have also been met with Avhose hair reached to their feet; but yet the ordinary length is only from twenty to forty inches. 18. Colour influences its texture: thus flaxen hair is said to be the finest, and black the coarsest ; and as hair becomes gray, it becomes coarser. "VVithof, a German anato- mist, states that a square inch of tbe skin of the head contains 598 black hairs, 648 chesnut hairs, and 728 flaxen hairs. 19. The colours and shades of the human hair are very numerous, and depend, in a measure, upon age, climate, and race. The following table will give some idea of the varieties caused by race and climatal in- fluence: — Kace or Tribe. Hair. Afghans black. Arabs black and crisp, with grizzly beards. Armenians dark. Berberincs, or ) ■, , , , . - . Nubians of the dar ?> , and strQn S l 7 f ™- Nile J zled - Calif ornians black, long, very strong, and not woolly. Chinese &Indo- J thick, coarse, lank, and Chinese .... | l\^ g Wlth 8Cant y Circassians brown or black. Egyptians black and crisp. Endamenes ( th ! ck ' rou S h > a ? d *in- (New Guinea) j ™£ Uy 7 xthout hem * Esquimaux coal - black, straight, strong, and long black. Ethiopian black and crisp. Greeks black, brown, and flaxen. Kamtsehatkans ..black. Kurds black. Kurilians or Ainos very black, Mantschoos brown. Mexicans thick, black, coarse, and glossv; beard thin. Mongolians black, stiff, straight, and sparing. Ossetines brown or light, and some • times red beards. Patagonians lank and black; beard scanty. Singhalese black. It is worthy of remark with respect to the colour of the hair, that it varies with the colour of the iris, or coloured part of the eye, and the general hue of the skin. It has been remarked, and with more degree of truth than is generally believed, that the darker the hair the stronger the body, and vice versa. 20. The difference of colour in human hair appears to depend, according to Vau- quelin, on the presence or absence of a pe- culiar oil. He states that black hair con- sists of, — 1. An animal matter, which con- stitutes the greater part. 2. A white con- crete oil, in small quantity. 3. Another oil of a grayish-green colour, more abundant than the former. 4. Iron, the state of which in the hair is uncertain. 5. A minute pro- portion of oxide of manganese. 6. Phos- phate of lime. 7. Carbonate of lime, in very small quantity. 8. Silex and sulphur, each in considerable quantity. 21. Hair is remarkably elastic and strong. A single hair from the head of a boy only eight years of age supported the weight of 7 "812 grains; and one from the head of a man twenty-two years of age supported 14-285 grains. "Weber states that a hair 10 inches long will stretch to 13 inches. HAIR (MANAGEMENT OP THE). Pass a fine-tooth comb, at regular intervals every twenty-four hours, through the hair, in order to keep it from matting or en- tangling ; separate the hairs carefully and repeatedly, so as to allow the air to pass through them for several minutes; use a brush that will serve the double purpose of cleansing the scalp and gently stimu- lating the hair-bulbs. Before going to bed, it will be desirable to part the hair evenly, so as to avoid false folds, or what is commonly called turning against the grain, which might even cause the hairs to break. Such are the usual and ordinary requirements as to the management of the hair. There is, on the other hand, a class of persons who carry to excess the dressing and adornment of the hair, especially those who are gifted with hair of the finest quality. Thus, for example, females who are in the habit, during the ordinary opera- tions of the toilette, of dragging and twist- ing the hair, so as almost to draw the skin with it ; the effect of which is, in the first instance, to break the hairs and fatigue the scalp, and finally to alter the bulb itself. FLOWERS (LANGUAGE OF). The first rule to be observed in our floral grammar is, that the pronoun lor me is expressed by inclining the symbol flower to the left, and the pronoun thou and thee by inclining it to the right. "When, however, it is not a real flower offered, but a representation upon paper, these positions must be re- versed, so that the symbol leans to the heart of the person whom it is to signify. The second rule is, that the opposite of a particular sentiment expressed by a flower presented upright is denoted when tho A. 31TSCFLLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 2(M symbol is reversed ; thus a rose-bud sent upright, with its thorns and leaves, means, "I tear, but I hope." If the bud is re- turned upside down, it means, " You must neither hope nor fear." Should the thorns, however, be stripped off, the signification is, "There is everything to hope;" but if stripped of its leaves, " There is everything to rear." By this it will be seen that the expression of almost all flowers may be varied by a change in their positions, or an alteration of their state or condition. For example, the marigold flower placed in the hand signifies " trouble of spirits ;" on the heart, "trouble or love;" on the bosom, " weariness." The pansy held upright de- notes " heart's-ease ;" reversed, it speaks the contrary. When presented upright, it savs, " Think of me ;" and when pendent, " Forget me." So, too, the amaryllis, ■which is the emblem of pride, may be made to express, "My pride is humbled," or, "Your pride is checked," by holding it downwards, and to the right or left, as the sense requires. Then, again, the wall- flower, which is the emblem of fidelity in misfortune, if presented with the stalk up- ward would intimate that the person to whom it was turned was unfaithful in the time of trouble. The third rule has relation to the manner in which certain words may be represented ; as, for instance, the articles, by tendrils with single, double, and treble branches, as under — The .. The numbers are represented by leaflets running from one to eleven, as thus — rf ' * From eleven to twenty, berries are added to the ten leaves thus — From twenty to one hundred, compound leaves are added to the other ten for the decimals, and berries stand for the odd numbers, bo — 270 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY A hundred is represented by ten tens ; and this may be increased by a third leaflet and a branch of berries up to 999. A thousand may be symbolized by a frond of fern, having ten or more leaves, and to this a common leaflet may be added to in- crease the number of thousands. In this way any given number may be represented in foliage, such as the date of a year in which a birth-day, or other event, occurs to which it is desirable to make allusion, in an emblematic wreath or floral picture. Thus, if I presented my love with a mute yet eloquent expression of good wishes on her eighteenth birthday, I should probably do it in this wise : — Within an evergreen wreath (lasting as my affection), consisting of ten leaflets and eiglitberries (the age of the beloved one), I would place a red rose-bud (pure and lovely), or a white lily (pure and modest), its spotless petals half concealing a ripe strawberry (perfect excellence) ; and to this I might add a blossom of the rose- scented geranium (expressive of my prefe- rence), a peach blossom to say " I am your captive," fern for sincerity, and perhaps bachelor's buttons for hope in love. This is, however, as far as we need carry the example. Our readers will at once un- derstand our application of the principles laid down as a basis for this delightful lan- guage of flowers, in which all the days of the week are symbolized as follows : — Monday by a leaf of the lotus or water- lily, nt/mpheea, half represented light, half dark. Selected because the eastern nations consider the lotus as — " The emblem and cradle of creative night." Tuesday has a leaf, half of which is light, to signify the heavens ; and the other half blue or sea-green, meaning the waters, in reference to the second day's work of creation. Wednesday. The emblematical leaf for this day is divided into three colours flight for the heavens, blue for the waters, and green for the earth. Thursday has ft green lotus leaf, on which is placed a flower, figurative of the great luminary created on the fourth day. Friday has a leaf on which an insect is feeding— "Let the earth bring forth the living creatures." Saturday. The leaf for this day is filled with fruit — " I have given you every herb bearing seed, and every tree, in which is the fruit." Sunday. Simply an olive leaf, sacred to peace or rest. The floral emblems of the month are thus given by Phillips : — January is represented by a robin, en- circled in a garland of sweet-scented tussilago (tussilago fro grans) ; since the one cheers our dwellings at this season by its chirrup, whilst the other regales the early month by its fragrance. February has a wreath of snowdrops (galanthus nivalis) surrounding a pair of goldfinches; that being the month in which those flowers appear, and on which, also, the birds begin to couple. March is distinguished by the hierogly- phics of a bird's nest encircled by a branch of the almond (amygdalus), • That blooms on the leafless bough." April. For this month we have a linnet on his nest in the midst of a bush of " The vernal furze with golden baskets hung." May. A nest of young birds clamorous for food, in a hawthorn bush in full flower, represents this month. June has a wreath of flowing grapes, en- compassing a branch of ripe strawberries ; and July a bunch of red cherries, en wreathed with the fragrant purple thyme. For August is woven a coronal of wheat, barley, and oats, encircling ripe plums. September has a cluster of purple grapes, with a wreath of hops — " For clustering grapes are his peculiar care." October is represented with various- coloured China-asters and clusters of hazel- nuts. November, has a garland of flowing ivy, with turnips and carrots in the centre ; and for December is woven a garland of holly, with its glossy green leaves and vermilion berries, from the centre of which hangs a branch of mirth-inspiring mistletoe. EYES (PltESEltVA TION OF THE). Mr. Cooper, in his " Practical Remarks on Impaired Vision," gives some excellent hints on the preservation of the eyes, which will be interesting to many of our readers. Daily experience teaches us that the decay A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 271 of vision 16 hastened by many causes which arc frequently overlooked. Although it is about forty that the sight usually begins to fail, yet we rind that some persons attain extreme old ago without needing glasses a1 all. Other persons, on the contrary, re- auire glasses bv tbe age of thirty, and, lough much depends upon constitution, much also depends upon a person's habits. One of the worst of babits i » that of over- working the eves by candle-light at night. Repose from labour, so necessary for the restoration. of tone and vigour to the several organs of the body, is too sparingly granted to the eyes. Let it be remembered that day-work is preferable to night-work ; that while the light of a candle or lamp is trying even to astrong eye, the moderate light of the sun is strengthening to it Those whom cir- cumstances compel to study in the evening should select that kind of work which is least distressing to the eyes; they should especially avoid indistinct writing or small print. Reading by fire-light, or simply gazing at the tire when sitting alone, or in a contem- plative mood, is highly injurious to feeble eyes, and should be avoided by all. It is not advisable to read by twilight ; too little light is as pernicious as too much light, yet many persons will, evening after evening, try their eyes in this way rather than burn a candle. It is injurious to the eyes to be long exposed to the reflection of a strong light, whether artificial or natural, such as the reflected sunshine from the page of a book. Too brilliant a light produces undue excitement of the eyes. To preserve weak eyes as much as possible from a strong light, neutral tint spectacles are exceedingly suitable. In reading and writing, just that amount and quality of light, whether natural or artificial, should be allowed which, while it thoroughly illuminates the object, feels grateful and pleasant to the eyes. This desideratum can never be obtained without due regard to the position of the light. The light cast upon a book while the candle is in front is by no means pleasant, and the glare of the flame is very trying to weak eyes. It will be found, that if the candle or lamp be placed behind the reader, a little elevated, and slightly on one side, the pleasantest and least injurious effect is pro- duced ; for the light then reflected to the eyes is less distressing, and at the same time the eyes are perfectly protected from the heat and glare of the flame. Sudden transitions from gloom to strong light should bo avoided. The dazzling sed in suih a manner that the initial letters of the verses form the name of some person, kingdom, place, motto, &c. The acrostic is considered by the critics as a species of false wit. Some pretend to find acrostics in the psalms, par- ticularly in those called abedarian. Eclogue. In poetry, a kind of pastoral composition, wherein shepherds are intro- duced as conversing together. Theocritus and Virgil, among the ancients, have written eclogues. There were certain prose com- positions termed eclogues, as those of Diodorus, Polybius. Ctesias, Theophrastus, Strabo, &c, in which sense the word signi- fies only extract or collection. M. Fontenelle observes, that the beauty of the eclogue is not attached to what is rural, but rather to what is calm and easy in the rural life. Ode, among the ancients, signified no more than song, or a composition proper to be sung, and composed for that purpose ; and the singing was usually accompanied A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 279 with pome musical instrument, chiefly the lyre. The odes of the ancients, Yossius observes, had a regular return of the same kind of verse, and the same quantity of syllables in the same place of every similar verse ; but in the modern ode (says he) there is nothing but confusion of quantities. The ancient odes are generally in honour of their gods ;— the English odes are generally in praise of heroes, and great exploits. The distinguishing character of an ode is sweet- ness and sublimity. Epode. The third or last part of an ode, the ancient ode being divided into strophe, antistrophe, and epode. The epode was Ring by the priest, standing still before the altar, after all the turns and returns of the strophe and antistrophe. The word epode then properly signified the end of the song. Stanzas were first introduced from the Italian into the French poetry about the year 1580, and thence transferred into the English. Most of the Italian poems are divided into stanzas. A stanza is a number of grave verses, containing some perfect sense, terminating in a pause. There are stanzas of four, six, eight, ten, or twelve verses. The word is Italian, and signifies a stand, or station. Prologue. In dramatic poetry, a dis- course addressed to the audience before the drama or the play begins. The original in- tention of the prologue was to advertise the audience of the subject of the piece, and to prepare them to enter more easily into the action, and sometimes to make an apology for the poet. This last article seems to have almist excluded the two former in the English drama, and to be in sole possession of the prologue. The pro- logue is of a more ancient standing than the epilogue. Among the ancients the pro- logue was a part of the piece, not indeed an essential, but an accessory part ; with us it is no part at all ; with them the drama was opened with the appearance of the prologue, but with us it is not opened till after the prologue is delivered. Epilogue. The last part of a discourse, or treatise, containing ordinarily a recapitu- lation of the principal matter*; delivered. Epilogue, in the drama, is a poetical com- position addressed to the audience, when the play is over, by one of .the principal per- sons or aetors therein ; containing usually some reflections on certain incidents in the play, particularly those of the part of the person that speaks it. Epitome. An abridgment, or a reduction of the principal matters of a large book into a little compass. Madrigal is a little poetic piece, gene- rally amatory, not confined either to the scrupulous regularity of a sonnet, or the subtilty of an epigram, but consisting of some tender, delicate, yet simple thoughts, suitably expressed. An epigram is nutid for its pointed wit ; but thu rather for its tenderness and beautiful simplicity. The Italian and French songs and airs are often of the madrigal kind. Pindaric. In poetry, an ode formed ia imitation of the manner of Pindar. Pindar, whence the manner takes its name, was of Thebes; he flourished about four hundred and seventy-eight years before Christ, and was contemporary with JEschylus; what we have remaining of his, is a book of odes, all in praise of the victors in the Olympian, Pythian, Nemsean, and Isthmian "games; whence the first is entitled the Ohmptans, the second the Pythians, the third Nenurans, and the fourth Isthmians. Pindar is full of force and fire ; his thoughts sententious, his style impetuous ; his sallies daring, and frequently running as it were at random ; he effects a beautiful disorder, which is said to be the effect of the greatest art. The supposed irregularity of his numbers has made several of his imitators imagine them- selves Pindaric poets by the mere wildness and irregularity of their verses. Noi e of our writers seem to have succeeded in the Pindaric character better than Cowley; though some may prefer reading " Our mod< rn Pindar, who, wilh artful story, Took wicked pnins to tarnish kinply plory." Apophthegm is a short, sententious, and instructive remark, pronounced by a person of distinguished character ; as that of Augustus— festina let/te. Aphorism is a maxim, or precept, or the principle of a science, or a sentence which comprehends a gre^it deal in a few words. The term is chiefly used in medicine and law. We 6ay the aphorisms of Hippocrates, Boerhaave, &c. ; aphorisms of the civil law ; &c. Epic Poem. An heroic poem ; or -a poem reciting some great and signal transaction of a hero; called also epopoeia, or epopee. Such are the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, the JEneid of Virgil, the Gierusalemme of Tasso, and the Paradise Lost of Milton, which are the principal poems of the epic, kind. Belles Lettres, (or Polite Literature, as it is properly denominated in English.) em- braces grammar, 1> gic, rhetoric, poetry, music, mathematics, and the learned lan- guages ; these are usiially called the seven Liberal aits. Belles Lettres and Criticism, 280 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY says Dr. Blair, chiefly consider man as being endowed with those powers of taste and imagination which were intended to em- bellish his mind, and supply him with rational and useful entertainment. They open a field of investigation peculiar to themselves. All that relates to beauty, har- mony, grandeur, and elegance, all that can soothe the mind, gratify the fancy, or move the affections, belong to their province. DRAWING (PRACTICAL LESSONS IN). First Lesson. The necessary mate- rials for commencing pencil drawing will be a sharp penknife ; three black-lead pencils, marked HB, F, andB; and some drawing paper, or cartridge paper, or a drawing paper book. We advise students to use cartridge paper to begin with, and to have it cut into sheets, which should be numbered J) 1 ]!: || at the upper right- hand corner, and when II finished deposited in a box or strong portfolio. To cut your Tencil properly. — As you cannot draw until your pencils are cut, we must request you to cut them, not like b in fig. 1, which is hacked; but cut it to Fig. 1. a point, like a, fig 1. In cutting it properly you must not remove too much of the wood, but only sufficient to expose a small part of the lead ; if too much of the lead is exposed it will break. Position during drawing. — It is of great importance that the student should sit to draw in a proper position. Do not have a low table, which obliges you to poke your nose almost upon the paper, and press your chest against the edge of the draw- ing desk ; but sit in an easy, upright position, with your fee*t straight before you, the left hand resting upon the edge of your paper so as to keep it steady ; the copy before you and nearly upright, and the sheet of paper. upon which you are to draw slightly elevated. The proper position to hold your pencil should be that the ends of the fingers are about an inch and a half from the point ; and the pencil should not be held too tight, the elbow being kept well in towards the side, but not too stiff; by this means you will have perfect freedom of the hand, and complete command of the pencil. Second Lesson. As you are now pre- pared to commence your drawing, please seat yourself properly at the table, and make an effort to form straight horizontal lines, like a (fig 2), and observe that they are to be parallel, and at equal distances from one another. When you have suc- ceeded in drawing a dozen of these lines the size of the copy, you should then try to form some twice the length, and then go on, increasing the length of them, until you are able to draw lines a yard in length with a piece of chalk upon a black board. To draw horizontal straight lines. — First make a dot upon the paper where you are to commence, and another where the line is to terminate (as c, fig 2.) then draw a led' • f Fig. a. line, between the two, from left to right, the same as between these two points. Continue to do this until you are able to draw the lines straight and horizontal; then practise making perpendicular lines. To draw perpendicular straight lines. proceed the same as it drawing horizontal lines; that is, by making dots or points first, and commence with short lines, like the upper one of b (fig 2). Then increase the length, until they double and quad- ruple the original ones. When you have succeeded in drawing either horizontal or perpendicular straight lines, repeat the exercises with the dif- ferent pencils, so as to give greater breadth to some lines than to others; and some- times draw the lines very close together, at other times very wide apart, and afterwards fill up the intervening spaces with lines. By this means you will acquire, a correct eye and idea of the rudiments of form anJ proportion. N To draw oblique lines, you should place the dots upon the paper as usual, and A MISCELLANY 01 USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 281 practise forming lines from right to left (as d y fig. 2), and afterwards from left to right (as /, tig. 2). When ycu have ac- quired Buficcienl command of your pencil to form the various lines correctly, quickly, and freely, join two of them together, so as to appear like e (fig 2). Draw ttie lines whether they be oblique or slanting, perpendicular or upright, and herizontal, or in a line with the tlooc, in every kind of manner, sometimes beginning at the right hand side and sometimes at the left ; at one time at the top of the line, at another at the bottom of it. Do this, prac- tise often, strive to overcome all obstacles, and depend upon it you will accomplish wonders. As you have learned to draw straight lines parallel to one another, it will be necessary to make you connect them in some way, so as to form the outline of an object. Draw two straight lines parallel to one another (like a, in fig. 3) ; then connect the Fig 3. • ends of them by a small curved line, and from that draw a short perpendicular and a short horizontal line (as b, in tig. 3) ; re- peat, until the outline of a set of steps is complete. Draw a horizontal straight line, and from either extremity of it draw two perpendi- cular straight lines (as in fig. 10). When k MISCELLANY OP TSEFTJL KNOWLEDGE. 283 Fig. 10. you can enlarge these copies upon a black board, with a piece of chalk, or reduce them with a pencil upon paper, then you may venture to draw a circle like (c tig. 10). To draw a Circle. — Perhaps one of the most difficult tasks for the beginner is to draw a circle; but like everything else, it is easily done when you know how to set about it. "Commence the task by making a faint dot upon the paper to mark the centre ; then place another dot on either side of it and at equal distances, and continue placing dots at equal distances all around the central one, until a circle of dots is formed ; you must then join all the dots with a steady and slow sweep of the hand, beginning at the top of the circle, and drawing from left to right, and right round from the point at which you started. Practise this several times as it will give you precision, and enable you to observe the relative distance of the outer part of the circle from the centre. Do not attempt to use compass* s to draw a circle. They will not ass ; st you ; on the contrarx , when you are without them, you will be at a loss, and unable to ac< om- plish your object Persevere, and practise continually, and your labours will be rewarded. When eu have drawn a few dozen circles by the aid of the dots, draw some without making any marks upon the paper or board; sometimes drawing from left to right, and at other times, from right to kit. Draw one circle within anotfcer, so that their margin! shall be parallel, as in the portion of one shown in b fig. 10. Draw a semicircle, (as / in fig. 10), and then practise forming d and e in the same figure, until you cannot;* lines neatly, some- times commencing from the lower part of the figures, and at other times, from the upper part. Divide circles into sections, so as to exhibit the half, a quarter, a third, or other divisions of a circle. Draw squares, polygons, and triangles within circles, and then construct a circle within a square. Copy the following figure, and then pro- Pig. 11. ceed to draw the throe following outlines, which you will no doubt do correctly and readily, from the practice you have already had in the curved lines. Be careful in Fig. 12. copying a and c, to make the left hand lines darker than those to the right, while b has lines of each breadth. It is well to use the pencil marked II It for this purpose, the dif- ferent thickness of the tinea being produced by the degree of pressure employed. Foikth Lf..s.sox. In drawing lines, the hand should rest upon the two last fingers, — if the lines are short the motioD of the FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: 284 hand should not extend beyond the wrist- joint ; but if the lines are long, then the band will glide over the paper easily, if it is carefully balanced and rests upon these fingers, while the motion of the hand pro- ceeds from the elbow or from the shoulder. As you have already practised curved lines and circles, you will no doubt be able to copy Fig. 13. this example, which is the outline of the volute of an Ionic capital from the Eric- theuin, at Athens. It is needless to de- scribe how it should be drawn, because if you have attended to the rules already given, you will be able to know how to pro- ceed at once. Copy this example over and over again, enlarging and diminishing the copy, until your eye has become familiar with the figure; then endeavour to form its outline without having the example before you. When you have accom- plished your task, you will be better prepared to copy the next ex- ample. This drawing is a combination of curbed and straight lines so arranged that they form the outline of the base of a column, and by copying *lhis ex- ample frequently, you will aoquire a very good idea of proportion. If you had not exer- cised yourself in draw- ing straight and curved (lines, you could not have drawn this figure. You may, therefore, look upon straight and curved lines as the letters or alphabet of Fig. 14. drawing. Here is another example, composed of straight and curved lines, but differently arranged. In drawing this, commence by making a faint horizontal line upon the paper ; then place a dot at a proper distance above, for the centre part of the arch ; from this dot draw the right hand curved line until it meets the horizon- tal one, then place another dct a little above the horizontal line, at nearly the same distance as the height of the arch from it, and draw two parallel curved lines close together, from the top of the first curved line to the dot you have just placed on the paper. You have now formed the outline of the arch. Draw a horizontal line from each side of the top of the arch, and at the respective distances draw other lines paral- lel to it; then draw perpendicular lines between the horizontal ones, and you will now have formed the masonry. Sketch in the lines of the two banks, commencing with the left one, and afterwards sketch in the stones on the right of the base of the arch. At rather more than half the length of the Fig. 15. left-hand curved lines place a dot, and another, at about two-thirds the distance from the base of the right-hand curved line; connect these two dots by a curved line, and then sketch in the masonry of the archway, as in the example ; all that now remains for you to do is to fill in the shading, which is done by making short parallel strokes at equal distances from each other, as in the example before you. The next object that you are required to copy, is a pyramid, and you observe that the first example is sketched only in outline, in order that you may clearly understand how it is done. When you have drawn the outline cor* reetly several times, you may commence the A MISCELLANY OF TJSEFT7L KNOWLEDGE. 286 next example (fig. 17) which you observe, id carefully shaded by drawing tine perpen- dicular parallel lines between the transverse lmea, aud all of tbem at equal distances. Fig. 16. The shading at the base is drawn in a simi- lar manner ; the only difference being that the lines are horizontal, instead of perpen- dicular. Fig. 17. The next examnle is the outline of a pillar with a millstone resting against it (fig. 18) ; and when you have sketched this, it must be filled in, the same as the other example (fig. 19), which shows the same objects shaded, according to the method we 13* have already pointed out. The weeds and grass require a few extra touches with Ml 1115 pencil, and the outline should be strengthened in the dark parts. Fig. 18. Practise these examples frequently, par- ticularly the weeds at the top of the' pillar, and the shading. Fig. 19. When you are able to draw these ex- amples as they are represented here, draw them backwards ; in other words, plare the millstone on the right instead of the left of the pillar. Draw examples 17 and 19, and shade them as if the ligM was on the left. FIFTH LkSSON. Before submitting the examples we have prepared for this lesson. it will be necessary to make a few observa- tions upon copying. We will suppose that you have to copy a FACTS FOR ETEETBODY: drawing, — perhaps an architectural one. How would you commence ? Most probably differently to your neighbour, who would also commence differently to his neighbour, and so on, unless guided by correct princi- ples. Do not imagine that what we state is without foundation, it is perfectly true; for, not long since, we placed two drawings of the sanJe subject before four pupils, and re- quested them to copy them, and each one or iumenced differently. One of them began at the right-hand side, the other at the left, another at the top, and the fourth in the centre of the drawing. What could illustrate more forcibly than these blunders, that attention to the rules of the art is absolutely necessary ? You ask, " how am I to commence ?" and to this question we will at once reply. First, enclose a certain space, by means of four lines, if for a landscape ; or by an oval or circular line, if for a portrait, &c. . this is called the boundary line of the draiviny, and is used to confine a certain portion of a land- scape or other subject. The importance of attendi g to this rule will be obvious to every person ; and when we treat hereafter of sketching from Nature, you will then find ho*v essential it is to adopt this method. When the boundary-line is formed, your next care should be to determine the rela- tive positions of the principal objects, points, or features, &c. ; and if you have attended to the instructions given in the former lessons, you will not have much difficulty in doing so by faint lines and dots. In a landscape you will have to fix the height of the horizon, which should be done by first { (lacing a dot at each side of the boundary- ine, and then, if you have judged the dis- tance correctly, uniting the two by a faint line drawn through the picture; this is called the horizontal line. When th.it has been done determine the nearest conspicuous object to the boundary line, its height, width, and relative position to the horizontal line, and other objects ; then fix the position of the trees, distance, and foreground, by means of faint outlines, or dots, or both, taking care to observe their relative situa- tions, inclinations, and measurements are regulated by their proximity to the boundary, horizontal, and base lines of the picture ; the last-mentioned line, being the bottom or lower boundary line of the drawing. . In fig. 8, you were directed to draw a line perpendicular to the horizontal ones, this was done for the purpose of enabling you to judge the relative distances of the several angles of the pyramid from each other, and | you will find it very useful to draw a line through the centre of any object that you have to copy, because it serves as a guide to the proper disposition of Jie several other parts. Of course, as you become more and more proficient in the art, this will not be always necessary. We will now commence some practical illustrations of the preceding remarks. You are required to draw tig. 20, which is a Fig. 20, cenlre-piece for a border, or an ornamental panel. Fig. 21, is a diagram illustrating the method of doing so, which is thus: First draw three horizontal lines, a b, c d t e f } and bisect them with the perpendicular 1? Kg. 21, A. MISCELLANY OT USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 287 line g h. You hava only to determine the relative- distances of each point by meSM of dot-, and to draw the curved and straight lines faintly, M shown m fig. 21, and aftcr- warda to rub out the superfluous lines, and Strengthen the outline by broad touches With an IL 15 pencil. We have found it an excellent plan to cut the Indian-rubber, used for ruboing out architectural and tine drawings, in I triangu- lar shape, because the angles enable us to remove very small lines, or dots. The Indian-rubber should not be more than l-4th to 3-7ths of an inch thick. Our next example is of a different cha- racter, being the outline of an antique vase (tig. 22). In drawing this figure, a circle A simple perfect outline is more valuable that an imperfect one, worked up with all the skill of a Vandyke, Wilkie, or Landsccr. Fig. 22. Fig. 23. is first of all drawn, and then it is divided by two perpendicular lines, (as shown in fig. 23), and a horizontal line drawn above the circle. These lines are sufficient to enable the pupil to construct the figure with ease. Our next exercises are taken from antique vases, and given without any diagramatic illustrations to enable the pupil to construct Fig. 25. Many persons assert that the shading and filling up will hide some of the defects in a bad outline ; but be assured that such ad- vice is not only wrong, but highly inju- rious to tyros in the art of drawing ; for opinions such as this are apt to undermine its right principles, and make beginners careless. Outline signifies the contour, or the line by which any figure is defined, being, in fact, the extreme or boundary line of an Fi ? . 24. them ; because, having already given ample directions, we wish pupils to think for them- selves, 60 as to be able to act at times with- out the aid of an instructor. Sixth Lesson. We have now to con- sider the subject of " Outline," a most important one to a draughtsman. j Fig. 26. The Quoit -thrower, 288 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: object. It is the line that determines form. For example — the outline of an apple would not, if correct, convey an impression to your mind that it was intended for an orange Fig. 27. Alexander, or a pear ; and if you look at figs. 22, 24, and 25, you could not imagine that they were like the ordinary jugs in use. Outline may be said to be the skeleton or anatomy of objects ; at least it bears the same relations to them. < Outline cannot be formed without the aid of curved and straight lines (see Less >n III.,) and in illustration of this, we beg to call the attention of our pupils particularly to figs. 26 and 27. The former represents the statute of the quoit-thrower of Myron, and the latter the statue of Alexander, by Gabius, after that of Lysippus, in the Louvre , They are both admirable studies for outline, particularly the latter, wbich exhibits gracefulness, courage, and strength, the muscles being admirably expressed without the aid of shading. _ Of course, as you are now able to form lines of all kinds, in any direction, and of any reasonable length, you are already in possession of the alphabet of outline, and the rest depends upon yourself— for without Fig. 28. Pysche. constant application and attention you can never succeed. Never be absurd enough to detude yourself y while you think that you are deceiving your relations or friends, by tracing outlines against a xoindow. The practice cannot be too highly condemned, because it is contrary to art, honour, and good sense; and so long as you continue the system, it will be impossible for you to depend upon yourself. All marks or lines, that assist in express- ing the character of the design, may be considered as belonging to outline. There are many methods of producing effects by means of outline, besides adhering to the variations of form in the figures. For example — the lines used to express drapery should be flowing, continuous, and gene- rally of variable breadth; those used for the flesh or for some kinds of fruit should partake of the same character; hard sub- stances, such as armour, statuarv, &c, should be expressed by uniform lines of a fine character; and foliage should be drawn boldy, with occasional dark touches, and with a tremulous lateral motion of the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 289 hand. The figure of Pysche, will assist the Supil in comprehending our remarks upon raptry and tiesh. Never jag your lines by making thorn by fits and starts: let the motion of your hand be free and uninterrupted, so as to form a continuous line ; for if the pencil is removed from the paper, a line like a saw will be the result. We need not remind our pupils that there are extremes of outline as in other things ; the one is too great a uniformity of line, the other too great a variation of breadth of line. If the subject is intended to be fin- ished in outline, the pupil should strengthen one side more than the other ; and we recom- mend that the outline etchings issued by the "Art Union of London," which are ex- cellent compositions, should be carefully studied and copied. If the subject is to be shaded, the outline Bhould be light ly, and not too firmly, drawn. We must remind the student in drawing, that to give a correct delineation of the human figure it is indispensable to have some knowledge of muscular action. It is necessary that all the muscles, their purposes and functions, should be well understood ; nor must osteology, or the bones of the skeleton, be neglected. Seventh Lesson. As you are now able to draw outlines correctly, it wiil be neces- sary to study light, shade and reflection, which will give the appearance of substance to the objects you wish to delineate. If we consider light as applied to draw- ing, we must do so under four distinct heads, — 1st, as natural light, or that ema- nating from the sun when it rises, — "At morning, flinging: wide Its curtain-clouds of purple and vermilion, Dispensing; life and liyht on every side ;" 2nd, as artificial light, or that derived from combustible bodies ; 3rd, as direct light, or that light which reaches an object directly, without passing through or being reflected from one object upon another ; and 4th, reflected light, or that light which, when it is received by one object, is thrown off or reflected upon another, as from glass or water. However, we must request our pupils to try some simple experiments for themselves with regard to light before they enter upon their drawing-lesson of light and shade, Place a cork upon the table in front of your window, and let its end rest upon a sheet of paper. You will observe a pyra- midical dark shadow, the base of which commences at the cork, and also a pyra- midical/aiYj* shadow, the apex or point of which corresponds with the base of the dark shadow; and you will also ob-74:, for the use of eharehet ami Monasteries. Benedict Bisoop. who in that wn Bounded ■ monastery, ana attached to it an elegant, church of stone, alter the ItomaW manner, prevailed on some ^lass- makers in 1- ranee to come over and glaze the windows. These artificers not only performed the work assigned to them, but also taught the English how to make win- dows, lamps, and drinking-vessels. Before that period, the windows of houses and churches were filled either with linen, cloth, or lattices of wood ; and even in the twelfth century, glass windows in private houses were very rare. Discovery of Plate-Glass. Blancourt relates, as the mode in which the casting of plate-glass was discovered, that a person who was melting some of this material in a crucible, accidentally spilt it, while fluid, upon the ground. The metal ran under one of the large flag-stones wherewith the place was paved, which obliged the work- mau to take up the stone in order to recover the glass. He then found it in the form of a plate, such as could not be produced by the ordinary process of blowing. The man's attention being roused by this fact, he was unable to sleep, and conceiving at once the superiority of this method for forming mirrors, he immediately commenced experimenting, and before the day had ap- peared, had proved the practicability of the improvement which the purest chance had thus placed within the sphere of his observa- tion. SHORTHAND. Among all the systems of shorthand, or stenography, we know of none less complicated than that of Taylor, improved by Harding. First, we give the alphabet : — * *> o a e I ^ li j £ l.m a O C[ p -p s * P ^ 7/ - i ^ \ t beneath, are supposed to have been thus deposited in some remote time, when the locality was covered with the deep waters. 296 PACTS FOE everybody: SIGNIFICATION OP CHRISTIAN NAMES. Aaron, Hebrew, a mountain. Abel, Heb. vanity. Abraham, Heb. the father of many. Absalom, Heb. the father's peace. Achilles, Greek, a freer from pain. Adam, Heb. red earth. Adolphus, Saxon, happiness and help. Adrian, Latin, a helper. Alfege, Sax. always merry. Alan, British, swift like a greyhound. Albert, Sax. all bright. Aldred, Sax. the dread of all. Alexander, Gr. a helper of men. Alfred, Sax. all peace. Alfric, German, all rich. Alphonso, Gothic, our help. Alwin, Sax. winning all. Ambrose, Gr. immortal. Amos, Heb. a burden. Andrew, Gr. courageous. Andronicus, Gr. a conqueror of men. Anselm, Ger. a defender. Anthony, Lat. nourishing. Apelles, Gr. not black at all. Archibald, Ger. a bold observer. Arnold, Ger. a maintainer of honour. Arthur, Brit, a strong man. iaSuS;}^-™- "•.