Tree Station on upper Potomac.

Signal Station at Masthead.

TJ. S. Steamer Richmond..

Station in front of Washington. Operations against Richmond.

130ftligK.

U.S.A.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS:

FOR THE USE OF

SIGNAL OFFICERS IN THE FIELD,

AND FOR

MILITARY AND NAVAL STUDENTS, MILITARY

SCHOOLS, ETC.

A NEW EDITION,

ENLARGED AND ILLUSTRATED.

BT. BRIG. GENL. ALBERT J. MYER,

CHIEF SIGNAL OFFICER OF THE ARMY, COLONEL OF THE SIGNAL COUPS
DURING THE WAR OF THE REBELLION.

NEW YORK:
D. VAX XOSTRAND, 192 BROADWAY.

1868.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 186S,

By ALBERT J. MYER,

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the
Southern District of New York.

Russells' Ameiinin Steam Printing House.
28, 30 & 32 Ceulro St., N. Y.

Little, Rennte & Co.,

Stekeotypeks.

/■■

TO THE

OFFICERS OF THE ARMY AND NAVY

THE UNITED STATES,

THIS WORK

IS RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED.

M5io9'?a

PREFACE.

This work was, for its first edition, in great part
hastily prepared, printed upon an office press, and issued
to the officers of* the Signal Corps of the Army then
serving constantly in the field in the midst of the war
of the Rebellion. It was intended, at the time, for their
instruction only, and was rendered incomplete by official
embarrassments and the pressure of other duties. The
author is induced to its enlargement and republication
now by varied reasons. The actions of the late war, in
which victory or defeat has sometimes hung upon the
transmission of a signalled message, have rendered it
certain that military signals will be used in the future
military and naval operations of our arms. They will
be employed in the continued Indian warfares in the
Interior ; and it is probable some knowledge of tele-
graphic duty will be required of the officers of both the
land and naval services. The perfection to which these
duties can be brought, by careful study, experiment,
and practice, can be contemplated yet in imagination
only. It has been aimed to furnish those to serve espe-
cially upon such duties, whether serving as in a corps or
as detached, such plain and compendious instructions as

G PKEFACE.

will enable them to do the duties well. It has been
another object of the Author to provide a work of such
a character that it may give to any who peruse it an
idea of what it is possible to effect by signals, and how
it is proposed to effect it; and, in fine, a conception of
the services planned for a property equipped Signal Corps,
and the mode in which they are to be rendered. It is
necessary for the successful use of such organizations,
and for the right discharge of any signal duty, that those
officers whose rank entitles them to frequent and large
command should have a knowledge — such at least as
they can gain by reading — of the service of which they
may at any moment need to avail themselves. And it
has been a natural wish on the part of the Author, that
those with whom he has been associated may be con-
vinced, by their own knowledge, that the plans for this
branch of service have been carefully considered and are
practicable.

Of the great, good results to be hoped from a popular
and thorough knowledge of the subjects of the book,
subjects hitherto so little treated, that the Author knows
of no extended work relating to them, he can here make
mention only. The character of the possible advantages
must be judged after some perusal of the volume.

In preparing the work, the Author has availed himself
of the information he has gained in some years of study,
experiment, and active service. He has embodied in it
whatever he has thought might be of value to the student.

PREFACE. 7

In the revision and modification <>f plans which have
come under his consideration, it has been difficult some-
times to credit exactly the labors of those who have
treated of them; but if mention of any has been omitted,
it has been through inadvertence. The Author claims for
himself little originality or invention, other than would
perhaps have come to any one who might have devoted
an equal amount of time and labor to the subject.

CONTEXTS.

[See Index, page 413.]

paoi

General Observations pertaining to Signals Lo

Of Recording ditto IT

Roles of Permutations, Combinations, Arrangements, etc 21

Table of Reference for Signals, from one to nine elements, etc ... 34

Alphabetic Elementary Codes _. 36

Message Codes of Signals I -

Examples of Codes I ; !

Examples of Naval Code 47

Description of IT. S. Naval Codes of Signals -1!)

Methods of Symbolizing Signal Numbers (Navy) 52

Navy Colored Signals 52

General Applications 56

Field Signals by One Element 65

Field Signals by Two Elements :

General Service Code (arrangement of two elements)— Instruc-
tions for Using the Code— Day Signals : Motions of Flags— To
send a Message — Ordering Signals— Recording ditto— Verti-
cal Motions— Horizontal ditto— Night Signals— Ditto by Verti-
cal Motions — Ditto by Horizontal ditto 6? ^7

Transient Signals: by Flashes— by Occupations— by Sound— Com-
plicating Signals— Code of Two Elements (arrangements of

two symbols) 87-9a

Field Signals by Three Elements :

Alphabet of Three Elements (an arrangemenl of three sym-
bols)— Instructions for using Code— Day Signals: Flags in
Motion— Night Signals— Day Signals: Motions of Disks
Night Signals— Signals by Flashes and Occultation — Ditto
by Sound 96-107

10 CONTENTS.

PAGE

Field Signals by Four Elements :

Alphabet of Four Elements for Flags (an arrangement of four
symbols)— Code Signals— Day ditto : Motions of Flags— Posi-
tion of Disks— Night Signals— Alphabet of Four Elements
(an arrangement of four symbols) — Day Signals — Night ditto
—General Applications 107-115

Field Signals by Five Elements :

Alphabet of Five Elements (an arrangement of five symbols)
— Day Signals by Motions and Positions — Night Signals-
Signals by Flashes and Occultations — Ditto by Sound — Sys-
tem of Polybius 116-126

Field Signals by Six Elements :

Alphabet of Six Elements (an arrangement of six symbols)—
Code Signals— Instructions for Using ditto— Day Signals by
Positions and Motions— Night Signals— Signals by Flashes
and Occultations— Ditto by Sound 126-137

Field Signals by Seven Elements :

Alphabet of Seven Elements (an arrangement of seven sym-
bols)— Day and Night Signals 138, 139

Field Signals by Eight Elements :

Alphabet of Eight Elements (an arrangement of eight sym-
bols)— Day and Night Signals 140, 141

Field Signals by Nine Elements :

Alphabet of Nine Elements (an arrangement of nine sjnubols)
—Day and Night Signals 142, 143

Field Siguals by Ten Elements :

Alphabet of Ten Elements (an arrangement of ten sym-
bols) 144

General Service Homographic Code — nomographic Alphabet —
Conventional Signals — Homographic Night Signals — Return-
ing or Repeating Homographic Signals — Application to Sig-
nal Books — Orders in Homographic Signals — Recording Ho-
mographic ditto — Applications — Signals by Flashes and Occul-
tations — To Rapidly Memorize a Code 144-1 64

Chronosemic Signals :

Preliminary Explanations— Figure Symbols — Table of Cor-
responding Intervals — Signal Numbers — Auxiliary or Special
Signals — Table of Special Signals — Signal Apparatus— Time-
keeping ditto— Special Time-keeping ditto — Sign-making Ap-

CONTENTS. 11

r kGI

paratus — Special ditto— Forms of Signal Records — Signal

Record 1 64-179

To open Communication by Signals without a Preconcerted

Code L80-189

Description of Standard Signal Equipment 189-192

Signal 1 )isks 193

Semaphores 193

Semaphore-Telegraph (Universal)— Table of Signs or Combina-
tions 195-198

Flags on Halyards 198

Flags in Motion 200

Sizes of Flags and length of Stall* 201

Lanterns 203

Torches 204

Candle-bombs 207

Pulls and Flashes 209

Matches 211

The use of Rockets for Signals 211

Of Firing Rockets 215

Composition Fires :

Coston's Composition Telegraphic Night Signals — Example

of a Code 216-221

Message Signals 222

Care of Signal Apparatus 222

Transportation of Apparatus 225

Telescopes and their uses 228

Scale Glasses 235

Pocket Compasses 237

Prismatic Compass 238

Instructions in Signalling 230

Selecting, Establishing, and Working Stations in the Field :

Position of Signalmen — Working — To Locate Stations — Es-
tablishing Stations — Repeating Stations 243-272

Complicating Signals 272

Messages and Messengers 275

Cryptograms '-' ;,;

Signalling in Cipher 280

Rules and Explanations for use of Signal Disks:

1. Explanation of Disk— 2. To make Signals— 3. The Ad-

12 CONTENTS.

PACK

jnstment Letter — 4. To send a Message in Cipher — 5. To
Change the Cipher when sending Message — 6. Record —

7. Words 289-297

Enciphering certain Words only of a Message 298

Route Cipher 311

Modes and Curiosities of Cipher 323

Flying or Field Telegraphs 336

General Service of the Signal Corps :

Cavalry Raids — Observations and Reconnoissances 347-370

Mapping :

Maps and Sketches from Information , 370-373

Reports :

Reports from Information — Transmission of Reports. . . .373-381

Origin and General Use of Signals 382

General Use of Signals 399

DESCRIPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plates

I. — Examples of Permutations, Combinations, and Arrange-
ments.
II. — Naval Signal Flags; Signal Lights.
III. — Naval Pendants and Repeaters; Coston Lights.
IV. — Significations by Positions and Motions.
V. — Signals by Colors, Forms, Positions of Forms.
VI.— (General Service Code of Two Elements): Signals by
Motions — Men and Flags ; Illustrations of the Motions
of the Flags.
VII. — (General Service Code): Signals by Motions— Men and
Flags ; Illustrations of the Motions of the Flags.
VIII.— (General Service Code): Signal Apparatus; Signal Balls
worked above a Deck or Roof; Mode of Signalling by
Motions of Flags on Halyards.
IX. — Apparatus applied to Monitors, Ships, Houses, Towers.
X. — Night Signals — Men, Flags, and Torches in Position.
XI. — (General Service Code) : Night Signals by Horizontal or
Vertical Motions; Signals with Lanterns upon Frames,
and with Lanterns held in the Hand.
XII.— (Code of Three Elements) : Day and Night Signals ; Signals

by Motions and Positions.
XIII.— (Code of Four Elements): Day Signals; Signals by Motions.
XIV.— (Code of Four Elements): Day Signals; Signals by Posi-
tions, Common Articles displayed as Signal-.
XV.— (Code of Five Elements): Day and Night Signals; Signals
with Disks, Lanterns, Muskets, and Semaphore of Poly-
bius.
XVI. — (Code of Six Elements) : Day and Night Signals with Disks,
Flashes, Lanterns, Men, Muskets, Torches; Signals by
Positions.

14 DESCRIPTIONS OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plates

XVII. — General Service Homographic Signals. (Code of Ten

Elements) : The Digits indicated by Positions.
XVIII.— (Code of Ten Elements): Night Signals— Firebrands,
Flashes, Lanterns. Day Signals — with Disks; Sema-
phores constructed with Pieces of Board; Semaphores
of Canes and Disks ; Semaphoric Signals — Man in
Tree.
XIX. — Signal Equipments — Regulation Set.
XX. — Double Disks, in Motion and in Position ; Signals by Lan-
terns on Shelves; Signal Flash and Magic Lanterns.
XXI.— Flags on Halyards.
XXII. — Signal Mortars ; Shells ; Pack-animal ; Arrangements of
Rockets for Chronosemic Signals ; Man firing Rockets
from Hand. Man with Signal Kit.
XXIII. — Signal Pistols ; Lights ; Composition Fires ; Signal Cart-
ridge-box. Binocular Glass and Case ; Telescopes and
Straps ; Wand for Practice ; Men Practising with
Wands.
XXIV. — Transportation of Apparatus ; Prismatic and Pocket Com-
passes.
XXV. — Object viewed through Scale Glass; Telescopes; Tele-
scope Rests; Telescopes in Rest; Plan of Permanent
Signal Station or Tower.
XXVI.— Signal Cipher Disks.

XXVII.— Cryptographic Disks; Cipher Reel; Cipher Tablets;
Combination Disks; Disks cut from Paper; Vertical
Section.
XXVIII.— Signal Corps Telegraph — Setting up Wire; Operator at
Work ; Signal Station at Night.
XXIX. — Field Telegraph and Communicating Signal Station —
Concentration of Reports from different Signal Stations
at the Telegraphic Station.
XXX. — Illustration of Action of Land and Naval Forces com-
bined by Signal ; Field Telegraph and Communicating
Signal Stations on Ship and on Shore.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Such limited attention has been paid to Signals and Tele-
graphy that, except among experts, there is little general
information on the subject. The secrecy which is commonly
preserved, and necessarily, in reference to the meanings of
signals, made in the Land and Naval services, has led to an
impression, that the subject involves something of mystery.
There can be nothing easier of comprehension, than the prin-
ciples upon which all signals are devised ; or more simple,
than the workings of the few rules which are applied to
tlum.

A Sign or Signal is any thing, or sound, or act, or indica-
tion by which to excite attention or convey a meaning. A
stroke of a clock-bell is a sisrnal. Letters and characters are
signals. To point the finger at any object is a signal.

Signals are of two kinds — transient a,ndpermam nt. They
are transient when each sign disappears as soon as it has
Inch completed; as in signals by Motions or by Sounds.
They arc permanent when the signs are long in view ; as
when flags are kept hoisted to be read; or the symbols
are written on paper; or a signal is made by placing a thing
in a fixed position, and so retaining it — as the arm raised
above the head.

The principle upon which all systems of signals are formed,
is this: that, luning a certain number of arbitrary, simple

16 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signs, sounds, things, colors, or indications, each distin-
guishable from the other, these are made to appear joined
together in any arrangements or combinations which are
possible and expedient, to form other or different signals to
any extent required. We wish, for example, to make a
large number of signals — that is, a large number of signs or
indications — which, when they are exhibited, in any way,
to an observer, and recognized, shall each signify a certain
meaning. We take any few different and simple known
signs, sounds, motions, or indications, which we can easily
make, and we join them together, twos or threes, or more
at a time, making one after another, into many and different
and more complex signs or arrangements. Each of these
new signs becomes, when a meaning is given to' it, a signal.
We can increase the number of such signals to any limit, by
continuing to join together the known signals in greater num-
bers, or in new arrangements. Any thing in existence, of
which we take cognizance, or to which we can, through any
sensation, direct the attention of others, can be used as a
signal. For convenience of naming, the known shnis or
signals with which we commence, are called single ov pri-
mary signals, or elemental-;/ signals. The new signs made
by joining these elementary signs together, are called the
combinations or combination signals. The elementary signs
may be disposed, any number of them being used at a time,
or any number of repetitions of any one of them, or repeti-
tions of any one or more of them being joined, in very
numerous and varied arrangements. The several siuns
exhibited together in one arrangement, then become one
signal for any given meaning. This signal, thus made, is
a signal by combination. It consists of several signals
combined to make one.

The number of different sorts or kinds of signs or indica-
tions used, in making a combination signal, is called the
number of elements of the signal. The number of sio-ns, of

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 17

all kinds, actually used in one completed signal, is the num-
ber of elementary signals in that signal. A combination sig-
nal may be only an elementary signal repeated several times;
or it may be repetitions of one elementary signal joined to
others. In the signal " 1131" there are two sorts of signals —
viz., those indicated by the symbols " 1," and those indicated
by the symbols " 3." The signal is thus of two elements.
There are four signals taken together to make it. The
number of elementary signals is four. In " 1132" there are
three elements and four primary signals. In " 222" there
are one element and three signals.

All systematized signals, — that is, signals formed under
rules — and signals must be systematized, or formed under
rules, if any great number of them are to be used, — are based
on the principles above explained : that the elementary sig-
nals of any system being given, all signals of that system
are made by combinations of those elementary signals.
This principle is identical, in its operation, with that by
which the separate letters — the elementary signals or sym-
bols of language — form, by their combinations, the many
single words of that language; or the numerical digits — the
elementary signals or symbols of numbers — designate, by
their arrangements, the infinity of numbers they are capable
of expressing. In its application to telegraphic signals, this
principle goes back to a further degree, and as in one word
or expression of a number there are several characters, the
elements which go to make up its unity, so in telegraphing
each letter may often be designated by elementary signals,
which, several in number, must join to indicate that single
character.

Of Recording Signals.

The recording of signals, is the writing them down. The
notation of the characters standing for signals, is similar to
that of any other characters in writing. Each elementary

18 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signal is designated by any given character, number, or
mark. The characters indicating the different elementary
signals, joined in each combination signal, are written to-
gether, and by their kinds, number, and order of sequence,
show the kinds, number, and sequences of the elementary
signals which are used in that combination. Signals are thus
written precisely as words are written. As in the written
word are shown the letters — the elements of language which
go to make up that word, their number, and the order in
which they are spoken or exhibited to produce that word-
so the record of a signal shows how many sorts or kinds of
signs or indications are used to make the signal (the num-
ber of elements) ; how many single signs (elementary sig-
nals) are combined to make it ; and the order in which
each must be exhibited, when all are joined together in dis-
playing the completed signal.

We take, for example, any three kinds of known signs,
motions, or colors, which we propose to use as the elements
on which to base a system of signals. We name these ele-
ments First, Second, and Third. We designate each ele-
mentary signal — that is, each of the three different signs, or
each of the three different motions, or each of the three dif-
ferent colors — by figures, as 1 and 2 and 3 ; or by letters, as
a and b and c ; or by the letters w g r ; or we designate them
by any other three marks, or in any arbitrary manner.

If now we wish to show, writing the signals to be read
by others, or observing and noting them down for our own
reference, that the first and third motions are made to-
gether, one after the other, to make a signal ; or, that the
first and third colors are to be so shown as to indicate that
one follows the other in a signal — that is, that in the given
signal there are two elementary signs, and that the first is
followed by the third — we write " 13," or " w g," or "a c."
If using motions, the third motion is to be noted as made,
and followed by the first motion, and that again by the third

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. I'.t

motion, repeated, to make a signal; or, using colors, the
color green is shown followed by the white, and thai by the

green again as a signal — thai is, if the signal is to lie the
third elementary sign, followed by the first elementary sign,
followed by the third elementary sign again repeated ; or,
more briefly, a third element followed by a first element,
followed by a third element, we write " 313," or "c a c," or
"gw g." If a "third motion" is made three times, in close
succession, or three green colors are shown, one after the
other, as the signal — that is, if the signal is a third element
thrice repeated — we write " 333," or u g g g," "c c c," etc.
If still using in no signal more than three different elements
or kinds of elementary signals, a combination signal is made
to consist of four elementary signals, as using three kinds of
motions, four distinct motions are to be made together, one
after the other, as a signal ; — for instance, a " third motion"
followed by a "second motion," this followed by a "first
motion," and this by a " third motion" again, repeated ; or,
using three kinds of colors, four colors are shown together
as a signal, as the green followed by the red, followed by
the white, and this by green again — that is, the signal is a
third element, followed by a second, followed by a first,
followed by a third — it is written " 3213," or "g r w g,"
or "c b a c." If the signal is to be a first element shown
three times in succession, it is written " 111," or " w w w,"
or " a a a," etc. If the signal is to be two first elements
followed by two second elements, as two first motions and
two second motions made together, or two white colors and
two red colors shown together, it is written "1122," or
"a ab b," or " w w it." At the end of the record of each
completed signal, a period is marked upon the paper, or a
space is left to separate it from the records of other signals,
precisely as spaces are made between written words to dis-
tinguish each from the other.

The number of kiuds of characters or symbols appearing

20 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

iii the written record of a signal, shows how many sorts or
kinds of signs or indications are used in making that signal —
i. e., the number of elements. This is called the elementary
number of the signal. In the signal " 1231," there are three
kinds of characters. The elementary number of this signal
is " three." It is a signal of three elements. In the signal
" 121," there are two kinds of characters. The elementary
number of the signal, is "two." It is a signal of two ele-
ments. The elementary number of the signal " 1211," is
" two." The elementary number of the signal " 2," is " one."
The elementary number of the signal " 1 11," is " one." The
elementary number of the signal " 11," is "one." The ele-
mentary number of the signal " 13," is "two."

The number of characters in the written record of a signal,
shows how many single or elementary signs or indications,
of all kinds, are made combined to make that signal. This
is called the combination number of the signal. To make
the combination signal "1231," four single signals are
joined. The combination number of the signal is "four."
To make the signal "121," three single signals are com-
bined. The combination number of this signal is " three."
The combination number of the signal " 111," is " three."
Of the signal " 121," it is " three." Of " 13," it is " two."

Each elementary or single signal, appearing in a combina-
tion signal, and consequently each character, appearing in
the written record of a signal, is numbered as and called a
place. Thus, the signal " 1231," is a signal of four places.
The signal "111," is a signal of three places. The signal
" 132," is a signal of three places. The signal " 2," is a sig-
nal of one place.

A Class of signals is all of those signals to make which
the same number of sio-ns must be used. All signals of the
same number of places, are signals of the same class. Thus,
the signals "121," " b b c," " 333," " w r g, " 123," are all
signals of three places. They are signals of the same class.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 21

The signals " 12," "31," "33," " 11," are all signals of two
places. They are of the same class.

Classes of signals are named from the number <»!' places in
each class. Thus, single signals, or signals of one place, as
" 2," " 3," etc., are signals of the first class. Signals of two
places, as "a a," " 11," etc., are signals of the second class.
Signals of three places, as " 123," " 111," "a a h," etc., are
signals of the third class; and so on.

A Codt of signals is any number of signals arranged and
agreed upon, each having assigned to it its meaning. Codes
of signals arc named from the number of elements used in
making those signals which appear in the code, or from the
number of different kinds of symbols which appear in the
record: as codes of two elements, of three elements ; and
so on.

The Rules of Permutations, Combinations, and
Arrangements, as Applied to Signals.

The mathematical rules for Permutations, Combinations,
and Arrangements, by which any number of things, char-
acters, signs, or symbols of any kind, being given, there
are known the number and qualities of all the changes, com-
binations, and arrangements in which they can be placed
together, apply equally, of course, to the changes, combina-
tions, and arrangements which can be made with those
characters, things, or signs, when used as signals; for, to
make signals, is only to display the different elementaries
given, in the different changes, combinations, and arrange-
ments in which they can be put, giving to each display a
separate meaning. The study of the applications of these
rules to the formation of signals is interesting. The compre-
hension of the principles upon which signals are systema-
tized under them makes clear the theories of signalling,

22 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

and enables us to trace the bases upon which all plans of
signals must be formed.

The Equation of Permutations furnishes the formula by
which any number of characters or things being given, there
is known in how many different changes these characters or
things can be arranged, having, in every arrangement, all
the characters or things given, and no one of the characters
or things to appear more than once in any arrangement.
The Equation of Permutations is as follows :

Let N = number of changes to be sought.
n = number of things or symbols.
Then X=1X2X3**** Xn=answer.

Or the number of changes which can be made, is equal to
a series of numbers from one up to the given number (of
things) multiplied continually together, the last product
being the answer required.

Application. — Any certain number of things, signs, or
indications, of which our senses can take cognizance, being
taken as elementary signals or symbols, to find how many
signals can be made, displaying all the elementary signals
each time, and each time in a different arrangement, no
elementary signal to appear more than once in any one
arrangement —

Rule. — Designate all the elementary signals given, by
numbers, each in a regular series, as 1,2, 3, 4, 5, and so on, up
to the given number. Multiply all of the series of numbers
up to the given number continually together, and the last
product will be the answer required.

If there are six: things given, in how many changes can
they be arranged, using all of the six in each change, and
having six places in every change ?

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 2,6

Number of changes = 1 X - X 3 X 4 x 5 X o = 720.

If five things are given ?

Number of changes = 1 X - X 3X4X5 = 120.

If three things are given ?

Number of changes= 1X2X3 = 6.

For demonstration, let the three things be designated by
a, b, c. We find, by trial, that we can arrange these three
letters in six different ways, and no more; as thus: a b c,
c b a, b c a, c a b, b a c, a c b.

Or, let three figures be used; as 1, 2, 3. We can ar-
range these figures as 1 2 3, 3 2 1, 2 3 1, 3 1 2, 2 1 3, 1 3 2,
in six changes, and not otherwise.

Or, let the elements be three syllables, as mo-ta-la; they
can be arranged as motala, lamota, tamola, talamo, molata,
latoma: in six ways, and no more.

If two things are given, they can be arranged (number
of changes = 1 X2 = 2) in two ways, and no other.

If four things have been given, the same rule shows there
are twenty-four permutations of these tilings.

If five things are given, the permutations are one hundred
and twenty; and so on.

If there are six different-colored flags (and only six) to
be used as signals, Ave learn, by this rule, that we can make
with these flags, hoisting all of them each time, and in a dif-
ferent order of arrangement for each signal, and never show-
ing two similar flags in any signal, seven hundred and twenty
signals. This is the limit of all the signals, so conditioned,
that can be made with these flags.

Or, if there are six sounds or notes, as of a piano, there
can be sounded, one after another, six notes al a time, for
each signal, and in a different arrangement each time for
each signal, seven hundred and twenty signals.

Or, if there are six distinct motions which can be made,
one after the other there are seven hundred and twenty
ways or sequences, in which these motions can be made, all

24 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

being made each time ; they can represent seven hundred
and twenty signals.

With five flags, or sounds, or motions, there would be,
using no flag, sound, or motion twice in any signal, one
hundred and twenty signals of five places.

With four flags, or sounds, or motions, there would be
twenty-four signals of four places ; and so on.

Thus, if the four flags are of different colors, as a white,
a red, a green, a blue, they can be hoisted, four at a time,
twenty-four different ways, reading from above down,
thus: 1st, white, red, green, blue; 2d, red, white, green,
blue ; 3d, green, white, red, blue ; and so for twenty-four
changes.

Or, if there are four sounds, a long, a short, a high, and a
low, they can be sounded, all four at a time, in twenty-four
different orders, as thus: 1st, long, short, high, low; 2d,
short, long, high, low; 3d, high, long, short, low; and so
for twenty-four changes.

Or, if there are four motions, as with the hand, start-
ing from a given point, say as high as, and in front of the
shoulder, a motion up, a motion down, a motion to the
right, a motion to the left, they can be made, making all
four motions at a time, twenty-four different ways, as
thus: 1st, up, down, right, left; 2d, down, up, right,
left ; 3d, right, down, up, left ; and so on for twenty-four
changes.

This rule applies, the number of elements being greater
or less, as the case may be, through all the myriad modes
in which we may devise the elementary signals.

The Table of Permutations, computed up to those which
can be made with nine elements, is as follows :

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

THE NUMBIiU OF THINGS OR
SYMBOLS BEING

1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9

Tin: m mi-.i u OF CHANGES w men
t \\ BE HADE WITH Tin SB
THINGS OH SYMBOLS IS —

120

720

5040

40320

30 2 880

This table is sometimes of value for immediate reference.
It is frequently necessary to agree that each preconcerted
signal shall consist of a certain number of symbols, and also
of a certain number of places : as that each signal shall con-
tain five different elements, and be of five places. In such
cases, if we have five signals or sounds, or flags, or charac-
ters, we know that we may exhibit them, five at a time, and
in one hundred and twenty different ways. We can form
a code accordinsdv.

Or, if nine things are given us, that they may be shown,
nine at a time, and in three hundred and sixty-two thousand
eight hundred and eighty changes. We can make with
them this number of distinct signals.

The Equation of Combinations is the formula by which,
any number of different things being given, there is found
how many changes can be made with these things, taking
any given number of them at a time.

Application. — Any number of elementary signals, or
symbols standing for them, being given, to find how many
combination signals can be made, using the elementary

26 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signals in given numbers of them at a time, and no element-
ary signal appearing more than once in any signal —

Rule. — Designate the elementary signals or things by
numbers, in regular series, up to the full number given.
Take a regular series of deceasing numbers, beginning with
a number equal to the full number of elementary signals
(symbols) given, and diminishing by one for as many terms
as shall be equal to the number of elementary signals to be
used at a time, multiply the numbers of this series together,
and the product will be the amount required.

Illustration.— If five things are given, how many dif-
ferent combinations can be made, using all of these things,
but using only three at a time ?

The number of combinations =5X4X3 = 60, the answer.

If three things are given, how many combinations can be
made, using only two things at a time ?

Number of combinations = 3X2 = 6, the answer.

For illustration, let the three things given be the letters
a, b, c. The combination of these letters by twos are ab,
ac, be, ba, cb, ca, or six in number. Or let the three things
be three figures, 1, 2, 3. The combination of these figures,
by twos, are 12, 13, 21, 23, 31, 32, six in number. Or let
the three things be three syllables, mo-ta-la. The combina-
tion of these syllables, by twos, are mo-la, mo-ta, la-ta, la-
ma, ta-mo, ta-la, or six in number.

If seven things are given, to be used three at a time, no
thing being used more than once in any combination, the
number of combinations would be 7X0X5 = 210, the
answer. -

If there are six different-colored flags to be used as sig-
nals, we learn, by this rule, that there can be made with
these flags, hoisting them two at a time and in a dif-
ferent order of arrangement for each signal, and never
showing two similar flags in any signal (6X5 = 30), thirty
signals.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 27

Or hoisting three flags at a time, with the same condi-
tions (6X5X4=120), one hundred and twenty signals.
Or hoisting tour flags at a time (6X5X4X3=360), three

hundred and sixty signals.

Or hoisting five flags at a time (6XoX4X3X2 = 720),
seven hundred and twenty signals.

Or hoisting six flags at a time (ii X- r > X IX 3 X 2 X 1 = 720),
seven hundred and twenty signals.

The practical use of this rule, is t<> enable us to at once
determine, any number of things, motions, etc., being de-
cided upon to be used as signals, how many signals can be
made with them, using them by twos or threes, or other
number of them together.

If then there are six sounds or notes, as of a piano, there
can be sounded two dissimilar notes, one after the other at
a time, for each signal, and in different order of arrange-
ment for each signal, thirty signals. Or, with three notes at
a time, there can be sounded one hundred and twenty sig-
nals. Or, with four notes sounded, four hundred and eighty
signals. Or, with five notes at a time sounded, two thou-
sand four hundred signals.

If there are eight kinds of flashes, how many different
signals can be made, showing two dissimilar flashes at a
time ? (8 X 7 = 56), the answer.

How many different signals can be arranged for six
different kinds of rockets, it being agreed that three dis-
similar rockets shall be thrown up for each signal '? An-
swer, 120.

If there are nine different-colored flags, how many sig-
nals can be made, hoisting four different flags at a time?
Answer, 9X8X7X6 = 3024.

With five different sounds, how many signals of the
third class, or of three places, can be made? Answer,
5X^X3 = 00. How many signals of the 2d class? An-
swer, 5X1 = 20.

28 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Any number of things being given, to ascertain the sum
of all the modes in which they can be exhibited, using all,
or any one, or any number of them, at a time, no thing ap-
pearing twice in any exhibition.

Rule. — Find the number of combinations of each class
which can be made with the things given. The sum of
these numbers added together will be the answer re-
quired.

Application. — Any certain elementary or primary sig-
nals being given, to find how many signals in all can
be displayed, computing all the signals which can be
exhibited with these elementary signals, using all of them
or any numbers of them together, or any one of them,
no elementary signal appearing more than once in any
signal —

Find, by the preceding rules, the number of signals of
each class which can be made with the given number of
signals. The sum of all these numbers, added together,
will be the answer required.

If there are six elementary signals given, the total of all
the signals which can be exhibited will be: 1st, all the sig-
nals which can be shown by using the given signals sepa-
rately, each as a single signal : or signals of one place, or of
the 1st class. Added to [2d] all the signals which can be
made by using the given signals by twos, or as signals of
two places, or 2d class. Added to [3d] those which can be
made by using them by threes — that is, signals of three
places, or 3d class. Added to [4th] those which can be
made by using them by fours — that is, signals of four places,
or 4th class. Added to [5th] those which can be made by
using them by fives — that is, signals of five places, or 5th
class. Added to [6th] those which can be made by using
them by sixes— that is, signals of six places, or the 6 th
class. Thus, by preceding rules, the total number of signals

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 29

equals 6 [signals of* the 1st class] +30 [signals 2d class]
+ 120 [signals 3d class] +360 [signals 4th class] +720
[signals 5th class] 720 [signals Oth class] equals 1956,
the answer.

If five elementary signals are given, how many signals,
of all kinds, can be exhibited ? Number =(5 + (4x5) = 20 +
(5x4x3) = 60 + (5x4x3x2) = 120 + (5x4x3x2)=120) = 325, the an-
swer.

If there are six different flasks, how many signals can be
made showing no two similar Mags in any signal ?

There can be made, showing one flag at a time, six sig-
nals ; showing two at a time, thirty signals ; showing three
at a time, one hundred and twenty signals ; showing four
at a time, three hundred and sixty signals; showing five at
a time, seven hundred and twenty signals ; showing six at
a time, seven hundred and twenty signals. The total is
1956 signals.

If there are four different sounds or notes, as of an instru-
ment, how many signals, of all kinds, can be made, sounding
no two similar notes in any signal ?

There can be sounded four signals of one note each,
twelve signals of two notes, twenty-four signals of three
notes, twenty-four signals of four notes. Total, 64 sig-
nals.

If there are four different motions, how many signals
can be made, making no two motions alike in any
signal ?

There can be four signals of one motion each, twelve sig-
nals of two motions each, twenty-four signals of three mo-
tions each, twenty-four signals of four motions each : equal
to sixty-four signals in all.

The practical use of these rules is to enable us to deter-
mine, any certain number of signs, sounds, motions, etc.,
being decided upon to be used as signals, hoAV many dif-

30 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ferent signals, of all kinds, we can display with them, using
no sign twice in any signal.

Equations of Arrangements. — Any certain number of
sorts of elementary signals, or symbols standing for them,
being given, and it being permitted to use any combination
or arrangement of these signals, or of the symbols, and any
repetition of any one or more of them in any signal, to find
how many signals of any class — that is, of any certain num-
of places, can be made with these signals —

Rule. — -Take the whole number of elementary signals, or
of the symbols, and multiply it continually by itself so many
times less one as there are places in the required signal; or
raise the given number of signals or of symbols to that power
of which the number of places to be in the required signals
shall be tlie exponent.

The formula is as follows :

Let N = the number of changes of possible signals.

n= number of sorts of things (of the elementary sig-
nals or of symbols).
n' = number of places to be in the required signals.

ThenX^n"'.

Example. — Using three sorts of elementary signals, and
repeating any symbol as often as may be necessary in any
combination signal, how many signals of four places (4th
class) may be made ?

X umber of 4th class signals = 3 X 3 X 3 X 3 or 3* = 81.

How many signals of three places ?

Number 3 s , or 3X3X3 = 27 signals.

For demonstration, let the given signals, or things, be of
the sorts designated, as 1, 2, 3. These figures can be ar-
ranged, 111, 222, 333. 112, 113, 221, 223, 331, 332, 213,
312, 321, 123, 132, 231, 232, 212, 323, 313, 121, 131, 133,

MANUAL OF SICXALS. 31

122, 233, 211, 322, 311— thai is, in twenty-seven modes. No
other or more exhibitions of three places arc possible.

Or let tlic Mills of things be of letters, as a, b, c. Let-
ters of these kinds can be exhibited in* expressions of three
places, as follows, and not otherwise: aaa, bbb, CCC, aab,
aac, bba, bbc — and thus on to twenty-seven expressions.

It will be seen, in these two instances, that the result at-
tained, by actual trial, is precisely that indicated by the
mathematical rule.

Having two sorts of flags, as a number of red flags ami a
number of white flags; or a number of strips of red cloth
and of -white cloth, how many signals can be exhibited,
showing four flags or strips in each signal ? 2 X 2 X 2 X 2, or
2 4 = 16, the answer.

How many showing three flags at a time? 2X2X2 = 8,
the answer.

With any two sorts of sounds, as of a bass and of a light
drum; or, two different kinds of notes, as of a piano or a
bugle, how many signals can be sounded with three sounds
in each signal? IS r umber = 2X 2X2 = 8, the answer.

With any two sorts of motions, as motions to the right
and motions to the left, or motions up and motions down,
how many signals can be made, making four motions for
each signal? Number=2 4 = 16, the answei\

Any certain number of sorts of elementary signals, or
symbols standing for them, being given, to find how many
different signals can be made, computing all the signals
which can be exhibited with these elementary signals, using
all the expressions which can be made by exhibiting any
numbers of them togethei', or any one of them, or any repe-
titions of any one or more of them in any signal, the limit
of computation being fixed only by the number of places to
be in the highest class of signals —

Rule. — Find the number of signals of each class which
can be made with the given elementary signals irp to and

32 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

including those of the limiting class ; add these numbers
together. The sum will be the answer.

The formula is as follows :

Let N=number of signals required.

n=nuniber of sorts of things or signals (of the ele-
ments or of the symbols).
n'= number of places to be in the limiting class of
signals.

Then N = n+n 2 + n 3 + * * * * + n u ' equal the answer.

Example. — If there are three sorts of elementary signals,
how many signals, of all kinds, can be made, computing up
to those of four places ?

Number =3 (signals of 1st class, or single signals) +9
(signals of 2d class, or of two places) + 27 (signals of 3d
class, or of three places) + 81 (signals of 4th class, or of
four places) = 120, the answer.

Or, more plainly, the total number of possible signals,
wjth these conditions, is the number of signals of one place
that can be made added to the signals of two places, added
to the signals of three places, added to the signals of four
places, the limit.

If there are two sorts of elementary signals — that is, if
the elements to be used in making any required signals are
but two in number — how many signals can be made, no sig-
nal having more than three places ?

Number =2 (signals of the first class) +4 (signals of 2d
class) +8 (signals of the 3d class) = 14, the answer.

If there are six kinds of motions, how many signals can
be made, having in no signal more than three motions ? —
Six of one motion, thirty-six of two motions, two hundred
and sixteen of three motions. Total, 258 signals, the an-
swer.

How many different signals can be made with drums,
hats, knapsacks, and coats, showing not more than four
articles for any signal ?

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 33

Number=4+4 3 + 4 3 + 4 4 = 340, the answer.

If there are two sorts of flashes, as of red flushes and of
white flashes, how many signals can be made, no signal
having more than five flashes?

:Number=2 + 2- + '2 3 + 2 4 + 2 6 ; or, 2+4+8+16+32 = 62,
the answer.

If there are two kinds of motions, as motions up and
motions down, from a fixed point, how many signals can be
made, using not more than four motions for any signal ?

Answer, 30.

For convenience of reference is inserted the table on the
following page, showing the number of sorts of elementary
signals (i. e., the elements) to be used, and the number of
places to appear in the signal being given, how many sig-
nals of each class (that is, of any certain number of places)
can be made. This table is drawn for all signals up to
those of nine elements and nine places.

For use, find at the left of the table, between two hori-
zontal lines, the number of elements. Find at the top of
the table, between vertical lines, the number of class, or
number of places to be in the signals. The number inclosed
by these four lines, at their intersection, shows the number
of signals that can be made. Thus, with three elements,
how many signals of four places can be made? Find three
(the number of elements) on the left of the table. Find
four (the number of places) at the top. The number at the
intersection of the inclosing lines is 81, the answer.

With seven elements, how many signals of the 4th class
can be made? Number opposite 7, on the left of the table,
and 4, at the top, is 2401.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

1-1
JO

00
CO

00
JO

1—1

^tf

co
c*

i— t
■«*

o
oo

-t<

CO
CO

JO
CJ

CO
00
JO
JO

JO
CM

co
o

co
a

CO
-V

"<*(

T-^

T— 1

CO
CO
O

cs
t-

■>*

JO
00

T— t

cs
o

CO
CI

CO
©

r-l

■<*

CO
CM

CO
JO

<cm

JO
CM

1-1

l— 1

T-H

E-

T}<

1—1

T— I

—

T}<

PLATE I.

EXAMPLES OF PERMUTATIONS, COMBINATIONS, AND ARRANGEMENTS.

There being given as Symbols— Red, Green, Yellow, Bine, Purple.

THESE ARE PERMUTATIONS.

T3 □

In Permutations, all the Symbols given are used, but each time differently placed.

Symbols given : Red, Green, Yellow, Blue, Purple.

THESE ARE COMBINATIONS.

In Combinations, the Symbols given are used two or three or more together at a time.
No Symbol is used more than once in any Combination.

Symbols given : Red, Green, Yellow, Blue, Purple.
THESE ARE ARRANGEMENTS.

i rrnr

tzczn

In Arrangements, all the Symbols may be used in any arrangement, or thoy may
be used two or three or more together to any extent, and any of the Symbols may
be repeated any number of times in any arrangement.

H WL'AL OF SIGNA1 B. 35

Plate T. affords Examples of Permutations, Combina-
tions, and Arrangements. These can be practically illus-
trated by the use of colored blocks to bo permuted, com-
bined, or arranged at will.

The Rules of Permutations and Combinations besl apply
to permanent signals. As signals of this kind are generally
shown, all the elementary signals, or the components of the
complete signal, are exhibited together, and remain in view-
so long as the signal is exposed. It, is thus difficult, is in-
convenient, and is often impossible to repeat any of them
in the same signal. Similarly, the Permutations and Com-
binations of any determined number of things show only
those changes which can be made without repeating any-
thing in any change.

The Rules for Arrangements have their most useful ap-
plications to transient signals; or, to those cases in which
it is necessary to improvise signals with any things that
may be at hand ; as when there are but very few kinds of
articles, but large numbers of similar articles of each kind,
as strips of flannel of two or three different colors; coats
and kerchiefs; caps and knapsacks; drums and bunches of
hay, etc.

Transient signals, and signals made with these simple
things or signs, admit readily of repetitions. It is easy in
making signals of flashes, as by a lantern, to repeat these
flashes, making one after the other; and similarly can be
repeated sounds, as of a bell, or motions made with any-
thing. In the same way, if there are strips of flannel, and
there are only two colors among them, it is easy to hoist
the strips two, or three, or four at a time: the repetitions
of any strip in any signal forming parts of that signal.
Some idea of the very great gain in the scope of represent
tation, which is made by using in signals all the arrange-
ments into which repetitions or combinations of repetitions
enter, may be had from the following instance :

o6 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

With three things used as signals, in all ways, as by-
ones, by twos, and by threes, we can make but fifteen sig-
nals, if no repetition is permitted in any signal. Thus
there are [see combinations] 3 of one place, + 6 of two
places, + 6 of three places, = 15.

With three sorts of things, repetitions of things being
used as signals, and repetitions of one or more of them
being permitted in any signal, we can make, no signal
having more than three places, thirty-nine signals. Thus,
there are [see arrangements] 3 of one place, + 9 of two
places, + 27 of three places, = 39. Or the power of repre-
sentation is more than doubled.

Alphabetic Elementary Codes.

The Alphabet we use is a code of twenty-six signals, by
combinations of which all words [word-signals] are made,
and which, by long practice, we recognize readily when
made by sound [spoken], or by sight [written]. All lan-
guage [spoken or written] is simply signals by sound ; or,
signals made visible. Any other signal symbols would
have answered just as well for the letters, if we were as well
trained to recognize them. To illustrate this, it is neces-
sary only to consider the different alphabets of the different
languages, which, differing from each other in appearance
and in sound, are equally efficient to convey all meanings
of the respective languages. To devise telegraphic alpha-
bets, or sign-languages for the English language, is to
represent these twenty-six letter-signals by other signals.
These other signals we make as simply as possible. We
may designate each letter by a distinct or arbitrary signal.
It is better to use systematized signals. Thus, if we have
any two motions, signs, sounds, etc, we are to use as ele-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 37

meats or symbols, -\ve designate the twenty-six letters of
the alphabet, each by one of the firsl twenty-six arrange-
ments, or combinations of these elements. Or, we may
use any twenty-six combinations or arrangements. The
iirst twenty-six are generally used, because they are the'
shortest.

Thus, for instance, there are, say, two elements, and
these are symbolized by the figures "1" and "2." Then
A may be 1, B may be 2, C may be 12, D may be 22,
E may be 11, F may be 21, G may be 121. H may be 212,
I maybe 221, J maybe 112 ; and so on. Now, for a second
illustration, if the primaries taken are colors, as red and
white, then " 1 " may stand for the " red," and " 2 " for
the "white;" and the letters may be the colors shown.
Thus,

A, may be 12, which is "red-white;" or,

B, " ' 121, " "red-white-red," "

C, " 111, " "red-red-red," " fl

and thus for all the alphabet.

It is as easy to read "A," or "B," or "C," when we see
these color-symbols, as it is to read A or B or C printed.
This is a code of two elements.

Xow if, instead of two motions, or two colors, etc., or
two elements, there are to be three, then we designate the
twenty-six letters of the alphabet, each by one of the first
twenty-six combinations or arrangements of three symbols.
Then, for instance, A may be 1, B may be 2, C may be 3,
D may be 12, E may be 13, F may be 21, G 31 ; and thus
on.

Now if the three primaries are colors, as red, green, and
yellow, then —

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

A, mav be 1, which is

" 9

-•>

« 12,

" 13,

» 21,

" 31,

" red,"

or,

" green,"

" yellow,"

" red-green,"

" red-yellow,"

" green-red,"

" yellow-red,"

and thus on.

The letters now under a different guise from those last
shown, are as easily read in the colors as before, or as the
printed letters.

So they as easily form words ; thus the word caged is in
color-symbols :

□

The word beaded is in color-symbols

□ so ■ cj m

The same word is in figure-symbols :
2 13 1 12 13

If there are five elements assumed, the symbols are 1 , 2,
3, 4, 5. Then A may be 12, B 13, C 14, D 15, E 21, F 22,
G 23, and so on.

Now if the elements are colors, as red, green, yellow,
blue, and black, then —

A, may be 12,. which is "red-green,"

B, " 13, " "red-yellow,"

MANUAL OF SIi.NAI S.

C, may be 14, which is " red-blue,"

D, " 15, " "red-black,"

E, " 21, "

F, " 22, "

G, " 23, "
and thus on.

" green-red,"
" green-green,"

" green-yellow,"

The color-letters are again as legible as the printed.

If there are six elements, then the signal alphabet is the
first twenty-six arrangements of these elements. Symbol-
ized, A may be 22 ; B may be 13 ; C may be 14 ; 1) may
be 15 ; E may be 16 ; F may be 21 ; and so on.

If these elements are colors, as red, green, yellow, blue,
white, and black —

and so for the alphabet.

It will be noticed by these illustrations, that the number-
symbol standing for each letter, as clearly symbolizes it as
•Iocs the color-symbol. The letter-numbers, written each
after another in proper sequence, form words.

In the same manner, if the elements had been, instead of
the colors, different motions or sounds, etc., symbolize' 1 by
the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc., as have been the colors in

40 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

these examples, the figure combination or number standing
for each letter, would clearly indicate the signal motions
or sounds, etc., required to be made together to signify it.
It is rarely worth the while to devise signal alphabets of
more than six elements for the purpose of telegraphing.
The principle of procedure would remain the same.

Signal Numerals are devised after the same manner as the
Letters, by the arrangements of the given elements ; ten
additional arrangements, made for this purpose upon the
same plans as the letter-signals, designating the nine digits
and the cipher. Thus, to make an alphabet, and in addition
the numeral digits, the first thirty-six, or any thirty-six ar-
rangements of the given elements are taken. The illustra-
tions for the numerals in the codes of each order (i. e., those
of two, three, four, five, and six elements, and so on) would
be similar to those in the cases of the letters of the Alpha-
bets.

Thus, for a code of two elements, the colors " white" and
"red" being elements, and the figures " 1" and " 2" the
symbols —

The numeral character " 1" may be symbolized as 1221,
or, " white-red-red-white ;" or,

The numeral character "2" may be 2112, or, "red-white-
white-red;" or, I

The numeral character "3" may be 2212, or, "red-red-
white-red ;" or, I

and so continued for all the digits and the cipher.

For a code of three elements, colors " red," " white," and
"blue," the elements; figures " 1," "2," "3," the symbols,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. .j-1

the numeral character "1" may be 321, or," blue-white-
red ; Or, <

The numeral character "2" may be 128, or, "red-white-

blue;" or, ■■"

The numeral character "3" may be 132, or, "red-blue-
white;" or,

etc., etc., etc.

When distinctive signals are not devised for the numerals,
the letters of the alphabet are sometimes used as numerals.
Thus, A would stand for the numeral " 1 ;" B stands for the
numeral " 2 ;" C stands for the numeral " 3 ;" and so for the
ten characters. Thus to make " 365," there would be writ-
ten or signalled "CF E." To make " 10," is made " AJ."
To make " 12," is made " AB." To make "42," is made
"DB."

The Roman style of numeral letters may be used when
<ihey are preferable.

Periods, Commas, points of punctuation, etc., are, in each
order of signals, formed by arrangements of the same ele-
ments as are the alphabets.

Thus for a code of two elements, " red" and " white :"

A period "." may be 12221, or, HZZEZC

A comma "," " 21112, "
A colon ";" " 21212, "

The illustrations for codes of three or four or more ele-
ments may be devised.

It, will be understood that any motions, colors, or signs
could have been used as elements instead of the colors above
given for illustration.

42 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To complete a sign-language, it is only necessary that
letter- signals, formed as here illustrated, should be made
one after the other into words, having a pause of time or a
signal after each letter, so that each may be distinct ; and a
longer pause, or a pause-signal, after each word, to show
that it is completed. As a general rule, the pause of time
will be sufficient to separate the letters. It is proper to use
a pause-signal after each word. Signal numerals and points
of punctuation, etc., should be used when they are neces-
sary, the completed numeral, or point of punctuation, having
after it a pause-signal.

Preceding and following numeral letters, should be a pre-
concerted signal: the sio-nal letter " n," for instance, to
clearly note the letters to be used as numerals.

Message Codes of Signals.

Message codes are devised that messages may be sent by
preconcert. When parties are about to separate, it may be
necessary to provide for such communication, or it may be
needed in certain contingencies possibly foreseen. Codes
are prepared as follows :

Any number of signals, or any number of numerals, or
any number of letters are written in a column, one after the
other, either singly or combined. Opposite each of them,
or any of them, are placed whole sentences, or parts of sen-
tences, which it may be supposed it will be necessary to
transmit. For each of these sentences, the appropriate
numerals, or letters, stand — that is, they indicate it. ft ow,
Avhen any one or more of these number or letter indices are
signalled, the sentence opposite in the column, and for which
it or they stand, is supposed to be meant, or transmitted ;
and these sentences are read, either one at a time, convey-
ing complete messages ; or one after the other, in the order

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L3

in which the indices are shown, making together the com-
plete message.

Examples of Codi -

1, Close with the enemy.

2, Enemy arc pressing.

3, Close to the works.

4, Send us.

5, Men.

6, Horses and harness.

7, Guus and ammunition.

8, 1 will go.

9, Fall back to your first position.

10, Enemy are in full retreat.

11, Cease firing.

23, Advance cautiously, etc., etc.

Such lists may be prolonged indefinitely.
Or, this could be written as follows ; the first ten letters
of the alphabet used instead of the numeral characters:

A, Close with the enemy.

B, Enemy are pressing.

C, Close to the works.

D, Send us.

5jC "jC *fi rjp

AA, Cease firing.

BC, Advance cautiously, etc., etc.

And so through the list.

Now the indices in the columns maybe of any number of
places, and their number may be increased to any extent.
So, for instance :

89, or HI, which may stand for, "we are in want of siege
materials ; '

90, or IJ, which may stand for, "the obstacles are im-
passable ;"

44 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

989, or IHI, which may stand for, " we Avill rejoin you
to-morrow ;"

9901, or IIJA, which may stand for, " be guided hereafter
by written instructions ;"

are examples of indices in two, three, and four places. So
thousands of messages may be written in books, each mes-
sage having opposfte to it its indicating numbers or letters.
The signal-books of navies are arranged in this manner.

If with such lists the numeral " 1" or "A" is signalled,
the signal would be read, " Close with the enemy."

The signal " 2" or the letter " B" made or shown is read,
" Enemy are pressing."

So any sentence is indicated by signalling the figures or
letters which stand for it. These figures or letters must be
signalled without any pause-signals or separating signals
between them, when the clauses or sentences are to be read
conjoined. Meanings are entirely changed by using or not
using separating signals between the figures. For example,
the signal " 23" or " BC" shown is read, "Advance cau-
tiously." But the signals " 2" and " 3," or the letters " B"
and " C," made or shown in close succession, with a distinct
separating signal between them, are read, "Enemy are
pressing — Close to the works." The numeral "4" or letter
" D" made alone is read, " Send us." The numeral " 3" or
letter " C" signalled is read, " Close to the works." The
signal " 4 — 3" or " D — C" (that is, these signals made with
separating signal between them), is read, "Send us — Close
to the works ;" the sentences being joined together in the
order in which the signals are exhibited. The signal " 43"
or " DC," the same signals without the separating signal,
might have an entirely different meaning, and might stand
for any single sentence.

In the supposed list, the signal " 4673," or " DFGC,"
signalled together, might mean, " Open communication with

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 15

the Fleet from both sides of the river," or any preconcerted
message. The signals " 4—6—7—3," or " D— F— G— C,"
signalled one after the other and separated, would read,

"Send us — horses and harness — guns and ammunition —
close to the works."

Codes can be made to contain any number of messagi
and of greater or less length. It is often convenient to
have codes arranged for a very few sentences: as for de-
tachments operating in a mountainous country a few mes-
sages may be arranged which will enable them to combine
their movements at distances of twenty or thirty miles.

It is not essential, in forming codes, that the indices shall
be formed with the combinations of the nine digits and the
cipher. Any given number of symbols or letters, or any
simple signals, may be taken, and then every possible ar-
rangement of these becomes, when exhibited, an indicating
signal for a sentence. The rules before given enable us to
compute, before attempting to draw the codes, how many
indicating signals can be thus made; how many signal>
each of a certain number of places can be made; and other
facts necessary to be known. These points will be under-
stood by reference to the examples under the rules.

To form codes, is only to attach meanings to any signals.
The signals themselves are to be studied and computed un-
der the rules which have been given. Thus, if but three
elements are to be used, codes would be drawn containing
only the arrangements of three symbols: as, for instance,
those of the characters " 1," " 2," and " 3 ;" and there could
be so many signals in the code as there are arrangements
of three symbols, counting all up to arrangements of any
fixed number of places.

1 may be, "Cavalry are approaching rapidly on your

right and rear."

2 " "The shells are thrown too far and have too

long fuses."

112

111

((

213

3321

32212

2321

3333

46 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

3 may be "Keep that range; shots striking well."
" The shots ai*e killing our own men."
" Anchor further in shore."
" Shell between 4th and 5th traverses."
" We have carried the 4th traverse."
" Send sailors to left and rear."
"Withdraw the marines; the sea wall is

too hisrh."
" Bring up a battery of howitzers."
" Fire rapidly by compass S. S. W."
" We have carried the works ; cease firing."

It is evident that any number of these, or of other mes-
sages, may be indicated by showing not more than three
sorts of fla^s or signals in different arrangements. The
extent to which representations can, in this way, be carried,
may be estimated from the fact, that with six sorts of flags,
or lights, or motions, there can be made, showing in no
signal more than six symbols, fifty-five thousand, nine hun-
dred and eighty-six signals. Thus there can be six signals
made, showing a single light for each ; thirty-six signals,
showing two lights for each ; two hundred and sixteen sig-
nals, showing thi-ee lights for each, one thousand, two
hundred and ninety-six signals, showing four lights for
each ; seven thousand, seven hundred and seventy-six sig-
nals, showing five lights for each ; forty-six thousand,
six hundred and fifty-six signals, showing six lights for
each.

In drawing a code for all these signals, it is plain no
more than six distinct letters, or six distinct figures (six
different symbols), one to stand for each light, need be
used.

It is a general principle, in forming codes of signals, that
the indices should be as brief as possible; thus the number
of elements to be used being given, it should be determined

M WUAL OF SIGNALS.

by computation beforehand, how many, and what are the
shortest combinations that can lie used; and to these should
be attached the meanings which arc to form the code.
Thus, if there are five elements to be used, we can designate
these by numerals, l, 2, 3, 4, 5, or by the letters a, b, c, d, > .
Now we know by the rules of permutations, combina-
tions, or arrangements how many indices of two, three, <>r
more places we can form with these figures or letters. We
write down, of the shortest of these, as many as we may
need; these are our indices. We place opposite each index
whatever sentence we may wish to indicate by it, and so a
code is formed. It is of course immaterial whether each
letter orfigure is indicated, when we come to signalize these
indices by a flag, a colored flame, a sign, a motion, flash,
sound, or even by measured intervals of silence — the mean-
ings will be equally conveyed.

EXAMPLE OF A NAVAL CODE.

59
60

r.l

62
63
64
65
66
67
68

Will be at single anchor

Are you going to anchor ?

Shall endeavor to anchor
in the hay, in view, or
the one pointed out

Propose-s to anchor, if the
wind will allow of get-
ting into a tolerable
berth, and the bottom is
satisfactory

Can you spare an anchor?

Only" one anchor left

When you, lie, or they are
anchored

Lost an anchor

No anchor left

In want of an anchor

Have crept lor my anchor

Anchor stock-s

Sheet anchor-s

Bower anchor-s

Stream anchor-s

Kedge anchor-s

Prepare to anchor

Anchor immediately

Anchor as soon as conve-

nient

Anchor on bearing pointed

out

Anchor in line of battle

Anchor in order of sailing

Anchor in line abreast

Anchor in two columns

Anchor in three columns

Anchor as most conveni-

ent to lire at a mark

Anchor in two lines, boats

with guns in advance,

and in close order

Anchor close in >hore

Anchor in close order

Anchor in open order

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

I shall anchor

122

Shall I anchor?

123

Creep for anchor

124

Weigh anchor

125

Anchorage is safe, or good

anchorage for ships

126

Anchorage is unsafe

Cut out, and bring off ves-

127

sels at the anchorage

128

Destroy vessels at the an-
chorage

93 Arsenal-s

129

Destroy the arsenal

130

Assist-s-ed-ing-ance-t-s

131

Can you assist '?

132

Can you assist me with ?

Have, or has, given every

133

assistance

134

If I have immediate assist-

135

ance

136

100

Do not, or did not, require
any assistance

137

101

Require-s the assistance of

138

102

Require-s immediate as-

sistance

139

103

Do you require assistance ?

101

Will you give any assist-
ance ?

140

105

Cannot assist

141

108

Should you require any

142

assistance

143

107

What assistance do you

144

require ?

145

108

Give every assistance to

146

109

Give immediate assistance

147

148

110

With the assistance of

149

111

Without any assistance

150

112

Assist disabled vessels, or

151

boats

152

113

Attack-s-ed-ing

153

114

Shall I attack ?

154

115

Begin the attack

155

116

Postpone the attack

156

117

Mean to attack the enemy

157

as soon as possible

158

118

Have, or has, been at-

159

tacked by

160

119

Cannot be attacked

120

Shall, or will you attack?

121

To be attacked

Attack has commenced
Baggage

Send baggage to the rear
Pack up baggage ready to

retreat
Leave heavy baggage on

board
Barge-s

Send the barge
Note. — Numeral signal will
show which

Recall the barge
Battery-ies
Are there any batteries ?
What state do the batter-
ies appear to be in ?
There are batteries
There are no batteries
The battery-ies can be
Under the battery-ies
Keep possession of the

battery-ies
The enemy's batteries are

destroyed
Can you keep possession

of the battery-ies ?
The enemy is throwing up
batteries
Bayonet-s
Charge bayonets
I am in need of bayonets
I can spare bayonets
I have no bayonets
Send me bayonets
Beam-s

On the beam
Before the beam
Abaft the beam
Keep on weather beam
Keep on lee beam
Bear-s-ing-borne-bearer-s
How did she, or it, bear ?
She, or it, then bore
Bearings and distance
Bear up together
Bear up in succession
Bear up

Bear up together, and
preserve the starboard
line of bearing, steering
lh« course indicated

MANUAL OF BIGNALS.

10 1

162
163

164

165

166
167

168
169
170
171
172
173

174
175
176

177
178
17!)

Bear up together, ami

preserve the port line

of bearing, steering the

course indicated

Form starboard line of

bearing
Form port line of bearing
Note. — By the line of bear-
ing is meant that the ships,
or boats, are to bear from
each other on the point of
the compass on which they
would sail when on a wind,
if formed in a line ahead,
on the starboard or port
tack.

Ranged on die line of
bearing, but ship too
much to starboard
Hanged on the line of
bearing, but ship too
much to port
Blockade-s-d-ing
Declared in a state of

blockade
Still continues in a state of

blockade
The blockade is taken off
Blockade the entrance of
Is, or are, blockading
Has broken the blockade
Board-s-ed-ing
Iu want of boarding pis-
tols
In want of boarding pikes
Light-house board
Got on board
Have, or has, on board
Is not on board
( nine on board

180

181
l8a

is:;

184

185
186

187

188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202

203

204
205

206

207

'.'OS

Return on board

Remain on board

What vessels have you
boarded ?

Bring master on board
with papers

Quit immediately, and
come on board

Embark, and come on
board

Bring boat, or vessel, on
board

Board the vessel, or Ni-
seis, pointed out

Prepare to board
Boat-s-ing

Will send a boat

Cannot send a boat

Send me a boa!

Boat is on shore

Have, or has, lost a boat

Send boat-s at

Search that boat

In your boat

In my boat

How many boats ?

Guard-boat-s

Boat's crc\v-s

Boats to assemble on the
off side

Boats to assemble on tie'
near side

Gunboats to

Gunboats to go in shore
and cover the troops

Gunboats to be in readi-
ness for

Flat-boats to assisl in

Flat-boats to be on shore
by

NAVAL SIGNALS.

The following brief description of the United Stales naval
codes of signals, is based tipon information received from
Rear Admiral Charles H. Davis, V. S. NT., the former chief

50 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

of the Naval Bureau of Navigation, and from Commodore
Thornton A. Jenkins, U. S. N., the present chief of the
Bureau. The values and colors of the Signal Flags change
frequently and are arbitrary.

The Signal System of the United States Navy em-
braces a Signal Code and a Telegraphic Dictionary, each
being used through the medium of signal numbers, as the
ciphers, or distinctive representatives of signal communica-
tions. Both the Code and Telegraphic Dictionary are
alphabetically arranged.

The Signal Code.

The Signal Code is a collection of Signals completely ex-
pressed in connection with their representative ciphers, or
signal numbers, and comprises commands of evolution in
naval tactics, and various orders, instructions, questions, an-
swers, phrases, etc., of most frequent use in the naval ser-
vice. It also embraces the names and corresponding signal
numbers of all vessels on the Navy List of the United
States.

Signal communications are effected by showing, in the
authorized symbolic form, the signal numbers which respect-
ively represent the signals to be made.

The Telegraphic Dictionary.

The Telegraphic Dictionary is an auxiliary to the Code
of Signals in extending the range of signal correspondence.
It consists of an Alphabet and Vocabulary, with a corre-
• sponding series of signal numbers.

Signal communications are made through the medium of
the Telegraphic Dictionary in two ways : first, by composing
the desired communication from words in the vocabulary,
the words being separately shown in successive signals ;

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 51

secondly, by composition from words not in the vocabulary,
the communication being spelled out in successive Bignals
of the letters of which the words are composed. A com-
munication may also be made partly from the alphabet and
partly from the vocabulary!

The Commeri i.w. Code.

Besides the Navy Code, there are several well-known
codes of signals recognized by the commercial marine of
different nations, which it is expedient to notice in this
place; because it is necessary to make use of some one of
these codes for the purpose of signal communication be-
tween vessels of the navy and commercial vessels.

Of these, the most prominent are, "The Universal Code,"
of the late Captain Marryatt, of the royal (English) navy;
"The Code International," of Captain Reynold, of Paris;
and "The Commercial Code," of the British Board of
Trade. The first and second codes use signal numbers as
ciphers of signal communication ; while the third, or Com-
mercial Code, uses signal letters, permuted in sets of two,
three, and four each, for the same purpose.

The Commercial Code, being largely used by American
and British merchantmen, is, by a general order of the Navy
Department, issued to all vessels of the United States navy,
together with the necessary signal flags as a means of facili-
tating communication between the latter and the former.

The Commercial Code, in addition to General Signals,
Alphabet, Vocabulary, Geographical Names, etc., contains,
in a separate volume, an English and American Marine List
of both war and commercial vessels.

52 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

METHODS OF SYMBOLIZING SIGNAL NUMBERS.

The Signal Numbers, in both the Navy Code and Tele-
graphic Dictionary, commence with the number 10, and
terminate, the former in four figure numbers, the latter in
five fi oj ure numbers.

For symbolizing the signal numbers, two methods for
general use are authorized by the Navy Department. These
are : first, the old method of Colored Flag and Light Sig-
nals, recently improved in certain respects; and, secondly,
the new method of Chronosemic Signals. The first is de-
signed for ordinary use, during day or night, in the absence
of fog ; and the second is designed for use, during day or
night, in the presence of fog. The latter, however, being
adapted to general use, with the aid of the simplest ap-
paratus, may be employed whenever it shall be deemed
expedient.

NAVY COLORED SIGNALS.
Figure Symbols.

The Colored Signals of the Navy are based upon the use
of colored flags during the day, and colored lights during
the nitiht.

Each system comprises ten distinct figure-symbols for the
respective elemental figures,

0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9;

and, in addition, certain auxiliary symbols, of use in signal
operations.

The day figure-symbols consist of ten rectangular flags of
uniform size. These flags exhibit the single colors, white,
red, blue, respectively ; double combinations of the same

PLATK II

SIGNAL FLAGS A: LIGHTS

FLAGS

COSTON

FLAGS

COSTON
LIGHTS

p"3| H

zz z

Cornet

I Guard r lav

To be carried
at the

fore roya]

Mast head

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 53

colors, in triangular halves, white-red^ red-blue^ blupwhiU :

triple combinations of the same colors, in equal horizontal
divisions, white-red-white, redwhitwi d, bltu -whit* -blut ; and
a double combination, consisting of a ichite field, bearing a
blue cross. (Plate II).

The night figure-symbols are colored flames or lanterns,
and show the single colors, white, red, green; double con-
secutive colors, white-red, red-green, green-ichite ; triple con-
secutive colors, white-red-white, red-iohite-red, green-w/dt,-
green, respectively; and the double consecutive colors,
white-green. (Plate II).

It should be noted that, in these symbols, the green
color of a light is regarded as the counterpart of the blue
color of a flag ; and, with this qualification, it will be ob-
served that the same order of succession of the Bimple
colors, in both flags and light, and the same compound
arrangement in the flags, and successive illumination in the
lights, correspond to the same figures in the entire series,
from to 9 inclusive.

Signal Numbers.

A Signed Number is represented, during the day, by
hoisting, in the required order, the flag symbols which show
the several figures of the number, reading from above
downward; and, during the night, by exhibiting in rapid
succession, the light symbols which show the several fig-
ures of the number in their natural order.

Signal numbers which contain one or more repetitions of
the same figure, if made by flags during the day, require
the use of repeaters. These are colored triangular flags,
and are distinguished as the first, second, and third re-
peaters. (Plate III.)

The first repeater shows a red field with a white rect-
angle at the base, and is used to repeat the lirst figure;

54 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the second repeater shows a blue field with a white rect-
angle at the base, and is used to repeat the second figure ;
and the third repeater shows a white field with a blue
rectangle at the base, and is used to repeat the third figure.
(Plate IIL)

The following examples illustrate the use of repeaters in
showing signal numbers :

Numbers. Symbols.

2029 2. 0. R x . 9 ;

1335 1. 3. R 2 . 5 ;

5644 5. 6. 4. R 3 ;

7505 7. 5. 0. R„ ;

6666 6. R v R a . R 3 ;

22226 2. R v R 2 . R 3 . 6 ;

in which P, with the proper subscript, represents the re-
peater to be used in such cases.

Auxiliary Symbols.

The auxiliary symbols, which are used in connection
with the figure symbols, are five in number, under the
following names: Preparatory, Answering, Interrogatory,
Numeral, and Cornet.

The Preparatory, for day use, is a triangular flag, with
a triple arrangement of colors, blue-white-blue, in equal
lengths ; for night use, it is a light of a single color, white.

The Ansicering, for day use, is a triangular flag, with a
triple arrangement of colors, tchite-red-blue, in equal
lengths ; for night use, it is a light of triple consecutive
colors, vh ite-red-green.

The Interrogatory, for day use, is a triangular flag, with
a triple arrangement of colors, wh ite-blue-white, in equal
lengths ; for night use, it is a light of triple consecutive
colors, wh if i -green-wh. ite.

PLATE III

REPEATERS.

SIGNAL PENDANTS

An severing

COSTON LIGHTS

Interrogatory

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

i.i

The Numeral, for day use, is a triangular flag, of the

single color, red; for night use, it is a lighl of double
consecutive colors, green-red. (Plate III.)

The Cornet, for day use, is a rectangular flag, of two
colors, white-red, in alternate right-angled quarter sections;
for night use, it is a rocket. (Plate II.)

General Instructions.

The flags will be made of the best quality of bunting, in
material, and in brilliancy and fastness of colors. 'Flic pro-
portions of the flags, as well as their absolute dimensions,
which are variable for different classes of vessels, will con-
form to the Navy Regulations.

The light symbols will consist of the colored flames
known as .the " Coston Night Signals," or of lanterns fitted
with suitably arranged colored glasses.

Each Coston signal of a single color, for example, for the
• figures 0, 1,2, burns 14 seconds; each symbol of double
colors, as 3, 4, 5, 9, continues 28 seconds ; and each symbol
of triple colors, as o, 7, 8, continues 42 seconds.

(are will be observed, by the person appointed to ob-
serve distant signals, to avoid, as much as possible, looking
at the brilliant flames of the Coston signals burning near
him, in order not to injure his perception of the different
colors of the distant signals.

The example of a Naval Code, on a preceding page,
illustrates the great variety of messages that may be ar-
ranged for codes of this kind. (See page 47.) The values
and colors of Naval Signal Flags and Lights are changed
constantly ; and those here given are shown for illustration
only.

56 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

GENERAL APPLICATIONS.

It is difficult to realize, without reflection and the illus-
t rations of actual example, that on the simple rules just
given, must have been based, from the beginning of the
world, all signal systems of whatever character; and that,
by the simplest and easiest modes, following these rules,
intelligible communication may be had by devices abso-
lutely infinite in number, and plans extending in their ap-
plication to every perception of which human sense is
capable, and to every thing in existence to which attention
can be directed. There is no thing, or sight, or sound, or
motion, or taste, or odor, perception, sensation, or indica-
tion, but by which or through which ideas and meanings
may be intelligibly transmitted, and which may thus be
used for signal communication. Says Chatfield, " It
seems, at first sight, very singular that a blind child should
be taught to read ; but observe what the common process
is with every child : a child sees certain marks upon a plain
piece of paper, which he is taught to call a, b, c ; but if you
were to raise certain marks in relief upon pasteboard, as you
may of course do, and teach a blind child to call these marks
which he felt a, b, c, a blind child would as easily learn his
alphabet by his fingers as another would do by his eyes,
and mio-ht or> on feeling through Homer or Virgil as we
do by persevering in looking at the book. ' Just in the
same manner,' says Sydxey Smith, ' I should not be sur-
prised if the alphabet could be taught by a series of well-
contrived flavors ; and we may live to see the day when
men may be taught to smell out their learning, and when
a fine scenting-day shall be (what it certainly is not at
present) considered as a day peculiarly favorable to study.'"

Through every sense there may be received or caused
different sensations.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 57

Anv number of these different sensations, of anv Bense.
may be taken as those to be caused or to he understood as
the elements of any system of signals.

If these are now produced in sequences or arrangements,

following the principles and the rules of signals jusl illus-
trated, it is plain there may be devised systems of signals
for any sense; the signal being as readily understood, and
conveying to the mind the same meaning, through whate\ i r
sense it reaches it.

The principles of signals arc immutable. The applica-
tions of these principles are endless. To treat of the modes
of making signals, is only to describe the infinite devices in
which human ingenuity exhausts itself to best make these
applications. Novelty as to the principles is impossible.
There is scope for invention and discovery only as to the
ingenious application of principles well known for centuries,
and the mechanical devices to make those applications most
available.

The object of all signalling is, to convey ideas ; or to
converse at a distance. Telegraphing, in its widest sig-
nification, is only conversing by a sign-language. Signal-
ling is telegraphing. Language itself is a conventional
system of signals which, by long practice, we use skilfully.
Signalling, as is generally understood by the term, has been
erroneously limited to preconcerted sentences; because the
means employed were ineffective to rapidly transmit all the
phrases of language. The perfection of signalling or tele-
graphing, it to be able to transmit any terms of any lan-
guage with precision and dispatch without preconcerted
codes.

To illustrate the many means which can be used for sig-
nals, the following examples are given:

58 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Significations by Positions (plate iv.)

If in Fig. 1 the arm a is inclined obliquely downward and
on the right of the upright u, as at a, this position may be
assumed as a primary signal or an element.

The arm placed horizontally on the same side of the up-
right, as at b, (Fig. 2), is another signal.

The arm inclined obliquely upward, and on the same side
of the upright, as at c, (Fig. 3), is a third signal; and so on,
through all the different and the distinct positions d, e,f : (/,
in which the arm can be placed, (Fig. 4).

Let the signals be designated by figure-symbols, as by 1,
2, 3, etc., and it is evident the given rules will determine
the number of indications which can be made.

Thus the positions "1, 2," made together, one after the
other, would be one signal. The positions " 1, 3, 2," a dif-
ferent signal. The positions "2, 1," a third signal. If now,
"1 2," stands for A, "1 3 2" for R, and "2 1" for E, these
three signals, made in this order, would signify the word
ARE. It is plain, that with any twenty-six signals made
after this fashion, by combining the three positions, we
could make all the letters of the alphabet.

To make signals by positions, there is needed one fixed
position, to which all the others may be relative, as the
head of the upright in this case, and some mode of indi-
cating what signals are to be taken together ; as in this
case a swing of the arm (a), to be made at the end of each
combination ; or letting it start from the position r, (Fig.
4), at the beginning of each combination signal, and return
and rest in that position at the close of each signal ; or any
other agreed sign may be used. This signal has been be-
fore mentioned as the " pause-signal." Upon plans such
as these, more elaborated, most semaphores are devised.

Now the positions may be any positions of any of the
most common things, and they may be exhibited anvwhere.

FLATF IV

••

Fig.4.r

l^Pgs.One orT 2*POs.lwo or "2" 3F*Fos/three" or 3' Pos.r orrest&Fos

a./b.e.d.e.f.tf.

Fie-*'.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 59

Of course the hand and arm of a man, standing upright,
could be used just as well as the machine above described.

Or, to illustrate further, we can place a number of books
or miscellaneous articles, lying in different positions, as
relative to some central book on the table, (Plate IV., Fig.
5). Now it' the different books are designated by numbers,

as -k J," "2," " 3," etc., touching each indicates it as a sig-
nal ; and touching the central book shows the beginning or
end of a signal — that is, the pause-signal. Then, if we
touch book " 1 " and " 2 " (the first and second), and then
the centre book as a signal ; then the first and third and
second, or " 1" and " 3" and " 2," and then the centre,
and then the second and first, " 2" and " 1," and then the
centre as other signals, thus touching the centre between
each combination signal, we make three signals ; and, as
before, the letters A, R, E, the word " ARE."

