Tree Station on upper Potomac. Signal Station at Masthead. TJ. S. Steamer Richmond.. Station in front of Washington. Operations against Richmond. 130ftligK. U.S.A. MANUAL OF SIGNALS: FOR THE USE OF SIGNAL OFFICERS IN THE FIELD, AND FOR MILITARY AND NAVAL STUDENTS, MILITARY SCHOOLS, ETC. A NEW EDITION, ENLARGED AND ILLUSTRATED. BY BT. BRIG. GENL. ALBERT J. MYER, w CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER OF THE ARMY, COLONEL OF THE SIGNAL COUPS DURING THE WAR OF THE REBELLION. NEW YORK: D. VAX XOSTRAND, 192 BROADWAY. 1868. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 186S, By ALBERT J. MYER, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern District of New York. Russells' Ameiinin Steam Printing House. 28, 30 & 32 Ceulro St., N. Y. Little, Rennte & Co., Stekeotypeks. A) /■■ TO THE OFFICERS OF THE ARMY AND NAVY THE UNITED STATES, THIS WORK IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED. M5io9'?a PREFACE. This work was, for its first edition, in great part hastily prepared, printed upon an office press, and issued to the officers of* the Signal Corps of the Army then serving constantly in the field in the midst of the war of the Rebellion. It was intended, at the time, for their instruction only, and was rendered incomplete by official embarrassments and the pressure of other duties. The author is induced to its enlargement and republication now by varied reasons. The actions of the late war, in which victory or defeat has sometimes hung upon the transmission of a signalled message, have rendered it certain that military signals will be used in the future military and naval operations of our arms. They will be employed in the continued Indian warfares in the Interior ; and it is probable some knowledge of tele- graphic duty will be required of the officers of both the land and naval services. The perfection to which these duties can be brought, by careful study, experiment, and practice, can be contemplated yet in imagination only. It has been aimed to furnish those to serve espe- cially upon such duties, whether serving as in a corps or as detached, such plain and compendious instructions as G PKEFACE. will enable them to do the duties well. It has been another object of the Author to provide a work of such a character that it may give to any who peruse it an idea of what it is possible to effect by signals, and how it is proposed to effect it; and, in fine, a conception of the services planned for a property equipped Signal Corps, and the mode in which they are to be rendered. It is necessary for the successful use of such organizations, and for the right discharge of any signal duty, that those officers whose rank entitles them to frequent and large command should have a knowledge — such at least as they can gain by reading — of the service of which they may at any moment need to avail themselves. And it has been a natural wish on the part of the Author, that those with whom he has been associated may be con- vinced, by their own knowledge, that the plans for this branch of service have been carefully considered and are practicable. Of the great, good results to be hoped from a popular and thorough knowledge of the subjects of the book, subjects hitherto so little treated, that the Author knows of no extended work relating to them, he can here make mention only. The character of the possible advantages must be judged after some perusal of the volume. In preparing the work, the Author has availed himself of the information he has gained in some years of study, experiment, and active service. He has embodied in it whatever he has thought might be of value to the student. PREFACE. 7 In the revision and modification <>f plans which have come under his consideration, it has been difficult some- times to credit exactly the labors of those who have treated of them; but if mention of any has been omitted, it has been through inadvertence. The Author claims for himself little originality or invention, other than would perhaps have come to any one who might have devoted an equal amount of time and labor to the subject. CONTEXTS. [See Index, page 413.] paoi General Observations pertaining to Signals Lo Of Recording ditto IT Roles of Permutations, Combinations, Arrangements, etc 21 Table of Reference for Signals, from one to nine elements, etc ... 34 Alphabetic Elementary Codes _. 36 Message Codes of Signals I - Examples of Codes I ; ! Examples of Naval Code 47 Description of IT. S. Naval Codes of Signals -1!) Methods of Symbolizing Signal Numbers (Navy) 52 Navy Colored Signals 52 General Applications 56 Field Signals by One Element 65 Field Signals by Two Elements : General Service Code (arrangement of two elements)— Instruc- tions for Using the Code— Day Signals : Motions of Flags— To send a Message — Ordering Signals— Recording ditto— Verti- cal Motions— Horizontal ditto— Night Signals— Ditto by Verti- cal Motions — Ditto by Horizontal ditto 6? ^7 Transient Signals: by Flashes— by Occupations— by Sound— Com- plicating Signals— Code of Two Elements (arrangements of two symbols) 87-9a Field Signals by Three Elements : Alphabet of Three Elements (an arrangemenl of three sym- bols)— Instructions for using Code— Day Signals: Flags in Motion— Night Signals— Day Signals: Motions of Disks Night Signals— Signals by Flashes and Occultation — Ditto by Sound 96-107 10 CONTENTS. PAGE Field Signals by Four Elements : Alphabet of Four Elements for Flags (an arrangement of four symbols)— Code Signals— Day ditto : Motions of Flags— Posi- tion of Disks— Night Signals— Alphabet of Four Elements (an arrangement of four symbols) — Day Signals — Night ditto —General Applications 107-115 Field Signals by Five Elements : Alphabet of Five Elements (an arrangement of five symbols) — Day Signals by Motions and Positions — Night Signals- Signals by Flashes and Occultations — Ditto by Sound — Sys- tem of Polybius 116-126 Field Signals by Six Elements : Alphabet of Six Elements (an arrangement of six symbols)— Code Signals— Instructions for Using ditto— Day Signals by Positions and Motions— Night Signals— Signals by Flashes and Occultations— Ditto by Sound 126-137 Field Signals by Seven Elements : Alphabet of Seven Elements (an arrangement of seven sym- bols)— Day and Night Signals 138, 139 Field Signals by Eight Elements : Alphabet of Eight Elements (an arrangement of eight sym- bols)— Day and Night Signals 140, 141 Field Signals by Nine Elements : Alphabet of Nine Elements (an arrangement of nine sjnubols) —Day and Night Signals 142, 143 Field Siguals by Ten Elements : Alphabet of Ten Elements (an arrangement of ten sym- bols) 144 General Service Homographic Code — nomographic Alphabet — Conventional Signals — Homographic Night Signals — Return- ing or Repeating Homographic Signals — Application to Sig- nal Books — Orders in Homographic Signals — Recording Ho- mographic ditto — Applications — Signals by Flashes and Occul- tations — To Rapidly Memorize a Code 144-1 64 Chronosemic Signals : Preliminary Explanations— Figure Symbols — Table of Cor- responding Intervals — Signal Numbers — Auxiliary or Special Signals — Table of Special Signals — Signal Apparatus— Time- keeping ditto— Special Time-keeping ditto — Sign-making Ap- CONTENTS. 11 r kGI paratus — Special ditto— Forms of Signal Records — Signal Record 1 64-179 To open Communication by Signals without a Preconcerted Code L80-189 Description of Standard Signal Equipment 189-192 Signal 1 )isks 193 Semaphores 193 Semaphore-Telegraph (Universal)— Table of Signs or Combina- tions 195-198 Flags on Halyards 198 Flags in Motion 200 Sizes of Flags and length of Stall* 201 Lanterns 203 Torches 204 Candle-bombs 207 Pulls and Flashes 209 Matches 211 The use of Rockets for Signals 211 Of Firing Rockets 215 Composition Fires : Coston's Composition Telegraphic Night Signals — Example of a Code 216-221 Message Signals 222 Care of Signal Apparatus 222 Transportation of Apparatus 225 Telescopes and their uses 228 Scale Glasses 235 Pocket Compasses 237 Prismatic Compass 238 Instructions in Signalling 230 Selecting, Establishing, and Working Stations in the Field : Position of Signalmen — Working — To Locate Stations — Es- tablishing Stations — Repeating Stations 243-272 Complicating Signals 272 Messages and Messengers 275 Cryptograms '-' ;,; Signalling in Cipher 280 Rules and Explanations for use of Signal Disks: 1. Explanation of Disk— 2. To make Signals— 3. The Ad- 12 CONTENTS. PACK jnstment Letter — 4. To send a Message in Cipher — 5. To Change the Cipher when sending Message — 6. Record — 7. Words 289-297 Enciphering certain Words only of a Message 298 Route Cipher 311 Modes and Curiosities of Cipher 323 Flying or Field Telegraphs 336 General Service of the Signal Corps : Cavalry Raids — Observations and Reconnoissances 347-370 Mapping : Maps and Sketches from Information , 370-373 Reports : Reports from Information — Transmission of Reports. . . .373-381 Origin and General Use of Signals 382 General Use of Signals 399 DESCRIPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Plates I. — Examples of Permutations, Combinations, and Arrange- ments. II. — Naval Signal Flags; Signal Lights. III. — Naval Pendants and Repeaters; Coston Lights. IV. — Significations by Positions and Motions. V. — Signals by Colors, Forms, Positions of Forms. VI.— (General Service Code of Two Elements): Signals by Motions — Men and Flags ; Illustrations of the Motions of the Flags. VII. — (General Service Code): Signals by Motions— Men and Flags ; Illustrations of the Motions of the Flags. VIII.— (General Service Code): Signal Apparatus; Signal Balls worked above a Deck or Roof; Mode of Signalling by Motions of Flags on Halyards. IX. — Apparatus applied to Monitors, Ships, Houses, Towers. X. — Night Signals — Men, Flags, and Torches in Position. XI. — (General Service Code) : Night Signals by Horizontal or Vertical Motions; Signals with Lanterns upon Frames, and with Lanterns held in the Hand. XII.— (Code of Three Elements) : Day and Night Signals ; Signals by Motions and Positions. XIII.— (Code of Four Elements): Day Signals; Signals by Motions. XIV.— (Code of Four Elements): Day Signals; Signals by Posi- tions, Common Articles displayed as Signal-. XV.— (Code of Five Elements): Day and Night Signals; Signals with Disks, Lanterns, Muskets, and Semaphore of Poly- bius. XVI. — (Code of Six Elements) : Day and Night Signals with Disks, Flashes, Lanterns, Men, Muskets, Torches; Signals by Positions. 14 DESCRIPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Plates XVII. — General Service Homographic Signals. (Code of Ten Elements) : The Digits indicated by Positions. XVIII.— (Code of Ten Elements): Night Signals— Firebrands, Flashes, Lanterns. Day Signals — with Disks; Sema- phores constructed with Pieces of Board; Semaphores of Canes and Disks ; Semaphoric Signals — Man in Tree. XIX. — Signal Equipments — Regulation Set. XX. — Double Disks, in Motion and in Position ; Signals by Lan- terns on Shelves; Signal Flash and Magic Lanterns. XXI.— Flags on Halyards. XXII. — Signal Mortars ; Shells ; Pack-animal ; Arrangements of Rockets for Chronosemic Signals ; Man firing Rockets from Hand. Man with Signal Kit. XXIII. — Signal Pistols ; Lights ; Composition Fires ; Signal Cart- ridge-box. Binocular Glass and Case ; Telescopes and Straps ; Wand for Practice ; Men Practising with Wands. XXIV. — Transportation of Apparatus ; Prismatic and Pocket Com- passes. XXV. — Object viewed through Scale Glass; Telescopes; Tele- scope Rests; Telescopes in Rest; Plan of Permanent Signal Station or Tower. XXVI.— Signal Cipher Disks. XXVII.— Cryptographic Disks; Cipher Reel; Cipher Tablets; Combination Disks; Disks cut from Paper; Vertical Section. XXVIII.— Signal Corps Telegraph — Setting up Wire; Operator at Work ; Signal Station at Night. XXIX. — Field Telegraph and Communicating Signal Station — Concentration of Reports from different Signal Stations at the Telegraphic Station. XXX. — Illustration of Action of Land and Naval Forces com- bined by Signal ; Field Telegraph and Communicating Signal Stations on Ship and on Shore. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Such limited attention has been paid to Signals and Tele- graphy that, except among experts, there is little general information on the subject. The secrecy which is commonly preserved, and necessarily, in reference to the meanings of signals, made in the Land and Naval services, has led to an impression, that the subject involves something of mystery. There can be nothing easier of comprehension, than the prin- ciples upon which all signals are devised ; or more simple, than the workings of the few rules which are applied to tlum. A Sign or Signal is any thing, or sound, or act, or indica- tion by which to excite attention or convey a meaning. A stroke of a clock-bell is a sisrnal. Letters and characters are signals. To point the finger at any object is a signal. Signals are of two kinds — transient a,ndpermam nt. They are transient when each sign disappears as soon as it has Inch completed; as in signals by Motions or by Sounds. They arc permanent when the signs are long in view ; as when flags are kept hoisted to be read; or the symbols are written on paper; or a signal is made by placing a thing in a fixed position, and so retaining it — as the arm raised above the head. The principle upon which all systems of signals are formed, is this: that, luning a certain number of arbitrary, simple 16 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. signs, sounds, things, colors, or indications, each distin- guishable from the other, these are made to appear joined together in any arrangements or combinations which are possible and expedient, to form other or different signals to any extent required. We wish, for example, to make a large number of signals — that is, a large number of signs or indications — which, when they are exhibited, in any way, to an observer, and recognized, shall each signify a certain meaning. We take any few different and simple known signs, sounds, motions, or indications, which we can easily make, and we join them together, twos or threes, or more at a time, making one after another, into many and different and more complex signs or arrangements. Each of these new signs becomes, when a meaning is given to' it, a signal. We can increase the number of such signals to any limit, by continuing to join together the known signals in greater num- bers, or in new arrangements. Any thing in existence, of which we take cognizance, or to which we can, through any sensation, direct the attention of others, can be used as a signal. For convenience of naming, the known shnis or signals with which we commence, are called single ov pri- mary signals, or elemental-;/ signals. The new signs made by joining these elementary signs together, are called the combinations or combination signals. The elementary signs may be disposed, any number of them being used at a time, or any number of repetitions of any one of them, or repeti- tions of any one or more of them being joined, in very numerous and varied arrangements. The several siuns exhibited together in one arrangement, then become one signal for any given meaning. This signal, thus made, is a signal by combination. It consists of several signals combined to make one. The number of different sorts or kinds of signs or indica- tions used, in making a combination signal, is called the number of elements of the signal. The number of sio-ns, of MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 17 all kinds, actually used in one completed signal, is the num- ber of elementary signals in that signal. A combination sig- nal may be only an elementary signal repeated several times; or it may be repetitions of one elementary signal joined to others. In the signal " 1131" there are two sorts of signals — viz., those indicated by the symbols " 1," and those indicated by the symbols " 3." The signal is thus of two elements. There are four signals taken together to make it. The number of elementary signals is four. In " 1132" there are three elements and four primary signals. In " 222" there are one element and three signals. All systematized signals, — that is, signals formed under rules — and signals must be systematized, or formed under rules, if any great number of them are to be used, — are based on the principles above explained : that the elementary sig- nals of any system being given, all signals of that system are made by combinations of those elementary signals. This principle is identical, in its operation, with that by which the separate letters — the elementary signals or sym- bols of language — form, by their combinations, the many single words of that language; or the numerical digits — the elementary signals or symbols of numbers — designate, by their arrangements, the infinity of numbers they are capable of expressing. In its application to telegraphic signals, this principle goes back to a further degree, and as in one word or expression of a number there are several characters, the elements which go to make up its unity, so in telegraphing each letter may often be designated by elementary signals, which, several in number, must join to indicate that single character. Of Recording Signals. The recording of signals, is the writing them down. The notation of the characters standing for signals, is similar to that of any other characters in writing. Each elementary 18 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. signal is designated by any given character, number, or mark. The characters indicating the different elementary signals, joined in each combination signal, are written to- gether, and by their kinds, number, and order of sequence, show the kinds, number, and sequences of the elementary signals which are used in that combination. Signals are thus written precisely as words are written. As in the written word are shown the letters — the elements of language which go to make up that word, their number, and the order in which they are spoken or exhibited to produce that word- so the record of a signal shows how many sorts or kinds of signs or indications are used to make the signal (the num- ber of elements) ; how many single signs (elementary sig- nals) are combined to make it ; and the order in which each must be exhibited, when all are joined together in dis- playing the completed signal. We take, for example, any three kinds of known signs, motions, or colors, which we propose to use as the elements on which to base a system of signals. We name these ele- ments First, Second, and Third. We designate each ele- mentary signal — that is, each of the three different signs, or each of the three different motions, or each of the three dif- ferent colors — by figures, as 1 and 2 and 3 ; or by letters, as a and b and c ; or by the letters w g r ; or we designate them by any other three marks, or in any arbitrary manner. If now we wish to show, writing the signals to be read by others, or observing and noting them down for our own reference, that the first and third motions are made to- gether, one after the other, to make a signal ; or, that the first and third colors are to be so shown as to indicate that one follows the other in a signal — that is, that in the given signal there are two elementary signs, and that the first is followed by the third — we write " 13," or " w g," or "a c." If using motions, the third motion is to be noted as made, and followed by the first motion, and that again by the third MANUAL OF SIGNALS. I'.t motion, repeated, to make a signal; or, using colors, the color green is shown followed by the white, and thai by the green again as a signal — thai is, if the signal is to lie the third elementary sign, followed by the first elementary sign, followed by the third elementary sign again repeated ; or, more briefly, a third element followed by a first element, followed by a third element, we write " 313," or "c a c," or "gw g." If a "third motion" is made three times, in close succession, or three green colors are shown, one after the other, as the signal — that is, if the signal is a third element thrice repeated — we write " 333," or u g g g," "c c c," etc. If still using in no signal more than three different elements or kinds of elementary signals, a combination signal is made to consist of four elementary signals, as using three kinds of motions, four distinct motions are to be made together, one after the other, as a signal ; — for instance, a " third motion" followed by a "second motion," this followed by a "first motion," and this by a " third motion" again, repeated ; or, using three kinds of colors, four colors are shown together as a signal, as the green followed by the red, followed by the white, and this by green again — that is, the signal is a third element, followed by a second, followed by a first, followed by a third — it is written " 3213," or "g r w g," or "c b a c." If the signal is to be a first element shown three times in succession, it is written " 111," or " w w w," or " a a a," etc. If the signal is to be two first elements followed by two second elements, as two first motions and two second motions made together, or two white colors and two red colors shown together, it is written "1122," or "a ab b," or " w w it." At the end of the record of each completed signal, a period is marked upon the paper, or a space is left to separate it from the records of other signals, precisely as spaces are made between written words to dis- tinguish each from the other. The number of kiuds of characters or symbols appearing 20 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. iii the written record of a signal, shows how many sorts or kinds of signs or indications are used in making that signal — i. e., the number of elements. This is called the elementary number of the signal. In the signal " 1231," there are three kinds of characters. The elementary number of this signal is " three." It is a signal of three elements. In the signal " 121," there are two kinds of characters. The elementary number of the signal, is "two." It is a signal of two ele- ments. The elementary number of the signal " 1211," is " two." The elementary number of the signal " 2," is " one." The elementary number of the signal " 1 11," is " one." The elementary number of the signal " 11," is "one." The ele- mentary number of the signal " 13," is "two." The number of characters in the written record of a signal, shows how many single or elementary signs or indications, of all kinds, are made combined to make that signal. This is called the combination number of the signal. To make the combination signal "1231," four single signals are joined. The combination number of the signal is "four." To make the signal "121," three single signals are com- bined. The combination number of this signal is " three." The combination number of the signal " 111," is " three." Of the signal " 121," it is " three." Of " 13," it is " two." Each elementary or single signal, appearing in a combina- tion signal, and consequently each character, appearing in the written record of a signal, is numbered as and called a place. Thus, the signal " 1231," is a signal of four places. The signal "111," is a signal of three places. The signal " 132," is a signal of three places. The signal " 2," is a sig- nal of one place. A Class of signals is all of those signals to make which the same number of sio-ns must be used. All signals of the same number of places, are signals of the same class. Thus, the signals "121," " b b c," " 333," " w r g, " 123," are all signals of three places. They are signals of the same class. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 21 The signals " 12," "31," "33," " 11," are all signals of two places. They are of the same class. Classes of signals are named from the number <»!' places in each class. Thus, single signals, or signals of one place, as " 2," " 3," etc., are signals of the first class. Signals of two places, as "a a," " 11," etc., are signals of the second class. Signals of three places, as " 123," " 111," "a a h," etc., are signals of the third class; and so on. A Codt of signals is any number of signals arranged and agreed upon, each having assigned to it its meaning. Codes of signals arc named from the number of elements used in making those signals which appear in the code, or from the number of different kinds of symbols which appear in the record: as codes of two elements, of three elements ; and so on. The Rules of Permutations, Combinations, and Arrangements, as Applied to Signals. The mathematical rules for Permutations, Combinations, and Arrangements, by which any number of things, char- acters, signs, or symbols of any kind, being given, there are known the number and qualities of all the changes, com- binations, and arrangements in which they can be placed together, apply equally, of course, to the changes, combina- tions, and arrangements which can be made with those characters, things, or signs, when used as signals; for, to make signals, is only to display the different elementaries given, in the different changes, combinations, and arrange- ments in which they can be put, giving to each display a separate meaning. The study of the applications of these rules to the formation of signals is interesting. The compre- hension of the principles upon which signals are systema- tized under them makes clear the theories of signalling, 22 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. and enables us to trace the bases upon which all plans of signals must be formed. The Equation of Permutations furnishes the formula by which any number of characters or things being given, there is known in how many different changes these characters or things can be arranged, having, in every arrangement, all the characters or things given, and no one of the characters or things to appear more than once in any arrangement. The Equation of Permutations is as follows : Let N = number of changes to be sought. n = number of things or symbols. Then X=1X2X3**** Xn=answer. Or the number of changes which can be made, is equal to a series of numbers from one up to the given number (of things) multiplied continually together, the last product being the answer required. Application. — Any certain number of things, signs, or indications, of which our senses can take cognizance, being taken as elementary signals or symbols, to find how many signals can be made, displaying all the elementary signals each time, and each time in a different arrangement, no elementary signal to appear more than once in any one arrangement — Rule. — Designate all the elementary signals given, by numbers, each in a regular series, as 1,2, 3, 4, 5, and so on, up to the given number. Multiply all of the series of numbers up to the given number continually together, and the last product will be the answer required. If there are six: things given, in how many changes can they be arranged, using all of the six in each change, and having six places in every change ? MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 2,6 Number of changes = 1 X - X 3 X 4 x 5 X o = 720. If five things are given ? Number of changes = 1 X - X 3X4X5 = 120. If three things are given ? Number of changes= 1X2X3 = 6. For demonstration, let the three things be designated by a, b, c. We find, by trial, that we can arrange these three letters in six different ways, and no more; as thus: a b c, c b a, b c a, c a b, b a c, a c b. Or, let three figures be used; as 1, 2, 3. We can ar- range these figures as 1 2 3, 3 2 1, 2 3 1, 3 1 2, 2 1 3, 1 3 2, in six changes, and not otherwise. Or, let the elements be three syllables, as mo-ta-la; they can be arranged as motala, lamota, tamola, talamo, molata, latoma: in six ways, and no more. If two things are given, they can be arranged (number of changes = 1 X2 = 2) in two ways, and no