«»»«■ Baldwin, Ger. a bold winner. Bardulph, Ger. a famous helper. Barnaby, Heb. a prophet's son. Bartholomew, Heb. the son of him who made the waters to rise. Basil, Gr. kindly. Beaumont, F, ench y a pretty mount. Bede, Sax. prayer. Bevis, Fr. fair "to look upon. Benjamin, Heb. the son of a right hand. Bennet, Lat. blessed. Bernard, Ger. bear's heart. Bertram, Ger. fair, illustrious. Blaise, Gr. sprouting forth. Buonaventure, Italian, good adventure. Boniface, Lat. a well-doer. Brian, Fr. having a thundering voice. Cadwallader, Brit, valiant in war. Caesar, Lat adorned with hair. Caleb, Heb. a dog. Cecil, Lat. dim-sighted. Charles, Ger. noble-spirited. Christopher, Gr. bearing Christ. Clement, Lat. mild-tempered. Conrad, Ger. able counsel. Constantine, Lat. resolute. Crispin, Lat. having curled lockg. Cuthbert, Sax. known famously, Daniel, Heb. God is judge. David, Heb. well-beloved. Demetrius, Gr. sprung from the earth. Denis, Gr. belonging to the god of wine. Dunstan, Sax. most high. jvigar, Sax. happy honour. Edmund, Sax. happy peace. Edward, Sax. happy keeper. Edwin. Sax. happy conqueror. Egbert, Sax. ever bright. Eleazar. Heb. the God of help. ELired, Sax. terrible. Elijah, Heb. God, the Lord. Eiisha, Heb. the salvation of God. Emmanuel, Heb. God with us. Enoch, Heb. instructed or dedicated. Ephraim, Heb. fruitful. Erasmus, Gr. lovely, worthy to he loved. Ernest, Gr. earnest, serious. Esau, Heb. completed. Ethelbald, Sax. nobly bold. Ethelbert, Sax. nobly bright. Ethel fred, Sax. noble peace. Ethelfred, Sax. noble in counsel. Ethelstan, Sax. a noble jewel. Ethel wald, Sax. a noble keeper. Ethelwold, Sax. a noble governor. Evan, or I von, Brit, the same as John. Everard, Ger. well reported. Eugene, Gr. nobly descended. Eusebius, Gr. religious. Eustace, Gr. standing firm. Ezekiel, Heb. the strength of God. Ezra, Heb. a helper. Felix, Lat. happy. Ferdinand, Ger. pure peace. Fortunatus, Lat. happy. Francis, Ger. free. Frederic, Ger. rich peace. Gabriel, Heb. the strength of God. Geoffrey, Ger. joyful. George, Gr. a husbandman. Gerard, Sax. all towardliness. German, Lat. a near kinsman. Gervase, Ger. all sure. Gideon, Heb. a breaker. Gilbert, Sax. bright as gold. Giles, Gr. a little goat. Goddard, Ger. a godly disposition. Godfrey, Ger. God's peace. Godwin, Ger. victorious in God. Griffith, Brit, having great faith. Guy, Fr. the misletoe shrub. Hannibal, Funic, a gracious lord. Harold, Sax. a champion. Hector, Gr. a stout defender. Henry, Ger. a rich lord. Herbert, Ger. a bright lord. Hercules, Gr. the glory of Hera or June, Hezekiah, Heb. cleaving to the Lord. Hilary, Lat. merry, cheerful. Horatio, Ital. worthy to be beheld, Howel, Brit, sound, or whole. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 297 Hubert, Ger. a bright colour. Hugh, Dutch, high, lofty. Humphrey, Ger. domestic peace. Jacob, Heb. u mpplanter James, or Jacques, beguiling. Ingram, Ger. of angelic purity. Joab, Heb. fatherhood. Job, Heb. sorrowing. Joel, Htb. acquiescing. John, Heb. the grace of the Lord. Jonah, Heb. a dove. Jonathan, Heb. the gift of the Lord. JoSeelin, Ger. just. Joseph, Heb. addition. Josias, Htb. the lire of the Lord. Joshua. Heb. a Saviour, Isaac, Heb. laughter. Israel, Heb. prevailing with God. Judah, Heb. confession. Kenard, Sax. of a kind nature. Kenelm, Sax. a defence of his kindred. Lambert, '"ax. a fair lamb. Lancelot, Span, a little lance. Laurence, Lat. crowned with laurels. Lazarus, Heb. destitute of help. Leonard, Ger. like a lion. Leopold, Ger. defending the people. Lewellin, Brit like a lion. Lewis, Fr. the defender of the people. Lionel, Lat. a little lion. Lodowic, Sax. the defence of the people Lucius, Lat. shining. Luke, Gr. a wood or grove. Malachi, Heb. my messenger. Mark, Lat. a hammer. Marmaduke, Ger. a mighty duke or lord. Martin, Lat. martial Matthew, Heb. a gift or present. Maurice, Lat. sprung of a Moor. Mereditb, Brit, the roaring of the sea. Michael, Heb. who is like God. Morgan, Brit, a mariner. Moses. Heb. drawn out. Narcissus. Gr. a daffodil. Nathaniel, Heb. the gift of God. Neal. Fr. somewhat black. Nicolas, Gr. victorious over the people. Noel, Fr. belonging to one'b nativity. Norman, Fr. one born in Normandy. Obadiah, Heb. the servant of the Lord. Oliver, Lat. an olive. Orlando, Ital. counsel for the land. Osmund, Sax. house peace. Oswald, Sax. ruler of a house. Owen, Brit, well descended. Patrick, Lat. a nobleman. Paul, Lat. small, little. Percival, Fr. a place in Franc©. Peregrine, Lat. outlandish. Peter, Gr. a rock or stone. Philemon, Gr. saluting. Philip, Gr. a lover of horses. Phineas, lhh. of bold countenance. Ptolemy, Or. nighty in war. Quintio, Lat. belonging to five. Ralph, contracted from Radolph, or Randal, or Ramlph, Sax. pure help. Raymond, Ger. quiet peace. Reuben. Heb. the son of vision. Reynold, Ger. a lover of purity. Richard, Sax powerful. Robert, Ger. famous in counsel. Roger, Ger. strong counsel. Roa l.md, Ger. counsel for the land* Rufus, Lat. reddish. Solomon, Heb. peaceable. Samson, lhb. a little son. Samuel, Htb. heard by God. Saul, Heb. desired. Sebastian, Gr. to be reverenced. Simeon, Heb. hearing. Simon, Heb. obedient. Stephen, Gr. a crown or garland. Swiihin, Sax. very high. Thaddeus, Syriac, a breast. Theobald, Sax bold over the people. Theodore, Gr. the gift of God. Theodosius, Gr. given of God. Theophilus, Gr. a lover of God. Thomas, Heb. a twin. Thurstan, Ger. faithful. Timothy, Gr. a fearer of God. Toby or Tobias, Heb. the goodness of the Lord. Tristram, Lat. sorrowful. Valentine, Lat powerful. Vincent, Lat. conquering, Vivian, Lat. living. Urban, Lat. courteous. Walter, Ger. a wood-master. Walwin, Ger. a conqueror. "William, Ger. defending many. Zaccheus, Syriac, innocent. Zaehary, Heb. remembering the Lord. Zebedee, Syriac, having an inheritance. Zedekiah, Heb. the justice of the Lord. Abigail, Heb. the father's joy, Ade ine, Ger. a princess. Agatha, Gr. good. Agnes, Ger. chaste. Alethea, Gr. the truth. Althea, Gr. hunting. Alice, Alicia, Ger. noble. Amy, Amelia, Fr. a beloved. Anna, Anne, or Hannah, Heb. gracioufc, Arabella, Lat. a fair altar. Aureola, Lat. like jrold Barbara, Lat. foreign or strange. Beatrice, Lat. making happy. Benedicta, Lat. blessed. Bernice, Gr. bringing victory* FACTS FOB. ETEETBODY: Bertha, Gr. bright or famous. . Blanche. Fr. fair. Bona, Lat. good. Bridget, Irish, shining bright. Cassandra, Gr. a reformer of men Catharine, Gr. pure or clean. Charity, Gr. love, bounty. Charlotte, Fr. all noble. Caroline, feminine of Carolus, the Latin of Charles, noble-spirited. Chloe, Gr. a green herb. Christiana, Gr. belonging to Christ. Cecilia, Lat. from Cecil. Cicely, a corruption of Ceciha. Clara, Lat. clear or bright. Constance, Lat. constant. Damaris, Gr. a lirtle wife. Deborah, Heb. a bee Diana, Gr. Jupiter's daughter, Dorcas, Gr. a wild rce. Dorothy, Gr. the gift of God. Drnsilla. Gr. dewy eyes. Dulsabella, Lat sweet and fair. Edith, Sax. happiness. Eleanor, Sax. all fruitful. Eliza. Elizabeth, Heb. the oath of God. Emily, corrupted from Amelia. Emma, Ger. a nurse. Esther, Hestber, Heb. secret. Eve, Heb. causing life. Eunice, Gr. fair victory. Eudoia, Gr. prospering* in the way. Frances, Ger. free. Gertrude, Ger. all truth. Grace, Lat. favour. Hagar, Heb. a stranger. Heleua, Gr. alluring. Jane, softened from Joan ; or t Janne, the feminine of John. Janet, Jeannette, little Jane. Joyce, Fr. pleasant. Isabella, Span, fair Eliza. Judith, Heb. praising. Julia. Juliana, feminine of Julius. Eunigunda, Ger. the king's favour. Lettice, Letitia, Lat. joy or gladness. Lois, Gr. better. Lucretia, Lat. a chaste Roman lady. Lucy, Lat- feminine of Lucius. Lydia, Gr. descended from Lud. Mabel, Lat. lovely. Magdalene, Maudlin, 'Syr. magnificent. Margaret, Ger. a pearl. Martha, Heb. bitterness. Mary, Heb. bitter. Maud, Matilda, Gr. a lady of honour. Millicent. Fr. sweet as honey. Mercy, Eng. compassion. Mildred, Sax. speaking mild. Nest, Brit, the same as Aqnes. Nicola, Gr. feminine of Nicolas, Olympia, Gr. heavenly. Orabilis, Lat. to be entreated. Parneli, or Petronilla, little Pe*er. Patience, Lat. bearing patiently. Paulina, Lai. feminine of Pauliuvs Penelope, .Or. a turkey. Persia. Gr a destroying. Philadelphia, Gr. brotherly love. Philippa, Gr. feminine of Philip. Phoebe, Gr. the light of life. Phyllis, Gr. a green bough. Priscilla, Lat. somewhat old. Prudence, Lat. discretion. Psyche, Gr. the soul. Rachel^ Hrb. a lamb. Rebecca, Heb. fat or plump. Rhoda, Gr. a rose. Rosamond, Sar. rose of peace. Rosa, Lat. a rose. Rosecleer, Eng. a fair rose. Rosabella. Ital. a fair rose. Ruth,* Heb. trembling. Sabina, Lat. sprung from the Sabines. Salome, Heb. perfect. Sapphira, Gr. like a sapphire stone. Sarah, Heb. a princess. Sybilla, Gr. the counsel of God. Sophia, Gr. wisdom. Sophronia, Gr. of a sound mind. Susan, Susanna, Heb. a lily. Tabitha, Syr, a roe. Temperance, Lat. moderation. Theodosia, Gr. given by God. Tryphosa, Gr. delicious. Tryphena, Gr. delicate. Vida, Erse, feminine of David. Ursula, Lat. a female bear. AValhurg, Sax. gracious. Winifred, Sax. winning peace. Zenobia, Gr. the life of Jupiter. NUMERALS. The numerical figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. 0, are upon good au- thority believed to be of Indian origin. They were n'>t used in Germany till the be- ginning of the fourth century, nor in Russia until the beginning of the last century. Before the use of these figures, the Roman numerals or alphabetic characters were used. Men in the first instance counted with their fingers ; and hence four simple strokes stand for four. Five was represented by a rude drawing of the left hand with the back towards the counter, viz. V. Two V's together counted ten, and made the figure X. The hundred was marked by the letter C, which stool for the Latin word centum. The latter form of numerical notation is stated still to be preserved in the accounts of the English Exchequer. ELEC TROTYPING. This is the art of depositing metals, held in solution by A ITTSfTLLAXY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 299 galvanism, on other metals ; thus it is a perfect process ot gilding. Impressions of medals, ooins, &c, may be copied by it with perfect aecuiacy. BOSK OF WOOD SHAVINGS (TO MAKE A). Cut out 14 petals same as No. 3, and 18 of No. 2 ; then 20 of the larger size. Cut them on the length of the shaving, and curl them slightly at the edge with the Scissors; then form a loop of wire as at "ho. 6, and having twisted a strip of sharing round it, commence'to tie on the petals with some strong thread. Tie on the 14 small Ones; then the next rise, and so on till the (lower is complete. Cut the rose leaves gii6 on the Length, and vein them with the scissors, holding the points a little spurt, so as to give the vein ■ rased look. Gum them on the wire stalk, which form same as design No. 7. Be careful to bind the spray neatly to the main branch with a slight st rip of the shaving, and fasten off by a little gum at the end. FOWLS (HOW TO KEEP). No fowls can possibly thrive well, or bo profitable to the owners, unless" they are plentifully fed, and have a comfortable place to roost in at night, and for a shelter in cold or wet weather. Their room or hen-house may be adjoining to some other out-building. It is best to have it facing the east or the south, and it must be perfectly weather-tight. It should have a door and windows, and be very well lighted ; the windows may either be latticed with wood or netted with iron wire. In the evening, after the fowls have gone to roost, let the door be locked— seeing that it is opened very early in the morning, unless in bad weather. The hen-house should be frequently cleaned out and occa- sionally white-washed; for, if kr>pt dirty, the fowls will be infested with vermin. If this should happen, catch everv fowl, even to the smallest chicken, and rub their skins and feathers well with lard or dripping; then have their house thoroughly cleaned and whitewashed at once, afterwards fumi- gating it with burning brimstone. Next throw some sand or fresh earth on the floor. If fowls are scantily supplied with water, or if they have access" only to that which is dirty or 'puddled, they will contract a dis- order called the pip, which is a thin white scale that grows on the tip of the tongue, and prevents their feeding Catch them, pull off the scale with your fore-finger nail, and then rub the tongue with salt. "When fowls 800 FAOT8 FOB EVE&TRODY have this, or any other disease, they look drooping, their eyef appear dull, aud their combs and gills "he( ome pale aud flabby. When they are sick feed them with bran that has been mixed to a paste with boiling water. In wet weather, keep the fowls shut up all day in the hen-house ; also when it is very cold, taking care that they are properly supplied with food and water. They should have, in their house, a little manger or feed- ing-trough, which ought never to be empty. It they have plenty of food always by them, they will eat frequently, but only a little at a time, and it is best for them to do so. "When their food is given to them scantily and irregularly, they injure themselves by devouring it too fist. They should have food given to them regularly three times a day. When newlv hatched they may have bread soaked in milk. By way of variety, you may give your fowls, occasionally, buck- wheat, barley, rice, and oats. If always fed there, they will stay chiefly in their house during the winter, and will in consequence be more healthy, and in every respect more profitable. They must be well supplied with plenty of clean water in large shallow pans of tin or earthenware ; also with brick-dust and gravel, to assist their digestion. It is well to place in the centre of their large water-pan a small but heavy one of earthenware, turned bottom up- wards, on which the fowls can stand to drink •without wetting their feet, which often in winter makes them sick. Recollect always that dirty water gives them diseases. But a little clean brick-dust thrown occasionally in their drinking-pans is good for their digestion. Their nests should be moveable, that whenever the hen has done sitting they may he taken away and cleaned out before they are replaced For the nest you may place on the floor (not far from the walls but not against them) old flat baskets; or. deep boxes set up on the side ; the open or en- trance part turned from the light. Fill them with clean dry straw or hay. Place near the boxes lime for the hens to form their egg-shells, Old rubbish-lime, or plaster from old walls, is very proper for their purpose, if well broken up. If you cannot procure this, mix lime and water to a mor- tar : let it dry then break it up and put it into the hen-house. See that the sitting hens have plenty of food and water every day, at the time they come off their nests. If they are not supplied at once, they will go back to their nests without waiting, and Euffer much in consequence. Their roosts or perches should be so con- trived as not to be exactly over each other, and some should be placed low enough for the young fowls to reach without difficulty in flying up to them. Let none of the nest- boxes be placed under the roosis. The hen-house should frequently be cleaned out, whitewashed, fumigated with sulphur, or by burning boughs; and then strewed with sand. Wormwood and rue, sown plentifully every spring about the neighbourhood of the hen-house, will tend to keep away vermin; and if strewed about the floor in the vicinity of their nests, it will keep off weasels and other such animals that come to suck eggs. Bantam fowls are less injurious to a garden than any others, as the feathers about their feet prevent them from scratching up the seeds. If your garden fence has the paling sharp-pointed at the top, the fowls that are outside will find it difficult to get over; as after flying up to the top, they will have no place to rest their feet on while preparing to take their fliirht downward. EARTHQUAKES. Form the most terrible of all natural phenomena. They make the 6olid globe itself tremble and quiver beneath our feet, and sometimes to appear to the eye to undulate like the waves of the sea when agitated by the wind. They break up the crust of the earth, elevating it here into hills, depressing it there into valleys; seaming it with rents and fissures, from which often arise products never before known in the district ; altering the course of rivers ; pro- ducing new shores and beaches ; raising the sea bottom up to become dry land, and de- pressing the richly wooded land to become henceforth the bottom of the sea ; leaving cities that overhung the ocean several miles inland, and submerging other cities again below the waters ; altering the distribution of animal life, and occasionally destroying it to a vast extent. Let us mention a case or two by way of illustration :— In 1822, a tract of territory on the Chili coast, above one hundred miles in extent, was raised from two to six feet ; and the sea bottom, thus laid bare, emitted for a long time the most intolerable odour from the decay of dead fish, &c. In 1596, on the other hand, several Japanese towns were covered by the sea. AVALANCHES. Originate in the higher regions of mountains, and are formed of gradually accumulating masses of snow, which, at last, become so ponderous, that the inclined planes on which they rest can no longer support them, and they are hurled down into the valley beneath, often destroy- ing villages, with all their inhabitants, filling up rivers so as to change their course A MTSCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 301 Suddenly, and scattering abroad the rocky debris which they have brought down win them. AIR (CHANGE OF). Change of air is at ail times one of the Bract important auxiliaries of the medical tdvimt. T> per- sons confined in close towns, accustomed to sedentary employments, and suffering from the ailment* incidental to such situations, and modes of lite, a change to some open hillv district, or the breezy sea-side, often produces marvellous results; so with the poor invalid, attacked, perchance by con- sumption, who finds the fresh breezes of the hills or the sea -shore too keen for the dis- eased lungs to breathe, for such, in some sheltered vale of the Ftorirtat, and other southern portions of our ImimI, relief and en- joyment may be often found. In the low- lying, thickly-wooded rural district*, the air is generally relaxing, and frequently laden with miasma; persons who are obliged to dwell there, should get out upon the open hills as often as possible, and let the lungs play freely in the bracing air ; those engaged m rural, occupations, are usual!" enabled to resist the enervating effort* of the bad air which they inhale, although not always, as we see by the prevalence of ague, and other fevers," among them. After all, how- ever, for purity of air, the country is far to be preferred to the town, and in most situ- ations, the rural population are more health- ful than the urban. As a general rule it may be noted that dry air is good, if not too dry ; in which case it is likely to cause cracks and chaps in the skin, and to be loaded with minute f (articles of dust which are injurious to the ungs. Moist air is not healthy tc breathe, especially if accompanied by cold, as it often is in this climate, hence the prevalence of pulmonary diseases. The air of the coast, if not too keen, is undoubtedly stimulating and strengthening, in a great measure owing, probably, to its containing a portion of the marine constituents; there is a healthful freshness in the very play and dash of the waves, and the lungs seem to inhale larger quantities of the atmosphere, and to expand more freely, by the margin of the wide ocean ; here that indispensable conditiou of atmospheric purity, constant motion, ever prevails, as it does usually upon great elevations, hili-tops and lofty table-lands, around and over which the fales sweep, whistling, and swaying the oughs of the pines and other mountain- trees, while, in the vale below, the heat is sultry, and not a leaf is stirred. Great con- trasts are exhibited in the characters of the 14 dwellers in these two different regions, and this is owing in a considerable degree to the influence of the air they breathe. ALCOttOl* Is an Arabic term used by ebemistj to signify highly rectified or pure spirit, such as Spirits of Wine; the term haj also another meaning, viz., anything re- duced into an impalpable powder ; but it is now rarely vised in this sense. Alcohol is generally prepared by fermenting saccharine substances, such as malt, and the process of converting the sugar into alcohol is called vinous fermentation. This process of con- version may be thus briefly described. The liquor containing the dissolved sugar is sub- jected to a heat of 150° and allowed to cool to 70°, yeast is then added ; very shortly, an internal movement in the lluid takes place, a thick scum forms on the surface, and a gaseous matter escapes, which is carbonic acid gas j the hyarogen in the fluid then unites with a portion of the carbon, and forms olefiant gas, which, uniting with the water (oxygen and hy- drogen), composes alcohol, and this, from its superior lightness, passes over and is condensed, in combination with watery vapour, in a cooled receiver. To deprive alcohol of its water, it is passed through dried Carbonate of Potash, Chloride of Cal- cium, Lime, Barytes, or Alumina ; or it may be done by putting it an open A'essel under the exhausted receiver of an air pump, previouslv placed in a vessel containing lime. Pure alcohol is a transparent, colourless fluid, of a pungent taste and fragrant odour ; it is lighter and more volatile than water, burns with a blue flame which becomes yel- lowish when the spirit is diluted with water, when mixed with an equal bulk of which, it is termed Proof Spirit, it then ha- cific gravity of 917, and this is not quite so strong as that used for many tinctures and other pharmaceutical purposes, the strength of which is represented by 0*930, the gravity of pure alcohol being, accord- ing to Low-itz, 079^, although the Leyden college make it 0815. The pure spirit of commerce is seldom less than from 0-830 to 0835. Alcohol is the active principle of all in- toxicating drinks, the habitual use of which, according to Dr. Paris, induces ''more than half of all our chronic diseases." Brandy, Rum, Gin, Whisky, &c, are but variously flavoured forms of diluted alcohol; medi- cinally they are sometimes prescribed, and employed with good effect ; brandy has been found especially useful to rouse the system in some cases of extreme debility, and in the sinking stages of typhus fever, &c. 302 PACTS FOR ETEHTBODTt They are scmetimes recommended as nervous stimulants in cases of great depression, but there is always danger that the taking of them may become a continued habit, which will grow upon the patient, and eventually make a wreck of mind and body. CUCKOO, or CUCULUS. A genus of birds, of which there are 46 species ; the common English bird weighing about five ounces; the bill black, and the feathers a dove-colour. They arrive in spring, and depart in July. Ihey lay their eggs in the nests of other birds, chiefly in that of the hedge-sparrow, from which the young cuckoos turn out the young sparrows. MOLE. A quadruped about six inches in length, living in subterranean burrows, which it rapidly forms by its snout and feet, being able to withdraw its eves at pleasure. PAPER INTO PARCHMENT (HOW TO MAKE) . Sulphuric acid, which changes cotton and other fibrous substances into a fulminating material, possesses also the singular property of transforming paper into parchment. To produce this trans- formation, take unsized paper and plunge it into a solution of two parts of concentrated Ljulphuric acid combined with one part of water* withdraw it immediately, and wash it in clean water and the change is complete. It is now fit for writing, for the acid supplies the want of size, and it becomes so strong that a strip, two or three inches wide, will bear from sixty to eighty pounds weight ; whilst a strip of parchment of the like size would onlv bear about twenty -five pounds. MONKEY. The genera' name of the ape. baboon, and "siinia tribe, the several varieties of which are principally found in the tropical climates. They inhabit forests in prodigious numbers, and, though mis- chievous, their manr-" s are fantastical and interesting. They Lave hands like man, and also, walk on two legs, but they practise no arts beyond what are suggested by the necessities* of the hour. They are affection- ate to their young, and often exhibit great sagacity, but their brain is smaller than that of man, and they are without his risible muscle, and less in size. They throw missiles with great dexterity, and live on vegetables, PAPIER MACHE? This substance is made from the pulp of paper, or of old paper ground up with size, and moulded into various forms. A mixture of sulphate of iron, quicklime and glue, renders papier mache to a great extent water-proof, and the further addition of phosphate of soda contributes to make it fire-proof. A concise history of the manufacture has been pub- lished bv Mr. Bielfield. VULCAN. The god of fire and work- ing metals, in the Greek mythology; and the same as the Tubal Cain of the Hebrews. FRIEZE. In architecture the frieze is the part of the entablature between the architecture and the cornice. It is usually enriched with figures of animals, or other ornaments of sculpture. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 303 "WOODS (FINE &c). Some woods, such as ebony, box, manogany, ealambo, cedar, &c. :irc valued on account of their extra* ordinary hardness, beautiful polish, brilliant colours, or agreeable smell, and are niado into cabinets, tables, comb*, beads, &c. Eisony. The wood of the Amerimnu/nEbe- nxs of Linnams, is brought from the Indies; it U exceedingly hard and heavy, capable of a ; very tine polish ; and on that aecount it is used in inlaid works, toys, and Mosaic. (Mosaic works are in assemblage of marble, ! shells, stones, glass, &c, of various colours, i cut square and cemented, or inlaid.) This ia \ sometimes done with wood, and the ancients were used to adorn their richest furniture with a mosaic of ivory, ebony, and the finest woods. Of ebony there are several kinds, bla.^lc, red, green, &c, all of which are found in Madagascar. The island of Mau- ritius likewise, furnishes part of the ebony used in Europe. If. Flacourt, who resided in .Madagascar as. governor, assures us that it grows very high and big ; its bark black, and its leaves resembling thase of our myrtle, of a deep, dusky green colour. Tavefnier says, that the islanders take eare to -bury their trees, when cut down, to make them the blacker. Candia, also, bears a little shrub called Ehmus Cretica. Pliny and Dioscorides say the best ebony comes from Ethiopia, and the worst from India: Theophrastus prefers that of India. The best ebony is a jet black, free from veins and rind, very heavy, and of a sharp pun- gent taste. Its rind was supposed good for some disorders. Ebony yields an agreeable perfume when laid on the coals ; and even when green it readily takes fire. The Indians make statues of their gods, and sceptres for their princes of this wood. Since the discovery of dyeing woods, ebony has been less employed than formerly. Green ebony is produced by a tree, less lofty, and more bushy than that which yields the black: it grows in Madagascar, the Mauritius, the Antilles, and especially in Tobago : this j is used in dyeing, and yields a tine green tincture. Of red ebony we know but little. Cabinet-makers, in layers, &c, make pear tree and other wood spass for ebony, by wash- ing tliL-m with a hot decoction of gall's, &c. Box is of long duration Its wood is extremely hard and smooth, and therefore well adapted to the use of the turner. Button-moulds, knife-handles, combs, and mathematical instruments are made of it, and it may be very properly uaed as a subs- titute for ebony. The efficacy of box-wood, in making the hair grow, is thus stated in the Ephemerides i of the curious. A young woman of C.unberg, in Lower Silesia, having had a malignant disease, which occasioned the falling off of all her hair, was advised by a person sane time after her recovery, to wash her head all over with a decoction of box-wood : this she readily did, without the addition of any other drug. Hair of a chestnut colour grew" on her head, as she was told it would .do ; but having used no precaution to secure her neck and face, they became covered with red hair to such a degree, that she seemed little different from an ape or a monkey. This effect, however, has not been expe- rienced by others, and the box-tree now yields no medicinal or chemical preparation. Logwood, Campeachy or Indian Wood, This tree grows pleiitit'ullv, and to a con- sidcrable size in Jamaica, Campeachy', A:e. The wood is at first red, but after it has been felled some time it becomes black. It is very heavy, and, in burning, gives a clear lasting flame. Logwood is principally used in dyeing, particularly black and violet. It is called also Jamaica Wood. It has a sweet astringent taste, and is administered as medicine in cases of diarrhoea and dysentery. It is much used in Portugal to make port wine, a decoction of logwood with a little Brazil rum, and an extract of rhatlanny root, which is brought from S. America, being frequently sent to this country as genuine wine. Brazil Wood. The Cazsalpina Bra* siliensis of Linnaeus; an American wood, of a red colour, and very heavy. It is de- nominated variously according to the places from which it is brought : thus we have Brazil of Pernambuco, Japan, and Lamon. Brazilletto is the same with Brazil Wood; this tree commonly grows in dry barren places, and in the middle of rocks ; it is very thick and large; usually knotted and crooked ; its flowers, which are of a beautiful red, exhale a very agreeable smell, which is said to strengthen the brain. This wood grows naturally in the warmest parts of America, whence it is imported for the dyers, who make considerable use of it. Though the tree be naturally very thick, yet the demand has been so great, that none of the large trees are left in any of the British plantations. The branches are slender, and full of small pri< kles. The colour produced from this wood is greatly improved by a solution of tin in aqnr firewood, being difficult tp A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 305 burn ; but it is of great use to the sugar planters, for making wheels and cogi for sugar mills. It Is also brought to Kurope, and wrought Into V-ws, sheaves of ship- blocks, and other utensils ; but its principal in ined'u inc. The bark and wo.»d ol' this tree are much of the same nature. f They are used in diet drinks to purity and cleanse the blood. Tinctures of the resin or gum-guaiacum, were long considered as specifics for the rheumatism, and are elegant sudoriiics. • Aloes Wood, Ctlambac, or Calambour. A kind of wood brought from China, usually sold under the denomination of Upturn aloes. Sir Phillip Venuitti makes calambac and lignum aloes synonymous. Others consider ealambac wood to be the best sort of aloes wood, growing chiefly in Malacca and Sumatra, and much used, in India for making beads and crucifixes. There are three kinds of this wood, the calambac or finest aloe- wood is light, spongy, very fra- grant, and varying from black to yellow, and Often of a variegated colour. The com- mon lignum aloes is more dense, and of a brown colour; and the calambour is lighter, more bitter, of a green, black, or brown, and used bv cabinet makers and inlavers. TIMBER TRKFS. Oak. The uses to •which oak is applied are numerous. It will endure all weathers and seasons; hence it is used for purposes that are liable to such exposures, as posts, rails, boards, pales, •wheel spokes, hoops, building, &c. For water-works it is second to none, or where exposed to both wind and water, as ship- building, &c. The bark and sawdust are useful to the tanner and dyer ; and in wash- ing, the ashes or lees are useful. Elm is of use in water-works for pipes, pumps, and ship planks. It makes good chopping-blorks, not being liable to break and fly in chips. It is used for axletrees by Wheelwrights. Carvers use it for foliage and curious works; and it is made into cof- fins, as being very difficult to corrupt. A decoction of the inner bark of the common elm has been recommended in scorbutic, scrofulous, and rephnitic complaints. .A sir is of almost universal use, particu- larly where it may lie dry, though often used in other situations, It serves the builder, carpenter, cooper, turner, wheel- wright, &<\, but more especially the plough- wi lght ; and at sea it is used for oara and handspike*. Beech is used among turners, joiners, and upholsterers. For uses under water it is said to outlast the oak. Of the bark, floats are made for fishing nets, instead of cork. It also serves for a variety of domestic pur- poses, and was in great estimation among the ancients. The leaves of tin- bi < cli con- tinue long sweet, and make go id matl An oil may be extracted from the hark. The wood is of a cle m tine grain, and can be cut so thin that it makes bandboxes, hal C8X s, and even book-covers and •tiftbbards for swords. Walnut is of general use in France. It is not so proper for the outside of buildings, but there is no wood better for the joiners. It is less subject to the worms than beech, and is of a more curious browd. The hickory nut, or white Virginian walnut, is very com- mon in various paits of our America. Cuesnit-Tree is very lasting, "and is much sought after by carpenters and joiners. It is esteemed next after the oak, but while it appears fair without, it will decay in- wardly. Great part of London was anciently built with chesnut. Excellent starch may be made from horse-chesnuts. Poplar, Abele, and Aspen, differ little from each other. The timber is excellent for all sorts of white wooden vessels. It is tougher and harder than fir, and is fre- quently used instead of it. It has some- thing of the nature of cork, and is used by some countrymen as soles for shoes. Alder is used for water-pipes and sluices; anciently boats were made with it, and large vessels. It is useful for trays, tren- chers, and wooden reels. The dyers make the bark useful. Alder endures water, and if always wet, it becomes hard like a stone; though if it be wet and dry alternately, it rots presently. Birch -Tree. There are four species of birch. The common birch-tree may be cul- tivated upon barren land, where better trees will not thrive; for there is no ground so bad, but this tree will thrive in it. It will grow in moist springy land, or in dry gravel or sand, where there is little surface. So that upon ground that produced nothing but moss, these trees have succeeded so well, as to be fit to cut in ten years .liter planting, when they have been sold for near ten pounds per acre, standing, and the after produce lias been consideraUy increased. Many woods near London, which were clmily stocked wih these tr. es, having been of late years grubbed up. the value of these plm tations has advanced in proportion. Per- sons, therefore, who are possessed of poor land, cannot employ it better than by plant- ing it with these trees, especially as the expense of doing it is not great. Broom- makers are constant customers for birch. Iloop-benders are also great purchasers 30G PACTS foe everybody: The largest trees are often bought by the turners; and the wood is used for making ox-yokes, and other instruments of hus- bandry. In some of the northern parts of Europe, the wood of this tree is greatly used for making wheels for carriages, being hard, and of long duration. In Prance, it U generally used for making wooden shoes, and it is good fuel. In some places, these trees are tapped in the spring, and the sap drawn to make birch wine, which has been recommended for the stone and gravel. Mr. Boyle tells us, he has seen extrordinary medicinal effects of the juice itself. He says the j nice may be easily pre- served, by pouring a little oil on the top of it, or by distillation, &c. The piercing and bleeding of birch is performed thus : about the beginning of March, cut a slit almost as deep as the pith, under some well-spread- ing branch; cut it oblique, and not long- ways, and inert a small stone or chip, to keep the lips of the wound a little open ; lastly, to this orifice fasten a bottle, into which will distil a limpid and clear water, retaining an obscure smack, both of the taste and odour of the tree. The wonder is, that, in the space of twelve pr fourteen days, as much juice will be gathered, as will out- weigh (he whole tree, body and roots. Larcu-Tree. Linnaeus refers this to the genus of pine. The common larch-tree grows naturally upon the Alps and Apen- nines, and has lately been much propagated in England. One kind of this tree is a na- tive of America. In many places ships are built of this wood, which is said to be du- rable ; and, therefore, this may be a very proper tree for planting upon the cold ban en hills of England; which, beside the profit they would yield to their proprietors, would also conduce to national benefit. The Ve- nice turpentine is extracted from the larch- tree. Pine. From the wild pine is procured the common turpentine. The leaves and tender tops of pine and fir are used for diet- drinks. .Pitch, tar, rosin, and turpentine, are all made from those trees by very fami- liar methods, which have already been de- scribed under their respective heads. Fir. Linmcus makes the fir-tree only a different species of the pine. The silver fir grows about S trash urgh and other parts of Germany, whence the turpentine is brought to England. The Norway, or spruce fir is common to the woods of Norway, and affords the white deals. From the spruce firs is made the spruce beer. A very good method of seasoning planks of deal and fir, is to throw them into salt water as soon as sawed, and to keep them there for three or four days. This renders them much harder, if dried afterwards in the air and sun. Osier or Willow is of the Salix genus. Of the willow there are many species ; Lin- nsufl enumerates seventy. The weeping- willow grows naturally in the Levant, and has been for many vears cultivated in the English gardens. The common sallow re- quires a drier soil than the other species, and will thrive upon the higbest hills, whence it is called mountain osier. The wood of this is converted into charcoal, for making gunpowder and drawing pencils. The Laplanders make a sort of ieather of the bark, which they manufacture into gloves. The common willow loves a moist and open situation, and grows quick. The bark of this tree has been found a useful medicine in agues. It must be gathered in summer, when full of sap. Our common willows in the spring season, when they are in flower, produce a quantity of cottony matter. The Chinese are industrious enough, to collect this cotton as it falls from their willows: and the women and children among the poorer people, card it, &c, and render it fit for many uses. The wood of the willow, though in itself very light and spongy, is yet of a nature to b ;ar the inju- ries of wet, better than almost any other kind. It is used by the Chinese on all oc- casions, where the wood is to stand under water, and succeeds well. Holly. The common holly is a beautiful tree in the winter ; it grows naturally in the English woods and forests, where it rises from 20 to 30 feet high. The seeds of the holly never come up for the first year, but lie in the ground as the haws do. The ber- ries, therefore, should be buried in the ground one year, and then taken up and sowed at Michaelmas, upon a bed exposed only to the morning sun. In this bed the plants may remain two years, and then be transplanted. Holly hedges are a beautiful evergreen and strong fence ; but they are liable to perish in hard winters. This is supposed to be chiefly owing to the field- mice, which, forwantof other food, disbark the roots of these shrubs. The berries of holly are hot, dry, and carminative, and good against the colic ; ten or twelve being taken inwardly, bring away by stool, thick phlegmatic humours. The timber of holly is the whitest of all hard wood ; it takes a fine polish, and is, therefore, used by the inlayers. It is also fit for all strong uses, and hence preferred to all others hj r the mill-wright, turner, and engraver. It makes the best handles and stocks for tools, flails. L MISCELLANY OF USEFTTL KNOWLEDGE. S07 cart whips, bowls, shivers, and pins for btooks; and iaexcellent for door-ban, &c COLOU11S AM) PAINTS. The follow- in? des. ripthms of MUM of the colours used in painting, may m>t be unacceptable to those of our readers engaged in drawing. They will discover what are produced from minerals, what from earths and stones, and ■what are extracted from vegetables. It will shew them what kinds are of an innocent, and what of a poitonoofl quality, and serve as a caution in the use of them. Cinnabar. Is a combination of mercury ■with sulphur, and forms a red, heavy, and brilliant mineral, found chiefly in quick- silver mines. Ihe common vermilion is nothing else but cinnabar, ground up with spirits of win.' and urine. Cinnabar is either fiat ice or factitious. Native or mineral cinnabar, which is that above-mentioned, though found among quicksilver, has mines of its own. Those in Spain are very famous. Each pound of good cinnabar yields fourteen ouiwes of mcrcuiy. The alchymists say it is disp sed for attaining to the transmuta- tion of gold. Factitious, or artificial cinna- bar, is funned of a mixture of mercury and sulphur, sublimed, and thus reduced into a kind of stone. The best is of a high colour, full of fibres. This is used by farriers to make pills, for their horses ; and by painters as a colour, it being a very vivid red, but drying with some difficulty. This cinnabar is rendered moie beautiful by grinding it With gum water, and a little saffron : those two drugs preventing its growing black. Vermilion. A bright, beautiful red co- lour, in great esteem among the ancients, under the denomination of minium. The artificial or fictitious vermilion is made of mineral cinnabar, described above. The natural is found in some silver mines, in the form of a ruddy sand, which is prepared and purified for use. We have two kinds of vermilion from Holland, the one of a deep red, the other pale ; the difference of colour only proceeding from the cinnabar being more or less ground. This is of consider- able use, among the paint.era in oil and miniature; and likewise among the ladies, as a fueus or paint, to heighten the com- plexion. Among the ancients, the images of the gods were painted with vermilion on the feast days; and their generals on the days of triumph Bed Lead. Is an oxide of lead, calcined and rubified: used by painters, potters, and physicians. This seems to be the real minium' of the ancients, which was a preparation of lead, performed bv fire. White Lead, or iSujier acetate of lead, ■ used by painters, is only thin plates of lead dissolved wiih vinegar. Every ten days [ the rust formed on the surface is scraped <>!!', | and again steeped, and scraped till the whole be quite consumed. Of this white had it is i that the paint, used by the ladies, called I Ceruse, is made. White lead isapmewhat dangerous, both in the grinding and iu tho using, as being a rank poison. Massicot is a yellow oxide of lead, nearly equalling Dutch pink in yielding a bright yellow, and surpassing it in durability.