Of course by further combinations, as " 3 2," " 1 2," etc.,
all the letters of the alphabet could be represented. We
can vary this experiment by endless changes of the objects
we use, or of their number, or of the positions assumed, and
by any of them continue to send intelligible messages.

Significations by Motions.

If a handkerchief is held in the hand, at the height of
the face, and is thence waved to the right, and to the left,
and up, and down — always returning to the face at the end
of each motion — four distinct motions are made. (Plate
IV., Fig. 6.) These can be designated by figures, as 1, 2,
3, 4, and can be made conjoined by twos or threes or fours
as signals; those motions, which are to be read together
as signals, being made to follow each other so rapidly that
there shall seem to be no rest between them ; the handker-
chief held resting at the face, indicating the completion of
a signal, or being a pause-signal. Thus, if the motion to

GO MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the right is known as " one," the left as " two," the motion
above the head as " three," and the motion down as " four,"
if we now make three signals, as " one — two," " one — three
— two," " two — one," the handkerchief resting at the face
between each combination signal, these are as before the
letters A, R, E. As in the former instance, other combi-
nations of these motions may represent the other letters of
the alphabet. It does not need demonstration that any
other motions whatever, or a greater or less number, taken
together, than in these instances might be used to designate
letters by signals, as simple or as complex as we choose to
make them.

Significations by Sounds.

If we can make with a bell or drum, by varying the
course of the stroke, or in any way, two or three or more
different sounds, as a high, a low, and a soft sound, we can
designate these as " one" and " two" and " three."

It is easy to understand by preceding illustrations how,
if we sound " one — two," a pause, " one — three — two," a
pause, "two — one," and cease, we indicate the letters A, R,
E ; and how, by further combinations of these sounds, there
may be given a particular signal for each letter of the alpha-
bet. Of course sounds of any kind may be used, as notes
of bugles, of pianos, or the tapping of a finger on differently
sounding articles on a table, whistling, etc. It makes no
difference, in the example, what may be the force of the
Bounds, or the number used; whether they are the reports
of differently charged cannon, or the tickings of tele-
graphic instruments. For illustration, any person can send
messages by combinations of the two sounds made by tap-
ping on a book "one," and on a candlestick "two," the
alphabet constructed, say as follows: "two — one" is "A;"
" one — two — one" is " B ;" " one — one — two" is " C ;" and
so on, combining ones and twos. Some electric telegraphs

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Gl

work in this way. Messages may be sent with three Bounds,
as taps on a candlestick, "one;" on a book, "two;" and <>u
a plate, "three;" as "one— two" is " A ;" one — three —
two" is "B;" "two— one" is" C;" and thus on. The illus-
tration may he continued, using any number of differentl
sounds, making alphabets in which the letters are desig-
nated by four sounds, or five sounds, etc.

Significations by Touch.

We can cause any several different sensations by touch :
as, by touching the hand with a rough body and a smooth ;
with a sharp point or a dull; or by a long pressure and a
short ; or by a different number of taps, as with a finger
upon the hand. Whatever may be the different sensations
caused, they can be designated by numbers. The process
of making signals by touch, is as before described. Thus
the rough touch may be known as " one," and the smooth
as "two;" these sensations caused as follows: " two — one"
may mean "A;" then "one — two — one" is "B;" "one —
one— two" is " C ;" and thus through other combinations of
one and two through all the alphabet.

Or one finger may be touched to indicate "one;" the
next finger touched be " two ;" the third be " three." Then,
with the combinations of one and two and three, we may
make any signals.

Or four fingers may be touched, and these signals may be
of all the arrangements of "one" and "two" and "three"
and "four." It is evident that, continuing the experiment,
every kind of combination may be made and read by touch.

Significations by Taste.

If there are articles of different tastes, as salt ami sugar
and mustard; or liquids, as brandy, cider, and water, these
different tastes may be designated as "one" and "two" ami

G2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

'• three." Now if any two, as brandy and cider, are offered
in succession to the taste, they make signals of meaning.
Thus, "two— one" is "A;" " one— two— one" is " B ;"
" one — one — two" is " C ;" and thus an alphabet. Or if the
three are taken, then the similarly tasted signals are made
bv combinations of the three tastes ; or the tastes may be
increased in number, and furnish signals of any kind.

Significations by Odors.

If there are three perfumes, as that of the rose, the violet,
and the hyacinth, these can constitute the designated ele-
ments, " one" "two" " three." If but two are taken, as the
rose, " one," and the violet, " two," and the perfume of the
violet and then of the rose is offered, there is the signal
" two — one," or " A ;" so the perfume of the rose followed by
violet followed by rose is " one — two — one," or " B ;" so
the perfume of rose twice presented and followed by violet
is " one — one — two," or " C." The alphabet of perfumed
signals would follow in the variety of arrangements of these
two elements.

Or using geranium, rose, violet, and hyacinth, we devise
signals with the arrangements of " one," "two," "three,"
and "four," or of four elements; so multiplying the per-
fumes and their combinations, it is plain any signal what-
ever may be indicated by their use.

Significations by Colors.

It will be readily recognized how colors, as red, blue,
yellow, green, black, may have significance. They may be
designated by numbers, as one, two, three, four, five, etc. ;
and then, when properly represented, show all the signals
that arrangements of these symbols can express. Thus, if
two are used, blue followed by red, and shown one after
the other; or if the colors are in flags, one shown above the

PLATE V.

SIGNALS BY COLORS.

Fie i

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig.4

Blue-red-21 Red-blue-red-121 Red-red nlue -112 Red blue-yellow-123

SIGNALS BY FORMS.

Fig. 5.

*A 2 n 3 o *<C>

Fig. 6.

□ A AaA ■□ o O

Two-one-21 One two -one -121 Two three -four-234

Fi£7.

Tv-o-one-21 One -two one-121.

Fig. 8

L A*< l> V 3

One -foiir-14 Two-three-23

Fig. 9.

Positions 1.2.3.4

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 63

other (Plate V, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4), the signal "two- one" is
made, or A; so "one — two — one,'' or "red, blue, red," indi-
cates B ; and "one — one — two," or "red, red, blue," ia (':
so, using red, blue, and yellow, are made Bignala of three
elements with these colors, as in preceding examples. < >r,
increasing the number of colors, signals of any combination
of colors may be made. The signals by colors may be per-
manent, as when colored flags are exhibited, or any colored
objects are arranged and kept in view to make the signal ;
or they may be transient, as when flashes of colored lights
make the signals ; or the colored flames of pyrotechnic com-
positions are used. It is manifest that, however the colors
may be displayed, their use, and the principles upon which
they must be used, remain the same.

Significations by Forms.

Plate V, Figs. 5, 6, 7. — If there are different forms, as tin-
triangle, the square, the circle, the diamond, these may be
made significant : they may be designated as " one," " t w< >,"
"three," and "four," etc., and then exhibited in proper
combination and sequence, indicate any combination or ar-
rangement of these elements: so if the triangle is known as
" one," and the square as " two," a square and a triangle
displayed, as with flags one above the other reading from
above downward, or side by side reading from left to right,
would be " two — one," or "A." A triangle, a square, and
a triangle similarly displayed, would be "one — two — one,''
"121," or "B;" a square, circle, and diamond, "two —
three — four," " 234;" and so for any desired Q£

Significations by Positions of Foems.

A triangular form may be exhibited in different positions
relatively to some position fixed, a- with the apex or point

64 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

up, the point down, the point on the right, the point on the
left, etc.

To these different positions of the form, significance can
be given. They may be known as " one," "two," " three,"
and " four," etc., and when exhibited as by preceding plans
have meaning. (Plate V, Figs. 8, 9.) Positions, forms,
colors, positions of forms, etc., have, of course, equal mean-
ing, whether exhibited as aerial signals, or drawn as sym-
bols on paper.

These illustrations might be extended to infinity. They
have been given to show, in a plain way, how endless are
the applications of the principles of signals, and how simple
is the study of the subject ; to establish, by example so
practicable as to be interesting that, for every sense, there
are signals, and through every sense, we can converse, in a
language fitted for that sense, as intelligibly as in that to
which our lips give utterance. The common illustrative
examples here given, should be practised. No signalist
should believe that he comprehends the principles of signals,
and the endless modes of their possible application, until he
has himself devised alphabetic signals for each sense, and
with these signals, has sent and received, using that sense
alone, understandable messages.

The alphabet should be devised in different ways, and
with varied numbers of elements.

In the study of semiology, the student ought to be re-
quired to illustrate the preceding lessons by exercises upon
the blackboard, and to determine, by his own ingenuity,
what his elementary signals shall be, and how he will com-
bine them.

A good signalist ought to be able to use any tilings as sig-
nals, and to apply at any time the rules to improvise codes
in many different ways. The principles must be thoroughly
understood. A few days' study and practice will then so
far perfect almost any persons, as to render it nearly im-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 66

practicable to prevent them from talking, l>y signs of Bome

kind, past any guards or sentries, or in spite of other re-
straint that may be put upon them.

FIELD SIGNALS BY ONE ELEMENT.

Signals of this kind are not much used for general pur-
poses. Their employment is almost always to convey one
or a few preconcerted messages. For signals of this class,
one thing or indication is to be used, and the signal is not
to be considered as varied, though the symbol may vary in
any signal. To mark the close of each complete signal,
there must of course be a pause of time, or a pause-signal.
A good illustration of signals of this kind is found in the
striking of a clock; twelve different hours are indicated by
the same; and a single sound, repeated the proper number
of times to suit each hour. The beat of sound is here the
signal element. If in the striking of any hour, this sound
varies so as to make two or three different notes even, this
diffei-ence of sound affects, in no way, the meaning of the
signal. Signals of this kind may be used in the field, as
where one rocket is thrown up to indicate any one message ;
two rockets, a second message; three rockets, a third mes-
sage ; and thus on to any given number.

Or a lio-ht may be shown a certain number of times, as .1
candle shoAvn at a window and then removed, to stand for
" one," or the first message ; shown twice for " two," or the
second message; three times for "three," or the third mes-
sage; and thus on. Or, in a field or in a boat, a lantern
may be kept lighted in a pail, and hoisted out of the pail
and returned to it to make each Hash. ( >r a lantern may In-
shown from behind a fence, or any kind of screen. In th
illustrations, the flash of the light is the signal. Each com-

66 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

plete signal may be shown by a wave of the light, or any
other sign, as the pause-signal. Or guns may be tired the
required number of times for any signal.

Now, in any of these signals, which are to depend upon
the number of times a light is shown, or the number of
times a gun is fired, no difference of meaning is made, if the
light changes, or if there is difference of sound in different
reports of the gun ; for it is remembered one element only is
used, and that the signal depends solely upon the number
of repetitions of that element. For instance, a white light
shown twice, would stand for message number "two."
A white light shown, and then a red light, making two in
all, would also stand for "two." So the preconcert being
that one element only is to be used in a set of signals, they
may be made to seem much varied.

Signals of one element, when used in the field, are gen-
erally for instances as these : to fire two guns to indicate
a completion of a military movement ; to throw up three
rockets, or one rocket, to announce that a portion of the
army is to move. Of course several such messages can be
arranged in one code.

Example or a Code.

A rocket, gun, stroke of a bell, drum-beat, steam-trumpet
blast, to stand for each unit of number.

I, Army attack.
II, Gunboats open fire.
IIT, We are in position.
IIII, Fire rapidly, etc., etc.

.2 ^

1, Army attack.

2, Gunboats open fire.

3, We are in position.

4, Fire rapidly, etc., etc.

The characters in either column indicate the same desisr-
nating signals ;— the character I in the first column indicat-
ing by each of its repetition^ the repetition of the signal for
which it stands.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. (',,

The signals of such a code may be flashes of Light, <>r
beats of sound, or colored flags, or separate motions, or any
indications which can be made distinct, and in Buch way
that they may be counted.

FIELD SIGNALS BY TWO ELEMENTS.

The plan of signals most used in the army is one by two
elements. The systematizing of signals, using a liasis of
two elements only, permits illimitable applications at once
so much more simple and more varied than any other, that
it has seemed best adapted for general use. The mosl
ancient systems of which there is record, can be reduced to
this principle of formation, and later invention has been
able only to apply the principle with more skilful system
and in more efficient modes.

In time of war, the intelligent co-operation of the army
and navy becomes essential to the success of many opera-
tions.

The same alphabetic code of signals should then be used
by both forces, and the same plans of cipher, distributed to
chosen officers of the army and navy, should enable the
communication to be by either concealed from the enemy.
The signal service of the United States will not be complete
until it has been so extended, that every vessel of our na\ \
can be certainly, whenever in view, in communication with
each post on land, and with every considerable body of
land forces.

The following General Service Code was prepared to se-
cure this communication:

08 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

GENERAL SERVICE CODE.

(an arrangement of two symbols.)

A, 22 P, 1212

B, 2112 Q, 1211

C, 121 R, 211

D, 222 S, 212

E, 12 T, 2

E, 2221 U, 112

G, 2211 V, 1222

H, 122 W, 1121

I, 1 X, 2122

J, , 1122 Y, Ill

K, 2121 Z, 2222

L, 221 &, 1111

M, 122 L ing, 2212

N", 11 tion, 1112

O, 21

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message.

22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent : " I understand," or "mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals/'
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

212121— Error.

211.211.211— Move a little to the right.

221.221.221— Move a little to the left,

Flag waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

Numerals.

1. 21112 — Wait a moment.

2. 1 2 2 2 1 —A re yon read y ?

PL ATK VI

*^t

Second Motion -Tv.

Two -One -Two -One - -I.:]"

Tin • •

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. GO

3. 22122—1 am ready.

4. 22212 — Use short pole and small flag.

5. 22221 — Use long pole and large Hag.

6. 12222— Work faster.

7. 11222— Did you understand ?

8. Ill 1 2— Use white flag.

9. 11211— Use black flag.
0. 22222 — Use red flag.

"When the numerals are used in transmitting messages as
code signals, they have the meanings given above, opposite
each character.

a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have,
n — not r — are. t — the. u — you.

ur — your. w — word. wi — with. y — why.

The Roman letters mav be used instead of numeral char-
acters. Or the first ten letters of the alphabet may be used
as indicated at page 41.

The signal for "the address of the message is now com-
plete," is made thus: the flag, being in the first position is
dropped to the front, and then waved in full circles twice
to the right, passing over the head. It then resumes the
first position. The signal for "the me-sage is signed as
follows," is made thus: the flag, being in the first position,
is dropped to the front, and then waved in full circles twice
to the left, passing over the head; it then resumes the first
position.

This code, distributed to the different posts or vessels, is
accompanied by a card as follows , on page 404.

The use of this card is for reference. It may be carried
in the pocket-book.

The "General Service Code" is intended to be used tor
general communication between different parties on land,
or between vessels, or between vessels and parties on land.

70 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

It is for the purpose of transmitting such messages only as
may constantly occur in service, and concerning which it
does not matter whether they are interpreted by the enemy
or not.

Ciphers, either to be agreed upon by particular command-
ers or published generally through the command, must
always be used in the transmission of messages of impor-
tance, or for any communication which might give informa-
tion to an enemy.

Instructions for Using the Code.

The whole number ojjposite each letter stands for that
letter.

The numbers are made, by motions of the flag or signal,
to the right or left or in front of a vertical position.

Day Signals — Motions op Flags.

To make day signals, there being furnished the Regula-
tion set of Signal Equipments, a flagman, standing, holds in
his hand a plain signal-staff, eight or twelve feet long, hav-
ing a signal flag attached to its upper extremity.

Positions and Motions.

There are one Position and three Motions. (Plates VI.
and VII.)

The first position is with the flag held directly above
the head of the flagman, the butt of the staff at the height
of the waist, and grasped by both hands, the hands sep-
arated from each other about eighteen inches.

To make the first motion, or " one" or " 1," the flag,
being at the first position, is waved to the ground to the
right, and instantly returned to the first position.

To make the second motion, or " two" or " 2," the flag,

PLATE VII

First Position-or "Readv

1 1 1 st Motion-'One'-T

Second Motion- Two- "2"

"Two-One — 1:1

"One-Two-One-Two — "1212"

"Three- 3 - or- Froiil

MANUAL OP SIGNALS. 71

being at the first position, is waved to the ground to the
left, and instantly returned to the first position.

To make the third motion, or "three" or " 3," the n.i-_r,
being at the first position, is waved to the ground directly
in front of the flagman, and instantly returned to the firsl
position.

The "first motion" is known for the signal " one," and is
indicated by the numeral " 1."

The "second motion" is known for the signal " two/' and
is indicated by the numeral " 2."

The "third motion" is known for the pause-signal "front,"
or signal "three," and is indicated by the numeral "3."

When the number is a single figure, but one motion of
the flag, to the right or left, is required to make it.

When the letter-number consists of more than one figure,
the motions of the flag for each figure follow each other
without any pause between them. When the flag stoji> in
the vertical position, it indicates that the letter is completed.

Thus to make "I," or "one" or "1," the flag is waved
once to the right (right) and then pauses in the fust,
position.

To make " A," or " two two," or " 22," the flag is waved
without pause twice to the left (left left) ami then broughl
to the first position. So for any number of "twos" follow-
ing each other.

To make "13," or "two one one two" or "twenty i

twelve" or "2112," the flag is waved, without pause, once
to the left, twice to the right, then to the hit (lefl righl
right left), and then brought to the first position— that is,
one "second motion," followed by two "first motions," fol-
lowed by one "second motion," the flag not stopping be-
tween the motions.

To make "C," or "one two one" or " 121," the flag is
waved, without pause, once to the right, once to the left, and
then to the right (right left right), and then broughl to the

72 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

first position — that is, one " first motion," followed by one
" second motion," followed by a " first motion," the flag not
stopping between the motions.

To make three "fronts" or " three three three" or " three-
thirty-three" or " 333," the flag is waved directly to the
front to the ground three times without pause, and then
returned to the first position.

The code, as printed, indicates accurately the flag-motions
or waves for each letter.

At the end of each letter the flag remains in the first posi-
tion about two seconds, to show that the letter is finished.

To Send a Message.

First call "attention" by waving the flag successively
from side to side, until it is seen and answered by the
opposite station. The station call will " answer" by making
22 . 22 . 22 . 3, the general signal for assent or affirmation, to
signify that it is ready to receive the message. The commu-
nicating station then makes 22.22.22.3, signifying, "I see
you are ready to receive the message," and then proceeds to
transmit the message, letter by letter. A pause is made at
the end of each letter. At the end of each word, the flag is
waved to the ground, directly in front (" 3,") to show that
the word is finished. At the end of each sentence, there is
a pause, and the flag is waved to the ground twice, directly
in front (" 33,") to show that the sentence is finished. At
the end of a message, the flag is waved to the ground
three times, directly in front ("333,") showing that the
message is finished.

When the signal " 333," " end of message," is made, it in-
dicates, "My communication is complete; I await your an-
swer." The station receiving the message will, upon noticing
the signal " message complete," if the message has been cor-
rectly received, immediately answer, with the signal of

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 73

assent, "22.22. 22. 3;" and will then, if the Bending station
has finished, signal in turn such messages as it may have to
communicate. If, however, the message, or any part of it,
has not been correctly received, or is not understood, tin-
receiving station will make the signal for "Repeat,"
" 121 . 121 . 121 . 3," followed by the part of the message to
be repeated, as " 121 . 121 . 121 . 3 after or before the word
■ — (here signal the word after or before which the repeat is
required)." If the message is not understood at all, the sig-
nal " 121 . 121 . 121 — all" is made. In commencing a repe-
tition, the sending station will always commence by making
the "signal of assent," to show that the call for "repeat" i-
understood.

This "signal of assent," ' meaning "I understand," will
be used habitually at the commencement of all communi-
cations.

When, in the transmission of a message, a mistake is made,
as may happen by the error of the signalist or of the flag-
man, the "error signal" " 212121 . 3" is made. The sender
then, beginning with the letter in which has been the error,
signals it correctly, and proceeds with the message.

To make clear the mode of signalling, let us suppose the
word "able" is to be signalled. The receiving station has
been called with the "attention signal," and has answered
with the "signal of assent." The signalist now makes
" 22 . 22 . 22 . 3," both to show that he has seen the " assent,"
and that the receiver may be sure he sees the first Letter.
Then there are made, first, the signal numbers of the letter
"A," "22;" there is then a pause of two seconds, the flag
being in the first position. The signal numbers of the let-
ter "B," "2112," are then made, followed by another pause.
Then the signal numbers of the letter " L," " 22 1 ," succeeded
by another pause. The signal numbers of the letter " E, '
" 12," are then made. The flag is then dropped to the front
("three" "3''), returning to the first position to indicate that

74 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the word is ended,— and thus, in a message, word by word,
until the message is completed.

The signal "address complete" is made just after the
address; and the signal "message signed" is made just
before the signature.

At the close of the message the signal " 333" is made.

The receiver acknowledges the message correctly received
by the signal of " assent ;" or, if it is not understood, he pro-
ceeds as before indicated.

Ordering Signals.

When signals are made with the Regulation Signal Equip-
ment and by a flagman detailed and practised for the pur-
pose, the flagman properly placed and equipped and stand-
ing with the flag and staff in the " first position," each signal
is ordered by calling off briskly, as an order, the numbers for
the signal, — the flagman making promptly, on hearing each
order, those motions with the flag indicated by the signal
numbers ordered. Each letter-number must be called
plainly, distinctly, and clearly by itself, that the flagman
may know, before commencing the signal, what numbers
are to be made together without pause, so that the motions
may be made rapidly and well timed. Thus, in orders,
" A" " 22" would be ordered by calling " twenty-two ;"
"B" "2112," by calling "twenty-one twelve;" " C" " 121,"
" one-twenty-one," Signal " 3" "three," Signal " 33" " thirty-
three."

In the same manner, the signalman being beforehand
thoroughly drilled in the working, the orders may be given
for whatever apparatus — each signal being made as directed
for the particular apparatus on the hearing of the order.

With practised signalmen, the letter, Avord, or clause of
a sentence to be transmitted, may be given in words and
without the orders for the signal numbers, unless the mes-
sage is to be in cipher.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. JO

When in actual Bervice, the signals arc made whollj m
cipher; and the greatest care is needed both in the order-
ing and in the record.

Recording Signals.

"When circumstances render it necessary, a pause will be
made at the end of each sentence, to permil thai sent nice
to be accurately written down. With skilled signalists,
such pauses are not necessary. Each signal number may
be taken down with a pencil as soon as it is seen, and after-
wards translated by reference to the code. When the
siii'nalist is accustomed to the code, this may be dispensed
Avith, and only the words and sentences are written down
during the pauses. "When two men are together at a sta-
tion, one man looks through the glass and calls the num-
bers, as fast as they are seen, to the other, who writes them
down. Messages are thus recorded in the signal numbers
composing them. This is done by writing for each letter
the signal number which stands for it; thus the word
"WAS," written in signal numbers is, "1121 22 212,"
each letter in signal numbers being separated from the nexl
by a small space. Each complete word is separated from
the next by a dash; as "WAS— NOT," is in signal
numbers, "1121 22 212—11 21 2."

When secret or cipher codes, codes devised for the :a-

sion, or codes not before used, are employed; or when the
commander wishes a message signalled of which he and his
correspondent alone shall know the meaning, the message
may be thus reduced to signal numbers, which may be
secret, before being placed in the hands of the Bignalist,
who then becomes simply a medium for the transmission
of the message, without knowledge of its contents. By
this plan of reducing a message to its signal numbers written
upon paper before it is sent, and of recording upon paper

76 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the signal numbers made by others as they are received,
translating them afterwards by the code, it will be found
that messages may be almost immediately exchanged,
though slowly, by those having knowledge of the principles
of the codes without the study or practice of any particular
code.

In calling off, from the glass, signal numbers to be re-
corded in writing, each signal number must be called, dis-
tinctly and completely, by itself; as, for instance, " one
twenty-one" "twenty-two" "one twelve," and so on.

The rules for sending, receiving, ordering, and recording
are of general application, whatever style of signals may be
used.

Day Signals — Vertical Motions.

Let there be an upright rod or standard (Plate VIII,
Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4) projecting, as above the roof of a house or
the deck of a vessel, on which the signal ball B can be
moved freely up and down by halyards, or by a light
" moving-rod" moving in a groove in the upright.

The moving-rod, to which the signal ball is attached, ex-
tends below the deck or roof, where it can be grasped and
worked by hand. The upright rod is called the " signal
staff," — it should be about five feet long. The centre of the
signal-staff is the point of reference and of rest.

The " first position" is when the signal ball is at the
centre or point of reference.

The ball being at the first position : —

To make the " first motion," the signal " one" " 1," the
signal ball is moved rapidly to the top of the signal staff
and instantly returned to the first position.

To make the " second motion," the signal " two" " 2,"
the signal ball is moved rapidly to the bottom of the signal
staff and instantly returned to the first position.

To make the " third motion," the signal " three" or " 3,"

PLATE Mil.

Fig ;

Fie.i

SI !

,,,,

Mb I two Pause Signal

, I

'• ; -I

Fig 8, -

; !

Mot. one

\fut. tiro

I 'aiiv Signal

Mode of Sending
up Flags

IVt.-aih

Mull. hi

Motion I

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 77

the signal ball is moved rapidly in what is called a half
motion, a little above and then a little below tin* point >>t'
reference, and instantly returned to the first position.

The same ball, resting at the point of reference, is the
pause-signal, to denote the completion of any letter-signal

The length of movement which can be most conveniently
given to the signal ball, when worked by a " moving-rod,"
is aboxit the length of the arm above the centre of tin- Bisr-
nal staff to make the " ones," and about the same length
below that point to make the " twos."

To work the signal ball, the signalman, standing under
the deck or inside the house, holds, grasped in Ins right
hand, and at the height of his shoulder, the handle of the
moving-rod, as at Plate VIII, Figure 1.

The signal staff and the moving-rod are so proportioned
that the signal ball is then at the point of reference. This
is the "first position, or " ready."

To make the " first motion," " one" " 1," the right arm,
the hand grasping the handle, is quickly extended the full
length of the arm, above the head, and instantly returned
to the first position.

To make the " second motion," " two" " 2," the right
arm, the hand grasping the handle, is quickly extended the
'full length of the arm, below the shoulder, and instantly
returned to the " first position."

To make the " third motion," " three" " 3," a short,
quick motion is made, above and below the shoulder, with
the hand grasping the handle.

In this way, the ball, being at the first position, to sig-
nal "A" "22," the hand and rod-handle are carried twict
at arm's length, below the shoulder, and at once returned
to first position; the signal ball moves rapidly twice to
the foot of the standard and then resumes the first position.

To signal "1"' "1212," the hand and rod-handle are
carried, without pause, once at arm's length above the

78 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

shoulder, then once at arm's length below the shoulder,
then again at arm's length above the shoulder, then ao-ain
at arm's length below the shoulder, then return to first
position ; or there is made one first motion, followed by
one second motion, followed by one first motion, followed
by one second motion, " one-two-one-two." The signal
ball is moved, without stopping, once to the top of the
standard, then once to the foot of the standard, then again
to the top, then again to the foot, and rests at the first
position. To make " C" " 121," the signal ball is moved
once to the top of the standard, then, without pause, to
the foot of the standard, then again to the top, and rests
at first position. To make " Y" " 111," the signal ball is
carried three times to the top of the standard. To make
" E" " 12," the signal ball is carried once to the top and
once to the bottom. To make " 33," the signal ball de-
scribes quickly two " half motions."

At the completion of each signal letter, the signal ball
rests at the centre of the staff, the point of reference.

A modification of this plan is at Plate IX, Fig. 5 ; — a
signal ball B fitted to traverse on a signal staff", and moved
by the halyards H H, attaching to the upper and lower
sides of the ball, and passing through pulleys at the top
and bottom of the signal staff.

The point of reference, the positions, motions, and pauses
of the signal ball are similar to those just described.

To work the halyards there are one position and three
motions.

The " first position," the signalman standing, one cord
of the halyard grasped in each hand, hands at the height
of and in front of the shoulder. From this position —

To make the " first motion," extend at the same moment
the left arm and hand at full length above, and the right
arm and hand at full length below the shoulders. Re-
sume the first position.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 7'.)

To make the " second motion," extend at the same mo-
ment the right arm and hand at full length above, and
t lie left arm and hand at full length below the Bhdulders,
Resume the first position.

To make the "third motion," the left and right hands
are raised a little way alternately, and then return to Bret
position.

To signal "E" "12," extend the left arm up and the
right arm down, "one;" then immediately reverse the po-
sition, extending the right arm up and the left arm down,
" two." Resume the first position.

To signal " C" " 121," extend the left without pause up,
and right down, "one;" the left down, and right up,
"two ;" the left up, and right down, "one." Resume the
first position.

The motions and positions of the arms can be readily
understood by Plate VIII, Fig. 9.

The length of motion given the signal ball is, when the
halyards are worked by hand, about four feet above and
below the point of reference.

The halyards can be carried over a light-grooved wheel
at the foot of the mast in such a way that these signals
can be rapidly and accurately displayed, and with a greater
length of movement.

The wheel is worked by a flagman.

Signals made in this manner have the advantage that they
can be read at the same time from different directions.

A plan of signals by vertical motions is shown Figs. 5, 6,
7, 8, Plate VIII.

Let there be a short marker-rod, having at its top end,
and about an arm's length above the roof, a marker-ball
This is the point of reference. Near this marker, ami work-
ing freely vertically through the roof, is a signal rod, bearing
at its upper end a signal hall. This Bignal rod is of such
length that it extends below the roof a sufficient distance to

80 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

permit of its being worked by hand to make the signal mo-
tions, and when grasped by the hand, held at the height of
the shoulder, brings the signal ball close to and at the same
elevation as the marker-ball. The balls so placed are in the
" first position," the " rest," or " ready."

The motions, positions, half motions, and pauses of the sig-
nal ball are made for signals in the same way, and have the
same meaning as the vertical signals first above described.
(Plate VIII.)

This plan can be very simply applied without any appara-
tus. Thus a signal staff, having at its end a signal ball or a
signal of any kind, so that it is visible, can be thrust through
the roof or deck or any part of any structure, and moved up
and down or back and forth to make signals, — some par-
ticular part of the structure affording a point of reference,
by reference to which the direction of the movements can
be judged. It is necessary only to know where the ball
rests, as at its point of reference, and to be able to deter-
mine when it moves above and below that point, and when
it returns to it, in the formation of signals.

So a ramrod, having a handkerchief bound around its end,
can be projected into view from any part of a house or ves-
sel, and used as a signal staff. Or any rod, eight or nine
feet long, with a hat or flag of any kind fastened to it, will
be a sufficient signal rod.

An established " point of reference" insures accuracy,
however, and one can be so easily set up that the marker
ought always to be used when it can be.

The illustrations at Plate IX, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, afford ex-
amples of possible applications of these plans in service.
All the parts of the apparatus may be of the most simple
structure, of articles that are almost always at hand.

Jt.

-^.

PLATE X.

Fig.3

W->

<J*j£ -

Fi&l

Fid. 2.

Fust Position- or "Ready'

For. Night Signals

Torches.

First Position -or "Ready"

For Mght Signals

Lanterns

Fie. 4

Fig5.d Fig.ft.p Fig.7

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 81

Day Signals by Horizontal Motions.

Day signals can be made by horizontal motions, if there is
the necessity. The application of the principle is similar to
that already given, except in this, that the motions arc
made horizontally from side to side, and are to the righl or
left of some point of reference or fixed position instead of
above or below it. Assume any one of the apparatus just
illustrated to be projected horizontally from the side instead
of from the top of any structure, and put in operation. The
mode of signalling will be easily comprehended.

The First Position is with the Signal at the point of refer-
ence. The First Motion is to the outward extremity of the
apparatus, if working from any structure or to the right of
the signalist. The Second Motion is the opposite of the
First Motion, whatever that may be. The Third Motion or
half motion, is a perceptible movement from side to side of
the point of Rest.

The illustrations of horizontal apparatus at Fig. 3, Plate
IX, make clear the application.

Day signals may of course be made by any two differing
motions. As by one vertical and one horizontal, or by any
two indications. It is proposed to give here sufficient for
practical use.

Night Signals.

To be made with signal equipments. A flagman, standing,
holds in his hand a staff twelve feet long, a Hying torch, one
and one-half inch in diameter, wicked, filled with turpentine,
lighted and attached to the upper extremity of the signal
staff by clamp-screws. Copper foot-torch, two inches in
diameter, wicked, filled with turpentine, and lighted, is
placed, lying horizontally, at the feet and in fronl of the
flagman. (Plate X, Fig. 1.) The positions, order-, and
motions for signalling at night, are identical with those used

82 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

in the day ; the lighted foot-torch being the " point of ref-
erence" in relation to which all motions are made. Each
torch is fitted with an extinguisher. At the conclusion of
each message, the flying torch is extinguished. The foot-
light or some other light is left burning in its place as long
as signalling is continued, to the end that the communi-
cating station may see to what point to direct their signals.
A small fire or lantern is often used.

When, during the transmission of a message, the flying
torch is lowered to the left and is there extinguished, it in-
dicates that it is extinguished to be refilled, and as soon as
filled and relighted, the message will be resumed without
any further intimation. The torch must be refilled at the
end of some word.

In night signalling, great care must be taken that the ref-
erence or foot-light is always and certainly within view of
the communicating station. To ascertain this, placing the
eye on the level and in the place of the foot-light, it must
be noted whether the foot-light at the communicating sta-
tion can be thence seen : if not, the foot-light must be raised
or moved to a position certainly visible. This precaution
should always be taken.- The foot-light must be always in
front of the flagman and directly beneath the flying torch,
when that is in the first position.

It must be ascertained, by viewing the foot-light at the
communicating station in the same way, from the ground
at either extremity of the torch-swing, whether the torch
also is in view to the communicating station at all parts of
its course.

The torch should be refilled every fifteen minutes, and
carefully trimmed after each message. When not in use,
the wick should be covered with the extinguisher.

Lanterns are sometimes substituted for the foot-torch, es-
pecially on board of vessels where there is danger of fire.

In this case, lanterns giving the most powerful light

£X¥i

rWHS6

•0£i

-ft

■ 7? ,

S
o

IS Oi

P3 £

S a

1 c

5 ^

■So

r«

■ft

-■

—
4)

'.d

■ H

-sj

,o'

-£=

'/i

■a

•00

■-.

'/.

M\NQL OF SIGNALS.

should be selected. Lanterns with reflectors ran be used,
taking care that the lantern is so placed as to throw its
light upon the communicating station. A lantern may 1"'
substituted for the flying torch, and attached to the ex-
tremity of the staff in its stead. This will be found difficult,
however. The light is not nearly so brilliant or so distinct
as that given by the torch.

In signalling at short distances, lanterns may be used in-
stead of torches. One lantern being placed stationary as
the foot-light, the other may be held directly above the
head, in the hand as the first position. This lantern is then
waved to the right, for "one" " 1 :" to the left, for " two"
" 2 ;" and lowered to the waist, for " three" " 3," or pause-
signal.

Signals can be made in this way, very conveniently for
ship use, by placing one lantern upon the rail, and waving
the other to its right or left to make any required signals,
the general principles of the signals remaining the same
Signals made in this way are of convenient use in boats.

A convenient foot-light is often made, on shore, by light-
ing a small fire near the feet of the signalist. With a single
lantern then held in the hand, or attached to a small staff,
any message can be sent. Or if, for any cause, lanterns are
not attainable, and fires can be kindled, a small fire may be
used as a foot-lio-ht, while the signal motions are made with
a brand from the fire, or a lighted pine-knot, or a piece of
tarred rope, or with almost any combustible substance,
capable of showing a flame and a light, held in the hand
or attached to a staff, and properly waved to either side
or to the front to make the required signal motions. (Plate
XI, Figs. G, 7.)

Night Signals by Vertical Motions.

Let there be one fixed light, as a brilliant lantern or lamp,
fastened or hung to a standard. On shipboard, thi< must

81 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be two or three feet above the rail of the vessel. This is
the " light or point of reference." This reference light
must be red, or of some color different from the moving
light; or it must be distinguished from it by its intensity.
Immediately behind or near the standard of the fixed light,
is placed another standard or rod, twice the length of the
first. To this rod is attached, by rings or slides, so that it
may be moved steadily and easily up and down by the
hand, another lantern or lamp. This is the moving or fly-
ing light, and the signals are made by its motions. The
two lanterns being brought as nearly as possible together,
are in the "first position." (Plate XI, Fig 1.)

To make the signal " one" " 1," the flying lamp is moved
rapidly to the top of its standard, and instantly returned to
the first position.

To make the signal "two" "2," the flying light is slid
rapidly to the bottom of the rod, and instantly returned to
the first position.

To make "three" " 3," or pause-signal, the flying light is
moved quickly a very short distance above, and then an
equal distance below the fixed light, returning to the first
position — making what is called a half motion.

Thus to signal " C" " 121," the flying light starting from
the first position, would be carried to the top of the rod,
then, without pause, to the foot of the rod, then quickly to
the top of the rod again, thence to the first position.

To make " A" " 22," the flying light, starting from first
position, is moved rapidly to the foot of the rod, back to
the first position, again to the foot of the rod, and then
assumes the first position, thus making the second motion
twice.

To make " N" " 11," the flying light being in the first
position, is moved rapidly to the top of the rod, back to the
first position, again to the top of the rod, and then resumes
the firsl position.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. Bo

To make "M" "1221," the flying light, being in the first
position, is moved rapidly to the top of the rod ; then, with-
out pause, to the foot of the rod; l.ark to the first position;
again to the foot of the rod ; thence to the top of the rod;
and then returns to the first position — that is, there arc*
made one first motion followed by two second motions, fol-
lowed by one first motion.

To make "33" or "clause-signal," there are made two
half motions. After the manner of these examples are
made whatever signals may be required.

Night Signals by Horizontal Motions.

The principle of this application is similar to that jusl de-
scribed. The motions have the same value and arc made in
the same manner; with this difference only, that the Hying
light is moved horizontally and to the right and left of the
fixed light, instead of above and below it.

The standard or fixed light being placed as before de-
scribed, the flying light is arranged to traverse or s li ■ 1 < ■
freely on a small bar or rod placed horizontally behind it.
The lights being brought as nearly as possible together, are
in the first position. To make the signal "one" "1" the
flying light is slid to the right a distance of three or four
feet, and brought instantly back to the first position. To
make the signal "two" "2," the flying light is slid rapidly
to a distance of three or four feet to the left, and is brought
instantly back to the first position. To make the signal
"three" "3," the flying light describes a half motion, say a
foot to the right, and then a foot to the left of the fixed
light, returning to the first position; and thus for any num-
ber of "ones" and "twos," or for any combinations of
"ones" and "twos." (Plate XI, Fig. 2.)

To increase the motion of the flying light, :i handle may

8G MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be attached to the lantern by a swivel-joint. A movement
of several feet is thus permitted.

Either apparatus here described, can be simply arranged
anywhere. They have especial value on shipboard, for the
reason that, from signals thus made, there can be no danger
fn >m fire. The brightest attainable lamps or lanterns should
be used, and the two lights should be, either by their color
or brilliancy, easily distinguishable. It is well that the
fixed light should be either red, green, or some other marked
color. They can be made with material almost always at
hand.

Signals made on this plan, are capable of very simple
application. Thus a red, or other colored light, can be
hung in the rigging, or on the side of the ship or boat;
while a lantern, held in the hand, is moved above and below
it, making signals by vertical motions, as above described ;
or to the right and left of it, making signals by horizontal
motions. (Plate XI, Figs. 3, 4.)

For signals at short ranges, there is then needed no kind
of apparatus.

Of the many modes of night signalling, these described
are, perhaps, sufficient for all ordinary uses.

The signals heretofore described have these advantages.
They are capable of universal application. The mode of
making them is very simple, and is very easily learned.
They are distinct, and easily read. They are very plain.
Every signal is, in reality, repeated " twice" each time it is
shown. Thus the waves to the right or left, heretofore de-
scribed, are read " one" or "two," whether the flag or torch
is descending or ascending. It is necessary only to see that
the signal is in motion somewhere on the right to read "one."
In the same way, it is necessary only to note that the signal
is waving on the left to read " two."* A similar advantage is
had in the plans tin- signals by vertical or horizontal motions.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 87

The chances of seeing the signals are thus greatly increased.
The signals are made with very simple apparatus. It is
strong, portable, can be carried anywhere (oil horse or on
foot), is not liable to be damaged by an enemy's fire, or
by rough handling, and is always available and ready for
use. It can be used in almost any situation. The signals
can be seen at very considerable distances. Avail can be
had of many devices to make them visible. Thus the flags
can contrast most strongly with the backgrounds against
which they are visible. The motion of the signal is a val-
uable auxiliary of its visibility, this motion of the signal ob-
ject or light producing a long and marked impression upon
the retina of the eye. A thing in motion can always be
seen and will attract attention, when a similar object resting
produces no sensation. We recognize this fact instinctively
when we wave a handkerchief, or light, to attract attention.
It is never held still, for this purpose, and would be ineffec-
tive if it were.

The signals made with the ordinary equipments, say a
staff twelve feet long, and a flag four feet square, or with
the torches at night, are easily legible at a distance of eight
miles at almost all times, except in cases of fog and rain.
They are read at fifteen miles on days and nights ordinarily
clear, and have been legible at twenty-live miles. Greater
distances are reported; but it is questionable if, at those
distances, there is reliability.

Transient Signals.

Transient signals comprise signals by flashes, signals by
occultations, and signals by sound.

Signals by flashes and by occultations are identical in
character and the principle by which they convey meaning.

88 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Signals by Flashes.

Signals by flashes are not generally as distinct, or as
easily read, as signals by motion. This is markedly the
case when it is necessary to use the telescope. It is almost
impossible to keep it at night upon any light which is not
constant. When motions are used the lights are kept con-
stantly in view, thus rendering it possible to fix the tel-
escope upon them, and to accurately observe them.

Signals by flashes are made by flashes of different colors,
as red for " one," and white for " two ;" by flashes of differ-
ent lengths, as a short flash for " one,' and a long flash for
" two ;" or. by different numbers of flashes, as one quick
flash for " one," and two quick flashes for " two." They
may be used in many other ways, but these are sufficient
for any ordinary use.

If a lantern (Plate XX, Fig. 4), with spring shades and
spring handles, showing no light when put in position, shows
a white flash when handle " one" is pressed down and then
let go ; a red flash when handle " two" is pressed and let go ;
and a green flash when handle " three" is pressed and let
go ; this lantern will suffice for all kinds of telegraphing by
flashes, that will in ordinary use be required. Thus, atten-
tion being called, by a number of consecutive flashes, the
signal lantern is allowed to stand dark. It is well to have
another lantern standing close to it as a marker, to enable
the telescope at the other station to be kept on the signal
lantern at night.

To make "one" " 1," press down handle "one" and let it
go — it shows a white flash. To make " two" " 2," press
down handle "two," and let it go — it shows a red flash.
For " three" " 3," or a pause-signal, show a green flash by
pressing down handle " three." Pauses between the signals
may be indicated by time, as an interval being allowed to

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 89

elapse after each complete signal, and a longer interval at
the end of a word.

Thus, to signal "A," "22," flash "red red." To Bignal
«K," "2121," flash "red white red white." T<> signal "S,"
"212," flash "red white red." To signal - W," - I 121,"
flash " white white red white." To make " three," " 8," end
of a word, flash "green." To make " 33," flash " green
green." A dark interval after each signal marks the com-
pletion of the signal.

Or to work with flashes of one color:

To make " one" " 1," " press down the handle for a second
of time ; it shows a short flash.

To make "two," "2," press down the handle with a
longer pressure ; it shows a long flash, " two" " 2."

Let " three" " 3" be a long dark interval.

Thus, to signal " E," " 12," flash " short, long." To signal
"M," "1221," flash " short, long, long, short." To signal
" S," " 212," flash " long, short, long." A short dark interval
marks the completion of each letter : a longer dark interval,
the end of each word.

Or a red flash, or any signal may be adopted as " three."

Another method :

To make " one" " 1," press down the handle once; it
shows a short flash.

To make "two," press down the handle twice; it shows
two short flashes. To make "three," a dark interval.

Thus, to make "K," " 2121," flash " twice, once, twice,
once."

To make "L," "221," flash "twice, twice, once."

A short dark interval after each letter. A long dark in-
terval after each word.

The flashdantern can be used in various ways, which will
suggest themselves. It is a convenient style of signalling
when space is limited, as in a boat, or it is desired to show

90 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signals only in one direction, as away from the enemy. To
make extempore flash-signals with two common lanterns,
one may be made red by a thin layer of red bunting, the
other be left plain. Then either of them is shown as the
signal " one," the other as the signal " two." The pause-
signal is made by an interval of time, or by a wave of either.
Or, a single lantern may be flashed once for " one," and
twice for " two," by covering it with a bucket or hat, as
with an extinguisher; and lifting the covering suddenly for
each flash. One flash is then shown for " one," two flashes
put together for " two," three flashes for the pause-signal.
A good way to show either colored or plain lanterns, is to
flash them by placing the lantern below the side of a boat,
or top of a fence, and then raising them suddenly into
sight, and lowering them suddenly to make each signal.
Then, a wave of the lantern to make a pause-signal.

Signals by two elements, with colors, extend through
such as are made with colored lights, those which may be
signalled with composition fires of two different hues, and
those by signal balls thrown into the air, as are the balls of
a roman candle. Any flash or color of fire or light may in-
dicate "one," any other, "two," or any kind of light or
torch may be flashed different numbers of times. The pause
is conventional.

Signals by Occultations.

Day signals are styled " signals by occupations," when
any object is brought suddenly into view, and then obscured
or hidden at different times or for different lengths of time,
for the purpose of making signals. The appearances of the
object may be styled "flashes," and these distinguished by
numbers, as one flash, two flashes, etc. ; or by their length,
as short, long, etc.

Suppose a window-shutter is so fitted as to be obscured
by turning its edge to the observer, and is then flashed or

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 91

brought wholly into view, to make " our ;" flashed t nice, to
make "two;" and so on. A long obscuration is "three"
" 3," pause-signal.

Or it is flashed into view a " short flash" to make " one j"
and a "long flash" to make "two."

The principles of working and of reading are identical with
those for signalling and reading other flashes, and do not re-
quire illustration.

The signals of Commander Colomb, R. N\, now used in
the English navy, are flashes of a very brilliant light at
night, and of a shutter-shaped signal by clay.

Any object may be obscured in any way and flashed into
sight to make signals.

Signals by Sound.

Let any sound, as a tap on a light drum, stand for " one"
" 1 ;" and a different sound, as a tap on a bass drum, stand
for "two" " 2 ;" an interval of time to mark the end of a
letter ; a longer interval, the end of a word, or " three" " 3."

Or let one tap of a drum stand for "one," two taps stand
for "two:" intervals, for end of letters and words.

Or let a short blast of a steam trumpet stand for " one,"
a long blast stand for "two;" intervals, for end of letters
and words.

Then to signal "P" "1212" with a drum, tap "light,
bass, light, bass," or tap " once, twice, once, twice." Or to
sound with a steam trumpet, sound "short, long, short,
long." To signal "S" "212," tap "bass, light, Lass/' or
tap "twice, once, twice," or sound "long, short, long;"
and so for whatever signals.

At the end of each letter and word a pause of silence.

How anv differing sounds, as low and high notes, short
and lonu" Masts, heavy and light tolls of greal and small
bells; or differing numbers of sounds, as one and two

92 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

strokes, one and two blasts, etc., may be used, will be com-
prehended from the preceding.

Signals may be made by bringing any object to a deter-
mined point of reference, as the top of a mast, the end of a
yard, etc., and allowing it there to touch for different
lengths of time, or a different number of times.

Thus a flag, starting three or four feet from the top of a
mast, touches the top a second for "one" "1 ;" touches it
two seconds for "two" "2." Intervals are allowed for
pauses.

Or it touches it once for " 1," and twice for " 2," with in-
tervals for pauses.

It may occur that it will be necessary to display signals
at an elevation, as at the top of a common flao;-staff.

The example at Plate VIII, Fig. 9, will illustrate the
manner in which this may be done.

Signals by Two Elements may be reduced to the greatest
simplicity for day uses. Practised signalists are not limited
to the use of any apparatus. Thus, a handkerchief or hat
held in the hand above the head, and waved to the right
for "one" " 1," to the left for " two " " 2," and lowered to
the waist for " three," is legible.

With a handkerchief attached to a walking-stick or a
boat-flag, or regimental marker, or any light cloth on any
staff or tied to a musket-barrel, messages may be sent a
mile or two, or to even greater distances.

A man standing with his coat off, with his hands touch-
ing, upon his breast, for the first position, making a wave
of his right arm for "one" " 1 ;" a wave of his left arm for
" two " " 2 ;" dropping both arms to his sides for " three "
" S ;" and returning always to the first position after each
motion, can thus transmit any message.

Or, having a fixed place to start from, a man walks a

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 93

pace or two to the left for "one," as many to the right for

"two," and makes a sign, at a fixed point, to show the end
of a word. Or, standing in view, a man touches any two
tilings with a cane — as a drum and a barrel. He touches
the drum for "one," the barrel for "two." He waves the
cane to indicate the end of a word. Or men. placed in line
three or four at a time, may be made to represent letters.
The men with coats on maybe "ones," those with coats
off "twos."

Signals of two elements may be shown with any kind of
semaphore.

Strips of any two kinds of colored cloth may be sent up
on the halyards of a common flag-staff, to represent any
letter-signal or numeral-signals; and these can be arranged
by being shown one after the other for messages to be tele-
graphed in words; or for codes of message-signals by the
rules before given.

Codes of signals, like the Naval Flag-code, may be thus
prepared when masts or flag-staffs must be used ; or, when
it is desirable that a signal, as from an invested fort, should
be hoisted and kept flying in order that friendly scouts, any-
where in sight, at any time of the day, may be able to see
and read the message, or copy the signal in numbers for the
information of the relieving forces. Simple codes may be
arranged in this manner between ships and the shore.

To all these modes the rules before given for Sending,
Receiving, Ordering, and Recording Signals, equally apply.

With these varied examples of Day and Night Signals,
and Signals by Sound, it seems that enough have been given
to indicate siguals for any emergency. With that thorough
understanding of the principles it has been tried to impress,
the means for communication will not fail to BUggest them-
selves.

94 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Complicating Signals.

Codes of two elements may be complicated for Day or
Night Signals.

Let all the positions and motions which can be made on
the right side of any upright, or point of reference, be un-
derstood as " ones." All the positions and motions which
can be made on the left side of the upright or point of ref-
erence, be understood as " twos."

When transmitting a message in letter-signals as here
enumerated, and by this plan, no signal need ever twice
appear in the same form, or as composed by the same
m otions.

For illustration, suppose that, in Fig. 4, PI. IV, the arm
in any of the positions a, b, c, it signals "one" " 1," and
in any of the positions e, f, g, it signals " two" " 2." It is
evident that in the signals " one, two, one," "12 1," the let-
ter " C" can be exhibited in many different ways ; yet all
of similar meaning. Thus with the other letters of the
alphabet.

So any color may be "one" " 1," and all other colors
" two" " 2 ;" or any sound may be the " one," and all others
" two ;" and thus for infinite changes.

The motions " one" and " two" may be reversed, if there
is reason. Thus " one" or " 1" may be the flag waved to
the ground on the left, and then returned to the "first
position." " Two" may be the flag waved to the ground on
the right, and then returned to "first position." This
method is preferred by some. The following Code — the
Army Code of two elements, used during the War — is sig-
nalled after this manner:

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 95

CODE OF TWO ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement op two symbols.)

A— 11

H— 211

0—12

B— 1221

1—2

P— 2121

C— 212

J— 2211

Q— 2122

V— 2111

D— 111

K— 1212

R— 122

W— 2212

E— 21

L— 112

S— 121

X— 1211

F— 1112

M— 2112

T— 1

Y— 222

G— 1122 N— 22 U— 221 Z— 1111
&— 2222 tion— 2221 ing— 1121

Numerals.

1—12221 4—11121 V— 22111

2—21112 5—11112 8—22221

3—11211 6—21111 9—22122 0—11111

But in the General Service Code the "one" signal has
been made on the right of the sending signalist, for the
reason that, so made, it appears, when viewed through the
telescope, on the left of the field of view of the receiver;
and we are habituated by practice, to expect, in a sequence,
the lesser numbers of a series to appear first and at our left
of the viewed word or number. The signal " one" made on
the right of the sending signalist, the signal " two" properly
follows on his left.

We gain thus the aid of analogy to recognize and remem-
ber the numbers. The rule that, in Alphabetic Codes, the
letter-signals should be each of a certain, and all of the
same number of places, has not been followed. To make all
the signal letters of equal length in a code of two elements,
each letter-signal must be of five places. Thi- is cum-
bersome.

96* MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY THREE ELEMENTS.

An advantage of signalling by three elements is, that the
letters of the alphabet may be rej)resented, using three ele-
mentary signals for each letter. It is thus possible always
to determine when each letter has been fully made and is
completed. With three symbols, there are twenty-seven
arrangements of three places each.

ALPHABET OF THREE ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement of three symbols.)

A— 112 F— 122 K— 323 P— 313 U— 233

B— 121 G— 123 L— 231 Q— 131 V— 222

C— 211 H— 312 M— 132 R— 331 W— 311

D— 212 1—213 N— 322 S— 332 X— 321

E— 221 J— 232 0—223 T— 133 Y— 111 Z— 113

Code Signals.

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message.

22.22.22.3— Signal of assent : "I understand," or " Mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals,"
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333— Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

212121— Error.

211.211.211— Move a little to the right.

221.221.221— Move a little to the left.

Flag waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

MANUAL OF SKIN \l.s. '.1 7

Numerals.

1. 21112— Wait a moment.

2. 12221— Are you ready ?

3. 22122—1 am ready.

4. 22212 — Use short polo and small flag.

5. 22221 — Use long pole and large flag.

6. 12222— Work faster.

7. 11222— Did you understand ?

8. 11112— Use white Bag.

9. 11211— Use black flag.
0. 22222 — Use red flag.

a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have,
n — not r — are. t — the. u — you.

ur — your. w— word, wi — with. y — why.

IXSTEUCTIONS FOE USING THE CODE.

The whole number opposite each letter stands for that
letter.

The numbers are made by the motions of a flag or signal
to the right or left, or in front of a vertical position.

The Roman Letters may be used for Numerals.

The Rules before given for Receiving, Sending,. Ordering,
and Recording Signals apply to messages transmitted by
this code. Each letter-signal is ordered by itself, and as
condensedly as may be. Thus " A," " 112," is called briskly
"eleven two;" "H," "312," is called " thirty-one, two ;"
"X," "322," "three twenty-two;*' and thus on.

In the same manner the receiver, seeing made signal
" three t hree two," calls or writes " 332," or " S." F< »r " two
two three," "223" or " O" is written; and thus for what-
ever combination.

98 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Day Signals — Flags in Motion.

There being furnished the Regulation Set of Signal Equip-
ments, the flagman is equipped and stands as described for
the first position.

There are one position and three motions. (Plates
VI, VII, XII, as for preceding code.)

The first position is with the flag held directly above
the head of the flagman, the staff vertical, the butt of the
staff at the waist. From this position :

To make the first motion, or " one," "1," the flag is
waved to the ground to the right, and instantly brought to
the first position.

To make the second motion, "two," "2," the flag is
waved to the ground to the left, and instantly brought to
the first position.

To make the third motion, " three" " 3," the flag is
waved to the ground in front, and instantly brought to the
first position.

The pause or space signal is as given in the code — or
an especial pause-signal may be concerted, as a wave of the
flag around the head, etc.

Each letter-number consists of three figures.

The motions of the flag for each figure follow each other
without any pause between them until the letter-number is
completed.

Thus to make " G," or " one, two, three" " 123," the flag
is waved, without pause, once to the right, once to the left,
once to the front; and is then brought to the first position.
To make " K," " three, two, three" " 323," or "three twenty-
three," the flag is waved, without pause, once to the front,
once to the left, once to the front, and rests at the first po-
sition — that is, one " third motion," followed by one " second
motion," followed by one " third motion." To make " B,"
" 121" "one twenty-one," the flag is waved in " right, front,

Ready

PLATE XII

Dav Signals

Motion One Motion Two
NSjJhl Signals

Mullein Three

MotOne" Mot. ']V<>

.Mnt lint-.-

l>;ty Sl£»ii;\1>? with discs
Figures

First Position Motion One

Motion Two Motion Three"
Mol 3

Mot 1 I

■

Kit 1"

Motion ] 2 M.'i 3

J !

Mot 1 Mot 2 Mm '•

Mot 2

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

right," and rests a1 first position. To make "F," "122,"
the- flag is waved "right, left, left," and rests al Hrsl p<
tion. To make "22," the flag is waved "left, left." To
make "three thirty three" "333," the flag is waved three
times to the front, and then rests at the first position. At
the end of each letter, the flag is held in the firsl position
about two seconds, to show thai the letter is finished.

A difficulty is experienced in the use of the flag for sig-
nals of three elements, from the fact that in the third mo-
tion, or motion "front," the edge of the flag is towards the
observer, and the flag- is not so perfectly visible. The flag
may be improved for this purpose by attaching it to the
staff as a pennant, with a swivel or string permitting mo-
tion. (Plate X, Fig. 7.) This, however, only lessens the
difficulty. For common uses, any article, as a handkerchief
or a hat held in the hand, or attached to a short staff, may
be used as signals. A white hall, made by enwrapping
some article with white cloth, is a convenient form and
always visible. The manner of working follows the general
plan above.

Day signals by three elements can, of course, he made
with any three distinct motions to which meaning can he
given.

As, having a fixed position as a point of reference, any
visible object may lie moved to the right of it for v- !,"' to
the left of it for "2," vertically above it for "3." The
"pause" may be a half motion on either side the reference.
Tims for any three motions, made in any direction relatively
to anv point of reference, the modes of signalling have been
sufficiently illustrated. (Plate XII, Fig. 10.)

Night Signals.

Xi<dit Signals, made with the Regulation Signal Equip-
ment, the foot and flying torches and twelve-toot Bignal
staff, are very distinct and legible.

100 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To make night signals, the signalman, equipped and
standing in the first position, holds in his hand the signal
stall' with flying torch attached, filled and lighted. The
copper foot-torch, filled and lighted, is placed at his feet
and directly in front. (Plate X, XII.)

The instructions for working, the torch positions, motions,
and pauses are precisely similar to those hy which signals
are made with the flag by day.

Especial directions for lighting, extinguishing, filling, and
managing the torches are already given.

Signals made in this way are as brilliant as any that can
be made with torches.

Lanterns may be substituted for torches on shipboard.
A small fire kindled on the ground at the feet of the flag-
man, is a convenient foot-light. The motions may be then
made relatively to this fire as the point of reference. The
motions may be made with a torch, lantern, a brand from
the fire, or with any light that can be had, having any fixed
light for the point of reference.

Night signals may be made by any light which can be
moved with any three distinct motions relatively to this
point of reference. Thus the moving light may be moved
horizontally on the right for " 1," horizontally on the left for
"2," vertically above it for "3." The "pause" may be as
in the code, or a motion vertically below the reference point.
(Plate XII, Figs. 10, 11.) The reference light must always
be distinguished by brilliancy or by color.

So with two lanterns: one maybe placed on the rail of a
vessel or fixed on a standard. The first position is with the
lights close together. First motion, " 1," moving light is
carried to the right and resumes position. Second motion,
" 2," moving light is carried to the left and resumes posi-
tion. Third motion, " 3," moving light is carried directly
upwards ; resumes first position. Pause-signal as in the

PLATE XIII

Readv

.Motion T Motion '"J"

Motion "3"

Motion '4"

ki>

iv>

One -four-three -four" — "1434"

Motion "five -.V

MANUAL OF SIGNAIfl. K>1

code; or a half motion or flourish of the moving light close
to the fixed light (See Plans, Plate XI, Fig. 5.)

Day Signals — Motions of Disks.

nomographic signals are, properly, whatever signals an

made by the positions or motions of the body and limbs of
a man.

Let there be a disk or disks of canvas, one foot or eigh-
teen inches in diameter, fitted with a handle to be grasped
by the hand.

There are one position and three motions. (Plate XII,
Figs. 1, 2, 3.)

To take the first position, or " ready," the signalman
thus equipped, stands holding a disk in his right hand, at
the height of the breast, the disk laid flat upon the breast.

The signalman so placed —

To make the first motion, "one" "1," the right hand
and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head at
arm's length, and on the right side, and then returned t<>
the first position.

To make the second motion, "two" " 2," the right hand
and disk are extended horizontally at arm's length, and <>n
the right side, then returned to the first position.

To make the third motion, or "three" "3," the right
hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's
length, and on the right side, and then returned to the first
position.

To make "pause-signal," wave disk once around the
head, then return to first position.

In making letter-numbers, the motions follow each other
without pause. Thus, to make, "M," "one, three, two"
" 132," there is made one first motion, followed by one third
motion, followed by one second motion. To make " K,"
'' three, two, three" " 323," there is one third motion, fol-
lowed by one second motion, followed by one third motion.

102 MAMJAl OF SIGNALS.

To make "P," "313" "three thirteen," there is a third mo-
tion, a first motion, a third motion. To make " D," " 212,"
a second motion, a first motion, a second motion.
A pause of time marks the interval between letters.
Space or pause signals mark ends of words and sentences,
It is well, when disks are used, to have a second disk held
in the left hand, and at the height of and upon the breast.
This gives a marked point of reference.

These signals are sometimes as follows : The shoulders
are taken as a point of reference. Then all signals made
above the shoulders are read for "ones," "1." All signals
made horizontally at the height of the shoulder are read for
" twos," " 2." All signals made below the shoulder are
read for " threes," " 3."

Thus, if one disk is waved above the shoulder in the right
hand, on the right side, it is read "one;" or if it is raised
in the left hand, on the left side, it is read "one;" or if
both disks are raised above the shoulders in both hands, on
both sides, the signal is read " one." If the disk is extended
horizontally at the height of the shoulder in the right hand,
on the right side, the signal is read " two ;" or if the disk is
extended horizontally in the left hand, on the left side, the
signal is read "two;" or if both disks are extended hori-
zontally in both hands, on both sides, the signal is read
" two."

Or if the disk is extended obliquely downward below the
shoulder in either hand or on either side, or if both disks are
extended obliquely downward in both hands on both sides,
the signal is read "three."

In this way, the signal " one" is made (PI. XII) whether
the disk is raised as at Fig. 1, or Fig. 4, or Fig. 7. The
signal " two," whether the disk is as at Fig. 2, or Fig. 5, or
Fhjr. 8. The signal " three," whether the disks are as at
Fig. 3, Fig. 6, or Fig. '.'.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L03

It is noted only to read"one," ov "two," or"three,"
whether the signal is above, or at, or below the shoulder.

There are three signals for each single reading. Messages
are sometimes transmitted in this way, the signals for the
same letter continually varying.

It is interesting to note the very greal variety of appear-
ance that may be given, using this method, to the signals
of the same message.

The letter " E," " 123," for instance, can be, withoul other
preconcert, signalled by twenty-seven differenl signals, each
to an uninstructed observer unlike any other. So for any
other letter in the alphabet.

The general forms for transmitting the message are as by
the common rules.

So with colors, any two or three colors may be assumed
to read, either shown, as "one;" any two other colors to
read, either shown, as " two." Still other two to read, either
shown, as " three."

The letter " E" signalled in colors may be represented by
any of numerous arrangements. It will be seen how this
plan might be used with flags.

So with sounds; the different sounds of a drum may be
either of them read as "one," the sounds of a bell as "two,"'
the sounds of a bugle as "three," and the signals thus com-
plicated.

Rogers's Semaphoric Code of Signals is a code of three
elements. It is skilfully applied for use on shipboard or in
boats.

Night Signals.

The Signalman is equipped with a red or colored lantern
plaeed at the height of the waist, ami a single lantern held
in the hand.

The first position, or "ready," is with both lanterns close
together at the height of the waist.

104 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The Positions, Motions, and Pauses, with the Lanterns
held in the hand are, for Night Signals, precisely similar to
those described for the Disks for Day Signals. (See Plans,
Plates XI and XII.)

Taking the shoulder as point of reference, night signals
may he varied in the same manner as day signals — a white
lantern being held in the hand in place of the disks ; all
signals above the height of the shoulder being counted
" one," all at the height of the shoulder " two," all below
the height of the shoulder "three."

Night signals, remaining simple, are thus apparently com-
plicated as in the cases described for the day.

Signals by Flashes and by Occultations.

Signals of three elements may be made with flashes of
light of any three colors, as by the flashing signal-lantern
before described.

To make " oiie " " 1," press the handle " one " — a white
flash.

To make " two " " 2," press the handle " two " — a red
flash.

To make " three " "3," press the handle " three" — a green
flash.

The flashes for each letter follow each other without
pause. An interval of darkness is the space-signal.

Thus, to signal " G," " 123," flash "white, red, green."

To signal " M," " 132," flash "white, green, reel."

To signal " O," " 223," flash " red, red, green."

To make " 33," flash " green, green."

Or to signal with flashes of a single light, flash once
for " one" " 1 ;" twice for " two" " 2 ;" three times for
" three" " 3." Marked intervals of darkness to indicate
spaces.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L05

Those signals may be made with common lanterns by
flashing them from backets or over the side of a boat, or
over a fence. A plain lantern may be used to make " oni 8."
A lantern covered with red bunting to make " twos." A

lantern covered with green bunting- to make " threes." < >r
a single lantern may be used if necessary, flashing it once
for "ones ;" twice for "twos ;" three times for ,- threes :"
a wave of the lantern for space-signal.

These modes are suggested for emergencies only. It is
generally more convenient to use two lanterns, making the
signals l>y motions. Many plans for pyrotechnic signals,
in which are used white, red, and green colored fires,
are signals of three elements. Codes of three elements
maybe at any time arranged for combinations of three fires
flashed one after another on a pan, or burned one after
another in cases, or thrown into the air, as balls from a
Roman candle.

Day signals by occultations may be made after plans
similar to those here o-iven for night signals with a single
light — by obscuring any object and flashing it suddenly into
view.

Signals by Sound.

Messages may be transmitted by any three different
sounds, as by three different notes of a bugle, or as a stroke
on a bell for " one" " 1 ;" two strokes for " two" " 2 ;" a tap
on a drum for "three" " 3 :" or a tap on a light drum for " 1 ;"
two taps for "2 ;" a tap on a bass drum flu- " 3 :" or, more
simply, one tap for " 1," two taps for " 2," three taps for " ■'■."
In this case the taps for each number, as "1," or "2," or
"3," must be made very quickly and closely together. So
that, for instance, "3" made by three close quick taps may
sound very differently from " Y,'* " 111," made by three taps
slowly and distinctly gi> en.

106 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The general applications of Codes of Three Elements are
numerous. The signals of this code can be made with any
kind of semaphore. A man standing with his coat off and
throwing out his right arm to his right for "one," his left
arm to his left for " two," and his arm directly above his
head for "three," can transmit any message. Or the arms
may be waved with the motions described to be made by
the flag.

Of course the three motions or positions heretofore de-
scribed can be made with muskets, or branches, or flags, or
any thing that can be held and moved by the hands, and can
be distinctly seen ; or any three things, as a cap, a coat, or
a handkerchief, may be numbered as "one," or "two," or
" three," and hoisted on halyards, being first properly ar-
ranged to indicate any letter or numeral ; or three strips of
different-colored cloth may be run up on halyards ; or any
three things, a barrel, a basket, and a pail, may be shown on
a pole to indicate any letter or numeral ; or three men may
be stood together in view, one with his coat on for " one,"
one with his coat off for " two," one with his coat half off"
for "three ;" each to throw up his arms as often as the num-
ber he stands for is called : any combinations may be made
in this way.

Or three men standing side by side, and numbered " one,"
" two," " three ;" one for each place to appear in the .sig-
nals. A whole signal number being called, each takes that
position which indicates the first, second, or third numerals
of the signal number called. Thus, " one twenty-three"
"128" being called, No. 1 takes the position which signals
" one" " 1," No. 2 takes the position " two" " 2," No. 3 takes
the position "three" "3;" and^they so remain until the sig-
nal is seen and recognized, standing as in Plate XII, Figs.
1,2,3.

Signals of three elements, though not of such infinite ap-
plication, or so constantly available as those of two elements,

MANUAL OF SICNAI.S. 111?

are capable of many beautiful uses. A thorough knowledge
of them should be gained, and every signalist oughl to
practise the code at times. Modes, always varying, may be
multiplied by ingenuity.

FIELD SIGNALS BY FOUR ELEMENTS.

A code of four elements may be any arrangement of four
symbols. The common code of army Bignals has been drawn

as a code of four elements. This code is here given as an
illustration. It lias l.een superseded, in practice, by the
"General Service ('0(10."

The signal orders in a Code of Four Elements particularly
describe each motion. Those long habituated to such an
enumeration become attached to it and prefer it. The code
thus arranged is here given.

ALPHABET OF FOUR ELEMENTS FOR FLAGS

IX MOTIOX.

(an arrangement op four symbols.)

A— 11

II-

-231

0—14

B— 1423

I-

-2

P—2343

C— 234

J-

-2231

Q— 2342

V— 2311

D— 111

K-

-1434

H — 142

\V_2234

E— 23

L-

-114

S— 1 t::

X— 1 131

F— 1114

M-

-2314

T— 1

Y— - -

G— 1142

N-

-22

U— 223

Z— 1111

&— 2222

inp:—

-1143 tion-

2223

103 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Code Signals.

5 — End of a word.

55 — End of a sentence.

555 — End of a message.

11.11.11.5 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals," or
affirmative generally.

11.11.11.555 — Cease signalling.

234.234.234— Repeat. "

143434— Error.

142.142.142 — Move a little to the right.

1 14.114.114— Move a little to the left.

Flag waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

Numerals.

1—14223 — Wait a moment.

2—23114 — Are you ready?

3—11431 — I am ready.

4 — 11143 — Use short pole and small flag.

5—11114 — Use long pole and large flag.

6— 23111— Work faster.

V— 22311— Did you understand?

S— 22223— Use white flasr.

9— 22342— Use black fla^.

0—11111— Use red flag.

Day Signals — Motions of Flags.

The code is given as it has been used in the Army.
There are one position and five motions.
There being furnished the Regulation set of Signal Equip-
ments —

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 I.I

To take the first position, " ready," the signalman stands
with the signal staff in his hand, the Hag vertically above
the head.

So placed —

To make the first motion, "one" " 1," the flag and staffi
are waved to the ground to the left of the flagman ; resume
the first position.

To make the second motion, "two" "2," the flag and
staff are waved to the ground on the right of the flagman ;
resume the first position.

By the third motion, " three" " 3," is described the halt
circle wave of the flag from the ground on the righl to the
ground on the left of the flagman. Flag resumes the first
position.

By the fourth motion, "four" "4," is described the half
circle wave of the flag from the ground on the left to the
ground on the right of the flagman. Flag resumes the first
position.

Fifth motion, "five" "5,'' "pause-signal" flag waved to
the ground directly in front, then returned to first position.

To make " O," " 14" "fourteen," commence a firsi motion
to the ground on the left, followed by a fourth motion ; re-
sume the first position.

To make " B," "1423" "fourteen twenty-three," com-
mence a first motion to the ground on the left, followed by
a fourth motion, then a second motion, then a third motion ;
resume the first position.

To make " C," " 234" " two thirty-four," commence a sec-
ond motion, followed by a third motion, followed by a fourth
motion ; resume the first position.

To make "D," " 111" "one eleven," make a firsi motion
thrice.

Plate XIII, Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, will clearly illustrate the
motions.

The same movements of the flag made together indicate

110 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

each letter in the code of four as in the code of two ele-
ments.

For the general use of flag motions, as in the General
Service or for common use, the enumeration by two ele-
ments, as for the General Service Code, is preferable.

Day Signals by Positions of Disks.

The eode with this arrangement permits each letter to be
represented by four positions of disks or other signals, as
well as by the different motions of flags.

Thus, the signalman standing equipped, a disk held in the
hand —

There are one position and four motions.

First position, disk at the height of and flat upon the
breast.

First motion, hand and disk obliquely above the head on
the left side; return to first position.

Second motion, hand and disk obliquely down on the left
side ; return to first position.

Third motion, hand and disk obliquely above the head on
the right side ; return to first position.

Fourth motion, hand and disk obliquely down on the
right side ; return to first position.

Pause or Space signal, "5," a wave of the disk.

To make " O," " 14," make a first motion, then a fourth
motion.

To make " B," " 1423," make the first, fourth, second, and
third motions.

To make " C," " 234," make motions second, third,
fourth.

For "D," " 111," make the first motion thrice.

For " 5," a wave of the disk.

These motions are so numbered as to correspond with the
enumeration giyen the flag motions.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 I

As a general rule in signalling, the lesser cumbers ought
to be made on the right of the signalist.

In this way. this code may be signalled by any four posi-

tions or motions.

Night Signals.

Night signals are made, for this code, there being fur-
nished the Regulation Signal Equipment, by motions of
torches, a flying and a foot torch. Or by motions and
positions of lanterns, the signalman being equipped with a

reference lantern fixed at the waist, and a moving light, to
be moved by the hand.

The Positions, Motions, Pauses, etc., of the signal lights at
night, are similar for the same signals to those described for
these signals with the flags or disks by day.

The Ordering and Recording of signals, the general rules
for the management of apparatus, and for the sending and
receiving of messages, are as in other modes of signalling.

This code affords an illustration of the mode by which
any code of two elements may be commuted into one of
four elements.

A code of four elements, in which each letter is repre-
sented by a signal of a determinate number of places, is as

follows :

ALPHABET OF FOUR ELEMENTS.

(as arrangement op four symbols.)

A— 121 F— 414 K— 344 P— 412 U— 413

B— 212 G— 424 L— 434 Q— 213 V— 314

C— 131 H— 242 M— 321 R— 214 W- 234

D— 313 1—323 N— 312 S— 341 X— 432

E— 141 J— 232 0—421 T— 143 Y— 342 Z 324

112 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message.

22.22.22.3— Signal of assent: "I understand," or " Mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals,"
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

212121— Error.

211.211.211 — Move a little to the right.

221.221.221— Move a little to the left.

Disk waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have,
n — not. r — are. t — the. u — you.

ur — your. w — woi-d. wi — with. y — why.

A disk is used instead of a flag.

In this code each letter-signal is a signal of three places.
The numerals may be represented by the Roman letters.

The signals for end of word, Clause, Error, Assent, etc.,
already given, are made with the same motions, the Disk
held in the hand being used instead of the Flag, as in the
General Service Code.

Especial combinations may be devised for these signals,
if such are preferred for any reason.

These should be each of say two places, to clearly distin-
guish them from the letter combinations.

The General Rules for Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and
Recording are as for the preceding Codes.

Day Signals.

There are one position and four motions. (Plate XIV.)
First Position :- The signalman, standing equipped,

PLATE XIV.