other. If four things have been given, the same rule shows there are twenty-four permutations of these tilings. If five things are given, the permutations are one hundred and twenty; and so on. If there are six different-colored flags (and only six) to be used as signals, Ave learn, by this rule, that we can make with these flags, hoisting all of them each time, and in a dif- ferent order of arrangement for each signal, and never show- ing two similar flags in any signal, seven hundred and twenty signals. This is the limit of all the signals, so conditioned, that can be made with these flags. Or, if there are six sounds or notes, as of a piano, there can be sounded, one after another, six notes al a time, for each signal, and in a different arrangement each time for each signal, seven hundred and twenty signals. Or, if there are six distinct motions which can be made, one after the other there are seven hundred and twenty ways or sequences, in which these motions can be made, all 24 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. being made each time ; they can represent seven hundred and twenty signals. With five flags, or sounds, or motions, there would be, using no flag, sound, or motion twice in any signal, one hundred and twenty signals of five places. With four flags, or sounds, or motions, there would be twenty-four signals of four places ; and so on. Thus, if the four flags are of different colors, as a white, a red, a green, a blue, they can be hoisted, four at a time, twenty-four different ways, reading from above down, thus: 1st, white, red, green, blue; 2d, red, white, green, blue ; 3d, green, white, red, blue ; and so for twenty-four changes. Or, if there are four sounds, a long, a short, a high, and a low, they can be sounded, all four at a time, in twenty-four different orders, as thus: 1st, long, short, high, low; 2d, short, long, high, low; 3d, high, long, short, low; and so for twenty-four changes. Or, if there are four motions, as with the hand, start- ing from a given point, say as high as, and in front of the shoulder, a motion up, a motion down, a motion to the right, a motion to the left, they can be made, making all four motions at a time, twenty-four different ways, as thus: 1st, up, down, right, left; 2d, down, up, right, left ; 3d, right, down, up, left ; and so on for twenty-four changes. This rule applies, the number of elements being greater or less, as the case may be, through all the myriad modes in which we may devise the elementary signals. The Table of Permutations, computed up to those which can be made with nine elements, is as follows : MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 25 THE NUMBIiU OF THINGS OR SYMBOLS BEING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Tin: m mi-.i u OF CHANGES w men t \\ BE HADE WITH Tin SB THINGS OH SYMBOLS IS — 1 2 6 24 120 720 5040 40320 30 2 880 This table is sometimes of value for immediate reference. It is frequently necessary to agree that each preconcerted signal shall consist of a certain number of symbols, and also of a certain number of places : as that each signal shall con- tain five different elements, and be of five places. In such cases, if we have five signals or sounds, or flags, or charac- ters, we know that we may exhibit them, five at a time, and in one hundred and twenty different ways. We can form a code accordinsdv. Or, if nine things are given us, that they may be shown, nine at a time, and in three hundred and sixty-two thousand eight hundred and eighty changes. We can make with them this number of distinct signals. The Equation of Combinations is the formula by which, any number of different things being given, there is found how many changes can be made with these things, taking any given number of them at a time. Application. — Any number of elementary signals, or symbols standing for them, being given, to find how many combination signals can be made, using the elementary 2 26 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. signals in given numbers of them at a time, and no element- ary signal appearing more than once in any signal — Rule. — Designate the elementary signals or things by numbers, in regular series, up to the full number given. Take a regular series of deceasing numbers, beginning with a number equal to the full number of elementary signals (symbols) given, and diminishing by one for as many terms as shall be equal to the number of elementary signals to be used at a time, multiply the numbers of this series together, and the product will be the amount required. Illustration.— If five things are given, how many dif- ferent combinations can be made, using all of these things, but using only three at a time ? The number of combinations =5X4X3 = 60, the answer. If three things are given, how many combinations can be made, using only two things at a time ? Number of combinations = 3X2 = 6, the answer. For illustration, let the three things given be the letters a, b, c. The combination of these letters by twos are ab, ac, be, ba, cb, ca, or six in number. Or let the three things be three figures, 1, 2, 3. The combination of these figures, by twos, are 12, 13, 21, 23, 31, 32, six in number. Or let the three things be three syllables, mo-ta-la. The combina- tion of these syllables, by twos, are mo-la, mo-ta, la-ta, la- ma, ta-mo, ta-la, or six in number. If seven things are given, to be used three at a time, no thing being used more than once in any combination, the number of combinations would be 7X0X5 = 210, the answer. - If there are six different-colored flags to be used as sig- nals, we learn, by this rule, that there can be made with these flags, hoisting them two at a time and in a dif- ferent order of arrangement for each signal, and never showing two similar flags in any signal (6X5 = 30), thirty signals. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 27 Or hoisting three flags at a time, with the same condi- tions (6X5X4=120), one hundred and twenty signals. Or hoisting tour flags at a time (6X5X4X3=360), three hundred and sixty signals. Or hoisting five flags at a time (6XoX4X3X2 = 720), seven hundred and twenty signals. Or hoisting six flags at a time (ii X- r > X IX 3 X 2 X 1 = 720), seven hundred and twenty signals. The practical use of this rule, is t<> enable us to at once determine, any number of things, motions, etc., being de- cided upon to be used as signals, how many signals can be made with them, using them by twos or threes, or other number of them together. If then there are six sounds or notes, as of a piano, there can be sounded two dissimilar notes, one after the other at a time, for each signal, and in different order of arrange- ment for each signal, thirty signals. Or, with three notes at a time, there can be sounded one hundred and twenty sig- nals. Or, with four notes sounded, four hundred and eighty signals. Or, with five notes at a time sounded, two thou- sand four hundred signals. If there are eight kinds of flashes, how many different signals can be made, showing two dissimilar flashes at a time ? (8 X 7 = 56), the answer. How many different signals can be arranged for six different kinds of rockets, it being agreed that three dis- similar rockets shall be thrown up for each signal '? An- swer, 120. If there are nine different-colored flags, how many sig- nals can be made, hoisting four different flags at a time? Answer, 9X8X7X6 = 3024. With five different sounds, how many signals of the third class, or of three places, can be made? Answer, 5X^X3 = 00. How many signals of the 2d class? An- swer, 5X1 = 20. 28 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Any number of things being given, to ascertain the sum of all the modes in which they can be exhibited, using all, or any one, or any number of them, at a time, no thing ap- pearing twice in any exhibition. Rule. — Find the number of combinations of each class which can be made with the things given. The sum of these numbers added together will be the answer re- quired. Application. — Any certain elementary or primary sig- nals being given, to find how many signals in all can be displayed, computing all the signals which can be exhibited with these elementary signals, using all of them or any numbers of them together, or any one of them, no elementary signal appearing more than once in any signal — Find, by the preceding rules, the number of signals of each class which can be made with the given number of signals. The sum of all these numbers, added together, will be the answer required. If there are six elementary signals given, the total of all the signals which can be exhibited will be: 1st, all the sig- nals which can be shown by using the given signals sepa- rately, each as a single signal : or signals of one place, or of the 1st class. Added to [2d] all the signals which can be made by using the given signals by twos, or as signals of two places, or 2d class. Added to [3d] those which can be made by using them by threes — that is, signals of three places, or 3d class. Added to [4th] those which can be made by using them by fours — that is, signals of four places, or 4th class. Added to [5th] those which can be made by using them by fives — that is, signals of five places, or 5th class. Added to [6th] those which can be made by using them by sixes— that is, signals of six places, or the 6 th class. Thus, by preceding rules, the total number of signals MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 29 equals 6 [signals of* the 1st class] +30 [signals 2d class] + 120 [signals 3d class] +360 [signals 4th class] +720 [signals 5th class] 720 [signals Oth class] equals 1956, the answer. If five elementary signals are given, how many signals, of all kinds, can be exhibited ? Number =(5 + (4x5) = 20 + (5x4x3) = 60 + (5x4x3x2) = 120 + (5x4x3x2)=120) = 325, the an- swer. If there are six different flasks, how many signals can be made showing no two similar Mags in any signal ? There can be made, showing one flag at a time, six sig- nals ; showing two at a time, thirty signals ; showing three at a time, one hundred and twenty signals ; showing four at a time, three hundred and sixty signals; showing five at a time, seven hundred and twenty signals ; showing six at a time, seven hundred and twenty signals. The total is 1956 signals. If there are four different sounds or notes, as of an instru- ment, how many signals, of all kinds, can be made, sounding no two similar notes in any signal ? There can be sounded four signals of one note each, twelve signals of two notes, twenty-four signals of three notes, twenty-four signals of four notes. Total, 64 sig- nals. If there are four different motions, how many signals can be made, making no two motions alike in any signal ? There can be four signals of one motion each, twelve sig- nals of two motions each, twenty-four signals of three mo- tions each, twenty-four signals of four motions each : equal to sixty-four signals in all. The practical use of these rules is to enable us to deter- mine, any certain number of signs, sounds, motions, etc., being decided upon to be used as signals, hoAV many dif- 30 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. ferent signals, of all kinds, we can display with them, using no sign twice in any signal. Equations of Arrangements. — Any certain number of sorts of elementary signals, or symbols standing for them, being given, and it being permitted to use any combination or arrangement of these signals, or of the symbols, and any repetition of any one or more of them in any signal, to find how many signals of any class — that is, of any certain num- of places, can be made with these signals — Rule. — -Take the whole number of elementary signals, or of the symbols, and multiply it continually by itself so many times less one as there are places in the required signal; or raise the given number of signals or of symbols to that power of which the number of places to be in the required signals shall be tlie exponent. The formula is as follows : Let N = the number of changes of possible signals. n= number of sorts of things (of the elementary sig- nals or of symbols). n' = number of places to be in the required signals. ThenX^n"'. Example. — Using three sorts of elementary signals, and repeating any symbol as often as may be necessary in any combination signal, how many signals of four places (4th class) may be made ? X umber of 4th class signals = 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 or 3* = 81. How many signals of three places ? Number 3 s , or 3X3X3 = 27 signals. For demonstration, let the given signals, or things, be of the sorts designated, as 1, 2, 3. These figures can be ar- ranged, 111, 222, 333. 112, 113, 221, 223, 331, 332, 213, 312, 321, 123, 132, 231, 232, 212, 323, 313, 121, 131, 133, MANUAL OF SICXALS. 31 122, 233, 211, 322, 311— thai is, in twenty-seven modes. No other or more exhibitions of three places arc possible. Or let tlic Mills of things be of letters, as a, b, c. Let- ters of these kinds can be exhibited in* expressions of three places, as follows, and not otherwise: aaa, bbb, CCC, aab, aac, bba, bbc — and thus on to twenty-seven expressions. It will be seen, in these two instances, that the result at- tained, by actual trial, is precisely that indicated by the mathematical rule. Having two sorts of flags, as a number of red flags ami a number of white flags; or a number of strips of red cloth and of -white cloth, how many signals can be exhibited, showing four flags or strips in each signal ? 2 X 2 X 2 X 2, or 2 4 = 16, the answer. How many showing three flags at a time? 2X2X2 = 8, the answer. With any two sorts of sounds, as of a bass and of a light drum; or, two different kinds of notes, as of a piano or a bugle, how many signals can be sounded with three sounds in each signal? IS r umber = 2X 2X2 = 8, the answer. With any two sorts of motions, as motions to the right and motions to the left, or motions up and motions down, how many signals can be made, making four motions for each signal? Number=2 4 = 16, the answei\ Any certain number of sorts of elementary signals, or symbols standing for them, being given, to find how many different signals can be made, computing all the signals which can be exhibited with these elementary signals, using all the expressions which can be made by exhibiting any numbers of them togethei', or any one of them, or any repe- titions of any one or more of them in any signal, the limit of computation being fixed only by the number of places to be in the highest class of signals — Rule. — Find the number of signals of each class which can be made with the given elementary signals irp to and 32 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. including those of the limiting class ; add these numbers together. The sum will be the answer. The formula is as follows : Let N=number of signals required. n=nuniber of sorts of things or signals (of the ele- ments or of the symbols). n'= number of places to be in the limiting class of signals. Then N = n+n 2 + n 3 + * * * * + n u ' equal the answer. Example. — If there are three sorts of elementary signals, how many signals, of all kinds, can be made, computing up to those of four places ? Number =3 (signals of 1st class, or single signals) +9 (signals of 2d class, or of two places) + 27 (signals of 3d class, or of three places) + 81 (signals of 4th class, or of four places) = 120, the answer. Or, more plainly, the total number of possible signals, wjth these conditions, is the number of signals of one place that can be made added to the signals of two places, added to the signals of three places, added to the signals of four places, the limit. If there are two sorts of elementary signals — that is, if the elements to be used in making any required signals are but two in number — how many signals can be made, no sig- nal having more than three places ? Number =2 (signals of the first class) +4 (signals of 2d class) +8 (signals of the 3d class) = 14, the answer. If there are six kinds of motions, how many signals can be made, having in no signal more than three motions ? — Six of one motion, thirty-six of two motions, two hundred and sixteen of three motions. Total, 258 signals, the an- swer. How many different signals can be made with drums, hats, knapsacks, and coats, showing not more than four articles for any signal ? MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 33 Number=4+4 3 + 4 3 + 4 4 = 340, the answer. If there are two sorts of flashes, as of red flushes and of white flashes, how many signals can be made, no signal having more than five flashes? :Number=2 + 2- + '2 3 + 2 4 + 2 6 ; or, 2+4+8+16+32 = 62, the answer. If there are two kinds of motions, as motions up and motions down, from a fixed point, how many signals can be made, using not more than four motions for any signal ? Answer, 30. For convenience of reference is inserted the table on the following page, showing the number of sorts of elementary signals (i. e., the elements) to be used, and the number of places to appear in the signal being given, how many sig- nals of each class (that is, of any certain number of places) can be made. This table is drawn for all signals up to those of nine elements and nine places. For use, find at the left of the table, between two hori- zontal lines, the number of elements. Find at the top of the table, between vertical lines, the number of class, or number of places to be in the signals. The number inclosed by these four lines, at their intersection, shows the number of signals that can be made. Thus, with three elements, how many signals of four places can be made? Find three (the number of elements) on the left of the table. Find four (the number of places) at the top. The number at the intersection of the inclosing lines is 81, the answer. With seven elements, how many signals of the 4th class can be made? Number opposite 7, on the left of the table, and 4, at the top, is 2401. 2* 34 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 53 to s S os c? 1-1 JO 00 CO CM c? o CM lO 00 JO C2 o t- o o co co t- CO t- JO © CO o o 1—1 ^tf co c* i— t ■«* CO o oo © c? -t< CO CO CO co JO CJ o JO CD CO 00 JO JO CO JO CM co o O CO co a CO o CO -V co JO CO CO c* o 00 co C} CO "<*( JO CO CM CO T-^ CO co T— 1 j> CO CO O cs t- CM 00 ■>* JO 00 c* co CM JO T— t c~ cs o Ci © CO CI CO o © CM t- CO © o JO CO CM JO CO CO JO CO r-l ■<* © CO CI CO CM CO JO s 6 CM CO 00 CM O CO JO co © PLATE I. EXAMPLES OF PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS, AND ARRANGEMENTS. There being given as Symbols— Red, Green, Yellow, Bine, Purple. THESE ARE PERMUTATIONS. T3 □ In Permutations, all the Symbols given are used, but each time differently placed. Symbols given : Red, Green, Yellow, Blue, Purple. THESE ARE COMBINATIONS. In Combinations, the Symbols given are used two or three or more together at a time. No Symbol is used more than once in any Combination. Symbols given : Red, Green, Yellow, Blue, Purple. THESE ARE ARRANGEMENTS. n i rrnr tzczn In Arrangements, all the Symbols may be used in any arrangement, or thoy may be used two or three or more together to any extent, and any of the Symbols may be repeated any number of times in any arrangement. H WL'AL OF SIGNA1 B. 35 Plate T. affords Examples of Permutations, Combina- tions, and Arrangements. These can be practically illus- trated by the use of colored blocks to bo permuted, com- bined, or arranged at will. The Rules of Permutations and Combinations besl apply to permanent signals. As signals of this kind are generally shown, all the elementary signals, or the components of the complete signal, are exhibited together, and remain in view- so long as the signal is exposed. It, is thus difficult, is in- convenient, and is often impossible to repeat any of them in the same signal. Similarly, the Permutations and Com- binations of any determined number of things show only those changes which can be made without repeating any- thing in any change. The Rules for Arrangements have their most useful ap- plications to transient signals; or, to those cases in which it is necessary to improvise signals with any things that may be at hand ; as when there are but very few kinds of articles, but large numbers of similar articles of each kind, as strips of flannel of two or three different colors; coats and kerchiefs; caps and knapsacks; drums and bunches of hay, etc. Transient signals, and signals made with these simple things or signs, admit readily of repetitions. It is easy in making signals of flashes, as by a lantern, to repeat these flashes, making one after the other; and similarly can be repeated sounds, as of a bell, or motions made with any- thing. In the same way, if there are strips of flannel, and there are only two colors among them, it is easy to hoist the strips two, or three, or four at a time: the repetitions of any strip in any signal forming parts of that signal. Some idea of the very great gain in the scope of represent tation, which is made by using in signals all the arrange- ments into which repetitions or combinations of repetitions enter, may be had from the following instance : o6 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. With three things used as signals, in all ways, as by- ones, by twos, and by threes, we can make but fifteen sig- nals, if no repetition is permitted in any signal. Thus there are [see combinations] 3 of one place, + 6 of two places, + 6 of three places, = 15. With three sorts of things, repetitions of things being used as signals, and repetitions of one or more of them being permitted in any signal, we can make, no signal having more than three places, thirty-nine signals. Thus, there are [see arrangements] 3 of one place, + 9 of two places, + 27 of three places, = 39. Or the power of repre- sentation is more than doubled. Alphabetic Elementary Codes. The Alphabet we use is a code of twenty-six signals, by combinations of which all words [word-signals] are made, and which, by long practice, we recognize readily when made by sound [spoken], or by sight [written]. All lan- guage [spoken or written] is simply signals by sound ; or, signals made visible. Any other signal symbols would have answered just as well for the letters, if we were as well trained to recognize them. To illustrate this, it is neces- sary only to consider the different alphabets of the different languages, which, differing from each other in appearance and in sound, are equally efficient to convey all meanings of the respective languages. To devise telegraphic alpha- bets, or sign-languages for the English language, is to represent these twenty-six letter-signals by other signals. These other signals we make as simply as possible. We may designate each letter by a distinct or arbitrary signal. It is better to use systematized signals. Thus, if we have any two motions, signs, sounds, etc, we are to use as ele- MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 37 meats or symbols, -\ve designate the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, each by one of the firsl twenty-six arrange- ments, or combinations of these elements. Or, we may use any twenty-six combinations or arrangements. The iirst twenty-six are generally used, because they are the' shortest. Thus, for instance, there are, say, two elements, and these are symbolized by the figures "1" and "2." Then A may be 1, B may be 2, C may be 12, D may be 22, E may be 11, F may be 21, G may be 121. H may be 212, I maybe 221, J maybe 112 ; and so on. Now, for a second illustration, if the primaries taken are colors, as red and white, then " 1 " may stand for the " red," and " 2 " for the "white;" and the letters may be the colors shown. Thus, A, may be 12, which is "red-white;" or, B, " ' 121, " "red-white-red," " C, " 111, " "red-red-red," " fl and thus for all the alphabet. It is as easy to read "A," or "B," or "C," when we see these color-symbols, as it is to read A or B or C printed. This is a code of two elements. Xow if, instead of two motions, or two colors, etc., or two elements, there are to be three, then we designate the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, each by one of the first twenty-six combinations or arrangements of three symbols. Then, for instance, A may be 1, B may be 2, C may be 3, D may be 12, E may be 13, F may be 21, G 31 ; and thus on. Now if the three primaries are colors, as red, green, and yellow, then — 38 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. A, mav be 1, which is B, " 9 -•> c, 3, D, « 12, E, " 13, F, » 21, G, " 31, " red," or, " green," « " yellow," a " red-green," u " red-yellow," a " green-red," u " yellow-red," c< J and thus on. The letters now under a different guise from those last shown, are as easily read in the colors as before, or as the printed letters. So they as easily form words ; thus the word caged is in color-symbols : 3 □ 1 31 c a S 13 12 L d The word beaded is in color-symbols □ so ■ cj m The same word is in figure-symbols : 2 13 1 12 13 12 If there are five elements assumed, the symbols are 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5. Then A may be 12, B 13, C 14, D 15, E 21, F 22, G 23, and so on. Now if the elements are colors, as red, green, yellow, blue, and black, then — A, may be 12,. which is "red-green," B, " 13, " "red-yellow," MANUAL OF SIi.NAI S. C, may be 14, which is " red-blue," D, " 15, " "red-black," E, " 21, " F, " 22, " G, " 23, " and thus on. " green-red," " green-green," " green-yellow," The color-letters are again as legible as the printed. If there are six elements, then the signal alphabet is the first twenty-six arrangements of these elements. Symbol- ized, A may be 22 ; B may be 13 ; C may be 14 ; 1) may be 15 ; E may be 16 ; F may be 21 ; and so on. If these elements are colors, as red, green, yellow, blue, white, and black — and so for the alphabet. It will be noticed by these illustrations, that the number- symbol standing for each letter, as clearly symbolizes it as •Iocs the color-symbol. The letter-numbers, written each after another in proper sequence, form words. In the same manner, if the elements had been, instead of the colors, different motions or sounds, etc., symbolize' 1 by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., as have been the colors in 40 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. these examples, the figure combination or number standing for each letter, would clearly indicate the signal motions or sounds, etc., required to be made together to signify it. It is rarely worth the while to devise signal alphabets of more than six elements for the purpose of telegraphing. The principle of procedure would remain the same. Signal Numerals are devised after the same manner as the Letters, by the arrangements of the given elements ; ten additional arrangements, made for this purpose upon the same plans as the letter-signals, designating the nine digits and the cipher. Thus, to make an alphabet, and in addition the numeral digits, the first thirty-six, or any thirty-six ar- rangements of the given elements are taken. The illustra- tions for the numerals in the codes of each order (i. e., those of two, three, four, five, and six elements, and so on) would be similar to those in the cases of the letters of the Alpha- bets. Thus, for a code of two elements, the colors " white" and "red" being elements, and the figures " 1" and " 2" the symbols — The numeral character " 1" may be symbolized as 1221, or, " white-red-red-white ;" or, The numeral character "2" may be 2112, or, "red-white- white-red;" or, I The numeral character "3" may be 2212, or, "red-red- white-red ;" or, I and so continued for all the digits and the cipher. For a code of three elements, colors " red," " white," and "blue," the elements; figures " 1," "2," "3," the symbols, MANUAL OF SIGNALS. .j-1 the numeral character "1" may be 321, or," blue-white- red ; Or, < The numeral character "2" may be 128, or, "red-white- blue;" or, ■■" The numeral character "3" may be 132, or, "red-blue- white;" or, etc., etc., etc. When distinctive signals are not devised for the numerals, the letters of the alphabet are sometimes used as numerals. Thus, A would stand for the numeral " 1 ;" B stands for the numeral " 2 ;" C stands for the numeral " 3 ;" and so for the ten characters. Thus to make " 365," there would be writ- ten or signalled "CF E." To make " 10," is made " AJ." To make " 12," is made " AB." To make "42," is made "DB." The Roman style of numeral letters may be used when each of a certain number of places can be made; and other facts necessary to be known. These points will be under- stood by reference to the examples under the rules. To form codes, is only to attach meanings to any signals. The signals themselves are to be studied and computed un- der the rules which have been given. Thus, if but three elements are to be used, codes would be drawn containing only the arrangements of three symbols: as, for instance, those of the characters " 1," " 2," and " 3 ;" and there could be so many signals in the code as there are arrangements of three symbols, counting all up to arrangements of any fixed number of places. 