BLEACHING, DYEING, AND 
 CALICO-PRINTING. 
 
ANNOUNCEMENT. 
 
 TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS. 
 
 THIS series has been designed to meet the wants of those 
 who, 011 account of the high price of an encyclopaedia, are 
 unwilling to purchase when they wish to consult but a 
 small portion of it, and of others who seek for fuller infor- 
 mation than can be found in works of such scope. It is 
 hoped that these Handbooks will be of use both to the 
 expert and the beginner. 
 
 Each book will be complete in itself, embracing informa- 
 tion on several collateral subjects, illustrations being intro- 
 duced whenever they will be found of advantage in explain- 
 ing the text. They will be issued in handy form, at a low 
 price. 
 
 The editing has been undertaken by Mr. John Gardner, 
 who has had large experience in work of this kind, having 
 been interested in the preparation of recent editions of 
 " Cooley's Cyclopaedia." 
 
 The first volume appeals to all interested in the Manu- 
 facture and Trade of ALCOHOL COMPOUNDS. The second, 
 now offered to the reader, treats of BLEACHING, DYEIXG, 
 and CALICO-PRINTING. 
 
 The third volume, which is in active preparation, will 
 deal with ACETIC ACID and YINEGAR, AMMONIA, and ALUM. 
 
 J. & A. CHURCHILL. 
 
[CHURCHILL'S TECHNOLOGICAL HANDBOOKS.] 
 
 BLEACHING, DYEING, AND 
 CALICO-FEINTING: 
 
 Witfo 
 
 JT G 
 
 LONDON: 
 3. & A. CHUKCHILL, 
 
 11, NEW BURLINGTON STREET. 
 1884. 
 
QJ 
 

 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 ALTHOUGH the present volume claims to be little more 
 than a summary of the arts of Bleaching, Dyeing, and 
 Calico-printing, the Editor hopes it may, notwithstand- 
 ing, be found a ready and serviceable manual for 
 practical workers, and that in many cases, it may be 
 instrumental in shortening the time and trouble, that 
 would otherwise be expended in consulting the pages 
 of larger and more elaborate 'works. 
 
 The Editor has to tender his grateful acknowledgments 
 to his friends, Air. J. F. HODGES, jun., of Belfast, and 
 Mr. JAMES CHAD WICK, of Manchester ; the former for 
 his valuable assistance in the compilation of the chapter 
 on "Bleaching,'-' the latter for his no less valuable 
 contributions to the sections on " Dyeing and Calico- 
 printing." To Mr. CHAD WICK the Editor is indebted 
 
vi EDITORS PREFACE. 
 
 for many of liis formulae, and additionally for a large 
 
 amount of equally useful technical information. 
 
 Lastly, the Editor has to acknowledge his indebted- 
 ness to Mr. CKOOKES' " Practical Handbook of Dyeing 
 and Calico-printing \ 3 URE'S " Dictionary of Arts, 
 Manufactures, and Mines ;" WAGNER'S " Chemical 
 Technology," edited by W. CROOKES, F.E.S. ; CALVERT'S 
 "Dyeing and Calico-printing/'' edited by STENHOUSE 
 and GROVES, F.K.S., and SPOX'S "Encyclopaedia of 
 the Industrial Arts :" all of which works have been 
 consulted in the preparation of this little volume. 
 
 JOHX GARDNER, F.I.C., E.G. a 
 
 LONDON, December, 1883. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAP. PAGE 
 
 I. BLEACHING i 
 
 II. DYEING 33 
 
 III. CALICO-PRIXTI-XCJ 61 
 
 IV. DYE STUFFS 133 
 
 APPENDIX 193 
 
BLEACHING, DYEING, 
 
 AND 
 
 CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 BLEACHING. 
 
 BLEACHING is the process by which the colour of bodies, 
 natural or acquired, is removed, and by which they are 
 rendered white or colourless. It is more particularly 
 applied to the decolorization of textile filaments, and of 
 cloths made of them. 
 
 Bleaching is a very ancient art, as passages referring to it 
 in the earlier sacred and other writers fully testify. It 
 had probably reached a high degree of excellence among 
 the inhabitants of the first Assyrian empire, and was 
 certainly practised in Egypt long before the commencement 
 of written history. We may fairly assume that fine white 
 linen formed part of the " raiment," which, together with 
 " jewels of gold and jewels of silver and precious things," 
 Abraham sent as presents to the beautiful Rebekah and her 
 family, fully three centuries and a half before the Exodus. 
 Subsequently, in Scripture, we have special mention of 
 "fine linen, white and clean." Herodotus, the earliest 
 Greek historian, tells us that the Babylonians wore " white 
 cloaks ;" and in Athenseus we read of " shining fine linen," 
 
 B 
 
2 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 as opposed to that which was " raw" or unbleached. At 
 this early period, and for many centuries afterwards, the 
 operations of washing, fulling, and bleaching were not 
 distinctly separated. The common system of washing, 
 followed by drying in the sun, adopted by the ancients, is a 
 process which of itself, by frequent repetition, decolorizes 
 the raw materials of textile fabrics, and thus must inevitably 
 have taught them the art of " natural bleaching" of a 
 character similar to that practised in Europe up to a com- 
 paratively very recent period. And this appears, according 
 to the authority of ancient authors, to have been the case. 
 Washing or steeping in alkaline and ammoniacal lyes, or in 
 milk of lime, followed by exposure in the sun, formed the 
 chief basis of their system ; whilst woollens, then as now, 
 were treated with soap and fuller's earth, or with potter's 
 clay, marl, limolian earth, or other like minerals. Urine 
 was highly esteemed among them; and we are told that, in 
 the time of the Emperor Vespasian, and undoubtedly long 
 before, cloths were sulphured. Indeed, according to Pliny, 
 sulphuring was often had recourse to in ordinary washing, 
 as well as in the bleaching process. Bleaching continued to 
 be practised with no essential change of its principles until 
 the discovery of chlorine, to which we shall presently refer. 
 Though the art of bleaching dates from the remotest ages, 
 little or nothing was known of it in Great Britain as an art, 
 until within a century, and it was then the custom to send 
 the linen manufactured in Great Britian over to Holland, as 
 the inhabitants of that country were at this period considered 
 the most superior bleachers in Europe. An account of the 
 method which the Dutch adopted at their great bleach works 
 near Haarlem, is described by Mr. F. HODGES, jun., in his 
 " Chemistry for Bleachers." It consisted in steeping the 
 goods in a lixivium or lye made from the lye-ashes of 
 Russia, and in which other cloth had been steeped ; after- 
 
BLEACHING. 3 
 
 wards they were steeped in a new lye of lye-ashes poured 
 upon them boiling hot. In this solution they were left for 
 some days, after which they were washed and pressed,, and 
 then steeped in a sour made either by the fermentation of 
 bran and water or buttermilk. The souring usually lasted 
 from six to seven days ; after which the linen was washed, 
 and then spread upon the grass to bleach by exposure to 
 light, air, and moisture. The bleaching grounds were cut with 
 canals in different places, from which the linen was watered 
 with long narrow shovels made in the shape of a scythe ; 
 the water of these canals came from the sand downs, and to 
 the beneficial effects derived from it was mainly attributed 
 the superior lustre of the Dutch cloth ; indeed, it was long 
 a prejudice on the Continent that no water was so good for 
 bleaching as sea water. This process usually required from 
 six to seven months for its completion, and the goods 
 bleached by it were sold under the name of Dutch cloth or 
 Hollands. 
 
 Another variety of linen bleached at Haarlem, which 
 
 from its fineness was generally spread out on the better 
 
 grass fields or lawns, received the title of lawn. Several 
 
 authorities relate that in 1749 an Irishman named DUNLOP, 
 
 who had learned something of the nature and art of 
 
 bleaching, settled in the north of Scotland, and established 
 
 works for the purpose of bleaching Scotch goods; and 
 
 though for some years he failed to bleach the goods entrusted 
 
 to him satisfactorily, in a few years he became an excellent 
 
 practical bleacher, and from that time no more goods were 
 
 sent to Holland for the purpose of being bleached. The art, 
 
 when introduced into Great Britain by this enterprising 
 
 Irishman, is described as not differing in the smallest degree 
 
 from the method employed by the Dutch, from whom it was 
 
 copied. It consisted of steepings and boilings in alkaline 
 
 lyes, called bucking, then washing and exposing on grass, 
 
 'B 2 
 
4 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 called crofting; these operations were repeated several 
 times, reducing the strength of the lyes every time. The 
 linen was then steeped in sour milk for some weeks, after 
 which it was washed clean and crofted. This process was 
 repeated as often as was required to produce a pure white. 
 The first improvement in this tedious process occurred after 
 the introduction of a new method for the manufacture of 
 sulphuric acid by Dr. ROEBUCK, which greatly reduced the 
 price of that acid. The improvement consisted in the 
 substitution by Dr. FRANCIS HOME, of Edinburgh, of water 
 acidulated with sulphuric acid, as a sour for the buttermilk 
 hitherto employed ; this reduced the time required for 
 souring from weeks to days, not to mention the absence 
 of the risk with which the use of the milk was accom- 
 panied, as sours of this description were very liable to 
 corruption. Little further change took place in the art 
 of bleaching until about the year 1787, when a most 
 important improvement was effected in consequence of 
 the discovery, in the year 1774, by SCHEELE, the 
 celebrated Swedish chemist, of a substance which he 
 called dephlogisticated marine air. The French chemist, 
 BERTHOLLET, in 1785, repeated the experiments of SCHEELE 
 on this new substance, and showed that it was a gas soluble 
 in water, to which it gave a yellowish green colour, 
 an astringent taste, and the peculiar smell by which it is 
 distinguished. Owing to BERTHOLLET'S experiments, this 
 body was known until the year 1810 as oxygenated 
 muriatic acid, or oxy-muriatic acid, into which it was 
 shortened ; but in that year Sir H. DAVY, adopting the 
 idea of GAY-LUSSAC and THENARD, who had experimented 
 with it, that it was an elementary substance, called it 
 chlorine, owing to its peculiar colour, by which name it is 
 known at the present day. BERTHOLLET'S ideas, and the 
 result of some experiments which he made in bleaching linen 
 
BLEACHING. 5 
 
 with the gas, were mentioned by him in a paper which he read 
 before the Academy of Sciences, at Paris, in April, 1795, and 
 published in the Journal de Physique for May of the same 
 year. He also published a paper in the number for August, 
 1 786, of the same journal, explaining the nature of the action 
 of chlorine on vegetable colours, and showing how it could best 
 be employed. PARKES, in his " Chemical Essays," relates how 
 a Mr. COPLAND, Professor of Natural Philosophy in Aberdeen, 
 while on a visit to Geneva, was shown by Professor de 
 SAUSSURE of that town, the experiment of discharging 
 vegetable colours by chlorine gas. The Aberdeen Professor, 
 having been impressed with the importance of the experi- 
 ment, communicated it on his return home to some eminent 
 manufacturers, the Messrs. MILNES, of the firm of GORDON, 
 BARRON & Co., of Aberdeen, who immediately entered upon 
 a course of experiments in the preparation of the gas, and 
 the best manner of employing it in bleaching, and obtained 
 satisfactory results. PARKES states that this was about the 
 end of July, 1787, and was, he believes, the first actual 
 application of the then so-called oxy-muriatic acid in Great 
 Britain. With this statement, however, other authorities 
 on the subject do not agree, and it seems with some truth. 
 Mr. F. HODGES, jun., in his " Chemistry for Bleachers," 
 goes fully into the whole subject, and the weight of evidence 
 which he brings to bear from numerous quarters goes far to 
 prove that the distinguished engineer, JAMES WATT, if not 
 the first, at least is entitled to the honour of having intro- 
 duced it at as early a date as Professor COPLAND. WATT 
 learnt the process of manufacturing and using chlorine from 
 BERTHOLLET in 1786, and shortly afterwards introduced the 
 process 011 a large scale into his father-in-law's (Mr. MAC 
 GREGOR) bleach works at Glasgow. WATT laid the results of 
 the employment of this gas in bleaching at Glasgow, before 
 the Manchester manufacturers. In enforcing the importance 
 
6 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 of the new substance and process on these gentlemen, he was 
 ably followed and seconded by -Mr. THOMAS HENRY, F.R.S., 
 of Manchester, and it is related how this gentleman and 
 WATT unreservedly described to each other the result of 
 their experiments. To Mr. HENRY we are indebted for the 
 introduction of the new art into Lancashire. WATT made 
 several improvements in the art, one of which was that instead 
 of employing muriatic acid and manganese, as had been done 
 by SCHEELE and BERTHOLLET for the production of the gas, he 
 used a mixture of common salt, black oxide of manganese and 
 sulphuric acid, which was much cheaper. He also invented 
 a method of testing the strength of the water impregnated 
 with chlorine, so as to estimate its bleaching power. This 
 he did by taking a known quantity of infusion of cochi- 
 neal, and ascertaining how much of the bleaching liquor was 
 necessary to destroy the colour the larger the quantity 
 necessary, the weaker obviously was the bleaching solution. 
 Chlorine, when first introduced, was used in the state of gas, 
 and one great drawback to it was its noxious odour, which 
 is not only very disagreeable, but exceedingly injurious to 
 health. 
 
 To BERTHOLLET we owe the credit of being the first to 
 remedy many of the defects of bleaching by chlorine, as, 
 while visiting Javelle for the purpose of showing some 
 bleachers the method of using the gas, he added a little 
 potash to prevent the gas from impairing the goods. 
 Not long after this, these bleachers announced in different 
 journals that they had discovered a new bleaching liquor, 
 which they called the " Lye" or " Eau de Javelle," and 
 applied to the British Government to grant them the 
 exclusive right to supply the public with it, but in 
 this they were defeated, as it was shown that the same 
 article had been in common use in Great Britain for some 
 time, which fact prevented them from obtaining a patent, and 
 
BLEACHING. 7 
 
 consequently the liquor of Javelle, which thus became the 
 property of the public, turned out to be nothing but a solu- 
 tion of potash in water impregnated with chlorine, as was 
 proved by BERTHOLLET shortly after its pretended discovery. 
 After the failure of the foreigners to obtain a monopoly of 
 the Lye of Javelle, other bleachers learnt to make it for them- 
 selves, and continued to use it for some time. Though this 
 bleaching liquor had some advantages over the solution of 
 the gas in water, they were more than counterbalanced by 
 the disadvantages, such as its being less economical than the 
 solution of chlorine in water, and its not keeping any length 
 of time without losing its bleaching properties. On account 
 of these disadvantages, its use was not long continued. 
 
 The next attempt to improve on this bleaching solution 
 was made by Mr. HENRY, of .Manchester, to whom we have 
 before referred, who is said to have first thought of the 
 addition of lime, but owing to his manner of employing it, 
 which was open to many objections, it did not come into 
 use. Other attempts were made by different persons to 
 improve on this process, but none succeeded till Mr. TENNANT, 
 after long and laborious investigation, hit upon a method of 
 making a saturated liquid, composed of chlorine and lime, 
 for which he took out a patent in the year 1798. This 
 patent was pronounced invalid, and unjustly so, as many 
 authorities consider. But Mr. TENNANT was not so easily 
 defeated, for in the following year, 1799, he took out 
 another patent, which may be considered the completion of 
 the new method. This patent consisted in impregnating 
 quicklime in a dry state with chlorine.- As the originality 
 of this invention was not disputed, and as its great supe- 
 riority over all methods previously introduced was obvious, 
 the demand for the product has gone on increasing, year 
 by year, up to the present date. The " new or continuous 
 process" of bleaching, as it is called, and that which is at 
 
8 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 present in general use in all the chief bleach works of 
 Lancashire, was introduced by Mr. DAVID BBXTLEY, of 
 Pendleton, and patented by him in 1828. 
 
 Bleaching is commonly said to be natural when exposure to 
 light, air, and moisture forms the leading part of the pro- 
 cess; and to be chemical when chlorine, or any of the 
 hypochlorites, or sulphurous acid, or other like substances, 
 are employed. In some cases, as with linen, the two pro- 
 cesses are combined. 
 
 The subject will be noticed under separate heads, depend- 
 ing on the material operated on. 
 
 I. Bleaching of Cotton. Cotton is more easily bleached, 
 and appears to suffer less from th.e process, than most other 
 textile substances. On the old plan it was first thoroughly 
 washed in warm water to remove the weaver's paste or 
 dressing; then bucked or "bowked" (boiled) in a weak 
 alkaline lye, or in milk of lime, to remove colouring, fatty, 
 and resinous matters insoluble in simple water ; and after 
 being again well washed, was spread out upon the grass, or 
 bleaching ground, and freely exposed to the joint action of 
 light, air, and moisture (technically called " crofting"). The 
 operation of " bucking" in an alkaline lye, washing, and 
 exposure was repeated as often as necessary, when the goods 
 were " soured" or immersed in water acidulated with sul- 
 phuric acid, after which they received a final thorough 
 washing in clean water, and were dried, .finished, and folded 
 for the market. From the length of the exposure upon the 
 bleaching-ground, this method is apt to injure the texture of 
 the cloth ; and from the number of operations required is 
 necessarily expensive and tedious. It is, therefore, now 
 very generally superseded by the system of chemical bleach- 
 ing, briefly described below. In the chemical system of 
 bleaching, the goods are washed and " bucked" as on the old 
 plan, then submitted to the action of a weak solution of 
 
BLEACHING. 9 
 
 chloride of lime, and afterwards passed through water soured 
 with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, and again thoroughly 
 washed, then dried and finished. The aim of the old as 
 well as the new process is to remove with the smallest 
 amount of risk to the goods and at the lowest cost, as well 
 as in the shortest time, the natural as well as the acquired 
 impurities of the cotton. The nature of the former, which 
 amount to only about i per cent., has been carefully studied 
 by Dr. SCHUNCK, and they have been found by him to consist 
 of fatty and waxy matters, brownish colouring substances, 
 pectic acid, and albuminous matter. The acquired impuri- 
 ties consist of all those foreign matters obtained either 
 accidentally or intentionally during the process of manu- 
 facture. Their amount varies enormously, often exceeding 
 30 per cent. They consist of the various matters, 
 organic and inorganic, introduced during the sizing of 
 the warps, such as china clay, magnesium chloride, zinc 
 chloride, starch or flour, grease from the size, the 
 machinery, and the hands of the workmen, and dust and 
 dirt of all kinds. The new or continuous process, before 
 referred to, is the method of chemical bleaching at present 
 inmost general use; and, indeed, it has nearly superseded 
 all other methods. In this system, the pieces previously 
 tacked together endwise, so as to form a chain, are drawn 
 by the motion of rollers in any direction, and any number 
 of times through every solution to the action of which it is 
 desired to expose them ; being at the same time entirely 
 and completely under the control of the operator. Annexed 
 is an outline of the several operations in the improved 
 form of the continuous process as practised by Messrs. 
 McNAUGHTON, BARTON & THOM, at Chorley, and in most 
 other large bleach- works. 
 
 i. Preliminary Operations:- a. The "pieces" are 
 separately stamped to enable the bleacher to distinguish 
 
10 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 between different lots of cloth, and to detect faults. The goods 
 in the grey state are marked by any colour (usually black), 
 which will sufficiently resist the bleaching process. Among 
 the marking materials which are commonly employed, are 
 gas-tar, pretty thick, alone or mixed with lamp-black ; a 
 solution of nitrate of silver, boiled oils coloured with red 
 lead or lamp-black ; and aniline black ; but this latter has 
 many objections, such as a tendency to produce holes. In 
 iinen bleaching, each piece is marked with letters made by 
 red thread, which is found to stand the bleach better than 
 any of the above agents. 
 
 b. They are tacked together endwise, either by hand or a 
 machine, so as to form one continuous piece of 300 to 350 
 yards in length, according to the weight of the cloth. 
 
 c. The next operation is singeing, the object of which is to 
 remove all the fine loose down from the surface of the cloth. 
 This is accomplished either by passing the goods rapidly 
 over revolving hot cylinders, by hot plate, by coke flame, or 
 by gas flame. The plan most generally adopted is by the 
 gas machine, invented by TALPIN, and improved "upon by 
 Messrs. MATHER & PL ATT. 
 
 d. i . After the singeing, the goods are washed ; either 
 before or after washing, they are crushed into a rope-like 
 form by drawing them through a smooth aperture, the 
 surface of which is generally of glass or porcelain, the rope- 
 form being given them to enable the water and other liquids 
 to penetrate the goods more easily, and to allow them to 
 be laid in loose coils in the kiers. 
 
 ^ 2. The following process requires to be modified slightly, 
 if a market bleach or madder-bleach is desired ; the latter is 
 the name given by bleachers when the goods are required 
 as white as possible, the former if the goods are to be sold in 
 a white state, and not printed before going into the market. 
 The goods are run through milk of lime, contained in the 
 
BLEACHING. 11 
 
 "linieing machine," direct into the kier, where they are 
 bucked or boiled under pressure from twelve to fourteen 
 hours, followed by rinsing or cleansing in the washing- 
 machine. 
 
 3. They are soured in water acidulated with hydrochloric 
 acid ; this process is known as the " lime sour" or " grey 
 sour," after which they are again washed by the washing- 
 machines. 
 
 4. They are now bucked or boiled for fifteen or sixteen 
 hours in a solution of resinate of soda, and then washed as 
 before. In some works they give the goods a light boil with 
 soda ash, free from caustic, after the resin boil ; this is to 
 remove any risk of resin remaining in the cloth. 
 
 5. They are chemicked by being laid in a wooden, stone, 
 or slate cistern, when a solution of chloride of lime is pumped 
 over them, so as to run through the goods into a vessel below, 
 from which it is returned on them by continued pumping, so 
 that the cloth lies in it for one or two hours. This operation 
 requires great care, particularly in the preparation of the 
 chloride of lime solution ; as Mr. F. HODGES, jun., has shown 
 that if the smallest particle of undissolved bleaching powder 
 is allowed to come into contact with the cloth it is liable to 
 produce holes. The goods are again washed. 
 
 6. They are bucked or boiled for four or five hours in a 
 solution of i Ib. of crystallized carbonate of soda, dis- 
 solved in 5 gallons of water, to every 35 Ibs. of cloth, and 
 washed. 
 
 7. They are again " chemicked" as before, and washed. 
 
 8. They are soured in very dilute hydrochloric acid, and 
 then left on stillages for five or six hours. 
 
 9. They are finally thoroughly washed, well squeezed 
 between rollers, dried over steam heated tin cylinders, 
 starched or dressed, and finished. This is the usual process 
 for good calicoes. Muslins, and other light goods, are 
 
12 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 handled rather more carefully ; whilst for commoner goods 
 the sixth and seventh operations are generally omitted. 
 The entire process usually occupies five days ; but by using 
 Mr. BARLOW'S high pressure steam-kiers it may be performed 
 in two. PENDLEBURY'S kier, which is not unlike BARLOW'S, is 
 generally used when working on a small scale. Yarns, 
 as they contain a smaller percentage of artificial impurities 
 than cloth, are bleached in a somewhat different manner. 
 The skeins are first looped together, after which they are 
 boiled in open kiers in soda lye, then in water, washed, 
 chemicked, washed, soured and washed. 
 
 According to the most reliable authorities, the strength 
 of cotton fibre is not impaired by its being boiled for two 
 hours in milk of lime, under ordinary pressure, out of con- 
 tact with the air ; nor, according to the bleachers, even by 
 sixteen hours, boiling at the strength of 40 Ibs. per 100 
 gallons. It is said that lime is less injurious than soda. 
 Solution of caustic soda, sp. gr. 1*030, does not injure it, 
 even by boiling under high pressure ; but, in practice, soda- 
 ash, or carbonate of soda, is used, and this is only" in the 
 second bucking, and in the third, if there be one. The 
 strength now never exceeds 25 Ibs. of the crystals to 
 the 100 gallons, and is usually less. Experiments have 
 shown that immersion for eight hours in a solution of 
 chloride of lime,* containing 3 Ibs. to the 100 gallons, 
 followed by souring in sulphuric acid of the sp. gr. 1*067, 
 
 * Since the introduction of bleaching powder many chemicals have 
 been proposed as a substitute for this bleaching agent, but up to the 
 present not one of them has met with any but a partial success. 
 Among those brought before the public may be mentioned perman- 
 ganate ; chlorozone, obtained by passing a mixed current of hypo- 
 chlorous acid and air through a solution of caustic soda, this 
 compound being considered by some to bleach better than the 
 hypochlorites, the action of which in bleaching it resembles ; chloro- 
 chromic acid, the chlorates, and peroxide of hydrogen. Perhaps the 
 
BLEACHING. 13 
 
 or for eighteen hours in acid of 1*035, does not injure it. 
 By the improved method of previously treating the goods 
 with lime or alkalies, little chloride of lime is required. 
 Indeed, it is said that where 300 Ibs. were formerly em- 
 ployed, 30 to 40 Ibs. only are now used. At the same 
 time it is right to mention, that though a solution at ^ 
 Twaddle is usually regarded as the best and safest strength, 
 yet in some bleach works, particularly for inferior and less 
 tender goods, this is greatly increased, even up to 5, the 
 period of immersion being proportionally reduced, as it is 
 not safe to expose the goods long to the action of such 
 powerful solutions. With the higher strengths they are 
 passed rapidly through the liquid with the callender, 
 sufficient time only being allowed to soak them thoroughly, 
 then immediately through the acid or souring, followed by 
 washing as before. 
 
 2. Bleaching of Linen. Linen may be bleached in a 
 similar way to " cotton," but the process is much more 
 troublesome and tedious, owing to its greater affinity for the 
 -1 colouring matter existing in it in the raw state. Under the 
 old system several alternate buckings . with pearlash or pot- 
 ash and lengthened exposure on the field, with one or two 
 sourings, and a final scrubbing with a strong lather of soft 
 soap, constituted the chief details of the process. In this 
 way a high degree of whiteness, though not an absolutely 
 pure or snow white, was ultimately produced. Grass- 
 bleaching or crofting is still extensively used for linen ; but 
 
 most novel plan proposed as a substitute for the chemickhig, is 
 that invented by ENGLER, who bleaches with the vapours of 
 chloroform, generated by means of a mixture of quicklime, chloride 
 of lime, alcohol or acetic acid, sulphuric acid, and water. In 
 Scotland and Ireland the washing is generally performed by wash- 
 stocks, whilst in Lancashire dash-wheels or washing-machines with 
 squeezers are almost always used for the purpose. Cotton loses 
 about i-2oth of its weigh by bleaching. 
 
14 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 it is more generally employed only for a limited time, and 
 in combination with a modification of tlie system at present 
 almost universally adopted for cotton goods ; whilst in some 
 cases crofting is omitted altogether, and the bleaching con- 
 ducted wholly by the latter process. Linen goods are 
 bleached either in the form of yarn, thread or cloth. The 
 following Tables exhibit the outlines of the new method as 
 at present practised in Ireland and Scotland for linen 
 bleaching. Table No. I. is that which is given as suitable 
 for a parcel of light linens, by a well-known proprietor of an 
 Irish bleach works, at a time when the now but little used 
 fermentation process was in favour. No. II. is the outlines 
 of the new system at present practised in Ireland and Scot- 
 land for plain sheetings. 
 
 TABLE No. I. 
 
 1. Steep for 24 hours, wash 15 minutes ; time 2 days. 
 
 2. Boil for 7 hours in lye and resin 2^, wash 15 
 
 minutes ; time 2 days. 
 
 3. Boil for 9 hours in lye 2-J, wash 30 minutes ; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 4. Grass for 3 days ; time 3 days. 
 
 5. Boil for 10 hours in lye 3, wash 30 minutes; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 6. Grass for 3 days; time 3 days. 
 
 7. Boil for 8 hours in lye 3, wash 30 minutes ; time 
 
 i clay. 
 
 8. Grass for 3 days ; time 3 days. 
 
 9. Rough sour for 10 hours in vitriol 2,Vash 40 minutes ; 
 
 time i day. 
 10. Scald for 4 hours in weak lye, wash 30 minutes ; time 
 
 i day. 
 n. Grass for 2 days ; time 2 days. 
 
BLEACHING. 15 
 
 12. Dip for 10 hours in alkali 40 to i strength, wash 
 
 30 minutes ; time i day. 
 
 13. Sour for 12 hours in vitriol ij, wash 45 minutes; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 14. Scald for 4 hours in lye and soap, wash 20 minutes ; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 15. Rub withbrowii soap, wash 35 minutes; time i day. 
 
 1 6. Grass for 2 days; time 2 days. 
 
 17. Dip for 10 hours in alkali 30 to i strength, wash 20 
 
 minutes; time i day. 
 
 1 8. Sour for 12 hours in vitriol i, wash 45 minutes; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 19. Scald for 3 hours in soap and lye, wash 30 minutes ; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 20. Dip for 10 hours in alkali 45 to i strength, wash 
 
 ?o minutes; time i day. 
 
 21. Sour for 12 hours in vitriol i, wash 45 minutes; 
 
 time i day. 
 
 22. Rub with soap. 
 Time taken 3 1 days. 
 
 The goods should now be white and ready for finishing. 
 
 TABLE No. II. 
 
 For plain sheetings : 
 
 1 . They are bucked for 12 or 1 5 hours in a lye made with 
 
 about i Ib. of pearlash (or soda-ash) to every 
 56 Ibs. of cloth, and washed. 
 
 2 . Crofted for about 2 days. 
 
 3. Bucked in milk of lime. 
 
 4. Turned, and the bucking continued, some fresh lime 
 
 and water being added, and washed. 
 
 5. Soured in dilute sulphuric acid at 2 Twaddle. 
 
 6. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed. 
 
 7. Crofted, as before. 
 
1 6 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 8. Bucked again with soda-ash, as before. 
 
 9. Crofted for about 3 days. 
 
 10. Examined, the white ones taken out, and the others 
 
 again bucked and crofted. 
 T i . Scalded or simmered in a lye of soda-ash of about 
 
 only 2-3rds the former strength, and washed. 
 
 12. Chemicked, for 2 hours, at J Twaddle, washed, and 
 
 scalded. 
 
 13. Again chemicked, as before. 
 
 14. Soured for 4 hours, as in No. 5 ; washed, and 
 
 finished. 
 This occupies 13 to 15 days, according to the weather. 
 
 b. For shirtings, &c. : As the preceding, but with some- 
 
 what weaker solutions. 
 
 c. For goods to be subsequently printed : 
 
 1. Bucked in milk of lime for 10 or 12 hours. 
 
 2. Soured in dilute hydrochloric acid of 2 Twaddle, 
 
 for 3 to 5 hours, and washed. 
 
 3. Bucked with resinate of soda for about 12 hours. 
 
 4. Goods turned, reboiled as before, and washed] 
 
 5. Chemicked at | Twaddle, for 4 hours. 
 
 6. Soured at 2 Twaddle, for 2 hours, and washed. 
 
 7. Bucked with soda-ash for about 10 hours, and washed. 
 
 8. Chemicked as in No. 5. 
 
 9. Soured, as at No. 6, for 3 hours ; washed, and dried.* 
 The chief difficulty in bleaching linen arises from the 
 
 fact that it contains a much larger proportion of natural 
 impurities than cotton. To thoroughly understand the 
 nature of these impurities it would be necessary to study 
 the various processes through which the flax plant passes 
 before being manufactured into linen, this our space will 
 
 * The strengths of the solutions, when not otherwise stated, are 
 about the same as those given under Cotton. 
 
BLEACHING. 17 
 
 not permit ; it will be sufficient to mention that after the 
 retting process, which Professor HODGES has shown removes 
 from the fibre up wards of 41 'i per cent, of the nitrogenized 
 and other constituents of the plant, there are to be seen 
 numerous brilliant scales of a resinous appearance and light 
 amber hue which are deepened in colour by alkalies, in 
 which also they can be entirely dissolved. The nature of 
 these scales is not as yet clearly understood. The consti- 
 tuents of dressed and undressed flax have been carefully 
 studied by HODGES, sen., and HODGES, jun. ; to the investi- 
 gations of the former we are principally indebted for infor- 
 mation as to the nature of these bodies. HODGES, sen., 
 upwards of thirty years ago, gave not only analyses of the 
 gases evolved in the steeping process, but investigated the 
 nature of the constituents of dressed flax, showing that the 
 latter consisted of wax,volatile oil and acid resinous matter, 
 sugar and colouring matters, gum, pectin, nitrogenized 
 compounds, inorganic matters and cellular fibre. HODGES, 
 jun., has lately thoroughly investigated the nature and 
 chemical constitution of these bodies, and finds that the 
 wax is a complex body closely resembling in composition 
 palmitic ceryl ether. To remove these impurities, and to 
 produce a pure white cellulose, is the object of all the 
 bleaching processes described ; the machinery which is used 
 to accomplish this in linen bleaching differs greatly from 
 that used by the cotton bleacher. Space will not permit us 
 to enter fully into a description, but the following sketch 
 may be serviceable to those unacquainted with this part of 
 the subject. 
 
 WASH MILLS. These machines which are used in Ireland 
 for washing linen are there called wash mill feet or stocks. 
 They are made by suspending from a strong frame two 
 large blocks of wood, weighing about 534 Ibs. each ; by 
 means of the water supply, these blocks are made to rise 
 
 c 
 
1 8 BLEA CHING, D YE ING, E TC. 
 
 and fall alternately, in this way the goods are first soaked 
 with water and then squeezed free from it. Though the 
 appearance of these machines is far from ornamental, yet 
 they have been found to work more satisfactorily than any 
 other plan. The dash- wheel is a cylindrical box revolving 
 upon its axis, and divided into four compartments, these 
 have openings into which two or more pieces are introduced ; 
 Avater is admitted through the hollow axis and the wheel is 
 set in motion, causing the goods to pass from side to side. 
 Many other washing machines have been proposed, but as 
 yet have met with only very partial success. 
 
 RUBBING MACHINE. This machine is a special feature in 
 linen bleaching. The object of the process called " rubbing" 
 is to give the goods a thorough soaping, to neutralize any in- 
 jurious acids or alkalies they may contain, and to remove 
 the yellowish brown specks known as sprits. At the foot 
 of this machine there is a trough containing a strong solution 
 of soap kept constantly boiling by steam, the goods are first 
 passed through this trough, then between two square flat pieces 
 of wood or marble, toothed transversely. The upper piece 
 is made to move lengthwise over the goods, which are pulled 
 through by the drawing engine. A description of the yarn 
 and linen drying and finishing machinery would be alto- 
 gether out of place in a notice such as this, and we shall 
 have to content ourselves with a short account of the 
 .several chemical processes described, such as the Steep, the 
 Boil, the Sour, the Scald, and the Dip. Linen goods con- 
 tain about 33 per cent, of impurities, consisting of those 
 before mentioned ; together with these it contains a dressing 
 employed by the weaver, this dressing is used to make the linen 
 smooth and cover bad work, and is made usually from flour 
 in the form of paste ; but just as the cotton bleacher has to 
 contend with a numerous list of articles used as a size or as 
 dressing, so has the linen bleacher ; among those used by the 
 
BLEACHING. 19 
 
 linen weaver may be mentioned mashed potatoes allowed to 
 sour, a mixture of glue, sago, and tallow boiled together, Irish 
 moss, and soap. These are either used alone or mixed with 
 numerous substances, such as chloride of calcium or mag- 
 nesium, gum, glycerine, \vax, etc. The object of the steep 
 or boil is to remove all these matters, arid the success of the 
 bleach in great part depends upon whether this has been 
 successfully accomplished. 
 
 The now little used steeping process was carried out in a 
 kieve or box made of wood, stone, or cement, containing water 
 at a temperature of 120 to 150 Fahr. (49 to 65-5 C.), in 
 which the goods were immersed from one to two days, and 
 fermentation was promoted either by pipe clay, resin, bran, in- 
 fusion of malt, or yeast. When the goods had been sufficiently 
 long in the steep they were washed, and then boiled under 
 pressure, first in old soda lye, then again washed and again 
 boiled in lye cleaner than that at first used, yet not quite pure. 
 The number of boils and their length depended not only on 
 the class of goods to be bleached, but upon the ideas of the 
 bleacher. Lime is now used in most of the Irish bleach- 
 greens for boiling, and though some of the older bleachers 
 do not care for it, yet for many classes of goods it has been 
 found to produce a better result than soda lye for the first 
 boils. It is most important that the goods after boiling in 
 soda lye be not allowed to lie exposed to the air too long 
 without being washed, as the carbonate of soda is apt to 
 crystallize within the fibres, which are burst during the 
 formation of the crystals. The loss of weight by the boiling 
 in lime and caustic or carbonated alkalies, varies according 
 to the class of yarn and its former treatment, from 14 to 
 37 per cent. The larger the number of boils the greater will 
 be the quantity of the brownish colouring matter of the fibre 
 which will be removed, and after a time the goods will only 
 retain a light grey shade which is without difficulty removed 
 
 c 2 
 
20 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 by steeping in a weak solution of a hypochlorite ; care must, 
 however, be taken that the hypochlorite be not used until 
 the brownish colour has been removed, as it will be " set" 
 or fastened by the hypochlorite. Steeping in a solution of a 
 , hypochlorite is technically called the DIP. The hypochlorite 
 principally used in Ireland for the dip, is for linen, hypo- 
 chlorite of soda, commonly called chloride of soda ; this the 
 bleacher usually makes for himself by adding to a clear 
 solution of bleaching powder or hypochlorite of lime, a 
 solution of soda ash or carbonate of soda, allowing the mix- 
 ture to settle and drawing* off the clear solution, which is the 
 chloride of soda. For yarns and threads the bleaching 
 agents used are hypochlorites of lime or magnesia. 
 
 THE SOUR. Souring consists in immersing the goods from 
 four to eight hours in a bath of dilute sulphuric acid and 
 then washing. It is called a rough sour if the goods are 
 soured after coming from the grass and before they have had 
 a dip. 
 
 THE SCALD. Scalding is a light boil of from two to three 
 hours in a clean and weak lye containing some soap, together 
 with the soap left in the goods after the rubbing process. The 
 above is an outline of the process and machinery at present 
 employed in Ireland for linen bleaching, and with the excep- 
 tion of the machinery, which has been greatly improved, 
 little or no change has taken place in the method since the 
 introduction of chlorine. Though many plans have been 
 proposed to shorten the process by doing away with the 
 grassing, none so far as linen is concerned have succeeded ; 
 the latest and perhaps the most novel plan suggested is that 
 lately patented by Messrs. J. J. DOBBIE & J. HUTCHESOX, 
 who generate chlorine by the electrolysis of dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid. Their process consists in steeping the cloth to 
 be bleached in sea-water, and passing the fabric between a 
 series of carbon rollers, the upper row of which is connected 
 
BLEACHING. 21 
 
 with one pole, the lower row with the other pole of a 
 battery. The rollers are caused to rotate slowly, and thus 
 pass the fabric from one end to the other. Hypochlorite is 
 formed, and on subsequent immersion in acid the fabric is 
 effectually bleached. 
 
 For yarn and thread bleaching the process which has been 
 found most successful is that of HODGES, jun., which is known 
 in Ireland as the " Chemico-Mechamcal Process," so called 
 from the patentee turning to account the advantages derivable 
 from the employment of mechanical contrivances driven by 
 steam, combined with the introduction of a new method of 
 obtaining the hitherto little used hypochlorite of magnesia. 
 This process may be said to date from the discovery of the 
 substance known as Kieserite (native sulphate of magnesia), 
 which occurs as an essential constituent of the Abraum salts 
 of Stassfurt. For some time after the introduction of 
 this substance into the market, it was considered of little 
 value except for the production of Epsom salts ; but Mr. 
 HODGES, in the course of some investigations in bleaching 
 jute, having had occasion to employ large quantities of hypo- 
 chlorite of magnesia, it occurred to him that kieserite might 
 be substituted for the more expensive crude sulphate of 
 magnesia ; and the importation into Ireland of the sample 
 for this purpose, was the first that was ever sent into that 
 country for the manufacture of a bleaching liquor, or, in- 
 deed, for any other use. Mr. HODGES, on experimenting 
 with the kieserite, found that it not only supplied the place 
 of the crude sulphate, but acted as a better precipitant for 
 the lime of the bleaching powder, which is employed in the 
 production of the hypochlorite of magnesia; and that it 
 also produced a stronger and clearer solution. Without 
 entering into a minute description of the process, the fol- 
 lowing outline will be sufficient to show the nature of the 
 methods adopted. The kieserite, which is imported from 
 
22 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Germany in square blocks, on arriving at the works, is 
 conveyed to a house, on the ground-floor of which it is 
 stacked until required, when it is ground to a fine powder, 
 placed in barrels, and drawn up by means of a crane to a 
 room at the top of the building, at one end of which is a 
 row of three tanks furnished with water taps, agitators, 
 and false bottoms. In one of the end tanks a definite 
 quantity of the kieserite powder (varying according to its 
 strength, ascertained by analysis) is placed and dissolved 
 in a given quantity of water, the solution being assisted by 
 agitators, and on settling, the clear liquor is siphoned over 
 into the middle tank. In the third tank, bleaching powder 
 (hypochlorite of lime), varying in quantity according to the 
 strength of the kieserite solution, is placed. The bleaching 
 powder after being agitated with water is allowed to settle, 
 and the clear solution is siphoned over into the middle tank 
 containing the clear kieserite solution, the agitator being 
 kept in motion, not only during the mixing of the liquids, 
 but for some time after. The mixed liquids are then allowed 
 to remain undisturbed all night, after which the clear hypo- 
 chlorite of magnesia solution is siphoned into a large 
 settling tank, which is situated in the room below. From 
 this vessel it is conducted through wooden pipes (which are 
 so contrived that they can be opened and cleansed at will), 
 into a large cistern standing in the bleaching-house. This 
 cistern is fitted with a ball-cock, by which arrangement the 
 liquid can be drawn off by a system of wooden pipes as re- 
 quired. The bleaching-house in which the cistern is situa- 
 ted is fitted up in an original manner, and covers something 
 more than an acre of ground; whilst the reeling-shed, 
 which is the only part of the works our limits will permit 
 us to describe, is 240 feet long by 24 feet broad, and con- 
 tains ten steeps and twelve reel boxes. Each box is pro- 
 vided with water, a solution of the bleaching agent, and 
 
BLEACHING. 23 
 
 steam pipes, and is capable of reeling at a time about 500 Ibs. 
 of yarn. Above the box is. a line of rails on pillars. A 
 travelling crane runs along the rails, and carries the reels 
 from one box to another. Attached to this crane is a newly 
 invented hydraulic pump, by means of which the reels with 
 the yarn on them can be lifted in a few seconds from one 
 box to another. 
 
 After the yarn has been boiled,washed, and passed through 
 the squeezers in the usual manner, it is put on a waggon, 
 in which it is carried, by means of a line of rails, clown to 
 the first reel box. Here it is placed 011 the reels, which 
 are made to revolve by means of steam first in one direc- 
 tion and then in another, through a solution of carbonate of 
 soda, previously heated by means of the steam-pipes before 
 mentioned. The yarn having been sufficiently scalded and 
 so saturated with soda, the reels to which it is attached are 
 raised by the hydraulic pump out of the box, and the yarn 
 allowed to drain for a few minutes, after which the travel- 
 ling crane carries it on to the next box. Into this box the 
 yarn is again lowered by the pump and made to revolve as 
 before, but this time through a solution of the bleaching 
 agent, which immediately re-acting 011 the carbonate of soda 
 with which the yarn is charged, renders this bleaching 
 agent free from the danger which attends the employment 
 of chlorine, or the ordinary bleaching powder used in the 
 older methods of bleaching. After the yarns have been 
 brought to the desired shade in the solution of HODGES' 
 bleaching agent, they are either removed as before to a 
 new box, and there washed before being soured, or they 
 are thrown into one of the steeps filled with water for 
 the night. These operations are repeated with weaker 
 solutions in the remaining reel boxes, either once or 
 twice according to the shade required. 
 
 Mr. HODGES claims as the chief features of his invention, 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
24 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 that it consists, first, in the employment of a bleaching 
 agent which has not hitherto been practically employed, 
 and a cheap method for its production ; second, in the pre- 
 paration of the yarn prior to its being submitted to the action 
 of the bleaching agent, this preparation setting free not 
 only the imprisoned chlorine of the hypochlorite, but also 
 another powerful bleaching agent, oxygen; third, in new 
 and improved machinery, by which the work of bleaching 
 the yarn is greatly shortened ; fourth, in doing away with 
 the tedious and expensive operation of exposing the yarn 
 on the grass. If this last were the only feature in Mr. 
 HODGES' invention, the patentee would have greatly im- 
 proved the process of bleaching ; not only, however, does the 
 new process supplant the old long and tedious one, but a 
 great economy of time is additionally gained in other parts 
 of the process ; added to these advantages it is stated that a 
 superior finish is given to the yarns, and that in conse- 
 quence a much greater demand for them has arisen. 
 
 Mr. HODGES contends that the absence of caustic lime 
 from his new bleaching compound gives it great "advan- 
 tages over the old bleaching powder, particularly in its 
 application to finely woven fabrics, such as muslins, <fcc. 
 He also says that fabrics bleached by it receive an in- 
 creased capacity for imbibing and retaining colouring matter, 
 a fact of considerable importance to the dyer and calico- 
 printer, as they are thus enabled to communicate to the 
 fabrics tints which have heretofore been considered im- 
 possible. 
 