Day Signals with discs.

Figures

r.'1'..s llt^xlv' Motion"! Motion '2 Motion '3 Motion l

.".

/ •■•!-

■I'

1 "1

3 ■

"3"

temH*&&l

Semaphore Pos. 12.3.4:. Semaphore Pos.l2.3.4r. Positions of Muskel

on either Side.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 113

holds in his hands a disk at the height of and laid flal upon

the breast.

To make the first motion, or " one" " I," the righl hand

and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head at
arm's length and on the right side, then returned to the firsl

position.

To make the second motion - , or "two" "2," the righl
hand and disk are extended obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the right side, then returned to the iirst posi-
tion.

To make the third motion, or "three" "3," the left
hand and disk are extended obliquely upward at arm's
length and on the left side, then returned to the first posi-
tion.

To make the fourth motion, or "four" "4," the left
hand and disk are extended obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the left side, then returned to the first posi-
tion.

To make pause or space signal, hand and disk waved
around the head.

Thus to make " F," " 414," the hand and disk are extend-
ed slowly obliquely downward on the left side, then re-
turned to first position ; then,without pause, extended slowly
obliquely upward and on the right side, then returned to
first position; then, without pause, again extended slowly
obliquely downward and on the left side, then returned to
and rests at first position ;— that is, there is made one fourth
motion, followed by one first motion, followed by one fourth
motion.

To make " X," "312," there are made, without pause,
one third motion, one first motion, one second motion.

To make "S," "341," there are one third motion, one
fourth motion, one first motion.

To make " C," " 131," there are one first, one third, one
first.

Hi MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To make pause-signal, "5," disk may be waved about
the head.

To make clause-signal, " 55" the disk may be waved
twice about the head. In place of these signals (pause and
clause) the "Code Signals," as given at page 127, are gener-
ally used.

In this way for whatever signals.

Night Signals.

For night signals, the signalman equipped as before de-
scribed, with reference light and moving light or lantern
held in hand. The position "ready" is as illustrated at
1 'late XIV: a lantern held in the hand instead of a disk. The
signals are made for the same numerals and with the same
motions as those described for signals by day.

General Applications.

Following these plans, any code of four elements may be
indicated by any object by day, or light by night, that can
be put in any four positions, or made to describe any four
motions relatively to any fixed object or light taken as a
point of reference.

Thus the positions may be the four positions of the arm of
a semaphore, as at Plate XIV, Fig. 6, the upright forming the
point of reference, and the arm as at " 1," being in the first
position.

Or four positions made with a musket held in the hand,
as at Plate XIV, Fig. 7, the musket held vertically being
the position "ready."

Or the motions might be any thing moved above, below,
to the right and to the left of any selected object.

Or of any light or torch so moved relatively to some dis-
tinguishable fixed light : a half motion making the space-
signal. (Plate IV, Figs. G, 7.)

M SJNTJAL OF SIGNALS. 1 1 5

Or signals of four elements maj be made with the flash-
ing signal-lanterns : as one white flash for "one," two white
Hashes for "-two," one red flash for "three," two red flashes
for "four;" a green Hash may be k- pause."

Or four different sounds may be used : one lap on a small
drum for " one," two taps for"two,"one tap <>n a large
drum fur " three," two taps for " four." Or one short blast

of a horn for "one,"" two short blasts tor "two," one long
blast for "three," two long Masts tor "four.''

Or four different sorts of flags or strips of cloth, differing
by colors or by shape, may ho hoisted on halyards for any
of the combinations of signals of this order. Or four dif-
ferent sorts of the most common things, as caps, coat-,
handkerchiefs, and boots, shown on halyards or on a stall' in
proper arrangements, will make any of the different signals.
(Plate XIV, Fig. 9.)

Signals of four elements may be complicated, as has been
illustrated in the case of signals of three elements, by caus-
ing several different signals to stand for the same clement.

Thus with a semaphore, by which can be shown eight
positions of the arms: Let any two positions stand for
"one," two different and distinct positions for "two," two
other distinct positions for "three," two other positions for
"tour." (Plate XIY, Fig. 8.)

Working thus, a code of four may seem to be a code of
eight elements.

Signals of four elements are not so diversely available as
those of two or three elements. The availability of signals
diminishes in proportion as the elementary numbers or
number of the order of the signals increases. Signals of
four elements ought, however, to be carefully si tidied. They
are capable of many interesting applications.

116 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY FIVE ELEMENTS.

Alphabetic codes of five elements have this .advantage :
that the letter-signals of alphabets constructed by the ar-
rangement of five symbols need require but two combined
signals for any letter of the alphabet, — there being with five
elements twenty-five arrangements of two places. This re-
membered, it is known with certainty that each pair of sig-
nals seen indicate a letter, and that it is completed.

A code of five elements might be as follows :

ALPHABET OF FIVE ELEMENTS.

[an arrangement of

FIVE STMBOLS.)

A— 11

F-

-12

K— 13

F— 14

& y_i5

B— 21

G-

-22

L— 23

Q— 24

W— 25

C— 31

II-

-32

M— 33

R— 34

X— 35

D— 41

I-

-42

N— 43

S— 44

Y— 45

E— 51

J-

-52

0—53

T— 54

Z— 55

The conventional signals, " error," " assent," " repeat,"
etc., are made in the same manner as described for the Gen-
eral Service Code of two elements ; — the Disk being waved
instead of the Flaar.

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message.

22.22.22.3— Signal of assent: " I understand," or "Mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals,"
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333— Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

PLATE XV.

Day or Night Signals.
Lanterns &r Discs

Musket Positions

2 \

/ 4r

\ 5

Positions L2.3.4.5. Positions L2.3.4.5.

Positions 1.2. 3.4.5.

Day or Night Signals Discs or Lanterns.
Fig.t. Fig. 5. £> ^. Fig.

Mot . one -five -15 Mot three - four- 3-1

Mot . two - two - 22

ffijj- .^^^iLantern s above a Screen^.^ ^^ ^S

Fig. 7.

'"^^ S,.^

"2"

"4"

Semaphore of Polybius ,i tf 4 &

l s _ { Column

4_ letter- 14

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. J 17

212121— Error.

211.211.211 — Move a little to the right.

221.221.221— Move a little to the left.

Disk waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

Abbreviations.

a — after. b — before. c — can. h — have,

n — not. r — are. t — the. u — yon.

ur — your. w — word. wi — with. y — why.

The letters are symbolized, and are to be used as has been
described for other alphabets.

The Roman letters are to be used for numerals.

The signals "error," "repeat," etc., may he as given, or
they may be signified by arrangements of three places.

The General rules of Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and
Reading signals are applied with this code.

Day Signals by Positions and Motions.

The signalman, standing equipped, holds in each hand a
signal disk or other visible object.

There are one position and five motions. (Plate XV.)
To make the first position, or " ready," the signalman,
standing equipped, and directly facing the point of commu-
nication, holds in each hand a signal disk at the height of
and fiat upon the breast.

The signalman, being equipped and placed —
To make the first motion, "one" "1," the right hand
and disk are extended slowly directly upward at arm's
length and above the head, and then returned to the first
position.

To make the second motion, "two" "2," the right hand

118 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's
length and on the right side, and then returned to the first
position.

To make the third motion, " three" " 3," the right band
and disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the right side, and then returned to the first
])Osition.

To make the fourth motion, " four" " 4," the left hand
and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's
length and on the left side, and then returned to the first
position.

To make the fifth motion, " five" " 5," the left hand and
disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the left side, and then returned to the first
position. (Plate XY, Figs. 1, 4, 5, 6.)

Pause or space signal, " six" " 6," a wave of the disk
around the head.

Thus to signal " IT," " one five" " 15," the right hand and
disk are extended directly above the head and then brought
back to the first position, when, without pause, the left hand
and disk are extended obliquely downward on the left and
brought back to first position — that is, there is made one
first motion, followed instantly by a fifth motion.

To signal " W," " two five" " 25," the right hand and disk
are extended obliquely upward on the right and brought
back to first position ; then, without pause, the left hand and
disk are extended obliquely downward, and on the left, and
brought back to first position; — that is, there is made one
second motion, followed by one fifth motion.

To signal "Z," "five five" "55," the left hand and disk
are twice extended obliquely downward on the left without
pause, and each time brought back to first position.

To make "clause signal," "six six" "66," the right hand
and disk are waved twice around the head.

MANUAL I F SIGNALS. 11'.)

To signal "Y," "four five" "45," make a fourth motion,
followed by a tilth motion.

To make " IV "three two*' "thirty-two" "32," make a

third motion, followed by a second motion.

To make "two four five" "245," make a second motion,
followed by a fourth motion, followed by a fifth motion.
And thus for whatever combinations of this order.

Night Signals.

The Signalman, equipped, has fixed at the waist a refer-
ence light, and holds a lantern in the right hand.

The position "ready," is with both lanterns close to-
gether at the height of the waist.

There are one position and five motions.

The Positions, Motions, and General Instructions for
night signals are similar to those to be followed in making
signals by day.

The distinctness of night signals, with lanterns, may he
augmented by attaching a short rod to the moving lantern.
The distance between the lights is thus increased in signal-
ling.

Or signals of five elements may be made at night by
showing five lights in different positions relatively to a cen-
tral or fixed light. The central light, distinguished always
by eolor or brilliancy from the signal lights, burns steadily.
The other lights, to each of which a number is assigned, as
one. two. three, etc., are screened dark; and each is shown
only when, and in the order that, its number is called. The
central light is flashed to make the pause or space signals.

Signals may be made with plain lights: showing one
light for "one," two lights for "two," three lights for
'•three," four lights for "four," five lights for "five." A
waving light for " pause-signal."

In this case, the first numeral of any letter-signal is shown

110 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

by the light placed on the right of the signalist ; the second
numeral by those placed on the left of the signalist.

Thus, to make "two three" "23," show, at the same mo-
ment, two lights, nearly together, for " two," and three lights
at a little distance to the left of these for " three." (See
Plate XV, Fig. 7.)

To signal " four four" " 44," show four lights on the right
and four on the left.

Signals by Flashes and Occultattons.

Signals may be made with flashes of a single light : as one
flash for " one," two flashes for " two," three flashes for
" three," four flashes for " four," five flashes for " five ;" a
long flash for " pause-signal," or " end of word."

Short intervals of time separate the component signals of a
letter. Longer intervals mark the completion of each letter.

Thus, to make "H," "three two" "32," make three
flashes ; a pause of one second, then two flashes.

To make "N," "four three" "43," make four flashes; a
pause of one second, then three flashes.

To make "B," "21," two flashes; a pause, one flash.

To make " 33," three flashes ; a pause, three flashes.

A longer pause, as of two or three seconds, is made after
each letter or completed signal.

And on this plan Day Signals may be made by objects
flashed suddenly into view and then obscured or hidden.
The mechanical devices by which such effects may be pro-
duced are numerous.

Thus, a handkerchief, held in the hand, may be waved into
view — as by suddenly throwing out and bringing back the
arm, once for "one," twice for "two," three times for
" three," and so on. Any message may be transmitted in
this manner.

And on this plan a single light or a shutter may be flashed
for Night or Day signals.

manual of signals. 121

Signals by Sound.

Signals may be made by sounds: as the tolls of a bell,
mots of a horn or bugle, or taps of a drum — sounding one
tap for "one," two taps for "two," three taps for "three."
four taps for "four," five taps for "five."

Thus, to make "35," three taps, a pause, five taps. To
make ^ 23," two taps, a pause, three taps. To make " 41,"
four taps, a pause, one tap. Brief intervals of time mark
the end of each letter-signal. Longer intervals indicate the
completion of each word.

Signals may be made with any five motions or any five
positions of any object relatively to any fixed point selected
as a point of reference.

Field signals may be made by any five positions of the
arm of a semaphore, as Plate XV, Fig. 2.

The position "ready," is with the arm as at Fig. 2. The
other positions are sufficiently indicated by the figure.

In signalling by five elements, the arm of the semaphore,
or whatever object is used as the signal, may remain in each
of the signal positions whatever length of time the signalist
determines is necessary to enable it to be clearly seen.

Or field signals of five elements may be made with any
fi\ e positions of any visible object ; as a flag, a rod, or a gun,
held in the hands: a musket may be used, some article be-
ing attached to make it more plainly visible. (Plate XV,
Fig. 3.)

The position "ready," the flag or gun held in the hands
vertically, and directly in front of the signalman.

The first position, "one" " 1," flag or gun held vertically
and directly above the head.

The second position, " two" " 2," musket inclined obliquely
upward and to the right.

122 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The third position, " three" " 3," musket inclined obliquely
downward and to the right.

The fourth position, " four" "4," musket inclined obliquely
upward and to the left.

The fifth position, "five" "5," musket inclined obliquely
downward and to the left.

Pause or space signal, " six" " 6," a wave or flourish of the
musket.

These positions are illustrated by the positions of the mus-
ket as seen in the plate.

In this way, to make the signal " 15," take the first posi-
tion and then the fifth position.

To make " 32," take the third position and then the sec-
ond position.

To make " 33," make the third position twice.

Or five different things, as flags, or strips of cloth, or any
five different distinguishable objects may be hoisted on hal-
yards or otherwise brought into view, properly arranged, to
make any signal of this order.

Or signals may be made by two men standing side by
side, and numbered "one" and "two," who take each the
proper position on hearing the letter-number called : No. 1
assuming the signal position for the first number-symbol;
No. 2, the signal position for the second number-symbol ;
as Plate XV, Figs. 4, 5, 6.

The System of Polybitts.

The oldest system of signals of which there is record, was
seemingly an alphabetic code of this order. Described in
brief, it consisted in designating the twenty-four characters
of the Greek alphabet by twenty-four arrangements of two
places which can be made with any five elements or signals.
(See table of references— Page 34; Plate XV, Fig. 8.)

This plan is minutely described by historians. By the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

L23

form of Polybius, the letters were arranged in five columns.

Thus:

A a

<1> uv

H ?

e 1.

N m

I r

•% X

Eg .

The smaller letters are to show the English alphabet ar-
ranged after this method.

Now to indie-ate in the first column the first letter, or the
letter "A," "first first," "one one," or " 11," is written.

To indicate in the third column the second letter, or the
letter "M," "third second," or "three two," "32," is
written.

To indicate in the third column the third letter, or " X,"
" third third," or "three three," "33," is written.

To signal letters, lights were shown above a fence or
screen on the right or left of a known central position.

Thus, to make "A," or " 11," one light was shown above
the screen on the left, and one above the screen on the right
of the fixed position.

To signal "M," or "three two" " 32," three lights were
shown on the left and two on the right of the fixed posi-
tion.

124 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To signal "X," "three three" "33," three lights were
shown on the left and three on the right ; and so for the
signal-numbers of any letters.

The following description is extracted from Polybius,
General History, Book I., Chap. X. :

" Take the alphabet and divide it into five parts, with five
letters in each. In the last part, indeed, a letter will be
wanting, but this is of no importance. Then let those who
are to give and to receive the signals, write upon five tab-
lets the five portions of the letters in their proper order, and
concert together the following plan : That he, on one side,
who is to make the signal, shall first raise two lighted
torches, and hold them erect till they are answered by
torches from the other side. This only serves to show that
they are on both sides ready and prepared. That after-
wards, he again who gives the signal shall raise first some
torches upon the left hand, in order to make known to those
upon the other side which of the tablets is to be inspected,
— if the first, for example, a single torch ; if the second, two;
and so of the rest. That then he shall raise other torches
also upon the right, to mark in the same manner to those
who receive the signal, which of the letters upon the tablet
is to be observed and written. When they have thus regu-
lated their plan and taken their respective posts, it will be
necessary, first, to have a dioptical instrument formed with
two holes or tubes — one for discovering the right, and the
other the left hand of the person who is to raise the torches
on the opposite side. The tablets must be placed erect and
in their proper order near the instrument ; and upon the
right and left there should be also a solid fence of about ten
feet in length, and of the height of a man, that the torches,
being raised along the top of those ramparts, may give a
more certain light, and when they are dropped again, that
they may also be concealed behind them.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L2£

"When all' tilings, then, are thus prepared, if it be in-
tended, for example, to convey this notice, ' that some <>f the
soldiers, about a hundred in number, have gone over,' it
will be necessary, in the first place, to choose words for this
purpose which contain the fewest letters. Thus, if it is said,
' Cretans, a hundred have deserted,' the same thing is ex-
pressed in less than half of the letters which compose the
former sentence. These words, then, being first written
down, are communicated by means of torches in the follow-
ing manner. The first letter is K (kappa), whicb stands in
the second division of the alphabet and upon the second
tablet. The person, therefore, who makes the signal first,
holds up two torches upon the left, to signify that it is the
second tablet which is to be inspected ; and afterwards five
upon the right, to show that Kappa is the letter which he
who receives the signal must observe and write — for Kappa
stands fifth in the second division of the letters. Then
again he holds up four torches upon the left, because P (Ho)
is found in the fourth division ; and two upon the right, to
denote that it stands the second in that division. From
hence the person who receives the signal writes Ro upon
his tablets, and in the same manner the rest of the letters.
By this method an account of every thing that happens may
be conveyed with the most pei'fect accuracy."

It is not uncommon to find this tabular arrangement of
the alphabet applied to codes of recent origin. The form is
not necessary to determine the signal-numbers of the letters,
when it is borne in mind that the code is only an alphabetic
code of five elements, and the letters are indicated by the
numeral combinations prescribed by the usual rules.

The same results are then attained, one light being shown
to signify " one," two to signify "two," three to signify
"three," four to make "four," five to make "five."

12(3 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Thus to make " 11," or "A," one light would be shown
twice.

To make "three two" "32," or " M," three lights would
he shown, followed by two lights.

To make " three three" " 33," or " X," three lights would
be shown, and then three lights. So for the alphabet.

Or if all the lights for each letter were to he shown at
oik' time and together, then for " L," "two three" "23,"
two lights would he shown for " two," and three near them
for " three." (Plate XV, Fig. 7.) No apparatus is needed.

For " X," " 33," three lights would be shown— with three
more near them.

The lights for the first numeral of the combination show-
ing on the left of the sending signalist, those for the second
numeral of the combination on his right.

Or signals of this kind may be made by positions, motions,
dashes, sounds, as has been already described.

The study of the signals of this table is interesting. It
will be referred to hereafter.

FIELD SIGNALS BY SIX ELEMENTS.

Signals of six elements are interesting, from the fact that
this is the least number of elements, the combinations of
which permit each letter of the alphabet and the numeral
digits to be designated each by signals of two places. Each
letter and number is signified thus by each pair of signals,
and it can be judged when each signal is complete and
perfect.

An alphabet of six elements might be as follows:

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1^7

ALPHABET OF SIX ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement or six symbols.)

A-

-11

F— 12

K— 13

P— 14

U— 15

B-

-21

G— 22

L— 23

Q— 24

V— 25

C-

-31

11— 32

M— 33

R— 34

W— 35

D-

-41

1—42

N— 43

S— 44

X— 45

E-

-51

J— 52

O— 58

T— 54

Y— 55

Numerals.

-20

4—50

7—62

-30

5—00

S— 63

-40

0— 01

9—64

Z— 16

0—65

Code -Signals

♦
The code signals below given are made with a disk, held

in the hand, and used with the same positions and motions

as those heretofore described for the same signals under the

General Service Code.

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message.

22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes-
sage is received and understood," or " I see your signals,"
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

212121— Error.

211.211.211— Move a little to the right,

221.221.221— Move a little to the left.

Disk waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

128 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Instructions fob Using the Code.

The letters are symbolized and are to be read as has been
described for other signals.

Each pair of signals indicates a completed letter or
numeral.

The Roman characters may be used for numerals, instead
of the combinations for numerals here given.

The working-signals "error," "affirmative," "repeat,"
etc., are made with the same motions as for the General
Service Code ; combinations of three places may be devised
for these arbitrary signals.

The General rules for Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and
Recording are applied to this code.

Day Signals by Positions and Motions.

The signalman* standing equipped, holds in his hand a
signal disk or other visible object.

There are one position and six motions. (Plate XVI,
Fig. 1.)

The fiest position or " ready," the signalman, standing
equipped and directly facing the point of communication,
holds in his hand a signal disk at the height of and flat upon
the breast.

The signalman so equipped and placed—

To make the fiest motion, "one" "1," the right hand
and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward at arm's
length above the head and on the right side, and then re-
turned to the first position.

To make the second motion, " two" " 2," the right hand
and disk are extended slowly horizontally outward at-arm's
length, and at the height of the shoulder, and then returned
to the first position.

IM.ATK XVI.

D.iv.V Night Signal

Lantern or Disc Positions L2.3.4.5.6

I s - Position ^Motions
12.3.1.5 <i.

Fig. 4.

Muskel Positions.

Fig.7

Night Signals/Torch St

Stationary light .

F V3

Fig. 8.
D

I 6

Fig.9.

G i

Sight Signals .Flashes 1 .71.")

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 129

To make the third motion", "three" "3," the right hand

and disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the righl side, and then returned to the first
position.

To make the fourth motion, "four" "4," the left hand
and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward above the
head at arm's length and on the left side, and then re-
turned to the first position.

To make the fifth motion, " rive" " 5," the left hand and
disk are extended slowly horizontally outward at arm's
length at the height of the shoulder and on the left side, and
, then returned to the first position.

To make the sixth motion, " six" " 6," the left hand and
disk are extended slowly obliquely downward at arm's
length and on the left side, and then returned to the first
position.

Pause or space signal, " seven" " 7," a wave of the right
hand and disk around the head.

Thus, to signal "M," "three three" or "33," the right
hand is extended obliquely downward at arm's length on
the right side, and then brought back to the first position ;
and at once again extended in the same manner and again
returned to the same position; — that is, there are made two
third motions.

To signal " T," " five four" or " 54," the left hand and disk
aic extended slowly horizontally at arm's length on the left
side, and then brought back to the first position ; when the
same arm and disk are, without pause, extended obliquely
upward at arm's length on the left side, and again brought
back to the first position; — that is, there is made one fifth
motion, followed by one fourth motion, "54.

130 MANUAL . OF SIGNALS.

To signal " K," " 13" or "one three," the right hand and
disk are extended obliquely upward on the right side at
arm's length, and then returned to the first position ; when,
without pause, the same arm and disk are extended obliquely
downward at arm's length on the same side, and again re-
turned to the first position. Thus is made one first motion,
followed by one third motion, " 13."

To signal " W," " 25" or " two five," the right hand and
disk are extended horizontally at the height of the shoulder
at arm's length and on the right side, and then brought
back to the first position ; when, without pause, the left hand
and disk are extended horizontally at arm's length at the
height of the shoulder and on the left side, and then brought
back to the first position : a second motion, followed by a
fifth motion.

To make " pause-signal," the right hand and disk may be
waved twice around the head.

To signal " 156," there is made one first motion, followed
by one fifth motion, followed by one sixth motion.

To signal " 1346," there is made one first motion, fol-
lowed by one third motion, followed by one fourth motion,
followed by one sixth motion.

And thus for any of the combinations or arrangements of
six numerals.

Or field signals of six elements may be made with any six
positions of any visible object, as with the arm of a sema-
phore, as in Plate XVI, Fig. 2,- — the arm starting from a
position of rest and moved into any position there given,
being the signal for the number of that position. Thus, to
make " 14," "one four," the arm is moved first into position
"one," and then into position "four;" at the end of the sig-
nal it returns to the position "rest."

To mark " 1 1," the arm is moved from the position " rest"

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 131

to the position "one," returned to the position '•rest," and
again moved to the position "one."

The position "rest" is here the first position, and the
movement of the arm to any numbered position is the mo-
tion known by the number of that position.

In this semaphore there are one position and six motions.
The body and arm of a man maybe used as a semaphore,
and is one virtually for disk signals.

So signals of six elements may be made with any flag, or
gun, or rod, or other object held in the six different posi-
tions — the positions being made one after the other in the
proper order, to indicate the numeral elements.

Plate XYI, Fig. 3, represents a musket held in the hands ;
or some visible objeet, as a kerchief, to render it more dis-
tinctly visible, may be attached.

There are, for signals, the position " ready," and six sig-
nal positions.

The position "ready" is with the musket held vertically,
directly above the head..

The signal positions are —

First position, " 1," musket inclined upward and to the
right.

Second position, " 2," musket held horizontally and on
the right side.

Third position, " :3," musket inclined oblicpiely downward
and to the right.

Fourth position, "4," musket inclined obliquely upward
and to the left.

Fifth position, " 5," musket held horizontally and on the
left side.

Sixth position, "6," musket inclined oblicpiely downward
and to the left.

" Panse," " error," etc., as for flag signals ; musket re-

lo2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

turns to first position after each completed signal number,
or where the same numeral is repeated in any signal num-
ber, but not necessarily after each numeral of the signal
number.

To signal " 34," take the first signal position and then the
fourth, then return to the position " ready."

To signal " 45," take the fourth signal position and then
the fifth signal position ; return to position " ready."

To signal " 1325," make the first signal position, then the
third signal position, then the second signal position, then
the fifth signal position ; return to position " ready."

Where the positions of any signal to be made are some of
them on the right and some on the left of the signalist, the
musket is moved in the change from side to side over the
head of the signalist. The signal arm or musket is allowed
to remain in each signal position such time as the signalist
deems necessary, that it may be fully recognized in that po-
sition. Its stops in each position must be marked.

Night Signals.

The signalman, equipped, has fixed at the waist a Refer-
ence Light, and holds a Lantern in his right hand.

The Position " ready," is with both lanterns close together
at the height of the waist.

There are one Position and six Motions.

The Positions, Motions, and General Instructions for night
signals are similar to those for making signals by day.

The reference lio-ht must be distinguished from the mov-
ing light by its brilliancy or color.

The mode of signalling has been already sufficiently de-
scribed.

Or night signals of six elements may be made with torches,
as of the signal equipment. (Plate XVI, Fig. 5.)

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L33

One torch is fixed stationary at a height of aboitl lour feet
from the ground, ami so prepared as to be distinguishable
from the moving torch. The other can be moved from it in
the six directions ; returning to the stationary torch afteif
each motion, as to a point of reference.

Thus there are one position and six motions. The posi-
tion "ready," both torches close together, or one directly
above the other. The motion "one" " 1," obliquely up-
ward, and. to the right. The motion "two" "2," horizon-
tally, and to the right. The motion " three" " 3," obliquely
downward, and to the right. The motion "four" "4," up-
ward, and to the left. The motion "five" "5," horizontally,
and to the left. The motion " six" " G," obliquely down-
ward, and to the left.

Pause-signals, "attention," "repeat," etc., are made by
different numbers of vertical motions.

" Attention," — Torch moved vertically continually. "As-
sent, — Torch moved vertically twice. "Repeat," — Torch
moved vertically three times.

Signals by Flashes and Occultations.

Or signals of six elements can be made by six stationary
white lights, arranged about a central light. (Plate XVI,
Fig. 6.)'

The central light burns steadily. The other lights are
screened dark, and each is shown only when its number is
to be made. The central light is flashed to make pause-
signals. The central light must be distinguished from posi-
tion lights, by its brilliancy or its color.

Thus, to make "one five" " 15," there are flashed, first
the position light " one," and then the position light " five."
To make " three five" "35," there are flashed, first the po-
sition light " three," and then the position light " five." To
make "24," flash light "two," then light •'four.'' A pause
of time is allowed after each completed signal.

134 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The central light is flashed for any conventional signals.

This apparatus affords a good illustration of the numer-
ous signals to be had from a few simple signals. With these
six position lights and one central light, there can be made,
using no light twice in any signal, one thousand nine hun-
dred and fifty-six separate signals; or using repetition sig-
nals — that is, using the same lights twice or more times as
may be required in the signals, but showing not more than
six lights for any signal— there can be made fifty-five thou-
sand nine hundred and eio-htv-six signals.

Cn<\v signals of six elements can be made with six flags:
three small, a red, a white, and a blue; and three larger,
a red, a Avhite, a blue. Then the signal numerals, " one,"
"two," "three," are represented by the small flags; the
signal numerals, " four," " five," and " six," by the larger
flags.

The flags may be kept out of view (obscured), and each
waved into sight as often as its number is called.

So signals may be made at night by any single light
flashed " once" for " 1," " twice" for " 2," and so on. And
by day, by any object obscured and flashed suddenly into
view, an interval of time separating the signals of each
letter-signal : a longer interval separating words.

Signals by Sounds.

So, too, signals may be made by sounds ; by any different
sounds, or by one sound repeated, as has been illustrated
for other codes.

Field signals of six elements may be made with any six
flags, or any six objects whatever, to designate the six sym-
bols, and hoisted by pairs upon a halyard for any complete
signal.

Or, in fine, signals of this order may be made by exhibit-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 135

ing any six different motions, or positions, or sounds, or
colors, or indications.

Or by exhibiting any one of these the proper number of
times with propes intervals.

Enough examples are given for experiment.

Signals of six elements may be signified in such manner
that any of the six symbols may be indicated at different
times by different signals. For this purpose each symbol
is signified by two or three different motions, positions, or

other indications.

Thus, the signal positions "one," "two," "three," four,"
"five," "six," may l>c represented with one arm, as already
described; while it is understood that the signals "four,"
'•five," "six," may be also in the same code represented —
"four" by both arms directly upward; "five" by both
arms horizontally ontward at the height of the shoulder;
"six" by both arms obliquely downward.

The letter-signals will so appear in many different guises.

A gentleman of Philadelphia, Mr. James Swain, has
elaborated codes of six elements with many beautiful and
n>eful devices.

By his plans, any three positions, sounds, or motions, or
indications, designated the symbols "one," "two," "three;"
and for the symbols "four," "five," "six," these signals
were duplicated.

Thus, Plate XVI, Fig. 4, the signal positions "one" " 1,"
"two" "2," "three" "3," may be as given by the three
positions of the arm at "one," "two," and "three;" while
the fourth position, "4," is both arms held obliquely upward
on both sides. The fifth position, "5," is both arms ex-
tended horizontally on both sides. The sixth position, "6,"
is both arms extended obliquely downward on both sides.

It may be understood that a single arm shown on either

136 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

side shall, if inclined upward, signal " one" " 1 ;" if held
horizontally, signal "two" "2;" if inclined downward, sig-
nal " three" " 3."

So if "red," "white," and "green" are "one," "two,"
and "three," then "two reds," "two whites," and "two
greens" may be "four," "five," and "six." And thus for
other symbols.

To Mr. Swain belongs the credit of having first, in this
country, directed attention to the practical uses of signal
disks for the telegraphing of messages of any description ;
the enumeration of the letters of the alphabet after the
Polybian method ; and the advantages which are had by
providing that each letter of the alphabet be indicated by
the same and a certain number of figures. Practical plans
for alphabetic homographic signals appear to have been
devised by him at an early day.

The vocabularies and plans treated of by Mr. Swain evi-
dence the study of years, and have received high commen-
dation and the favorable reports of Military Boards in this
country and in Europe. The devices perfected by this
gentleman are worthy the careful study of every soldier.
There will be, in active service, frequent occasions on which
they may be used with advantage. The writer acknowl-
edges his own indebtedness for many of the ideas elaborated
in this volume to the suggestions of this skilful signalist.

Among Mr. Swain's plans is one of much convenience for
using a single lantern, by which, by changes of color, any
message is telegraphed. And one for a semaphore to be
attached to a ship's mast and worked by balls, as illustrated
at Plate XVI, Figs. 7, 8, 9, promises much utility.

To form an accurate idea of the study and labor bestowed
on the subject of signalling by this gentleman, and the
numerous successes which his ingenuity has achieved, a
perusal of his elaborate papers is necessary. During the
recent war of the rebellion, Mr. Swain's plans were tendered

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. I o7

by him for the free use of the Government, and some les-
sons in their use were given to classes of the Signal Corps.
The difficulties which beset the classes at their organization
prevented a thorough instruction.

Plate XVI, Figs. 7, 8, 9.— Let A B be an upright staff
fitted to be attached to any mast or upright. Let C be a
canvas tube or screen, in which are concealed two balls, so
arranged as to slide freely upon the staff A B, for its length
— these balls to be so fitted with halyards that one of them
may be moved singly to any position upon the signal staff,
or both of them to be moved together to any position upon
the staff. The apparatus, as at Fig. 7, Plate XVI, is ready
for use.

There are one position '■ ready," and six signal positions.

The position " ready" is both balls concealed in the can-
vas tube, C.

Signal position " one" " 1," one ball at lower end of signal
staff, as at D; signal position "two" "2," one ball at centre
of signal staff, as at E ; signal position " three" " 3," ball at
top of signal staff, as at F ; signal position " four" " 4," both
balls at bottom of signal staff, as at G ; signal position " five"
" 5," both balls at centre of signal staff, as at H ; signal posi-
tion " six" " 6," both balls at top of signal staff, as at I.

Signal of "attention," one ball slid continually up and
down upon the staff; signal of " assent," ball moved twice
from bottom to top of staff, and repeat; signal to "repeat,'
ball moved three times from bottom to top of staff.

This semaphore has the advantage that the signals are
visible from any direction.

138 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY SEVEN ELEMENTS.

An alphabet of seven elements would be as follows :
ALPHABET OF SEVEN ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement of seven symbols.)

A— 21 F— 32 K— 43 P— 54 U— 71

•B— 23 G— 34 L— 45 Q— 61 Y— 72

C— 24 H— 35 M— 51 R— 62 W— 73

D— 25 1—41 N— 52 S— 63 X— 74

E— 31 J— 42 0—53 T— 64 Y— 75 Z— 76

Numerals.

1—17 4—47 7—56

2—27 5—57 8—66 0—11

3—37 6—67 9—77

The Roman characters for notation may be used instead
of the combinations of numerals.

Each letter signal must be indicated by two numerals.

The conventional signals for "end of word," "error,"
etc., may be motions, as for the General Service Code, or
they may be designated by especial combinations. These
need be of two places only.

Messages are transmitted under the General Rules for
Sending, Receiving, etc.

Day and Night Signals.

The seven elements may be signified for day or night
signals.

The signalman standing and equipped as described for
other signals by

One position and seven motions.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L39

As iirst position, disk at the height of the In-cast.

Motions — hand and disk returning to firsl position after
each motion. First : hand and disk directly above the In 'ad.
Second: hand and disk obliquely upward and to the right.
Third : hand and disk horizontally oul ward and to the light.
Fourth: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the
right. Fifth : hand and disk obliquely upward and to the left.
Sixth: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the left.
Seventh: hand and disk obliquely downward and to the left.

Code signals: by waves of the disk.

Or by any seven different positions relative to a fixed po-
sition, as of a semaphore or homograph.

Or by any seven different flags, to be in view on hal-
yards or masts.

Or by any seven different lights, colors, sounds, or visible
things or indications.

Or by any seven different combinations of any indications
which can be used as signals.

Field signals by seven elements are rarely used. The ex-
ample is here given for the purpose of such practice as may
enable the student to acquaint himself practically with sig-
nals formed upon this plan, as with others given.

The general plans for the use, should it become at any
time desirable, will be sufficiently understood from preced-
ing instructions.

140 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY EIGHT ELEMENTS.

An alphabet of eight elements might be as follows :
ALPHABET OF EIGHT ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement of eight symbols.)

A-

-12

F— 24

K— 43

P— 62

IT— 74

B-

-13

G— 32

L— 44

Q— 63

V— 82

C-

-14

H— 33

M— 52

R— 64

W— 83

D-

-22

1—34

N— 53

S— 72

X— 84

E-

-23

J— 42

0—54

T— 73

Y— 85 Z-

-86

Numerals.

1—18

4—48

7—78

2—28

5—58

8—87

0—11

3—38 ■

G— 68

9—88

The Roman characters may be used instead of the combi-
nations for the numeral digits.

Each letter-number consists of two numeral symbols.

The conventional signals for " end of word," " error," etc.,
may be motions, as for the General Service Code, or especial
combinations. These need be of two places only.

Messages are transmitted under the General Rules.

Day and Night Signals.

The eight elements may be signified for day or night
signals.

The signalman standing and equipped as before de-
scribed, by

One position and eight motions.

First position — disks at the height of the breast.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-11

Motions — hands and disks returning to first position after
each motion. First: hand and disk directly above the
head. Second: hand and disk obliquely upward and to
the right. Third: hand and disk horizontally outward and
to the right. Fourth: hand and disk obliquely downward
and to the right. Fifth: hand and disk directly downward
in front. Sixth: hand and disk obliquely upward and to
the left. Seventh: hand and disk horizontally outward
and to the left. Eighth: hand and disk obliquely down-
ward and to the left.

Code signals by waves of the disk.

Or the eight elements may be signified by any eight dif-
ferent positions relative to a fixed position.

Or by any eight different flags.

Or by any eight different lights, colors, sounds, things,
or indications.

Or by any eight different combinations of indications
winch can be used as signals.

If we have any four things or indications which can be
increased or duplicated — then one, two, three, and four may
be indicated, each by one of those things — and five, six,
seven, and eight by the increased development of the same
things. Thus, if there are four different short notes, these
may be one, two, three, and four ; the same different notes,
long, may be five, six, seven, eight.

Or there may be four single notes for the first four sym-
bols, and the same four notes doubled for the second four
symbols.

Or four different small flags for one, two, three, four;
four similar large flags for five, six, seven, eight. Thus for
whatever indications.

Field signals of eight elements are rarely used, and, as
in the preceding case, the example is here given for prac-
tice only.

142 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY NINE ELEMENTS.

An alphabet of nine elements would be as follows :
ALPHABET OF NINE ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement of nine symbols.)

A— 22 F— 34 K— 53 P— 72 U— 84

B— 23 G— 42 L— 54 Q— 73 V— 92

C— 24 H— 43 M— 62 R— 74 W— 93

D—32 1—44 N— 63 S— 82 X— 94

E— 33 J— 52 0—64 T— 83 Y— 95 Z— 96.

Numerals.

1—1 4—4 7—7

2—2 5—5 8—8 0—11

3—3 6—6 9—9

The Roman characters may be used for the numerals.

Each letter-number consists of two numeral symbols. The
conventional signals, "end of word," etc., may be motions
as for General Service Code, or especial combinations.
These may be of two places.

Messages are transmitted under the General Rules.

Day and Night Signals.

The nine elements may be signified for day or night
signals.

The signalman standing and equipped as before de-
scribed, by

One position and nine motions.

First position — hand and disk at height of the breast.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 143

Motions — liantls and disks returning to firsl position after
each motion :

First: hand and disk obliquely upward to the right.
Second: hand and disk horizontally outward and to the
right. Third: hand and disk obliquely downward and to
the right. Fourth : hand and disk obliquely upward and
to the left. Fifth: hand and disk horizontally outward
and to the left. Sixth : hand and disk obliquely downward
and to the left. Seventh: both hands and disks obliquely
upward on both sides. Eighth : both hands and disks
horizontally outward on both sides. Ninth : both hands
and disks obliquely downward on both sides.

Code signals as before driven.

Or the nine elements may be signified by any nine differ-
ent positions.

Or by any nine different flags.

Or by auy nine lights, colors, sounds, things, or indi-
cations.

If there are three signals which can be duplicated ami
triplicated, or otherwise thrice increased, then these may
signify each one, two, three; and when duplicated, four,
five, and six; and when triplicated, seven, eight, and nine.

Thus if there are three notes, these singly may be one, or
two, or three ; doubled, they are four, or five, or six; tripled,
they are seven, or eight, or nine. x

So with three sets of three each of signal flaars of the
same color, but of three different sizes or shapes.

One set of such flags may be one, two, three ; a second
set may be four, five, six. A third set may be seven, eight,
and nine.

The same modes may be extended to any signs, motions,
or positions.

Signals of nine elements are not of general use, and, as in
the preceding instances, the example is given for practical
illust ration only.

144 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FIELD SIGNALS BY TEN ELEMENTS.

Signals of this order admit the use of all the numerals to
represent either the letters of the alphabet, or to be arranged
for codes of messages.

An alphabetic code of ten elements might be as follows :

ALPHABET OF TEN ELEMENTS.

(an arrangement op ten symbols.)

A— 82 F— 44 K— 63 P— 82 U— 94

B— 33 G— 52 L— 64 Q— 83 V— 10

C— 34 II— 53 M— 72 R— 84 W— 20

D— 42 1—54 N— 73 S— 92 X— 30

E— 43 J— 62 0—74 T— 93 Y— 40 Z— 50

Numerals.

1—1 4—4 7—7

2—2 5—5 8—8 0—0

3—3 6—6 9—9

The rules, instructions, and illustrations given for other
codes sufficiently describe the plans for practice with this.

THE GENERAL SERVICE TOMOGRAPHIC CODE.

The General Service Homographic Code is one of ten ele-
ments. A code with this number of elements is furnished,
for the reason that it will readily permit the application of
the signals to the signal-books already compiled for the use
of the naval forces ; as, for instance, the Naval Signal Code,
and the Code of Boat Signals.

PLATE XVII .

Ready'

^HJ ises

H VXUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-45

There are, for Signals, one position and ten motions.
(Plate XVII.)

The signalman is equipped as follows: He holds in each
hand a disk of canvas, one fool or eighteen inches in diame-
ter, stretched upon a circle of strong wire, and having at-
tached a handle for convenience of management. This
handle may be of size only sufficient to be grasped by the
hand ; or it may be, to give greater distinctness to the sig-
nals, say two feet in length. The signalman being thus
equipped, to take the first position, or " ready," stands hold-
ing a disk in each hand, with the disks held together and at
the height of the breast.

To make the first motion, or " one" " 1," the right hand
and disk are extended obliquely upward above the head, at
arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the
first position.

To make the second motion, or " two" " 2," the right hand
and disk are extended horizontally, and at arm's length, on
the right side, then returned to the first position.

To make the third motion, or " three" " 3," the right
hand and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's
length, and on the right side, then returned to the first
position.

To make the fourth motion, or "four" "4," the left
hand and disk are extended obliquely upward, at arm's
lengthy and on the left side, then returned to the first po-
sition.

To make the fifth motion, or "five" "5," the lefl hand
and disk are extended horizontally, at arm's length, and on
the left fide, then returned to the firsl position.

146 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To make the sixth motion, or "six" " G," the left hand
and disk are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length,
and on the left side, then returned to the first position.

To make the seventh motion, or " seven" " 7," both hands
and disks are extended obliquely upward above the head,
at arm's length on both sides, then returned to the first
position.

To make the eighth motion, or " eight" " 8," both hands
and disks are extended horizontally, at arm's length, on both
sides, then returned to the first position.

To make the ninth motion, or "nine" "9," both hands
and disks are extended obliquely downward, at arm's length,
on both sides, then returned to the first position.

To make the tenth motton, or "the cipher" "0," both
hands and disks are held together, at arm's length, above
the head, one disk covering the other, then returned to the
first position.

The General Service Homographic Alphabet is as

follows :

A— 11 F— 12 K— 13 P— 14 U— 15

B— 21 G— 22 L— 23 Q— 24 V— 16

C— 31 H— 32 M— 33 R— 34 W— 25

D— 41 1—42 N— 43 S— 44 X— 35

E— 51 J— 52 0—53 T— 54 Y— 45 Z— 55

Numerals.

1—1 4—4 7—7
2—2 5—5 8 — 8
3—3 6—6 9—9 0—0

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1-17

Code Signals.

The following code signals are made as described for the
General Service Code of two elements — a Disk being waved
instead of a Flag- :

3 — End of a word.

33 — End of a sentence.

333 — End of a message. •

22.22.22.3 — Signal of assent: "I understand," or "Mes-
sage is received and understood," or "I see your signals,"
or affirmative generally.

22.22.22.333 — Cease signalling.

121.121.121— Repeat.

212121— Error.

211.211.211 — Move a little to the right.

221.221.221 — Move a little to the left.

Disk waved successively from side to side until attention
is attracted — "Attention, look for signals from this point."

Abbreviations.

a — after

b — before.

c — can.

h — have

n — not.

r — are.

t — the.

u — you.

lr — your.

W — word.

wi — with.

y— why.

The enumeration of this alphabet is nearly similar to that
of six elements, made after the Polybian method, and
adopted by Mr. Swain.

The signals given in the code for the numeral digits are
to be used when numbers, not occurring in messages, are to
be signalled, as occurs in Naval Signal Codes, etc.

Numbers given in any message are either spelled at
length, or the Roman letters arc used.

If it happens that the signals for numbers are to be used
in a message, a wave of the <lisk must be made :it the be-

148 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ginning and at the end of the completed number, to clearly
distinguish the numeral signals from the letter signals.

In the alphabet, there are used six only of the signal
motions previously described, for the reason that it is not
necessary to use more ; and these six can be made by a
single motion of a single arm for each signal.

Two motions, neither more nor less, are required to make
each letter.

Each numeral character is indicated by a single motion.
Thus to make 293, but three motions are needed.

Messages are transmitted under the General Rules for
Sending, Receiving, Ordering, and Recording signals.

For illustration : To communicate, by such signals, the
word " ship," the signalman, being in first position with
the disk flat on his breast, to make the letter " S," " four
four" " 44," the left hand and disk are extended slowly ob-
liquely upward, at arm's length, and on the left side, and
returned to the first position, thus making the signal " four"
" 4 ;" and are again extended, without pause, in the same
manner, and again returned to the first position, thus mak-
ing the signal " four" " 4," again. There is thus made the
signal " four four" " 44," or the letter given. A pause of
two seconds.

To make the letter " H," or " three two" " 32," the right
hand and disk are extended slowly obliquely downward, at
arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the
first position ; thus making the signal " three" " 3 ;" then,
without pause, the right hand and disk are extended slow-
ly horizontally, at arm's length, and on the right side, then
returned to the first position, thus making the signal "two"
" 2." Pause. There has thus been made the signal " three
two" " 32," the letter given. A pause.

To make the letter " I," or " four two" " 42," the left hand
and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward, at arm's
length, on the left side, then returned to the first position,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 149

thus making the signal "four'" or "4;" then without pause,
the right hand and disk arc extended slowly horizontally, at
arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the
first position, making thus the signal "four two" "42," or
the letter given. A pause.

To signal the letter "P," or "one four" " 14," the right
hand and disk are extended slowly obliquely upward, at
arm's length, and on the right side, then returned to the
first position, thus making the signal " one" " 1 ;" then, with-
out pause, the left arm and disk are extended slowly ob-
liquely upward, at arm's length, and on the left side, then
returned to the first position, thus making the signal "four"
"4." There is made thus the signal "one four" "14," or
the letter given. A pause.

We have signalled thus, letter by letter, the word " Ship."
To indicate that the word is completed, the "end of word"
signal, code signal " 3," is made.

The positions of the disks just described resemble those
proposed for a military code, attempted many years ago in
Europe, and illustrated in 1805 by Mr. Spencer, its in-
ventor.

Holographic Night Signals.

The signalman is equipped for nomographic Night Sig-
nals, by having fastened at the height of his waist, a lantern
as a reference light, and holding a lantern in his hand. The
lantern at the waist should be red, or easily distinguishable
from the moving lantern by its color or by its brilliancy.
The motions and positions, indicating the figures and num-
bers, are made in precisely the same way, and haye precisely
the same meanings as those already described for Homo-
graphic Day Signals. In like manner all the rules and prac-
tices given for day signals apply equally at night.

For alphabetic signals it will be necessary to use only one
red light fastened at the waist, and one white light to be

150 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

held in either hand, as the signal may require. It will be
noticed, that no signal requiring the display of three lights
is used in the alphabetic code.

In code signals, where any of the numeral digits may be
required to be signalled to indicate the higher numbers, the
signalman must be equipped with three lights. (Plate X,
Fig. 2.)

With a little practice, night signals of this kind can be
read as rapidly as those used for the day.

With these, as with all other signals, care should be taken
that the signalman exactly faces the point to which the
message is sent.

Returning oe Repeating Homographic Signals.

In using signals of this character, when there is any diffi-
culty in the reading, as may be. from the heavy rolling of
a ship or other causes, each signal made must be kept in
view — the disk held at arm's length, and not returned to the
first position — until the signal is seen to be repeated by the
signalman at the receiving station. When the hand and
disk of the signalman at the sending station return to the
first position, the hand and disk of the signalman at the re-
ceiving station will, in the same manner, resume the first
position. This plan, which causes no delay in the working,
may be resorted to at any time to render absolutely certain
that a message is correctly received at the receiving station.
Each signal made by one party being thus returned by the
other, before the next signal is made, there can be no ques-
tion as to its accuracy.

The act of Returning Signals, to show that they have been
recognized, differs from Repeating Signals to be read by a
third station. In the former instance, the signalman return-
ing signals, faces toward the sending station, from which
they are received. In the latter instance, the signalman i'aces

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 151

away from the sending station, and toward the third sta-
tion.

In case a signal is for any reason to he repeated by the
receiving station, the hand and disk of the signalman, al
the sending station, are held extended in each motion, until
the hand and disk of the signalman at the receiving station
are seen to be extended in the same manner, and to make
the same signal toward the next station.

Xo station resumes the first position until it has seen the
signal position correctly taken by the station next to it in
the succession.

The pauses between the letters serve to indicate the sepa-
ration of the letter-signals. The waves of the disk at the
end of each word indicate the completion of the word, and
both pauses and pause-signals must be returned or repeated
at the receiving station, precisely as they are made at the
sending station.

Application to Signal Books.

When messages are not to be transmitted verbatim, but
are to be indicated by certain different numbers, each num-
ber standing for a complete message, as is the case with
codes of naval signals, or boat codes, the different numerals
are exhibited by making the different motions indicating
the figures that make up the number in their proper order ;
thus, to make the number 1954, which may stand for any
sentence, there are made a first motion, " one" " 1," followed
by a ninth motion," nine" "9," followed by a fifth motion,
" five" " 5," followed by a fourth motion, " four" " 4,"— sig-
nalling thus, 1954. Pause-signal, to indicate number com-
plete;

To make 163, there would be a first motion, "one" " 1,"
followed by a sixth motion, "six" "6," followed by a third
motion, "three" "3," — making thus the number Hi:!.

To make 104, there would be a first motion, "one" " 1,"

152 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

followed by a tenth motion, " naught" " 0," followed by a
fourth motion, " four" "4" — "104;" and so for any num-
ber, whether it consists of a greater or less number of
figures.

As in the case of letter-signals, these numbers may be re-
quired to be signalled back, figure by figure, from the re-
ceiving station, when accuracy must be rendered absolutely
certain ; or when, for any reason, it is desirable they should
be thus returned. When circumstances will permit, and
there are conveniences for woi"king, it is desirable to make
this style of repetition the usage.

Or it may be necessary to repeat code signals from sta-
tion to station, in the mode already described.

Orders in Homographic Signals.

When homographic signals are made by the signalman,
each letter-number is called off briskly as an order, the sig-
nalman making promptly, on hearing the order, those mo-
tions which indicate the figures of the numbers called.
Thus, to make " A," " eleven" is ordered, and two " ones"
are promptly made. To make " H," " thirty-two" is ordered,
and the motions " three" " 3," " two" " 2," are promptly
made. To make " N"," " forty-three" is ordered, and the
motions "four" "4," "three" "3," are promptly made.
And thus for any letters of the alphabet.

The pause-signal is ordered by calling " Code three."
Close of sentence is ordered by the call " Code thii*ty-three."
End of message is ordered by calling " Code three thirty-
three." Four pause-signals in succession are, " Cease sig-
nalling."

The "error-signal," signal for " assent," " repeat," etc,
are made by waving the disk from side to side, by the same
motions as in flag signals, and are ordered by the same com-
mand, preceded, in every instance, by the word " Code."

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 153

With practised signalmen, the letter, word, or clause of a
sentence to be transmitted may be given without the orders
for the signal-numbers.

Recording Homographic Signals.

When homographic signals are used, each number as seen
signalled may be taken down in numbers on paper, and after-
wards read by reference to the alphabet. The numbers of
signals seen may, in particular instances, be -written succes-
sively without stops or distances between them, and the
figures of this record be pointed oft* by twos when it is to be
translated. It is known, when they are pointed oft', that
each pair of figures must stand for a letter.

In this homographic code, as in all codes in which each
letter is indicated by a certain and always the same number
of symbols, it need not cause confusion if the two signals
which together indicate a letter are made irregularly as to
time, for if any one signal is seen, the receiver is aware that
this is a part only of a letter, and he waits, be the interval
longer or shorter, until he has seen the second signal of that
letter before he records the letter as completed.

A message to be signalled, may be written in numbers
without giving to the signalist any clue to the meaning.
* Of course the letters of the alphabet may be indicated by
any numbers at the will of the commander, and messages be
thus transmitted, of which none but the corresponding com-
mander would know the meaning. Thus "A," instead of
being indicated by "eleven" " 11," may be indicated by
"twenty-nine" "29;" "D," instead of " twenty-one" "21,"
might be "eighty-seven" "87;" and so for any arbitrary
changes deemed proper.

A new alphabet can be written at any time in a few mo-
ments. For purposes of secrecy, this may sometimes be ne-
cessary. Each letter of the alphabet is at all times indicated

154 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

by two figures, and no more. With practice, words may be
signalled by this code with very great rapidity.

Applications.

Number-signals, by this code often elements, may be made
for any number that may be necessary in using naval codes,
or codes arranged for many messages, to show the whole of
any given number of several places at once, by placing in
sight, and side by side, several men, each man standing in
the signal-position proper to represent a figure of the num-
ber. Thus, Plate XVIII, Fig. 3, to show the number 3478,
four men are shown side by side, about six feet apart. These
are numbered from right to left of the sending signalist, who
stands behind them and faces the communicating stations as
Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4.

These men assume the signal-position upon hearing the
signal-number called, each man being previously informed
which figure-symbol of the whole number he is to sym-
bolize.

Then, at the call " three-four-seven-eight," for "3478,"
No. 1 takes the signal-position for the first figure, " 3." No. 2
takes the position for the second figure, " 4.'' No. 3 takes
the position for the third figure, " 7." No. 4 takes the po-
sition for the fourth figure, " 8." Thus for whatever number.

The signal is recognized at the receiving station by either
a conventional signal or by repeating the signal seen.
Signal-numbers made in this way are always made from
right to left of the sender, and are read from left to right
of the reader.

The conventional signals must be predetermined. This
mode of communication may be needed, as when the rolling
of a ship or boat makes it impossible to steadily fix the glass
upon a position. When it may be wished to conceal the
fact that signals are made, the signalmen may be sheltered
from observation.

~*n

- r.

"*T"Hli r"

,_I

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 155

The General Service Homographic Alphabet may be Big-
nalized by any of the devices before described for other
codes.

Field Signals may be made with a Field Semaphore, con-
structed of very common materials. (Plate XVIII, Figs.
4,5,0.)

Let A be any upright pole or post, however light, pro-
vided it can sustain the weight of the light arms.

B, C, arms made of light boards, or staves, or canes, with
any visible disks or objects attached at the outer extremi-
ties. The working-strings or cords are attached at the inner
extremities, and here are fastened weights, as shot or stones,
to nearly balance the arms upon the pivot.

Let D be a pivot passing through both arms, a foot or
eighteen inches from their inner extremity. This pivot is
so arranged that the arms move freely upon it. It may be
an iron bolt or a pivot of wood.

These are the Positions : Rest, and ten Signal Positions,
the arms of the semaphore taking for each signal-number
the position as described for the arms of the man in Homo-
graphic Signals. The signals, " attention," " error," " re-
peat," etc. Conventional signals are made by any selected
] m >sit ions of one arm of the semaphore. The other arm being
for all of these signals kept horizontal.

The arms, which of their own weight hang with the outer
extremities downward, are brought into any position by
ill awing upon the cords. This semaphore is constructed of
the roughest materials, and can be anywhere erected and
made ready for work with a few moments' labor.

It may be used at night by attaching lanterns at the arm-
ends, and distinguishing a reference-sight at the pivot.

Signals with this semaphore are always numbered from

156 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

right to left of the sender, and are read from left to right of
the reader.

When lines of semaphores are used, the signal at each is
kept in view until it is seen correctly repeated at the next
in succession. If a line of several semaphores is to he
worked, an additional piece must be attached to the up-
right, as at Fig. 5, to render the direction of the working
clear.

Semaphores of this description may be attached to and
worked at the mast-heads of vessels.

The letter-signals heretofore given may be signified by
any six motions or positions, made or taken in reference to
some given or fixed position.

Or by any mode in which six differing impressions can
be made upon any sense ; as with any six positions of a
musket.

Or any six differing motions of a flag.

Or for writing by any six different marks upon paper.

Or by any six differing appearances of objects hoisted
into view.

Or by any six differing colors, motions, sounds, flashes, or
indications of any description. The modes by which these
are produced are already illustrated.

Signals by Flashes and Occultations.

Codes of ten elements may be signalized very simply and
usefully by flashes of a single light.

The most powerful calcium or magnesium light may be
used for this purpose ; or the flashes may be those of any
kind of lantern, or torch, or brand, or luminous object.
There are used flashes and pauses.

To symbolize " one," make " one flash ;" to symbolize

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 157

" two," make " two flashes;" to symbolize "three," make
"three flashes;" to symbolize "four," make "four flashes;"

and so on, — the number of flashes exactly corresponding
with the numeral digit. The pauses are intervals of dark-*
ness. There are short pauses between the letter-signals of
each letter, longer pauses between the completed letters,
and at the end of words. Or " end of word" may be a long
flash.

The code combinations consist each of two figures. The
first figure is indicated by flashes before a pause ; the second
figure is indicated by flashes after a pause.

Thus to make "A," or "eleven" "11," "one flash— a
pause — one flash."

To make " C," "thirty-one," "31," "three flashes— a
pause — one flash."

To make "J," "fifty-two" "52," "five flashes— a pause
— two flashes."

To make "R," "thirty-four" "84," "three flashes— a
pause — four flashes ;" and so for all combinations.

The flashes of each combination are made closely to-
gether, and the pause is so short as to distinguish it easily
from the longer pause between letters, and that still longer
between words. The pause may be, say for the symbol-
pause, one second time; the letter-pause, two seconds; the
word-pause, four seconds.

Assent is " 2 2 2," ordered " two-two-two."

Error is " 6," ordered " six."

Clause signal is " 3," ordered " three." ,

Repeat is " 4 4 4," ordered " four-four-four."

End of message is " 3 3 3."

For illustration, to signal " on board," the signal-letters
are "53.43—21.53.11.34.41.333." Signals = " five flashes
— pause (one second or symbol-pause) — three flashes (.">::) ;"
pause two seconds (a letter pause), "four flashes — pause
three flashes (43);" pause four seconds (a word-pause),

158 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

"two flashes — pause — one flush (21);" pause two seconds,
" five flashes — pause — three flashes (53) ;" letter-pause, " one
flash — pause — one flash (11);" letter-pause, "three flashes
■ — pause — four flashes (34) ;" letter-pause, " four flashes —
pause — one flash (41);" letter-pause, "three flashes — three
flashes— three flashes (333)."

This plan lias been described at length, in order that it
may be thoroughly practised. The signalist should be able
to distinguish each letter by its flashes without thought, as
the letters are recognized in print.

To make these flashes in the field, a common signal-lantern
may be flashed from a bucket. (Plate XVIII, Fig. 9.)

Or it may be flashed from a hole dug in the ground ; or
from behind a folded blanket ; or from behind a little em-
bankment ; or from behind a log or a board, or any screen
devisable. Or a lighted portfire may be used instead of a
lantern ; or a lighted case of any composition fire may be
used ; or any light torch, or fire-ball, or a brand from a com-
mon fire. Or a fire may be flashed by raising and lowering
a blanket befoi'e it.

It will be seen that flashes can be made from any part of
a fort or vessel. They may be shown above a parapet or
through a port-hole, or through any window of a house.
The light of a light-house may be flashed by covering it
with a hat or screen. The common ship-light or steamer-
lio-ht can be used. The head-li<dit of a locomotive would
be visible for many miles.

At lesser distances the light need not be flashed, but held
in the hand, and waved in any direction, a wave represent-
ing each flash.

Any obscuration of the light will answer as well as a
marked flash. So for secret signalling: a person sitting at
a table in a room lighted by a single light, may flash the
light by any device. The change of light on the lighted
windows can convey any message to a skilled observer out-

M LNUAL OF SIGNALS. 159

side. So any beam of light passing out through any crevice

may be utilized. Or a person passing between a light and
a window the proper times with intervals, may give any
preconcerted signal. The reader will comprehend how

messages may be sent by even the tapping of one finger on
a table. Or by any motion that can be made with it.
Such signals may be useful when blockading vessels have
agents on shore to notify them of any movement; or in the
ease of invested forts; or they may be used by prisoners.

One of the best apparatus for night signals by flashes
when it may be necessary to turn the flash in a single direc-
tion, and that it be invisible from any other direction, is a
lantern fitted precisely as the magic lantern, and furnished
with a single glass " slide," like a picture-slide, colored red
for half its length, and black for the remainder. When
ready for signalling, the slide being adjusted and moved, the
messages are transmitted in plain flashes — the flashes being
cut off by the black section of the slide. The conventional
signals are by red flashes — and while the lantern is at rest,
it is made to show a red light. The red flash is also used
to call attention. The lantern must be fitted with " sights,"
so that the flash may be correctly directed by " sighting,"
at the communicating station. (Plate XX, Fig. 5.)

Flash signals are of the same character as Day signals by
Oecultations. Any thing may be obscured in any way and
flashed into view. A handkerchief may be swung into view,
or it may be held in the hand and waved once for " one ;"
twice for " two," and so on. Or to do away with the pauses,
all the waves on the right of the signalist may be reckoned

160 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

as standing for the first figures of combinations, all the waves
on the left as for the second figures.

Or any flag, or ball, or object may be flashed, waving into
view above a parapet or any screen. t

Or a shutter-shaped signal may be fitted to stand with its
edo-e toward the observer, and be made to flash into view as
has been before described.

Or a flag, or any signal, lowered a few feet from a mast-
head may be run up once for " one," twice for " two," and
so for any number.

Or any article, or any mode by which can be made signs
sufficiently distinct to be counted, can be employed. The
applications are illimitable, and can be infinitely varied. It
is almost impossible to prevent communication.

After the same manner signals of ten elements may be
made by sounds, as taps upon a drum or bell, or short blasts
of whistles or of bugles.

Thus one tap for " one," two taps for " two," and so on.
Thus: To make "one five" "15," one tap — a pause — five
taps. To make " two nine" " 29," two taps — a pause — nine
taps. To make " three six five," three taps — a pause — six
taps — a pause — five taps. Longer pauses between completed
numbers.

Ten taps stand for " ten," and also for the cipher.

The sounds may be of any intensity.

Field Signals by ten elements can thus be made by any
possible indication. Embracing the numeral digits and the
cipher, the plans for them have entered into general use.

Thus codes often elements are symbolized by the Coston
Lights, as will be understood by an examination of the plans
for the lights.

Or signals of ten elements may be made with any ten flags,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1G1

as in codes of naval signals. The ingenuity of all ages has
been turned upon codes of this order.

Codes of whatever character or number of elements, less
than ten, can be signified by using a part only of a code of
signals often elements.

The modes of operating with ten elements, may be infi-
nitely extended. The student should be practised in the
use of signals of this order, in forming codes by them, and
in the transmission of messages, until the use has become
familiar and so well acquired that it will not be forgotten.

TO RAPIDLY MEMORIZE A CODE.

The following mnemotechnic plan will sometimes be
useful :

Letters.

w
O
«
O

If the alphabet is arranged as above for a Homographic
or Position code, it will be found that, reading the columns
from left to right, we have five mnemotechnic words:

1st. Afkpuv — pronounced Af-kay-puv.

2d. Bglqw — pronounced Be-jel-kew-double-you".

3d. Chmbx — pronounced Chemaeex.

4th. Dixsy — pronounced Dixsy.

5th. Ejotz — pronounced Ejotz.
The effort being to pronounce each letter in each word.
The first of these words, "Afkpuv," has six letters. Each
of the others has five letters. Commit these words to
memory, and in the order given, so as to know them as first,
second, third, fourth, and fifth words. Memorize the letters

1st.

2d.

3d.

4th.

5 th.

6 th

1st.

2d.

3d.

4th.

5 th.

162 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

in each word as first, second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth

letters in that word.

To recall the signal-numbers of any letter of the alphabet,

pronounce the words in succession until that is reached in

which the letter is found, note the number of the word and

the number of the letter in the word. These two numbers,

taken together, will be the signal-number of that letter.

Thus the letter "M" is in " Chmrx" —the third word. It

is the third letter in that word. The signal-number of

" M" is " 33." The letter " T" is in Ejotz— the fifth word.

It is the fourth letter in that word. The signal-number of

" T" is " 54." " P" is in the first word— the fourth letter.
a p» j s u 14 » u y» ig j n FIRgT wor< J 5 t ^ e SIXTH l etterj « 16< »

Suppose the word " Able" given to be signalled.
A is 1st word, 1st letter — signal " 11."
B is 2d word, 1st letter — signal "21."
L is 2d word, 3d letter — signal " 23."
E is 5th word, 1st letter — signal "51."
The signals then are " 11— 21— 23— 51— A-b-l-e." A
signal alphabet can, by this process, be thoroughly learned
witli an hour's practice.

A class practised in this Alphabet, and in the Positions
and Motions, in the morning, can be put in the field for ex-
ercise in the afternoon. They will need only pencil and
paper to note down the signal-numbers they wish to send,
or which they may receive.

This code may be so committed that it will never be for-
gotten. An officer practised in its use, and having his pocket
telescope, can never, while in view, be cut off from communi-
cation with his fellow-officers similarly instructed.

Field signals of eleven, twelve, and other greater numbers
of elements, are used with permanent semaphores only, and

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1(13

in envious plans for naval flags. By increasing the number
of elements used, the number of arrangements, showing few
flags in each arrangement, is very greatly increased. Thus,
using sixteen different flags, thfcre can be exhibited two hun-
dred and forty different signals, showing only two flags at a
time, or "in a hoist." There can be exhibited three thou-
sand, three hundred and sixty signals, showing only three
flags "at a hoist/' There can lie shown four thousand, three
hundred and sixty-eight signals, showing four flags "in a
hoist." (See rules of combinations.)

Lastly, as a code of twenty-six elements, we have our al-
phabet with twenty-six elements, each a symbol of sound
or sight.

Any twenty-six different signs will represent all the let-
ters, by showing a distinct sign for each. Or, if twenty-
six sounds or notes are selected, and the sound of each be
known as a letter, words sounded by these notes, in succes-
sion, would be intelligible, and as really articulated as
though they were spoken.

The lengthy and almost cumbersome descriptions of al-
phabets and of processes of signalling, heretofore given, have
been made with the intention to so impress the student with
the simplicity of the rules for forming them, and the ease
with which the letters can be represented by signals, that he
may never feel at a loss how to devise a signal alphabet for
his own use, or how to at once form the signals with which
to use it.

Signals will not be used as much as they ought to be
until this simplicity is comprehended. There is hardly a
military or naval movement but in which they may be of
avail.

The soldiers of the signal corps signal their messages from
camp to camp, to avoid the fatigue and save the time of a

164 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

few moments' walk. The sailors on fleets prefer to signal
a message to the landings, to save the labor of a boat's
crew.

It can hardly happen but that the advantages to follow a
thorough knowledge of the uses and applications of signal-
plans, will well repay, to any one fitting for a military or
naval life, the little time which must be diverted from other
studies to acquire it.

CHRONOSEMIC SIGXALS.

One of the most interesting inventions of semiologists of
the present day, at once simple and effective, is that of
Chronosemic or Time Signals, as they may be called.

This plan of signalling, resulting from the studies of
B. Franklin Greene, Esq., of the Navy Department, was
recently adopted in the navy of the United States, and bids
fair to be productive of important benefits to both the naval
and the land services.

It supplies a want long felt. Thoroughly understood and
skilfully used, it will render intelligent communication and
co-operation practicable, under circumstances which have
made them hitherto impossible.

Chronosemic Signals depend for their meanings upon in-
tervals of time. The principle will, perhaps, be best under-
stood by an illustration. If, for instance, an interval of one
second of time, taken between two signals, recognizable by
any sense, is taken to represent "one" "1," then two
seconds of time similarly intervening between signs, would
stand for " two" " 2 ;" three seconds intervening, would stand
for " three" " 3 ;" four seconds intervening, would stand for

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. . 165

"four" "4;" five seconds intervening, for "five" "5 ;" nine
seconds, for " nine" " 9 ;" ami in this way for all the numeral
digits.

The interval of time which stands for "one." is called the
"initial interval," or "unit of interval." It may be of less
or greater length, as of one or many seconds. This is de-
termined by the circumstances under which the signalling is
to be done. The interval which stands for "two," is twice
as long as the interval which stands for "one," because the
number is twice as great. The interval which stands for
"five," is five times as Ions: as the interval for "one." The
interval which stands for " nine/" is nine times as long; the
principle being, that the unit of interval, or that which shall
stand for one, being concerted, all the other numeral digits
are designated each by an interval as many times greater
than that standing for " one," as the unit " one" is contained
in the cdven numeral.

For instance, if Ave make a signal, allow a second of time
to elapse as an interval, and then make another signal to
mark the close of the interval, there is signalled " one" " 1."
If we make a signal, allow an interval of nine seconds, then
make another signal, there is signalled " nine" " 9." If we
make a signal, allow an interval of five seconds, and then
make another signal, there is signalled " 5," thus to signal
"19 5," or " 195 ;" we make a sign, allow an interval of
one second (for " one") ; then a sign, allow an interval of
nine seconds (for " nine") ; then a sign, allow an interval of
five seconds (for " five") ; then a sign to mark the close of
the interval and of the signal. Now if the initial interval,
or interval unit—/, e.,. standing for the unit " 1" — had been
concerted to bejlve seconds of time instead of one second
of time, then to signal " 1 9 5," Ave make a sign ; allow an
interval of Jive seconds (for "one")— a sign; allow an inter-
val offortyfir, seconds, nine times the interval designating
the unit interval (for " nine") — a sign; allow an interval of

106 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

twenty-Jive seconds, five times that for one (for " five") — a
sign to close the signal.

The marking signals themselves are, in this style of sig-
nalling, of use solely to attract attention, and so to mark
the beginnings and the endings of the intervals.

It is necessary only that they should be defined, distinct,
and capable of marking the instant with precision.

They may be, therefore, of any kind. They may be mo-
tions, flashes, objects brought into view, objects hidden, ob-
jects in positions, sounds of guns, trumpets, bells, drums,
steam-blasts, whistles, flights of rockets, explosions of candle-
bombs, etc.

The following explanation of Chronosemic Signals is ex-
tracted from the signal code of the United States Navy,
prepared under the direction of Rear-Admiral Charles H.
Davis, Chief of the Naval Bureau.

Preliminary Explanations.

" Chronosemic Signals have resulted from an attempt,
primarily, to obtain a better system of Fog Signals than the
systems in ordinary use, either in the naval or commercial
service.

" Instead of a very limited number of special signals for
use during fogs, with symbols not only entirely arbitrary,
but complicated and cumbrous in practice, it was proposed,
in the invention of Chronosemic Signals, to devise a system
which should be applicable to the various signals of an entire
code, whether naval or commercial ; with the use of symbols
which might be regarded at once logical, simple, easy of
application, and susceptible of precision and certainty in
results.

" Every system of Fog Signals must be based upon the
use of sound-signs ; and these, to meet the requirements of
practical use, must be combined with certain time-intervals,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 107

in order to establish definite symbols of the conventional
ciphers which represent the signals of a given code.

"The naval codes of the United States and of other
nations, as well as the different commercial codes, have, as
ciphers, signal-numbers^ with the exception of the Commer-
cial Code of the British Board of Trade — used also in the
naval and commercial services of the United States — which
lias, as ciphers, signal-Utters. The signal-numbers are made
up of the ten elemental figures, to 9, inclusive; and the
signal-letters consist of eighteen letters of the alphabet,
permuted in sets of two, three, and four each. In general,
numerical ciphers, or signal-numbers, give rise to simpler
signal operations than alphabetical ciphers, or signal-letters.
The embarrassment of impracticable hoists of flags, conse-
quent upon the large number of signals in the Commercial
Code, and which led to the adoption of the signal-letters of
that code, may be considered as being practically removed
with the use of Chronosemic Symbols ; thus admitting the
restoration of the original signal-numbers.

"But the present system, although originating in an at-
tempt to develop a better system of Fog Signals, is, in
reality, an entirely general one, applicable to all circum-
stances, of day or night, open weather or fog.

"Chronosemic Signals present the following advantages:

" 1. That, as a system of Fog Signals, it is readily applica-
ble to a code of any extent ; so that, for example, any sig-
nal-numbers, even of the Commercial Code, the largest of
which, requiring five figures, may be made with as much
facility and certainty in the densest fog as under an open
sky.

" 2. That, whether employed during fog or any other con-
dition of the weather, day or night, this system makes use
of the most simple and ordinary, as also the most effective,
appliances for making signals in a vessel at sea; such as
ships' guns, steam-blasts, trumpets, or bugle-sounds, rockets,

1G8 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

flashes of gunpowder, signal-lanterns, hoisting and lowering
or masking a flag or other conspicuous object, etc. ; requir-
ing no perplexing and uncertain distinctions, either of colors,
arrangement of colors, or of sounds.

" 3. That, as a consequence of the facility with which this
system uses the most simple and effective means for making
the requisite signs, it is practicable to greatly extend the
area of the circle of available signal-distance ; as, for exam-
ple, in the use of ships' guns and rockets, where the dis-
tance may be extended to ten, fifteen, twenty, or more
miles.

" 4. That, as a consequence of the simplicity of this sys-
tem in sign-making apparatus, there results a corresponding
economy of expenditure, alike in the first cost of signal ap-
paratus and in the cost of consumable stores for its practi-
cal use.

Figure Symbols. •

" Chronosemic or Time-sign Signals are based upon the.
use of ten different figure-symbols, respectively representing
the ten elemental figures 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Each
figure-symbol consists of a certain interval, preceded and
followed by a sensible sign.

" The interval characterizes the elemental figure for which
it stands, and is simply an interval of time which is propor-
tional to the number of units in the figure represented. Thus
the interval for the figure 4 is twice as long as the interval
for the figure 2 ; the interval for the figure 3 is three times
as long as the interval for the figure 1, and so on. The in-
terval for the figure is theoretically nought, or zero ; but
as the initial and terminal signs would be identical with this
condition, and become undistinguishable, this interval is
simply made very small — not to exceed one second — and is
thus made to preserve its practical significance.

"In order to develop the intervals, a convenient unit of

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

1(59

ink rval is chosen. This .lone, the interval for the 6gure l is
tlio unit itself; the interval for the figure 2 is twice that
unit; the interval for the figure 3 is three limes that unit,
and so on. The value of the unit chosen depends some-
what on circumstances. It should not lie less than three
seconds, and it may be five, ten. or any other convenient.
number of seconds. The following table exhibits the inter-
vals corresponding to each figure for different units of in-
terval, such as 3", 4", 5", 0", and 10", respectively.