1 may be, "Cavalry are approaching rapidly on your right and rear." 2 " "The shells are thrown too far and have too long fuses." 13 u 112 u 111 (( 213 ii 3321 u 32212 a 2321 a 3333 u 22 a 46 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 3 may be "Keep that range; shots striking well." " The shots ai*e killing our own men." " Anchor further in shore." " Shell between 4th and 5th traverses." " We have carried the 4th traverse." " Send sailors to left and rear." "Withdraw the marines; the sea wall is too hisrh." " Bring up a battery of howitzers." " Fire rapidly by compass S. S. W." " We have carried the works ; cease firing." It is evident that any number of these, or of other mes- sages, may be indicated by showing not more than three sorts of fla^s or signals in different arrangements. The extent to which representations can, in this way, be carried, may be estimated from the fact, that with six sorts of flags, or lights, or motions, there can be made, showing in no signal more than six symbols, fifty-five thousand, nine hun- dred and eighty-six signals. Thus there can be six signals made, showing a single light for each ; thirty-six signals, showing two lights for each ; two hundred and sixteen sig- nals, showing thi-ee lights for each, one thousand, two hundred and ninety-six signals, showing four lights for each ; seven thousand, seven hundred and seventy-six sig- nals, showing five lights for each ; forty-six thousand, six hundred and fifty-six signals, showing six lights for each. In drawing a code for all these signals, it is plain no more than six distinct letters, or six distinct figures (six different symbols), one to stand for each light, need be used. It is a general principle, in forming codes of signals, that the indices should be as brief as possible; thus the number of elements to be used being given, it should be determined M WUAL OF SIGNALS. 17 by computation beforehand, how many, and what are the shortest combinations that can lie used; and to these should be attached the meanings which arc to form the code. Thus, if there are five elements to be used, we can designate these by numerals, l, 2, 3, 4, 5, or by the letters a, b, c, d, > . Now we know by the rules of permutations, combina- tions, or arrangements how many indices of two, three, <>r more places we can form with these figures or letters. We write down, of the shortest of these, as many as we may need; these are our indices. We place opposite each index whatever sentence we may wish to indicate by it, and so a code is formed. It is of course immaterial whether each letter orfigure is indicated, when we come to signalize these indices by a flag, a colored flame, a sign, a motion, flash, sound, or even by measured intervals of silence — the mean- ings will be equally conveyed. EXAMPLE OF A NAVAL CODE. DO 56 57 58 59 60 r.l 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 Will be at single anchor Are you going to anchor ? Shall endeavor to anchor in the hay, in view, or the one pointed out Propose-s to anchor, if the wind will allow of get- ting into a tolerable berth, and the bottom is satisfactory Can you spare an anchor? Only" one anchor left When you, lie, or they are anchored Lost an anchor No anchor left In want of an anchor Have crept lor my anchor Anchor stock-s Sheet anchor-s Bower anchor-s 69 Stream anchor-s 70 Kedge anchor-s 71 Prepare to anchor 72 Anchor immediately 73 Anchor as soon as conve- nient 74 Anchor on bearing pointed out 75 Anchor in line of battle 7G Anchor in order of sailing 77 Anchor in line abreast 78 Anchor in two columns 79 Anchor in three columns 80 Anchor as most conveni- ent to lire at a mark 81 Anchor in two lines, boats with guns in advance, and in close order 82 Anchor close in >hore 83 Anchor in close order 84 Anchor in open order 48 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 85 I shall anchor 122 86 Shall I anchor? 123 87 Creep for anchor 124 88 Weigh anchor 125 89 Anchorage is safe, or good anchorage for ships 126 90 Anchorage is unsafe 91 Cut out, and bring off ves- 127 sels at the anchorage 128 92 Destroy vessels at the an- chorage 93 Arsenal-s 129 94 Destroy the arsenal 130 95 Assist-s-ed-ing-ance-t-s 131 98 Can you assist '? 132 97 Can you assist me with ? 98 Have, or has, given every 133 assistance 134 99 If I have immediate assist- 135 ance 136 100 Do not, or did not, require any assistance 137 101 Require-s the assistance of 138 102 Require-s immediate as- sistance 139 103 Do you require assistance ? 101 Will you give any assist- ance ? 140 105 Cannot assist 141 108 Should you require any 142 assistance 143 107 What assistance do you 144 require ? 145 108 Give every assistance to 146 109 Give immediate assistance 147 to 148 110 With the assistance of 149 111 Without any assistance 150 112 Assist disabled vessels, or 151 boats 152 113 Attack-s-ed-ing 153 114 Shall I attack ? 154 115 Begin the attack 155 116 Postpone the attack 156 117 Mean to attack the enemy 157 as soon as possible 158 118 Have, or has, been at- 159 tacked by 160 119 Cannot be attacked 120 Shall, or will you attack? 121 To be attacked Attack has commenced Baggage Send baggage to the rear Pack up baggage ready to retreat Leave heavy baggage on board Barge-s Send the barge Note. — Numeral signal will show which Recall the barge Battery-ies Are there any batteries ? What state do the batter- ies appear to be in ? There are batteries There are no batteries The battery-ies can be Under the battery-ies Keep possession of the battery-ies The enemy's batteries are destroyed Can you keep possession of the battery-ies ? The enemy is throwing up batteries Bayonet-s Charge bayonets I am in need of bayonets I can spare bayonets I have no bayonets Send me bayonets Beam-s On the beam Before the beam Abaft the beam Keep on weather beam Keep on lee beam Bear-s-ing-borne-bearer-s How did she, or it, bear ? She, or it, then bore Bearings and distance Bear up together Bear up in succession Bear up Bear up together, and preserve the starboard line of bearing, steering lh« course indicated MANUAL OF BIGNALS. I" 10 1 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 17!) Bear up together, ami preserve the port line of bearing, steering the course indicated Form starboard line of bearing Form port line of bearing Note. — By the line of bear- ing is meant that the ships, or boats, are to bear from each other on the point of the compass on which they would sail when on a wind, if formed in a line ahead, on the starboard or port tack. Ranged on die line of bearing, but ship too much to starboard Hanged on the line of bearing, but ship too much to port Blockade-s-d-ing Declared in a state of blockade Still continues in a state of blockade The blockade is taken off Blockade the entrance of Is, or are, blockading Has broken the blockade Board-s-ed-ing Iu want of boarding pis- tols In want of boarding pikes Light-house board Got on board Have, or has, on board Is not on board ( nine on board 180 181 l8a is:; 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 '.'OS Return on board Remain on board What vessels have you boarded ? Bring master on board with papers Quit immediately, and come on board Embark, and come on board Bring boat, or vessel, on board Board the vessel, or Ni- seis, pointed out Prepare to board Boat-s-ing Will send a boat Cannot send a boat Send me a boa! Boat is on shore Have, or has, lost a boat Send boat-s at Search that boat In your boat In my boat How many boats ? Guard-boat-s Boat's crc\v-s Boats to assemble on the off side Boats to assemble on tie' near side Gunboats to Gunboats to go in shore and cover the troops Gunboats to be in readi- ness for Flat-boats to assisl in Flat-boats to be on shore by NAVAL SIGNALS. The following brief description of the United Stales naval codes of signals, is based tipon information received from Rear Admiral Charles H. Davis, V. S. NT., the former chief 3 50 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. of the Naval Bureau of Navigation, and from Commodore Thornton A. Jenkins, U. S. N., the present chief of the Bureau. The values and colors of the Signal Flags change frequently and are arbitrary. The Signal System of the United States Navy em- braces a Signal Code and a Telegraphic Dictionary, each being used through the medium of signal numbers, as the ciphers, or distinctive representatives of signal communica- tions. Both the Code and Telegraphic Dictionary are alphabetically arranged. The Signal Code. The Signal Code is a collection of Signals completely ex- pressed in connection with their representative ciphers, or signal numbers, and comprises commands of evolution in naval tactics, and various orders, instructions, questions, an- swers, phrases, etc., of most frequent use in the naval ser- vice. It also embraces the names and corresponding signal numbers of all vessels on the Navy List of the United States. Signal communications are effected by showing, in the authorized symbolic form, the signal numbers which respect- ively represent the signals to be made. The Telegraphic Dictionary. The Telegraphic Dictionary is an auxiliary to the Code of Signals in extending the range of signal correspondence. It consists of an Alphabet and Vocabulary, with a corre- • sponding series of signal numbers. Signal communications are made through the medium of the Telegraphic Dictionary in two ways : first, by composing the desired communication from words in the vocabulary, the words being separately shown in successive signals ; MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 51 secondly, by composition from words not in the vocabulary, the communication being spelled out in successive Bignals of the letters of which the words are composed. A com- munication may also be made partly from the alphabet and partly from the vocabulary! The Commeri i.w. Code. Besides the Navy Code, there are several well-known codes of signals recognized by the commercial marine of different nations, which it is expedient to notice in this place; because it is necessary to make use of some one of these codes for the purpose of signal communication be- tween vessels of the navy and commercial vessels. Of these, the most prominent are, "The Universal Code," of the late Captain Marryatt, of the royal (English) navy; "The Code International," of Captain Reynold, of Paris; and "The Commercial Code," of the British Board of Trade. The first and second codes use signal numbers as ciphers of signal communication ; while the third, or Com- mercial Code, uses signal letters, permuted in sets of two, three, and four each, for the same purpose. The Commercial Code, being largely used by American and British merchantmen, is, by a general order of the Navy Department, issued to all vessels of the United States navy, together with the necessary signal flags as a means of facili- tating communication between the latter and the former. The Commercial Code, in addition to General Signals, Alphabet, Vocabulary, Geographical Names, etc., contains, in a separate volume, an English and American Marine List of both war and commercial vessels. 52 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. METHODS OF SYMBOLIZING SIGNAL NUMBERS. The Signal Numbers, in both the Navy Code and Tele- graphic Dictionary, commence with the number 10, and terminate, the former in four figure numbers, the latter in five fi oj ure numbers. For symbolizing the signal numbers, two methods for general use are authorized by the Navy Department. These are : first, the old method of Colored Flag and Light Sig- nals, recently improved in certain respects; and, secondly, the new method of Chronosemic Signals. The first is de- signed for ordinary use, during day or night, in the absence of fog ; and the second is designed for use, during day or night, in the presence of fog. The latter, however, being adapted to general use, with the aid of the simplest ap- paratus, may be employed whenever it shall be deemed expedient. NAVY COLORED SIGNALS. Figure Symbols. The Colored Signals of the Navy are based upon the use of colored flags during the day, and colored lights during the nitiht. Each system comprises ten distinct figure-symbols for the respective elemental figures, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9; and, in addition, certain auxiliary symbols, of use in signal operations. The day figure-symbols consist of ten rectangular flags of uniform size. These flags exhibit the single colors, white, red, blue, respectively ; double combinations of the same PLATK II SIGNAL FLAGS A: LIGHTS FLAGS COSTON FLAGS COSTON LIGHTS p"3| H zz z B Cornet I Guard r lav To be carried at the fore roya] Mast head MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 53 colors, in triangular halves, white-red^ red-blue^ blupwhiU : triple combinations of the same colors, in equal horizontal divisions, white-red-white, redwhitwi d, bltu -whit* -blut ; and a double combination, consisting of a ichite field, bearing a blue cross. (Plate II). The night figure-symbols are colored flames or lanterns, and show the single colors, white, red, green; double con- secutive colors, white-red, red-green, green-ichite ; triple con- secutive colors, white-red-white, red-iohite-red, green-w/dt,- green, respectively; and the double consecutive colors, white-green. (Plate II). It should be noted that, in these symbols, the green color of a light is regarded as the counterpart of the blue color of a flag ; and, with this qualification, it will be ob- served that the same order of succession of the Bimple colors, in both flags and light, and the same compound arrangement in the flags, and successive illumination in the lights, correspond to the same figures in the entire series, from to 9 inclusive. Signal Numbers. A Signed Number is represented, during the day, by hoisting, in the required order, the flag symbols which show the several figures of the number, reading from above downward; and, during the night, by exhibiting in rapid succession, the light symbols which show the several fig- ures of the number in their natural order. Signal numbers which contain one or more repetitions of the same figure, if made by flags during the day, require the use of repeaters. These are colored triangular flags, and are distinguished as the first, second, and third re- peaters. (Plate III.) The first repeater shows a red field with a white rect- angle at the base, and is used to repeat the lirst figure; 54 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. the second repeater shows a blue field with a white rect- angle at the base, and is used to repeat the second figure ; and the third repeater shows a white field with a blue rectangle at the base, and is used to repeat the third figure. (Plate IIL) The following examples illustrate the use of repeaters in showing signal numbers : Numbers. Symbols. 2029 2. 0. R x . 9 ; 1335 1. 3. R 2 . 5 ; 5644 5. 6. 4. R 3 ; 7505 7. 5. 0. R„ ; 6666 6. R v R a . R 3 ; 22226 2. R v R 2 . R 3 . 6 ; in which P, with the proper subscript, represents the re- peater to be used in such cases. Auxiliary Symbols. The auxiliary symbols, which are used in connection with the figure symbols, are five in number, under the following names: Preparatory, Answering, Interrogatory, Numeral, and Cornet. The Preparatory, for day use, is a triangular flag, with a triple arrangement of colors, blue-white-blue, in equal lengths ; for night use, it is a light of a single color, white. The Ansicering, for day use, is a triangular flag, with a triple arrangement of colors, tchite-red-blue, in equal lengths ; for night use, it is a light of triple consecutive colors, vh ite-red-green. The Interrogatory, for day use, is a triangular flag, with a triple arrangement of colors, wh ite-blue-white, in equal lengths ; for night use, it is a light of triple consecutive colors, wh if i -green-wh. ite. PLATE III REPEATERS. SIGNAL PENDANTS An severing COSTON LIGHTS Interrogatory PP M MANUAL OF SIGNALS. i.i The Numeral, for day use, is a triangular flag, of the single color, red; for night use, it is a lighl of double consecutive colors, green-red. (Plate III.) The Cornet, for day use, is a rectangular flag, of two colors, white-red, in alternate right-angled quarter sections; for night use, it is a rocket. (Plate II.) General Instructions. The flags will be made of the best quality of bunting, in material, and in brilliancy and fastness of colors. 'Flic pro- portions of the flags, as well as their absolute dimensions, which are variable for different classes of vessels, will con- form to the Navy Regulations. The light symbols will consist of the colored flames known as .the " Coston Night Signals," or of lanterns fitted with suitably arranged colored glasses. Each Coston signal of a single color, for example, for the • figures 0, 1,2, burns 14 seconds; each symbol of double colors, as 3, 4, 5, 9, continues 28 seconds ; and each symbol of triple colors, as o, 7, 8, continues 42 seconds. (are will be observed, by the person appointed to ob- serve distant signals, to avoid, as much as possible, looking at the brilliant flames of the Coston signals burning near him, in order not to injure his perception of the different colors of the distant signals. The example of a Naval Code, on a preceding page, illustrates the great variety of messages that may be ar- ranged for codes of this kind. (See page 47.) The values and colors of Naval Signal Flags and Lights are changed constantly ; and those here given are shown for illustration only. 56 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. GENERAL APPLICATIONS. It is difficult to realize, without reflection and the illus- t rations of actual example, that on the simple rules just given, must have been based, from the beginning of the world, all signal systems of whatever character; and that, by the simplest and easiest modes, following these rules, intelligible communication may be had by devices abso- lutely infinite in number, and plans extending in their ap- plication to every perception of which human sense is capable, and to every thing in existence to which attention can be directed. There is no thing, or sight, or sound, or motion, or taste, or odor, perception, sensation, or indica- tion, but by which or through which ideas and meanings may be intelligibly transmitted, and which may thus be used for signal communication. Says Chatfield, " It seems, at first sight, very singular that a blind child should be taught to read ; but observe what the common process is with every child : a child sees certain marks upon a plain piece of paper, which he is taught to call a, b, c ; but if you were to raise certain marks in relief upon pasteboard, as you may of course do, and teach a blind child to call these marks which he felt a, b, c, a blind child would as easily learn his alphabet by his fingers as another would do by his eyes, and mio-ht or> on feeling through Homer or Virgil as we do by persevering in looking at the book. ' Just in the same manner,' says Sydxey Smith, ' I should not be sur- prised if the alphabet could be taught by a series of well- contrived flavors ; and we may live to see the day when men may be taught to smell out their learning, and when a fine scenting-day shall be (what it certainly is not at present) considered as a day peculiarly favorable to study.'" Through every sense there may be received or caused different sensations. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 57 Anv number of these different sensations, of anv Bense. may be taken as those to be caused or to he understood as the elements of any system of signals. If these are now produced in sequences or arrangements, following the principles and the rules of signals jusl illus- trated, it is plain there may be devised systems of signals for any sense; the signal being as readily understood, and conveying to the mind the same meaning, through whate\ i r sense it reaches it. The principles of signals arc immutable. The applica- tions of these principles are endless. To treat of the modes of making signals, is only to describe the infinite devices in which human ingenuity exhausts itself to best make these applications. Novelty as to the principles is impossible. There is scope for invention and discovery only as to the ingenious application of principles well known for centuries, and the mechanical devices to make those applications most available. The object of all signalling is, to convey ideas ; or to converse at a distance. Telegraphing, in its widest sig- nification, is only conversing by a sign-language. Signal- ling is telegraphing. Language itself is a conventional system of signals which, by long practice, we use skilfully. Signalling, as is generally understood by the term, has been erroneously limited to preconcerted sentences; because the means employed were ineffective to rapidly transmit all the phrases of language. The perfection of signalling or tele- graphing, it to be able to transmit any terms of any lan- guage with precision and dispatch without preconcerted codes. To illustrate the many means which can be used for sig- nals, the following examples are given: 3* 58 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Significations by Positions (plate iv.) If in Fig. 1 the arm a is inclined obliquely downward and on the right of the upright u, as at a, this position may be assumed as a primary signal or an element. The arm placed horizontally on the same side of the up- right, as at b, (Fig. 2), is another signal. The arm inclined obliquely upward, and on the same side of the upright, as at c, (Fig. 3), is a third signal; and so on, through all the different and the distinct positions d, e,f : (/, in which the arm can be placed, (Fig. 4). Let the signals be designated by figure-symbols, as by 1, 2, 3, etc., and it is evident the given rules will determine the number of indications which can be made. Thus the positions "1, 2," made together, one after the other, would be one signal. The positions " 1, 3, 2," a dif- ferent signal. The positions "2, 1," a third signal. If now, "1 2," stands for A, "1 3 2" for R, and "2 1" for E, these three signals, made in this order, would signify the word ARE. It is plain, that with any twenty-six signals made after this fashion, by combining the three positions, we could make all the letters of the alphabet. To make signals by positions, there is needed one fixed position, to which all the others may be relative, as the head of the upright in this case, and some mode of indi- cating what signals are to be taken together ; as in this case a swing of the arm (a), to be made at the end of each combination ; or letting it start from the position r, (Fig. 4), at the beginning of each combination signal, and return and rest in that position at the close of each signal ; or any other agreed sign may be used. This signal has been be- fore mentioned as the " pause-signal." Upon plans such as these, more elaborated, most semaphores are devised. Now the positions may be any positions of any of the most common things, and they may be exhibited anvwhere. FLATF IV •• i. I , R Fig.4.r l^Pgs.One orT 2*POs.lwo or "2" 3F*Fos/three" or 3' Pos.r orrest&Fos a./b.e.d.e.f.tf. Fie-*'. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 59 Of course the hand and arm of a man, standing upright, could be used just as well as the machine above described. Or, to illustrate further, we can place a number of books or miscellaneous articles, lying in different positions, as relative to some central book on the table, (Plate IV., Fig. 5). Now it' the different books are designated by numbers, as -k J," "2," " 3," etc., touching each indicates it as a sig- nal ; and touching the central book shows the beginning or end of a signal — that is, the pause-signal. Then, if we touch book " 1 " and " 2 " (the first and second), and then the centre book as a signal ; then the first and third and second, or " 1" and " 3" and " 2," and then the centre, and then the second and first, " 2" and " 1," and then the centre as other signals, thus touching the centre between each combination signal, we make three signals ; and, as before, the letters A, R, E, the word " ARE." Of course by further combinations, as " 3 2," " 1 2," etc., all the letters of the alphabet could be represented. We can vary this experiment by endless changes of the objects we use, or of their number, or of the positions assumed, and by any of them continue to send intelligible messages. Significations by Motions. If a handkerchief is held in the hand, at the height of the face, and is thence waved to the right, and to the left, and up, and down — always returning to the face at the end of each motion — four distinct motions are made. (Plate IV., Fig. 6.) These can be designated by figures, as 1, 2, 3, 4, and can be made conjoined by twos or threes or fours as signals; those motions, which are to be read together as signals, being made to follow each other so rapidly that there shall seem to be no rest between them ; the handker- chief held resting at the face, indicating the completion of a signal, or being a pause-signal. Thus, if the motion to GO MANUAL OF SIGNALS. the right is known as " one," the left as " two," the motion above the head as " three," and the motion down as " four," if we now make three signals, as " one — two," " one — three — two," " two — one," the handkerchief resting at the face between each combination signal, these are as before the letters A, R, E. As in the former instance, other combi- nations of these motions may represent the other letters of the alphabet. It does not need demonstration that any other motions whatever, or a greater or less number, taken together, than in these instances might be used to designate letters by signals, as simple or as complex as we choose to make them. Significations by Sounds. If we can make with a bell or drum, by varying the course of the stroke, or in any way, two or three or more different sounds, as a high, a low, and a soft sound, we can designate these as " one" and " two" and " three." It is easy to understand by preceding illustrations how, if we sound " one — two," a pause, " one — three — two," a pause, "two — one," and cease, we indicate the letters A, R, E ; and how, by further combinations of these sounds, there may be given a particular signal for each letter of the alpha- bet. Of course sounds of any kind may be used, as notes of bugles, of pianos, or the tapping of a finger on differently sounding articles on a table, whistling, etc. It makes no difference, in the example, what may be the force of the Bounds, or the number used; whether they are the reports of differently charged cannon, or the tickings of tele- graphic instruments. For illustration, any person can send messages by combinations of the two sounds made by tap- ping on a book "one," and on a candlestick "two," the alphabet constructed, say as follows: "two — one" is "A;" " one — two — one" is " B ;" " one — one — two" is " C ;" and so on, combining ones and twos. Some electric telegraphs MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Gl work in this way. Messages may be sent with three Bounds, as taps on a candlestick, "one;" on a book, "two;" and <>u a plate, "three;" as "one— two" is " A ;" one — three — two" is "B;" "two— one" is" C;" and thus on. The illus- tration may he continued, using any number of differentl sounds, making alphabets in which the letters are desig- nated by four sounds, or five sounds, etc. Significations by Touch. We can cause any several different sensations by touch : as, by touching the hand with a rough body and a smooth ; with a sharp point or a dull; or by a long pressure and a short ; or by a different number of taps, as with a finger upon the hand. Whatever may be the different sensations caused, they can be designated by numbers. The process of making signals by touch, is as before described. Thus the rough touch may be known as " one," and the smooth as "two;" these sensations caused as follows: " two — one" may mean "A;" then "one — two — one" is "B;" "one — one— two" is " C ;" and thus through other combinations of one and two through all the alphabet. Or one finger may be touched to indicate "one;" the next finger touched be " two ;" the third be " three." Then, with the combinations of one and two and three, we may make any signals. Or four fingers may be touched, and these signals may be of all the arrangements of "one" and "two" and "three" and "four." It is evident that, continuing the experiment, every kind of combination may be made and read by touch. Significations by Taste. If there are articles of different tastes, as salt ami sugar and mustard; or liquids, as brandy, cider, and water, these different tastes may be designated as "one" and "two" ami G2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. '• three." Now if any two, as brandy and cider, are offered in succession to the taste, they make signals of meaning. Thus, "two— one" is "A;" " one— two— one" is " B ;" " one — one — two" is " C ;" and thus an alphabet. Or if the three are taken, then the similarly tasted signals are made bv combinations of the three tastes ; or the tastes may be increased in number, and furnish signals of any kind. Significations by Odors. If there are three perfumes, as that of the rose, the violet, and the hyacinth, these can constitute the designated ele- ments, " one" "two" " three." If but two are taken, as the rose, " one," and the violet, " two," and the perfume of the violet and then of the rose is offered, there is the signal " two — one," or " A ;" so the perfume of the rose followed by violet followed by rose is " one — two — one," or " B ;" so the perfume of rose twice presented and followed by violet is " one — one — two," or " C." The alphabet of perfumed signals would follow in the variety of arrangements of these two elements. Or using geranium, rose, violet, and hyacinth, we devise signals with the arrangements of " one," "two," "three," and "four," or of four elements; so multiplying the per- fumes and their combinations, it is plain any signal what- ever may be indicated by their use. Significations by Colors. It will be readily recognized how colors, as red, blue, yellow, green, black, may have significance. They may be designated by numbers, as one, two, three, four, five, etc. ; and then, when properly represented, show all the signals that arrangements of these symbols can express. Thus, if two are used, blue followed by red, and shown one after the other; or if the colors are in flags, one shown above the PLATE V. SIGNALS BY COLORS. te Fie i Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig.4 Blue-red-21 Red-blue-red-121 Red-red nlue -112 Red blue-yellow-123 SIGNALS BY FORMS. Fig. 5. *A 2 n 3 o * Fig. 6. □ A AaA ■□ o O Two-one-21 One two -one -121 Two three -four-234 Fi£7. Tv-o-one-21 One -two one-121. Fig. 8 L A*< l> V 3 One -foiir-14 Two-three-23 Fig. 9. Positions 1.2.3.4 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 63 other (Plate V, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4), the signal "two- one" is made, or A; so "one — two — one,'' or "red, blue, red," indi- cates B ; and "one — one — two," or "red, red, blue," ia (': so, using red, blue, and yellow, are made Bignala of three elements with these colors, as in preceding examples. < >r, increasing the number of colors, signals of any combination of colors may be made. The signals by colors may be per- manent, as when colored flags are exhibited, or any colored objects are arranged and kept in view to make the signal ; or they may be transient, as when flashes of colored lights make the signals ; or the colored flames of pyrotechnic com- positions are used. It is manifest that, however the colors may be displayed, their use, and the principles upon which they must be used, remain the same. Significations by Forms. Plate V, Figs. 5, 6, 7. — If there are different forms, as tin- triangle, the square, the circle, the diamond, these may be made significant : they may be designated as " one," " t w< >," "three," and "four," etc., and then exhibited in proper combination and sequence, indicate any combination or ar- rangement of these elements: so if the triangle is known as " one," and the square as " two," a square and a triangle displayed, as with flags one above the other reading from above downward, or side by side reading from left to right, would be " two — one," or "A." A triangle, a square, and a triangle similarly displayed, would be "one — two — one,'' "121," or "B;" a square, circle, and diamond, "two — three — four," " 234;" and so for any desired Q£ Significations by Positions of Foems. A triangular form may be exhibited in different positions relatively to some position fixed, a- with the apex or point 64 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. up, the point down, the point on the right, the point on the left, etc. To these different positions of the form, significance can be given. They may be known as " one," "two," " three," and " four," etc., and when exhibited as by preceding plans have meaning. (Plate V, Figs. 8, 9.) Positions, forms, colors, positions of forms, etc., have, of course, equal mean- ing, whether exhibited as aerial signals, or drawn as sym- bols on paper. These illustrations might be extended to infinity. They have been given to show, in a plain way, how endless are the applications of the principles of signals, and how simple is the study of the subject ; to establish, by example so practicable as to be interesting that, for every sense, there are signals, and through every sense, we can converse, in a language fitted for that sense, as intelligibly as in that to which our lips give utterance. The common illustrative examples here given, should be practised. No signalist should believe that he comprehends the principles of signals, and the endless modes of their possible application, until he has himself devised alphabetic signals for each sense, and with these signals, has sent and received, using that sense alone, understandable messages. The alphabet should be devised in different ways, and with varied numbers of elements. In the study of semiology, the student ought to be re- quired to illustrate the preceding lessons by exercises upon the blackboard, and to determine, by his own ingenuity, what his elementary signals shall be, and how he will com- bine them. A good signalist ought to be able to use any tilings as sig- nals, and to apply at any time the rules to improvise codes in many different ways. The principles must be thoroughly understood. A few days' study and practice will then so far perfect almost any persons, as to render it nearly im- MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 66 practicable to prevent them from talking, l>y signs of Bome kind, past any guards or sentries, or in spite of other re- straint that may be put upon them. FIELD SIGNALS BY ONE ELEMENT. Signals of this kind are not much used for general pur- poses. Their employment is almost always to convey one or a few preconcerted messages. For signals of this class, one thing or indication is to be used, and the signal is not to be considered as varied, though the symbol may vary in any signal. To mark the close of each complete signal, there must of course be a pause of time, or a pause-signal. A good illustration of signals of this kind is found in the striking of a clock; twelve different hours are indicated by the same; and a single sound, repeated the proper number of times to suit each hour. The beat of sound is here the signal element. If in the striking of any hour, this sound varies so as to make two or three different notes even, this diffei-ence of sound affects, in no way, the meaning of the signal. Signals of this kind may be used in the field, as where one rocket is thrown up to indicate any one message ; two rockets, a second message; three rockets, a third mes- sage ; and thus on to any given number. Or a lio-ht may be shown a certain number of times, as .1 candle shoAvn at a window and then removed, to stand for " one," or the first message ; shown twice for " two," or the second message; three times for "three," or the third mes- sage; and thus on. Or, in a field or in a boat, a lantern may be kept lighted in a pail, and hoisted out of the pail and returned to it to make each Hash. ( >r a lantern may In- shown from behind a fence, or any kind of screen. In th illustrations, the flash of the light is the signal. Each com- 66 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. plete signal may be shown by a wave of the light, or any other sign, as the pause-signal. Or guns may be tired the required number of times for any signal. Now, in any of these signals, which are to depend upon the number of times a light is shown, or the number of times a gun is fired, no difference of meaning is made, if the light changes, or if there is difference of sound in different reports of the gun ; for it is remembered one element only is used, and that the signal depends solely upon the number of repetitions of that element. For instance, a white light shown twice, would stand for message number "two." A white light shown, and then a red light, making two in all, would also stand for "two." So the preconcert being that one element only is to be used in a set of signals, they may be made to seem much varied. Signals of one element, when used in the field, are gen- erally for instances as these : to fire two guns to indicate a completion of a military movement ; to throw up three rockets, or one rocket, to announce that a portion of the army is to move. Of course several such messages can be arranged in one code. » Example or a Code. A rocket, gun, stroke of a bell, drum-beat, steam-trumpet blast, to stand for each unit of number. I, Army attack. II, Gunboats open fire. IIT, We are in position. IIII, Fire rapidly, etc., etc. .2 ^ 1, Army attack. 2, Gunboats open fire. 3, We are in position. 4, Fire rapidly, etc., etc. The characters in either column indicate the same desisr- nating signals ;— the character I in the first column indicat- ing by each of its repetition^ the repetition of the signal for which it stands. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. (',, The signals of such a code may be flashes of Light, <>r beats of sound, or colored flags, or separate motions, or any indications which can be made distinct, and in Buch way that they may be counted. FIELD SIGNALS BY TWO ELEMENTS. The plan of signals most used in the army is one by two elements. The systematizing of signals, using a liasis of two elements only, permits illimitable applications at once so much more simple and more varied than any other, that it has seemed best adapted for general use. The mosl ancient systems of which there is record, can be reduced to this principle of formation, and later invention has been able only to apply the principle with more skilful system and in more efficient modes. In time of war, the intelligent co-operation of the army and navy becomes essential to the success of many opera- tions. The same alphabetic code of signals should then be used by both forces, and the same plans of cipher, distributed to chosen officers of the army and navy, should enable the communication to be by either concealed from the enemy. The signal service of the United States will not be complete until it has been so extended, that every vessel of our na\ \ can be certainly, whenever in view, in communication with each post on land, and with every considerable body of land forces. The following General Service Code was prepared to se- cure this communication: 08 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. GENERAL SERVICE CODE. (an arrangement of two symbols.) A, 22 P, 1212 B, 2112 Q, 1211 C, 121 R, 211 D, 222 S, 212 E, 12 T, 2 E, 2221 U, 112 G, 2211 V, 1222 H, 122 W, 1121 I, 1 X, 2122 J, , 1122 Y, Ill K, 2121 Z, 2222 L, 221 &, 1111 M, 122 L ing, 2212 N", 11 tion, 1112 O, 21 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. 22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent : " I understand," or "mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals/' or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. 212121— Error. 211.211.211— Move a little to the right. 221.221.221— Move a little to the left, Flag waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." Numerals. 1. 21112 — Wait a moment. 2. 1 2 2 2 1 —A re yon read y ? PL ATK VI *^t Second Motion -Tv. 12 Two -One -Two -One - -I.:]" Tin • • MANUAL OF SIGNALS. GO 3. 22122—1 am ready. 4. 22212 — Use short pole and small flag. 5. 22221 — Use long pole and large Hag. 6. 12222— Work faster. 7. 11222— Did you understand ? 8. Ill 1 2— Use white flag. 9. 11211— Use black flag. 0. 22222 — Use red flag. "When the numerals are used in transmitting messages as code signals, they have the meanings given above, opposite each character. a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have, n — not r — are. t — the. u — you. ur — your. w — word. wi — with. y — why. The Roman letters mav be used instead of numeral char- acters. Or the first ten letters of the alphabet may be used as indicated at page 41. The signal for "the address of the message is now com- plete," is made thus: the flag, being in the first position is dropped to the front, and then waved in full circles twice to the right, passing over the head. It then resumes the first position. The signal for "the me-sage is signed as follows," is made thus: the flag, being in the first position, is dropped to the front, and then waved in full circles twice to the left, passing over the head; it then resumes the first position. This code, distributed to the different posts or vessels, is accompanied by a card as follows , on page 404. The use of this card is for reference. It may be carried in the pocket-book. The "General Service Code" is intended to be used tor general communication between different parties on land, or between vessels, or between vessels and parties on land. 70 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. It is for the purpose of transmitting such messages only as may constantly occur in service, and concerning which it does not matter whether they are interpreted by the enemy or not. Ciphers, either to be agreed upon by particular command- ers or published generally through the command, must always be used in the transmission of messages of impor- tance, or for any communication which might give informa- tion to an enemy. Instructions for Using the Code. The whole number ojjposite each letter stands for that letter. The numbers are made, by motions of the flag or signal, to the right or left or in front of a vertical position. Day Signals — Motions op Flags. To make day signals, there being furnished the Regula- tion set of Signal Equipments, a flagman, standing, holds in his hand a plain signal-staff, eight or twelve feet long, hav- ing a signal flag attached to its upper extremity. Positions and Motions. There are one Position and three Motions. (Plates VI. and VII.) The first position is with the flag held directly above the head of the flagman, the butt of the staff at the height of the waist, and grasped by both hands, the hands sep- arated from each other about eighteen inches. To make the first motion, or " one" or " 1," the flag, being at the first position, is waved to the ground to the right, and instantly returned to the first position. To make the second motion, or " two" or " 2," the flag, PLATE VII First Position-or "Readv 1 1 1 st Motion-'One'-T Second Motion- Two- "2" "Two-One — 1:1 "One-Two-One-Two — "1212" "Three- 3 - or- Froiil MANUAL OP SIGNALS. 71 being at the first position, is waved to the ground to the left, and instantly returned to the first position. To make the third motion, or "three" or " 3," the n.i-_r, being at the first position, is waved to the ground directly in front of the flagman, and instantly returned to the firsl position. The "first motion" is known for the signal " one," and is indicated by the numeral " 1." The "second motion" is known for the signal " two/' and is indicated by the numeral " 2." The "third motion" is known for the pause-signal "front," or signal "three," and is indicated by the numeral "3." When the number is a single figure, but one motion of the flag, to the right or left, is required to make it. When the letter-number consists of more than one figure, the motions of the flag for each figure follow each other without any pause between them. When the flag stoji> in the vertical position, it indicates that the letter is completed. Thus to make "I," or "one" or "1," the flag is waved once to the right (right) and then pauses in the fust, position. To make " A," or " two two," or " 22," the flag is waved without pause twice to the left (left left) ami then broughl to the first position. So for any number of "twos" follow- ing each other. To make "13," or "two one one two" or "twenty i twelve" or "2112," the flag is waved, without pause, once to the left, twice to the right, then to the hit (lefl righl right left), and then brought to the first position— that is, one "second motion," followed by two "first motions," fol- lowed by one "second motion," the flag not stopping be- tween the motions. To make "C," or "one two one" or " 121," the flag is waved, without pause, once to the right, once to the left, and then to the right (right left right), and then broughl to the 72 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. first position — that is, one " first motion," followed by one " second motion," followed by a " first motion," the flag not stopping between the motions. To make three "fronts" or " three three three" or " three- thirty-three" or " 333," the flag is waved directly to the front to the ground three times without pause, and then returned to the first position. The code, as printed, indicates accurately the flag-motions or waves for each letter. At the end of each letter the flag remains in the first posi- tion about two seconds, to show that the letter is finished. To Send a Message. First call "attention" by waving the flag successively from side to side, until it is seen and answered by the opposite station. The station call will " answer" by making 22 . 22 . 22 . 3, the general signal for assent or affirmation, to signify that it is ready to receive the message. The commu- nicating station then makes 22.22.22.3, signifying, "I see you are ready to receive the message," and then proceeds to transmit the message, letter by letter. A pause is made at the end of each letter. At the end of each word, the flag is waved to the ground, directly in front (" 3,") to show that the word is finished. At the end of each sentence, there is a pause, and the flag is waved to the ground twice, directly in front (" 33,") to show that the sentence is finished. At the end of a message, the flag is waved to the ground three times, directly in front ("333,") showing that the message is finished. When the signal " 333," " end of message," is made, it in- dicates, "My communication is complete; I await your an- swer." The station receiving the message will, upon noticing the signal " message complete," if the message has been cor- rectly received, immediately answer, with the signal of MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 73 assent, "22.22. 22. 3;" and will then, if the Bending station has finished, signal in turn such messages as it may have to communicate. If, however, the message, or any part of it, has not been correctly received, or is not understood, tin- receiving station will make the signal for "Repeat," " 121 . 121 . 121 . 3," followed by the part of the message to be repeated, as " 121 . 121 . 121 . 3 after or before the word ■ — (here signal the word after or before which the repeat is required)." If the message is not understood at all, the sig- nal " 121 . 121 . 121 — all" is made. In commencing a repe- tition, the sending station will always commence by making the "signal of assent," to show that the call for "repeat" i- understood. This "signal of assent," ' meaning "I understand," will be used habitually at the commencement of all communi- cations. When, in the transmission of a message, a mistake is made, as may happen by the error of the signalist or of the flag- man, the "error signal" " 212121 . 3" is made. The sender then, beginning with the letter in which has been the error, signals it correctly, and proceeds with the message. To make clear the mode of signalling, let us suppose the word "able" is to be signalled. The receiving station has been called with the "attention signal," and has answered with the "signal of assent." The signalist now makes " 22 . 22 . 22 . 3," both to show that he has seen the " assent," and that the receiver may be sure he sees the first Letter. Then there are made, first, the signal numbers of the letter "A," "22;" there is then a pause of two seconds, the flag being in the first position. The signal numbers of the let- ter "B," "2112," are then made, followed by another pause. Then the signal numbers of the letter " L," " 22 1 ," succeeded by another pause. The signal numbers of the letter " E, ' " 12," are then made. The flag is then dropped to the front ("three" "3''), returning to the first position to indicate that 4 74 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. the word is ended,— and thus, in a message, word by word, until the message is completed. The signal "address complete" is made just after the address; and the signal "message signed" is made just before the signature. At the close of the message the signal " 333" is made. The receiver acknowledges the message correctly received by the signal of " assent ;" or, if it is not understood, he pro- ceeds as before indicated. Ordering Signals. When signals are made with the Regulation Signal Equip- ment and by a flagman detailed and practised for the pur- pose, the flagman properly placed and equipped and stand- ing with the flag and staff in the " first position," each signal is ordered by calling off briskly, as an order, the numbers for the signal, — the flagman making promptly, on hearing each order, those motions with the flag indicated by the signal numbers ordered. Each letter-number must be called plainly, distinctly, and clearly by itself, that the flagman may know, before commencing the signal, what numbers are to be made together without pause, so that the motions may be made rapidly and well timed. Thus, in orders, " A" " 22" would be ordered by calling " twenty-two ;" "B" "2112," by calling "twenty-one twelve;" " C" " 121," " one-twenty-one," Signal " 3" "three," Signal " 33" " thirty- three." In the same manner, the signalman being beforehand thoroughly drilled in the working, the orders may be given for whatever apparatus — each signal being made as directed for the particular apparatus on the hearing of the order. With practised signalmen, the letter, Avord, or clause of a sentence to be transmitted, may be given in words and without the orders for the signal numbers, unless the mes- sage is to be in cipher. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. JO When in actual Bervice, the signals arc made whollj m cipher; and the greatest care is needed both in the order- ing and in the record. o Recording Signals. "When circumstances render it necessary, a pause will be made at the end of each sentence, to permil thai sent nice to be accurately written down. With skilled signalists, such pauses are not necessary. Each signal number may be taken down with a pencil as soon as it is seen, and after- wards translated by reference to the code. When the siii'nalist is accustomed to the code, this may be dispensed Avith, and only the words and sentences are written down during the pauses. "When two men are together at a sta- tion, one man looks through the glass and calls the num- bers, as fast as they are seen, to the other, who writes them down. Messages are thus recorded in the signal numbers composing them. This is done by writing for each letter the signal number which stands for it; thus the word "WAS," written in signal numbers is, "1121 22 212," each letter in signal numbers being separated from the nexl by a small space. Each complete word is separated from the next by a dash; as "WAS— NOT," is in signal numbers, "1121 22 212—11 21 2." When secret or cipher codes, codes devised for the :a- sion, or codes not before used, are employed; or when the commander wishes a message signalled of which he and his correspondent alone shall know the meaning, the message may be thus reduced to signal numbers, which may be secret, before being placed in the hands of the Bignalist, who then becomes simply a medium for the transmission of the message, without knowledge of its contents. By this plan of reducing a message to its signal numbers written upon paper before it is sent, and of recording upon paper 76 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. the signal numbers made by others as they are received, translating them afterwards by the code, it will be found that messages may be almost immediately exchanged, though slowly, by those having knowledge of the principles of the codes without the study or practice of any particular code. In calling off, from the glass, signal numbers to be re- corded in writing, each signal number must be called, dis- tinctly and completely, by itself; as, for instance, " one twenty-one" "twenty-two" "one twelve," and so on. The rules for sending, receiving, ordering, and recording are of general application, whatever style of signals may be used. Day Signals — Vertical Motions. Let there be an upright rod or standard (Plate VIII, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4) projecting, as above the roof of a house or the deck of a vessel, on which the signal ball B can be moved freely up and down by halyards, or by a light " moving-rod" moving in a groove in the upright. The moving-rod, to which the signal ball is attached, ex- tends below the deck or roof, where it can be grasped and worked by hand. The upright rod is called the " signal staff," — it should be about five feet long. The centre of the signal-staff is the point of reference and of rest. The " first position" is when the signal ball is at the centre or point of reference. The ball being at the first position : — To make the " first motion," the signal " one" " 1," the signal ball is moved rapidly to the top of the signal staff and instantly returned to the first position. To make the " second motion," the signal " two" " 2," the signal ball is moved rapidly to the bottom of the signal staff and instantly returned to the first position. To make the " third motion," the signal " three" or " 3," PLATE Mil. i Fig ; Fie.i SI ! ,,,, s Mb I two Pause Signal , I '• ; -I Fig 8, - ; ! Mot. one \fut. tiro I 'aiiv Signal Mode of Sending up Flags IVt.