^ Blue is one of the primitive colours. Iu limning, miniature, &c, the painters use ultra-marine, blue ashes, and smalt. In oil and miniature they use indigo, blue bice, blue verditer, lapis Armenius, smalt, also a counterfeit ultramarine. Dyers' Blue is one of their simple or mother colours, used in the composition of others. It is given chiefly with woad and indigo, Woad; called also Glastum, arises from a seed sown annually, in the spring, which produces a plant called Isatis Tinctoria. It has usually three, four, or five crops of leaves every year, the first of which is best, and the rest in their order. When the leaves are ripe they are gathered, let lie sometime, and then put under a wheel to bruise or grind them ; after which they are laid eight or ten days in piles or heaps, and at last reduced into a kind of balls, winch are ex- posed in "the shade, on hurdles, to dry. This done, they are broken or ground to powder ; and when ground, spread on a floor and watered. Here the woad is allowed to smoke and heat, till by torrifying it every day it becomes quite dry, which is called silvering. A week, or more, after which, it is in a condition to be used for dyeing. The ancient Britons used to dye their bodies with it, and some hold that it was from this plant, called glastum, that glass took its denomi- nation ; though others derive both glass and glastum from the British glass, which signi- fies a blue colour. A woad blue is a very deep blue, almost black ; and is the base of so many sorts of colours, that the dyers have a scale, whereby they compose the different casts, or degrees of woad, from the brightest to the deepest. Indigo is a deep blue, brought from the West Indies. It is drawn from the leaves of a plant which the Spaniards call anil, and we nil, Indian wood, and indigo. When the plant has arrived at a certain height, and its leaves are in a good condition, they are cut down, thrown into a vat, and covered with water ; at the top swims a scum, with all the different colours of the rainbow. Then the water is let off into TACTS FOR EVERYBODY another vessel, -where it is agitated with five or six long polos, fitted together for that purpose. This is continued till the water appears of a deep green, and till the grain, as it is called, forms itself, which is dis- covered by taking a little of it into another vessel, and spitting in it, when, if a bluish dreg be perceived subsiding, the violent agitation is discontinued. The matter then precipitates to the bottom of the vessel, after which the water is poured off. It is then Sut into little linen bags to drain, and when ry, it is cut into slices and hardened in the sun. There are several kinds of indigo. That is thought to be the best, which is in flat pieces, of a moderate thickness, pretty hard, clean, light enough to swim in water, inflammable, of a fine blue colour, marked a little on the side with silver streaks, and appearing reddish when rubbed on the nail. Indigo is used among painters, who grind it and mix it with white to make a blue colour, for without that mixture it would paint blackish. It is mixed with yellow to make a green colour. It is also used in dyeing, and may be considered as the best basis of all black, blue, and green colours. With indigo, laundresses give a bluish cast to their linen. Smalt. A metallic oxide, prepared, puri- fied, and sold, sometimes in the state of a blue powder, and sometimes in cakes; chiefly used ahmg with starch to give liuens a finer and cleaner cast ; and best known by the name of stone or powder-blue. Blue Verditeb, is a bright blue. It works easy with water. It is somewhat in- clining to a green, and it is the blue which is most of all mixed with yellow berries. Vevditer is the precipitate obtained from nitrates of copper by lime, powdered with the addition of from 5 to 10 parts of lime in 100. Next to ultramarine, Blue Bice (a pre- paration of lapis Armenius) is the most ex- cellent, and is often made to serve instead of it. It works much better than smalt. Ultramarine. A beautiful blue colour, used by the painters, prepared from lapis lazuli. This is a sort of precious stone, called also azure stone. It is found in mines of gold, silver, and copper, as also in pits of marble, which last is that generally m use. It is composed of silex, sulphate of lime, blue fluor spar, and iron. The Arme- nian stone bears a near resemblance to lapis luzuli. It is a blue f liable copper ore. Bed is one of the five simple or primitive oolcurs. Madder. A red, bitter astringent root, of a plant called Bubia Tinctorum; much used by dyers, to give a strong, rich, red colour. It is useful in medicine, being found of ser« vice in obstructions, and in an ill state of the humours of the body. It is generally made up in form of decoctions, diet drinks, and medicated ales. Cochineal, la an animal substance, us^d by dyers, for giving red colours, especially crimsons and scarlets. Cochineal belongs to a genus of insects, called Coccus, of which there are about fifty species, extremely fer- tile and troublesome in hot-houses and green houses. Of these the most important Species is the Coccus cacti, or cochineal coccus celebrated for the beauty of the colour it yields, when properly prepared. It is a na- tive of South America. The female, or officinal cochineal insect, in its full grown or torpid state, swells or grows to such a size, in proportion to that of its first or creeping state, that the legs, &c. are so smali as hardly to be discovered ; so that on a gene- ral view it bears as great a resemblance to a seed or berry, as to an animal. When the female cochineal insect is arrived at its full size, it fixes to the surface of the leaf, and envelopes itself in a white cottony matter, which it is supposed to spin or draw through its proboscis, in a continued double filament. The male is a small and rather tender fly, about the size of a flea, the wings large in proportion to its body, which is of a red colour, with two long filaments pro- ceeding from the tail. It is an active, lively insect, and is dispersed in small numbers among the females, in proportion of one male to 150 females. When the female has discharged all its eggs, it becames a mere husk and dies; so that great care is taken to kill the insects before that time to pre- vent the young from escaping, and thus dis- appointing the proprietor of their beautiful colour. The insects, when picked or brushed off the plants, are killed by the fumes of heated vinegar, or by smoke, and then dried, in which state they are imported into Europe. It is said that the Spanish govern- ment has been annually more enriched by the profit of the cochineal trade, than by the produce of all its gold mines. Cochineal is extensively used by dyers, and it yields the fine colour so much esteemed in painting, known by the name of carmine. When properly mixed with hair powder, it is what ladies use as rouge. Carmine. Is a bright red or crimson colour, bordering on purple, used by pa'nt- ers in miniature. It is rarely used in oil, on account of its price. Carmine is the mfist valuable product of the cochineal mestiquc, which is a sediment at the bottom ▲ MISCELLANY Of USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. of the water, wherein is steeped cochineal, fcouan, and autour ; some add rocou, or nnnatto, but this gives the carmine too much of the orange east. To be good it must be almost an impalpable powder ; that is, a powder scarcely perceptible by the* touch. Some prepare a ca.mine with brazil weed, fernambouc, and gold leaf, beat in I mortar, and steeped in white wine •vinegar ; the scum arising from this mix- ture on boiling, when dried, makes car- mine; but this kind is much inferior to the former. Lake, or Lacca. The red that is called artificial is made of Brazil wood, boiled in ley mule of the branches of the vine ; or, as it is otherwise expressed, Brazil wood boiled in a lixivium of the branches of the vine, adding ft little cochineal, terra-merita, calcined alum, with the bones of the cuttle-fish pulverized, and made up into little cakes and dried. If to make it very red, the juice of citron is added, and if brown, oil of tartar. Artificial Lake is also a name given to a coloured substance, drawn from several flowers ; as the yellow from the flower of the juniper, the red from the poppy, &c, the blue from the iris or violet. Rose Pink, or Rose Lake. Is pre- pared from chalk, and an extract of Brazil or Cam peachy wood. It is the most common paint used by stage-players, and is useful to house-painters and paper-stainers, where it can be secured fom the air by a varnish. Red Chalk, or Red Crayon. Is an iron ore used for sketch i ng figures ; and also forms a good li^ht red, either in oil or water. Lac (gum). Is a very singular compound, prepared by the female of a very minute insect, the Coccus lacca, found on some trees in the Last Indies, particularly the banyan fig. The insect is nourished by the tree, fixing itself upon the twigs and extremities of the succulent branches, where it deposits its eggs, which it glues to the branch by a red liquid, the outside of which hardens by the air, and serves as a cell to the parent insect. This increases in size, and the young insects at first feed upon the enclosed liquid, and after this is expended, they eat through the coat, leaving a hollow red* resinous bag, which is stick lac. The best lac is procured from the province of Acham (or Assam), but it is obtained in great plenty on the uncultivated mountains on each side of the Ganges. There are three kinds of lac — viz., stick lac, which i3 lac in its natural state, without any prepa- ration ; seed lac, which is stick lac broken into small lumps and granulated ; and shell U* lac, which is a preparation of the stick lae. By a number M very accurate e\p> nin< n.s made by Mr. Ilatchett, it is found that lac consists of a colouring extract of resin, gluten, and wax, all of them in intimate combination. Lac is employed for a vari< ty of purposes in the arts ; the finer specimens are cut into beads far necklaces. If enters largely into the composition of selling wax, and hard japans or varni-las, and it is much used in dyeing. Kkkmks. A kind of husk, or excrescence, resembling a berry, growing on an ever- green of the oak kind, Qncrrn.1 Cocril'era, of considerable use both in physic and dye- ing. That which is sometimes called by the French Vermillion, or grain de gall, or vermeil, is a kind of nest of an insect, about the size of a juniper-berry, round, smooth, and glossy *, of a beautiful red colour, and full of a juice of the same dye, found stick- ing to the bark, on the stein and branches of a sort of scarlet oak, growing in Spain, Languedoc, and other hot countries. The kermes-berry is of a v'nous smell, a bitter though agreeable taste, and its pulp, or juice, full of numerous minute ova of animalcules. 1 he origin of the kennes is supposed to be owing to a little maggot, which, pricking the cocci/era to deposit its eggs, raises a little tumour or blister, which fills with juice, and as it ripens becomes red. Henc ■, u hen kennes is dried, there comes out of it an in- finite number of little insects and flies, so small that they are scarcely sensible, inso- much that the whole substance seems con- verted into them. To prevent this incon- venience it is usual to steep the kennes in vinegar before it is dry. The juice or pulp is extracted from the kermes by founding it in a mortar, and straining it through a sieve. Of this a syrup is made by adding a sufficient quantity of sugar. The kermes- grain has been considered as nn astringent and tonic, &c. There is a celebrated con- fection called Al-kermcs. It is, however, of greater use in dyeing scarlet. According to M. Marfigli's experiments made at Montpelier, the kennes berry has the effect of galls, when mixed with vitriol making ink, and mixed with lime water, it makes a crimson. Yellow. Is one of the five simple and primitive colours. TURMERIC Is a medicinal root, used likewise by the dyers, to give a yellow colour. It is not unlike ginger, either in figure or size. It is yellow both externally and internally, and very hard. Mad. yields it ; it is also brought from the East and West Indies. Choose that which ia 310 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: resinous, new, hard to briak, heavy and big. The yellow root, as it grows old, turns brown, and for want of attending to t'nis, some have supposed that the red and brown were of different kinds. It is mueh used by the glovers to dye their gloves. The Indians use it to dye their rice, and other foods, of a yellow colour ; whence some call it Indian saffron. Our dyers do not find that it gives so steady a yellow as the luteola or weld ; but it is admirable to brighten and heighten the red colours dyed with cochineal or vermilion, as scarlet, &c. Turmeric is used in medicine by way of decoction, infusion, powder, &c. It is held a sort of specific in the jaundice and dropsy. Sumac. Of commerce, is the pulverized leaves and branches of a bushy tree, the Rhus.Cnriaria, or elm-leaved sumach, which rises about ten feet high, is cultivated in Spain, Portugal, Sicily, and Palestine, for dyeing and tanning. The Spanish sumac is imported in skins, that from Sicily in bags ; it is esteemed good when its odour is strong, of a lively green colour, free from stems, and well ground. It is cultivated ■with great care by the Portuguese and Spaniards ; its shoots are cut down every year close to the root, and after being dried and powdered in a mill, are ready for tan- ning or dyeing. Another species of this genus of plants, the Rhus Cotimts, is used by the Spaniards for dyeing and tanning their yellow leather, which is both brilliant and durable. Preparations of this plant are used by the French dyers under the name of f unlet and redoul. The green berries of the plants producing sumac are poisonous, and hence some caution should be taken by dyers in using this dye. It is apprehended that a considerable Quantity of the latter kind of sumac or fustet is sold in this country for Fustic. "Which is ' a yellow wood brought from Cuba, Tobago, Brazil, and the West Indies. The real fustic tree is a species of mulberry, Morns Tincloria, and grows to a considerable size ; its wood ground to powder, and the Quehcitron Bakk.. Which is pro- duced by a large American tree, called yellow oak, are now the principal substances which yield all the yellow dies in our manu- factories. "Weld. The Reseda Luteolaoi Linnaeus is a plant used by dyers to give a yellow colour. It is much cultivated in Kent for the use of the London dyers. With the help of potash it yields a deep lemon colour. It serves to die all colours, between white and a deep yellow ; and its dye will hold well. For the finest yellows, dyers first, boil thfc cloth or stuff in alum or potasn, and then give the colour with weld or woad. Annotto, Annatto, or Aknatto. Is a kind of orange dye, brought, from the "West Indies. It is procured from the pulp of the seed-corpuscules, of a shrub called aehiotte, the Bixa Orellana, Linmeus, which grows seven or eight feet high, and produces pods, each containing thirty or forty seeds, enve- loped in a pulp of a bright red colour. After the pulp and seeds are repeatedly pounded, boiled, strained, and dried, it is tit for sale. Annotto ha* been of late prepared only by the Spaniards. Much of our cheese is coloured with this dye, and not with mari- golds. Some of the Dutch farmers use it to give a rich colour to their butter. The poor people use it instead of saffron, and it was formerly often mixed in the grinding of the cocoa, as an ingredient in chocolate, in the quantity of about two drachms to the pound, in order to give it a reddish colour. It is useful as an ingredient in varnishes and lacquers. The liquid sold under the name of "Scott's Nankeen Dye" seems to be nothing but annatto dissolved in an alka- line ley. Saffron. A plant which produces a flower of the same name ; whence also a drug called saffron or crocus is gathered. The root, which produces the saffron is a kind of bulb, or onion, covered with several bulbous cartilages : its leaves are long. From the middle of the flower arise three long flame- coloured filaments, and these are properly the saffron ; the rest of the flower being of no use. Five pounds of fresh filaments make one pound of dry safl-on. The best saffron in Europe is that of Eng- land ; that brought from Spain is injured by the oil which is mixed with it to make it keep. Saffron is used both in food and medicine, to cheer, fortify, and resolve. It was the greatest cordial in medicine. It is also used by illumers, to make a golden yellow colour. Gamboge. Is a concrete vegetable juice, of a gummy nature. It is chiefly brought to us in large cakes or rolls, from Gamboja in the East Indies. The best sort is of a deep yellow or orange colour, breaks shining and free from dross : it has no smell, and very little taste, unless kept in the mouth for some time, when it impresses a slight ] sense of acrimony. It immediately cora- j municates to spirits of wine a bright golden I colour, and entirely dissolves in it or in I water. It makes a beautiful yellow, and is I much used by painters. Dr Lewis 6ays> A. MISCELLAmr OP rSEFUL KNOWLEDGE. Ill thflt it leaves ti beautiful and durable citron yellow stain upon marble, when rubbed in substance upon the hot stone. With lime water it yields a blood red colour. As ■ medicine, gamboge evacuates powerfully, both upwards and downwards. Geoffroy says he has given from four to eight grains, without violence. He reeommends it to be taken with an equal quantity of vegetable alkali for the tape-worm. Ochue. Is a kind of yellow or red earth, Use i by painters. It is an oxide of iron, Under which head it has been described. Spanish Brown. Is an iron ore. dugout of the ground. Among painters it is used as the tir.>t and priming colour. It works well if ground fine. In choosing good, that which is freest from stones, and of the deepest hue, is the most esteemed. For many purposes it requires to be burnt. Ruddle, Red Hematites, or Blood- stone. Is a sort of dusky red chalk, or earth, found in several parts of England, chiefly in iron mines. It was called by the ancients hu-matitcs. Pliny reckons five kinds. That commonly used by painters is factitious, being made of Armenian bole, and other drugs. The native or fossil kind comes from Egypt, Bohemia, &c. The gilders use it for burnishers to polish their gold with. Black. Something opaque and porous that imbibes all the light falling thereon, reflects nme, and therefore exhibits no colour. There are various kinds of blacks. The dyers when they are to dye cloths, &c, black, first dye it blue, with woad and indigo, and the black is given afterwards with logwood, or galte, copperas, and sumac. There is what is called Jesuit's black, which dyes black without first dyeing blue. It is said to have been invented by the Jesuits, and was practised in their houses. There is a German black made with ivory and burnt peach stones, mixed and ground with burnt lees of wine. Ivory Black. Is made of ivory burnt be- tween two crucihles well luted ; which being thus rendered perfectly black, is ground in water, and made into little cakes. A crucible is a chemical vessel made of very different materials, as clays, plumbago, platina, or manganese, and so tempered and baked as to endure the greatest fire. Lamp-Black. Is the sooty fumes of rosin, prepared by melting and purifying the rosin in iron vessels, then setting tire to it under a chimney, or other place, lined with sheep skins, or thick linen cloth to receive the vapour or smoke, which is the black. It is sometimes prepared from the resinous parti of woods, burnt under a kind of tent which receives it. Of this kind we have niiuh from Sweden and Norway. This black takes tire very readily, Spanish Black. Is so called, because first invented by the Spaniards, and most of it brought from Spain. It is no other than burnt cork, and used in various works, par- ticularly among painters. There are several colours that require burning, as first, Lamp-Black, which is of so greasy a nature, that, except it be burnt, it will require a long time to dry. The method of burning, or rather drying, lamp- black, is as follows . — Put it into a crucible, over a dear tire, letting it remain until it be red hot, or so near it that there is no manner of smoke arising from it. Secondly, Umber., which, if it be intended to be a shadow for gold, &c,, then burning suits. In order to burn umber, you must put it into the naked fire ill large lumps, and not take it out till it be thoroughly red hot ; or, if you wish to be more curious, put it into a crucible, and make it red hot. Umber, or martial clay, consists principally of particles of decayed wood mixed with bitumen. Ivory also must be burnt to make black, thus, fill two crucibles with shavings of ivory, then clap their two mouths together, and bind them fast with an iron wire, and lute the joints close with clay, salt, and horse-dung, well beaten together; then set it over the fire, covering it all over with coala ; let it remain on the fire, till you are sure that the matter enclosed is thoroughly red hot ; then take it out of the fire, but do not open the crucibles till they are perfectly cold ; for, were they opened while hot, the matter would turn to ashes, and so it will if the joints are not luted close. Bister, or Bistre. Is made of chimney soot boiled, and afterwards diluted with water ; serving painters to wash their designs. Black Chalk. Is used for designing, and is esteemed preferable to black lead. It is nothing more than argillaceous slate, cut into long slips, fit to be held in the port- crayon. There are two kinds, the one French, and the other Italian ; the former is 6oft, and the latter hard. India Ink, or Chinese ink. Is an admi- rable composition, in vain attempted to be imitated in Europe. It is not tluid like our writing ink; but solid like our mineral colours, though much lighter. They make it of all figures, but the most usual is the i rectangular, about a quarter of an inch 312 PACTS FOE, EVERYBODY thick. Some of the sticks are gilt, with figures of dragons, birds, dowers, &c. In order to do this, they have little wooden moulds, so curiously wrought, that we could hardly equal them in metal. The Chinese make this ink with smoke-black of various kinds ; but the best is said to be made of a liquor procured from a species of the sepia or cuttie-fish, or the smoke of fat pork, burnt at a lamp. They mix a kind of oil with it to make it more smooth, and add other odorous ingredients, to take away the rank* nessof the smell. After they have mixed it into a paste of the proper consistence, they put it into a mould to figure it. We shall close this head of paints and colours with a short description of India rubber, that most generally useful substance among learners in drawing. India Kudber, or Elastic resin. Is a substance produced from the syringe-tree of Cayenne and other parts of South America, and possessed of the most singular properties. No substance is yet known which is so pliable, and at the same time so elastic ; and it is farther a matter of curiosity, as being capable of resisting the action of very power- ful menstrua. M. de la Condamine says it oozes out, under the form of a vegetable milk, from incision* made in the tree ; that it is gathered chiefly in time of rain, because it flows then most abundantly. The means employed to inspissate and indurate it, are kept secret. By inspissate is meant to thicken, and by indurate to harden, which M. Bom are says it does gradually, by being exposed to the air. The Indians make boots of it, which water cannot penetrate, and which, when smoked, have the appearance of real leather. Bottles are also made of it, the necks of which are fastened to hollow reeds, so that the liquor contained in them may be forced through the reed or pipes by pressure. One of these filled with water is always presented to the guests at their en- tertainments, who never fail to make use of it before eating. Flambeaux, an inch and a-half in diameter, and two feet long, are likewise made of this resin, which give a beautiful light, have no bad smell, and burn twelve hours. A kind of cloth is also pre- pared from it, which the inhabitants of Quito apply to the same purposes as our oil- cloth and sail-cloth^ It is formed, by'means of moulds, into a variety of figures for use and ornament. The process is said to be thus: — The juice, which is obtained by in- cision, is spread over pieces of clay formed into the desired ornamental shape, and as fast as one layer is dry, another is added, till the whole be of a proper thickness. It is then held over a strong smoko of v getablea on fire, whereby it hardens into the texture and appearance of leather, and before the finishing, while yet soft, is capable of re- ceiving any impression on the outside, which remains ever after. Many attempt* have been made to dissolve it sb as to make it assume different figures, with equal case as when it was in its original state, running from the tree. Mr. Macquer tried oils, tur- pentines, spirits of wine, the milky juice of other vegetables, heat, &c, but none of these was capable of dissolving it. At last he tried ether, which perfectly dissolved it, without any other heat than that of the atmosphere. It was then transparent, and of an amber colour. A resin, similar to this, was discovered some years ago by Mr. I'oivre, in the isle of France. Some kinds of this gum have been dissolved by other methods. GEMS AND PKECIOTTS STONES. Gem is a common name for all precious stones or jewels. The Diamond was by the ancients called Adamant. It is a precious stone, the first in rank, value, hardness, and lustre, of all gems. The goodness of diamonds consists in their water, or colour, lustre, and weight. The most perfect colour is the white. Their defects are veins, flaws, specks, &c. In Europe, the lapidaries examine the goodness of their rough diamonds by daylight. In the Indies it is done by night. Dr. Wall, in the Philosophical Transactions, seems to have found an infallible method of dis- tinguishing diamonds from other stones : a diamond, with an easy slight friction in the dark, with any soft, animal substance, a3 the finger, woollen, silk, or the like, appears luminous in its whole body ; and if you keep rubbing it long, and then expose it to the eye, it will remain so for some time. Diamonds are found in the East Indies, in Golconda, Visiapour, Bengal, and the Island of Borneo. There are four mines, or rather two mines and two rivers. The miners work quite naked, except a thin linen cloth before them ; and they have also inspectors to pre- vent their concealing the stones ; which, however, they frequently find means to do, by swallowing them when they are not observed. Diamonds have also been found in the Brazils, and hence the terms oriental and occidental diamond ; the latter is esteemed the least valuable, but the con- stituent principle of both is the same, they are all pure carbon, and perfectly inflam- mable, as Newton concluded. (See p. 20.) Crystal, Quartz or Iiock Crystal, is a transparent stone, white like a diamond, A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. A13 but much inferior in lustre ami hardness. It is used fw vases, urns, mirrors, kc— The ancients knew little ftf its nature. Pliny speaks of it as hardened petrified water. Barer*] mountains of Kurope, and some of Asia, produce rock crystal. Madagascar is also said to yield more than all the worla beside. Its perfection consists in lustre and transparency ; that -vitli straws, dust, ciouds, &e., is little" valued. It is frequently found hexagonal (or with six sides) : the inimitably fine and accurate. It is cut ami engraved in the same manner as common glass, of which it was the prototype. F. Francisco Lana, in describing the formation of diamonds, observes, that in the Val Sabbia is a spacious round of a meadow, bare of all herbs, wherein crystals are generated all sexangular. The country people thought them produced from dews, because, being fathered over night, others would arise in a serene and dewy sky. He observed that there was no mark of any mine thereabout, and concluded them produced by the plenty of nitrous streams, which, while it hindered the vegetation of those places, might coag- ulate the dew falling thereon. Robault observes, that crystal, diamond, &c must have been originally liquid. Botrhaave takes crystal to be the proper matter or basis of all gems or precious stones ; and that they assume this or that colour from the different admixture of mineral fumes, kc. Beet crystal consists of silica, with a little lime and alumina. There are yellow, green, blue, and violet crystals, called after the precious stones which they resemble, and coloured with iron, as green crystal is called false emerald. Crystal has been erroneously supposed useful in medicine as an astringent, and that it increases milk in nurses, and is an antidote against arsenic. Ruby Is a red sparkling gem, of the first rank among precious stones. The ruby is found in Pegu and in Ceylon. There an- rubies also found in Europe, particularly in Bohemia and Hungary, especially the for- mer, where in a mine of flints, are some- times found rubies, as fine and hard as any of the eastern ones. Rubies can be so nearly counterfeited, that the lapidaries themselves may be deceived. AY hen a ruby exceeds twenty carats it is called a Carbuncle, the name of an imaginary stone described by the ancients. They long supposed the car- buncle to be taken from the dragon's head, and we hear of many a cavalier who went to combat with dragons, on purpose to gain this invaluable jewel. Vartornnn assures Us, that the king of Pegu used no other light in the night time, but that of his carbuncle, which cast a blaze like that of the sun. The ancients credulously attributed many virtues to the rubv, as that it expels poi- sons, cures the plague, banishes sorrow, &c. The balsas, spineli, oriental, and Brazilian rubies, ail eonsist of lilica, alumina, lime, and iron, intimately combined in different proportions. Kmkkald. Is a precious stone, very green and transparent, in hardness next after the ruby There ate two kinds, Oriental and I'enivian. — The oriental is harder, more brilliant, and transparent than the Peruvian; which has generally clouds found in it, and sparkles less. Some, it is said, are found in Cyprus, and even in our own island; but they are very inconsiderable. — The emerald is supposed to grow more and more pcfectin the mine, like the ruby, and to arrive at its greenness by slow degrees. The ancients supposed them of use in medicine, and made amulets of emerald, against all kinds of sorcery; but we have now more experience, or less credulity, and they are valued f<>r their beauty, not for their virtue. Authors mention emeralds of incredible magnitude; of one, pretended to have been seen by Theophrastus in a temple in Egypt, four cubits long, and three broad: and of an obelisk of emerald forty feet high. Emerald consists of silex, alumina, and oxide of iron. Topaz. Is the third order of gems after the diamond. It is transparent, and a beautiful yellow or gold colour, very hard, and takes a fine polish. It is found in the Indies, in Ethiopia. Arabia, Peru, and Bohemia; and is known in commerce by the names Oriental, Brazilian, and Saxon topaz. The oriental ones are most esteemed : their colour bor- ders on the orange : those of Peru are softer, but their colour nearly the same. Those of Madagascar were in much esteem, but are now little valued. The topaz is easily counterfeited, and there are factitious ones, which to the eye do not appear in- ferior to the natural ones. Topaz consists of silex, alumina, carbonate of lime, andiron. The ancients ascribed great virtues to the topaz, which are now discredited. In tho 118th Psalm there is mention made of the topaz. It appears to be the true chrysolite of the ancients. Chrysolite. Is a precious stone of a dusky green colour, with a cast of yellow. The ancients gave this name to all precious stones, wherein the yellow or golden was the prevailing colour Two kinds are known, the chrysolite of jewellers, and Brazilian chrvsolite, the former is of a greenish pale yellow, the latter a golden yellow. 314 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: Sapphire, or Safphyr. Is a precious 6tone of an azure or beautilul sky-colour. It is transparent, yet so exceedingly hard, as scarcely to bear being engraven. The deepest blues are esteemed, males, and the whitest, females. The finest things, in the Hebrew, are called sapphires. The throne of God is said to resemble a sapphire; and the Rabbins hold that Moses' rod, and the tables he received on Mount Sinai, were of sapphire. There are oriental, white oriental, Brazilian, and water sapphires, all con- taining silex, alumina, lime and iron. The chemists make several preparations of sap- phire; as a salt, a tincture, an essence, a water, an oil, &e. and there are few diseases but some pretend to cure by them. Some rank the Cat's eye in the number of sapphires. This gem has a remarkable diversity cf colours, is very hard, and bears a polish equal to the true sapphire. The sapphires of Pegu are the most esteemed. They are fjund in the same mines with the rubies. Some are also brought from Calicut, Cananor, and Ceylon. The soft water sap- phires of Bohemia and Silesia are of some aetount, though far inferior to the oriental ones, both in their brightness and firmness. Some value the sapphire beyond the ruby, and give it the second place among precious stones. (See p. 117). Co ,;undum. Is of a greenish white, passing to flesh red, and is crystallized like sap- phire. On account of its hardness, it his obtained the name of adamantine spar. It is found in Hindostan, not far from the river Cavery, south of Madras. It occurs also in China, Ceylon, Ava, &c. Of 100 pa' ts, 89 are alumina, G silex, 2 oxide of iron, and 3 loss. Garnet or Granate. Is a gem or pre- cious stone of a high red colour; thus called from the resemblance it bears to the kernel of a pomegranate. Garnets are either oriental or occidental : the first are found in several parts of the East Indies and Syria; the second in Spain, Scotland, Bohemia and Silesia. Those from the east are dis- tinguished by their colour. Some are of a deep brownish red, as big as a hen's egg; others are nearly of the hue of the hyacinth : a third kind as a mixture of violet with the red. Of the occidental garnets, those of Sihsia are the darkest, and those of Bohemia the most valued. They are found near Prague, not in any particular mines, but are picked by peasants in the fields, from among the sand and pebbles. Amethyst. Is of a violet colour, bordering on purple. Plutarch 6ays the amethyst takes its name from its colour, which ac- cording to him resembles wine mixed with, water. The ancients supposed it prevented drunkenness, by being hung about the necks of great drinkers. The oriental kind, which is the hardest, scarcest," and most valuable, is of a dove colour. The German is of a violet colour ; and that of Carthagena has the colour of a pansy. There are beautiful ones found in the Pyrenees, and in the mountains of Auvergne. The amethyst consist of rock crystal coloured with iron. This stone is not extremely hard, and may be cut with a leaden wheel, smeared with emery moistened in water. It is polished on a pewter wheel with tripoli. It is easily engraven on, either in has or alto relievo. Beryl. Is a precious stone or gem, of a light or pale green colour, passing into blue and yellow. The beryl of the ancients is the same with what in lattertimes has been denominated aqua marina, on account of its azure or sea-green colour. Some authors take the beryl to be the diamond of the ancients; this is certain — the ablest modern jewellers sometimes mistake the one for the other. There are two species of this stone, the oriental or precious beryl, and the occidental or schorlous beryl ; the former contains silex, alumina, glucine, lime and oxide of iron; the latter, silex, alumina, lime, and water. The precious beryl is much harder than the 6chorlous beryl. ' The beryl is sometimes found large enough to form fine vases. It is said that there are many of them in Cambaya, Pegu, and Cey- lon. It occurs in considerable quantities in Saxony, Bohemia, and Moravia. The properties of the beryl were wonderful in the opinion of the ancient naturalists; it kept people, as they thought, from falling into the ambuscades of enemies ; excited courage in the fearful, and cured diseases of the eyes and stomach ; but all these qualities have vanished with the ignorance which gave them existence. Agate or Achat. Is a precious stone, partly transparent, and partly opaque; usuaLly diversified with a variety of colours, veins, spots, &c. sometimes exhibiting figures, or appearances of natural objects. There are various kinds of agate, which according to their different colours and degrees of trans- parency, have different names. The principal are these four, the onyx, the chal- cedony, the block, and the German abates. Agates have ordinarily reddish tints, and are of all colours, except bright red, orange and green. They are com pounds of chalcedony, carnelian, jasper, homstone, quartz, ame- thyst and opal. De Boot mentions one A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 315 of the size of a nail, wherein a bishop -with his mitre was very well represented ; :uk1 turning it a little, a man and woman's head wen 1 teen in its place. The Sardian and Sardonic agates are very valuable; the latter is of a sanguine colour, and is divided into zones, which seem to hare been painted bv art. Pliny, Strabo, and Cicero, say thai Polyerates ring was a S:.rd >uyx. Authors also speak of Roman agates, Egyptian agates. and others. The ancients mention a red agate spotted with points of gold, found in Candia, and called sacred. Agate has always been esteemed for seals ; as being a stone that no wax .vill stick to. Mr. Boyle takes agate to have been formed of separate beds ol strata of tine clay or earth, brought by a petrifying liquor to coagulate into a .stone. lie mentions an agate with a moveable spot, Or cloud in it. No country affords finer agate or in greater abundance than Germany. It is found in great quantity at Obeistein, where several thousand persons are em- ployed in quarrying, sorting, cutting and poli-hing it. Chalcedony. Is a species of the flint genus; of which there are two kinds the com- mon chalcedony and the Carm lian. The co- lour of the former is a nebulous milky grey, in all its shades. It is commonly semitranspa- rent. harder than Hint, and brittle, ltisfound IB Ireland, Ferro IsUs, Saxony, Silesia, Siberia, Scotland, Cornwall, &c. It is sus- ceptible of a line polish, is employed as an article of jewellery, and consists of silex, lime, alumina, and a very little iron. Onyx. A species of agate, is a precious stone, of a dark horny colour, resembling, as its name imports, the nail of a man's finger, in which is a plate of a bluish white, and sometimes of red; the several colours appearing as distinct as if laid on by art. There are some brought from Arabia, mixed with a browish hue ; which after taking off one layer of zone, shew another underneath of a different colour. White zones or girdles are essential to an onyx. Jasper. Is a sort of precious stone, chiefly opaque, but sometimes transparent in cer- tain parts, not very different from agate. The Jio rid jasper, found in the Pyrenees, is Usually stained with various colours. The n»ost beautiful isthatboideringon the colour of lake or purple ; next to that, the carna- tion ; but what is now most Valued is the 6anguine jasper, being green spotted with red. That in which the red is paler, is called heliotrope. All the varieties of jasper consist of silex, alumina and iron ; they are hard, susceptible of a high polish, become harder en being exposed to fire, and occur of a red, green, yellow, brown, purple, grey, blackish and variegated colours. In s>>me jaspers, nature teems to have amus"d her- self in r epre se n ting trees, animals, hmd- . to., as if they were painted. Ul'AL. Is a precious stone having the co- lours of the rainbow more or less lively, more or less effulgent, and changeable according to the different positions of the stone to the I'ght. In it are seen the red of the ruby, the purple of the amethyst, the green of the emerald, besides yellow, blue, and sometimes black and white. When the stone is broken most of these colours disappear, which shews that they arise by reflection from one or two principal ones. Its form is always either round or oval, like a pearl, its prevailing colour white. Its diversity of colours makes it almost, of equal value with a sapphire or ruby. Tavernier says, these are mines of opal in Turkey. Others say Cyprus, Arabia, bgypt, Bohemia, and Hungary produce it ; whence it is distinguished into two kinds, oriental and occidental. Pliny and Solinua mention a species of opal called exaeuuthaii- thu$, which had sixty colours. There is an artificial opal, counterfeited so as nearly to represent the natural stone. The opals con- tain silex, alumina, lime and iron. Caknelian. Is a precious stone, ordina- rily of a blood red, or bordering on orange. In many of its characters it nearly resembles the common chalcedony. It is but little transparent, cuts easily ; and we find most of the tine engravings of antiquity, whether in relievo or indent! d. are on this stone. In the fire it loses its red colour and becomes opaque. The finest carnelians are those brought, from near Bab\lon, Arabia, and Uindoslan; the next arc those of Sardinia ; the last, those of the Rhine, Bohemia, and Silesia. To give these stones a greater lustre, in setting them, a piece of silver leaf is laid underneath. The principal use made of carnelian is in seals, as it graves well, and takes a tine polish. It is also used for bi ace- lets and other ornaments. II yacixth, or Jacinth. A precious stone, so called from its resemblance to the purple flower named hyacinth, or the violet, which is usually of a deep reddish yellow, approaching a flame colour, or the deepest amber. There are four sorts of hyacinths, distinguished by their colour; they are also distinguished into oriental and occidental. The oriental comes from Calif ut and Cambaya, and is equal in hardness to the oriental amethyst. The occidental is found in Bohemia and Portugal, and is somewhat softer. The stone graves or cuts fine, and would be more used for seals but that the graving frequently PACTS for everybody: costs more than the stone. The ancients used it for amulets and talismans, and bore it about their necks, or set in ring.