Table of corresponding Intervals.

Elemental
figures.

INTERVALS.

Unit,

Unit.

Unit,

3 seconds.

4 seconds.

5 seconds.

6 seconds.

in seconds.

Sec.

Very small.

1.-,

" The sign which precedes and follows an interval, serves
the twofold purpose of calling attention to the interval and
of defining its limits. The conditions to be fulfilled by the
si^'iis are, therefore, simply those of fixing the initial and
terminal epochs of the intervals, and of being seen or heard
over the desired circle of signal distance. Objects, how-
ever simple, which admit of undergoing changes of form, of
being shown and masked, or of changing place, may be used
for making signs addressed to the eye; ami all sounds, how-
ever made, whether explosive or continuous — -if in the latter

170 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

case they admit of being suspended, intermitted, or other-
wise changed — may be used as signs addressed to the ear.

Signal-numbers.

" Any signal-number is represented by an arrangement
of Chronosemic Figure Symbols, in the order in which the
figures stand in the given number. In this arrangement,
reckoning from the left, the terminal sign of the first figure-
symbol becomes the initial sign of the second figure-symbol,
the terminal sign of the second figure-symbol becomes the
initial sign of the third figure-symbol, and so on through
the number.

" Hence a signal-number composed of two figures is repre-
sented by an arrangement of two intervals and three signs ;
a signal-number of three figures by three intervals and four
signs ; and, in general, any signal-number will be made by
means of as many intervals as, and one more sign than,
there are figures in the given number.

" For the purpose of a detailed illustration, suppose it
were required to show the particular signal-number 2693,
by means of Chronosemic Signals, the unit of interval being
five seconds. From the preceding exjilanation it is evident
that it will be sufficient to make five successive signs, sepa-
rated by the four intervals, 10", 30", 45", and 15", which
respectively characterize the figures 2, 6, 9, 3, of which the
number is composed.

" As already remarked, and as will be more fully shown
hereafter, the signs may be made in many different ways.
If, however, for the purpose of the present illustration, it is
supposed that the signs are made by ships' guns, then the
signal of the preceding paragraph will require five guns and
four intervals, which will be executed as follows :

Gun— 10"— gun— 30"— gun— 45"— gun— 15"— gun.. 2693 ;
and the signal thus made may be shown with entire pre-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 171

eision 1>y him who transmits it, and read with equal certainty
by him who receives it.

"The preceding example may be represented graphically
under the following general form :

S,S 6 S 9 S 3 S 2693;

in which the sign, whatever it be, is represented by the
letter S, and the interval is reduced to units of interval by
dividing each interval by the unit of interval, winch in this
particular case is supposed to be 5". The following exam-
ples present further graphical illustrations of the Chronose-
mic method of symbolizing signal-numbers :

Numbers. Symbolized.

50 S 6 S S

407 S 4 S S,S

2693 S 9 S,S„S,S

35881 S.SJ3.S.S.S

" Unless otherwise indicated, the code unit of interval will
be five seconds, and the telegraphic unit of interval will be
three seconds.

" The signal interval is the time which elapses between
the terminal sign of one signal-number, and the initial sign of
the next succeeding signal-number. This may be arbitrary,
hut it should not be less than the lamest figure interval in-
creased by a unit of interval; and this will be recognized
as the definite signal interval.

"For the code unit of interval, the signal interval is,
therefore —

5"X 9 + 5" = 50 seconds.

"And for the telegraphic unit of interval, the signal inter-
val is —

3" X 9 -h 3" = 30 seconds.

172

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Auxiliary or Special Signals.

•

" The elemental figures from to 9 inclusive, when sepa-
rately made, represent certain auxiliary or special signals.
" These signals are exhibited in the following table :

Table of special Signals.

Figures.

Symbols.

Names of Signals.

Interpretations.

s„s

Preparatory

Signal of attention : Signals to be
made.

SiS

Answer to call : Readiness for

communication.

SoS

Signal of assent : Yes.

S 3 S

Numeral

Next signal to be used as a

Number.

S 4 S,
S 6 S

Negative

Signal of disseut : No.
Telegraphic Dictionary : Alpha-

Teleg. Alphabet.. . .

bet to be used.

S 6 S

Unit of interval ....

Next signal to make unit of in-
ter cat.

S 7 S

Call for strict attention to definite

signal interval.

S 8 S

Teleg. Vocabulary. .

Telegraphic Dictionary : Vocabu-
lary to be used.

Commercial Code . .

Signals from the Commercial
Code to be used.

"The Preparatory signal, being intended to arrest the at-
tention even of those with whom preoccupation, distance, or
other circumstances may somewhat embarrass signal com-
munication, should be made as decisive as the means at hand
will warrant, or at least sufficiently so to be effective. To
this end — the figure to be shown being zero — the symbol
will be, in general, either two guns, two rockets, two signal-
trumpet blasts, or two steam-blasts, in quick succession.

" If, however, circumstances should render it inexpedient
to fire guns, or send up rockets, the special signal apparatus
may be used, namely : the signal balloon, lantern, or trum-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 17o*

}><t, as made necessary or expedient by the condition of the
weather.

"In every ease the Preparatory will be repeated, either in
kind or otherwise, until the proper answer shall be made,
or until reasons shall appear for not expecting an answer.

"The other special signals need no additional explanations.

Signal Apparatus.

" The apparatus necessary for Chronosemic Signals com-
prises that for measuring the intervals, as well as that for
making the initial and terminal signs of those intervals.
Apparatus for time-keeping and sign-making is therefore
required.

Time-keeping Apparatus.

" The timekeeper will he any instrument adapted to the

distinct and easy measurement of seconds of time.

"A chronometer, deck-clock, comparing watch, metro-
nome, sand-glass, and seconds' pendulum, are suitable time-
keepers, any one of which may be readily and accurately
used for observing figure intervals.

11 A pendulum maybe extemporized in five minutes from
a piece of twine and a weight, which, on being suspended
between the thumb and forefinger of one hand, will give
seconds' oscillations, differing less than one-sixtieth from
strict accuracy — quite sufficient for practical purposes. The
weight should be small and the string light ; and the dis-
tance from the centre of the weight to the point of suspen-
sion, where a knot may be tied to mark it, should be thirty-
nine inches. The small error in distance practically com-
pensates for the small error in taking the centre of oscilla-
tion at the centre of the weight.

174 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Special Timekeeper for Chronosemic Signals.

" The Signal Chronoscope is specially designed for the
correct and ready observation of figure intervals in making
and receiving Chronosemic Signals.

" The Chronoscope consists of a clock movement, with a
bell-striker and register. In the top of the case containing
the movement there are fixed two dials, over one of which
moves an index for indicating seconds of time, and over the
other an index for registering units of interval. There is
an adjustment by means of which the bell-striker and regis-
ter may be set to the particular unit of interval desired,
as 3", 5", or 10", for a given occasion. There is also a
stop-detent, by which a quiescent state is maintained in the
instrument, except when actually measuring figure inter-
vals.

" To use the Chronoscope, it is wound up. The bell-
striker and register are set to the desired unit of interval,
and the indexes set to zero on the respective dials. The
instrument may be supported on a table, or gimbal, but is
most conveniently held in front of the body by a strap over
the shoulder. At the moment it is desired to measure an
interval, pressure is made on the knob which opens the stop-
detent, upon which the second index and the register index
begin to move. At the end of each successive unit of inter-
val a bell-stroke will be made, and the index of the register
advanced a corresponding space. At the close of each in-
terval the stop-detent will be released, upon which all action
ceases ; and the count of the units in an interval is verified
by inspection of the register.

Sign-making Apparatus.

" The sign-making apparatits is required to be adapted to
two essentially different atmospheric conditions, namely:

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 175

open weather, and mist or fog. In the former case, the signs
may be addressed either to the eye or ear. In the latter,
those addressed to the ear alone can be used.

Signs Adapted to Open Weather.

"As already remarked, such signs may be addressed to
the eye or ear; that is, they may be sight-signs or sound-
signs. The latter will be explained in describing the signs
adapted to a state of Ion;. Signs addressed to the eve
comprise :

"First. Signs employed during the day. For these it
will be sufficient to hoist and lower a flag, ball, or any other
conspicuous object; to expose and mask a ball or similar
object ; to expand and collapse a ball or balloon.

"Secondly. Signs employed during the night. For these
it will be sufficient to fire rockets, candle-bombs, or gun-
powder in flashes ; to hoist and lower a lantern or torch ;
to expose and mask a lantern, torch, or any other light ; to
make flashes of electric light; to show, and intermit, or
mask an oxy-hydrogen, magnesium, or calcium light, etc.

Signs Adapted to Mist or Fog.

"Such signs can only be addressed to the ear, whether
made during day or night. These may be made by the use
of ships 1 guns, steam-whistles, high-pressure steam or air
trumpets, fog-horns, volleys of musketry, the roll of drums,
trumpet or bugle calls, etc.

Special Sign-making Apparatus.

" Although the means commonly at hand would generally
suffice for efficient signs, still the following special forms of
sign-making apparatus will supply effective, convenient,
and economical means of conducting signal operations on
ordinary occasions. These art', for Chronosemic Signals —

176 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" 1. The signal-balloon, for day use /

"2. The signal-lantern, for night use ; and,

" 3. The signal-trumpet, for fog use.

" In all cases, whatever be the particular mode of making
the signs used in Chronosemic Signals, they should be
prompt to time and decided in action. The actual duration
of show of a sign may be arbitrary. It may be momentary,
and at the same time efficient, with such signs as the boom
of a cannon, a flash of burning gunpowder or of the electric
light, and the illuminated path of a rocket or a bomb ; or
it may be prolonged, more or less, as circumstances may
suggest, when using any of the modes of sign-making which
admit of continuous sights or sounds. But the initial and
terminal limits of the figure interval interposed between
two signs, however made, should admit of being observed
with all practicable precision. This only requires that the
transition from show to mask, or from mask to show, if a
sign, be made with reasonable celerity, and noted with cor-
responding precision by the time-officer. In the firing of
rockets, which is one of the most convenient modes of sign-
making for Chronosemic Signals, where a great extension
of the signal-distance may be desired, the apparent moment
of explosion of the rockets may be taken as the epoch of the
intervals, both in making and receiving signals.

" Nevertheless, while the remarks of the preceding para-
graph suggest a care which should always be observed in
conducting operations so important as the correct trasmis-
sion and reliable reception of signal communications between
distant points, it will be observed that an error, even of a
second, or tw T o seconds, when the unit of interval is five
seconds or more, would occasion no uncertainty; and with
the use of the Chronoscope the utmost precision and cer-
tainty are attainable, even with the smallest unit of interval,
both in transmitting and receiving signals.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

177

FORMS OF SIGNAL RECORDS FOR CIIRONO-
SEMIC SIGNALS.

SIGNAL RECOHD.

Signals made by

Date.
A D.

Time.

Interval.

Signal
number.

Remarks.

h. m. I s.

Signed,

SIGNAL RECORD.

Signals received from ■ ,

Date.
A D.

Time.

Interval.

Signal
number.

Remarks.

h. m. 8.

Signed,

178 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To convey letters or words by Chronosemic Signals, an
alphabet may be assumed in which each letter is indicated
by two figures only ; as is the case with the Homograph ic
Alphabet of the General Service Code. To designate, then,
any letter, but three signs or reports will be needed. Thus
to indicate A, " one — one" or " 11," the initial period of time
being three seconds, the signal c would be written " S t S } S ;"
to indicate "R" or "34," the signal would be written "S 3
S 4 S ;" to indicate " E" or " 5 1," the signal would be " S 6 S,
S." The three letters ARE would be thus distinctly
designated. A definite signal interval may be allowed after
each letter. With due care, however, the completed signals
to indicate whole words may be given together — as thus :
the word " A R E" may be written and signalized as fol-
lows: S t Sj S 3 S 4 S 6 S, S." Now, having this record of a
signal received, and knowing there are for each letter two
figures, and only two, we have, by pointing off the signal-
figures by twos, the numbers of the signal-letters. In illus-
tration, "SA S 3 S 4 S 6 S, S"=" 11, 34, 51"=" A, R, E."

In this case, the signal interval may be used to indicate
completed words, the signal interval doubled to indicate
completed sentences. A Signal Code and Telegraphic Dic-
tionary, common to the Army and Navy, being then adopt-
ed, it is difficult to conceive of the circumstances which
would prevent the co-operation of the forces when within
any range at which sense can be acted on. For the army,
the plans of Chronosemic-Signals offer many advantages :
as when it may be necessary to convey a few preconcerted
messages over long lines of communication, as from peak
to peak, over many miles of hilly country. Corps of divi-
sions, operating anywhere within range, by day or night,
may report their arrival at fixed positions; and many facts
important to be instantly made known may be trans-
mitted.

The simple yet very powerful appliances the Chrono-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 179

semic code permits to be used, will make it often available.
Signalists will comprehend how tires, lighted from station to
station, and hidden or eclipsed as by a blanket, may be so
flashed to signal any numeral, and so any message. Equally,
the tires being allowed to show steadily, the sharp short
eclipses that may be made with a blanket or other screen
may be used as signs to mark off the intervals. The Chro-
nosemic method affords the mode by which rockets and
candle-bombs can be used to the best advantage for signal-
ling; these are among the most powerful of night signals.
So, heavy bells and guns can be effectively used at great dis-
tances, or cartridge puffs, showing dense clouds of smoke
by day, or powder flashes visible at great distances at night.
The extemporized pendulum for counting seconds, already
described, can be put in use anywhere. There is no plan
more available for concealed signals, or those to be sent
from within the enemy's lines. A window illuminated by
a single light, placed anywhere within the room, and at
proper times eclipsed, will serve to transmit any agreed
message. Or any light may be flashed, or indication made
in the numerous ways before sus^ested.

The plans for Chronosemic Signals should be made the
subjects of careful study, and their practical use made a part
of the instruction of every signalist. The opportunities for
their successful employment cannot fail to present them-
selves.

180 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

TO OPEN COMMUNICATION BY SIGNALS
WITHOUT A PRECONCERTED CODE.

Two parties instructed in the principles and practice of
signalling being in view, and attention called, find them-
selves unable to communicate, neither understanding the
especial code used by the other:

To Arrange a Code. — The first party, taking position,
swings the flag in circles from left to right, passing it verti-
cally above the head in each swing, six times. Signalling
thus : " Prepare to arrange code."

To this the second party replies by six similar swings.
Both flags are then lowered while preparation is made.
The first party writes carefully an alphabet-code of two
elements (a code of two elements is chosen for illustration),
taking care that each letter is represented by a distinct com-
bination, that no two letter combinations are alike, and that
the letters follow each other in their usual sequence in the
alphabet, "A, B, C, etc., to Z." The second party makes
ready to write down the signal combinations he is about to
receive.

Each party having completed these preparations, assumes
with his flag the position " Ready." It is thus known that
both are " Ready to form code."

The first party now makes six times the signal " one" —
a pause of three seconds. Then makes six times the signal
" two" — a pause of three seconds. Then makes three times
the signal "three," and lowers the flag. This shows that
the code will be one of two elements, what motions of the flag
will indicate each element, and what will be the pause-signal.

The second party now repeats these signals exactly as
they are made, and so indicates: " Preparatory signals of
elements seen and understood." He then rests.

The first party then makes slowly and distinctly the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 181

letter-signals of his just-written code, each letter following
the other in the usual sequence of the letters of the alpha-
bet, and a pause being made alter each Letter-signal to per-
mit it to be recorded by the second party. At the end of
the alphabet he makes three "pause-signals" "333," and
lowers the flag.

The second party, who has carefully written down the
letter-signals as he has seen them made, now critically ex-
amines his list to see if all is correct ; and if so, makes
" 22 — 22 — 22 — 3," and repeats slowly, distinctly, with a pause
after each letter-signal and in their sequence, the letters he
has received, checking each on Ins list as he transmits it.
At the end of the alphabet he makes " 33" and rests.

The first party compares these signals, as he receives
them, with his alphabet list, checking each as it is compared,
and if all are correct, makes " 22—22—22—3."

Each party is now in possession of a complete alphabet,
and the exchange of messages proceeds under the usual
rules.

If, during the exchange of alphabets, there is an error or a
signal not clearly seen, the receiver makes at once a "stop
signal" by waving his flag from side to side. The signal
seen, the sender signals "22—22—22—3," and commencing
anew with the letter preceding that on which the error has
been made, repeats these signal-letters and goes on with the
alphabet.

Bv similar rules may be arranged signal-alphabets of any
number of elements, or for any apparatus.

Homographic Codes of any number of elements may be
arranged as follows :

The first party's attention being called, and the alphabets
prepared, each makes, with the arm and disk, six times the
motion-signals "one," "two," "three," "four," or "live,"
etc., for whatever number of elements he proposes to use in

182 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

his code to be prepared. He then makes, three times, the
signal which is to be the pause-signal. Thus, if he pro-
poses an alphabet of four elements, he makes motion " one"
six times, then " two" six times, then " three" six times,
then " four" six times. He then makes three times his
pause-signal.

For the General Service Homographic Code he would
make motion " one" six times, then motion " two" six times,
then motion "three" six times, then motion "four" six
times, then motion " five" six times, then motion " six" six
times, then " Code three" " 3" times.

These are repeated by the second party precisely as they
have been made, to show that they have been seen and are
understood. The alphabet of homographic signals is then
transmitted with the same precautions as prescribed for the
code of two elements, each letter-signal carefully formed by
itself, and each precisely recorded and repeated back as in
the instance given. Each party becomes thus possessed of
the same alphabet, and messages are then transmitted by
homographic signals and with the ordinary rules.

The rules for the preparation of codes of day signals
without preconcert, apply equally well when it is necessary
to concert signal codes at nio-ht — night-signals beino- then
substituted for day-signals.

It will be easy for skilled signalists to thus open commu-
nication either by day or night, they needing no preconcert.
It is only necessary that they be in sight of each other.
The power so to do might be of value in the case of be-
leaguered forts or blockaded vessels, or when emergencies
have long separated signalists who, though they may have
no alphabet in common, may know that each has been in-
structed in the same rules. The practice of such communi-
cation without preconcert ought to be made a part of mili-
tary tuition. So much may depend upon this power, and

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 1S:»

it should be so assuredly possessed by every sigualist, that
a description at length is here given.

There are two supposable cases :

1st. Two signalists being within signal-distance, are each
aware that both are practised in certain common alphabetic
codes of different numbers of elements, but there is no pre-
concert by what order of code or by what especial signals
the communication shall be.

It is supposed, for illustration, that it is desired to indicate
that a code of two elements will be used, and to exhibit the
signs to stand for the two symbols.

One party, having attracted the attention of the other, as
by waving his handkerchief, or his arms, or a flag continu-
ally, or by running continually to the right or left of a
fixed position, or by making continuously any signal, sees,
by an answering signal, that he is noticed. The answering
signal is made, by the second party, by repeating some sign
in couplets, as by waving the handkerchief twice to the left
at a time, for a number of times, or by making short runs,
two at a time, to the left of any fixed position, or by any
sign ; only it must be repeated twice at a time, with a pause
between each repetition. These double signals are always
signals of recognition. The first party seeing the answer,
acknowledges it by making signs of some kind " by twos."
He then makes, slowly and very distinctly, six times, the
signal, whatever it may be, he wishes to have read as " one,"
or the first element, and stands at rest. This is carefully
noted by the second party, as the signal he is to read as
" one," or the first element. The first party then makes,
slowly and distinctly, six times, the signal he wishes read
as "two," or the second element, and again pauses and
stands at rest. This is noted by the second party, as be-
fore, to be read as " two," or the second element. The Bret
party now makes, three times, the signal he intends to use
for the " pause-signal," or end of a word, and stops. It will

184 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be seen, that two elements and a pause-signal have been
indicated. These are sufficient with which to construct a
code. The second party, having distinctly seen and noted
the sio-nals made, now makes the sis;nal of recognition as
before, then pauses and stands at rest ; then makes, in his
turn, six times, the signal he intends to use as " one," or
first element — then pauses ; then makes, six times, the sig-
nal he intends to use as "two," or second element — then
pauses ; then makes, three times, the signal he intends shall
be his pause-signal. If possible, the signals made by the
second party must be, for each symbol, similar to those
used by the first party. When this is not possible, any
other signals may be used. The more simple and distinct
the signals the better.

Each party now knows the number of elements the other
party proposes to use, the elementary signals by which he
proposes to indicate those elements, and the pause-signal.

It has been indicated that the communication will be by a
code of two elements, and the signs, to stand for the two
elements, have been exhibited. The parties can now con-
verse in an alphabetic code of two elements, mutually known
to them, using these exhibited symbols, in their proper
places, for the elements of that code.

The procedure to indicate the use of codes of three, four,
five, six, or other number of elements, and to exhibit the
symbols to be shown in each case, would be similar, except
that there would be three signs exhibited, each six times, be-
fore the pause-signal, to indicate a code of three elements ; four
sio;ns so exhibited to indicate a code of four elements ; five
signs so exhibited to indicate a code of five elements; and so
for whatever code.

2d. Two signalists, circumstanced as first above described,
have no knowledge of any agreed alphabetic code. Each,
however, is known to the other to have been instructed in
the principles of signalling.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. L85

TheD to devise ;i code these further rules are used:
The first party shows a signal alphabet ; that is, he makes
slowly, with pauses between them, any twenty-six different
combinations of the two signal-symbols he has shown.
These combinations are to stand for the twenty-six Letters of
the alphabet.

If the combinations are to be of motion-signals, the motions
for each letter must follow each other without perceptible
pause between them until the combination for that letter is
complete: there must then be a pause of time to show that the
letter is finished. If the combinations are to be of stationary
signals, each letter combination must be indicate 1 as com-
pleted by making- the pause-signal before commencing the
next letter. Time must, in any case, be allowed after each let-
ter, to permit it to be noted by the observer. The, second
party notes down these twenty-six letter combinations, one by
one with his pencil, each in the order in which it is made, writ-
ing for each element-signal shown its proper number, as the
twenty-six letters of the alphabet follow each in their usual
sequence. So the record might stand thus: "A is 21," " l'>
is 22," " C is 12 ;" and so on, to the letter Z. If the receiver
doubts the signal for any letter, he makes the signal for the
sender to stop, and then makes, with his own signals, as they
have been before agreed upon, the element-numbers of the
letter correctly received. The sender now commences again
with this last letter, and repeats that of which there has
been doubt. The first party having thus sent the whole
alphabet which it is his intention to use, makes the signal
for completed message; that is, three pause-signals together,
and awaits the reply. The second party, having clearly
seen and correctly noted, in figures, each letter-signal of this
alphabet, now makes the recognition signal, to indicate that
he has understood it; and then, in his turn, using his own
signals — the sitrns he has exhibited as those he will use for
"one," and "two" — he makes the twenty-six combinations

186 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

he has received, and in the same order he has received
and noted them ; that is, in the usual order of sequence
of the letters of the alphabet. He closes with the sig-
nal for completed message. To this, the first party re-
plies with the signal for "signal seen and understood,"
and the word " correct." The second party, noting this
message, replies with the signals for " signals seen and
understood," and the word " correct." The parties have
now exchanged the alphabet, and have verified it. If,
however, any letters are incorrect as returned, the first
party signals after the alphabet is received, " error," then
the letter preceding the fault, the faulty letter or let-
ters, correcting them and the succeeding letter, then.
"33" and pause. The second party acknowledges and
repeats such correction in this pause. If there are many
errors, the whole alphabet is repeated and returned.
When at last correct, it is verified by the word "cor-
rect," as above. Messages of any kind can now be trans-
mitted.

It will be comprehended that any kinds of signs or indi-
cations can be exhibited for the symbols, and that the sig-
nalists, though corresponding by the same alphabetic code,
may represent the letters by signals which seem to have no
resemblance. For instance, the first party may have chosen
to indicate the "one" and "two" by the waves of a flag;
while the second party has chosen to signify the same
symbols by any two positions of a disk. The pause-signal
is equally arbitrary.

Alphabetic codes, of any number of elements, may be
formed whenever skilled signalists are visible to each other,
by processes similar to the one described. These being the
rules : that whatever signal is made continually, an indefi-
nite number of times, is a signal for attention ; whatever
signal is made " by twos," is a signal of recognition or assent.
So long as the signalist makes each signal six times, he is

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 187

indicating the elementary signals he intends to use; and
these elementary signals are designated by the observer as
the first, second, third, fourth, and so on, elements, accord-
ing to the order of the sequence in which they are exhibited,
one after the other. The alphabets are then devised, to
consist of two, three, four, <>r more elements, as the case
maybe. The pause-signal alone is made three times ; and
when made, it indicates that all the elementary signals, to
he used in the alphabet it is proposed to devise, have been
shown. Thus, if two different signals are shown, each six
times, and are followed by a pause-signal, made thrice, it is
indicated that the alphabet to follow will be of two elements.
If three distinct signals are shown, each six times, and are
followed by a pause-signal, made thrice, the alphabet is to
be of three elements. If four distinct signals are made, each
six times, and are followed by a pause-signal, made thrice,
the alphabet is to be of four elements; and thus for any
number of elements.

Codes can be arranged in the same way, without precon-
cert, for the numeral characters. Communication without
preconcert, or a previously established code, may be had
over an electric wire as follows: For a preparatory signal,
strike nine dots; the answer, " signal understood and ready
to form a code," is to return nine dots. The twenty-six let-
ters are then sent in their usual sequence by signals of any
code; and these are noted down at the receiving station.
The letters are then returned to the sending station pre-
cisely as they have been received. The sending station
sends the word " correct," which is returned "correct," and
both stations are ready to receive or transmit by any re-
cording instrument.

The plans for Chronosemic Signals require no preconcert
other than to determine the initial interval.

The power of extemporizing alphabetic codes of visible
signals, of any order, and with any kind of signals, without

188 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

preconcert, other than a knowledge of general rules, and
the possibility of so opening, at any time, anywhere, tele-
graphic communication between persons who may never
have met, and may never meet more nearly than they are
when thus conversing by signals, may be of use in very
many contingencies of the service. For military uses, it
has this advantage : that, if the parties are in sight of each
other and at liberty, and can be protected, no human power
can prevent their communication. It is available for be-
leaguered forts or cities, or vessels in distress, when com-
munication cannot be had by boats ; and between any per-
sons who, for duty or for pleasure, may wish to communi-
cate at a long distance. Of course, it can be used with any
apparatus, or any mode of making signals, which has been
described, or is conceivable. It can be used with day or
with night signals, or with signals by sound.

The signalist, once well taught, becomes thereafter inde-
pendent of signal-books, or codes, or especial apparatus ;
and, in a life of active service, may never encounter instances
in which he can fail to open communication with one simi-
larly taught, if both are in signal-distance, giving attention,
and provided with the means for operation.

With these rules known, the Alphabet and the Dictionary
of any language given, messages may be sent, and those
may converse whose different nationalities would render
conversation, by speech, impossible. In this case, each sig-
nalist signals to his correspondent, by the rules just given,
in the alphabet of that correspondent's language.

The signal-alphabets once agreed- upon, each signalist
finds, in the signals seen by him, and standing for letters
and words, the letters and phrases of his own language ;
and when he signals in return, he makes, with his signals,
the letters and the words of the language of his correspond-
ent. An American, in distress, might thus signal intelligi-
ble messages on the coast of Russia, or France, to the na-

Scale I ft To i iu
Fig. 2

PLATE XIX.

Fig. 1

Scale 1 ft to lin

Scale 1 ft to ^isin

rig. 9.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 189

tives of those countries. Or signalists of different nations,
eomingin siarht of each other, might converse, understand-
ingly, miles apart, by messages thus written in the air for
to signal by aerial signals is virtually to write Letters in the
air — when neither of them would he able to comprehend
the spoken pronunciation of the words that had been thus
transmitted. The dream of a universal language is, per-
haps, as nearly realized by these simple devices as in any
way hitherto suggested. The tongues, not the eyes, were
confounded at the tower of Babel.

In the studies of a military education, the most thorough
practice, in the modes of thus communicating without pre-
concert, ought to be insisted on.

DESCRIPTION OF STANDARD SIGNAL EQUIP-
MENTS.

A Regulation Set of Signal Equipments, when packed
complete, is comprised in three pieces :

The Kit — or canvas signal-case, containing the signal-
staff, flags, torch-case, torches, and wormer. These all com-
pactly rolled together and bound by straps, as at Fig. 1,
Plate XIX.

The Canteen — made of copper, with one seam, and sol-
dered — capable of containing one half-gallon of turpentine
or other burning-fluid. (Fig. 6.)

The Haversack — in which are packed wicking, matches,
shears and pliers for trimming torch, a small funnel for filling
the torch, and the two flame-shades, etc. (Fig. 4.)

The Kit Case, Canteen, and Haversack are fitted with
shoulder-slings or straps, by wmich they may he easily car-
ried.

The Service Can — is a strong copper can, with rolled
scams hard-soldered. The nozzle is fitted with a screw-cap,

190 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

to prevent leakage. It is capable of containing five gallons
of burning-fluid. (Fig. 5.)

The Kit Case contains :

1st. The signal-staff — a staff of hickory, made in four
joints or pieces, each 4 ft. long, and tapering as a whole
from 1^-in. at the butt to £in. at the tip.

The joints are feruled at the ends with brass, and fitted
to be jointed together as some fishing-rods are jointed. The
third joint is guarded with brass for six inches at its upper
extremity, to protect it from the flames of the torch, which
is always attached to this joint.

The tip or fourth joint is that to which the flag is attached
for day-signals. When in use, two or more joints of staff
are fitted together. (Fig. 2.)

2d. The Signal Flags — made of muslin, linen, or some
other very light and close fabric. The flags are seven in
number.

1. The six-foot 'white — six feet square, white, having at
its centre a block or square of red, two feet square.

2. The six-foot black — six feet square, black, having at
its centre a block or square of white, tAvo feet square.

3. The four- foot white — four feet square, white, having
at its centime a block, red, sixteen inches square.

4. The four-foot black — four feet square, black, having at
centre a block, white, sixteen inches square.

5. The four-foot red — four feet square, red, having at cen-
tre a block, white, sixteen inches square.

6. The two-foot white — two feet square, white, having at
centre a block of red, eight inches square.

7. The two-foot red — two feet square, red, having at its
centre a block of white, eight inches square.

All of these flags are fitted with tapes or ties, by which
to tie them to the staff. This is found the most simple and
the best mode of attaching. Two tapes, six inches long,

U \XUAL OF SIGNALS. 191

and sewed together at the tie-edge of the flag, make a tie.
The ties are one foot apart. (Fig. 9.)

3d. Torch Case and Torches.

The Torch Case is a piece of rubber cloth about three
feet long by two feet six inches broad, fitted on one side
with pouches, in which the torches are inserted.

At the opposite edge are ties. The torches are packed
by being placed in the pouches, with the case then rolled
around them so as to envelop them in two or three folds of
cloth. The ties retain the package in this form. (Fig. 3.)

The Flying Torch — is a copper cylinder, eighteen indies
long and one and one-half inch in diameter; it is closed at
one end, with the exception of a nozzle, through which it
can be filled, and which closes with a screw-cap; it is open
at the wick end, and on its sides, at this end, are four finest ra
or openings, one inch long, half an inch broad, which open
into the wick, so providing that however the flame may
be driven by the wind, it will find a portion of the wick
exposed. (Fig. 7.)

The Foot Torch — is a copper cylinder, eighteen inches
long and two inches in diameter. It is similar in its struc-
ture to the flying torch. (Fig. 8.)

The torches are trimmed by fitting into the mouth a wick
of cotton wicking six inches long. This must fit closely.
The body of the torch is then filled with turpentine or other
burning-fluid, as petroleum, etc. The flying torch attaches
to the staff "third-joint" by clamp-rings and screws.

Flame Shades. — Each torch is fitted, when in use, with a
flame-shade — a ring of thin copper, two inches wide, and
fitting by a socket upon the torch in such a way that the
ring projects on all sides. This is placed about one inch
below the fenestra or openings. The use of this shade is to
prevent the flame from travelling down the side of the torch
and thus over-heating it. The flame-shade is always de-
tached when the torch is packed.

192 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

A shade, called a Wind Shade, is sometimes used in high
winds. It consists of tine strips of copper attached to a
socket, and is adjusted upon the torch in the same way as
the flame-shade.

The Funnel, Pliers, and Shears are used for filling and
trimming the torch.

A screw or wormer is placed in the torch-case to be used
when the wick may, by accident, be drawn so far into the
tube of the torch that it cannot be seized by the pliers.

The Service Set of Signal Equipments consists of fewer
pieces than those here given.

The modes of using them are, however, identical.

The Service Set consists of

The Kit — containing a four-foot white flag, a four-foot
red flag, a flying torch with flame-shade and extinguisher,
a foot-torch with flame-shade and extinguisher, a funnel, a
pair of pliers, a pair of scissors, a wormer, and a three-jointed
staff.

The Canteen.

The Haversack is furnished with some and omitted in
other styles of the Kit.

Plate XIX, Figs. 1, 6, 4. There are represented the kit
complete, packed in the signal-case ; the canteen and the
haversack.

Fig. 2. The kit rolled ready to be placed in the case ;
the torches packed in the torch-case ; the flags rolled closely
together ; the four joints of the staff; — the whole bound by
the packing-straps.

Fig-. 3. The torch-case.

Fig. 5. Service-can.

Fig. 6. Service-canteen.

Fig. 1. The flying torch.

Fig. 8. The foot-torch.

Fig. 9. The different flags in outline— showing the rela-
tive size.

Fig. 7.

PLATE XX.

MotT\ Mot2

rig. 6.

Douhle Disc Single Disc "Ready' Motions T "2" '8'

Fig. 1.

Lantern Signals.

rig. 2.

Fig.

A B Shelves S. Screen moving vertically": w. r.w. Lanterns white, red white ;plaeed on

Shelves and changed in position to make any Signal .

Flash Lantern showing white
t-e.i £cgreen Flashes.

italic Lantern with colored Sfides

MANUAL OF SR'.XAI.K. l'.i;;

Signal Disks.

Single Signal-Disks are made of white canvas or other
strong cloth, stretched upon light rings or hoops of wire or
tough wood, ami having attached handles, by which they
may be conveniently grasped and moved.

The disks are about afoot or eighteen inches in diameter.
They bear at the centre a round black or red spot, of a
diameter equal to about one-fourth that of the disk.

The handles are from a foot to eighteen inches in length.
They may be fitted with sockets, so as to permit the disk-
to be attached to longer rods or handles when there is the
occasion.

Signal-disks may be attached to long and light canes, or
to the end of a musket, or to the arms of a semaphore, to
add to their utility.

Double Signal-Disks consist of two signal-disks, one at-
tached at each extremity of a staff about six feet long. The
disks are about eighteen inches in diameter. They may be
of the same color, or of different colors, as one red and one
white.

The dependence in signalling should be on the position
and not on the colors of the disks. These are often not
distinguishable. Disks are sometimes colored red on one
side and white on the other. This device is useful, permit-
ting the color of the disk to be suited to the background.
Disks intended for constant use, as at permanent stations,
are sometimes woven of basket or wicker work.

There are represented, Plate XX — Fig. 6, Single signal-
disk ; Fig. 7, Double signal-disk ; Fig. 8, Double disk in
use.

Semaphobes.

When, on long lines of stations, towers or other struc-
tures are used, it may be necessary, for greater speed, to

194 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

sometimes employ semaphores for aerial telegraphy. Little
attention has been paid, in our army, to the great advan-
tages, sometimes, of their employment : the modes of sig-
nalling in use dispensing, in a very great measure, with the
necessity for them. On lines of one or two hundred miles
in length, and permanent, they may be useful. Semaphores
consist of a post with arms. The arms starting with about
three feet in length, to be increased one foot for every mile.
These arms are made movable by ropes passing over wheels
or pulleys, and moved by a crank below. The arms should
be capable of making twenty-six different positions. This
is all that is absolutely necessary. Each position stands for
a letter of the alphabet. A pointer on a dial-face, placed
at the foot of the machine, indicates what letters the arms
are showing when the ci"ank is in each position. When a
letter is made, it is kept in view until it is seen repeated at
the next station ; the next letter is then made ; and so on.
A Avatch is kept with a telescope, at each station, in two
directions — that from which the message is to come, and
that to which it is to go. Each signal made is kept in
view, at the sending station, until it is seen correctly made
at the next station. If the receiving station erroneously
repeats any signal, the sending station still holds the correct
signal in view until it is rightly repeated.

The use of semaphores has been carried to very great
perfection in Europe, and elaborate accounts of their struc-
ture are readily attainable. It is not necessary here to
enter into a lengthy description.

The plans of CiiAPPJi are the most elaborate. The plans
of Popham: are sufficient for all uses likely to be made in
this country.

Semaphores are worked at night by attaching lanterns to
the upright, as a point of reference ; other lanterns being
affixed. at the ends of the arms. The lanterns are always
troublesome.

MANUAL 03? SIGNALS.

L95

The plans for semaphores before given have sufficiently
illustrated the devices by which they may be formed.

[Plates IV, .XIV. XV, XVI, XVIH, etc.]

They may be of the simplest structure.

A strong pole and a couple of light canes, with some
light rope or strong twine, are sufficient material to con-
struct any variety of semaphore.

Or the canes may be worked as attached to the trunk of
any tree — the tree-top branches, etc., being cut away.

Or any kind of post may constitute an upright, and any
kind of rod or staff, or piece of plank, may answer for the
arms.

The arms may be attached by wooden pivots, or they
may be tied with ropes, so as to move freely in any neces-
sary direction. Where canes are used as arms, disks, or
halls of hay wrapped in white cloth, are attached to their
extremities, to increase their visibility.

The following description and illustration is extracted
from Scott's Military Dictionary.

Semaphore Telegraph.

2 ; •:--. :

■M--

=3 a

.... .£,

" It consists of
an upright post,
of moderate
height; of two
movable arms,
fixed on the same
pivot, near the
top of it ; and of
a mark, called an

indicator, on one side of it, merely to distinguish the low
numbers, 1, 2, 3, from the high numbers, 7, 6, •"». Fig. A
represents the telegraph exhibiting the sign L 7, the other
positions of which the arms are capable being dotted. Fig.

198 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

B represents the telegraph fitted up to make nocturnal sig-
nals. One lantern, called the central light, is fixed to the
same pivot upon which the arms move. Two other lanterns
are attached to the extremities of the arms. A fourth lan-
tern, used as an indicator, is fixed on the same horizontal level
with the central light, at a distance from it equal to twice
the length of the arm, and in the same plane nearly in
which the arms revolve. Hence, the whole apparatus con-
sists of two fixed and two movable lights — four in all. The
number of telegraphic signs, combinations, or changes
which this telegraph is capable of exhibiting, is shown in
the ' Table of Signs or Combinations' (see cut on page 1U7) ;
and one of those, No. 4, in the day telegraph, is liable to
be confounded with the post, and should not, therefore, be
used. The number is, however, amply sufficient for tele-
graphic communication, whether by alphabet or by refer-
ence to a telegraphic dictionary of words and sentences.
The indicator, both by day and night, is merely a mark, and ,
nothing more ; and the central light by night, and the post
by day, are also merely guides to the eye. The signs of the
telegraph are in reality, therefore, only composed of com-
binations of two movable bodies by day, and two lights by
night. It has been ascertained by experiment that the arms
for day-signals should be about one foot in length per mile,
in order to be distinguished by a common portable tele-
scope. By the above rule, a telegraphic arm of six feet in
length may suffice for stations six miles apart ; but it is bet-
ter to add a little to these dimensions. The width of the
arm need not exceed two-thirteenths of its length. The
indicator should be of the same width, but only four-fifths
of the arm in length. The height of the post should be
such, that movable objects near it should not obscure the
indicator or arms, when the telegraph is erected in the field.
The telegraphs hitherto constructed on this principle are of
two sizes: one having arms of five and a half feet in length,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

197

TABLE OF SIGNS OR COMBINATIONS.

o o
°0

o
o o c

■J

o o o o

)

o o
o

ooo

0°
o

-f

o o
o o

o o o

-I s

o o

o
o

O o

ooo

°o
o °

-[-

o
o o o

o o
o

o
o o

o
o o
o

O o

o o

n O

■f

o o o
o

}

ooo

STOP

O o

o
ooo

FINISH

o
o

198 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

with the lantern-pivots placed six and a half feet from the
centre of motion ; the other having arms, two and a half
feet in length only, with the lantern-pivots three feet two
inches from the centre of motion. The latter are perfectly
portable, as the whole apparatus does not weigh more than
thirty-four pounds. In clear weather these small telegraphs
make signals distinctly visible at a distance of three miles.
" In cases of emergency, where the portable telegraph is
not with an army, it has been ascertained by experiment
that the most expeditious and satisfactory arrangement will
always be to copy the regular construction as closely as
circumstances will permit. A post, with two planks for
the arms, fixed externally on each side of the post, each
worked merely by a couple of strings, without pulleys, will
constitute a day telegraph ; and the addition of lanterns will
convert the same simple apparatus into a night telegraph.
In both cases the arms must be counterpoised by wood or
iron, and also by weights in some rude manner, which must
not impair the clearness of the telegraphic signs."

Three lights will be sufficient for the ordinary uses of
this semaphore at night, if the pivot light is made dis-
tinguishable by its brilliancy or its color from the lights at
the ends of the arms.

FLAGS OX HALYARDS.

"When flags on halyards are used as signals, they are fitted
with "loops and toggles," so that when flown they are kept
each at a distance from the other, somewhat greater than its
length. (Plate XXI.) Flag-signals are read from above,
downward. Each flag represents a numeral digit. The naval
signal-flags are numbered from to 9. To illustrate their
use : If red is known as " 4," yellow as " 3," and blue as
" 2," to make the number " 423," these flags would be flown

Fuji

PLATE XXI

Flags connected by Flag's lioisted N°1234 423' Symbolized

Loops and Toggles. Distance Line

To R*p*atr*3^ Flags
X' J -1433.

To Repeat ^Flag

^ times. X° 2222.

To Repeal l"Flae Twice
" At> in N" 1114 .

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 109

together upon halyards — red above (4), blue next (2), white

below (3) — "423." It is rarely necessary to fly more than
four flags together, or "in a hoist," as it is styled, when the
naval code is used. The numbered naval flags are gen-
erally of two colors combined in one flag. In addition to
the numbered flags, are certain pennants known as repeaters,
by which is shown any numbered flag which is intended to
be read as "repeated," or occurring twice or more times in
any signal.

Signal Flags are run up on what is termed a signal hal-
yard (a rope passing through a pulley fixed at the masthead
or other elevated point) and having at one of its ends a
loop and at the other a toggle. (Plate XXI, Fig. 3.) The
toggle at the top of the upper flag and the loop on the cord
at the bottom of the lower flag are fitted, the first into the
halyard loop, and the second over the halyard toggle. The
flags are then hoisted by the halyards. The continuous
line formed by attaching several flags together by means
of the loops and toggles, is called the "distance line."

Flags may be extemporized from common materials, as
pieces of canvas and of cloth, strips of white, red, or blue
flannel, etc. It is necessary only that they be distinguish-
able from each other. These are displayed in the same
way, and the signals are read in the same manner. When
the number of distinguishable flags is limited, the codes
must be arranged to contain that number of elements only
which may be indicated, using a distinct flag for each ele-
ment.

Where there is material of one kind only, variously
shaped flags may be made. The distinction being then
made by the differing forms of the flags.

Signal-flags are made of bunting, which is purposely of
such texture as to catch the air, that it may fly with a light
breeze. There is appended to this book (Plate II.) a plate
of flags as now used in the navy. By reference to this and

200 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the example of naval codes (page 47,) it will be under-
stood how the sentences therein, or any others, may be
represented.

Plate XXI illustrates the modes in which the flags may
be shown.

Let it be supposed, that the four flags shown on Plate
XXI, Fig. 3, symbolize respectively, taking them from
above downward, the numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 ; then if all of
them are hoisted together, as in Fig. 3, the signal-number
1234 is understood as shown. Any less number of them
may be hoisted too;ether, as in Fisr. 4 — the number 423 is
shown. In Figs. 5, 6, and 7, the use of the "repeaters" is
exemplified. In Fig. 5, is shown the number 4433 ; in Fig.
6, the number 2222; in Fig. 7, the number 1114. (See
page 54.) The red, white, and blue pennants are taken re-
spectively for the first, second, and third " repeaters."

Any articles, as coats, caps, handkerchiefs, boots, tin pans,
etc., can be designated by numbers, as 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on, and
then hoisted one above the other, in their proper order, on
halyards, to signify any signal-number. (See Plate XIV,
Fig. 9.) Even the " repeaters" may be devised if needed.

FLAGS m MOTION.

When signals are to be made by flags in motion, it is
necessary to take care that the flags are of bright colors
and clean ; that such colors are selected as will most strongly
contrast with the background against which the flags ap-
pear when viewed by the person receiving the message ; that
they are of material, light, smooth, and which will glide
easily through the air, as cotton or linen stuffs — instead of
bunting ; that the colors are so arranged as to be pleasing
to the eye, which else is sooner wearied.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 201

The motions must be rapidly made, those of each com-
bination without perceptible interval between them. There
must be care, and the skilful handling acquired by practice,
to prevent the entangling of the flag upon its stall'. The

motions must be so made as to display in the lateral waves
the whole surface of the flag toward the point of observa-
tion. It is by the quality of the motion of the object pro-
ducing a vivid and prolonged eflfecl upon the eye, thai signals
by motions are capable of being used at great distances.

In the case of night-signals there is this additional gain,
that the motion through the air furnishes a supply of oxygen
to consume the surplus carbon of the torch-flame, giving
thus a light more brilliant than could be otherwise had.

SIZES OF FLAGS AND LENGTH OF STAFF.

There are in the Regulation Signal Equipment three kinds
of sio-nal-flasrs — the white, the red, and the black ; and three
sizes of flags— the " six-foot," " four-foot," and " two-foot,"
or action flag. In the " Service Set" four-foot flags only are
furnished.

The signal-staff consists of four joints, each four feet long,
and fitted with ferules to join to each other joint by joint,
and so to furnish a staff of greater or less length. They
are known as the first, second, third, and fourth joints.
The third joint is tipped with brass, and is that to which
the torch is attached for night-signals.

For the " Service Set" there are three joints, the torch
attaching to the second.

The equipment thus admits of four styles of using the
flaix apparatus: 1st, A single joint of the staff with the
"action-Hag," for short distances. 2d. Two joints of the
staff, with either the "four-foot" or the "action-flag." 3d.
Three joints of the staff, with either the " six-foot" or " four-

202 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

foot flag." 4th. Four joints, or the whole staff, with either
the " four-foot" or " six-foot flag," for the greatest distances.
(Plate XIX ; and Plate X, Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6.)

Where it is difficult to attract attention, two flags are
sometimes used together upon the whole staff.

In case of exposure to an enemy's fire, it is sometimes
necessary to increase the length of staff, so that the sig-
nals may appear above some shelter while the signalist is
protected.

The apparatus for the greatest distances is rarely used.
The four-foot flags are for use in ordinary working, and
shordd be habitually used with the twelve-foot staff. The
use of the four-foot flag should be compulsory. The temp-
tation is great on the part of the flagman to substitute for
it, at improper times, the action-flag, and thus needlessly
render the transmission of messages difficult and uncertain.

The two-foot or action flag is for use in exceptional cases
only. An action-flag, as its name indicates, is for use when
a heavy fire may compel the flagman to lie down or to seek
shelter, while the signals must, at the same time, be made.
This flag can be read sufficiently well with the telescope, its
exact position being once determined, at any distance likely
to be needed on the field of battle. This flag is useful in
reconnoissances near the enemy, when some fixed point be-
ing agreed on from which to report, it can be used with little
danger of attracting the attention of the enemy. Thus it
may be used in any opening among the trees, at a place
previously concerted, and it will be thus hidden from the
enemy, and be in view to the observing officers. The pre-
concert is necessary to prevent the difficulty of finding the
flag, otherwise to arise. It should be always so particular
that thei'e can be no misunderstanding. No station should
be permitted to use this flag for ordinary communication
without the especial permission of the officer in charge of
the detachment. The stations to use action-flags should be

MWUAL OF SIGNALS. 203

carefully selected and established on the lines prior to an
action, and the glasses at the communicating stations should

be fixed upon then. These points should be hidden from
the enemy, if possible.

LANTERNS.

Some description of flash-lanterns has been given at
page 88. Colored lanterns may be used as signals, being
swung upon a halyard, and a signal-number being indicated
by each, thus: White, standing for one; red, standing for
two ; green, standing for three. When lanterns are used
in this way they are suspended one above the other, and
about three feet apart. The signal is read from above
downward. Thus " 321" would be shown by lanterns hung
in the following order: a green lantern above (.3), a red
lantern next (2), a white lantern below (l). Lanterns indi-
cating signal-numbers may be arranged horizontally. The
signals are then read from the left to the right of the
observer.

Letters can be signalled with some speed by the use of
colored lanterns ; the lanterns standing on a frame or board,
and their relative positions rapidly changed by hand to
make each letter. All the lanterns must be eclipsed to
mark the end of each letter; longer eclipses mark the ends
of words and sentences.

Apian of a frame for this signalling is given in Plate XX,
Figs. 1, 2, 3. The lanterns w-r-w, hidden by the screens,
are placed on either shelf in the order to make any letter.
The screen is then raised and the signal exhibited as long
as may be necessary, when the screen is again lowered.
Two sets of lanterns can be used, one for each shelf. In
this case, the letter-signals are arranged on the shelves
alternately — those on the upper shelf, while the lanterns on
the lower are exposed; and so for each in turn.

204 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Flash Lanterns, flashing white, red, and green by springs,
are complicated in structure, and are apt to be disabled by
accidents.

The Magic Lantern, with a " flash slide," to flash white
and red only, as at Plate XX, is perhaps the best form to
be used for signalling.

This lantern is wholly dark until it is opened for use. It
is then dark in all directions except that in which the lens-
tube is turned. The flash is intense. The lens-tube can be
adjusted to give the best light at different distances. The
structure is lis;ht, strong, and not liable to be deranged.
The glass slides can be so made as to be almost safe from
breakage. The whole requires no more care than a common
lantern.

The flash-slide can be worked by being moved back and
forth by the hand. Or it can be made to move mechanically
by the working of a handle attaching to it by simple appli-
ances, so as to flash with great precision.

The slide may be so colored as to cause white, red, and
green flashes, and so be used for any code of signals. (Plate
XXI.)

Common lanterns are fitted to change color by a chimney
of colored glass adjustable over the flame, and moved with-
out opening the lantern. A single lantern may be thus
changed at will to be white, or red, or green. This style is
convenient for ship use.

Four lanterns of this kind are all that need be had on
deck, at one time, to make any signal.

TORCHES.

The "flying torch" and the "foot-light" of the standard
signal equipment are already described.

Signal-torches were devised to meet the requirements of

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 205

active service ; — to furnish the mosl brillianl lighl : one that
could be lighted in the open air, or in rain, at any time; to
be put in rapid and constant motion ; to be inextinguishable
by wind; to have little weight ; to be used without glass;
to be simple and strong, with no breaking parts; to be
carried anywhere, on horseback or ou^ foot; to endure the
constant vicissitudes of the most active and roughesl sen ice.
There are scissors, pliers, and funnel for trimming and tilling
the torch.

Signal-torches consist of a cylinder of copper closed at
one end, and so arranged that they may be filed with any
burning-fluid. Turpentine is generally used; and when
prepared for signalling, a saturated wick of cotton strands,
of the size of the cylinder and about six inches long, is in-
serted in the " light-end" of the torch. The wick being
first prepared, is introduced by a twisting or screwing mo-
tion : the torch is rilled with turpentine and the wick is
lighted. (Plate XIX; and X, Figs. 5, 6.)

The copper of the torch becomes heated, and so converts
a portion of the turpentine into a gas rich in carbon, which,
to escape, must pass through the flame of the wick. The
rapid motions in signalling, driving the torch through the
air, furnishes a supply of oxygen to heat a portion of this
surplus carbon, and there is thus had great brilliancy of
light.

With torches, as with flags, the effect of the motion of a
signal to produce a prolonged and vivid impression upon
the eye, adds much to their usefulness for signals.

Signals by torches . are easily read at a distance of ten
miles, and have been often used at fifteen. Signal-torches
may be used for any plan of signalling for which lights of
only one color are needed.

It is probable that torches can be very much improved,
or a better light maybe substituted for them. If wick- of
asbestos cloth or wire-<_rauze could be substituted for those

208 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

iii common use, it would be a valuable improvement. These
would give no sparks and require no trimming. It is pos-
sible the magnesium light may be applied to this use for
signalling.

As a general rule, if stations once established are not
more than ten miles distant, the regulation torch-light,
shown in motion at one, will be seen with the naked eye,
or the marine glass, at the other, as a light sufficiently
strong to attract attention.

When working at night, the foot-torch is to be filled as
often as it becomes exhausted, without stopping signals or
extinguishing its light. If it becomes necessary to fill the
flying torch, while transmitting a message, drop the torch
to the left, extinguish and fill it in that position, and then
light it again at the foot-torch ; bring it, thus lighted, ver-
tically above the head, which is the signal that the message
is to proceed and go on as before.

It should be observed with care that the wicks of the
signal torches are properly adjusted. If the wicks are too
tight, the torch will not burn well. If they are too loose,
the turpentine will escape, and it will burn too violently.
The wick of a flying torch is properly trimmed when the
flame of the burning torch seems to be about three inches
in diameter.

When a flying torch becomes too much heated while
working — a fact which will be known by the sighing sound
and increased size of the flame — the working must stop for
a few minutes, and the torch be held up, the signal-staff
being kept perpendicular, until the flame has diminished to
a proper size. A flying torch should be filled, on the
average, every fifteen minutes. If the torch is not kept
well filled, it will continue to burn, but the wick will be
reduced to a cinder; one wick, properly managed, and with
care to keep the torch well filled while in use, will last for
a week.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 207

When the wind blows from such a direction as, by driv-
ing back the flame of the foot-torch, to render the light of
that torch indistinct when viewed from the communicating
station, so place the torch as to bring the wind-shade upon
it in direct opposition to the wind; and if this should not
suffice, build behind the torch a screen, about two feet high
and two feet long, of stones, earth, boards, or any other
material, so that while the foot-torch is in front of the
screen, and in view of the communicating station, its flame
will be in the dead air, caused by and in front of the screen.

In cases of emergency, torches may be constructed of
pitch-pine, old cordage, canvas, rags, or other material, sat-
urated with tar, or with any combustible fluid. Firebrands,
or any lights, will answer the purpose. With the preced-
ing instructions of the Manual, the signalist need hardly
have in question the devices to be used. Any light that
can be visible will afford sufficient means by which to trans-
mit signal messages iu any variety.

CANDLE-BOMBS.

Candle-Bombs are pasteboard shells, charged with bril-
liant stars. These shells ai-e so fitted with fuses that they
can be thrown into the air and exploded at a great height.
They afford very distinct and marked signals. The bombs
are of various sizes, in diameter, from four to ten inches.
When the bomb is prepared for use, there is attached to it
an ordinary cartridge of powder fitted with a long match.
These bombs are fired from bomb-guns or mortars, which
consist of a hollow cylinder formed of thick pasteboard,
sole-leather, or sheet-copper, two or three feet in length, of
sufficient diameter to readily admit the bomb, and closed
at one end by a block of wood or a plate of some metal.
Where others cannot be had, mortars for this purpose may

208 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be hollowed from pieces of tough wood. A tube of the
proper size of almost any strong material, and closed at one
end, will serve the purpose of a mortar.

The mortars may be fitted with a lock, for the purpose
of firing.

To load the mortar, the bomb, with the cartridge at-
tached to its lower side, is placed in the cylinder; care
being taken that the firing match, which is to ignite the
powder and which also leads to the fuse of the shell, pro-
jects a suitable length above the shell. The charge is fired
by igniting this match. (Plate XXII.) These mortars are
light and strong, and can be carried anywhere, on horse-
back or on foot. The bombs are as easily transportable as
any other kind of ammunition. The signals made by the
explosion of these shells are as marked and powerful as any
that have been devised. The apparatus is free, both in its
transportation and use, from many of the inconveniences
that attach to rockets.

Signal-mortars charged with powder only, can be used
to make smoke-puffs by day. There will be the advantage
that the puff is accompanied by the report of the mortar.

Candle-bombs can be so charged as to give, when fired
with a match, a loud report, and so serve many purposes —
as to attract attention or to alarm on the approach of the
enemy. It is said that wooden shells may be made to give
a report as loud as that of a six-poundei - . Such shells are
turned in halves, and screwed together. If the bomb is
fired from the mortar, there will be the additional advan-
tage, that this explosion will be at a considerable elevation.

There will be, to attract attention, both the report of the
bomb, and the puff of smoke from its explosion.

Outposts, upon roads by which an enemy is expected,
may be supplied with both mortar and bombs, as is best;
or with the bombs alone, to be exploded upon the approach
of a hostile force.

PLATE XXI 1.

Lighted nuii.li

"'"xy

Svinal Mortal

Candle bomb with
Cartridge attached

f'andle bomb

charged wtOi Candle bomb
match lighted

Signal Man
3.1 complete.

Park anlinal with Pain liers and Mortar.

Signal Ifumber l 3 5 = 135

EtockeTB -with. thru in:ii<'h«>t«fV>r chrono»«iin.<- Slgii.-ih)

ftrin.4 rockets from tin' hand-.

Socket bead and Mi.-k

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 209

For transportation, candle-bombs may be conveniently
packed in panniers, to be borne by a park-animal, the mor-
tar being packed upon the saddle.

There are no articles more effective for signal ptirpo
than the signal-mortar with its bombs. Their^general use
will develop possibilities of signalling which have not hith-
erto been conceived.

PUFFS AND FLASHES.

Puffs of smoke may be made by day, or Hashes shown at
nio-ht, by igniting any quantity of powder by means of a
quick-match ; or by flashing it upon coals, if the quantity is
small.

A convenient form of package is the common cannon car-
tridge, in which may be inserted a length of quick-match
when it is to be fired. The cartridge can be carried in a
ponch or in panniers.

Powder-flashes can be seen at a great distance at night.
The quantity of powder to be in each flash can he increased
in proportion to the distance at which the signalling is to
be. The firing must be with proper precaution-;.

Flashes of colored fires may be made by burning them
upon an iron pan; or when the signal is to be for a great
distance, or is to attract attention, as of a beleaguered garri-
son, a quantity of the composition, as half a pound or a
pound, must be heaped together and ignited by a match.

In General Marcy's "Prairie Traveler" are these sugges-
tions :

"Very dense smokes may be raised by kindling a large
tire with dry wood, and piling upon it the green boughs of
pine, balsam, or hemlock. This throws oil" a heavy cloud of
black smoke which can be seen very far.

210 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" This simple method of telegraphing, so useful to the
savages both in war and in peace, may, in my judgment,
be used to advantage in the movements of troops co-oper-
ating in separate columns in the Indian country.

" For example, when two columns are marching through
a couutry at such distances apart that smokes may be seen
from one to the other, their respective positions may be
made known to each other at any time by two smokes
raised simultaneously or at certain preconcerted intervals.

"Should the commander of one column desire to com-
municate with the other, he raises three smokes simulta-
neously, which, if seen by the other party, should be
responded to in the same manner. They would then hold
themselves in readiness for any other communications.

" If an enemy is discovered in small numbers, a smoke
raised twice at fifteen minutes' interval would indicate it ;
and if in large force, three times with the same intervals
might be the signal.

" Should the commander of one party desire the other to
join him, this might be telegraphed by four smokes at ten
minutes' interval.

" Should it become necessary to change the direction of
the line of march, the commander may transmit the order
by means of two simultaneous smokes raised a certain num-
ber of times to indicate the particular direction ; for in-
stance, twice for north, three times for south, four times for
east, and five times for west ; three smokes raised twice for
north-east, three times for north-west, etc., etc.

"By multiplying the combinations of signals a great
variety of messages might be transmitted in this manner ;
but, to avoid mistakes, the signals should be written down
and copies furnished the commander of each separate party,
and they need not necessarily be made known to other per-
sons.

" During the day an intelligent man should be detailed

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 211

to keep a vigilant look-out in all directions for smokes, and
he should be furnished with a watch, pencil, and paper, to
make a record of the signals, with their number, and the
time of the intervals between them."

AVhen smokes are to be raised "at intervals," they are
made by having the green branches ready in bundles and
spreading them upon the fire kept briskly burning at the
appointed times. The cannon cartridge puffs can often
be used more conveniently. The Indians are said to build
tires in holes and confine the dense smoke therein by spread-
ing a blanket, which they remove at proper times to make
the " puffs."

MATCHES.

There should be carried in every kit-haversack or pan-
nier '• Wind Matches," or those so prepared with composi-
tion as to be inextinguishable by wind or rain. There
should be supplied some yards of quick-match, and some
prepared slow-match. Cotton string or rope make a good
slow-match.

Some sticks of " prepared punk," the common firing match
of pyrotechnists, should be among the stores.

THE USE OF ROCKETS FOR SIGNALS.

The advantages to be gained by the use of rockets are
dependent upon the fact that they attain great elevation,
and are sometimes visble when signals, made on the ground,
would be unseen. Rockets, also, readily attract attention.
They are visible, under favorable circumstances, at about
the same distance as the Coston lights. They are not reli-

212 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

able for signals at a greater distance than eight miles, unless
they are used simply with reference to their number, as
exhibited one at a time, two at a time, three at a time, and
so on, to indicate different messages ; or when made to
throw out clusters of stars of a single color, as all white, or
all red; when, by the mass of light thus given, they be-
come visible at lono-er rano-es.

The plan of Chronosemic Signals affords, by far, the best
mode of using rockets vet suo-o-ested.

When rockets are used for Chronosemic Signals, time is
taken from the explosion of each rocket. The rockets may
be fitted for firing either with very quick fuses, so that no
perceptible time is lost in the ignition, or with a correctly
timed fuse. A number of rockets may be connected, the
fuse extending from rocket to rocket, and the lengths of fuse
between the rockets so regulated as to cause the firings at
the proper time. (Plate XXII.)

A yard of common quick-match burns twelve seconds.
Time-intervals may be arranged by proportioned lengths.
If the match is moist, it will not burn regularly.

The visibility of rockets is apt to be overrated by inex-
perienced signalists. They cannot be successfully used in
a wooded country, for the rocket rises above the trees. The
observer, at the communicating station, must also be above
the trees, or he will not be able to see it.

Sometimes, when clouds hang low, rockets throw out
their stars above the clouds, and thus become invisible.
They are liable to many mischances which do not attach to
less complicated articles. There are, however, many occa-
sions for their use, and every well-equipped signal party
ought to be provided with them. The rockets furnished
by the Ordnance Department of the Army are generally
made with the sticks attached, or to be attached, by wires.
A preferable plan is that introduced into this country by
the Messrs. Edge, of New York, and since made a part of

.MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 21

■>

the plan in the construction of. 'ill the signal-rockets for the
use of the Signal Corps. (PI. XXII.) The rockets of this
device have fastened, on one side of the case or head, ;i Binall
pasteboard tube. This is called a "sling," and is for the
purpose of attaching the stick to the head. The rocket-stick
is made to taper slightly at its extremity. The rocket-heads
and rocket-Sticks are carried separately, until it is desired
to use the rocket. Then, to attach the head to the stick,
the tapering extremity of the stick is thrust into the tube
or "sling," with a moderate pressure. It will be found that
Sticks thus fastened adhere with sufficient strength lor any
purpose of firing. The gain in the ease of transportation,
and in the readiness with which the rocket can be prepared
for firing, is very great. When rockets are to be trans-
ported for great distances, the heads ought to be packed in
strong boxes; carrying, say, titty heads to a box. The
sticks should be packed by themselves, in packages of titty
sticks to a package, and wired or bound strongly on the
outside. These packages should be made up of smaller
packages, in which the sticks are bound together by sixes.
The sticks are thus ready for distribution for use, as soon
as the main package is open. When rockets are to be
transported rapidly, for short distances, as to accompany
the march of a column sent for any particular purpose, or
to be carried to any particular station, the heads may be
carried in panniers, upon pack-animals; or a lew heads
may be carried, rolled in a blanket, behind the saddle, or in
a h.i\ ersack, or in any kind of a pouch or bag. Care should
be taken to arrange that the heads may be so bound down
that they will not be shaken or rubbed violently together
in the transportation. For the want of this precaution,
rockets are often found useless on arriving at the tiring sta-
tion. Kocket-sticks should always be carried detached from
the head, and bound together in little packages ; as of four,
or six, or eight. The strength gained by this union, renders

214 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

it almost impossible to break them. -These packages can be
easily carried by men on foot ; or, by mounted men, they
can be carried over the bow of the saddle, or with the
lower part of the package resting on the stirrup, or in other
ways which will suggest themselves. When such packages
of sticks are to be carried on a pack-saddle, they should be
attached lengthwise of the animal. If carried crosswise
upon the saddle, the ends may come in contact with other
objects on the road. The signalist should always person-
ally inspect the packing of rocket heads and sticks, before
starting on a march. He should notice particularly that
the paper stretched across the "choke" opening of the
rocket, and which covers the match, is unbroken. If the
rockets are made with star-heads, he should see that these
are not damaged. He should take care that there are
packed in his kit slow-matches or port-fires, and extra
quick-matches, to be used in case the matches attached to
the rocket fail. It is well to carry extra stars of all kinds,
when they can be obtained. A damaged rocket can often
be refitted by inserting new matches, if the match has been
lost ; and by refitting the heads with stars, if those origin-
ally placed have been broken or are missing. To rematch
a rocket, a piece of quick-match must be doubled upon
itself, so as to consist of two stems, and be then thrust far
into the " choke" orifice of the rocket. It can be carried
well into the body of the rocket by a piece of wire, or a
slender stick. To refit a rocket with new stars, it is only
necessary to remove the cap upon the upper end, and to
fill the cavity in the tube, which will be thus exposed, with
stars of whatever color. A little mealed powder should
be sprinkled among them. These stars may then be re-
tained in place by either restoring the cap, or with a wad
of paper loosely placed above them. The rocket will as-
cend and throw out its stars equally well without or with
the cap. Any rocket, of suitable size, may be made to

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 215

show a bright flash at a great elevation, by removing the
head-cap, and attaching in its place a half-pound cartridge

of powder : the powder to till the star-cavity. It will be ig-
nited when, at the end of its flight, the rocket explodes.

Of Firing Rockets.

When rockets are to be fired, the sticks must be attached :
the rocket placed upright as upon a frame, or against a
fence or post, the paper covering the "choke" orifice is
broken, and the firing match, which will then be found, is
drawn out to a length of two or three inches. The rocket
is fired by igniting this match. If the night is damp, the
match ought to be exposed only a moment before the rocket
is fired. If several rockets are to be fired in succession, it is
well to prepare them all at the same time, and to have them
all stood upright, but each separated from the other, at a
distance of at least six feet, else one may ignite the other
accidentally. In firing for Chronosemic Signals, one rocket
ought to be kept ready upon the frame and in reserve, to
be fired in place of any other that may fail.

If a rocket misses fire, it is to be taken from the stand
and laid on the ground. Its place is at once supplied by a
similar rocket, fired in its stead. The failing rocket is laid
on the ground, in order that, if it has only hung fire and
should afterward ignite, it may not disarrange the signal
shown. Extra rockets should be always at hand, to supply
the place of the failing rockets. All rockets near the firing
station should he kept in a horizontal position. If the wind
blow freshly from any direction, the rocket to be fired
should be inclined slightly against the wind. Some pyro-
technists direct the rocket to be inclined with the wind.
In default of a stand, or objects against which to place the
rockets, the rocket may be rested against the hand, held
extended at arm's length, and be thus fired. Experienced

216

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

pyrotechnists find no difficulty in firing in this manner. The
rocket should rest lightly against the hand, which should
touch it on the case, and just above the " choke" orifice.
(Plate XXII.)

COMPOSITION" FIRES.

Composition Fires are pyrotechnic compositions which
burn with great intensity of light and of color. The colors,
red, white, and green, are found to be best suited for sig-
nalling. A very ingenious and convenient mode is as
follows :

Coston's Composition Telegraphic Night-Signals.

□

. E

H I

H I | - B

Explanation. — These signals, prepared in the form of
cartridges, are burned from a holder. The signals, while
burning, will show the colors and correspond with the
numbers above indicated.

Directions for Use.— When it is desired to communicate
with a certain distant point, first use the P (preparatory) sig-
nal ; and if answered by the A (answering) signal, it shows
that the preparatory signal was seen. After which, place in
rapid succession, on the holder, the numbers desired to be
communicated ; for instance : if the numbers selected should
be 726, the No. 1 is placed on the holder and ignited, which

PLATE XXIII.

Signal Pistol .

Signal Lights.
Goinposilion fires

Signal Pistol Charged
with composition Light.

Signal Pistol Fired

Belt box open showing
Signal Lights Contained

Telescope uncapped & opened for use

Strap A case for Telescope closed and
Binocular Glass, capped for u-ansportaiion

Wand for practice.

Instruction in Signaling;
practice with wands.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 217

will, of course, show a green flame; as soon as the light is
out, immediately replace it by No. 2, which "will show a
white succeeded by a red flame; and then replace with X<>.
0, rod and green. If any further combination of numbers
is to be signalled, before receiving an answer an interval of
not more than three-quarters of a minute should be taken.
Should this interval be exceeded, an answer may be re-
turned.

The person stationed to note the colors telegraphed to him
should be cautioned against looking at the brilliant flame of
the signals burning near him, as thereby the eye is unfitted
to discern distinctly the colors of distant lights.

To ignite the signal, apply a lighted match-rope or port-

6 0?

re.

An intense light may be made by mixing magnesium in

powder, with ordinary pyrotechnic composition. Two or

three pounds of this mixture may be fired at once to attract

attention — as of a beleaguered garrison. Magnesium may

be added to any pyrotechnic compound.

The Signal Cartridges of the Signal Corps of the Army,
prepared upon the principle of the Coston lights, are fitted
to be fired by the explosion of the percussion cap upon a
signal-pistol. (Plate XXIII.) A needle-signal pistol has
been devised. With this, the light, properly prepared, is
ignited by friction of a needle driven by the lock, upon the
principle of the "needle-gun." The colors upon the cases
of these cai-tridsres indicate colors which will be shown, and
the order in which they will he shown, upon the ignition of
the signal-cartridge. In addition to this, the cartridges are
sometimes marked with a number, which number is sup-
posed to be indicated as often as a cartridge of that kind is
fired.

218 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

With the instructions preceding in this Manual, codes of
messages to he shown by these lights can be formed almost
without limit.

N"or does it matter whether the signalist be supplied with
the ten different kinds of lights, one for each numeral, or
with fewer sorts.

Let it be supposed, for instance, that he is allowed but
three sorts — as red, white, and green. He designates the
red as one, the white as two, the green as three; and he
knows that to signal any combination of ones, and twos, and
threes, he burns the proper lights, one after the other rapid-
ly, until he has shown those lights which indicate that com-
bination.

He has now only to form a code of messages of which the
indices shall contain only three elements, no matter how
great may be the number of places in any index.

By referring to the table of reference, page 30, it is found
that, with three sorts of lights given, he can indicate nine
messages, burning only two cartridges for auy message ; he
can indicate twenty-seven messages, burning no more than
three cartridges for any message ; he can indicate eighty-one
messages, burning only four cartridges for any message ; and
so on to any desired extent. It is very rare, that for any
purposes of temporary communication, a greater number of
messages than the sum of all these would be required.

If, to continue the illustration, the signalist is furnished
with four lights — as a red, a white, a green, and a red-white —
then his code should be constructed, the indices being the
arrangements that can be made with four elements.

In this case, there could be indicated sixteen messages,
two cartridges being burned for each ; sixty-four mes-
sages, three cartridges being burned for each ; two hun-
dred and fifty-six messages, four cartridges being burned for
each, and one thousand and twenty-four messages, five car-
tridges being burned for each ; and so on. If the signalist

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 219

was limited, as he sometimes might be, to two sorts of car-
tridges only, ;is, say red lights and white lights, it is evident
that, following the same principles of arrangements, he could
still form codes by which to indicate any number of mes-
sages. It will l>c necessary to burn a greater number of
cartridges. Thus with two sorts given, there could be
indicated four messages, burning two cartridges for each
message; eight messages, burning three cartridges lor each
message ; sixteen messages, burning four cartridges for each
message; thirty-two messages, burning five cartridges for
each message; and so on.

In preparing codes for messages to he indicated by com-
position lights, or cartridges, it is desirable to so arrange
the codes that all the indices shall have the same, and thai a
preconcerted number of places, — that is, that all the mes-
sages shall he indicated by burning for each two cartridges,
or by burning for each three cartridges, or other agreed
number. It is the object of this rule, that the observer,
noting a signal made, may be certain, when he has seen a
signal showing the proper number of cart ridges burned, that
it is a signal made by friends, that it has been completed,
and that he has seen the whole of it. This lessens the
chance of error. For instance, suppose that it has been
agreed that a code shall be with indices of three places.
Now, if the observer has a signal shown with but two car-
tridges burned in succession, he knows that the signal is
either not meant for him, or that he has failed to notice one
of the lights, or the light has failed by some accident to be
shown. He would wait for the signal to be perfectly and
properly shown, or he would signal for its repetition.

When the exact number of cartridges burning in their
proper sequence has been shown, there is little chance for
error.

In the preparation of codes for signals with composition
fires, there should always be arranged "a preparatory sig-

220 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

nal," which means : " Are you ready ?" " Do you see me?"
and an "answering; signal," which means: "lam ready;"
"I see you;" a signal "to repeat," which means: "Repeat
your last signal ; it is not seen, or it is not understood;" and
a signal to signify the correct receipt of the message, or
" Signals seen or understood." It is a very good plan, when
the messages to be conveyed are not numerous, for the
receiving station to indicate that it has seen and correctly
understood the signals shown, by repeating in its turn pre-
cisely those signals shown at the sending station. The
sending station should never fail to require from the receiving
station the acknowledgment that the signals sent have been
seen and understood ; and the receiving station should be
equally particular to promptly make such acknowledgment.
At both stations, every article to be used in the transmis-
sion of signals should be carefully inspected, some moments
before the time for signals, to render certain that there
will be no failure at the moment of lighting ; that the lights
are perfect, caps good, and pistol clean and in good order.
Extra lights and caps ought to be laid out, to be used
instantly in case of the failure of others. It is well to blow
strongly into the tube of the pistol, to clear it, after the
burning of each cartridge. In the same way, precaution
should be taken to examine the matches, etc., if the
cartridges are to be ignited by j>ort-fires. When it is prac-
ticable, an assistant should stand ready, to hand quickly
extra cartridges, caps, or other articles that may be needed
while signals are making. The time which may be allowed
between the burning of the separate cartridges, from twenty
to forty seconds, will generally be ample for all preparation,
without any haste. The intervals of time between the
burnings ought to be made as nearly equal as is possible.
The signalist, going to the station, should be provided with
extra lights and material, to be used in case of accident.
Composition fires, of full size, can be distinctly seen, with the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 221

naked eye, on nights ordinarily clear, at distances varying
from six to ten miles. They afford one of the most conve-
nient and rapid means for transmitting messages by pre-
concert. By posting signal lines with the stations in view
of each other, knowledge ot* an enemy's movements, or other
information, may he transmitted over long ranges of country,
with very great rapidity and an almost absolute certainty.
Often, where the messages to be transmitted are not numer-
ous, intelligent privates, posted on these stations, will
discharge the duty fully as well as officers, whose services
may not be attainable. The instructions for their use can
be made so simple as to require but little effort for their
comprehension, while the discharge of the duty requires
nothing but fidelity and watchfulness. When lines of sta-
tions are established, care should be taken that each station
be supplied with copies of instructions precisely alike, and
with exactly correct codes of signals. These instructions
and codes, plainly written, should be compared with each
other before they are issued.