-aih Mull. hi Motion I MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 77 the signal ball is moved rapidly in what is called a half motion, a little above and then a little below tin* point >>t' reference, and instantly returned to the first position. The same ball, resting at the point of reference, is the pause-signal, to denote the completion of any letter-signal The length of movement which can be most conveniently given to the signal ball, when worked by a " moving-rod," is aboxit the length of the arm above the centre of tin- Bisr- nal staff to make the " ones," and about the same length below that point to make the " twos." To work the signal ball, the signalman, standing under the deck or inside the house, holds, grasped in Ins right hand, and at the height of his shoulder, the handle of the moving-rod, as at Plate VIII, Figure 1. The signal staff and the moving-rod are so proportioned that the signal ball is then at the point of reference. This is the "first position, or " ready." To make the " first motion," " one" " 1," the right arm, the hand grasping the handle, is quickly extended the full length of the arm, above the head, and instantly returned to the first position. To make the " second motion," " two" " 2," the right arm, the hand grasping the handle, is quickly extended the 'full length of the arm, below the shoulder, and instantly returned to the " first position." To make the " third motion," " three" " 3," a short, quick motion is made, above and below the shoulder, with the hand grasping the handle. In this way, the ball, being at the first position, to sig- nal "A" "22," the hand and rod-handle are carried twict at arm's length, below the shoulder, and at once returned to first position; the signal ball moves rapidly twice to the foot of the standard and then resumes the first position. To signal "1"' "1212," the hand and rod-handle are carried, without pause, once at arm's length above the 78 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. shoulder, then once at arm's length below the shoulder, then again at arm's length above the shoulder, then ao-ain at arm's length below the shoulder, then return to first position ; or there is made one first motion, followed by one second motion, followed by one first motion, followed by one second motion, " one-two-one-two." The signal ball is moved, without stopping, once to the top of the standard, then once to the foot of the standard, then again to the top, then again to the foot, and rests at the first position. To make " C" " 121," the signal ball is moved once to the top of the standard, then, without pause, to the foot of the standard, then again to the top, and rests at first position. To make " Y" " 111," the signal ball is carried three times to the top of the standard. To make " E" " 12," the signal ball is carried once to the top and once to the bottom. To make " 33," the signal ball de- scribes quickly two " half motions." At the completion of each signal letter, the signal ball rests at the centre of the staff, the point of reference. A modification of this plan is at Plate IX, Fig. 5 ; — a signal ball B fitted to traverse on a signal staff", and moved by the halyards H H, attaching to the upper and lower sides of the ball, and passing through pulleys at the top and bottom of the signal staff. The point of reference, the positions, motions, and pauses of the signal ball are similar to those just described. To work the halyards there are one position and three motions. The " first position," the signalman standing, one cord of the halyard grasped in each hand, hands at the height of and in front of the shoulder. From this position — To make the " first motion," extend at the same moment the left arm and hand at full length above, and the right arm and hand at full length below the shoulders. Re- sume the first position. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 7'.) To make the " second motion," extend at the same mo- ment the right arm and hand at full length above, and t lie left arm and hand at full length below the Bhdulders, Resume the first position. To make the "third motion," the left and right hands are raised a little way alternately, and then return to Bret position. To signal "E" "12," extend the left arm up and the right arm down, "one;" then immediately reverse the po- sition, extending the right arm up and the left arm down, " two." Resume the first position. To signal " C" " 121," extend the left without pause up, and right down, "one;" the left down, and right up, "two ;" the left up, and right down, "one." Resume the first position. The motions and positions of the arms can be readily understood by Plate VIII, Fig. 9. The length of motion given the signal ball is, when the halyards are worked by hand, about four feet above and below the point of reference. The halyards can be carried over a light-grooved wheel at the foot of the mast in such a way that these signals can be rapidly and accurately displayed, and with a greater length of movement. The wheel is worked by a flagman. Signals made in this manner have the advantage that they can be read at the same time from different directions. A plan of signals by vertical motions is shown Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, Plate VIII. Let there be a short marker-rod, having at its top end, and about an arm's length above the roof, a marker-ball This is the point of reference. Near this marker, ami work- ing freely vertically through the roof, is a signal rod, bearing at its upper end a signal hall. This Bignal rod is of such length that it extends below the roof a sufficient distance to 80 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. permit of its being worked by hand to make the signal mo- tions, and when grasped by the hand, held at the height of the shoulder, brings the signal ball close to and at the same elevation as the marker-ball. The balls so placed are in the " first position," the " rest," or " ready." The motions, positions, half motions, and pauses of the sig- nal ball are made for signals in the same way, and have the same meaning as the vertical signals first above described. (Plate VIII.) This plan can be very simply applied without any appara- tus. Thus a signal staff, having at its end a signal ball or a signal of any kind, so that it is visible, can be thrust through the roof or deck or any part of any structure, and moved up and down or back and forth to make signals, — some par- ticular part of the structure affording a point of reference, by reference to which the direction of the movements can be judged. It is necessary only to know where the ball rests, as at its point of reference, and to be able to deter- mine when it moves above and below that point, and when it returns to it, in the formation of signals. So a ramrod, having a handkerchief bound around its end, can be projected into view from any part of a house or ves- sel, and used as a signal staff. Or any rod, eight or nine feet long, with a hat or flag of any kind fastened to it, will be a sufficient signal rod. An established " point of reference" insures accuracy, however, and one can be so easily set up that the marker ought always to be used when it can be. The illustrations at Plate IX, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, afford ex- amples of possible applications of these plans in service. All the parts of the apparatus may be of the most simple structure, of articles that are almost always at hand. Jt. ^ t k ft -^. PLATE X. Fig.3 W-> -sj a; ,o' -£= V; '/i ■a ti c •00 ■-. '/. 3 - h! C( M\NQL OF SIGNALS. should be selected. Lanterns with reflectors ran be used, taking care that the lantern is so placed as to throw its light upon the communicating station. A lantern may 1"' substituted for the flying torch, and attached to the ex- tremity of the staff in its stead. This will be found difficult, however. The light is not nearly so brilliant or so distinct as that given by the torch. In signalling at short distances, lanterns may be used in- stead of torches. One lantern being placed stationary as the foot-light, the other may be held directly above the head, in the hand as the first position. This lantern is then waved to the right, for "one" " 1 :" to the left, for " two" " 2 ;" and lowered to the waist, for " three" " 3," or pause- signal. Signals can be made in this way, very conveniently for ship use, by placing one lantern upon the rail, and waving the other to its right or left to make any required signals, the general principles of the signals remaining the same Signals made in this way are of convenient use in boats. A convenient foot-light is often made, on shore, by light- ing a small fire near the feet of the signalist. With a single lantern then held in the hand, or attached to a small staff, any message can be sent. Or if, for any cause, lanterns are not attainable, and fires can be kindled, a small fire may be used as a foot-lio-ht, while the signal motions are made with a brand from the fire, or a lighted pine-knot, or a piece of tarred rope, or with almost any combustible substance, capable of showing a flame and a light, held in the hand or attached to a staff, and properly waved to either side or to the front to make the required signal motions. (Plate XI, Figs. G, 7.) Night Signals by Vertical Motions. Let there be one fixed light, as a brilliant lantern or lamp, fastened or hung to a standard. On shipboard, thi< must 81 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. be two or three feet above the rail of the vessel. This is the " light or point of reference." This reference light must be red, or of some color different from the moving light; or it must be distinguished from it by its intensity. Immediately behind or near the standard of the fixed light, is placed another standard or rod, twice the length of the first. To this rod is attached, by rings or slides, so that it may be moved steadily and easily up and down by the hand, another lantern or lamp. This is the moving or fly- ing light, and the signals are made by its motions. The two lanterns being brought as nearly as possible together, are in the "first position." (Plate XI, Fig 1.) To make the signal " one" " 1," the flying lamp is moved rapidly to the top of its standard, and instantly returned to the first position. To make the signal "two" "2," the flying light is slid rapidly to the bottom of the rod, and instantly returned to the first position. To make "three" " 3," or pause-signal, the flying light is moved quickly a very short distance above, and then an equal distance below the fixed light, returning to the first position — making what is called a half motion. Thus to signal " C" " 121," the flying light starting from the first position, would be carried to the top of the rod, then, without pause, to the foot of the rod, then quickly to the top of the rod again, thence to the first position. To make " A" " 22," the flying light, starting from first position, is moved rapidly to the foot of the rod, back to the first position, again to the foot of the rod, and then assumes the first position, thus making the second motion twice. To make " N" " 11," the flying light being in the first position, is moved rapidly to the top of the rod, back to the first position, again to the top of the rod, and then resumes the firsl position. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Bo To make "M" "1221," the flying light, being in the first position, is moved rapidly to the top of the rod ; then, with- out pause, to the foot of the rod; l.ark to the first position; again to the foot of the rod ; thence to the top of the rod; and then returns to the first position — that is, there arc* made one first motion followed by two second motions, fol- lowed by one first motion. To make "33" or "clause-signal," there are made two half motions. After the manner of these examples are made whatever signals may be required. Night Signals by Horizontal Motions. The principle of this application is similar to that jusl de- scribed. The motions have the same value and arc made in the same manner; with this difference only, that the Hying light is moved horizontally and to the right and left of the fixed light, instead of above and below it. The standard or fixed light being placed as before de- scribed, the flying light is arranged to traverse or s li ■ 1 < ■ freely on a small bar or rod placed horizontally behind it. The lights being brought as nearly as possible together, are in the first position. To make the signal "one" "1" the flying light is slid to the right a distance of three or four feet, and brought instantly back to the first position. To make the signal "two" "2," the flying light is slid rapidly to a distance of three or four feet to the left, and is brought instantly back to the first position. To make the signal "three" "3," the flying light describes a half motion, say a foot to the right, and then a foot to the left of the fixed light, returning to the first position; and thus for any num- ber of "ones" and "twos," or for any combinations of "ones" and "twos." (Plate XI, Fig. 2.) To increase the motion of the flying light, :i handle may 8G MANUAL OF SIGNALS. be attached to the lantern by a swivel-joint. A movement of several feet is thus permitted. Either apparatus here described, can be simply arranged anywhere. They have especial value on shipboard, for the reason that, from signals thus made, there can be no danger fn >m fire. The brightest attainable lamps or lanterns should be used, and the two lights should be, either by their color or brilliancy, easily distinguishable. It is well that the fixed light should be either red, green, or some other marked color. They can be made with material almost always at hand. Signals made on this plan, are capable of very simple application. Thus a red, or other colored light, can be hung in the rigging, or on the side of the ship or boat; while a lantern, held in the hand, is moved above and below it, making signals by vertical motions, as above described ; or to the right and left of it, making signals by horizontal motions. (Plate XI, Figs. 3, 4.) For signals at short ranges, there is then needed no kind of apparatus. Of the many modes of night signalling, these described are, perhaps, sufficient for all ordinary uses. The signals heretofore described have these advantages. They are capable of universal application. The mode of making them is very simple, and is very easily learned. They are distinct, and easily read. They are very plain. Every signal is, in reality, repeated " twice" each time it is shown. Thus the waves to the right or left, heretofore de- scribed, are read " one" or "two," whether the flag or torch is descending or ascending. It is necessary only to see that the signal is in motion somewhere on the right to read "one." In the same way, it is necessary only to note that the signal is waving on the left to read " two."* A similar advantage is had in the plans tin- signals by vertical or horizontal motions. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 87 The chances of seeing the signals are thus greatly increased. The signals are made with very simple apparatus. It is strong, portable, can be carried anywhere (oil horse or on foot), is not liable to be damaged by an enemy's fire, or by rough handling, and is always available and ready for use. It can be used in almost any situation. The signals can be seen at very considerable distances. Avail can be had of many devices to make them visible. Thus the flags can contrast most strongly with the backgrounds against which they are visible. The motion of the signal is a val- uable auxiliary of its visibility, this motion of the signal ob- ject or light producing a long and marked impression upon the retina of the eye. A thing in motion can always be seen and will attract attention, when a similar object resting produces no sensation. We recognize this fact instinctively when we wave a handkerchief, or light, to attract attention. It is never held still, for this purpose, and would be ineffec- tive if it were. The signals made with the ordinary equipments, say a staff twelve feet long, and a flag four feet square, or with the torches at night, are easily legible at a distance of eight miles at almost all times, except in cases of fog and rain. They are read at fifteen miles on days and nights ordinarily clear, and have been legible at twenty-live miles. Greater distances are reported; but it is questionable if, at those distances, there is reliability. Transient Signals. Transient signals comprise signals by flashes, signals by occultations, and signals by sound. Signals by flashes and by occultations are identical in character and the principle by which they convey meaning. 88 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Signals by Flashes. Signals by flashes are not generally as distinct, or as easily read, as signals by motion. This is markedly the case when it is necessary to use the telescope. It is almost impossible to keep it at night upon any light which is not constant. When motions are used the lights are kept con- stantly in view, thus rendering it possible to fix the tel- escope upon them, and to accurately observe them. Signals by flashes are made by flashes of different colors, as red for " one," and white for " two ;" by flashes of differ- ent lengths, as a short flash for " one,' and a long flash for " two ;" or. by different numbers of flashes, as one quick flash for " one," and two quick flashes for " two." They may be used in many other ways, but these are sufficient for any ordinary use. If a lantern (Plate XX, Fig. 4), with spring shades and spring handles, showing no light when put in position, shows a white flash when handle " one" is pressed down and then let go ; a red flash when handle " two" is pressed and let go ; and a green flash when handle " three" is pressed and let go ; this lantern will suffice for all kinds of telegraphing by flashes, that will in ordinary use be required. Thus, atten- tion being called, by a number of consecutive flashes, the signal lantern is allowed to stand dark. It is well to have another lantern standing close to it as a marker, to enable the telescope at the other station to be kept on the signal lantern at night. To make "one" " 1," press down handle "one" and let it go — it shows a white flash. To make " two" " 2," press down handle "two," and let it go — it shows a red flash. For " three" " 3," or a pause-signal, show a green flash by pressing down handle " three." Pauses between the signals may be indicated by time, as an interval being allowed to MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 89 elapse after each complete signal, and a longer interval at the end of a word. Thus, to signal "A," "22," flash "red red." To Bignal «K," "2121," flash "red white red white." T<> signal "S," "212," flash "red white red." To signal - W," - I 121," flash " white white red white." To make " three," " 8," end of a word, flash "green." To make " 33," flash " green green." A dark interval after each signal marks the com- pletion of the signal. Or to work with flashes of one color: To make " one" " 1," " press down the handle for a second of time ; it shows a short flash. To make "two," "2," press down the handle with a longer pressure ; it shows a long flash, " two" " 2." Let " three" " 3" be a long dark interval. Thus, to signal " E," " 12," flash " short, long." To signal "M," "1221," flash " short, long, long, short." To signal " S," " 212," flash " long, short, long." A short dark interval marks the completion of each letter : a longer dark interval, the end of each word. Or a red flash, or any signal may be adopted as " three." Another method : To make " one" " 1," press down the handle once; it shows a short flash. To make "two," press down the handle twice; it shows two short flashes. To make "three," a dark interval. Thus, to make "K," " 2121," flash " twice, once, twice, once." To make "L," "221," flash "twice, twice, once." A short dark interval after each letter. A long dark in- terval after each word. The flashdantern can be used in various ways, which will suggest themselves. It is a convenient style of signalling when space is limited, as in a boat, or it is desired to show 90 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. signals only in one direction, as away from the enemy. To make extempore flash-signals with two common lanterns, one may be made red by a thin layer of red bunting, the other be left plain. Then either of them is shown as the signal " one," the other as the signal " two." The pause- signal is made by an interval of time, or by a wave of either. Or, a single lantern may be flashed once for " one," and twice for " two," by covering it with a bucket or hat, as with an extinguisher; and lifting the covering suddenly for each flash. One flash is then shown for " one," two flashes put together for " two," three flashes for the pause-signal. A good way to show either colored or plain lanterns, is to flash them by placing the lantern below the side of a boat, or top of a fence, and then raising them suddenly into sight, and lowering them suddenly to make each signal. Then, a wave of the lantern to make a pause-signal. Signals by two elements, with colors, extend through such as are made with colored lights, those which may be signalled with composition fires of two different hues, and those by signal balls thrown into the air, as are the balls of a roman candle. Any flash or color of fire or light may in- dicate "one," any other, "two," or any kind of light or torch may be flashed different numbers of times. The pause is conventional. Signals by Occultations. Day signals are styled " signals by occupations," when any object is brought suddenly into view, and then obscured or hidden at different times or for different lengths of time, for the purpose of making signals. The appearances of the object may be styled "flashes," and these distinguished by numbers, as one flash, two flashes, etc. ; or by their length, as short, long, etc. Suppose a window-shutter is so fitted as to be obscured by turning its edge to the observer, and is then flashed or MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 91 brought wholly into view, to make " our ;" flashed t nice, to make "two;" and so on. A long obscuration is "three" " 3," pause-signal. Or it is flashed into view a " short flash" to make " one j" and a "long flash" to make "two." The principles of working and of reading are identical with those for signalling and reading other flashes, and do not re- quire illustration. The signals of Commander Colomb, R. N\, now used in the English navy, are flashes of a very brilliant light at night, and of a shutter-shaped signal by clay. Any object may be obscured in any way and flashed into sight to make signals. Signals by Sound. Let any sound, as a tap on a light drum, stand for " one" " 1 ;" and a different sound, as a tap on a bass drum, stand for "two" " 2 ;" an interval of time to mark the end of a letter ; a longer interval, the end of a word, or " three" " 3." Or let one tap of a drum stand for "one," two taps stand for "two:" intervals, for end of letters and words. Or let a short blast of a steam trumpet stand for " one," a long blast stand for "two;" intervals, for end of letters and words. Then to signal "P" "1212" with a drum, tap "light, bass, light, bass," or tap " once, twice, once, twice." Or to sound with a steam trumpet, sound "short, long, short, long." To signal "S" "212," tap "bass, light, Lass/' or tap "twice, once, twice," or sound "long, short, long;" and so for whatever signals. At the end of each letter and word a pause of silence. How anv differing sounds, as low and high notes, short and lonu" Masts, heavy and light tolls of greal and small bells; or differing numbers of sounds, as one and two 92 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. strokes, one and two blasts, etc., may be used, will be com- prehended from the preceding. Signals may be made by bringing any object to a deter- mined point of reference, as the top of a mast, the end of a yard, etc., and allowing it there to touch for different lengths of time, or a different number of times. Thus a flag, starting three or four feet from the top of a mast, touches the top a second for "one" "1 ;" touches it two seconds for "two" "2." Intervals are allowed for pauses. Or it touches it once for " 1," and twice for " 2," with in- tervals for pauses. It may occur that it will be necessary to display signals at an elevation, as at the top of a common flao;-staff. The example at Plate VIII, Fig. 9, will illustrate the manner in which this may be done. Signals by Two Elements may be reduced to the greatest simplicity for day uses. Practised signalists are not limited to the use of any apparatus. Thus, a handkerchief or hat held in the hand above the head, and waved to the right for "one" " 1," to the left for " two " " 2," and lowered to the waist for " three," is legible. With a handkerchief attached to a walking-stick or a boat-flag, or regimental marker, or any light cloth on any staff or tied to a musket-barrel, messages may be sent a mile or two, or to even greater distances. A man standing with his coat off, with his hands touch- ing, upon his breast, for the first position, making a wave of his right arm for "one" " 1 ;" a wave of his left arm for " two " " 2 ;" dropping both arms to his sides for " three " " S ;" and returning always to the first position after each motion, can thus transmit any message. Or, having a fixed place to start from, a man walks a MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 93 pace or two to the left for "one," as many to the right for "two," and makes a sign, at a fixed point, to show the end of a word. Or, standing in view, a man touches any two tilings with a cane — as a drum and a barrel. He touches the drum for "one," the barrel for "two." He waves the cane to indicate the end of a word. Or men. placed in line three or four at a time, may be made to represent letters. The men with coats on maybe "ones," those with coats off "twos." Signals of two elements may be shown with any kind of semaphore. Strips of any two kinds of colored cloth may be sent up on the halyards of a common flag-staff, to represent any letter-signal or numeral-signals; and these can be arranged by being shown one after the other for messages to be tele- graphed in words; or for codes of message-signals by the rules before given. Codes of signals, like the Naval Flag-code, may be thus prepared when masts or flag-staffs must be used ; or, when it is desirable that a signal, as from an invested fort, should be hoisted and kept flying in order that friendly scouts, any- where in sight, at any time of the day, may be able to see and read the message, or copy the signal in numbers for the information of the relieving forces. Simple codes may be arranged in this manner between ships and the shore. To all these modes the rules before given for Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and Recording Signals, equally apply. With these varied examples of Day and Night Signals, and Signals by Sound, it seems that enough have been given to indicate siguals for any emergency. With that thorough understanding of the principles it has been tried to impress, the means for communication will not fail to BUggest them- selves. 