-, &c, supposing it to have the virtue of securing them from the plague. Hyacinth consists of ?0 zircon, 35 silex, 2 oxide of iron and some loss in 100 parts. It loses its colour but not its transparency in the fire. Pearl. Is a hard, white, shining body, usually roundish, found in a testaceous fish, resembling an oyster ; and, although an animal production, it is usually ranked among the number of gems or precious stones. The fish wherein the pearls are found is three times the size of the common oysters ; and is called by naturalists, MftUm mar- garitifcrus or pearl muscle. Each muscle commonly yields ten or twelve pearls, though an hundred and fifty, it is pretended, have been seen in the same fish. Some among them are much larger than others and ripen faster. The most perfect drop first, the rest remaining at the bottom of the shell. Some giow so big as to hinder the oyster from shutting, in which case the fish rots and dies. The formation of pearls has embarrassed both ancient and modern naturalists. Pliny Supposes them formed of the dew. "The fish," says he, "rises every morning to the surface of the water, and there opens its shell to imbibe the dew of the heavens, as some liquors are converted into crystals in the earth ; or as the juice of (lowers into honey and wax in the body of the bee, so the dew, like a liquid pearl, insinuating into the body of the fish, fixes its salts, and there assumes the colour, hardness, and form of pearl." But this, how plausible soever, is false; for the pearl muscles adhere to the bottom of the sea, and nobody ever yet saw any of them appear on the surface of the water. Some think pearls to be the eggs of the fishes they are found in ; but neither does this agree with the phenomena; for pearls are found throughout the whole sub- stance of the oyster— in the head, the coat that covers it, the circular muscles that ter- minate it, the stomach, and other parts. M. Reaumur observes that pearls are formed like other stones in animals, as those in the bladder, kidneys, &c. ; that they are apparently the effects of a disease in the fish ; that they are formed of a juice ex- travasated out of some broken vessels, and detrined and fixed in the membranes. The shells of sea fishes, as well as those of snails, &c, are formed of a glutinous, calcareous matter, oozing out of the body of the animal ; and it is no wonder that an animal which has vessels wherein circulates a sufficient quantity of matter (albumen and carbonate of lime) to build, thicken, and extend a shell, shall have enough to form stones, if this matter should happen to overflow and burst forth into any cavity of the body, or among the membranes. Pearls are caught, in the seas of the East Indies — on the coast of Persia, near Ormuz — about Cape Comoriu, and on the coast of the Island of Ceylon. They are caught also in the American Seas, and in some parts of Europe — as on the coast of Scotland, and in a river of Bavaria. At the commencement of the season, which is in March and April, and again in August and September, there appear frequently two hundred and fifty barks on the pearl banks: in the larger are two divers, in the smaller, one. Each bark puts oft' from shore before sunrise, by a land breeze which never fails, and returns again by a sea breeze which succeeds at noon. As soon as the harks are arrived at the place where the tish lie, and have cast anchor, each diver binds a stone under his body, which is to serve him as ballast, and pre- vent his being driven away by the motion of the waters, and also to enable him to walk more steadily among the waves; besides tnis, they tie another heavy stone to one foot, in order to sink them to the bottom of the sea ; and as the oysters adhere strongly to the rocks, they arm "their fingers with leathern gloves, or take an iron rake to displace them with Lastly, each diver carries with him a large net, tied to his neck by a long cord, the other end of which is fastened to the side of the bark. The net or sack is intended to hold the oysters he may collect, and the cord is to pull him up by when his bag is full, or when he wants air. Thus equipped, he precipitates himself sometimes above sixty feet underwater. As soon as he arrives at the bottom he begins to tear the oysters from the rock, and thrust them into his budget. At whatever depth the divers are, the light is sufficient for them to see what passes around them, and sometimes, to their great consternation, they behold monstrous fishes, from whose jaws they can escape only by muddying the water, and con- cealing themselves by that means ; al- though the artifice will not always save them from falling a prey to their for- midable enemies. The best divers, it is said, will remain under water near a quarter of an hour, during which time they will hold their breath without the use of oils, acquiring the habit by long practice ; but the exer- tion is so violent, as generally to shorten, the lives of those who repeat it fre- quently. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 317 WAXEN FLOWERS AND FRUIT. There me two methods in which to give instruction in this art. The first is, to in- struct how to prep a re the various materials, and then [ roeeed to d< scribe in detail the making of a flower or fruit ; the **•• ond is, to avail ourselves of ready-prepared ma- terials, to show the learner Low much beauty ean be readily produced, and how easily some of the most charming Bowers ean be imitated — and then to give full directions how the various materials may be prepared b\ the pupil. The petals, leaves, &c. of wax flowers are made of coloured sheets of wax, which may be purchased in the shops at 6s. Gd. per grots of sheets, made up in dozens, of various coiours. The stems are made of wire of various thicknesses, covered with silk, and overlaid with wax ; and the leaves are com- monly made etch with two thin sheets of wax pressed closelv by the thumb upon an emho-sed leaf of calico. These calico leaves may he purchased for a small sum. The general plan of proceeding may, perhaps, be best understood by a preliminary general description of the manner of making a •ioseom with many leaves or petals. A piece of cardboard, at least a foot square, should be mai ked out upon the plan of the accompanying little sketch: — s CnXW W s \j j I))} li The pattern flower being then held in the hand with the face upwards, the outside or lowest leaves near the flower, called bracts, should be carefully picked off and laid on the cardboard in their relative positions with regard to the centre of the iiower, on the outside double line marked b. The parts of the calyx, or outside leaves close to the flower, should in the >ame manner be care- fully removed, and placed in their relative positions on the circle e. If there are two rows they must be laid upon the circle // — arranged alternate with, or opposite, m in the flower, to the parts already laid out. The flower may be thus dissected : l)w petals, 9t a m **$i ItC. being laid out in order, and the seed-vessel or little central lump of the flower, laid upon the centre of the cardboard. For convenience, a few small pins may be used to keep the parts in their places, i'at- tcrns of each of the different leaf} (wilts may then he cut in paper, and marked, let- tered, and numhi red. The patterns for a Camellia are subjoined is a practical illustra- tion. This being the pat- tern for the calyx was laid upon the circle marked c, and is narked with that letter accordingly. These leaves are six in number, and arranged alternately in two rows of three — heuce the pattern is marked 6 {alternate 3>. The edges of the sepals, or parts of the calyx, are striped with crimson finely at the edges, and this is indicated upon the pattern. I) and E is the pattern for the eight outer- most petals. To economise room we have given the next patterns (F, G, II, I,) as if laid one on each other. From these sketches paper patterns may be cut. These having been laid upon a sheet of white wax, the proper number may be cut out singly with a loose-jointed pair of scissors made moist by frequently dipping into water, to prevent the wax sticking to 318 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: fhem. The putting together of these wax leaves requires little ingenuity, after a foundation has been made with a little knob of wbite wax upon the bent end of a piece of middling-sized stalk wire. The scraps remaining from the sheets out of which the patterns have been cut, will supply materials for this which represents the central seed- vessel, to which the petals are applied in the following order :— 6 of I, 8 of II, b of G, 6 of F, 8 of D and E, and 6 of 0. Very few instruments are requisite in the making of wax flowers, and these of the most simple character. Of the most useful is what has been appropriately termed the curling pin. It is desirable to have two of the following sizes and form. The wires should be of steel, the heads of smooth glass. These pins may be purchased for a few pence, being not unfrequently used as shawl- fasteners. The central part of the flower, or seed- vessel, having been made by folding the 6craps of spare wax upon the doubled end of the wire, till it attains the size of a large cherry-stone of this shape, the whole should be put aside while the petals are prepared for attachment. It will be found exceed- ingly convenient to have a wide-mouthed bottle upon the table, into which the wire stalk can be placed, so that the flower need never be laid down ; many fractures of the delicate wax lamina- will thus be prevented, and much trouble saved. The wire should b« of that kind which is covered with green eilk, and should be about eight or ten inches in length. One of the petals marked I, should now be lektn and laid, with the dull side up, flat along the inside of the second ioint of the first finger of the left hand; the curling -pin should at the same time he held in the right hand, with the point towards the palm, and the knob free to press and curl the wax. The wire of the pin should rest upon the centre of the ball of the thumb, taking care to allow it to revolve easily. The natural concavity is given to the petal by rolling the head of the pin close to the edge of the petal on each side. The head of the pin should be previously dipped in water, to pre- vent the wax sticking to it. When, by this process, the wax leaf hollowed out and is hollowed out and i curled, it must be ap- I plied to the base of the ^-^ seed-vessel, and pressed there with the thumb and finger, so as to adhere as in the following engraving. Another leaf must be then similarly treated, and applied opposite to the first, taking care in each case, by pressure at the point A, to incorporate the wax of the petal with that of the seed- vessel. T he id ur remaining leaves of the I series will require the application of yellow paint, which brings us to that depart- ment of our subject which refers to the application of colours — and which it will be necessary for us to explain before we proceed further. The bright surface of the wax ' A being slightly greased in the pro- cess of cutting into sheets, the colours must always be applied on the dull side. The wax, however, will not receive common thin water-colour applied in the usual manner. Powder colours — of which a small stock should be kept — are used in the following manner: — Having taken a very minute quantity of colour-powder on the blade of a penknife, lay it upon a palette, or the under side of a plate, and press it with the blade to destroy any lumps. With the penknife also add a very small quantity of weak gum A MISCELLANY OP ESEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 318 water, and work the mass to the eon- ristenee of en wn. 'I he colours must be applied with tinting - brushes, which are sold in the shops for ori- .':- : ratal tinting, with points m in the engraving. Bach colour require! a neparate brush, as powder-colour will not mix like rluid ones. The brush must be held upright at right angle* the wax, and the colour applied in lie direction of the graining. The ■olniirmust be applied at once. Yellow paint should be thus applied to the remaining four petals of the I series, taking care that the pigment does not touch the point where it is intended to adhere to the basement. (See cut.) After allow- ing a minute or two to pass, take the first painted, and having slightly curled it with the dry curling- pin, fix it a little higher than the former ones, and a little on one side of the middle line, so that one leaf cannot come exactly behind another. The cut represents the tio\ver with the petals on one_si.de torn away, to show the position of the leaves on the other. The four painted leaves should stand thus, with regard to each other, looking in at the top of the fewer. The next size, H, gives two rows of four, the points being placed opposite the vacancies between those previously used. No paint is applied to these; and they must be less curled. Before fixing the Gr series, having curled each petal by rolling the head of the large pin round the upper edge, the wire should be laid alone: the ceutr i of the leaf, and the upper edge allowed to turn over, so as to present at the back view, a slight mark like a central leal-vein, and to make the upper edge slightly everted. (6ee cut.) The petals are more and more everted as the subsequent rows, including the F seriee, are attached. The next step is the making of the calyx. The parts may be made of green wax, or of white wax, with green paint laid on. In addition to the green in the centre of the leaf, the edges must be striped Jimhj with a purple tint, like the edf/ts of a tu/ijj leaf. Tlie latter colour may be made with carmine and ultramarine, and applied with a com- mon camolhair pencil. As previously indi- cated, the parts of the calyx are to be applied in two rows of three each, with the painted Bide inwards. If the calyx is properly curled, it should ap- pear a little crumpled by the harder pressure of the smaller pin ; and the upper edges should be much everted, to show the striping. The flower head is now complete. The •talk is made by covering the wire with green wax cut in narrow btrips, and pressed on lengthwise, This stalk wax should bo made to cover the lower part of the calyx, to steady and strengthen the petals, &c. To make the leaf, the usual and most simple proceeding is as follows: — Having ■elected a camellia leaf of embossed calico, a thin wire of abeul eight inches in length should be laid along its upper side, in the hollow of the central vein, leaving the stalk free; a sheet of dark green wax, with the glossy side outwards, should then be so pressed \sith the thumb and finger to the calico, that it completely adheres, and holds the wire in its place, between the wax and calico. If this is properly done, the im- pression of the calico should be indistinctly impressed through upon the layer of wax. The under side of the leaf of the camellia, like that of most evergreen leaves, is of a very light colour, and therefore a light green shade of wax is chosen to cover the calico on the under side, in the same manner as on the upper. When thoroughly adherent, the superfluous wax must be cut away, leaving the edge ser- rated, or cut like a saw; the superfluous wire should then be twisted spirally round the principal stem, so that the base of the leaf is close to it, the leaves of the camellia being nearly stalkless or sessile, like those of its near relation, the orange tree There should be two leaves — one close to the flower, the other lower on the stalk: when these are attached, the 320 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: etalk covered, and the leaves arranged taste- fully, the flower is complete. We now propose to gather a fuchsia, and to proceed, step by step, to its facsimile iu "wax. The first thing to be noticed is the general appearance of the plant '1 here is a g: eat variety of fuchsias, and each of them has peculiar habits, i.e. each of them carries its stalks, and leaves, and flowers in a slightly different manner. Of the varieties which look well in wax, that with the pale-pink calyx (or outside leaves of the flower), with the vermilion corolla (or inside part of the flower), is the best It is to be found in every greenhouse, and almost every cottage window where flowers peep out at the casement. It is less difficult to imitate icell than the deep •crimson fuchsia, which is known by most gardeners as ''the old original" Having procured a specimen of the variety we have first described, the cardboard plan should be laid before the learner, and the sprig, with the Mowers and buds upon it, held in the left hand. It will be observed that the leaves are ar- ranged opposite each other ™ on the stem. The stalks of the leaves E, growing out from the stem D on either side, have in their C i axil (or armpit), a bud more or less de veined, ac- cording to the lateness of the season, and a flower on a pendulous stalk. The next set of leaves grows out of another aspect of the stalk, and the mark of one is seen at A, while the base of its fellow leaf would be on the other side of the stalk indicated by C. All these points are important to those who wish their flowers to bear criticism. Hav- ing noticed the droop- ing position of the flowers, pick off some of the best leaves, and lay them upon square pieces of gummed paper, press them close and lay them on one side — then pick off a bud, and lay it on the corner of your card- board, and put a pin through it. Having X A taken one of the best flowers, pin it in like manner to another corner. This will serve as your guide to the putting up of your waxen nv d 1 when your parts are ready. A flower slightly faded may be used to pick to pieces. The flower is suspended upon a thin drooping stalk, and is joined, as it were, to the coloured calyx by a green knob, the seed-vessel or ovary (0). Beyond this is a tube, extending and dividing into four segments. This is the coloured calyx (C.) A division may be made at D, and the stalk and ovary may be pinned down on another corner of the cardboard. The tube of the calyx (T) should then be slit up with a sharp-pointed knife to the base of one of the nOtche* between the segments, and opened out. The stamens whose points or anthers are marked A in the diagram, and the leaves of the corolla, P (the purple petals), will be found to adhere to this tube; these must be carefully removed and laid out in their proper order on the cardboard. As there is only one row of petals, they may be laid in any of the circles,/, mi corner to corner, so I fourth square from the right angle,) after -.in two triangle*. After this, cut off which, arrange the pieces in the manner rep- the top of these triangles at and d, (at the resented below : ^~\!^_ i "Hj i / ! / / / / On counting the squares in the first figure, there appear to be thirty, but the other ar- rangement of the same card seems to contain thirty-two. It .does so, however, only in ap- pearance, but it is only a very correct eye that c.n detect the imperfection. COINCIDENCES. It lias been remarked as i curious circumstance that Bonaparte and Wellington were bora iu the same year, and that Burns and Hogg, the Scotch poets, were born on the 25th of January ; but it is more remarkable that Shakspeare and Cervantes, the two greatest dramatic poets of modern Europe, died on the same day, in the same year, April 16, 1616. It is further remarka- ble that Shakspeare. as In the case of the great Raphael, and Sobieski, died on the an- niversary of his birth. The most remarkable coincidence on rec- ord, however, is one mentioned on another Sage, viz. : the death of the two ex-Presidents. ofan Adams and Thomas Jefferson, who were members of the committee of five appointed to draft the Declaration of Independence, their deaths occurring on the same day, and about the same hour, on the fiftieth anniver- sary of the day which made their names im- mortal. THE WORLD IX EPITOME. The num- ber of languages epoken in the world amounts to 3.064 ; 587 in Europe ; 896 in Asia ; 276 in Africa, and 1,264 in America. The inhab- itants of the globe profess more than 1,000 different religions. The number of men is about equal to the number of women. The average of human life is about thirty years ; 15 one quarter die previous to the age of seven years ; one half before reaching seventeen. To every one thousand persons, only one reaches one hundred years. To every hundred only six reach the age of sixty-five, and not more than one in five hundred reach the age of eighty. There are on the earth 1000,000,- 000 inhabitants; of these, 333,333,333 die every year, 91,324 every day, 3,780 every hour, 60 every minute, and 1 in every second. These losses are balanced by about an equal number of births. The married live longer than the single, and above all, those who ob- serve a sober and industrious life. Women have more chances of life in their favor, pre- vious to being fifty years of age, than men have, but fewer afterwards. The number of men capable of bearing arms is calculated at one-fourth of the population. REMARKABLE WORKS OF HUMAN LABOR. Nineveh was 14 miles long, 8 miles , wide, and 40 miles round, with a wall 100 I feet high, and thick enough for three chariots | abreast. Babylon was 56 miles within the walls, which were 75 feet thick and 100 feet high, with 100 brazen gates. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus, was 420 feet to the support of the roof. It was a hundred years In ' building. The largest of the pyramids is 4S1 feet high, and 653 feet on the sides ; its base 'covers 11 acres. The stones are about 80 ! feet in length, and the layers are 208 feet. ' It employed 330,000 men in building. The labyrinth in Egypt contains 300 chambers and j 12 halls. Thebes, iu Egypt, presents ruins 1 27 miles around, and 100 gates. Carthage 32G FACTS FOR EVERYBODY was 29 miles around. Athens was 25 miles around, and contained 359,000 citizens and 400 slaves. The temple of Delphns was so rich in its donations that it was plundered of $50,000,000, and Nero carried away from it 200 statues. INVENTIONS AND DISCOVERIES. The following are the dates of some of the most important inventions and discoveries : Glass windows, first used, 1189 : chimneys in hous- es, 1226 ; leaden pipes for conveying water, 1253; tallow candles for lights, 1290 ; specta- cles invented by an Italian, 1299 ; paper first made from linen, 1302 ; woolen cloth first made in England, 1331 ; printing invented, 1449 ; watches made in Germany, 1470 ; vari- ations in compass noticed, 1532 ; pins used in England, 1540 ; circulation of blood, discov- ered by Harvey, 1619 ; first newspaper pub- lished, 1637 ; first steam engine invented, 1749 ; steam engine improved by Watt, 1763 ; steam null erected, 1783 ; stereotyping in- vented in Scotland, 1785 ; animal magne- tism, by Mesmer, 1789 ; invention of the electro-magnetic telegraph, by Morse, 1843. RIVERS AND OCEANS. The basin of the Thames covers 5,500 square miles ; of the Rhine. 89,000 ; Euphrates and Tigris, 243,000 ; Brahma Pootra, 270,000; Nile, 707,000; Danube, 312.500 ; Indus, 410.000 ; Ganges, 443,000; Volga, 653,000; Yang-tse-kiang, 742,000 ; Mississippi, 1,101,000 ; Plata, 1,560- 000; Amazonas, 1,920,000. These and hun- dreds of minor rivers are unceasingly replen- ishing the waters of the ocean, and thus pursue that uninterrupted round of inter- change which characterizes all creation. In round numbers it may be considered that the ocean surface is equal to 160,000,000 square miles, and the earth's surface to 40,000,000. GROWTH OF AMERICAN CITIES. Bos- ton was trying to grow nearly 100 years •before it attained a population of 10,000. Al- bany was 200 years. New York was 130 years. Philadelphia, settled 60 or 70 years later, grew much faster than the older cities, and arrived at the dignity of 10,000 in about 50 years. New Orleans was about 100 years old before she attained that number. During the first hundred years after the settlement of Boston (1630), this was the largest city of the colonies. New York became as populous as Boston just before the revolutionary war ; about 1811 New York became as populous as Philadelphia, each containing 100,000 inhab- itants. Baltimore overtook Boston about the year 1800. The principal new cities grew to the number of 10,000 nearly as follows : Pittsburgh in 66 years ; Louisville, 50}-ears ; Cincinnati, 22 years ; Cleveland, 40 years ; Detroit, 45 years (counting out its French and Indian period) ; New Albany, 35 years ; Chicago, 12 years ; Mihvaukie, 10 years. These cities attained to 20,000 in the num- of vears from their birth as follows : Boston, 163; Albany, 220; New York, 150 ; Philadelphia, 80 : New Orleans, 113 ; Baltimore, about 80 ; Pittsburgh, 75 ; Louis- ville, 41: Cincinnati, 30: Cleveland. 45; Detroit, 52 ; Chicago, 16 ; Milwaukie, 17. GEOGRAPHICAL OR1GINE. The Alps take their name from the snows with which their summits are continually covered, the Sabine word Alpnm signifying the same as the Latin word, Album, white. France is so called from the Franci, or Franks, a people of Germany who seized on those parts of it nearest the Rhine, in the time of Valentinian the Third, and afterwards subduing Paris they made it the seat-royal of their growing empire, and thus caused the country there- abouts to be called France. Hibernia most probably derived its name from Ibernce, a Phoenician word, meaning the farthest habi- tation, there being no country known among the ancients west of Ireland. Portugal was anciently called Lusitania, from the Lusitani, who then inhabited it ; it took its present name from the haven of Porto, at the mouth of the Duerus, where the Gauls used to land their merchandise, thence it was called For- tus Gallomm. This town was given in dow- er with Teresa, daughter of Alphonso the Sixth, to Henry de Lorrain, who took the title of Earl of Portugal ; his successors com- ing to be kings, extended the name to all those parts which they conquered from the Moors. Russia took its denomination from the Rossi, or Russi, a people of Mount Tau- rus, who possessed themselves of some parts of it in the declining times of the Greek em- pire, and being the prevailing people, im- posed their name upon all the rest. Greece is a name given from Graecus, son of Cecrops, first king of Athens. THE BOWIE KNIFE. This famous wea- pon received its name from Colonel James Bowie, by whom it was invented. Colonel Bowie distinguished himself in the war of In- dependence in Texas. He showed great bravery in several battles and skirmishes, and was killed with Colonels Travis and Crockett, in the attack on the Alamo, in San Antonio. Colonel Bowie lived in Louisiana, but was by birth a Georgian. He became notorious in the Southwest on account of a terrible duel which he fought with Norris Wright and others, on a bar of the Mississippi — one of the bloodiest rencontres on record — in which he was wounded and two men were killed. He is said to have been a man of daring and great muscular power. AN OLD BOOK. The oldest book known to be extant is an edition of the Psalms, in Latin, printed in 1457, which is now 400 years old. A MISCFLLANT OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 327 STOXES. Stone is a general term for all hard, brittle, or insoluble bodies, Having •poken of Precious Stones, we have now to notice the more roninion kinds ; as Marble, Porphyry, Alabaster. Portland stone, &<•. Mauhlk. is a valuable stone, formed by the union of earth of lime, with carbonic arid, or in the modern Language of mine- ralogy, is carbonated lime, found in great sand dug out of pits or quarries. Being of a hard, compact constitution, and so tine as readily to take a beautiful polish, it is much used in ornaments of buildings, as columns, statues, altars, tombs, chimney- pieces, babies, and the like, Hauy has de- scribed nearly 100 different varieties of car- bonated lime, but there is still an indefinite number of different kinds of marble, usually denominated either from their colour, their age, their country, their grain, their degree of hardness, their weight, or their defects ; some are of one simple colour, as white, or black ; others streaked or variegated with stains, clouds, waves, veins, &c. but all opaque except the white, which, when cut into thin slices, becomes transparent. Eng- lish a kite marble is veined with red. Derby- shire marble is variously clouded, and di- versified with brown, red, and yellow. That of Devonshire is either black with white veins, or red shaded with gray and orange. Marble of Auvetyite, in France, is of a pale red, mingled with violet, green, and yellow. Ya.ious other kinds are denominated by the places from which they are brought, as Dinan, near Liege — Namur, Lanu'uedoc, Sa» voy, Sicily, Spain, &c Artificial Mar- ble is only marble pulverized, and mixed in a certain portion with plaster ; the whole well sifted, worked up with water, and used like common plaster. With this stucco are made statues, busts, basso-relievos, and other ornaments of architecture. Marble is polished by being first rubbed with freestone, after waids with pumice-stone, and last with emery, putty, or calcined tin. Porphyry. Belong-; to that class of mine- rals, which, occurring in great masses, mineralogists have considered as properly designated by the geneial term rock: a pre- cious kind of stone or marble. It is of a brownish red, green, or black colour fre- quently interspersed with white stains; for- merly brought from Egypt, and exceeding all others in hardness. The ancient por- phyry quarries are long since lost, and the art of cutting it, as practised by the Egyptians, is also lost. The modern tools •will scarcely touch it. Either the ancients, therefore, had the art of tempering steel better than we, or they had the art of soften- l ing the porphyry. Though it ifl probable thai time and air have contributed to increase its hardness. Mr. .Addison saw a workman at Rome employed in the cutting of porphyry. but his advances were exceedingly slow, and almost insensible. The Italian sculptors work it with a brass saw without any teeth, together with emery and water. Leon Bap- tist! Alberta, searching for the necessary temper, says he found goafs blood the best of any. Cosmo de Mcdieis is said to have distilled a water from certain herbs, with which his sculptor gave his tools such an admirable hardness and temper, as that he performed some tine works with them, par- ticularly our Saviour's head, in demi-relievo. Even the very hair and beard, how difficult soever, are here well conducted, and there is nothing of the kind better in all the works I of the ancients. Lut the secret seems to | have died with him. The French pretend to j have found another method, with an iron saw I without teeth, and freestone pulverized with ; water. The Porphyries are composed of | felspar in little fragments, of short, and a kind of cement of the nature o'f jasper, on which the colour of the porphyry generally depends. The felspar and shorl which enter into the composition of porphyries, contain silex, alumina, magnesia, baryte, and a little iron. Serpentine. Is one of the primitive rocks, and although most commonly of a green colour, deviating sometimes into vari us shades of red, it is ofien confounded with, porphyry. There are two varieties of ser- pentine, the common and the precious. The common serpentine contains silex, magnesia, alumina, water and iron, and is found in Saxony, Bohemia, Italy, Cornwall, and Scotland, particularly at Portsoy. It is soft, takes a good polish, and is turned into vessels and ornaments of a great variety of shapes. At Zoblitz, in Saxony, several hundreds of people are employed in quarry- ing and manufacturing this mineral; but the serpentine of Portsoy is much superior to the Saxon in colour, hardness, and trans- parency, and when cut is very beautiful. Precious serpentine is found in Silesia and Italy; it is soft, and of a dark leaf green. The verd antique is a variety of this kind of serpentine. Granite. Is an aggregated rock, which generally forms the most elevated parts of lofty chains of mountains. It is white or red, and is compo>ed of quartz, felspar, and mica, of the latter in the least, quantity. The stones used in paving the streets of New York, and most of the curb-stones, are of granite, brought from Massachusetts. 328 PACTS for everybody: Granite is very hard, but not susceptible of a fin" polish. .Flint or Silex {silica is the appellation of the simple earth). Is commonly of a gray colour, varying from ash gray to grayish black and brownish red ; it occurs generally in roundish masses of no great magnitude, rarely in crystal*, and sometimes in hollow or perforated globules. It is found in almost all countries, although not very abundantly in Scotland, and is used when split into narrow thin pieces, as flints for gun-locks, or to strike fire with steel to light matches, and for the manufacture of glass instead of fine sand. According to Klaproth, Hint contains 98 silica, lime 050, alumina 025, oxide of iron 25, and loss 1 = 100. The best Hints are found in the chalk or lime quarries. The Indians use two pieces of wood, which they rub violently against each other, instead of steel and flint, to generate fire or inflame a match. Mill-stones are chiefly composed of quartz and felspar, the latter in small parti- cles, with a little mica ; they are very hard, not susceptihle of a polish, and by their numerous unequal angular prominences, are particularly adapted to grinding corn to powder. Mill-stones are principally brought from Normandy in France, and their chemi- cal and mincralogical characters have never vet been sufficiently examined. There is, however, much reason to believe, that if the mountains of Scotland, Ireland or Wales, were minutely investigated, a stone in every respect fit for mills would be found. Alabaster, or compact gypsum. Is a well knowu mineral, used by architects, statua- ries, plasterers, and others. It is a sulphate of lime, of which plaster of Paris is a coarse variety. There are three kinds 1st, the snow-white, shining alabaster, found in Taurus, in .pieces large enough to make dishes : it cuts freely, and is capable of a fine polish. 2nd. the yellow alabaster, which is found in Greece, of a soft texture, heavy and nearly the colour of honey. This species has been found also in "Germany, France, in Derbyshire, and in Cumberland. 3rd. the variegated, yellow, and reddish alabaster. This is the common alabaster of the ancients, and is so soft that it may be cut with a knife, it is remarkably bright, almost transparent ; admits of a fine polish, and consists of large angular sparry con- cretions. Alabasters are frequently used by statuaries for small statues, vases, and columns. The clearness and fineness of thi> stone renders it in some measure transpa- rent, whence it has been occasionally em- ployed for windows. There is a church at Florence, still illuminated by alabaster windows ; instead of panes of glass there are slabs of alabaster near fifteen feet high, each of which forms a single window, through which the light is conveyed. The countries in Europe which abound most in alabaster, are Germany towards Coblentz ; in some parts of Spam and France, in Italy towards Rome. A new manufacture of basso relievos, from a singular species of factitious alabaster, has been established by M. Letapie, at the baths of St. Philip in Etruria or Tuscany. The stream of these baths deposits a peculiar kind of sand, which when collected and con- densed in the cavities of any body emplo} ed to oppose its current, acquires the nature, hardness, and colour of alabaster, and as- sumes the forms of those cavities in which it is thus lodged. When alabaster is burned, it falls to powder , is then used in stucuo work, for polishing silver, &c. Freestone or Sandstone. That dug in the peninsula of Portland, and thence called Portland stone, is much used, being softer and whiter than Purbec stone, and is commonly raised out of quarries in bigger blocks ; some are also called ryegate or Jire stone, freestone. Mr Boyle observes, that a competent knowlege of the stones used in building is of great importance ; one stone dug out of a quarry being found to moulder away in a few winters, while another will brave the air for many ages. The same author adds, that, as there are some sorts of stones which will decay in a few years, there are others that will not have attained their full haidness in thirty or forty years, or even much more. Freestone is a whitish stone, dug up in many parts of England, that works like alabaster ; but more hard and durable, being of excellent use in building. It is a kind of grit or fine sandstone, and is called freestone from its being of such a constitution as to be cut freely in any direc- tion. This stone occurs m almost all countries, is of a reddish, yellow, white, or gray colour, and is sometimes mixed with small particles of mica, or vestiges of shells. It is used for grindstones, scythe-stones, shoemaker's whetstones, &c. and in build- ings. Workmen constantly employed in cutting it, generally die of consumption in consequence of its fine particles being im- bibed by the lungs. A kind of flexible grey sandstone is found in the Brazils. A coarse kind of sandstone is used for filtering water. Slate. Is a blue fossil, very soft when dug out of the quarry, and is easily cleft, cut, or sawed into thin long squares, to serve in lieu of tiles, for the covering of houses. Some- times also it is used for tables, and other A MISCELLANY OP tJSEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 329 purposes. The ancients were unacquainted with the use of slate, and Covered their bouses with shingle, as we read in Pliny. Besides the blue-state, we hare in England a greyish slate, e.ilh-d also Uoisham-stone, from a town in Sns.'x of that name, where the greatest quantities of it are found. The bme -Lite is a wry Light, Lasting, and beau- tiful coi a judge of the goodness of slate, air. C< depress recommends an ex- amination of its sonorous quality; if it emits a good clear sound, the stone is firm and g-»d. Another method of proving its goodness is by weighing it, then letting it lie six or etght hours under water, and wiping it very clean ; if it weighs then more than it did before, it will not endure without rotting the lath and timber. .The clay-slate, which varies in colour from light blue to purple, is the most generally used. The blackish-grey kind is used in schools by scholars learning arithmetic, and for writing; the splinter kind is made into pencils, and se- veral varieties are used as whetstones. Some kinds of hard slate, or schist us, have iron p\ rites, and mica embedded in them ; others are soft, and used for designing as black chalk. Pumice-Stoxe. Is a kind of spongy fibrous stone, very porous and friable, found in the ashes of most volcanoes. Dr. Woodward con.-iders pumice as only a sort of slag or cinder; and affirms it is only found either where forges of metal have anciently been, or near some volcano or burning mountain. Other authors will have it to arise from the bottom of the tea, whence they suppose it to be detached by subterranean fires ; and hence account both for its lightness and po- rosity, and its saline taste, alleging that several parts of the Archipelago are fre- quently found covered with it all at once, after a few inward shakes and heavings of the bottom of the sea. It consists of 77 parts si lex, 17 alumina, and the remainder of a 100 in iron, manganese, and alkali. Pumice makes a very considerable article in commerce, and is much used in the arts and manufactories, to glazo pottery, and to v dish and smooth several works. The mar- biers and parchment-makers use the largest and lightest — the curriers, the heaviest and flattest — pewterers, the smallest. 11 one. A fine sort of whetstone, whereon to set a razor or penknife. It is of a yel- lowish colour; according to some accounts, it is holly-wood petrified, or changed into stone, by 1\ ing in the water for a certain time. Some in Arkansas are said to be thus petrified in a very short time. Several kinds of petrified wood are used as whet- stones, but they are generally too hard nni too coarse for fine edges. RABBITS. Rabbit House. The first and most important matter is to have a good dry house or shed, in which the animals con be well protected from damp weather. Too MuCQ moisture is as fatal to rabbits as it is to sheep; it gives them the rot. Dampness maybe all very well for fishes, but isnotgood'formen, women and children, nor yet for horses, cows, pigs, poultry, b es, or rabbits; these all thrive better and are preserved from many diseases by being pro- tected from it. Put though you keep out the wet from your rabbit- house, you must not at the same time exclude fresh air; for rabbits can no more be in health without fresh air, than human beings. Many writers advise that rabbits should not be kept in hutches, but in little houses, so constructed, that they may have pro- tection from the weather, and at the s ime time enjoy their liberty and amuse them- selves. 