There must be indicated in the code, with very great
precision and fulness of explanation, what color of cartridge
is to be used for each number, letter, or mark appearing in
the indices of the code, and the intervals with which they
are to be fired.

A code may be formed, for instance, as follows :

EXAMPLE OF A CODE.

Burn for " Attention" — a red light.

" — " Ready to receive" — a white light.

" — " Assent"- — two green lights in succession.

" — "Repeat" — a white light and a green light.

222 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

3Tessage Signals.

The following colors stand, as often as they are shown, for
the numbers opposite each:

White — stands for — 1.
Red — " —2.
Green — " — 3.

Intervals between lights to be not more than twenty-
seconds.

Signal Lights.

12. A white, a red — Enemy coming down the river.

21. A red, a white — Enemy at Harper's Ferry.

22. A red, a red — Enemy advancing.
11. A white, a white — Enemy retiring.

31. A green, a white — No cause for alarm.
33. A green, a green — All well.

32. A green, a red — . . . .Etc., etc.

1 3. A red, a green —

Etc., etc.

All message signals consist of two lights each. Each
light must be noted down as it is seen.

CARE OF SIGNAL, APPARATUS.

The senior officer on a station, or with any party, is
primarily responsible for the condition of all the apparatus ;
and it is his duty to see, each day, that the whole equip-
ment is ready for instant service. Officers should be held
responsible with their commissions for the proper discharge
of this duty; and each set should be placed in charge
of an enlisted man, who will be held responsible with his pay

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 223

for its condition ; precisely as, in the case of other branches
ot'tlu' service, each soldier is responsible for the proper con-
dition of his equipments.

Whenever particular sots of apparatus arc to be habitually
used for signals in the field, that apparatus should be cared
for with scrupulous exactness. Detects in the apparatus not
only annoy the signalist himself, sending the message, but
they more annoy the person to whom messages are, for this
cause, imperfectly sent. A courteous regard for the rights
of others ought, of itself, to prevent any officer from thus in-
flicting on another the consequences of his own carelessness.

Neglect of apparatus is a matter for discipline. Daily in-
spections should insure that the telescopes, etc., are clean
and in perfect order. If the common field-sets of the army
are to he used, the torches must be each morning cleaned:
they can be scoured with ashes, or washed with turpentine.
The torch-wicks must be examined, trimmed, and renewed.
They must be made tighter by adding new threads to them,
it' they seem too loose; and this can be judged to be the
ease, if there is even a slight dropping of turpentine: or
they must be loosened by lessening their size, if so tight
that the fluid cannot readily flow through them, to feed the
flame. The torch screws and catches must be examined,
and the torches prepared, in every part, for the labor of the
coming night. The torch is not to be filled, however, during
i he day. The flags must be examined, each by itself. If
there are rents or loosened ties, they must be repaired. If
the flag has become soiled by usage, it must be well washed
and dried. A clean-washed flag is seen and read with ease,
where Hags dusty and dingy with use are invisible. Sig-
nal-flags in use should be habitually washed eaeli week.
The joints and bands of the Staff must he scoured ami
tightened if loose, or carefully fitted again if any shifting or
springing ha- been noticed. Rivets must he reclenched, if
started. The stall' itself oughl to be cleaned and scraped.

224 MANUAL OP SIGNALS.

The copper cans and the service canteens are to be ex-
amined and filled. They must be cleaned ; and if there is a
leakage, it must be stopped. Steps should be taken to
turn into the depot any article thus damaged. If the
leather in the top screws of either the canteens or cans is
worn or loosened, it must be replaced. The carrying straps
and buckles of the canvas case and of the canteens must be
examined, and the binding-straps counted, to render certain
that none are lost. All leather parts must be cleaned, and
kept pliable with neatsfoot or castor oil.

When the apparatus is to be packed, the torches must
be perfectly emptied of any fluid they contain, or the flags
and other portions of the set may be ruined by its leak-
age.

If signal-disks are used, it is to be seen that they are kept
perfect and clean, the handles well attached, and the disks
stored where they will not be damaged.

Where there are portable Semaphores, it must be noted
that the arms are not damaged, and that they are well col-
ored ; that the ropes and pulleys are in good order, and
that the joints work smoothly.

Where sets of flags, as naval signal-flags, are kept on
hand, they should be overhauled at least once a week.

Lanterns are to be inspected, to see that the glasses and
metal work are scrupulously clean — the handles strong and
afe — the sliding parts and springs in good order, and that
no part is loosened or in such state as will prevent any re-
quired signal from being instantly shown. Where there is
a " flashing slide," or other " flash apparatus," its working
should be practically tested each day. The lamps should
be carefully trimmed before sunset.

Especial attention must be given to the care of Pyrotech-
nic Compositions — Signal Cartridges, Composition Fires,
Rockets, Signal Bombs, etc.

These should be carefully stored in waterproof chests or

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 225

pouches, and sedulously guarded from the moisture they are
so apt to attract and absorb.

They must be aired and dried whenever there are indica-
tions that this is necessary.

Whatever articles of this description have been carried
by any party going out on temporary service, should be at
once restored in the store-chests upon the return of the party
to camp.

Nor should any such articles be permitted to be out of
the store-chests in camp, unless for some immediate use.

They should be at once repacked, when the necessity has
passed.

The officer in charge should satisfy himself of the con-
dition and storage of these articles by personal inspections.
And he should see that they are perfect or at once repaired,
that matches, fuses, etc., are in good order, and the article
conditioned for immediate use.

The senior signal-officer is further charged with the duty
of keeping on hand at all times supplies for general use — as
burning-fluid, wicking, matches, spare sets of apparatus,
telescopes, cloth for flags, rope, and such other articles as
experience has shown necessary for the best service of his
party.

TRANSPORTATION" OF APPARATUS.

A signal-officer, mounted, and serving with troops, ought
never to permit himself to be, at any time, without his
glasses and signal equipments, his compass, message-book,
and map. No matter for what purpose he is moving, or
how little chance there may seem for his particular duty,
the occasion may, at any instant, arise when the power to
communicate a few sentences would be invaluable. On
reconnoissances, or when examining a tract of country for

10*

226 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signal points for stations, this precaution is to be always
observed. And in such cases he should have carried
by his escort, rockets, signal-bombs, etc, for Chronosemic
Signals.

On marches, the whole set of apparatus, packed, may
sometimes be carried in an ambulance. This ought never
to be done, however, unless the officer is dismounted and
travelling in the ambulance. A set of panniers with rock-
ets, bombs, composition fire, etc., should be carried in the
vehicle.

The following is a convenient way in which to carry the
standard signal equipment on horseback. The large or
first joint is taken from the set, and is not carried: the
three other joints of the staff, jointed together, are carried
like a lance, the butt of the staff resting in a lance-socket
at the stirrup; the staff being carried on the right side of
the body of the horseman, mounted, and slung behind the
right arm, with the arm passing through the leather strap
or lance sling which accompanies each set. Or they may
be carried strapped together at the pommel of the saddle.
The torches, flags, and the remaining articles of the signal
set, neatly rolled together, and placed in the canvas case,
are strapped across the horse, either in front of or behind
the saddle. This package bends easily to fit itself to the
saddle. The canteen is carried on the left side of the horse,
strapped close to the saddle, and the bottom of the canteen
is strapped down, so that it can have no motion. The
haversack is on the right side of the horse.

To carry a flag Hying, when mounted, as in changing
stations, or at any time when it is desired the progress of
the party should be watched, attach the four-foot flag to
the staff; and have the staff then carried, slung as a lance,
as described above; or let it be carried upright, the staff
held in the hand, and the butt placed in the lance rest.

Disks may be carried tied together in pairs, face to fire,

PLATE XXIV

IV I

Transportation of Apparatus.

Fig. 3.

Prismatic Compass

Pockel Compass

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 227

and fastened flat upon the Bide of the saddle or under the
stirrup strap.

Lanterns can be carried in pouches arranged like saddle-
Lags, and litting behind the saddle. They must be care-
fully wrapped, and so tied in the pouch and down upon the
saddle that they will have no motion.

Signal Bombs, Rockets, Composition Fire, etc., can be
carried in pouches behind the saddle, or in panniers upon a
pack-animal. In either case they must be so packed and
bound that they cannot be shaken or rubbed together. A
dozen or more shells can be carried in pouches behind the
saddle. The signal-mortar can be strapped between the
pouches.

Portable Semaphores and the heavier parts of the equip-
m< nt and supplies must be carried on wheels.

Portable Semaphores may be borne for short distances
in the hands of men.

It must be the study of the signalist to reduce his equip-
ment to the smallest weight and bulk, and to tit it to be
transported with the greatest rapidity.

In the transportation of signal apparatus or supplies, etc.,
either on land or on shipboard, it should be so arranged
thai easy access may be had at any time to any of the boxes
or packages containing them.

228 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

TELESCOPES, AND THEIR USES.

The Telescope of the Signal Corps pattern has been de-
termined by experience as the best for general uses. These
telescopes are of about thirty powers. They have a focal
length of twenty-six inches. The tube is cased in leather,
in place of wood or metal. The draw is of four joints,
bronzed black, in order that there may be neither glitter to
attract the enemy, nor glare to disturb the eye of the ob-
server. Leather caps are fitted over both eye and object
glasses, and the whole is supported by a strong leather
strap, long enough to pass over the shoulder, and connect-
ing the caps and glass in such way that there are no loose
parts. (Plate XXIII.) This glass is strong and portable.
It has power sufficient for any ordinary use, and is of a size
to be conveniently handled. It is habitually worn slung
over the shoulder, by the signal-officer, wherever he may
be, in the field.

At permanent stations, the largest and most powerful
glasses, mounted upon stands, and with accurate machinery,
compasses, scales, etc., may be used.

The varieties of pocket-glasses may be used at distances
of from five to ten miles. A glass known as the carbineer-
glass is not larger in diameter than the finger, and may be
carried in the vest pocket.

Binocular-glasses (marine-glasses) have, with a low mag-
nifying power, an extensive field of view, and give much
light. They are for use in observation of extensive move-
ments, where large tracts of country must be taken in one
field of view, or in sweeping the landscape in view, to Hud
the tents of the enemy, his wagons, etc., or other objects to
be afterward more closely examined with the telescope.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 229

They are employed <m ship-board, or in boats, where the
rolling motion interferes with the use of the telescope.
They are used for observations to be made on horseback,
or in hasty examinations made on foot or in trees, and gen-
erally for all observations not critical, or those to be made
under circumstances where the telescope cannot be con-
veniently handled. The marine-glass ought to be held by
both hands when in nse ; and to steady it, the arms ought
to be kept close to the body. In following a moving object,
to keep it in the field of view, the head ought to be turned
with the glass. For reading signals at short ranges, as, say
up to five miles, these glasses are better than the telescope.
Signals have been frequently read with glasses of this de-
scription at the distance of ten miles.

Telescopes ought never to be allowed to fall into the hands
of the enemy. Officers, on dangerous stations, should con-
ceal their glasses when not in use. When a glass is to be
hidden for precaution, the object-lens, or one joint of the
telescope, should be hidden separately from the body of the
telescope. A single joint or one lens is so small an object,
that it can be concealed almost beyond the possibility of
discovery. If an officer is in danger of capture, and there
are no means of concealment, the telescope-glasses must be
shattered or rendered worthless rather than surrendered.

To adjust a telescope to its proper focus, view with it
s<>ine object with well-defined outlines, at a distance of about
half a mile, lengthening or shortening the eye-glass joint
until the object is seen with the sharpest distinctness. To
adjust a glass at night, fix it upon some brilliant star.

Glasses which are to be used in the field, should have
plainly marked on one of the eye-glass slides a focus-mark,
m> that they may be adjusted at any time without an espe-
cial adjustment in every case.

230 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Telescopes, the object-glasses being equal in size, diminish
light, as a general rule, in proportion as their magnifying
power is great. The most powerful glasses are, therefore,
to he used for minute observations on the clearest days, or
when there is a strong light upon the observed object.
When the light is fading, or there is little light upon the
observed object, the clearer view will be had with glasses
of large field and low magnifying power. When telescopes
are fitted with a double adjusting focus, the short focus is
to be used when the light is dim, the long focus when the
light is strong.

The following is a simple method by which to estimate
approximately the power of a telescope.

When the object-glass of a horizontally placed telescope
is turned toward the light, a luminous point or spot appears
on the eye-glass. The diameter of this spot must be
carefully measured. Measure then the diameter of the ob-
ject-glass. The power of the glass is that number given as
quotient when the diameter of the object-glass is divided
by the diameter of the luminous spot. Thus if x = diame-
ter of object-glass, and y = diameter of luminous spot,

then Power = — .

A mode by which to test defining qualities of glasses is,
to examine with them lettered signs or printed letters at a
distance. Preference is given to that glass by which the
smallest lettering is read at the greatest distance.

When the atmosphere is loaded with moisture, the object
and other lenses of the telescope being cold, sometimes
condense it, and become covered with a thin film or mist ;
t his is especially liable to happen at night. It should always
be suspected when, while the night seems clear, and lights
can be seen with the naked eye, they are seen with difficulty
through the glass. To remedy this, the glass ought to be
thoroughly warmed at a fire or with :i lamp — care being

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 231

taken thai it is n< >t ovei'heated- and made so warm as to
retain its heat while it is being used to receive messages.

The eye-glass of the telescope is sometimes obscured by
the moisture of the breath condensing upon it while the
eye is at the glass; this ought to be carefully guarded
against.

Old newspapers furnish the best material with which to
clean lenses. The pieces to be selected should be free from
grit or any thing to scratch the glass. Soft paper is better
than chamois-skin. The telescope glasses ought to be kept
scrupulously clean.

If the telescope is to be carried in the rain, a leather cap
must always cover the eye-piece end. Without this pre-
caution, the glass will be filled with water, and may be
ruined.

It should be practised to use both eyes open at the tele-
scope. This can be readily done. The method is more
comfortable than to use but one eye, and by it is prevented
much of that w r eariness and injury to the eyes that often
follow if they are overstrained, or too much labor is thrown
upon them.

When reading messages through the telescope, or observ-
ing any object intently in bad weather, cover the head with
a blanket, or the cape of an overcoat, or any dark covering,
extending this covering over all the telescope except the
object-glass: particularly do this when exposed to a daz-
zling light, or the sun's heat, or in windy weather. The
covering shuts out from view all objects near the observer,
and thus enables the faculties to be concentrated; and, at
the same time, it protects the eye from the disturbing light,
the winds, particles floating in the air, etc.

To find any small object, as a signalman or flag near any
known position, or to fix the telescope upon it, mark, with
the naked eye, some prominent landmark, or object near
which the smaller object is supposed to be, place the tele-

232 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

scope carefully adjusted in rest, then sight over the glass
upon the marking object, as sight is taken over a gun-bar-
rel ; if the eye, the object being thus covered, is now placed
at the eye-glass of the telescope, the prominent or marking
object will be found in the field of view. It will be easy
then to scan the country near the marker until the smaller
object is found. This practice is often necessary at night,
when only a point of light is seen, far off" through the dark-
ness, and the telescope must be turned upon it. When the
compass-bearing of the object to be sought for is known,
the telescope, adjusted and placed in rest, may be aligned
by a line drawn with the proper compass-bearing. Com-
mencing then with the view at the horizon, the telescope is
moved slightly from side to side, taking in, each time, fresh
fields of view a little nearer the observer, until the whole
country shall have been observed from the horizon to quite
near the station. When the general direction only of an
object can be given, and it is to be sought for, the whole
landscape in that direction to the horizon is to be divided
into section^ by imaginary lines, the limits of these sections
being bounded between visible landmarks through which
the bounding lines are supposed to pass. Each section is
then to be scrutinized, little by little, until the glass has
been passed over every spot. The search can hardly fail to
be successful. It must be systematic.

Practice should be had in the use of the telescope, held
in the hands without rest, in rapidly bringing objects in the
held of view, and in the habit of examining an object or
point thoroughly, yet quickly. Observations can often be
made with such rests as the shoulder of a man, over the
back of a saddled horse, or with a cane resting on the
ground and held in the hand that steadies the telescope.
Very great quickness in the bringing of objects within the
field of view can be soon acquired. The eye becomes edu-
cated to a remarkable keenness of vision by continued prac-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. '2."!:}

tice. When observations are made with the telescope, or
when messages are being received by it by signals, nothing
must be taken for granted, and nothing considered as
seen, until it has been positively in view, and so clearly
as not to admit of doubt. Never presume to anticipate
what signals will follow from those already made. A signal
must never be considered or announced as read until it
has been actually seen. Carefully watch the communicat-
ing station until the last signals are made, and be very cer-
tain, before ceasing to watch, that the signal for the end of
a message has been distinctly given.

The officers at each signal-station must take care that a
lookout, through the glass, is kept at each station so con-
stantly that no signal can be shown, at any time, at the
communicating station, for more than two minutes without
receiving an answer. For this reason, when not at the glass
himself, he will cause his men, or any one on duty at the
station, to keep a regular "glass-watch," assigning the men
by turns, and fixing particular hours for each, that responsi-
bility for neglect may be easily traced. These details will
relieve each other every two or four hours, day and night.
The watchman on duty must be seated at the glass; and
before assuming his station must, with the aid of the soldier
last on duty, make certain that he knows the exact position
of the observed station, and that it is plainly in the field of
the glass. This precaution is particularly necessary at night,
when the least movement of the glass may have thrown the
station out of view. All landmarks being then invisible,
there is nothing by which to detect the error; and sig-
nals may be long shown in vain at one station, while the
glass, not bearing upon them, is attentively watched at the
other.

"When a signal station is to communicate with two or
more stations, a telescope should be firmly fixed hearing
on each, and so far a] art, that the reader at one will not he

234 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

in danger of disturbing the reader at the other by his move-
ments. At permanent stations, the fixed telescopes should
not be removed from their supports when signalling has
ceased for a time, unless it may be necessary to clean them ;
but they should be kept in position carefully covered, to
protect them from the weather.

If, for any reasons, telescopes have not been fixed bearing
on the communicating stations during the day, or have been
moved from their stands, they must be returned and ad-
justed before dark. After dark landmarks are lost to view,
and distant stations are discovered with difficulty. The glass
must have in its field the exact point at which night-signals
are to appear, and must so remain, properly sheltered, until
morning. The neglect of this care often causes much
trouble.

The telescope should always, when possible, be first placed
in rest and properly adjusted in some sheltered or shaded
position, and in one as convenient as is attainable, before
communication by signals, either in the day or at night, is
opened ; for, after communication is opened, important mes-
sages may come so rapidly, that the glass cannot be aban-
doned, and the station must be worked for hours with much
of discomfort, and even of suffering, on the part of the read-
ing officer.

The glass-stand or support may be a heap of stones, two
saddles lashed together, a temporary tripod of sticks, a post,
a stump, fence, anything furnishing a steady rest. Blankets,
thickly folded, or any cloth, as an overcoat, a cushion, or a
pillow, placed under the glass, almost entirely prevents vi-
bration. Stones, or other heavy bodies, ought to be placed
on and about the glass, in order to secure it in its place and
to steady it. The brass telescope-holder, fitted to screw
into trees or other wooden supports, is very useful. Trees,
having branches and leaves, are apt to be shaken by the
wind; for this reason, a fence corner, a stump, or solitary

PI ATE XKV

Object viewed through
a scale glass.

ng. 3.

Telescope rest to use one Telescope
for observing several points.

Fig. 5.

Telescope Rest for use in the field

F^g.4.

Telescope resting upon a folded blanket
alia weighted to secure steadiness.

Plan of Permanent Station on a house
or tower.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 235

posl or rock should be chosen in preference. It is impor-
tant so to construct a support, as to allow the person at the
glass a comfortable position while reading, and it should be
firm enough to withstand any ordinary gust of wind, or
other alight distui'bing cause. At a post or fixed station, it
is well to construct a permanent glass-stand, and to shelter
it with a good tent or sentry-box.

The plate exhibits plans tor glass-stands. (Plate XXV,
Figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5.)

SCALE GLASSES.

Telescopes may be prepared as scale-glasses for estimat-
ing distances, without in any way impairing their usefulness
for other purposes. A micrometer scale, the distances be-
tween the lines of which have been carefully estimated, is
engraved on an additional glass so fitted that it can be
placed within or removed from the tube of the telescope at
the option of the observer. When this glass, so engraved, is
adjusted in the focus of one of the lenses, it becomes visible
to the eye of the observer placed at the eye-piece, while
there is at the same time had, in the field of view, the object
it is desired to view, and the distance which is to be esti-
mated. The principle upon which the scale is formed is,
that the angle subtended bv the rays from anv object meet-
ing at the eye is in exact proportion, greater or less, as the
object is near or remote. The distance being known at
which a certain visual angle is subtended by any object
of known height, the distance at which that object is, its
location being changed, may be estimated by the measure-
ment of the increased or diminished angle it then subtends.
The height of a man — or five feet six inches — is generally
assumed as the unit of measurement. Upon the engraved
seale before mentioned, one line is marked as the base line.
At right angles to and joining this Line is a smaller line, by

236 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

which the base may be distinguished from other Hues. Other
lines, more or less in number, appear engraved parallel to
and above the base-line, at distances carefully estimated.
The field of the telescope, the scale being adjusted, appears
as in Plate XXV, Fig. 1.

For measurement, the telescope is adjusted until the feet
of the man to be viewed through it, or the base of any ob-
ject, if something inanimate has been selected, are brought
in the field of view to apparently rest with precision upon
the base-line. The first line upon the scale above the base-
line then marks the point upon the glass to which the head
of the man thus viewed should seem to reach, if he is distant,
say five miles. Now, if the man is at a less distance, his
figure will seem to cover a greater space, and his head reach
higher upon the glass ; so the second line on the scale above
the base may indicate the point his head will seem to reach
if he is distant four miles. The next line above may be the
scale-point, if he is distant three miles ; the next, if distant
but two miles ; and the next, when he is one mile distant.
The intervals between the lines may be graduated into
smaller intervals. And there may be a scale by which to
measure fractional parts of a mile, as hundreds of yards, etc.
With proper care, distances may be in this way very fairly
estimated.

To use " scale-glasses" successfully, the telescope must be
perfectly at rest. The slightest tremor interferes with the
accuracy of the estimate. An additional difficulty is found
in the fact that, at great distances, the finest scale-lines cover
too much of the viewed object. These difficulties can be
lessened by practice only, and the thus acquired skill in using
the glass. Very useful approximations to exact distance
can, however, be easily made.

Glasses of high magnifying power have been scaled in this
way to determine considerable measurements, as to estimate
bv the height of a man at ten miles distance.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 237

These scales may be used to measure the face of a work —
to determine its height and its distance; the distance of
batteries, ships, etc., and of marked points on the field of
battle; or the distances at which bodies of troops are mov-
ing. The width of rivers can be determined. The range of
objects at which artillery is to fire can be had, so as to fix the
proper elevations and the length of fuses. Lines for rough
surveys may be run. Distances may be measured for maps.
There may be had many other estimates, the utility of which
will suggest themselves to an educated officer.

POCKET COMPASSES.

The pocket compasses used by signal-officers, are lettered
after the plan of a surveyor's compass. The compass should
have fixed upon its case-edge, opposite the "N," and also
opposite the " S" marks, a small notch or sight, by which
to take the l'ange of any observed object.

It is generally the aim of the observing officer to give
the compass-bearing of any object observed, taken from
that point at which he is stationed. To use the compass,
the North and South sights on the case-edge or on the com-
pass-dial are brought to exactly coincide with the N. and
S. points of the needle when at rest ; then the object to be
viewed is sighted at over the North sisjht through the
South sight, if the object be southerly, or over the South
sight through the North sight if it be northerly from the
position of the observer. This done, the bearing is that
reading of the compass-card which will appear directly un-
der the "N" or the "S" pole or point of the needle, as the
case may be. Practice should be had in the use of the
compass before the officer is expected to take the field.
The practice can be had simultaneously with that of the
telescope, by requiring the student to find, with the telescope,

238 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

stations in different directions, the compass-bearings only
being given ; and also to report the bearings of different
named objects, visible at the place from which he is prac-
tising. (Plate XXIV, Fig. 3.)

PRISMATIC COMPASS.

When especial accuracy is required the Prismatic Com-
pass may be used.

In addition to the ordinary lettering of this compass, the
card should show the lettering of the common .surveyor's
compass (Plate XXIV, Fig. 2) ; that is, with the westerly
readings to the right of the North point, the card being at
rest, and the easterly readings on its left.

This compass is fitted with a prism-sight through which
the sight is taken, and a sight-vane, the vertical hair in
which is, when the compass is used, to be brought to bear
upon the object of which the bearing is to be had. For
the purpose of taking this sight both the prism-sight and
sight-vane must be raised upon their hinges to be perpen-
dicular as to the surface of the compass. The eye then
placed at the prism-glass will have in the field of view at
once, the object to be viewed, the hair of the sight-vane
bearing upon it, and, below iipon the compass-card the
direction and degrees of the bearing— -which are read with-
out removing the eye from the prism. "When there is
trouble from the oscillation of the compass-card, its move-
ment may be checked by touching the card-spring, which
is found on the side of the compass.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 239

INSTRUCTION IN SIGNALLING.

Experience has shown that as, in the Manual of Arms, the
soldier must be continually drilled to maintain his full effi-
ciency, so in the practice of signalling, a drill, regular and
habitual, is needed to tit cither officer or man for the duty
in the liist place, and then to retain them with that skill
which is needed in the moment of danger and of actual war.

The instruction should commence with the study of the
principles of signalling, and the theories of their general use.
The pupil should be well grounded in this study before
practice is entered upon. lie should then be required to
commit to memory certain signal alphabets to be used ;
and these are to be so thoroughly memorized that no signal
combination will require thought to determine its meaning.
The General Service Flag and nomographic Codes arc to be
committed in this manner. To this follows practice in the
recitation-room with the "wand," a slender rod about
eighteen inches long, — the class reading messages signalled
by the instructor in the alphabets learned, by rapid move-
ments of the wand; or practising in couples, transmitting
messages with the wand to each other during the hours set
aside for study, until each is able to read messages of what-
i\ er character signalled with the greatest rapidity of motion
that can be given. (Plate XXIII.) And in this portion of
the course should be included practice with codes of different
numbei-s of elements, and signalled by different modes of
position or of motion, until the pupil is well accustomed to
rapidly read and make the signals. He is practised also in
rapidly repeating signals as they are made to him, both ac-
cording to the plans given for returning signals to the send-
in u" station, and for transmitting them as in a line of stations:
and very thoroughly in sending and receiving messages bv
Bignals in cipher, using the cipher-disk, and working much

210 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

more rapidly than can be possible in the field. In propor-
tion as this drill of the eye and mind is thorough, will be
the consequent skill of the student.

The second part of the course embraces Field Practice,
with the regulation signal equipment, and with telescopes.
The pupil should be first instructed in the uses of the differ-
ent articles of the equipment, and should be required to
practically understand them, the class being well drilled by
the instructor to take the proper positions for day and night
signals ; to make the appropriate motions and positions of
flags and disks upon the word of order ; to pack and unpack
the equipments ; to carry them from place to place ; to
change from day to night signals, and the reverse, and in all
the duties of the flagman. They are then divided into sets
by fours, and are stationed by twos upon separate signal-
stations, each pupil serving in his turn as flagman and as sig-
nalist. They are here required to send messages at short dis-
tances, until the instructoris satisfied that they perfectly com-
prehend the duties they will afterward require from others.
They repeat signals in all styles of repetition, and they sig-
nal messages in cipher, until by practice they so send and
receive them with ease. In this part of the course is to be
given a knowledge of the telescope, the pupil being required
to explain its structure ; to separate it into pieces, removing
all the lenses ; to clean and refit it ; to adjust it by night as
well as in the day, on objects near or remote; to examine
with it and report minutely upon objects at a distance, as by
the reading of lettered signs, the recognizing of shapes and
colors of flags, etc., — this practice being in the presence of
the instructor. They are required to make cipher-disks for
themselves, and to devise plans of cipher in which they will
communicate. They are to be taught to correspond in
cryptograms. The class is now instructed in the use of the
compass ; in the use of graduated (scaled) telescopes, with
which they are required to estimate and report the distance

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 241

of objects seen ; and in forming rough maps to accompany
reports.

With this preparation the class may be ordered for station
practice on stations distant some miles apart. These sta-
tions are to be selected for them. The pupils are to be sta-
tioned by twos, required to open and keep up communication
between these stations by signals, day and night ; to person-
ally use their flags, torches, and other signal equipments; to
take care of their telescopes, and in relieving each other in
turn ; to discharge all the duties of officers and flagmen upon
a station ; to keep a record of messages sent and received, and
to report them. At times, when they are not on duty, they
commit lessons in such elementary works as familiarize them
with military nomenclature and description, and they will
prepare descriptive statements of works, cities, harbors, or
forces indicated by the instructor. They must make written
reports of information in form, as if they were reporting to
a commander in the field. The class will then be distributed
to different stations, which they must find, and establish
themselves. They are then required to communicate with
signals of different character, as signals by colored flames,
rocket signals, chronosemic signals, signals by sound, by
lines of signals, by simple semaphores, by flags after the
manner of navies. On certain days, all messages sent must
be in cipher, and all must be repeated. The officers are to
be especially practised in opening and maintaining com-
munication without preconcert, and to do this using differ-
ent codes. They will be taught to rapidly break u\> their
stations and to establish, them elsewhere; to search with
their glasses for, and to find, other stations moved in the
same way to new localities; and are to be practised, under
the charge of the instructor, to meet the different emergen-
that may occur in the field.

The instructor, acting as superintendent of all the sta-
tions, inspects each and notes the manner in which the

242 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

duties are performed. This practice in the field is con-
tinued until the pupils are "considered competent for actual
service.

Whenever the corps is equipped with light telegraphic
lines for field use, the officers and men should be taught the
principles of electric telegraphs, and practised in the use of
the different instruments, either with alphabets or with sim-
ple codes of two or three elements. They should be drilled
in the rapid extension of the wire-lines, and quickly reeling
them up and putting them in motion to be established else-
where. They should thoroughly understand the modes of
erecting them through forests, on pontoon-bridges, to the
tops of towers, or of submerging them to cross narrow rivers
or streams. The parties should be told off for this purpose
by regular detail, and should be practically taught the dif-
ferent duties with such lines, as engineers are instructed, in
all the labors of laying pontoon-bridges or constructing
earthworks.

When, as in the war just passed, it is necessary to gather
the class for instruction in a camp, or when its members
have had no previous military knowledge, they are in-
structed, in the time not given to recitations or to practice,
in the discipline and management of the men, the drill of
cavalry with the carbine, and the rules of encampment and
of scouting.

This tuition, the study of works of reconnoissance, and such
other studies as may best fit them for the duties of observa-
tion, are continued whenever time offers throughout the
course. Particular readings are assigned for those times
when the students, being upon stations, are not immediately
employed. The instruction to be given non-commissioned
officers and enlisted men must be determined by their indi-
vidual acquirements.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. '21.'!

The course of study and practice here indicated should be
pursued, both in the land and naval service; for, serving in
either, the skill and knowledge gained cannot fail to be of
value to both officers and men. The naval officer should,
equally with the officer of the army, be able to direct the
establishment of stations, on ship or on shore, and should
know what benefits might be expected from them.

Soldiers of the Signal Corps should be drilled as cavalry,
taught the use of the repeating carbine, and practised in
climbing, in riding, and in marching. They serve so much
in small and isolated parties, that they need the repeating
arm. They should be encouraged in gymnastic exercises.
Their duties, ascending mountains, establishing stations,
etc., require the fullest physical development.

SELECTING, ESTABLISHING, AND WORKING
STATIONS IN THE EIELD.

The signals used in the field, in the Army of the United
States, are almost always those made with flags in motion,
and the regulation signal equipment, as. for the General Ser-
vice Code, by two elements.

These signals are so simply and so rapidly made, and are
legible at distances so great, that others are rarely needed
in general service.

Signals with disks, though not visible at great distances,
can be used when circumstances require. Any of the modes
before described are to be employed when need be.

The occasions for these offer in communication between
land and naval forces; and in emergencies, as when there
is need of concealment. A station of observation is one
from which observations, as of an enemy or of a tract of
country, are made and reported. A station of communica-

2i4 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

tion is for purposes of signal communication. A signal-
station may partake of both characters.

To select a signal-station, choose a point perfectly in view
of the communicating station; fix the exact position in
which the flagman is to stand : so arrange, if possible, that
he will have behind him, when viewed from the communi-
cating station, a background of the same color for every
position in which the signals may be shown. The color of
the background of a station is that of the earth or sky,
against which the signals made seem to be displayed when
viewed from the communicating station. To determine the
color of the background, take the direction of the commu-
nicating station, and, going in front of your station, examine
the position from that direction ; ascertain whether the
communicating station is higher, lower, or on a level with
your own. If it is higher, the background for your signals,
viewed thence, will be the color of the fields, woods, etc.,
behind and lower than your flagman. If it is lower, your
background will be the color of grounds, etc., behind and
lying higher than your flagman. If the stations are of equal
elevation, then the background for your signals will be that
directly behind the flagman. Do not presume the back-
ground is of the color of the fields near you. It may be
that of the woods, a long distance, sometimes miles, behind
your station. If your station is on a house or an eminence,
it is still very possible that there are higher grounds some-
where behind it. The color of backgrounds is generally
dark. Sky-exposure backgrounds are rare. They are not
often found at long ranges on land. They cannot be had
except on the exact crest of ridges or lands which bound
the horizon of view from the other station, or on the precise
apex of mountains, etc. At short ranges, they may, of
course, be had by working on the tops of very high build-
ings, steeples, etc. Unless certain of the. color of the back-
ground, it is safe to presume it is not the sky, and that it

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 24:5

is not light. It is a rule always to use the white or red
flas until the color of the background is determined. The

best backgrounds are darkly colored, as green fields or
woods.

Place the flagman so that his signals shall appear dis-
played upon one of these backgrounds, if possible.

If the position is narrow, and the flagman can be placed
in no other, notice whether the background is broken:
that is, whether in part of its motion the flag or other
signal displays on light and in part on dark ground; as if,
for instance, for half its motion it shows against the trees,
and for the other half against a white house ; or if, for part
of the motion, it shows against the sky, and for the rest,
against trees.

The background being determined, the choice of flags is
fixed. ' The color of the flag must contrast as strongly as
possible with that of the background. Upon this contrast
the legibility of the signals often depends.

With green or dark, or any earth-colored backgrounds,
the white flag must be used. With a sky-exposure, the
black flag; must be used. With broken or mixed back-
grounds, the red flag must be used. The red flag, or signal,
is that to be generally used at sea, — as on vessels, where,
in part of its motion, the flag exposes against the wood-
work, or rigging, or sails of the vessel ; and in part against
the sky or water. It is well also to try the red flag when
snow may form part of the background. For general uses,
the white flag, or signal, will be found best. It can be used
in nine instances out of ten.

When the stations have commenced communicating, each
may announce that color of the flags, or other signals, which
can be best seen at the other. This may be done as soon
as communication has commenced, each station telling the
other to use the white, or the red, or the black flag, or to
try different flags, until the best is found.

246 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

When it is difficult to attract attention, two flans ouo-ht
to he shown on the staff and in motion at the same time. If
there is douht as to the color of the background on which
they are displaying, these flags ought to.be of different
colors; as a white and a red. When the background is
certainly dark, they ought to be both white. If the back-
ground is light, dark flags ought to be used.

Sometimes, when it is very difficult to send a message
from a station, as happens occasionally when detached
clouds are passing the sun, and dark moving shadows are
thus thrown on the earth, the messages can be sent if the
signals are made only while the sun is shining on the flac,
This is particularly the case so long as the sun is in any
part of its course even a little in front of the flag, and its
light can be reflected.

On days of sunshine, the sun shining upon a flag of course
increases its visibility. The sun shining behind a flag, does
not render it more distinct.

Those days are best for the transmission of messages in
which the atmosphere is clear, but the sun is covered with
clouds. The light is then generally diffused. It is on such
days that messages have been read at the longest distances.

Position of Signalmen.

The position of a signalman, transmitting a message, must
be exactly facing the point to which the message is being
sent ; and this must be the case, whatever the style or char-
acter of the signal he is using. Signals, of whatever de-
scription, made by the signalman, must also be shown exactly
on his right and left, or they will not be clearly displayed to
the observer.

To determine this exact position, a line, direct to the other
station, should be sighted — as over a straight rod, for in-
stance ; and a line following this direction should be marked

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 247

on the ground in front of the signalman. A line drawn at
right angles with this line, should extend on each side of t he
signalman. If the common signal equipment is to be used,
a marking-stake should be driven on the line in front of the
flagman, and twelve feet distant from him; and a similar
marker should be placed at the same distance on the side
lines on either side.

All signals must he made with reference to the directions
indicated by these stakes. These lines must he established
by daylight, if possible. The use of the markers secures
the accurate displays of the signals by day, and is even more
manifestly valuable at night, when the communicating sta-
tion becomes invisible. The flagman has then the markers
as guides to determine the direction in which his signals
must be shown.

A signalman, transmitting messages, should always be
placed a little in advance and to one side of the person at
the glass, in order that errors made in forming any signal
may be noticed and corrected.

When signals are made with torches and the ordinary
apparatus, at night, the signalman must stand immediately
behind the foot-light, as relates to the other station, and the
flying-light be so handled that when brought to the front
and lowered to the ground, as to make pause-signals, its
flame, observed from the communicating station, will seem
to mingle with the foot-light. When large, common fires
are burning at or near the station at night, care must be
taken that they are so placed as not to confound the view of
the torch-signals or of other signal-lights that may be shown.
The signalman must be placed well to one side of the fire
and his signals must be displayed out of the line of sight
from the fire to the communicating station.

The light of large fires, burning near, will often interfere,
at night, with the use of the glass. The best location for
the glass is, in these circumstances, in advance of the fire.

248 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Care must also be taken to so place the signalman that the
glare of the torches or lights will not interfere with the use
of the telescope. It is sometimes necessary to erect a screen,
sheltering the eyes of the observer, to prevent this inter-
ference.

When the color of a signal-flag, to be used at any station,
has been determined upon, and the flagman has been placed,
it may be yet necessary to decide whether there are any
obstacles to a clear vision existing between the stations.
For this purpose, view the station to which communication
is to be had, from the sending station, with a telescope ; first
from a position close to the ground, at the feet of the flag-
man, and then from two other points, close to the ground —
one on his right, and one on his left, at a distance from him
equal to the length of the signal-staff to which the flag is
attached. If, from these three points, the position of the
telescope at the other station, or the whole position on which
the flagman there stands, can be seen, it is certain that
eveiy signal made at the first station can be seen at the
other. Similar precautions to determine this point should
be had at both ; such precautious are particularly called for
at night. The foot-torch, lying close to the ground, is often
hidden by bushes or high grass near it, and night-signals are
thus made unintelligible. Sifmallinsf should never be com-
menced at night at any station, until, with the head near
the ground and in the place at which the foot-torch will be,
the receiving station has been observed, and it has been
made sure that the foot-light, shown at the first, will be
plainly visible there. When a station is occupied and
worked during the day, all preparations for night-signals,
such as filling the torches, pi'operly placing them, deter-
mining that, when lighted, they will be in view of the other,
etc., should be made before dark. When this is impossible,
as when the station is first reached at night, it may be held,
that any point at one station from which the tires or foot-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 249

lights known to be at the other are visible, is in proper view
from that station.

Working.

When a station is found, fix the telescope steadily upon it,
and keep it observed while signals are made for its attention.
As soon as it is perceived that attention is gained, signal
its number, or call, or answer any signals it may make.

Communicating stations should always arrange a few
preconcerted signals for either day or night use. These
signals should be of such character as this: "Wait a
moment;" "I see you, but cannot reply;" "Cease signal-
ling : will call you soon." This will prevent the sometimes
occurring annoyance of calling a station for hours when the
signals, though seen, cannot, for some reason, be answered.

When any station has signalled all the messages on hand,
signals to cease signalling must invariably be made. When
nothing more is to be for the time sent from either station,
both will make the " cease signalling" signal. The ob-
server, or officer, must never leave his station, or cease to
watch the communicating station, until this signal has been
exchanged by both stations. It must never be presumed
that a station has ceased to work uutil it has announced
this fact by signal.

Stations ceasing to work for a short time only will display
a flag flying, and stationary. This is a signal that the com-
municating station may be called at any moment.

So long as this signal is made, an observer will be kept
at the glass.

It is sometimes difficult to assure the attention of stations
at unexpected hours. The force may not be strong enough
for an uninterrupted watch. To guard against this trouble,
it may be concerted that certain flags shall be hoisted, as
on :i staff"; or any permanent flag, as the garrison or ship's
flag, shall be wafted, or a gun shall be fired, or a rocket

11*

250 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

thrown up, or a light burned, in case communication is sud-
denly required at unusual times, or is of pressing impor-
tance. When the force is sufficiently strong, and is well
disciplined, these extraordinary signals will not be needed.

When a number of stations are in view from one dom-
inant station, some preconcerted signal, as a rocket, a red
light, or some peculiar flag, or torch-signal, or cartridge-
puff, should be agreed upon as a signal for general atten-
tion. Upon noticing this signal, all the stations reply, and
then observe the dominant station. This plan is useful
when two or more stations can, at the same time, read the
signals from the prominent station, and thus together re-
ceive any information to be transmitted from it.

When a number of stations are working in concert, cer-
tain fixed hours of the day and night should be named by
proper authority for the especial exchange of messages ; at
which hours, each station may be certain that those on
duty at every other station will be observant and ready for
business.

All persons on duty should make it a point to be faith-
fully at their posts at these hours, even if communication
may seem to be impossible.

Stations must be kept concealed from the enemy so far
as is possible. On stations of observation solely, no flags
will be shown and no persons permitted except those ac-
tually on duty. Every precaution will be taken to prevent
the enemy ascertaining the purpose for which the point is
occupied. When communication by signals is needed, the
flag will be screened from observation, if it can be, and in
any case it will be shown only while transmitting messages.
All communications will be in cipher.

When two officers are assigned to duty at one station, an
officer must be on the station constantly. When a single
officer is on duty at a station, either of observation or com-
munication, he must be upon the station and at the glass,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 251

whenever the points are visible, at least once every fifteen
minutes during the day and at certain fixed hours during
the time of darkness, as at 1 1 p. m. and 2 a. m.

An eidisted man will be at all times upon the station and
at the glass. IK' will keep a strict watch upon the points
t<> be observed, make himself familiar with the part of the
country to be viewed, and promptly notify his officer of
any changes or movements lie may discover. He will ex-
amine, through the glass, the communicating* stations, at
least every two minutes, and will report all calls. If reply
cannot at once be made, he will make the signal "wait,"
and then instantly report the fact to the officer in charge.

The person in charge of a station is responsible for the
discipline of his party, the condition of their arms and
equipments, and the duties of the station.

Failure to promptly recognize and reply to calls, to
transmit messages, to notice and report upon movements
or other changes visible, is punished, in the case of either
officers or enlisted men, as neglect of duty.

The officer in charge of any number of stations must visit
each in person, and see that it actually transmits and re-
ceives messages in his presence, lie may else be deceived,
until a critical moment, by the incorrect report as to the
working of some station which will fail in an emergency.

A record of messages ought to be kept at each station,
and in it noted the date and hour of receipt or transmission
of every message.

The original manuscripts of messages received at a sta-
tion for transmission, must be carefully filed.

There must be, also, a record of the "watches" on duty
each day, with their hours of duty, in order that any negli-
gence may be traced.

When two stations are communicating at dusk, or when
it is growing dark, and a light is shown at the receiving
station, it is a signal to the sending station to use thereafter

252 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

torches, or lights, instead of flags. A light similarly shown
at dawn and then extinguished, or a flag then displayed,
indicates to the sending station to cease using lights, and
to commence using day-signals.

While the message is being transmitted by signals, the
sending station should constantly observe the receiving
station with the telescope, in order that any signals there
made to stop the transmission of the message may be in-
stantly seen. The flag, or any signal, put in motion at the
receiving station, is a "stop-signal." These stop-signals
may be made necessary by any accident at the receiving
station. For instance, the telescope there may be thrown
out of adjustment, or the connection of the message may
have been lost ; or by numerous other causes, which will
render a brief cessation of the signalling desirable. A sig-
nal to stop should be at once recognized by the sending
station, and the further sending of the message must be
suspended until the receiving station again announces its
readiness for work. Stop-signals, of this character, cause
much loss of time, and should never, unless absolutely
necessary, be made by a receiving station. If part of a
message is lost, it is better to receive the remainder, and
then ask for the repetition of the missing portion.

In sending very lengthy messages, the precaution should
be observed to cease signalling from time to time, and to in-
quire from the receiving station if the foregoing has been
correctly received. This inquiry may be made by any sig-
nal, to which the receiver replies by the usual signal, of
message understood, or by other preconcerted signal, as the
case may be.

When several messages are to be sent in succession, "end
of message signal" will be made after the signature of each,
to be followed by the word " another :" then " end of mes-
sage signal" again — after which commence with the ad-
dress of the next message to be following, being careful,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 253

always, when the messages are from different places or

headquarters to say — " From (name of place) To ,

etc., etc." Without this precaution very serious errors may
occur from the blending of separate communications.

Signals in the field are generally made by a signalman,
who, previously drilled, makes each signal by order. These
orders, "calling off signals," must be uttered with careful
distinctness and precision. .V pause is made after each let-
ter combination. "When a message is lengthy, a longer
pause is made at the end of each sentence, to allow the
sentence to be written down by the receiver. Messages
must be grammatically correct, and be correctly spelled.
The receiver is sometimes confounded by signals made for
a word so spelled that it is not recognizable.

"When stations are certainly in sight of each other, pre-
parations for continued work should be carefully made be-
fore the transmission of official messages is commenced.

Officers will always avail themselves of proper precautions
to locate their men and themselves in unexposed positions.
When in an exposed position officers and men will lie down,
except while transmitting messages. The flag will be kept
flying, to indicate the position of the station to those who
may be seeking for it, and to the other signal-stations with
which it may be in communication. The flagman and the
man at the telescope may be sheltered by temporary screens
— as of bales of hay, fascines, sand-bags, etc.; and these can
be erected in the few moments preceding an attack.

The signal staff and flag alone need project above the
screen. At night, the foot-torch may be upon the top of the
screen or rampart, and the flying-torch be moved relatively
to it, by the staff projecting above the work : the signalman
being covered.

When there is danger of capture, all messages or impor-
tant papers must be destroyed.

Each signalist should have a particular signal by which

254 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

lie can be known. This signal may be that for any letter or
letters of the alphabet. It is known as the "officer's signa-
ture, or call." It serves to distinguish him, and any mes-
sage sent by him, and for the correctness of which he is to
be held responsible. By it is also designated the station at
which the officer commands. A call, or particular signal,
is in like manner generally assigned for each station, to
distinguish that station from others.

Whenever these particular calls are seen signalled, it is
known that the attention of the officers or the station is
desired. The officer or the station should at once respond,
making at the close of the response the same particular
signal by which they are identified. The calling station or
officer should give his own call or signal. There is thus
established between the parties a mutual knowledge as to
the parties with which each is in communication.

There are times when it will be necessary to read mes-
sages, while it is known that the signalman is facing away
from the reader. In this case the messages will be easily
legible, if it is remembered that each signal will appear to
the reader to be precisely the reverse of that which is made
by the signalman ; thus all those signals displayed on the
right will seem to the reader to be shown on the left, while
those actually made on the left of the signalman will seem
to be made on his right. Recalling this fact, it will be as
easy to read the signals made at any station from the rear
of that station as it is from its front.

The preseuce of visitors, other than official, should not be
encouraged at signal-stations of any importance. In an
enemy's country, visitors are generally spies, who come
under various pretences, the most innocent, to gather infor-
mation as to what precise points are in view from the station,
in order that the enemy may avoid them ; and such other
items of useful intelligence as they may glean from un-
suspecting officers. A'isitors should never be allowed to

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 255

tamper with glasses, to examine messages, or to do any act
by which the enemy may gain unnecessary knowledge.

Signal-Stations should be among the last positions to be
abandoned when an army is about to move, for events may
happen at the last moment which will require the delay or
the change of the movement, or important messages may
need instant transmittal.

The chief signal-officer must exercise a discretion as to the
number and position of stations to be so held.

When stations are in operation, and it is contemplated to
move one of them, the moving station must inform the ob-
serving station of the fact of its change, and indicate, when
practicable, the position from which communication will be
resumed.

To Locate Stations.

To open a line of stations across a country, first choose
some prominent position, and one well visible; and here
establish the initial station. Let the party assemble here.
Let them, together, select a second prominent point in
view as nearly as possible in the line of direction you
wish to take. Upon the tirst station, erect some kind
of beacon — as a white or other colored signal-nag; or
some marked object, by which it can be recognized from a
distance. Take from this first point the bearing by compass
of the point selected. This second point should be one not
only visible from the initial point, but one also probably in
view from positions beyond it. Note should be made of
some peculiar house, rock, tree, or other marked object
upon it, in order that the exact place maybe recognized
when it is reached. At the first point, now marked with its
beacon, station an officer to reply to any signals he may
see, and to watch the course of the marching party. The
other officers will then move, guided by compass, if need be,
toward the second point selected, carrying a signal-flag

256 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

flying, in order that their position may be known whenever
they come in view from the first station, and intently
watched by the officer left at that station, the marching
party will, from time to time, put itself in communication
Avith the first station, so as to receive from it any direction
as to its course the first station may wish to give, or any
other information. It will also frequently verify its course
by compass. On reaching the point chosen for the second
station, a beacon or flag will be there erected, observations
will be made, and communication will be opened with the
first station. Points, on either side or to the rear, will be
examined, to see if the second station can be better located
than it is with reference to a third station to be next estab-
lished. The second station will then be definitely established
and marked, and an officer there stationed, as before at the
first station, to watch the marching party. The point for the
third station will be hence chosen, and the party will pro-
ceed toward it with the same general rules as before. These
operations will be repeated in the case of each station, until
the terminal station is reached. Attempts will be afterward
made to reduce the number of intermediate stations by find-
ing other and better points at which to locate some of them.
Should an officer, while establishing a line, and before it
is completed, find, on reaching any station, that he is able to
communicate over any of the intermediate stations between
himself and the first, he will notify the unnecessary station
of the fact : not, however, until he has both received and
sent messages over it to some other station. Upon receiv-
ing this information, the officers at the needless station will,
after notifying the stations near them of their purpose,
abandon their own station and proceed to the station next
in advance, or to that one which has given the information.
The officer who has been temporarily stationed there will,
on their arrival, join the inarching party, which will mean-
while have been pushed forward to continue the line.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 257

It sometimes occurs, in locating signal-stations, that it can
be known only that a signal-station will be opened in some
part of the country overlooked from a given station; or that
an officer has been sent in a certain direction, and that he
will try, from some point in that direction, to open signal
communication.

This is to establish a "moving station." Moving stations
are so called, to distinguish them from stations "fixed" by
preconcert. Moving stations must always be as prominently
placed as is possible: as on hill-tops; in the centre of open
iields ; near marked houses ; — the more apt to attract atten-
tion the better. It should be kept constantly in view to
always thus locate a moving station near something which
is likely to attract attention from the observing station.

Officers upon fixed signal-stations will, if expecting signals
anywhere, and habitually without especial orders, closely
examine, from time to time, every prominent point within
signal-distance, to see if signal communication is attempted
from any quarter. With this view, they will study the
vicinity of all houses, spires, peaks, hill-tops, broad open
fields in the midst of woodlands (an open field command-
ing a view of a known fixed station is a spot always to be
selected in a forest, on which to establish a moving station),
the banks of rivers, prominent trees, stacks in fields, etc.
The vicinity of smokes of any kind, seen at any time,- must
be carefully scrutinized. At night, all fire lights, or brilliant
lights of any kind, are to be examined. Flashes must be
particularly observed.

The Moving Station must be provided with some distinct
and very visible signals, to attract attention. To mark
positions anywhere in an overlooked country by day, smokes
may be made. Puffs of smoke, made by firing powder
loosely poured on the ground from cannon cartridges, can
be seen at very great distances. The cartridges can be
easily carried on horseback. They are tired with a train or

258 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

slow-match. These puffs may, to be distinctive, be varied
in number. There should always be a prearranged code or
understanding as to the number and kind of puffs or other
signals to be shown.

A dense white smoke, visible at a long distance, can be
made with dampened straw or hay. A fire should first be
set well burning, and then large armfuls of the dampened
straw, or armfuls of leafy branches, be thrown suddenly
and well spread upon it.

A station which has difficulty in making itself visible will
be apt to be discovered if moved near where artillery is
firing, the attention of the observer being drawn by the
report and the smoke of the guns.

The plan of Chronosemic Signals, and the use of the Sig-
nal Mortar with the Signal Bombs, affords one of the most
powerful and certain modes of attracting attention.

Before a smoke-puff or signal of any kind is exhibited at
the moving station, the largest white and red flags ought
to be displayed together upon the signal flag-staff; and these
should be kept in motion, swinging from side to side, near
the point from which the smoke rises, while it is rising, and
for some time after, in order that the glass, at the observing
station, turned upon the smoke, may find the flag thus mov-
ing in its field of view. When the attempt to attract the
attention of the observing station is to be long continued, a
large flag will be fastened to a second staff, and kept hoisted
in some prominent position ; the pole being fastened, as in
the corner of a fence, or to a stake driven into the ground.

At night, a signal-fire, made like any other fire, and meant
to attract attention, is sometimes flashed, to distinguish it
from other fires. This is done by causing two men to hold a
blanket spread before it — that is, between it and the observ-
ing station — and to raise and lower this blanket every two
seconds. This is ordered in this wise : " one-two-up ;" " one-
two-down," and continue. The intermittent light, thus made,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 259

is easilv distinguished. The powder from cannon cartridges,
poured loosely on the ground, and fired at eight, makes an
intense white Hash, almost certain to attract attention. Two
or three cartridges may be employed together, and fired at
one Hash, to increase the volume of light. Rockets and
Roman candles are very useful. Composition lights, such as
the Coston signablights, or the common red, white, or green
composition lights are also useful. They will attract atten-
tion at distances of six or eight miles. Red lights are pre-
ferable to any other, for the reason that they show distinct
among eamp-h'res, or other lights, and cannot be confounded
with them. The volume of light may be increased for great
distances by emptying the composition from several lights
together, and thus firing it. Any kind of colored composi-
tion light may be agreed upon to be shown as a precon-
certed signal, by which all friendly signal-officers, as, for in-
stance, those serving with a single army or a single corps,
may indicate their position at night.

Thus a " red-white-green" composition cartridge might be
the general night-signal for all forces belonging to the United
States Army; while the different composition lights known
by their numbers "one," "two," "three," etc., as given at
]). -216, might be the distinctive signal for the Army Corps
by their numbers.

Any Detachment of any Corps may thus show its signal-
number from any position.

Thus a " red-white-green" cartridge fired, and followed by
a " red-white," would signal and indicate the position of
" Headquarters — 5th Army Corps."

A " red-white" cartridge fired alone would indicate " De-
tachment of 5th Army Corps." Distinctive Chronosemic
Signals may be arranged for the same purpose, and there
may be certain secret signals to be fired by order of corps
commanders only, and understood by the general-in-chief
alone.

260 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

A certain signal, as of guns or rockets or colored lights,
should be given to each general or admiral only, as a means
by which, as by a countersign, to recognize friendly forces.

Attempts to attract the attention of a station, in order to
be successful, must be persistent. They should never be
abandoned, until every device has been exhausted : and
they should be renewed and continued at different hours of
the day and night. It must be always remembered, that
attempts which have failed may have failed because the
observer's attention has been drawn in another direction,
and that the effort may, at any other moment, be a success,
if the observing-glass chances to bear on the calling signals.

During: the whole time that attention signals are mak-
ing, by day or by night, the calling or moving station must
watch closely with the telescope the station called ; nor
should the watch be relaxed, at any time, until communica-
tion is fairly opened. It can never be known at what mo-
ment the observing station mav first have si«ht of or be
ready to reply to, the signal seen. Should the efforts of the
calling or moving station be successful, and attract attention
of the observing station, the observing or fixed station ought
to reply at once with signals of recognition and a brief mes-
sage — as, " I see you," etc. ; or, if it is practicable, it should
make a signal similar to that seen : as answering smoke by
smoke ; a rocket by a rocket ; composition lights by com-
position lights ; or making some marked signal which shall
announce to the moving station the fact that its position is
noted. The observing station should take care to keep a
signal-flag flying all the time, to afford a marked point to
the moving station, and to indicate that an officer is on duty
and at the glass.

It not unfrequently happens that two moving stations are
in quest of each other. In this case each should seek dom-
inant points, or points in view of dominant points as far as
possible in the direction of the other, and thence endeavor

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 261

to open communication. And it should be a general rule
for all such cases, that at certain agreed hours, as at six a. m.,
nine a. m., noon, three r. m., six p. m., nine P. M., midnight,
etc., eacli shall be at some dominant station seeking tor the
other, or shall make signals agreed upon, wherever they may
be, for, say fifteen minutes.

This rule of signalling at predetermined hours applies to
all attempts to open communication. Timepieces must be
adjusted together.

A signalist, observing from an elevated station, and find-
ing his own view of the communicating station uninterrupted,
may be led to imagine that the station on which he stands
is more prominently visible, from the communicating sta-
tion, than is the case in fact. Thus a person viewing from
the top of a house, may think the whole house is in view from
the observing station, when in fact nothing but the roof can
be thence seen. Or located behind a ridge, the signalist
may think his whole station in good view, when, perhaps, his
head only is visible from that communicating. To deter-
mine whether any station is clearly in view from any other,
the observing station must be viewed fromthe ground, and
from different positions close to the station. If the station
can be well seen from these different points, that from
which these observations are made must of course be plainly
visible.

In locating stations, and in opening communication be-
tween them, an officer will sometimes find himself in a po-
sition whence some other station ought to be, visible, but
finds his view shut off by trees or bushes near him. In this
case, the tallest tree should be climbed. If the other station
is in view from the tree-top, its attention can be attracted,
and a temporary communication be opened, by signals made

2C2 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

by the flag, or other signal, displayed in the tree-top. The
flagman may then secure himself in the tree with a belt or
rope. The ofticer Axes his own position at some other place
in the same tree, and rests his telescope among its branches ;
or what is better, ascends another tree for this purpose, — as
the first is apt to be so shaken by the motions of the flag-
man, as to disturb the vision through the telescope. The
stations having recognized each the position of the other,
telegraphic communication will be had without difficulty.

It should be borne in mind by an officer on signal duty,
that it is very possible his own signals may be seen and
read by the officer with whom he wishes to communicate,
though it may be impossible for him to find the exact posi-
tion of that officer; or having found it, it may be impossi-
ble for him to read the signals made to him, owing to
defect of light, or smoke, or glare, or haze. It is a rule,
therefore, to send any important message, or any informa-
tion it is wished to convey, whenever the sending station is
in a position whence the signals ought to be seen by the
other station. There is a chance, to be considered, that
some third station may receive the message, and the infor-
mation be thus available. This is, of course, not to be con-
sidered as a final sending of the message — a message never
being considered as sent, by signals, until it is clearly ac-
knowledged by signals. This plan may, however, be some-
times useful. There are also, sometimes, intervals of two
or three hours when the position of the sun, or a peculiar
haze or light, makes one of two communicating stations
almost invisible, while the other is thence seen more clearly
than is usual. Now the visible station ought not to waste
this time, but to send forward its messages with great care
and distinctness, numbering the words, etc. This should
not be attempted, however, unless the sending station is,
while sending, always able to see at least the signals of
recognition or " to repeat," made at the close of each mes-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 2G3

sage by the receiving station. As soon as mutual commu-
nication is had again, full inquiry can be made as to the
receipt of the message thus sent. So one officer may find
himself so close to the enemy that he dare not respond to
any signals, yet may perfectly read those made from another
station. It may be important to send information by signals
to an officer tints situated without caring to wait his reply.
There are other possible cases in which messages may be
sent when it is known that they cannot be either acknowl-
edged or answered by signals. A station may sometimes
receive many messages, when the messages sent by it can-
not be read. It frequently happens that the signal of re-
cognition, " message understood," and of " repeat, message
not understood" — which two signals are sufficient to insure
the correct reception of messages — can be seen, made by a
station, when no consecutive signals made by that station
are visible. Or a conventional signal, as a puff of smoke,
may be agreed \;pon to indicate "messages understood,"
before the signal parties separate. Two puffs might mean
" repeat ;" or any other signal may be adopted. On the
same principle, an officer calling a station with his flag, and
being without reply, or with such replies only as he is un-
able to read, continuing to call, may interpose messages;
for his flag is as visible and as likely to attract attention
while sending a message, as while simply waving for atten-
tion. Thus such a message as this may be transmitted : " I
cannot see you. Am going to the top of the mountain ;"
or, " Can't see you. Look for me on the steeple ;" or,
" Can't see you. Go to open field on crest of ridge," etc. ;
or, "Can't see you. Enemy are coming by this road," etc
This rule applies to night-signals when, sometimes, one sta-
tion distinctly sees the signals of another, but cannot reply
with signals of the same kind, because the apparatus is
broken, or the supply of fluid for the lights is exhausted.
If in such a case a station is called, it replies by burning a

264 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

signal-light, or by throwing up a rocket, or by making a
camp-fire flash, or by flashing gunpowder: the message
may then be sent. If it is correctly received, the disabled
station shows two flashes, or throws up two rockets, or dis-
plays two lights. If the message is not correctly received,
only a single flash, or rocket, or light is shown. This indi-
cates that the message must be repeated. A station can
hardly be so disabled but that an experienced officer will
be able to make this much of recognition. It is impossible
he should be without some kind of light that can be seen,
or the power to make some one of the numberless styles of
signals.

It will be found sometimes possible to signal between
elevated peaks, when all the landscape of the lower country
is deeply buried in fog ; and, conversely, a peak will some-
times be wrapped in clouds, when lower down the view is
unobstructed. In the former case, messages may be sent
by ascending to mountain summits ; and in the latter case,
by descending, so as to be below the cloud stratum.

It is sometimes necessary for stations to change positions
while working. In this case the observing station should
carefully watch the flag of the moving station, which must
be carried flying, in order that it may be readily traced to
the new situation. A movement of a station sometimes be-
comes necessary, at the request of a communicating station,
to improve the background, or the view of the moved sta-
tion. These movements are often for a few yards only. In
such case, the moving station, carrying its oavii flag flying,
must carefully watch the flag of the observing station,
wdiich is kept in view in order that it may be so watched,
and the movement must be instantly stopped at the signal
from the observing station, which indicates when the mov-
ing flag has reached the precise position desired.

The signal " 22, 22, 22, 3," from the observing station, is
the signal to stop the movement.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. k 2l*>")

When there is any trouble about the visibility of signals,
the largest and brightest flags, or other signals, should at

once be used. It will often happen, that after working thus
for a short time, the signalist, becoming accustomed to the

range, will work successfully with smaller signals.

When, at the receiving station, it is noticed that a change
in the color of the signals shown at the sending station
would render them more visible, the fact should be immedi-
ately stated. When there is any question as to the color of
signals to be shown at the different stations, each station
should indicate to the other that color most distinctly visi-
ble from its own point of view.

Establishing Signal-stations.

When high winds interfere with the proper display of
flags, or other signals, at any position, the signal-station
there ought to be established in the lee of a grove, or shel-
tered by a house or hill. It will sometimes happen that
signals made from a given position cannot be seen ; while,
near that position, is a point at which a sky-exposure, or
other advantage, can be had, which will make the signals
there visible. In such case, the receiving station should
direct the sending station where to place the flagman. This
may be done by the usual signals of the codes prepared for
the purpose, or by an especial message.

Communicating stations oucdit not, when it can be
avoided, to be located exactly on an east and west line, or
the line of the apparent course of the sun. That station
which is in the direction from which the sun shines in anv
part of its course, is very liable to seem to be enveloped in
a haze, and the telescope, if turned upon it, is filled with a
dazzling lisrht.

The landscape is often seen as perfectly clear, and signals
are plainly visible in every direction, excepting toward the

266 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

rising or setting sun. There is a bright haze. It is better,
therefore, that the line of the stations should obliquely cross
the apparent course of the sun, and care should be taken
to so arrange them. If that cannot be done, the stations
lying in the apparent course of the sun should be so located
that they may have a sky-exposure when viewed from the
communicating station. This obviates, to a very great ex-
tent, the difficulty of sun haze ; and wherever that diffi-
culty exists, effort should, at once, be made to secure such
an exposure for the obscured station.

In the same way, when there are temporary interruptions,
as often happens from clouds passing the sun, a sky-exposure
secured for the obscured station will render all signals there
displayed, legible.

A station should never be located in a camp, or among
tents, or where the white canvas of tents can form the back-
ground of signals viewed from the other station. The pas-
sage of squads of men in an encampment, the smoke from
the numerous cook-fires, the dust thrown up by marching
troops or trains, the curiosity of persons not attached to the
station, render the camp the most unsuitable locality for a
signal-station. The difficulties are increased, at night, by
the glare of the numerous fires apt to be kindled between
the communicating stations; the smoke that, then more
heavily than in the day, rests over the quarters ; and the
almost impossibility of distinguishing, at great distances,
the signal-torches or lights from the changing lights of the
encampment. Every precaution should be taken to avoid
these annoyances. The point chosen ought to be one suffi-
ciently near the headquarters of the general commanding,
but outside of camp, and on one side of it, on some clearly
visible spot, and with as few encampments between it and
the communicating station as possible. It is always advis-
able to avoid working over an encampment, if it is near
and on nearly the same level as the station. The smoke

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 267

ami dust which constantly arise from a camp arc serious
obstacles to successful working.

1 Jed lights or rockets must be kept at encampment

stations, to mark the exact position of that station, it' the
communicating station is very far distant, and the officers
at it thus liable to be confused by the number of lights and
tires at the encampment. This will he found to be often
the case, when the stations are located among the camps of
a grand army.

Signal stations should always be chosen elevated from the
ground as much as is possible, when there is difficulty about
smoke, or haze, or dust. The undulation of the atmosphere,
noticeable on a hot summer's day, is always less at a distance
from the earth's surface. Thus it is sometimes practicable
to read from a tree or a house-top when it is almost impos-
sible to so read from the ground. This undulation is less also
over spots well shaded than in the glare of the sun. This
should be borne in mind in all telescopic examinations.
Permanent stations should never be placed in hollows, or on
low land, when high ground is attainable. The greatest ele-
vation should invariably be sought. In the cool night air,
the smoke and dust of the day lie close to the ground, filling
the hollows and obscuring low lands, while the higher points
emerge in view like islands. So, too, the elevated points
are frev. to a great extent, from heavy moving mists and the
malaria of unhealthy locations. There are these advantages,
aside from their better location, for workino-. By careful
selections of high ground, stations can often be worked
when signals on the lower fields would be invisible. For
these reasons, it is well to have, sometimes, a station for
night work on a house-top or in a tree, while during the day
the station is worked from the ground.

2G8 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Repeating Stations.

It may happen that very important messages received by
signals must be verified by repeating back from the receiv-
ing station, signal by signal, each signal used by the send-
ing station, in conveying the message. There can be no
error in signals thus verified, and the correct transmission
of the message is made certain. This process has been re-
ferred to while describing the different codes.

For such a verification, each signal must be repeated by
the receiving station, as soon as it is made at the sending
station.

The signalists and their signalmen, at each station, face
toward each other, the signalmen standing each with his
flag and staff in the first position for signals. The chief of
each of the corresponding stations has his glass fixed upon
the opposite station, and takes his post at the glass. The
sending of the message is commenced. As the chief at the
receiving station notices each signal completed by the send-
ing station, he orders that signal at his own station. The
chief at the sending station pauses after each signal of the
message made at his own station, until he has noted that
signal repeated correctly at the receiving station.

The symbol-numbers made at each station must be iden-
tical. The signals used may be different, provided they
signify the same numbers. Thus, if " one-two" is made at
one station, " one-two" must be repeated at the other,
though the symbol-numbers, "one" and "two," may be in-
dicated at one station by different signs from those which
indicate the same numbers at the other station. The mes-
sages are thus transmitted, signal bv signal, the sender
pausing after each signal, until he sees a similar signal shown,
complete and correct, at the receiving station. It is then
certain that his own signal has been seen and noted. A rec-
ord of the signals shown at each station is kept at the other.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 2G9

This record and the record of messages sent must agree.
The practice of repeating signals was habitual when sema-
phores were much employed for telegraphing. It is used
with advantage, in many instances, with field-signals, par-
ticularly with those which are made by positions.

A message may be repeated, letter by letter, or word by
word, or sentence by sentence ; or the whole message is re-
corded as received, and is repeated back from the receiving
station.

The occasions for such exactness as requires the trouble
of repetition must be determined by the commanding offi-
cers, or by the chiefs of stations dispatching the messages.

It should be made habitual, rather than incur any risks
from the incorrect transmission of a single message. Where
cipher is constantly employed the verification insures its
accuracy, and will sometimes prevent the trouble in inter-
pretation which may arise from an error.

The repetition of signals, for the transmission of messages
over long lines, is differently managed.

"Where repetition is to be habitual over long lines, some
of the simple semaphores, once of common use, afford per-
haps the most rapid and available means lor communication.
They have been improved by long experience to a degree
which renders them almost perfect. For ordinary ranges, and
for common military uses, any of the different manual codes,
heretofore described, are always available. Permanent sem-
aphores need not be used except for convenience, or when a
lon<4 line is to be worked continuously with a feeble force.

Temporary semaphores may be of the most simple struc-
ture, as before described. The human figure, light clad, so
as to show prominently on a dark ground, or dark clad
when exposed against the sky, makes, with its movable
arms, one of the best semaphores. Thus a man, with his
coat off, is an upright with two movable and jointed arms.
There is hardly any kind of position-signals but can be made

270 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

by placing the arms of this man in different positions. This
human semaphore is visible, and the signals made by it are
legible, with a good telescope, for a number of miles. To
make the signals more distinct, at a great distance, disks,
attached to rods, or flags, or brilliantly colored and broad
staves, or any showy object, may be held in the hands and
moved as semaphoric arms. To give elevation, the signal-
man may be upon a staging, or perched upon a standing
tree-trunk, the tree-top being removed.

When a message is to be repeated over a line of stations,
by either transient or permanent signals, a warning signal
is first given, in order that there may be proper attention at
the intermediate stations before commencing the message.
This warning may be a message, as thus — " repeat to"
(naming the town) ; or it is a concerted signal, as both arms
of the semaphore pointing up. This warning is sent from
station to station, until it reaches the station named ; this
station replies by a concerted signal of "ready," and each
immediate station, repeating this signal back to the first
station, stands ready to repeat the message which the first
station commences to forward, signal by signal, at once on
receiving the ready signal ; the intermediate stations re-
peating each signal letter and number as fast as they are
received; as, for instance, was a message to be sent from
Washington to Frederick, the officer at Washington would
first send over the signal line the warning to "repeat to
Frederick." This warning is repeated from station to sta-
tion. On receiving it, the officer at Frederick makes the
ready signal, which signal is repeated back, from station to
station, to Washington. Each station then stands ready to
repeat the signal message which is to follow. On receiving
the ready signal, the officer at Washington sends forward
the communication, each station repeating each letter-signal
in its turn as it receives them.

When a message is being thus repeated through a nam-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 271

bcr of signal-stations, the officer at each station will call the
proper numbers for each letter, as lie receives them, to his
flagman, who, placed facing from the sending station and
toward the station next in line, makes each signal in its
proper order. Each officer, after signalling from his station
each letter, waits until he sees it repeated at the next station
before he signals another. There are two men, with tele-
scopes, at each repeating station: one notes the correct re-
ception, the other the transmission of the signals.

The advantage of permanent signals here becomes appa-
rent, for a permanent signal may be kept in view until it is
repeated with certain correctness. All signals made at the
repeating station will appear to the observers at the send-
ing station reversed. When permanent signals are used,
each sending station keeps its signal in view until that signal
has been repeated at the next station, when it resumes the
position ready, and waits the next signal from the sending
station.

Long lines of signal-stations, with a small military force
at eaeh, being thus each in communication with the other,
may constitute picket-lines of great length and importance for
holding and keeping under observation lines of communica-
tion, rivers, or extensive tracts of country liable to incursion
or to be ravaged by predatory bands of the enemy ; — each
station, having the power of communieating with those on
either side of it, has virtually the advantage of their support,
and no one can be attacked without the enemy being ex-
posed to the concentration of forces called for by signals
from different stations.

So, when an army has for its duty only to watch a certain
line, by a judicious arrangement of signal-posts upon that
line, a heavy force lying back of it, it can be made almost
impossible for the enemy to pass the line without encounter-
ing concentrated forces.

A river passing through an enemy's country, with com-

272 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

merce upon it liable to interruption by guerrilla attacks, or
by forces of the enemy, can, by the establishment of small
fortified signal-stations, say at a distance of nine or ten miles
apart, garrisoned and communicating, be virtually picketed
and be made safe for commerce. This was proposed during
the war in the case of the Mississippi.

On river lines, where the protection of commerce is of im-
portance, such stations afford at once shelter to the moving
vessels, are able to warn them, while at a distance, of
danger, as of the location of the enemy upon the banks ; or,
in case of attack, to call to their assistance the vessels of
Avar assigned to the duty of patrolling the stream. On the
great river courses of this country, picket lines of this de-
scription, guarding our rivers passing hostile territory, have
an especial usefulness.

The communications may be by telegraphic wires, until
the near approach of an enemy disables that mode of com-
munication.

The military reader will comprehend how the beautiful
plans for chronosemic signals would be employed in such
eases, as above described, by repetitions, and how exactly
they would indicate the point endangered.

COMPLICATING SIGNALS.

