llfll Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/farmersplanterseOOjohnrich UNIVKKSITV (>>■ CALIFOKNIA. Plate 2. Varieties of meat with thenwst d^stm^n Enmus See £o(^laruitiort^ ofl^lcctes. THE FARMER'S AND PLANTER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA OP RURAL AFFAIRS; BMBRACINO ALL THE MOST RECENT DISCOVERIES ur SUITED TO THE COMPREHENSION OF UNSCIENTIFIC READERS. BY CUTHBERT W. JOHNSON, Esq., F.R.S. WITH EXTENSIVE ADDITIONS ADAPTING THE WORK TO THE UNITED STATES, AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS OF ANIMALS, IMPLEMENTS, AND OTHER SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH AGRICULTURE. BY GOUVERNEUR EMERSON, M.D., or TEE AJUaiCAN PHILOSOPHICAL 80CIKTT, PENNSTLVAmA ACADBMT OP KATOBAL SCIENCES; jnaXtD 8TATXS AORICCLTU&AL SOCIETT, ETC., ETC. ^ . . ^.^. . .o J^ 1 B R A K Y 3^vi%ni €iiim of 1868. UNIVERSITY , Pennock's Grain Drill. PLATE 16. p. 603. Harr(fw$t ExtirptUortj and Scari/ien, 1, Gang of Harrows. 2, Berwickshire Harrow. 3, Biddell's Extirpating Harrow. 4, Harrow Tooth. 6. Finlayson's Self-cleaning Cultivator, or Scarifier. PLATE 16. p. 667. Destructive Imeett, tfc, 1 The OakPruner {Elaphidion putator). See Borers, page 205. 2, Locust Tree Borer {Clytw JUxmonu). See page 206. ^ Potato- vine Bug (^Criocvri$ triUmeatay 4, Cucumber F.ea (Haltica striolaia), Mag nified. See pages 172 and 173. 5, May Beetle, or Dor Bug (JPhyllophaga quercina) See pages 172, 173. 6, Pine Tree Weevil (Hylobius pales), A most destructive msect to the Southern pine forests. See Wkkvils, 7, Moih ot the Com Cut-Worm (Jgrotis clandestina). See Cut- Worm. 8, Female Fly of the Peach Tree Worm {^geria exitiosa). See Pear Tree Borer. 9, Bee, or Wax Moth (^Gallerea cereana). See page 168. The three msects which follow are to be re- garded ai5 friendly to the interests of man, as they prey upon those which are destructive. 10, Caravus Gorgi, one of a large family which preys upon caterpillars, &o* 11, Lady Bird, or Lady Bug (Coccinella borea- lis). This insect lives upon plant-lice and other injunous insects. 12, Trogus Fulvis, an insect of the Ichneu- mon Family, which commit great havoc among caterpillars and grubs. See Ichneumoit Flies. N. B. Most of the subjects of this plate were furnished expressly for this work by Professor Haldeman, of Marietta, Pennsylvania, and drawn under his inspection by Miss Lawson, of Philadelphia- PLATE 17. p. 902. Ploughs. a, The Holland, or Rotterdam Plough. 6, Small's Chain Plough. e, (/, East Lothian Plough, two views, witii scale of feel, &c. «, English Swing Plough. /, Skeleton Plough of Kent g, Subsoil Ploughing. K, English Plough Head, t, Scotch Plough Head. At, Ploughshare tor Stony Ground. /, Ploughshare for Clear Ground, m, m, Skim Coulters. n. Wheel Coulters. 0, Smith's Subsoil Plough. INTRODUCTION TO KEVISED EDITION OF 1868 " To render Agriculture more productive and beneficial to all, it is necessary that its principlofl fhonld be better understood, and that we should profit more from the experience of each other, and by the example of other countries which excel us in this great business." — Buel. The Farmer's and Planter's Encyclopaedia here presented to the American public, is based upon the well-known " Farmer's Encyclopaedia and Dictionary of Kural Affairs," originally published in England by Cuthbert W. Johnson, — than whom no higher authority exists upon matters connected with agriculture in a country where this great branch of industry is carried to such perfection. All the informa- tion collected and condensed by this eminent author is of that accurate and practical kind which cannot fail to diflfuse the most valuable instruction. This rule has been applied in regard to materials subsequently added in order to adapt the work to the wider field offered by the diversified climate and soils in the United States. The absence of speculative views, with the very practical and matter-of-fact character of the information given upon all subjects treated of, will perhaps be found to consti- tute the highest recommendation of ** C. W, Johnson's Farmers' Encyclopaedia, and Dictionary of Rural Affairs." The comparatively limited range of English Agriculture is strongly contrasted with the diversity of culture met with in the United States. A work limited to an account of productions of the soil and climate of England would leave out many of the most important crops which exact the attention of the American farmer and planter. Hence the necessity of adapting a book of the kind to the new localities into which it is introduced. This, as may be well supposed, presents a task of no small labour. It has been charged upon agriculturists, that improvements in husbandry encounter great opposition, and generally work their way very slowly ; whereas inventions and improvements made in the manufacturing and mechanic arts are seized upon and put to profit almost as quickly as promulgated. The late and justly celebrated Mr. Coke, of Holkam, England, the great benefactor of his own country, and, indeed, of every other country where agriculture is cherished, succeeded, by the adoption of an en- lightened course of tillage, in converting a sandy and comparatively sterile district into one of very great productiveness. But, though his improvements were on so large a scale, and the results so very striking to observers, such was the general ignorance, apathy, or prejudice prevailing in the neighbouring counties, that he esti- mated the rate at which his improved process spread around him, at only about three miles a year. A better condition of things would seem to exist at present in the United States, doubtless owing to the extension of education. It is but a few years since the treatises on agricultural chemistry by Liebig and J. F. W. Johnston were introduced into this country, and although these abound in the technicalities of science, they have been so eagerly sought after that many editions of each work have passed through the press. The advances in agricultural improvement have, of late years, been in what mathe- maticians