 The following is the Irish plan of bleaching yarns : 
 To Bleach 1,200 Ibs. Weight of Yarn. 
 
 Boil 3 hours in soda-lye. 
 
 Reel in solution of hypochlorite of lime, i \ hours. 
 
 Wash for 25 minutes. 
 
 Sour in sulphuric acid, J hour. 
 
BLEACHING. 25 
 
 Wash for 25 minutes. 
 
 Scald | hour. 
 
 Reel in solution of hypochlorite of lime. 
 
 Squeeze \ hour. 
 
 Sour I hour. 
 
 Wash 25 minutes. 
 
 Soap i hour. 
 
 This should make the yarns -^- white. 
 
 To Bleach 1,200 Ibs. Weight of Yarn. 
 Boil 3 hours in. soda-ash of 10 per cent, strength. 
 Reel i;j hours in solution of bleaching powder of 150 per 
 
 cent, strength. 
 Wash 25 minutes. 
 
 Sour I hour in sulphuric acid of 3 per cent, strength. 
 Wash 25 minutes. 
 
 Scald f hour in soda-ash of 3 per cent, strength. 
 Reel in solution of bleaching powder j hour of 40 per 
 
 cent, strength. 
 Squeeze J hour. 
 
 Sour in sulphuric acid for j hour of i^ per cent, strength. 
 Wash 25 minutes. 
 Soap i hour, J per cent, strength. 
 
 The yarn should now be ^ white. 
 Scald g hour in soda-ash of i^ per cent, strength. 
 Spread it on the grass for 24 hours. 
 Steep in bleaching powder solution 12 hours of 20 per 
 
 cent, strength. 
 Wash 30 minutes. 
 
 Sour in sulphuric acid | hour of i| per cent, strength. 
 Wash 25 minutes. 
 Soap i hour of | per cent, strength. 
 
 The yarns should now be j white. 
 Scald j hour in soda-ash of i| per cent, strength. 
 
26 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Spread on grass 10 days. 
 
 Scald J hour in soda-ash of j per cent, strength. 
 
 Steep 12 hours in bleaching powder solution of 20 per 
 cent, strength. 
 
 Wash 30 minutes. 
 
 Sour in sulphuric acid \ hour, of i i per cent, strength. 
 If the yarns are not now full white, 
 
 Scald J hour in soda-ash of i| percent, strength. 
 
 Steep 12 hours in bleaching powder solution of 10 
 per cent, strength. 
 
 Squeeze \ hour. 
 
 Sour ^ hour in sulphuric acid of i^ per cent, strength. 
 
 Soap i hour, of | per cent, strength. 
 The yarns should now be full white. 
 
 Bleaching Woollen Goods. In the case of woollen 
 fabrics, the operations of purifying or whitening the wool, 
 beyond the removal of the yolk, are, for the most part, 
 mixed up with the weaving and working of it. The pieces 
 leave the hands of the weaver of a dingy grey colour, loaded 
 with oil, dirt, and dressing. They then pass to the fulling- 
 mill, where they are treated with fuller's earth and soap, often 
 preceded with ammonia or stale urine, after each application 
 of which they are well washed out or scoured with cold water, 
 and are then ready for the dyer. When it is intended to 
 obtain them very white, or to dye them of a very delicate 
 shade, they are commonly sulphured ; after which they are 
 washed or milled in cold w r ater for some hours, a little finely 
 ground indigo being added towards the end, to increase 
 their whiteness ; an addition also made when the cloth is 
 sufficiently white without the sulphuring process. 
 
 The usual mode of sulphuring woollen goods is to hang 
 them upon pegs or rails, or, in the case of fleece-wool, to 
 spread it about, at the upper part of a close, lofty room or 
 chamber, called a sulphur-stove. In each corner of this 
 
BLEACHING. 27 
 
 room is set a cast-iron pot containing sulplmr, which, after 
 the introduction of the goods, is set on fire, when the door 
 at the lower part of the chamber is shut tight and clayed. 
 This is commonly done overnight ; and by the morning, the 
 bleaching being finished, the goods are removed, washed, 
 and azured. 
 
 Sulphuring, unless very skilfully managed, imparts a 
 harsh feel to woollen goods, which is best removed by a very 
 weak (lukewarm) bath of soap-aiid- water ; but the action of 
 soap in part reproduces the previous yellowish-white tinge. 
 Milling with cold, or lukewarm water, tinged with indigo, 
 is the best substitute. 
 
 Raw wool loses from 35 to 45 per cent, of its weight 
 by scouring, and I to 2 per cent, more in the subsequent 
 operations of the bleacher ; the loss being in direct propor- 
 tion to the fineness of the staple. 
 
 In technical language, the words bleaching, bleacher, 
 bleachery, bleach-works, &c., when employed alone, are 
 understood to have reference only to cotton and linen. 
 This has arisen from the enormous extent of these manufac- 
 tures, and from the process of bleaching them forming a 
 business entirely distinct from that of weaving, dyeing, or 
 printing them. 
 
 Bleaching Silk. The following is extracted from 
 Mr. SPOXS' useful volume, " Workshop Receipts." " A lye 
 of white soap is made by boiling in water 30 Ibs. of soap for 
 every 100 Ibs. of silk intended to be bleached, and in this 
 the silk is steeped till the gum in the silk is dissolved and 
 separated. The silk is then put into bags of coarse cloth, 
 and boiled in a similar lye for an hour. By these processes 
 it loses 25 per cent, of its original weight. The silk is then 
 thoroughly washed and steeped in a hot lye, composed of 
 1 1 Ibs. of soap and 90 gallons of water, with a small 
 quantity of litmus and indigo diffused. After this, it is 
 
28 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 carried to the " sulphuring room. Two Ibs. of sulphur are 
 sufficient for 100 Ibs. of silk, When these processes are not 
 sufficiently successful, it is washed with clear hard water, 
 and sulphured again." 
 
 Bleaching Feathers. The process is as follows : The 
 feathers are first thoroughly washed with soap-and-water, 
 to free them from any oil they may contain. They are 
 next transferred to a bath composed of bichromate of 
 potash dissolved in water, to which has been added a 
 few drops of nitric or sulphuric acid. In this bath they 
 rapidly lose their black, brow r n, or grey colour, and become 
 almost white. On being removed from this bath they are 
 well rinsed in water, and are then fit to be dyed, even the 
 most delicate colour. Great care is required in the process, 
 as the flue of the feather is apt to be destroyed, if kept too 
 long in the bath. A bleached feather may be readily known 
 by the yellow colour of its stem. 
 
 Other methods have been adopted, such as a bath of 
 chloride of lime, peroxide of hydrogen, or sulphurous acid, 
 ttc., but the bichromate bath gives the best results. 
 
 Bleaching Materials for Paper : Old rags for 
 the manufacture of paper, and paper-pulp, are almost 
 universally bleached with chlorine or chloride of liine ; 
 the former being generally used in France, and the 
 latter in England. The process usually consists in (i) 
 boiling in an alkaline lye to remove grease and dirt, 
 (2) washing, (3) pressing, (4) deviling or tearing up the 
 pressed cake into fine shreds or pulp, (5) chemicking, 
 with agitation, for about an hour, in a clear solution of 
 chloride of lime,* followed by (6) washing, (7) souring 
 
 * The strength varies with the strength and quality of the rags. 
 From 2 to 4 Ibs. per cwt. of rags is a common proportion. For 
 dyed and printed rags as much as 7 or even 8 Ibs. per .cwt. are 
 
BLEACHING. 29 
 
 with dilute hydrochloric acid at i or 2 Twaddle, or 
 treatment with a solution of some antichlor,* or both, and 
 (8) a final washing and pressing. For the common kinds of 
 paper, the operations included in No. 7 are omitted; but 
 unless the whole of the lime-salt be removed from the pulp, 
 the paper made of it is liable to turn brown and become 
 rotten by age. In some cases rags are bleached before being 
 divided and pulped. Cotton-waste is bleached in a similar 
 way to rags. 
 
 In France, the chlorine, in a gaseous form, is passed from 
 the generators into the bleach-cisterns containing the pulp, 
 which in this case must be fitted with close covers. 
 
 PRINTED PAPER, as BOOKS, ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, &c. 
 These when stained or discoloured, may be whitened by (i) 
 wetting them with pure clean water, (2) plunging them into 
 a dilute solution of chloride of lime, (3) passing them through 
 water soured with hydrochloric acid, and then (4) through 
 pure water until every trace of acid be removed. This process 
 may be further improved by additionally dipping them into 
 a. weak solution of some antichlor, and again washing them, 
 before finally drying them. It is only rare and valuable 
 
 often employed. It is better, however, to prolong the pro- 
 cess with a weaker solution, than to hasten it by using the 
 chloride in excess. Large rectangular cisterns of wood, or of sJate, 
 are commonly employed as the bleach-vessels. Cisterns of wood, or 
 brick-work lined with gutta percha or with asphalto-bitumen, are 
 employed in some paper-mills, and answer admirably. 
 
 * Antlchlore. Among bleachers, any substance, agent, or means 
 by which the pernicious after-effects of chlorine are prevented. 
 Washing with a weak solution of sulphite of soda is commonly 
 adopted for this purpose. Chloride of tin, used in the same 
 way, has been recommended. A cheap sulphite of lime, prepared 
 by agitating milk of lime with the fumes of burning sulphur, 
 and draining and air-drying the product, was patented in 
 England and America by Prof. HORSFORD under the name of 
 " Antichloride of Lime." 
 
30 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 original works or specimens of art that are worth this treat- 
 ment, which, owing to the very nature of paper, requires 
 considerable address to manage. In many cases a sufficient 
 degree of renovation may be effected, by simply exposing the 
 articles, previously slightly moistened, to the fumes of 
 burning sulphur, followed by passing them through a vessel 
 of pure water. 
 
 Straw, Straw-plait, and articles made of them, are, on 
 the large scale, usually bleached by (i) a hot steep or boil 
 in a weak solution of caustic soda, or a stronger one of soda- 
 ash, followed (2) by washing, and (3) by exposure to the 
 fumes of burning sulphur. To effect the last, the goods are 
 suspended in a close chamber connected with a small stove, 
 in which brimstone is kept burning. On the small scale, a 
 large chest or box is commonly employed. A piece of brick, 
 or an old box-iron heater, heated to dull redness, is placed at 
 the bottom of an iron crock or earthen pan, a few fragments 
 of roll sulphur thrown on, the lid instantly closed, and the 
 whole left for some hours. Care should be taken to avoid 
 inhaling the fumes, which are very deleterious as well 
 as disagreeable and annoying. Straw goods are also 
 frequently bleached by the use of a weak solution of chloride 
 of lime, or of water strongly soured with oxalic acid or even 
 oil of vitriol, followed by very careful rinsing in clean water; 
 but here, as in the former case, the natural varnish, dirt, 
 grease, &c., must be first removed by alkalies or soap, to 
 enable the chlorine or acid to act on the fibres. 
 
 Wax. Wax is bleached by first melting it at a low 
 temperature in a cauldron, from whence it is allowed to run 
 out by a pipe at the bottom, into a capacious vessel filled 
 with cold water. 
 
 This vessel is fitted with a large wooden cylinder, which 
 turns upon its axis, and the melted wax falls upon this 
 cylinder. The surface of the cylinder being always wet, the 
 wax does not adhere to it, but becomes solid, assuming the 
 
BLEACHING. 31 
 
 form of ribbons as it does so, and in this shape becoming 
 distributed through the water in the tub. The wax is then 
 removed and placed upon large frames stretched upon linen 
 cloth, which are supported about 18 inches above the 
 ground, and erected in a situation exposed to the air, dew, 
 and sun. The several ribbons thus placed on the frame 
 should not exceed an inch and a half, and they ought to be 
 so moved about from time to time, as that each part may be 
 equally exposed. If the weather be favourable the wax will 
 become white in a few days. It is again remelted, formed 
 into ribbons, and exposed as before. These operations are 
 continued, until the wax is completely bleached, after 
 which it is melted and run into moulds. 
 
 The theory of bleaching, notwithstanding the giant 
 strides of chemistry of late years, remains still unsettled ; 
 and hence the processes employed are, for the most part, 
 empirical. It appears probable that chlorine acts by uniting 
 with the hydrogen of the water, or of other compounds 
 present, or probably with that of both, and that it is the 
 oxygen thus liberated, and whilst in the nascent state, that is 
 the true operative agent. Hence bleaching by chlorine, or by 
 the hypochlorites, may be regarded as an oxidation of the 
 colouring matter ; but whether the chlorine or the oxygen 
 effects this oxidation is of little practical importance, the 
 result being the same, the destruction of the compound, and 
 the removal of the colour that depends on its existence. It 
 is doubtful whether the bleaching power of sulphurous acid 
 is due to it as an oxidizing or a deoxidizing agent ; but the 
 last is probably the case, with a like destruction of the 
 compound constituting the colouring matter. It may 
 be, that sulphurous acid acts as an oxidizer, as when it 
 decomposes sulphuretted hydrogen ; or it may act by simply 
 altering the compound by itself combining with it, a view 
 receiving some support from the fact that wool whitened 
 
32 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 by sulphuring may be restored to nearly its previous colour, 
 - by merely treating it with soap or alkalies. 
 
 The bleaching power of light depends on its actinic or 
 chemical rays, which, like chlorine, appear to act as an oxi- 
 dizing agent. 
 
 Chlorates, chromates, chromic acid, mangaiiates, etc., have 
 been proposed as bleaching agents for textile filaments and 
 fabrics, but without success or practical advantage. Im- 
 mersion in water more or less strongly impregnated with 
 sulphurous acid has, however, been successfully substituted 
 for the common sulphuring process, particularly for silk. 
 
 To avoid the injury of the goods by sparks, and by drops 
 of water highly saturated with sulphurous acid falling from 
 the roof, Mr. THOM invented a method of passing them 
 rapidly through, or keeping them in constant motion, in 
 the sulphuring chamber. His apparatus is constructed 011 
 the principle of the washing-machine, the fumes of burn- 
 ing sulphur being used instead of water. 
 
 In addition to the one previously mentioned, the late 
 M. TESSIE DU MATHEY proposed a method for bleaching 
 as follows : He takes about equal parts of permanga- 
 v iiate of soda and sulphate of magnesia, and dissolves 
 them in lukewarm water. The tissues, previously freed 
 from grease, are to be plunged into this bath until they are 
 covered with a brown coating. They are then to be placed 
 in a bath of sulphuric acid at 4 per cent., and rinsed after 
 the brown matter is removed. They may be finally passed 
 through sulphurous acid. Mr. RAMSAY'S method consists in 
 sprinkling with water equal parts of chloride of lime and 
 sulphate of magnesia when hypochlorite of magnesia is 
 formed. It may be remarked that none of the more modern 
 methods of bleaching, which dispense with the use of 
 chlorine and its compounds, have been found, when reduced 
 to practice, to be cheaper, better, or more advantageous to 
 work than those sanctioned by long experience and use. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 DYEING. 
 
 DYEIXG may be briefly described as the art of tingeing 
 with various colouring matters certain absorbent organic 
 bodies, such as wool, silk, cotton, flax, &c. 
 
 Dyeing is an art of great antiquity. Amongst the 
 ancient nations, the Phoenicians, the Romans, and the 
 Egyptians were amongst those who prosecuted it the most 
 successfully. The manufacture of the historic Tyrian 
 purple constituted the principal handicraft of Tyre, and was 
 its chief article of commerce and export. This dye was 
 yielded by a species of mollusk, one single drop only, accord- 
 ing to Pliny and Aristotle, being the produce of one 
 animal. Robes dyed with Tyrian purple were worn by one 
 of the Phoanician monarchs as far back as 1500 years B.C. 
 At the commencement of our era, so generally were gar- 
 ments, dyed with the Tyrian purple, spite of their high price, 
 worn by the wealthy Roman citizens, that the Emperor 
 Augustus issued a sumptuary edict, limiting the use of such 
 apparel to himself. From the nature of the dye-stuffs em- 
 ployed by the Romans, it may be inferred that they had 
 attained to some proficiency in the art. They used copperas, 
 native alum mixed with copperas, alkanet root, archil, 
 madder, woad, nut gall, and pomegranate seeds. The 
 ancient Greeks, on the contrary, do not seem to have culti- 
 vated dyeing to any extent, since the Athenian people 
 mostly wore dresses of undyed wool. According to Pliny, 
 the ancient Egyptians were expert dyers, and acquainted^ 
 
 D 
 
34 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC, 
 
 with the use of mordants, which it would seem they de- 
 rived from Hindostan. The art was also successfully culti- 
 vated by some of the ancient communities of Asia as well 
 as by the ancient Mexicans and Peruvians. 
 
 It may be safely said, however, of all these methods of 
 dyeing, as well as of those in vogue prior to the birth of 
 modern Chemistry, that they were carried out by rule of 
 thumb only, and upon no conscious scientific principles. 
 
 It was not until about the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century that dyeing seems to have made any progress in 
 Europe. About that period, this branch of industry was 
 prosecuted with remarkable activity in France, and shortly 
 afterwards in Italy. Among the causes that contributed to 
 its spread may be quoted the invention of printing and the 
 discovery of America. This latter event gave a great im- 
 petus to the art of dyeing, because of the numerous and 
 valuable dye stuffs the New World sent to the Old. Amongst 
 these tinctorial agents were logwood, Brazil wood, annatto, 
 and cochineal. Owing to these circumstances, and addition- 
 ally to the publication about the middle of the sixteenth 
 century, of a work on dyeing, by KOSETTI, considerable im- 
 provements upon the old methods were introduced, and 
 subsequently adopted throughout England, France, and 
 Germany. The first published English account of the dye- 
 ing process appeared in 1664, in SPRATT'S " History of the 
 Royal Society." 
 
 In the reign of Elizabeth, indigo (which was employed 
 by the ancients as a pigment only), was introduced, or 
 attempted to be introduced, into this country as a dye. It 
 seems hardly credible that the importation of so important 
 and useful a tinctorial substance should have met with an 
 opposition so fierce as it did, and that its use should have 
 been proscribed by Act of Parliament, which Act continued 
 in active operation until Charles II.'s time. Logwood was 
 
DYEING. 35 
 
 also excluded by the same legislative enactment. About 
 the middle of the last century, Turkey-red-dyeing was intro- 
 duced into England and France from India. The first ap- 
 plication of iron salts as mordants was made about the 
 middle of the seventeenth century, by DREBBLE, a Dutch 
 dyer. His son-in-law established large dye works at Bow 
 in 1643. 
 
 When a fabric is impregnated of a uniform colour over 
 its whole surface, it is said to be simply dyed. If, however, 
 distinct patterns or designs in one or more colours have 
 been impressed upon it, and (as in many cases) portions of 
 it are altogether free from clye, the process by which this is 
 effected, and which is a much more complicated and difficult 
 one than the above, is known as " Calico-Printing," and is 
 described under that head further on. 
 
 The process of dyeing would be incomplete unless the 
 fleece,* yarn or cloth after being subjected to it, were more 
 
 * Wool is sometimes dyed in the Hock or fleece before being 
 spun, sometimes as yarn or spun thread, and at others in the finished 
 fabric. It is dyed in the flock or fleece when it is intended for the 
 best varieties of broad cloth. In fleece dyeing there is great liability 
 of the mass becoming so felted together as to interfere considerably 
 with the after operations of carding and spinning. In wool dyeing 
 the use of chipped or splintered dye-woods and lumpy dye-pastes 
 should be avoided, since both these are liable to leave little particles 
 which work into the wool and are very difficult of removal. This 
 inconvenience may be got over by using the dye- stuff in the form of 
 a liquid extract. 
 
 Silk is mostly dyed in unspun skeins. 
 
 Cotton is rarely dyed in an unspun state, or as cotton wool, but 
 chiefly as yarn or spun thread, arranged either in the "cop" or the 
 hank, or skein. In the first case the labour and time, and conse- 
 quently the expense, of unravelling the skein are saved, but the dye 
 is liable not to permeate the fibre so thoroughly and equally, as when 
 it is in the hank. 
 
 D 2 
 
36 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 or less enabled to retain the tinctorial substance when ex- 
 posed to certain agencies, such as light, air, washing in soap 
 and water, &c. Hence it is indispensable, both in dyeing 
 simple and calico-printing, there should be as much as pos- 
 sible a permanent adhesion of the colour to the fibre. The 
 varying degrees in which this condition is carried out, con- 
 stitute the difference between " fast and loose," or " fugi- 
 tive" dyed goods. 
 
 The substances employed by the dyer and calico-printer 
 are obtained from the animal and vegetable kingdom, from 
 the chemical manufacturer, and from the tar colour factory, 
 by far the larger number being procured from the last- 
 named source. These artificial colours, the adoption of 
 which of late years has more or less led to the abandon- 
 ment of many of the older dye-stuffs, are obtained from 
 what was once a worthless and troublesome waste product 
 in gas making viz., coal-tar. Hence they are known as 
 " Coal-tar Colours," and they not only, as a general rule, 
 possess much greater brilliancy, depth, and variety of tint 
 than the dyes of natural origin, but some of them have a 
 chemical constitution precisely the same as the colouring 
 principles discovered in certain plants. 
 
 The textile fibres used in dyeing, attract and attach to 
 themselves the tinctorial bodies, with very different degrees 
 of force. Wool and silk have a much greater affinity for 
 colouring principles than cotton or linen. Hence dyes, more 
 or less, permanently fix themselves to the former without 
 the intervention of a third substance, but this intermediary 
 (called a mordant) is required in dyeing cotton or Hnen. 
 Colouring principles are divided by BANCROFT into those 
 which do not require a mordant, and are called sub- 
 stantive colours, and those which do, and which are termed 
 adjective colours. This distinction, however, is a loose one, 
 since the same dye may be a substantive one on one 
 
D YEING. 37 
 
 species of fibre, and an adjective one on another. For 
 instance, the aniline dyes are substantive when used with 
 woollen or silken goods, and adjective with cotton one?. 
 
 When an infusion of some dye-stuff, such as cochineal or 
 madder, is mixed with alum or acetate of alumina and 
 a little alkali, a precipitate immediately forms, consisting 
 of alumina in combination with colouring matter, consti- 
 tuting a lake. It is by a similar reaction, surmised to take 
 place either within or upon the fibres, when these and 
 certain metallic salts and dyes are brought together, that 
 the permanent dyeing of the fibres is effected. The 
 deposition and permanent fixation of the dye to the 
 fibre is sometimes accomplished by other means than 
 by the formation of a lake. We may give the following 
 as examples : The colouring matters of amiatto and 
 safflower being soluble in alkalies, an alkaline solution of 
 these substances is prepared, and the cloth is dipped into 
 it. It has now become saturated wjjli an extremely fugi- 
 tive colour, but by passing it through acidulated w T ater, the 
 alkaline solvent is neutralized, and the tinctorial matter is 
 precipitated in an insoluble and minutely divided state upon 
 or within the pores, and the fabric becomes permanently dyed. 
 Again, when blue indigo is placed in a vat with certain re- 
 agents, it becomes reduced or converted into soluble white 
 indigo, and when woollen or cotton fibre is then placed 
 in the vat, the fibre becomes saturated with the white 
 indigo solution. If now, the cloth be removed from the 
 dye- bath and exposed to the air, the reduced indigo, by the 
 absorption of oxygen, is reconverted into the blue, which is 
 simultaneously fixed to the fibre. Further, when a textile 
 fabric is immersed in an ammoniacal solution of oxide of 
 copper, and afterwards exposed to the air, the ammonia 
 escapes, and leaves the copper oxide deposited in an insoluble 
 condition on the fabric. 
 
38 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC, 
 
 Various theories have been propounded as to the nature 
 of the union between the fibre and the colouring matter, or 
 mordant, combined with the colouring matter. 
 
 They may all, however, be classed under two divisions : 
 i, The Chemical; and 2, The Mechanical Theory. 
 
 BERGMAN, CHEVREUL and other chemists, who were the 
 advocates of the first view, maintained that a true chemical 
 combination, confined to the surface, occurs between the 
 fibre and the colouring matter or mordant. But since it 
 has never been shown that the fibre and the colouring prin- 
 ciple are united in definite atomic quantities, that neither 
 has lost its distinctive properties by combination, and also 
 that the tinctorial principle can be removed from the cloth 
 to which it has been attached, and dissolved by any liquid 
 w T hich acts upon it, in an uncombined state, whilst the fibre 
 remains intact, the chemical hypothesis has been very 
 generally abandoned. 
 
 The chief exponents of the mechanical theory are HELLOT, 
 LE PILEUR D'APLIGNY,' PERSOZ, and Mr. WALTER CRUM. 
 HELLOT supposed that the fibre was furnished with pores 
 which expanded under the influence of heat, and thus 
 admitted the tinctorial particles, which were retained owing 
 to the subsequent contraction of the fibre by cold. LE 
 PILEUR D'APLIGNY attributed the different manner in which 
 various fibres act toward the same colouring matter, to the 
 varying size and number of their pores. PERSOZ maintained 
 that the colours or mordanted colours fixed themselves only 
 to the surface of the fibre. Mr. WALTER CRUM, writing 
 on the fixation of colouring matters on cotton, says in effect, 
 either that the pores of the fibre attract the colouring par- 
 ticles from the solution and precipitate them within the 
 fibre, in a manner similar to that of carbon when it absorbs 
 gases, and withdraws solid bodies from their solutions ; or 
 that having entered the pores in a state of solution, the 
 colouring particles become fixed by the removal of their 
 
DYEING. 39 
 
 solvent, or in some other manner so that they are no longer 
 soluble in water. The opinions of MR. CRUM are generally 
 accepted at the present day. 
 
 It may be mentioned that examination by means of the 
 most powerful microscopes has failed to throw any light 
 upon the nature of textile fabrics that would be of any 
 use to the speculations of the scientific dyer. That an 
 instance of true chemical combination occurs when the 
 mordant, and the colouring principle of the dye are brought 
 together under suitable conditions, there can be little doubt. 
 Evidence of this is afforded by the fact that the colour of 
 the product arising from the reaction is not the same as 
 that of either of its constituents, and that onJUr definite 
 quantities of mordant and colour will give a certain shade ; 
 besides which the tints given by any dye-stuff differ with 
 the mordant, and for different strengths of the same mor- 
 dant. When the dye is brought into contact with a mor- 
 dant consisting of some metallic salt, the resulting compound 
 may be regarded as an insoluble salt, in which the colour- 
 giving principle performs the part of an acid, and the 
 metallic oxide of a base. Thus Turkey red, and the red 
 colour yielded by a decoction of Brazil wood, when madder 
 and Brazil wood are boiled with a salt of aluminium, may 
 be looked upon, the first as an alizarate, and the second as 
 a brazileate of alumina ; whilst the scarlet cochineal colour 
 which is produced when cochineal is boiled with chloride of 
 tin, may be regarded as carminate of tin. 
 
 The apparatus employed in mordanting and dyeing textile 
 fabrics, varies with the material and the treatment to which 
 this is subjected. Unspun wool and rags are simply put 
 into the dye-bath, and moved about by a large pole ; whilst 
 yarns and woven fabrics are impregnated with the mordant 
 as well as the dye, by means of the " padding" machine. 
 This apparatus consists of a reel (placed above the trough 
 holding the mordant, or dye, as the case may be), around which 
 
BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the cloth, stitched together by the ends, is wound ; a roller, 
 which smooths and adjusts -the cloth before it enters the 
 trough ; a copper cylinder, nearly at the bottom of the 
 trough, under which the fabric is carried from the roller ; a 
 half-round polished steel bar to give it equal tension ; a pair 
 of padded cylinders, to remove superfluous moisture, and a 
 reel to receive the mordanted or dyed cloth. This apparatus 
 is worked by machinery, and is employed for applying cold 
 solutions of the dye-stuff to cotton goods in the piece. It is 
 also used in many of the operations of bleaching and starch- 
 ing textile fabrics. 
 
 In small establishments the goods are dyed by immersion 
 in cisterns, tubs, or vats, and turned by hand ; or, if in the 
 form of yarn, they are generally hung 011 sticks and so 
 suspended in the dye-bath. "When the goods are placed in 
 a dye solution, which is required to be kept at the boiling 
 point, or near it, a machine such as that shown in the 
 engraving is used, a is a reel turned 
 by steam-power. The cotton-piece, 
 sown together at the ends, is wound 
 round the wooden arms of the reel, 
 as shown in the engraving, taking 
 the direction indicated by the arrows, 
 and after entering the dye-bath, fall- 
 ing 011 the shelf, y, and passing in 
 the course of one revolution under 
 the rollers, c and d. The orifice, 5, 
 is for the admission of steam if ne- 
 cessary. The pieces are thus passed 
 through the dye-bath until they 
 have acquired the required depth of 
 shade, during which the cloth is made to turn on the reel with 
 considerable speed and regularity of motion, precautions 
 which ensure a uniform absorption of the dye, and its conse- 
 quent equal distribution over the surface of the cloth. Care 
 
 FIG. 
 
DYEING. 41 
 
 must be taken to prevent the goods getting entangled during 
 the " winching," as they are sometimes liable to. They must 
 also coil and uncoil smoothly and easily. Great care is necessary 
 in the selection of the vessels containing the dye-liquid. 
 They should always be made of some material which is 
 unacted upon by the contained fluid. They are variously 
 manufactured of wood, stone, slate, iron, and block tin. 
 For mordants and acid dyes, as well as for bright coloured 
 ones, iron vessels are inadmissible. It is best to have 
 special pans for each dye; and in every case to keep 
 them as nearly absolutely clean as possible. The quality 
 of the water used in dyeng is a matter of first impor- 
 tance, the nearer it approaches distilled water, except when 
 employed for madder dyeing, in purity, the better.* The 
 dyed calico goods of Alsace, and the woollen stuffs of 
 Berlin, in great measure owe their superiority to the excellent 
 quality of the water supply. 
 
 Hard waters which contain the salts of lime and magnesia 
 are not well adapted for dyeing. The presence in the water 
 of salts of iron is also injurious. Lime mostly exists in 
 water as carbonate or sulphate, in both which forms it is 
 detrimental to bright colours. 
 
 With dark and sombre colours, these salts, unless they 
 are present in the water in large quantities, are not particu- 
 larly injurious \ but the sulphate in small quantity even 
 should be avoided in madder dyeing, or in any case where 
 the dye employed is of a ligneous nature. 
 
 Magnesia, where it exists as carbonate, is a very prejudicial 
 ingredient, since it is impossible to dye certain colours 
 with it, and it destroys the appearance of others. It is 
 especially detrimental in madder dyeing. It is rarely 
 present, however, in water in quantity large enough to act 
 
 * Carbonate of lime, which is a constituent of some varieties of 
 madder root, is added to the water used for the madder bath, when 
 the root and water are deficient in it. 
 
42 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 injuriously. Iron, whether in large or small amount, is 
 a most disastrous ingredient. It converts pinks into drabs, 
 and reds into browns and chocolate when present 
 large quantity, it wastes the colouring matter by combining 
 with it, and so removing it from, and preventing its 
 deposition upon the fibre. In ordinary water, the carbonates 
 of potash and soda are seldom in quantity sufficient to act 
 prejudicially. Water containing organic matter is particu- 
 larly ill adapted for the processes of bleaching and cleansing. 
 Such water is also equally objectionable for dyeing. The 
 method usually adopted to get rid of it is filtration and ex- 
 posure to the air and light. Mr. CROOKES says another 
 method consists in adding successively to each 1,000 cubic 
 centimetres (35,316 cubic feet, or 220,096 gallons) of water, 
 which should be contained in a suitable tank, about 6 Ibs. of 
 dry perchloride of iron, and 186 Ibs. of crystallized carbonate 
 of soda, both previously dissolved in as pure water as can 
 be obtained, and to the volume of about 220 gallons (35 
 cubic feet). When the iron and soda are added to the 
 water, the whole should be vigorously stirred. 
 
 It has been already stated that the contents of the dye- 
 vessel are sometimes heated by means of steam blown into 
 them. In some dye-works the pans are exposed to the 
 naked fire ; at others they are raised to the required temper- 
 ature by steam coils ; or in some establishments, they are 
 jacketted, and so heated. 
 
 Before the goods (provided they have been mordanted) 
 are passed through the dye-beck, it is necessary first, to 
 fix or attach the mordant* to them ; and second, to remove 
 any superfluous adhering mordant. 
 
 * The mordant is sometimes applied before the dye, sometimes 
 after, and sometimes simultaneously. This latter method, however, 
 does not admit of extensive application, since in most cases the 
 
DYEING. 43 
 
 A general description of these two processes will be found 
 further on. 
 
 We append formulae for plain dyeing : 
 
 COTTON. 
 
 Black. i. The goods, previously dyed blue, are steeped 
 for about 24 hours in a decoction of gall-nuts or sumach, 
 then drained, rinsed in water, and passed through a bath of 
 acetate of iron for a quarter of an hour; they are next 
 again rinsed in water, and exposed for some time to the air ; 
 after which they are passed a second time through the bath, 
 to which a little more iron-liquor is previously added. The 
 whole process is repeated, if necessary, according to the 
 intensity of the shade of black desired. 
 
 2. The goods are steeped in a mordant of acetate of iron, 
 worked well, and then passed through a bath of madder and 
 logwood for 2 hours. Less permanent than No. i. 
 
 About 2 oz. of coarsely powdered galls, or 4 oz. of sumach, 
 are required for every pound of cotton, in the process of 
 galling. The first should be boiled in the water, in the pro- 
 portion of about I gal. of water to every i Ib. of cotton. 
 The sumach-bath is better made by mere infusion 'of that 
 dye-stuff in very hot water. 
 
 3. For 10 Ibs. of Cloth. The goods are put into a boiling 
 bath made of 3 Ibs. of sumach, and allowed to steep, with 
 occasional " working," until the liquor is perfectly cold ; they 
 are next passed through lime water, and, after having 
 
 products are insoluble lakes, which give rise to loose and inferior 
 colours. Again, the fixing of the mordant in calico-printing involves a 
 number of processes which are not required in piece-dyeing. So, again, 
 whilst wool is almost always dyed at a boiling temperature, in most 
 cases the dyeing of cotton is performed either in the cold or at a tem- 
 perature of from 90 to 100 Fahr. (32-2 to 38 C.)- 
 
44 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 drained for a few minutes, immediately transferred to and 
 worked for an hour in a warm solution of 2 Ibs. of copperas ; 
 after free exposure to the aii- for about an hour they are 
 again passed through lime water, and, after draining, 
 " worked" for an hour in a bath made with 3 Ibs. of log- 
 wood, and i Ib. of fustic ; they are then " lifted," and \ Ib. 
 of copperas being added, they are returned to the bath, 
 " worked" well for about 30 minutes, and finished. Good 
 and deep. 
 
 Instead of copperas, iron-liquor may be used, observing to 
 take i^ pint of the latter (of the ordinary strength) for 
 every i Ib. of the former ordered above. 
 
 4. For 40 Ibs. of Cotton. Boil or scald, sumach lolbs. 
 Let the cloth or yarn remain in this for 1 8 hours ; wring 
 out; run through acetate of iron at 40 Twaddle four 
 turns or for ^ an hour ; .wring out ; repeat and thoroughly 
 wash in three waters. Next boil together 8 Ibs. logwood and 
 i Ib. fustic ; put off the boil and enter, or the clear portion of 
 the decoction may be decanted into another vessel ; one run, 
 continue | an hour ; wring out ; repeat ; sadden with i Ib. of 
 copperas ; 2 runs ; wash and dry. 
 
 5. For 100 Ibs. .of Cotton. Steep in a decoction of 30 Ibs. 
 of sumach at a boiling heat, and let stand till quite cold, then 
 pass through lime water, and then directly after, work for 
 i hour in a solution of 20 Ibs. of copperas. After this ex- 
 pose to the air for i hour ; then pass a second time through 
 lime water, and wash and work for i hour in a bath of 30 Ibs. 
 logwood and 10 Ibs. fustic ; lift and add 2 Ibs. copperas ; and 
 work \ hour longer, and finish. 
 
 6. Common Black. 5 pieces = 75 Ibs. are padded through 
 acetate of iron (iron liquor) at 8 Twaddle, dried and after- 
 wards passed through lime water (milk of lime) ; afterwards 
 washed, then dyed with 35 Ibs. of ground logwood and 3 Ibs. 
 of fustic extract at 48 Twaddle ; in this they are worked 
 
DYEING. 45 
 
 for ^ an hour at boil ; then winched, rinsed, and dried. They 
 are further run through a little starch water containing a 
 small quantity of soap, and finally dried for finishing. 
 
 7. Good Common Black (Carlisle Finish). 7 pieces = 
 85 Ibs. are worked in the jigger, cold for 6 ends, and afterwards 
 passed through a water-mangle to squeeze out a large portion 
 of the liquor ; then dried ; they are then padded in acetate of 
 iron at 8 Twaddle, and dried out of it ; afterwards again 
 entered into the jigger, which is charged with sufficient 
 water and 5 Ibs. of chalk (carbonate of lime) ; give two ends ; 
 then wash, and afterwards dye with 48 Ibs. ground logwood 
 and 3| Ibs. fustic extract at 48 Twaddle ; work in the jigger 
 for 45 minutes at boil ; wash and dry. 
 
 8. Chrome Black (Italian Black). 6 pieces satin (cotton) 
 = 1 08 Ibs. Work in jigger containing 20 Ibs. of sumach 
 
 (Palermo), and 20 Ibs. of myrabolams, in as little water as 
 possible, and at boil for 7 to 8 ends ; then run off the liquor 
 and recharge the jigger with 1 5 gals, water and 5 Ibs. sulphate 
 of copper, cold ; give 4 ends in this ; again wash well, and 
 recharge the jigger with bichromate of potash, at, say, 2 
 Twaddle; give 2 ends cold, and then 3 ends at boil; again wash 
 and afterwards dye in the jigger, it being recharged with 
 72 Ibs. ground logwood and 4^ Ibs. fustic extract at 48 
 Twaddle ; work backward and forward at boil for i hour ; 
 then rinse in a weak solution of soda or potash, say, 8 oz. 
 to 20 gals, water; wash and dry. 
 
 9. Aniline Black with Vanadium. (PINKNEY'S Patent.) 
 Take of hydrochlorate of aniline, 150 parts ; salt of vanadium, 
 | part; chloride of nickel, 20 parts; potassium chlorate, 
 100 parts; water, 2,500 parts. The yarns, after being 
 steeped in this mixture, may be dried either hot or cold.* 
 
 * In practice the salt of vanadium may be considerably reduced in 
 amount, and the chloride of nickel omitted. 
 
46 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 10. (DE YINANT) : For Cotton Yarns. This process must 
 be performed with great care, otherwise the colours will be 
 uneven and clouded. The cotton yarn, first well boiled out., 
 receives 7 turns in a bath, consisting of 200 grammes of 
 sulphate of copper for every kilo of material dissolved in 
 water, which has been slightly acidulated with hydrochloric 
 acid. It must be then thoroughly wrung out. It is next 
 subjected to 5 turns, in a bath containing 50 grammes of 
 hydrosulphate of soda to a litre of water, the temperature 
 of which is at 50 C. (122 Fahr.) ; after which it is 
 rinsed. It then receives 7 turns in a bath of 10 litres 
 of water, 180 grammes of chlorate of potassium, and 
 170 grammes of chloride of ammonium, dissolved by means 
 of heat, to which is added 480 grammes of chloride of 
 aniline. It is then stretched out very regularly in a drying- 
 room, kept at 48 C. (118-4 Fahr.), for 4 8 hours. After 
 this it is turned 4 times at 30 C. (86 Fahr.), in a bath 
 which contains i gramme of bichromate of potassium to 
 the litre ; after which it is well rinsed and dried. Should 
 the blacks have acquired a reddish tone, they should be 
 passed through a bath consisting of i litre of bleaching 
 liquid at 6 B., and 100 litres of cold water. 
 
 11. For loolbs. Mix 6 Ibs. 9 oz. of aniline oil with 8 Ibs. 
 12 oz. of hydrochloric acid at 32 Twaddle. When the mix- 
 ture has cooled j add to it a solution consisting of 4 Ibs. 6 oz. 
 of chlorate of potassium and 66 parts of water ; and then 42 j 
 pints of solution of chloride of iron at 32 Twaddle. Steep 
 the bleached yarn from 8 to 10 hours in this liquid, previously 
 diluted with water at about 100 Fahr. (38 C.); remove, 
 and then place it in a solution of soda at 23 Twaddle. 
 Then wash or steep for J hour in a dye-beck, made\up with 
 66 parts of water and 7 oz. of chromate of potassium, at about 
 112 Fahr. (44*4 C.). This prevents the dye turning green 
 afterwards. Wash and pass the yarn through a mixture 
 
DYEING. 47 
 
 of 17^ oz. of emulsive oil (such as is used in Turkey red 
 dying), 2 Ibs. 3 oz. potash, and 66 parts of water, and dry 
 immediately. 
 
 N.B. Mr. JAMES CHADWICK writes us : " To produce 
 plum aniline black, we print a colour composed of chloride 
 of aniline, chlorate of soda and vanadiate of ammonia. This 
 colour we print on with what is called a " pin pad roller," 
 and on both sides of the fabric, thus completely covering 
 every thread. When dried as usual after printing, we 
 age through an aniline ager at from 180 Fahr. (82 '2 C.), 
 and 170 moisture; afterwards pass through a solution of 
 bichromate of potash at 2 Twaddle, cold. Wash well 
 and slightly soap ; wash and dry. I believe most of the 
 plain aniline blacks are done this way." , Mr. CHADWICK 
 adds : " I have not seen a good dyed aniline black. 
 The fibre of the fabric is always more or less injured, 
 and the colour always turns green in the presence of 
 sulphuric acid, which abounds, as you know, in towns 
 where much coal is consumed." 
 
 Brown. 12. Bismark Brown. For 10 Ibs. of cloth 
 or yarn, work in a hot decoction of -J Ib. of sumach for 
 ^ hour; wring out and work for 20 minutes in a solution 
 consisting of 4^ oz. of stannate of sodium, and then 
 thoroughly wash from this. Dissolve 4 oz. of Bismark 
 Brown in the dye beck or boiler, and work the goods in this 
 for | hour, at 120 Fahr. (48-8 C.), or at a heat about as 
 hot as the hand can bear ; then wring out to dry. If a 
 redder shade than this preparation will yield, be desired, a 
 little red liquor must be added to the dye ; if a yellower 
 tint be required, this may be got by the addition of a little 
 fustic. 
 
 13. Catechu Brown. For lolbs. of cloth or yarn. The 
 goods must be worked at a boiling heat for 
 steeped for several hours, if the liquor is allowed to cool, 
 
48 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 in 2 Ibs. of catechu,* and then worked for hour in a hot 
 solution of potassium bichromate, and washed from this in 
 hot water. A little soap added to the washing water im- 
 proves the colour. 
 
 14. Dark Brown. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. Work in jigger, charged with 
 12 gallons boiling water, and 
 
 20 Ibs. catechu, 
 
 5 Ibs. sumach (Palermo), and 
 
 3 Ibs. sulphate of copper ; give in this 5 ends, then 
 recharge with i gallon acetate of iron, at 12 Twaddle, and 
 5 Ibs. sulphate of iron cold, and 12 gallons water cold. Give 
 4 ends, and afterwards wash again, and recharge jigger with 
 1 2 galls, water, boiling, and 3 Ibs. bichromate of potash ; give 
 4 ends, then wash and dry. 
 
 15. Medium and Light Brown can be obtained by decreas- 
 ing the quantities of ingredients. 
 
 1 6. Bright Brown. Cotton. 
 72 Ibs. cloth in jigger, with 
 
 9 gallons boiling water in which dissolve ; 
 
 6 Ibs. catechu ; give 4 ends ; recharge jigger with 
 9 gallons hot water, 140 Fahr. (60 C.), and 
 
 8 oz. bichromate of potash, and 
 
 2 oz. sulphate of copper. Give 3 ends in this, and 
 
 wash again ; recharge jigger with. 
 10 gallons warm water, Hood, heat ; 
 
 4 oz. Bismark brown powder, and 
 
 Soz. protochloride of tin, at 120 Twaddle, give 4 
 ends in this, and afterwards wash and dry as 
 usual. 
 This gives a beautiful colour. 
 
 * Boil i Ib. of catechu in 7 or 8 Ibs. of water until dissolved, then 
 add 2 oz. nitrate or sulphate of copper, and stir ; after which it will 
 be ready for use. 
 
DYEING. 49 
 
 17. Prussian Blue. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. Work in jigger, containing 
 15 gallons cold water, 
 5 quarts nitrate of iron, at 84 Twaddle, 
 i pint protochloride of tin at 1 20 Twaddle ; give 4 ends, 
 afterwards wash in cold water, and recharge jigger 
 with 
 
 1 5 gallons water, in which is dissolved 
 5 Ibs. yellow prussiate of potash, and 
 i gill sulphuric acid, at 170 Twaddle. 
 Give four ends, wash and dry. 
 