1 his house may be buile about four or f.ve feet square, as may be convenient, with, a roof ^"»rmed to carrv off the rain. The floor should be boarded or paw J, to prevent the rabbits from burrowing, and have hay or straw laid on it. Some boxes must be provided, placed on the floor with the open side downwards, and with holes at the side for the rabbits to go in or out. Sliding doors to these boxes are convenient to -hut in the rabbits when necessary. In the front of the house there should be a Llile court, or yard railed off, into which the rabbits may be allowed to run when the weather is dry ; and here they will sport and enjoy themselves, and give you oppor- tunities of observing their pretty antics. But this house will only do for young rabbits, or until they are about five months old; after that age, they would begin to tear each other to pieces, if left together; all the pleasure you had in witnessing their former harmony and happiness would be gone ; the bucks would fight dreadfully, and the litters the does might have, would be destroyed , so that it is necessary that breeding does should be kept in hutches, and the bucks be separated from one another. Put we nevertheless advise that young rabbits should be allowed to have their liberty in such a house ; as they will be tar more "healthy, and will grow much better, than arh.cn they are cooped up in hutches, where they have no room to exercise their limbs. Hutches. The hutches should l>e made as large as convenient, that the rabbits may 330 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: not be cramped for want of exercise; those for breeding does must have a partition, so as to form two apartments, one for feeding, the other as a bed. Single hutches, that is, with one room only, will do for young rabbits, or for bucks to be kept in. The door of the feeding apartment should have wires in it, but that of the bed-plar e must be of wood, as the d >e likes darkness and concealment when she has her dtter. It is well to have a sliding-board to divide the two compartments, and to shut out the rabbits when the hutch is to be cleaned; as it is very inconvenient to do this with the rabbits running about. The floors of the hutches should be quite smooth, that the wet may run off, and, in order to facilitate this, a small slit or opening in the floor at the back of the hutch should be made, and the hutch itself be put sloping, a little higher at the front than at the back ; for when rabbits have much green food, there is a considerable quantity of moisture which requires to be drained off, that the creatures may be kept dry and clean ; and if proper means be taken to receive this into a drain, it forms a verv valuable liquid manure. Feeding Troughs. Are usually made in the form of a long open box, but this is inconvenient in many respects, as the young rabbits get in and spoil the food, and the older ones scratch out much of it, tread it under foot and waste it. A better plan is to have a swinging board in front, the cost of which is soon nude up by the food saved. The rabbits when they take their food, push this board inwards with their forehead, and when the head is withdrawn, the board flaps back against the front of the trough. Some persons have a lid to the trough which the rabbit soon learns to lift, and which shuts down again of itself as soon as the head is taken out of the way. There are many kinds of rabbits, varying in size, form, colour, length of legs or fur, and position of the ears, but the races have been so continuously inter- mixed, and varied, by breeding, that it is a difficult task to point out any distinct kind as preferable. The smallest and short- lereed variety, of the colour of the wild rabbit, appears to be the hardiest. Boys generally prize lop-ears, though they are scarcely so nretty in appearance as the common kind. There is the single or double lop, according as one only, or both ears are dropped. Smuts too are favourites, either single or double. The smut is a black spot on the sule of the rabbit's nose, and a spot on each side constitutes the double smut. Some of these are very beau- tiful creatures, having a white silvery fur, with rich, glossy, black spots, and they are generally large sized rabbits. Food. This is an important matter; rabbits eat a very great quantity ; you must * ! not think that because they are little animals, they require only a little food ; they want much more than you do, in proportion to their size : and to give them j proper kinds of food, in sufficient quantity, and at a low expense, constitutes the -chief j question as regards their profit. How often do we hear it said, and how generally true is the saying, " Oh ! my rabbits never pay, they eat their heads off, &c," meaning that the expense of the food eon-umed, more than counterbalances the advantage gained. Now, this arises from want of knowledge. For the greater part of the year, rabbits may be kept almost entirely upon food procured from the fields or garden. Al- though green food is naturally the food of labbits, vet, because when injudiciously supplied It scours, and gives them the rot, it is erroneously supposed that it must be almost entirely witheld. It is true, that if it be given to them in a wet state after rain ; if it consist of one kind of vegetable only; or if it be of a watery kind, a bad effect takes place ; but when the green food is given in sufficient variety, and with a small supply of good dry hay or oats daily, there is not the least fear in giving an unlimited quantity. We will now give a list of many of the vegetables that are good food for rabbits. All through the summer there will be an ample supply from the garden and hedges. Dandelion, groundsel, sow-thistle, dock- leaves, peas-haulm, lettuce; strawberry, raspberry, and currant leaves ; carrot, parsnip, potato, and horse-radish tops; all kinds of grasses, celery ; French beans in the pod, vine dressing, apple parings, &c. f &c. But we need not further enumerate, when there is scarcely any vegetable which rabbits will not eat; but before all other things they prefer parsley, carrot tops, French-beans, bath-leaves, stalks, and pods. As soon as the p as and kidney-beans have done bearing, let them be pulled up and given to the rabbits, together with all the pods not wanted for use. In the autumn, when green food becomes scarcer, we give the waste scarlet-runner stalks, of which they are verv fond ; also the leaves which now fall in abundance from the apple and other trees ; and when the garden sup- plies fail, there is generally plenty of marsh- mallows, docks, ground-ivy, and grasses A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 331 from the hedges, to form an abundance of green (bod for some time longer. In the winter, carrots, parsnips, swede and common turnip, together with brewer's grains, mixed With topping! or pollard, ■apply the lack iif fresh vegetables. We never use grains in the summer, because they so soon turn sour and mouldy, and much better food can then be obtained We must not omit to tell you that rabbits like the young bark of trees , for this reason we supply ours in the winter with small branches " and twigs, which they cither strip or entirely consume. We throw to the young ones the prunings of vines; currant, apple, and other trees; except such as laurel, and evergreens . said to be poisonous. Nibbling these twigs ' is excellent amusement for rabbits, and beside keeping them in health, serves as a portion of their food. Here, then, we have shown that there is do need for starving rabbits, when there is such an abundant variety of food suitable for them, and at all times to be procured. One writer observes, that when rabbits die, ninety-nine times out of the hundred, starvation is the malady And particularly short- feeding the doe, while, and before she has young ones. Feeding. It is best to feed rabbits three, or even four times a-day, because when they are fed only twiee during that time, a larger quantity of food must be given at each feeding, which is too often wasted. ta appear to relish their food best when given in small quantities, and you will soon learn how much to give at each time you feed, so as to avoid waste and yet for the rabbits to have euough. The does must be well kept, as we have just said, both before and after they have young ones, or it is useless to expect "their produce to be vigorous and healthy. A doe with a litter will eat twice as much as at other times, and must be liberally supplied with green food, and carrots and parsnips, raw or, boiled, as well as with oats and hay. A few days both before and after kittincj, every evening, we give to our does, a few table-spoonsful of gruel, made either with Hour or oatmeal, and we rind this a good practice, as the animal appears to sutler a jrood deal from thirst, about that period ; c; re must be taken not to give this while it is hot, nor is it necessary to give much when there is an abundance of green meat A little cold water, or milk may be given instead of the gruel ; we have never fouud it to hurt any of our rabbits. Young rabbits when they first come out to feed must not he allowed to eat the greens, with which the doe is supplied; but they may nibble at carrots, and other roots, and at the little twigs we have men- tioned, and gradually be accustomed to partake of a more moist diet. # BbbeDTJTG. Rabbits begin to breed when about five or six months old, and will give seven or eight litters in the year, though it ia better to allow them only to have five, as too frequent breeding is injurious. Iu thirty days after being with the buck, the doe produces her young. A few days before the time, some hay must be given to her, with which and the down she pulls from her fur, she will construct her bed. It is always a sign of the approaching birth of the young wlieu she begins to bite down the hay, or carry it about in her mouth, and to tear the jflue from her body. There are generally" from four to ten young ones, sometimes more ; but it is far better when the doe has so many, to keep only five or six of the finest, they will then grow up strong and healthy, and the doe will not to so much weakened as if all had been pre- served. At the end of six weeks the young brood may be removed, and the doe and buck come together again. Great care is required during very severe weather, to prevent the young from dying with cold ; and for this reason it is better to allow the doe to rest during the win er. The best breeding rabbits are said to be those pro- duced in March. Fattening. There is no need to resort to any other method in preparing rabbits for the table, than to give them as much oats, carrots, and green loud as they choose to take ; if fattened w ith corn alone, the tlesh is not so juicy and relishing, as when they are also allowed an unlimited quan- tity of vegetables. They are in the greatest perfection from about three to seven months old. and about a month's feeding as advised will make them thoroughly fat, provided they have not been hall-starved previously. The New York poulterers exhibit tine speci- mens of fatted rabbbits at Christinas, some we have seen weighing upwards of fifteen pounds ; but it is not desirable to produce such over-fat animals, whether rabbits, or oxen, or sheep. Diseases. Rabbits are generally very healthy, and hardy. When due attention is paid to their food, to ventilation and cleanliness, few animals are less subject to disease ; but, as in all other cases, tilth, foul air, aud damp, produce disease in rabbits. Looseness, which may be seen by the dung being too moist, must be re- 332 PACTS FOE everybody: medied by dry food, such as crusts of bread, good corn, old hay, hard biscuit, or any food of a dry quality. The rot may be said to be incurable, at least we have found it so with young rabbits. The remedy must be looked for in dry hutches, fresh air, and substantial food. The liver complaint, another disorder, is said also to be incurable ; but a3 it doe8 not prevent the rabbits from fattening, the best course is to prepare tbose attacked at once for the table. Snuffles or colds may be cured by removing the rabbit from the damps and draughts, which hare produced the disorder, to a drier and warmer place. It is much easier to prevent disease than to cure. Cleanliness, careful attention, dryness, and Tegular feeding in the manner we have directed, will, in general, ensure good health in the rabbits, and entirely prevent any of these diseases. Profits. Rabbits are really profitable. Three doe3 and a buck will give you a rabbit to cat for every three days in the year, which is a very much larger quantity of food than any man will get by spending half his time in the pursuit of wild animals, to say nothing of the toil, the tearing of clothes; and the danger of pursuing the latter. When the am" ring fecundity of the rabbit is taken into account, it willreadily be seen tiiat if the expense of food, and management can be kept low, a great profit may be obtained. It is said, that from a single pair of rabbits, the prodigious number of one million, two-hundred and seventy- four thousand, eight hundred and forty, may be produced in four years, supposing all the rabbits to live. We hare shown how the least possible expense as to food may be attained, by pointing out the food which costs least, and vet is quite suitable for the animals ; and there appears to be no good reason, why, a person living in the country who has a 6hed and a garden should not derire adrantage from the keeping of rabbits, and when the care of them can be entrusted to a bov, the cost of management would of course be diminished. The value of the dung, either for sale, or for the garden is considerable, as it is a very valu- able manure. PAINTING (OIL).— We begin by sup- posing that you can draw — at least, that you can make a straight line (which, in- deed, not everyone can do) — and, that you can, either from a fair knowledge of perspective, or a naturally correct eye, copy any object in the room, as the books on the table, the jar of flowers, or the coal-scuttle; for, though a person may, without being able to draw from na- ture, produce a highly finished copy of a picture, there would be more labour than pleasure in the task ; while an original, if only a wheel-barrow and besom, grouped with taste, would give far more delight in the doing, and you would acquire an artistic freedom of hand by such studies. In the next place, we suppose that you can see colours according to nature, for many persons see them too bright, or quite the reverse of what they are. We will now proceed to describe the materials actually required in this art. If our pupil can command a room to himself as a studio, if ever so small, so much the better. This, however, is not at all needful — a moderate-sized table will be all the space he requires to engross. An easel, palette, palette-knife, brushes, colours, a little oil and varnish, and some prepared mill-board, are all that is neces- sary, and they are not very expensive. As a large easel standing on the ground A MTSCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 333 is only fit f™* ft studio, we gWe a sketch of a "table -easel," which is both simple and portable, and may be made by any car- penter; it will fold up quite flat, and pack at the bottom of a box. It is 18 inches high, 15 wide at the base, 7 wide at the top, 20 long for the leg, 22 for the stand; this is provided with holes, and the leg has an iron point at the end, which fits into the holes, and regulates the inclination of the easel. A loose grooved bai of wood, about 18 inches long, rests on 2 pegs, which are placed in the holes in from; of the easel ; this supports the picture. The palette should be made of mahogany, of an oblong shape, and light in weight. The palette-knife to mix the colours should be pliant and well-tempered. The brushes we recommend are, two flat hog's hair brushes in tin, Nos. 2 and 7; two flat sable brushes in tin, Nos. 4 and 8; three round sable brushes, Nos. 1, 4, and 6. These seven tools will be amply sufficient to begin with, but some camel-hair ones, in quills, the same as those used in water- colour drawing, may be added; they are very cheap. A brush called a "badger softener" is of use in painting skies, but they are expensive, and may be dispensed with at first. The colours are enclosed in air-tight metal tubes, and the capsule being un- screwed, you squeeze the colour up from the bottom of the tubes. "We give a list of the most useful colours, and from which almost any picture may be painted. Of these, the first six are opaque, and the re- mainder transparent; we wish the pupil to bear this in mind. 1. Flake white; 2. Naples yellow; 3. Light red; 4. Indian red; 5. Vermilion; 6. Terra verte ; 7. Burnt umber; 8. Raw sienna ; 9. Burnt sienna ; 10. Antwerp blue ; 11. Ivory black. There are also some extra colours, which are of higher price, and used in finishing ; 16" these are, French ultramarine, and madder lake. These are verv beautiful, and are chiefly used in sky tints, and in delicate flesh tints. The price of the tubes of paint is s xpenre each, that of the extra colours one aid sixpence each; but they last for a lonj, time. Of oils and varnish, you require some raw linseed oil, some light drying oil, a bottle of mastic varnish, a little spirits of turpen- tine, and a little olive or eating oil. The prepared millboards for Minting on are of all sizes, from six inches by eight, to 24 by 20, and the prices are from sixpence to three shillings each. Academy boards are similar, but thinner and cheaper, and may easily be cut to what size you like. Oil sketching-paper (which is only drawing- paper covered with two or three coats of paint) is cheaper still, and for first trials is very useful. It must be fastened with drawing-pins to a board when used, or if a very small sketch, it may merely rest on a board or a book. We prefer these boards to canvas, which is dear, and requires to be put on a stretching frame. With the addition of a small tin "dipper," or galli- pot, and a few clean rags, our materials are complete ; and we trust in the next chapter to explain to our friends the manner of using them. Second Article. The palette must be prepared for use by rubbing into it as much raw linseed oil as it will absorb; repeat this for two or three days, and then rub it dry with a rag. It will now have a fine polished surface, and the colour will not sink into it. Your subject must be sketched on the millboard, before you begin your painting operations — a fine light pencil is best for small pictures, but dialk or charcoal is generally used for large subjects. A wet rag is better than India-rubber for correct- ing mistakes. Let your lines be as few and light as possible, and make the drawing very carefully, that you may not be troubled with alterations when you begin to paint. You now mix up in the dipper (which is a little tin cup, made to fix on the palette, though a pomade-pot with a cover does quite as well) the " Vehicle" which is a preparation of oil and varnish, used to tem- per the colours and make them work plea- santly. There are many kinds of "vehicles," ami artists differ greatly in their choice. That known as " Meglip* is what we ad- vise, and is made by mixing equal parts of the mastic varnish, and light drying oil; stir it for a few moments, and it will become a kind of jelly. Make no more than you 334 FACTS for everybody: require for your day's painting ; half a tea- spoonful of each is enough. You now " set your palette" as it is termed ; that is, you squeeze out of the tubes portions of colour about the size of a nut, and lay them along the upper edge of the palette, beginning from the thumb-side in the following order — white, Naples yeitow, raw sienna, burnt sienna, light red, Indian red, vermilion, terra verte, umber, blue, and black. You have thus ample space for mixing, with the knife, the various tints on the lower part of the palette. The -lighter tints are generally placed on the right-hand side of the palette. White or black is usually combined with all colours, as they are required lighter or darker. To make any tint, take on the point of the knife a small portion of meglip, and the colours you want, mix them on the palette, scrape them up, and lay in giadations. The following is a set of flesh-tints for a head or figure . — LIGHTS.— "White and a little Naples yel- low ; white, Naples yellow, and vermilion; white, vermilion, or light red. Middle Tints. White, black, and ver- milion; white, black, and Indian red; white, terra verte, and a little vermilion. Shadow Tint. Black, Indian red, and a little umber. The tint of pearly blue we see under the eye is produced by white, vermilion, and ultramarine. For the greenish shade on the forehead and complexions of sallow per- sons, the terra verte tint is beautiful. Having the palette now set, you are all POETABLE TABLE-EASEL, ready to begin to paint. Place your picture at a convenient height, so that you mav not stoop to it; the left hand holds the palette, and the " rest, or nwhl stick " on which you support the right hand, as shown in the en- graving. The hands should be at some dis- tance from the body, and the artist should sit rather erect, so there is no danger of in- juring the chest. It is bitter to copy at first from a painting, matching the tints as nearly as possible, by holding them close to the original, on the knife. It is, however, very good practice to copy from engravings, where the artist must use his owu taste iu the colouring. We will imagine a sketch of a " little shrimper," and will now direct our pupil liow to paint it throughout ; it is an easy study, and will make a pleasing picture. The sky round the head, cool gray cloud, composed of black, white, and vermilion ; above the cloud a little blue sky of ultrama- rine and white, and a few streaks of white, Naples yellow, and vermilion at the horizon. The distant hill — shades of white, black, and vermilion ; the nearer rocks — shades of white, black, and raw sienna ; the ground, or shore — raw umber, white, or raw sienna, white, and black ; the lightest part of the sea — black, white, and Naples yellow, melt- ing off to black, and white, and a little blue; the pool of water in the foreground — black, white, burnt sienna, and a little gray in the lights (as the reflection of the sky) ; the basket and net — black, umber, or sienna; the face, hands, and legs may be painted with the flesh tints, and a little Indian red and vermilion for the lips, and black and burnt sienna for the eyes ; the cap — for the darks, Indian red, black ; middle tint — ver- milion, Indian red ; high light — vermilion and white. For the fold of white round the neck — white, subdued with umber ; for the A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 335 iecket — raw sienna, burnt sienna, and blaek IH the shadow, and raw sienna and white in the lifchl ; for the trowsers — tints (if blue and black, and blue and white; for the boots— Idaek and a little Indian red, with white touched of light. Paint in the sky first with a Hat sable brush, not overloaded with eolour, and rub it well in, so M to have no thick patches of colour on the board — soften with a hog's- hair tool. The distance must also he painted with little body of paint. With a small brush lay in the face, the eye, and the dark parts first, with more colour in your brush than for the sky ; then work downwards at the dress, &c, finishing as correctly as you can, laying on the lights with a fiat sable, and with thicker colour on the shadows The net must be painted with thin colour over the sky. This finishes the irst painting, or "dead colouring," as it is called. When quite dry (which in summer time will be in a day or two, but in damp weather longer), wa&fa it with cold water, and dry it with a soft cloth ; this is to prevent the colours from running and working as if they were greasy, when you begin to paint again. Hub over the paits you intend to paint, with a brush wet with a little linseed or oil or meglip, so as to leave the least possible quantity on the painting. This makes the colours combine with the first painting, and also enables you to wipe them entirely off, if you cannot succeed to your mind, while the previous •work remains as it was. Go over the painting with the same tints as in the dead colouring, correcting, improv- ing, and softening, marking the high lights rather lighter, laying them on with spirited touches, and with rather stiff colour. For the third, or last painting, when per- fectly dry, wash and oil as before, and touch up, where it is needed, with the delicate flesh tints, adding a little madder lake on the cheeks. The "glazing" is put on at this stage of the picture — that is, laying some^ transpa- rent colour, mixed only with meglip, over any part, to enrich andgive it depth ; thus, some burnt sienna, glazed over the red cap, will have a very good effect. It must be put on sparingly, so as to see the former paintings through it, and even taken off entirely with a rag or the finger, in some places, as on the highest light. In the same manner may the jacket be glazed with burnt sienna, the trowsers with blue, and a little madder lake in the shadows, to enrich them. We will now give a few general hints on working up a painting : — Lay your colours on steadily and boldly, with as few strokes of the brush as you can help. Keep your tints pure and distinct, each in i he place you mean it to be. Do not, by going over and over them with the brush more than you can avoid, muddle and mix the tints, for some tints destroy each other, and the transparency and beauty of the painting will be lost. In softening or uni- ting two tints, it is best either to use an intermediate shade, or else, with a clean brush and no colour, to melt them together. Much depends on the first painting. It should be lighter in colour than the picture is in- tended to be, as all colours sink, more or less, into the ground as they dry, and it can easily be glazed and toned down to the proper colour. The shadows should be put on thin in eolour, the lights with a greater body of paint, with a sharp and firm touch. The brightest lights may be painted quite white, and glazed to the intended hue ; but, though beautiful effects are produced by glazing, it is dangerous for the student to be too free in the use of it. Be as careful as you can in the earlier paintings ; for it ia impossible to glaze a bad picture into a good one. "Scumbling" is the reverse of glazing, and is done by going over the painting when quite dry, with opaque tints of a lighter hue, generally with a mixture of white. It is of use in cooling down colours that are too bright, and in making objects appear more distant ; smoke, mists, and the hazi- ness of the far-off hills, are thus produced. It should be laid on very thinly with a hog's- hair tool. Scumbling, however, must not go over shadows, as that would spoil their depth. In painting a head, begin with the eyes and nose, then the forehead, mouth, cheeks, and hair; then go to the background, com- mencing at the top of the picture, and work- ing down to the head. Backgrounds are very various, but there is generally a little lightish tint near the face, which melts off into deep shadow to the upper part of the picture. In black hair, or draperies, mix a little Indian red, to give a warmth and har- mony. A brilliant effect is produced by some painters, who lay the first colouring of a head in gray tints only, composed of black, white, and Indian red, of different shades, using pure white for the high lights; and, when dry, glaze it all over with madder lake and raw sienna; then put on the carnation tints, and point up the shadows with burnt sienna and black. This would answer best for a large head, and is only one of the va- garies in which artists indulge. Let a be- ginner get the picture as like the copy as S36 FACTS FOR FVFTVTRODY : possible in the first painting, though rather lighter in tone. During the progress of the work, fre- quently retire and look at it from a distance, to judge of the effect; to examine it also in a looking-glass is a good plan to detect any faults in the drawing. If you are copying from anything in nature, cither landscape or figure, look at it occasionally with the eyes half-closed, or through a tube or roll of paper; the lights and shadows will by this means appear more distinct and defined, and the object more raised, and be more easily copied. In our next chapter, we hope to give our readers a few hints on landscape jointing, together with the choice of subjects, aud the arrangement of a picture, &c. Third Article. As Landscape Paint- ing is one of the most favourite branches of the art, so it is one of the easiest ; for, while keening the general outline of a view, Ave can allow ourselves much latitude in details : we may make our trees more full in leaf, our rooks more moss-grown, our rivers more clear, and either bathe our scene in the golden light of sunset, or make it solemn with " dark driving clouds," without in anyway affecting the truthful- ness of the scene: The hints which we will give shall apply to any style of landscape. The sky is always put in first, beginning with the blue of the sky, and working downwards with the various tints, be they golden or gray, according to the aspect you have chosen. In a clear unclouded sky, the blue is deepest above our heads, and melts off to the homon, till it becomes a tender gray. Ultramarine and white is the purest sky tint, and a little black and vermilion combined with it, gives the most beautiful grays. Clouds are painted over the clear sky with deeper shades of gray, or with a little umber mixed with it ; their bright edges are put on after the work is dry, and may be pure white or some f esh-coloured tint, according to the reilec- tton of the sun. Lay the colour on spa- ringly with one of the larger brushes, in touches or pats, from left to right, begin- ning from the left-hand corner of the picture. The distances are put in with the gray sky tints, but a little darker in tone. The sky and distance should be softened with a large brush, and allowed to dry before proceeding to the other parts. Trees, if thin of leaf, and showing much light through them, should be painted over the sky, otherwise they may be laid in at once, in masses of light and "shade, and the leaves made over them when dry, with little touches of the brush, and rather thicker colour. There are many different "touches" for foliage, and it requires a little practice to get the habit of doing it well ; some, with a fine brush with plenty of colour in it, make a kind of little loop, as if they were going to write the letters or C ; this leaves an oval, full touch. Sometimes a brush is crushed flat upon the colour, and stabbed on the painting, this leaves a star-like touch. Or an old hog or flat sable brush, with the hairs worn, and of different lengths, is used for a jagged foliage. These various touches may be pointed up and corrected by a tine brush. The receding parts of ths foliage and the leaves that come against the sky, are painted with thin, transparent colour, with a small tool ; the light touches with opaque tints. Foliage should not be made of too glaring a green. A good set of tints is made of blue, raw sienna, and white, blue and burnt sienna : and for light touches, raw sienna and white, or Naples yellow alone; for the dark shadows no blue is needed ; shades of black and raiv and burnt sienna give a warm olive tone. The lights may be glazed with sienna and a little blue to enrich them. You may produce the rough bark of near trees by painting the trunks rather dark, and putting over rugged, uneven touches of lightish gray, with a very full brush, and glazing it when dry with black and burnt sienna. For trees which are at some distance, and whose foliage appeals of a grayish yellow cast, use black, Naples yellow, and white; for very distant trees, add the French blue and a little light red, to give the atmospheric tint. The foreground must be painted^ with stronger colours, larger brushes, and bolder touches. For stalks of grass and weeds, a fine-pointed brush is used, and jerked up- wards, which gives a spirited touch. For flat rocks or stones the lights are sometimes put on with the palette knife, the colour being taken on the knife, and laid upon the picture, in the manner (to use a homely simile) of spreading bread and butter ; but as a nervous hand would most likely fail in this, the brush is the safest for a beginner. The foreground shadows should be glazed with rich "tones of browns and olives. When the painting is finished to your mind, by touching upon it here and there (though you must be careful not to do too much, and spoil the spirit of it), you may scumble the distances ; and the 6ky, if too blue, with white alone, or a gray tint ; this gives a misty softness to the whole, and brings it to a conclusion. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 337 We have thus given a few general rules for landscape painting, which is all we can do, nature's tints being innumerable. Try on your palette different combinations of colour, and yen may find out some beautiful tints yourself ; and if you see any peculiar light Or shade In your" walks, try and dis- cover the colours it is composed of— indeed, a painter should be always looking out for effects, always trying to leani something fresh from Nature herself, and every day the study will become more interesting. We must notforget to give some directions for cleaning up, on which all your comfort in painting depends, if not much of the beauty of the picture. Never leave your tools uncleancd till next day; the paint will dry on the palette, and the oil in the brushes, and soon quite spoil them. Take up, on the knife, all the bits of pure colour you have to spare, and lay them on a plate; pour over them as much cold water as will cover them, and they will keep several days soft and workable. Scrape oft' the palette all the waste colour and oil; wipe it with a rag ; pour on it some linseed oil, in which clean all the colour out of the brushes, wiping them, now and then, with a rag ; dip them in clean oil, which is to remain in them. Wipe the dirty oil off the palette ; put a little fresh on it, and rub it clean and dry. Be careful to keep it, and also the brushes, from dust. If some days are likely to elapse between your paintings, clean the brushes with spirits of turpentine, and dip them into olive oil, they may then be left for a fortnight without getting stiff, ■ or u tacky"— the turpentine must be all | wiped from them, or it will eat away the i hair. Wash the hog tools in soap and water — warm is best — dry them bv rubbing lightly and quickly over a cloth. After using oils or varnish, wipe the mouth of the | bottles, to prevent the corks sticking fast; wipe the tubes, too. after using, that they may screw properly. All this may be speedily done with plenty of rags (old stockings make the best) and a newspaper underneath, with very slight soiling of the fingers. Having now earned you through the practical part, we will speak of the sub- jects most suitable for the pencil. The various branches of art are divided as follows : — The histro-icol, or grand style, which includes historical, classical, and Scriptural subjects ; this is the highest branch, and few can hope to arrive at excellence in it ; as it not only requires a thorough knowledge of anatomy,'but a fertile and well-stored mind. Portrait painting is a delightful field for the pencil, and affords more pleasure than almost any other branch. Moreover, it is ! not much more ditlieult to copy a head from nature than from another painting Per- suade some friend who is good-natured I enough to submit to he caricatured, or made I hideous for the first few trials, to sit to you, ; and you will soon find it become easy. An old person's face, with strongly-marked features, is the best study— children and young people are more troublesome* as to expression. Landscape which includes Marine sub- jects, is a most popular style, and on a small scale, one of the most suitable for ladies. BACKGAMMON. Backgammon is the modern name of a game of considerable an- tiquity in England, where it was formerly known by the appellation of "the tables." The words back-gammonha\e been ascribed to the Welsh tongue, in which they arc said to signify little battle; but Strutt, with greater plausibility, traces the term to the Saxon " bac and gamvn — that is, back-game — so denominated because the performance consists in the two players bringing their men back from their antagonist's tables into their own ; or because the pieces are sometimes taken up and obliged to go back — that is, re-enter at the table they came from." Whatever be the etymology of the term, the game has been long established in the country; and, as a fireside amuse- ment of a decorous and exciting nature, is a favourite among clergymen, squires, farmers, and retired professional persons. W The Backgammon Table. Backgammon is played with an apparatus S'Sb FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: consisting of a board or tables, men or pieces, dice, and dice-boxes. The introduc- tion of dice into the game, and their con- stant use in determining moves, makes backgammon essentially a game of chance, and therefore brings two players of unequal talents nearer a level than other diversions in which skill is the sole or predominant element. The backgammon board consists of two parts or tables, generally united by a hinge in the middle, by which they can be shut up as a box. Each table possesses twelve points, six at each end. These points are coloured white and black alternately ; but this variation of colour has no reference to the game, and is only done to make the points more easily counted. The game is played by two parties, and with thirty pieces or men; each party has fifteen men, one set of fifteen beintr black, and the other white. In beginning the game, the men are placed on certain points on the tables, as shewn in the foregoing tigure. The game is played with two dice and two dice-boxes. The dice are common to both ; but each party uses his own dice-box, and the throws are alternate. Each dice is a perfect cube, marked on its sides with dots from one to six. The one is called ace ; the two, deuce ; the three, tre, or Irois ; the four, quatre ; the five, cinque; and the six, size. At every throw the two dice are employed ; consequently, a person may throw from two up to twelve — that is two aces up to two sizes. If a player throw doublets, or both dice of one number, double the number of dots is reckoned ; thus, by a throw of two aces, the player does not count two, but four. These numbers thrown, or accidentally turned up by the dice, bear a reference to the points on the tables. In order to un- derstand this connection between the dice and the men, the learner must observe how the men are placed on the points, and the rules by which their shifting from one to another is governed. The tables are here spread out as if two partners were seated, and about to begin to play. The party owning the white men is seated at W, and the party owning the black men at B. We shall call one party White and another Black. White counts round from the ace-point of Black, and Black counts round from the ace-point of White. These ace-poi.its are respectively seen to have two men upon them in oppo- site corners of the same table. The grand object of the game is for each party to get all his men played round into the table containing the aces, removing them from point to point agreeable to the throws of the dice. In throwing, the number upon each die turned up may be reckoned by itself, or collectively, with the number on th<» other die. Thus, if quatre be thrown by one die, and size by the other, a man can be advanced four points, and another six points; or oneman can be advanced ten points, always providing that a point is open to suit this movement to it. No point can be moved to if covered by two men belonging to the ad- versary. If covered by only one man, which is called a blot, then that man can be hit, and be removed from the point, and placed on the bar between the tables, his place being taken by the man who has won it. The removal of a man to the bars throws a player considerably behind in the game, because the man must remain out of the play till the dice turn up a certain number corresponding to one open point on the ad- versary's table. Being fortunate to get an open p'dnt by this means, the man must be entered and wrought round from thence, as in the case of others in the set to which he belongs. The frequent occurrence of this hitting of a blot gives an adversary a great advantage, and allows him to win the gam- mon. There are two kinds of victory — winning the hit, and winning the gammon. The party who has played all his men round into his own table, and by fortunate throws of the dice has borne or played the men off the point first, wins the hit. The gammon may be explained as fol- lows : When you have got all your men round to your own table, covering every point, and your adversary has a man out, then you are enabled to bear or lift your men away. If you can bear all away, so as to clear your table before the adversary gets his man placed by a throw on your tablf, you win the gammon. If the adver- sary has been able to bear one before you have borne all your men, it reduces the victory to a hit. Two hits are reckoned equal to one gam- mon in playing matches. To win two games out of three is called winning the rub, as at whist. Hoyle's Directions for Bearing Men;. — If a player has taken up two of the ad- versary's men, and happens to have two, three, or ,more points made in his own tables, he should spread his men, that he either may take a new point in his tables, or be ready to hit the man which the adver- sary may happen to enter. If he finds, A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 339 upon the adversary's entering, that the game is upon a par, or that the advantage mod his own side, he should take the ad- versary's man up whenever he can, it being twenty-five to eleven that he is not liit; ex- cept when he is playing: for a tingle hit only; then, if playing the throw otherwise gives him a better chance for it, he ought to do it. It being five to one against his heing hit with double dice, lie should never be de- terred from takiug up any one man of the adversary's. If he has taken up one of the adversary's men, and should happen to have five points in his own tables, and forced to leave a blot out of his tables, he should endeavour to leave it upon doublets preferable to any other chance, because in that case the odds are thirty-five to one that he is not hit; whereas it is only seventeen to one that he is hit upon any other chance. When the adversary is very forward, a player should never move a man from his quatre, trois, or deuce points, thinking to hear that man from the point where he put it, as nothing but high doublets can give him any chance for the hit. Instead of playing an ace or a deuce from any of those points, he should play them from his own size or highest points ; so that throwing two fives or two fours, his size and cinque points heing eased, would be a considerable advantage to him; whereas, had they been loaded, he must have been obliged to play otherwise. It is the interest of the adversary to take np the pla\er as soon as he enters. The blot should be left upon the adversary's lowest point — that is to say, upon his deuce- point rather than upon his trois-point ; or upon his trois-point rather than upon his 51 uatre-point : or upon his quatre point pre- erable to his cinque-point — for a reason be/ore mentioned : all the men the adver- sary plays upon his trois or his deuce-points are deenit d lost, being greatly out of play ; so that those men, not having it in their power to make his cinque-point, and his game being crowded in one place, and open m another, the adversary must be greatly annoyed by the player. If the player has two of the adversary's men in his tables, he has a better chance for ■ hit than if he had more, provided his game is forwarder than that of his antagonist; for if he had three or more of the adversary's men in his tables, he would stand a worse chance to be hit. When a player is running to save the gammon, if he should have two men upon | liis aoe-point, and several men abroad, although he should lo-e one point or two in putting hi> men into his tables, it is his in- terest to leave a man upon the adversary's aoe-point, because it will prevent his adver- sary from bearing his men to the greatest advantage, and, at the same time, the player will have a chance of the adversary's making a blot, which he may chance to hit. However, if a player finds, upon a throw, that he has a probability of saving his gam- mon, he should never wait for a blot, as the odds are greatly against his hitting it, but should embrace that opportunity. ROLLING BLINDS. There is often a great difficulty in making a blind roll nicely after it has been washed : this difficulty may be effectually obviated by attending to the following directions : — Be careful that in drying the blind, it is not stretched out of shape, by being carelessly thrown upon a hedge of unequal heights, or pegged to a line in a crooked manner. The best mode of drying is to lay it lightly on an even grass plot. When there is a little moisture remaining, fold the blind by carefully plac- ing the two ends exactly together, not the two sides, as is proper in folding most other things: then fold the middle to the two ends, and again fold it in the same direction until it is a convenient width for mangling. There is to be no fold funning from end to end of the blind. It may then be carefully mangled. It must be nailed exactly straight upon the roller, or it will not roll well, whether washed or unwashed DAYS OF ,TUE WEEK (ROMAN NAMES OF). Sunday was called Lies Solis, or the Sun's day; Monday, Dies Luna, or the Moon's day ; Tuesday, Dies Jfartis, or Mar's day; Wednesday, Dies Mercurii, or Mercury's day; Thursday, Dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day ; Friday, Dies Veneris, or Venus's flay ; and Saturday, Dies Batumi, or Saturn's day. The reason they were named thus, was because they considered each of these deities to preside over the dav dedicated to them. BANDAGES. There is not a more import- ant art connected with household surgery than that of bandaging. To do it well re- quires much practice and no little judg- ment; even hospital dressers are not always perfect in this branch of their operations; and we have known " family doctors " make a sad bundle of bandaging a leg or an arm. On the other hand, we have seen it >o deltly performed, that no piece of machinery- work could excel it ; so smooth and regular, so compact and firm ; every fold and diago* nal turn falling into its exact place, and 340 FACTS FOR FTFTIYRODY : maintaining its proper relative position; each layer of even texture fading off, as it were, from its fellow, and in turn support- ing- another, with no undue strain or pres- suie on any part; the very perfection of close binding. We do not expect many of our readers to accomplish this ; but it will he as well for them to understand how it is done, that they may, when the emergency arises, know how to go about it. First of all let us ask what is a bandage? Something that binds, a fillet, a piece of linen or cloth for binding up a wounded limb. The ma- terial employed for this purpose is usifally stout unbleached calico, from two or three to nine or ten inches wide, and from six to twelve yards long ; the former length and breadth will do best for the leg. If com- menced at the ball of the foot, and evenly applied, so that each fold overlaps the other about one-third, it will reach to the knee ; the preceding cut will best show the mode of application. The bandage having been first tightly rolled up, is taken in the right hand of the operator ; the end is passed under the foot, and held there by the left hand until it is secured by one turn of the bandage over it; an upward direction is then taken, so that a couple of folds bring the bandage up to the front of thejleg, over the instep ; the next turn will naturally pass over the heel behind ; and then, if proper care be observed, it will go on fold above fold, each overlapp- ing the other slightly, all up the leg ; the bandage is passed from the right to the left hand each time that it goes round the leg, and great care should be taken to hold it firmly, and equalize the pressure, as well as to smooth out any wrinkles that may occur in the process of binding. A firm and even support is thus afforded to the limb, which is not likely to crease, or get displaced by the motion which may be afterwards neces- sary ; it may be made fast above the calf by a couple of pins, or a needle and thread. Great care should be taken in this, as in all similar operations, to get the bandage rolled up tightly and smoothly, before commenc* ing ; it may thus be grasped in the hand, and kept well under the command of the operator, who should on no account let go his hold of the bandage, so as to relax the pressure. The arm does not require so long or broad a bandage as the leg ; about two inches, by three or four yards, being the average size: this limb is rather more difficult to manage, half turns being necessary to effect a proper envelopment. How this is effected may be seen by the following cut. The bandage is folded back upon itself, so as to take a diffe- rent direction, and cover the space which would be left exposed by the ordinary method of folding; these half turns, unless they are done tightly and evenly, will be very apt to slip and derange the whole binding. Some operators avoid half turns by letting the roller take its natural course, and then com- ing back to cover the exposed parts; but this method, besides requiring a larger bandage, does not effect the required purpose so neatly and efficiently. One mode of fastening a bandage is to split it up a short distance, so as to leave two ends, which can be passed round the limb, and tied. It should always be borne in mind that the chief art in applying bandages is to give firm and uniform support, without undue pres- sure upon any part ; and to effect this pro- perly, the strain in winding should be upon the whole roll held in the hand, and not upon the unrolled portion of it ; and this strain ehould not be relaxed during the ope- ration. The next cut represents the mode of ap- plying what is called a many-tailed bandage, useful to apply over a wound, or wherever it requires frequent changing, or in cases in which it is desirable not to exhaust the patient by much movement of the limb, This is a strip of calico somewhat longer than the limb to be enveloped ; on it are sewn, at right angles, other strips, about A MISCELLANY OP TT8EFTJL KNOWLEDGE. 