94 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Complicating Signals. Codes of two elements may be complicated for Day or Night Signals. Let all the positions and motions which can be made on the right side of any upright, or point of reference, be un- derstood as " ones." All the positions and motions which can be made on the left side of the upright or point of ref- erence, be understood as " twos." When transmitting a message in letter-signals as here enumerated, and by this plan, no signal need ever twice appear in the same form, or as composed by the same m otions. For illustration, suppose that, in Fig. 4, PI. IV, the arm in any of the positions a, b, c, it signals "one" " 1," and in any of the positions e, f, g, it signals " two" " 2." It is evident that in the signals " one, two, one," "12 1," the let- ter " C" can be exhibited in many different ways ; yet all of similar meaning. Thus with the other letters of the alphabet. So any color may be "one" " 1," and all other colors " two" " 2 ;" or any sound may be the " one," and all others " two ;" and thus for infinite changes. The motions " one" and " two" may be reversed, if there is reason. Thus " one" or " 1" may be the flag waved to the ground on the left, and then returned to the "first position." " Two" may be the flag waved to the ground on the right, and then returned to "first position." This method is preferred by some. The following Code — the Army Code of two elements, used during the War — is sig- nalled after this manner: MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 95 CODE OF TWO ELEMENTS. (an arrangement op two symbols.) A— 11 H— 211 0—12 B— 1221 1—2 P— 2121 C— 212 J— 2211 Q— 2122 V— 2111 D— 111 K— 1212 R— 122 W— 2212 E— 21 L— 112 S— 121 X— 1211 F— 1112 M— 2112 T— 1 Y— 222 G— 1122 N— 22 U— 221 Z— 1111 &— 2222 tion— 2221 ing— 1121 Numerals. 1—12221 4—11121 V— 22111 2—21112 5—11112 8—22221 3—11211 6—21111 9—22122 0—11111 But in the General Service Code the "one" signal has been made on the right of the sending signalist, for the reason that, so made, it appears, when viewed through the telescope, on the left of the field of view of the receiver; and we are habituated by practice, to expect, in a sequence, the lesser numbers of a series to appear first and at our left of the viewed word or number. The signal " one" made on the right of the sending signalist, the signal " two" properly follows on his left. We gain thus the aid of analogy to recognize and remem- ber the numbers. The rule that, in Alphabetic Codes, the letter-signals should be each of a certain, and all of the same number of places, has not been followed. To make all the signal letters of equal length in a code of two elements, each letter-signal must be of five places. Thi- is cum- bersome. 96* MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY THREE ELEMENTS. An advantage of signalling by three elements is, that the letters of the alphabet may be rej)resented, using three ele- mentary signals for each letter. It is thus possible always to determine when each letter has been fully made and is completed. With three symbols, there are twenty-seven arrangements of three places each. ALPHABET OF THREE ELEMENTS. (an arrangement of three symbols.) A— 112 F— 122 K— 323 P— 313 U— 233 B— 121 G— 123 L— 231 Q— 131 V— 222 C— 211 H— 312 M— 132 R— 331 W— 311 D— 212 1—213 N— 322 S— 332 X— 321 E— 221 J— 232 0—223 T— 133 Y— 111 Z— 113 Code Signals. 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. 22.22.22.3— Signal of assent : "I understand," or " Mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333— Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. 212121— Error. 211.211.211— Move a little to the right. 221.221.221— Move a little to the left. Flag waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." MANUAL OF SKIN \l.s. '.1 7 Numerals. 1. 21112— Wait a moment. 2. 12221— Are you ready ? 3. 22122—1 am ready. 4. 22212 — Use short polo and small flag. 5. 22221 — Use long pole and large flag. 6. 12222— Work faster. 7. 11222— Did you understand ? 8. 11112— Use white Bag. 9. 11211— Use black flag. 0. 22222 — Use red flag. a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have, n — not r — are. t — the. u — you. ur — your. w— word, wi — with. y — why. IXSTEUCTIONS FOE USING THE CODE. The whole number opposite each letter stands for that letter. The numbers are made by the motions of a flag or signal to the right or left, or in front of a vertical position. The Roman Letters may be used for Numerals. The Rules before given for Receiving, Sending,. Ordering, and Recording Signals apply to messages transmitted by this code. Each letter-signal is ordered by itself, and as condensedly as may be. Thus " A," " 112," is called briskly "eleven two;" "H," "312," is called " thirty-one, two ;" "X," "322," "three twenty-two;*' and thus on. In the same manner the receiver, seeing made signal " three t hree two," calls or writes " 332," or " S." F< »r " two two three," "223" or " O" is written; and thus for what- ever combination. 98 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Day Signals — Flags in Motion. There being furnished the Regulation Set of Signal Equip- ments, the flagman is equipped and stands as described for the first position. There are one position and three motions. (Plates VI, VII, XII, as for preceding code.) The first position is with the flag held directly above the head of the flagman, the staff vertical, the butt of the staff at the waist. From this position : To make the first motion, or " one," "1," the flag is waved to the ground to the right, and instantly brought to the first position. To make the second motion, "two," "2," the flag is waved to the ground to the left, and instantly brought to the first position. To make the third motion, " three" " 3," the flag is waved to the ground in front, and instantly brought to the first position. The pause or space signal is as given in the code — or an especial pause-signal may be concerted, as a wave of the flag around the head, etc. Each letter-number consists of three figures. The motions of the flag for each figure follow each other without any pause between them until the letter-number is completed. Thus to make " G," or " one, two, three" " 123," the flag is waved, without pause, once to the right, once to the left, once to the front; and is then brought to the first position. To make " K," " three, two, three" " 323," or "three twenty- three," the flag is waved, without pause, once to the front, once to the left, once to the front, and rests at the first po- sition — that is, one " third motion," followed by one " second motion," followed by one " third motion." To make " B," " 121" "one twenty-one," the flag is waved in " right, front, Ready PLATE XII Dav Signals Motion One Motion Two NSjJhl Signals Mullein Three MotOne" Mot. ']V<> .Mnt lint-.- l>;ty Sl£»ii;\1>? with discs Figures First Position Motion One Motion Two Motion Three" Mol 3 Mot 1 I -^ ■ Kit 1" Motion ] 2 M.'i 3 J ! Mm Mot 1 Mot 2 Mm '• Mot 2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. right," and rests a1 first position. To make "F," "122," the- flag is waved "right, left, left," and rests al Hrsl p< tion. To make "22," the flag is waved "left, left." To make "three thirty three" "333," the flag is waved three times to the front, and then rests at the first position. At the end of each letter, the flag is held in the firsl position about two seconds, to show thai the letter is finished. A difficulty is experienced in the use of the flag for sig- nals of three elements, from the fact that in the third mo- tion, or motion "front," the edge of the flag is towards the observer, and the flag- is not so perfectly visible. The flag may be improved for this purpose by attaching it to the staff as a pennant, with a swivel or string permitting mo- tion. (Plate X, Fig. 7.) This, however, only lessens the difficulty. For common uses, any article, as a handkerchief or a hat held in the hand, or attached to a short staff, may be used as signals. A white hall, made by enwrapping some article with white cloth, is a convenient form and always visible. The manner of working follows the general plan above. Day signals by three elements can, of course, he made with any three distinct motions to which meaning can he given. As, having a fixed position as a point of reference, any visible object may lie moved to the right of it for v- !,"' to the left of it for "2," vertically above it for "3." The "pause" may be a half motion on either side the reference. Tims for any three motions, made in any direction relatively to anv point of reference, the modes of signalling have been sufficiently illustrated. (Plate XII, Fig. 10.) Night Signals. Xi iv> One -four-three -four" — "1434" Motion "five -.V MANUAL OF SIGNAIfl. K>1 code; or a half motion or flourish of the moving light close to the fixed light (See Plans, Plate XI, Fig. 5.) Day Signals — Motions of Disks. nomographic signals are, properly, whatever signals an made by the positions or motions of the body and limbs of a man. Let there be a disk or disks of canvas, one foot or eigh- teen inches in diameter, fitted with a handle to be grasped by the hand. There are one position and three motions. (Plate XII, Figs. 1, 2, 3.) To take the first position, or " ready," the signalman thus equipped, stands holding a disk in his right hand, at the height of the breast, the disk laid flat upon the breast. The signalman so placed — To make the first motion, "one" "1," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head at arm's length, and on the right side, and then returned t<> the first position. To make the second motion, "two" " 2," the right hand and disk are extended horizontally at arm's length, and <>n the right side, then returned to the first position. To make the third motion, or "three" "3," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length, and on the right side, and then returned to the first position. To make "pause-signal," wave disk once around the head, then return to first position. In making letter-numbers, the motions follow each other without pause. Thus, to make, "M," "one, three, two" " 132," there is made one first motion, followed by one third motion, followed by one second motion. To make " K," '' three, two, three" " 323," there is one third motion, fol- lowed by one second motion, followed by one third motion. 102 MAMJAl OF SIGNALS. To make "P," "313" "three thirteen," there is a third mo- tion, a first motion, a third motion. To make " D," " 212," a second motion, a first motion, a second motion. A pause of time marks the interval between letters. Space or pause signals mark ends of words and sentences, It is well, when disks are used, to have a second disk held in the left hand, and at the height of and upon the breast. This gives a marked point of reference. These signals are sometimes as follows : The shoulders are taken as a point of reference. Then all signals made above the shoulders are read for "ones," "1." All signals made horizontally at the height of the shoulder are read for " twos," " 2." All signals made below the shoulder are read for " threes," " 3." Thus, if one disk is waved above the shoulder in the right hand, on the right side, it is read "one;" or if it is raised in the left hand, on the left side, it is read "one;" or if both disks are raised above the shoulders in both hands, on both sides, the signal is read " one." If the disk is extended horizontally at the height of the shoulder in the right hand, on the right side, the signal is read " two ;" or if the disk is extended horizontally in the left hand, on the left side, the signal is read "two;" or if both disks are extended hori- zontally in both hands, on both sides, the signal is read " two." Or if the disk is extended obliquely downward below the shoulder in either hand or on either side, or if both disks are extended obliquely downward in both hands on both sides, the signal is read "three." In this way, the signal " one" is made (PI. XII) whether the disk is raised as at Fig. 1, or Fig. 4, or Fig. 7. The signal " two," whether the disk is as at Fig. 2, or Fig. 5, or Fhjr. 8. The signal " three," whether the disks are as at Fig. 3, Fig. 6, or Fig. '.'. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L03 It is noted only to read"one," ov "two," or"three," whether the signal is above, or at, or below the shoulder. There are three signals for each single reading. Messages are sometimes transmitted in this way, the signals for the same letter continually varying. It is interesting to note the very greal variety of appear- ance that may be given, using this method, to the signals of the same message. The letter " E," " 123," for instance, can be, withoul other preconcert, signalled by twenty-seven differenl signals, each to an uninstructed observer unlike any other. So for any other letter in the alphabet. The general forms for transmitting the message are as by the common rules. So with colors, any two or three colors may be assumed to read, either shown, as "one;" any two other colors to read, either shown, as " two." Still other two to read, either shown, as " three." The letter " E" signalled in colors may be represented by any of numerous arrangements. It will be seen how this plan might be used with flags. So with sounds; the different sounds of a drum may be either of them read as "one," the sounds of a bell as "two,"' the sounds of a bugle as "three," and the signals thus com- plicated. Rogers's Semaphoric Code of Signals is a code of three elements. It is skilfully applied for use on shipboard or in boats. Night Signals. The Signalman is equipped with a red or colored lantern plaeed at the height of the waist, ami a single lantern held in the hand. The first position, or "ready," is with both lanterns close together at the height of the waist. 104 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. The Positions, Motions, and Pauses, with the Lanterns held in the hand are, for Night Signals, precisely similar to those described for the Disks for Day Signals. (See Plans, Plates XI and XII.) Taking the shoulder as point of reference, night signals may he varied in the same manner as day signals — a white lantern being held in the hand in place of the disks ; all signals above the height of the shoulder being counted " one," all at the height of the shoulder " two," all below the height of the shoulder "three." Night signals, remaining simple, are thus apparently com- plicated as in the cases described for the day. Signals by Flashes and by Occultations. Signals of three elements may be made with flashes of light of any three colors, as by the flashing signal-lantern before described. To make " oiie " " 1," press the handle " one " — a white flash. To make " two " " 2," press the handle " two " — a red flash. To make " three " "3," press the handle " three" — a green flash. The flashes for each letter follow each other without pause. An interval of darkness is the space-signal. Thus, to signal " G," " 123," flash "white, red, green." To signal " M," " 132," flash "white, green, reel." To signal " O," " 223," flash " red, red, green." To make " 33," flash " green, green." Or to signal with flashes of a single light, flash once for " one" " 1 ;" twice for " two" " 2 ;" three times for " three" " 3." Marked intervals of darkness to indicate spaces. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L05 Those signals may be made with common lanterns by flashing them from backets or over the side of a boat, or over a fence. A plain lantern may be used to make " oni 8." A lantern covered with red bunting to make " twos." A lantern covered with green bunting- to make " threes." < >r a single lantern may be used if necessary, flashing it once for "ones ;" twice for "twos ;" three times for ,- threes :" a wave of the lantern for space-signal. These modes are suggested for emergencies only. It is generally more convenient to use two lanterns, making the signals l>y motions. Many plans for pyrotechnic signals, in which are used white, red, and green colored fires, are signals of three elements. Codes of three elements maybe at any time arranged for combinations of three fires flashed one after another on a pan, or burned one after another in cases, or thrown into the air, as balls from a Roman candle. Day signals by occultations may be made after plans similar to those here o-iven for night signals with a single light — by obscuring any object and flashing it suddenly into view. Signals by Sound. Messages may be transmitted by any three different sounds, as by three different notes of a bugle, or as a stroke on a bell for " one" " 1 ;" two strokes for " two" " 2 ;" a tap on a drum for "three" " 3 :" or a tap on a light drum for " 1 ;" two taps for "2 ;" a tap on a bass drum flu- " 3 :" or, more simply, one tap for " 1," two taps for " 2," three taps for " ■'■." In this case the taps for each number, as "1," or "2," or "3," must be made very quickly and closely together. So that, for instance, "3" made by three close quick taps may sound very differently from " Y,'* " 111," made by three taps slowly and distinctly gi> en. 5* 106 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. The general applications of Codes of Three Elements are numerous. The signals of this code can be made with any kind of semaphore. A man standing with his coat off and throwing out his right arm to his right for "one," his left arm to his left for " two," and his arm directly above his head for "three," can transmit any message. Or the arms may be waved with the motions described to be made by the flag. Of course the three motions or positions heretofore de- scribed can be made with muskets, or branches, or flags, or any thing that can be held and moved by the hands, and can be distinctly seen ; or any three things, as a cap, a coat, or a handkerchief, may be numbered as "one," or "two," or " three," and hoisted on halyards, being first properly ar- ranged to indicate any letter or numeral ; or three strips of different-colored cloth may be run up on halyards ; or any three things, a barrel, a basket, and a pail, may be shown on a pole to indicate any letter or numeral ; or three men may be stood together in view, one with his coat on for " one," one with his coat off for " two," one with his coat half off" for "three ;" each to throw up his arms as often as the num- ber he stands for is called : any combinations may be made in this way. Or three men standing side by side, and numbered " one," " two," " three ;" one for each place to appear in the .sig- nals. A whole signal number being called, each takes that position which indicates the first, second, or third numerals of the signal number called. Thus, " one twenty-three" "128" being called, No. 1 takes the position which signals " one" " 1," No. 2 takes the position " two" " 2," No. 3 takes the position "three" "3;" and^they so remain until the sig- nal is seen and recognized, standing as in Plate XII, Figs. 1,2,3. Signals of three elements, though not of such infinite ap- plication, or so constantly available as those of two elements, MANUAL OF SICNAI.S. 111? are capable of many beautiful uses. A thorough knowledge of them should be gained, and every signalist oughl to practise the code at times. Modes, always varying, may be multiplied by ingenuity. FIELD SIGNALS BY FOUR ELEMENTS. A code of four elements may be any arrangement of four symbols. The common code of army Bignals has been drawn as a code of four elements. This code is here given as an illustration. It lias l.een superseded, in practice, by the "General Service ('0(10." The signal orders in a Code of Four Elements particularly describe each motion. Those long habituated to such an enumeration become attached to it and prefer it. The code thus arranged is here given. ALPHABET OF FOUR ELEMENTS FOR FLAGS IX MOTIOX. (an arrangement op four symbols.) A— 11 II- -231 0—14 B— 1423 I- -2 P—2343 C— 234 J- -2231 Q— 2342 V— 2311 D— 111 K- -1434 H — 142 \V_2234 E— 23 L- -114 S— 1 t:: X— 1 131 F— 1114 M- -2314 T— 1 Y— - - G— 1142 N- -22 U— 223 Z— 1111 &— 2222 inp:— -1143 tion- 2223 103 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Code Signals. 5 — End of a word. 55 — End of a sentence. 555 — End of a message. 11.11.11.5 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 11.11.11.555 — Cease signalling. 234.234.234— Repeat. " 143434— Error. 142.142.142 — Move a little to the right. 1 14.114.114— Move a little to the left. Flag waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." Numerals. 1—14223 — Wait a moment. 2—23114 — Are you ready? 3—11431 — I am ready. 4 — 11143 — Use short pole and small flag. 5—11114 — Use long pole and large flag. 6— 23111— Work faster. V— 22311— Did you understand? S— 22223— Use white flasr. 9— 22342— Use black fla^. 0—11111— Use red flag. Day Signals — Motions of Flags. The code is given as it has been used in the Army. There are one position and five motions. There being furnished the Regulation set of Signal Equip- ments — MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 I.I To take the first position, " ready," the signalman stands with the signal staff in his hand, the Hag vertically above the head. So placed — To make the first motion, "one" " 1," the flag and staffi are waved to the ground to the left of the flagman ; resume the first position. To make the second motion, "two" "2," the flag and staff are waved to the ground on the right of the flagman ; resume the first position. By the third motion, " three" " 3," is described the halt circle wave of the flag from the ground on the righl to the ground on the left of the flagman. Flag resumes the first position. By the fourth motion, "four" "4," is described the half circle wave of the flag from the ground on the left to the ground on the right of the flagman. Flag resumes the first position. Fifth motion, "five" "5,'' "pause-signal" flag waved to the ground directly in front, then returned to first position. To make " O," " 14" "fourteen," commence a firsi motion to the ground on the left, followed by a fourth motion ; re- sume the first position. To make " B," "1423" "fourteen twenty-three," com- mence a first motion to the ground on the left, followed by a fourth motion, then a second motion, then a third motion ; resume the first position. To make " C," " 234" " two thirty-four," commence a sec- ond motion, followed by a third motion, followed by a fourth motion ; resume the first position. To make "D," " 111" "one eleven," make a firsi motion thrice. Plate XIII, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, will clearly illustrate the motions. The same movements of the flag made together indicate 110 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. each letter in the code of four as in the code of two ele- ments. For the general use of flag motions, as in the General Service or for common use, the enumeration by two ele- ments, as for the General Service Code, is preferable. Day Signals by Positions of Disks. The eode with this arrangement permits each letter to be represented by four positions of disks or other signals, as well as by the different motions of flags. Thus, the signalman standing equipped, a disk held in the hand — There are one position and four motions. First position, disk at the height of and flat upon the breast. First motion, hand and disk obliquely above the head on the left side; return to first position. Second motion, hand and disk obliquely down on the left side ; return to first position. Third motion, hand and disk obliquely above the head on the right side ; return to first position. Fourth motion, hand and disk obliquely down on the right side ; return to first position. Pause or Space signal, "5," a wave of the disk. To make " O," " 14," make a first motion, then a fourth motion. To make " B," " 1423," make the first, fourth, second, and third motions. To make " C," " 234," make motions second, third, fourth. For "D," " 111," make the first motion thrice. For " 5," a wave of the disk. These motions are so numbered as to correspond with the enumeration giyen the flag motions. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 I As a general rule in signalling, the lesser cumbers ought to be made on the right of the signalist. In this way. this code may be signalled by any four posi- tions or motions. Night Signals. Night signals are made, for this code, there being fur- nished the Regulation Signal Equipment, by motions of torches, a flying and a foot torch. Or by motions and positions of lanterns, the signalman being equipped with a reference lantern fixed at the waist, and a moving light, to be moved by the hand. The Positions, Motions, Pauses, etc., of the signal lights at night, are similar for the same signals to those described for these signals with the flags or disks by day. The Ordering and Recording of signals, the general rules for the management of apparatus, and for the sending and receiving of messages, are as in other modes of signalling. This code affords an illustration of the mode by which any code of two elements may be commuted into one of four elements. A code of four elements, in which each letter is repre- sented by a signal of a determinate number of places, is as follows : ALPHABET OF FOUR ELEMENTS. (as arrangement op four symbols.) A— 121 F— 414 K— 344 P— 412 U— 413 B— 212 G— 424 L— 434 Q— 213 V— 314 C— 131 H— 242 M— 321 R— 214 W- 234 D— 313 1—323 N— 312 S— 341 X— 432 E— 141 J— 232 0—421 T— 143 Y— 342 Z 324 112 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. 22.22.22.3— Signal of assent: "I understand," or " Mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. 212121— Error. 211.211.211 — Move a little to the right. 221.221.221— Move a little to the left. Disk waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have, n — not. r — are. t — the. u — you. ur — your. w — woi-d. wi — with. y — why. A disk is used instead of a flag. In this code each letter-signal is a signal of three places. The numerals may be represented by the Roman letters. The signals for end of word, Clause, Error, Assent, etc., already given, are made with the same motions, the Disk held in the hand being used instead of the Flag, as in the General Service Code. Especial combinations may be devised for these signals, if such are preferred for any reason. These should be each of say two places, to clearly distin- guish them from the letter combinations. The General Rules for Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and Recording are as for the preceding Codes. Day Signals. There are one position and four motions. (Plate XIV.) First Position :- The signalman, standing equipped, PLATE XIV. Day Signals with discs. Figures 1 *c r.'1'..s llt^xlv' Motion"! Motion '2 Motion '3 Motion l r .". / •■•!- ■I' - 1 "1 3 ■ "3" temH*&&l Semaphore Pos. 12.3.4:. Semaphore Pos.l2.3.4r. Positions of Muskel on either Side. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 113 holds in his hands a disk at the height of and laid flal upon the breast. To make the first motion, or " one" " I," the righl hand and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head at arm's length and on the right side, then returned to the firsl position. To make the second motion - , or "two" "2," the righl hand and disk are extended obliquely downward at arm's length and on the right side, then returned to the iirst posi- tion. To make the third motion, or "three" "3," the left hand and disk are extended obliquely upward at arm's length and on the left side, then returned to the first posi- tion. To make the fourth motion, or "four" "4," the left hand and disk are extended obliquely downward at arm's length and on the left side, then returned to the first posi- tion. To make pause or space signal, hand and disk waved around the head. Thus to make " F," " 414," the hand and disk are extend- ed slowly obliquely downward on the left side, then re- turned to first position ; then,without pause, extended slowly obliquely upward and on the right side, then returned to first position; then, without pause, again extended slowly obliquely downward and on the left side, then returned to and rests at first position ;— that is, there is made one fourth motion, followed by one first motion, followed by one fourth motion. To make " X," "312," there are made, without pause, one third motion, one first motion, one second motion. To make "S," "341," there are one third motion, one fourth motion, one first motion. To make " C," " 131," there are one first, one third, one first. Hi MANUAL OF SIGNALS. To make pause-signal, "5," disk may be waved about the head. To make clause-signal, " 55" the disk may be waved twice about the head. In place of these signals (pause and clause) the "Code Signals," as given at page 127, are gener- ally used. In this way for whatever signals. Night Signals. For night signals, the signalman equipped as before de- scribed, with reference light and moving light or lantern held in hand. The position "ready" is as illustrated at 1 'late XIV: a lantern held in the hand instead of a disk. The signals are made for the same numerals and with the same motions as those described for signals by day. General Applications. Following these plans, any code of four elements may be indicated by any object by day, or light by night, that can be put in any four positions, or made to describe any four motions relatively to any fixed object or light taken as a point of reference. Thus the positions may be the four positions of the arm of a semaphore, as at Plate XIV, Fig. 6, the upright forming the point of reference, and the arm as at " 1," being in the first position. Or four positions made with a musket held in the hand, as at Plate XIV, Fig. 7, the musket held vertically being the position "ready." Or the motions might be any thing moved above, below, to the right and to the left of any selected object. Or of any light or torch so moved relatively to some dis- tinguishable fixed light : a half motion making the space- signal. (Plate IV, Figs. G, 7.) M SJNTJAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 5 Or signals of four elements maj be made with the flash- ing signal-lanterns : as one white flash for "one," two white Hashes for "-two," one red flash for "three," two red flashes for "four;" a green Hash may be k- pause." Or four different sounds may be used : one lap on a small drum for " one," two taps for"two,"one tap <>n a large drum fur " three," two taps for " four." Or one short blast of a horn for "one,"" two short blasts tor "two," one long blast for "three," two long Masts tor "four.'' Or four different sorts of flags or strips of cloth, differing by colors or by shape, may ho hoisted on halyards for any of the combinations of signals of this order. Or four dif- ferent sorts of the most common things, as caps, coat-, handkerchiefs, and boots, shown on halyards or on a stall' in proper arrangements, will make any of the different signals. (Plate XIV, Fig. 9.) Signals of four elements may be complicated, as has been illustrated in the case of signals of three elements, by caus- ing several different signals to stand for the same clement. Thus with a semaphore, by which can be shown eight positions of the arms: Let any two positions stand for "one," two different and distinct positions for "two," two other distinct positions for "three," two other positions for "tour." (Plate XIY, Fig. 8.) Working thus, a code of four may seem to be a code of eight elements. Signals of four elements are not so diversely available as those of two or three elements. The availability of signals diminishes in proportion as the elementary numbers or number of the order of the signals increases. Signals of four elements ought, however, to be carefully si tidied. They are capable of many interesting applications. 116 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY FIVE ELEMENTS. Alphabetic codes of five elements have this .advantage : that the letter-signals of alphabets constructed by the ar- rangement of five symbols need require but two combined signals for any letter of the alphabet, — there being with five elements twenty-five arrangements of two places. This re- membered, it is known with certainty that each pair of sig- nals seen indicate a letter, and that it is completed. A code of five elements might be as follows : ALPHABET OF FIVE ELEMENTS. i [an arrangement of FIVE STMBOLS.) A— 11 F- -12 K— 13 F— 14 U & y_i5 B— 21 G- -22 L— 23 Q— 24 W— 25 C— 31 II- -32 M— 33 R— 34 X— 35 D— 41 I- -42 N— 43 S— 44 Y— 45 E— 51 J- -52 0—53 T— 54 Z— 55 The conventional signals, " error," " assent," " repeat," etc., are made in the same manner as described for the Gen- eral Service Code of two elements ; — the Disk being waved instead of the Flaar. 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. 22.22.22.3— Signal of assent: " I understand," or "Mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333— Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. PLATE XV. Day or Night Signals. Lanterns &r Discs v 2W Musket Positions 1 2 \ / 4r \ 5 Positions L2.3.4.5. Positions L2.3.4.5. Positions 1.2. 3.4.5. Day or Night Signals Discs or Lanterns. Fig.t. Fig. 5. £> ^. Fig. Mot . one -five -15 Mot three - four- 3-1 Mot . two - two - 22 ffijj- .^^^iLantern s above a Screen^.^ ^^ ^S Fig. 7. '"^^ S,.^ "2" "4" Semaphore of Polybius ,i tf 4 & l s _ { Column 4_ letter- 14 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. J 17 212121— Error. 211.211.211 — Move a little to the right. 221.221.221— Move a little to the left. Disk waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." Abbreviations. a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have, n — not. r — are. t — the. u — yon. ur — your. w — word. wi — with. y — why. The letters are symbolized, and are to be used as has been described for other alphabets. The Roman letters are to be used for numerals. The signals "error," "repeat," etc., may he as given, or they may be signified by arrangements of three places. The General rules of Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and Reading signals are applied with this code. Day Signals by Positions and Motions. The signalman, standing equipped, holds in each hand a signal disk or other visible object. There are one position and five motions. (Plate XV.) To make the first position, or " ready," the signalman, standing equipped, and directly facing the point of commu- nication, holds in each hand a signal disk at the height of and fiat upon the breast. The signalman, being equipped and placed — To make the first motion, "one" "1," the right hand and disk are extended slowly directly upward at arm's length and above the head, and then returned to the first position. To make the second motion, "two" "2," the right hand 118 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's length and on the right side, and then returned to the first position. To make the third motion, " three" " 3," the right band and disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's length and on the right side, and then returned to the first ])Osition. To make the fourth motion, " four" " 4," the left hand and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's length and on the left side, and then returned to the first position. To make the fifth motion, " five" " 5," the left hand and disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's length and on the left side, and then returned to the first position. (Plate XY, Figs. 1, 4, 5, 6.) Pause or space signal, " six" " 6," a wave of the disk around the head. Thus to signal " IT," " one five" " 15," the right hand and disk are extended directly above the head and then brought back to the first position, when, without pause, the left hand and disk are extended obliquely downward on the left and brought back to first position — that is, there is made one first motion, followed instantly by a fifth motion. To signal " W," " two five" " 25," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely upward on the right and brought back to first position ; then, without pause, the left hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, and on the left, and brought back to first position; — that is, there is made one second motion, followed by one fifth motion. To signal "Z," "five five" "55," the left hand and disk are twice extended obliquely downward on the left without pause, and each time brought back to first position. To make "clause signal," "six six" "66," the right hand and disk are waved twice around the head. MANUAL I F SIGNALS. 11'.) To signal "Y," "four five" "45," make a fourth motion, followed by a tilth motion. To make " IV "three two*' "thirty-two" "32," make a third motion, followed by a second motion. To make "two four five" "245," make a second motion, followed by a fourth motion, followed by a fifth motion. And thus for whatever combinations of this order. Night Signals. The Signalman, equipped, has fixed at the waist a refer- ence light, and holds a lantern in the right hand. The position "ready," is with both lanterns close to- gether at the height of the waist. There are one position and five motions. The Positions, Motions, and General Instructions for night signals are similar to those to be followed in making signals by day. The distinctness of night signals, with lanterns, may he augmented by attaching a short rod to the moving lantern. The distance between the lights is thus increased in signal- ling. Or signals of five elements may be made at night by showing five lights in different positions relatively to a cen- tral or fixed light. The central light, distinguished always by eolor or brilliancy from the signal lights, burns steadily. The other lights, to each of which a number is assigned, as one. two. three, etc., are screened dark; and each is shown only when, and in the order that, its number is called. The central light is flashed to make the pause or space signals. Signals may be made with plain lights: showing one light for "one," two lights for "two," three lights for '•three," four lights for "four," five lights for "five." A waving light for " pause-signal." In this case, the first numeral of any letter-signal is shown 110 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. by the light placed on the right of the signalist ; the second numeral by those placed on the left of the signalist. Thus, to make "two three" "23," show, at the same mo- ment, two lights, nearly together, for " two," and three lights at a little distance to the left of these for " three." (See Plate XV, Fig. 7.) To signal " four four" " 44," show four lights on the right and four on the left. Signals by Flashes and Occultattons. Signals may be made with flashes of a single light : as one flash for " one," two flashes for " two," three flashes for " three," four flashes for " four," five flashes for " five ;" a long flash for " pause-signal," or " end of word." Short intervals of time separate the component signals of a letter. Longer intervals mark the completion of each letter. Thus, to make "H," "three two" "32," make three flashes ; a pause of one second, then two flashes. To make "N," "four three" "43," make four flashes; a pause of one second, then three flashes. To make "B," "21," two flashes; a pause, one flash. To make " 33," three flashes ; a pause, three flashes. A longer pause, as of two or three seconds, is made after each letter or completed signal. And on this plan Day Signals may be made by objects flashed suddenly into view and then obscured or hidden. The mechanical devices by which such effects may be pro- duced are numerous. Thus, a handkerchief, held in the hand, may be waved into view — as by suddenly throwing out and bringing back the arm, once for "one," twice for "two," three times for " three," and so on. Any message may be transmitted in this manner. And on this plan a single light or a shutter may be flashed for Night or Day signals. manual of signals. 121 Signals by Sound. Signals may be made by sounds: as the tolls of a bell, mots of a horn or bugle, or taps of a drum — sounding one tap for "one," two taps for "two," three taps for "three." four taps for "four," five taps for "five." Thus, to make "35," three taps, a pause, five taps. To make ^ 23," two taps, a pause, three taps. To make " 41," four taps, a pause, one tap. Brief intervals of time mark the end of each letter-signal. Longer intervals indicate the completion of each word. Signals may be made with any five motions or any five positions of any object relatively to any fixed point selected as a point of reference. Field signals may be made by any five positions of the arm of a semaphore, as Plate XV, Fig. 2. The position "ready," is with the arm as at Fig. 2. The other positions are sufficiently indicated by the figure. In signalling by five elements, the arm of the semaphore, or whatever object is used as the signal, may remain in each of the signal positions whatever length of time the signalist determines is necessary to enable it to be clearly seen. Or field signals of five elements may be made with any fi\ e positions of any visible object ; as a flag, a rod, or a gun, held in the hands: a musket may be used, some article be- ing attached to make it more plainly visible. (Plate XV, Fig. 3.) The position "ready," the flag or gun held in the hands vertically, and directly in front of the signalman. The first position, "one" " 1," flag or gun held vertically and directly above the head. The second position, " two" " 2," musket inclined obliquely upward and to the right. 6 122 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. The third position, " three" " 3," musket inclined obliquely downward and to the right. The fourth position, " four" "4," musket inclined obliquely upward and to the left. The fifth position, "five" "5," musket inclined obliquely downward and to the left. Pause or space signal, " six" " 6," a wave or flourish of the musket. These positions are illustrated by the positions of the mus- ket as seen in the plate. In this way, to make the signal " 15," take the first posi- tion and then the fifth position. To make " 32," take the third position and then the sec- ond position. To make " 33," make the third position twice. Or five different things, as flags, or strips of cloth, or any five different distinguishable objects may be hoisted on hal- yards or otherwise brought into view, properly arranged, to make any signal of this order. Or signals may be made by two men standing side by side, and numbered "one" and "two," who take each the proper position on hearing the letter-number called : No. 1 assuming the signal position for the first number-symbol; No. 2, the signal position for the second number-symbol ; as Plate XV, Figs. 4, 5, 6. The System of Polybitts. The oldest system of signals of which there is record, was seemingly an alphabetic code of this order. Described in brief, it consisted in designating the twenty-four characters of the Greek alphabet by twenty-four arrangements of two places which can be made with any five elements or signals. (See table of references— Page 34; Plate XV, Fig. 8.) This plan is minutely described by historians. By the MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L23 form of Polybius, the letters were arranged in five columns. Thus: 1 2 3 4 5 ~ A a Zt Ak Up <1> uv f the soldiers, about a hundred in number, have gone over,' it will be necessary, in the first place, to choose words for this purpose which contain the fewest letters. Thus, if it is said, ' Cretans, a hundred have deserted,' the same thing is ex- pressed in less than half of the letters which compose the former sentence. These words, then, being first written down, are communicated by means of torches in the follow- ing manner. The first letter is K (kappa), whicb stands in the second division of the alphabet and upon the second tablet. The person, therefore, who makes the signal first, holds up two torches upon the left, to signify that it is the second tablet which is to be inspected ; and afterwards five upon the right, to show that Kappa is the letter which he who receives the signal must observe and write — for Kappa stands fifth in the second division of the letters. Then again he holds up four torches upon the left, because P (Ho) is found in the fourth division ; and two upon the right, to denote that it stands the second in that division. From hence the person who receives the signal writes Ro upon his tablets, and in the same manner the rest of the letters. By this method an account of every thing that happens may be conveyed with the most pei'fect accuracy." It is not uncommon to find this tabular arrangement of the alphabet applied to codes of recent origin. The form is not necessary to determine the signal-numbers of the letters, when it is borne in mind that the code is only an alphabetic code of five elements, and the letters are indicated by the numeral combinations prescribed by the usual rules. The same results are then attained, one light being shown to signify " one," two to signify "two," three to signify "three," four to make "four," five to make "five." 12(3 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Thus to make " 11," or "A," one light would be shown twice. To make "three two" "32," or " M," three lights would he shown, followed by two lights. To make " three three" " 33," or " X," three lights would be shown, and then three lights. So for the alphabet. Or if all the lights for each letter were to he shown at oik' time and together, then for " L," "two three" "23," two lights would he shown for " two," and three near them for " three." (Plate XV, Fig. 7.) No apparatus is needed. For " X," " 33," three lights would be shown— with three more near them. The lights for the first numeral of the combination show- ing on the left of the sending signalist, those for the second numeral of the combination on his right. Or signals of this kind may be made by positions, motions, dashes, sounds, as has been already described. The study of the signals of this table is interesting. It will be referred to hereafter. FIELD SIGNALS BY SIX ELEMENTS. Signals of six elements are interesting, from the fact that this is the least number of elements, the combinations of which permit each letter of the alphabet and the numeral digits to be designated each by signals of two places. Each letter and number is signified thus by each pair of signals, and it can be judged when each signal is complete and perfect. An alphabet of six elements might be as follows: MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1^7 ALPHABET OF SIX ELEMENTS. (an arrangement or six symbols.) A- -11 F— 12 K— 13 P— 14 U— 15 B- -21 G— 22 L— 23 Q— 24 V— 25 C- -31 11— 32 M— 33 R— 34 W— 35 D- -41 1—42 N— 43 S— 44 X— 45 E- -51 J— 52 O— 58 T— 54 Y— 55 Numerals. 1- -20 4—50 7—62 2- -30 5—00 S— 63 0- 3- -40 0— 01 9—64 Z— 16 0—65 Code -Signals ♦ The code signals below given are made with a disk, held in the hand, and used with the same positions and motions as those heretofore described for the same signals under the General Service Code. 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. 22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes- sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. 212121— Error. 211.211.211— Move a little to the right, 221.221.221— Move a little to the left. Disk waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." 128 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Instructions fob Using the Code. The letters are symbolized and are to be read as has been described for other signals. Each pair of signals indicates a completed letter or numeral. The Roman characters may be used for numerals, instead of the combinations for numerals here given. The working-signals "error," "affirmative," "repeat," etc., are made with the same motions as for the General Service Code ; combinations of three places may be devised for these arbitrary signals. The General rules for Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and Recording are applied to this code. Day Signals by Positions and Motions. The signalman* standing equipped, holds in his hand a signal disk or other visible object. There are one position and six motions. (Plate XVI, Fig. 1.) The fiest position or " ready," the signalman, standing equipped and directly facing the point of communication, holds in his hand a signal disk at the height of and flat upon the breast. The signalman so equipped and placed— To make the fiest motion, "one" "1," the right hand and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's length above the head and on the right side, and then re- turned to the first position. To make the second motion, " two" " 2," the right hand and disk are extended slowly horizontally outward at-arm's length, and at the height of the shoulder, and then returned to the first position. IM.ATK XVI. i D.iv.V Night Signal Lantern or Disc Positions L2.3.4.5.6 I s - Position ^Motions 12.3.1.5 5 130 MANUAL . OF SIGNALS. To signal " K," " 13" or "one three," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely upward on the right side at arm's length, and then returned to the first position ; when, without pause, the same arm and disk are extended obliquely downward at arm's length on the same side, and again re- turned to the first position. Thus is made one first motion, followed by one third motion, " 13." To signal " W," " 25" or " two five," the right hand and disk are extended horizontally at the height of the shoulder at arm's length and on the right side, and then brought back to the first position ; when, without pause, the left hand and disk are extended horizontally at arm's length at the height of the shoulder and on the left side, and then brought back to the first position : a second motion, followed by a fifth motion. To make " pause-signal," the right hand and disk may be waved twice around the head. To signal " 156," there is made one first motion, followed by one fifth motion, followed by one sixth motion. To signal " 1346," there is made one first motion, fol- lowed by one third motion, followed by one fourth motion, followed by one sixth motion. And thus for any of the combinations or arrangements of six numerals. Or field signals of six elements may be made with any six positions of any visible object, as with the arm of a sema- phore, as in Plate XVI, Fig. 2,- — the arm starting from a position of rest and moved into any position there given, being the signal for the number of that position. Thus, to make " 14," "one four," the arm is moved first into position "one," and then into position "four;" at the end of the sig- nal it returns to the position "rest." To mark " 1 1," the arm is moved from the position " rest" MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 131 to the position "one," returned to the position '•rest," and again moved to the position "one." The position "rest" is here the first position, and the movement of the arm to any numbered position is the mo- tion known by the number of that position. In this semaphore there are one position and six motions. The body and arm of a man maybe used as a semaphore, and is one virtually for disk signals. So signals of six elements may be made with any flag, or gun, or rod, or other object held in the six different posi- tions — the positions being made one after the other in the proper order, to indicate the numeral elements. Plate XYI, Fig. 3, represents a musket held in the hands ; or some visible objeet, as a kerchief, to render it more dis- tinctly visible, may be attached. There are, for signals, the position " ready," and six sig- nal positions. The position "ready" is with the musket held vertically, directly above the head.. The signal positions are — First position, " 1," musket inclined upward and to the right. Second position, " 2," musket held horizontally and on the right side. Third position, " :3," musket inclined oblicpiely downward and to the right. Fourth position, "4," musket inclined obliquely upward and to the left. Fifth position, " 5," musket held horizontally and on the left side. Sixth position, "6," musket inclined oblicpiely downward and to the left. " Panse," " error," etc., as for flag signals ; musket re- lo2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. turns to first position after each completed signal number, or where the same numeral is repeated in any signal num- ber, but not necessarily after each numeral of the signal number. To signal " 34," take the first signal position and then the fourth, then return to the position " ready." To signal " 45," take the fourth signal position and then the fifth signal position ; return to position " ready." To signal " 1325," make the first signal position, then the third signal position, then the second signal position, then the fifth signal position ; return to position " ready." Where the positions of any signal to be made are some of them on the right and some on the left of the signalist, the musket is moved in the change from side to side over the head of the signalist. The signal arm or musket is allowed to remain in each signal position such time as the signalist deems necessary, that it may be fully recognized in that po- sition. Its stops in each position must be marked. Night Signals. The signalman, equipped, has fixed at the waist a Refer- ence Light, and holds a Lantern in his right hand. The Position " ready," is with both lanterns close together at the height of the waist. There are one Position and six Motions. The Positions, Motions, and General Instructions for night signals are similar to those for making signals by day. The reference lio-ht must be distinguished from the mov- ing light by its brilliancy or color. The mode of signalling has been already sufficiently de- scribed. Or night signals of six elements may be made with torches, as of the signal equipment. (Plate XVI, Fig. 5.) MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L33 One torch is fixed stationary at a height of aboitl lour feet from the ground, ami so prepared as to be distinguishable from the moving torch. The other can be moved from it in the six directions ; returning to the stationary torch afteif each motion, as to a point of reference. Thus there are one position and six motions. The posi- tion "ready," both torches close together, or one directly above the other. The motion "one" " 1," obliquely up- ward, and. to the right. The motion "two" "2," horizon- tally, and to the right. The motion " three" " 3," obliquely downward, and to the right. The motion "four" "4," up- ward, and to the left. The motion "five" "5," horizontally, and to the left. The motion " six" " G," obliquely down- ward, and to the left. Pause-signals, "attention," "repeat," etc., are made by different numbers of vertical motions. " Attention," — Torch moved vertically continually. "As- sent, — Torch moved vertically twice. "Repeat," — Torch moved vertically three times. Signals by Flashes and Occultations. Or signals of six elements can be made by six stationary white lights, arranged about a central light. (Plate XVI, Fig. 6.)' The central light burns steadily. The other lights are screened dark, and each is shown only when its number is to be made. The central light is flashed to make pause- signals. The central light must be distinguished from posi- tion lights, by its brilliancy or its color. Thus, to make "one five" " 15," there are flashed, first the position light " one," and then the position light " five." To make " three five" "35," there are flashed, first the po- sition light " three," and then the position light " five." To make "24," flash light "two," then light •'four.'' A pause of time is allowed after each completed signal. 