 18. Aniline Blue. 
 
 7 pieces =84 Ibs. Work in stannate of soda at 4 
 Twaddle, 4 ends, then in sulphuric acid, i Twaddle, 4 ends, 
 and afterwards 4 ends in water, then recharge jigger with 
 8 oz. cotton aniline blue, and 8 oz. alum in twelve gallons 
 water, five to six ends, wash and dry. 
 
 19. Navy Blue. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. Work in jigger charged with 
 
 10 Ibs. sumach, 
 
 10 Ibs. ground logwood, 
 
 15 gallons boiling water, give 4 ends, then recharge 
 jigger with 4 quarts nitrate of iron at 84 Twaddle, and 9 
 gallons of cold water, in which give 4 ends, and afterwards 
 wash, then recharge with 15 gallons water, 4 Ibs. yellow 
 prussiate of potash, and half gill sulphuric acid at 170 
 Twaddle, give four ends, and wash in cold water, recharge 
 with 15 gallons water "cold," and 6 ozs. BB violet crystals 
 (coal-tar), give five ends in this and dry. 
 
 20. Bright Green. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. Work in jigger charged with 14 Ibs. 
 sumach boiling, give 4 ends, recharge with 15 gallons 
 
5P BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 water, 3 gills protochloride of tin at 120 Twaddle, and 
 4 oz. of tartrate of antimony (tartar emetic) in cold water, 
 give 4 ends and afterwards wash. Again recharge with i o 
 gallons of cold water, and 1 4 oz. of malachite green (coal- 
 tar), and from 4 to 7 Ibs. of fustic extract at 48 Twaddle, 
 according to shade of green required. Give 4 ends in this, 
 wash and dry. 
 
 21. Slate (Silesian). 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. worked in jigger charged with 
 15 gallons logwood liquor (at i Ib. per gallon). 
 15 water at 120 Fahr. (49 C.), give 4 ends, 
 then recharge jigger with 30 gallons cold water, 
 and dissolve in it 4 Ibs. sulphate of iron, give 3 
 ends, then dry. 
 
 If the shade of slate is too red the addition of a little 
 fustic extract corrects that, of course. 
 
 22. Dark Mauve or Violet. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. worked in jigger charged with 12 Ibs. 
 of ground sumach and 1 2 gallons of hot water, give 4 ends, 
 and afterwards give 6 ends in jigger charged with 3 gills of 
 protochloride of tin at 120 Twaddle, and 12 gallons of cold 
 water, afterwards wash, and then charge jigger with 9 gallons 
 water (hot), and 8 oz. RR violet crystals, give 4 to 6 ends, 
 and wash and dry as usual. 
 
 N.B. The above gives a deep shade of mauve. If a 
 medium or lighter hue be required, reduce the quantities of 
 ingredients used. 
 
 If a blue mauve be required, use 6 B violet crystals instead 
 of the RR, and so on for any other tone or shade of mauve. 
 
 23. Chamois. 
 
 5 pieces = 80 Ibs. cloth. 
 
 12 gallons water, at 100 Fahr. (377 C.) ; jigger 
 charged with 
 
DYEING. 51 
 
 3 pints catechu 4 Twaddle, give i end, then add 
 
 2 pints catechu at 4 Twaddle, give 4 ends more, 
 
 recharge jigger with same water, and 
 
 3 quarts bichromate potash (i Ib. per gallon), give i 
 
 end, then add 
 
 2 quarts more bichromate potash (i Ib. per gallon), 
 give 4 ends wash. 
 
 24. Canary. 
 
 5 pieces = 80 Ibs. cloth, jigger charged with 
 12 gallons cold water, 
 2 pints fustic extract at 48 Twaddle, give i end, then 
 
 add 
 
 ij pints fustic extract at 48 Twaddle, give 4 ends, and 
 recharge jigger with the same quantity of water, 
 and 3 Ibs. of alum, give 4 ends, and afterwards 2 
 in water, and then the goods are ready. 
 
 25. Claret. 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth, jigger charged with 
 
 12 gallons of hot water at 120 Fahr. (49 C.), and 
 
 10 Ibs. sumach, and 
 
 10 Ibs. ground logwood, give 5 ends in this, then add 
 
 to it 
 5 gills protochloride of tin at 120 Twaddle, give 4 
 
 ends more and wash, recharge jigger with 
 12 gallons hot water, 120 Fahr., 
 10 Ibs. ground logwood, and 
 5 Ibs. peachwood, give 4 ends in this and afterwards 
 
 add to same charge, 
 
 8 oz. ground alum, dissolve, and give 2 more ends, 
 wash as usual. 
 
 26. Drab (Silesian). 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. jigger charged with 
 10 Ibs. sumach. 
 
 E 2 
 
52 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 i Ib. ground logwood, 
 i Ib. ground fustic, 
 4 oz. annatto, 
 20 gallons water at 170 Fahr. (76*6 C.), give 4 ends. 
 
 Then recharge with 12 gallons water in which is 
 
 dissolved 3 Ibs. sulphate of iron, 
 i pint nitrate of iron at 84 Twaddle. 
 I gill sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle, give 2 ends, and 
 
 wash and dry. 
 
 27. Bright Drab. 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth, jigger charged with 
 i \ Ibs. sumach. 
 
 9 gallons hot water at 120 Fahr. (49 C.), give 4 
 rounds, then add 
 
 4 oz. sulphate of iron, give 4 more rounds. Again 
 
 charge with 9 gallons of hot water at 120 F. 
 2\ Ibs. fustic, and 
 
 5 oz. extract of indigo, give 4 rounds and wash. 
 When cotton is dyed with the coal-tar colours, various 
 
 mordants differing with the specific colours are employed. 
 "We give a list of the most important of these mordants : 
 Sumach, tannic acid, alumina (acetate), glycerine, oleine, 
 stannate of sodium. Stannic and tannic acids, together and 
 in conjunction with alumina, are frequently used, and are 
 the most potent and effective. Acetate or nitre-acetate of 
 chromium are also good mordants for the darker colours. 
 Lead (acetate), Glauber salts, and arsenic are likewise em- 
 ployed, but not quite so extensively, at least lead and 
 arsenic are not. Further on will be found representative 
 formulae for the coal-tar colours, by following which, and 
 having recourse to the above-mentioned mordants (which 
 are not mentioned in the formulae referred to) almost 
 every aniline colour can be made available. 
 
DYEING. 53 
 
 28. Bright Rose Pink. 
 
 7 pieces 84 Ibs. worked in jigger, with 1 2 gallons water, 
 cold, containing 3 Ibs. acetate of lead, give 3 ends, and 
 afterwards 2 ends in lime-water (milk of lime), and then 
 
 4 ends in cold water to remove the lime. Then recharge 
 the jigger with 10 gallons water, and 6 to 8 oz. of eosine, give 
 
 5 ends at about 90 to 100 Falir. (32-2 -37'7 C.). After- 
 wards pass through mangle, and dry. 
 
 N.B. Erythnosine may be used instead of eosine, when 
 a yellower shade of rose is required. 
 
 These two red-colouring matters can also be fixed by 
 using common salt (chloride of sodium), instead of lead and 
 lime-water, but the colours are not so full in tone. 
 
 These pinks are not permanent. 
 
 29. Light Pink (Magenta}. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs. worked in jigger, charged with 1 2 
 gallons of cold water, and i| Ibs. stannate of soda, give 4 
 ends, and then 4 ends in jigger with i gill of sulphuric acid, 
 at 170 Twaddle, and 20 gallons of water. Then wash and 
 recharge jigger with 3 pints of magenta liquor (at i oz. 
 of crystals per gallon), and 9 gallons of cold water, give 
 4 to 6 ends, mangle and dry as usual. 
 
 30. Safflower Pink. 
 
 7 pieces = 84 Ibs., worked in jigger with zo gallons water 
 at blood heat, and 9 oz. samower liquor of commerce, give 
 3 to 4 ends, then add to the same bath j gill sulphuric acid 
 at 1 70 Twaddle, give 2 ends more in this liquor, which 
 is to precipitate the colouring matter into the fibre of the 
 cloth. Wash, mangle, and dry. 
 
 31. Barwood Red. 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth padded through stannate of soda, at 12 
 Twaddle. Then passed through sulphuric acid at 2 Twaddle, 
 and washed, then in jigger charged with 9 Ibs. sumach, and 
 
54 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 60 Ibs. barwood ; run in this charge at boil for 1 1 hours. 
 Afterwards wash. 
 
 32. Rich Orange. 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth jigger charged with 
 12 gallons hot water, 120 Fahr. (49 C.), and 
 12 oz. soda ash, 
 
 4 Ibs. annatto, dissolve and add 
 
 4 Ibs. turmeric give 4 ends in this, then add to same 
 8 oz. (fluid) of sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle, give 2 
 ends in it, and afterwards wash. This is much 
 cheaper than chrome orange, and good. 
 
 33. Bright Yellow (Turmeric). 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth, say 6 pieces, 70 yards. Run the goods in 
 jigger in hot water to thoroughly and evenly wet them, 
 then to 20 gallons of hot water at 140 Fahr. (60 C.), 
 add 7 Ibs. turmeric, give 4 ends, then add to the same liquor 
 4 fluid ounces of sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle, and give 
 the goods 2 ends more. Afterwards wash, mangle, and dry. 
 
 34. Chrome Yellow. 
 
 72 Ibs. cloth. Pad through acetate of lead, at strength of 
 8 oz. per gallon, then pass into jigger charged with lime- 
 water, wash in water, and recharge jigger with 9 gallons of 
 water, in which is dissolved i| Ibs. bichromate of potash, 
 give 4 ends, and afterwards wash. Should the yellow 
 be rather too much of a gold colour, i or 2 ends in weak 
 hydrochloric acid will bring it back. 
 
 DYEING WOOL AND SILK. 
 
 Since the discovery of the coal-tar colours, which are now 
 so extensively used for dyeing wool and silk, most of the older 
 colouring matters are sparingly used, except for the produc- 
 tion of dark colours, such as chocolates, dark browns, maroons, 
 and blacks, as well as some intense colours. The coal-tar 
 
DYEING. 55 
 
 colours are much easier of application, many of them are 
 cheaper than the old dye stuffs, and most of them require 
 but little mordant, and for silk and wool, some of them, 
 indeed, none. 
 
 Their employment, therefore, entails less labour, and they 
 generally give brighter tints and more regular results. The 
 yarn or cloth must, of course, be scoured or bleached before 
 dyeing. 
 
 The woollen goods are not worked in jiggers, but in dye 
 vessels, the quantities of water in each case being as much 
 as easily to work the cloth in.* 
 
 SILK. 
 
 1. Peacock Blue. 
 
 80 Ibs. silk, 
 i pint sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle, 
 
 10 oz. methylin blue crystal dye at 120 to 160 Fahr. 
 (49-7i C.), usual manipulation. 
 
 2. Peacock Blue. 
 
 80 Ibs. cloth or yarn, 
 3 oz. biborate of soda (borax), 
 
 1 1 oz. peacock blue crystals, enter at 140 Fahr. (60 C.), 
 
 and bring to boil in twenty minutes. 
 
 WOOL. 
 
 3. Black. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth, 
 150 gallons hot water (usual vessels), 
 3! Ibs. bichromate of potash, 
 
 * In wool dyeing, the goods should in every case be entered just 
 below boiling point, and be well saturated with the dye-liquor, before 
 the bath is raised to boiling. 
 
56 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 i pint sulphuric acid, at 170 Twaddle, enter and 
 work at boil for i hour, then wash in cold water 
 and dye in 
 
 150 gallons hot water, and 
 37 Ibs. ground logwood, 
 7 Ibs. fustic, chips or ground, enter at boil, and work 
 
 for i hour at boil, when add to the bath 
 if Ibs. sulphate of copper. Continue to work in this 
 bath at boil for 30 minutes. Wash in cold water 
 and dry. 
 Some dyers use a little alum to the mordant bath. 
 
 4. Superior Jet Black. 
 
 5 pieces = i oo Ibs. cloth; dyeing vessel containing 
 
 about 
 150 gallons hot water, in which dissolve 
 
 3 Ibs. bichromate of potash; work in this at boil for i 
 hour, afterwards wash in cold water. Then in 
 same vessel again, charged with 
 150 gallons hot water, add 
 34 Ibs. ground logwood, and 
 
 7 Ibs. fustic, ground or chipped ; enter just below 
 boiling, and immediately raise to boil, and work in 
 it for i hour and 20 minutes. Wash in cold water 
 and dry. 
 
 5. Superior Blue Black. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth, in an ordinary dyeing vessel 
 
 containing about 
 150 gallons water, dissolve 
 
 3 Ibs. bichromate of potash, work in this at boil for i 
 hour, afterwards wash in cold water. Then in 
 same vessel again, charged with 
 150 gallons hot water, add 
 30 Ibs. ground logwood; enter same goods, at i8o c 
 
DYEING. 57 
 
 Falir. (82 C.), and then raise the bath to boiling, 
 in which work the goods for i| hours. Then 
 wash in cold water and dry. 
 
 Dark Brown. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth, 
 20 Ibs. turmeric, 
 
 4 Ibs. extract of indigo, 
 15 Ibs. cudbear, 
 
 2 pints sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle, 
 
 10 Ibs. sulphate of soda, enter at boil, and work for 
 
 about 90 minutes. 
 
 Claret. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth, 
 80 to 100 gallons water, 
 
 30 Ibs. cudbear, 
 
 3 gills sulphuric acid, at 170 Twaddle, 
 
 1 Ib. extract of indigo, 
 
 2 oz. magenta (acid) crystals, heat up to near boil 
 
 before entering, and work for 75 minutes at boil. 
 
 Dark Chocolate. 
 
 80 Ibs. cloth or yarn, 
 80 to 100 gallons water, 
 
 3 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 
 15 Ibs. peachwood, ground, 
 
 3 1 Ibs. logwood, ground, 
 
 1 1 Ibs. tartrate of potash, usual manipulation, boil 30 
 
 to 40 minutes. 
 
 , Red Drab. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth, usual water in vessel, 
 13 Ibs. sulphate of soda, 
 
 4 pints sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle, 
 
58 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 6 Ibs. alum, 
 
 12 oz. bitartrate of potash, 
 6 oz. fustic extract at 48 Twaddle, 
 6 oz. cudbear, 
 
 i oz. extract of indigo, enter at boil and work 45 
 minutes. 
 
 10. Green. 
 
 3 pieces loolbs. cloth, 
 80 to 100 gallons water, 
 lolbs. alum. 
 
 1 pint sulphuric acid, at 170 Twaddle, 
 lolbs. extract of indigo. 
 
 1 5 Ibs. picric acid. 
 Boil and enter, and work for 90 minutes. 
 
 11. Dark Green. 
 
 5 pieces- 100 Ibs. cloth, 
 
 2 pints sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle, 
 5 Ibs. sulphate of soda, 
 
 1 5 Ibs. extract of indigo, 
 i ^ Ibs. picric acid, 
 
 5 Ibs. cudbear. 
 Enter at boil, and work for 90 minutes. 
 
 12. Olive. 
 
 5 pieces i oo Ibs. cloth. Usual quantity of water in 
 vessel, 
 
 1 6 Ibs. sulphate of soda, 
 2^ Ibs. alum, 
 
 8 oz. bitartrate of potash, 
 2^ pints sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle, 
 8 oz. picric acid, 
 8 oz. extract of indigo, 
 ijoz. cudbear. 
 Enter at boil, and work 45 to 60 minutes. 
 
DYEING. 59 
 
 13. Salmon. 
 
 5 pieces 100 Ibs. of cloth; dye vessel; water usual 
 
 quantity, 
 
 2 pints protochloride of tin, 120 Twaddle, 
 4 oz. flavine, 
 
 6 oz. cochineal, 
 
 4 Ibs. bitartrate of potash. 
 Enter at boil, and work for 40 minutes. Wash. 
 
 14. Scarlet (Cochineal). 
 
 5 pieces = loolbs. of cloth, say wool, 
 100 gallons boiling water, 
 
 10 Ibs. bitartrate of potash, and 
 
 6 pints protochloride of tin at 120 Twaddle. Work 
 for 30 minutes, then wind on winch, and add to 
 the same bath 
 
 15 Ibs. cochineal, 
 
 14 ozs. fustic. Enter the goods again, and work for 
 15 minutes at 180 Fahr. (82 C.), then raise the 
 bath to boiling, and work at boil for i hour. 
 Wash and afterwards dry. 
 
 15. Scarlet. 
 
 75 Ibs. cloth or yarn, 
 
 1 1 Ibs. eosine dissolved in the bath, say at 120 Fahr. 
 (49 C.), add 
 
 3 gills sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle. Enter the 
 
 goods, say at 140 to 145 Fahr. (6o-63 C.), and 
 gradually bring to boil in from 15 to 20 minutes, 
 and take out. 
 
 1 6. Crimson. 
 
 5pieces=ioo Ibs. cloth; dye vessel; water usual 
 quantity, 
 
 4 pints protochloride of tin 120 Twaddle, 
 
60 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 10 Ibs. bitartrate of potash, 
 
 30 Ibs. cochineal (ammoniacal). No. 17 (below}. 
 
 Work first for 30 minutes in the tin and bitartrate of 
 
 potash, before adding the ammoniacal cochineal ; 
 
 then after that is added, work for an hour at boil ; 
 
 wash. 
 
 17. Ammoniacal Cochineal. 
 1 8 Ibs. cochineal, 
 
 14 Ibs. liquid ammonia, 
 2 gallons of water, 
 
 Steep for 1 2 hours in a closed vessel ; when it will be 
 ready for use. 
 
 1 8. Yellow. 
 
 80 Ibs. cloth or yarn, 
 8 Ibs. Glauber salts, 
 
 1 gill sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle, 
 5 oz. aniline yellow. 
 
 Usual manipulation. 
 
 19. Yellow. (Bark}. 
 80 Ibs. cloth or yarn, 
 
 5 1 Ibs. ground bark, 
 4^ Ibs. bitartrate of potash, 
 4j quarts protochloride of tin, at 120 Twaddle. 
 Enter at 140 Fahr. (60 C.), and boil 35 minutes. 
 
 20. Yellow. 
 
 5 pieces = 100 Ibs. cloth ; dye vessel ; water usual 
 quantity, 
 
 2 pints protochloride of tin, at 120 Twaddle, 
 12 Ibs. flavine, 
 
 5 Ibs. oxalic acid. 
 
 Enter at 200 Fahr. (93-3 C.), and work quickly for 
 2 hours ; wash. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 THIS branch of dyeing consists in topically printing upon 
 textile fabrics, such as cotton, linen, woollen, silk and mixed 
 goods, figures and designs mostly in two or more colours? 
 upon a white or coloured ground. 
 
 It is believed that the ancient Egyptians, who, according 
 to Pliny, practised the art of calico-printing with con- 
 siderable success, acquired their knowledge from India, 
 which country formerly enjoyed a great renown for the 
 manufacture of its cotton cloth, and its printed calicoes.* 
 
 The Dutch are supposed to have been the first who 
 attempted to introduce the art of calico-printing, as practised 
 in India, into Europe ; at what period is uncertain. It was 
 possibly from Holland that the art reached Germany, for 
 we find that, towards the end of the seventeenth century, 
 Augsburg was famous for the excellence of its linen and 
 cotton fabrics. Dr.;Ure states that calico-printing was probably 
 introduced into England by some Flemish emigrants about 
 the year 1670.' Shortly after its introduction, several print- 
 ing works were set up in this country, with the object of 
 supplying the London shops with chintzes, the importation 
 of which had been prohibited by Act of Parliament in 1600. 
 This introduction of calico goods, whether of native or Indian 
 
 * The word calico is derived from Calicut, a town in India where 
 these industries were carried on. 
 
62 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 origin, met with the most unqualified opposition from the 
 silk and woollen weavers, who in 1680 attacked the India 
 House, for having been instrumental in shipping some 
 Malabar chintzes. Intimidated by the Spitalfield weavers, 
 the Government in that year not only excluded from the 
 English markets the beautiful printed cotton fabrics of 
 Calicut, but passed a law by which the weaving of all 
 printed calicoes whatsoever, whether of foreign or domestic- 
 origin, was interdicted, and it was only till after a lapse 
 of 140 years, that printed calico goods were allowed to enter 
 into equitable competition with other fabrics. 
 
 In 1738, calico-printing was introduced into Scotland, and 
 in 1764 into Lancashire, the first Lancashire calico-printer 
 being Mr. CLAYTON, who erected works at Bembridge, near 
 Preston. The process was mostly performed by means of 
 engraved blocks applied to the cloth by hand, till the year 
 1785, when the cylinder printing machine, now almost uni- 
 versally adopted, was invented by a Scotchman of the name 
 of BELL. 
 
 In 1746, the first calico works in Mulhausen were estab- 
 lished by KOECHLIN, whose descendants are the representa- 
 tives of the old house which has rendered the printed 
 calicoes of that city so renowned. 
 
 The Chinese practised the art many centuries before it was 
 known in Europe. 
 
 The process of calico-printing is performed either by means 
 of w r ooden stamping blocks, on which the patterns are cut 
 in relief ; but more frequently by the aid of engraved copper- 
 cylinders. In the former case the work is performed by 
 hand ; in the latter by machinery. The blocks* are of pear- 
 
 * When a pattern is to be several times reproduced on the block, 
 as many castings of it as are required, are taken in type metal, and 
 afterwards arranged and nailed to a plain block of wood. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 63 
 
 tree, box, fir or sycamore wood, with sometimes a piece of 
 copper wire, forming the design, let into them. By means of 
 sharp pins let into the corners of the block, the printer can 
 place it in its exact position on the fabric. The printer clipping 
 the raised part of the block into the mordant, which stands 
 near him (for every different colour he requires a different 
 mordant), stamps it sharply on to the fabric, taking care in 
 so doing to press it evenly and equally on to the cloth, 
 stretched on a flat table covered with a blanket.* 
 
 A method of block-printing by machinery was invented 
 by PERROT, of Rouen, in 1833. The " Perrotine," as the 
 apparatus by which this process is carried out, is called, con- 
 sists of three blocks either of wood or fusible metal, on the 
 faces of which are the patterns or designs in relief. These 
 blocks are fixed at right angles to each other, in a powerful 
 iron frame, and in close proximity to a revolving iron prism 
 covered with cloth. When the fabric, which is drawn through 
 the apparatus by a winding cylinder, passes between the 
 iron prism and the engraved blocks, these latter are pressed 
 against it by means of springs, and print the design upon it 
 in succession. After each impression fresh mordant is applied 
 to every block from a woollen pad, which is smeared over 
 with the paste by means of a mechanical brush. The Per- 
 rotine is employed in the French and Belgian factories, 
 but not in the English, and effects a great saving of 
 time and labour over hand-block printing; what required 
 twenty men and twenty children by this latter method, 
 being accomplished by the Perrotine by one man and two 
 children. 
 
 In certain cases, such as in printing woollen and mousseline- 
 
 * Block-printing is also employed for introducing colours into a 
 fabric after it has been subjected to cylinder-printing and dyed. 
 
<?4 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 de-laine goods, block work has been very generally super- 
 seded by cylinder printing. By the latter method the 
 mordant is applied to the cloth by means of copper cylinders, 
 whereon the design or pattern is engraved. These cylinders 
 are set in a strong iron framework, and form part of a 
 large apparatus essentially consisting, besides the cylinders, 
 of an iron drum and a colour cylinder. The iron drum is 
 encased in woollen cloth or felt. The annexed drawing, 
 which represents a section of the ma- 
 . a chine, will explain the manner in 
 
 v\ || * -v J which it works. B is an iron drum 
 
 ^ '" turning on supports fixed in the end 
 
 framework of the machine. A the en- 
 graved cylinder, and c the colour or 
 mordant cylinder covered with woollen 
 cloth, c dips into a trough, D D, filled 
 with the mordant, d is the fabric 
 to be printed, a a is an endless web 
 or blanket passing around B. The en- 
 graved cylinder A is mounted on an axis 
 or iron mandrel turned by steam or water power. Being 
 pressed against the surface of the drum B, by means of 
 weights or screws, in revolving, A imparts a rotary move- 
 ment to B, which carrying the fabric d with it in the direc- 
 tion of the arrows, brings it into contact with the engraved 
 cylinder, and in so doing causes the pattern or design to be 
 printed 011 it. As it revolves, A imparts a similar movement 
 to the mordant cylinder c, and at the same time robs this 
 of the mordant which it has taken up from, the trough D D. 
 Any excess of mordant or colour beyond that required to 
 fill up the engraved lines is scraped off from the face of the 
 cylinder A before this reaches the fabric by b, a sharp metal 
 instrument, called the " colour doctor ;" opposite which is 
 a similar contrivance c, for removing any loose threads from 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 65 
 
 the roller, called the " lint doctor." When more than one 
 colour has to be printed, additional cylinders, mordant rollers, 
 colour boxes, &c., are employed. Some apparatus are made to 
 print fabrics in as many as twenty-four different colours. 
 
 FIG. 3. 
 
 c 1 1 
 
 The above engraving represents an end elevation of a 
 four colour calico-printing machine. A is the framework 
 of cast-iron fixed to a corresponding framework by strong 
 bolts B. c is the drum, the diameter of which varies with 
 the fabric to be printed ; D the engraved cylinders. E are 
 mandrels made of wrought-iroii on which the engraved 
 cylinders are forced by a screw-press. The cylinders D are- 
 made with projecting pieces inside, extending all the width 
 of the roller, an arrangement which causes it to revolve 
 with the mandrel,without slipping. The drum, c, rests with 
 its gudgeons on bearings which can be shifted up and down 
 in slots of the side cheeks A. These bearings are suspended 
 
 F 
 
66 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 from massive screws r, which turn in brass nuts fastened 
 to the framework A. By means of these screws the upward 
 pressure of the two lowest engraved cylinders is counter- 
 acted. G G are sliding pieces, which move in arms of the 
 framework A by means of the screws H H, and to them are 
 attached the bearings of the mandrels, the colour-boxes and 
 the " doctors." By means of the screws H and I, and the 
 levers K, additional pressure is given to the cylinders D, the 
 top cylinders D are pressed against the drum by the 
 levers K, which are attached to the arms of the framework. 
 The two bottom cylinders D are pressed against c by the 
 levers K in a similar manner to the upper ones. ajs the 
 cloth to be printed. 
 
 In the above machine, one engraved cylinder is capable of 
 printing one colour only. A pattern or design, therefore, 
 in which there are several colours, will require a separate 
 cylinder for each; all the cylinders working in one machine. 
 When this is the case, the pattern is cut up into as many 
 parts as there are colours, each part being engraved upon a 
 distinct cylinder. By arranging the respective cylinders so 
 that each will print the colour in its right position, the 
 vari-coloured pattern will be produced in its integrity. Upon 
 the proper and accurate adjustment of the cylinders, and 
 the consequent exact fitting in of the mordants or colours 
 with each other, the distinctness of the design depends. 
 The material surrounding the drum generally consists of a 
 particular kind of strong, coarse woollen cloth, known as 
 lapping. It is about half an inch thick. The blanket is a 
 woollen web with the ends sewn together. It is about 40 
 yards in length and should be of equal thickness through- 
 out, as well as of uniform texture and elasticity. A blanket 
 of good quality will print 10,000 pieces; whenever saturated 
 with mordant it is washed, and is then employed for cover- 
 ing the table used in block-printing. Blankets made of 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 67 
 
 cotton, covered with India-rubber and of vulcanized* India 
 rubber are sometimes employed. They are said to act satis- 
 factorily, and to be more economical than the woollen ones, 
 since they last longer, in addition to which they can be 
 more easily washed. Spite of these advantages, however, 
 the woollen blanket is largely used. Processes for dispen- 
 sing with blankets have, from time to time, been introduced, 
 but they have not met with much favour. The " colour 
 doctor," or sharp instrument used to scrape the super- 
 fluous mordant from the engraved cylinder as it revolves, is 
 generally made of steel. It must be so tempered as to be 
 capable of receiving a fine edge, but not so hard as to resist 
 being cut with a file. For mordants which act rapidly on 
 steel, brass and nickel " doctors" are sometimes employed ; 
 neither of these metals, however, can be as accurately 
 tempered as steel, besides which, being softer, "doctors" made 
 of them are more quickly worn out, and are more difficult 
 to clean. But all colours containing salts of copper, neces- 
 sitate the use of brass, composition, or nickel "doctors." For 
 if steel be used, then the nitrate, acetate, or sulphate of 
 copper in the colour, immediately deposits its oxide in 
 irregular layers on the sharpened edge of the doctor, and 
 thereby permits colour to pass under it that should be 
 kept back. 
 
 * An india-rubber blanket, the invention of Mr. JAMES CHADWICK, 
 of the firm of CHADWICK & Co., of Manchester, is iu occasional use. 
 This blanket, which was pateuted by the inventor, consists of a thin 
 woollen fabric known as camlet cloth, two folds or plies being held 
 together by a thin layer of india-rubber, which is afterwards vulcan- 
 ized. Owing to its thinness, and to its being made of wool, it com- 
 bines pliability with durability, and being waterproof, after every 
 passage through the printing machine, it is washed and dried by 
 means of an apparatus situated behind the machine. By this arrange 
 ment a clean surface is secured after every registration. Mr. CHAD- 
 WICK'S patent has now expired. 
 
 F 2 
 
68 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Previous to either printing or dyeing silk, wc,ol, cotton, oi- 
 lmen, each of these fibres has to pass through several cleans- 
 ing processes, in order to secure the desired results. 
 
 SILK must be boiled for some hours in soap and water, 
 until the gum natural to the silk, as it comes from the cocoon, 
 and other matters used in its manufacture, are entirely 
 removed. It is afterwards suspended in a sulphur chamber 
 filled with the fumes of sulphur, for eight to twelve hours. 
 This gives a whiteness to the fibre. If, however, the goods 
 are for dyeing, and the whiteness is not material, the sul- 
 phuring is dispensed with. After the soaping or sulphuring, 
 the goods are well washed and dried, Avhen they are ready 
 for dyeing or printing. 
 
 WOOLLEN GOODS, before being printed or dyed, are gener- 
 ally what is called " crabbed," in either weak ammonia or 
 weak soda lye. The finer qualities or styles are crabbed in 
 soap and water; w^hilst for common colours putrid urine, vary- 
 ing in temperature from 140 Fahr. (60 C.) to boiling, is used. 
 If intended for styles where a pure white is required, the 
 goods are also sulphured previous to washing and drying, 
 for printing or dyeing. The sulphuring is omitted in 
 those cases in which the colours would be injured. The 
 all important object is to effect the removal of yolk and 
 oil. 
 
 Before printing or dyeing COTTON or CALICO, the goods 
 are dressed or singed to remove the fibrous down from the 
 surface. The singeing is performed by passing them per- 
 fectly straight and even over red-hot copper or iron plates, 
 at the rate of about 100 yards per minute; or by means of 
 TULPIN'S singeing machine, which causes the cotton or calico 
 to be moved along the lateral part of a coal-gas flame. The 
 flame is kept steady by means of a ventilator, which draws 
 off the gases arising from combustion. The flame being mixed 
 with air, the same as in the Bunseii lamp, perfect com- 
 
6 9 
 
 bustion is effected, consequently no smoke is given oft', and 
 the cloth is neither discoloured nor blackened. 
 
 The goods are next passed through a washing-machine, 
 and then through milk of lime into a vessel termed a kier, 
 where they are boiled from five to eight or twelve hours in 
 the usual quantity of water, heated by high or low pressure 
 steam ; steam of low pressure being preferable, since the 
 boiling is then more effective and occupies less time. The 
 goods are afterwards well washed and steeped for some hours 
 in hydrochloric acid at i to 2 Twaddle, after which they are 
 again well washed and boiled in the kier in soda ash, or car- 
 bonate of soda, or resinate of soda, the proportions being, 
 say, 140 Ibs. to two tons weight of dry cloth. In this they are 
 boiled from six, eight, to twelve hours, afterwards washed 
 and steeped for three or four hours in a solution of chloride 
 of lime at ^ to i Twaddle. They are again washed, then 
 steeped in hydrochloric acid at i Twaddle for two hours, 
 re washed, squeezed and dried. 
 
 LINEN, before being printed or dyed, is treated in much the 
 same manner as calico, but is more frequently boiled in ash 
 lye than in lime. 
 
 The pieces intended to be printed on by the cylinder 
 machine, stitched together by machinery, or sometimes 
 gummed, mostly in lots of forty, are wound by means of 
 an apparatus called a candroy 011 to a wooden roller, which 
 is fixed at the back of the printing-machine. 
 
 During the time it is being unwound from this (see 
 a and b, fig. 3, page 65), the fabric is made to pass over 
 wooden rollers, and is additionally stretched tightly by 
 means of a pulley attached to the axis of the roller, 
 so that when it arrives at the drum it is in a smooth 
 and uncreased condition, and is kept in position by a 
 boy placed behind the machine. This boy also removes 
 any loose fibre from the cloth. The printer stands in front 
 
70 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 of the apparatus, and adjusts his pattern on a piece of coarse 
 cloth, attached to the end of the nearest piece. This man 
 also has the colour boxes under his supervision. After forty 
 pieces have been worked off the machine is stopped, and 
 previous to another batch being passed through it, the 
 " doctors" are examined, and, if needful, sharpened by means 
 of a file. 
 
 It is necessary that the pieces upon which the mordant 
 has been printed should be immediately dried. This is done 
 by passing them from the printing rollers, over steam chests 
 and cylinders. If the style is for steam or topical prints, 
 the goods are passed on to the steaming box described f urther 
 on. If for madder styles, the goods must be passed through 
 the ageing chambers, where the mordants undergo a chemical 
 decomposition which converts them into a state the most 
 favourable for the subsequent operations. 
 
 For instance, the mordants generally employed in this 
 style of printing are the acetates and pyrolignites of iron, used 
 either separately, or in combination with the salts of 
 alumina,* and the salts of copper and iron used with catechu, 
 and these salts not possessing the essential quality of insolu- 
 bility, would fail to attach themselves either to the dye or to 
 the cloth. When, however, the calico printed with them is 
 exposed to the heat and moisture of the ageing-room, the 
 acetic or pyroligneous acid is in great part driven off, and 
 owing to the absorption of oxygen, either an insoluble oxide 
 or hydrated peroxide, or a subsalt, is left behind, confined to 
 the space on which the pattern was impressed, which, after 
 being subjected to the treatment described further on, enters 
 into insoluble union both with the cloth and subsequently with 
 the tinctorial body. Goods were formerly aged by hanging 
 
 * Alumina salts alone require no ageing previous to their being 
 dunked. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 71 
 
 them in folds from the roof of a very spacious airy building, 
 kept at a mean summer temperature, and by the introduction 
 of aqueous vapour into the apartment. The hygroscopic 
 condition was sometimes ensured by mixing the mordants 
 with a deliquescent salt. 
 
 In the process of ageing, as now carried out, the exposure 
 of the mordanted cloth by hanging in folds is got rid of 
 altogether. After it has been mordanted, it is passed 
 through what is called the " ageing machine." The ageing 
 machine was originally introduced by Mr. THOM, of May- 
 field Print Works. Shortly after, however, Mr. "W. CRUM, 
 of Thornlie Bank, by increasing its size, and giving it a more 
 practical form, soon caused it to be extensively adopted, and 
 it is now in almost universal use. The ageing machine con- 
 sists of a chamber about 36 feet long, 20 feet high, and 13 feet 
 wide. It is fitted at top and bottom with rollers, over which 
 the mordanted cloth is made to pass at the rate of 60 to 80 
 yards a minute. The chamber, which is made of wood, and 
 is air-tight, is fitted with steam pipes and jets, which supply 
 it with the necessary heat and moisture. It also contains a 
 DANIELL'S hygrometer, which, when the chamber is in 
 use, should indicate a temperature of 75 to 80 Fahr. 
 (23*28 26-6 C.), and 70 to 76 of moisture. Ageing 
 machines are manufactured by MATHER & PLATT. 
 
 After the mordanted goods have passed through the 
 ageing chamber, they are folded in bundles of convenient 
 size, and placed in a room, heated to about the same tem- 
 perature, till next morning, when they are ready for dunging. 
 But the tissue is not yet in a fit condition to enter the 
 dye-beck, since, when it leaves the ageing house, there is 
 always adhering' to its printed portions a sensible quantity 
 of superfluous and unoxiclized mordant, and a small quantity 
 of undecomposed acetate or pyroligiiite of iron or alumina, 
 as the case may be. If these were allowed to remain, they 
 
72 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 would not only cause a waste of dye-stuff, but, in combina- 
 tion with this, would spread over the fabric and impregnate 
 with colour those parts intended to be kept white. In 
 addition to the excess of mordant, the substances with 
 which it had been thickened must also be got rid of. 
 
 Simple immersion of the fabric in warm water, and sub- 
 sequent rinsing in cold, would remove these ; but such a 
 course of treatment would be inapplicable to the superfluous 
 mordant, inasmuch as this would dissolve in the water, 
 
 j which would then colour the cloth, and thus, more or less, 
 
 L obscure the design on it. 
 
 Fepmerly the superfluous mordant was got rid of by_J 
 passing the aged goods through a bath of cow-dung ; whence 
 this particular stage of the dyeing operation derived its 
 present name of " dunging ;" called by the French printers 
 bousage. CAMILLE KCECHLIN, a French authority, ascribed the 
 efficiency of the dung to the presence of an albuminous con- 
 y stituent, which, he believed, combined with the alumina and 
 iron of the acetates of these bases dissolved by the hot water 
 of the bath, and formed with them insoluble precipitates, 
 which fell to the bottom of the vessel. It is, however, more 
 probable that the efficiency of the dung was due to its 
 containing certain salts, such as phosphates and silicates, the 
 acid radicles of which, seizing the bases of the free mordant, 
 precipitated them in the form of insoluble salts, which were 
 incapable of combining either with the fibre or the colour. 
 
 This latter view receives strong support from the fact that 
 similar salts are now almost universally used as dung 
 
 niubstitutes. Those in use are : i , The double phosphate of 
 .ioda and lime; 2, arseniate of soda; 3, arsenite of soda; 
 4, silicate of soda; 5, silicate of lime. The selection of 
 these substances depends upon the particular style for which 
 they are required. Phosphate of soda and lime was first 
 patented by MACQUER ; silicate of soda, by SCHLIEPER ; and 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 73 
 
 silicate of lime, by HIGGIN, as being an improvement upon 
 silicate of soda, the alkalinity of which was sometimes 
 objectionable. 
 
 On the Continent, bran, which is rich in phosphates, is 
 
 ^used i^---n--tiTiTrg""Su1)stitute. Deeper and brighter colours 
 result from the employment of the dung substitutes than 
 from the dung itself ; in addition to which the white parts 
 are left clearer, since the dung occasionally imparted a 
 greenish stain to these. The varying constitution of the 
 dung, as giving rise to uncertain effects, also constitutes an 
 important drawback. Lastly, a great saving of labour and 
 
 ~" time is gained when the salts are employed.* The ds*g- 
 bath is a large trough filled with weak solutions of the 
 
 c arseniate or silicate of soda, or some other salt used ts ft 
 dung substitute. In the trough are fixed two rows, about 
 twenty in a row, of rollers, one row at the top, the other at 
 the bottom, over and under which the mordanted cloth, 
 sewn together by the ends, and extended to its full width, 
 and free from folds, is drawn as expeditiously as possible, 
 the bath being maintained at a temperature at from 160 to 
 1 80 Fahr. (7i-82'2 C.). It is important that the pieces 
 should be made to pass through the fijs-dwftg bath at such a 
 rate of speed as not to remain in it more than a minute 
 or a minute and-a-half , and also that the bath should, from 
 time to time, have strong liquor added to it, so as to keep 
 it up to the required strength during the time the pieces 
 are being carried through it. 
 
 * " Experience proves that iu the case of the Lest dung substitutes, 
 a final turn in cow- dung before dyeing is advantageous, it being 
 better for the mordanted oxide that it should go into the batli in a 
 partially saturated state than in a state of the highest activity. In a 
 majority of cases the colours will Le more solid, brighter and faster 
 when the combination between the mordant and colouring matter is 
 slow and gradual than when it is rapid." Practical Handbook of 
 Dyciny and Calico-printing, by W. CROOKES, F.R.S. 
 
74 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 After they leave the trough, the goods are thoroughly 
 rinsed, and then drawn spirally through a vessel resembling 
 a dye-beck, filled with a very weak dunging solution heated 
 to 140 Fahr. (60 C.). After this second dunging, termed 
 cleansing, and which is known in French as deyommage, the 
 principal use of which is to remove the substances used to 
 thicken the mordant, the goods being well washed in a 
 machine made for the purpose, are in a condition to be 
 dyed.* In the dyeing of calico printed goods, the process is 
 performed in oblong or wooden vessels called dye-becks. 
 
 These becks are usually divided lengthwise by a perforated 
 diaphragm, under which runs a perforated pipe for the 
 admission of steam. Above the dye-beck is a winch or reel 
 connected with a driving shaft. The necessary quantity of 
 water having been run into the beck, the mordanted, aged 
 and dunged pieces are laid in a row, in seven or eight lengths 
 of two each, across the beck, the ends of each being tied 
 together so as to form an endless web, which is wound round 
 the winch, the diaphragm and steam-pipe, the greater part 
 of the cloth being in the front part of the beck. * The dye- 
 decoction or solution of the colouring substance being then 
 added, the driving shaft is set in motion and the steam 
 gently turned on, and the liquid gradually raised to the 
 boiling point, the pieces being in succession dragged through 
 the dye-bath all the time the winch is being turned, when 
 the tinctorial substance is kept equally diffused owing to 
 the agitation induced by the moving cloth. Some becks 
 are divided into compartments, an arrangement which 
 diminishes the chance of the pieces getting too much mixed 
 together, and the better ensures their taking the dye more 
 
 * The above system of dunging is also suited for the artificial 
 alazarine dyes, the only difference being that when these colours are 
 employed, the second dunging is to be repeated. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 7$ 
 
 equally. When the goods have been sufficiently long in 
 the beck, they are removed and thoroughly washed in a, 
 washing-machine.* After madder printed goods are dyed, 
 dunged, and washed, they have further to be brightened 
 and cleansed. The madder colours, as they come from the 
 dye-beck, are dull, whilst the whites or unmordanted parts, 
 even after being thoroughly washed, are tinted with the red 
 colouring matter of the madder. It is therefore neces- 
 sary both for the brightening of the colours and the 
 clearing of the whites, to subject the goods to repeated 
 soapings at temperatures varying from 140 and 180 Fahr. 
 (6o 82*2 C.). The soapings are performed in becks, 
 which are of similar construction to dye-becks. 
 
 In order to obtain bright madder reds, scarlets, and 
 pinks, it is further necessary, after the goods have been 
 dyed and washed, and previous to their being soaped, to have 
 them dried, and afterwards padded through an emulsion of 
 oleine (saponified castor oil), consisting of i part of oleine 
 to 1 6 parts of water. They should then be dried and 
 hung in a steaming-box, with the steam at a pressure of 
 from one to three pounds to the square inch. They should 
 next be treated according to the directions already given 
 for brightening and cleansing. 
 
 Sometimes when bluer pinks are required, weak tin is 
 
 * This operation which has for its object the removal of the super- 
 fluous and uncombined dye is more particularly in piece-dyeing 
 conducted as follows : The pieces are first vigorously agitated in a 
 large reservoir of water, from whence they pass between two cylin- 
 ders, being subjected in doing so to a heavy downpour of water ; 
 from the cylinders they descend into a smaller reservoir supplied 
 with- water from a wide pipe, and finally they are carried through a 
 second pair of cylinders, being exposed during their passage to a 
 powerful fall of water. Improved washing-machines are supplied by 
 the following amongst other makers: MATHER & PL ATT ; FURNI- 
 VAL ; and BARLOW. 
 
' 
 
 76 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 used between the soapings. Sometimes, in order to obtain 
 the necessary purity of colour, in the ground, or the whites, 
 it is necessary to pass the goods through a weak solution of 
 chloride of lime. After calico goods are printed, they 
 generally require to be subjected to the process of " finish- 
 ing,'' before they are in a condition to be delivered to the 
 merchant for sale. 
 
 To the outsider, the operation of finishing may seem a 
 matter of no very great importance, but by the calico 
 printer it is regarded in a very different light. When 
 making his purchases of printed goods from the manufac- 
 turer, the buyer generally requires to know their length, 
 width, weight, <fcc. Now, before the goods are printed, all 
 foreign matters that have been added to the cotton, for the 
 purposes either of manufacture or gain, must be removed. 
 