341 one -half longer than the circumference of the limb, each overlapping the other about one-third of its breadth, so that when drawn tightly over in regular succession, each (Mm secures the other; the end of the strip passes under the heel, and coming up on the other side, is made fast to the bandage there, and so all is kept firm. For keeping poultices on the lower part of the back, or in the groin, a cross bandage is used, the fashion of which is this : make a calico band large enough to pass round the loins, and tie a buckle in front; to this is attached another piece, which proceeds from the centre of the back to the anus, where it divides into two, which pass under the thighs, up on either side, and are fastened to the band in front. The bandage used to cl ise a vein after bleeding is commonly called a figure of eight. For a sprain* d ankle, place the end of the bandage upon the instep, then carry it round, and bring it over the same part again, and from thence round the foot two or three times, finishing off with a turn or two round the leg above the ankle. Por a sprained wrist begin by passing the bandage round the hand, across and across, like the figure 8; exclude the thumb, and finish with a turn or two round the wrist. For a cut finger, pass the bandage, a nar- row one, round the finger ■even] times, winding from the top, and splitting the end, fastest by tying round the thick part above the cut; of if it be high up, tie round the wrist. The best bandage for the pye is an old silk handkerchief passed over the forehead, and tied at the back of the head. For the head itself, it is best to have a cross-band- age, or rather two bandages; one passing across the forehead, and round the ba< k of the head, and the other over the top of the head, and below the chin, as in the preced- ing cut. Or, better than this is, perhaps, a large handkerchief which will extend all over the forehead and crown, two ends of it passing to the back, and after crossing from thence round the neck, then tying the other two beneath the chin. For a bandage to support a pad or poultice under the armpit, a handkerchief may be used, put on as in the following cut; or a broad piece of calico, arranged in the same way. 342 TACTS FOR EVERYBODY: For fracture of the ribs, bandages should be about nine inches wide, and drawn round the body very tightly ; in this case, as in that of any other fracture or disloca- tion, only a properly qualified person should attempt, their application. We have not yet spoken of the T bandage, ■which is simply a broad band to pass round the body or elsewhere, having attached to it one of the same width, or narrower, like the upright part of the letter after which it is named ; or, there may be two stems, if they can be so called, in which case it is a double T bandage, as under. i III Starch bandages are those in which the roller, before it is put on, is saturated in a strong solution of starch. Sometimes a covering of brown paper is put ova" this, and another dry bandage is applied ; this makes a firm and compact case for the limb ; it is useful in cases of fracture, especially if the patient has to be removed to a distance. Sometimes, when it is not desirable to make the covering so thick and durable, the dis- placement of the bandages is guarded against by brushing a weak solution of starch or gum over the folds. Bandaging should be performed iff nearly all cases from the extremities upwards, or inwards to the heart, except where the in- jury is situated above the seat of vital ac- tion. If they give much pain there is reason to suspect inflammatory swelling beneath, and they should be loosened, if moistening with cold water does not relieve the pain. Flannel for bandages is used where warmth as well as support is required. — Family Doctor. KALI and ALKALI. These words had originally a similar meaning. The latter term is now applied to a class of bodies having peculiar properties, whilst the term kali is mostly eonfined to potash, the most active of the class of alkalies. The metal potassium is sometimes called kalium, and the svmbol is always written with the initial letter K. HIEROGLYPHICS. Hieroglyphics con- sist in certain symbols which are made to | stand for invisible objects, on account of ! some analogy which such symbols were sup- ' posed to bear to the objects. Egypt was the country where this sort of writing was most studied, and brought into a regular science. In hieroglyphics was conveyed all the boasted knowledge of their priests. According to the properties which they ascribed to animals, they chose them to be the emblems of moral objects. Thus ingra- titude was expressed by a viper; impru- dence, by a fly ; wisdom, by an ant ; know- ledge, by an eye ; eternity, by a circle, which has neither begininning nor end; a man universally shunned, by an eel, which they supposed to be found with no other fish. Sometimes they joined two or more of these characters together; as, a serpent with a hawk's head denoted nature, with God presiding over it. Hieroglyphics may be made an interesting medium for instruct- ing the young, as occasionally shown in the " Pastime" department of some of our maga- zines. MICROSCOPE GLASSES (TO CLEAN). When you clean the eye-glasses, do not re- move more than one at a time, and be sure to replace it before you begin another ; by this means you will be sure to preserve the component glasses in their proper places; recollect that if they become intermingled, they will be useless. Keep a piece of well- dusted chamois leather, slightly impregnated with some of the finest putty or crocus powder, in a little box to wipe them with — for it is of consequence to preserve it from dust and damp; the former will scratch the glasses, and the latter will prevent you from wiping them clean. As to the object- glasses, endeavour to keep them as clean as possible without wiping, and merely use a camel' s-hair pencil to brush them with; for wiping them hard with anything has always a tendency to destroy their adjust- ment, unless they are firmly burnished into their cells (see Microscope, p 80). PHONOGRAPHY. Phonography in- cludes ever}- method of writing by signs that represent the sounds of the language. It differs from stenography in this respect : — Stenography uses characters to represent words by theirspelling, instead of their sound ; hence phonography is much the shortest and simplest mode of short-hand writing. VOICE, HUMAN (RANGE OF THE). The range of the human voice is quite astounding, — there being about 9 perfect tones, but 17,592,186,044,515 different sounds; thus 14 direct muscles, alone, or together, produce 16,383 ; 30 indirect mus- cles, ditto, 173,741,823, and all in co-opera- A MTSCEI.LANY 0* TJSEFUL KNOWLF.DOE. 3if lion produce the number sre hav< named ; ami tnese, independently <>f different degrees of intensity. A man's voice ranges trom bass to tenor, the mediam being what is culled ;i barytone. The female voice ranges from bOntnil oto soprano, the medium being termed ■ mezzo-soprano, — whereas, a hoy's voiee is alto, or between a tenor and a treble. PINCHBECK. This alloy derives its name from being brought into notice by a {tenon of the name of Pinchbeck. It may M made by combining three parts of zinc with four of copper. It was formerly used to make the cases of watches and Brooch settings. MEDICINES (APERIENT). Spring Aperients. For children, nothing is better than: — 1. Brimstone and treacle; to each tea-cupful of this, when mixed, add a tea- spoonful of cream of tartar. As this some- Black Draught. 6. The common aperient medicine known as black draught is made in the following manner: — Take of senna leaves, six drachms ; bruised ginger, half a drachm , sliced liauorice-root, four drachms; boiling water half an imperial pint. Keep this st inding cm the hol>, or near the tiie. for three hours, then strain, and after allowing it to grow cool, add of sal volatile, one drachm and a-ha!f; of tincture of senna, and of tincture of carda- moms ; each half an ounce. This mixture will keep a long time in a cool place. Dose, a wine-glassful for an adult ; two table- spoonsful for young persons above fifteen years of age. It is not a suitable medicine for children. Infants' Aperient. 7. Take of rhu- barb, five grains; magnesia, three grains; white, susar a scruple ; manna, five grains ; mix. Dose, varying from a piece half the times produces sickness, the following may size of a sweet-pea to a piece the size of an be used :— 2. Take of tartrate of soda, one I ordinary pea. 8. A useful laxative for drachm and a-half; powdered jalap and children is composed of calomel, two grains; powdered rhubarb, each fifteen grains ; sin- and sugar, a scruple; made into five powders; ger, two grains. Mix. Dose for a child above half of one of these for a child from birth to five years, one small tea-spoonful ; above one year and a-half, and a whole one from ten years, a large tea-spoonful ; above that age to five years. fifteen, half the whole, or two tea- AQUARIA (PARLOUR).* An Aquarium spoonsful ; and for a person above twenty, is a collection of aquatic plants and animals time tea-spoonsful, or the whole, as may be placed in conditions as nearly natural as required by the habit of the person. This possible, so as to afford at all times a view medicine may be dissolved in warm water, of their modes of growth and reproduction, common, or mint tea This powder can be and of such particulars of their habits and kept for u^e in a wide-mouthed bottle, and be in readiwess for any emergency. The druggist may be directed to treble or quad- ruple the quantities as convenient. Apekient Pills. To some adults, all liquid medicines produce such nausea that pills are the only form in which laxative medicines can be exhibited ; the following is a useful formula:— 3. Take of compound rhubarb pill, a drachm and one scruple; of powdered ipecacuanha, six grains ; and of extract of hyoscyamus, one scruple. Mix and beat into a mass, and divide into twenty- four pills. Take one, or two, or if of a very costive habit, three at bed-time. 4. For persons requiring a more powerful purge, the same formula, with ten grains ox com- pound extract of colocynth, will form a good purgative pill. The mass receiving this addition, mu-t he divided into thirty, in- stead of twent\ -four pills. Tonic Aperient 5. Take of Epsom salts, one ounce; diluted sulphuric acid, one drachm ; infusion of quas>ia chips, half an imperial pint ; compound tincture of rhu- barb, two drachms. Half a wine-glassful for a dose twice a-day. economy as are open to observations thiough the medium of the glass vessel which con- tains them. It is the simplicity of the Aquarium that ensures its success, and most excites the admiration of the scientific ob- server. Supposing the student to have made his choice of a vessel, his next step will be to determine whether it shall be stocked with marine or fresh-water specimens; marine stock is the most expensive, and the most difficult to manage. One great difficulty of the marine tank, that of obtaining fresh sea- water, is obviated by the use of the pre- pared marine salts, by means of which we can manufacture sea- water out of the water- butt ; and, more interesting still, if properly managed, this artificial sea-water is in some respects preferable to the genuine article, on account of its freedom from organic matter. But those who use artificial sea-water for the fii st time, need a caution. As at present prepared, it is not so pure as might be de- sired, and it deposits a recldish sediment, consisting of oxide of iron and particies of lime and sand. To obviate the consequences of such impurities.it is advisable to dissolve * See " Thb Family Aquarium." New York : Dick & Fitzgerald. Price 50 Cents. 344 FACTS rOK EVERYBODY it in a separate vessel placed at a higher level than the tank into which it is to be transferred. First place your tank as it is to remain, — for when tilled, you will be unable to move it, — then dissolve the salts in clear spring or river-water, and test its strength by the hydrometer, till its specific gravity is 1-028. It should be left undisturhed for four-and-twenty hours, in order that any sediment may be deposited ; and it may then be drawn off into the tank by means of a syphon of glass or gutta-percha, and the deposit left behind. The object of placing the pan at a higher level than the tank, is to facilitate the action of the syphon. A loose glass lid, to keep out dust, is a neces- sary addition to the tank in ny case. In stocking a marine tank, a stratum of sea-sand and pebbles should first be laid down, or, if these are not easily procurable, common silver-sand may be used, jf the pre- caution be taken to wash it well previously, so as to dissolve out any solvent matters. From this point the difficulties begin. A beginner may introduce plants that speedily decay, and animals that perish in a day or two. If a sea-side rambler, he may gather many curiosities for the tank, and soon have the mortification of rinding that some of the prettiest of his specimens have ruined the whole by their rapid decomposition. But if the specific gravity be first accu- rately tested, one or two plants of the genus Viva, or sea-lettuce, should first be intro- duced, then one or two of the genus Entero- morpha ; and, in eight or nine days, these will convey to the water certain properties which fit it for the reception of animals. Long experience proves that plants of any genus, except the two first-named, are utterly unsuitable for a new tank, and many months must elapse before Ithodosperms and other delicate weeds can be used with safety. The fact is, that artificial sea-water is deficient of some minute quantities of certain chemical ingredients, such as iodine and bromine, for instance; and in process of time, these materials are communicated to it by the Ulva and Enteromorpha, and it becomes fitted for more delicately constituted plants and animals. H fulljr exposed to the daylight, the sea- weeds will in the course of eight or ten days disseminate their spores, and the stones at the bottom will begin to evolve from their surfaces bubbles of oxygen. Now some com- mon sorts of anemonies may be introduced, such as Actinia Mesembnjanthemum, A. clavata, and A. bcllis, but A. crass icornis and Anthea cereus are too delicate for early experiments. Some pretty molluscs may be introduced at the earliest stages, if all goes well, even a few days after the sea-weeds, especially species of Trochus and any of the common sorts of periwinkle. Bivalves are less hardy; and another ten days ought to elapse before specimens id' J't'itus and Pallustra are added. When the last-named are introduced, a few Chita/is. scallops, and Aplytia ma\ be added. As the weeds grow, there will be oxygen sufficient to render the initiation of crustaceans safe, and such cmbs as the fiddler, the soldier, and the pretty straw- berry crab may follow, as well as a few prawns and shrimps. The time will now come for increasing the amount of vegetation, and Laminaria phyl- litis, CladopJiora rupestris, lihodymenia palmata, and the lovely Griffithsia, with the curious Padina if you can get it, and, indeed, any green or red weeds except tangle and oar-weed. Marine fishes are suitable for none but very ripe tanks, and even then are difficult to preserve for any length of time. Gobies, blennies, and wrasses are, however, too beautiful not to be worth an effort to domes- ticate them, and the experience gained in establishing the collection will enable the possessor to proceed with proper caution in the introduction of such lively and intelli- gent inmates. If the weeds hang out their gay banners, and put out their slender fin- gers with certain signs of healthy growth, pipe fishes, suckers, marine sticklebacks, small lobsters, and nudibranoh molluscs may follow, until an extensive collection is formed of creatures that we never before had opportunities of observing alive, many of which we were never previously ac- quainted with, even when dead. As a domestic ornament, combining in- struction with a novel kind of recreation, the fresh- water aquarium has already taken precedence of the marine, and will doubt- less keep it. The marine tank is certainly the most attractive to the eyes of a student, but the fresh- water tank is at once cheaper, more easily stocked and managed, and un- attended with the risks that beset marine life even under the most favourable circum- stances. The nearest brook or pond will furnish fluviatile specimens, and generally speaking, these are so easy of management, that a child might set up a tank of this kind, and maintain it in a flourishing con- dition. Yet it must not be supposed that there ia nothing to learn even in this case, though the experience acquired through many trial! and disappointments may be very briefly A MISCELLANY OP USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 815 told for the benefit of beginners. As a rule, it may bo held tbat either rock work or branching coral is u necessity, as well as an ornament of a marine tank, but rockwork of any kind is a positive injury to a frcsli-water collection; it toon pets covered with con- ferva 1 , which is t lie greatest enemy to the collection. It may here be mentioned, too, that propagating glasses are not strong enough to bear the weight of rockwork ; and if they were, it is scarcely an ornament to any cylindrical vessel : so that in the case of marine stock, a piece of branching coral is the only ornament of the kind suited to a cylinder. In forming the bed of the fresh-water tank, we sho Id advise the use of sharp sand only with a few small pebbles, the whole well washed previously. Writers on aqua- rian subjects have invariably recommended the use of mould, but the tank can be kept more free from objectionable vegetable growths, and hence more brilliantly trans- parent, if pure sand be used, while all the ordinary weeds, J'allisneria. Anaeharsis, lilies, <&c, grow just as well in 6ani as in mould, and if the barbel and stone loach are inclined to stir it up with their bearded snouts, there is no muddy deposit on the 6ides of the vessel in consequence. Indeed, ■when a hungry loach smells a worm, he ■will stir up the bottom as violently as a cook would stir up batter; and if there be any solvent matter tliere, the leaves of the Palliantri* and Utrntoides will soon be coated with slime, and upon that slime fucus will soon appear. As to the plants for a fresh-water tank, there is scarcely a weed to be found in any brook or river but may be safely transplanted to it, a little washing and trimming being necessary to remove decaying matter. Val- lisnerin spiralis is essential, for it is one of the best oxygen makers, a free grower, and very elegant in outline; the great water soldier ( Stratoides) with its spiny leaves shaped like those of the Yucca gloriow. and •with its elegant offshoots starting up like so many umbrella frames on very long stems, is another good oxygen maker. The new •water-weed Anaeharsis alsinastrum, the pretty Ranunculus aquatalis, jlfi/riop/n/l- iio» spicattim and Potamogeton of any spe- cies, besides the smaller kinds of water lily, flourish amazingly, and give the tank "a frc h and luxuriant appearance. To those who live in the north, we commend a little plant which may be found on the shallow margins and lakes at great elevations. It is the pretty awl-wort, Subularia aqi'a/ica, a member of the extensive family of Cru- cifera. It produces numerous rush-like leaves, each of them curved at the point like a cobbler's awl — whence its name ; and in July sends up a little head of tetraform white blossoms strongly resembling those of the watercress. Though somewhat rare, it takes to its indoor home kindly, and bio. nis freely beneath, the surface, very much to the astonishment of non-botanical observers. Unlike the marine tank, the fresh- water vessel may he stocked with fishes and plants at the same time, but the precaution must be taken to throw in a few hand! uls of some common weed, which should be left to float about and supply oxygen until the plants at the bottom have fairly taken root. A mass of floating weeds is a decided improvement to the tank, and creates a rich green shadow in which the fishes delight, and most of the succulent weeds from brooks will flourish ia this way for many months, and even in- crease considerably by the numerous white rootlets they send down from their joints, some of which will probably reach the bot- tom and produce a forest of vegetation. Among the animal stock, minnows, carp, barbel, stone loach, perch, dace, roach, bream, bleak, and chub, and water lizards, are all suitable. Dace and roach are per- haps the most delicate ; carp and minnows the most hardv. We have at the present time about a hundred of various kinds of fresh-water fish, some of them so tame as to take food from the hand, and even nibble the fingers sharply ; they swarm to the side of the vessel when we tap on it with tho finger i ails, and will hunt a piece of bread or white of egg, as we move it up and down outside, in a lively style that would make phlegmatic dulness laugh itself into hyste- tics anytime. The molluscs to be most strongly recommended are Planorbis cor- neus, a handsome snail of a ram's-horn shape, Pallia 'inn I'iripara, all the kinds of Li/»we", Hithinia tentacula, and the very useful bivalves, the swan mussel, Ancdcn cygneus, and the duck mussel, Unin pic- iorum. Though we recommend these, we are bound to add that the Lyiunea, though .good cleaners, are given to the vice of eat- ing the Vallisneritt and the Htraloides ; that Paludina is of little use as a cleaner, his beauty only recommending him ; and that Planorbis "is the best of all cleaners, and rarely deserts the side of the vessel, whore snails should remain as much as pos- sible. We seldom feed our marine stock, but oc- casionally the tle-h of a cooked prawn, or a few minute shreds of mutton, may be given ; fresh- water stock delight in the crumbs of 340 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY home-baked bread, white of egg minced very tine, s>ft insect food of any kind, par- ticularly maggots and flies, and, above all, small red worms. A romp may be got up at anytime, by dropping ill a iively worm; '"?'% seizes it in the manner of a cat seizing a mouse, and the game ends by the newt re- taining a finn hold, with half the worm projecting from his mouth, and half a dozen fishes scrambling to tear it out, till the newt triumphs by a sullen perseverance, and gets the prey fairly swal- lowed, in little less than an hour, during the whole of* which time it is worried, in vain, bv almost every one of its more lively neighbours. In every case the success of an Aqua- rium depends upon the adjustment of a fair balance of forces, and if care be taken to remove any mat- ter that might decay andcreate corruption. and to introduce onl as much animal 1 !7 lie Hie minnows seize it and fight till they tear it in half; before they can gorge it, the loach attack them, and there is so much floundering, that the fragments of the worm are dropped into the jaws of a newt, who as the plants are ca- pable of supplying with oxygen, death will then be a rave event. The water shouldnot be changed at all, that is one of the leading features of the Aquarium ; and if [you cannot keep your stock in health, without a change of water, de- pend upon it you have gone the wrong way to work, and must be- gin again de novo. An important matter is to avoid overstocking ; keep down the amount of animal life, until the plants are strong, and then increase it slowly, so as to see your progress safely. Whenever ) r ou find your fishes gasping at the surface, be sure that there is in- sufficiency of oxygen, and remove a few to another vessel ; for whenever a fish stands upon his tail at the surface for any length of time, it is certain that disease is at work, and that his hours are numbered. L MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 347 FIGS. (Latin, Finn.) The fruit of the Ficns Gm'cK, which comes to perfection chiefly in hot climates; the pulp is whole- Borne, and somewhat aperient, but the tough ■kin is indigestible, and should not be eaten by those whose organs of digestion are al all Weak. Children who are subject to consti- pation, may take the pulp with advantage. Green figs, as we call those which grow in this country, are more laxative than the preserved ones from abroad, but they hare a mawkish, ami. to most persons, an unplea- sant flavour. The finest foreign tigs come from Smyrna, and other parts of Turkey ; if good, they are huge and plump, not 6hrivelled aiid leathery, as those in the shops too frequently are, being in this state very unwholesome. Tigs are sometimes used externally, boiled in milk, or roasted; they are applied to boils and small abscesses, to promote suppuration ; in this way they are particularly applicable to gum-boils. They are also an ingredient in the compound Decoctionof Barley and Confection of Senna. In the following combination, they make a good demulcent gargle for inflammatory Bore throat ' — Mallow Roots, 1 ounce ; or if these cannot be obtained, Linseed, 1 ounce; to 2 or 3 rigs, split open ; Water, 2 pints; boil to a pint, and strain. FILBERTS. The fruit of a variety of the Cory! us Avtlu^a. The term was originally applied to all nuts with very long husks ; but of late the varieties have become so numerous, that this distinction has ceased to he regarded^ ami nut and filbert havo become almost synonymous terms, except tint the wild, uncultivated hazel nut, and those varieties winch nearly approach ii in form, are never called filberts, the eat;ng of which, except as an occasional lux in y, we would warn our readers against , like ail nuts, they are very indigestible; perhaps now and then, with a glass of good port or sherry wine, and a little salt (cum grano tali*), they may do no great harm, but it would be exercising a sound discretion not to eat tKem at all. P APE 11. Paper is manufactured of vege- table matter reduced to a pulp by means of water and grinding. For the chief purpose to which it is applied in modern times, the ancients had recourse to a variety of ma- terials; such as stone — tablets of wood, plates of lead, skins, parchment linen, and, above all, the papyrus. 01 all these articles, papyrus was found the most useful for ordinary purposes as a substitute far paper. The art of making papyrus into paper was invented in Egypt several centuries before the Christian era. The art of making paper of cotton, cloth, or rags, is supposed to have been borrowed from the Chinese or Persians, and introduced into Europe in the eleventh century by the Saracens; the practice of making linen into paper commenced in the twelfth or thirteenth century, and in France and England early in the fourteenth century. (See Papf/rus, p. 239). DRAUGHTS. Draughts is a game with a checkered board and men, of much less antiquity than chess, and is perhaps to be considered a degenerate descendant of that noble sport. In France, it is called les 84S FACTS F0T5 EVERYBODY dames, from Laving been a favourite game with ladies; and in Scotland this significa- tion is pi i served in the term dam-brod, the name universally applied by the common people to the draught-board. Draughts is played on a chess-board, or a board checkered precisely in the same manner, with thirty-two white, and thirty- two black squares. The board, however, is placed before the players differently . in th< '89 there must be a white square in the right-hand corner, but in draughts the right-hand comer must be black— that is, supposing you to play on the white squares. The following is a representation of a draught-board, numbered for the sake of illustration, and placed as it should be in playing. The game is played by two persons, who Bit opposite to each other. Each party has a set of twelve men, the colour of the" two being different, for the sake of distinction. The men are generally round and Hat pieces of wood ; one set white, and another black ; those of the neatest kind are turned out of boxwood and ebony. The men may be placed either on the white or black squares, but the whole must be put on one colour only. It is customary in England to place afl upon the white, and to have, as above, a black square on the right. In Scotland the black are played upon, when there is consequently a white square to the right. We go upon the sup- position that the play is on the white squares, and have numbeied them in the above figure accordingly. The movements in draughts are very simple : a man can move only one square at a time, and diagonally, never straight- forward or sidewise. If an enemy's man stand in the way, no move can take place, unless there be a vacant square beyond into which the piece can be lifted. In this case, the man leaped over is taken; he is re- moved from the board. The grand object of the game, then, is to clear the board of the enemy's men, or to hem them in so that they cannot move; and whichever party does so first gains the victory. As no piece can move more than one step diagonally at a time, there can be no taking till the two* antagonists come to close quarters; and the pushing them cautiously into each other's neighbourhood is the principal art in the game. When the men on either side have cleared their way by taking, or found an open path to the opposite side of the board, the> be- come invested with a new power of move- ment: by reaching the first row of squares on the opposite side, the piece is entitled to be crowned, which is done by placing a man on Xhe top of it. Thus crowned, the man may move backward, but always diagonally, and one square at a time, as before. This power of moving, and taking either forward or backward, renders it of consequence to get men crowned ; and if two or three on each side gain this honour, the game be- eumes more interesting, and may bpeedily be determined. Immediately after crowning, great art is shewn in blocking up one or more of your adversary's men, by the aid of which to ac- complish a series of decisive moves. For instance, supposing you have detained your adversary's piece at 4, while he has others situated on 25 and 26 — and supposing you have pieces on 12 and 19, with a crowned man at 14, you may, by giving him your 12 and 19, exchange two pieces for three, which is commonly equivalent to winning the game. Again, supposing you have pieces on 13, 22, 30, and a crowned one on 26, and your adversary a piece on 5, with others scattered in the direction of 16, 8, 7, you may, by successively pushing before him your pieces on 13 and 22, gain a formi- dable exchange. In beginning to play, much depends on having the first move ; and the rule is, that in playing several games each party takes the first move alternately. If a player touch one of his men, he must play it. If a player omit to take a man when it is in his power to do so, his adver- sary can huff or blow him— that is, either take the man, or insist upon his own man being taken. The practice is at once to lift the man which ought to have taken yours. We present the following as an example of playing a game, in which white loses. A MISCELLANY OF T7SEFFL KNOWLEDGE. 349 roe letters X. C, F, T, at the head of the goify j tumtol ', Colour, J'row, V c ¥ T N w T 1 B 11 15 IS w 30 25 2 w 18 29 B 29 22 3 15 Jo 22 30 w 26 17 4 W 18 31 B 11 15 5 B 8 11 32 W 20 16 6 w M 25 33 B 15 18 7 R 4 8 34 W 24 20 8 W 25 22 35 B 18 27 9 B 12 16 M W 81 24 K) w 24 20 37 B 14 18 11 B 10 15 88 W 16 11 J2 W 27 24 39 B 7 16 13 B Hi 19 40 \Y 20 11 14 w 23 IB 41 B n 23 15 B 15 19 42 W ii 8 18 W 24 15 -3 B 23 27 17 B 9 14 44 W 8 4 18 W 18 1 45 B 27 31 19 B 11 25 4r> W 4 8 20 W 32 27 47 B 31 27 21 B 5 14 18 W 24 20 22 W 27 23 49 B 27 23 23 B 6 10 50 W 8 11 M w 16 12 51 B 23 18 26 B 8 11 52 w 11 8 26 W 28 24 53 B 18 15 27 B 25 29 &G. W los es. It is not considered fair for any bystander to advi.-e what, motion* -hould be taken, or for a player to wait longer than five minutes between each move. The draught-player, therefore, must en all occasions act with much more promptitude and decision than in the case of chess. In short, draughts is a very tickH>h game. A single false step may lead to irretrievable ruin ; and it is only after long experience in figuring in the mind what would be the result of particular movements that proficiency is attained. AVIIIST. All games at cards, in our opinion, are insignificant in comparison with whist. The whole structure of the game is ingenious, and a result of just calculation. Its rules have all been carefully studied, and there seems to be a sufficient reason why each has been instituted. The game is a happy blending of skill and chance ; skill being the most important element, and chance only accessory, in order to impart a due relish or piquancy to the sport, and deprive highly skilled players of being always certain of the victory.' Whist is played by four persons, two being on either side. The four sit at a square table, one on each side, partners being opposite to each other. The table 16 should be covered with cloth, to permit an easy lifting of the cards. Before com- mencing the game, a pack of cards u laid nil the table, the faces undermost. The parties then cut for partners; that is, they leave it to chance to determine who shall be partners. This is done by each person lifting or cutting a portion of the cards from p or pack, and the two who have the highest cards play together. The value of the cards is as follows : — As already stated, there are four suits, each suit consisting of thirteen cards — ten being common, and three being court-cards. The card in each suit which has but one mark is called the ace ; and this ace is the highest in value in all cases, except in cutting for partners, when it is the lowest. The next highest is the king ; the next, the queen ; the next, the knave ; then the ten, nine, eight, and so on down to the two or deuce, which is the lowest. In playing whist, one suit is of higher value than any of the other three; but which suit shall possess this temporary distinction depends on chance in dealing out the cards ; the last card dealt, out is turned up, and the suit to which it belongs is called trumps; trumps, then, is the suit of the highest value. In the course of a game, the trump suit may of course vary at every deal. The cutting of the pack, as above men- tioned, determines who are to be partners, and at the same time determines who is to deal. The rule is, that he who had the lowest card in cutting, is the dealer. This person shuffle* the cards last, that is, has a right to mix them in any way he thinks proper, always keeping the backs towards hiui. Previously to this his adversaries are entitled to shuffle the cards also; indeed, each person has a right to shuffle them. Being duly shuffled, the pack is laid on the table — always backs uppermost — before the youngest hand, or the person sitting to the right hand of the dealer ; and he cuts it, by lifting off a portion, not less than four cards, and laving it down. The dealer now puts the lower portion on the top of the portion laid off. Dealing must be neatly performed ; the dealer holding the pack in his left hand, lifts off the top cards with his right, and distributes them, one to each, all round. He begins with the person on his left, who is called the elder hand, then the person opposite, then the youngest hand, and then himself. He thus goes thirteen rounds, the last card which he holds in his hand falling to his own share. This last card he turns up, and it determines the suit to be trumps. 