Signals are complicated for the purpose of disguise. For
example : several things, positions, motions, each one of which
may of itself represent an elementary signal, are assumed.
Now, in a code of two elements, any one of these indications
given may signify the " one" element as often as it is shown,
Avliile the " two" element is signified whenever any one of
all the rest is shown. Thus, if five motions are given, and
we propose to complicate an alphabet of two elements, in
which the letters of the alphabet shall read "A" is " two-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 273

two" "22;' "B" is "two-one-one-two" "2112," "C" is
"one-two-one" " 121," and so on: Suppose the five motions
given are known as the first, second, third, fourth, and fifth
motions, and are designated by the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 ;
the motion " 1," as often as shown, may signify the element
"one," while either of motions "2," or "3," or "4," or "5"
may signify, whenever shown, the element "two." Then,
in the example given, "A," which is known as "two-two"
"22," may be written or signalled and read with equal
ease when shown as " two-two" "22," or "two-three" "23,"
or "two-four" "24," or "three-three" "33," or "four-five"
" 45," or " live-two" "52," etc. "B," which is known as « ' two-
one-one-two" "2112," may be written, or signalled, or read
as "two-one-one-two," "2112;" or as "three-one-one-four,"
"3114;" or "five-one-one-five," "5115; or "two-one-one-
three," "2113;" or "four-one-one-three," "4113;" or "five-
one-one-two," "5112," etc. " C," which is known as "one-
two-one" " 121," may be written, or signalled, or read as
"one-two-one," "121;" or "one-five-one," "151;" or "one
three-one," "131 ;" or " one-four-one," " 141," etc., and so on
for the alphabet.

Or the element " one" might be sionified bv several si<nis.
while the element " two" is signified by a single sign. Or
the element " one" might be signified by each of two or
three or more signs, while the element "two" is also sig-
nified by each of two or three or more signs. Thus four
motions being used, a motion up or a motion to the right
may each signify the element "one;" while a motion down
or a motion to the left may each signify the element "two."
Or all the motions that can be made on the right of a man
may stand for " ones," while all the motions that can be
made on his left may stand for " twos."

In a similar manner, if the alphabetic code is of three ele-
ments, each of the elements may be represented by several
things or signs. And so in codes of four or five, or what-

12*

274 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ever number of elements, we may have each signal element
signified by two or three or more signs.

It is not material, of course, what may be the elementary
signs selected. Thus two or three different positions of the
arm of a signalist may each stand for the same element or
symbol in any letter.

Or if flashes are used, different-colored flashes may signify
the same element. Or different sounds may have similar
meanings. Or if flags are used, several different flags may
signify each the same element or symbol. Thus with a
code of three elements ; if there are at hand nine flags, three
different flags may be set aside for each element, and each
of these flags signifies its element whenever shown.

Or with an alphabetic code of six elements, twelve
flags may be used, each element signified by either of two
flags.

The letters for message code-signals for brief codes may
be shown in this way with complications which defy in-
terpretation.

A message can be written to be sent in complicated sig-
nals. Thus, assuming that the ten motions will be for the
ten numerals, always those described for the Code of Ten
Elements, we may write out the symbols of a message
written in a code of two elements in six figures, allowing:
three different figures for each symbol.

If the message is now signalled as it is written, it will ap-
pear in complicated signals, seemingly of six elementary
signs, while to the reader they represent but two.

Messages prepared for codes of three or four or other
numbers of elements may be complicated in the same way.

The correspondent must be informed by preconcerted
rules how many elements it is intended to convey, and how
many and what symbols are to be used in the complication
to represent each element.

The subject of complicating signals has been before

MANUAL OF SKiNALS. 275

briefly mentioned while treating of the different alphabetic
codes. It affords a clue to many curious plans for signa'
and for ciphers.

MESSAGES BY MESSENGERS.

There is record of many ingenious contrivances to send
messages in secret, when it has been impossible for any
reason to prepare a cipher.

An ancient plan was to inwrap a slightly tapering rod
with a long and narrow strip of paper, in such way that the
clues of the strip were in contact throughout its length.
On this paper, in this position, the message was written
from end to end of the rod, and in lines one beneath the
other for its circumference. The receiver was furnished
with a similar rod.

The message being written, the paper was unwrapped
from the rod, and so appeared a strip of paper covered with
fragments of words without apparent connection. It was
so forwarded by messenger. Upon its receipt, the receiver,
carefully wrapping it again upon the rod in his possession,
found the fragmentary words conjoined and bearing a
plainly written message.

Messages written with or without cipher may be con-
cealed for transmission in the common wooden lead-pencil,
it being first opened and hollowed for the purpose, and
then joined as it was originally ; or they may be packed
in hollow canes, from which the handle or ferule easily re?
moves.

They have been packed in bullets, or in brass buttons,
etc.

A safe way is to carry the message or paper on top of the
charge in a loaded pistol or musket ; it is so easily disposed
of in case of surprise or capture.

276 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Papers are sometimes worked in betAveen the leathers of
the soles of boots or shoes, in the linings of clothing, etc.

The devices for this kind of transportation are so numer-
ous that these are given only as specimens of the plans.
There is hardly any article which it is safe to allow a sus-
pected person passing the lines to carry, until it has been
rigorously examined.

CRYPTOGRAMS.

Alphabets may be composed of hieroglyphic characters.
Tims, take any number of marks or figures, however
curious or complicated ; devise an alphabet of one, two,
three, or four elements, as the case may be ; designate a
number of marks or signs to correspond to the number of
the elements, by numbers, as one, two, three, four, or five ;
then compose each letter by drawing and joining together,
from left to right, those marks which stand for the numbers
of the letter combination in the devised alphabet.
The following is an interesting illustration:
It is very likely that the arrow-head, which seems to be
a sign used everywhere by savages in their first attempts at
writing, appeared often and was prominent among the signs
of early hieroglyphs. With the earliest specimens of re-
corded language which have come down to us, and which
have drawn the attention of philologists, are the specimens
known as the cuneiform or arrow-head character. All the
characters of this writing are made up of arrow-heads. It
is stnttd that arrow-head characters are found stamped on
each of the bricks of the tower of Babel. Specimens of tins
character are rare, and to but very few are they intelligible.
None but those savans who have devoted themselves to the
study can either write or read them, and few but profound

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 277

scholars would attempt it. It is a curious experiment, and

one illustrative of the manner in which alphabets are formed,
to show how easily this character can l>e turned to the most
common uses. To form an alphabet of cuneiform charac-
ters, and to write the English language in that character,
is one of the simplest acts.

The arrow-headed or wedge-shaped line is, perhaps, the
plainest mark which one, setting out to devise an alphabet
of characters, can use. It is only a mark broader at one end
than at the other, so that it can be seen in which way it is
pointed. Such a line can be drawn on paper in four ways,
pointing up, pointing down, pointing to the right, pointing
to the left. It can represent four elements. Now, there
can be two sizes of such a line — a large and a small size.
The small wedge or arrow line can also, on paper, point
up, point down, point right, and point left. It can thus
represent four more elements or four symbols. Using,
then, two arrow-heads or wedges, large and small, there can
be represented, drawn on paper, eight distinct elements
or eight symbols. These may be designated the four posi-
tions of the large arrow-head, as one, two, three, four ; the
four positions of the small arrow-head, as five, six, seven,
eight.

Now these large and small arrow-heads, drawn on paper,
are to be used placed together in different combinations to
represent the characters of the English alphabet. To do
this it is only necessary to devise, by the rules for forming
alphabets before given, an alphabet of twenty-six letter-
combinations having eight elements given, and to draw on
paper, placed close together, and properly placed, the arrow-
heads of the proper sizes, Avhich are to stand for each letter.
The total of the combinations which can be made with two
arrow-heads, using the four positions for each, will be more
than are necessary for any alphabet. Or the alphabet-code

278 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

to be devised may be of a less number of elements, as of
one, or two, or three, or four elements. It is not necessary,
then, to use so many positions or so many sizes of the arrow-
heads. It would be needed to join together arrow-heads in
two or three positions only.

In such examples, carefully studied and thoroughly un-
derstood, may be found a key for the preparation of many
hieroglyphic ciphers ; and we realize by them, as it is im-
portant we should, how readily any other characters may
have the same force and meaning as those to which we are
used, and which we have come to regard as if they were the
only forms of letters.

Suppose, as another illustration, that, for a code of two
elements, all straight lines or combinations of straight lines
are to stand for " ones," and all curved lines or combinations
of curved lines for " twos ;" we see how easily any marks or
signs, the most complicated or grotesque, chosen by us, may
indicate the different elements in every letter, antl how illim-
itable is the power of forming hieroglyphic ciphers. To
thus write the English language in arrow-head cipher or
to systematically devise hieroglyphs, is at once a source of
amusement, and is a valuable practice to the signalist, who
may be called upon, at any time, to form a cipher for mili-
tary use.

These modes of devising alphabets on a systematized
plan by numerical elements afford, perhaps, not impossible
illustrations of the modes of making the first alphabetic
characters. It is probable, however, that the characters
representative of sounds were formed with certain elements,
it is true, of necessity, but with those elements conjoined
arbitrarily and without a plan.

It is proposed here to explain two or three only of the
plans for forming cryptographic alphabets, and to leave to
ingenuity to devise the innumerable other forms which may
be given.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 279

Suppose Arrow-heads representing - the figure-symbols
are —

J^ stands for l,y stands for 2, ^- stands for 3, -^ stands
for 4, x stands for 5, Y stands for 6, >- stands for 7, -< stands
for 8.

Then, A is 12, is ^Y J B is 13 > is A>^ 5 C is 14 > is

X-<; D is 22, is YY; Mis 52, is xY; N is 53 > is *>^ 5

Y is 85, is -<A ; and so for the letters of the alphabet.
(See Code of Eight Elements.)
The message, " We move at midnight," is, in

Signal Numbers:
83 23—52 54 82 23—12 73—52 34 22 53 34 32 33 73 ;

Cryptogram :

HX Y^ aY a^ <y Y>- AY ►>

xY x YY a^ >~< ^Y £ >■>■

Or referring: to the General Service Code of two elements
(page 53,) assume that all large arrow-heads, however point-
ing, are "ones;" all small arrow-heads, however pointing,
k -t\vos." Then,

" We move at midnight."

Signal Numbers.
1121 12—1221 21 1222 12—22 2—1221 1 222 11 1 2211 122 2

Cryptogram.

YY-Y A* YfA ^Y Yt Yr "V a
AaaA >- m YA Y SYY At r

280 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Or all straight lines or combinations of straight lines are
" ones ;" all curved lines or combinations of curved lines are
" twos." Then,

" We move at midnight."

Cryptogram.

'56 ^ ^ Z> D - §'

It is needed only to keep the letters and words clearly-
separated, and to show markedly .the distinction betweeu
the straight and curved lines.

With the rules that have already been given for the for-
mation of alphabets, it is plain that messages may be sent as
in bouquets of flowers. If the alphabet to be used was one
of five elements, five kinds of flowers or leaves would be
necessary ; only two of them need be used together to in-
dicate any letter. The buds, leaves, etc., placed together in
sequence in a bouquet, would indicate letters, and thus
words might be formed. Quite a lengthy message might be
sent in one of the large basket-bouquets that are sometimes
seen. So messages may be sent by nails on the shoes of a
messenger, there being two or three different kinds of nails.
Thus small-headed nails to stand for " ones," larger nails for
"twos," still larger for "threes:" the nails driven in rows
across the sole, as if to strengthen it. Or messages may be
sent by pictures and drawings, which he will carry. In
drawing the representations of shingles upon a roof, or in
any drawing of a fence or of a flock of birds, letters indi-
cated by long and short marks, or by different kinds of
marks, may be ingeniously represented. So long messages

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

281

may be sent, the letters being represented by different fig-
ares, in papers which appear to be grocers' or commissary
bills, and which, in the search of a prisoner, would hardly
attract attention. For example:

"Office of A. A. C. S.

" Memorandum of stores issued.

Pork (bbls.) 2551

Beef (rations) 33,531651

Salt (sacks) 1154

Coffee ) , . v 33,424143

Hard-bread J" l ratlons >> 42,223254."

The General Service Homographic Code is assumed as
used. (Page 144.)
• A word is enciphered on each line.

Where two or more lines are connected by brackets, the
figures opposite form one word.

To interpret: Point off the figures by twos; write over
each two the letters indicated.

The message is, " We move at midnight."

Or letters may be sent in ludicrous sketches. Thus let-
ters may be indicated by little figures of men.

For instance, those standing upright with neither feet nor
hands raised to be "ones," those holding up a right arm
to be " twos," those holding up a left arm to be " threes,"
those with right foot raised to be " fours," those with left
foot raised to be " fives," those with both feet raised to be

" sixes."

282 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To interpret : Point off the forms by twos, place under
each the figure for which it stands, ascertain the letters in-
dicated.

The message is, "We move at midnight."

These illustrations are made as suggestive of those which
may be formed. Spaces have been left between the words
to lessen the labor of the reader; these may be omitted in
actual use.

The facts may seem rather curious than useful. They are
given to impress upon the mind of the reader the infinite
varieties of cryptograms he can, with a little practice, have
at his command. (See "Complicating Signals," page 272.)

Among the best disguises of letters is to represent some
one or more of the elements by more than one symbol. For
instance : use six symbols for an alphabetical code of two
elements. Let any three of the symbols represent the first
element, and the remaining three the second element.

Then, 1, 2, 3 are "ones," and 4, 5, 6 are "twos."

Then, "We move at midnight" —

Or, "1121 12—1221 21 1222 12—22 2—1221 1 222 11 1
2211 122 2"—

May be, " 1243 26—3452 63 2456 34—45 6—1642 3 444
32 2 5423 365 4."

Or it maybe, "3263 35—2463 52 2655 35—64 5—3652 2
556 13 3 4532 254 6."

There are many such changes.

Or, still using a code of two elements, let any figures up
to three, or any other figures agreed upon, read as "ones,"
and all other figures read as "twos."

Then the same message may be :

"3293 28—2693 82 3768 25—97 9—2571 2 547 22 3 6523
168 7."

And on such plans the changes can be infinitely extended.

Of course, any other marks or written signs, of any kind,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 283

might be used as symbols instead of figures, and then be com-
bined in this way to stand for the letters of any language.
Alphabets can be formed in this manner, and pages can be
written, in which no letter will appear twice in the same
guise; and indeed it will be impossible for the writer, with-
out some effort, to ever make a letter twice alike.

An illustration of this fact is had in the cryptogram of
straight and curved lines. (Page 280.)

So with colors: as having six or any number of colors.
Let three of the colors represent the " one," and the other
three the "two," as often as any one of them is exhibited.

For illustration : Suppose the colors to be red, green,
yellow, blue, orange, purple. Designate them by initials,
as r, g, y, b, o, p ; then r, g, y are " ones," b, o, p are " twos."

A messao-e might be exhibited in marks of colors, as
follows : The color being substituted in each place for its
initial.

" We move at midnight."

1121 12—1221 21 1222 12—22 2—1221 1 222 11 1
rgby gb yopg br gbop rp op b gopr r pob gr y

2211 122 2.

pbrg ybo p.

Or it might be written in many different arrangements
of these color marks, — all representing, however, the same
symbols, "one" and "two," and in the same arrangement.

Ciphers of these kinds are safe, and sometimes valu-
able for military uses. As an example of another mode
of writing, let it be supposed that it was agreed that an
alphabet should be constructed to be of live elements; that
the first might be represented by any one of five letters of
the alphabet; the second by any one of other five letters
of the alphabet; the third by any one of other five let-

284 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ters ; the fourth by any one of other five letters ; the fifth
by any one of other five letters. The end of a word to
be indicated by a blotted letter, or by a flourish, or by an
imperfect letter, or by any one of a hundred signs ingenuity
would devise. It would be very difficult to translate a mes-
sage formed in this manner.

For illustration, the message, "Fleet sails to-morrow."
Give to the alphabet the enumeration of a code of five ele-
ments. (See alphabet of five elements.) Form a table thus :

1 is a f k pu v — read thus, " 1" is a, or f, or k, or p, or
u, or v.

2 is b g 1 q w — read thus, " 2" is b, or g, or 1, or q, or w.

3 is c h m r x — read thus, " 3" is c, or h, or m, or r, or x.

4 is d i n s y — read thus, " 4" is d, or i, or n, or s, or y.

5 is e j o t z — read thus, " 5" is e, or j, or o, or t, or z.
Now, F is " 12," is say "fb." It might be aq, or kl, or

any conjunction of any of the five letters standing for " 1"
with any of the five letters standing for " 2."

L is " 23," is say " qm." It might be any conjunction of
the letters standing for " 2" and " 3."

E is "51," is say " ta," or any conjunction of the letters
for "5" and "1."

E is "51," is say " zp" — differing from the preceding "E."

T is "54," is say " ey," or other conjunction of letters " 5"
and "4."

Thus for the word " Fleet" we write " Fbqmtazpey."
Continuing thus we find the whole message may be written
" Fbqmtazpey nyapnggrdi jiemcrzxcimnjcbo" — Fleet sails
to-morrow. To decipher: As each letter is known to be
here represented by two letters, we point off this cipher by
twos, and referring to the table we find :

" fb" is " 12" is F, " qm" is " 23" is " 1," and so on.

It will be observed that following this plan the same
words, though often written in the cipher, might never
twice appear in the same guise.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

28;

The following is an interesting cryptogram, but lias the
disadvantage that, as the characters do not change in the

same message, it is decipherable. It is given for the reason
that it may be sometimes encountered.

The letters of the alphabet are represented by the figures
as given in the plan :

a b c
12 3

def
12 3

g h i

1 2 3

m n o
1 2 3

pqr
1 2 3

s t u
12 3

V wx

1 2 3

y z

1 2

It will be seen that there are three figures in each space,
except the last, in which are two. There is thus a figure
for each letter to be represented.

Then the first three letters of the alphabet— first, second,
and third, A, B, C — are represented" respectively by the
three figures in the first space of the form ; or, as they would
be written, A is 1 |, B is 2 |, C is 3j. The second three let-
ters of the alphabet, D, E, F, are represented by the three
figures in the second space of the form ; or, as they would
be written, D is 1 1 1, E is [2_|, F is [3j. The third three
letters of the alphabet, G, H, I, are represented by the
figures in the third space of the form, as G is jj. , H is [2 ,
I is ] 3 ; and so on for all the rest, the letters of the alpha-
bet, in their usual sequence, being set off by threes, and
each letter of each three being represented by one of the
figures found in the corresponding numbered compartment
of the form, and exhibited in an outline similar to the out-
line of that compartment of the form in which it is found.
Thus :

" We move at midnight" —

2||2| |1||3||1||2| 1| 2| |1| |3 |1||2| | 3 |J_ \2_ 2

286 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The figures need not necessarily be 1,2, 3, etc., in the
usual sequence in each compartment. The numeral digits
might be used, as 1, 2, 3, in the first compartment; 4, 5, 0,
in the second ; 7, 8, 9, in the third: commencing anew, 1,
2, 3, in the fourth ; 4, 5, 6, in the fifth, and thus on. In
such case D would be | 4 |, E | 5 |, etc. Or it might be con-
certed that the letters of the alphabet were not to follow
each other in the usual sequence, but in some other order.

The cipher is capable of many changes.

SIGNALLING IN" CIPHER.

If signals are to be displayed in the presence of an enemy,
they must be guarded by ciphers. The ciphers must> be
capable of frequent Changes. The rules by which these
changes are made must be simple. Ciphers are undiscov-
erable in proportion as their changes are frequent, and as
the messages in each change are brief. When alphabet
ciphers are used, the aim should be never to allow any letter
to appear twice alike. The number of letters under each key
is to be as small as possible. The terminations of words are
to be concealed. The letters in each word ouo-ht to be
made in unusual sequence. For this purpose a message to
be enciphered may be wholly reversed — that is, written
with the last word appearing first. Each word may also
be reversed. It does not do away with the utility of ciphers
that they may be sometimes deciphered, for we must often
use them, conscious that, with sufficient time and the ap-
pliances, they can be interpreted; but knowing, also, that
the time interpretation will require will render the message
useless to an enemy.

PLATE XXVI.

Figure 1 .

Figure 2.

Two Discs.

Vertical Section
Figure 3.

Two Discs.

""'''" . ■— ''"^n

Figure 4.

Plan for Service Discs.

Figure 5.

Vertical Section exhibiting plan tor four Discs

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 287

Simple devices have rendered it practicable to so exhibit
signals that their interpretation becomes almost impossible.
The entire code may change with every day, with every
message, or with every word of every message.

The Signal Disk is as follows:

description of Signed Dish: — On a small disk of card-
board, or other material (Plate XXVI, Fig. 1), are written
or printed the letters of the alphabet in irregular sequence
and arranged around the circumference of the disk. These
letters are so placed that when the disk is properly held, all
the letters are upright. On this small disk are also printed
those combinations of letters which frequently occur in
words, as "tion," "ing," "ous," etc., etc., and a sign to
mark " the end of a word." On a larger disk are written or
printed, arranged around its circumference in the same
manner, either the letters of the alphabet or the symbolic
numbers of signals which are to be used.

The disks are fastened concentrically together in such
manner that one may revolve upon the other, and that they
may be clamped in any position. They are of such sizes
that when so fastened, the letters, etc., upon the inner disk,
will each appear close to and directly opposite one of the
signal combinations upon the outer disk. (See Plate XXVI,
Fig. 1.)

The figures " 1" and " 8" are sometimes used instead of
the figures " 1" and "2," to symbolize the elements "one"
and " two," because the figure " 8" is upright in most posi-
tions of the disk.

Having a disk arranged and clamped as at Fig. 1, Plate
XXVI, it will be clearly understood by any signalist that, so
provided, he has before him an alphabetic code with every
letter opposite its signal symbols. And he will comprehend
that, by referring to the disk, he can transmit a message
without the study of any particular code, and can transmit

238 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

it in secret signals or cipher by moving the disks upon each
other, and so making changes in the code.

Thus, to make "A," the combination "112," "one, one,
two," is signalled; to make " C," the combination " 1221,"
" one, two, two, one," is signalled ; to make " T," the com-
bination "211," "two, one, one," is signalled; to make
"ing," the combination "2112," " two, one, one, two," is
signalled. And there is so signalled the word " Acting."
To denote the end of the word, the common " pause-signal,"
" 3" " three," may be used, or whatever combination may
be in the compartment opposite the character for " end
of word." This is arranged by preconcert, and so for
any words. Clauses, etc., are made by repetitions of the
pause-signal. Now, it is evident that with any change of
the relative positions of the disks made, as by rotating one
upon the other, the whole code of alphabetic signals is
changed. Thus, suppose the inner disk rotated until the
letter " A" is opposite the combination " 1112," "one, one,
one, two." Then referring to the same Plate, to signal the
word "Acting:" "A" is "1112;" " C" is "2121," " T" is
"22," "ing" is " 2212." The signals do not in anyway
resemble those before exhibited for the same word. The
signal for the " end of word" will also be different, These
changes can be indefinitely varied. It is for making them
that the disks are movable.

Where different parties, as the officers of a corps or of an
army, are to be in communication, rules for the changing of
the disks issued to all enable each to use them whenever the
officers are in view of each other ; each finding that his
cipher will then correspond witli that of the officer with
whom he is signalling. And this may be, though the sig-
nalists have never met, and may be serving with detach-
ments which have these communications with each other
for the first time.

The following is an example of a General Rule for the use

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 289

of Signal Disks. The signal disk is supposed to be ar-
ranged for a code of two elements. The communicating
parties have disks similar, and like Fig. 1, Plate XXVI.

RULES AND EXPLAXATIOXS FOR THE USE OF

SIGNAL DISKS.

I. — Explanation of the Signal Disk.

The numerals on the outer rim of the disk represent the
combinations to be made with a flag or torch. Each com-
bination represents, when made, that letter on the inner disk
which coincides with it.

II. — To make Signals.

The signals, for whatever code signals may be represented
by the symbols upon the outer disks, are made according to
the rules heretofore given while treating of the different
codes.

III. — The Adjustment Letter.

The adjustment-letter is any letter selected on the inner
disk, which, placed opposite a given combination or key-
letter, on the outer disk, adjusts the disks for the cipher,
and is the key to any communication sent in that particular
cipher.

The letter R is understood to be the adjustment-letter, if
no other letter is given.

The combination to be used with the adjustment-letter is
called the key-number.

The adjustmentdetter and the signal combination being
given, the inner disk will be turned so that the letter will

290 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

coincide with the combination. Example : The combination
is •' 1212," adjustment-letter R — the inner disk will be turned
so that R will coincide with " 1212." Any letter may be the
adjustment-letter. Any signal combination may be chosen
for the key-number.

Example: the signal " 1121— 3— 1122— 333," would in-
dicate that " W" was the adjustment-letter and " 1122" the
cipher combination. The disk would in that case be ar-
ranged as follows: " W" would be brought to coincide with
"1122,"

IV. — To Send a Message in Cipher.

Station "A" calls station " B," and gets " B's" acknowledg-
ment. "A" gives "B" the cipher combination in which he
intends to send the message. Example: "A" gives "B"
"2122 (right, left, right, right), 333 ;" " B" answers by re-
peating "22.22.22.3, — 2122 333 ;" which indicates to "A"
that " B" has got the correct cipher. "A" and " B" adjust
their disks as follows : each turns the inner disk so that the
letter R will coincide with the combination " 2122" in the
outer disk. (See Plate XXVI, Fig. 1.)

The disks of both parties are now alike, and the message
commences.

To signal the word "Pickets" in the foregoing cipher,
station A would make "221 11 1221 2211 1212 211
122, 3," = Pickets. If "W" was the adjustment-letter and
" 1122" the cipher combination, then " W" would coinchle
with " 1122," and the word "Pickets" would be represented
by " 122 1211 212 2 2222 112 2111, 3," ^Pickets.

V. — To CWnge the Cipher wnEN Sending a Message.

Officers sending a message of an important nature from a
point that is supposed to be watched by the enemy, will
change the cipher while sending the message.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 291

The change of the cipher combinations will be made at the
close of a sentence or of a word.

Example: Suppose the first pari of a message is sent with
"D" for the adjustment-letter, and adjusted at L12forthe
cipher combination. At the dose of the first sentence, the
officer sending will make the signal "33 — 12 L- — 33," which
will indicate, to the officer receiving the message, that the
cipher is to be changed from "112" to u 121 ;" each officer
will adjust his disk, that is. he turns the inner disk, so that
the letter "D" will coincide with " 121" instead of k ' 112"
as before.

The officer receiving the message will acknnwledge that
his disk is readjusted by making "121, 333." The officer
sending: the messasre will now continue the message in the
new cipher.

Any number of changes can be made in the same
manner.

VI. — IiECOKO.

The officer receiving the message will have another officer
oi' an enlisted man to write down the combinations as they
are received, each being called off in its turn by the person at
the glass. At the close of the message the officer will take
his disk and decipher or translate the combinations thus
written, acknowledging the receipt of the message in the
usual manner.

It will be understood how different parties, aware that
they have similar disks and furnished with such rules, may
telegraph in cipher and change the cipher frequently in
every message upon their iirst meeting. The instructions
given are of a general character. There should be, ill addi-
tion, especial instruction of a confidential nature.

There are certain preconcerted plans for arranging or
using the disks in a particular manner. These may issue
from a central office, and should be committed to memory

292 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

by those entitled to receive them, so that, in case of capture,
no information will fall into the hands of the enemy.

In the presence of an enemy, where changes of cipher
must be constant, the senior signal-officer should issue confi-
dential instructions by which a cipher, peculiar to his party,
is to be used and changed. When stations are much
exposed and of great importance, an especial cipher, intel-
ligible to the officers upon those stations only, may be issued
to them.

Skilled signalists can, at any time, concert for their own
use a cipher which will be uninterpretable by others.

The Roman characters may be used for numerals with the
cipher disk. They are to be preceded and followed by
signals for " numerals follow" and " numerals ended."

Disks intended to be used exclusively as cipher disks
should have upon the inner disk a character for "end of a
word," with a corresponding symbol upon the outer disk.
(Plate XXVI, Fig. 4.)

A message sent in cipher with such a disk shows no clue
for the beginning or end of words. The apparent termina-
tions made when the signal " three" is shown for a letter,
only mislead the interpreter.

A plan for a General Service Disk is as illustrated in Plate
XXVI, Fig. 4. It consists of one interior and one exterior
disk ; the interior bearing upon it letters, etc., and the exte-
rior prepared with rows of signal-symbols — one of a code of
two elements, one of a code of three elements, and one of a
code often elements. An additional row of letters may be
printed upon the outer disk, to permit a message to be
readily enciphered in letters instead of signals, when that
is desirable.

Using this disk, messages can be sent enciphered by any
plan of signals which has been described in these notes. Or
they can be written out to be sent by mail, or messenger, or
by electric telegraph.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 293

Disks can be used with frequent changes of adjustment-
letters, as described in General Rules. Or preferably by the
plan of countersign-words or countersign-figures.

They can be modified in any of the modes hereafter de-
scribed, to add to the safety of the cipher.

Countersign-words.

The use of countersign-words is a method for securing
secret communication. In a Manual prepared for general
circulation, the modes reserved for confidential instruc-
tions cannot be given. The following are sufficient for
illustration, and for general uses.

Countersign-words are key-words by which changes of
adjustment are so regulated as to be made by rule, the
countersign-word rendering it possible to remember numer-
ous changes, and to preconcert that similar changes be
made at similar times, by similar rules, by a number of
signalists.

Countersigns may consist of one word or of several, as
" Baltimore," or " Germanic hosts." The fewer repetitions
of any letter in a countersign the better. When countersign-
words are used, each letter of the countersign becomes, in
its turn, the adjustment-letter. The changes, from letter to
letter, are indicated by preconcerted signals. The key-
number, to which the first adjustment is made, is either
prearranged or it is conveyed by secret signals.

Cipher Disks can be made for practice, and ought to be
used by the student to verify the illustrations which follow.
The disks are to be cut from writing-paper or thin card-
board ; they are concentrically fastened together with a
pin, or any simple pivot, and bear copied upon them the
letters, characters, and division lines as given in Plates
XXVI and XXVII.

Messages to be sent in cipher may be reduced to writing
in cipher before they are transmitted.

294 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Enciphered messages are sometimes reversed. The last
letter of the last word is in this case signalled first, and is
followed by the other letters of the word, and the other
words in this reversed succession :

Thus the sentence,

" Do not come here,"

Signalled reversed would read,

"ereh emoc ton od."

Or the words may he written and reversed in clauses, as
by twos, by threes, or other number together at will.

So, " Do not — come here,"

would be, "Ton od— ereh emoc."

This simple device adds much to the labors of a deci-
pherer, and does away with any clue from context.

When a message is to be written enciphered,- it is first
written out in full. If it is to be enciphered by clauses of
two or more words each, it is then so divided. The letters
of the countersign-words are then written letter by letter
over each word or each clause. The message is then en-
ciphered by reference to the disk, adjusting the letters over
each word or clause in turn to the key-number or key-
letter.

If the message is to be inverted, either as a whole or by
clauses, it is so inverted before the countersign-letters are
written over it.

When a message is to be enciphered, the correct letters,
etc., are sought on the inner disk, the cipher-letters or sym-
bols are opposite and coincident upon the outer disk.

When a message is received in cipher, it is determined,
first, whether it is inverted; then, whether it is divided by
words or clauses. These facts will be known by the pre-
concert and by the record. The letters of the countersign-
words are then written over the words or the clauses, and the
message is interpreted by reference to the disk adjusting the
letters written over each word or clause to the key-number

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 295

in turn. When the message as received is continuous and
without division into words or clauses, the interpretation is
commenced by adjusting the firsl letter of the countersign-
word to the key-number; the first "end of word" signal then
ibnml in the message will indicate the first change of cipher
— i. e., the second letter of the countersign-word is then to
be brought to the key-number; and so for each change in
succession.

When a message is to be deciphered, the cipher-letters or
symbols are found upon the outer disk; the correct letters,
etc.. are opposite and coincident upon the inner disk.

The same rules apply when a message is to be enciphered
in or deciphered from signal- numbers.

In the examples which follow, the messages are enci-
phered in letters. This mode is the more convenient, and
best illustrates the changes and the safety of the cipher.

Such examples assume that the enemy know what signals
signify each letter of the alphabet. The message remains
incomprehensible. The reader will comprehend that the
signal-numbers could have been given, changing in each
cipher-change, instead of the changing letters here exhibited.

The cipher-disk can be used with cou ntersign- words : the
" panse-signal" being used to indicate the times at which the
cipher is to change. The "countersign-words" may consist
of either one word or several, as "Mohican" or"Albon
City."

If the countersign "Mohican" is to be used, the key-
number of the disk being, say " 11," then at the commence-
ment of the message the letter " M" would be at "11 ;" the
first two words of the message would be signalled with this
key, a Combination-signal being used as the "end of word"
signal to indicate the pause or space between the words.
At the end of the second word the "front" signal being
made, indicates at once the end of the second word and
change-cipher. The second letter of the countersign-word,

296 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the letter " o" on the disk, is brought to the key-number
" 11." The next two words, the third and fourth words of
the message, are signalled in this cipher. Another " front"
is then made ; the letter " h" is to be brought as the ad-
justment-letter to the key-number — in which are sent the
fifth and sixth words of the message, and thus to the com-
pletion. In the record of a message so sent, a dash marks
each change of the cipher. The countersign-word, known
to the decipherer, furnishes the clue for the interpretation.
In emergencies, a skilful person in charge of the disk deci-
phers the message letter by letter as it is received by signal.
For example, the words of the message,

m o h i c

" The enemy | have crossed | the river. ] Send a | cavalry
a n

force | to their | rear,"

are set off by twos as here given, and the countersign-
letters are written over each clause. Disk as at Plate
XXVI, Fig. 2. Countersign " Mohican."

Key-number " 122," or key-letter "N."

The message is signalled,

" Fiv gvevnh grpingzusnddingk ningk qnfocezfe. udr —
tfeqnjdjitexfmtnz ingijingtionrwp lqfl."

If the message had been invei'ted, the countersign-letters
would have been written over the clauses, commencing " m"
over the last clause, thus :

n a c i h

" The enemy | have crossed | the river. | Send a | cavalry
o m

force | to their | rear."

The last letter of the message would be signalled first, and
followed by the other letters and words in reversed suc-
cession, thus :

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 297

"Ztvz s&inggezne fsctmo-cpvzvs q&-rdu tzdstxzhc
urqqipajr — ntion pingqnqwqrd."

If the end of every word is marked by a signal combina-
tion, the clauses may terminate and the cipher change some-
times in the middle of a word, the pause-signal signifying
the change.

A combination signal should never be used for the end
of a word, unless with precautions similar to those above
described; for occurring so frequently in each message, it
will afford the enemy, if by chance a cipher-disk happens to
be in his possession, the key by which to adjust it.

If a cipher-disk has upon it codes of different elements,
as, for instance, codes of two, three, and ten elements, then
messages mav be sent with the sfeneral rules ; but the letter-
signals chan^imj from those of one code to those of a code
of different elements at a certain signal, thus working with
a code of two elements by flag motions, the letter "A" may
appear in one word as "two-two" — "22," while in the next
word, the change-signal being given, it may appear as " three
three" — " 33." The changes from code to code are indicated
thus : " 33—2—33" "Use code of two elements ;" " 33—3—
33" " use code of three elements," and so on. Working with
signals by positions and motions, as with disks, numerous
codes may be thus used in the same message. Thus " 33—
5-33" means "Use code of five elements;" "33—7—33,"
" Use code of seven elements." The record carefully kept,
and noting each change, will give the clue to the interpre-
tation.

13*

298 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ENCIPHERING CERTAIN WORDS ONLY OF A

MESSAGE.

It is one plan of cipher to place certain words only of the
message in cipher characters — the other words are trans-
mitted as written. Thus with a cipher-disk and a certain
adjustment-letter or countersign-word, the key-letter being
given, the message maybe signalled with all the nouns and
leading verbs in cipher, or with such words in cipher as
will cover all clue to the meaning f the message. The
ciphered words, if few in number and with few recurring
letters, may be signalled with one adjustment of the disk.

If the ciphered words are numerous, it is well to change
the adjustment-letter for each, or a countersign-word may
be used. In this case the first ciphered word is transmitted
with the disk adjusted by the first letter of the counter-
sign, the second word the disk adjusted by the second let-
ter of the countersign, and so on. When the countersign-
word has been once used, the next cipher word commences
with the disk again adjusted by the first letter of the cotin-
.tersiom, and so on. The signal "the following word is in
cipher" may be made by three circular waves of the flag
from left to right, or by other agreed signal. If more than
one word is enciphered, this signal should be made both
before and after the words. In cases where this signal is
omitted, the fact that the ciphered words alone are unintel-
ligible will indicate to the receiver that he must refer for
them to his key and cipher. This plan has the advantage,
that the ciphers are so short that rules for deciphering will
not apply.

If two or more words are employed together, signal com-
binations appearing on the Disk and meaning "end of
word 11 being used instead of the usual intervals between the
words, to show where each word is ended, there is no clue

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 299

to the number of letters in any word, and it becomes yet
more difficult to correctly interpret the message.

For example, the message:

"Troops cannol be spared to re-enforce you to-morrow,''
enciphered with disk (Fig. 2, Plate XXVI), the first and
second letters of the message, "T" and "IS," being taken
respectively as the "adjustment-letter" and the "key-letter,"
reads :

"Troops xiwwermgnmfji — na to reenforce you to-mor-
row."

In the methods of cipher before described, the division of
the message into words or into clauses of greater or less
length affords a possible aid to the interpreter. A more
difficult cipher is this: the disks are prepared as usual. It
is understood that the "front" signal is no longer to indi-
cate a pause or clause, but that it, like any other signal, is
to represent a letter as often as a letter on the interior disk
has this signal coincident with it upon the exterior disk.

Any combination may stand for the end of a word.

A countersign-word or sentence i> concerted.

The disk is adjusted at particular letters by preconcert.

The transmission is commenced by signalling the first
letters of the message with the first letter of the counter-
sign-words at the key-letter. When the combination signal
— which, with the disks at this adjustment, stands for "end
of a word" — is made, it indicates at once the end of a word,
and is the signal to change the adjustment of the disks;
and the second letter of the countersign-word is brought
to the kev-letter — the signalling proceeding without any
marked pause ; the next following letters are sent with this
key until that signal, which with this adjustment stands
for "end of a word," is made, when the adjustment is again
changed and the third letter of the countersign-word is

300 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

brought to the key-letter — and thus on, the adjustment
changing at each combination standing for " end of a word,"
until all the letters of the countersio-n-words have been
used ; when for the next adjustment the first letter of the
countersign-word is again used, repeating the process as
before.

The result of this management is, that the message is sig-
nalled with the letter-sisrnals chano-inor wholly in each word
and without clue to the beginning or end of any word, the
record presenting from the beginning to the end a continu-
ous line of combinations or of letters. The decipherer is so
deprived of almost every clue upon which experts rely for
their interpretations.

The record is still further complicated for the interpreter,
by the fact that the signal "front" generally indicates the
"end of a word."

And on the record there may be many " fronts" or " threes."
If the message is divided into words by these signals, it is
confused.

For example, the message :

" Gen. TJ. S. Grant :

" Allatoona is closely invested, but will hold out until
you can relieve it.

J. F. Corse, Maj.-Gen."

So enciphered, Disk as Fig. 2, Plate XXYI, Baltimore
being countersign-word, key-letter E reads — ■

Bait i mo

Gen-TJ-S-Gr ant- Allatoona -is- closely
k q n w a 1 w y v s r tion e z v p p v q 1 1 i v o n u & x y e f n y k

r e B a 1 t

- i n v est e d -but-will-h o 1 d-out- u n
m x a ins h z 3 h tion f&xicoissww ing kx 1 1 r z y y tion

B*5

:i;.;:,

1 1

-ex

c ' li

-oi r.

■a

@ q

ill

U" 1

or.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 301

i m o r e B a

ti 1-you-can-rel ieve-it-J-F-Co rse-
e & a z 3 t h o h q r & 3 n y o n h urn x 3 f q c j w y ing h v i 1
1 t

m a j -g e n
hmgyv ing tion

If in addition to this the message is transmitted inverted,
commencing the transmission with the last letter of the last
word, and so with each in turn until the first letter of the
first word is reached — the complication is greater.

A mode of using the cipher-disk similar in effect to the
employment of the countersign-word is to have instead an
agreed number, or rather combination of numbers ; as, for
instance, "246 7."

An adjustment-letter is selected. This letter is adjusted
to any agreed key-number upon the outer disk.

The first word or clause of the message is then transmitted
in this cipher. At the signal "front," the adjustment-letter
on the disk is moved forward two spaces. The next word
or clause is transmitted in this cipher. On the signal front
the adjustment-letter is moved forward four spaces; and
the next clause is so transmitted : for the next change of
cipher the adjustment-letter is moved forward six spaces,
and for the next in like manner moved seven spaces. The
number "2467" is now exhausted, and for the next change
the adjustment-letter moves forward again but two spaces,
the distance indicated by the first numeral of the combina-
tion ; for the next change the adjustment-letter moves again
four spaces; and so on by repetitions.

Plate XXVII, Fig. 1, affords an illustration of a signal-
disk prepared for cryptographic writing. Each letter on.
the inner disk is represented by either of two or more coin-
cident with it upon the outer disk.

In this case the letters of the Roman and Greek alphabets
have been used with one or two added signs.

302 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To illustrate with a disk fashioned as above, encipher the
words :

hone
" Have not— Have not — Have not — Have not

s t h o

Have not — Have not — Have not — Have not."

Assume a countersign-word, as "Honest." Adjust H
to o.

The countersign-letters are written over the words as
above.

The cipher reads :

ozqn 7#b — </>ei/m Sod— fnfy nzg
pTi-Tr oflf — q a sp ojd— a i«7 j v7T —
7rzov Ihy — vr'xv drr'i.

The spaces between the words are left blank in this cryp-
togram, to enable the reader to trace each letter. It can,
of course, be complicated by using a sign for the " end of
word," and this sign would change for each word.

A more simple cryptogram is made by using the letters
of the English alphabet only, as at Plate XXVII, Fig. 2.

Then countersign and adjustment being as above, the
cipher reads ;

oti y gij— z psh foo— pycj ote— Igno vop— ivdl mdf— vowg

dlio.

In this, as in the preceding case, the spaces at the ends of
words are left blank. If more repetitions of the same words
were to follow, with no letter twice alike, a longer counter-
sign would be necessary. For forming cryptograms of this
style, any signs can be used and any number of them placed
in each compartment of the exterior disk, and so made co-
incident with any letter upon the interior disk. Thus the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 303

spaces upon the exterior may inclose cuneiform characters,
or Greek or Hebrew letters, or any character or sisns in-
genuity can devise.

Disks of this kind can be easily made : the forms cut from
writing-paper. They can be lettered at the option of those
who are to use them.

This style of cryptogram may thus be useful to officers
whose communications must be confidential, and who — each
provided with a disk, an agreed countersign, and key-letter
— can communicate in a cipher not likely to be interpreted.

The changes to be had with cipher-disks by changing the
sequences of the letters of the alphabets; by changing the
sequences of the signal-symbols ; by changes of adjustment ;
by changes of structure and of plans for use, are infinite.

Changes by Adjustment are all those changes which can
be had by using the different letters of the alphabet as ad-
justment-letters, and by adjusting them to correspond with
different signal-symbols or key-numbers.

A principal way of effecting changes by countersign-words
has been described.

Countersign-words may be of every variety. A sentence
of long words is sometimes chosen as a countersign. Any
words which can be remembered can be strung together for
this purpose.

A number of countersigns may be prearranged and num-
bered, and it may be concerted that certain countersigns
shall be used on certain days of a month, or of a week, or
there may be a number of countersigns noted by numbers ;
and the preconcert that a certain countersign shall be used
with the first message; a different countersign with the
second; still another with the third ; and thus on.

When countersigns are prearranged by certain rules, and
General Service Disks are distributed to the different posts
and to certain officers of a command, a secret correspondence
in writing can be had with any post on any day, or com-

304 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

munication can be had to or from any post in view by secret
signals.

A disk without the countersign, or a countersign without
the disk, is useless in the hands of an enemy.

Stations being provided with similar disks, countersigns
may be signalled from station to station if there be no other
alternative. This must be with precaution. Thus it may be
understood that the first name of a person signalled in any
message, between two parties wishing to establish a counter-
sign, shall be the countersign. This clue had, another coun-
tersign can be established.

The characters upon the inner disk may vary. They may
be more numerous than in the illustrations given. (Plates
XXVI and XXVII.) There may be, in addition to the
alphabet, characters for "periods," "commas," "message
is addressed," " message is signed," " numerals follow,"
"numerals ended," etc., etc., and for numerous combina-
tions of letters, as ed, ous, ly, tive, the, etc., etc., and the
double letters, as mm, 11, etc. For each of these an additional
signal-symbol must be arranged to correspond upon the
outer disk. There can be thirty signal-symbols of two ele-
ments, using up to those of four places. There are eighty-one
signal-symbols of three elements, using up to those of four
places. The number of symbols increases as those of greater
numbers of elements are used. The disks must be kept of
convenient size. Each additional character and symbol
adds to the safety of the cipher.

There may be several rows of signal-symbols of differing
numbers of elements upon the outer disk ; as Plate XXVI,
Fig. 4.

,The example is of two, three, and ten elements; there
might be additional rows. This example will enable it to
be understood how several distinct signals may each of them
stand for the same letter; or how, by similar plans, several
distinct signs or characters may be made to represent the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 305

same letter in a cryptogram. With but three rows, as here
given, each letter, etc., upon the inner disk can be signified
by nearly one hundred different signals ; or, in a crypto-
gram, it could be written with nearly a hundred different
characters.

Supposing the letters, etc., on the inner disk to be thirty
in number, and nine rows of symbols on the outer disk, each
letter could be represented in two hundred and seventy
different ways. Some instances of this kind are already
illustrated.

There may be several disks concentrically joined. Thus
there bein^ furnished a larjre number of inner disks, made
of thin cardboard, and each having printed upon it the
alphabets, etc., but with a different sequence of the letters
on each card, a number of these are clamped together, one
on top of the other, in the place of a single inner disk.
(Plate XXVII, Fig. 3.) These inner disks have numbers
stamped upon them, and they are known as numbers " one,"
k - two," "three," etc., counting from above. If, now, it is
at any time desired to change the sequence of the alphabet,
a signal is made — " disk three," " disk nine," etc., as the
ease may be. Disk " three" or disk " nine" is then brought
to be uppermost, and the signalling proceeds under the
same rules of working as before. A copy of any disk is
thus useless in the hands of an enemy.

Or it may be arranged that a certain numbered interior
disk shall be used on each day of the week or of the month,
and that the interior disk shall change thus every day.
Thus, with seven interior disks, it may be arranged that
number one shall be used on Sunday ; number two on Mon-
day ; and so for the succeeding days of the week.

There may be also several exterior disks ; and then it can

308 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be preconcerted to wholly change the disks as often as is
desirable. (Plate XXVII, Fig. 3.)

The number of changes that can be had in this manner are
all those that can be had by all the changes of sequence that
can be made with all the characters that may be used upon
the interior disk, added to all those that can be made with
all the symbols that may be used upon the exterior disks.
They are some millions.

The signal-disks may thus be used with an endless variety
of structure and application. The modes here given are
perhaps sufficient for illustration.

The possible utility of the device will be realized when it
is considered that in the hands of any signalist it affords
him at once the means to communicate in codes he may have
never learned, and the modes to guard his communications
from detection. With disks, on which are printed different
codes with brief instructions as to the use of the disk, there
are furnished, in a simple form, all needed rules and appa-
ratus for forming codes of signals and for making them
secret, — a compend of the principles and practice of tele-
graphic signalling and of cipher.

Every signal-officer, and indeed every well-educated
officer of the Army and Navy, ought to have such informa-
tion as will enable him to use the signal-disks. A few days'
study will render this practicable.

When we reflect how skilfully a message may be con-
cealed in written cipher; and again, that that message sig-
nalled is yet further concealed, for the reason that even the
letters of the copy can be then arrived at by the signalist
only who receives them and who posesses the key to
the disks : when we remember how varied the meanings
of the signals may be; that different disks may be used at
different times; that different key-words and different ad-
justments may be used for different messages; that almost
every aid by which interpreters are taught to trace may be

M WXAL OF SIGNALS. 307

taken away; and that at last a ni.is^ of Letters may be so
thrown into the hands of the observer that he may arrange
them into whatever divisions liis fancy dictates without
any clue to their correct arrangement: — the chances of
interpretation appear so small as to give the assurance of
safety.

The instructor and the pupil must remember that, in this
branch of signalling, the highest skill comes only with per-
se; ering practice.

A single Cipher Disk made of brass, and having the let-
tors separately detachable, in order that their sequence may
be at option altered, has been prepared by Mr. J. \Yyatt
Beid, of New York.

Mr. Reid was one of the first to thus illustrate the ease
with which the sequences of the alphabetic letters might be
changed, and the importance of such changes.

Greater convenience and safer results are, however, had
by the use of the disks, movable upon each other, as has
been heretofore described.

A very ingenious and valuable plan of cipher has been
devised by Sergeant Edwin II. Hawley, of the Signal C< >rps.
The apparatus consists of twenty-six long and narrow tablets
fastened together at one end, arranged as the tablets or
strips of some kinds of wooden fans. On each tablet is
inscribed an alphabet and the numeral signals for its letters,
and the combinations of letters generally used. The alpha-
bets are so arranged that the alphabet on the first strip
commences with the letter A anil its signal at the top of the
strip ; the letter B and its signal are at the top of the second
strip, and so on. In enciphering a message, a countersign-
word being given, the alphabets and signals upon these

308 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

tablets are used, each being taken in such sequences as are
indicated by the letters of the countersign-words.

For illustration : Suppose the countersign-word to be Act,
the word to be enciphered, Board ; then the numeral signal
for the letter B is sought on the tablet commencing with A,
the signal for O is sought on the tablet commencing with C,
the signal for A on the tablet commencing with T. The key-
word, act — a-c-t — has now been once used ; so, for the signal
for the letter R, we return to the tablet commencing with
A, and the signal for D is sought on the tablet commen-
cing with C. The signal to indicate the close of a word is
sought on the tablet T. The signal for the first letter of
the next word is found on the tablet A ; and so by repeti-
tions of the process the message is completed.

The resulting message presents no distinguishing marks
by which the end of address or ends of words can be de-
tected, and no character need be twice presented by the
same signal. This apparatus is compact, the plans for
working it are easily understood, and it affords a simple and
very effective cipher. (Plate XXVII, Fig. 5.)

An ingenious arrangement has been proposed by Private
John C. Anton, of the Signal Corps. The alphabets, with
the numerals and whatever abbreviations are to be used, are
inscribed upon a single card. (See page 309.)

The description of this card or disk, and the manner of
usino- it, are (riven in the language of the inventor:

" The disk should be made of enduring material, either
tin or leather: the latter is, I think, the best, because it is
light and pliable, and if put between the leaves of a book it
bends easy with the book.

" The first horizontal column of the disk shows the signal-
numbers: the alphabets below it should be separated from it

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

309

i 1 -

<\< ~ = -1

1 5

q| |o "/. - -r-

<\ | >c M - r.

31 mi id! Itn =

XI |»| Ml Ml Ml

^IMIMIM ■-

CO
00

c;
~ 1'

«l I -3| IN IC ~

II |d| Ml M -

111

ISl

881
US
818
J8S
8SS
llll
8111
1811
8811
1181
1-1
— 1

80|90

fter
A

si Ml Ml M ^

tll^lflM «l

2 100

MINJliM 51

► 1 Ml III Mi Ml

5- "5.

Wl Ml | 1 | M fi

6| | f 1 1 1>| | <! | s.

Ol 111 Ml 131 Ml

B| III Ml IX -

•m

•^1 1 1 1 1 Ol M. -

=1 Ml Ml III 13!

«| Ml |o| 11 1 m

cr
a

00s

M 1 ol 1 SI 1 1 1 Ml

~ w| Ml | 1 | Ml

i 1 008

E 1 out*

rl Ml Ml l>!

ins

Ml-
1818

8S18
IISS

Ms>
ISSb

gj |Q| |*| |W| |f |

OUS

z| Ml Ml Ml 1 1 1

(M '9

o| Ml Ml Ml ! ' i

001

oos

►s| Ml Ml Ml Ml

£>\ Ml Ml M! Mi

B & B

noot

w| Ml Ml 1 o\ | o|

a>| Ml Ml Ml Ml

| oooor.

-: 1 asi | R, 1 ~i | M;

by a broad line, to distinguish them, and each one of a dif-
ferent color, from the first and each other.

" The vertical lines should be of a different color from the
horizontal lines and letters, and heavy, to facilitate the
finding of a corresponding number to a letter, or vice versa.

"Below the alphabets are the figures, and a column for
signals used, consisting of several words.

"Transmission of a Message.

" After communication is established, the number opposite
any one of the alphabets should be flagged ; it indicates the
alphabet which should be used first to find the 1st letter;

310 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

but it may be agreed, that in case the number of the alpha-
bet should not be flagged, the first horizontal column will
be always used to begin with.

"To find the 2d letter of the word, the next alphabet be-
low it should be used, and so on successively; after the last
one, the alphabet first on the card will be the next to be
used, then the 2d, 3d, 4th, 5th, and then the first one again.
At the end of each word the signal-number over the short
heavy line before the " A" indicates the end, the same as
5 formerly. To indicate the end of a sentence, that number
should be flagged twice.

" If figures occur in the message, or any of the abbrevin-
tions, the number on the left side for the columns of the
figures and abbreviations 333 and 4-44, or any others not
among the signal-numbers on the disk, must be flagged first ;
and alter the figures are sent, the same number again, to indi-
cate that letters will be flagged again. After sending figures
or abbreviations in a message, it may be agreed either to com-
mence with the first alphabet again for the 1st letter, or to
continue with the next alphabet to that one last used before
the 1st figure or abbreviation was flagged ; in that case the
finger ought to be held on the last used alphabet until the
figures have been sent. It is obvious that the signal-
numbers for a figure or an abbreviation will be always the
same on this disk ; if that should be objectionable, a disk
which has the signal-numbers instead of letters in the 5 hori-
zontal rows and the alphabet on the top, would answer the
purpose. By using this disk and flagging figures or abbre-
viations, "another row of signal-numbers should be used for
each following figure or abbreviation, the same as if flagging
numbers for letters ; but the number 444 or 333, opposite the
two lower rows, should not be omitted" to be flagged, before
flao-oino: them, the same as with the other."

By the use of this card results similar to those attained
by the plan of Sergeant Hawley are had.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 311

This form of cipher card lias the advantage of simplicity
of structure, and of the fact that a card can be at any time
prepared by the signalist who may need it. It can be easily
carried in a Field Book.

ROUTE CIPHERS.

Messages may be enciphered by Route Ciphers, to be
sent by messengers or to be telegraphed by signals.

Route Ciphers are those in which the words of the mes-
sage are retained unchanged, but so disarranged by con-
certed rules that the message becomes unintelligible.

The message as received seems to be a number of discon-
nected words and without meaning. These words, arranged
in a certain order by certain rules, convey a perfect message.
A common mode of forming route ciphers is to form the
words of the message in columns. A route, as it is called,
is issued to the correspondents thus:

"Form to be four columns, four words each. Route:
Doicn the first column ; up the fourth ; dovm the second ;
up the third. Fifth word blind." A set of columns being
drawn — as,

write the Avords of the message given in their proper se-
quence, doicn in the first column, up the fourth, doicn the
second, and up the third.

The message must be of a certain number of words, so
as to exactly fill, for instance, four columns of four words
each.

If the message, as written, is not of this length, there must

312 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be added to it some words having no meaning, or a meaning
irrelevant to the subject of the message. Thus a military-
message may be eked out with a sentence ; as, " The wheat
crop is doing well," or, "The steamer Africa has just ar-
rived."

Points of punctuation are written in the columns with and
just after the words they follow in the copy.

In some cases blind words, as they are called, are added
to the message. These are words added to the message to
confuse it; thus, every fifth or every sixth word may be a
blind word, and they may be so managed as to wholly per-
vert the meaning. Blind words are inserted in the copy as
the message is being written out in cipher from the columns
in which it is first formed. To decipher such a message,
reference is had to the instructions for the " Route."

A message being received, the blind words, found by
their location, are stricken out ; the remaining words are
then set off by sets — the number of words in each set being
equal to the number of columns given in the " Route." A
number, as No. 1, No. 2, No. 3, etc., is given to each word
in each set. A corresponding figure is written over each
word. The words are then placed in columns ; — all the
No. 1 words in the first column ; the No. 2 words in the
second column ; and so on.

After the words are so arranged, they are read or written
in the order prescribed by the " Route."

To encipher, by the "Route" given above, the following

message :

" The enemy has changed his position during the night.
Deserters say that he is retreating" —

The words of this message placed, one after the other, in
four columns — four words in each — and down the first
column, up the fourth, down the second, and up the third,
are as follows :

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

313

COLUMNS.

1st.

2d.

3d.

4th

The

night.

Smith

the

enemy

Deserters

retreating

during

has

say

position

changed

that

his

The instruction in this "Route," "every fifth word blind,"
means that every fifth word in the cipher is a word added
to confuse. These words are chosen arbitrarily.

The message formed above is written — reading: across the
columns and adding a blind word to every four above given
— thus:

" The night. Smith the attacking enemy Deserters re-
treating during summer has say is position unchanged
changed that he his him."

The words "attacking," "summer," "unchanged," "him,"
are the blind words added.

The communication is now ready to be transmitted by
messenger or signals.

To decipher this message, having the route as above
given :

1st. Every fifth word is stricken out as blind, thus —

The night. Smith the attacking enemy Deserters re-
treating during summer has say is position unchanged
changed that he his him.

2d. The remaining words are told off by fours, that being
the number of columns given — thus :

314

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The

2
night

3
Smith

4
the

enemy

2
Deserters

retreating

4
during

1
has

say

4
position

1
changed

2
that

4
his

3d. Formed in this manner the -words are in columns,
and the message is read : Down the first, up the fourth,
down the second, and up the third ; giving the original

message

" The enemy has changed his position during the night.
Deserters say that he is retreating."

As an additional complication, it is customary to leave
in the possession of each correspondent a dictionary or code
in -which the names of all prominent generals or places, and
many of the prominent verbs — as to march, to sail, to en-
camp, to attack, to retreat — are represented by other words.
Thus, General Grant may be known as Ironsides ; Sherman
as Lightning: Washington may be Queen City; "to
march" may be "to halt," and so on.

The message so guarded falling into the hands of an enemy
is unintelligible, even though it were possible to correctly
arrange the dislocated words.

The following message is another example:

" What are the enemy doing? I shall move all my artil-
lery to-night, and shall attack at daylight. Send me one
thousand cavalry, four thousand infantry, and all the pro-
visions you can spare."

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

315

Form to be columns, 6 words each. Route — Up 1st
column, down the 3d, up the 2d, down the 5th, up the 6th,
down the 4th.

Lay oil' the form C columns, G spaces in each column.
Commencing at the foot of the first column, write the first
six words up that column; the next six words are to be
written down the 3d column, the next six are to be written
up the 2d column, the next six doion the 5th column, the
next six up the Gth column, and the remaining two down
the 4th column.

The messaare so written stands thus — the words " Jones is
very sick," being added to fill out the 4th column :

doin<??
enemy

the

are
What

send

daylight

attack

shall

and

shall

can

move

spare

all

Jones

artillery

very

to-night

sick

one

thousand

cavalry

four
thousand

you

provisions

the

all

and
infantry

Removed from the columns, it reads : " I send shall can
me you doing? daylight move spare one provisions enemy
at all Jones thousand the the attack my is cavalry all are
shall artillery very four and what and to-night sick thousand
infantry."

To decipher, the words are placed again by sixes in col-
umns, and being read according to the Route, the message
is correctly had.

316

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

1
I

2
send

3
shall

4
can

you

doing ?

2
daylight

3
move

4
spare

one

6
provisions

enemy

2
at

all

4
Jones

5
thousand

6
the

the

2
attack

4
is

cavalry

6
all

1
are

2
shall

artillery

4
very

four

6
and

What

2
and

to-night

4
sick

thousand

6
infantry

The instructions for a Route Cipher to be sent by a mes-
senger may be obscurely written thus :

1st 2d 6th
3d 5 th 4th

,5th

may be read, " Read 1st up, 3d down, 2d up, 5th down,
6th up, 4th down," as the numbers are above or below an
imaginary line. The figure standing on the line is read
"5th Blind."

The Forms, the Routes, and the dispositions of the Blind
Words may be varied infinitely.

The forms may be of any number of columns, and any
number of words in a column. Thus, the Form may be six
columns — two words in each column ; or three columns — five
words in each column ; and so for any changes. The Routes

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 317

and the distribution of the Blind Words are any that in-
genuity may devise.

The cipher is interesting from the fact that messages can
be so formed as to convey, when read in cipher, a meaning
the reverse of that which is had when they are correctly
interpreted.

By numbering the words in Webster's Dictionary, and
by making the number of any word by signals, using any
kind of code, any word or words may be signalled entire.
These numbers written on paper would be a good cipher.
The words in Naval Vocabularies or the sentences in Signal-
Books may be numbered or signalled after this fashion.
By extending arrangements of two elements to about fif-
teen places, a separate signal may be had for each word of
the English language. Now if a dictionary is made poly-
glott, all the words of any language may be signalled by
each word being symbolized by a single arrangement.
There are thus spaces between words only, and so greater
brevity. The sentences in Naval Signal-Books may have
such indices set for each.

Page 318 exhibits a form of cipher used by the rebels at
Vicksbnrg, and afterward generally in their service during
the war of the rebellion. The letters of the Alphabet, as
there arranged, are to be written upon a card.

To conceal a message, the rules given on page 319 are to
be observed. A word or words known as key-words are
adopted : these are furnished in instructions to the officer to
use them. Then under each letter of the message to be
sent write the letters of the key-word, repeating it as often
as the number of letters in each sentence of the message
requires, and always commencing a neAV sentence with the
first letter of the key-Avord. Find in the table the first let-
ter of the message perpendicularly under the letter A ; then
find the first letter of the key-word horizontally opposite A.
The letter at the intersection of the horizontal and perpen-

318 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ
BODEFGIIIJKLMNOPQR S T U V W X Y Z A
CDEFOHIJKLMNO PQRSTUTWXT Z A B
DEFGHI JKLMNO PQR STUVWX YZ AB C
EFGH IJKLMNO PQRSTUVWXY ZA BCD
FGHI JKLMNO PQR STUVWXYZ AB ODE
GHIJKLMNOP QR STUVWX YZ ABC DEF
II IJKLMNOPQ RS TUVWXY ZA BCDE FG
I JKLMNOPQRS TUVWXYZ AB C DEFGH
JKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ AB C DE FGHI
KLMNOPQRSTUYWXYZABCDEFGni J
LMNOPQR STUVWX YZABC DE FG II IJE
MNOPQRS TUVWXYZ ABCD EFGH I JKL
N P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A BCDE FGHI J KLM
OPQEfiT U V WX YZABCDEFGIIIJKLMN
P Q R S T U V W X Y Z A B C D E F G II UK L M N
QRSTUVWXYZAB CD EFGH I JKLM NO P
USTUVWXYZABC D E FGHI J KLMN P Q
S T U V WX YZABCDEFGIII J KLMNO PQR
TUVWXYZABCDE FGHIJK LMNO P Q R S
U V W XYZABCDEFG II IJKL MNOPQRS T

V WX YZABCDEFG II IJKLMNOPQ R S TU
WXYZABCDEFGH IJKLMN OPQ R S T UV
XYZ A BCDEFGH IJKLMNO PQR S TU V "W

Y ZABC DEFGH I JKLM NOP QR S T UVWX
Z ABCDEFGHI JKLMNOPQR S TU VWXY

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 319

dicular columns, starting from the two letters thus found,
Avill be the cipher-letter to be written in place of the true
letter.

The same process is required for each letter, until tin-
message becomes complete.

To interpret such a cipher the process must be reversed.
Write as before the letters — the letters of the key-word
under those of the cipher; take the first letter of the key-
word in the table opposite A, and trace down that column
till the iirst letter of the cipher is found; the letter oppo-
site this, and perpendicularly under A, will be the first letter
of the message; and so on until the message is complete.

Illusteatiox.

The key-word being "complete victory," to encipher the
message "the army will move to-night." Writing under
the letters of the message the correspondent letters of repe-
titions of " complete victory," we have :

The army will move tonight.
Com plet evic tory coinplet.

Taking T at the side of the table and C at the top, and
following the columns in which they are to their intersection,
we find the letter V. Record this as the first letter of the
eipher message. Then take 11 at the side and O at the top;
we find at the intersection Y. Record this as second letter
of the cipher. Taking E at the side and M at the top, we
have at the intersection the letter Q as third letter of the
cipher. The word " the" is thus in cipher " v v q," and is
so written. The words of the whole message enciphered
in the same manner become

" v v q - p c q r - a d t n - f c m c - v c z x r 1 m."

320 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

To decipher this cipher: writing under the letters the
correspondent letters of the key-word, we have

"vvq-pc q r-a d t n-f c m c-v czxrl m."
Com- pi et evic tory comple t.

Finding the letter " C" at the top of the table, and tracing
down that column to the letter " V," we find opposite this
letter, at the side of table, and perpendicularly under the
letter "A," the letter "T." Record this as the first letter -
of message. Find next the letter " O" at top of table ; trace
down the column to the letter " V," and opposite this, at
the side of the table, is " H," the second letter of the mes-
sage. Find " M," at the top of the table ; trace down the
column to " Q," and at the side is the letter " E." The word
" the" is then found. By such process repeated, the whole
cipher is interpreted.

It is a labor to trace out the columns by hand upon the
card, and a machine was sometimes used for this purpose.
The structure of the apparatus will be understood by refer-
ence to Plate XXVII, Fig. 4. The cylinder C was made to
rotate easily on its axis, and upon its surface were inscribed
the letters in the order given in the card. Above the cylin-
der was the fixed pointer P and the movable pointer P' ; —
the fixed pointer arranged to bear upon the first column of
letters on the cylinder ; the movable pointer traversing so
as to bear upon any column.

The cylinder being then so placed that the letters of the
first horizontal line of the cipher-card come beneath the
pointers, and the two indicating letters of the message being
determined as in the preceding instance, the movable pointer
is moved upon the slide so as to bear upon that indicating
letter to be sought at the top or in the first horizontal line
of the card. The cylinder is then rotated until the fixed
pointer P bears upon the indicating letter to be sought at

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 321

the side or in the first vertical column of the card, when it
will be found that the pointer P* bears upon the letter at
the intersection of the columns, the cipher-letter required.

This machine is equally useful for enciphering or deci-
phering a message.

A cipher similar in character to that just described, was
formed by a kind of mathematical calculation under the fol-
lowing rules :

Commit to memory the alphabet by numbers — viz., A, 1 ;
B, 2; C, 3; D, 4 ; E, 5; F, 6 ; G, 7; H, 8 ; 1,9; J, 10;
K, 11; L, 12; M, 13; X, 14; O, 15; P, 16; Q, 17;
R, 18; S, 19; T, 20; C, 21; V, 22; W, 23; X, 24;
Y, 25 ; Z, 26.

Take for example the key-sentence "A discovery," and
for a message, " Send me powder to-night." Write your
message out plainly, thus :

send me powder to night
14 9 19 3 15 22 5 18 25 1 4 9 19 3 15 22 5 18

s h v v os ksnbeu bg pwblk

Under the message write the figures, corresponding to the
key-sentence. It will be in this example — viz., a is 1, d is 4,
i is 9, s is 19, c is 3 (or third letter of the alphabet) ; and
so on to the end of the key-sentence, repeating when the
message is longer than the key-sentence, as in this ex-
ample.

In rendering a message into cipher you add together the
number of the key-letter and corresponding number of the
message-letter, taking the number of the key one less than
is written down. Thus s, is 19, 19-f is 19, or s, the letter
to be sent; e is 5, 5 + 3 is 8, the 8th letter of the alphabet
is h ; n is 14, 14 + 8 is 22 or v ; d is 4, 4 + 18 is 22 or v; m
is 13, 13 + 2 is 15 or o; e is 5, 5 + 14 is 19 or s ; p is 16, 16 + 21

14*

p w b 1 k

3 15 22 5 18

night

322 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

is 37. There being but 26 letters in the alphabet, when
the addition exceeds that number, you will find by how
many, and the number of the overplus is the number of
the letter required. In this instance the overplus is 11
(37 — 20 = 11), which is the letter K; and so on to the end
of the message.

To translate a message, you will subtract the number of
the keydetter, one less than is written down, from the cor-
responding number of the cipher message received.

shvv os ksnbeu
14 9 19 3 15 22 5 18 25 1 4
send me powder

s is 19, 19 — = 19, which is the letter s; h is 8, 8 — 3=5 or
e; v is 22, 22 — 8 = 14 or n; v is 22, 22 — 18 = 4 or d ; o is
15, 15 — 2 = 13 orm; sis 19, 19 — 14 = 5 or e ; k is 11, 11 — 21.
When the minuend is less than the subtrahend, in all cases
add 26 (the number of letters in the alphabet) to the min-
uend, and the remainder will be the number desired in this
case: 11 + 26 = 37, 37 — 21 = 16 or the letterp; and so on to
the end of the message.

All that is necessary in this method is to commit to mem-
ory the numbers of the letters of the alphabet.

In rendering a message into cipher, add the numbers of
the message and key-sentence together, always remember-
ing to take the key-number one less than is written down.

In translating a cipher message, subtract the key-number
from the number of the message, taking the key-number one
less than is written down.

In both rendering and deciphering a message, always take
the kev-number one less than is written down.

The following article gives, in a pleasant way, so many

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 323

of the modes and curiosities of cipher, and so practical an
illustration of the deciphering of a cipher message, that it
is extracted at length from "Harper's Weekly," December
19, 18G3:

"MODES AND CURIOSITIES OF CIPHER.

" In 1080, when M. de Louvois was French Minister of War, he
summoned before him one day a gentleman named Chamilly, and
gave him the following instructions:

'"Start this evening for Basle, in Switzerland; you will reach it
in three days ; on the fourth, punctually at two o'clock, station your-
self on the bridge over the Rhine with a portfolio, ink, and pen.
"Watch all that takes place, and make a memorandum of every par-
ticular. Continue doing so for two hours ; have a carriage and post-
horses awaiting you ; and at four precisely mount and travel, day
and night, till you reach Paris. On the instant of your arrival,
hasten to me with your notes.'

" De Chamilly obeyed ; he reached Basle, and on the day and at
the hour appointed, stationed himself, pen in hand, on the bridge.
Presently a market-cart drives by ; then an old woman with a
basket of fruit passes ; anon a little urchin trundles his hoop by ;
next an old gentleman in blue top-coat jogs past on his gray mare.
Three o'clock chimes from the cathedral tower. Just at the last
stroke, a tall fellow, in yellow waistcoat and breeches, saunters up,
goes to the middle of the bridge, lounges over, and looks at the
water; then he takes a step back, and strikes three hearty blows on
the footway with his staff. Down goes every detail in De Cha-
milly's book. At last the hour of release sounds, and he jumps into
his carriage. Shortly before midnight, after two days' ceaseless
travelling. De Chamilly presented himself before the minister, feeling
rather ashamed at having such trifles to record. M. de Louvois
took the portfolio with eagerness and glanced over the notes. As
his eye caught the mention of the yellow-breeched man, a gleam
of joj r flashed across his countenance. He rushed to the king,
roused him from sleep, spoke in private with him for a few*noments,
and then four couriers, who had been held in readiness since live
on the preceding evening, were dispatched with haste. Eight days
after, the town of Strasbourg was entirely surrounded by French
troops and summoned to surrender; it capitulated, and threw open

324 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

its gates on the 30th September, 1681. Evidently the three strokes
of the stick, given by the fellow in yellow costume at an appointed
hour, were the signal of the success of an intrigue concerted between
M. de Louvois and the magistrates of Strasbourg ; and the man who
executed this mission was as ignorant of the motive as was M. de
Chamilly of the motive of his.

" Now this is a specimen of the safest of all secret communications,
but it can only be resorted to on certain rare occasions. When a
lengthy dispatch is required ty be forwarded, and when such means
as those given above are out of the question, some other method
must be employed. Herodotus gives us a story to the point ; it is
found, also, with variations, in Aulus Gelliu9:

" ' llistiaeus, when he was anxious to give Aristagoras orders to
revolt, could find but one safe way, as the roads were guarded, of
making his wishes known : which was by taking the truest of his
slaves, shaving all the hair off his head, and then pricking letters
upon the skin, and waiting till the hair grew again. This accord-
ingly he did ; and as soon as ever the hair was grown, he dispatched
the man to Miletus, giving him no other message than this : ' When
thou art come to Miletus, bid Aristagoras shave thy head and look
thereon.' Now the marks on the man's head were a command to
revolt.' (Bk. v. 115.)

" In this case no cipher was employed. We shall come now tu
the use of ciphers.

" When a dispatch or communication runs great risk of falling
into the hands of an enemy, it is necessary that its contents should
be so veiled that the possession of the document may afford him no
information whatever. Julius Caesar and Augustus used ciphers,
but they were of the utmost simplicity, as they consisted merely in
placing D in the place of A, E in that of B, and so on ; or else in
writing B for A, C for B, etc.

" Secret characters were used at the Council of Nicaea ; and Ra-
banus Maurus, Abbot of Fulda and Archbishop of Mayence, in the
ninth century, has left us an example of two ciphers, the key to
which was discovered by the Benedictines. It is only a wonder
that any one could have failed to unravel them at the first glance.
This is a specimen of the first.

" ' .Nc.p.t v:rs:-:s B::n.f:C. :rch. gl::r::S.q:-::m:rt.r.s'

" The clue to this is the suppression of the vowels and the filling
of their places by dots— one for i, two for a, three for e, four for o,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 325

and five for u. In the second example, the same sentence would
run— Knckpkt vfrsxs Bpnkfbckk, etc., the vowel-places being tilled
by the consonants— b, f, k, p, x. By changing every letter in the
alphabet, we make a vast improvement on this last : thus, for in-
stance, supplying the place of a with z, b with x, c with v, and so
on. This is the system employed by an advertiser in a provincial
paper, which we took up the other day in the waiting-room of a
station, where it had been left by a farmer. As we had some
moments to spare before the train was due, we spent them in de-
ciphering the following:

" ' Jp Sjddjzb rza rzdd ci sijmr, Bziw rzdd xr ndzt.'

And in ten minutes read : ' If "William can call or write, Mary will
be glad.'

" A correspondence was carried on in the ' Times' during May,
1862, in cipher. We give it along with the explanation :

WWS.-Zv Efpdolj T dpye 1 wpeepc ez mjeyp qzc jzf— xlj T
daply qfwwj zy lww xleepcd le esp tyepcgtph? Te xlj oz
rzzo. Ecfde ez xj wzgp— T lx xtdpclmwp. Hspy xlj T rz ez Nlye-
pcmfcj tq zywj ez wzzy le jzf. — May 8.'