 In some cases, removal of these extraneous bodies amounts 
 to a loss of as much as i o per cent. Besides this, the goods 
 having been made to pass through so many operations, 
 become soft, loose, and rough, in which state they are very 
 imsuited for the market. To remedy this, they are passed 
 through a machine called a " mangle," a vessel charged with 
 starch water varying in consistence according to the nature 
 of the finishing required, and then immediately after over 
 drying cylinders. Finally, they are passed once or twice 
 through a calender to give them the necessary smoothness. 
 Owing to the varied requirements of the different markets, 
 and to the numberless uses to which printed calicoes are 
 put, there is considerable diversity in the manner in which 
 finishing is carried out. Hence we have " embossing- 
 finish," " glazed or Swissed finish," " bath finish," <fec. &c. 
 
 MORDANTS. 
 
 As already explained, mordants are substances employed, 
 when necessary, by the dyer and calico-printer, to fix his 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 77 
 
 colours to the fleece, yarn, or tissue. They are in extensive 
 use, because, with the exception of indigo, safflower, annatto, 
 and the aniline colours, there are scarcely any tinctorial 
 substances the essential principles of which can be fixed to 
 textile fabrics without their intervention. 
 
 In its extended meaning, the word " mordant" signifies 
 any agent that accomplishes this fixation, not only by enter- 
 ing into insoluble union both with the colouring principle 
 and the textile fibre, but that also acts as an intermediary 
 without itself entering into combination. The salts of 
 alumina, iron, tin, and many other compounds belong to 
 the first class ; whilst as illustrations of the second may be 
 taken oxygen, which by its action on the reduced indigo of 
 the blue vat, causes the adhesion of the resulting indigotin 
 to the fabric ; and the acid employed to neutralize the 
 alkaline lye holding in solution the colouring principles of 
 safnower and annatto, which, upon withdrawal of the alkali, 
 are precipitated upon the cotton yarn or cloth, and enter 
 into indissoluble union with it. 
 
 The term " mordant," however, is generally applied to 
 solid bodies, and to solutions of these. 
 
 The following list includes most of the mordants in use : 
 Salts of : 
 
 Aluminium. Potassium. 
 
 Antimony. Sodium. 
 
 Arsenic. Tin. 
 
 Chromium. Also : 
 
 Copper. Albumen(f rom egg and blood) .* 
 
 Iron. Certain fatty oils. 
 
 Lead. Casein (lactarine). 
 
 Manganese. Gelatin. 
 
 Mercury. Tannic acid. 
 
 Albumen, casein, gluten, and other coagulums, which were at one 
 
78 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 One or more of the above metals form salts with one or 
 more of the following acids : arsenic, boracic, hydrochloric, 
 hyposulphurous,* nitric, phosphoric and silicic. The oxides 
 of the metallic or inorganic compounds in the above list 
 exhibit a much stronger affinity for the fibre and the colour- 
 ing principle, and enter into a correspondingly more intimate 
 union with it than the inorganic substances. 
 
 The oil mordants first used in Turkey-red dyeing are 
 supposed to owe their efficacy as mordants to exposure to 
 the air, and consequent absorption of oxygen, whereby they 
 become converted into insoluble bodies capable of combining 
 with certain colouring matters and fixing them on vegetable 
 fibres. The action of bitartrate of potash or cream of tartar 
 as a mordant has yet to be defined. 
 
 The essential conditions of a mordant are, that it should be 
 in a soluble state when applied to the fabric, and should 
 become fixed and insoluble when combined with it. Unless 
 it be in the liquid form it cannot penetrate and thoroughly 
 and equally impregnate the cloth, and if, after its absorption, 
 it were not permanently fixed, it would be washed out by 
 
 time largely used as mordants or agglutinants for fixing the coal-tar 
 colours, have, owing to improvements in the manufacture of these, 
 been supplanted by the ordinary metallic mordants. Albumen and 
 casein more particularly albumen are, however, very extensively 
 employed in fixing to textile fabrics insoluble powders and pigments, 
 such as ultramarine, chrome green, vermilion, chromate of lead, c. 
 These pigments are merely fixed mechanically or by surface adhesion, 
 owing to the coagulation, mostly by means of heat, of the albumen or 
 casein. 
 
 * KOPP first suggested the use of hyposulphite of soda as a mor- 
 dant. He states that it is entirely soluble in water, and that 
 in decomposing, it forms no product that is destructive of the 
 fibre. It is also cheap, gives rise to full-bodied colours, is more 
 rapidly and completely fixed than alumina, and more effectually pre- 
 vents fixation of iron. Gum, British gum, or torrefied starch, may 
 be used as thickeners. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 79 
 
 the liquid that in the first instance had been used as its 
 menstruum. 
 
 Another condition is that it should possess a strong attrac- 
 tion for the colouring matter, and for the cloth also, and 
 form with them a compound of such stability as to be irre- 
 movable when exposed to the ordinary agencies of friction, 
 soap, water, light and air. 
 
 The affinity of the mordant for both fibre and colouring 
 principle should be nicely adjusted ; for if the attraction it 
 possesses for these be excessive, the resulting dye will be 
 deposited in an uneven and spotty manner ; on the contrary, 
 if it be too weak, or some other substance is present which 
 exercises a more powerful attraction, the dyed goods will be 
 poor, and thin in shade, and the colour will probably be 
 fugitive. 
 
 Again, the use of a mordant having a greater affinity for 
 the colouring matter than for the cloth, should be particu- 
 larly avoided, or the mordant combining with the greater 
 part of the tinctorial substance, and forming with it an 
 insoluble lake, which falls to the bottom of the dye-pan, will, 
 of course, more or less prevent its deposition upon the fabric. 
 Those bodies, the components of which are held together by 
 a loose affinity, make the best mordants. 
 
 The fixing of the metallic mordant is obtained by various 
 methods, sometimes the salt is converted into the insoluble 
 base by volatilization of its acid. Thus, when textile goods 
 have been mordanted with the acetates of alumina or iron, 
 and are afterwards " aged," the acetic acid escapes, leaving 
 behind, according to some chemists, an insoluble hydrated 
 oxide of aluminium or iron, according to others a basic body 
 attached to the cloth. When pernitrate of iron is employed 
 as the mordant, the acid, which is only feebly combined with 
 the base, is removed by means of dilution with water, whilst 
 the peroxide of iron is precipitated upon and enters into 
 
So BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 union with the fibre. Again, when a fabric is dipped into 
 a bath of aluminate of sodium, and afterwards passed 
 through a solution of chloride of ammonium, the resulting 
 insoluble oxide of aluminium is deposited upon it ; or the 
 same thing occurs by simple exposure of the fabric, after 
 its removal from the aluminate of sodium solution, to the air, 
 when the atmospheric carbonic acid combines with the soda , 
 and leaves the alumina combined with the cloth. Again, 
 when cotton goods, which are to be dyed with the aniline 
 colours, are first mordanted by passing through a solution 
 of silicate of sodium, and afterwards through a dilute acid, 
 the liberated silica becomes fixed on the cotton. 
 
 The function of the mordant is not confined to the fixa- 
 tion of the colour alone, since in the majority of cases it 
 increases in a marked degree, the brilliancy and depth of 
 shade of the dyed fabric. Thus alumina very greatly in- 
 creases the intensity of the colouring principle of madder ; 
 and perchloride of tin, when added to the cochineal dye-beck, 
 gives rise to beautiful scarlet and crimson shades that would 
 not be brought out by water alone. It must not b'e omitted 
 to be mentioned also, that mordants very frequently render 
 the colour faster. The different shades of colour in fabrics 
 dyed with the same mordant, depend upon the degree of 
 concentration of the mordant. Madder, with a strong iron 
 mordant, gives a dark purple, with a weak one a lilac. With 
 a strong alumina mordant, this dye-stuff gives a deep red, 
 and with the same mordant diluted, a pink shade. A mix- 
 ture of the acetates of alumina and iron, according to its 
 strength, gives rise to varying shades of chocolate. The 
 same mordant gives rise to different colours with different 
 dye stuffs. Alumina which with madder produces pinks and 
 reds, with logwood gives rise to greyish purples, and with old 
 fustic, to yellows. 
 
 The nature of the fibre, as well as the mechanical condi- 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 81 
 
 tion of the surface of the fabric, exercise a considerable 
 influence on the activity or otherwise of the mordant. 
 
 In dyeing woollen fibres, fast colours are obtained with 
 tin mordants ; whereas this latter acts very feebly when 
 used with cotton goods. On the contrary, iron acts as a 
 very powerful mordant when applied to cottons, but is very 
 difficult of application to woollen goods. 
 
 In the choice of mordants, those of a strongly acid or 
 alkaline nature should be avoided, since they corrode the 
 fibre, and by thus rendering it incapable of properly absorb- 
 ing the dye, give rise to meagre, impoverished, flattened and 
 lustreless colours. Acid mordants are best adapted for wool 
 and worsted goods ; neutral ones for silk ; whilst in cotton 
 dyeing and printing, excess of free acid is decidedly objec- 
 tionable. 
 
 The mordant is usually applied to cotton before dyeing, 
 and to wool generally along with the colouring matter, and 
 occasionally after it has been dyecbf ^Several mordants, after 
 a time, suffer spontaneous decomposition. The agents which 
 hasten this are artificial heat, exposure to light, and some- 
 times to a low temperature. 
 
 As strong mordants are particularly prone to decomposi- 
 tion, too much of them should not be prepared at a time. 
 
 Mordants that do not alter the colour of the fibre are, 
 when practicable, to be preferred. 
 
 This is why alumina, tin and other bases destitute of colour 
 mostly make the best mordants. 
 
 The mordants used in dyeing textile fibres of a uniform 
 colour throughout are in the form of liquids ; whereas those 
 employed in calico-printing are made into pastes. The aim 
 of the printer being to impress coloured figures upon the 
 fabric, he can only accomplish this by confining his dyes 
 within certain limits, and this would be impossible were the 
 mordant in a fluid state, and as such allowed to spread over 
 
 G 
 
82 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the face of the tissue. Hence, in order to keep it attached 
 to those parts forming the pattern or design, he is compelled 
 to have it in an inspissated and coherent condition. 
 
 The following is a list of the principal thickening agents, 
 or, as they are termed, " thickeners" : 
 
 Albumen. Gum tragacanth. 
 
 Casein, or lactarine. Molasses. 
 
 Clay, China. Lead sulphate. 
 
 Clay, pipe. Potato starch. 
 
 Dextrin in its different Salep. 
 
 forms of British gum, Shellac dissolved in 
 calcined starch and borax, 
 
 leiocome. Sugar. 
 
 Glue. Wheat-flour. 
 
 Gluten. starch. 
 
 Glycerin. Zinc chloride. 
 
 Gum Senegal. Zinc nitrate. 
 
 Of these, some are only used for particular styles or 
 colours, whilst China-clay, chloride of zinc, and sulphate of 
 lead, are more frequently used as resists or reserves, than as 
 thickeners. The above substances vary greatly in thicken- 
 ing power. Thus 1 1 oz. of tragacanth gum are equal to 
 20 oz. of starch, 22 oz. of flour, and 8 Ibs. or 9 Ibs. of 
 calcined starch. 
 
 Thicker mordants are required for cylinder than for block 
 printing. 
 
 Any little hard particles in the mordant would in- 
 juriously affect the engraved copper cylinders. It is for 
 this reason that China-clay and pipe-clay, previous to being 
 used in cylinder printing, should be freed from all coarse 
 particles by sifting and elutriation. These two substances 
 enter into the composition of resists. Pipe-clay, com- 
 bined with terrified starch, is used as a thickener in block 
 printing. Pipe-clay is also often employed with gum as 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 83 
 
 a thickener, whereby the quantity of gum required is much 
 lessened. 
 
 Different mordants require different thickeners, and in 
 combining the two, it is desirable to avoid the admixture of 
 substances which decompose each other. Thus starch is ill 
 adapted as a thickening for a strongly acid mordant, since 
 the acid deprives the starch of its consistency. As heat assists 
 the reaction that brings about this result, by converting a 
 portion of the starch into glucose, the acid or acid salt 
 should not be added to the starch until this is cold. Acid 
 mordants, however, do not affect British gum or gum 
 Senegal in the same manner. 
 
 Some mordants, which have been thickened by starch, are 
 liable to become fluid after a few days, and are therefore 
 open, to the serious objection of spreading over the fabric 
 [ during printing. The French printers are said to remedy this 
 by adding ^ oz. of spirits of wine to every quart of mordant. 
 
 Mordants that are used in the production of red and pink 
 colours are usually thickened with starch. When starch is 
 used, it is necessary to boil the thickened mordant containing 
 it, keeping it, at the same time, well stirred till cold. The 
 mordant so prepared must not be used hot. For iron 
 mordants starch makes a better thickener than British gum. 
 
 It is important to remember that starch and wheat 
 flour, and all their derivatives, such as dextrin, British 
 gum, &c., are reducing agents, and thereby prevent oxidation 
 of the colours. Mordants thickened with starch give 
 deeper tints than gum. The natural gums should not be 
 used as thickeners for mordants containing basic or sub- 
 acetate of lead, basic alum, solutions of tin, or nitrate of 
 copper or iron, since all these substances coagulate the gum. 
 Starch is occasionally adulterated with gypsum, sulphate 
 of barium and chalk. Mordants containing dextrin are 
 liable to spoil sooner than when made with gum. 
 
 G 2 
 
Ly 
 
 84 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Whenever its use is practicable, gum is preferable to starch 
 as a thickener, since it imparts greater transparency to the 
 dye, does not alter nor tarnish the colours, nor weaken the 
 mordant, whilst the unfixed portion is more easily removable 
 by washing from the fibre. But against these advantages 
 are to be set the tendency of the gum to dry too speedily, 
 and to form an impermeable coating on the cloth, which 
 gives rise to poor and feeble tints. 
 
 The best kind of gum only should be chosen for dyeing 
 pink-reds and rose-reds. Except with pipe clay, the gums 
 are not very miscible with the other substances used for 
 thickening. Solutions of the natural gums quickly become 
 acid. 
 
 Gum Senegal is chiefly used in roller printing. Gums 
 vary in the degree of viscosity they impart to water, 
 or, in other words, in thickening power. The usual way of 
 determining the comparative viscosity of two or more 
 samples of a gum, is to make a solution of each, under 
 precisely similar conditions, and to pour the solutions one at a 
 time through a glass funnel, with the tube drawn but to a 
 fine point. The length of time it takes each solution to run 
 through the funnel is then carefully noted, and the results 
 compared ; that solution of course being the strongest which 
 has been the longest in passing through the funnel. The 
 natural and artificial gums form the best thickeners for 
 printing purposes. When used with the acetates of alumina 
 and iron, they give paler colours than terrified starch. A 
 much smaller quantity of thickener is required when it is 
 employed with salts that have a coagulative power. Colours 
 prepared with casein are liable to decompose. Solutions of 
 albumen also decompose very quickty. They are best 
 preserved by adding to them about i per cent, of arsenite 
 of soda, or arsenious acid. Oil of turpentine is also used for 
 the same purpose. A very small quantity only is necessary. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 
 
 It may be stated that the larger the quantity of thickening 1 
 used, the lighter will, in most cases, be the shade of colour ; 
 and that the most lustrous tints are obtained, when, by 
 judicious thickening, the mordant is kept as much as possible 
 to the surface of the cloth. If the latter precaution be 
 observed, a great saving of dye is also gained. A mordant 
 may be quickly rendered thicker by the addition of starch 
 or farina, without any detriment to the resulting colour. 
 
 A special apartment is reserved for the preparation and 
 mixing of the mordants* and their thickenings. The 
 " colour -room," as it is called, is usually a large w^ell-venti- 
 lated building, with a range of colour pans placed sometimes 
 at one end, and sometimes on one side of it. The annexed 
 drawing exhibits a series of mordant-pans manufactured by 
 STOREY, of Manchester : 
 
 FIG. 4. 
 
 The series consists of eight jacketted copper pans, varying 
 from i to 28 gallons in capacity. The pans are supported 
 on cast iron pillars, and are so arranged, that when the 
 mordant requires to be emptied out, they are turned over by 
 
 * In many works on dyeing and calico-printing, mordants are very 
 frequently spoken of as "colours," a looseness of phraseology which 
 is occasionally likely to lead to their being confounded with the dye. 
 
 f UNIVEKSITT 
 
86 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 means of a brass stuffing box, attached to each pan, and to 
 each pillar. By means of the copper pipe A, steam can be 
 admitted down the pillars, as far as the stuffing boxes, and 
 thus into the jacketted space surrounding each pillar; D, is 
 a condensing pipe for carrying off waste steam and water ; 
 c, is a copper pipe for letting cold water into the casing of 
 any pan, and cooling its contents. The mordanting sub- 
 stance and the thickening being put into the pan, are boiled 
 until perfectly smooth, being all the time constantly stirred 
 by hand or machinery. The steam is then shut off and cold 
 water admitted into the jacketted space, so that the contents 
 of the pan are cooled. But before the mixture is in a fit 
 state for use, it must be strained in order to keep back any 
 gritty particles which would scratch the engraved portions 
 of the copper cylinders. The straining is very fre- 
 quently performed by means of an apparatus invented by 
 DOLFUS & MEIG 
 
 STYLES OF CALICO PRINTING. 
 
 In most of the works on calico-printing, the descriptions 
 of the operations adopted to produce particular effects, are 
 collected under separate heads or divisions, called " Styles." 
 
 The following list includes all these styles : 
 
 1. Madder and Alizarin Dyed . . style. 
 ia. . . blocked. 
 
 2. Reserve style. 
 
 3. Garancine ...... 
 
 4. Padding ...... 
 
 5. Indigo . . . 
 
 6. China Blue ...... 
 
 7. Indigo Discharge . . . 
 ya. Turkey Keel Discharge . . 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 87 
 
 8. Prepared Steam .... style. 
 Sa. Unprepared ,, . . . ,, 
 
 9. Spirit ...... 
 
 10. Bronze ...... 
 
 11. Pigment ...... 
 
 12. Extract or Topical Fast . . 
 
 In the earlier and more primitive days of the art of calico- 
 printing, this classification may have been useful ; but owing 
 to the rapid increase in the number of new methods, and to 
 the practice of sometimes placing these under one of the old 
 designations, as well as to the variety of effects that are 
 obtained by combinations of these methods, the above list 
 is eminently inadequate and unsatisfactory, and wanting in 
 the great merit of particularity. 
 
 i. Madder and Alizarin Dyed Style. Syn. DYEING 
 UPON MORDANT. The simplest form of this style of calico- 
 printing consists in the production upon a white ground, by 
 the aid of one or two mordants, of patterns of one, two, or 
 more colours, or shades of colour, the different depths of 
 tint being produced by varying the strength of the 
 mordant. 
 
 Another modification of this style, whereby very great 
 diversity of effect is gained, is that in which " resists" and 
 " discharges" are employed. Thus, suppose it is desired to 
 introduce into a fabric, printed over with a particular design 
 in purple or light chocolate, for instance, some patterns in 
 red or white. It is only necessary to first print these patterns 
 on the cloth, the red with a special kind of mordant known 
 as " resist red," and the other with thickened lime-juice, and 
 then to print it over in iron or a mixture of iron and alumina 
 mordant with the predominant pattern, and then after 
 dyeing and dunging, to put the piece into the madder beck, 
 when the purple or chocolate design will cover every part of 
 the cloth, save that protected by the " resist" mordant and 
 
88 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the lime-juice, the latter of which dissolves and leaves a 
 clear white, and the former a red pattern. 
 
 Another variety of the madder colour style is that known 
 as the " French Pink Style," by which designs are produced 
 in red and pink. If more than one shade of colour is 
 required, the calico is printed with a red or alumina mordant 
 of varying degrees of strength, the whites being obtained 
 by means of lemon-juice. The whole is then printed over 
 with a mordant, which will give a very pale red, and then 
 run into the madder-beck. 
 
 The dyed goods obtained by the above processes are fast 
 in colour, and wash well. 
 
 In the above processes, madder-root has been almost, if 
 not entirely, superseded by artificial alizarin and anthra- 
 purpurin. 
 
 a. Madder and Alizarin Dyed Style, Blocked. This process 
 of printing is performed by hand, after the goods are dyed. 
 By this method certain blue, green, violet, yellow, and other 
 bright colours that cannot undergo the operations of dung- 
 ing, dyeing, and soaping, can be applied to the print and 
 add greatly to its brilliancy. 
 
 2. Reserve Style. Syn. RESIST STYLE. This is a 
 modification of the first or madder style, or rather a union 
 of this with the " steam colour style." The fabric is first 
 printed with acid resists of lemon- juice and caustic soda, 
 or some suitable substance; then mordanted with red 
 or iron liquor, or a mixture of both, according to the re- 
 quired colour, and afterwards aged, dunged, dyed in the 
 madder bath, and cleared ; the parts which are left white 
 are afterwards blocked in with pigment colours, and 
 steamed. 
 
 Sometimes what is termed a " resist " paste is blocked in 
 over the whole or a portion of the design originally pro- 
 duced, and a small coloured pattern is printed over all. The 
 
CA LICO-PRINTING. 89 
 
 reserve style may be worked in numberless ways, and so 
 give rise to a great variety of effects.* 
 
 3. Garancine Style. This is carried out in a manner 
 very similar to that of the madder style, except that the 
 temperature of the beck is lower than that used in madder 
 dyeing. Garancine goods require much less soaping than 
 madder ones. With the exception of the purples, the 
 colours given by garanciiie are greatly inferior in brilliancy 
 to those yielded by madder root ; in addition to which they 
 are not so fast. The most predominant hues are dark reds, 
 browns, and oranges. In garancine dyeing, catechu is largely 
 used as an accessory. 
 
 4. Padding Style. Syn. PLAQUAGE STYLE. This is 
 also a variety of the madder style. The fabric, after being 
 padded all over with the requisite mordant, is dried in the 
 padding flue. A design is next printed on it in acid dis- 
 charge (mostly a compound of lime-juice and bisulphate of 
 potash thickened), with the result that after the cloth has 
 been aged, dunged, dyed in the madder bath, and cleared, 
 white patterns appear upon a ground of uniform colour. 
 These white patterns or spaces may be afterwards printed 
 upon in steam or pigment colours. 
 
 5. Indigo Blue Style. A pattern is first printed upon 
 the goods with a " reserve " paste in those parts which it is 
 
 * Solution of citric acid, or lemon-juice at 15 Twaddle, thickened 
 with torrified starch, forms the best resist paste for iron and red 
 liquor mordants ; when used for Garancine Styles the lemon-juice 
 should be at 30 Twaddle. Oxalic and tartaric acid, as well as bisul- 
 phate of potash, are also recommended ; but they are not so satis- 
 factory as lemon -juice or citric acid. 
 
 We append formulae for a protecting resist paste for chintzes : 
 Water, 6 gallons; neutral arseniate of potash, 15 Ibs. ; pipe-clay, 
 40 Ibs. ; calcined farina, 30 Ibs. The protecting resists are usually 
 applied by the block. 
 
90 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 intended shall be white. The goods are then dyed to the 
 desired shade in the indigo vat (see page 142), when the 
 indigo is deposited on every part of the cloth, except where 
 the " reserve" has been applied. After passing the goods 
 through a dilute acid bath there is obtained, on a blue 
 ground, a number of white patterns, which may be blocked 
 with steam colours. Or yellow or orange designs may be pro- 
 duced by combining with the reserve paste a salt of lead 
 and then passing the fabric through a weak acid solution. 
 
 6. China Blue Style. This is the reverse of the previous 
 style, since a blue design is printed on a white ground. It 
 derives its name from the resemblance of the pale blue 
 colour of the design to certain kinds of porcelain or china. 
 The process is conducted as follows : The goods are printed 
 with a mixture composed of finely powdered indigo and 
 acetate of iron. They are then passed through six suc- 
 cessive indigo vats. Of these, the first two contain lime ; 
 the third, sulphate of iron ; the fourth, caustic soda in solu- 
 tion ; the fifth, a dilute solution of sulphuric acid ; and the 
 sixth, water. When the desired tint has been reached, the 
 goods are washed a second time, passed through dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, and finally washed again. 
 
 7. Discharge Style. Syn. TURKEY RED WITH DISCHARGES. 
 ENLEVAGE. Discharges are mixtures which, when printed 
 upon cloth previously dyed of some uniform colour, remove 
 the colour from the printed parts, thereby leaving a white 
 design upon a coloured ground. The term " discharge style" 
 is more particularly restricted to the process by which white 
 or coloured designs are obtained upon a Turkey red or indigo 
 ground. The operation is performed as follows : After the 
 discharge mixture, in the form of a highly acid mordant, has 
 been printed upon, the dyed and dried fabric, this is next 'passed 
 through a solution of bleaching powder, which removes the 
 colour only from those parts where the discharge has been 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 91 
 
 applied.* If to the discharge there is added a salt of lead, 
 and the piece is afterwards passed through a solution of 
 bichromate of potash, the pattern will be yellow on a red 
 ground. The same discharge effects are produced equally 
 well on goods dyed red and pink, when the white surface 
 of the fibre is covered. By proper methods different 
 coloured designs may be thus obtained. 
 
 8. Steam Colour Style. (PREPARED). This process is 
 very largely employed for fixing on woollen and worsted 
 goods, mixed fibres such as delaines and cobourgs, and very 
 frequently silks. It is also the usual method adopted for 
 fixing the aniline colours upon cotton. The goods are 
 first worked in a bath of stannate of soda, and then passed 
 through a weak solution of dilute sulphuric acid, technically 
 known as " sours." After being drained in the centrifugal 
 
 * The above is the process of KCECHLIN & THOMPSON. To guard 
 against the contingency of the discharge spreading beyond the desired 
 limits, a considerable excess of lime or chalk is added to the bleaching 
 powder. MENTEITH'S method consists in placing the dyed and pro- 
 perly smoothed fabric in folds, and tightly pressing them between 
 two leaden plates, perforated with the intended pattern. A solution 
 of bleaching powder, very slightly acidified with hydrochloric acid, is 
 then poured into the top perforations and makes its exit at the bottom 
 ones, removing the colour only from those parts of the fabric not 
 protected by the lead. 
 
 The following arc said to be useful formulas for discharges : 
 
 1. White discharges on Turkey red. Water, i gallon; tartaric 
 acid, 10 Ibs. ; pipe-clay or china clay, 7 \ Ibs. ; gum water, i pint. 
 
 2. Bichloride of tin, i^ Ibs. ; hot water, i gallon; tartaric acid, 
 9 Ibs. pipe-clay, 10 Ibs. ; gum Senegal water, 3 quarts. The above 
 can only be properly applied by blocking. 
 
 3. Discharge for machine work for light designs : Water, i gallon ; 
 tartaric acid, 6 Ibs. ; starch, i Ibs. 
 
 4. Discharge for red and production of blue on the discharged 
 spot : Muriate of tin, 2 gallons ; Prussian blue pulp, i gallon ; 
 water, i gallon ; tartaric acid, 5 Ibs. Dissolve and mix, and then 
 add 2 gallons of thick tragacanth gum water. 
 
92 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 machine and dried, they are printed with a mixture consist- 
 ing of the required colouring matters and their mordants ; 
 :ifter which they are steamed in an apparatus called the 
 " steam chest." 
 
 The steam chest is made of iron, and is usually about 9 
 feet high, 6 feet wide, and 1 2 feet long. At one end are 
 accurately fitting doors,which,when necessary, can be tightly 
 closed, and kept in position by means of bars and screws. 
 The chest is fitted with a double bottom, the upper portion 
 of which is on a level with the floor of the room, and is 
 perforated with a number of holes, which admit and dis- 
 tribute steam escaping from a perforated pipe fixed under 
 this false bottom, and extending round three sides of the 
 chest. Upon the false bottom and parallel with the sides 
 of the chest, a tramway, which is carried into the room, is 
 fixed, and upon this tramway, there runs a carriage consist- 
 ing of wooden rods fixed in an oblong frame, for holding 
 the goods to be steamed. Much experience and care are 
 required in adapting the temperature and degree of mois- 
 ture to the different description of goods, colours and 
 mordants. 
 
 8a. Steam Style. (UNPREPARED). A variety of this 
 style is in use for printing goods intended for the Eastern 
 markets, which goods are known as " unprepared steams.' 
 The cloth is simply bleached and afterwards printed with 
 aniline colours thickened. In this style mordants are some 
 times dispensed with, and the goods are not even steamed. 
 The colours are fugitive when exposed to the light, and 
 easily removable by water. 
 
 9. Spirit Colour Style. The colours produced by this 
 style are very like steam colours, but they are not so 
 durable. A large number of acids (chiefly chlorides of 
 tin, technically called " spirits") and metallic salts enter into 
 the composition of the mordants. The goods are not steamed 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 93 
 
 after being printed, but are merely very carefully dried 
 after some hours exposure to the air, and then washed. 
 
 10. Bronze Colour Style. Syn. MANGANESE BRONZE 
 STYLE. This style is now little used. The goods are padded 
 through a solution of protochloride of manganese, dried, 
 afterwards passed through a solution of caustic soda, washed 
 and then the manganese is converted into peroxide by 
 working for some minutes in a solution of chloride of lime. 
 
 11. Pigment Colour Style. Pigment colour printing 
 consists in attaching insoluble colours such as those used by 
 the artist, to the fibre, by the aid of albumen, and fixing 
 them by means of steam. 
 
 12. Extract or Topical Fast Style. The increased 
 adoption of this style, which is of recent date, is largely 
 due to the introduction of artificial alizarin. It mainly 
 consists in printing upon cloth, which has been previously 
 prepared with oleine or saponified castor oil, extract of mad- 
 der or artificial alizarin, mixed with alumina or iron 
 mordants, thickened along with or without, pigments or 
 aniline colours. The goods are afterwards steamed, 
 washed, and soaped similar to madder. 
 
 As in the production of madder work, a great number and 
 variety of processes as well as of agents tinctorial and other- 
 wise are employed, it follows that the greater tne care and 
 accuracy with which the several operations are carried out, 
 and the purer the dye-stuffs and chemicals used, the more 
 successful will be the results. The necessity of cleanliness 
 likewise cannot be too emphatically enjoined. 
 We append formulae for the different styles : 
 i. Madder and Alizarin Styles (i, i, and 2). In 
 the madder as in the other styles, a great deal depends upon 
 the observance of several little conditions, if it be wished 
 to obtain satisfactory effects. For instance, if the calico- 
 printer desire pure reds and pinks, his mordants must not 
 
94 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 contain a trace of iron. The fabrics must also be free from 
 oil or grease stains, as these dye up stains. 
 
 Again, if the print required be a light pink one, this 
 necessitates the use of a diluted mordant. Under these 
 circumstances a very gentle heat must be employed to dry 
 the fabric after it has been printed, for if a weak aluminous 
 mordant is brought into contact with a heated metallic 
 surface, such as iron, tin or copper, its power to attract the 
 colouring matter is diminished by at least 30 per cent. 
 
 This sensitiveness of diluted aluminous mordants when 
 brought into contact with heated surfaces is a source of 
 great trouble, and frequently of loss to the calico-printer ; 
 for in order that the perfect register of the design as given 
 by the impression of the engraved roller should be main- 
 tained, it is necessary that the piece be dried within as few 
 moments after printing as possible. The cause of this 
 change wrought by heat in the condition of the mordant 
 has given rise to many speculations. Some authorities 
 affirm that the alumina, being so quickly deprived of its 
 solvent, becomes in substance physically like horn, and is 
 therefore incapable of gradually absorbing the colouring 
 matter, as it does when in a less compact or solid state. 
 Others hold the opinion that when the alumina mordant is 
 slowly dried by heated air, the particles of alumina are ab- 
 sorbed by the fabric in a highly divided state, and thus 
 offer a greater surface of attraction to the colouring prin- 
 ciple. On the other hand, when the mordant comes into 
 contact with a heated substance, its particles are absorbed 
 in groups, and consequently do not present the same amount 
 of surface, as when they are in a more minute state of 
 division. 
 
 It will now be seen why diluted mordants intended for 
 madder or alizarin pinks, should be dried by heated air. 
 
 In the use of diluted aluminous mordants it is also im- 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 95 
 
 portant that the temperature of the fly dung-bath, as well 
 ;is the dye-beck, for the first forty minutes should not be 
 too high. 
 
 Iron mordants do not suffer so much from over-drying as 
 aluminous ones. Over-oxidation is most to be avoided in 
 them, for if the iron be too highly oxidized, the lighter 
 colours will be greatly deficient in brilliancy, and the blacks 
 will not dye so easily. 
 
 MADDERS (FAST WORK). 
 
 1. PURPLE FIXING LIQUOR. 
 
 Water 7^ gallons. 
 
 Acetic acid i^ ,, 
 
 Sal ammoniac 9 Ibs. 
 
 Arsenious acid 9 ,, 
 
 Boil until the arsenic is dissolved, and let the solution 
 stand till clear, then decant. 
 
 2. PURPLE ASSISTANT LIQUOR (Messrs. MERCER & BAINES' 
 Patent). 
 
 Potato starch 100 Ibs. 
 
 Water 37 \ gallons. 
 
 Nitric acid, at 60 Twaddle . .123 
 Black oxide of manganese . . 4 oz. 
 
 When the reaction is over and the nitric acid destroyed, 
 add pyroligneous acid, 50 Ibs. 
 
 3. BLACK. For Machine Work* 
 
 Iron liquor, at 24 Twaddle . . 4 gallons. 
 
 Pyroligneous acid 4 
 
 Water 4 ,, 
 
 Flour 24 Ibs. 
 
 * Aniline blacks are largely displacing madder in this style. 
 
96 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 The flour must be worked up with a small quantity of 
 the mixed liquid, until a perfectly smooth thin paste is 
 obtained ; the remainder of the liquid is then added, and 
 the whole boiled ; lastly, i pint of Gallipoli oil is added. 
 The quantity of flour must be increased or decreased to suit 
 the strength of the engraving. 
 
 4. ANILINE BLACK. 
 
 Standard No. i. 
 
 Chlorate of soda 14^ Ibs. 
 
 Water 9 gallons. 
 
 Starch 16 Ibs. 
 
 Dark British gum 16 
 
 Boil and cool. 
 Standard No. 2. 
 
 "Water 8 gallons. 
 
 Dark British gum 16 Ibs. 
 
 Starch 1 6 
 
 Boil, and add 
 
 Yanadiate of ammonia, that has 
 previously been dissolved in 
 i gill of hot water . . . . 3^ drachms. 
 And cool. 
 
 Colour. 
 Of Standard No. 2, cold ... 5 gallons. 
 
 *> 3 " 
 
 Mix well and strain. 
 
 5. MADDER PURPLE (dark). 
 
 Water 10 gallons. 
 
 Iron liquor, at 24 Twaddle . . ij 
 Purple fixing liquor (No. i ) . . 2 pints. 
 
 Fine flour 1 5 \ Ibs. 
 
 Thoroughly incorporate and boil as madder black. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 97 
 
 6. MADDER PURPLE (medium). 
 
 Water 14 gallons. 
 
 Iron liquor, at 24 Twaddle . . i| 
 Purple fixing liquor (No. i ) . . 12 pints. 
 
 Fine flour 18 Ibs. 
 
 Treat as dark madder purple. 
 
 7. MADDER PURPLE (light). 
 
 Gum water (farina dark) ... 9 gallons. 
 Iron liquor, 24 Twaddle ... i quart. 
 Purple fixing liquor .... 4 pints. 
 
 8. STANDARD BROWN. 
 
 Water 50 gallons. 
 
 Catechu 200 Ibs. 
 
 Boil for six hours ; then add 
 
 Acetic acid 4^ gallons. 
 
 Water to make up 50 ,, 
 
 Let the whole stand for two days and decant ; after 
 heating this to 130 Fahr. (54*4 Cent.) add 
 
 Sal ammoniac 96 Ibs. 
 
 Dissolve, and let it stand for forty-eight hours. Decant, 
 and to the clear liquid, add gum Senegal in the proportion 
 of 4 Ibs. to the gallon. 
 
 9. BROWN. For Machine Work. 
 
 Standard Brown (No. 8) . . . 4 gallons. 
 Acetate of copper* -J ,, 
 
 * The acetate of copper is prepared as follows : 
 
 Sulphate of copper 4 Ibs. 
 
 Lead acetate 4 Ibs. 
 
 Hot water i gallon. 
 
 Dissolve, let settle, and dilute the clear liquid to 16 Twaddle 
 with water. 
 
 n 
 
98 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Acetic acid 2 quarts. 
 
 Gum Senegal water (4 Ibs. to the 
 
 gallon) 2 
 
 10. MEDIUM BROWN. 
 
 No. 9 2 gallons. 
 
 Gum water 2 
 
 Acetate of copper i gill. 
 
 11. MADDER BROWN TO RESIST HEAVY COVERS OF PURPLE. 
 
 Catechu Jib. 
 
 Sal ammoniac \ Ib. 
 
 Lime-juice at 8 Twaddle . . . i quart. 
 
 Nitrate of copper at 80 Twaddle 2\ oz. 
 
 Acetate of copper ij 
 
 Gum Senegal . .' i Ib. 
 
 12. CHOCOLATE. For Machine Work (dark). 
 
 Iron liquor at 12 Twaddle . . 3 gallons. 
 
 Red at 1 2 Twaddle . . 9 
 
 Flour 24 Ibs. 
 
 Oil i pint. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 13. CHOCOLATE (redder). 
 
 Iron liquor at 1 2 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 
 Red at 1 2 Twaddle .... 6 
 
 Flour 14 Ibs. 
 
 Oil i gill. 
 
 Mix. 
 
 14. DRAB. For Machine Work. 
 
 Standard No. 8 4 gallons. 
 
 Protochloride of iron at 84 
 
 Twaddle 2 pints. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 99 
 
 Solution of acetate of copper . 2<| pints. 
 Gum water substitute (4 Ibs. to 
 
 the gallon) i gallon. 
 
 15. FARINA GUM WATER (dark). 
 
 Water 5 gallons. 
 
 Dark coloured farina . . . .30 Ibs. 
 Boil well together. 
 
 1 6. FAWNS. These may be produced by reducing the drab 
 of formula 14 with gum water to suit shade required. 
 
 17. No. 20 PADDING PURPLE. 
 
 Water 18 gallons. 
 
 Purple fixing liquor .... 2 
 Iron liquor at 24 Twaddle . . i 
 Logwood liquor at 4 Twaddle . | 
 Flour (boiled as usual) . . .24 Ibs. 
 P.S. If a gum colour is required instead of a paste one, as 
 the above is, then take 18 gallons of gum water (dark 
 farina), instead of the water, and keep out the flour. Of 
 course avoid boiling. 
 
 1 8. DARK RED. For Machine Work. 
 
 Red liquor,* 9 to 10 Twaddle, 
 
 but not to exceed 12 Twaddle 6 gallons. 
 Flour . 12 Ibs. 
 
 * The red liquor of commerce which is always used for dark reds 
 (but not for pinks) is generally made by the manufacturing chemist, 
 from crude acetate of lime and alum cake, and afterwards freed from 
 iron with ferrocyanide of potassium. 
 
 H 2 
 
ioo BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 19. STANDARD RED LIQUOR. 
 
 Alum 20 Ibs. 
 
 White sugar of lead . . . . i2-J 
 
 Boiling water 5 gallons. 
 
 Stir until dissolved, let the mixture settle, and decant. 
 
 20. PALE BED. For Machine Work. 
 
 Standard red liquor, No. 19 . i gallon. 
 
 Gum substitute water (30 Ibs. 
 gum substitute in i o gallons of 
 water) 3 gallons. 
 
 21. RED RESIST (dark). For Machine Work. 
 
 Hesist red liquor at 18 Twaddle 12 gallons. 
 
 Flour 24 Ibs. 
 
 Boil well, and when nearly cold, add 
 
 Tin crystals 12 ,, 
 
 Used as a resist for a chocolate colour. 
 
 22. RESIST RED LIQUOR. 
 
 Acetate of lime liquor at 24 
 
 Twaddle 90 gallons. 
 
 Sulphate of alumina . . . .272 Ibs. 
 Ground chalk 34 
 
 22 a. RESIST RED LIQUOR. 
 
 Water i gallon. 
 
 Alum 5 Ibs. 
 
 Acetate of lead 2 J 
 
 Soda crystals \ 
 
 23. RESIST (dark red). For Machine Work. 
 
 Resist red liquor at 1 8 Twaddle 6 gallons 
 
 Flour 12 Ibs. 
 
 Treat as in No. 21, and add 
 
 Tin crystals 3 
 
 This is used as a resist for a purple colour. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 101 
 
 MORDANTS, DISCHARGES, RESERVES, 
 COVERS, &c. 
 
 1. ALKALINE RED MORDANT. 
 
 Potash Alum 10 Ibs. 
 
 Boiling "Water 5 gallons. 
 
 Dissolve and add 
 
 Soda lye at 70 Twaddle. . . f 
 Make up to 12 gallons with cold water, let the precipi- 
 tate settle, then wash it by decantation till the washings 
 are tasteless. Filter, remove the precipitate from the filter, 
 and dissolve it in 5 pints of soda lye at 70 Twaddle. Boil, 
 make up to 3 gallons with water ; stir in 9 Ibs. of dark 
 gum substitute, and finally boil again. 
 
 2. LIGHT RED ALKALINE MORDANT. 
 
 Alkaline red mordant, No. i . . i gallon. 
 Dark gum substitute water . . 9 Ibs. 
 
 3. ALKALINE PINK MORDANT. 
 
 Potash lye at 54 Twaddle ... 40 gallons. 
 Sulphate of alumina (patent 
 
 or cake-alum) 140 Ibs. 
 
 Heat the lye in an iron boiler, and add the sulphate 
 of alumina gradually, frequently stirring. The above pro- 
 portions yield about 45 gallons at 34 Twaddle. It is to be 
 thickened with dark gum substitute. 
 
 4. ALKALINE LIGHT PINK MORDANT. 
 
 Potash lye at 41 Twaddle , .25 gallons. 
 
 Potash alum 90 Ibs. 
 
 Dissolve as in No. 3. 
 
102 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 5. "Acic" (LIME-JUICE MIXTURE). 
 
 Lime-juice at 8 to 16 Twaddle i gallon. 
 
 Starch i Ib. 
 
 Boil, keeping it stirred till the starch is dissolved. 
 
 6. "AciD." 
 
 Lime-juice at 20 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 Starch i Ib. 
 
 7. a Acnx" 
 
 Lime-juice at 30 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 
 Starch i Ib. 
 
 These acids are sometimes thickened with gum substitute. 
 
 8. ACID DISCHARGE. 
 
 Lime-juice at 22 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 Bisulphate of potash . . . i Ib. 
 Decant the clear liquor, filter, and thicken with. 
 Starch i Ib. 
 
 9. ACID DISCHARGE. 
 
 Lime-juice at 28 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 Bisulphate of potash ... 2 Ibs. 
 Decant and filter the clear liquor, and thicken with 
 Dark British gum .... 5 Ibs. 
 
 10. GALL LIQUOR. 
 
 Gall nuts, ground 28 Ibs. 
 
 Acetic acid 2 gallons. 
 
 Water 12 
 
 Let stand for two days, with occasional stirring, and then 
 filter. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 103 
 
 1 1 . BUFF STANDARD. 
 
 Water 2 gallons. 
 
 Copperas 10 Ibs. 
 
 Brown acetate lead 2j 
 
 White 1-1 
 
 12. ANOTHER BUFF. 
 
 Water 5 gallons. 
 
 Copperas 20 Ibs. 
 
 Brown sugar lead 10 
 
 Dissolve, and let settle, decant the clear liquid, and 
 reduce it to the desired shade with gum Senegal water. 
 
 13. SULPHATE OF CHROME STANDARD. 
 
 Water 6 gallons. 
 
 Bichromate of potash . . . .24 Ibs. 
 Dissolve by means of heat, and place in a pan made of 
 stoneware ; then add 
 
 Sulphuric acid, at 170 Twaddle 6J pints. 
 
 Cold water 3 gallons. 
 
 Then gradually add 
 
 Sugar 6 Ibs. 
 
 When the violent reaction and frothing cease, boil down 
 to 3 gallons. 
 
 14. CHLORIDE OF CHROME STANDARD. 
 
 Bichromate of potash .... 8 Ibs. 
 
 Boiling water 2 gallons. 
 
 Dissolve, and add 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, at 32 Twaddle, i gallon 3^ pints. 
 Then add gradually 
 
 Sugar 3^ Ibs. 
 
104 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 15. ARSENIATE OF CHROME STANDARD. 
 
 Bichromate of potash . . . .10 Ibs. 
 
 Arsenious acid 14 
 
 Hydrochloric acid, at 3 2 Twaddle 1 4 pints. 
 
 Water . . , 2 gallons. 
 
 Heat the mixture until the liquid becomes of a pure 
 green colour, without an olive tint. Sometimes, to obtain 
 this result, more acid has to be used. When the reduction is 
 completed, the liquid must be concentrated to 95 Twaddle. 
 Care is necessary in the preparation of the chrome standards ; 
 should they not be perfectly uniform and smooth, they must 
 be reheated, and more acid added if requisite. The best 
 thickener for them is tragacanth gum. 
 
 Under Style 2, Reserves, will be found a variety of colours. 
 
 1 6. FAST BLUE STANDARD. 
 
 Ground-wet indigo .... 8 Ibs. 
 Soda lye at 70 Twaddle . . . ij gallons. 
 