3C0 pacts fou ■everybody: The dealer, therefore, has at least always one trump in his hand, but this advantage is somewhat neutralised by the adversaries having a knowledge of one of his cards. The trump-card lies on the table exposed till the first trick is played. Any exposure of a card in dealing, by real or pretended accident, is strictly provided against. Rules for Dealing. If a card is turned up in dealing, the adv rse party may call a new deal if they think proper; but if either of them has been the cause of turning up such card, then the dealer has the option. If a card is faced, there must be a fresh deal, unless the opponent objects ; if two, the deal is void. It is the duty of every person who plays to see that he has thirteen cards. If any one happens to have only twelve, and does not find it out till several tricks are played, and that the rest have their right number, the deal stands good ; and the person who played with the twelve cards is to be punished for each revoke, provided lie has made any. But if any of the rest of the players should happen to have fourteen cards, in that case the deal is lost. The dealer should leave his trump-card upon the table till it is his turn to play ; and after he has mixed it with his other cards, no one has a right to demand what card was turned up, but may ask what suit is trumps. In consequence of this law the dealer cannot name a wrong card, which otherwise he might have done. None of the playei*s may take up or look at their cards while they are dealing out : when this is the case, the dealer, if he should happen to miss deal, has a right to deal again, unless it arises from his partner's fault ; and if a card is turned up in dealing, no new deal can be called, unless the part- ner was the cause of it. If any person deals, and instead of turn- ing up the trump, he puts the trump-card upon the rest of his cards, with the face downward, he loses his deal. Playing the Game. The cards being all dealt, each takes up his hand, which he must scrupulously prevent any of his an- tagonists, or his partner from seeing. The cards should be ranged like a fan in the left hand, so that its holder can see all his cards at a glance. It is advisable, for the sake of order and convenience, to arrange the cards in the hand, all of a suit together. Each having his cards sorted, the game com- mences by the elder hand, or person on the left of the dealer, laying down a card. The person on his left follows, and so on to the dealer, who lays down last. The principle of playing is as follows: — Whatever suit the first card is of, that suit must, if possible, be followed by each party mund ; but if one party has not a card of that suit, he can lay down one of any other suit. Should h<' do so, and afterwards lay down a card of the suit which he appeared to be defieient of, he has committed a revoke, and a penalty is exacted in the loss of three tricks. It is necessary, for the sake of fair- play, to be very rigorous in punishing a revoke. The four cards laid down in a round is called a trick. The trick is won in various ways. The card of the highest value wins. For example, if the first player lays down a deuce of spades, the second a three of spades, the third a four of spades, and the fourth a five of spades, this last person wins ; his party gains a trick. But should one of the players not have a spade in his hand, and lays down a deuce of the suit which happens to be trumps, that card wins. No matter how high in value the cards laid down are, the trick is always won by a trump-card, though it were only a deuce. If several trump-cards be laid down, or all be trumps, then the highest trump-card wins. The ace of trumps is the highest card. When the trick is played, it is lifted by the person who wins, and placed beside him in a heap on the table, back uppermost; and he continues to take up all other tricks his party wins. Thus one on each side collects and reckons the tricks. Whoever wins the trick becomes elder hand, and plays first in next round ; and so on, each winner plays first till all the cards are played out. A pack produces thirteen tricks, but none is counted till after six. For instance, if one party wins four tricks, they do not. count; and the other party which has nine tricks counts three. Should one party gain all the tricks, it counts seven. The ace, king, queen, and knave of trumps are called honours. These have a peculiar value in reckoning towards the game. Should each person hold one honour, honours do not count ; but should two part- ners hold three honours between them, they score two points ; when they hold four, they score four points. In long whist, the game consists of ten points, gained by tricks and by honours. Should a party make six tricks and hold four honours, it has won the game at one deal. It will therefore be perceived that honours, the possession of which is a matter of mere chance, exert a powerful in- A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 851 Anonec in gaining the victory over an adversary. Only at one time in the game do honours not count; this is when the party is at nine ; the odd point to make up to ten being only gained by tricks. When a party is at eight, and the first trick has been played, one of that party, who holds two honours, may ask his partner if he has one honour; ami If he says he has, the three honours are at once shown, which concludes the game. There are rules for calling honours, which we mbjoin. In the course of playing the game, no one must drop the slightest hint how he wishes his partner to play, or make any other ob- servation calculated to mislead or direct. Neither may any one, before his partner has played, inform "him that he has or has not won the trick ; even the attempt to take up a trick, though won before the last partner has played, is deemed very improper. All parties must play by their own per- ceptions of what would be most judicious. There is only one exception to the rule of keeping silence, which is in the case of a revoke. If a person happens not to follow suit, or trump a suit, the partner is at liberty to enquire of him whether he is sure he has none of that suit in his hand. This indulgence must have arisen from the severe penalties annexed to revoking, which affects the partners equally, and is now universally admitted. The great knack in playing whist is to remember what is out, and hence, by the play of both partner and adversaries, to have a shrewd guess of what each holds in his hand. A primary rule is to follow a partner' 8 lead, as it is presumed that no one, in playing first, is without a good reason for tabling a particular suit. The term finessing signifies the attempt to gain an advantage ; thus, if you have the best and third best card of the suit led, you put on the third best, and run the risk of your adversary having the second best ; if he has not, which is two to one against him, you ar i then certain of gaining a trick. A loose cird is a card of no value, and consequently the most proper to throw away ; it would be folly to lay a good card down, when it must clearly be taken by p. better card already tabled. A s( quince is a succession of cards in the game suit ; as ace, king, queen, knave. Tvnace is possessing the first and third best cards, and being last player; you con- sequently conquer the adversary when that suit is played. Scoring is the method of reckoning the points* in a game. The reckoning is made by four counters, or pieces ot money ; and the way in which these pieces ,uv disposed ■hows the score. The following is the ordinary method of scoring: — 123456789 00 0G0 00 000 0000 00 000 Rulks for Flaying. — If a person plays out of his proper turn, or shows a card, it is in the option of either of his adversaries to call that card; that is, eanse him to lay it down at any time in that deal, provided it does not make him revoke ; or either of the adversaries may require of the person who ought to have led, the suit the said adversary may choose. If a person supposes he has won the trick, and leads again before his partner has played, the adversary may oblige his part- ner to win it if he can. If a person leads, and his partner plays before his turn, the adversary's partner may do the same. If the ace or any other card of a suit is led, and the last player should happen to play out of his turn, whether his partner has any of the suit led or not, he is neither entitled to trump it nor to win the trick, provided you do not make him revoke. If a revoke happens to be made, the ad- versaries may add three to their score, or take three tricks from the revoking party, or take down three from their score ; and if up, notwithstanding the penalty, they must remain at nine : the revoke takes place of anv other score of the game. If any person revokes, and discovers it before the cards are turned* the adversary may call the highest or lowest of the suit led, or call the card then played, at any time when it does not cause a revoke. No revoke can be claimed till the trick is turned and quitted, or the party who re- voked, or his partner, has played again. If a revoke is claimed by any person, the adverse party are not to mix" their cards, upnn forfeiture of the revoke. No person can claim a revoke after the cards are cut for a new deal. If any person calls, except at the point cf eight, the adversaries may call a new deal, if they think proper. After the trnmp-card is turned up, no person must remind his partner to call, on penalty of losing one point. No honours in the preceding deal can be set up alter the trump-card is turned up, unle>s they were before claimed. If any person calls at eight, and his part- 362 FACTS FOB EVERYBODY : nor answers, and the adverse party have both thrown down their card- and it appears that the potties calling have not the honours, the adversaries are entitled, if they please, to compel the play to go on, or to have a new deal. If any person answers without having an honour, the adversary may consult and stand the deal or not. If any person calls at eight, after he has played, it is in the option of the adverse party to call a new deal. If any person separates a card from the rest, the adverse party may call it, provided he names it, and proves the separation ; but if he calls a wrong card, he or his partner is liable for once to have the highest or lowest card called in any 6uit led during that deal. If any person, supposing the game lost, throws his cards upon the table with their faces upwards, he may not take them up again ; and the adverse party may call any of the cards when they think proper, provided they do not make the party revoke. If any person is sure of winning every trick in his hand, he may show his cards ; but he is then liable to have them called. If any person omits playing to a trick, and it appears that he has one card more than the rest, it is in the option of the adversary to have a new deal. Each person, in playing, ought to lay his card before him; and if any of the adver- saries mix their cards with his, his partner may demand each person to lay his card before him, but not to enquire who played any particular card. Dints to Learners. 1. Lead from your strong suit — or that with which you could make the most tricks — and be cautious how you change suits. 2. Lead through an honour, when j r ou have a good hand — that is, cause your ad- versary on the left to lay down a good honour — in order that it may be taken up if possible by your partner. 3. Lead through the strong suit of the left-hand adversary, and unto the weak of him who is on the right ; but not in trumps, unless you are strong in them. 4. Lead a trump if you have four or five, or a strong hand ; but not if weak. 5. Sequences are eligible leads, and begin with the highest. 6. Follow your partner's lead, but not your adversary's. 7. Do not lead from ace queen or ace knave. 8. Do not lead an ace unless you have the king. 9 Do not lead a thirteenth card unless trumps are out. 10. Do not trump a thirteenth card unless you are last player, or want the lead. 11. The third' to play always to put on his best card. 12. When you are in doubt, win the trick. 13. When you lead small trumps, begin with the highest. 14. Do not trump out when your partner is likely to trump a suit. 15. Having only a few small trumps, make them when you can. 16. Make your tricks early, and be cau- tious how you finesse. 17. Never neglect to make the odd trick when in your power. 18. Never force your adversary with your best card, unless you have the next best. 19. If you have only one card of any suit, and but two or three small trumps, lead the single card. 20. Always endeavour to keep a com- manding card to bring in your strong suit. 21. When your partner leads, endeavour to keep the command in his hand. 22. Always keep the card you turned up as long as you conveniently can. 23. If your antagonists are eight, and you have' no honour, play your best frump. 24. Always take care to reckon and amend the score at conclusion of each deal ; and do not speak or attempt to converse unless between the deals. A rubber, or rub, consists of three games. The side that has gained two out of the three, wins the rub. If the same side gains, the first and the second game, that concludes the rub, without playing the third. In short whist, each game consists of five points. If one side wins the game before their adversaries score at all, it is called a treble ; if after they have scored one or two, a double; if after three or four a single. These treble, double, and single games count as 3, 2, and 1, respectively. If the side winning the rub had, for instance, a treble and a single, they count four, which form points of the rub (as the odd tricks and honours form those of the game) ; the game, if any, won by the ot^er side, is deducted. Besides the points made by the games, the ruhber itself counts as two points Whist is sometimes played by three per- sons, the fourth place being termed dnmby. The cards for dumby are exposed on the table, and played by one who undertakes to act as dumby' s partner throughout. A MTSTF.LLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 853 CHROMATYPE. Tliis is a new process •f photography, and consists in washing good Letter paper with the following solu- tion : Bichromate of potash, 10 grains ; sulphate of copper, 20 prams; distilled water, 1 ounce. Papers prepared with this are of a pale yellow colour, and may be kept for an\ length of t me, without injury, and are always ready for use. For copying botanical specimens, or .mgravings, nothing can be more btatitifnl. Altai the paper has been exposed to the influence of sunshine, with the object to be copied superposed, it is washed over in the dark, with a solution of nitrate of silver, of moderate strength ; as soon as this is done, a very vivid positive picture makes its appearance, which then only requires washing in pure water. WEEDS (UTILITY OF). Many plants we term weeds, have valuable medical qualities, and some may be applied to use- ful purposes, so as to pay something to- wards the expense of clearing them from the ground. Thus, sow-thistles (Sovchus) afford food for rabbits or hogR ; the hog- weed or cow-parsnip (Ilerac/eum sphon- dt/lium) is good for either swine or cattle ; horses and asses are fond of young thistles when partially dried, and the seed may be S re vented from spreading by gathering the own, which makes good pillows : however, there is some danger of trusting them to this stage of growth, as a high wind would, and frequently does, disperse them over a whole country. Charlock, when drawn, may HEALTH STATISTICS. It appears from De Bow's monthly statistics, that the popula- tion of the United States are the healthiest on the globe. The deaths are three hundred and twenty thousand per year, or one and one third per cent, of the population. In En- gland the ratio is over two per cent., and in France nearly three. Virginia and North Carolina are the healthiest States, and have 638 inhabitants over one hundred years old. MAGNITUDE. Magnitude cannot be explained by definition. As Dr. Lardner observes, there is no magnitude so great, that we cannot conceive a greater, and none so small, that we cannot conceive a smaller. The diameter of the earth measures about 8,000 miles; but it is verj small compared to the diameter of the sun, which measures nearly 900,000 miles: and this, again, is itself very small compared with the distance between the earth and sun, which measures little less than 100,^0,000 miles; and even this last space, great as it is, vanishes to nothing, compared with the distance between the sun and the fixed stars. SCRATCHING OUT INK MARKS, Persons who have not penknives siways in a good order for scratching out ink works, will find a piece of fine sand or glass-p; per do just as well. NURSEBY PICTURES (TO PKE- SERVE). Pictures are an almost endless source of amusement to children, and as a .meat variety may now be had at a trilling cost, there are but few families where some are not to be found : there are, perhaps, as few families where vexation has not been experienced in finding how soon the mere paper pictures are torn. A simple plan, by which children may use them for years, without tearing, is to paste them onto cheap calico — or the better part of worn-out calico garments will do ju-t as well. Rub with a little smooth flour paste, the back of the picture and the calico on which it is to be put ; lay the picture smooth upon the calieo, and leave it to dry gradually ; when quite dry, neatly cut round the edges, and the picture will bear all the treatment children are likely to give it, without being torn. Parents who have not tried, would be surprised what a fund of amuse- ment they might inexpensively acquire for their children, if they would so serve every picture that comes in their way, and provide a portfolio, or box for their reception. RING FAST ON THE FINGER. When this occurs, the use of cold water to the finger and hand — the hand and arm being elevated at the same time — may cause suffi- cient shrinking to permit of the removal ; if this does not succeed, the following may. A piece of fine pack thread, or linen thread is to be wrapped evenly and firmly round the finger, from the tip as far as the ring, through which the end is to be inserted, which being done, the pack thread must be gradually unwound by means of the end thus placed. If this process does not suc- ceed the ring must be tiled oft'; it cannot re- main without risk. SILVER SPOONS. To remove the stains on spoons caused by using them for boiled eggs, take a little common salt between the thumb and finger, and briskly rub the stain which will soon disappear. SHOES. "Whenever shoes or boots are taken from the feet, it would greatly preserve the upper lea: her from cracking, if the wearer was to bend back the soie of the shoe on the knee, or the back of a chair, and also pinch up the upper leather; it should be done when warm from the feet. Shoes worn only once a week, should be done in this manner every Sunday night. When 854 FACTS FOE FYETtYBOPY put on again the next Sunday morning, they will have the feel of a new pair. 1 was told this by a shoemaker out of business, as a secret] some years ago, and have always at- tended to it since with a great a*~ing to my pocket. i Lv'.A.. We give a cut of this troublesome parasitic insect, although probably, must of our readers are but too well aware of its form ; for it is one of our commonest house- hold nuisances; we have it here, however, in its magnified proportions, and a horrid monster it looks, with long muscular, spiny legs, well adapted for leaping, and scaly body, neck, and head, beset with hairs, and armed with two lancets within a sheath, for piercing the skin of its victim, and a proboscis tor sucking up its blood. Into the natural history of the creature, it suits not with our present purpose to enter at any length ; we may just say that its scientific name is Tulex initans, and that the female, of which the above is a representation — the male being somewhat smaller, and different in shape, as shctwn in next column — deposits her eggs, some twenty or thirty in number, in the crevices of boards, or amid collec- tions of dirt, or rubb'sh of any kind, from whence in six or eight days emerge the whitish, greasy-looking maggots; these, when a fortnight old, envelope them- selves in small cocoons, and after remain- ing in this state about ten days, come out as perfect Fleas, ready to make war upon men, women, and children, but especially affecting those who have the most tender skins. How to get rid of them ? is the anxious question with all careful mothers and tidy housewives. Cleanliness and inde- fatigable hunting, we reply; there is nothing to be done without "trouble, and catching this nimble skipper, requires both quickness and patience in no ordinary de- ?;ree. When there are Fleas in a bed-room, et the carpets be taken up, and the floors frequently washed, and then sprinkled with a strong decoction of Wormwood; among the bed cloth .»s, put a bag filled with Dry Moss, the odour of which is said to be very offen- sive to them, as is also that of fresh -gathered Pennyroyal leaves. As a trap for them, some use Alder leaves, gathered while t he dew is on them, to this the Fleas adhere, and may then be easily taken. Mercurial Ointment rubbed in the joints of the bed- stead, and Sulphur fumigations, are also said to be efficacious in killing or expelling them ; Sweet or Train-oil they cannot abide, and to drive them from their last strong- hold, the coat of the cat or dog, it is but necessary to pour some along the back, and then rub it in with the hand, until it is well incorporated with the hairs. Here is a choice of remedies ; but all will be of little avail without cleanliness — per- sonal and otherwise. Only dirty, negli- gent people, are much troubled with Fleas. unless they are necessitated to live in old houses, of which they have long had pos- session, or in localities extremely favour- able to their propagation ; ihe efforts of such should be constantly directed to keep- ing them under, and the above informa- tion may probably assist them. They are often extremely annoying to sick persona, ^&^^^^4^ and irritable children, depriving them of rest, and thus retarding restoration to health; for this reason, the Family Doctor is bound to wage war against them ; besides, they inflict severe bites, and make ugly marks on the skin; now, although Flea Bites are proverbially small matters, yet, they sometimes cause serious inflammation, not to speak of the disfigurement; they should be rubbed over with a little Cold Cream, and if much inflamed, kept wet with a lotion of Elder Flowers with a few grains of Sugar of Lead dissolved in it. CHIMNEYS (SMOKY). A chimney which smokes at the wrong end is a great nuisance ; a cause of discomfort, vexation, and annoyance to all who are forced to live near it; and it is not surprising that very numerous attempts have been made to find A MISCELLANY OF USEFTTL KNOTVLEDOE. 355 a remedy. "We have what are culled wind- guards, reverberator*, and all sorts and of back into the room; hence it is that chini- oflen smoke when too Urge a quan- tity of fresh coals is put upon the tire So many coals .should never be put upon the fire at once as to prevent the free passage of the flame between them. In short, a tire should never he smothered; and when proper at- tention is paid to the quantity of coals put on, there will be very little use for the poker; and this fact will contribute very much to cleanliness, and to the preservation of furniture." 'ihe Count devoted much attention to household economy generally, and as we know of no better plans for curing or pre- venting a smoky chimney and saving fuel than his, we shall endeavour to give such a simple account of them as will enable any working-bricklayer or mason either to build a new chimney properly, or to alter an old one on correct principles. Generally speaking, it will be necessary to diminish the opening of the fire-place — that is, to make it smaller; and to fix the grate more forward and less high than has been the practice. Sometimes a straight stone slab placed all across under the mam id, or a row of bricks supported by a flat iron bar, will be sufficient to effect a cure ; for this lowers the breast of the chimney, and diminishes the size of the opening of the fire-place. The breast of a chimnev is that Pig. 1. Pig. 2. part against which the mantel is built, and a good deal depends on the way on which this is finished on the inside. Then, if we wish smoke to ascend easily, 356 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY we must place the throat, or lower part of the chimney, immediately over the tire ; the back of the fire-place also should be Tbuilt perpendicular. There is no more reason why smoke should refuse to ascend a properly-coustructed chimney, than that water should refuse to descend through a pipe. And it will be seen from the diagrams that these improvements can be made with but a small amount of trouble. Figure 1 shows a fire-place and part of the chimney as usually built; an opening with square sides, in which the grate is fixed so fir back that most of the heat is lost. The depth, however, from back to front should not be more than from 9 to 13 inches; the back is, therefore, to be built up, as shown at figure 2, and in the Fig. 8. ground plan, figure 4. It will be seen that the chimney breast has a small piece added to lower it. Figure 3 represents the ground plan of the fire-place in figure 1 ; but instead of square, it is to have sloping sides, and is to be filled up as in figure 4. To do this ac- cording to rule, a line A, B, is to be drawn 11111 Fig. 4 straight from one jamb to the other; and from the centre of this, a cross line e is to be drawn from front to back. The mason is then to hold a plumb-line against the inside of the chimney breast, where it begins to run straight upward?, as, for example, at #, figure 1, and the spot where the plumb-line rests on the cross line e is to be carefully marked. Four inches behind this mark is the position for the back of the fire-place, as shown by the brickwork in figure 2, which, by being so placed, gives four inches as the dimensions from back to front of the throat of the chimney seen at d. This brickwork, and the sides, are to be carried up from six to nine inches above ♦he lowest part of the chimney breast, so as to give a sufficient length and form to the throat d; and instead of being finished ir- regularly, or with a slope at the top, it must b» perfectly Hat and level; because when the wind sets down the chimney, if it strikes against a slope it drives the smoke into the room, but not if it strikes upon a flat Too much pains cannot be taken to make a good finish of the inside of the breast; it should be quite smooth and perpendicular, so as to offer no impediment to the ascent of the smoke. The lower part is to be carefully rounded off with plaster, as at if figure 2, instead of being left square or rough and badly finished, as it nearly always is. The way to fix the sides or coverings of the fire-place is at aslope or angle, as shown at figure 4. It has been found that an angle of 45 degives is that which throws the most heat into the room. These angles and the back should be made of tire-brick, and if each of one piece the better, as it will then be easy to place thein in the position repre- sented in the diagram. The hollow spaces behind may be filled up with regular layers of brickwork, all brought to the same fiat level at the top. It is a mistake to suppose that iron is the best material for the back and sides of a grate ; fire-brick is much better. Iron absorbs the heat — fire-brick throws it out, and besides it can be white- washed which is a great economy, for white throws out both light and heat, which black does not. All parts of a fire-place not liable to be blackened by smoke, should be kept white, it is a common practice to do so in the United States. Any workman may get the angle of the sides by an easy way, shown at figure 5. On a board, bench, or table, or on the floor, draw three equal squares, from twelve to fifteen inches each way, as A, B, C ; and from the back corner e of the central square B, draw a diagonal line across the square A, to the outer corner f. This gives the angle at which the sides are to be fixed; and if a wooden bevel or mould -board be made ex- actly to this plan, a bricklayer will always be able to use it in setting out hio work, and with something like certainty that he ^s doing right. If the chimney should be an uncommonly smoky one, or if the grate A VISCF.LLANY OP TJSFFTJL XNOWLFDOE. 357 should not be exactly of the required width, either of the other two angles shown by Hi dotted lines may chosen. To leave room for sweeping the chimney, the upper part of the back is to be i single slab, ;ts at o, figure 2, which is to lie fitted so as to shift in or out. This can e:ts.ly be done by standing the slab in its place, and finishing the other work up to it, being careful to leave all level at the top. Lv taking out this slab when the chimney re q ui res sweeping, room is left for the passage of the brush, and when it is replaced it leaves the chimney throat * as perfect as before. The true proportions Fig. 5. of a grate are, to hare the width of the front three times the width of the back. Nine inches should be t**e width of the back, and the depth of the gra?e from back to front the same, which multiplied by thiee, gives twenty-seven inches as the width of the front. These dimensions are not to be departed from, un- less under strong necessity ; by keeping to them, the sides or copings of the fire-place ■will always be at an angle of 45 degrees, as above-mentioned. As a rule, the height of the fire-place should be the same as the "width. If these directions are carefully followed, it will be found that the fire-place will be complete all but the bars, a matter worth consideration, because the less iron there is 16* about a grate the better. The bar* nnd bot- tom may be made of iron all in one, and Hio bottom is not to be more than five inches ali've the hearth ; for a grate when fixed low sends more heat into the room than when fixed high. Figure 6 represents a fin complete. It does not look so elegant or showy as those which modern taste has pro- duced, but it will be found far more ser- viceable and economical. In cases where the breast of the chimney is nine inches thick, the four inches which have to be allowed for the throat behind this, will make the fire-place thirteen inches deep. The back mu>-t then be thirteen inches wide, and the front three times thir- teen, or thirty-nine inches, and the angles will be in their true position. A fire-place of this size will warm a large room, while a grate nine inches deep will serve for all or- dinary sitting-rooms. A cheerful and steady fire is so great a comfort as to make it worth while to take a little pains to insure it. The plan here de- scribed, if properly carried out, cannot fail of success, and will leave little need for chimney-pots or cowls. DRESS (OX PROPER TASTE IN). There are many people who do not know that in order to dress well, thev must follow certain rules, and pay attention to certain laws, and that it is not a mere question of fancy. By dressing well, we do not mean dressing expensively, but dressing properly; for it is not more difficult to exercise taste in the wearing of low-puced clothing, than of high priced. Most people know, that in looking at a rainbow, they see seven different colours, and for a long time it was thought that the number really was seven, but of late years it was found that there are not more than three. These three are called primitive or primary colours; the others are called secon- dary colours, because they are made up by a mixture or combination of the first This may be better explained by means of a diagram. Here the red, blue, and vellow, are the three primitives, and it will be seen that the others lie between them. For in- 858 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY: stance, the meeting: and overlapping of the red and yellow, produces orange, passing from a d< ep tint on thj red side, to a light tint on the yellow side. In like manner, the overlapping of the yellow with the blue forms given, and the overlapping of the red with the blue, produces violet or purple. If the diagram were coloured, the effect would be more apparent, and it would be easy to see that two primary colours are required to make one secondary colour. There is another fact also to be remarked ; the space opposite to each primitive is filled by the secondary composed of the other two primitives, and these secondaries are called complementary colours. Green, therefore, is the complementary colour to red, purple to yellow, and orange to blue. This may be proved in another way : — Fix a red wafer in the centre of a white sheet of paper, look at it steadily for a time, then look at another sheet which has nothing on it, and there will appear to be a green wafer in the middle of it ; and so with the other colours. This explains the reason why the putting to- gether of red and green, blue and orange, yellow and purple, in the decoration of rooms, or in dress, produces so pleasing and harmonious a contrast. It is true to nature, and that is the whole secret. It would be possible by drawing other lines across the same diagram to represent all the varieties of tints, three of orange, three of green, &c, and in each case, the exact complement will always be found op- posite the two sections of the primitive : the balance is always kept up. Out of all these, all sorts of hues may be produced, positive or neutral, arranged either in their order as they appear in the rainbow, deepening or softening one into the other, or forming strong contrasts. It is by the latter, that the most striking effects are produced. In describing the colours, red is said to be the most positive of the primitives, yellow the lightest, and blue the coldest. The first two are always considered to be warm co- lours, orange is a warm secondary, green is medium, and violet the coldest. Artists speak of the warm colours us standing out, while the cool ones appear to go back. Green and red form a medium contrast; orange and blue the extremest ; as in them the ■warmest and coldest colours are brought to- gether. Black and white are not colours, the first is made by mixing the three pri- maries together ; gray is produced by a mixture of white and black, and forms a colour which is very useful in softening the effects of violent contrasts. With these facts before us, we shall now be able to comprehend better in what way to regulate the colours of dress ; and instead of following mere routine or mere whim, we shall perceive that a little study and atten- tion, will keep us from those disfigurements too often seen in women's dress. In the dress of English ladies, we find too frequently a variety of colours, without any pretensions to harmony of arrangement. Not only is the dress "or bonnet selected without the slightest consideration, whether it is, or is not suitable to the complexion, but a variety of colours of the most disso- nant and inharmonious kinds may fre- quently be seen in the habiliments of the same lady. We continually see a light blue bonnet and flowers surrounding a sallow counte- nance, or a pink opposed to one of a glow- ing red ; a pale complexion associated with canary, or lemon-yellow, or one of delicate red and white, rendered almost colourless by the vicinity of deep red. Now, if the lady with the sallow complexion had worn a transparent white bonnet, or if the lady with the glowing complexion had lowered it by means of a bonnet of deeper red colour — if the pale lady had improved the cada^o rows hue of her countenance, by surround- ing it with pale gieen, which, by contrast, would have suffused it with a delicate pink hue, or had the face * Whose red and white Nature's own sweet and cunning hand laid on." been arrayed in a light blue, a light green, or in a ransparent white bonnet, with blue or pink flowers on the inside, how' different and how much more agreeable would have been the impression on the spectator. How frequently again do we see the di- mensions of a tall and embonpoint figure, magnified to almost Brobdignagian propor- tions, by a white dress; or a small woman reduced to Lilliputian size by a black dress! Now, as the optical effect of white is to en- large objects, and that of black to diminish them, if the large woman had been dressed in black, and the small woman in white, the apparent size of each would have approached the ordinary stature, and the former would not have appeared a giantess, or the latter a dwarf. Next with regard to the bonnet — the co- lour of the lining and the trimming should be such as will best suit the complexion of the wearer. There are, it appears, two methods of setting off or heightening a com- plexion, first, by a decided contrast, such as a white drapery, or one of a colour exactly complementary to the complexion, but not of too bright a hue ; such for example is a A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 359 peen drapery for a rosy complexion, or a blue drapery for i blonde. Secondly, by contrasting a fair complexion of an orange hue with a lighl green drapery, ■ rosj com- plexion with .i light blue, or h canary j ellow, or strawoolour, with certain compiexi eliniug t<» orange. In the last caae, the inentary violet neutralises the yellow of tlu' carnation, which it brightens. Now, lot us suppose an opposite ease, namely, that tlu* complexion is too highly coloured, and the object of the painter, or dress-maker is to lower it. This may be d either by means of a black drapery which lowers the complexion by contrast of hue, or by a drapery of the same colour as the complexion, but much brighter; for example, where the carnations are too rosy, the drapery may be red ; where they are too orange, an osange-coloured drapery may be adopted; where they incline too much, to green, we may introduce a dark green drapery, a rosy complexion may be con-. trasted with dark blue, or one of a very pale orange, with a very dark yellow. A good deal will be found to depend on the way in which the hair or cap is worn ; because, if a broad patch of hair come be- twet n the trimming and the face, the effect is varied ; but when the bonnet is worn far back from the face, then the effect depends on the shape of the bonnet, or on other con- trasts. In general, it will be best to follow the same law as laid down for the other por- tions of the attire. For example, a fair face- may have a black hat with a white or red feather. A white bonnet, when not tran- span nt, is most becoming on a red or white complexion ; but if it be of gauze or a tran • ■parent substance, it will then appear to be gray ; the colour of the trimming should be •white or pink, but the best effect seems to be produced by blue. A blue bonnet is the best colour for a fair woman, with white or Orange trimming, always, avoiding red, or deeper shades of blue, which spoil the effect. Grten also is suitable for a fair face, espe- cially if the cheek show a tinge of pink, and the trimming should be white or pink ; but a pink bonnet should not be worn unless there be some white or green trimming be- tween it and the face. A mixed wreath of white and green, such as a sprig of Jasmine, or a branch of May, has a very pleasing effect. If red be worn by those who have red faces, it should always be of a darker shade than the face, as the object is to re- lieve, not to deepen, the complexion ; and it has been found by experience, that the reflection from a bonnet-lining is much less than is commonly supposed. Nearly the same may lie said of black bonnets ; lh< ir contrast on a dark face is not always - I as nn ;i ligal (.lie, but a little contrivance will make that suitable which often appears unsuitable. The trimmings should lie white, red, pink, yellow, or orange. Next to black and white, and orange and blue, black and yellow if considered the greatest contrast of colours. Brunettes and those with a tawny skin may wear white bonnets, but must avoid the blue trimmings ; in their case, pink, or cherry-colour will be the most suitable, not forgetting that the hair should show between the bonnet and the face. A violet-coloured bonnet gives the skin a yellow appearance, and no woman likes to be thnugnt yellow- complexioned. But whenever the appearance is not satisfactory, the effect should always be tried of placing something between the bonnet and the face; such as ribands, a wreath, lace or tulle, or the complementary colour, which should also be i< peated on the outside of the bonnet. When we find negroes and the dark-skinned people of the East fond of glaring colours, it is only an effect of the laws above-mentioned ; in choosing these colours they only take what beet becomes them ; they nave no alterna- tive between these and a'purc white With respect to the hair: light hair is to be regarded as a "subdued orange," which is more or less yellow, red, or brown, a< cord- ing to the constitution of the individual. The \ellowest is the flaxen or golden hair, w huh was once in such repute, that ladies wno had dark hair took pains to bleach it and remove the colour. Where the red tinge prevails the hair ischesnut or auburn, and sometimes positively red. Black hair and eyebrows contrast well with a fair com- plexion, or harmonize with a dark one. Sky-blue is the most becoming wear for light and fair-haired persons, being, as it were, a complementary colour to their own hue. Orange, yellow, and red, assort well with dark hair, and in 6ome instances violet or green with their complementaries may be worn. A fresh, rosy complexion should not be surrounded with pink or rose colour, as the effect will be to deaden it ; but if a fulling of tulle be placed between it and the face, then the objection will disappear. As before observed, lace or similar materials appear gray, for the threads reflect the light, while* the spaces absorb it, and have a dark appearance ; and one being inter- mingled with the other, the result is gray, a neutralizing tint of great value. It should be borne in mind, that transparent white textures are always to be considered as 360 FACTS FOll EYERYBODY, gray. Light green suits the skin which has no red, and makes it look slightly ruddy by the contrast. On the contrary, "dark green harmonises best with brunettes and dark complexions which have a touch of orange in them. If the skin be yellow, then light yellow is to be avoided in the bonnet, as the effect it produces is that of a deadly white; violet gives such a skin a green hue, as also some shades of blue. A dead white, that is, one which is not transparent, suits a fresh colour, making it look more rosy, wtoile the effect of black is to lower the tone of the colours associated with it, and make the skin appear fairer. The three primitive colours may be made to look more brilliant than they are by com- bining them with gray, and still more so by white ; but gray is perhaps to be preferred, as it "forms combinations with blue, violet, and dark colours, in general, which partake of the harmony of analogy, while, on the contrary, it forms with colours naturally bright/ such as red, orange, yellow, and light-green, harmonies of contrast. If, for instance, gray be placed by the side of crim- son, it will acquire by contrast somewhat of a green hue ; by the side of the yellow it will appear purplish ; if by the side of blue it will assume an orange hue ; the value, then, of a neutral tint of this description when placed in contact with flesh, is very evident. These observations comprise the chief points of the theory of dress ; after reading them, it is impossible not to see the necessity for some degree of attention to the laws of taste. Many people are ready to justify their neglect on the ground that it is a waste of time, or of morality, to be particular in such matters. But we take leave to say that such is not the case. We ai*e bound by social, as well as moral, laws, to wear decent clothing, and there is no impropriety whatsoever in making ourselves look as be- coming as possible — .always remembering to avoid pride and vanity. CRIBBAGE. This game is played with the whole pack of cards, and by two, three, or four persons, as the case may be. When there are three, they play as individuals ; when four, two play as partners, as in the case of whist. The value of the cards in cribbage is the same as in whist ; but there are no trumps, excepting the knave of the suit turned up. There are different modes of plaving, according to the number of cards dealt ; the number is generally five or six. The game consists of sixty-one points, and to keep score or reckoning, an appa- ratus called a cribbage-board is employed. This board possesses holes for the scoring of each party, and the scoring is effected by means of pegs. The party who is able to bring his peg into the last hole first wins the game. The following is an explanation of terms generally used in .the game : — Crib, the cards laid out by each party; and whatever points are made by them, the dealer scores. Fairs are two similar cards, as two aces or two kings. They reckon for two points, whether in hand or playing. Fairs royal are three similar cards, and reckon for six points, whether in hand or playing. Double pairs royal are four similar cards, and reckon for twelve points, whether in hand or playing. The points gained by pairs, pairs royal, and double pairs royal, in playing, are thus effected : your adversary having played a seven, and you another, constitutes a pair, and entitles you to score two points ; jour antagonist then playing a third seven, makes a pair royal, and he marks six ; and your playing a fourth is a double pair royal, and entitles you to twelve points. Fifteens. Every fifteen reckons for two {>oints, whether in hand or playing. In land, they are formed either by two cards, such as a five and any tenth card, a six and a nine, a seven and an eight ; or by three cards, as a two, a five, and an eight, &c. And in playing thus, if such cards are played as make together fifteen, the two points are to be scored towards the game. Sequences are three or four, or more suc- cessive cards, and reckon for an equal num- ber of points, either in hand or plaving. In playing a sequence, it is of no conse- quence which card is thrown down first, as thus : your adversary playing an ace, you a five, he a three, you a two, then he a four, he counts five for the sequence. Flush is when the cards are all of one suit, and reckons for as many points as cards. For a Hush in the crib, the card turned up must be of the same suit as those in hand. The go is gained by the player when no other number can be played under thirty- one, in which case he takes one ; but if the number makes thirty-one, he takes two. The turn-up card accounts in with both hand and crib. Beg l t lations for Playing. 1. In deal- ing, the dealer may discover his own cards, if he pleases, but not those of his adversary. If he does, that adversary is entitled to mark two points, and call a fresh deal, if he pleases. A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 361 2. If the dealer gives his adversary too many curds, the adversary may score two points, and also demand another deal, pro- vided he detects the error previous to his taking Op his cards. 3. When any player is observed to have in his hand more than Uie proper number of cards, in that ease the peraen who dis- covers it may mark four points to his gMW, an'i cail a new deal, if he thinks proper. 4. If the dealer gives himself more cards than he is entitled to, the adversary may score two points to his game, and call a fresh deal, if he thinks proper ; if he does not, he is entitled to draw the extra cards from the dealer's hands ; if the non-dealer observes the adversary ha3 more cards than are his due, after they are taken off the table, he may score four points to his game, and call a new deal. 5. If either party meddle with the cards from the time they are dealt until they are cut for the turn-up card, his adversary is entitled to score two points. 6. If atiy player scores more than he is entitled to, the "other party has a right not only to put him back as many points as were so scored, but also to score the same number to his- own game. 7. If either party touches even his own peg unnecessarily, the adversary may score two points to his game. 8. If either party take out his front peg, he must place the same behind the other. 