call a geometrical ratio, the pace increasing with great celerity at every suc- cessive step. In proportion as the influences of modern education become diffused, the savage characteristics of man are softened down, and the better feelings of his nature ac- 3 INTRODUCTION. quire predominance. Bloody and desolating wars are viewed in their true light, and the useful arts of peace appear the only proper sources of individual pleasure and national prosperity. ' As, among these arts, none possesses tlie vital importance of agricuhure, from its furnishing the means of immediate subsistence, so it may .fairly be said, no other excites at the present day a greater and more pervading interest throughout Europe and America, with all who seek independence or the gratification of the most rational of tastes. The inhabitants of the United States possess advantages for the prosecution of agricultural pursuits, which, for variety and extent, surpass those enjoyed by any other people on the globe. They occupy the greatest portion of the North American continent, embracing all varieties of soil and surface, with a climate which in the southern parts admits the culture of many of the most valuable productions of the tropics, whilst the northern, limits verge upon, but do not reach the less favoured regions where too severe and enduring frost entails a scanty vegetation. Commencing nearest the tropical limits, the chief attention of the planter is direct- ed to the culture of the sugar-cane, rice, tobacco, indigo, and especially cotton, more of which last is raised in the Southern States than in all the rest of the world besides. In the amount of sugar procured from the cane, Louisiana takes the lead, though Florida, Alabama, and others of the extreme southern states produce considerable quantities. South Carolina yields the most rice, which has also been raised to a greater or less extent throughout the Southern States, and even as high as Tennessee, Kentucky, and southern Virginia. The cotton region is still more extensive, spreading through- out the extreme southern and south-western states, from the Atlantic far west of the Mis- sissippi, and rising into middle Virginia, and even the lowest portion of Delaware In the quantity of tobacco produced, Virginia stands foremost, being followed succes sively by Kentucky, Tennessee, Maryland, North Carolina, etc. The Middle States raise in the greatest abundance, maize or Indian corn, Avheat, rye, barley and oats, whilst in a large portion of the Northern States, the wheat, rye, oat, potato, and especially grass crops, are extremely productive and valuable. Although maize is most extensively cultivated in the middle states, it is abundant in almost every section of the country, and from its affording so large an amount of the food of man and animals, is universally regarded as the most valuable cereal crop of the United States. Besides these there are many other rich products of the fields and forests, which enter largely into the aggregate of national wealth. The first history of American Agriculture differs from that of countries in the old world, where the advances in the arts were slow, and every acquisition marked by rudeness and simplicity. Not so, however, in America, whose intelligent European settlers came with all the appliances of advanced civilization, prepared to chop down the forests and clear away the thickets which had so long encumbered the ground and furnished a scanty subsistence to the savage hunter. For a time the roots obstructed the plough and prevented the deep turning of the soil: but they afforded no impedi- i«ent to the raising of grain crops, since the light virgin mould, abounding in the alkalies and all other elements of fertility, required but the slightest stirring of the surface to answer the purposes of the plough and harrow. Here then commenced the career of the American planter and farmer, upon a capital accumulated by nature herself through the most gradual accessions. Rich harvests of grain, crops of tobacco and other products sent to Europe and sold at high prices, stimulated to renewed ex- ertions, and the generous soil was subjected to a scourging course of tillage, by which many of the essential elements of its fertility were finally exhausted without any compensating additions. In Virginia, where the primitive settlements were made, large tracts of many hundreds and even thousands of acres, the once profitable cul- ture of which is shown by the extensive ruins of stately mansions, now lie waste and uncultivated, or are covered with a new growth of the oak and pine, renewing forests to which the deer, once driven away, has returned. The lands bordering on the Atlantic have thus been worn out by successive years of culture without adequate help, the thinnest soils first, and next the deeper moulds. But let not those whose lots are cast in other and more prosperous parts of the Union sympathize over the decayed fortunes of once flourishing districts, and overlook theii own gradual decline. It is in vain for the farmers of the western valleys and prairies to boast of the depth and inexhaustible productive powers of their lands. With every INTRODUCTION. 