 Water i 
 
 Feathered tin an excess. 
 
 Boil in an iron pan until a few drops placed 011 a piece of 
 window glass appear perfectly yellow. 
 
 17. FAST BLUE FOR BLOCK WORK. 
 
 Fast blue Standard liquid (No. 
 
 1 6) i quart. 
 
 Tin crystals 12 ounces. 
 
 Lime-juice, at 60 Fahr.(i5'5C.) 12 
 Gum Senegal water (6 Ibs. to the 
 
 gallon) 3 quarts. 
 
 1 8. FAST GREEN. 
 
 Fast blue Standard liquid (No. 
 
 1 6) 2 1 pints. 
 
 Lead gum (see No. 19) . . . 2 quarts. 
 
 Tin crystals 8 ounces. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 105 
 
 19. LEAD GUM. 
 
 White sugar of lead .... 8 Ibs. 
 
 Nitrate of lead 4 
 
 Hot water i gallon. 
 
 Gum Senegal water (6 Ibs. to 
 
 the gallon) i 
 
 20. DRAB. 
 
 Sulphate of chrome, Standard 
 
 No. 13 5 quarts. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water (J Ib. to 
 
 the gallon) 10 
 
 Cochineal liquor, at 4 Twaddle i| pints. 
 
 Bark liquor, at 8 Twaddle . . i| 
 
 21. FAWN. 
 
 Sulphate of chrome, Standard 
 
 No. 13 i gallon. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water ?(J Ib. to 
 
 the gallon) 2 
 
 Brown standard, No. 5 ... \ gallon. 
 
 22. PALE SAGE. 
 
 Sulphate of chrome, Standard 
 
 No. 13 i gallon. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water (| Ib. to 
 
 the gallon) i 
 
 3. Garancine Style. Most of the styles that can be 
 carried out with madder can also be worked with garanciiie, 
 but with this latter the resulting colours are generally not 
 so clear. As a rule they are fuller, but less transparent, 
 even when they have been equally well soaped and treated 
 in the same manner after dyeing as the madders. The dis- 
 covery and introduction of garancine was a great boon to 
 
io6 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the calico-printer, since it not only enabled him to produce 
 beautiful fast reds, purples, and other colours, cheaper than 
 by the use of madder alone, but also chocolates, blacks, 
 browns, drabs, &c., in conjunction with reds results he was 
 unable to get with madder. Furthermore, garancine and 
 garanceux, can be used with peach-wood, yellow-wood, and 
 Persian berry extract, and thus produce a fast print with 
 red, yellow, brown, drab, chocolate, and black in combination ; 
 effects which can only be obtained with considerable diffi- 
 culty and expense by the use of the madder-bath. 
 
 Garancines thus dyed are scarcely so fast as madder 
 colours, nor will they tolerate soaping, but this operation is 
 not so necessary as with madder dyed fabrics, for two 
 reasons. In the first place the colours as they come out of 
 the beck are generally brighter ; and in the second, the 
 whites or grounds are less tinged with the dye. The bright- 
 ening of the colours and the clearing of the whites are 
 effected by merely passing the dyed goods through what is 
 called the " chlor" machine, or " chemicking" them. The 
 " chlor" apparatus is a simple padding machine, immediately 
 behind which is fixed a steam-box or iron chest, fitted with 
 five copper rollers, and two perforated steam-pipes, also of 
 copper. The trough of the padding machine contains solu- 
 tion of chloride of lime at from J to i Twaddle. The goods 
 are passed through the trough and padding machine, and 
 then immediately carried through a small aperture into the 
 steam-box, and over and under the copper rollers ; after 
 which they pass through another aperture situated on the 
 opposite side of the box, jets of steam being projected upon 
 them during their passage. As they leave the steam-box, 
 the pieces fall into a cistern of water, and then pass on to 
 the squeezers. They are afterwards dried and finished. 
 
 From tin's it will be seen that the processes for dyeing 
 and cleansing garancined goods are simpler and less expen- 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 107 
 
 sive than those followed in madder dyeing. Garancine 
 mordants also for reds, pinks, purples, and chocolates are 
 used in a more dilute form than those for madder. 
 
 The same care, however, in drying the aluminous mor- 
 dants after printing, is as necessary for garancine as for 
 madder goods. 
 
 Formula for a dyed garancine print composed of black, 
 red, brown, and drab, ivith chocolate ground. 
 
 BLACK. Same as IsTo. 3, page 95. 
 RED. Same as JSTo. 18, page 99. 
 BROWN. Same as JSTo. 8, page 97. 
 CHOCOLATE. Same as No. 13, page 98. 
 DRAB. Same as No. 14, page 98. 
 
 4. Padding Style. This style, as formerly practised, is 
 now little used, being mostly confined to producing mourning 
 effects, such as black and white, and black and lavender. 
 The mordants employed in this style are the acetates of 
 alumina and iron, the former giving with madder, garancine 
 or alizarin reds ; the latter, browns or blacks with log- 
 wood, and purples with madder and garancine. 
 
 By mixing the two mordants, and separately using for 
 the tinctorial correspondents, logwood, quercitron bark, 
 sumach and peach- wood, all the colours from clarets to olive 
 can be obtained. The goods are dunged as for madders or 
 garancines, and dyed and cleared mostly as garancines. 
 
 5. Indigo Style. For Formula?, see pages 89-90. 
 
 6. China Blue Style. For Formulas, see page 90. 
 
 7. Indigo Discharge Style. The goods are dyed plain 
 indigo, then soured, washed, dried, and afterwards printed. 
 This very beautiful and permanent style, as more particularly 
 exemplified in its chintz form, is of comparatively recent 
 date. Instead of printing a reserve as in Style 5, and 
 
loS BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 afterwards dyeing and preparing, and finally blocking in 
 the desired illuminating colours by block printing, the 
 goods are first dyed (technically termed " dipped") plain, and 
 afterwards printed with such compounds as discharge the 
 indigo and leave the desired colours in the discharged parts. 
 The application of chromic acid as the discharging agent 
 used for this purpose, was first proposed by Mr. MERCER. 
 The goods, after being dyed indigo and dried for printing, 
 are previously padded through a solution, consisting of 8 to 
 1 2 oz. of bichromate of potash in a gallon of water, dried 
 through a hot-air stove and excluded from light. They are 
 then printed with a solution of oxalic and sulphuric acids, 
 thickened with coloured starch (known to the calico-printer 
 as "dark British gum"). After this, they are dried for 
 printing in the usual way. They are then washed in water, 
 drained, and again dried. There are other methods of 
 conducting this process, but they are impracticable and more 
 costly. We are indebted for the annexed formulae, to 
 Mr. JAMES CHADWICK of the firm of Messrs. CHADDERTON, 
 CHADWICK & Co., of Manchester, who assures us their em- 
 ployment will be attended with complete success. The colours 
 obtained by these formulas, not only the white, but also yellow, 
 orange, red, green, and, in short, almost all compound colours 
 occurring as pigments, may be fixed. We may further state 
 that this interesting style requires the observance of the two 
 conditions of chemical and mechanical printing or fixing, to 
 ensure the desired results, for whilst in the colours printed 
 the chromic acid necessary for the discharge of the indigo 
 must be present, they must also contain the coagulurns or 
 agglutinants necessary to fix the pigments, consequently it is 
 necessary that the chromic acid and colour compounds should 
 be as nearly as possible neutral. 
 
 After the goods are printed they are passed through the 
 padding machine, before which is fixed a box containing five 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 109 
 
 copper rollers, three at bottom and two at top. The fabric 
 passes over and under these rollers, and then immediately 
 after, through the padding machine, which causes the greater 
 part of the solution with which the box and padding machine 
 have been charged, to be squeezed out. The solution is com- 
 posed of sulphuric acid at 12 Twaddle, containing in each 
 gallon 8 oz. of oxalic acid. The temperature at w T hich the solu- 
 tion must be maintained during the passage of the goods 
 should be from 110 to 120 Fahr. (43 to 49 C.). After 
 the goods or the piece passes from the padding machine, it 
 should pass over one or two rollers so as to allow the gas to 
 escape before the piece falls down in folds. At the 
 expiration of a minute or two, the piece passes into the 
 washing machine, and is lastly washed, dried and finished. 
 
 i. WHITE DISCHARGE FOR INDIGOES. 
 
 Water 2 gallons. 
 
 Bichromate of potash .... 3 Ibs. 
 Dissolve, 
 
 Dark British gum 5 to 6 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and work hot. 
 
 2 a. OXALATE AND CHROMATE STANDARD. 
 
 Blood albumen solution (6 Ibs. 
 
 per gallon) 2 gallons. 
 
 Neutral chromate of potash . . 8 Ibs. 
 Neutral oxalate of potash . . if 
 Dissolve perfectly cold ; strain. 
 
 1. ORANGE FOR INDIGO DISCHARGE STYLE. 
 
 Orange pigment i quart. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .2 ,, 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 2. YELLOW DITTO. 
 
 Yellow pigment i quart. 
 
I io BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Oxalate and chrbmate standard . i J quarts. 
 Albumen thickening (6 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) 1 
 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 3. GREEN DITTO. 
 
 Pigment green 4 quarts. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard . 4 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 4. RED DITTO. 
 
 Vermilion powder 8 Ibs. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard . 4 quarts. 
 Mix till thoroughly incorporated, and afterwards strain 
 well. 
 
 5. BUFF (CHAMOIS). 
 
 Orange pigment 2 quarts. 
 
 Albumen thickening (6 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) 12 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .6 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 6. OLIVE DITTO. 
 
 Olive pigment 3 quarts. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .6 
 Mix thoroughly. 
 
 7. BROWN DITTO. 
 
 Brown pigments 4 quarts. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .8 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 8. LIGHT OLIVE DITTO. 
 
 Olive pigment ij quarts. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard . 4^- 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. in 
 
 9. LIGHT BROWN DITTO. 
 
 Pigment brown 2 quarts. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .6 
 Albumen thickening ( 6 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) 2 
 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 10. SALMON, OR FLESH COLOUR, DITTO. 
 
 Vermilion 4 Ibs. 
 
 Pigment brown i quart. 
 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .5 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 n. BLUE, DITTO (Light Blue.) 
 
 Neutral Prussian blue paste . . 2 quarts. 
 Oxalate and chromate standard .4 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 N.B. The broAvn and olive pigments are those usually 
 sold for printing purposes. They are ground in water only, 
 and must be perfectly neutral and insoluble. The ordinary 
 green, is a borate of chromium. Any pigment colour may 
 be used that does not coagulate the albumen, which is 
 mixed with it, and which will withstand the action of the 
 sulphuric and oxalic acids when developing the design. 
 
 8. Steam Style. FOR COTTON, AND COTTON AND WOOL. 
 (MIXED GOODS.) Preparation (before printing). If the 
 fabric consist of cotton only, the goods after being bleached 
 and dried, are padded through a machine charged with 
 stannate of sodium at 12 Twaddle, then immediately through 
 sulphuric acid at 1 1 to 2 Twaddle. This precipitates upon the 
 fabric the tin oxide, which then becomes the mordant. The 
 goods are next well and carefully washed, to free them from 
 all traces of sulphuric acid ; after which they are drained 
 either by means of squeezers or the hydro-extractor. They 
 are then dried for printing. 
 
ii2 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 If the fabric is mixed wool and cotton (mousseline de laine), 
 after the good pieces have been scoured or "crabbed," theyare 
 prepared as before described, but after being drained by means 
 of the squeezer or the hydro-extractor, and before being 
 dried, they are again padded through the padding-machine 
 charged with sulpho-muriate of tin at 6 or 8 Twaddle, 
 and allowed to remain so saturated from i to 1 1 hours. They 
 are then passed through a cistern charged with chloride of 
 lime at from | to J Twaddle. The cistern being supplied at 
 top and bottom with rollers, the cloth passes over and under 
 these ; the cistern must have such a capacity that the cloth 
 in its transit through it shall occupy from 30 to 50 seconds, 
 during which time it is exposed to the action of the evolved 
 chlorine. Directly the cloth leaves the chlorine cistern, it 
 falls into water and thence passes on to the washing-machine, 
 after which it is drained as usual, and dried. 
 
 Sulpho-muriate of tin is prepared as follows : 
 Sulphuric acid, 170 Twaddle . 2 gallons. 
 
 Water 8 
 
 Stir till cool, then in 8 gallons of water 
 dissolve, cold, protochloride of tin 
 
 crystals 25 Ibs. 
 
 Afterwards mix all together, and reduce with cold water 
 to 8 Twaddle. 
 
 COLOURS FOB STEAM STYLES. 
 
 RED (wood red). 
 
 Sapanwood liquor at 8 Twaddle 3^ gallons. 
 
 Ground alum 3 Ibs. 
 
 Chlorate of potash 6 ozs. 
 
 Nitrate of alumina 3 pints. 
 
 Bark liquor, at 8 Twaddle . . 5 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 
 
 1 1 3 
 
 Water ........ 8 pints. 
 
 Crystal starch ...... yi Ibs, 
 
 Boil, cool, and strain. 
 
 2. NITRATE OF ALUMINA. 
 
 Hot water ....... 32 gallons. 
 
 In which dissolve 
 
 Nitrate of lead ..... 96 Ibs. 
 
 Alum ........ 96 
 
 Common soda (carbonate) . .12 
 When dissolved allow to subside and use the clear liquor. 
 
 3. PINK (cochineal) STANDARD. 
 
 Boiling water ...... i gallon. 
 
 In which dissolve 
 
 Bitartrate of potash (cream of 
 
 tartar) ....... ij Ibs. 
 
 Ground alum ...... i| 
 
 And then add 
 
 Cochineal liquor at 8 Twaddle 3 gallons. 
 
 4. PINK (cochineal) MEDIUM. 
 
 Gum (foreign) water (4 Ibs. to 
 
 6 Ibs. per gallon) .... 3 gallons. 
 Cochineal pink standard (3) . 2 
 
 5. PINK (cochineal) PALE OR ROSE. 
 
 Gum (foreign) water (5 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) ....... 3 gallons. 
 
 Cochineal pink standard (3) . i 
 
 6. PINK (magenta aniline) DARK. 
 
 Gum (foreign) water .... 4 quarts. 
 
 Magenta crystals ..... 4 ozs. 
 Dissolved in 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . i quart. 
 
 Tannic acid dissolved . ... 12 ozs. 
 
H4 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 7. MEDIUM PINK. 
 
 Foreign gum water .... 4 quarts. 
 
 Magenta crystals 2 oz. 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . i quart. 
 
 Tannic acid dissolved ... 8 ozs. 
 
 8. PALE or LIGHT PINK. 
 
 Foreign gum water .... 4 quarts. 
 
 Magenta crystals i oz. 
 
 Acetic acid i quart. 
 
 Tannic acid dissolved ... 6 ozs. 
 
 Steam Styles known as " best prepared Steams, not Anilines." 
 
 9. CHOCOLATE STEAM STYLES. 
 
 Sapanwood liquor at 12 Twaddle 6 gallons. 
 
 Logwood . 3 
 
 Acetate of alumina 18 . 4 
 
 Bark liquor 12 ,, . 2 
 
 Starch 24 Ibs. 
 
 British gum (terrified starch) . 4 
 Alum ......... 5j 
 
 Chlorate of potash i| 
 
 Sal ammoniac 2 
 
 Acetate of copper .... i gill (2 J noggins) 
 
 Boil, cool, and strain. 
 
 10. DARK BLUE (Royal). 
 
 Water 6 gallons. 
 
 Starch 12 Ibs. 
 
 Sal ammoniac 2 
 
 When boiled add 
 
 Prussiate of tin pulp (cyanide of 
 
 tin) 6 gallons. 
 
 Thoroughly incorporate and add 
 Yellow prussiate of potash (ferro- 
 
 cyanide of potassium) . . . 12 Ibs. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 115 
 
 Red prussiate of potash (ferrid- 
 
 cyanide of potassium) ... 6 Ibs. 
 
 Tartaric acid 18 
 
 Stir till quite dissolved ; then add 
 Oxalic acid, which has previously 
 been dissolved in 3 pints of 
 
 water i| Ibs. 
 
 Mix and strain. 
 
 11. MEDIUM BLUE. 
 
 Gum substitute water .... 3 gallons. 
 Dark royal blue 2 
 
 12. PALE BLUE. 
 
 Gum substitute water .... 7 gallons. 
 
 Dark royal blue I gallon. 
 
 Any further reduced shades in the same way to pale sky. 
 
 13. GREEN, (Dark Royal). 
 
 Bark liquor at 12 Twaddle . . 6 gallons. 
 
 Starch 10 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . 1 2 ounces. 
 Prussiate of tin pulp . . . . i gallon. 
 Yellow prussiate of potash . .14 Ibs. 
 
 Tartaric acid 13 
 
 Extract of indigo (of commerce) 2 pints. 
 
 14. PRUSSIATE OF TIN PULP (Ferrocyanide of tin). 
 
 Take 
 
 1 2 gallons of hot water, in which dissolve 
 12 Ibs. of yellow prussiate of potash ; add gradually to 
 
 the solution 
 
 6 quarts protochloride of tin at 120 Twaddle. 
 Then fill up the vessel with cold water ; wash the preci- 
 
 i 2 
 
n6 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 pitate several times, and afterwards filter for use ; using of 
 course the precipitate. 
 
 15. MEDIUM GREEN. 
 
 Persian berry liquor (yellow 
 
 berries) at 12 Twaddle . . 8 gallons. 
 Yellow prussiate of potash . .16 Ibs. 
 
 Alum 8 
 
 Oxalic acid 2 
 
 Protochloride of tin at 120 Tw. 2 ,, 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 Foreign gum water (8 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) 6 gallons. 
 
 1 6. PALE GREEN. 
 
 Gum (foreign) water .... 5 gallons. 
 Medium green 2 
 
 17. YELLOW. 
 
 Persian berry liquor at 8 Tw. . 4 gallons. 
 
 Starch 4 Ibs. 
 
 Gum substitute i 
 
 Alum 2 ,, 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Protoxide of tin 4 pints. 
 
 Protoxide of tin is made as follows : 2\ Ibs. protochloride 
 of tin crystals are dissolved in i gallon of water, and 2 J Ibs. 
 of common soda in another gallon, then both solutions are 
 gradually mixed, and afterwards the precipitate washed 
 twice and filtered. 
 
 1 8. DEEP YELLOW. 
 
 Bark liquor at 12 Twaddle . . 4 gallons. 
 
 Starch 6 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add the following basic tin compound : 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 117 
 
 Basic Tin Compound. 
 
 2 1 Ibs. of common soda are put into an earthenware vessel, 
 which is then placed in a hot-water bath, and kept 
 there till the heat from the water-bath causes the 
 soda to lose its crystalline state, and to become liquid, 
 when there is immediately added to it 3 Ibs. of proto- 
 chloride of tin crystals ; the mixture must be briskly 
 stirred, and when the whole has become semi-fluid, 
 it is added to the colour. 
 
 19. RED (Wood Red) better than No. i. 
 
 Sapanwood liquor at 12 Twaddle 8 quarts. 
 Bark liquor at 12 Twaddle . . 2^ 
 
 Nitrate of alumina 2 
 
 Water 4 
 
 Oxalic acid i Ib. 
 
 Alum 12 oz. 
 
 Chlorate of potash 4 
 
 Starch 6J Ibs. 
 
 Boil, cool, and strain. 
 
 20. MEDIUM BROWN. 
 
 Bark standard 14 pints 
 
 Sapan 3 
 
 Blue ij 
 
 Black i 
 
 Gum substitute water .... 3 
 
 21. BARK STANDARD (A). 
 
 Bark liquor at 12 Twaddle . . 3 gallons. 
 Alum 3 Ibs. 
 
 22. SAPAN STANDARD (B). 
 
 Sapanwood liquor at 12 Twaddle 2 gallons 
 Chlorate of potash 4 oz. 
 
ii8 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Alum ......... i| Ibs. 
 
 Gum substitute ...... 8 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and cool. 
 
 23. BLUE STANDARD (c). 
 
 Water . . ....... 2 gallons. 
 
 In which dissolve 
 
 Red prussiate of potash ... 2 Ibs. 
 
 Alum ......... i 
 
 24. BLACK STANDARD (D). 
 
 Logwood liquor at 1 2 Twaddle . 2 gallons. 
 
 Gum substitute ...... 6 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Red prussiate of potash . . . 2 Ibs. 
 
 Alum ......... i^ Ibs. 
 
 Dissolve and cool. 
 
 25. RED BROWN. 
 
 Bark standard (A) ..... 8 quarts. 
 
 Sapan (B) ..... 2 
 
 Black (D) ..... i 
 
 Gum substitute water .... 6 
 
 
 
 26. FAWN or MEDIUM (CHAMOIS). 
 
 Bark standard (A) ..... 16 pints. 
 Sapan (B) ..... 2 
 Black (D) ..... 2 
 Gum substitute water . . . .16 gallons. 
 
 N.B. From the four standards A, B, c, and D, every tone 
 and shade of colour may be obtained, from a dark brown to 
 a light fawn (including Chestnut Cuir, Chamois, Cinnamon 
 and all kindred compound colours), by varying their 
 proportions. 
 
 27. BUFF or PALE NANKEEN STANDARD (A). 
 Persian berry liquor at 12 Twaddle 3 gallons. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 
 
 119 
 
 Cochineal liquor at 6 Twaddle i 
 
 Alum 3 
 
 Bitartrate of potash (cream of 
 
 tartar) i| 
 
 gallon. 
 Ibs. 
 
 28. MEDIUM BUFF. 
 
 Gum substitute water ... 3 gallons. 
 Buff standard (A) ...... 2 
 
 29. PALE BUFF. 
 
 Gum substitute water . . .10 gallons. 
 Buff standard (A) ..... i 
 
 30. BLUE STANDARD FOR SHADES. 
 
 "Water ......... 4 gallons. 
 
 In which dissolve 
 
 Oxalic acid . . ..... i Ib. 
 
 Alum ......... 4 
 
 Yellow prussiate of potash . . 8 
 
 31. SLATE STANDARD. 
 
 Logwood liquor at 12 Twaddle 2 gallons. 
 
 Blue Standard for shades . . i| 
 
 Medium green ..... 3 quarts. 
 Tartaric acid .... 
 
 32. MEDIUM SLATE. 
 
 Gum substitute water 
 Slate standard, No. 3 1 
 
 33. PALE SLATE. 
 
 Gum substitute water 
 Slate standard 
 
 34. SILVER DRAB STANDARD. 
 
 Slate standard 
 
 Buff or pale nankeen standard 
 Pink (cochineal) standard (3) 
 
 Ib. 
 
 4 quarts. 
 
 10 gallons. 
 i 
 
 4 gallons. 
 3 
 
 i 
 
120 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 35. MEDIUM SILVER DRAB. 
 
 Gum substitute water .... 3 gallons. 
 Silver drab standard . . . . i 
 
 36. PALE SILVER DRAB. 
 
 Gum substitute water . . .10 gallons. 
 Silver drab standard . . . . i 
 
 IST.B. From the foregoing formulae every shade and tone 
 of compound colours can be obtained : Stones, Drabs, 
 Lavenders, Slates, Pearls, &c. &c., all of which are known as 
 " best prepared steam styles." 
 
 FORMULAE FOR MIXED GOODS. 
 COTTON AND WOOLLEN (MOUSSELINE DE LAINE), &c. 
 
 On prepared goods. 
 
 1. BED. 
 
 Cochineal liquor, at 12 Twaddle 4 gallons. 
 
 Starch 8 Ibs. 
 
 Gum substitute i 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . i| 
 
 Oxalic acid ...,.,. i| 
 Dissolve and strain. 
 
 2. CRIMSON. 
 
 Ammoniacal cochineal standard . 4 gallons. 
 Bitartrate of potash (cream of 
 
 tartar) 3 Ibs. 
 
 Alum (dissolved) 3 
 
 Foreign gum 16 
 
 Stir till dissolved. 
 
 3. ROSE or PINK. 
 
 Foreign gum water .... 3 gallons. 
 Crimson, No. 2 i 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 1 2 1 
 
 4. AMMONIACAL COCHINEAL STANDARD. 
 
 8 Ibs. Cochineal, steeped for 12 hours in a covered 
 
 vessel (not copper) with 
 2 gallons cold water, and 
 
 1 liquid ammonia ; afterwards add 
 
 2 ,, more water ; boil in water-bath for 2 hours, 
 afterwards sieve off the liquor, which ought to 
 measure 4 gallons; should it not do so, add 
 sufficient water to make up to that quantity. 
 
 5. DARK BLUE. 
 
 Same as royal blue for cottons. 
 
 6. LIGHT BLUE. 
 
 Same as pale blue for cottons. 
 
 7. YELLOW or AMBER. 
 
 Persian berry liquor, at 12 
 
 Twaddle 4 gallons. 
 
 Foreign gum 16 Ibs. 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . 2 
 
 8. GREEN MEDIUM. 
 
 Persian berry liquor, at 12 
 
 Twaddle 4 gallons. 
 
 Alum 3 Ibs. 
 
 Oxalic acid i ,, 
 
 Tin crystals (protochloride) . . i 
 
 Yellow prussiate of potash . . 6 
 
 Foreign gum water (6 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) 4 gallons. 
 
 Extract of indigo 3 pints. 
 
 9. CHOCOLATE. 
 
 Sapanwood liquor, at 12 Twad- 
 dle 6 gallons. 
 
 Logwood liquor, at 12 Twaddle 3 
 
122 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Bark liquor, at 1 2 Twaddle . . i gallon. 
 
 Starch 16 Ibs. 
 
 Gum substitute 4 ? 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Alum 7i 
 
 Chlorate of potash 10 ozs. 
 
 Bed prussiate of potash . . . 4! Ibs. 
 Most of these colours are now superseded by the 
 aniline colours. 
 
 9. Spirit Styles. 
 
 1. BLACK. 
 
 Logwood liquor at 8^ Twaddle . 6 gallons. 
 
 Starch 9 Ibs. 
 
 Gum substitute 4 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Nitrate of iron at 84 Twaddle . 4 pints. 
 Mix thoroughly and strain. 
 
 2. PURPLE or LILAC. 
 
 Logwood liquor at 8 Twaddle . 8 gallons. 
 
 Starch 16 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Yellow prussiate of potash . . i| 
 
 Nitrate of iron at 84 Twaddle . 3^ pints. 
 
 Starch paste (i Ib. per gallon) . 4 gallons. 
 
 Perchloride of tin 120 Twaddle i 
 Mix and Strain. 
 
 3. PINK. Use Sapanwood, with tin. 
 
 4. BLUE. Use Prussian blue, with tin. 
 
 And so on. 
 
 10. Bronze Style.* The goods are padded through a 
 
 * During the last three years there has been more demand for 
 prints produced by this style, than for the previous forty years. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. \ 23 
 
 padding machine, charged with a solution of protochloride 
 of manganese at from 24 to 36 Twaddle, and dried through 
 a hot-air stove, care being taken to avoid their coming into 
 contact with the iron of the stove. They are then passed 
 through the soda cistern, as quickly as possible after being 
 dried, since the protochloride of manganese being deli- 
 quescent, the fabric otherwise becomes damp, to the detri- 
 ment of the bronze colour. The soda cistern is fitted with 
 twelve rollers, six at top and six at bottom, over and under 
 which the cloth is passed. The cistern is charged with 
 caustic soda at from 20 to 24 Twaddle. In passing through 
 this solution, the manganese is precipitated upon the fabric, in 
 an almost colourless condition, in the state of a protoxide. 
 
 The fabric is then carried over wooden rollers, a process 
 which, by exposing it to the air, effects the partial oxidation 
 of the manganese. It is then well washed and afterwards 
 winched for five or ten minutes in chloride of lime at 4 to 
 6 Twaddle, which converts the manganese protoxide into 
 peroxide, which is of a dark bronze colour, and which gives 
 its name to the style. After the pieces are printed with 
 the colours, for which the formulae are now given, they 
 are steamed in the usual way in an ordinary steam-chest 
 at about one to two pressures for twenty-five minutes. 
 They are afterwards washed, drained on a hydro-extractor, 
 and dried. 
 
 COLOURS FOE BRONZE STYLES. 
 
 i. WHITE DISCHARGE ON BRONZE. 
 
 Water 2 gallons. 
 
 Wheat en starch 5 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and, when half cold, add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . 12 
 Stir till thoroughly dissolved, and afterwards strain. 
 
124 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC, 
 
 2. YELLOW DITTO. 
 
 Bark liquor, at 12 Twaddle . . 2 gallons. 
 
 Starch 5 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add when half cold 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . 12 
 Dissolve and strain. 
 
 3. RED DITTO. 
 
 Sapan or Brazil wood liquor, at 
 
 12 Twaddle 2 gallons. 
 
 Starch 5 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and, when half cold, add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals. .12 
 Dissolve and strain. 
 
 4. MAUVE or VIOLET DISCHARGE ON BRONZE. 
 
 4 B Violet 2 quarts. 
 
 Water 4 gallons. 
 
 Starch n Ibs. 
 
 Boil and, when half cold, add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . 20 
 Dissolve and strain. 
 
 5. BLUE DITTO. 
 
 Prussian blue paste .... 2 quarts. 
 
 Water 2 gallons. 
 
 Starch 6 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and, when half cold, add 
 
 Protochloride of tin crystals . . 12 
 Dissolve and strain. 
 
 6. GREEN DITTO. 
 
 Mix yellow No. 2 and blue No. 5, say, 2 of the former, 
 i j of the latter, or any other proportions to produce the 
 shade of green required. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 125 
 
 From the foregoing formulae, it will be seen that proto- 
 chloride of tin is the active agent which discharges the 
 peroxide of manganese, and at the same time becomes the 
 mordant for the various colouring matters. Any colouring 
 matter therefore to which the protochloride of tin acts as a 
 mordant, and which will bear the quantities given of it as 
 before, can be used for bronze discharges. 
 
 Beautiful styles are now being worked with bronze effects. 
 
 ii. Pigment Style. The theory and practice are 
 described at page 93. Sometimes, however, to obtain 
 bright blues, the goods instead of being steamed are passed 
 through a cistern charged with boiling milk of lime. The 
 hot lime-water, by instantly coagulating the egg albumen, 
 renders the blue brighter. Sometimes after fixation of the 
 pigments, they are slightly soaped with the object of 
 removing the unpleasant odour. 
 
 PIGMENT COLOURS. 
 
 1. GREEN (Best). 
 
 Green pigment 8 Ibs. 
 
 Blood albumen water (5 Ibs. per 
 
 gallon) i gallon. 
 
 Mix well and strain. 
 
 2. GREEN (Generally Used). 
 
 Green pigment 4 Ibs. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water . . . i quart. 
 Blood albumen water (5 Ibs. per 
 gallon) 3 
 
 3. BROWN PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Brown pigment 4 Ibs. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water. . . . i gallon. 
 Blood albumen water . i 
 
126 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 4. BUFF PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Buff pigment 4 Ibs. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water . . . 2 quarts. 
 
 Blood albumen water .... 2 
 
 5. BLACK PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Pigment black 6 Ibs. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water ... 2 quarts. 
 
 Blood albumen 4 J? 
 
 6. OLIVE PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Pigment green colour . . . . i| pints. 
 
 Buff pigment . . . . i| 
 
 Black . . . . 2 
 
 Blood albumen water .... 2 
 
 . Gum tragacanth water ... 2 
 
 7. TAN PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Blue pigment standard ... i| pints. 
 
 Brown colour .' . . . ij 
 
 Black . . . . ij 
 
 Blood albumen water .... 2 ,, 
 
 Gum tragacanth water ... 2 
 
 8. GREY PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Black pigment colour .... 2 pints. 
 
 Albumen water i 
 
 Gum tragacanth water .... i 
 
 9. SLATE PIGMENT COLOUR. 
 
 Black pigment colour .... 3 pints. 
 Blue standard . . .12 
 
 Blood albumen water . . . . 7 
 
 Gum tragacanth water .... 7 
 
CA LI CO -PR IN TING. \ 27 
 
 10. PIGMENT BLUE STANDARD. 
 
 Ultramarine 2 Ibs. 
 
 Gum tragacanth water ... 3 quarts. 
 
 Blood albumen water . . . . i 
 The best pigment blues are made with egg albumen, not 
 with blood albumen. 
 
 12. Extract Style. Some years ago, before the adoption 
 of artificial alizarin by the dyer and calico-printer, an ex- 
 tract of madder was introduced into the trade. It is from 
 this fact that the present style takes its name. By the 
 extract style, thanks to the discovery of artificial alizarin 
 and other coal-tar colours, effects are obtained that were 
 previously practically impossible. The old method was to 
 print on the fabric the mordants for the madder colours, 
 and afterwards to dye it, the printing in of the illuminating 
 colours being performed by hand. In extract printing, 
 this clumsy method, which generally effaced the integrity 
 of the design, is avoided, with immense advantage to the 
 resulting pattern, of delicacy and fidelity of outline, as well 
 as of richness and purity of colour. The discovery and 
 application of the coal-tar colours have given an unpre- 
 cedented impetus to this amongst other branches of calico- 
 printing, not only by increasing the number and variety of 
 tinctorial agents possessing purer tints, but because the 
 raw material for manufacturing them lies around us. At 
 the present day when the printer requires pale chintzes, it 
 is not necessary for him to ransack the two hemispheres 
 for the red, yellow, blue, green, and violet dye-stuffs, as it 
 was not many years back. 
 
 COTTON. 
 FORMULAE FOR EXTRACT STYLES. 
 
 After the goods are bleached as for madder styles, they 
 are prepared by padding through an emulsion of oleine, or 
 
128 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 saponified castor oil, made by mixing i part of oleine to 
 15 of water; or i of oleine to 20 of water: this latter 
 being the strength generally used. The goods are after- 
 wards dried, and are then ready for printing. 
 
 After printing, the goods are aged and then steamed for 
 1 1 hours at a pressure of from i to 2 Ibs. per square inch. 
 Then, provided the prints contain no mordant of which tannic 
 acid is an ingredient, as is the case with the coal-tar colours, 
 they are washed and afterwards soaped as in madder work, 
 but for not quite so long a time, or at so high a tempera- 
 ture ; afterwards they are washed, cleared, drained, and 
 dried. If, however, the mordants used for any of the 
 colours contain tannic acid, the goods must be passed 
 through a solution of tartrate of antimony (2 oz. to the 
 gallon). This is done before washing and soaping, and of 
 course after they have been steamed. 
 
 1. EXTRACT, RED. 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . 9 pints. 
 
 Water 14 
 
 Olive oil 4 
 
 Starch 7 Ibs. 
 
 Boil, and when nearly cold, add 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . 2 pints. 
 Acetate of alumina at 18 Tw. . 2j ,, 
 
 Nitrate of alumina i| ,, 
 
 Sulphocyanide of alumina ... 2 
 Acetate of lime (at 2 Ibs. per gal.) 5 
 Artificial alizarin (at 20 per 
 
 cent.) 13 Ibs. 
 
 2. DARK PURPLE (Extract Work). 
 
 Water 2 gallons. 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . 2^ quarts. 
 Starch 6 Ibs. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 129 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Acetate of iron (4 and 4)* . . 2 pints. 
 Acetate of lime (2 Ibs. per gal.) 4 
 Artificial alizarin (20 per cent.) 10 ,, 
 
 3. BLACK (Chromium). 
 
 Logwood liquor at 12 Twaddle . 6| gallons. 
 
 Bark ,, .6 quarts. 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle ... 5 
 
 Water 2 
 
 Dark British gum . . . .36 Ibs. 
 
 Starch ...*.... 9 
 Boil and add 
 
 Chlorate of potash i 
 
 And when cold add 
 
 Nitro-acetate of chrome . . . i gallon. 
 
 4. NlTRO-ACETATE OF CHROME. 
 
 A. 
 
 6 Ibs. bichromate of potash, 
 
 3 gallons of hot water ; dissolve, then add 
 
 yi- Ibs. sulphuric acid at 170 Twaddle, diluted with 
 
 2 quarts of cold water ; then add gradually 
 
 1 1 Ibs. raw sugar. 
 
 B. 
 
 9f Ibs. nitrate of lead, 
 9! acetate of lead dissolved in 
 
 2 quarts of hot w^ater ; then add to solution A. Mix 
 well, allow to subside, and use the clear liquor. 
 
 * The acetate of iron is made as follows: Sulphate of iron 
 (copperas) 4 Ibs., hot water 2 quarts, dissolve ; acetate of lead 4 Ibs., 
 hot water 2 quarts, dissolve. Mix the solutions and stir well ; let 
 the precipitate settle, and keep the clear liquid for use. 
 
 K 
 
130 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 5. MAUVE (Fast) for Extract Work. 
 
 Acetic acid ...... 2 quarts. 
 
 "Water 2 
 
 Yiolet crystals (6 B violet.) . 4 ozs. 
 
 Starch i Ib. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Tannic acid 8 ozs. 
 
 Dissolve arid strain. 
 
 6. MAUVE (Fast). 
 
 Hed liquor at 18 Twaddle . . 3 gallons. 
 
 "Water i 
 
 Gum tragacanth water (8 ozs. 
 
 per gallon) i gallon. 
 
 Starch 5 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Alum i Ib. 
 
 Violet crystals i ,, 
 
 Dissolve and, when cold, add 
 
 Glycerin standard i J quarts. 
 
 Mix \vell and strain. 
 
 7. GLYCERIN STANDARD. 
 
 Brown glycerin 2 gallons. 
 
 Arsenic . 8 Ibs. 
 
 Boil i hour ; allow to stand, and use the clear liquor. 
 
 P.S. When boiling the arsenic and glycerin, avoid 
 inhaling the steam, which contains a dangerous gas. 
 
 K.B. By following Methods 5 and 6 all the ani- 
 line violets, mauves, magentas, most of the blues, choco- 
 lates, and other aniline colours can be fixed for printing ; 
 when desired for dark shades and neat patterns, starch may 
 be used as the thickening, and gums for medium or light 
 shades. 
 
CALICO-PRINTING. 131 
 
 8. CERULEAN BLUE (most beautiful colour.) 
 
 Red liquor at 18 Twaddle . . 3 gallons. 
 
 Water i Jt 
 
 Gum tragacanth water (8 ozs. per 
 gallon) i 
 
 Starch 5 Ibs. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Ground alum i lb. 
 
 Dissolve and, when quite cold, add, 
 
 Glycerin standard 3 pints. 
 
 And 
 
 Cerulean blue (ROBERTS, DALE, 
 
 and Co.) 5 Ibs. 
 
 9. METHYL GREEN. 
 
 Acetic acid 7,} quarts. 
 
 Sumach extract 7^ 
 
 Tartaric acid i lb. 
 
 Starch 5 ,, 
 
 Boil and, when cold, add 
 
 Methyl green crystals . . . i 
 
 Alum 8 ounces. 
 
 Dissolved in 
 
 Persian berry liquor or extract, 
 
 at 48 Twaddle 4 pints. 
 
 jo. METHYLINE BLUE. 
 
 Acetic acid at 8 Twaddle . . \ gallon. 
 
 Water i 
 
 Methyline blue crystals ... 3 ounces. 
 
 Starch i lb. 
 
 Boil and add 
 
 Tamiic acid 8 ounces. 
 
 Dissolve. 
 
 K 2 
 
132 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 IT. PINK or ROSE. 
 
 Is made by reducing Extract Bed, formula (i), either with 
 gum water or starch paste. 
 
 12. PINK. 
 
 Gum water (4 Ibs. per gallon) . 3 gallons,. 
 Extract Keel (i) i 
 
 13. PALE PURPLE. 
 
 Gum water (4 Ibs. per gallon) . 3 gallons^ 
 ^Extract Purple (2) . . . . i 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 BYE STUFFS. 
 
 Aloes. An extract of aloes when treated with nitric 
 acid, gives rise to various beautiful coloured products, 
 which, by the aid of mordants, can be fixed to silken and 
 woollen goods. Aloin, the colour-giving principle of aloes, 
 is a body soluble both in water and alcohol, and when 
 exposed to the air, it absorbs atmospheric oxygen, and 
 assumes an intense red colour. Aloes are seldom employed 
 for dyeing purposes. 
 
 Annotta. Syn. ANOTTO, ANNATTO, ANNATA, ARNATTO, 
 ARXOTTO. A colouring matter obtained from the seeds of the 
 Bixa, orellana (LiNN.), an exogenous evergreen tree, common 
 in Cayenne, and some other parts of tropical America. 
 Annotta is usually obtained by macerating the crushed seeds 
 or seed-pods of the plant in water for several weeks, 
 ultimately allowing the pulp to subside, then boiling it in 
 coppers to a stiff paste, and drying it in the shade. Some- 
 times a little oil is added when the paste is made into cakes 
 or lumps. A better method is that proposed by LEBLOXD, in 
 which the crushed seeds are simply exhausted by washing 
 them in water (alkalized ?), from which the colouring matter 
 is afterwards precipitated by means of vinegar or lemon- 
 juice ; the precipitate being subsequently collected, and 
 either boiled up in the ordinary manner, or drained in bags 
 and dried, as is in the preparation of indigo. Annotta so 
 prepared is said to be four times as valuable as that made by 
 the former process. 
 
134 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 The term annotta is frequently indiscriminately applied 
 to the commercial article, and to the colouring principle 
 contained in it. This latter is a resinous substance possess- 
 ing strong tinctorial properties, to which the name bixin* 
 has been given. It may be prepared by digesting commercial 
 annotta in an alkaline lye, and by neutralizing the filtered 
 liquid with sulphuric acid, when the bixin is precipitated. 
 Bixin is of an orange colour, scarcely soluble in water, but 
 freely so in alcohol, ether, oils, and fats, to each of which 
 substances it imparts a beautiful orange tint. It is also 
 soluble in alkaline solutions, to which it imparts a deep red 
 colour. 
 
 Genuine commercial annotta contains about 28 per cent 
 of the resinous substance (bixin), and 20 per cent, of 
 extractive matter. 
 
 In analyzing a sample, it is only necessary to determine 
 the quantity of ash and of colouring matter it contains, the 
 nearer of course the amount of the latter approaches that 
 given above, the greater will be its trade value. 
 
 Dr. BLYTH gives the following as the composition of a 
 fair commercial sample. The sample was in the form of a 
 paste, colour deep red, odour peculiar, but not disagreeable :. 
 
 "Water 24-2 
 
 Resinous colouring matter . . . . 2 8 '8 
 
 Ash 22*5 
 
 Starch and extractive matter . . . 24-5 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 The following is an analysis of an adulterated specimen.. 
 The sample was in a hard cake of a brown colour, with the 
 
 * Annotto also contains another and less important colouring bocty,. 
 which lias been denominated orellin. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 135 
 
 maker's name stamped upon it, and marked " patent" ; tex- 
 ture hard and leathery, odour disagreeable : 
 
 Water 13-4 
 
 Resin . iro 
 
 Ash, consisting of iron, chalk, salt, 
 
 alumina, silica 48*3 
 
 Extractive matter 27-3 
 
 lOO'O 
 
 Thus, in the one the resin was 28 per cent., the ash 22 
 per cent. ; in the other the resin was only n per cent., the 
 ash no less than 48 per cent. 
 
 Annotta is very frequently extensively adulterated. The 
 most usual sophisticants are meal, flour, or farina of some 
 description, chalk, plaster of Paris, pearlash, soap, turmeric, 
 Venetian red, red ochre, orange chrome and common salt. 
 Red lead and sulphate of copper have occasionally been 
 detected in it. Dr. H ASS ALL states that out of thirty-four 
 'different specimens, two only were genuine. Since genuine 
 commercial amiotta exhibits but few evidences of structure, 
 any of the above vegetable adulterants may be easily 
 detected by means of the microscope. 
 
 Annotta is used as a pigment for painting velvets 
 and transparencies, and as a dye-stuff for cotton, wool and 
 silk, to the latter of which it imparts a beautiful orange 
 yellow hue, the shade of which may be varied from " aurora" 
 to deep orange, by using different proportions of pearlash 
 with the water in which it is dissolved ; or by applying 
 different mordants before adding the amiotta to the dye- 
 beck. The tints thus imparted are, however, more or less 
 f ugitiv e . 
 
 Archil. Syn. ARCIIEL, ORCHIL. This is a violet-red, 
 purple or blue colouring matter or dye-stuff, obtained from 
 
136 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 several species of lichens, but of finest quality from Rocclla 
 tinctoria, and next from Rocellafusiformis. 
 