9. Either party scoring a less number of points than are his due, incurs no penalty. 10. Each player has a right to pack his own cards; and should he place them on the Sack and omit scoring for them, whether and or crib, he must not mark for them afterwards. CuinBAGE (Five-Card). Proper erib- bage is played with five cards, and we shall give a description of it in reference to two persons. After the dealer has been determined by cutting, as in whist, the cards are dealt one alternately, to the extent of five for each individual. The elder hand takes three points on the board. Each player then proceeds to lav out two of the five cards for the crib, which always belong to the dealer. In doing this, always recollect whose crib it is, as the cards which may ad- vantage your own are almost invariably prejudicial to your game when given to your adversary. This done, the non-dealer cuts the remainder of the pack, and the dealer turns up the uppermost. This card, whatever it may be, is reckoned by each I party i»; hand or crib. "When it happens to [ be a knave, the dealer scores two points to his game. Alter laying out and cutting as above men- tioned, the eldest hand play | any card, which | the other endeavours to pair, or to find one, the points of which, reckoned with the hist, will make fifteen: then the non-deaii r pla\ s another card, trying to make a pair, or pair royal, and so (in alternately till the points of the cards played make thirty-one, or the nearest possible numher under that. When the party whose turn it may be to play cannot produce a card that will make thirty-one, or come in under that number he then says "go" to his antagonist, who thereupon is to play any card he has that will come in to make thirty-one, if he can, and take two points, or to score one for the end hole ; and besides, the last player has often opportunities to take pairs or sequences. Such cards as remain after this are not to be played; but each party having, during the play, scored his points gained, in the same manner as hereafter directed, proceeds, the non-dealer first, then the dealer, to count and take for his hand and crib as fol- lows, reckoning the cards every way they possibly can be varied, and always includ- ing the turned-up card : For every fifteen, two points ; for every pair, or two of a sort, two points ; for every pair royal, or three of a sort, six points ; for every double pair royal, or four or a sort, twelve points ; for every sequence of any sort, according to the number; for every flush, according to the number; for every knave or noddy of the same suit that was turned up, one point ; but when turned up it is not to be reckoned again, nor is any- thing to be taken for it when played. Three cards of the same suit in hand en- title the holder to reckon that number, and five for the crib when the turned-up card happens to be of the same suit. It is always highly necessary, in laying out cards for the crib, that every plaver should consider not only his own hand, but also whom the crib belongs to, and what is the state of the game ; because what might be proper in one situation would be ex- tremely imprudent in another. If you should happen to possess a pair royal, be sure to lay out the other two cauls for either your own or your adversary's crib, except you hold two fives with the pair royal; in that case it would be ex- tremely' injudicious to lay them out for your adversary's crib, unless the cards you retain insure your game, or your adversary being so near home that the crib becomes of no importance. FACTS FOR EVERYBODY*. It is generally right to Mush your cards in hand whenever you can, as it may a>sist your own crib or baulk your opponent's. Endeavour always to retain a sequence in \our hand, and particularly if it is a flush. Always lay out close cards, such as a three and four, a five and six, for your own crib, unless it breaks your hand. As there is one card more to count in the crib at five-card cribbago than there is in hand, be sure to pay great attention to the crib, as the chance of reckoning more points for the crib than are in hand is five to four. For your own crib, always lay out two cards of the same suit, in preference to two of different suits, as this will give you the chance of a tlush in the crib. Never lay out cards of the same suit for your adversary's crib. Endeavour "always to baulk your oppo- nent's crib. The best cards for this purpose are a king and an ace, a six, a seven, an e; ht, a nine, or a ten ; or a queen, with an ace, a six, a seven, an eight, or a nine ; or any cards not likely to form a sequence. A king is generally esteemed the greatest baulk ; as, from its being the highest card in the pack, no higher one can come in to form a sequence. Never lay out a knave for your adversary's crib, when you can possibly avoid it, as it is only three to one but the card turned up is of the same suit, by which he will obtain a point. Even though you should hold a pair royal, never lay out for your adversary's crib a two and three, a five and six, a seven and eight, or a five and any tenth card. "Whenever you hold such cards, observe the state of your game, and, particularly if it is nearly ended, whether your adversary is nearly out, or within a moderate show, and it is your deal. "When this is the case, you must retain such cards as will, in playing, prevent your adversary from making pairs or sequences, &c, and enable you to win the end hole, which will often prevent your opponent from winning the game. Cribbage (Thkee and Four Hand). Three and four hand cribbage differs only from two hand, in as far as the parties only put out one card each to the crib ; and when thirty-oue, or as nearly as can be, have been made, then the next eldest hand leads, and the players go on again, in rotation, with any remaining cards, till all are played out, before they proceed to show their hands and crib. In three-hand cr'-.bbage, a triangular board is used, with three lines of holes to allow of each scoring his own game. Cribbage (Six-Card). Six-card crib- bage bears so great a resemblance to five- card, that any one playing the -one well must play the other equally so. It consists jf pairs, fifteens, r sequences, flushes, &c. ; and the points are reckoned and marked pre- cisely in the same manner; all the curds must be played out; that is, when either party has made the end hole, the remaining cards in hand must be played, scoring for the pairs or fifteens they may form. When last player, you should endeavour to retaiD close cards in hand, as they may enable you to acquire four points in playing. The dealer is supposed to have some some trifling advantage. The dealer is entitled to expect twenty- 6ve points by his hand, crib, and next hand. Thus at his second deal, if his peg is in the twenty-fifth hole of the board, he has his complement of points; the same at his third deal, if he is within eleven points of the game. If the non-dealer by his first hand attains the eleventh hole in the board, he will have the best of the game ; for he is entitled to expect that he shall make his second deal with his front peg in the thirty-sixth hole, and by which probably he will win the game by his hand, crib, and next hand. If you are dealer, and your adversary has above his complement of points, you must play your game accordingly. Thus, if you have good cards, try to make as many points as possible by pairing, fifteens, &c. On the contrary, if your cards are indifferent, you must play off, to prevent your adversary from obtaining points. PYRAMIDS. Solids, which decrease gradually from the base, till they come to a poin% are called pyramids. 'J hey are of different kinds, according to the figure of their bases. If the pj'ramid has a square base, it is called a square pyramid : if a tri- angular base, a triangular pyramid ; if the base be a circle, a circular pyramid, or a Cone. The point in which the pyramid ends is called the vertex. A line through the centre of the pyramid, from the vertex to the base, is the height. The f rust rum of a pyramid is what remains, after any por- tion of the top has been cut off parallel to the base. BAGATELLE. The large and incon- venient size of billiard -tables has led to the introduction of bagatelle-tables — bagatelle being the French word for anything trifling. A bagatelle-table is usually about seven feet lung and twenty-one inches broad ; it A MISCELLANY OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 3G3 Is lined with cloth, and a game is performed on it with balls and ;i IBM or maC6. The balls are small ivory spheres, and the sport very muoh consists 'in striking one or more into hfllM at ode end of the board. To per- form this and other feats, soaie skill and experience are required ; and the sport is far from unamusiug in a cheerful parlour circles. Of late years, bagatelle-tables have become very common in the houses of the middle classes of society ; they pO M C C I the recommendation of being purchasable at a small expense. STEREOSCOPE (THE). The name Stereoscope, from the Greek words stereos, solid, and skopein, to see, has been given to an instrument of recent invention, for ex- hibiting in true relief and apparent solidity all objects, or groups of objects, by com- bining into one picture two representations of these objects on a plane, as seen separately by each eye. If we hold up a thin book between our two eyes, with its back towards us, and at the distance of about a foot, we shall see the back and the two sides of the book when both eyes are open ; but if we shut the right eye, we shall see with the left eye onlv the back and left side of the book , uud if wu shut the left eye, we shall pee only the bock and the right side of it. Or, to use a in. re homely illustial ion, when we shut the t. ft eye. we see only the right side of our ii p willi the right tyu, and when we shut l ho right eye, we see only the left side of our nose with the left e\e. And in general, when we look at any solid object whatever, the right eye sees puts of it towards the right hand not seen by the left eye, and the left eye sees part of it towards the left hand not teen by the right eye. Hence wu arrive at the tirst and fundamental truth on which the theory and construction of the Stereo- scope depend, viz. : 1, When we look with two eyes upon any solid body or object whose parts are at different distances from us, the picture of it which we see with the right eye, or the image of it which is formed on the retina of the right eye, is dill, rent from the picture of it which we see with the left eye, or from the image of it which is formed on the retina of the left eye. This important fact was known to EucHd more than 2000 years ago, and was illus- trated by him in the case of a sphere, the pictures of which as seen by each esc he proved to be dissimilar. Upwards of 15D0 years ago, Galen described the different pic- 1 tures formed on each eye in the vision of a column. Baptttta Porta, in 1593, repeats the propositiou of Euclid on the vision of a sphere with one and both eyes; and he quotes the experiments of Galen on the vision of a column with both eyes, and with each eye alternately. Leonardo da Vinci was well acquainted with the same facts; and Aguilonius, in 1G13, wrote a whole book on the vision of solids {la stereo) with one and both eyes, and expluiued the dis- similarity of the pictures thus seen by the observer. Optical writers of more recent times, such as Dr. Smith of Cambridge, Mr. Hani-, and Dr. Portertield, were all acquainted with the dissimilarity of the pictures of solids as seen by each eye separately; and hence we see the extreme injustice of the claim made by Mr. Wheatstone to be the discoverer of this truth. In quoting the experiments of Leo- nardo da Vinci, Mr. Wheatstone maintains that he was not aware " that the otgeci (a sphere) presented a different appearand to eachege;" and lie adds, H he Jailed to ob- serve this ; and no subsequent writer^ to my knoivledye, has supplied the omission. 27te projection of two obviously dissimilar pic- tures on the two reti/tce, when a single ob- ject is viewed, while the optic axes converge, must therefore be regarded as a new fact in t/ie theory of vision." This claim to a di»- S64 FACTS FOR EVERYBODY! uovery made 2000 years ago by Euclid, and explained and illustrated by so many of his distinguished successors, is the more re- markable, as Mr. Wneatstone, though he may have never seen the writings of Euclid or Galen, makes repeated reference to the observations of Porta and Aguilonius, in which the discovery is distinctly described. The second fundamental truth on which the theory and construction of the Stereo- scope depend is: 2, When the two dissi- milar pictures of any solid body, as seen by each eye separately, are superimposed, or laid the one above the other by the conver- gence of the axes of the two eyes, the ob- ject which these pictures represent is seen in relief, or as a solid body, with its different parts at different distances from the observer. Altough this truth is not distinctly stated either by Euclid or Galen, we can hardly suppose that they were ignorant of it, as it is a necessary result of their observations. Since we do see an object in true relief by both eyes, and since the picture of the ob- ject which we see is formed by the super- position of the one dissimilar picture above the other, the vision in relief is the neces- sary result of the combination of the pictures. They must have known it simply as a fact, though they did not know its cause. Baptista Porta and Aguilonius, how- ever, were well acquainted with this second truth. In explaining the experiments of Galen on the dissimilarity of the pictures of an object as seen by each eye and by both, Porta employs the annexed diagram, which is much more distinct than that which is given by the Greek physician. " Let a," he says, " be the pupil o: the right eye, b that of the left, and D c the body to be seen. When we look at the body with both eyes, we see D c, while with the left eye we see e f, and with the right eve G h. But if it is seen with one eye, it will be seen otherwise ; for when the left eye b is shut, the body cd, on the left side, will be seen in ho; but when the right eye A is shut, the body CD will be seen in fe; whereas when both eyes are opened at the same time it will be seen in cd" Porta then pro- ceeds to explain these results by quoting the passage from Galen in which he supposes the observer to repeat these experiments when he is looking at a solid column. In the preceding diagram we see not. only the principle but the construction of the Ocular Stereoscope, or the method by which wo combine the two pictures by looking at a point between them and the observer, or be- yond the pictures. The two dissimilar pic- tures are represented by u e; the picture as seen by one eye by ho; the picture as seen by the other by e f , and the picture of the solid column in full relief by D c. as pro- duced midway between the two dissimilar pictures hg and fe by their union, pre- cisely as in the Stereoscope. The important subject of which we are treating has been discussed by Aguilonius with singular ingenuity ; and his ooserva- tions are so interesting, that we shall give them in his own worus. " When one ob- ject," he says, " is seen with two eyes, the angles at the vertices of the optical pvramids (viz. h a F, g B e) are not al ways equal ; (they are equal in the vision of a sphere and acylin- der;) for beside the direct view,in which the pyramids ought to be equal, into whatever directions both eyes are turned they receive pictures of the objects under unequal angles, the greater of which is that which is termi- nated at the nearer eye, and the lesser that which regards the remoter eye. This, I think, is perfectly evident ; but I consider it as worthy of admiration, how it happens that bodies seen by both eyes are not all con' fused and shapeless, though we view them by the optical axes fixed on the bodies them- selves. For greater bodies seen under greater angles appear lesser bodies under lesser angles. If, therefore, one and the same body which is in reality greater with one eye, is seen less on account of the inequality of the angles in which the pyra- mids are terminated, the body itself must assuredly be seen greater or less at the same time, and to the same person that views it; and therefore, since the images in each eye are dissimilar (mini me .sibi cony rutin t), the representation of the object must ap- pear confused and disturbed (confuxa at perturbata) to the primary sense." In order to understand this pas-age, we must state, as a well-known fact, that in binocular portraits the distance between the tip of the nose and the tip of the ear is greater in A MISCF.LLAXY OF USEFUL KNOTTr/EDGE. 865 the one picture thnn in tho other, and con- sequently the line joining these points sub- tends a greater angle in the one than in the other. When these two lines, therefore, arc combined] Arniloninl concludes that the vi- -imi of the tip of the n<-se and the tip of the ear must be confused, as the ends of the lines cannot he united. " 1 hi.- v eM of the subject," he continues, "is certainly eoometenl uith reason; but what is truly wonderful is, that it is not Co r rec t , for bodies are seen clearly and dis- tinctly with both eyes when the optic axes are converged upon them. The reason of this, I think, is, that the bodies do not ap- pear to be BtBgle, because the apparent iraagea which are formed from each of them in separate eyes exactly coalesce (sibi inutno ixade congntunt), but because the common erase Imparts its aid equally to j a, exerting its own power equally in the same manner as the eyes are converged by means of their optical axes. "Whatever body, therefore, each eye sees with the eyes conjoined, the common sense makes a single notion, not composed of the two which he- Ion? to each eye, but belonging and accom- modated to the imaginative faculty to which it (the common eenae) assigns it." Now though the explanation here given of the distinct appearance of the solid com- posed of two dissimilar pictures is not cor- rect, yet Aguilonius clearly asserts the second truth, that though the unequal lines and anglos do not coalesce, yet the body is seen distinctly and in its true solidity, in consequence of the combination of the two pictures of it as seen by each eye. From these details it is manifest that the Uco fundamental truths on which the Stereo- scope depends were well known to Aguilo- nius and others ; and that nothing more was wanted tb an a method of forming two dissimilar pictures of objects, and a method of uniting them when formed. Upwards of thirty years ago, Mr. Elliot, now a teacherof mathematics in Edinburgh, was led to study the Subject of hiiiocul.u vision, in consequence of" having wri'ler an esemy in 1823. for the Logic Class, M On the means by which we obtain our know- ledge of distances by the eye." From thaw time he was familiar with the idea that the relief of solid bodies when seen with both eyes was produced by the union of the two dissimilar pictures of them as seen by each eye, which he believed was known to every student of vision. During the vear 18:!4, or previous to it, he hod resolved to make an instrument for uniting two dissimilar pictures, or of constructing a stereoscope. But though he had invented the instru- ment, he delayed its construction till 1839, when he was asked to write a paper for the Polytechnic Society in Liverpool. The instrument was exhibited to Mr. Richard Adie, optician, and Air. G. Hamilton, lec- turer on chemistry ; but owing to the diffi- cult? of obtaining binocular pictures for it, he proceeded no further with his invention. In order, however, to show the effect of the instrument to his friends, he constructed a rude picture of a landscape, as seen by each eye separately ; and when these two pictures were placed in his instrument, tho parts of the landscape appeared at different distances from the eye, or in their true relief. As this was undoubtedly the first landscape constructed for, and seen in relief through the Stereoscope, it possesses much interest; and we hare given an accurate copy of the dissimilar pictures in the «n- n xed diagram, as they were placed by Mr. Elliot, at the farther end of a box 18 inches long, 7 broad, and 44 deep. In their pre- sent position they will appear in relief when FACTS FOR EVERYBODY:: united by the Ster^scope, or by converging the optic axes to a point at a proper distance beyond them. Had photography been in existence, to enable Mr. Eiliot to obtain binocular pictures of landscapes and other objects, the application of the Stereoscope to natural scenery and to portraiture would not have been so long delayed. In the month of August, 1838, Mr. "Wheat- stone exhibited an instrument, under the name of the Reflecting Stereoscope, to the British Association which met at Newcastle ; and an account of it was published in the Philosophical Transactions for that year. The merit of this invention belongs exclu- sively to Mr. Wheatstone, and nobody has either directly or indirectly laid clam to it. Although it answers the purpose for which it was contrived, it is a clumsy and bulky apparatus, unnecessarily expensive, and now seldom seen. The binocular representations which it raised into relief were chiefly those of geometrical solids ; but the idea of apply- ing it to landscapes or portraits is never once mentioned in his paper. The theory of the instrument, as given by Mr. Wheat- stone, was shown to be incorrect by the writer of this article, who first gave the true theory in the Edinburgh Transactions for 1843; and in the experiments whi< h he made on the subject, he was led to the con- struction of several new stereoscopes, but particularly to the Lenticular Stereoscope now in universal use. " The Reflecting Sterescope of Mr. "Wheat- stone was at this time," as the Abbe Moigno remark*, "almost completely forgotten." Its merits had never been sufficiently under- Stood ; and even the Lenticular Stereoscope, after photography had supplied it with binocular portraits, excited a very limited interest. 1 offered it gratuitously to opti- cians in London and Birmingham; but it was not till ihe year 1850, when I took one to Paris, and showed it to the Abbe Moigno and M. Duboscq, that it was appreciated and brought into notice. Having executed a number of binocular pictures of statues and bas-reliefs, and portraits of celebrated individuals, M. Duboscq, to use the words of Abbe Moigno, " showed the wonderful effects of the instrument to natural philoso- phers and amateurs, who flocked to him in crowds, and from whom they elicited a spon- taneous and unanimous cry of admiration." In the noble collection of philosophical instruments displayed by M. Duboscq in the Great Exhibition of 1851, he placed a Len- ticular Stereoscope, with a set of binocular pictures in daguerreotype. The instrument attracted the particular attention of the Queen, and in a short time M. Duboscq received many orders for stereoscopes from England and the United States. Such is a brief history of the Lenticular Stereoscope, and of its introduction into this country. It is now m general use over the whole world, and it has been esti- mated that more than hilf a million of the Lenticular Stereoscopes have been sold. Photographers are employed in every part of the globe in taking binocular pictures for the instrument, — among the ruins of Pom- peii and Herculaneum — on the glaciers and in the valleys of Switzerland — among the public monuments in the Old and New World— in the museums of ancient and modern life — and in the sacred precincts of the domestic circle. POLICE. The objects of a police force are, first, the prevention of crime ; second, its detection; third, the apprehension and punishment of offenders; and it is especially their duty to impress the minds of evil dis- posed persons with the conviction that 'heir apprehension and punishment will he the-ure consequence of the transgression of the law. Prevention of Crime. When a breach of the peace is likely to take place, as when persons are making preparations to fight, even within a house, a constable may enter the house to prevent them, and take the parties into custody, and should the doors be closed, he may break them open upon re- fusal of admission. If a person threaten another with immediate personal violence, a constable may interfere; or if one draw a weapon upon another, attempting to strike, a constable may take him into custody ; or if a person enter the house of another, although peaceably and lawfully, a constable may, at the request of the owner, having first re- quested him to go out, turn him out ; but if persons be merely quarrelling or insulting each other, a constable has no right to take them into custody, but should be ready to prevent a breach of the peace. A constable may apprehend, and lodge in the station- house till taken before a magistrate, a per- son begging, or encouraging a child so to do ; or lodging in any deserted or unoccupied building, or in the open air, not having any visible means of subsistence, and not giving a good account of himself or herself; a per- son wandering abroad, and endeavouring, by the exposure of wounds, or deformities, to obtain alms ; or going about to procure charitable contributions of any kind, under any false or fradulent pretence. A person playing, or betting in any street, highway, or other public place, at or with any table or instrument of gaming, at any game er A MISCELLANY" OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. 367 pretended game of chance— a person having in his possession a picklock, crow, jack, bit, or other implement with intent feloniously to break into ■ building ; or it' armed with a gun or offensive weapon with intent to com- mit a felonious act — a person alter suiwt, and before mnriting carrying a bundle of goods suspected to be stolen A person drawing a ti uck, or carriage, rolling a cask, or wheel, or carrying a ladder or a placard upon the footway, alfix- ing posting bills, blowing a horn, or using a noisy instrument, ringing a door bell, wilfully extinguishing the light of any lamp, flying a kite, sliding, or playing at any game on the footway, or committing any othef offeuce whereby the public tho- roughfare is obstructed, or an offence is committed to the annoyance of the passen- gers or neighbourhood, in view of a con- stable, may be taken into custody. Persons charged with aggravated assaults may be apprehended without a warrant, although not in the view of a constable, if, by reason of the recent commission of the Mrome, a magistrate's warrant for ) is ap- prehension could not have been obtained. Constables may apprehend offenders whose names and residences are unknown to them, as any street musician who shall have been required to depart from the neighbourhood of a house on account of the illness of any inmate, or for other reasonable cause. It is the duty of the police to warn per- sons, and in case their warning is not im- mediately attended to, to summon persons committing, amongst others, the following offences: — Burning corks, hooping barrels, hewing stones, laying coals or other mate- rials, or beating carpets in the streets or public thoroughfares, or throwing dirt or rubbish into the streets or river Thames, neglecting to sweep the footways opposite to or adjoining their houses, obstructing footways by projections, or leaving cellars and areas dangerously open. Persons so offending are liable to a penalty of forty shillings ; and if, by the commission of any of the offences above enumerated, any per- son shall suffer any hurt or damage, a ma- gistrate may order reasonable compensation to be made to the amount ot ten pounds. In c ises of fire the police are to keep the ground and the streets in the immediate vicinity clear of obstructions, and to render every assistance possible in the removal of property, conformably with the wishes and suggestions of the proprietoro ; and if de- sired, articles of value may be conveyed to the nearest station-house. Duties of the Police. They are to he civil and respectful to the public, par- tieu'arly females needing their assistance ; but are forbidden to e iter into conversa- tion with any person whomsoever, except on matter! relating to i heir duf.v. They are not to refuse assistance for the protection of person and property near their own b o a t s; and under no pretence whatever may any member of the police, force take a gratuity from any person, or receive 9ny penalty for lodging or supporting any in- formation, without the express permission of the Commissioner. In cases of robbery, they a~e not to relax their endeavours until the offender is brought to justice. In the execution of their duty they are to be very particular not to use unnecessary violence, and must not use their staves be- cause the party in custody is violent in be- haviour or language; or use any language towards persons in their custody calculated to provoke or offend them. And it is the duty of the inspector to pay instant, and particular attention to all complaints made against any individual of the police force, to enter the complaint in a book, and to re- quest the complainant to sign the entry. The inspector or station -sergeant must discharge, upon his recognizances, with or without sureties, when no magistrate is sit- ting, any person charged with an offence for which he is liable to be summarily con- victed, or with having carelessly done any hurt or damage ; or even a person charged with a felony or grave misdemeanor, in custody without a warrant, upon the refusal of the' person making the charge to enter into a recognizance. No person is to be permitted to smoke or drink in a station-house, or to remain there except while actually engaged in business. All money or other property brought to the station-house is to be marked by the in- spector or station-sergeant, and entered in a book, and, if taken from a prisoner, is not to be returned till the decision of the ma- gistrate is known ; but this is not to pre- vent any small sum being spent in re- freshment. BILLIARDS. This elegant sport may be said to combine the principles of bowls, golf and some other games in which object a are impelled from the hand. Whether the game was invented in France or England is not (dearly ascertained ; but, as it is men- tioned by Shakspeare, it is at least a3 old in thi< country as the sixteenth century. Billiards is plaved with a table, certain kinds of rods, and balls. The table varies in size , that in most common use being 3GS TACTS FOE EVERYBODY twelve feet long, and six feet one inch and a half in width. Whatever be its dimen- sions, it requires to be perfectly level and smooth. It is ordinarily made of pieces of slate joined together; and these being brought to a dead level, the surface is covered with tine green cloth All round is a ledge or cushion two inches high, and stuffed with India rubber. The table is furnished with six pockets, one at each of the four corners, and one on each side at the middle. The mouths of these pockets or purees are level with the surface, so as to allow the balls to glide easily into them. , The balls are of ivory, varying from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter. Two are white, and one is red. One of the white is distinguished by a spot. There are usually two players in the ordinary winning and losing game ; he who owns the plain ball is called Plain, and he who owns the spotted ball is termed Spot. The red ball belongs to neither, but is aimed at by both. The rods or bills used by the players are of two kinds, and different lengths, to suit different players.' The ordinary kind of rod is called a cue. It is long and smooth, with one end thick and heavy (1), and the other tapered to a point; this is covered with a button of leather. The other kind of rod is termed a mace; it has a club-like extremity (2), and is much less frequently =5 C^ used. Almost all players employ cues of a length and weight to suit themselves. In playing, the left hand is rested with the palm undermost on the table. The palm is hollowed, and the thumb, close to the forefinger, is raised up to form a bridge or rest for the cue. The hand should be at the distance of about six inches from the hall. The cue is lightly held in the right hand, the blow being struck with the small extremity. Thus held, in a free but firm manner, and resting on the channel between the forefinger and thumb, the cue is given a sharp run forward, so ts to hit the ball in the required direction, and with that exact degree of force which will make it perform the desired feat. To prevent slipping, the point of the cue is generally chalked. THE END, Topular Looks Sent Free of Postage at the Trices annexed. The Reason Why: General Science. A careful collection of some thousands of reasons lor things, which, though generally known, an- imperfectly una. rstood. A book of condensed scientific knowledge: for t. lion. By the author of M Inqu.ro Within." It is a hands .mo Lzmo volum. . of 156 pages, printed on fine paper, bound in cloth, gut, and embellished wit !i a large number of wood cuts, illustrating the various subjects treated of. Th's work assigns reasons for the thousands of things that daily fall unlertlic eye of the intelligent observer, and of which he seeks a simple and clear explanation. 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Also with numerous wood-cuts printed with the letter press, explanatory of terms, etc. Oblong, pp. 117, beautifully bound in extra cloth, gilt. This is by far the best work on the subject of Crochet yet published. There are plenty of other books containing Crochet patterns, but the difficulty is, they do not have the necessary instructions how to work them, and are, iherefore, useless. This work, however, supplies this much-felt and glaring deficiency, and has the terms in Croche* so clearly ex- plained, that any Crochet pattern, however difficult, may be worked wi + h ease. Price * $1 25 10,000 "Wonderful Things. Comprising the Marvelous and Hare, Odd, Curious, Quaint, Eccentric, and Extraordinary, in all Ages and Nations, in Art, Nature, and Science, including many wonders of the world, en- riched with hundreds of Authentic Illustrations. Edited by Edmund Fillingham "King, M. A., author of " Life of Newton." &c, &rs. 12mo, cloth, gilt side and back. In the present work, interesting scenes from Nature, curiosit'es of Art, Costume, and Customs of a by-gone period, rather predominate ; but we have devoted many of its pages to "descriptions of remarkable occurrences, beautiful landscapes, stupendous waterfalls, and sublime sea pieces. Price $1 25 S*- d Cash Orders to DICK & FITZGESALD, 13 Ann St., N. Y. Popular Books sent Free of Postage at the Prices massed. Parlor Theatricals; or, Winter Evenings' Entertainment. Contain- ing Acting Proverbs, Dramatic Charades, Acting Charades, or Drawing-room Pantomimes, Musical Burlesque*, Tableaux Vtvents, Ate,', with Instructions 1 r Amateur*; how to Construct a stage and Curtain; how to get up Costumes and Properties, on the "Making Up" or Characters, Exits and Entranoes; how to arrange Tableaux, el •. Illustrated with Engravings. Paper covers, jir.ee 25 ci s. Bo ind in boards, cloth back, 3 8 cti». The Parlor Magician ; or, One Hundred Tricks for the Drawing-Room, eont a mm * an Extensive and Miscellaneous Collection of Conjuring and T. main: Sleights with Dies, Dominoes, Cards, Ribbons, Bings, Fruit, Coin, Balls, Handkerchiefs, etc, all of which may be Performed in the Parlor or Drawing-R torn, Without the aid of any apparatus ; also embracing a choice variety of Curious De- ceptions, which raav be performed with the aid of simple apparatus; the whole illustrated and clearly explained with 121 engravings. Paper covers, price 2 5 els. Bound in boards, with cloth back 3 8 els. The Book of 500 Curious Puzzles. Containing a larj lection of entertaining Paradoxes, Perplexing Deception in numbers, and Amusing Tricks in Geometry. By the author of M The Sociable," •« The Secret Out," "The Magician's Own Book." Illustrated with a Great Variety of Engravings. This book will have a large sale. It will furnish Pun an! Amusement for a whole winter. Paper cover-;, pries - 555 eta. Bound in boards, w.th cloth back 38 cts. Book of Kiddles and Five Hundred Home iimuse- ments, containing a Choice and Curious Collection of Baddies, Charades, Enigmas, Rebuses, Anagrams, Transpositions, Conundrums, Amusing Puzzles, QaeerSleights, Recreations in Arithmetic, Firesi de Games, and Natural Magic, embracing Enter- taining Amusements in Magnetism, Chemistry, Second Sight, and Simple turn* in Science for Family and Social Pastime, illustrated with sixty engravings. Paper covers, mice 95 c««. Bound in boards, with cloth back .- 3 8 ci*» Parlor Tricks with Cards, containing Explanations of all the Tricks and Deceptions with Playing Cards ever invented, embracing Tricks with Cards performed by Sleight-of-hand ; by the aid of Memory, Mental Calculation, nnd Arrangement of the Cards ; by the aid of Confederacy, an I Tricks Performed by the aid i»f Prepared Cards. The whole illustrated an 1 made plain an 1 easy, with seventy engravings. Paper covers, price 25 cts* Bound in boards with clotn back —.38 els* The Book of Fireside G-ames. Containing an Explanation of the most Entertaining Games suited to the Family Circle as a Recreation, such as Games of Action, Games which merely require attention, Games which require memory, Catch Games, which have for their objects Tricks or Mystification, Games in which an opportunity is afforded to display Gallantry, wit. or some slight knowledge of certain Sciences, Amusing Forfeits, Fireside Games for "Winter Even- ing Amusement, etc. Taper covers, price 2~» cts. Bounl in boards, with cloth back 38ct&. The Poet's Companion ; A Dictionary of all Allowable Rhyma ii the English Language. This is a Book to aid aspiring genius in the Composition of Rhymes, and in Poetical Effusions generally. It gives the Perfect, the Imperfect, and the Allowable Rhymes, and will enable you to ascertain, to a ttty. whether any word c in be mated. It is invaluable to any one who desires to court the muses, and is used by some of the best writers in the country. Brice 35 cts Karey & KnowlsorVs Complete Horse Tamer and Far- rier, comprising the whole Theory of Taming or Breaking the Horse, by a New and Improved Method, as practiced with great success in the United States, and in all the Countries of Europe, by J. S. Babet, containing Rules for select in,' a good 11 me, for Feeding Horses, etc Also, Thr Complete Fauujer; or, Horse Doctor ; a Guide for tho Tr a'm nt of IIor> es in all Diseases to which that noble an m .1 is liable, being • fifty y ■ >r ' extensi'-j practice of the author, 1 v J hx C. K.vowr.- son, daring his life, an English Farrier of hi^ti popularity, containing the latest discoveries in the cure ofSoavia. Illustrated with descriptive Engravings. Bound in boards, with cloth back 35 C ls. Send Cash Orders to DICK & FITZGERALD, 18 Ann St., N. Y. Popular Books sent Free of Postage at the Prices annexed. Live and Learn ; A Guide for all who wish to Speak and Write cor- rectly; particularly intended as a Book of Reference for the solution of difficulties connected w;td Grammar, Composition, Punctuation, &c, &c, with expla- nation of Latin and French words and phrases of frequent occurrence in newspapers, reviews, periodicals, and books in general, containing examples of one thousand mistakes, of daily occurrence, in speaking, writing, and pronunciation. 21G pages, cloth, 12mo. "Live and Learn" is a most useful book, designed as a guide to Grammar, Composition, and Punctuation. So few people speak or write really good grammar, and fewer still punctuate decently, that a bock that informs them how to do so— and not only that indicates their faults, but shows them how they are to be corrected — cannot fail to be popular; there is not a per- son, indeed, who might not learn something from it. Price 63 cts. Inquire "Within, for anything you want to know. A book of Universal Knowledge, containing more than Three Thousand Facts for the Peo- ple, and will give you correct information on every possible subject that you ever heard or thought of! "Whether you may desire to make love to a pretty girl, or cook a dinner— to cure a sick friend or cut an acquaintance— to get up a dinner party or dine abroad — to play at cards, at chess, or any other popular game, or go to church — whether you wish to establish yourself in life according to the rules of etiquette, or live in a plain, genteel way— this is a book thvtt tells how to do it. It is the most wonderful and valuable book ever printed. Price ., $1 25 The Secret Out : or, One Thousand Tricks with Card*. A Book which explains all the Tricks and Deceptions with Playing Cards ever known or invented, and gives, besides, a great many new and interesting ones — the whole being described so accurately and carefully, with Engravings to illustrate them, that anybody can easily learn how to practice these Tricks. This book contains, in addition to its numerous Card Tricks above described, full and easily under- * ctood explanations of some Two Hundred and Forty of the most curious, amus- ing, and. interesting Sleight-of-Hand and Legerdemain Tricks ever invented, and which are illustrated by Engravings to make each Trick understood with case. Illustrated by about 300 Engravings, and bound in a handsome gilt bind- ing. It contains about four hundred pages. Price. j$l 2o Laughing G-aS. An Encyclopaedia of Wit, Wisdom, and Wind- By Sam Slick, Jr. Comically illustrated with 100 original and laughable engrav- ings, and nearly 500 side-extending Jokes, ant other things to get fat on; and the best of it is, that everything about the book is new and fresh — all new — new designs, ne"v stories, new type — no comic-almanac stuff. It will be found a com- plete antidote to "hard times." Price 25 els. Charley "White's Joke Book. Being a perfect Casket of Fun, the first and only work of the k'nd ever published. Containing a full expose of all the most laughable Jokes, Witticisms, &c, as told by the celebrated Ethio- pian Comedian, Charles "White. 94 pages. Price 13 els. Black Wit and Darke v Conversations. By Chakleb "White. Containing a large collection of laughable Anecdotes, Jokes, Stones, "Witticisms, and Darkey Conversations. Price ISJ cts. Chins from Uncle Sara's Jack-Knife . Illustrated with over one hundred Comical Engravings, and comprising a collection of over five hun- dred laughable Stories, Funny Adventures, Comic Poetry, Queer Conundrums, Terrific Puns, Witty S;;yings, Sub'dme Jok?s, and Sentimental Sentences. The whole being a most perfect portfolio for those who love to laugh. Large octavo. Price 35 cts. Fox's FltMoniail Comicalities. Containing Strange Sayings, Eccentric Doings, Burlesque Speeches. Laughable Drolleries, Funny Stories, in- terspersed with Beflned "Wit, Broad Humor, and Cutting Sarcasm, copied ver- batim, as recited by the celebrated Ethiopian Comedian. "With several Comic Illustrations. Price - - - -13 cts. Send Casli Orders to DICK & FITZGERALD, 18 Ann St., N. Y. RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO-^ 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405 6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date cis. ja„ 14 i9 0UE AS STAMPED BEL0W REG PIP lilfti - «w» wit jfl/y i v ]$79 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY FORM NO. DD6, 40m, 3/78 BERKELEY, CA 94720 ®$ YCl^ 89 itf <*«<*.' vcvrr 1