" This means— 1 On Tuesday I sent a letter to Byrne for you.
May I speak fully on all matters at the interview ? It may do good.
Trust to my love. I am miserable. When may I go to Canter-
bury, if only to look at you ?'

"A couple of days later Byrne advertises, slightly varying the
cipher :

WWS.- Sxhrdktg hdbtewxcv "Tmwxqxixdc axzt" udg pcdewtg
psktgexhtbtce. QNGCT. " Discover something Exhibition-
like for another advertisement. — Byrne."

" This gentleman is rather mysterious : we must leave our readers
to conjecture what he means by ' Exhibition-like.' On Wednesday
came two advertisements — one from the lady, one from the lover.
WWS. herself seems rather sensible.

TYDEPLO zq rztyr ez nlyepcmfej, T estyv jzf slo xfns mpeepc
delj le szxp lyo xtyo jzfc mfdtypdd.— WWS., May 10.

"'Instead of going to Canterbury, I think you had much better
stay at home and mind your business.'

326 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" Excellent advice ; but how far likely to be taken by the eager
wooer, who advertises thus :

TTTWS. — Fyetwjzfe qlspc lydhpcd T hzye ldv jzf ez aczgp jzf
V V wzgp xp. Efpdolj ytrse le zyp znwznvslgp 1 dectyr qczx esp
htyozh qzc wpeepcd. Tq jzt lcp yze lmwp le zyp T htww hite.
Rzo nzxqzce jzf xj olcwtyr htqp.

" ' Until your father answers I won't ask you to prove you love
me. Tuesday night at one o'clock have a string from the window
for letters. If you are not able at one, I will wait. God comfort
you, my darling wife.'

" "When the Chevalier de Eohan was in the Bastile, his friends
wanted to convey to him the intelligence that his accomplice was
dead without having confessed. They did so by passing the follow-
ing words into his dungeon, written on a shirt, ' Mg dulhxcclgu ghj
yxuj ; lm ct ulgc alj.' In vain did he puzzle over the cipher, to
which he had not the clue. It was too short ; for the shorter a cipher
letter, the more difficult it is to make out. The light faded, and he
tossed on his hard bed, sleeplessly revolving the mystic letters in his
brain ; but he could make nothing out of them. Day dawned,
and with its first gleam he was poring over them : still in vain. He
pleaded guilty, for he could not decipher, ' Le prisonnier est mort ;
il rHa rien dit?

" We noticed in a back number of ' Once a Week' some verses, or
a story, we forget which, signed Azile Nostaw. Did the writer
really intend concealing her name by simply inverting it? It was
readable at a glance, and she might just as well have signed in the
way of ordinary humdrum folk. If, however, you invert a message
and then turn it into cipher, the difficulty of reading it is greatly
enhanced.

" Another method of veiling a communication is that of employ-
ing numbers or arbitrary signs in the place of letters ; and this
admits of many refinements. Here is an example to test the reader's
sagacity :

" §f431 45 2 + 9 + §51 4=3732 + 287 45 2 + »tl= +

" We just give the hint that it is a proverb.

" The following is much more ingenious and difficult of detec-
tion :

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

O07

" Xow suppose that I want to write England ; I look among the
small letters in the foregoing tahle for e, and tincl that it is in a hori-
zontal line with B, and vertical line with b, so I write down Bb; n
is in liue with A and e, so I put down ae ; continue this, and Eng-
land will he represented by Bbaeaebdaaaeab. Two letters to repre-
sent one is not over tedious; but the scheme devised by Lord
Bacon is clumsy enough. He represented every letter by permuta-
tions of a and b ; for instance :

A was written aaaaa, B was written aaaab,
C was written aaaba, D was written aabaa,

and so through the alphabet Paris would thus be transformed
into abbba, aaaaa, baaaa, abaan, banab. Conceive the labor of com-
posing a whole dispatch like this, and the great likelihood of making
blunders in it !

'" A much simpler method is the following :

" The sender and receiver of the communication must be agreed
upon a certain book of a specified edition. The dispatch begins
with a number ; this indicates the page to which the reader is to
turn. He must then count the letters from the top of the page, and
give them their value numerically, according to the order in which
they come, omitting those which are repeated. By these numbers
he reads his dispatch, As an example, let us take the beginning of
this article: then 1=1, n=2, w=3, 7i=i, e=5, m=3, d=7, 1=8, u=d,
r=10, o=ll, omitting to count the letters which are repeated. In
the middle of the communication the page may be varied, and con-
sequently the numerical significance of each letter altered. Even
this could be with a little trouble; and the word ' impossible' can
hardly be said to apply to the deciphering of cryptographs.

" A curious instance of this occurred at the close of the sixteenth
century, when the Spaniards were endeavoring to establish rela-

328 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

tions between the scattered branches of their vast monarchy, which
at that period embraced a large portion of Italy, the Low Countries,
the Philippines, and enormous districts in the New World. They
accordingly invented a cipher, which they varied from time to time
in order to disconcert those who might attempt to pry into the
mysteries of their correspondence. The cipher, composed of fifty
signs, was of great value to them through all the troubles of the
' Ligue,' and the wars then desolating Europe. Some of their dis-
patches having been intercepted, Henry IV. handed them over to
a clever mathematician, Viete, with the request that he would
find the clue. He did so, and was able also to follow it as it varied,
and France profited for two years by his discovery. The court of
Spain, disconcerted at this, accused Viete before the Roman court
as a sorcerer and in league with the devil. This proceeding only
gave rise to laughter and ridicule."

[This seems to have been a cipher in which each letter of
the alphabet was represented by either of two characters.
If it had been used with an arrangement similar in effect
to the cipher-disk, each letter could be thus represented in
one hundred different ways. (See page 305.) It would
appear from the text that it was not so arranged as to be
varied as frequently as it ought to have been.]

" A still more remarkable instance is that of a German professor,
Hermann, who boasted, in 1752, that he had discovered a crypto-
graph absolutely incapable of being deciphered without the clue
being given by him ; and he defied all the savans and learned soci-
eties of Europe to discover the key. However, a French refugee,
named Beguelin, managed, after eight days' study, to read it. This
cipher — though we have the rules upon which it is formed before
us — is to us perfectly unintelligible. It is grounded on some
changes of numbers and symbols; numbers vary, being at one time
multiplied, at another added, and becoming so complicated that the
letter e, which occurs nine times in the paragraph, is represented
eight different ways ; n is used eight times and has seven various
signs. Indeed, the same letter is scarcely ever represented by the
same figure. But this is not all ; the character which appears in the
place of i takes that of n shortly after; another symbol for n stands
also for t. How any man could have solved the mystery of this
cipher is astonishing."

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 329

[An effect as curious as that here described is illustrated
at page 302. And the cipher can be easily written with
the aid of the disk. It may be more complicated by in-
creasing the number of characters and adjustments. If, in
addition to this, the ends of words, sentences, etc., are
concealed, it will add incalculably to the difficulty of the
deciphering.]

" Now let us recommend a for simpler system, and one which is
very difficult of detection. It consists of a combination of numbers
and letters. Both parties must be agreed on an arrangement such
as that in the second line on the following page, for on it all
depends.

123456789 10

47291 10 536 8

" Now in turning a sentence, such as ' The army must retire,' into
cipher, you count the letters which make the sentence and find that
T is the first, H the second, e the third, a the fourth, it the fifth, and
so on. Then look at the table, t is the first letter ; 4 answers to 1 ;
therefore write the fourth letter in the place of t— that is, A instead
of t. For h, the second, put the seventh, which is y ; for e take the
second, li. The sentence will stand, ' Ayh utsr emmay yhutsr.' It
is all but impossible to discover this cipher.

" All these cryptographs consist in the exchange of numbers or
characters for the real letters ; but there are other methods quite as
intricate which dispense with them.

" The mysterious cards of the Count de Vergennes are an in-
stance. De Vergennes was Minister of Foreign Affairs under Louis
XVI., and he made use of cards of a peculiar nature in his relations
with the diplomatic agents of France. These cards were used in
letters of recommendation on passports which were given to
straugers about to enter France ; they were intended to furnish in-
formation without the knowledge of the bearers. This was the
system. The card given to a man contained only a few words,
such as :

4 ALPHOXSE D'ANGEHA.
' Recommande & Monsieur
' le Comte de Vergennes, par le Marquis de Puysegur,
' Ambassadeur de France a la Cour de Lisbonne.'

330 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" The card told more tales than the words written on it. Its color
indicated the nation of the stranger. Yellow showed him to be
English ; red, Spanish ; white, Portuguese ; green, Dutch ; red and
white, Italian ; red and green, Swiss ; green and white, Russian, etc.
The person's age was expressed by the shape of the card. If it
were circular, he was under twenty-five ; oval, between twenty-five
and thirty; octagonal, between thirty and forty-five; hexagonal
between forty-five .and fifty ; square, between fifty and sixty ; an
oblong showed that he was over sixty. Two lines placed below the
name of the bearer indicated his build. If he was tall and lean, the
lines were waving and parallel ; tall and stout, they converged, and
so on. The expression of his face was shown by a flower in the
border. A rose designated an open and amiable countenance, while
a tulip marked a pensive and aristocratic appearance. A fillet round
the border, according to its length, told whether the man were
bachelor, married, or a widower. Dots gave information as to his
position and fortune. A full-stop after his name showed that he
was a Catholic ; a semicolon, that he was a Lutheran ; a comma,
that he was a Calvinist; a dash, that he was a Jew; no stop, in-
dicated him as an Atheist. So, also, his morals and character were
pointed out by a pattern in the angles of the card, such as one of
these :

So, at one glance, the minister could tell all about his man, whether
he was a gamester, or a duellist ; what was his purpose in visiting
France — whether in search of a wife, or to claim a legacy ; what
was his profession — that of physician, lawyer, or man of letters ;
whether he were to be put under surveillance or allowed to go his
way unmolested.

" We come now to a class of cipher which requires a certain
amount of literary dexterity to conceal the clue.

" During the Great Rebellion, Sir John Trevanion, a distinguished
cavalier, w r as made prisoner, and locked up in Colchester Castle.
Sir Charles Lucas and Sir George Lisle had just been made exam-
ples of as a warning to ' malignants,' and Trevanion had every
reason for expecting a similar bloody end. As he awaits his doom,
indulging in a hearty curse, in round cavalier terms, at the canting,
crop-eared scoundrels who held him in durance vile, and muttering

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 331

a wish that he had fallen, sword in hand, facing the foe, he is startled
by the entrance of the jailer, who hands him a letter.

"'May't do thee good,' growls the fellow; 'it has been well
looked to before it was permitted to come to thee.'

" Sir John takes the letter, and the jailer leaves him his lamp by
which to read it :

"' "Wortiiie Sir Jorrx, — Hope, that is y e best comfort of y°
afBictyd, cannot much, I fear me, help you now. That I wolde save
to you, is this only : if ever I may be able to requite that I do owe
you, stand not upon asking of me. 'Tis not much I can do; but
what I can do, bee you verie sure I wille. I knowe that, if dethe
comes, if ordinary men fear it, it frights not you, accounting it for
a high honor, to have such a rewarde of your loyalty. Pray yet
that you may be spared this soe bitter, cup. I fear not that you
will grudge any sufferings ; only if bie submission you can turn them
away, 'tis the part of a wise man. Tell me, an if you can, to do for
you any thinge that you wolde have done. The general goes back
on Wednesday. Restinge your servant to command, R. T.'

" Now this letter was written according to a preconcerted cipher.
Every third letter after a stop was to tell. In this way. Sir John
made out — ' Panel at east end of chapel slides.' On the following
even, the prisoner begged to be allowed to pass an hour of private
devotion in the chapel. By means of a bribe, this was accom-
plished. Before the hour had expired the chapel was empty — the
bird had flown.

" An excellent plan of indicating the telling letter of a word is
through the heading of the letter. ' Sir,' would signify that every
third letter was to betaken; 'Dear Sir,' that every seventh; 'My
dear Sir,' that every ninth was to be selected. A system, very early
adopted, was that of having pierced cards, through the holes of
which the communication was written. The card was then re-
moved and the blank spaces filled up. As for example :

it i

My Dear X. — [The] lines I now send you are forwarded by
the kindness of the [bearer], who is a friend. [Is not] the message
delivered yet [to] my brother ? [Be] quick about it, for I have all
along [trusted] that you would act with discretion and dispatch.

" ' Yours ever, Z.'

" Put your card over the note, and through the piercings you will
read : ' The bearer is not to be trusted.'

332 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" The following letter will give two totally distinct meanings,
according as it is read, straight through or by only alternate lines :

' Mademoiselle —

' Je m'ernpresse de vous ecrire pour vous declarer
que vous vous trornpez beaucoup si vous croyez
que vous etes celle pour qui je soupire.
II est bien vrai que pour vous eprouver,
Je vous ai fait mille aveux. Apres quoi
vous etes devenue l'objet de ma raillerie. Ainsi
ne doutez plus de ce que vous dit ici celui
qui n'a 'eu que de l'aversion pour vous, et
qui aimerait mieux mourir qui de
se voir oblige de vous epouser, et de
changer le dessein qu'il a forme de vous
nai'r toute sa vie, bien loin de vous
aimer, comme il vous l'a declare. Soyez done
desabusee, croyez-moi ; et si vous etes encore
constante et persuadee que vous Stes aimee
vous serez encore plus exposee a la risee
de tout le monde, et particuliereinent de
celui qui n'a jamais ete et ne sera jamais

' Votre ser'ture,

1 M. K'

" "We must not omit to mention Chronograms. These are verses
which contain within them the date of the. composition. So at
Graz, on the mausoleum of the Emperor Ferdinand, is the fol-
lowing :

' ferDInanDVs seCVnDVs le VIXit pie obllt,'

that is, 1637.

" A very curious one was written by Charles de Bovelle : we
adapt and explain it :

The heads of a mouse and five cats M.CCCCC

Add also the tail of a bull ,. L

Item, the four legs of a rat MI

And you have my date in full M.CCCCCLIIII

(1554.)

" It is now high time that we show the readers how to find the
clue to a cipher. And as illustration is always better than precept,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. • 333

wc shall exemplify from our own experience. With permission,
too, wc shall drop the plural for the singular.

" Will ! My friend Matthew Fletcher came into a property some
years ago, bequeathed to him by a great-uncle. The old gentleman
had been notorious for his parsimonious habits, and he was known
through the country by the nickname of Miser Tom. Of course
every one believed that he was vastly rich, and that Mat. Fletcher
would come in for a mint of money. But, somehow, my friend did
not find the stores of coin on which he had calculated hidden in
worsted stockings or cracked pots, and the savings of the old man
which he did light upon consisted of but trifling sums. Fletcher
became firmly persuaded that the money was hidden somewhere;
where he could not tell, and he often came to consult me on the
best expedient for discovering it. It is all through my intervention
that he did not pull down the whole house about his ears, tear up
every floor, and root up every flower or tree throughout the garden
in his search after the precious hoard. One day he burst into my
room with radiant face.

" ' My dear fellow !' he gasped forth, ' I have found it.'

" ' Found what ? — the treasure ?'

" ' All but — I want your help now,' and he flung a discolored slip
of paper upon my table.

"I took it up, and saw that it was covered with writing in
cipher.

" ' I routed it out of a secret drawer in Uncle Tom's bureau !' he
explained ; ' I have no doubt of its purport. It indicates the spot
where all his savings are secreted.'

" ' You have not deciphered it yet, have you?'

" ' ]STo. I want your help ; I can make neither heads nor tails of
the scrawl, though I sat up all night studying it.'

" ' Come along,' said I, ' I wish you joy of your treasure. I'll read
the cipher if you give me time.' So we sat down together at my
desk with the slip of paper before us. Here is the inscription :

D A

+ ^282§9/?902^879 + )789(9(88f 7-r)8— 2§ + 9 x §2g — 29§— )*S228x-

7*e82A*9 x 79 +

X§_7— P*y X 9— T0— x8)*48||§8— =8x2§8x82§— +§8x80§8x82§828 x
70>(2§8 + 8x*==AlT90||A7=— + -. — x8SlAx*92— + - 2 .

331 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

" ' Now,' said I, ' the order of precedence among the letters,
according to the frequency of their occurrence, is this : e a o i t d
hnrsuycfglm w b k p q x z. This, however, is their order
according to the number of words begun by each respectively : s c
padifblbt, etc. The most frequent compounds are th, ng, ee,

11, mm, tt, dd, nn."

[The following letters occur in about the following nu-
merical proportion : For every two of the letter q there
are four of the letter x, eight of k, sixteen of b, thirty of c,
eighty each of i, n, o, and s, eighty-five of a, ninety of t,
and one hundred and twenty of the letter e.]

" ' Pray, Matthew, do you see any one sign repeated oftener than
the others in this cryptograph?'

" ' Yes, 8 ; it is repeated twenty-three times,' said Fletcher, after a
pause.

" ' Then you may be perfectly satisfied that it stands for e, which
is used far oftener than any other letter in English. Next, look
along the lines and see what letters most frequently accompany it.'

" ' 2 § undoubtedly ; it follows 8 in several places and precedes it
in others. In the second line we have 2 § 8 — 8 2 § — 2 § 8 ; and in
the third, 2 § 8 again.'

" ' Then we may fairly assume that 2 § 8 stands for the?

" ' The, to be sure,' burst forth Fletcher. ' Now the next word
will be money. No ! it can't be, the e will not suit ; perhaps it is
treasure, gold, hoard, store.'

'"Wait a little bit,' I interposed. 'Now look what letters are
doubled.'

" ' 88 and 22,' said my friend Mat.

"'And please observe,' I continued, 'that where I draw a line
and write A you have e, then double t, then e again. Probably this
is the middle of a word, and as we have already supposed 2 to stand
for t, we have — ette — , a very likely combination. We may be sure
of the t now. Near the end of the second line there is a remarkable
passage, in which the three letters we know recur continually. Let
us write it out, leaving blanks for the letters we do not know, and
placing the ascertained letters instead of their symbols. Then it
stands — e^the^eth — he^ she^ethe — . Now, here I have a x repeated
four times, and from its position it must be a consonant. I will put

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 335

in its place one consonant after another. You see r is the only one
which turns the Inters into words — erthe r th here, here the. Surely
some of these should stand out distinctly separated — er there th — here
. here the. Look! 1 can see at, once what letters are wanting; th —
between there and here must he than, and then . here is — must he
— where. So uow 1 have found these letters,

and I can confirm the % ns r by taking the portion marked A — ctt< r.
Here we get an end of an adjective in the comparative degree; I
think it must be better.

"'Let us next take a group of ciphers higher up; I will pencil
over it D. I take this group because it contains some of the letters
winch we have settled — eathn. Eath must be the end of a word,
for none begin with athn, thn, or hn. Now what letter will suit
eath? Probably h, probably <f.'

" ' Yes,' exclaimed Fletcher, ' Death, to be sure. I can guess it
all : Death is approaching, and I feel that a solemn duty devolves
upon me, that of acquainting Matthew Fletcher, nvy heir, with the
spot where I have hidden my savings. Go on, go on.'

" ' All iu good time, my friend,' I laughed. ' You observe we can
coufirm our guess as to the sign ) being used for d, by comparing
the passage — 29§ — )*228X, which we now read, t. had better. But
t. Jtad better is awkward ; you cannot make 9 into o ; 'to had,' w r ould
be no sense.'

" ' Of course not,' burst forth Fletcher. ' Don't you see it all ?
I had better let my excellent nephew know where I have depos-
ited—'

" ' Wait a bit,' interrupted I ; ' you are right I believe. I is the
signification of 9. Let us begin the whole cryptograph now;
NtetM.i.t.re.ind.e?

" ' Remind me P cried Fletcher.

" ' You have it again,' said I. ' Now we obtain an additional let-
ter beside m, for t. remind me is certainly to remind me. We must
begin again : Note thi. i. to remind me?

"' This i*,' called out my excited friend, wdiose eyes were spark-
ling with delight and expectation.

" ' Go on ; you are a trump !'

"'These, then, are our additional letters: )=d, 7=m, /3=s, 9— i,
X=o. To remind me i.i.ee.m.death, m. h. for m. death, I read my

336 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

death, and i. i. ee, I guess to be, if I feel. So it stands thus: ' Note —
This is to remind me, if I feel my death nigh, that I had better — '

" I worked on now in silence ; Fletcher, leaning his chin on his
hand, sat opposite, staring into my face with breathless anxiety.
Presently I exclaimed —

" ' Halves, Mat ! I think you said halves !'

" ' I— I— I— I— my dear fellow, I—'

" ' A very excellent man was your uncle ; a most exemplary — '

" ' All right, I know that,' said Fletcher, cutting me short. ' Do
read the paper ; I have a spade and pick on my library-table all
ready for work the moment I know where to begin.'

" ' But, really, he was a man in a thousand, a man of such discre-
tion, such foresight, so much — '

" Down came Fletcher's hand on the desk.

" ' Do go on !' he cried ; and I could see that he was swearing in-
ternally ; he would have sworn ore rotundo, only that it would have
been uncivil and decidedly improper.

« < Yeiy well ; you are prepared to hear all ?'

" ' All ! by Jove ! by jingo ! prepared for everything.'

" ' This is what I read,' said I, taking up my own transcript :

" ' Note. — This is to remind me, if I feel my death nigh, that 1
had better move to Birmingham, as burials are done cheaper there
than here, where the terms of the Necropolis Company are exhor-
bitant?

" Fletcher bounded from his seat. ' The old skinflint ! miser !
screw !'

" ' A very estimable and thrifty man, your great-uncle.'

" ' Confounded old stingy ,' and he slammed the door upon

himself and the substantive which designated his uncle.

" And now the veiy best advice we can give to our readers is to
set to work at once on the simple cipher given near the commence-
ment of this paper, and to find it out."

FLYING OR FIELD TELEGRAPHS.

The duties of the Signal Corps, organized during the war
of the Rebellion, extended to the management of field tele-
graphs, and light lines when the formation of the country

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 337

was such that aerial signals could not be used, or it was
for any reason desirable that short electric lines be ex-
tended.

It is a duty of signal-officers to make themselves and their
parties acquainted with all the modes of telegraphic com-
munication. The transmission of signals by electricity, and
the transmission of visual signals, are to them equally the
subjects of study, and they should be prepared to judge
where either is practicable or preferable.

As the army occupies a new country, they should be
able, by reconnoissance and the study of maps, to de-
termine where electric lines ought to run, and where
should be the stations for aerial telegraphs. They should
know how to prepare and to command the proper de-
tails for the construction of temporary lines, and to
guard, inspect, and repair them. They should be able
to assign these details with instructions so clear as to
insure the proper performance of the duties. They should
understand how to dispose troops for the protection of sta-
tions, and be familiar with the precautions necessary to
prevent surprise.

Signals can be transmitted bv the signs or sounds caused
by electricity, following the plans of any of the signal codes
heretofore illustrated.

Officers and men thoroughly practised in the codes of
aerial signals will find little difficulty in applying their
knowledge to transmitting or receiving signals by electric
wires in codes of whatever numbers of elements.

Electric instruments may be of the most simple construc-
tion. Electric lines can be set up, and be very useful in
hundreds of places where they are now, if thought of,
deemed impracticable; and they can be worked without
other skilled labor than that of the soldiers attached to the
posts, and with no apparatus but such as can be had at a
trivial expense.

338 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

There is no reason why, with properly drilled parties,
electric lines may not be thrown out in the moments which
precede or even during the progress of a battle, and be so
worked as to lessen infinitely that difficulty of rapid com-
munication, which has so often caused disaster.

Portable lines, and parties drilled to serve with them,
should accompany an army, as does its artillery, to be used
successfully for one day or one battle only, if that case needs
be, provided they may, by successful use on that day or at
that battle, contribute to a victory.

With a corps well organized and well equipped, the con-
nection between the corps of an army and between the
corps-headquarters and general headquarters, ought to be
perfected in a very few hours after the halt of the army.

It was claimed for the Signal Corps during the Avar, that
it, at the battle of Fredericksburg, brought into operation,
for the first time in the service of the United States, a
telegraphic station working upon the field of actual battle,
and exposed to the same fire as the general and his staff.

Electric lines and stations ought, if properly served, be
often thus established and held under fire, and with circum-
stances of great hardship and danger.

Officers and men who share the danger of other soldiers
ought to have the same incentives, the protection, and the
usefulness secured to them by military position and dis-
cipline.

The Field Lines of the Signal Corps consist of rolls
of wire carried in li^ht-wheeled vehicles, and lisrht " lance
poles" as they were called, on which the wire is stretched
when necessary. The wire, made for the purpose, is of
small strands of iron and copper twisted, to give it strength
and flexibility. It is insulated with prepared india-rubber,
or other material, and wound on reels, which, in an emer-
gency, can be earned anywhere by hand, while the wire
reeling out can be raised upon fences, fastened to trees, or

PLATE XXVni.

Fig.l.

The SionaJ Corps Telegraph -Setting up ihe wire.

Fig. 2.

Pio. 3.

The Signal Telegraph -The Operator ;it Work

Signal Station atNiehl

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. . 339

laid along the ground. (Plate XXVIII, Fig. I.) The in-
struments used at first were of a kind known as the Beards-
lee Instrument.

These instruments are worked without batteries, the elec-
tric current being generated by revolving magnets. They
were "indicating," an index upon a dial pointing, at the
receiving station, to whatever letter was designated by the
index handle upon a similar dial at the sending station. '
(Plate XXVIII, Fig. 2.)

There were as advantages attaching to this instrument,
that it was portable and compact, could be set at work
anywhere, required.no batteries, acids, or fluids; and, what
was thought of importance in the early days of the late Avar,
and while the corps was a temporary organization, it could
be worked by soldiers without skill as operators. The de-
fects were, that messages could not be sent as rapidly or as
far as by some other instruments. Nor could several in-
struments work easily upon a single circuit. For some uses
on the field of battle, or under fire, where the attention of
the reader is disturbed, it is, perhaps, as good an instru-
ment as has been devised. With a permanent corps, or at
secure stations; it gives place to some of the forms of signal
or of sound instruments.

The instruments upon field-lines may be of very simple
structure. The signal instruments, either the needle or the
letter instruments, can be used in actual conflict, if the re-
ports of heavy guns or other disturbances of action render
reading by sound unreliable. The manufacture of both
instruments and batteries has been improved, until there
is now no trouble in carrying either in the field in the
roughest campaigns.

The difficulty in reading from telegraphic instruments by
s.mnd, winch has been the greatest obstacle to their use,
can be almost done away with by using them with codes
of easy signals.

340 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Almost any one who can commit to memory a code of
signals can, with a few days' practice, read from a tele-
graphic instrument, if it makes two or three distinct sounds
only ; and these alone are used to form the alphabet. A
good signalist can read slowly without any prior practice,
if he causes to be sounded by the instruments any code to
which he is accustomed. The sound-alphabet in general
use among telegraphers is greatly and unnecessarily com-
plicated.

Standard works on Electric Telegraphy so fully describe
the different styles of apparatus already in use, that no
especial description need here be given.

Every command can have within itself the men and
material for establishing its own stations. There is no diffi-
cult art to be acquired. Instruments which can be carried
in the pocket, with batteries easily transportable in a knap-
sack, are sufficient for short lines. A pack-animal Avith
panniers can carry, anyAvhere that troops will march, mate-
rial and supplies for more extended operations.

Plate XXIX. is intended to exemplify the manner in
which the Field Lines of the Signal Corps can be used to
perfect the service of the corps, and to illustrate circum-
stances which often occur, and in which their use is abso-
lutely necessary to make the corps service efficient. The
electric stations at A and B enable reports of observation
to be taken immediately to headquarters at camp from the
points C, and D, and E, and F, which are otherwise shut off
by the forest. And these stations can be established and
worked for less than the cost of the horse required to mount
a single courier to i*ide from them.

, Plate XXX illustrates the communications between the
land and naval forces at the commencement of operations
against Mobile, and given after Admiral Farragut had passed
the forts with the fleet.

For a line to use a vibrating needle, there is needed only

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 341

a magnet and a wire. The apparatus for working by sound
is not complicated.

Field Telegraph Trains ought to be always furnished with
wire of two kinds: insulated for sadden emergencies, when
the line must he thrown out without delay, and may lie
upon the ground, or may run through streams ; and a light
copper or other wire, to be used with more permanent lines.

Lines put up for temporary use with insulated wire should
be relieved, if likely to be permanent, with other wire. The
insulating material becomes frayed by friction on trees or
poles. The insulated wire removed should be carefully
repaired, tested, reeled, and held for future use. A twisted
copper wire is, perhaps, as flexible and as useful as any for
service in which the same wire is to be often used at differ-
ent places. A supply of insulators of such size, that a large
number of them may be carried in a pouch or haversack,
and made to be screwed or driven into trees, posts, etc.,
should be carried. Temporary insulators have been made
with bottle necks. Wire, both plain and insulated, must
always be in reserve, so that in the moment of battle reliance
need not be upon damaged material. The supply-trains
must carry material to at once replace a damaged or dis-
abled line. Each field-train is accompanied by men prac-
tised to serve with it.

A supply-train carries extra material.

With a marching army, the flying-trains as they are
called, those which carry lines for instant service, are moved
habitually well to the front with the moving columns, pre-
cedence being given them as to the artillery. The wagons
are light, and are not troublesome. When the movements
of a battle commence the roads are thronged, and trains
cannot be then brought quickly forward.

While the army marches, lines are thrown out to par-
ticular points, and such only as are designated in especial
orders. When the army halts, each corps detachment

342 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

makes its connection with general headquarters as quickly
as possible.

When the army remains for a time in the front of an
enemy, light branch lines are pushed out to the front, to
wherever information can be concentrated for headquarters,
and where they may receive the reports of reconnoitring
officers, secret stations of observation, and signal-stations
established still nearer the enemy's lines.

In the co-operation of Land and Naval Forces, a signal-
station established upon the shore, can keep communication
with the fleet while light lines reach the army hidden from
view inland.

At sieges, the light lines go to the front, wherever they
are needed. They can follow the trenches as fast as they
are opened. The insulated wire ought to be laid on the
bottom of the trench, and held close to the rear slope by
wooden pegs driven into the earth. By this plan the wire
is protected from the enemy's fire, and is not in the way of
the troops in the trenches. An exposed wire is often cut by
the fragments of shell, and sometimes purposely by the
enemy's sharpshooters.

On the eve of a battle the chief signal-officer ought to be
notified, and should have information of the number of
miles of line that may be needed. He learns from the chief
of staff the plans of the lines for the engagement, as nearly
as may be. The probable position of the general-in-chief is
ascertained. The chief signal-officers of corps detachments
are then instructed, and each of them arranges that his
field-lines may run to general headquarters-station as soon
as the corps to which he is attached takes its position. The
station near the general-in-ehief is the headquarters-station;
the stations near corps commanders are field-stations.

As the corps take their positions, the chief signal-officer
sees that the headquarters-station and the field-stations are
established. The points to which the general wishes com-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 3-43

munication are reached in the order of their importance.
The flying lines must be carried out by incessanl Labor, no
matter with what difficulties or what fatigue. There should
be no rest until the lines are run out, the patrols placed
upon them, and communication assured by messages ex-
changed between the generals. A line working in time
may save an hour of delay to the army. History is crowded
"with examples where the use of flying lines might have as-
sured victory.

The light electric lines ought to be carried always well
off the main roads, and through the fields or woods, to
avoid the march of troops. When thrown out before a
battle, they should be run, if possible, over such parts of
the ground as will not be traversed by artillery or cavalry.
They must be stretched over thoroughfares on high poles
or lances. It is advisable to carry the lines from head-
quarters-station laterally, and well to the rear of the place
of actual battle, and to then run the wires toward the field-
stations in that direction which will be coincident with the
line of march of the troops, instead of crossing that line.
There will be thus less danger of damage from the necessary
movements of the army.

A detail for patrol duty must be made before the action ;
and patrols, stationed a few hundred yards apart, will keep
every part of the wire in view during the battle. These
patrols should be instructed how to splice the wire if it is
broken, and be furnished with little clamps or screws to
temporarily join it. The lines are to be assigned by sections
of length — as of half a mile or a mile— and a sergeant or
artisan of the Signal Corps ought to be detailed for each
section, whose duty it is to pass continually up and down
his section, to review the splices made by the patrols, and
to see that the line is kept perfect in all its parts.

The men should lie upon the ground when mending wire
under fire.

344 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

A commissioned officer should be on the field with each
corps detachment, and in charge of the field-lines of that
corps. Two sergeants are to be stationed at each instru-
ment. A signal-flag bearing a cross must be kept flying at
each station, as a guide to those bringing messages. A
number of mounted couriers should be assigned for each
station. All the appliances for work must be carefully
provided. Spades, pickaxes, and implements must be at
hand. Lanterns must be ready for night-work. There
must be a proper supply of blanks, note-books, etc. A
line may be disabled by some little neglect in such pro-
vision. Field-stations must be near the corps commanders,
or where they can easily reach them. If the fire is heavy,
the stations ought to be located in ravines or in some
depression, keeping a crest higher than the instruments
between the station and the enemy. They may be placed
behind cover of any kind; a trench may be made for this
purpose.

The officer in charge of each station must ascertain where
the general with whom he serves, or some one to represent
him, will be found to receive messages; and generals should
provide that instructions on this point are carefully given,
and that members of their staffs know the positions of the
different stations. Much valuable time is sometimes lost in
the wandering search of the orderlies, bearing messages
from the instruments, for those for whom they are intended.

Officers sending messages before or during an action
should make them brief, intelligible, and write them plainly.
A copy of each message sent ought to be kept at the instru-
ments. If the message is of great importance, and the per-
sons bearing it have to go under fire to reach the instru-
ments, separate copies ought to be sent by separate mes-
sengers.

If a field-station is threatened by the enemy, the officer
in charge ought to be personally at the instrument, and

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 345

must see that the line is not abandoned until it is absolutely
necessary; and that the instrument is carried oft' by the
men on duty. The instrument should never fall into the
hands of the enemy. If it must be abandoned, let it be de-
stroyed, and with it all messages and every article that
could in any way aid the enemy.

If a station is to fall bark, and there is time, the wire
can be coiled on the arms of the men after the manner of a
rope coil, and thus be saved. The officer in charge should,
on reaching a place of safety, at once procure from the
reserve supplies new wire, lances, etc. ; and be ready, watch-
ing his opportunity, to reoccupy his station the moment the
position of friendly forces renders it again tenable.

If he has fallen back along his own line of wire, he may
open communication with headquarters-station from a posi-
tion more to the rear. He must at once report his new
position to the corps commander, and he must keep his flag
displayed there as a guide to those seeking the station.

If a station is to advance with the advance of the forces,
the officer in charge must see in time that he has wire and
material, and a party at hand to keep pace with the move-
ment. He must at once give notice of his new position as
soon as he has opened communication with general head-
quarters from a station in advance.

Whenever the movements of the army permit any line to
be abandoned, it must be immediately reeled, repacked, and
reported to the chief signal-officer, that it may be held ready
to be extended in any other location.

There have been here given outlines of such instructions
as were formed for the signal-officers serving; with field-
lines during the war. They have reference to those lines
onh which ought to be in the hands of corps organized

316 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

especially for service in the field, and for services of this
nature.

Where lines are permanent for months, as behind an
army, or running through a guarded country, the service
on these, as on civil lines, may be by citizen employes of the
quarter-master's department.

When signal corps are organized, they ought, wherever
in actual service, to have control of light telegraphic
lines, to be eithei worked by the corps, or, if for any rea-
son, by citizen employes, these to be subject to the orders
of the chief signal-oificer ; and the officers and men of
the corps should be drilled in the service and working
of their lines with as much precision and regularity as
artillery are taught at their guns. The Military Board
convened in 1863, to report the organization and duties
of the Signal Corps, approved in strong terms this part of
the equipment.

The officer or enlisted man who can skilfullv read sic-
nals addressed to the eye, will, with a few days' practice,
read as well those made, whatever may be their style,
with telegraphic instruments. An officer charged with
the duty of opening communication over lines by aerial
telegraph signals should be able to complete such lines
through woods, or where obstacles intervene, by electric
signals, to be transmitted, as are the aerial, by his own
men and under his direction. Considerations of economy
also necessitate this. The sergeants and privates of the
signal corps, men of full age, many of them good scho-
lars, and each selected after examination, can as well
attend the simpler telegraphic instruments as can the
young clerks now employed for that duty, and do so at
a rate of pay amounting to about one-third the sums
now demanded by inferior operators. An intelligent
sergeant can read the sounding f the Beardslee in-
strument with a fortnight's practice. A code of two ele-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 347

ments can be read by sound from :i Morse instrument with
a month's practice. The more complicated alphabet now
everywhere used on that instrument, and to read which well
requires from three months to a year of practice, is not suit-
able for a soiu/d alphabet, was never intended to be read by
the ear, and is continued in use because the first operators
learned to read by it, and those of a later day have followed
their practice without inquiry. It was devised as an alpha-
bet for record or writing. In time of peace, this duty of
telegraphing might remain to the corps in so far that the
chief signal-officer at any post might have supervision of the
terminus of the main electric line there; and when an expe-
dition moved into the field, the signal-officer should be ex-
pected to provide all arrangements for its telegraphing, and
be responsible for the execution of that duty.

A few reels of wire at each frontier post, some simple in-
struments and appliances, can be furnished at an expense
which, as compared to their usefulness, is trivial. A sergeant
and half a dozen soldiers, taught as operators and line-men,
are a sufficient establishment.

When there is not the need of telegraphic service, these
soldiers, armed, areas valuable as any others; or taking the
field with signal equipments and glasses, they offer every-
where to the commander a power which, a few years ago,
was not imagined, and which every educated officer must
now appreciate.

GENERAL SERVICE OF THE SIGNAL CORPS.

The general service of the Signal Corps should be so con-
ducted that the corps may offer a body of educated and
skilful officers, practised in the duties of reconnoissance, the
studies that pertain to them, and the habit of making con-

348 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

densed reports; skilled also in the arts of cryptography, in
ciphers, and in the especial branches of semiology and tele-
graphy : the soldiers of the corps, disciplined and drilled in
the use of their arms; and, as soldiers, should be besides so
drilled in the practice of signalling that each may be able to
transmit any simple message in a common code, and so to
report intelligence gained by him, or to send communica-
tions confided to him for that purpose. The practice in
sio-nallino- should be habitual, as is that in the Manual of

Arms.

When field telegraphic lines are to be used, selected de-
tails must be practised with them until they are skilled in
the management of the instruments and the lines.

The useful service of the Signal Corps is by no means
limited to those brief periods during which an army is in
actual movement against the enemy. When the army is at
rest and time hangs heavily for want of active service, the
signal-oflicer can never act amiss if his parties are kept in
motion, scouting systematically in the direction in which
the enemy are ; gathering knowledge of their position and
intentions, exploring and roughly mapping the country, with
its- roads, trails, springs, water-courses, etc., noting its facili-
ties for the supply or the transit of troops, etc., and so collect-
ing, day by day, while there is time, information of every
character, the value of which in reference to his future move-
ments the commanding general will not fail to appreciate.
In an Indian country, large tracts can be thus swept over,
the dominant points noticed for convenience in future op-
erations, in which the use of signals may be necessary, and
telescopic observations made from peaks and places to which
no other corps in service is called by duty. From a single
elevated peak, the general make of the country, its grazing-
grounds, valleys, water-courses, forests, etc., can often be
marked with an exactness which would require days of pain-
ful marcjnng and the movement of large forces to secure by

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 3*9

following the roads. From separate communicating peaks
an extent of country can be kept in such observation by *r
small detachment, that the main body need rarely move,
unless upon definite information. A few signal-stations
near a camp or post afford a better guaranty for its safety,
or that of herds, trains, etc., near it, from unexpected at-
tack, than can be otherwise had. In many parts of the
country west of the Mississippi, a line of stations connecting
commands or posts would be at once points of observation,
save all need of couriers, and enable movements to be made
from one command to intercept marauding parties, pursued
or traced from the vicinity of the other, with a rapidity to
insure their capture. A reconnoissance for signal-stations
in which the proper dominant points of a district are to be
visited, and the country thence viewed and mapped, will
add much to the topographical knowledge of the country ;
and for such general knowledge as is needed for military
operations, is better than an ordinary survey. These, and
a hundred other employments of a signal-party, will suggest
themselves to intelligent officers, acting in an Indian country.
The skill of the Indian lookouts can be neutralized. Our
plans of signalling, our telescopes and apparatus for obser-
vation, are as superior to their efforts as we are in our
civilization superior to their barbarism. It is not probable
that any commander who has enjoyed in the presence of the
enemy the facility of communication the Signal Corps has
given, will willingly find himself in active operations with-
out a representation of that corps.

It has been attempted to show on preceding pages how
details from the corps can be made useful wherever tele-
graphic facilities of any kind are needed.

In such labors, the study they will necessitate, the pre-
paration of books, papers, and forms for systematizing and
fixing their duties, will, perhaps, be found the employment
of a signal-curps for a few years to come. The held is suHi-

350 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ciently extensive, and the work is necessary. It is not
flfobable that within the coming century any well-appointed
army will take the field without a signal-corps of some kind,
or that the co-operation of land and naval forces will be at-
tempted without a service of this description.

The condemnation sure to fall upon any commander who
should invite disaster by the neglect of means so often and
successfully tested, will insure their employment.

For service with a grand army, consisting of several
corps, and in the field, the following organization was re-
commended by the Military Board of 1863 :

Basis, an Army of Two or More Corps.

At General Headquarters, Statf of General commanding:
(1) One Captain, Chief Signal Officer of that army.
(1) One Lieutenant, Adjutant, Officer in charge of Rec-
ords.

(1) One Lieutenant, Quartermaster, Ordnance Officer, and

Property Officer commanding Depot Camp.

(3) Three Sergeants, as Clerks.

(6) Six 1st class Privates, as assistant clerks, flagmen and
escorts.

(2) Two Sergeants in charge of Reserve Camp, Depot,

Stores.

(4) Four 1st class Privates in care of stores, repairs, etc.

2d class Privates detailed, three from each Corps
Party, as guard of Reserve Camp, etc., and in charge
of Depot trains upon the march.

Depot Camp to be near Headquarters.

Such other details as may be necessary for the service at
General Headquarters to be made for the occasion.

For each Army Corps.
(l) One Captain, Chief Signal Officer of the Corps.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 351

(1) One Sergeant as Clerk.

(l) One Sergeant as Quartermaster and Commissary

Sergeant of the Corps Party and in charge of

Train.
(8) Eight Lieutenants.
(5) Five Sergeants.
(20 Twenty 1st class Privates.
(34) Thirty-four 2d class Privates.

Additional details for special duties, or when strong
guards or escorts are to be required, to be furnished at the
discretion of the general commanding the corps.

The number of lieutenants was estimated to provide for
corps of three or four full divisions. The officers to form
reserve parties to be detailed from the corps parties as oc-
casion required.

The Board suggested the following detail for each Field
Telegraphic Train :

" The following detail is suggested for each Field Tele-
graph Train. The detail to be drawn from the Army Corps
detail:

" (1) Orte Lieutenant, in charge of Train, commanding.

" (1) One Lieutenant, as assistant, when necessary in case
of extension of lines required to be worked by com-
missioned officers, or on the field of battle.

" (2) Two Sergeants as chief operators, etc.

" (8) Eight 1st class Privates as operators and line-men.

" (12) Twelve 2d class Privates.

" This force to be increased by details made by the com-
manding general at his discretion, or by the chief signal-
officer of the corps.

" The 2d class privates to be, when not on actual duty on
the line, for detail on escort and general duty."

This detail was for trains intended to be used on the field
of battle.

352 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The organizations estimated for time of war and for large
armies in active service must be greatly reduced, both as to
the number and the grades of its members in time of peace.

Signal-parties should be armed as cavalry, with revolvers
and repeating carbines. In camp, or where large numbers
are serving together, the organization and provision should
be that for companies or battalions — sergeants acting in
place of corporals. Parties taking the field for service con-
stitute detachments, certain men being detailed for duty
with each officer. The organization of engineer troops
affords an example.

When serving for a length of time by detachments on
different stations, each officer returns for his own men, and
is responsible to the chief with the forces for their duty and
equipments.

The chief signal-officer in a military division or depart-'
ment consolidates at headquarters the rolls and returns of
officers and men, and is responsible for their proper supply
and instruction, as other chiefs are responsible for staff
corps.

Reference to the instructions which have preceded will,
it is hoped, convince the reader that it is within the power
of any commander, who may so will, to be himself a sig-
nalist, and to have attached to his command officers, and
men, instructed by himself if need be, whose aid in some
emergency may save not only himself and his command, but
a decisive action. The saving to the national cause of
Sherman's base at Allatoona in the campaign upon Atlanta,
the skilfully directed fire of Porter's squadron on Fort
Fisher, and numerous instances which might be cited, will
recall the value of a few simple messages signalled at the
proper moment.

At the beginning of the war, the use of army-signals was
almost unknown. Telegraphs were novel in armies, not

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 353

practically well understood by our soldiers, and not pro-
vided for in organization. Very little was known of the
principles of telegraphic communication. It was not known
how simply signals could be made, nor at what great dis-
tances they were legible. The duty was experimental.
During the war of the Rebellion the services of the Signal
Corps were greatly developed, and at its close the records
show their admitted value.

As the officers who command our armies and our fleets
become yet better acquainted with the uses of signals and
telegraphs, the facilities they give in operations, and the
ease with which they may be employed, thousands of ap-
plications will be found which are not now thought of.

Each chief signal-officer should cause the subjects of his
duties, and their value, to be comprehended by the general
officers with whom he is serving ; and each chief should see
that every post in his department, which might be liable to
be at any time isolated, is furnished with equipments, codes,
and instructions to use them. The issue of these notes will
render this practicable. Similar provisions ought to be
made for co-operating naval vessels, and the chief of each
department acting under instructions from the central
office, should be held responsible that no detriment hap-
pens to the service from any want of communication be-
tween its different branches.

A sisrnal-offieer cannot be too well educated, nor too
good a soldier.

The perfect organization and discipline of the signal-
parties require some knowledge of organization ; of military
rules ; the manual of arms ; and of tactics.

In providing for his own safety on lonely stations, or the
safety of lines under his care; in his marches with small

354 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

escorts ; his reconnoissances ; and in the drawing of the
papers in which finally are summed the results of his
labors, he will find ample exercise for all soldierly know-
ledge he can grain.

There is no branch of the service in which military prac-
tice and scientific attainment may add more to the value
of an officer, or he more variously employed to advance
the interest of the State.

The duties of signal-officers in time of war, are to gain as
reconnoitring officers all knowledge of the country, of the
movements of the enemy, and the position of our own
forces, which, communicated to the commander, may aid
in forming his plans ; to collate from all sources what-
ever information may be of value; to secure the quickest
transmission of intelligence within the lines of the army,
and to connect the divisions of any forces by the most
rapid communication.

As cavalry has been styled the eyes and ears of an army,
so the detachments of the Signal Corps, properly equipped
and handled, and serving with efficient escorts, should aim
to make themselves the army's eyes and ears and tongue.
In the presence of the enemy, selected officers of the corps
secure information by observation and by reconnoissance or
scouting. Their service is then that of a corps of well-
educated guides, and they are aided in the transmission of
the intelligence they may gain by the modes now used in
our army ; others maintain the lines of communication over
which the reports are to be passed, or which connect the
else separated forces.

The chief signal-officer with an army ought to stand in
the relation of almost a confidential secretary to the general
commanding. Through him should go dispatches, commu-
nications in cipher, etc., and he should be held responsible
for their transmission, delivery, and record; and by him
should be collected the detached reports and commnnica-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 355

tions which, coming in as brief dispatches from different
sources during the day, admit of collation and consolida-
tion, to <i - ive some connected information at night. His
office is a bureau in which to concentrate, and whence to
distribute, reports of general information in reference to any
section of country, or any particular military operation.
The general supervision of courier lines may be confided to
this officer in connection with the duties of his corps, and
special scouts report to him for particular assignments.

Preparatory to an action, the Signal Corps should be
divided into three parties:

1st. A reconnoitring party.

2d. A party for service on stations.

3d. A party to serve with the flying telegraph.

The officers of the reconnoitring party, moving out be-
fore the action and during its continuance, penetrate every-
where, bv different roads, upon the flank or towards the
enemy, and, gaining whatever knowledge they can, report
to the stations, which in their turn concentrate this know-
ledge at headquarters.

These parties do not rest during the engagement, and
each of them sends frequent reports by courier. They
carry with them, on some of the roads, bombs or other
signals, and establish posts which may warn if the enemy
attempt. certain anticipated movements. They are continu-
ally on the alert, and are furnished with definite instruc-
tions as to the facts concerning which they are to observe
and report.

The station-party occupies points upon or near the field,
whence they can view the enemy's position and the circum-
jacent country, and report continually, during the progress
of the action, to the headquarters-station and to the tele-
graphic stations, whatever comes under their observation.

The telegraphic party carries the light telegraphic lines
to the different corps-headquarters as soon as the troops are

356 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

established, and also through such woods or other obstacles
as would else prevent communication from the dominant
signal-stations; and upon or near these stations they estab-
lish telegraphic stations to communicate by signal with
others inaccessible, or to change frequently.

If naval co-operation is expected, officers are detailed to
report to the senior naval officer before the action, and are
assigned by him to different vessels. These officers ascer-
tain as nearly as may be the proposed positions of the fleet,
and prearrange with those on shore the points at which
they will be in communication.

If communication is to be between ships in a bay or river,
the officers will consult together, if possible, before parting,
as to the place at which the ships will probably be, the
color of the flags it will be best to use, and in what direc-
tion, by compass, the vessels will be from each other. They
will consider, also, whether signals will be preferably made
from the decks or the rigging, as the " tops," and whether
the make of the land or river-bank is such that it is likely
the hulls of the vessels will be hidden from each other, as
by rising grounds or by trees. It is possible this will be
the case. It will be considered, also, whether the masts
will show above the trees, and how much of them will show.
To ascertain this point, the officers should, together, ascend
the rigging and estimate the height of the obstacles in the
direction in which it is supposed the signalling will be
necessary.

When any part of the mast of a vessel can be seen above
the trees from the top of the mast-head on any other vessel,
communication can be had from " Crow-nests," fitted at the
mast-heads of the corresponding vessels.

When vessels, co-operating with land forces, are to go
into action, the post of the signal-officer is the " foretop," or
in the " maintop," and arrangements must be made for rais-
ino- or lowering written messages by cords. A signal-flag

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 357

should always be kept flying from some prominent position
on every vessel carrying a signal-officer. Signal-officers,
serving with troops, or on other vessels, can thus know with
what ships it is possible to have verbal communication.

Signal-officers carrying with them apparatus for clay and
night signals, and always some rockets and candle-bombs,
should invariably accompany forces about to land. A few
preconcerted signals for possible events should be arranged
before landing; and the landing-signalist and the signalist
to remain on ship-board should together determine some
points on shore from which the first communication shall
be had. Forces landing and moving inland, so as to be
covered by woods, etc., may yet indicate their progress and
preconcerted messages by Chronosemic Signals, as rockets
and bombs thrown above the trees, and can receive the
recognition or reply, by guns, or other sound-signals.

If there is a commanding peak near where the enemy
offer battle, signal-officers should be hurried to it in advance
of the army. The enemy are to be kept constantly in view
from the time the position is reached. The knowledge to
be gained by witnessing thus the formation of their forces,
by estimating their strength before their lines are in posi-
tion, and by witnessing early what preparations are made
fo"r the battle, may be invaluable.

In a reconnoissance of a field of battle, the signal-officer
must notice carefully how many lines of battle there are,
and he must not fail to report the number. If furnished
with a scale-glass, he must find the distance and direction
of almost every marked object in the enemy's line, from
some known point within our own. Make this observation
particularly in reference to batteries, reserves, ammunition
trains, etc. Report these distances and directions with pre-
cision to the general commanding, and to the generals near
you. Send copies also to officers commanding heavy bat-
teries. Note carefully <ind report the direction in which

858 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the enemy's guns are pointed, what roads or fields they
seem to cover. See where their cavalry is posted, or where
they have cavalry pickets out. This sometimes shows the
position of their flank and of the point from which they fear
attack. Study closely the ground in cornfields, in groves,
in fields covered with low bushes, behind stone fences, for
lines of men lying hidden in ambush, or for masked guns.
Seek such forces, not only in front of the lines, but far to
the right and left, over Avhich the troops are to pass. They
may be so posted to have an enfilading fire on the advancing
lines. If artillery is to fire upon any point not visible from
the guns, notice something near it by which to point it out ;
give the exact bearing and the distance of the object from
the battery, and regulate the aim by signals from the sta-
tion. Signal-officers should make themselves acquainted
with the elevation, charges, length of fuse, etc., allowed in
artillery firing at different ranges. Give the distance and
direction of any thing described and to be sought within
the enemy's lines from some marked point, as a house, a
hill, or tree, also within the enemy's lines and visible from
our own. If the enemy have covered, or are covering, any
part of their line with breastworks or in trenches, the fact
should be fully reported upon. If the enemy commences
to change a line, notify the commanding general of the fact
at once, and report, from time to time, the progress of the
movement. Continue to watch and to report upon the
enemy in their new position. Report the direction and ex-
tent of the new line so far as it is visible, and state to what
point it probably extends, if it is hidden in part from view.
Ascertain, as nearly as possible, the points at which troops
are massed or massing, and estimate their numbers.

It will add much to the value of all reports if the report-
ing officer has a knowledge of the different orders of battle.

While observing the enemy, notice minutely by what
roads and whence their ammunition and supply-trains come.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 359

To be able thus to judge where their depot is located may
be Important. Examining villages, houses, <>r walls, near
the field of battle, see if they are loop-holed. Notice bodies
or small parties of troops moving into or out of them.

Lines of battle may be described by their number,
length, position, and the direction in which they extend,
given by compass. Trains are reported by their length, the
number of wagons, or the time occupied in passing a given
object : artillery, cavalry, and infanty, by the number of
guns, the regiments, or time of passage at the ordinary rate
of march.

Cavalry Raids.

"When a hostile cavalry force is reported in the vicinity
of an army, or as moving through any section of the coun-
try, a signal-party should at once be sent to follow it as
closely as they may, to report upon its movements, and to
annoy it by indicating its position to such of our troops as
may be in pursuit. These signal-parties fire, at different
times at night, rockets or roman candles, to show the gen-
eral direction in which the enemy may be. During the day
cartridge-puffs or heavy smokes should be raised, for the
same purpose. Codes of chronosemic signals may be used
in cases of this kind with splendid effect. To this end of
attracting attention and directing the march of friendly
troops upon the enemy, if there is a known chance to cap-
ture or destroy them, hay-stacks, wood-piles, or out-build-
ings ought to be fired (using proper judgment), anywhere
they may be found in the country lying near the line of the
enemy's march, — the officer ordering the firing giving a
certificate to the owners, that the property was fired for
government uses. The firing of these signals, of any kind,
must follow the track of the enemy from place to place.
It is the object to thus mark his course, that preparations
may be made in his advance to intercept him, or that

360 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

troops in pursuit may know in what direction to march or
to concentrate. 80 in front of an enemy, presumed to be
advancing on any roads, small signal-parties should be sent
out on every road. These parties are to fall back, firing
signals, raising smokes, or kindling fires, as the enemy ad-
vances. Some of the parties ought to conceal themselves
near the roads, to gain all the information they can before
reporting ; others to wait, with the signals ready to be
fired, and only light them when the foe drives them from
their position. Thus a cartridge-puff may be raised at the
last moment it is safe to remain at a station. A few daring
men can thus cause infinite annoyance to an enemy, whose
success is often depending on the secrecy of his movements.
In all cases of this kind, a dominant station, or stations,
must be chosen somewhere, from which the signals made,
in any part of the country, can at once be noted and re-
ported, and whence reports must frequently go to the
senior commander in the vicinity, and to the general com-
manding. A constant watch must be kept from this posi-
tion ; and signals seen in any part of the country must
be at once reported as to their distance, kind, and direc-
tion.

When several parties are in pursuit of Indians, that upon
the trail may notify the others of its direction, etc., by
chronosemic signals, fired from time to time, as above de-
scribed in the pursuit of cavalry.

Observation and Keconnoissance.

The observations and reconnoissances made by signal-
officers differ from those of other reconnoitring officers, in
the facts that, by their long practice, they are able to use
their telescopes with an almost wonderful skill ; and that the
information they gain can sometimes be compared by them,
.from the place of observation, with that had at the same

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 301

time by other officers in view and watching the enemy from
other points, by the immediate transmission from one to
the other of the facts noticed by each. The reports of t he ir
reeonnoissanees can also, in many instances, be at once com-
municated to the commanding general from the place at
which the observations are making, while the reconnoitring
officer remains to add further to his information. The
reports are of a general character, relating to the presence
or movements of the enemy, etc., such as are made by
scouts. They are not expected to embrace the specialties
exhibited in a report of engineers. An officer is often
j)osted for weeks together at one station of observation.

For a principal station of observation, a point dominant to
the surrounding country, within good range of the place to
which the reports are to go, and within good range and
view of other stations which are to communicate with it,
should be selected.

The principal station of observation ought to command-a
view of fords, principal roads, railways, bridges, towns,
camps, gaps in mountains, rivers, ports, as the case may be,
and generally of the routes of march or movement in that
section of the country.

"When one permanent station of observation has been
selected, other temporary stations ought to be chosen at
points within a few miles, and the country covered by them
should be studied in the same way as from the principal
station. The officer in charge of the permanent station can
then, at any time, send a subordinate or go himself to either
of these stations, whenever especially extensive reeonnois-
sanees or reports are needed.

The observations from permanent stations should extend
to points far from the enemy's lines, and to all the routes by
which an enemy might move.

Observations should be made of the different parts of the
country at different times each day, and any point to be.

362 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

critically examined should be particularly scrutinized when
the sunlight falls strongly upon it.

Stations near the enemy should always be carefully
guarded by pickets and outposts ; and if they are at all
important, an especial guard should be provided.

An officer assigned to a station of observation should be
always supplied with the best attainable map of the country ;
his glasses and signal equipments ; a scale-glass, if possible ;
a time-piece, dispatch blanks, compass, pencils, papers, blue
and red pencils for drawing on maps, and tracing-paper on
which to extemporize maps.

A portion of every signal-party must be organized and
well equipped with implements for the erection of towers
and platforms, and the construction of stations generally.

An officer about to occupy any position should prearrange
for the construction of a tower or platfonn in trees, as soon
as he may reach it. He must select the exact ground him-
self, and must in person superintend the construction ; espe-
cially if it is to be in the presence of the enemy, or if an
engagement is expected. His party should carry with it
axes, ropes, and nails, that no moment may be lost in se-
curing a position for successful observation.

Observations of reconnoissance are generally made from
several prominent stations. They are to be briefly made,
but they ought to be made with scrupulous exactness. The
parties moving with signal-officers on reconnoissance are
generally small. They should move with the utmost ra-
pidity and secrecy.

Near the enemy, advance guards or videttes of two or
three men should be kept out, each about two hundred
yards from the other. There should be, in the same way,
one or two videttes in the rear of the party. In suspicious
localities, a vidette or two ought to be sent out three or
four hundred yards on each flank, and then keep up, going
through the fields, woods, etc., with the movement of the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 363

party. No matter how small the party, these precautions

should be taken. It' there are but two men accompanying
the officer, one ought to ride well to the front just in view,

the other at some distance in the rear. The officer should
always keep himself thus guarded, riding near the centre of
the party, where, if the party is strong enough, he lias a
little reserve. At each point at which he halts for observa-
tion, to use his glass, his compass, his maps, or flags, he must
throw out his videttes and station them to watch all
dangerous directions. These are instructed to raise a shout,
or make some signal under any circumstances, if they are
captured or if they are in danger of capture. It is the ob-
ject of this care to make it impossible to surprise and capture
the whole party. In case of danger, the party rallies and
tights, or escapes.

On this duty, officers seek the points likely to command a
view of the country in which the enemy are. They examine
roads and map them roughly, being careful to give always
a complete scale of distances and the compass points upon
the map; and they mark upon this map, as well as they can,
the positions in which the enemy are seen, or where they
are said to be located.

Information as to the best points of view in any country,
for the purpose of examining in any particular direction, can
generally be had from citizens. Careful inquiry should be
made on this point ; and it should be remembered, while in-
terrogating, that persons not accustomed to the telescope,
cannot, understand ingly, advise for the selection of points
for its use, and that they have but little idea of the great
distances at which it can be successfully employed. They
should be questioned, therefore, when naming points of
view, as to what towns, cities, rivers, roads, etc., are thence
visible.

In making a reconnoissancc, it is always well to be ac-
companied by an experienced countryman as a guide, and

361 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

• such guide should be obtained, if possible, before the party
starts out. When this is impracticable, such assistance
must be sought from persons residing near points whence
the observation is to be made.

It is a rule, in any case, when without special information,
to seek the summit of the highest hills in reach. The party
should carry axes, as the felling of a few trees or bushes
will often make a station, otherwise of little value, the
most useful for observation. There is nothing more annoy-
ing, to a zealous officer, than a poor observation of some
position or movement of the enemy, which, but for the
want of such simple means, he feels he might have made
perfect.

The reconnoissances of signal-officers ought to be pushed
to the utmost. The extent of the enemy's lines must be
traced, if that is possible.

In the movements of great armies, when lines are miles in
length, it is often of high importance to know their flank
outposts. These must be discovered, if possible.

"When the position of the enemy is known, it must be
observed whether there are elevated points behind him,
whence communication may be had, over his forces, to
others on his front or flank, — these points being, perhaps,
known to be in friendly hands. In such a case, signal-
parties must be sent far round the enemy's flank to occupy
them at every hazard. Reconnoissances carefully made
and reported under circumstances of this kind, may be
most valuable.

Signal parties of reconnoissance should gather informa-
tion also in relation to the enemy, from the statements of
citizens, — the inquiries being as to the numbers, number of
guns, wagons, length of trains, and of the column ; condi-
tion of supply in which the men seem to be, and the
morale: other questions will readily suggest themselves.
Different persons ought to be questioned on the same sub-

MANUAL OF BIGNALS. 365

ject at points distant from each other, and their accounts
compared, to see how they coincide.

When reconnoissances are to be made, it ought to be so
arranged, if possible, that the resnlts may be at once re-
ported to some fixed station, from certain points agreed
upon in the direction in which the reconnoissance is to be,
and in view of the fixed station. The reports may go from
this station by telegraph.

Certain hours of the day may be fixed for these reports,
or the time may be estimated when the moving party will
reach the designated station.

Preconcerted signals should also be arranged to be given ;
as by codes of Chronosemie Signals, prepared for rockets,
cartridge-puffs, smokes, etc., to report such facts as ought
to be instantly known, as soon as they may be discovered
by the reconnoitring parties advancing. These signals are
to he acknowledged from the observing station ; and lines
of repeating stations may be arranged when necessary.

In Indian wars the signalist must use much caution,
making his observations from peaks, but keeping himself
hidden, and signalling the results of Ins reconnoissance to
the parties below from some nook or hollow, where his flag
will be shut off from view except toward the observers. It
is for reports of this nature that " position-signals," to be
made with as little show as possible, will be found useful.

The general rules of reconnoissance given in standard
military works furnish instruction as to the proper subjects
for inquiry and observation, and the mode in which the
inquiries and observations are to be made. These rules
ought to be carefully studied.

A few suggestions are given for officers who have no re-
course to complete works.

On reaching any point of observation, find from some in-
telligent countryman, hired or compelled to act as guide,
the names and distances of all prominent houses, churches,

3G6 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

etc., in sight, and their computed distances from the
station.

If water-courses are in view, in any direction, cause the
guide to point out the course where the water is not visible,
and also to indicate objects or points in view, some of which
are on the near and others on the distant sides of the course.
The movements or position of troops or trains visible may
thus be referred to by these objects. Let the guide also
show about where are the bridges and fords, to the end that
the intention of forces moving near them may be divined.
Let him be questioned closely as to the direction and condi-
tion of all the roads in view, and gain from him all possible
information.

The location of cities, ports, or posts can often be exactly
fixed by the appearance of one spire, or the top of a flag-
staff, which comes into view ; or by clouds of smoke or dust
which, when the air is still, hang about it.

The courses of roads can sometimes be traced a long
distance by dust rising above the trees, and by noticing the
clear cuts through the trees where the road enters a forest.

To ascertain from a distance whether troops are in a town,
it must be watched long and at different times of the day.
Sentinels will probably be seen posted at some points, and
the unusual number of men in the streets may give some
information. Note if at any time in the day the horses are
brought out by twos to be watered ; and whether trains
moving into the place stop or pass through it.

Observe whether there are pickets thrown out.

When columns of troops are moving very far off, it is
often very difficult to tell whether they are troops, or how
moving. Watch the line, to see if a break or spot at which
it seems thinner can be found ; and notice carefully, with
the glass at rest, whether this spot moves, and in what
direction. Look also for the glimmer of reflected light
from muskets.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 367

If any part of a marching force comes in view, by fixing
upon a wagon, or some marked object in tbe force, and
noticing the direction in which it crosses a line on a scale-
glass, the glass at rest and fixed steadily upon it, the direc-
tion of the movement may be judged.

One gaudily dressed soldier, or a single mounted man, or
any marked object, which can be distinguished from the
mass, may fix the direction.

Clouds of dust should be scrutinized.

If the dust moves against the wind, or across the current
of wind, there can be no question as to the direction of the
movement ; but movements miles away may give wrong
impressions. For this reason the officer should always
try to know beforehand, either by personal observation or
study of the map, the roads on which the movements in
different parts of the country must be. This aids the de-
cision.

If dust rises in separate clouds, or is more dense at some
points than at others, the clouds disappearing after a little
time along a tract of road, notice two points at which the
clouds rise one after the other, and deduce the direction in
which the force must be moving, supposing it to be the
same force which raises each cloud. In the same way, in
a continuous cloud of dust, the clouds may rise more dense-
ly as the force passes points in the road more dusty than
others.

Smokes may indicate the direction of a march. These
are generally raised, from time to time, from cook-fires,
teamsters' fires, or fires wantonly kindled by troops march-
ing. If they rise further and further in any direction during
the day, it is almost conclusive there is some movement
in that direction. Smokes observed early in the morning,
almost always rest over or near the camp from which they
have risen.

Smokes should be carefully looked for after a rain, for

368 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

troops that have been wetted and are chilly will then light
fires in disobedience of orders. In long-continued battles,
concealed lines can be traced in this manner.

Smokes may sometimes be raised one after the other in
particular directions to deceive ; and clouds of dust are
caused for the same purpose, by driving wagons over a
dusty road. The work is apt to be overdone, and the clouds
to be so dense and continuous as to excite suspicion.

Large bodies of troops are often marched through fields
by the sides of roads, crossing the country in this way, and
thus raising very little dust. Sometimes, under these cir-
cumstances, wagons may be in view moving in one direction
upon the roads, while the troops march in opposite direction
through the fields. When it is desired to know whether
the enemy are or are not re-enforcing a position, movements
of this kind require close study.

Troops and trains are sometimes marched in a circle, and
are allowed to be seen at some point where they present the
appearance of a very great force moving in one direction.
If careful note is made of each regiment, battery, and train,
as they come in view, they will, after a little while, repeat
themselves in the same order. Notice, in suspected cases
of this kind, some remarkable gun, wagon, or flag, and see
if it returns from time to time to view ; and look for the
dust, etc., which ought, if the movement is genuine, to be
raised far in the direction in which the column seems to be
passing.

A force moving upon a road can often be computed when
only a very small portion of the road is visible. It being
known by the dust or other signs that troops are moving
upon the road, turn the glass upon the visible part, and
count each regiment, gun, wagon, etc., as it shows itself in
passing. The length and strength of the column can be
computed also by noticing its order of march, and the time
it occupies in passing any given position.

M \NUAL OF SIGNALS. 369

A force encamped may be computed by counting the
tents and estimating the occupants of each tent.

When any part of the enemy's force is thought to be
moving- at night, or there is a probability it will soon move,
h»ok out for the glare of its fires upon the sky. This glare
may indicate its position, when the fires themselves cannot
be seen.

Fires in view may indicate the position of troops at night.
A rough computation of numbers may be made by allowing
an averaged number of men for each lire.

An unusually large number and very bright fires may de-
note the presence of re-enforcements. Or they may be
kindled to deceive. When the fires are in fair view, study
them one by one with the telescope, and note whether per-
sons are moving around them. When fires are kindled to
deceive, they are often replenished at certain hours by de-
tails. If all grow dull and brighten simultaneously, there
is room for suspicion.

If it is thought the enemy are about to evacuate any po-
sition, look out for signs of burning stores, etc. Notice if
the smokes visible are of different colors, for this adds
to the _ probability that they rise from burning stores.
Stores of different kinds burn with differently colored
smokes.

Xotice whether trains arriving empty depart laden, and
whether there are unusual movements of troops or trains
from the position.

The destruction of railway tracks may be surmised if lines
of smokes, or smokes rising at separate points for many
miles, are seen. The smoke from burning railway ties gen-
erally appears in wreaths of white and black, the white
arising from the steam of the moistened wood, the black
from the seasoned timber. Unseasoned timber burns with
a bluish smoke.

If the enemy are stationary, look carefully for their line

1G*

370 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

of pickets. Notice whether they are mounted or on foot.
If mounted, it is likely they are some distance from any
large force of infantry.

By carefully looking for the cooking-smokes by day, or
the fire-lights by night; the whole picket line may some-
times be accurately discovered. Notice if this line differs
at night from the day.

When an officer is stationed long in front of an enemy,
he should endeavor to so closely observe his camps, works,
strength, etc., that any marked change of any force will at-
tract his attention.

Signal-officers will be greatly aided, and thus enabled to
render more valuable service, if the commanding general,
or the chief of staff", will from time to time send to them at
their stations brief instructions as to the information they
desire : as to observe particular tracts of country or particu-
lar roads; to look out for indicated movements of the enemy;
to notice whether re-enforcements arrive by certain roads ;
whether troops are moved in named positions, etc. ; — such
instructions in general as the commander may think the
facilities of observation at the stations will permit to be
obeyed. "Without this care, many facts may come under
the observation of a signal-officer without mention in his
reports, for the reason that he, ignorant perhaps of the po-
sition of our own forces, or of what are the presumed plans
of the enemy, may not know the points upon which his
commander desires to be especially informed, or the value
of the information in his own possession.

MAPPING.

Outline maps should always accompany reports of special
interest. These maybe rapidly sketched ; and no matter

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 371

how roughly, if'they are drawn with reasonable accuracy as
to scales of distance and correctness of direction, and clearly
lettered, they \\ ill be of value. They should be accompanied
by copious descriptive notes and references, explanatory of
the positions endeavored to be shown upon them: as, of
the exact number of guns where a battery may be indi-
cated; the number of tents in encampments shown; the
apparent width and depth of streams, when water-courses
are mapped; the size of villages, etc. The reports should
also have full reference to the accompanying map, and both
should be sent as soon as completed, by courier, to give
more full information than can be transmitted by signals.
A map can be drawn with very little care and labor by
almost any officer, though" he may be unskilled in topo-
graphic sketching.

Useful maps of any portion of a country can be furnished
by " tracing," as follows. The officer, going into any section
of the country, procures the largest and best map of that
section he can; the more clearly showing water-courses,
roads, and topography, the better. This map he carries with
him to his station, with a number of sheets of thin tissue-
paper, such as is used in manifold letter-writers. This is
semi-transparent. He is supplied with a common pencil,
and a red and blue pencil. The officer having selected his
station, and recognized its position on the map, places over
that part of the map a sheet of tracing-paper, and traces on
it the lines of roads, woods, etc., showing through from the
map beneath, and writes the names of places, or points to
which he directs attention, being sure to always thus in-
scribe upon his transfer map the names of some well-known
localities. On this map he marks the position of the enemy,
so far as it is known to him.

In one corner of the tracing-sheet is drawn a scale of dis-
tances, copied or adapted from the original map, and the
arrow indicating the cornpasstpoints. The water-courses are

372 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

to be carefully marked out and outlined with the blue pencil.
The roads are traced in red.

The position of the enemy's camps, lines, redoubts, etc.,
are to be marked with the lead-pencil ; these positions be-
ing carefully located upon the map by reference to the scale
of distances. Full descriptive notes are then to be written
upon the margin, or on an accompanying paper, and the
map will be ready to be forwarded. These maps can be
quickly made in the field, and their accuracy renders them
useful.

Maps and Sketches from Information.

Maps or sketches from information, are maps or sketches
drawn from descriptions given by prisoners, deserters, or
scouts, and are for the purpose of setting forth clearly what
else must be described with many words.

There is first to be prepared by the informant, or
sketched by his direction, a rough outline or trace of the
work, place, or thing described. He is then interrogated
as to all particulars in relation to it. The answers are re-
corded in brief upon the paper bearing the outline — each
answer being written near to that part of the trace to which
it refers. Thus a line of works or a particular work being
so first outlined, the informant is questioned as to the char-
acter of ground on which each part stands ; its elevation, as
referred to a river or some known point ; the character of
the ground in front of each part, whether it is cleared or en-
cumbered, solid or soft, wet or dry ; the distance to timber
or other cover, from each part of the work ; the number and
calibre of gnns — how placed — how mounted and protected;
the structure of the work — positions of bombproofs and
magazines, size and contents — location of traverses and quar-
ters — where roads and what roads enter it ; and so for ques-
tions which may be extended in proportion as the informant
is intelligent and seems reliable. The answers thus obtained

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 373

afford such data, that if the outline sheet with these in-
scribed is placed in the hands of one used to topographic
sketching, a complete sketch of the work, its contents and
surroundings, may be made, and in such form as to present
at a glance the result of the whole interrogation.

In the same manner may be had plans of the enemy's ves-
sels building or within a certain harbor— of the forts and
batteries covering the entrance — the guns bearing upon the
channel — of obstructions — of torpedoes and their location,
manner in which they are buoyed or to be exploded — of the
channel, and of the sailing marks used by the enemy. This
knowledge, embodied in maps or sketches accompanying
reports, will be of value.

REPORTS.

The numerous brief reports which signal-officers must
make of their observations ought to be carefully drawn. It
should be the aim of the officer to indicate, by his reports,
the thoroughness and deliberation with which he has done
his duty. The report should state concisely and clearly what
the officer sees, and what he thinks he sees, and he should
be careful to state his uncertainty. When troops, camps,
trains, etc., are seen and reported upon, their exact bearing
by compass from some village, headquarters, or signal-sta-
tion, certainly known to the general to whom the report is
sent, must be given. The report should never describe any
thing as seen on the right or left ; the positions of things or
the directions of movements must be always described by
compass points. General terms, as large forces, small forces,
etc., ought not to be used. The exact or computed number
of the force must be given.