 The archil of commerce is met with as a liquid paste, or 
 as a thin liquid dye of more or less intensity of shade. Blue 
 archil, is prepared by steeping in the cold in closely covered 
 wooden vessels, the coarsely ground lichen in a mixture of 
 lime or milk of lime, in stale urine or bone spirit, or in 
 any similar ammoniacal solution ; the process being repeated 
 till all the colour is extracted. The carbonate of ammonia 
 resulting from the decaying urine acts upon the peculiar 
 acids, the lecanoric, alpha and beta orcellio, erythrinic, 
 gyrophoric, evernic, usninic, &c., contained in the lichens, and 
 converts them into orcine. By taking up nitrogen and 
 oxygen, orcine is converted into orceine, which constitutes the 
 essential colouring principle of archil. In the preparation 
 of red or crimson archil, the same materials are used as for 
 the production of the blue ; the only difference being that 
 a smaller quantity of milk of lime is used, and the steeping 
 is generally performed in an earthen jar placed in a room 
 heated by steam, and technically called a stove. The two 
 varieties differ only in the degree of their red or violet 
 tint, the addition of a small quantity of lime or alkali to the 
 one, or of acid to the other, immediately bringing them to 
 the same shade of colour. The hues given by archil to silk 
 and wool possess an exquisite lustre, but they are far from 
 permanent, and since the introduction of the coal-tar 
 colours, their use has diminished considerably. If archil is 
 employed at all, it is in combination with other dye stuffs, 
 or as a finishing bath to give a bloom to silk or woollen 
 goods dyed with some permanent colour. 
 
 Barwood. A red dye-wood imported from Angola and 
 other parts of Africa. It closely resembles camwood and 
 sanders wood in its colouring matter being of a resinous 
 nature, and scarcely soluble in water. In dyeing, this dim- 
 
DYE STUFFS. 137 
 
 culty is obviated by taking advantage of the strong affinity 
 existing between it and the protosalts of tin and iron. 
 Thus, by strongly impregnating the goods with protochloride 
 of tin, either with or without the addition of sumach, 
 according to the shade of red desired, and then putting 
 them into a boiling bath containing the rasped wood, the 
 colour is rapidly given out and taken up, until the whole of 
 the tin in the fibres of the cloth is saturated, and the goods 
 become of a rich bright hue. In like manner the dark red 
 of bandana handkerchiefs is commonly given by a mordant 
 of acetate of iron followed by a boiling bath of this dye- 
 stuff. Previous to the introduction of artificial alizarin 
 " Barwood Reds " were extensively used, and they ranked 
 next in permanency to madder reds. The dark barwood 
 red, however, possessed one great defect : if exposed for 
 some time to the air, it darkened, and became dull. The 
 change is supposed to be due to the absorption of ammonia. 
 Catechu. Syn. CASHEW, CUTCH, GAMBIR. An extract 
 obtained from the wood of the Acacia catechu, or from the 
 leaf of Uncaria gambir. There are several varieties of 
 catechu known in commerce, of which the principal are I- 
 BOMBAY CATECHU. This occurs as a firm, brittle extract, 
 of a dark-brown colour, of uniform texture, and of a glossy, 
 semi-resinous and uneven fracture. Sp.gr. i'39 Richness 
 in catechu tannin 52 per cent. 
 
 MALABAR CATECHU. Resembles the last in appearance, but 
 is more brittle and gritty. Richness in catechu tannin 
 45*5 per cent. 
 
 The amount of catechu tannic acid may be determined in 
 catechu as follows : 
 
 i. Exhaust a weighed and finely pulverized sample 
 of the catechu with ether, and evaporate by the heat of a 
 water-bath; the product, which is catechu-tannin, must then 
 be accurately weighed. 
 
138 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 2. Reduce the sample to powder, dissolve in hot water, let 
 cool out of contact with the air, filter and add solution of 
 gelatine as long as a precipitate falls. The precipitate, after 
 being washed and dried at a steam heat, should contain 
 40 per cent, of catechu-tannin. 
 
 When used for dyeing purposes catechu forms a great 
 variety of browns. 
 
 Alum mordants are mostly emplo}-ed in dyeing with it. 
 With the salts of copper, and sal ammoniac,* catechu gives 
 a fast bronze colour ; with protochloride of tin, a brownish 
 yellow ; with perchloride of tin and nitrate of copper, a deep 
 bronze; with acetate of alumina, a reddish brown; with 
 nitrate of copper a reddish olive grey, and with nitrate of 
 iron, a deep brown grey. 
 
 Acetate of alumina and tin nitrates make but weak 
 mordants for catechu, sulphate and acetate of copper the 
 best. The iron mordants also act satisfactorily, although they 
 give darker and duller colours than the copper ones. Hence 
 it is that the iron mordants are rarely ever used alone with 
 catechu, but in conjunction with copper ones, by which 
 means the browns are converted into drabs. Some beautiful 
 colours are now obtained by mixing varying quantities of 
 magenta with the catechu and copper. Such colours are 
 fairly fast. 
 
 Brazil Wood. Syn. CAMWOOD. This dye-stuff is 
 furnished by several species of trees belonging to the genus 
 Ccesalpinia, and was formerly much employed in producing 
 . various shades of red. The best kind of Brazil wood is that 
 known as Pernambuco or Fernambuco wood, the source of 
 which is the Ccesalpinia brasiliensis s. crista. 
 
 This variety is a heavy and rather hard wood, externally 
 
 * The sal ammoniac acts chiefly by absorbing moisture, and by 
 thus expediting the oxidation of the metals employed, aids in the 
 fixation of the catechu. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 139 
 
 of a yellowish brown, and internally of a bright red colour. 
 It occurs in commerce in chips and large logs. Inferior 
 but closely allied varieties of the wood are i. Sapan woody 
 derived from Ccesalpinia Sapan, and Lima or Nicaragua, 
 wood. 
 
 The colouring matter of all these woods is brezilin, which 
 when isolated occurs in small orange-coloured needles, solu- 
 ble both in water and alcohol. Alkalies turn it violet, acids 
 yellow. These woods give brilliant but unstable colours. 
 
 Coal-tar Colours. See p. 160. 
 
 Cinchonine. If cinchonine (one of the products left 
 after the extraction of the quinine from cinchona bark),, 
 be submitted to distillation with caustic soda in excess,, 
 there passes over into the receiver a crude kind of oil,, 
 called chinoline oil, one of the principal constituents of 
 which is a base called Lepidine,. 
 
 When this chinoline oil is heated with amyl iodide, and 
 the product treated with caustic soda solution, a very bril- 
 liant blue pigment known as Cyanine, Lzpidine Blue, or 
 Chinoline Blue is obtained. 
 
 Cinchonine has a very limited application in dyeing. 
 
 Cochineal. Syn. Coccus CACTI. This insect is found 
 upon several species of Cacti, more particularly on the ISTopal 
 plant, and on the Cactus opuntia. The chief seats of the 
 cochineal culture are Mexico,Central America, Java, Algeria,, 
 the Canary Islands and the Cape. The insect sickens and 
 dies out if the cactus plant is grown too near the sea, or 
 exposed to damp winds. 
 
 The female insect, which only possesses value as a dye, is 
 wingless the male, on the contrary, is winged. The females- 
 are collected twice a year after they have laid their eggs. 
 They are first brushed off the plant, and then killed, some- 
 times by exposure to the vapour of boiling water, but more 
 frequently by the heat of an oven. 
 
HO BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 The two chief varieties of cochineal are known in commerce 
 as the " silver grey" and the " black," another kind is dark 
 grey mottled with red. The best kind comes from Honduras. 
 An inferior quality is collected from wild cactus plants. The 
 silver grey specimens are covered with a white dust, which 
 microscopical examination has proved to be the insect's ex- 
 crement. The white dust is frequently imitated by shaking 
 the insects in a bag with French chalk, or white lead. Herr 
 DURWELL. a German chemist, states that he found a sample 
 adulterated with oxide of zinc. Sulphate of baryta and 
 powdered bone dust have also been used as sophisticants. 
 The object of the adulterations is of course to increase the 
 weight. Genuine cochineal has the specific gravity 1*25. A 
 peculiar kind of acid, which has been named carminic acid, 
 has been discovered in cochineal. "When acted upon by very 
 dilute sulphuric acid and other reagents, carminic acid 
 splits up into carmine red (or carmine) and glucose. Artifi- 
 cally prepared carmine is obtained by exhausting cochineal 
 with boiling water, adding alum to the clear supernatant 
 liquid, and allowing the carmine to deposit. Since the intro- 
 duction of the coal-tar colours, cochineal is in much less 
 demand by the dyer. 
 
 To ascertain the colorific value of a sample of cochineal, 
 the dyer generally makes a dyeing experiment 011 a small 
 scale. He impregnates a piece of mordanted wool, cotton, 
 or silk, with a decoction of the specimen under examination, 
 and then compares the colour with that of a piece of 
 similar tissue dyed with a standard decoction of cochineal. 
 By this means, he is enabled to form an opinion as to the 
 strength, purity of colour, &c., of his specimen. 
 
 Cudbear. Syn. PERSIO. This dye-stuff is obtained 
 from Lecanora tartarea, and other lichens, by a process 
 nearly similar to that used in making archil. The lichen is 
 watered with stale urine or some other ammoniacal liquid, 
 
DYE STUFFS. 141 
 
 and kept in a state of fermentation for three or four weeks, 
 after which the mixture is transferred to a flat vessel, and 
 exposed to the air until the urinous smell has disappeared, 
 and it has become of a violet colour. The residue is then 
 ground to powder. Its use is limited to a few cases of 
 silk dyeing, where it is employed to impart shades of ruby 
 and maroon. It dyes wool of a deep red tint. The colours 
 given by it are very fugitive; there are two varieties of 
 cudbear, the blue and the red. 
 
 Fustic. Two distinct dye-stuffs are met with under this 
 name, the " old" and the " young" fustic. 
 
 Old Fiistic, called also " yellow wood" is the hard wood of 
 the Madura tinctoria, a tree growing in Cuba, Hayti, and St. 
 Domingo. The tinctorial properties of the wood are due to 
 a colourless crystalline substance, called marine, and to a 
 peculiar acid, the moritannic, to which the name madurin 
 has been given. Under the combined influence of alkalies 
 and the air, morine becomes yellow. It dyes woollens 
 different shades of yellow according to the mordant. These 
 colours are very permanent. A commercial extract of 
 the wood is sent into the market under the name of Cuba 
 extract. 
 
 Young Fustic is the wood of the lihus cotinus or Venice 
 sumach, a shrub belonging to Southern Europe. It derives 
 its name of young fustic from the circumstance of its 
 branches being much smaller than those of the old fustic. 
 The colouring principles of this wood are tannic acid, and a 
 substance termed fustine, which, it appears, yields by decom- 
 position quercetin, one of the decomposition products of 
 quercitrin, the pigment of quercitron bark. Young fustic 
 dyes greenish yellow, but the colours are not very permanent. 
 
 Indigo. This blue dye-stuff is extracted from several 
 plants growing in the East and West Indies, Central and 
 Southern America, Egypt and other countries. 
 
142 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 The Indigofera tinctoria, Indigofera anil, Indigofera 
 dispenna, Indigofera jiseudotinctoria, and Indigofera argentea 
 are the chief varieties of the plant, from which commer- 
 cial indigo is obtained. The Nerium tinctorium is the source 
 of the East India indigo. Indigo does not exist as such in 
 the plant, but is the result of the action of atmospheric 
 oxygen upon the freshly expressed juice. 
 
 The method of its manufacture consists in steeping the 
 branches, twigs and leaves of the plant in tanks filled with 
 water until fermentation sets in. The clear liquid, which 
 then assumes a yellow or golden colour, is drawn off from the 
 deposited vegetable matter, and agitated and beaten with 
 bamboo poles for about two hours to bring it into contact with 
 the air. By this treatment the indigo forms and settles down 
 as a blue precipitate,which in its fluid state is run into a caul- 
 dron, in which it is boiled for about fifteen or twenty minutes 
 to prevent its undergoing a second fermentation, which would 
 render it useless. After standing over night, the magma 
 in the cauldron is again boiled for three or four hours, after 
 which it is placed on filters, composed of bamboo mats and 
 canoes. The thick nearly black paste which is left on the 
 filters, is subjected to pressure in boxes,whereby the greater 
 portion of the water is removed, and the paste becomes of a 
 more solid consistence. The cakes of indigo thus formed 
 are dried by artificial heat, packed in wooden boxes and so 
 sent into the market. Commercial indigo contains indigo 
 blue, or indigotin (its most important constituent), indigo 
 red, indigo brown, &c. The amount of indigo blue or indi- 
 gotiii varies in different samples of commercial indigo from 
 20 to 75 or 80 per cent., and averages from 40 to 50 per 
 cent. 
 
 The indigo plant, according to SCHUNCK, contains a 
 glucoside, which he terms indican ; when indican is decom- 
 posed by fermentation, or acted upon by strong acids, it is 
 
DYE STUFFS. 143 
 
 converted into indigo' blue or indigotin, and a peculiar kind 
 of sugar, indiglucin, according to the following formulae : 
 
 Indican. Indigo blue. Indiglucin. 
 
 The best indigo is that which has the deepest purple colour, 
 and which assumes, when rubbed with the nail, a bright 
 coppery hue. Its fracture should be homogeneous, compact, 
 fine-grained, and coppery. When reduced to powder it 
 should possess an intense blue colour, and should be so light 
 as to float on water. Indigo should leave only a fine streak 
 when rubbed on a piece of paper. In general, when indigo 
 is in hard dry lumps of a dark colour, or in the form of dust 
 or small pieces, it is frequently adulterated with sand, pul- 
 verized slate, and other earthy substances, which fall to the 
 bottom of the vessel when the indigo containing them is 
 thrown on to water. Good indigo leaves only a small 
 quantity of ash on ignition, and when suddenly heated gives 
 off its indigotin in the form of a purplish coloured vapour. 
 A simple and approximative test for indigo consists in 
 drying the sample at 212 Fahr. ( 1 00 C.), the loss giving 
 the quantity of hygroscopic water, which should not exceed 
 from 3 to 7 per cent. The dried indigo is next incinerated 
 for the purpose of ascertaining its yield of ash, which in 
 good indigo should not be more than from 7 to 9*5 per cent. 
 
 Four pounds of Bengal are equal to five pounds of 
 Guatemala indigo. 
 
 There are two methods of preparing solutions of indigo 
 for dyeing : i. By deoxidizing it, and then dissolving it in 
 alkaline menstrua. 2. By dissolving it in sulphuric acid. 
 The former method is used in preparing the ordinary indigo 
 vat of the dyers. 
 
 i. a. (CoLD VAT). Take of indigo, in fine powder, i Ib. ; 
 green copperas (clean cryst.), 2 J to 3 Ibs. ; newly slaked lime, 
 
144 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 3 J to 4 Ibs. ; triturate the powdered indigo with a little 
 water or an alkaline lye, then mix it with some hot water, 
 add the lime, and again well mix, after which stir in the 
 solution of copperas, and agitate the whole thoroughly at 
 intervals for twenty-four hours. A little caustic potassa or 
 soda is frequently added, and a corresponding portion of lime 
 omitted. For use, a portion of this " preparation vat" is ladled 
 into the " dyeing vat," as wanted. After being employed for 
 some time, the vat must be refreshed with a little more 
 copperas and freshly slaked lime, when the sediment must be 
 well stirred up, and the whole thoroughly mixed together. 
 This is the common vat for cotton. 
 
 b. (POTASH VAT). Take indigo, in fine powder, 12 Ibs.; 
 madder, 8 Ibs. ; bran, 9 Ibs. ; potash, 24 Ibs. ; water at 125 
 Fahr. (51*5 C.), 120 cubic feet; mix well; at the end of 
 about thirty-six hours add 14 Ibs. more potash, and after ten 
 or twelve hours longer, further add 10 Ibs. of potash, and 
 rouse the whole up well ; as soon as the fermentation and 
 reduction of the indigo are well developed, which generally 
 takes place in about seventy-two hours, add a little freshly 
 slaked lime. This vat dyes very quickly, and the goods lose 
 less of their colour in alkaline and soapy solutions than 
 when dyed in the common vat. It is well adapted for 
 woollen goods. It is worked hot. 
 
 c. (Wo AD VAT). As the last, but employing woad instead 
 of madder; the vat is "set" at 160 Fahr. (71 C.), and 
 kept at that temperature until the deoxidation and solution 
 of the indigo has commenced. The last two are also called 
 the " warm vat." 
 
 d. (PASTEL VAT). This is " set " with a variety of woad 
 whfch grows in France, and which is richer in colouring 
 matter than the plant commonly known as " woad." 
 
 e. (SCHUTZEXBERGER and DE LALANDE'S VAT). It is 
 known that the low stage of oxidation of sulphur obtained 
 
DYE STUFFS. 145 
 
 on the reduction of sulphurous acid by zinc, dissolves indigo. 
 On this reaction the following proceedings for dyeing and 
 printing with indigo are founded : To prepare the reducing 
 liquid, a solution of bisulphite of soda at 35 B.is brought into 
 contact with sheet zinc in a closed vessel, of which the liquid 
 should occupy only one-fourth. After the lapse of an hour 
 the zinc is precipitated from the clear liquid by means of milk 
 of lime. It is then diluted or decanted, or filtered with 
 exclusion of air. 
 
 The clear liquid is then poured upon the ground indigo, 
 with the addition of the needful soda and lime. One kilo 
 of indigo yields in this manner a very concentrated vat of 
 from 10 to 15 litres. Cotton is dyed cold, and wool with 
 the aid of heat. A vat is filled with water, and a suitable 
 quantity of the above indigo mixture introduced, when the 
 dyeing can be performed at once. The excess of the low 
 sulphur acid dissolves the froth which appears upon the 
 surface. During the process of dyeing, further quantities 
 of indigo can be added as required. Cotton can be rapidly 
 and easily dyed in this manner ; and in the case of wool, the 
 dyer escapes the many disadvantages of the hot vat and 
 obtains brighter and clearer shades. To print a fast blue 
 the alkah'ne solution of the reduced indigo is printed on with 
 an excess of the reducing agent, aged for twelve to twenty- 
 four hours, washed and soaped. In comparison with the old 
 process there is a saving of indigo to the extent of 50 to 60 
 per cent. ; the shades are richer and the impressions sharper. 
 The colour requires no subsequent treatment, and can there- 
 fore be printed on simultaneously with most other colours. 
 
 f. (GERMAN VAT). To 2,000 gallons of water heated to 
 130 Fahr. (54*4 C.), are to be added 20 Ibs. of crystals of 
 common carbonate of soda, 2^ pecks of bran, and 12 Ibs. 
 of indigo, the mixture being well stirred. 
 
 In twelve hours fermentation sets in, bubbles of gas rise, 
 
 L 
 
146 ' BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the liquid acquires a sweet smell, and a green colour ; 2 Ibs. 
 of slaked lime are next added, with diligent stirring ; the 
 vat is again heated and covered over for twelve hours, when 
 a similar quantity of bran, indigo, and soda, with some lime 
 are added. 
 
 In about forty-eight hours the vat may be worked ; but 
 as the reducing powers of the bran are somewhat feeble, 
 6 Ibs. of molasses are added. Should the fermentation be too 
 energetic, it must be repressed by the addition of lime : if 
 too sluggish, it must be stimulated by the addition of bran 
 and molasses. It is worked hot. 
 
 Sulphate of Indigo. Syn. SULPHINDYLIC ACID, SUL- 
 
 PHINDIGOTTC AdD, SAXONY BLUE, SOLUBLE INDIGO. This 
 
 is generally prepared by adding indigo in fine powder i part, 
 to Nordhausen sulphuric acid 5 parts, or oil of vitriol 8 parts, 
 contained in a stoneware vessel placed in a tub of very cold 
 water, to prevent the mixture heating. The ingredients are 
 stirred together with a glass rod at short intervals, until the 
 solution is complete, after which the whole is allowed to 
 repose for about forty-eight hours, by which time it becomes 
 a homogeneous pasty mass of an intense blue colour, which 
 in a dull light appears nearly black. 
 
 The above preparation, diluted with about twice its weight 
 of soft water, is converted into " Saxony blue." 
 
 Wool, silk, linen, and cotton, may each be dyed blue in 
 the indigo vat. The goods after being passed through a 
 weak alkaline solution, are subjected to the action of the vat 
 for about fifteen minutes ; they are then freely exposed to 
 the air ; the immersion in the vat and the exposure are 
 repeated until the colour becomes sufficiently deep. Woad 
 and madder improve the richness of the dye. Other deoxi- 
 dizing substances, besides those above mentioned, may be 
 used to effect the solution of the indigo ; thus a mixture of 
 caustic soda, grape sugar, indigo, and water, is often em- 
 
DYE STUFFS. 147 
 
 ployed on the Continent for this purpose ; and orpiment, 
 lime, and pearlash are also occasionally used. When pro- 
 perly prepared, the indigo vat may be kept in action for 
 several months by the addition of one or other of its con- 
 stituents, as required. An excess of either copperas or lime 
 should be avoided. 
 
 1. Solution of sulphate of indigo is added to water, as 
 required, and the goods, previously boiled with alum, are 
 then immersed in it, and the boiling and immersion are 
 repeated until the wool becomes sufficiently dyed. 
 
 With this, every shade of blue may be dyed, but it is most 
 commonly employed to give a ground to logwood blues. The 
 colouring matter has affinity for wool and silk with or 
 without mordant, but none for cotton. A solution of soluble 
 indigo (sulphindylate of potassa or soda), in water made 
 very slightly acid with sulphuric acid, imparts a very fine blue 
 to cloth, superior in tint to that given by the simple sulphate. 
 
 2. Give the goods a mordant of alum, or of acetate of 
 alumina (" red liquor,") then rinse them well, and boil them 
 in a bath of logwood, to which a small quantity of blue vitriol 
 has been added ; lastly, rinse and dry. 
 
 3. Boil the goods for a short time in a bath of logwood , 
 then add to the liquor tartar and verdigris, in the proportion 
 of i oz. of each to every Ib. of logwood employed ; and again 
 boil for a short time. 
 
 Kermes. Syn. Kermes Grain, Alkermes. The dried 
 bodies of the Coccus ilicis (LiXN.), a small insect which 
 nourishes on the Ilex oak or Quercus cocciferce, a tree growing 
 in the South of France, Spain, Italy, and the Greek Islands. 
 Kermes now only finds use in Spain, Morocco, and Turkey, 
 where it is used for dyeing leather and woollens. The 
 colouring matter yielded by it is nearly the same as that 
 existing in cochineal, but is not so brilliant. It is unacted 
 upon by soap or alkalies. 
 
 L 2 
 
148 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Lac. Syn. Lac lake, Indian cochineal. The source of 
 this dye, the colouring matter of which is very similar to that 
 found in cochineal, is a species of Coccus the Coccus laccce, 
 a native of India. The insect punctures the branches of 
 certain species of the fig, more especially the Ficus religiosa 
 indica, the juice exuding from which in consequence, whilst 
 becoming inspissated, encloses the creature, and at last 
 hardens into a resinous mass around it, which becomes tinged 
 with the colouring principle contained in the insect. By 
 treating this resinous substance, known as stick lac, with a 
 weak alkaline solution, and then adding to this a solution of 
 alum, the pigment separates in the form of a lac lake. Lac 
 dye is only suited for woollen or silk goods. It gives scarlet 
 colours like those obtained from cochineal, but of a less 
 brilliant character. 
 
 The physical tests of a good lac-dye are that it should be 
 tolerably easily broken by the fingers ; that the fracture 
 should exhibit a deep red colour ; that it should not have a 
 shining resinous appearance, and that it should evolve a 
 pronounced and peculiar odour. The harder it" -is, the 
 larger is the amount of shellac, and the smaller the quantity 
 of colouring matter it contains. 
 
 It may be tested by putting 5 grains of each sample in a 
 phial, and covering with about 2 fluid drachms of scarlet 
 finishing spirit, and setting aside all the specimens so treated 
 for an hour, after which about an ounce of water is 
 added to each phial, all the phials being then exposed for 
 another hour to a moderate heat. They are then examined 
 as to their respective depths of colour. This examination 
 is all that is necessary when the lacs are used for printing, 
 or for dyeing wool or woollen fabrics. 
 
 When used, however, for woollen goods that require to 
 be subsequently hot pressed, the amount of resin contained 
 in the lac must be first ascertained ; for if this resin is in 
 
DYE STUFFS. 149 
 
 excess, the pressing papers will adhere to it in patches, and 
 consequently spoil the goods. To ascertain the amount of 
 resin in a lac, take equal weights of the samples reduced to 
 powder, and place them in small flasks, pouring upon each 
 sample an equal measure of alcohol. The flasks are then 
 loosely stoppered and exposed to a gentle heat, after which 
 the clear solutions are decanted off into capsules, the tares of 
 which have been previously taken. The contents of the 
 capsules are then evaporated to dry ness and weighed. The 
 difference in the tare of each capsule will of course represent 
 the amount of shellac in each sample. 
 
 A great variety of brands of lac lake are upon the market? 
 but the trade mark is no evidence of excellence. 
 
 Messrs. BROOKE, SIMPSON, & SPILLER prepare a lac dye 
 which is said to be superior to that which comes from India. 
 They obtain a lac-lake by dissolving stick lac in weak 
 ammonia, and then adding to the solution chloride of tin. 
 
 The colouring matter of stick lac, although not identical 
 with that of cochineal, bears a considerable resemblance to 
 it in its properties. 
 
 La Kao. The Rhamnus chloropJiorus and Rkamnus 
 utilis yield a green dye much used by the Chinese, and 
 formerly by the English dyer, who has latterly abandoned 
 it for the aniline greens. 
 
 Logwood. Syn. CAMPEACHY WOOD. This is the heart- 
 wood of Hcematoxylon campechianum, a native of the coast 
 of Campeachy, and cultivated in India and the West Indies. 
 Hcematoxylin, the colouring principle of logwood, occurs in 
 brilliant reddish-white or straw-yellow crystals. 
 
 When dissolved in water, hcematoxylin forms a colourless 
 solution, which is rendered purple-red by the smallest addi- 
 tion of ammonia. An extract of logwood is very frequently 
 used in dyeing, instead of the wood. In common with other 
 dye extracts, it should be prepared in vacuum pans, and 
 
ISO BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 with exclusion, as far as possible, of air, the presence of 
 which acts detrimentally on the colouring matter. 
 
 Madder. The Rubia tinctorium, the roots of which yield 
 the madder dye, is a perennial plant growing in the Southern, 
 Central, and Western parts of Europe. Another variety, 
 the Rubia peregrina, is largely cultivated in the Levant, and 
 a third, the Rubiam mimgista or mungeet, in India and Japan. 
 The Levant, Indian, and Japanese madders are also some- 
 times found in the wild state. All the varieties are peren- 
 nial. The dye-stuff imported under the name of " mungeet" 
 from India, is the reedy stem of a species of rubia, and is 
 inferior in tinctorial power to the two other varieties. 
 Large quantities of mungeet are used in Thibet for dyeing 
 the apparel worn by the Llamas. Madder root varies from 
 4 to 10 inches in length, and is about the thickness of an 
 ordinary goose quill. Deprived of its external brown bark, 
 it presents a yellowish red appearance, and with the excep- 
 tion of the Avignon madder, has a strong smell. The 
 Zealand or Holland madders are distinguished for their 
 marked odour. 
 
 The best kind of madder is that grown in the Levant, 
 which occurs in commerce under the name of lizari or 
 alizari* The roots of the Levant madder are rather thicker 
 than those of the other varieties, which is due to their 
 being allowed to attain a growth of four or five years, 
 whereas the othe'r roots are used when they are from 
 two to three years old. Madder is sent into the market 
 under the forms of root and powder, the latter being always 
 kept in strong oaken casks, so as to protect it from the 
 action of air and light. European madder root when in 
 powder is technically known as ratine. 
 
 * By these terms is understood the entire root of the madder. The 
 term madder is applied to the root when pulverized. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 151 
 
 Besides Dutch madder, that from Alsace and Avignon is 
 rather, before the extensive employment of the, arti- 
 ficial alizarin and purpurin, was in very large demand, 
 and had a high reputation. Alsatian madder is sent into 
 the market in the state of a very fine powder ; and in order 
 to extract its tinctorial principle, it requires boiling a much 
 longer time than the Levant madder. It has a penetrating 
 smell and a bitter taste, and readily absorbs moisture by 
 exposure. It is in best condition after being kept for two 
 years. Avignon madder possesses an agreeable and rather 
 pungent odour. It is met with in the condition of a very 
 fine powder. It absorbs moisture less readily than the other 
 species. That which has been kept in casks for a year is to 
 be preferred for use. It keeps well and undergoes little if 
 any fermentation. The finest quality of ground madder is 
 called crop, or grappe; next come ombro and gamene. and 
 lastly mull, which consists of the refuse and dust from the 
 madder grinding rooms. 
 
 Flowers of madder, orfleur de garance, as the preparation 
 is called by the French dyers, is obtained by infusing i part 
 of madder in fine powder in 8 or i o parts water, and setting- 
 up fermentation in the liquid, whereby the large amount of 
 sugar* which the root contains is removed. The residue is 
 then thoroughly washed with warm and afterwards with 
 cold water. The residue being next freed from water by 
 means of hydraulic pressure, is carefully dried, and after 
 being again reduced to powder is ready for use. It is used 
 in the same manner as madder, except that in the dye-beck 
 it is subjected to a lower temperature. By the above treat- 
 ment the pectous substances of the madder root, which 
 
 * The fermented liquid, being submitted to distillation, yields a 
 spirit, which is employed for technical purposes. 
 
152 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 would otherwise become insoluble during the process of 
 dyeing, are eliminated. 
 
 Garancine is obtained by first moistening madder root, re- 
 duced to fine powder, with water, and next adding | part of 
 sulphuric acid, diluted with double as much water. The 
 mixture is next heated by steam for an hour, and the acid 
 removed from the magma by well washing this latter 
 in water. The resulting garancine, next submitted to 
 hydraulic pressure, whereby the water is removed, is then 
 dried and finally ground to a very fine powder, which 
 amounts to about 2 5 per cent, of the madder root operated 
 upon. The sulphuric acid destroys much of the woody 
 fibre and other substances which interfere with the dyeing 
 properties of the madder. The tinctorial value of garancine 
 is three or four times that of madder. 
 
 When the fluids of the beck left after dyeing with madder 
 root, are strained from the solid residue, and this is treated 
 with half its weight of sulphuric acid, and the resulting 
 mass* in a manner similar to that followed in preparing 
 garancine, a product is obtained, which after drying, goes by 
 the name of garanceux. Garanceux is mostly used for pro- 
 ducing sad colours. It is inferior in tinctorial power to 
 garancine. 
 
 Madder Extracts are made by treating madder root with 
 boiling water, collecting the precipitates which form as the 
 infusion cools, mixing them with gum or starch, and then 
 adding acetate of alumina or iron. Extracts so prepared 
 form mordanted dyes, which are available for direct applica- 
 tion in calico printing. 
 
 The consumption of madder, and the various tinctorial pre- 
 parations obtained from it, have, owing to the recent intro- 
 duction of artificial alizarin and purpurin, greatly declined 
 in England. 
 
 Madder root contains several distinct principles, such 
 
DYE STUFFS. 153 
 
 as madder red or alizarin, madder purple or purpurin,* 
 madder orange or rubiacin, madder yellow or xanthin. 
 
 The researches of SCHUNCK have shown that alizarin, the 
 colouring principle of madder root, is derived from a glucoside 
 which he terms rubian, which, under the influence of acids 
 and alkalies, and of a peculiar nitrogenized ferment known 
 as erythrozym, splits up into alizarin and other colouring 
 matter, and a fermentable sugar. 
 
 The following equation, according to GERHARDT, represents 
 the reaction that takes place : 
 
 Eubian. Alizarin. Glucose. 
 
 The chief mordants used in madder dyeing and calico- 
 printing, are the acetates or pyrolignites of ^alumina and 
 iron, the first known as " red liquor ;" the second as " black" 
 or " iron liquor." 
 
 Formulae for Bed Liquor : 
 
 1. URE. Standard Red Liquor. 
 
 Alum ......... 20 Ibs. 
 
 Sugar of lead ...... 12^ ,, 
 
 Boiling water ...... 5 gallons. 
 
 Stir till dissolved ; let settle and draw of the clear. 
 
 2. KCECHLIN. 
 
 Alum ......... ii kilos. 
 
 Acetate of lead ...... 82 -5 grammes. 
 
 Boiling water ...... 32 litres. 
 
 According to KCECHLIN, this mordant produces the deepest 
 tints with nearly all tinctorial substances. 
 
 * Purpurin occurs in crystalline red needles, insoluble in cold, but 
 soluble in hot water, and in alcohol, ether, and solutions of the alka- 
 lies. Its formula is C S H 6 8 . 
 
154 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 3. Five-fourths Mordant. 
 
 Alum 625 grammes. 
 
 Acetate of lead 450 
 
 Boiling water 2 litres. 
 
 The following, which are French formulae for red liquor, 
 have a high reputation : 
 
 4. A. B. c. 
 Alum ... 1 6 kilos. ... 80 kilos. ... 10 kilos. 
 Acetate of lead 12 ... 8*5 ... 10 
 Boiling water 62 ... 6o~o ... 20 
 Extract of Lima ) 
 
 wood at 20 2 ' 4 ' ( at 3 ) 
 
 30 Twaddle. 4 Twaddle. 
 Baume . . . / 
 
 It is customary with English dyers to make up the above 
 without the peachwood liquor, and to add it when the colour 
 is being prepared for printing. 
 
 5. For Garancine (MUSPRATT). 
 
 At 11 Baume = 1-083 S P- g r - = I 5 Twaddle. 
 
 Alum 25 kilos. ' 
 
 Acetate of lead 19 
 
 Water 80 litres. 
 
 6. Strong Mordant. 
 
 At ] i Baume. 
 
 Alum 2\ kilos. 
 
 Acetate of lead 2 
 
 Water 6'3 litres. 
 
 The German dyers frequently prepare their red liquor 
 from basic alum, which they dissolve in acetic acid, the basic 
 alum being first obtained by treating alum with carbonate of 
 soda. Acetate of lime being a cheaper commodity than lead 
 acetate, is frequently substituted for it. The chlorides of 
 ammonium, sodium, and zinc are added to red liquor, since 
 
DYE STUFFS. 155 
 
 they prevent the too rapid drying of the acetate on the fibre. 
 Tartrate of alumina, which is formed when cream of tartar 
 is mixed with alum, is found to be superior to the acetate 
 for dyeing woollen goods. 
 
 "Iron liquor" or " black liquor" is made as follows : 
 
 1. Copperas, 300 Ibs., dissolved in 175 gallons of hot water; 
 to the solution is added 5 7 gallons of acetate of lime liquor 
 at 1 6 Twaddle. 
 
 2. Copperas 32 Ibs.; pyroligneous acid at 7 Twaddle; 
 acetate of lime liquor, at 24 Twaddle, 10 gallons. 
 
 Iron liquor at about 6 Twaddle, when properly thickened, 
 gives black with madder. From 4 Twaddle downwards to a 
 very diluted state, it gives various shades of purple or lilac ; 
 mixed with red liquor, it gives chocolates. 
 
 The purified pyroligneous acid should be employed in the 
 preparation of these mordants, as the tarry matters contained 
 in the crude acid act injuriously. Starch is the best thickener 
 for iron liquor. 
 
 Madder is adulterated with powdered brick, ochre, yellow 
 sand, yellow clay, oak sawdust, mahogany sawdust, fustic, 
 and various dye woods. The presence of any foreign mineral 
 matter may be detected by the amount of ash yielded on 
 incineration. Good madder should yield from 9 to 1 1 per 
 cent, of ash. 
 
 The best method of estimating the tinctorial value of a 
 sample of madder is to compare its dyeing power with a 
 specimen of known good quality, which is carried out by the 
 following process, given by Dr. CALVERT : Place 1 2 grains 
 of each sample in pans of copper or block-tin with a quart 
 of water. The pans are placed in a water-bath, heated by 
 means of a jet of steam. A piece of calico, mordanted with 
 red, purple, and chocolate mordants, which cover about 
 three-fourths of the surface of the cloth, is placed in each pan. 
 
 It is important that each strip taken should be about 
 
156 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 3 inches in breadth, and its length equal to one-half the 
 breadth of the calico (26 inches). The swatches are placed in 
 the pans whilst cold, steam is then turned on, and the tem- 
 perature is gradually raised during an hour and a half to 
 1 80 Fahr. (82 0.), and then for half an hour kept as near 
 the boiling-point as possible. During the whole time of the 
 operation the pieces should be constantly and carefully lifted 
 out of the dyeing liquor, either with a glass-rod, or better 
 still, by a mechanical arrangement. 
 
 When the dyeing is completed, the pieces are thoroughly 
 washed with pure water, and the brilliancy and intensity of 
 shade carefully compared. If the samples under trial are 
 found to be weaker than the standard, the dyeing operation 
 is repeated, adding such a quantity of the inferior madder 
 as will bring up the colour to the same intensity as the 
 standard. The values are in inverse ratio to the quanti- 
 ties taken. A further trial is, however, necessary to arrive 
 at a correct conclusion as to the value. The dyed pieces 
 are divided into two parts, one of which is kept for com- 
 parison, whilst the other is submitted to a light soaping ; 
 three or four grains of soap to a quart of water being suffi- 
 cient for the surfaces above given. They are carefully 
 heated in this solution for a quarter of an hour, the tem- 
 perature being kept at 180 Fahr. (82 C.). They are then 
 washed and dried, and the tints again compared. The first 
 operation gives the total amount of colour, the second 
 removes any colouring matter of the dye woods which may 
 have been used for the purposes of adulteration. 
 
 Murexid. Syn. PURPURATE OF AMMONIA. By adding to 
 a solution of alloxan and alloxantin a solution of carbonate 
 of ammonia, magnificent iridescent crystals of a beautiful 
 reddish purple by transmitted, and of an equally beautiful 
 green colour by reflected, light are obtained. Some years back 
 this substance, known as " murexid," was extensively used in 
 
DYE STUFFS. 157 
 
 dyeing, but it is now almost, if not entirely, superseded by 
 the coal-tar colours. 
 
 Peachwood. Syn. ST. MARTHA'S WOOD. The source 
 of this dye-stuff is the Ctescdpinia echinata. The best is 
 imported from Nicaragua, and an inferior kind from Sierra 
 Nevada. 
 
 Peachwood, sapanwood, and Lima wood, all give very 
 similar shades of colour. 
 
 Persian Berries. Syn. YELLOW BERRIES. FRENCH 
 BERRIES. AVIGNON BERRIES. BERRIES. The berries or 
 fruit of different species of Rhamnus, growing in Persia, 
 the Levant, Southern France, and Hungary. The Persian 
 berries, which are the most valuable, are stated to be the 
 product of the Rhamnus ainygdalinus. Two varieties of these 
 berries are met with in commerce -the larger, a bright 
 olive-coloured berry, which is gathered before being ripe, and 
 a smaller, shrivelled, deep brown kind, which are not removed 
 from the branches until some time after they have reached 
 maturity. The yellow colouring matter of these berries is 
 chryso-rhamnin which occurs in golden yellow crystals. 
 These, when boiled in water, are resolved into xantho-r/iamnin, 
 a substance of an olive yellow colour. According to BOLLEY, 
 chryso-rluimnin is identical with quercetin. Persian berries 
 are chiefly used for dyeing morocco leather, yellow. Cloth, 
 previously mordanted with alum, tartar, or protochloride of 
 tin is also dyed yellow, whilst with sulphate of copper they 
 give an olive, and with sulphate of iron an olive-green colour. 
 Purree. Syn. INDIAN YELLOW. This yellow dye-stuff, 
 imported from China and India, is of doubtful origin, and is 
 more largely vised by artists than by dyers. Some writers 
 suppose it to be derived from an animal source. According 
 to the researches of STENHOUSE and E RDM ANN, purree chiefly 
 consists of purreic acid, a strongly tinctorial substance, com- 
 bined with magnesium. 
 
 rue 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
158 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Quercitron Bark. Syn. BARK. This yellow dye material 
 is the inner bark of the Quercus tinctoria, Quercus nigra, or 
 Quercus citrina, a species of oak, a native of America, grow- 
 ing more particularly in Pennsylvania, Carolina and Georgia. 
 Quercitrin, the pigment of quercitron bark, is a neutral 
 substance which, when treated with dilute acids, yields 
 quercetin, a substance of a lemon-yellow colour, which occurs 
 in commerce under the name of flavine. "With picric acid, 
 quercitron bark affords a magnificent yellow dye. 
 
 Rhubarb. The root of common rhubarb contains a 
 yellow colouring principle, termed rhein or chrysophanic acid) 
 which is soluble in boiling achohol and ether, from which it 
 crystallizes in golden yellow crystals of a metallic appear- 
 ance. With alkalies it produces a reddish-brown coloured 
 liquid. 
 
 Sandal Wood. This is the wood of the Pterocarpus 
 santalinus, an Indian tree. It is imported in logs, 
 which are of a deep red colour externally, and a bright 
 red internally. The colouring principle of sandal wood 
 resides in a resinoid body named santalin, which appears to 
 be the oxidation product of a colourless body named santal. 
 Santalin is also found in barwood, the source of which is 
 Baphia nitida, an African tree. According to BANCROFT, if 
 wool be mordanted with alum and tartar, and then dyed in 
 a bath of sandal wood and sumach, it takes a reddish-yellow 
 colour. 
 
 Safflower. Syn. BASTARD SAFFRON. DYERS' SAFFRON. 
 The dye-stuff to which this name is given, consists of the 
 dried florets of Carthamus tinctorius, a thistle-like plant, 
 cultivated in Spain, Egypt, the Levant, and in some parts 
 of Germany. Safflower contains two colouring principles 
 a yellow and a red one. The latter, which is the tinctorial 
 agent of the plant, is called carthamin. The yellow is 
 removed by water and is rejected. The red is easily dis- 
 
DYE STUFFS. 159 
 
 solved out from the florets by weak solutions of the carbonated 
 alkalies, and is again precipitated on the addition of an acid. 
 Safflower is employed for dyeing silk, to which it imparts a 
 brilliant but very fugitive colour. 
 
 Saffron. Saffron is the prepared stigmata or stigmas of 
 the Crocus sativus, or saffron crocus. There are two principal 
 varieties of saffron known in commerce : hay saffron, and 
 cake saffron. Hay saffron consists of the stigmas with part 
 of the styles, carefully separated from the other part of the 
 flowers, and then dried by a very gentle heat. Cake saffron 
 is the last kind compressed into a cake, after it has been 
 softened by the fire and afterwards dried. Saffron is very 
 largely and constantly adulterated. The chief sophisticants 
 are safflower, marigold, and carbonate of lime. Saffron owes 
 its colour to crocin, a glucoside. 
 
 Turmeric. This dye-stuff is the dried rhizome or under- 
 ground stem of the Curcuma longa,&nd the Curcuma rotunda, 
 a plant growing in India, Java, and Ceylon. The finest 
 kinds come from the latter island. Curcumin, the colour- 
 ing principle of turmeric occurs as a brownish yellow mass. 
 It dyes cotton without a mordant. It gives a golden yellow 
 to wool, and an orange tinge to scarlet. It is, however, a 
 very fugitive dye. 
 
 Weld. Weld consists of the dried herbs and stems of 
 the Reseda luteola, a native of the South of France. 
 Luteolin, the colouring matter of weld, is a substance of 
 considerable durability, and when sublimed condenses in 
 yellow needles. The decoction of weld imparts a rich yellow 
 to goods mordanted with aliim, tartar, or chloride of tin. 
 
 Woad. Syn. DYER'S WOAD ; PASTEL, Fr. The Isatis 
 tinctoria. To prepare them for the dyer, the leaves of the 
 plant are partially dried and ground to a paste, which is 
 made into balls ; these are placed in heaps, and occasionally 
 sprinkled with water, to promote the fermentation ; when 
 
160 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall down into 
 lumps, which are afterwards reground and made into cakes 
 for sale. The woad thus prepared is mixed with boiling 
 water, and allowed to stand for some hours in a closed 
 vessel, about i-2oth its weight of newly slaked lime being 
 added to it. The mixture is then digested at a moderate 
 temperature, and stirred every three or four hours, when a 
 new fermentation begins ; a blue froth rises to the surface, 
 and the liquor, though it appears itself of a reddish colour, 
 dyes woollens of a green which, like the green from indigo, 
 changes in the air to a blue. It is said this process does not 
 succeed well on the small scale. Woad is now mostly used 
 in combination with indigo. Fifty Ibs. of woad are reckoned 
 equal to i Ib. of indigo. 
 
 By increasing the proportion of alum or red-liquor, the 
 colour verges on purple ; and by employing a little acetate 
 of iron, or green copperas, the darker shades of blue are pro- 
 duced. Verdigris, blue vitriol, and alkalies, turn it more on 
 the blue ; whilst a mordant of tin imparts a violet cast. 
 