134 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. The central light is flashed for any conventional signals. This apparatus affords a good illustration of the numer- ous signals to be had from a few simple signals. With these six position lights and one central light, there can be made, using no light twice in any signal, one thousand nine hun- dred and fifty-six separate signals; or using repetition sig- nals — that is, using the same lights twice or more times as may be required in the signals, but showing not more than six lights for any signal— there can be made fifty-five thou- sand nine hundred and eio-htv-six signals. Cn<\v signals of six elements can be made with six flags: three small, a red, a white, and a blue; and three larger, a red, a Avhite, a blue. Then the signal numerals, " one," "two," "three," are represented by the small flags; the signal numerals, " four," " five," and " six," by the larger flags. The flags may be kept out of view (obscured), and each waved into sight as often as its number is called. So signals may be made at night by any single light flashed " once" for " 1," " twice" for " 2," and so on. And by day, by any object obscured and flashed suddenly into view, an interval of time separating the signals of each letter-signal : a longer interval separating words. Signals by Sounds. So, too, signals may be made by sounds ; by any different sounds, or by one sound repeated, as has been illustrated for other codes. Field signals of six elements may be made with any six flags, or any six objects whatever, to designate the six sym- bols, and hoisted by pairs upon a halyard for any complete signal. Or, in fine, signals of this order may be made by exhibit- MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 135 ing any six different motions, or positions, or sounds, or colors, or indications. Or by exhibiting any one of these the proper number of times with propes intervals. Enough examples are given for experiment. Signals of six elements may be signified in such manner that any of the six symbols may be indicated at different times by different signals. For this purpose each symbol is signified by two or three different motions, positions, or other indications. Thus, the signal positions "one," "two," "three," four," "five," "six," may l>c represented with one arm, as already described; while it is understood that the signals "four," '•five," "six," may be also in the same code represented — "four" by both arms directly upward; "five" by both arms horizontally ontward at the height of the shoulder; "six" by both arms obliquely downward. The letter-signals will so appear in many different guises. A gentleman of Philadelphia, Mr. James Swain, has elaborated codes of six elements with many beautiful and n>eful devices. By his plans, any three positions, sounds, or motions, or indications, designated the symbols "one," "two," "three;" and for the symbols "four," "five," "six," these signals were duplicated. Thus, Plate XVI, Fig. 4, the signal positions "one" " 1," "two" "2," "three" "3," may be as given by the three positions of the arm at "one," "two," and "three;" while the fourth position, "4," is both arms held obliquely upward on both sides. The fifth position, "5," is both arms ex- tended horizontally on both sides. The sixth position, "6," is both arms extended obliquely downward on both sides. It may be understood that a single arm shown on either 136 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. side shall, if inclined upward, signal " one" " 1 ;" if held horizontally, signal "two" "2;" if inclined downward, sig- nal " three" " 3." So if "red," "white," and "green" are "one," "two," and "three," then "two reds," "two whites," and "two greens" may be "four," "five," and "six." And thus for other symbols. To Mr. Swain belongs the credit of having first, in this country, directed attention to the practical uses of signal disks for the telegraphing of messages of any description ; the enumeration of the letters of the alphabet after the Polybian method ; and the advantages which are had by providing that each letter of the alphabet be indicated by the same and a certain number of figures. Practical plans for alphabetic homographic signals appear to have been devised by him at an early day. The vocabularies and plans treated of by Mr. Swain evi- dence the study of years, and have received high commen- dation and the favorable reports of Military Boards in this country and in Europe. The devices perfected by this gentleman are worthy the careful study of every soldier. There will be, in active service, frequent occasions on which they may be used with advantage. The writer acknowl- edges his own indebtedness for many of the ideas elaborated in this volume to the suggestions of this skilful signalist. Among Mr. Swain's plans is one of much convenience for using a single lantern, by which, by changes of color, any message is telegraphed. And one for a semaphore to be attached to a ship's mast and worked by balls, as illustrated at Plate XVI, Figs. 7, 8, 9, promises much utility. To form an accurate idea of the study and labor bestowed on the subject of signalling by this gentleman, and the numerous successes which his ingenuity has achieved, a perusal of his elaborate papers is necessary. During the recent war of the rebellion, Mr. Swain's plans were tendered MANUAL OF SIGNALS. I o7 by him for the free use of the Government, and some les- sons in their use were given to classes of the Signal Corps. The difficulties which beset the classes at their organization prevented a thorough instruction. Plate XVI, Figs. 7, 8, 9.— Let A B be an upright staff fitted to be attached to any mast or upright. Let C be a canvas tube or screen, in which are concealed two balls, so arranged as to slide freely upon the staff A B, for its length — these balls to be so fitted with halyards that one of them may be moved singly to any position upon the signal staff, or both of them to be moved together to any position upon the staff. The apparatus, as at Fig. 7, Plate XVI, is ready for use. There are one position '■ ready," and six signal positions. The position " ready" is both balls concealed in the can- vas tube, C. Signal position " one" " 1," one ball at lower end of signal staff, as at D; signal position "two" "2," one ball at centre of signal staff, as at E ; signal position " three" " 3," ball at top of signal staff, as at F ; signal position " four" " 4," both balls at bottom of signal staff, as at G ; signal position " five" " 5," both balls at centre of signal staff, as at H ; signal posi- tion " six" " 6," both balls at top of signal staff, as at I. Signal of "attention," one ball slid continually up and down upon the staff; signal of " assent," ball moved twice from bottom to top of staff, and repeat; signal to "repeat,' ball moved three times from bottom to top of staff. This semaphore has the advantage that the signals are visible from any direction. 138 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY SEVEN ELEMENTS. An alphabet of seven elements would be as follows : ALPHABET OF SEVEN ELEMENTS. (an arrangement of seven symbols.) A— 21 F— 32 K— 43 P— 54 U— 71 •B— 23 G— 34 L— 45 Q— 61 Y— 72 C— 24 H— 35 M— 51 R— 62 W— 73 D— 25 1—41 N— 52 S— 63 X— 74 E— 31 J— 42 0—53 T— 64 Y— 75 Z— 76 Numerals. 1—17 4—47 7—56 2—27 5—57 8—66 0—11 3—37 6—67 9—77 The Roman characters for notation may be used instead of the combinations of numerals. Each letter signal must be indicated by two numerals. The conventional signals for "end of word," "error," etc., may be motions, as for the General Service Code, or they may be designated by especial combinations. These need be of two places only. Messages are transmitted under the General Rules for Sending, Receiving, etc. Day and Night Signals. The seven elements may be signified for day or night signals. The signalman standing and equipped as described for other signals by One position and seven motions. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L39 As iirst position, disk at the height of the In-cast. Motions — hand and disk returning to firsl position after each motion. First : hand and disk directly above the In 'ad. Second: hand and disk obliquely upward and to the right. Third : hand and disk horizontally oul ward and to the light. Fourth: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the right. Fifth : hand and disk obliquely upward and to the left. Sixth: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the left. Seventh: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the left. Code signals: by waves of the disk. Or by any seven different positions relative to a fixed po- sition, as of a semaphore or homograph. Or by any seven different flags, to be in view on hal- yards or masts. Or by any seven different lights, colors, sounds, or visible things or indications. Or by any seven different combinations of any indications which can be used as signals. Field signals by seven elements are rarely used. The ex- ample is here given for the purpose of such practice as may enable the student to acquaint himself practically with sig- nals formed upon this plan, as with others given. The general plans for the use, should it become at any time desirable, will be sufficiently understood from preced- ing instructions. 140 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY EIGHT ELEMENTS. An alphabet of eight elements might be as follows : ALPHABET OF EIGHT ELEMENTS. (an arrangement of eight symbols.) A- -12 F— 24 K— 43 P— 62 IT— 74 B- -13 G— 32 L— 44 Q— 63 V— 82 C- -14 H— 33 M— 52 R— 64 W— 83 D- -22 1—34 N— 53 S— 72 X— 84 E- -23 J— 42 0—54 T— 73 Y— 85 Z- -86 Numerals. 1—18 4—48 7—78 2—28 5—58 8—87 0—11 3—38 ■ G— 68 9—88 The Roman characters may be used instead of the combi- nations for the numeral digits. Each letter-number consists of two numeral symbols. The conventional signals for " end of word," " error," etc., may be motions, as for the General Service Code, or especial combinations. These need be of two places only. Messages are transmitted under the General Rules. Day and Night Signals. The eight elements may be signified for day or night signals. The signalman standing and equipped as before de- scribed, by One position and eight motions. First position — disks at the height of the breast. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-11 Motions — hands and disks returning to first position after each motion. First: hand and disk directly above the head. Second: hand and disk obliquely upward and to the right. Third: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the right. Fourth: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the right. Fifth: hand and disk directly downward in front. Sixth: hand and disk obliquely upward and to the left. Seventh: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the left. Eighth: hand and disk obliquely down- ward and to the left. Code signals by waves of the disk. Or the eight elements may be signified by any eight dif- ferent positions relative to a fixed position. Or by any eight different flags. Or by any eight different lights, colors, sounds, things, or indications. Or by any eight different combinations of indications winch can be used as signals. If we have any four things or indications which can be increased or duplicated — then one, two, three, and four may be indicated, each by one of those things — and five, six, seven, and eight by the increased development of the same things. Thus, if there are four different short notes, these may be one, two, three, and four ; the same different notes, long, may be five, six, seven, eight. Or there may be four single notes for the first four sym- bols, and the same four notes doubled for the second four symbols. Or four different small flags for one, two, three, four; four similar large flags for five, six, seven, eight. Thus for whatever indications. Field signals of eight elements are rarely used, and, as in the preceding case, the example is here given for prac- tice only. 142 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY NINE ELEMENTS. An alphabet of nine elements would be as follows : ALPHABET OF NINE ELEMENTS. (an arrangement of nine symbols.) A— 22 F— 34 K— 53 P— 72 U— 84 B— 23 G— 42 L— 54 Q— 73 V— 92 C— 24 H— 43 M— 62 R— 74 W— 93 D—32 1—44 N— 63 S— 82 X— 94 E— 33 J— 52 0—64 T— 83 Y— 95 Z— 96. Numerals. 1—1 4—4 7—7 2—2 5—5 8—8 0—11 3—3 6—6 9—9 The Roman characters may be used for the numerals. Each letter-number consists of two numeral symbols. The conventional signals, "end of word," etc., may be motions as for General Service Code, or especial combinations. These may be of two places. Messages are transmitted under the General Rules. Day and Night Signals. The nine elements may be signified for day or night signals. The signalman standing and equipped as before de- scribed, by One position and nine motions. First position — hand and disk at height of the breast. MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 143 Motions — liantls and disks returning to firsl position after each motion : First: hand and disk obliquely upward to the right. Second: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the right. Third: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the right. Fourth : hand and disk obliquely upward and to the left. Fifth: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the left. Sixth : hand and disk obliquely downward and to the left. Seventh: both hands and disks obliquely upward on both sides. Eighth : both hands and disks horizontally outward on both sides. Ninth : both hands and disks obliquely downward on both sides. Code signals as before driven. Or the nine elements may be signified by any nine differ- ent positions. Or by any nine different flags. Or by auy nine lights, colors, sounds, things, or indi- cations. If there are three signals which can be duplicated ami triplicated, or otherwise thrice increased, then these may signify each one, two, three; and when duplicated, four, five, and six; and when triplicated, seven, eight, and nine. Thus if there are three notes, these singly may be one, or two, or three ; doubled, they are four, or five, or six; tripled, they are seven, or eight, or nine. x So with three sets of three each of signal flaars of the same color, but of three different sizes or shapes. One set of such flags may be one, two, three ; a second set may be four, five, six. A third set may be seven, eight, and nine. The same modes may be extended to any signs, motions, or positions. Signals of nine elements are not of general use, and, as in the preceding instances, the example is given for practical illust ration only. 144 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. FIELD SIGNALS BY TEN ELEMENTS. Signals of this order admit the use of all the numerals to represent either the letters of the alphabet, or to be arranged for codes of messages. An alphabetic code of ten elements might be as follows : ALPHABET OF TEN ELEMENTS. (an arrangement op ten symbols.) A— 82 F— 44 K— 63 P— 82 U— 94 B— 33 G— 52 L— 64 Q— 83 V— 10 C— 34 II— 53 M— 72 R— 84 W— 20 D— 42 1—54 N— 73 S— 92 X— 30 E— 43 J— 62 0—74 T— 93 Y— 40 Z— 50 Numerals. 1—1 4—4 7—7 2—2 5—5 8—8 0—0 3—3 6—6 9—9 The rules, instructions, and illustrations given for other codes sufficiently describe the plans for practice with this. THE GENERAL SERVICE TOMOGRAPHIC CODE. The General Service Homographic Code is one of ten ele- ments. A code with this number of elements is furnished, for the reason that it will readily permit the application of the signals to the signal-books already compiled for the use of the naval forces ; as, for instance, the Naval Signal Code, and the Code of Boat Signals. PLATE XVII . Ready' ^HJ ises H VXUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-45 There are, for Signals, one position and ten motions. (Plate XVII.) The signalman is equipped as follows: He holds in each hand a disk of canvas, one fool or eighteen inches in diame- ter, stretched upon a circle of strong wire, and having at- tached a handle for convenience of management. This handle may be of size only sufficient to be grasped by the hand ; or it may be, to give greater distinctness to the sig- nals, say two feet in length. The signalman being thus equipped, to take the first position, or " ready," stands hold- ing a disk in each hand, with the disks held together and at the height of the breast. o To make the first motion, or " one" " 1," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head, at arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the first position. To make the second motion, or " two" " 2," the right hand and disk are extended horizontally, and at arm's length, on the right side, then returned to the first position. To make the third motion, or " three" " 3," the right hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the first position. To make the fourth motion, or "four" "4," the left hand and disk are extended obliquely upward, at arm's lengthy and on the left side, then returned to the first po- sition. To make the fifth motion, or "five" "5," the lefl hand and disk are extended horizontally, at arm's length, and on the left fide, then returned to the firsl position. 7 146 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. To make the sixth motion, or "six" " G," the left hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length, and on the left side, then returned to the first position. To make the seventh motion, or " seven" " 7," both hands and disks are extended obliquely upward above the head, at arm's length on both sides, then returned to the first position. To make the eighth motion, or " eight" " 8," both hands and disks are extended horizontally, at arm's length, on both sides, then returned to the first position. To make the ninth motion, or "nine" "9," both hands and disks are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length, on both sides, then returned to the first position. To make the tenth motton, or "the cipher" "0," both hands and disks are held together, at arm's length, above the head, one disk covering the other, then returned to the first position. The General Service Homographic Alphabet is as follows : A— 11 F— 12 K— 13 P— 14 U— 15 B— 21 G— 22 L— 23 Q— 24 V— 16 C— 31 H— 32 M— 33 R— 34 W— 25 D— 41 1—42 N— 43 S— 44 X— 35 E— 51 J— 52 0—53 T— 54 Y— 45 Z— 55 Numerals. 1—1 4—4 7—7 2—2 5—5 8 — 8 3—3 6—6 9—9 0—0 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-17 Code Signals. The following code signals are made as described for the General Service Code of two elements — a Disk being waved instead of a Flag- : 3 — End of a word. 33 — End of a sentence. 333 — End of a message. • 22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes- sage is received and understood," or "I see your signals," or affirmative generally. 22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling. 121.121.121— Repeat. 212121— Error. 211.211.211 — Move a little to the right. 221.221.221 — Move a little to the left. Disk waved successively from side to side until attention is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point." Abbreviations. a — after b — before. c — can. h — have n — not. r — are. t — the. u — you. lr — your. W — word. wi — with. y— why. The enumeration of this alphabet is nearly similar to that of six elements, made after the Polybian method, and adopted by Mr. Swain. The signals given in the code for the numeral digits are to be used when numbers, not occurring in messages, are to be signalled, as occurs in Naval Signal Codes, etc. Numbers given in any message are either spelled at length, or the Roman letters arc used. If it happens that the signals for numbers are to be used in a message, a wave of the sit ions of one arm of the semaphore. The other arm being for all of these signals kept horizontal. The arms, which of their own weight hang with the outer extremities downward, are brought into any position by ill awing upon the cords. This semaphore is constructed of the roughest materials, and can be anywhere erected and made ready for work with a few moments' labor. It may be used at night by attaching lanterns at the arm- ends, and distinguishing a reference-sight at the pivot. Signals with this semaphore are always numbered from 156 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. right to left of the sender, and are read from left to right of the reader. When lines of semaphores are used, the signal at each is kept in view until it is seen correctly repeated at the next in succession. If a line of several semaphores is to he worked, an additional piece must be attached to the up- right, as at Fig. 5, to render the direction of the working clear. Semaphores of this description may be attached to and worked at the mast-heads of vessels. The letter-signals heretofore given may be signified by any six motions or positions, made or taken in reference to some given or fixed position. Or by any mode in which six differing impressions can be made upon any sense ; as with any six positions of a musket. Or any six differing motions of a flag. Or for writing by any six different marks upon paper. Or by any six differing appearances of objects hoisted into view. Or by any six differing colors, motions, sounds, flashes, or indications of any description. The modes by which these are produced are already illustrated. Signals by Flashes and Occultations. Codes of ten elements may be signalized very simply and usefully by flashes of a single light. The most powerful calcium or magnesium light may be used for this purpose ; or the flashes may be those of any kind of lantern, or torch, or brand, or luminous object. There are used flashes and pauses. To symbolize " one," make " one flash ;" to symbolize MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 157 " two," make " two flashes;" to symbolize "three," make "three flashes;" to symbolize "four," make "four flashes;" and so on, — the number of flashes exactly corresponding with the numeral digit. The pauses are intervals of dark-* ness. There are short pauses between the letter-signals of each letter, longer pauses between the completed letters, and at the end of words. Or " end of word" may be a long flash. The code combinations consist each of two figures. The first figure is indicated by flashes before a pause ; the second figure is indicated by flashes after a pause. Thus to make "A," or "eleven" "11," "one flash— a pause — one flash." To make " C," "thirty-one," "31," "three flashes— a pause — one flash." To make "J," "fifty-two" "52," "five flashes— a pause — two flashes." To make "R," "thirty-four" "84," "three flashes— a pause — four flashes ;" and so for all combinations. The flashes of each combination are made closely to- gether, and the pause is so short as to distinguish it easily from the longer pause between letters, and that still longer between words. The pause may be, say for the symbol- pause, one second time; the letter-pause, two seconds; the word-pause, four seconds. Assent is " 2 2 2," ordered " two-two-two." Error is " 6," ordered " six." Clause signal is " 3," ordered " three." , Repeat is " 4 4 4," ordered " four-four-four." End of message is " 3 3 3." For illustration, to signal " on board," the signal-letters are "53.43—21.53.11.34.41.333." Signals = " five flashes — pause (one second or symbol-pause) — three flashes (.">::) ;" pause two seconds (a letter pause), "four flashes — pause three flashes (43);" pause four seconds (a word-pause), 158 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. "two flashes — pause — one flush (21);" pause two seconds, " five flashes — pause — three flashes (53) ;" letter-pause, " one flash — pause — one flash (11);" letter-pause, "three flashes ■ — pause — four flashes (34) ;" letter-pause, " four flashes — pause — one flash (41);" letter-pause, "three flashes — three flashes— three flashes (333)." This plan lias been described at length, in order that it may be thoroughly practised. The signalist should be able to distinguish each letter by its flashes without thought, as the letters are recognized in print. To make these flashes in the field, a common signal-lantern may be flashed from a bucket. (Plate XVIII, Fig. 9.) Or it may be flashed from a hole dug in the ground ; or from behind a folded blanket ; or from behind a little em- bankment ; or from behind a log or a board, or any screen devisable. Or a lighted portfire may be used instead of a lantern ; or a lighted case of any composition fire may be used ; or any light torch, or fire-ball, or a brand from a com- mon fire. Or a fire may be flashed by raising and lowering a blanket befoi'e it. It will be seen that flashes can be made from any part of a fort or vessel. They may be shown above a parapet or through a port-hole, or through any window of a house. The light of a light-house may be flashed by covering it with a hat or screen. The common ship-light or steamer- lio-ht can be used. The head-liy him who transmits it, and read with equal certainty by him who receives it. "The preceding example may be represented graphically under the following general form : S,S 6 S 9 S 3 S 2693; in which the sign, whatever it be, is represented by the letter S, and the interval is reduced to units of interval by dividing each interval by the unit of interval, winch in this particular case is supposed to be 5". The following exam- ples present further graphical illustrations of the Chronose- mic method of symbolizing signal-numbers : Numbers. Symbolized. 50 S 6 S S 407 S 4 S S,S 2693 S 9 S,S„S,S 35881 S.SJ3.S.S.S " Unless otherwise indicated, the code unit of interval will be five seconds, and the telegraphic unit of interval will be three seconds. " The signal interval is the time which elapses between the terminal sign of one signal-number, and the initial sign of the next succeeding signal-number. This may be arbitrary, hut it should not be less than the lamest figure interval in- creased by a unit of interval; and this will be recognized as the definite signal interval. "For the code unit of interval, the signal interval is, therefore — 5"X 9 + 5" = 50 seconds. "And for the telegraphic unit of interval, the signal inter- val is — 3" X 9 -h 3" = 30 seconds. 172 MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Auxiliary or Special Signals. • " The elemental figures from to 9 inclusive, when sepa- rately made, represent certain auxiliary or special signals. " These signals are exhibited in the following table : Table of special Signals. Figures. Symbols. Names of Signals. Interpretations. s„s Preparatory Signal of attention : Signals to be made. 1 SiS Answer to call : Readiness for communication. 2 SoS Signal of assent : Yes. 3 S 3 S Numeral Next signal to be used as a Number. 4 S 4 S, S 6 S Negative Signal of disseut : No. Telegraphic Dictionary : Alpha- 5 Teleg. Alphabet.. . . bet to be used. (5 S 6 S Unit of interval .... Next signal to make unit of in- ter cat. 7 S 7 S Call for strict attention to definite signal interval. 8 S 8 S Teleg. Vocabulary. . Telegraphic Dictionary : Vocabu- lary to be used. 9 Commercial Code . . Signals from the Commercial Code to be used. "The Preparatory signal, being intended to arrest the at- tention even of those with whom preoccupation, distance, or other circumstances may somewhat embarrass signal com- munication, should be made as decisive as the means at hand will warrant, or at least sufficiently so to be effective. To this end — the figure to be shown being zero — the symbol will be, in general, either two guns, two rockets, two signal- trumpet blasts, or two steam-blasts, in quick succession. " If, however, circumstances should render it inexpedient to fire guns, or send up rockets, the special signal apparatus may be used, namely : the signal balloon, lantern, or trum- MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 17o* }>