Signal-officers should particularly study to make their re-

374 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ports minute. There should be included in the report the
distance at which things are seen, the direction by compass in
which they are, their number, their relative location ; every
thing that can tend to make the description perfectly intel-
ligible to a person who, it must be remembered, may have no
other information than the report before him, and perhaps a
map with which to compare it. It must be considered that
the reviewing officer has probably only a vague idea of the
place at which the reporting officer may be, and that he does
not know whether that officer faces, for his observations,
east or west, or north or south.

The description cannot be too accurate. The report should
always be drawn with the aid of a map of the country ob-
served, if one can be had. The study of such a map will
often enable a report to be made correctly, and to state de-
cidedly as to where and on what roads forces seen must be,
when this would be otherwise impossible. Facts gleaned
from citizens should be given in the report ; and every state-
ment that the experience or study of the reporting officer
may lead him to think can aid the commanding general in
forming conclusions concerning the condition and plans of
the enemy, ought to be fully made. It is proper for the
officer to state briefly, at the end of the report, what it seems
to him, from all he can see and learn, are the facts, either as
to the position, condition, movements, or intentions of the
enemy : always so stating these opinions, that they may be
known to be his individual deductions from the information
he has obtained, and the observations he has made. He
should do this without timidity, aware that his report, with
his deductions, will go before a general who, probably, has
information from various sources, by which to estimate its
correctness and its value.

To make his reports complete, accurate, and valuable, re-
quires the highest attainments of the reporter; and to this
end, the hours of leisure which come so often on stations of

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 375

observation or in camp should be devoted to the reading of
works on general reconnoissance, the practice of mapping
and sketching, and those companion studies of the military
art which go to make the education of a skilful officer.

Reports from Information.

Reports from information are made by collecting in a
report all the information gained from an informant or
informants. Reports of information ought to be divided
into heads : as, strength of the enemy — condition — organ-
ization — discipline — supplies — plans, etc. The matter under
each head ought to have bearing on that alone.

When it is the duty of a chief signal-officer to collect in-
formation throughout a department — and this ought always
to fall within his province — orders should issue by which an
officer at each post in the command is made a correspondent,
and printed forms of questions be supplied by which differ-
ent informants coming in at different posts may be interro-
gated. The answers everywhere, being thus to the same
queries, are capable of comparison and collation, to give
connected information.

There is appended a copy of the order issued, and the
form of interrogation adopted, during the war, in the mili-
tary division of West Mississippi. In this division, con-
densed reports of information were required to be rendered
by an officer detailed at each post, to the chief signal-officer,
five times in each month. These reports were collated at
general headquarters, for the information of the general
commanding.

Headquarters Military Division of West Mississippi, I
New Orleans, La., June 27, 1S64. »

Sir — I have the honor to forward, by direction of the commanding
general, the circular herewith, and to request that the duty of pro-
curing, collating, and forwarding the information referred to therein,

376 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

be assigned to some particular officer at each post and station of your
command, as a part of his regular duty ; and that the name of this
officer be reported at once to the Chief Signal Officer at these head-
quarters.

Should it become necessary at any time to relieve the officer in
charge of this duty, his duties in this respect to be, prior to his relief,
assigned to some other officer, and a copy of the order making the
assignment to be forwarded to tbese headquarters.

The reports of information to be collated and to be forwarded on
the 6th, 12th, 18th, 24th, and 30th days of each month, except in cases
of such information as may seem of instant importance, when it is
desired that the report be forwarded as soon as it is received.

These reports will be addressed, " Colonel Albert J. Myer, Chief
Signal Officer, Headquarters Military Division of the West Mississippi,
New Orleans, La."

I am directed further to ask that the substance of this communica-
tion be given as an instruction to each brigade commander of your
command, and that copies be furnished for the guidance of the officer
at each station, whence reports will be made. It is the object of this
request to place the Chief Signal Officer at these headquarters in di-
rect communication with the officers whom you may assign to this
duty, with as little delay as is practicable.
I am, sir, very respectfully,

Your obedient servant,
By order : Albert J. Myer,

Colonel and Chief Signal Officer.

Headquarters Military Division op the West Mississippi, I
Vicksburg, Miss., May 30, 1864. •

Deserters, refugees, and other persons coming in at any military
post in the Division of West Mississippi, or at any of the posts on
the east bank of the Mississippi River, will be carefully examined by
a discreet officer, and the information obtained from them compared
and collated with that derived from scouts and other sources, and re-
ported direct to the " Chief Signal Officer," at the headquarters of this
Division, Natchez, Mississippi. Where this information is of imme-
diate interest to any other commander, a copy of the report will be
sent direct to that commander. The information thus obtained will
be communicated only to division, department, or district com-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. '.'> , ,

manders, except in the case of subordinate commanders specially
interested, and will be confidential.

By order of Major-General E. R. S. Canby.
Official.

C. T. Christensen,
Major and Assistant Adjutant-General.

[circular.]

The following questions are furnished for the guidance of officers
charged with the duty of collecting and collating information at the
different posts within the Military Division of the West Mississippi;
the answer to each question will be plainly written in the blanks
appropriated for each, and the printed forms thus filled out, together
with such tracings and drawings as the officer can obtain, and such
general report as he may be able to make, will be forwarded to the
" Office of the Chief Signal Officer, Headquarters Military Division
of the West Mississippi, New Orleans, La.," on the Gth, 12th, 18th,
24th, and 30th days of each month :

Name? Rank? Regiment? Brigade? Division? Corps? Cap-
tarn of company ? How many companies in regiment, (full or small ?)
Colonel of regiment? What other colonels in your brigade? How
many regiments in your brigade ? General of brigade ? What other
brigadier-general's in division? How many brigades in division?
How many regiments in each brigade ? Where is the headquarters of
your regiment? Where is headquarters of brigade? Where is head-
quarters of division ? Where is general headquarters ? Where did you
encamp last night ? Where night before ? Where night before that ?
Where is or was general, (each general ?) Where last heard from ?
How heard from? How many men with him ? What were the ru-
mors and reports? How did you hear each? Where w T as your di-
vision, brigade, regiment, and company going? When? How did
your hear it ? How did you come within the lines ? How many were
in your party ? How many were taken ? Were you scouts ? Where
did your regiment encamp last night? Where the night before? Where
the night before that? Where is (each regiment of your brigade ?)

Questions as to Character of the Country, Condition of
Crops and Forage, Condition of the People. — Where— Depot
of supplies? Depot of ordnance? Condition of railroads and

telegraphs ?

378 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

Op Works. — Number of guns ? Calibre and kinds ? Height and
thickness of ramparts ? How many ? Depth of ditch ? Wet or
dry ? Where are the magazines ? How made ? Where are the
bombproofs? How made? How large? What kind of ground in
front of works ? Is it cleared ? How much slashed ? Is it swampy ?
AVet or dry? How far from the works are the woods? In what
direction ? What kind of woods are they ? What kind of roads lead
into the forts? What are they? What roads pass it? Describe
them. Is ground sandy or clay ? Is ground high or low ? How do
they get water? from wells, or springs, or river? Can you draw the
trace on paper ? Mark down the guns, traverses, bombproofs, wells,
&c. What kind of carriages? Any pivots? Have they large or
small wheels ? Are the guns " en barbette ?" Are they field-pieces,
or guns of position ? Are the works entirely inclosed, or are they
built like works for field-pieces, with entrance for battery to be driven
in? Have you ever been in magazine? Is it full? How many
rounds to a gun ? Commissary stores in fort — much or little — quality
and kind ? Your regiment has all same kind of guns ? What kind ?
How many batteries or pieces in your brigade ? Who commands
artillery ? Character of guns ? How much cavalry in your brigade ?
How many regiments ? How much in division ? How armed ?
Where comes from ? What rations do you get ? Where from ?

Naval Forces. — Ships or vessels— how many ? Steam or sail-
ing ? Side- wheel or screw ? Built of iron, or altered ? How old ?
How strengthened on inside? by wood or iron? How much water
does she draw, all on board ? What kind ofAvood is she built of,
pine or oak? How long was she building? How long is whole
vessel? How wide? How deep? How high above the water?
How long is casemate? How wide? How high? How built?
How iron-clad? What size are plates? How long? How wide?
How thick? How put on? What kind of iron? How thick is
wood-work ? How built ? What kind ? Pine or oak ? When and
where was she plated ? How many ports ? Where are they ? Bow
ports, broadside ports? How are port shutters arranged? How
large are ports? How high above water-line? Do the port shutters
swing from top or side of ports? Which side? Do they slide up
and down in grooves? How thick are they? How are they made?
How thick is plating on the bow ? How thick on sides ? How thick
astern? What is her weak point? Where her strongest? Is her
deck plated ? How ? What kind of iron ? How thick ? How se-

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 379

cured? "What are the means of getting on deck? How secured?
How is she defended from boarders? How many smokestacks?
Where situated? Has she a pilot-house ? Where is it? How pro-
tected? How many boilers? New or old? Where are they ? How
large? How protected? "What kind of engines, new or altered?
What power? High or low pressure? If old engines, how arc they
altered for application of the propeller? How many pounds of
steam? What ventilation has she? How many guns ? Are they
the same kind? What are their calibre? "Where is her magazine?
Have you ever been in it? How much ammunition has she on board ?
"What kinds? Where was her ammunition made? When was she
supplied last ? How large is her crew ? What nationalities ? What
is the discipline? Is there any disaffection among them? Where
is her wheel? How protected? Where is her rudder? How far
underwater? How is it managed? Ropes or chains ? Where do
these pass? Has she a ram? What kind? Describe the shape?
How long? How made? How attached to the bow? How far
underwater? Is it iron-clad? What is her best speed ? Her ordi-
nary speed? Does she answer her helm readily? Has she any
tenders? How many? What kind? Who commands her? Did
he belong to the old Navy ? Has he had previous experience ? Give
a list of the officers' names on board ? What are the general ex-
pectations regarding her? Does she intend to attack, or act on the
defensive? Will she act alone or in concert with other vessels?
What other vessels will act with her? Describe them (as above).
What is her plan? How many masts? Are they intended for
sails 9 Where are they situated ?

Unfinished Vessels. — Are there any unfinished vessels? Are
they new or being altered? Where are they being constructed?
When were they commenced ? Are they working on them now ?
How many workmen are employed? Of what kind of timber is
she being built? Will they have rams? Are the rams attached to
the bows before launching ? Are they to be iron-clad ? Where do
they get the iron? What kind of iron is to be used? How thick
will be the plates? How wide? How long? Are these vessels
screws or side-wheelers ? Where do they get their engines ? What
kind of engines are they ? Where are they made ? Where repaired ?
What is the shape of these vessels ? How long ? How wide ? How
deep? How many guns will they carry? How much water will
they draw? How thick will be the wood-work on the bow? On

380 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

the sides ? On the stern ? How are they to be strengthened inside ?
How many boilers will they have? Old or new? How large?
Where will they be placed ? How protected ? Where will the en-
gines be placed ? How protected ? Can you draw a trace of these
vessels ?

Induce the informant to draw a trace of such vessels and other
objects as he describes, which will be sent with the report to this
office.

In addition to these reports at stated intervals, which
relate rather to the general military condition, a daily report
of information should be made to the commanding general;
and special reports should be prepared as often as any espe-
cial circumstances require them. The retained copies of
these reports afford at once a kind of history of the war and
of the information on which a general has acted.

Transmission of Reports.

It is essential that the reports of signal-officers should be
transmitted with rapidity. To gain time should be a chief
consideration. The reports are generally of a character re-
lating to facts actually transpiring, and if they are not
known to the proper authorities at once, they are useless.
For this reason, minute arrangements ought always 'to be
made beforehand, if possible, that the reports may come at
once, by signals or by telegraph, from the post of observa-
tion to the headquarters of the general commanding. The
reporting officer must also, at his discretion, dispatch
written reports, with maps, giving full information. There
should never be delay. The report should go by messenger
at any time, rather than incur the risk of losing value by
detention. When, as sometimes happens on the field of
battle, or in minor advances, etc., the report is of local im-
portance only, and action on it would probably be taken by
immediate commanders, copies of the report ought to be

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 381

sent quickly to the nearest regimental, brigade, division,
and corps commanders. Care must be taken to sign the,
report clearly, with the name and rank of the sender. A
copy of each report should be kept. The chief signal-officer
of the army corps, to which the reporting-officer is attached,
and the chief signal-officer of the army at general head-
quarters, must be furnished daily with copies of all reports,
for the information of the generals commanding. It is the
duty of these officers to make, every evening, a consolidated
report from all the detached reports which have reached
them, of all information of any kind which has been received
at their offices during the day: the chiefs with the corps
basing their reports on those of their subordinate officers,
and the chief at general headquarters consolidating for his
reports those received from the chiefs of corps. The corps
chief submits his report to the corps commander, and sends
a copy to general headquarters. The chief with the army
submits his own to the chief of staff", or to the general com-
manding. Chief signal-officers, in submitting a report, give
their views in reference to the accuracy of its parts; the
reliability of the reporting officer; the concurrence of state-
ments coming from officers observing at different parts of
the line ; the opportunities for correct observation had at
different signal-stations : and they state facts within their
knowledge, by which the value of the report may be
judged.

The consolidated report from each chief signal-officer of
corps should be sent in to general headquarters each day,
before the chief signal-officer of the army makes his general
report ; and it should be accompanied by outline maps, if
possible. In this manner, the general commanding has
before him, each night, a summary of all the information
gained by the signal corps during the day, and can estimate
its value by comparison with information from other
branches of the service.

382 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

ORIGIN AND GENERAL USES OF SIGNALS.

Every intelligible vrord, sound, or motion is a signal. If,
at the creation, our first parents were not endowed with a
complete language, their first attempts at conversation must
have been by simple codes of signs and sounds. The sounds
uttered by the beasts of the field, or by the birds of the
air, iiitelliafible to them, are their signals and their language.
To say of a well-tamed brute, as we sometimes do, " it can
do all but talk," is an error in terms. It conveys ideas in its
own language-signals, and, for its kind, as readily as we, who, ,
more gifted, have more elaborate word-signals.

There is no difficulty in understanding the warning con-
veved in the growl of a good watch-dog, or the affectionate
speech of a horse at the sight of a coming master; and they
recognize our signals of speech, and cultivate the memory
of them, until they understand our words of praise, of threat-
ening, and of command, as do human beings. So birds and
beasts call and warn and soothe each other in their language.
A hen, with her brood of chickens, affords us an instance.
We hear the signals — a language — the call and the reply,
expressions of pleasure, of warning, of condolence.

Speech — articulated sound having meaning— is producible
by things inanimate as by the animate.

We have tried to show that skilful officers can make
steamships converse by their steam-whistles ; and at their
first meeting in codes of signals — of whatever style, and in
language of whatever nationality. Electric telegraphic in-
struments daily deliver addresses on every imaginable sub-
ject. A speaking automaton, a thing of wood and springs,
is only a higher order of signal-machine. If there seems
any thing of novelty in these statements, it is due to our
habit of regarding speech as something difficult, and as an
especial attribute of humanity.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 383

Our own language is the elaborated code of signals we
have chosen to adopt, and in which we perfect ourselves, to
express our ideas. It is evident we can, if we so convene,

express these ideas by any other code of signals, The ori-
gin of signals was at the origin of language.

With the first men it was, possibly, as with children
learning to talk. First there are the few simple sounds, or
speech-signals, by which the child expresses its limited wants,
and which are understandable by those much associated with
it only; then are daily new wants, and new expressions
learned from those surrounding are added to signify those
wants. Children learn to talk more rapidly when surrounded
by talking children. Each contributes, from its store, lan-
guage-signals to the information of the other. Afterward,
as the wants increase and memory grows stronger, comes the
incessant practice of language-signals — the constant commu-
nication with others — the study for years of their use and
meaning, the writing of them to be read by others, and the
investigation of those which, more rare, are kept recorded
in books and dictionaries, until, in time, a certain mastery of
the language is acquired. Then comes the study of other
codes of word-signals — other languages ; and the pupil finds
the same meanings conveyed by different speech-signals, in
the differing forms and expressions of the different languages.

So with men. First, there were, perhaps, a few simple
sounds of voice, to indicate the scanty wants of the few then
on earth, and these were understood among those few from
their daily association. These were, perhaps, but single
sounds, not sounds articulated, and the speech was possibly
completed by physical signs. Then, day by day, came the
gradual addition of new language-signals to express new
ideas. The simple sounds — monosyllables — exhausted, it
was necessary to join together two or more sounds in one
expression to signify these ideas, and the single sounds so
became jointed or articulated, and these were words.

38-i MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

With other wants of conversation, these words were
placed together with the significations of nouns and verbs,
etc. ; thus were formed sentences. With larger populations,
their wants, their pleasures, and their duties, was formed a
complete spoken language.

Such languages are to-day found with many tribes which
keep no written records, and whose speech is of a few
spoken words, eked out by physical signs.

Afterward came the want of a written language. Per-
haps some early hunter found he could state the number of
his party by counting off or laying aside an arrow for each
hunter; and as the arrow moves in the direction in which is
placed its head, he could so tell those to come after by
placing in the path a number of arrows — say live, for instance,
pointing in a certain course — that by that path, and moving
in that course, had passed five arrow-bearers or hunters.

Then would come very naturally afterward, for a similar
purpose, and to have a similar meaning, the notching of the
number of hunters, a notch being made for each on the
shaft of a single arrow rightly placed. Then, by and by,
for convenience, would come the use of a number of arrow-
heads alone, pointing in the proper course, or the use of a
single arrow-head with a number of marks upon it. Then,
perhaps, for the next step, a rude drawing of the arrow-
heads on rocks or on the bark of trees, or on skins, to show
the number of hunters and the direction in which they had
eone ; and this would be naturally enough accompanied by
some resemblance of the animal the hunters had followed.
This is word-picturing, as it is practised now by the Indians
of the western prairies, who give their pictured histories of
hunts and battles — written histories to them — with sufficient
data to make them a record, in sketches on the walls of caves,
on pieces of bark, and on the skins of animals.

An example of the skill attained by practice in this art is

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

3S5

given in the following dispatch, said to have been sent
by a tribe of North American Indians, who assisted

the French forces during the war between France and

England

4> 4> <P f $ $ #

4> 4? $ <j) c*> c£

<Si

-—-■ ■-

lt?[ lilt ifft fift i i rfi

$ 4> frffi

* * 4>

$ # *

) 9

—>-=>—>

The following divisions explain those on the plate :

1st. Each of these forms represents the number ten. They all sig-
nify that eighteen times ten, or one hundred and eighty, warriors
took up the hatchet, or declared war, in favor of the French, which
is represented by the hatchet placed over the arms of France.

2d. They departed from Montreal, represented by a bird just
taking wing from the top of a mountain. The moon and the buck
show the time to have been in the first quarter of the buck-moon,
answering to July.

3d. They went by water, signified by the canoe. The number of

386 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

huts, such as they raise to pass the night in, shows they were twenty-
one days on their passage.

4th. Then they came on shore, and travelled seven days, repre-
sented by the foot and the seven huts.

5th. When they arrived near the habitations of their enemies, at
sunrise — shown by the sun being to the eastward of them, beginning,
as they think, its daily course — there they lay in wait three days, repre-
sented by the hand pointing, and the three huts.

6th. After which they surprised their enemies, in number twelve
times ten, or one hundred and twenty. The man asleep shows how
they surprised them, and the hole in the top of the building is sup-
posed to signify that they broke into some of the habitations in this
manner.

7th. They killed with the club eleven of their enemies, and took five
prisoners— the former represented by the club and the eleven heads,
the latter by the little figures on the pedestals.

8th. They lost nine of their own men in the action — represented by
the nine heads within the bow, which is the emblem of honor among
the Indians — but had none taken prisoners, a circumstance they lay
great weight on, shown by all the pedestals being empty.

9th. Tne heads of the arrows pointing opposite ways represent the
battle.

10th. The heads of the arrows all pointing the same way signify
the flight of the enemy, followed by the arrows of the victors.

With the common and every-day use of picture-writings
a few marks hastily made would gradually come to be un-
derstood for any determinate figure, as that of an animal.
These are hieroglyphs, and the picture-writing would be-
come a writing of hieroglyphs.

With many records, there would come the writer's skill
in this art, and persons whose time was devoted to improve
the style and compactness of each hieroglyph. The art of
picture-writing would be thus perfected. But the hiero-
glyphic pictures would still express only completed ideas.
So ingenuity would be taxed to satisfy the want — each day
increasing — to be able to write down, word by word, spoken
language, and to be able to convey, on record (in writing),

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 387

the precise words, with all their shades of meaning, it was

-wished to note as having been spoken, or to transmit, in a
written message. So then at last, perhaps, some scholar or
writer used to analyzing hieroglyphs, to find the meanings
they convey, by studying the elementary marks of which

each is formed, would analyze spoken words, having in view-
to write down a sign for each word. lie recognizes that
all spoken words are only certain simple sounds articulated
(joined), devises a hieroglyph or written sign for each
sound, writes down these signs (the letters), and a written
alphabet is formed.

To show what sounds are joined together to form an
articulated word, these signs are written, one after another,
joined together, and written language is attained.

The form of the letter S, representing the snake, ^C

whose hissing is the letter's sound, is perhaps as apt an
illustration as can be selected. This snake character can
be traced in the form of this letter in the alphabets of many
languages. Tims, the Greek 2 can be easily imagined as a

serpent hissing and about to strike. S»

Another example of the process by which hieroglyphic
pictures may become characters is had in the numeral let-
ters. These indicate the digits or lingers, and we recognize
the pictured "one finger, I, one," "two fingers, II, two,"
and so to "five fingers, the hand or V," which represents
the outline of the thumb and little linger of the outspread
hand — the thumb-mark thicker than that for the little
finger. Then "a hand and one finger, VI, six," and so
to "two hands, VV, ten, or X," the little finger-mark of
one hand joining and crossing the thumb-mark of the sec-
ond.

The rude efforts which attended the first attempts at tele-

388 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

graphing are subjects of study as interesting as that by
which may be traced the origin of language for conversa-
tional uses.

Oral and written language perfected, there came the want
of a perfected telegraphy, or the power to talk and write at
a greater distance than the voice could be heard, and when
written messages either could not be sent, or not with suffi-
cient rapidity.

It was needed to so devise language-signals that they
might be made intelligible at great distances.

A rude telegraphy by signs addressed to the eye, numer-
ous, and largely used to help out the then imperfect lan-
guage, must have existed from the time the earth was in-
habited. Extensive codes of this kind are now in general
use among the Western Indians. The following extract is
from General Marcy's " Life on the Border." * * * *
" Their language is verbal and pantomimic. The former con-
sists of a very limited number of words, some of which are
common to all the prairie tribes. The latter is used and
understood with great facility and accuracy by all the tribes
from the Gila to the Columbia, the motions and sii?ns to
express ideas being common to all. This pantomimic vocab-
ulary, which is exceedingly graceful and significant, when
oral communication is impracticable, constitutes the court
language of the Plains ; and what was a fact of much aston-
ishment to me, I discovered that it was nearly the same as
that practised by the mutes in one of our deaf and dumb
institutions that I visited. For example, there were some
five or six boys directed to take their places at the black-
boards and interpret what I proposed to say. I then, by
pantomimic signs, told them that I went on a buffalo hunt,
saw a herd, chased them on horseback, fired my gun and
killed one, cut it up, ate some of the meat, and went to
sleep — every word of which was written down upon the
blackboard by each boy as rapidly as the signs were made,

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 389

excepting that all made the common mistake of taking the
buffalo for deer."

The primary signs and sounds were perhaps like the
" Symphenomena" described by Dr. Francis Lieber, in-
stinctive to all human beings.

Meanings have been given to descriptive signs in the
same manner that meanings have attached to sounds of
words. Such signs would be used also to convey meanings
at short distances. •

In like manner would be adopted the raising of fires to
convey signals of danger, or other information, b\ r night,
ami the showing clouds of smoke by day; or the hoisting
into the air of shields, or spears, or flags, or articles of
clothing, and waving or putting them in motion to make
them more visible, to attract attention, to indicate direction,
or to give warnings. The signals by these plans had always
arbitrary meanings, ami were for limited uses only.

With later civilization came the need of systematized
codes. War brought with it the necessity for telegraphic
communication in armies.

Then were the first concerted plans. Then we read of
lines of signal-tires; of long lines of men placed nearly
together, who shouted messages each to the other, or who
repeated, each in turn, the motions made by the other; of
ingeniously contrived codes of messages, and of appliances
by which to recognize the proper messages. There were
attempts to construct rude semaphores. The plans were
not yet formed for the transmission of letters and words,
and few and preconcerted messages only were indicated. It
was with a high civilization only that there came the idea
of a telegraphy which could convey the phrases of a lan-
guage. It was not conceivable without a written lan-
guage.

It is interesting, looking back now, to study the perfec-
tion of the plans devised by the ancients, and to consider

300 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

how closely the rules underlying some of those plans and
their working approximate the rules of the present day.

The most accurate accounts of signalling with armies, and
of plans, which we know were practicable and constantly
practised, are those found in the writings of the scholar and
general, Polybius.

The first record of a signal corps, a regular organization
of the armies of that day, comes down to us in the writings
of that general, and in the histories of the wars in which he
served. The devices of the army-signalling of that time — ■
about two hundred and sixty years before Christ — seem to
have been the invention of that general. They are traceable,
perhaps, to a more remote antiquity. In the history of
ancient wars, there are sentences which seem to indicate
so general a use of signals in armies, that this is possible.
Polybius gives the credit of the invention to Cleoxenes
or Democritus, and claims only to have perfected the plans
himself.

To us, however, Polybius stands as the inventor and the
first officer who has given us an intelligible record of the
services of a signal-corps of an army. This general arranged
the letters of the Greek alphabet in five columns. (See
page 123.)

To illustrate with the English alphabet, thus : —

Columns... 1st. 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th.

Letters, 1st A F K P U

2d B

3d C

" 4th D

" 5th E

The apparatus (Plate XV, Fig. 8) was cumbersome and
immovable. For field-work, the letters were displayed

Y
Z

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 391

literally in columns, for they were displayed on five separate
posts or columns, set at each station, and numbered as one,
two, three, four, and five. There were five letters on each
post, and on the right and left hand sides respectively of
these posts or tablets were two close fences, some ten feet
long, and about as high as a man's head. At each station
was an optical instrument, of two small tubes set close
together, and so arranged that, while with an eye at each
tube both fences at the communicating station could be
seen, through one tube only the right-hand fence and
through the other tube only the left-hand fence at that sta-
tion were visible. This arrangement of the tubes was ne-
cessary, because at night the fences at the station to be
viewed were invisible, and it could not be otherwise deter-
mined on which side the lights were shown. The five
letter-posts, the fences, the tubes, and ten torches, completed
the apparatus. It was of course to be used from rived posi-
tions only. It was suggested to use the plan for night-
signals, and it does not. appear that it was considered as
applicable to day-signals.

Messages were sent in this manner: The torches were
lighted and hidden behind the fences. Then, to indicate
the number of any letter-post or column, a corresponding
number of torches were shown above the left-hand fence at
the sending-station ; while to designate any letter on that
post, a number of torches, corresponding to the number of
that letter as numbered on the post, were shown above the
right-hand fence. These torches, as seen through the view-
ins tubes, were distinguishable as shown on the risrht or on
the left, and were so recognized at the receiving-station.
For instance : to indicate the letter J, that is, on the second
column, the fifth letter, two torches were shown above the
left, and then live above the right hand fence. For the
letter K, third column, first letter, there were shown three
torches on the left, and one on the right. For the letter C,

392 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

first column and third letter, one torch on the left and three
on the right ; and so on.

With the skill of practice, letters were telegraphed after
this plan with a good deal of rapidity. "With a sufficient
number of men on duty, the letters were shown as fast as
they could be recognized. This device, appearing under
different modifications, seems to have been used among all
the armies of the East, and its use came down to times com-
paratively late. The principles of this plan enter the per-
fected systems of telegraphing of the present day.

For illustration : — ■

The written record of the letters arranged in tables, after
the plan of Polybius, would be something as follows : " A"
is " first column, first letter ;" or briefly, " A" is " first-first,"
or "one-one," or "1—1," or "11." So of the letter B:
"B" is " first column, second letter," or "first-second," or
" one-two," or " 1—2," or " 12." The letter " G" is " second
column, second letter," or " second-second," or " 2 — 2,"
or " 22." " X" is " third-fourth," or " 34." " Y" is " fifth-
fourth," or " 54 ;" and so on. The letters could thus be con-
densedly written in numerals. It would have to be borne
in mind that the left-hand figure of the numerals indicated
torches to be shown on the left, while the right-hand figure
of the same numeral indicated torches to be shown on the
right. Now the record of the torches seen at night, repre-
senting these numerals, standing for letters, would be in-
tended to show how many units — for each torch represents a
unit — were signified by torches seen on the left, and how
many by torches seen on the right. So " A" might be writ-
ten, when seen signalled, "A" is "1 on the left" and "1
on right," or "11 ;" or, the torches shown on the left and those
shown on the right might be indicated and distinguished by
different figures, as a " 1" to stand for each torch shown on
the left, and a " 2" to stand for each torch shown on the
right. Then the record of "A" would be "12:" or, in a

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 393

hasty record, any other marks might be used instead of 1
and 2; as, a short mark for each torch on the left, and a

long mark for each torchon the r'mht. These nii<j;ht be
placed upright, as " i |," or horizontally written, as a dot and
a dash, ". — ," and we have a telegraphic letter. <>r, the
fact that a certain number of torches had been shown on the
left and a certain number on the right, miafht he indicated
in yet other ways, as by marks or dots placed before a space
for the torches shown on the left, and- dots after the space
for those shown on the right. So the letter " B v might be
shown in these several ways: as " 12," or " 122," or " 111,"
or ". — ". The letter "C" might be " 13," or " 1222," or

" 1 111," or "... .," or "• — ." The letter "II" might

be "23," or "11222," or "11111," or " ," or

"We arrive thus at the principles of the telegraphic char-
acter.

The alphabetic plan of Polybius was an ingenious inven-
tion. The systematic application of the principle on which
the letter-signals are devised, to general uses and to other
modes, seems not to have been thought of, and it is possible
it was not at all considered. Each signal was shown as a
whole, and Polybius complains that " because every letter
requires a double signal, a great number of torches must be
employed."

The fact exists, however, that he was working by signals
of two elements, as clearly as that signals are made in that
manner to-day.

In the wide study of and practice with these signals, tins
must have become generally known ; and it seems as if
glimmerings of the knowledge of the fact, that all language
could be represented for telegraphing by any two elements,
can be traced from the time of Polybius.

The principle understood, it will be seen how the plan
might be applied, showing for any letter one torch a number

17*

394 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

of times on the left, and then a number of times on the right
screen, instead of a number of torches together on the left

7 CI?

and on the right. With the optical instrument described,
these signals would have been legible.

Flags, or other objects, might have been shown by flay-
instead of the torches, or a single flag might have been
shown in the proper places a proper number of times, instead
of the single torch just mentioned. This seems not to have
been thought of.

We can easily see how signals might have been made by
swinging a torch into view on the left, and then on the
right, from behind the screens. This mode would have dif-
fered from combining motion with signals, for the purpose
of giving that great visibility which motion gives to flags
or lights : for the whole swings would not have been visible,
but it would have closely approximated that mode.

Field-signals are now made in our army by so swinging
a torch all the time in view from side to side.

At the siege of Vienna, John Smith, the explorer of Vir-
ginia, used the plan of Polybius with effect, to arrange with
the besieged forces for a sortie, he having leai'ned it from
the Turks, it is said. The quaint old English works of 1650,
or thereabout, tell of a marvellous device by which those
who know may converse so far as white can be known from
black. This is evidently a code of two elements.

In 1812, a clergyman of England, reviving the table of
Polybius, and giving to the letters the same enumeration,
designated the number of the column by one torch, brought
the proper number of times into view from behind a screen ;
and then, after a slight pause, indicated the number of the
letter in that column by showing the torch as many times
as made the letter-number. Extending the plan, he used
the flashes of any kind of light.

Thus to make A, first column, first letter, or " 1 1," one
flash — a pause — one flash. To make C, first column, third

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 395

letter, or " 1 3," a flash — a pause — three flashes. To make
G, second column, second letter, or "2 2," two flashes — a
pause — two flashes; and so on. The code is one of two ele-
ments; that is, flashes before the pause, ami flashes after
the pause.

Of course, the single Iighl of any light-house can be flashed
in this manner. Messages were sent by this gentleman a
distance of forty miles.

A plan of flags by day is said to have been used, but
whether in motion or at rest there is no information.

At a later day, in 1829, the intermural telegraph of Mr.
Swain, of Philadelphia, of taps and scratches on a wall, is
another development of the system of two elements.

finally, the transmission of signals by electricity, the
splendid telegraph of to-day, began to attract attention,
and study was turned to provide the most available signals.
Signals of two elements, traceable thus from the time of the
ancients, are found in the right and left vibrations of the
needle in the code of Schilling, whose letters are written
left-right, or I r; or left-left-right, or 1 1 r; or left-right-left,
ovlrl; or left-right-left-right, or Irlr; etc. It is plain
these letters maybe written one-two, or one-one-two, or
oue-two-one, or one-two-one-1 wo ; and so on.

In later years, this code of signals, modified and some-
times so changed as to be hardly recognizable, is used in all
the signal telegraphs of Europe. When signals came to be
traced on paper, a code of two elements was written by dot
and line.

In the time of Polybius, and through most of the Greek
and Roman wars, there were corps of signalists or telegraph-
ers with the army. These were known as Tupo^-urea. The
word lias been translated "fire-bearers;" it is literally "fire-
movers," or "fire-shakers," or, perhaps, " lire-swingers," from
Tiii, fire; tfeuw, to move, to shake. In the history of the
siege of* Agrigentum — a town from which though perfectly

396 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

invested, the commanding officer was telegraphing the con-
dition — the narrative is given : " But Hannibal (<Wirup<r£uo/xe-
vou) shaking through with fire, or swinging through with
fire, and sending through messages continually that the
people could not stand the famine," etc. How this was
done we are not explicitly told, and of the precise meaning
of the word we cannot be now assured ; but, reading the
quotation, we seem to read of the service of the Signal Corps
of our army, and to trace the working of the torchmen of
to-day.

We can thus evolve from this plan the principles upon
which are based electric-signals, the flag-signals of the Gen-
eral Service Code, and those which underlie the Homo-
graphic Codes heretofore illustrated.

It is difficult to realize that, in the perfection of tele-
graphs and telegraphic signals, are revived almost the oldest
devices of antiquity ; that the fire-swingers of Polybius and
the signalmen of our army practise so nearly the same art,
with modes so closely assimilated ; that the electric tele-
grapher writes his signals with the same elements, and
perhaps with almost the same characters, with which the
first telegraphic signals of which there is record were noted.

The telegraphic apparatus of early days were not often
portable. The devices show ingenuity of invention, but
they were not applied by practicable rules. The use of the
telescope was wanting, and the art, with all the develop-
ment given it in armies, did not attain a great perfection.

In the Dark Ages, the art of telegraphing seems to have
been lost with other arts. Few knew even how to read and
Avrite, and the rude habits of the time required no perfect
telegraphy.

The very idea seems to have been so far forgotten, that
the introduction of semaphores, which came with a much re-
vived civilization, was opposed as a sin against the Deity.
The introduction of electric telegraphs was opposed by the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 397

ignorant ; and up to quite recently, it has been held singular,
even l>y those of education and large experience, that any
man should be able to talk to another by a few simple signs
as far as he could be visible.

In the study oi' thi' subject of telegraphy, there are every-
where met the devices by which, in later days, the end was
sought.

In naval signalling, we read of strange plans, as of hoi-t-
ing a barrel at the yard-arm as a signal tor water, or a
tablecloth as an invitation to dinner. Then of slow im-
provements : attempts to build semaphores on ships; com-
plicated arrangements of signal-flags ; but with gradual im-
provement, from year to year, until we reach the flag dic-
tionary of to-day.

In telegraphy on land, we trace again from the days of
signals by fires and smokes to the time when a few simple
sions were given by the commander's flag upon the field
of battle; then cumbrous semaphores worked on rude plans;
then the wonderfully ingenious plans of Chappe ; then the
portable semaphores of Popham, and the efl'orts to repre-
sent semaphores by men holding disks in their hands; and
so through hundreds of devices, ingenious, but without sys-
tematic application, down to the crowning invention of the
electric telegraph.

On land or on the sea, the aim of inventors in general has
seemed to be to signify the numeral digits by signals, and
then to designate by these the particular messages in Codes
of Messages.

In contemplating some of the plans, we consider with
wonder the labor to attain ends which, with better knowl-
edge, are reached by means so much more simple and
available.

A difficulty seems to have been in the fact that, working
without systematized rules, each signal was arbitrarily
formed ; and in almost every case, the effort was to make

398 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

all signals complete of themselves and permanent. The
plans for transient signals, or signals whose parts were to be
made in succession, and by certain rules, and for the rapid
verbal telegraphing now demonstrated to be practicable,
and with so little trouble as to hardly require tuition, have
been of more recent origin.

The signals of the earlier times seem to have had a rela-
tion to a perfected telegraphy similar to that which spoken
words had to a written language. The elements of signals
were to be determined by study, as were the elements of
words, before general plans could be devised by which to
so exhibit them as to convey any meanings of a language.

The systematizing of signals by plans in which each pos-
sible elementary sign is first arrived at, and is then so sym-
bolized by some given character or figure that these may be
written, and mav show all the combinations or arrangements
which can be had, using any of the elementary signs, is to
the study and improvement of signals what the invention of
written language was to that of words. When words could
be considered only as complicated sounds, of which there
was no record, or but an arbitrary one, language was con-
fused, and imperfectly learned by years of labor.

The invention of the alphabet made the study easy, and
permitted a progress else impossible. It has been thus with
signals. While complicated signals were arbitrarily used to
express ideas, the study seemed full of mystery and labor,
and few wei-e able to give it attention. But when we con-
sider signals as made up of simple signs, and have plain rules
by which to write these down and put them together, as
letters are joined to make up words, the study becomes so
easy that any one can be a proficient; and the science can
be perfected to a degree before impracticable.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 399

GENERAL USE OF SIGXALS.

There have long been dreams of a Universal Language,
by which men of any nation might converse; and the idea
has occurred to many, that systems of signals might he so
planned as to be universally applicable.

The subject has excited no general attention, because it
has not been pressed upon the notice of the public. The
difficulties to be encountered have originated in the general
ignorance of the subject, and in the complications of the
proposed modes of signalling.

Very few persons without experience, have any idea of
the ease with which alphabetic signals are made, or of the
remarkable ranges at which signals, made by motions, are
visible to the naked eye. They still less realize the almost
wonderful gain had by the use of a simple pocket-telescope.
Signalling at five miles is held, by experienced signalists,
to be at very short range.

Messages have been sent ten miles with a pocket handker-
chief on a twelve-foot rod. With the flags and staff in use
in the Signal Corps of the Army, communication is said to
have been had at twenty-five miles distance; and detached
words are reported to have been read at a distance of forty
miles.

Almost any person who can read and write well can learn,
with a few hours' study, to converse by signals as far as he
can be seen with a telescope. He can make himself under-
stood using a cane ami a handkerchief, or a rough pole and
a piece of any cloth, as a coat or a shirt, or sometimes his
arms only, at distances of five or six miles. He can com-
municate easily at a distance of one or two miles when no
telescopes are used. Preceding illustrations have shown
how common lanterns, or any lights, can lie used at night,
and how it is almost impossible for the signalist to find him-

400 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

self, in any of the chances of life, without such things as
may make up his simple apparatus.

It is needed only that some alphabetic code should be
adopted and be generally known. It must be so written
out and explained that the untutored can comprehend it.
The principles upon which it is founded should be clearly
stated.

The same code ought to be used everywhere, by nations
of the same language. It should be, if possible, committed
to memory. It should be taught in schools, and all institu-
tions of learning. It is as easy to commit to memory, and
to retain, an alphabet in which the letters are known by
numbers, and the motions for them, as the common al-
phabet, in which each letter is known by its name. Chil-
dren can acquire such a code as soon as they have learned
to read.

Persons of mature years can easily devote sufficient' time
to the subject to comprehend the working of the code in
case of necessity. At academies and colleges the practice
of the code could be made a part of the course of instruc-
tion ; and the students would find a healthful and pleasant
field-practice in an art which will give them a new power,
and in learning which they would ii cidentally acquire that
practice with the telescope and knowledge of its uses which
opens almost a new world of view to the possessor.

To be able to thus telegraph at will, would add to the
pleasure as well as the safety of the individual.

At military and naval academies, where all manly acquire-
ments and all knowledge that can add to our powers of
offence or defence are expected subjects of study, this art,
on the acquisition of which the possession of a fort, or of a
ship, or even the fate of a battle may hang, ought to be
taught as of course : precisely as a pupil must learn the
manual of the musket.

There is hardly an officer who has seen service but can

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 401

remember instances at which, if he and his fellow-officers

had possessed only so mncli skill as follows a few hours'
practice, it might have contributed to the success of an ex-
pedition or an engagement. There are few who will not
admit the propriety of acquiring the information.

The commanders and officers of merchant and revenue
vessels have frequent occasions for such communication.
Surveyors might use it when running long lines. There
are no circumstances under which men may need to act in
concert, but in which this practice would be valuable.

There is nothing visionary in the proposition of this uni-
versal knowledge. Any one can acquire it. The applica-
tions of it would be endless.

How many instances can every one recall in hunting or
boating, in travel, or in the plays of childhood, or in busi-
ness, in any of the pursuits of peace or Avar, when the power
to signal a message a few miles, or a mile, or even a few
hundred yards, would have been a most valuable acquisi-
tion ! Or with more sad recollection, how many instances
can most recall where, on wrecked ships, or at fires, or in
the thousand occurrences of peril to life, their fellow-men
have perished, helpless, for want of a few words of informa-
tion, which might have been signalled to them !

There are those who, remembering these facts, would ac-
complish themselves as signalists, as a duty, for the sake of
their own safety, or that some day they might aid to save
others.

The modes of diffusing the information are easy.

Codes can be written with intelligible instructions, and
so plainly, that by using them almost any one can make;
and read signals, and this to the extent of sending any
brief message they choose, with less than an hour's prac-
tice.

These Codes, with all the instructions, can be printed on
a piece of card-board not much larger than the hand. If

402

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

GENERAL, SERVICE CODE.

A flag is held directly above the head.

To make letters, swing it to the ground, on the right and left sides, as follows :

Letter'. Molion$.

A left, left

B left right, right left.

right, left, right.

To make
Ifumber*.

2112

121

.left, left, left 222

E right, left 12

F left, left, left, right 2221

G left, left, right, right 2211

H right, left, left 122

I right 1

J right, right, left, left 1122

K ..left, right, left, right 2i21

L left, left, right 821

M right, left, left, right 1221

N right, right 11

Letteri.

To make

3Ioti<ms. Numbers.

.left, right 21

.right, left, right, left 1212

1211

Q right, left, right, right.

R left, right, right 211

S left, right, left 212

T left 2

TJ. 7.7.'. "right," "right, left. '.'.'.'. '.'.'.7.7.! 112

V right, left, left, left 1222

W right, right, left, right 1121

X left, right, left, left 2122

Y right, right, right HI

Z left, left, left, left 2222

& right, right, right, right 1111

EXPLANATION.

The numbers for each letter are made by motions.

The whole number opposite each letter stands for that letter.

There are one position and two signal-motions. Any letter can be made by these two
n o inns.

Fi-ovide a flag of a piece of any cloth, with a pole about ten feet long— a slate and pen-
cil to write the signals — a spy-glass, or a marine glass.

To prepare a message : write the words on a slate. Then write for each letter either
the numbers which stand tor it. or the "motion-words: 1 ' as. for A either ("22"), or
(" left, left"); for B either ("2112"), or (" left right, right left"), inclosing each in brack-
ets. When the message is thus written out — ■

TO SEND A MESSAGE.

Face exactly towards the person to whom you are sending.

Hold the flag directly above the head. This position is called the " First Position."

Make the " Attention Signal."

Wait until this is answered by the other party with the "Assent Signal."

Then signal the message letter by letter, reading the "Motion-words" for each from the
slate, or having them read by another person.

To make motion one, or " 1," the flag is waved to the ground to the right, and brought
back to the first position. To make "motion two," or "2," the flag is waved to the
ground to the left, and brought back to the first position. Thus to make " A," or "22,"
or " left-left," the flag is waved twice to the ground to the left, and is then brought to
the first position. To make "B," or "2112," or " left-right-right-left," the flag is waved
once to the left, twice to the right, and once to the left— that is " left right, right left."
To make " 222." the flag is waved " left, left, left." And so for the Alphabet.

The motions for any letter are made without any stop between them.

At the end of each letter pause two seconds, holding the flag above the head.

At the end of each word wave the flag to the ground directly in front, and bring it back
to the first position.

At the end of each sentence wave the flag twice to the front, and bring it back to the
first position.

At the end of a message wave the flag three times to the front, and lower the flag.

The " Attention Signal." to call attention, is made by waving the flag from side to side
over the head and to the ground continually.

The " Assent Signal," meaning " we see you, and are ready for your message," is made
by waving the flag to the left, two waves at a time, three times (left left — left left— left
left).

The " Repeat Signal," meaning "message not understood : repeat it"— the flag is waved
thus : (right, left, right— right, left, right— right, left, right.)

TO RECEIVE A MESSAGE.

The telescope or other glass must be at rest, and still. The Signal Motions, viewed
through the glass, will appear, the " one motions" toward the left side of the field of view
— the " two motions" towards the right side of the field of view. They ate called off as
" one" or ''two" as they are seen made, the numbers of each letter together if possible,
and are written upon the slate. Thus A would be called "two, two," and written (22) IJ
is "two one, one two," and is written " 2112," etc. A dash at the end ot each word — two
dashes at the end of each sentence. The letters may be interpreted by reference to the card.

Messages may be sent without apparatus by swinging a handkerchief, held in the hand,
or by swinging the right arm for one, and the left for two, following the rules.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 403

the instructions are very full, the card might be six inches
square.

The General Service Code of two elements, and the Gen-
eral Service nomographic Code, printed upon cards, as
here illustrated, afford examples of such codes.

The alphabet may be printed as in these instances in
columns, or in a circle on a disk. The object of the arrange-
ment is to bring each letter and its signal-number closely
together, that any letter and its signal may be seen at a
glance.

The Codes may be written more in full, and with fuller
explanations.

If the reader can comprehend these rules, and will prac-
tise a few moments with a companion, he will surprise him-
self by sending messages correctly, After this, he need only
practise with the flags, and with the telescope in the open
air, to make himself skilful. It is very probable that the
knowledge he can gain will be sufficient to enable him to
slowly signal, or to read a message at any time.

A person once thoroughly practised as a signalist can
thereafter send and receive by any code that may be before
him.

The card form is useful for the reason that it keeps before
the signalist, and in compendious form, not only the signal-
motions and the numbers for each alphabetic letter, but the
general rules for their transmission. With a little practice,
it will be found that the Signal Alphabet is in this way
easily committed to memory, and thenceforth reference to
the card will not be necessary.

It has been endeavored to draw this card code with in-
structions so plain that no person, however unskilled as a
signalist, need fail to comprehend them; or, if by chance
they should appear complicated to any, the briefest instruc-
tion from a practical signalist may remove the apparent
difficulty.

4C4

MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

FRONT VIEW.

►a

I- - 3
'OH CD

:»3.

i? _ v. ~

6 *

n ° °

-tS 2

= K °

32 =

O o *

_X «. CD > ^ ft

— *

re ■•

to ■->-. rr «-

to to 3.

tvi " "" —

« s- - »

° ||1

2 to 5'"?
g>5 S

.5 is '=?•? of" -.

- ">a 3 *

■J.V1

~ 6

- 3

2 I 3

- ' a>
w — _

X to

= to ="-_>5
, — o* re re "
mo . 5 ^

- 31

o"?

"-■S —

<kj

3 > ft

n '* -

£ 2 w

o »

S 3 1

* I I S.

< — »

2 S

crx?
o 3
< 33

°3

3" 3J
t 3

3*3»

L» as s-

3 3»

■* 5'
3 5»*

-3
s> 3

a -, ~
3 ." B*

•33

re a

re-

3 = - 3-

~ 5 a 3*

o ° -, 2.

go2. a

o *"' o* Si

~~'% ^ 3*

,_ _ _. to

^r^^^^^^^^-^icc?.

r: Ji t5 — — — to to '— to — to to ^

tw t-. — — I- i - to to iz I- — to ~
to — t-- to tv — to to — "-" -^

"— —CO r-i— M "?

is^M-^Q^co'sab'flbst;'

to — to — — — to to to — — to 1- ^
to — — — to— — — to to — — ^

W
<!

o
o
o

EE VERSE VIEW.

g « 3 3

"(TO 3 —
= 3 3 »
v. - O 3

g.3 g-S

15- -B.

* S 2

5 S - 1

g fl fo

•S3
° 2 f

S* ^

—

s »

r* * ™>

93 r -
E o f

Sto

= ; i

a ^L

Ig3

E i -3

c r - t

5 ~ '<

se n

« cc «

CD « —

2,3

5=2

-x-2

£2 5

^g .j^j .J _g

O =

3 99

C.33- S

O O O O 3

- 31

S = n

5 3 = 33

p 9C S» 9» 93

pr ?r =r 3T ?r

ce s

^R 33

- 2 T

< — z

a _ >

CP Ct CC T fD

3"»

S a 5 '.

s 3 - - S

CD -;

W
o

= • 1

•o "*■=:

CD 1 31 ^" ^d

iff

a 5*

3
O

3 £. J 1

—

S 5 "5"? %

!tS

3 3

93 -^

« ^ 3.

O -s — "" CD

*■

■< 3 —

— 5 2

J."-?- 3 -

■3 3"

— 3

— CD

- o

o =

-•

—

0'3™ ti_— ,

c y - - ■

9: 3
3 x

C 3"

~ Q

^^
CD TF3

00 -, ,

re c r*

3 9-3

o2«

3 (I a ?

3 =

►2,

^ — o

= §s

3" 3B

3 2,

3
3

"< —

GD "2>-

1 &s

pa fl>
1?' 3

o' ~ ■*

re
—

** a

-T

3 3*

« r —

~ 3

are o

X 3 t

7c aa

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 405

The General Service Homographic Code, or any of the
codes described in this manual, can be eondensedly printed
in this manner. The General Service (ode for the Army
and Navy here printed is a further illustration.

This card, intended especially for use of officers and those
■who have acquired some skill, may be perhaps too much
condensed for general use. It may be earned in the pocket
for reference. Upon it are condensed the Rules and Alpha-
bets for both Day and Night Signals, and by both the Gen-
eral Service Code of two elements, and the General Service
Homographic Code of ten elements. The numerals stand-
ing for the letters are in the columns opposite the letters
they represent. The numerals in the first column are to be
made by position-signals. The numerals in the second
column are to be made by motion-signals.

For the Homographic Code it will require but few rules
and very little practice to fix in memory the ten motions.
They are pictured upon the card for reference. It can be
learned in an hour to make together by twos — one after the
other — the motions which stand for each letter, and to suit
the plans for Day or Night Signals.

It is easier still to remember that in this code one wave
of a handkerchief may stand for "1," two waves for "2,"
three waves for "3," and so on ; and to learn to signal the
letters in this way : Thus, " A," " 11," " one-one" (one wave
— a pause — one wave). " B," " 21" " two-one {two waves —
a pause — one wave), etc. Longer pauses between letters
and words. Flashes upon the same plan at night.

Both codes are given on the card, because, while the
signals of the General Service Code bv fla^s in motion are
visible at vastly greater distances than those of the Homo-
graphic, it is sometimes easier to read the latter when a
ship is rolling.

"With these plans understood among nations, and such a
signal alphabet furnished to all national and merchant ves-

406 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

sels, it would be necessary only to carry the dictionary of
the languages of the different countries, to be able to con-
verse, in its own language, with any vessel that might be
encountered at sea, or with any post or port on shore. As
the number of letters in the different languages vary some-
what, a dictionary, which would be a very complete signal-
book, might be arranged in this manner : the dictionary to
be polyglott, and to contain the synonymous words and
terms of the different lano-uae;es in which there might be
occasion to converse ; in the forepart of the dictionary to be
printed the alphabets of the different languages, each having
opposite its letters the signal-numbers by which they are
represented. Such brief instructions as are above given,
to be printed in the dictionary.

It will be evident to any one who has attentively read
these notes, that a vessel thus furnished, and carrying the
ordinary equipment of signal-flags and torches, need never
have serious difficulty in communicating wants or wishes, or
in conversing with similarly provided vessels or posts of its
own nation, or of any other in the vicinity of which it
might be.

It would require but little official action to establish the
use of such codes upon the vessels of our own nation, and
but little international action to render the usage uni-
versal.

It might be required by law that code cards be carried on
every merchant or other vessel in the service of the United
States. Similar codes ought to be furnished to every com-
mand, fort, post, life-saving institution, life-boat, light-house,
and boat-station in the nation. At boat-stations, the keeper
ought to be required to understand the code well ; and upon
vessels and at posts the officers should be practised in it.

The signal or cipher disk which has been before described
may be arranged for the especial use of the officers of the
land or naval service, and having a few rules printed upon

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 407

it, will furnish not only a secret code for their communica-
tion, but one which they may change to suit emergencies.

If any officer reading these lines will reflect thai on skill
so easily acquired may on any day rest, not only his own
safety, but the safety of hundreds intrusted to his care, or
even the success or failure of some great cause, he will find
in this sufficient reason to acquire it.

There is a kind of intelligence, as of free-masonry, among
those instructed in signalling who chance t<> see anywhere
the motions of a flag waved by them to attract attention,
answered in the distance with the waves "by twos," which
indicate the presence of a signalist.

The general plans are taught, and have been used in our
Army and Navy; it is easy to extend them to the vessels
and officers of the Revenue Service and the Merchant Ma-
rine. They can be practised at institutions of learning on
shore and on school-ships afloat. Boards of Trade and Life-
Saving Associations can circulate them. The first lives that
may be saved by a few words signalled in time, will more
than repay the necessary effort.

The idea is no longer theoretical. The experience of the
past war has demonstrated how easily signals maybe used,
and how generally they might be taught.

It has not been intended to convey in this article that
practice in signalling may be dispensed with. In this, as in
every other branch of duty, the practice of those who have
important offices in charge ought to be continual.

But it has been endeavored to direct attention to the
great advantages to follow the general use of signalling in
and out of the service, and to show how easy it may be to
provide for such and so much of practice, that any one
may fit himself for intelligent communication if emergen ciea
come.

408 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

The advantages to follow the services of a well trained
signal-corps, and the marvellous skill its members can ac-
quire in all the branches of telegraphy, have never been
better set forth than in the following quotation from the
writings of the soldier to whom is traced the origin of such
organizations more than two thousand years ago (Poly-
bius' General History, Book x., chap, ii.) :

"It is a thing well known that opportunity, which has so
great a share in the accomplishment of all designs, has the
greatest in those that belong to war. Of the wonderful in-
ventions which have been contrived for securing opportu-
nity, the most effectual is that of making signals by the
means of lighted torches. By this method, things which
have been just transacted, and others at the very time in
which they happen, may be communicated to those who
are concerned to know them, though they are distant, per-
haps, three or four days' journey, and sometimes even many
days from the place, and the requisite assistance be received
when it seems scarcely possible to expect it. In former
times, the manner of conveying this notice was too simple,
and the invention upon that account lost much of its ad-
vantage, for the method was to settle by concert some fixed
and determined signals. But as the things which happen
are infinite, the greater part were incapable of being signi-
fied by such a method. It is not possible that signals
should be concerted to give notice of events which cannot
be foreseen. * * * *

" The last method which I shall mention was invented
either by Cleoxenes or Democritua, but perfected by myself.
This method is proved, and capable of signifying anything
that happens with the greatest accuracy. * * * *

" In both these methods it is principally requisite that the
persons employed should first be exercised by practice —
that when a real occasion happens the signal may be made
and answered without any mistake.

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 400

"With respect to the recurring difficulties of the method,

it would be easy to show by many instances that there is
a very great difference in the same things when they arc
first proposed and when they are afterward rendered famil-
iar to us by habit; and that many things which appear in
the beginning to be not only difficult, but absolutely im-
practicable, in the course of time, and by continued use, are
accomplished with the greatest ease. Among numberless
examples, the act of reading may be mentioned as one of
the clearest and the most convincing proofs of the truth of
this remark. Take a man who has never learned to read
that is otherwise a man of sense ; set a child before him
who has learned, and order- him to read a passage in a book.
It is certain that this man will scarcely be able to persuade
himself that the child as he reads must consider distinctly,
first, the form of all the letters ; in the next place, their
power ; and thirdly, their connection one with another. For
each of these things requires a certain portion of time.
When he hears him, therefore, read four or five lines to-
gether, without hesitation and in a breath, he will find it
very difficult to believe that the child never saw the book
before. But if, in reading, some gesture also should be
added — if the child should attend to all the stops and ob-
serve all the breathings, rough and smooth, it will be abso-
lutely impossible to convince the man that this is true.
From hence, therefoi-e, we may learn never to be deterred
from any useful pursuit, by the seeming difficulties that
attend it, but to endeavor rather to surmount those difficul-
ties by practice and by habit. It is habit which gives to
men the noblest acquisitions, even those which are upon
many occasions the principal means of their safety.

" With respect to myself, what induced me to enter into
a discussion of this kind was the remark that was made in
a former account of the work, that in the present age the
sciences are advanced to so great perfection that almost

410 MANUAL OF SIGNALS.

every thing is capable of being taught by method. Such
digressions, therefore, deserve to be considered as some of
the most useful parts of a history that is well composed."

In time of war, when large forces are assembled together,
the following rules may be found convenient for rapidly dif-
fusing the knowledge of a General Service Code throughout
a command.

It is desirable that the commander of each post, vessel, or
separate command, be so far informed in the principles of
all signals, as to know what can be effected by them, and to
be able of himself to judge when the duties of this descrip-
tion are skilfully and efficiently performed.

Two or more intelligent officers with each brigade, on each
vessel, or at each post, to be selected by the commander,
should be instructed in the different codes and modes of
signalling — this instruction to be earned to such degree that
those persons may in their turn intelligently instruct others
with whom they may be ordered — a certain number of
seamen or enlisted men to be instructed and habitually
practised with these officers in the manuals of signals.

All officers should have such knowledge of the General
Service Code as to enable them to at any time place them-
selves in communication with their commands, or with
friendly posts or vessels ; but the officers detailed as here
described should be designated officially as signal-officers,
and it should be a part of their duty for which they are
responsible, to see that the signal duties are properly dis-
charged with the commands to which they are attached.

For each Geographical District and for each Division of
a Fleet there should be one officer designated as Chief Sig-
nal Officer of the District or Division, under whose general
supervision shall be the signal duties rendered by the

MANUAL OF SIGNALS. 411

officers -with the different commands, or on the different
vessels in the District or Division; these officers to report
to superior authority the condition of the equipments and
the modes in which the duties are discharged with each
command or on each vessel within the district.

For each Army or Fleet, there should be one Chief Sig-
nal Officer, who shall have general charge of all matters
relating to signal duty, shall see that the proper details are
made, and who shall report from time to time on the con-
dition of the service, and upon the efficiency of the officers
and men detailed.

It should be required of each District and Division Com-
mander, that in all inspections for reports the drill in signal
duty should be examined and reported on precisely as with
any other drill practised.

To insure the skill on which on any day the successful
management of a command or of a ship may depend, it is
suggested that commanding officers order practice-drills as
a portion of the officers' regular duty, at certain hours on
certain days. When two or more vessels are lying to-
gether, the officers are to be required to practise with each
other,' during these drills, from ship to ship.

Orders from the Commanding Generals and Admirals
should establish the use of the General Service Codes
throughout their commands; and similar orders should
announce, from time to time, changes in the codes of the
rules by which they are to be used.

THE END.

INDEX.

Apparatus, chronosemic signal. 173.

sign-making lor chronosemic sig-
nal-, 174.
signal, care of, 222.
time-keeping for chronosemic sig-
nals, 173.
transportation of. 226.
Alphabet of three elements. 96.
four " 111.

" elements, for flags in
motion. Kit.
five elements, 116.
six " 127.

6even " 138.

eight " 140.

nine " 142.

ten " 144.

Alphabetic elementary codes, 36.
Arrangements of signals, 21.
of two symbols, 68, 95.
three " 96.
four " 107, 111.
five " 116.
six " 127.
Auxiliary naval symbols, 54.

or special signals (chronosemic),
172.
Bombs, candle, 207.
Candle bombs, 207.
Care of signal apparatus, 222.
Cavalry raids. 359.
Chronosemic signals. 164.

auxiliary or special signals, 172.
figure symbols. 168.
signals, form of records for, 177.
preliminary explanations of, 166.
M-nal numbers. 170.
" apparatus. 173.
" record, form of, 177.
" signs adapted to mist or

fog, 175.
" signs adapted to open
weather, 175.
Chronosemic signals— sign-making ap-
paratus, 174.
special sign-making do., 1T5.
'■ time-keeper for, 174.
table of special si^-ns. 172.
time-keeping apparatus, 173.
Cipher, modes and curiosities of, 323.
Cipher route. 311.

Cipher, signalling in, 236.
Class of signals, 20.

how named, 21.
Code, commercial (navj r ), 51.

designation of, 21.

signals of one element. 66.

two

three

96.

four

107.

five

116.

six

127.

instructions

for its use. 128.
Code, General Service, 68.

" instructions for its use,

70.
" tomographic, the. l-l I.
naval, example of, 47.
of ten elements, how to rapidly

memorize, 161.
signals, 147.
signals (navy), 49.
Codes, alphabetic elementary, 36.
examples of, 43.
of message-signals, 42.
Colored signals (navy), 52
Colors, signification of, 62.
Combinations (telegraphic), table of, 197.
Communication by signals without a
preconcerted code, how to open,
180.
Complicating signals, by two elements,

197.
by three elements, 94.
remarks on, 272.
Composition fires. 216.
Coston's composition telegraphic night

signals, 216.
Cryptograms, remarks on, 276.

illustrations of. 279, 280, 2S1.
Curiosities of cipher, 328.
Day signals— by two elements— horizon-
tal motions, 81.
motions of flags, 70.
message, how to send a, 72.
ordering Bignals, 7 1.
positions and motions, 70.
recording signals, 75,
vertical motions, 76.
Day signals— by three elements — flags in
motion.

414

INDEX.

Day Signals — motions of disks, 101.

bv four elements— motions of flags,

108.
positions of disks, 110, 112.
by five elements— positions and

motions, 117.
by six elements — positions and

motions, 128.
by nine elements — remarks on, 142.
Description of standard signal equip-
ments, 189.
Dictionary, telegraphic (navy), example

of, 50.
Disks— by three elements— motions of
101.
by four " " 113.

" " positions of, 110.

by five " positions and

motions of, 117.
by six " " 128.

Disks, signal, description of, 193.
Disks, signal— rules and regulations for
the use of— 1. Explanation of the
disk, 289: 2. To make signals,
289; 3. The adjustment letter,
289 ; 4. To send a message in
cipher, 290: 5. To change the
cipher when sending a message,
290 ; countersign words. 293.
Element, one, field signals by, 65.
Element, example of a code of, 66.
Elementary alphabetic codes, 36.
Elements, two, field signals by, 67.
three, " " 96.

four, " " 107.

five " " 116.

six " " 127.

seven " " 138.

eight " " 140.

nine " " 142.

ten " " 144.

three, alphabet of. 96.
four, " "' 111.

" for flags in motion, 103.
Elements, five, alphabet of, 116.
six " " 127.

seven " " 138.
eight " " 140.
nine " " 142.
ten " " 144.

Enciphering certain words only of a

message. 298.
Equation of combinations, the, 25.

permutations, 21.
Establishing field stations, remarks on,
243.
signal stations, remarks on, 265.
Examples of codes, 43.

Navy repeaters, 54.
Field signals, by one element, 65.
two " 66.
three " 96.
four " 107.
five " 116.
six " 127.

seven " 138.
eight " 140.

Field signals, by nine elements, 142.
ten " 144.

eleven " 162.

Field stations, remarks on selecting,
establishing, and working, 243.
Figure symbols (navy), description of, 52.

chronosemic signals, 164.
Fires, composition, description of, 216.
Flags — by three elements — in motion.OS.
four " " 108.

Flags, on halyards, 198.
in motion, 200.
signal, description of, 108.
" sizes of, 201.
Flashes and puffs, how to make, 209.
signals, by two elements, 88.
" three " 104.

" five " 120.

" six " 133.

ten " 156.

Flying or field telegraph, 336.
Form of chronosemic signal records, 177.
Forms, significations by, 63.
General applications of signals, 56, 114.
instructions concerning navy sig-
nals. 55.
General Service Code, illustration of, 68.

instructions for using, 70.
General Service Homographic Code, the,

144.
General Service of the Signal Corps, 347.

use of signals, 399.
Glasses, scale, description of, 235.
Halyards, flags on, 198.
Homographic Code, 144.
night signals, 149.
signals, how to return or repeat,

150.
signals, application to code of ten

elements, 154.
signals, application to signal-
books, remarks on, 151.
signals, orders in, how to give,

152.
signals, recording of, 153.
Horizontal motions — by two elements-
day signals, 81.
night " 85.
Information, reports from, 375.
Instruction in signalling, remarks on,

239.
Instructions, General (navy signals), 55.
Instructions for using General service
Code — by two elements — with
flags, 70.
three elements — with flags, 97.
six " with disks, 128.

Lanterns, description of, 203.
Length of staffs, what should be the, 201.
Lights, signal, how to use, 222.
Location of^stations, remarks on, 255.
Mapping, 370.
Maps and sketches from information,

372.
Matches, instructions concerning, 211.
Message, how to send a, by two ele-
ments, 72.

INDEX.

415

Message, to encipher certain words only

of, 398.
Message signals, code of, 42.

description of, 222.
Messages by messengers, 07.".
Messengers, messages by, 875.
Methods of signalizing signal numbers

(navy), ."-j.
Modes and curiosities of cipher. 823.
Motion, flat:* in. remarks on, 200.
Motion- as signals, explanation of. 15.
Motions of disks by three elements, 101.
" five •• 117.

six " 128.

Motions of flags (day signals'), by two
elements, 70.
horizontal " " 81.

vertical '« " 76.

Motions of flags— horizontal (night sig-
nals* by two elements, 8o.
vertical " " " 83.

of flags (day signals) by three ele-
ments, 98.
" " by four " 10S.

Motions, signification by. 59.
Naval Code, example of^ 47.

codes of the U. S., description of,
49.
Navy auxiliary symbols. 54.
colored signals, 52.
general instructions concerning,

55.
figure symbols. 52.
repeaters, 54.

" examples of, 54.

Navy signals, code of. 50.

telegraphic dictionarv. 50.
U. S.. signal system of the, 49.
Night signals (with equipments) by two

elements. 81.
Night signals by horizontal motion-. 85.
vertical " 83.

(with lanterns), bv three " 103.
(with eqpts), by four " 111.
(with diskM. •• " 114.

(with lights), byfive " lift,
(with lanterns i. by six " 132.
Night signals, bv nine efements, remarks
on. 142.
homographic. 149.
Numbers, methods of symbolizing in
navy. 50.
signal (navy) description of, 52.
example of. 95. 127.

(cbronosemic), lti4.
Observation and reconnoissance, 360.
Occoltations, signal, in- two elements. 90.
by three " lot
bv five " 120.
bv six " 13.3.
by ten " 150.
Odors, significations by, 02.
Ordering (tomographic Bignals, explana-
tion of. 152.
signals, explanation of. 74.
Origin ami general uses of signals, 3S2.
Permutations, equations of. 22.

Permutations— of signals, explanation
of. 21,

rules for. 21.
table of the. 25.

Polybius, the system of. 122.

Position of signalmen, explanation of.

210.
Positions and motions (by two cle-
ments). 70.

of disks (bv four elements). 112.
(by live. •• ). 117.

(by six " ). 128.

Positions, significations bv. 0:).

PufiB and (lashes, how to make, 209.
Raids, cavalry. 369.
Reconnoissance and observation. 3f>0.
Record (cbronosemic signals) form of,

177.
Recording nomographic signals, 152.

Bignals by two elements. 75.
Records (chronosemic signals), form of,

177.
Repeaters (navy), description of, 53.

example of. 51.
Repeating homographic signals, instru-
ments lor. 150.
stations, remarks on, 208.
Reports. 373.

from information. 375.
transmission of. 3S0.
Returning or repeating bomo<rraphic

Bignals, instructions lor. 150.
Rockets for signals, use of, 211.

firing, instructions for. 215.
Route cipher. 311.
Rules of arrangements as applied to

Bignals, 21. 35.
Rules of combinations as applied to si"-

tials. 21.
Rules of permutations as applied to sig-
nals. 21,35.
and explanations for use of signal
disks, 2x1.
Scale L'las-es. description of. 235.
Selecting stations in the field, remarks

011. 243.
Semaphore telegraphic (universal), 195.
Semaphores, description of. 193.

field, how to use lor signals, 155.
Service Code, General, illustration of,

08.
Sign-making apparatus (chronosemic

signals). 175.
Signal apparatus, instructions for (are
of, 222.
disks, description of, 193.
Signal Corps, general service of the. 347.
Signal disks— rules and regulations for
the use of — 1. Explanation of
the disk. 289: 2. To make sig-
nals, 289; 3. The adjustment
letter. 289; I. To -end a mes-
sage in cipher, 290: 5. To change
the cipher when sending a mes-
sage, 2:«i; countersign words,

2'.'::.

Signal lights, how to use. 222

41G

INDEX.

Signal men, positions of, 246.

numbers (navy), method of sym-
bolizing, 52.
" " description of, 54.

stations, how to establish, 205.
Signals, arrangements of, 21.
Signals by occupations (by two ele-
ments), 90.
(bv three elements), 104.
(by five " ), 120.

( by six " ), 133.

(by ten " ), 156.

Signals by flashes (by two elements), SS.
(by three " ), 104.
(by fonr " ), 120.

(by five " ), 121.

(by six " ), 133.

(by ten " ), 156.

Signals by sound (by two elements), 91.
(by three " ), 105.
(by five " J, 181.

(by six " ), 134.

Signals by vertical motions, remarks on,

76, 83.
Signals (chronosemic), exposition of, 164.
apparatus. 173.
auxiliary or special, 172.
figure symbols. 164.
form of records for. 177.
preliminary explanations about,

166.
numbers. 170.
record, form of, 177.
signs adapted to mist or fog, 175.
" •' open weather, 175.

sign-making apparatus, 174.
special sign-making " 175.
• l time-keeper, for, 174.
table of special signs. 172.
time-keeping apparatus. 173.
Signals, classes of, remarks on, 20, 95.
Signals, code (bv three elements), 96.
(by four " ), 108.

(by five " ), 116.

(by six " ), 127.

Signals, code of, remarks on, 21.
" Navy, 51.

combinations of, remarks on, 162.
code, illustration of, 147.
complicating (by two elements),

197.
(by three " ), 94.
" remarks on. 272.

Signals, day (bv two elements), 70, 76. 81.
(by three " ), 98. 101.
(bv four " ). 108, 111.
(by five " ). 117.
(by six " ), 12a.
(by nine " ), 142.
Signals, explanations of, 15.

field (by one element). 65.

(by two

66.

(by three '

' •

96.

i by lour '

107.

(by five " ").

116.

(by six

1 )•

126.

(by nine

112.

Signals, field (by ten elements). 144.
" (by eleven " ). 162.
Signals, from one to nine elements, and
from one to nine places, table of
references for. 32.
Signals, general applications pertaining
to, 56.
nomographic, 149.

•• application to code of ten
elements. 154.
" signal books, re-
marks on, 151.
homographic, how to return or re-
peat. 150.
" orders in, how to give. 152.
" recording, remarks on. 1":).
Signals, message codes of. 42.

" description of. 222.
naval, colored, description of. 52.
night (by two elements), with

eqpts. 81, 83, 85.
" (bv three"), " 99.

" ( li "), with lanterns,

103.
" (bvfour "),with eqpts. 108.
" ( " "), with disks, 110.

" (by five '■). with li-hts. 114.
" (by six "),with lanterns,

132.
Signals, night. Coston's composition

telegraphic, description of. 216.
Signals, origin and general uses of, 382.

general use of, 399.
Signals, permutations of, 21.
recording of, 17.
rockets for the use of. 211.
systems of (navy), description of,

49.
transient, remarks pertaining to,
87.
Signals, with field semaphores, descrip-
tion of, 155.
without a preconcerted code, how
to open, 180.
Signalling, instruction in, 239.

in cipher, remarks on, 286.
Significations by colors, 62.
forms, 63.
motions, 59.
odors. 62.
positions, 58.

of forms, 63.
sounds, 60.
taste, 61.
touch, 61.
Size of flags, explanation of, 201.
Sketches and maps from information,

372.
Sound, as signals^. remarks on. 15.
signals (by two elements), 91.
(bv three " ), 105.
" (bvfive " ). 121.
" (by six " ), 134.

Sound, significations by, 60.
Special or auxiliary (chronosemic) sig-
nals. 172.
Stall's, length of. what should be. 201.

INDEX.

417

Stations in the field, how to select,

establish, and work, 248.

how in locate, 365.

repeating, remarks on, SOS.

signal, how to establish, 965.

Symbols, arrangement of. 68, 95, n»i. 107,

111, 116, 127, 138, 140, If', 144.
Symbols (navy), auxiliary. 54.
System ofPolybius, the, 122.

figure (chronoaemic signals), lf>8.
Table of reference for all signals from
one to nine elements, and from
one to nine places, 34.
of telegraphic signs or combina-
tions, in;.

Taste, significations by, 61.

Telegraphic combinations, table of. 197.

Telegraphic composition nighl (Cos-
ton's) signals, description of, 216.
(naval) dictionary, illustration of,
50.

18*

Telegraphic siirns, table of, 107.
Telegraph, flying or field, 386.
Telegraphy, remarks on, i.">.
Telescopes and their uses, remarks on,

228.
Time-keeping apparatus for chronosemic

signals, explanation of, n [.
To open a communication by signals

without a preconcerted code,

how, 180.
To rapidly memorize a code of ten ele-
ments, how, 161.
Torches, description of. 204.
Touch, significations by. 61.
Transient signals, remarks on. NT.
Transmission of reports. 880
Transportation of apparatus, remarks

mi. 226.
Vertical motions, explanation of, 7ti. S3.
Working stations on the field, remarks

on, -,»i:;, 249.

14 DAY USE

RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

LOAN DEPT.

This book is due on the last date stamped below, or

on the date to which renewed.

Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.

jrf

41*4

REC'D LD

m SEP2 5 , 64 T HTR lft

2S »P'65»»f

REC'D try

AUG 2 7 '65 3 ,4

fEBJjLiflflg

FEB 9 1 ?m

LD 21A-60m-4,'64
(E4555sl0)476B

General Library

University of California

Berkeley

YR 05652