 Coal- Tar Colours. The old synonym of . aniline 
 colours is hardly now applicable, as these only form a portion 
 of the colours obtained from TAR. Coal-tar consists of the 
 oily fluid obtained in the destructive distillation of coal, 
 during the manufacture of ordinary illuminating gas, and 
 collected in a tank from the hydraulic main and con- 
 densers. The composition of coal-tar is highly complex, the 
 most important constituents, being, however, benzol, toluol, 
 naphthalene, anthracene and carbolic acid. Naphtha, which 
 is one of a series of homologous hydrocarbons obtained by 
 distilling coal-tar, yields, by rectification, between 180 and 
 250 Fahr. (82 and 121 C.), an almost colourless liquid, the 
 benzol of commerce. By the action of a mixture of nitric and 
 sulphuric acids on benzol, nitro-benzol, a heavy oily liquid with 
 an odour of oil of bitter almonds, is obtained. In commerce 
 
DYE STUFFS. 161 
 
 this substance is made in large cast-iron pots, fitted with tight 
 covers, and provided with sfcirrers worked /by steam power. 
 By means of pipes the reagents are admitted, and the 
 nitrous fumes are carried off, while the nitro-benzol and the 
 spent reagents are drawn off from the bottom. The entire 
 charge of benzol is first placed in the vessels, and the mixed 
 .acids are, as the reaction is very energetic, cautiously run in, 
 the whole being well stirred throughout. When finished, 
 the contents are drawn off, and the nitro-benzol collected, 
 washed with water, and finally washed with a weak solution 
 of soda. Nitro-benzol is converted into aniline in a similar 
 apparatus, only provided with the means of admitting a 
 current of superheated steam, and condensing the aniline as it 
 distils over. In the vessel iron borings are placed, and acetic 
 acid and nitro-benzol cautiously run in as the reduction is 
 violent, stirring well all the time. A current of superheated 
 steam is passed through, and the aniline collected as it distils 
 over, as a pale, sherry-coloured, oily liquid, boiling at 360 
 Fahr. (182 Cent.), and of sp. gr. 1-02. 
 
 Aniline. C G H 7 xsf. Syn. PHENYLAMINE. A peculiar vola- 
 tile organic base first noticed by UXVERDORBEN in empy- 
 reumatic bone-oil, and afterwards obtained by RUXGE from 
 coal-tar, and by FRITZSCHE, ZININ, A. W. HOFMAXN, and 
 others, as a product of various reactions, processes, and 
 decompositions, particularly those attending the destructive 
 distillation of nitrogenous organic bodies. Aniline is now 
 invariably obtained, on the large scale, indirectly from 
 coal-tar, from the naphtha, or, more correctly, from the 
 nitro-benzol, of which this is the source. The following are 
 the leading commercial and experimental processes : 
 
 i . From COAL-TAR. The aniline present in coal-tar may 
 be obtained by washing the crude naphtha with dilute hydro- 
 chloric acid, the clear portion of the liquid (containing the 
 hydrochlorates of the bases present) is then decanted and 
 
1 62 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 carefully evaporated over an open fire until acrid fumes 
 begin to be disengaged, when it is again decanted or 
 filtered ; the clear liquor, or filtrate, is next treated with 
 caustic soda or milk of line in excess, by which the bases are 
 liberated under the form of a brownish oil ; the whole of 
 the resulting mixture is now submitted to distillation, the 
 portion which passes over at or about 360 Fahr. (182 Cent.)., 
 and which consists chiefly of 'crude aniline, being collected 
 separately ; the product is purified by rectification at the 
 same temperature, and, lastly, by fresh treatment with 
 hydrochloric acid, and careful distillation with excess of 
 soda, or milk of lime, as before. 
 
 2. From NITRO-BENZOL : a. (ZiNix.) An alcoholic solu- 
 tion of nitro-benzol, after saturation with ammonia, is treated 
 "with sulphuretted hydrogen, until, after some hours, a pre- 
 cipitation of sulphur takes place ; the brown liquid is then 
 repeatedly saturated with fresh sulphuretted hydrogen^ 
 until no more sulphur separates, the reaction being aided by 
 occasionally heating or distilling the mixture ; an excess of 
 acid is next added, and, after filtering the liquid, . and the 
 removal of the alcohol and unaltered nitro-benzol by ebulli- 
 tion or distillation, the residue is lastly distilled with caustic 
 potash, in excess. The aniline found in the receiver may be 
 rendered pure by forming it into oxalate of aniline, repeat- 
 edly crystallizing the salt from alcohol, and finally distilling 
 it with excess of caustic soda as before. 
 
 The following is a cheaper and more convenient process,. 
 and is the only method used on a large scale : 
 
 b. (M. BECHAMPS). From NITRO-BENZOL by distillation with 
 a mixture of iron-filings and acetic acid (the acetic acid is 
 now more economically replaced by hydrochloric acid or a 
 solution of chloride of iron). 
 
 The liquor found in the receiver consists of aniline and 
 water, from which the first, forming the lower portion, is 
 
DYE STUFFS. 
 
 163 
 
 obtained, after sufficient repose in a separator. A very spa- 
 cious retort must be employed in the process, as the mass 
 swells up violently ; and it must be connected with the 
 receiver, by means of a condenser, kept in good action by a 
 sufficient flow of cold water. 
 
 The apparatus for carrying out BECIIAMP'S method was 
 devised by NICHOLSON, and is exhibited in the subjoined 
 plate. 
 
 " It consists essentially of a cast-iron cylinder (A) of 10 
 hectolitres (220 gallons) cubic capacity. A stout iron tube is 
 
 FIG, 5. 
 
 fitted to this vessel, reaching nearly to the bottom of the 
 cylinder. The upper part of this tube is connected with 
 the machinery G, while the surface of the tube is fitted with 
 steel projections. The tube serves to admit steam, as well 
 as acting as a stirring apparatus. Sometimes, instead of 
 this tube, a solid iron axle is employed, and in this case 
 there is a separate stearnpipe, D. Through the opening at K 
 
 M 2 
 
164 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 the materials for making aniline are put into the apparatus, 
 while the volatile products are carried off through E. H ser- 
 ves for emptying and cleaning the apparatus. The S-shaped 
 tube connected with the vessel B acts as a safety valve. 
 "When it is intended to work with this apparatus there is 
 poured into it through K, 10 kilos of acetic acid at 8 B. 
 (sp. gr. ro6o), previously diluted with six times its weight of 
 water ; next there are added 30 kilos of iron filings, or cast 
 iron borings, and 125 kilos of nitro-benzol, and immediately 
 after the stirring apparatus is set in motion. The reaction 
 ensues directly, and is attended by a considerable evolution 
 of heat and vapours. Gradually more iron is added until 
 the quantity amounts to 180 kilos. The escaping vapours 
 are condensed in F, and the liquid condensed in R is from 
 time to time poured back into the cylinder A. The reduction 
 is finished after a few hours."* 
 
 3. From INDIGO. Powdered indigo is added to a boiling 
 and highly concentrated solution of caustic potash, as long 
 as it dissolves and hydrogen is liberated, the resulting 
 brownish-red liquid is evaporated to dryness, and 'the resi- 
 duum is submitted to destructive distillation in a retort. 
 Prod. 1 8 to 20 per cent, of the indigo employed. 
 
 4. By fusing, with proper precautions, a mixture of isa- 
 tin and hydrate of potassium (both in powder). A retort 
 connected with a well-cooled receiver, is employed as the 
 apparatus. The interest attaching to these two methods 
 arises from the fact that the aniline thus obtained is abso- 
 lutely free from toluidine, which is always present in that 
 prepared from coal-tar benzol. 
 
 5. From anthranilic acid mixed with powdered glass or 
 sand, and rapidly heated in a retort. 
 
 * WAGNER'S "Chemical Technology," edited by W. CKOOKES, F.R.S. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 165 
 
 6. By treating an alcoholic solution of benzine with a little 
 zinc and hydrochloric acid. 
 
 7. By heating pheiiyl- alcohol with ammonia in sealed 
 tubes. 
 
 Many other reducing agents have been proposed for the 
 conversion of nitro-beiizol into aniline, such as arsenite of 
 sodium, powdered zinc, &c., but on the large scale they have 
 all been found inferior to the process of BECHA:,IP. KREMER'S 
 process consists in heating one part of nitro-benzol in a pro- 
 per apparatus with five of water and two and a half of 
 zinc dust. When the reaction is completed, the aniline, 
 amounting to about 65 per cent, of the weight of the benzol, 
 is distilled off in a current of steam. 
 
 Aniline is a thin, oily, colourless liquid, with a faintly 
 vinous odour, and a hot and aromatic taste, miscible in all 
 proportions with alcohol and ether, very slightly soluble in 
 water, neutral to ordinary test-paper, but exhibiting an alka- 
 line reaction to dahlia-petal infusion and paper. It dissolves 
 camphor, sulphur, and phosphorus, and coagulates albumen, 
 possesses a high refractive power, and precipitates the oxides 
 of iron, zinc, and alumina, from solutions of their salts, 
 and neutralizes the acids like ammonia. With the acids it 
 forms numerous crystallizable compounds of great beauty, 
 which are easily formed, and are precisely analogous to the 
 corresponding salts of ammonia. These, on exposure to the 
 air, acquire a rose colour, in many cases gradually passing 
 into brown. 
 
 Tests. i. Chromic acid gives a deep greenish or bluish- 
 black precipitate with aniline and its salts. 2. Hypo- 
 chlorite of lime strikes an extremely beautiful violet colour, 
 which is soon destroyed. 3. The addition of two or three 
 drops of nitric acid to anhydrous aniline produces a fine blue 
 colour, which, on the application, of heat, passes into yellow, 
 and a violent reaction ensues, sometimes followed by explo- 
 
1 66 
 
 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 sion. 4. With bichloride of platinum it yields a double 
 salt, the platino-chloride of aniline, corresponding to the 
 corresponding salt of ammonia. These reactions distinguish 
 it from all other substances. 
 
 Commercial aniline is a mixture consisting in great part 
 of aniline, paratoluidine, and orthotoluidine in variable 
 proportions. In addition it contains small amounts of 
 metatoluidine, nitro-benzol, odorine, &c., but for all practical 
 purposes it may be regarded as a mixture of aniline and 
 toluidine. As it is obtained from a portion of the light 
 naphtha, boiling between certain temperatures, it will vary 
 according to the naphtha from which it is made. 
 
 In order to distinguish between various samples of com- 
 mercial aniline, BEIMANN submits them to fractional distilla- 
 tion and compares the results. He places 100 c.c. of the 
 sample to be tested in a retort fitted with a thermometer 
 and heated by means of an oil-bath. The liquid, as it distils, 
 is received in a narrow graduated cylinder, and the amount 
 that passes over between every 5 Cent. (41 Fahr.) is noted. 
 
 In order to obtain standards for comparison he first dis- 
 tilled a sample of light aniline, then one of heavy aniline ; 
 
 CENTIGRADE. 
 
 Light 
 
 100 
 
 Heavy 
 
 
 
 90 
 
 10 
 
 85 
 15 
 
 80 
 
 20 
 
 75 
 25 
 
 60 
 40 
 
 
 <o 
 
 25 
 
 75 
 
 
 100 
 
 Below 1 80 
 180 185 
 185 190 
 190 195 
 195 200 
 200 205 
 
 84 
 
 54 
 34 
 
 7 
 50 
 34 
 5 
 
 2^ 
 294 
 
 564 
 74 
 
 54 
 
 22 
 
 554 
 
 Si 
 
 k 
 
 15 
 9 
 4.* 
 
 7 
 37 
 33 
 
 16 
 
 Ik 
 
 7i 
 
 42 
 
 19 
 
 IO 
 
 5* 
 
 2l 
 
 44 
 
 17 
 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 2 
 
 s 4 
 
 18 
 
 ^Q 
 
 205 210 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?i 
 
 8 
 
 iq 
 
 210 215 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4-i 
 
 7 
 
 Residue 
 
 34 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 8| 
 
 34 
 
 7 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 si 
 
 and afterwards mixtures of the two in varying proportions. 
 In the foregoing table the results are given. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 167 
 
 In examining commercial aniline it is usual to determine 
 the amount of insoluble oil which separates on agitating a 
 sample with dilute hydrochloric acid. For a detailed 
 account of the methods of preparing aniline commercially, 
 iiid of the dyes obtained therefrom, see " Dictionnaire de 
 Chimie," par A. WURTZ. 
 
 Aniline Black is formed as a by-product in the manu- 
 facture of all colours which are produced by the action of 
 powerful oxidizers on aniline. In the case of mauve, for 
 instance, the black by-product amounts to as much as thirty 
 times the weight of the pure colour. There are so many 
 methods of preparing it that the two following may be men- 
 tioned as examples: i. " Dissolve 20 parts of potassium 
 chlorate, 40 parts of sulphate of copper, 1 6 parts of chloride 
 of ammonium, and 40 parts of aniline hydrochlorate, in 
 500 parts of water, warming the liquid to about 60, and 
 then removing it from the water-bath. In about three 
 minutes the solution froths up and gives off vapours which 
 strongly attack the breathing organs. If the mass does 
 not become quite black after the lapse of a few hours it is 
 .again heated to 60 Fahr. (i5'5 C.), and then exposed in 
 an open place for a day or two, and afterwards carefully 
 washed out till no salts are found in the nitrate. For 
 use in printing, the black paste is mixed with a somewhat 
 large quantity of albumen, and the goods after printing are 
 strongly steamed. The paste .can be pressed into moulds, 
 and used as a substitute for Indian ink."* 
 
 2. " Mix equal weights of aniline (containing toluidine), 
 hydrochloric acid, and potassium chlorate, with a minute 
 quantity of cupric chloride and a sufficient quantity of 
 water, and leave the mixture to evaporate spontaneously, 
 when a black powder Avill be obtained."t 
 
 * A. MULLER. t RHEINECK. 
 
i63 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 Aniline Blue, or Bleu de Lyons. This dye is prepared 
 by heating a mixture of magenta, acetate of sodium, and 
 aniline, in iron pots, provided with stirrers, <fcc., in an oil 
 bath, to 37oFahr. (i88Cent.) When a good blue has been 
 obtained, the heat is removed, and the thick treacle-like 
 fluid purified. This is effected, for the commoner varieties, 
 by treating -the crude product with hydrochloric acid, to 
 dissolve out the excess of aniline, and the various red and 
 purple impurities. 
 
 The better qualities, however, termed Opal Blues, are 
 prepared by heating purified magenta base with pure aniline 
 and a certain quantity of acetic acid (this acid is sometimes 
 replaced by benzoic or naphthoic acid). The crude product 
 thus obtained is mixed with methlylated spirit, and poured 
 into water acidulated with hydrochloric acid. The colour 
 that is precipitated is then collected on filters, washed and 
 dried. This blue, like magenta, is a salt of a colourless base, 
 which has been named Triphenylrosaniline, C 38 H 31 N 3 , or 
 C 20 H 1C (C 6 H 5 ) 3 N 3 . Aniline blue, or Lyons blue, is sent into 
 the market either as a coarse powder of a coppery lustre, or 
 in alcoholic solution, as it is insoluble in water. 
 
 Mr. NICHOLSON, by treating Lyons blue in the same- 
 manner as indigo is converted into sulpindigotic acid, suc- 
 ceeded in rendering it soluble, and thus prepared the 
 colours known as Soluble Blues. 
 
 Nicholson's Blue is obtained by digesting triphenyl- 
 rosaniline or monosulphonic acid* with a quantity of soda-lye 
 not quite sufficient for saturation, filtering the solution and 
 evaporating. It is dried at 100 Fahr. (38 C.). Wool 
 dipped into a hot aqueous solution of Nicholson's blue, 
 
 * This acid is made by dissolving triphenylrosaniline hydrochloride 
 in strong sulphuric acid, and heating the solution tor five or six hours. 
 On the addition of water, the acid is obtained as a dark blue- 
 precipilate, and dried at ioo?Fahr. (38 C.). 
 
DYE STUFFS. 169 
 
 especially if borax, or water-glass be added, extracts it in 
 a colourless state, and holds it so fast that it cannot be 
 washed out with water, but 011 dipping the wool thus 
 prepared into an acid, the salt is decomposed, and the colour- 
 ing matter is set free. 
 
 Mauve, the first-discovered coal-tar or aniline colour, 
 was obtained by Mr. PERKIN during some experiments 
 directed towards the artificial formation of quinine, and was 
 also first practically manufactured by Mr. PERKIN. Com- 
 mercially, mauve is made as follows : Aniline and sulphuric 
 acid, in proper proportions, are dissolved in water in a vat by 
 aid of heat, and when cold a solution of bichromate of 
 potassium is added, and the whole allowed to stand for a day 
 or two, when a black precipitate is obtained, which, after 
 being collected on shallow filters, is washed and well dried. 
 This black resinous substance is digested with dilute 
 methylated spirit in a suitable apparatus to dissolve out the 
 mauve, and the spirit is distilled off. The mauve is pre- 
 cipitated from the aqueous solution left behind by hydrate of 
 sodium, and after washing drained to a paste. 
 
 The amount of mauve thus obtained is small in com- 
 parison with the raw material, coal tar ; since 100 Ibs. of coal 
 yield 10 Ibs. 12 oz. of coal tar; 8^ oz. of mineral naphtha, 
 2 f oz. of benzol; 4^ oz. of nitro-benzol, 2^ oz. of aniline, 
 and 5 oz. of mauve. Mauve is usually sent into the market 
 in paste or solution, the expense of the crystals being heavy, 
 and offering no corresponding advantages. 
 
 Other salts than the bichromate of potassium have been 
 employed to convert aniline into mauve, such as chloride of 
 copper, permanganate of potassium, &c. ; but experience has 
 shown none to possess the same advantages as the bichromate 
 of potassium. 
 
 Mauveine, the organic base of mauve or aniline purple, 
 is a black crystalline powder, yielding a dull violet solution. 
 
J70 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 The moment, however, mauveine is brought into contact with 
 an acid, it turns a magnificent purple colour. The salts of 
 mauveine form beautiful crystals, possessing a splendid green 
 metallic lustre. 
 
 Aniline Brown. Syn. Hafoana Brown. DE LAIRE 
 prepares this pigment by heating to a temperature of 
 464^ Fahr. (240 Cent.), a mixture of aniline violet and 
 aniline blue with hydrochlorate of aniline. The product 
 thus obtained dissolves in water, acids, and alcohol, and can 
 be used at once for dyeing purposes. 
 
 BISMARK'S BROWN is made by fusing fuchsin with hydro- 
 chlorate of aniline. 
 
 Dahlia. This is prepared from mauve and iodide of ethyl, 
 in the same manner as the HOFMANN violets, and is a purple- 
 red violet. It is a good colour, but the expense precludes 
 its general use. 
 
 Aniline Pink, a very clear and brilliant dye, is obtained 
 by the action of binoxide of lead and acetic acid on mauve ; 
 this colour is also formed as a by-product in the manufacture 
 of the last-mentioned dye, but on account of its being dis- 
 solved in so large a quantity of liquor it is lost. WILLM, in 
 1 86 1, obtained another red colouring matter, which he 
 got by boiling an acetic solution of mauveine with binoxide 
 of barium. 
 
 Aniline Grey. Mauveine paste is dissolved in rather 
 more than its own weight of strong sulphuric acid, and two- 
 thirds of its weight of aldehyde is then added. After being 
 stirred, the mixture is allowed to stand four or five hours; it is 
 then poured into water, and the solution, after it has been 
 filtered, yields the grey colouring matter on the addition of salt. 
 
 SCHEURER-KESTNER obtained a yellow dye by the action 
 of tin on a solution of mauveine, in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Aniline Blue ,for Printing. BLUMER-ZWEEFEL gives 
 the following process for preparing this colour : " Mix 
 
DYE STUFFS. 171 
 
 100 parts of starch with 1,000 parts of water, and add 
 to it, while warm, 40 parts of potassium chlorate, 3 
 to 4 parts of ferrous sulphate, and 10 parts of sal 
 ammoniac. The well-mixed paste, when quite cold, is 
 mixed with 70 parts of aniline hydrochloride, or an 
 equivalent quantity of tartrate, and immediately used. 
 The printed goods are oxidized, then passed through warm 
 or faintly alkaline water, whereby the blue colour is 
 developed." 
 
 Another colouring matter, called Paris blue or Bleu de 
 Paris, was obtained by heating stannic chloride with aniline 
 for thirty hours at a temperature of 356 Fahr. (180 G.). 
 It is a fine pure blue, soluble in water, and crystallizing in 
 large blue needles with a coppery lustre. 
 
 Aniline Green. When treated with chlorate of potas- 
 sium, to which a quantity of hydrochloric acid has been 
 added, aniline assumes a rich indigo-blue colour. The same 
 result occurs if the aniline be treated with a solution of 
 chlorous acid. Similar blues have been obtained by Messrs. 
 GRACE CALVERT, LOWE & CLIFT. Most of these blues possess 
 the property, when subjected to the action of acids, of acquir- 
 ing a green tint, called Emeraldine. Dr. CALVERT obtained 
 this colour directly upon cloth, by printing with a mixture 
 of an aniline salt and chlorate of potassium, and allowing 
 it to dry. In about twelve hours the green colour is 
 developed. This colour may be converted into blue by 
 being passed through a hot dilute alkaline solution, or 
 through a bath of boiling soap. 
 
 Saffranine. This dye-stuff is of a bright red-rose colour. 
 MEXE says it may be prepared commercially by treatment of 
 heavy aniline oils successively with nitrous and arsenic acids ; 
 or 2 parts of the aniline may be heated with i of arsenic 
 acid, and i of an alkaline nitrite for a short tune, to 200 or 
 2 1 2 Fahr. (95-ioo C.). The product is extracted with 
 
1 72 BLEA C PI ING, D YEING, E TC. 
 
 boiling water neutralized with an akali, filtered, and the 
 colour thrown down by common salt. 
 
 Magenta. Syn. ANILINE RED, ROSEINE, FUCHSINE, 
 AZALEINE, SOLFERINO, TYRALiNE. Various processes have 
 been proposed and patented for the preparation of this com- 
 mercially important coal-tar colour. Amongst these pro- 
 cesses are 
 
 1. GERBER-KELLER'S, patented in France, October 29, 
 1859. By this the aniline is treated with mercuric nitrate. 
 
 2. LAUTH & DEPOUILLY used nitric acid. 
 
 3. MEDLOCK (patent dated January, 1860), NICHOLSON, 
 and GIRARD & DE LAIRE, all in 1860, separately patented 
 the use of arsenic acid. This process, being the one now 
 almost exclusively employed, is thus described in GRACE 
 CAL VERT'S work, " Dyeing and Calico-Printing," edited by 
 Messrs. STENHOUSE & GROVES : " The manufacture of 
 magenta, as it is now conducted in the large colour works, is. 
 a comparatively simple process, the apparatus employed con- 
 sisting of a large cast-iron pot set in a furnace, provided with 
 means for carefully regulating the heat. It is furnished with 
 a stirrer, which can be worked by hand or by mechanical 
 means, the gearing for the stirrer being fixed to the lid, so 
 that by means of a crane the lid may be removed, together 
 with the stirrer arid gearing. There is also a bent tube pass- 
 ing through the lid for the exit of the vapours, which can be 
 easily connected or disconnected with a worm at pleasure ; 
 lastly, there are large openings at the bottom of the pot y 
 closed by suitable stoppers, so that the charge can be removed 
 with facility as soon as the reaction is complete. Into this 
 apparatus, which is capable of holding about 500 gallons, a 
 charge of 2,740 Ibs. of a concentrated solution of arsenic acid, 
 containing 72 per cent, of the anhydrous acid, is introduced,, 
 together with i, 600 Ibs. of commercial aniline. The aniline 
 selected for this purpose should contain about 25 per cent, of 
 toluidine. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 173 
 
 " After the materials have been thoroughly mixed by the 
 stirrer the fire is lighted, and the temperature gradually 
 raised to about 360 Fahr. (182 C.). In a short time water 
 begins to distil, then aniline makes its appearance along with 
 the water, and, lastly, aniline alone comes over, which is nearly- 
 pure, containing, as it does, but a very small percentage of 
 toluidine. The operation usually lasts about eight or ten 
 hours, during which time albout 170 gallons of liquid pass 
 over, and are condensed in the worm attached to the 
 apparatus; of this about 150 Ibs. are aniline. The temper- 
 ature should not exceed 380 Fahr. (193 C.) at any period 
 during the operation. When this is complete, steam is blown 
 in through a tube, in order to sweep out the last traces of the 
 free aniline, and boiling water is gradually introduced in 
 quantity sufficient to convert the contents into a homogenous 
 liquid. When this occurs the liquid is run out of the 
 openings at the bottom, into cisterns provided with agitators 
 here more boiling water is added, in the proportion of 300 
 gallons to every 600 Ibs. of crude magenta, and also 6 Ibs. of 
 hydrochloric acid. The mass is then boiled for four or five 
 hours by means of steam pipes, the agitators being kept in 
 constant motion. The solution of hydrochloride, arsenite, 
 and arseniate of rosaniline thus obtained is filtered through 
 woollen cloth, and 720 Ibs. of common salt added to the 
 liquid (which is kept boiling) for each 600 Ibs. of crude 
 magenta. By this means the whole of the rosaniline is 
 converted into hydrochloride, which, being nearly insoluble 
 in the strong solution of arseniate and arsenite of sodium 
 produced in the double decomposition, separates and rises to 
 the surface ; a further quantity is deposited from the saline 
 solution 011 allowing it to cool and stand for some time. In 
 order to purify the crude rosaniline hydrochloride it is 
 washed with a small quantity of water, redissolved in boiling 
 water slightly acidulated with hydrochloric acid, filtered, and 
 allowed to crystalize." 
 
174 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 In the treatment of aniline with arsenic acid, violet and 
 blue dyes are also formed. The production of such has 
 been patented by GTIRARD & DE LAIRE. 
 
 4. LAURENT & CASTHELAZ have obtained aniline red 
 direct from benzol, without the preliminary isolation of 
 aniline. Nitro-benzol is treated with twice its weight of 
 iron finely divided, and half its weight of concentrated 
 hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter obtained by this 
 process is said to be inferior in beauty to that procured 
 from aniline. 
 
 5. RENARD BROTHERS include in their patent the ebullition 
 of aniline with stannous, stannic, mercurous, and mercuric 
 sulphates, with ferric and uraiiic nitrates and nitrate of 
 silver, and with stannic and mercuric bromides. 
 
 6. DALE & CARD'S (patent dated 1860) consists in the 
 treatment of aniline or hydrochlorate of aniline, with 
 nitrate of lead. 
 
 7. SMITH claims the ebullition of aniline with per- 
 chloride of antimony, or the action of antimonic acid, 
 peroxide of bismuth, stannic, ferric, mercuric, and cupric 
 oxides, upon hydrochlorate or sulphate of aniline, at the 
 temperature of 180. 
 
 COUPIER'S process for the manufacture of magenta with- 
 out the use of arsenic acid is as follows : He heats together 
 pure aniline, nitrotoluene, hydrochloric acid, and a small 
 quantity of finely divided metallic iron, to a temperature of 
 about 400 Fahr. (204 C.). for several hours. The pasty 
 mixture soon solidifies to a friable mass resembling crude 
 aniline red. 
 
 Dr. HOFMAN and Mr. NICHOLSON have demonstrated 
 that pure aniline, from whatever source obtained, is in- 
 capable of furnishing a red dye, but that it does so when 
 mixed with toluidine toluidine by itself being equally 
 incapable of yielding it. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 
 
 175 
 
 Magenta consists of brilliant crystals, having a beautiful 
 golden-green metallic lustre, and soluble in water to an 
 intense purplish-red solution. It is a salt of a colourless 
 base, rosaniline, which is prepared from magenta by boiling 
 with hydrate of potassium, and allowing the solution to cool, 
 when it crystallizes out in colourless crystals, having the 
 formula* C ao H lg N,H 3 0. 
 
 Sugar, previously dyed with magenta, is sometimes used 
 as an adulterant of crystallized magenta. The best method 
 of testing magenta is to make a comparative dyeing experi- 
 ment with the sample under examination, and with one of 
 known purity, using white woollen yarn. 
 
 From magenta or hydrochlorate of rosaniline a large 
 number of colouring matters are produced, the most im- 
 portant of which will be briefly described below. 
 
 Aldehyde Green. Prepared by dissolving i part of 
 magenta in 3 parts of sulphuric acid, diluted with i 
 part of water, adding by degrees i| parts of aldehyde, and 
 heating the whole on a water-bath until a drop put in 
 water turns a fine blue. It is then poured into a large 
 quantity of hot water containing 3 parts of hyposulphite 
 of sodium, boiled and filtered. The filtrate contains the 
 green. 
 
 Iodine Green. Produced during the manufacture of 
 the HOFMANN colours ; is used for dyeing cotton and silk ; 
 its colour being bluer than that of aldehyde green, it is more 
 useful. Iodine green, not being precipitated by carbonate 
 of sodium, is usually sold in alcoholic solution. 
 
 Perkins Green. This is also a magenta derivative, as it 
 is prepared from Britannia violet. It was much used at one 
 time, as it is comparatively a fast colour. 
 
 Britannia Violet. This is obtained in the same manner 
 as the HOFMANN violets, by acting on a solution of magenta 
 in wood spirit, with a thick, viscid fluid of the formula 
 
1 76 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 C 10 H 15 Br 8 , obtained by cautiously acting with bromine on 
 oil of turpentine. It is a beautiful violet, capable of being 
 manufactured of every shade, from purple to blue, and was 
 at one time extensively used. 
 
 Hofmann Violets. On a large scale these violets are 
 produced in deep cast-iron pots, surrounded by a steam 
 jacket, and provided with a lid, having a perforation for 
 distilling over the excess of reagents. 
 
 These vessels are charged with a solution of magenta in 
 methylated or wood spirit, and iodide of ethyl or methyl, in 
 proportions according to the shade required, and the whole 
 heated by steam for five or six hours, when the excess of 
 alcohol and iodide of ethyl is distilled over. The resulting 
 product is dissolved in water, filtered, precipitated with 
 common salt, and well washed. They are all moderately 
 fast on wool and silk, although less so on cotton, and, as 
 they can. be produced in nearly every shade of violet, are in 
 great use. 
 
 Violet Imperial. If the action of the aniline and 
 magenta in the process of manufacturing aniline blue be 
 stopped before it is finished, and the resulting product treated 
 with dilute acid, a colouring matter called violet imperial is 
 obtained. This dye is now replaced by the HOFMANN 
 violets. 
 
 NICHOLSON obtains another violet, Kegina purple, from 
 aniline red, by heating it in a suitable apparatus to a 
 temperature between 300 and 327 Fahr. (200 and 215 C.). 
 The resulting mass is exhausted with acetic acid, and the 
 deep violet solution diluted with enough alcohol to give the 
 dye a convenient strength. 
 
 The following processes have also been proposed for the 
 production of aniline violet : 
 
 i. WILLIAMS. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of 
 a solution of permanganate of potassium. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 177 
 
 2. SMITH. Oxidation of an aniline salt by means of a 
 solution of ferricyanide of potassium. 
 
 3. BOLLEY, BEALE, & KIRKMANN. Oxidation of a cold and 
 dilute solution of hydroclilorate of aniline, by means of a 
 dilute solution of chloride of lime. 
 
 4. PRICE. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by means of per- 
 oxide of lead under the influence of -an acid. 
 
 5. KAY. Oxidation of a salt of aniline in an aqueous 
 solution of peroxide of manganese. 
 
 6. SMITH. Oxidation of a salt of aniline by free chlorine 
 or free hypochlorous acid. 
 
 Benzyl Violet is prepared from magenta, in the same 
 manner as the HOFMANN violet, but the iodide of methyl is 
 replaced by chloride of benzyl, which is obtained by the 
 action of chlorine on toluol. 
 
 Spiller's Purple is a shade that is produced by the action 
 of aniline on a red shade HOFMANN violet. 
 
 Naphthyl Violet is obtained by heating magenta with 
 riaphthylamine. 
 
 Aniline Yellow. Amongst the secondary products 
 obtained during the preparation of aniline red, there occurs 
 a well defined base of a splendid yellow colour, to which the 
 name chrysaniline or phosphiiie has been given. An inferior 
 quality is also obtained from the residues after the magenta 
 has been extracted from the crude product. 
 
 Anthracen, C U H 10 . Anthracen is one of the last pro- 
 ducts passing over in the dry distillation of coal-tar. Dr. 
 CALVERT says it is " found most abundantly in the 10 or 15 
 per cent., which comes over between the temperature at 
 which soft pitch is produced, and that at which hard pitch 
 is formed." 
 
 Coal-tar contains very variable quantities of anthracen, 
 those tars procured from coals which are richest in naphtha 
 yielding it most abundantly. The coals of South Stafford- 
 
178 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 shire give the largest yield, whilst the Newcastle coals give 
 very little. 
 
 GESSERT prepares anthraceii from coal-tar as follows : 
 He places the last pasty portions (the " green grease") of 
 the coal-tar distillation (which must not be carried beyond 
 the point at which soft pitch is formed) first in a centrifugal 
 machine, and then in a hydraulic press at 104 Fahr. (40 C.), 
 or subjects the mass heated to 86 or 104 Fahr. (30 or 40 
 C.), directly to pressure in a filter-press. The pressed mass 
 consists of about 60 per cent, of anthraceii; for further 
 purification it is boiled with light tar-oil or petroleum 
 naphtha, and finally heated till it melts. The residue con- 
 tains 95 per cent, of anthracen. 
 
 The following method for the purification of crude 
 anthracen, contaminated with oily matters, is by SCHULLER : 
 The crude anthracen is carefully heated to commencing 
 ebullition in a capacious retort connected with a tubulated 
 receiver of glass or earthenware, the lower aperture of which 
 is closed with a fine wire sieve. A strong current of air is 
 then blown into the retort with a pair of bellows, whereby 
 the anthraceii is driven over in a very short time nearly 
 pure and dry, and condenses in the receiver as a faintly 
 yellowish, snowy mass. By this method a quantity of anthra- 
 cen, the purification of which by re-crystallization or sub- 
 limation would take several days, may be purified in as 
 many hours ; moreover it is obtained in a pulverulent form, 
 in which it is very readily acted on by oxidizing agents. 
 Anthraquiiioii, prepared from crude anthraceii, may also be 
 obtained by this method in the form of a light yellow 
 powder, resembling flowers of sulphur. 
 
 If it is required to obtain anthraceii very pure (or for 
 treatment by the di-chlor process, in which case it is essential 
 that it be free from the higher bodies), it must, before being 
 placed in the retorts, be ground up with 12 to 20 per cent. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 179 
 
 of Montreal potashes and a small quantity of lime, as 
 originally recommended by PERKIN. This operation causes 
 110 loss of anthracen, as it has been proved that caustic 
 potash is without action on it, but other substances, which 
 no amount of washing will remove, are entirely split up by 
 the alkali. Caustic soda is quite useless for the purpose. 
 Anthracen thus treated yields, when crystallized from 
 benzol, the pure substance in the form of fluorescent tran- 
 sparent crystals, consisting of four or six-sided plates, which, 
 when seen by transmitted light, are of a very pale blue 
 colour, but of a pale violet by reflected light. 
 
 A method for determining the amount of pure anthracen 
 either in commercial anthracen or in crude green grease is 
 the following : The melting-point of the sample in question 
 is first determined; 5 to 10 grammes are sufficient for the 
 operation. It is put between thick folds of blotting paper, 
 and placed under a press, between plates which have been 
 previously , warmed. The anthracen remaining upon the 
 paper after pressure is weighed. The residue after it has 
 been boiled with a certain quantity of alcohol, filtered, 
 washed with cold alcohol and dried, is weighed as pure 
 anthracen. It is now advisable to determine the melting- 
 point of the purified product, which will generally be 318 
 Fahr. (210 C.). 
 
 The test which is now almost universally adopted is LUCK'S 
 test, which consists in boiling a gramme of the sample, dis- 
 solved in glacial acetic acid, with an excess of solution of 
 chromic acid. When the solution is allowed to cool and 
 mixed with water, the anthraquinon crystallizes out, this 
 is washed and dried, and the subsequent treatment which is 
 adopted consists in dissolving the anthraquinon in 10 
 grammes of warm concentrated sulphuric acid, and then (after 
 thorough cooling) separating out the purified product by the 
 addition of water. From the weight of this, after washing 
 
 N 2 
 
i So BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 and drying, the quantity of the original sample of anthracen 
 is calculated. All samples should be washed with cold petro- 
 leum spirit, and pressed and dried before the gramme is 
 weighed out for testing, as by that means spurious samples are 
 at once detected, and genuine samples are obtained in the 
 form of an even and compact mass. Anthracen is only 
 slightly soluble in alcohol, but rather more so in ether 
 and bisulphide of carbon. It is more soluble in hot, but less 
 so in cold benzene. Petroleum boiling between 160 and 
 195 Fahr. dissolves less than benzene. 
 
 "Anthracene dissolves in concentrated sulphuric acid 
 with a green colour, and forms conjugated monsulpho- or 
 bisulpho-anthracene acid, according to the temperature em- 
 ployed. Chlorine and bromine give rise to substitution pro- 
 ducts. Nitric acid acts on it with great violence, with for- 
 mation of anthraquinone, nitro-anthraquinone, and other 
 compounds, according to the temperature and proportion of 
 the substances taken. With picric acid anthracene forms 
 a compound, crystallizing in very bright ruby-red needles, 
 which, by the aid of the microscope, are seen to be- prisms. 
 To prepare it a saturated solution of picric acid in water at 
 80 Fahr. (26*6 C.), is mixed with a saturated solution of an- 
 thracene in boiling alcohol ; on cooling the compound is 
 deposited in the crystalline state. It is rapidly decomposed, 
 by an excess of alcohol, into picric acid and anthracene, the 
 solution assuming a yellow tint. This reaction can be em- 
 ployed to distinguish anthracene from naphthalene and 
 other hydrocarbons, naphthalene under similar circumstances 
 forming a compound which crystallizes in fine golden-yellow 
 needles, whilst chrysene gives rise to clusters of very small 
 yellow needles."* Another characteristic of anthracen, 
 
 * CALVERT'S " Dyeing and Calico-Printing," edited by STENHOUSE 
 and GROVES. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 181 
 
 noticed by FRITZSCHE, is its deportment under the micro- 
 scope with a solution of binitro-anthraquinon in benzene. 
 In this reaction fine rhomboidal scales of a beautiful pink 
 colour are formed, the purity and brilliancy of the colour 
 depending on the purity of the aiithracen. 
 
 In the " Bui. Soc. Chim.," vii. 274, several reactions by 
 which anthracen is formed are described by BERTHELOT, such 
 as by the action of heat on other hydrocarbons, or by passing 
 the vapours of ethylene, styrolene, and benzene through a 
 porcelain tube heated to bright redness. 
 
 A great number of products are procured from anthracen, 
 by far the most important of these being artificial alizarin. 
 
 Alizarin, Artificial, C 14 H S 4 . This colour was first 
 obtained by G-RAEBE and LIEBERMANN in 1869 from anthra- 
 quinon, an oxidation product of anthracen, this latter being, 
 as already stated, a substance which is formed during the 
 destructive distillation of coal-tar. These chemists con- 
 verted anthracen into anthraquinon by means of nitric acid. 
 
 According to the original method of preparing alizarin, 
 the anthraquinon was first converted into a dibromide of 
 anthraquinon by treatment with bromine, and this bromated 
 compound, by further treatment either with caustic potash 
 or soda at a temperature of 356 to 392 Fahr. (180 to 200 
 Cent.) converted into alizarin-potassium (or alizarin-sodium 
 if caustic soda has been used), from which the alizarin is set 
 free by means of hydrochloric acid. 
 
 Alizarin is now procured from anthraquinon by treatment 
 at a temperature of 500 Fahr. (260 Cent.), with concentrated 
 sulphuric acid of 1*84 sp. gr., the anthraquinon being con- 
 verted into a sulpho-acid ; this acid is next neutralized with 
 carbonate of lime, the fluid decanted from the deposited sul- 
 phate of lime, and carbonate of soda added to it, with the 
 object of throwing clown all the lime. The clear liquid is 
 then evaporated to dryiiess, the resulting saline mass is con- 
 
1 82 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 verted into alizarin-sodium by heating it with caustic sodium. 
 From the alizarin-sodium thus obtained the alizarin is set 
 free by the aid of hydrochloric acid. 
 
 In another method the preparation of aiithraquiiion is 
 avoided, and anthracen employed directly, by first con- 
 verting it, by means of sulphuric acid and heat, into anthra- 
 censulphonic acid. After having been diluted with water, 
 the solution of this acid is treated with oxidizing agents 
 (peroxides of manganese and lead, chromic acid, nitric acid), 
 and the acid fluid is afterwards neutralized with carbonate 
 of lime. When peroxide of manganese has been used, the 
 manganese is precipitated as oxide. The oxidized sulpho- 
 acid having been previously converted into a potassium salt, 
 the latter being heated with caustic soda, alizarin is obtained. 
 The details of these two processes will be found set forth 
 in the terms of the patent taken out by Messrs. CARO, 
 GRAEBE, & LIEBERMANN, further on. 
 
 The following method of preparing alizarin from anthracen 
 is by GIRARD. The material used is that which distils 
 between 290 and 360 Cent. ; it is purified by distillation and 
 pressure, the portion which passes over, bet ween 3 00 and 305 
 Cent., being collected separately. This mixture is treated 
 with potassium chlorate and hydrochloric acid, whereby it 
 is converted into tetra-chlorinated products. These are 
 oxidized either by nitric acid in the water-bath, or by a 
 metallic oxide (red or brown oxide of lead,) and sulphuric 
 or acetic acid. In the first place a mixture of dichloranthra- 
 quinon and chloride of chloroxyanthranyl are obtained. 
 These substances are treated in presence of a metallic oxide 
 (oxide of zinc, oxide of copper, or litharge) with an alcoholic 
 solution of sodium acetate. The metallic oxide removes the 
 last atom of chlorine from the sodium chloroxyanthranilate, 
 and converts it, like the dichloranthraquinon, into alizarin. 
 The purification is effected by means of benzene, petroleum, 
 
DYE STUFFS. 183 
 
 etc., which dissolve out the foreign matters, and by successive 
 precipitation from the alkaline solutions by mineral acids. 
 The foreign matters may also be separated by means of a 
 little alum, when it is necessary to work with neutral potash 
 or soda salts. 
 
 Another method for the preparation of alizarin has been 
 patented by DALE & SCHORLEMMER. It is as follows : i part 
 of anthracen is boiled with from 4 to 10 parts of strong 
 sulphuric acid, then diluted with water, and the solution 
 neutralized with carbonate of calcium, barium, potassium, or 
 sodium. The resulting sulphates having been removed by 
 nitration or crystallization, the solution is heated to between 
 i So and 260 Cent, with caustic potash or soda, to which a 
 quantity of potassium nitrate or chlorate has been added, 
 about equal in weight to the anthracen, as long as a blue- 
 violet colour is thereby produced. From this product the 
 alizarin is separated in the usual way by precipitation with 
 an acid. Several other patents have been taken out for the 
 preparation of artificial alizarin. 
 
 The specification of Messrs. CARO, GRAEBE, & LIEBERMANN, 
 and dated June 25, 1869, was the first which was taken out 
 in England. We quote it here because it enters more fully 
 into detail than any of the others. 
 
 " Our invention is carried into effect by means of either 
 of the two processes which we will proceed to describe. 
 
 " In the one process we proceed as follows : We take 
 about i part by weight of anthraquinone and about 3 parts 
 by weight of sulphuric acid of about specific gravity 
 i '848, and introduce the sarnie into a retort, and the contents 
 are then to be heated up to about 260 Cent., and the 
 temperature is maintained until the mixture is found no 
 longer to contain any appreciable quantity of unaltered 
 anthraquinone. The completion of this operation may be 
 ascertained or tested by withdrawing a small portion of the 
 
1 84 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 product from time to time, and continuing the operation at 
 the high temperature until such product, upon being diluted 
 with water, is found to form a substantially perfect solution, 
 thereby indicating that the anthraquinone has become 
 either entirely or in greater part converted into the desired 
 product. The products thus obtained are then allowed to 
 cool, and are diluted with water ; carbonate of lime is then 
 added in order to neutralize and remove the excess of 
 sulphuric acid contained in the solution ; the mixture is 
 then filtered, and to the nitrate, carbonate of soda, by 
 preference in solution, is to be added until carbonate of 
 lime is no longer precipitated ; the mixture is then filtered, 
 and the clear solution is evaporated to dryness, by which 
 means the soda salt of the sulpho-acids of anthraquinone 
 are obtained, and which are to be treated in the following 
 manner : We take about i part by weight of this product, 
 and from 2 to 3 parts by weight of solid caustic soda, 
 water may be added or not, but by preference we add as 
 much water as is necessary to dissolve the alkali after 
 admixture ; we heat the whole in a suitable vessel, and the 
 heating operation is continued at a temperature of from 
 about 1 80 to 260 Cent., for about one hour, or until a 
 portion of the mixture is found upon withdrawing and test- 
 ing it, to give a solution in water, which being acidulated with 
 an acid for example, sulphuric acid will give a copious 
 precipitate of the colouring matters. The heating operation 
 having been found to have been continued for a suflicient 
 time, the resulting products are then dissolved in water, 
 and we either filter or decant, the solution of the same, 
 from which we precipitate the colouring matters or artificial 
 alizarine, by means of an acid, such, for example, as sulphuric 
 or acetic acid. The precipitated colouring matters thus 
 obtained are collected in a filter or otherwise, and after 
 having been washed may be employed for the purpose of 
 
DYE STUFFS. 185 
 
 dyeing and printing, either in the same way as preparations 
 of madder are now used or otherwise. 
 
 " In carrying out our other process, we proceed as follows : 
 We take about i part by weight of anthracene, and about 4 
 parts by weight of sulphuric acid of specific gravity of about 
 i '848, and the mixture being contained in a suitable vessel, 
 is heated to a temperature of about 1 00 Cent., and which 
 temperature is to be maintained for the space of about three 
 hours; the temperature is then to be raised to about 150 
 Cent., which temperature is to be maintained for about one 
 hour, or until a small portion of the product when submitted 
 to the two subsequent processes hereinafter described, is found 
 to produce the desired colouring matters ; we then allow the 
 result obtained by this operation to cool, and dilute it with 
 water, by preference in the proportion of about three times 
 its weight. To the solution thus obtained we add for every 
 part of anthracene by weight which had been employed in 
 the previous operations, from about 2 to 3 parts by weight 
 of peroxide of manganese, preferring to employ an excess, 
 and we boil the whole strongly for some time, and in order 
 fully to ensure the desired degree of oxidation, the mixture 
 may be subsequently concentrated, and by preference be 
 evaporated to dryness, and the heat be continued until a 
 small portion of the oxidized product, when submitted to 
 the subsequent processes hereinafter described, will produce 
 the desired colouring matters. We then neutralize and 
 remove the sulphuric acid contained in this mixture, and at 
 the same time precipitate any oxides of manganese that 
 may be held in solution, by adding an excess of caustic 
 lime, which we use by preference in the form of milk of 
 lime, and we add the same until the mixture has an alkaline 
 reaction. We then filter, and add to the filtrate carbonate 
 of soda, until there is no further precipitation of carbonate 
 of lime. The solution is then filtered and evaporated to 
 
186 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 dryness, and we thus obtain the potash or soda salts of what 
 we call the sulpho-acids of anthraquinone. 
 
 " In effecting the conversion of the oxidized products 
 thus obtained into colouring matters, or into what we call 
 artificial alizarine, we proceed as follows : We take i part 
 by weight of this product, and from 2 to 3 parts by weight 
 of solid caustic soda, and water may be added or not, but 
 by preference we add as much water as may be necessary 
 to dissolve the alkali. After admixture we heat the whole 
 in a suitable vessel, and continue the heating operation at 
 a temperature of about iSo" to about 260 Cent, for 
 about one hour, or until a portion of the mixture is 
 found to give a solution in water, which upon acidulation 
 with an acid, for example, sulphuric acid, is found to 
 give a copious precipitate of the colouring matters. The 
 heating operation having been found to have been continued 
 for a sufficient time, we then dissolve the product in water, 
 and either filter or decant the solution of the same, from 
 which we precipitate the colouring matters or artificial 
 alizarine by means of a mineral or organic acid, such, for 
 example, as sulphuric or acetic acid. 
 
 " Instead of acting upon anthracene, by means of sulphuric 
 acid of the density before mentioned, fuming sulphuric acid 
 may be employed, but we prefer to use the ordinary kind 
 before described.* 
 
 " In order to effect the process of oxidation, before referred 
 to, other oxidizing agents may be used in the place of the 
 oxide of manganese, before mentioned, such, for example, as 
 peroxide of lead, or chromic, nitric, or other acids capable 
 of effecting the desired oxidation may be employed." 
 
 * The preference here mentioned is for reasons of economy, but 
 now that solid sulphuric acid is manufactured by Messrs. MESSEL, 
 CHAPMAN & Co., it is used in the place of ordinary sulphuric acid. 
 
DYE STUFFS. 187 
 
 Mr. W. H. PERKIN'S patent is similar in principle to 
 that of Messrs. CARD, GRAEBE, & LIEBERMANN, and is dated 
 only one day later. 
 
 The following is an outline of a patent taken out in 
 France in May, 1869, by MM. BRCENNER & GUTZKON for the 
 manufacture of artificial alizarin. One part of anthracen 
 is heated with 2 parts of nitric acid, sp. gr. 1*3 to 1*5. The 
 anthraquinon thus produced is washed and dissolved at 
 a moderate heat in sulphuric acid. Mercuric nitrate is now 
 added, which converts the anthraquinon into alizarin. 
 The mass thus formed is dissolved in an excess of alkali, 
 which precipitates the oxide of mercury, and retains the 
 colouring matters in solution. The alkaline liquor is 
 decanted and neutralized with sulphuric acid, and the preci- 
 pitate thus formed is washed and collected. If not quite 
 pure, the treatment with alkali must be repeated. The 
 complete specification of this patent is published in the 
 Moniteur /Scientifique, vol. xi. p. 865. 
 
 Bromine, by its action on alizarin, produces a derivative 
 which gives rather redder shades, but if nitrous acid vapours 
 act on dry alizarin they produce nitro-alizarin, which is 
 known commercially as alizarin-orange. 
 
 Alizarin-blue is obtained by heating a mixture of 
 alizarin-orange, glycerin and sulphuric acid. 
 
 In England a large quantity of artificial alizarin is manu- 
 factured by the process of Mr. PERKIN, by Messrs. BURT, 
 BOULTON, & HAYWOOD, and is used as a substitute for 
 madder and madder extract, in Turkey-red dyeing and 
 topical styles. The largest makers of artificial alizarin on 
 the Continent are Messrs. GESSERT FRERES, of Elberfeld, 
 Messrs. MEISTER, Lucius & Co., of Hiichst, near 
 Frankfort, and the BADISCHE ANILIN UND SODA FABRIC, 
 Mannheim. 
 
 Anthrapurpurin, C U H S 6 . A colouring matter ob- 
 
1 88 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 tained as a secondary product in the preparation of alizarin 
 from anthracen. It may be prepared by dissolving the 
 crude colouring matter in a dilute solution of carbonate of 
 soda, and shaking up the resulting solution with freshly 
 precipitated alumina, which combines with the alizarin, 
 leaving the anthrapurpurin in solution. This is filtered off 
 from the alizarin lake, heated to boiling, and acidified with 
 hydrochloric acid. The colouring matter which is precipi- 
 tated is thrown on to a filter, washed and dried. 
 
 Anthrapurpurin is the principal product of PERKIN'S 
 di-chlor process, of which the following is a brief sketch : 
 The anthracen, which had been purified by washing and 
 distillation with potash, was placed in charges of 400 Ibs. in 
 leaden ovens, which rested on shallow wrought-iron steam- 
 chests (set in pairs), and chlorine was passed over. The 
 crude di-chlor-anthracen thus obtained was then drawn out 
 into shallow open tubs and stirred up with cold heavy 
 naphtha. After being allowed to stand for some time it 
 was pressed, then again washed with clean naphtha and 
 again pressed. After that it was placed in shallow trays 
 and dried at a moderate heat. The subsequent operations 
 for converting the di-chlor-anthracen into red-shade alizarin 
 are the same as those adopted in the treatment of anthra- 
 quinoii. 
 
 Anthrapurpurin has about the same affinity for mordants 
 as alizarin. It forms red with alumina, and purple and 
 black with iron mordants. The reds are much purer and 
 less blue in colour than those of the alizarin, whilst the 
 purples are not so good and the blacks more intense. The 
 anthrapurpurin colours resist soap and light quite as effec- 
 tively as those produced with alizarin. When employed to 
 dye Turkey-red, anthrapurpurin gives a very brilliant scarlet 
 shade of colour, which is of remarkable durability. 
 
 Besides the products obtained from aniline, a series 
 
DYE STUFFS. 189 
 
 of colours have been obtained from phenol, or carbolic acid, 
 another substance obtained from coal-tar. 
 
 Picric Acid. This is obtained by treating in a suitable 
 apparatus, with proper precautions, carbolic acid with nitric 
 acid. It is a pale yellow crystalline acid, forming dark 
 orange explosive salts, and dyeing silk a fine yellow. 
 
 Isopurpurate of Potassium. Syn. PICRIC RED. By 
 treating picric acid with cyanide of potassium a very explosive 
 salt is obtained, used to dye wool a deep red colour. 
 
 Grenate Brown is the name given to a colouring matter 
 which is essentially a crude isopurpurate. When dry, grenate 
 brown explodes if subjected to the smallest amount of 
 friction. It should therefore be kept in the form of a paste, 
 which may be preserved moist by means of glycerin. 
 
 Phcenicienne is a deep garnet colour, obtained by the 
 action of nitro-sulphuric acid on carbolic acid. It furnishes 
 a variety of solid shades which resist sunlight, and even 
 chloride of lime ; they surpass in purity and brightness all 
 similar colours obtained with dye-woods and orchil. 
 
 Aurine. Syn. KOSOLIC ACID. This is obtained by 
 heating a mixture of sulphuric, oxalic, and carbolic acids, 
 and purifying the product. It is a beautiful reddish, 
 resinous substance, with a pale green lustre, and yielding 
 an orange-coloured solution, changed by alkalies to a 
 splendid crimson. Owing to the difficulty in using it, 
 however, it is not very extensively employed. 
 
 Peonine. Syn. CORALLINE. This dye is formed when 
 rosolic acid and ammonia are heated to between 248 and 
 284 Fahr. (120 to 140 Cent.). It is a fine crimson dye, 
 forming shades similar to samower, 011 silk, but, owing to 
 the bad effects of acids, not much used. 
 
 Azuline. Prepared by heating coralline and aniline 
 together. A coppery coloured resinous substance, soluble 
 in alcohol, and with difficulty in water, and dyeing silk a blue 
 
190 BLEACHING, DYEING, ETC. 
 
 colour. The aniline blues, however, have superseded it to a 
 great extent. 
 
 Carbolic acid, when saturated with ammonia and heated, 
 yields aniline, and DUSART & BARDY have found that when 
 heated under pressure with sal-ammoniac and hydrochloric 
 acid, the principal yield is diphenylamine. This substance 
 by treatment with oxalic acid (there are many other sub- 
 stances which can be used, but they are not so advantageous), 
 yields a splendid blue called Diphenylamine Blue. 
 
 Naphthalene occurs in such abundance in coal-tar that 
 the supply is far in excess of the demand. By treating this 
 in exactly the same manner as benzol is converted into ani- 
 line, a solid crystalline white base, termed naphthylamine, 
 is produced. From this substance are obtained the follow- 
 ing dyes : 
 
 DINITRONAPHTHOL. Syn. MANCHESTER YELLOW, is prepared 
 direct without separating the intermediate product(naphthol) 
 by acting on the result of the action of nitrite of soda or 
 hydrochlorate of naphthylamine with nitric acid at a boiling 
 heat. Ammonia is added to the liquid when cold, and the 
 compound thus produced is purified by crystallization. In 
 steam dyeing, Manchester yellow has this advantage over 
 picric acid the latter is volatilized by the heat, whilst 
 the former is fixed to the fabric. If nitro-naphthalene is 
 mixed with slaked lime and a solution of caustic potash, 
 and the mass is heated for twelve hours to 300 F. (149 
 Cent.) in a current of air/ the colouring matter, which is 
 separated by adding acid to an aqueous extract of the pro- 
 duct, is a yellow 'dye termed French Yellow. 
 
 Naphthalene treated with a mixture of chlorate of potash 
 and hydrochloric acid yields two substances, one of which, 
 when treated with nitric acid, produces phthalic acid, which 
 by the action of heat is converted into phthalic anhydride. 
 This substance when treated with resorcine (formerly pre- 
 
DYE STUFFS. 191 
 
 pared from Brazil wood, but now made from benzol) yields 
 a splendid yellow dye, named Fluorescein. This, if ground 
 in alcohol and carefully treated with bromine, yields the 
 brilliant scarlet dye named Yellowish Eosin. 
 
 A naphthalene red, known as MAGDALA RED, was 
 obtained by SCHIENDL, in 1867. It possesses a tinctorial 
 value equal to fuchsiii, which latter colour it excels in the 
 property of fastness. It is procured by first acting on 
 naphthylamine with nitrous acid, and then treating the 
 resulting product with naphthylamine, which gives rise to 
 Magdala Red. 
 
 SAFROSIN is obtained by the action of nitrate of soda and 
 sulphuric acid 011 a solution of yellowish eosin in boiling 
 water. This colour gives a more bluish-red tinge than 
 eosin. The other substance produced in the manufacture of 
 phthalic acid is an acid which, combined with a base, yields 
 an orange dye. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Table of the principal Weights and Measures of the Metrical 
 System, ivith their Equivalents in Common Weights and 
 Measures. 
 
 LENGTH. 
 
 Metrical. 
 
 In English 
 inches. 
 
 In English feet 
 = 12 inches. 
 
 In English yards 
 = 3 feet. 
 
 .Millimetre ... . . = 
 
 0*03937 
 
 0*0032809 
 
 0*0010936 
 
 
 
 
 0*0109363 
 
 Decimetre . ~~ 
 
 3*93708 
 
 0*3280899 
 
 0*1093633 
 
 Metre = 
 
 
 3*2808992 
 
 1*0936331 
 
 Decametre . 
 
 393"779 
 
 32*8089920 
 
 10*9363310 
 
 Hectometre 
 
 3037*07900 
 
 328*0899200 
 
 109*3633100 
 
 Kilometre . . ~ 
 
 
 3280*899200 
 
 1093*6331000 
 
 
 
 
 
 CAPACITY. 
 
 Metrical.- 
 
 In cubic 
 inches. 
 
 In cubic feet 
 = 1728 
 cubic inches. 
 
 In pints 
 = 34-65923 
 cubic 
 inches. 
 
 In gallons 
 = 8 pints 
 = 277; 273 84 
 cubic inches. 
 
 Millilitre, or cubic cent.i- i _ 
 metre (c c ) . . \ 
 
 0*061027 
 
 0*0000353 
 
 0*001761 
 
 0*00022010 
 
 Centilitre, or 10 cubic centi- ) _ 
 metres . . j ~ 
 
 0*610271 
 
 0*0003532 
 
 0*017608 
 
 O'OO22OO97 
 
 Decilitre, or 100 cubic centi- 1 _ 
 metres )~ 
 
 6*102705 
 
 0-0035317 
 
 0*176077 
 
 0*02200967 
 
 Litre, or cubic decimetre . = 
 Decalitre, or centistere . . = 
 
 61*027052 
 610*270515 
 
 0*0353166 
 
 0-3531658 
 
 1*760773 
 17*607734 
 
 0*22009668 
 2*20:96677 
 
 Hectolitre, or decistere . = 
 
 6102*705152 
 
 3-S3i658i 
 
 176*077341 
 
 22*0096767 
 
 WEIGHT. 
 
 Metrical. 
 
 In English 
 grains. 
 
 In Troy 
 ounces 
 = 480 grains. 
 
 In Avoir- 
 dupois ibs. 
 = 7,000 
 grains. 
 
 In cwts. 
 = 112 Ibs. = 
 734,000 
 grams. 
 
 
 
 
 0*0000022 
 
 0*00000002 
 
 
 0*154323 
 
 0*000322 
 
 O'OOOC22O 
 
 0*00000020 
 
 
 1*543235 
 
 
 0*0002205 
 
 o 00000197 
 
 
 15*432349 
 
 0*032151 
 
 0*0022046 
 
 0*00001968 
 
 
 154*323488 
 
 0*321507 
 
 0*0220462 
 
 0*00019684 
 
 Hectogramme . ~ 
 
 1^43*234880 
 
 3*215073 
 
 0*2204621 
 
 0*00196841 
 
 Kilogramme (kilo) . . . = 
 
 15432*348800 
 
 32*150727 
 
 2*2046213 
 
 0*01968412 
 
Specific Gravities corresponding to" Degrees of 
 
 BAUME'S Hydrometer. 
 For Liquids heavier than Water (POGGIALE). 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 ^-K;. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 S pec i He- 
 Gravity. 
 
 
 
 ooo 
 
 20 '161 
 
 40 
 
 383 
 
 60 
 
 711 
 
 i 
 
 007 
 
 21 'I?! 
 
 41 
 
 '397 
 
 61 
 
 '732 
 
 2 
 
 014 
 
 22 ']8o 
 
 42 
 
 410 
 
 62 
 
 '753 
 
 3 
 
 *022 
 
 23 '190 
 
 43 
 
 '424 
 
 <>3 
 
 '774 
 
 4 
 
 '029 
 
 2 4 | '199 
 
 44 
 
 438 
 
 64 
 
 796 
 
 5 
 
 "036 
 
 25 -210 
 
 45 
 
 '453 
 
 6< 
 
 8.9 
 
 6 
 
 044 
 
 26 ! '221 
 
 46 
 
 468 
 
 66 
 
 846 
 
 7 
 
 5 2 
 
 '27 < -231 
 
 47 
 
 483 
 
 67 
 
 872 
 
 8 
 
 060 
 
 28 ! '242 
 
 48 
 
 498 
 
 68 
 
 897 
 
 9 
 
 067 
 
 29 ; '253 
 
 49 
 
 5i4 
 
 69 
 
 921 
 
 70 
 
 '075 
 
 3 ! ' 2U 4 
 
 5 
 
 '530 
 
 70 
 
 946 
 
 J I 
 
 083 
 
 3* '27S 
 
 5' 
 
 546 
 
 7i 
 
 '974 
 
 12 
 
 OQI 
 
 32 -286 
 
 52 
 
 '5<>3 
 
 72 
 
 2'OCO 
 
 13 
 
 '100 
 
 33 '297 
 
 53 
 
 580 
 
 73 
 
 2 '03 I 
 
 14 
 
 108 
 
 34 '39 
 
 54 
 
 '597 
 
 74 
 
 2'059 
 
 15 
 
 116 
 
 35 '320 
 
 55 
 
 6i< 
 
 
 
 1 6 
 
 ' I2 5 
 
 3 6 -332 
 
 56 
 
 ^34 
 
 
 
 i? 
 
 134 
 
 37 '345 
 
 57 
 
 652 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 -I 43 
 
 38 '3*7 
 
 58 
 
 6 7 r 
 
 
 
 19 
 
 "152 
 
 59 '3?o 
 
 59 
 
 691 
 
 
 
 /Specific Gravities corresponding to Degrees of 
 
 BAUME'S Hydrometer. 
 For Liquids lighter than Water (FBANCCEUR). 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 Degrees. 
 
 Specific 
 Gravity. 
 
 "srccs. ] 5S1* 
 
 10 
 
 I "000 
 
 23 
 
 0-918 
 
 36 
 
 0-849 
 
 49 o'789 
 
 it 
 
 o'993 
 
 24 
 
 0-913 
 
 37 
 
 0-844 
 
 50 0-785 
 
 12 
 
 0*986 
 
 25 
 
 0-907 
 
 38 0-839 
 
 51 
 
 0-781 
 
 13 
 
 0-980 
 
 26 
 
 0-901 
 
 39 
 
 0834 
 
 52 
 
 0-777 
 
 14 
 
 '973 
 
 27 
 
 0*896 
 
 40 
 
 0*8 ;o 
 
 53 
 
 0-773 
 
 i5 
 
 0-967 
 
 28 
 
 0*890 
 
 41 \ 0-825 
 
 54 
 
 0*708 
 
 16 
 
 0*960 
 
 29 
 
 0-885 
 
 42 i o'820 
 
 55 
 
 0-764 
 
 i7 
 
 '954 
 
 30 
 
 o'88o 
 
 43 
 
 0*816 
 
 56 
 
 0-760 
 
 18 
 
 0-948 
 
 31 
 
 0-874 
 
 44 
 
 o*8i t 
 
 57 
 
 o'7S7 
 
 !9 
 
 0-942 
 
 32 
 
 0*869 
 
 45 
 
 0-807 
 
 58 
 
 o'7S3 
 
 20 
 
 0-936 
 
 33 
 
 0-864 
 
 46 
 
 0-802 
 
 59 
 
 0-749 
 
 21 
 
 0-930 
 
 34 
 
 O"8<Q 
 
 47 
 
 0-798 
 
 60 
 
 o'74S 
 
 22 
 
 0-924 
 
 35 
 
 0-854 
 
 48 
 
 0-794 
 
 
 
 The temperature at which these instruments were originally 
 adjusted by BAUME was 12-5 Cent. (54'5 Fahr.). They are now 
 commonly adjusted in this country at 58 or 60 Fahr. 
 
 The degrees of TWADDLE'S hydrometer may be converted into the 
 corresponding specific gravities by multiplying them by 5 and adding 
 1000. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 A. 
 
 ACID, 102 
 Acid discharge 102 
 Adjective colours, 36 
 Ageing, 71 
 
 machine, 71 
 Aldehyde green, 175 
 Alizarin, 153 
 
 artificial, 181 
 Alizarin, ai'tificial, Broenner & 
 
 Gutzkon's patent for preparing, 
 
 187 
 Alizarin, artificial, Caro, Graebe & 
 
 Liebermann's method of pre- 
 paring, 183 
 Alizarin, artificial, Dale & Schor- 
 
 lemmer's method of preparing, 
 
 183 
 Alizarin, artificial, preparation of, 
 
 181, 181 
 Alizarin, artificial, by Girard's 
 
 method, 182 
 Alizarin, artificial, Perkin's method 
 
 of preparing, 187 
 Alizarin blue, 187 
 Alkermes, 147 
 Aloes, 133 
 Aloin, 133 
 Alumina, nitrate . of, for steam 
 
 styles, 113 
 
 Amber for steam styles, 12 1 
 Ammoniacal cochineal, 60 
 Ammonia purpurate, 156 
 Aniline, 161 
 
 Aniline, from coal-tar, 161 
 
 from nitro-benzol (Zinin), 
 162 
 
 from nitro-benzol (Be'champs), 
 162, 163 
 
 from indigo, 164 
 
 other methods of preparing, 
 164, 165 
 
 properties of, 165 
 
 tests for, 165 
 
 Reimann's test for, 166 
 
 black, 167 
 
 black with vanadium, 45 
 
 blue, 168 
 
 blue dye, 49 
 
 blue for printing, 170 
 
 brown, 170 
 
 green, 171 
 
 grey, 170 
 
 pink, 170 
 
 red, 172 
 Aniline red, Coupler's method of 
 
 preparing, 174 
 Aniline red, Dale & Caro's patent, 
 
 174 
 Aniline red, Gerber-Keller's patent 
 
 for preparation of, 172 
 Aniline red, Laurent & Casthelaz's 
 
 method of preparing, 174 
 Aniline red, Renard's method of 
 
 preparing, 174 
 Aniline red, Lauth & Depouilly's 
 
 method for preparing, 172 , 
 Aniline red, Medlock's patent for 
 
 preparation of, 172 
 
i 9 6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aniline red, Smith's method of 
 preparation, 174 
 
 violets, 176, 177 
 Aniline violet, by Smith's me- ' 
 
 thod, 177 
 Aniline violet, by Bolley Beale, 
 
 177 
 Aniline violet, by Price's method, 
 
 177 
 Aniline violet, by Kay's method, j 
 
 177 
 Aniline violet and blue dyes, Girard 
 
 & I)e Lai re, 1 74 
 Aniline, yellow, 177 
 Annotta, 133^ 
 
 adulteration of, 135 
 to test, 134 
 Anthracen, 177 
 
 Luck's test for, 179 
 properties of, 180 
 Schuller's method of purify- 
 ing, 178 
 
 Anthrapurpurin, 187 
 Antichlore, 29 
 Apparatus, dyeing. 39 
 Archil, 135 
 Aurine, 189 
 Avignon berries, 157 
 Azaleine, 172 
 Azuline, 189 
 
 B. 
 
 BARK, QUERCITRON, 158 
 
 standard for steam styles, 1 1 7 
 Barwood, 136 
 
 red, for cotton, 53 
 Basic tin compound for steam 
 
 styles, 117 
 Bastard saffron, 158 
 Benzol, 160 
 Benzyl vjolet, 177 
 Bergman's theory, 38 
 Berries, 157 
 
 Avignon, 157 
 
 French, 157 
 
 Persian, 157 
 
 yellow, 157 
 Bismark's brown, 170 
 Bkin, 134 
 
 Black aniline (calico printing) 96 
 aniline with vanadium, 45 
 common, 44, 45 
 chrome, 45 
 De Vinant's, 46 
 dyes for cotton, 43, 44, 45, 
 
 46, 47 
 
 for extract styles, 1 29 
 Italian, 45 
 liquor, 155 
 for machine work, 95 
 for pigment colours, 126 
 for spirit styles, 122 
 standard for steam styles, 1 1 8 
 dyes for wool, 55, 56 
 Blankets for cylinder printing, 67 
 Bleaching, chemico-mechanical 
 
 process of, 21, 22, 23, 24 
 of cotton, 8 
 feathers, 28 
 
 history of, r, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 
 Hodge's process of, 21, 22, 23, 
 
 24 
 
 linen, 13, 14, 15, 16 
 materials for paper, 28, 29 
 new or continuous process of, 
 
 9, 10, 11, J 2 
 powder, proposed substitutes 
 
 for, 12, 13, 32 *. 
 printed paper, 29 
 Ramsay's method, 32 
 silk, 27 
 straw, 30 
 
 Tessie du Mathey's method, 32 
 theory of, 31 
 wax, 30, 31 
 woollen goods, 26, 27 
 yarn, 21 
 
 Block printing, 63 
 Blue, alizarin, 187 
 black for wool, 56 
 cerulean, for extract styles, 
 
 I3 
 
 dyes for cotton, 49 
 diphenylamine, 190 
 discharge on bronze, 124 
 for indigo styles, 89, 90 
 for spirit styles, 122 
 dark, for steam styles, 114, 
 
 121 
 medium, for steam styles, 115 
 
INDEX. 
 
 197 
 
 Blue, pale, for steam styles, 115, 
 
 121 
 (metliyline) for extract styles, 
 
 J3 1 
 
 fast, standard, 104 
 
 fast, for block work, 1 04 
 
 de Lyons, 168 
 
 opal, 1 68 
 
 de Paris, 1 7 r 
 
 standard, for pigment colours, 
 
 127 
 
 dyes for silk, 55 
 standard, for steam styles, 
 
 118, 119 
 
 Bolley & Beale's method of pre- 
 paring aniline violet, 177 
 Bousage, 72 
 Brazil wood, 138 
 Brazilin, 139 
 
 Brightening printed goods, 75 
 Britannia violet, 175 
 Brcenner & Gutzkon's method of 
 preparing artificial alizarin, 187 
 Bronze colour style, 93 
 Brown, Bismark, 47 
 bright, 48 
 catechu, 47 
 dark, 48 
 
 dyes fur cotton, 47, 48 
 grenate, 189 
 for indigo styles, no 
 light, 48 
 
 light, for indigo styles, ill 
 madder, to resist heavy covers 
 
 of purple, 98 
 
 standard, calico printing, 97 
 for machine work, 97 
 medium, 48 
 
 medium (calico printing) 98 
 for pigment colours, 125 
 medium, for steam styles, 117 
 dye for wool, 57 
 Buff, for indigo styles, no 
 for pigment styles, 125 
 (medium), for steam styles,! 19 
 (pale) for steam styles, 119 
 standard, 103 
 standard, for steam styles, 119 
 
 C. 
 
 CALICO PRINTING, 61 
 history of, 61, 62 
 styles of, 86 
 Campeachy wood, 149 
 Camwood, 138 
 Canary dye for cotton, 51 
 Caro, Graebe & Liebermann's 
 method of preparing artificial 
 alizarin, 183 
 Carthamin, 158 
 Catechu, 137 
 
 varieties of, 137 
 to test, 137 
 brown, 47 
 
 Chamois dye for cotton, 50 
 for indigo, no 
 for steam styles, 118 
 Chemico - mechanical process of 
 
 bleaching, 21, 22, 23, 24 
 Chestnut for steam styles, 118 
 Chevreul's theory, 38 
 China blue style, 90 
 Chinoline blue, 139 
 Clilor-machine, 106 
 Chlorine, Dobbie and Hutcheson's 
 
 process for obtaining, 20 
 Chocolate for machine work, 98 
 (for steam styles), 114,121 
 dye for wool, 57 
 
 Chrome, arseniate of, standard, 104 
 black, 45 
 
 chloride of, standard, 103 
 nitro-acetate of, for extract 
 
 styles, 129 
 
 sulphate of, standard, 103 
 yellow for cotton, 54 
 Chryso-rhamnin, 157 
 Cinchonine, 139 
 Cinnamon for steam styles, 118 
 Claret dye for cotton, 5 1 
 
 dye for wool, 57 
 Cleansing process, 74 
 Coal-tar, 160 
 colours, 1 60 
 colours, how to dye cotton 
 
 with, 52 
 Cochineal, 139 
 
 varieties of, 140 
 adulteration of, 140 
 
I 9 8 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Cochineal, to test, 140 
 
 ammoniacal, 60 
 
 ammoniacaJ, standard for 
 
 steam styles, 121 
 Colours, adjective, 36 
 
 substantive, 36 
 Colour doctors, 67 
 Colouring matters and mordants, 
 
 nature of union between, 38 
 Coralline, 189 
 
 Cotton and calico cleansing, 69 
 Cotton, bleaching of, 8 
 
 forms in which dyed, 35 
 
 impurities in, 9 
 
 and calico, singeing of, 68 
 
 black dyes for, 43, 44, 45, 46, 
 
 47 
 
 blue dyes for, 49 
 
 brown dyes for, 47, 48 
 
 canary dye for, 51 
 
 chamois dye for, 50 
 
 claret dye for, 51 
 
 and coal-tar colours, 52 
 
 drab dye for, 51 
 
 green dye for, 49 
 
 dark mauve dye for, 50 
 
 orange dye for, 54 
 
 pink dyes for, 53 
 
 red dye for, 53 
 
 slate dye lor, 50 
 
 yellow dye for, 54 
 
 violet dye for, 50 
 Covers, 101 
 Crum's theory, 38 
 Cudbear, 140 
 
 Cuir, for steam styles, 118 
 Cylinder printing, 64, 65, 66, 67, 
 68 
 
 apparatus, 64, 65, 66 
 Cyaniue, 139 
 
 D. 
 
 DALE & SCHORLEMMER'S method 
 of preparing alizarin, 183 
 
 Dale & Caro's patent fcr prepar- 
 ing aniline red, 174 
 
 Dahlia, 170 
 
 Degommage, 74 
 
 De Yinant's black, 46 
 
 Di-chlor process, Perkins, 188 
 
 Dinitronaphthol, 190 
 Dip, the, 20 
 
 Diphenylamine blue, 106 
 Discharge style, 90 
 
 white for indigoes, 109 
 Discharges, 101 
 
 various, 91 
 Dobbie & Hutcheson's process 
 
 for obtaining chlorine, 208 
 Drab (calico-printing), 105 
 
 dye for cotton, 51, 52 
 
 bright for cotton, 52 
 
 for machine work, 98 
 
 dye for wool, 57 
 
 for steam styles, 120 
 Dunging process, 72, 73 
 Dung substitutes, 72, 73 
 Dyeing, 33 
 
 apparatus, 39, 40 
 
 history of, 33, 34 
 
 upon mordant stylo, 87 
 
 printed goods, 74 
 Dye-becks, 74 
 Dye stuffs, 133 
 Dyers' saffron, 158 
 woad, 159 
 
 E 
 
 EMERALDINE, 171 
 Eosin, yellowish, 191 
 Extract, or topical fast style, 93 
 Extracts, madder, 152 
 
 F. 
 
 FARINA GUM WATER, 99 
 Fawn (calico-printing), 99, 105 
 
 for steam styles, 118 
 Feather bleaching, 28 
 Ferrocyanide of tar for steam 
 
 styles, 115 
 Finishing, 76 
 Five-fourths mordant, 154 
 Flax, impurities in, 171 
 Fleur de garance, 151 
 Flowers of madder, 151 
 Fluorescine, 191 
 French berries, 157 
 
INDEX. 
 
 199 
 
 French berries, pink style, SS 
 
 yellow, 190 
 Fuchsine, 172 
 Fustic, 141 
 
 old, 141 
 
 young, 141 
 Fustine, 141 
 
 G. 
 
 (TALL, LIQUOR, 102 
 
 Garance, fleur de, 151 
 
 Garanceux, 152 
 
 Garancine, 152 
 style, 89, 105 
 
 Gerber-Keller's patent, for prepara- 
 tion of aniline red, 172 
 
 Gessert r s method for obtaining 
 anthracen, 178 
 
 Girard's method for preparing arti- 
 ficial alizarin, 182 
 
 Glycerin standard for extract 
 styles, 130 
 
 Green aldehyde, 175 
 dye for cotton, 49 
 discharge on bronze, 124 
 fast (calico printing), 104 
 for indigo styles, no 
 iodine, 175 
 
 (dark) for steam styles, 115 
 (medium) for steam styles, 121 
 (methyl) ^for extract styles, 
 
 I3 1 
 
 (pale) for steam styles, 116 
 
 Perkin's, 175 
 
 for pigment colours, 125 
 
 dyes for wool, 58 
 Grenate brown, 189 
 Grey for pigment colours, 126 
 Gum, how to test, 84 
 
 lead, 1 05 
 
 H. 
 
 HARANA BKOWX, 170 
 
 Heematoxylin, 149 
 
 Hellot's theory, 38 
 
 History of bleaching, I, 2, 3, 4, 
 
 5, 6, 7 
 
 of calico-printing, 6 1 
 of dyeing, 33,34 
 
 Hodge's pi-ocess of bleaching, 21, 
 
 72, 23, 24 
 
 Hoffman violets, 176 
 Hypochlorite of magnesia, 21 
 
 of soda (chloride of soda), 20 
 
 I. 
 
 INDIAN COCHINEAL, 148 
 
 yellow, 157 
 Indican, 142 
 Indiglucin, 143 
 Indigo, 141, 142 
 
 how prepared for dyeing, 143 
 
 how to test, 143 
 
 discharge style, 90, 107 
 
 blue style, 89 
 
 sulphate of, 146 
 
 soluble, 146 
 
 cold vat, 144 
 
 vat, German, 145 
 
 potash vat, 144 
 
 vat, Schiitzenberger & De 
 
 Lai and e, 144 
 Iodine green, 175 
 Irish plan of bleaching linen, 14, 
 15, 16 
 
 of bleaching yarns, 24, 25, 26 
 Iron liquor, 155 
 Isopurpurate of potassium, 189 
 Italian black, 45 
 
 J. 
 
 JET BLACK FOK WOOL, 56 
 
 K. 
 
 KAY'S METHOD of obtaining aniline 
 
 violet, 177 
 Kermes, 147 
 Kieserite, 21 
 
 L. 
 
 LAC, 148 
 
 lake, 148 
 stick, 148 
 tests for, 148, 149 
 
2OO 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 La Kao, 149 
 
 Lake, 37 
 
 Laurent & Casthelaz's method of 
 
 preparing aniline red, 1 74 
 Lauth & Depouilly's patent for 
 
 aniline red, 172 
 Lavender for steam styles, 120 
 Lead gum, 105 
 Lepidine, 139 
 
 blue, 139 
 
 Le Pileur d'Appligny's theory, 38 
 Lilac for spirit styles, 122 
 Lima wood, 139 
 Lime-juice mixture, 102 
 Linen, bleaching of, 13, 14, 15 
 
 bleaching, Irish plan, 14, 15, 16 
 
 bleaching, Scotch plan, 14, 15, 
 16 
 
 cleansing process, 69 
 Liquor, black, 155 
 
 iron, 155 
 
 red 153 
 Logwood, 149 
 
 Luck's test for anthracen, 179 
 Luteolin, 159 
 Lyons' blue, 168 
 
 M. 
 
 MACLURIN, 141 
 Madder, 150 
 
 adulteration of, 155 
 extracts, 152 
 flowers of, 151 
 to test, 155 
 varieties of, 150, 151 
 and alizarin dyed style,. 87 
 and alizarin dyed style, 
 
 blocked, 88 
 brown, to resist heavy covers 
 
 of purple, 98 
 purple, dark (calico printing:), 
 
 96 
 purple light (calico printing), 
 
 97 
 
 purple medium (calico print- 
 ing), 97 
 
 Magdala red, 191 
 Magenta, 172 
 
 adulterations of, 155 
 Magnesia, hypochlorite of, 21 
 
 Manchester yellow, 190 
 Manganese bronze style, 93 
 Materials for paper, bleaching,2S, 29 
 Mauve, 169 
 
 or violet discharge on bronze, 
 124 
 
 dye for cotton, 50 
 
 for extract styles, 130 
 Mauveine, 169 
 Medium brown, 48 
 Medlock's patent for aniline reil, 
 
 172 
 
 Mills, wash, 17 
 Mordants, 36, 77, 101 
 
 list of, 77 
 
 remarks on, 78, 79, 80, Si 
 Mordant, alkaline red, 101 
 
 alkaline red, light, 101 
 
 alkaline pink, 101 
 
 alkaline pink, light, 101 
 
 pans, 85 
 Morine, 141 
 Moritannic acid, 141 
 Murexid, 156 
 
 N. 
 
 NAVY BLUE DYE, 49 
 
 Naphthalene, 190 
 
 Naphthyl violet, 177 
 
 Nicaragua wood, 1 39 
 
 Nicholson's blue, 168 
 
 Nitrate of alumina for steam styles, 
 
 U3 
 
 Nitro-acetate of chrome for extract 
 
 styles, 129 
 Nitro-benzol, 160 
 
 o. 
 
 OLIVK FOR INDIGO, no 
 (light) for indigo, 1 10 
 for pigment colours, 126 
 dye for wool, 58 
 
 Opal blues, 168 
 
 Orange dye for cotton, 54 
 
 for indigo discharge style, 109 
 
 Orceine, 136 
 
 Orcine, 136 
 
INDEX. 
 
 201 
 
 Orellin, 134 
 
 Organic matter in water, how to 
 
 remove, 42 
 Oxalate and chromate standard, 
 
 109 
 
 P. 
 
 PADDING MACHINE, 39, 40 
 
 purple (calico-printing), 99 
 style, 89, 107 
 Paris blue, 171 
 Pastel, 159 
 
 vat, 144 
 Peach wood, 157 
 Peacock blue for silk, 55 
 Pearl for steam styles, 120 
 Peonine, 189 
 Perkin's di-chlor process, 188 
 
 method of preparing artificial 
 
 alizarin, 187 
 method of purifying anthra- 
 
 cen, 179 
 green, 175 
 
 Perrotine machine, 63 
 Persian berries, 157 
 varieties of, 157 
 Persio, 140 
 Persoz's theory, 38 
 Phcenicienne, 189 
 Picric acid, 189 
 
 red, 189 
 
 Pigment colour style, 93 
 Pink (light) for cotton, 53 
 
 (bright rose), for cotton, 53 
 (safflower), for cotton, 53 
 for extract styles, 132 
 for spirit styles, 122 
 (cochineal) standard, for 
 
 steam styles, 113 
 cochineal medium, for steam 
 
 styles, 113 
 cochineal, pale or rose, for 
 
 steam styles, 113, 120 
 (magenta-aniline), dark, for 
 
 steam styles, 113 
 medium, 114 
 pale or rose, 114 
 
 Pinkey's patent black, 45 
 Plaquage style, 89 
 Potassium, isopurpurate of, 189 
 Price's method of obtaining aniline 
 
 violet, 177 
 Printed goods, how dyed, 74 
 
 paper, bleaching, 29 
 Prussian blue dye, 49 
 Prussiate of tin pulp for steam 
 
 styles, 115 
 Purple assistant liquor, 95 
 
 (dark), for extract styles, 128 
 
 (pale), for extract styles, 132 
 
 fixing liquor, 95 
 
 regina, 176 
 
 Spiller's, 177 
 
 for spirit styles, 122 
 Purpurate of ammonia, 156 
 Purree, 157 
 
 Q. 
 
 QUERCETIN, 141, 158 
 
 Quercitrin, 158 
 Quercitron bark, 1 58 
 
 E. 
 
 EAMSAY'S METHOD OF BLEACHING, 
 
 32 
 
 Red discharge on bronz3, 124 
 dye for cotton, 53 
 for extract styles, 128 
 for indigo, no 
 liquors, 153, 154 
 dark, for machine work, 99 
 pale, for machine work, 100 
 resist, dark, for machine work, 
 
 100 
 
 picric, 189 
 
 for steam styles, 112, 117, 120 
 
 brown for steam styles, nS 
 
 Regina purple, 1 76 
 
 Kenard's method of preparing 
 anilne red, 174 
 
 Reserves, 101 
 
 Reserve style, 88 
 
202 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Kesist pastes, 89 
 
 red liquor, 100 
 
 style, 88 
 
 Rhein (chrysophanic acid), 158 
 Rhubarb, 158 
 Rose^for extract styles, 132 
 Roseine, 172 
 Rosolic acid, 189 
 Rubbing machine, 18 
 
 process, 18 
 Rubian, 153 
 
 S. 
 
 ST. MARTHA'S WOOD, 157 
 Safflower, 158 
 
 pink for cotton, 53 
 Safranine, 171 
 Saffron, 159 
 
 adulteration of, 159 
 Safrosin, 191 
 
 Sage, pale (calico-printing), 105 
 Salmon for indigo, 1 1 1 
 
 dye for wool, 59 
 Sandal wood, 158 
 Santalin, 158 
 
 Sapan standard for steam styles, 
 117 
 
 wood, 139 
 Saxony blue, 146 
 Scald, the, 20 
 Scarlet dyes for wool, 59 
 Scotch plan of bleaching linen, 14, 
 
 I5,i6 
 
 Sour, the, 20 
 Schuller's method of purifying 
 
 anthracen, 178 
 Silk, bleaching, 27 
 
 blue dyes for, 55 
 
 to dye, 54 55 
 
 cleansing, 68 
 
 forms in which dyed, 35 
 Silver drab (medium) for steam 
 styles, 120 
 
 (pale) for steam styles, 120 
 
 standard for steam styles, 
 119 
 
 Singeing machine (Tulpin's), 68 
 
 Slate dye for cotton, 50 
 
 (medium) for steam styles, 119 
 (pale) for steam styles, 119 
 for pigment colours, 126 
 standard for steam styles, 119 
 
 Smith's method of preparing ani- 
 line red, 174 
 of preparing aniline violet, 177 
 
 Soda hypochlorite (chloride of soda) 
 20 
 
 Solferino, 172 
 
 Soluble blues, 168 
 
 Spiller's purple, 177 
 
 Spirit colour style, 92 
 
 Standard red liquor, 100 
 
 Steam-colour style, prepared, 91, 
 
 in 
 
 chest, 92 % 
 
 style, unprepared, 92 
 
 Steeping process, 19, 20 
 
 Stone for steam styles, 120 
 
 Straw, bleaching, 30 
 
 Styles of calico-printing, 86 
 
 Substantive colours, 36 
 
 Sulphindigotic acid, 146 
 
 Sulphindylic acid, 146 
 
 Sulpho-muriate of tin, 112 
 
 Sulphuring woollen goods 2 26, 27 
 
 T. 
 
 TAN FOR PIGMENT COLOURS, 126 
 Tessie du Mathey's method of 
 
 bleaching, 32 
 Theory of bleaching, 31 
 Thickeners, 84 
 list of; 82 
 
 remarks on, 82, 83, 84 
 Thorn's apparatus, 32 
 Thread bleaching, 21 
 Tin, sulpho-muriate of, 112 
 Tulpin's singeing machine, 68 
 Turkey red with discharges style, 
 
 90 
 
 Turmeric dye for cotton, 54 
 Tyraline, 1 72 
 
INDEX. 
 
 203 
 
 V. 
 
 VAT, indigo, cold, 144 
 
 indigo, potash, 144 
 
 indigo, Schiitzenberger & De 
 Lalande's, 144 
 
 pastel, 144 
 
 woad, 144 
 Violet benzyl, 177 
 
 dye for cotton, 50 
 
 imperial, 176 
 
 naphthyl, 177 
 Violets, Hoffman's, 176 
 
 w. 
 
 WHITE .DISCHARGE ON BRONZE, 
 
 123 
 
 Wash mills, 17 
 Water, choice of for dyeing, 41 
 
 organic matter in, how to re- 
 move, 42 
 
 Wax, bleaching, 30, 31 
 Weld, 159 
 Woad, 159 
 
 vat, 144 
 Wool to dye, 54, 5:; 
 
 Wool, forms in which dyed, 35 
 
 black dyes for, 55, 56 
 
 brown dyes for, 57 
 
 chocolate dye for, 57 
 
 crabbing, 68 
 
 claret dye for, 57 
 
 crimson dye for, 59 
 
 drab dye for, 57 
 
 green dyes for, 58 
 
 salmon dye for, 59 
 
 scarlet dyes for. 59 
 
 olive dye for, 58 
 
 yellow dyes for, 60 
 Woollen goods, bleaching, 26. 27 
 
 Y. 
 
 YARNS, BLEACHING OF, 12 
 
 Irish plan of bleaching, 24, 
 
 25, 26 
 Yellow aniline, 177 
 
 berries, 157 
 
 discharge on bronze, 124 
 
 dye for cotton, 54 
 Yellowish eosin, 191 
 Yellow, French, 190 
 
 for indigo discharge style, 109 
 
 for steam styles, 121 
 
 Manchester, 190 
 
 dyes for wool, 60 
 
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