8 crop, some of the elements of fertility must of necessity be removed, and the greater the crops the speedier the exhaustion, unless some adequate compensation be made. The following fact, stated in the fifth volume of that valuable American periodical, " The Cultivator," shows the progress of deterioration in one of the finest wheat dis- tricts in the whole country. ** Thomas Burrall, Esq., has a most excellent wheat farm in the neighbourhood of Geneva, (New York,) which he began to clear and improve twenty-one or twenty- two years ago, and on which he has made and applied much manure. Mr. Bur- rail informed us, in the summer of 1836, that he had noted down the average product of his wheat crop every year ; that dividing the twenty years into three periods, he found that his wheat had averaged twenty-nine bushels per acre during the first of these periods ; twenty-five bushels the acre during the second ; and but twenty bushels tlie acre during the third period — thus showing a diminished fertility of nearly one- third, under what may there be denominated a good system of husbandry." All, then, who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, and even those now luxuriating upon the most fertile soils, must, sooner or later, be reduced to the necessity of adding to their fields some of tlie agents of fertility, and of adopting new means by which they can obtain crops that may be compensating and profitable. The late Judge Buel, in referring to a picture drawn by the Hon. James M. Gar- nett, of the deteriorated condition of Virginia agriculture, says : — " Let not the Northerners take credit to themselves, from this outline of old Virginia husbandry, or from the ingenuous detail of the causes which brought it to so low a condition. Though not exacdy the like causes have operated, the same deteriorating system of husbandry has prevailed with us, though perhaps to a more limited extent. Though we have personally attended more to the art — to the practice — yet we have been equally defi- cient in the science with our brethren in Virginia— equally indifferent to the study and application of the principles upon which good husbandry must ever be based. And although we may have begun earlier in the business of reform, whether from necessity or from choice we will not say, we are still too defective in practice to boast of our trivial acquirements. The truth is, we have regarded the soil as a kind mother, expecting her always to give, without regarding her ability to give. We have expected a continuance of her bounties, though we have abused her kindness, and disregarded her maternal admonitions. We have managed the culture of the soil as a business requiring mere animal power, rather than as one in which the intellect could be brought largely to co-operate." "But," continues the judge, in the full fervour of his zeal for the promotion of agriculture, "there is a redeeming spirit abroad. The lights of science are beaming upon the agricultural world, and dissipating the clouds of superstitious ignorance which have so long shrouded it in darkness. The causes which have for some time been actively operating to improve the condition of the other arts, and to elevate the character of those who conduct them, are extending their influence to agriculture." The course of tillage followed in America since its first settlement, and with such exhausting and disastrous eflfects upon the soil, has been of late aptly styled the old system, to distinguish it from the New Husbandry^ which last consists in the employ- ment of means calculated not only to arrest and prevent the exhaustion of soils, but to increase their productiveness. It is indeed gratifying to know that in many parts of our country which have suffered from the impoverishment of the land ; agriculture has for many years shown signs of progressive improvement, reduced farms having been brought into increased value, and the products of many of them being raised even above the amount aflfbrded in the days of their first exuberant culture. Thi^ has occurred in New England, in the Valley of the Hudson, in New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, the upper portion of the Peninsula including Delaware and Eastern Mary land, in several parts of Western Maryland, Old or Eastern Virginia, etc. It is the chief object of the numerous and many admirable agricultural publications so extensively circulated at the present day, as well as of the active societies everywhere instituted, to set forth the principles and practical details of the new system of hus- bandry, and to demonstrate the advantages resulting from the judicious application of manures and all sorts of fertilizing agents ;— from good tillage ;— from proper rotation of crops; — from the assistance to be derived from root-culture ;— from the substitution for naked fallows, of clover and other good fallow crops. All these means are to be 4 INTRODUCTION. adopted in conjunction with ample draining, with or without the additional advantages derived from sub-soil ploughing. Many of the processes which may be resorted to in carrying out the new system are in a great degree mysteries to thousands in the United States, although familiarly known and long employed in other countries, where with not half the natural advan- tages the labour of the husbandman is far better rewarded. Such has been the agri- cultural improvement effected in Flanders, that the whole country may almost be styled a garden, each acre being capable of supporting its man. Scotland, in little more than half a century, has changed from comparative unproductiveness, into one of the richest agricultural districts in Europe. In Great Britain, the products of the grain harvests have increased within sixty years, from one hundred and seventy to tiiree hundred and forty millions of bushels. The system inculcated by the new principles, has even in some districts of our own country, where they have been well followed up, increased the value of farms, two, three, and four hundred per cent.— . from twenty and thirty dollars to one hundred dollars per acre. " It has," says Buel, *' made every acre of arable land, upon which it has been practised ten years, and lying contiguous to navigable waters, or a good market, worth, at least, one hundred dollars, for agricultural purposes." The zeal for the promotion of good husbandry which pervades the country at large, is displayed in the geological surveys which have been finished, or are in progress, in most of the states ; in the agricultural surveys in several others, together with the liberal premiums appropriated by legislative authority, and innumerable societies, foi the encouragement of every thing tending to improve and advance the agricultural interests. It is also shown by the extensive circulation of the many periodicals de- voted in whole or in part to agricultural subjects, through every seG^ioQ of o^r ex- tensive country. In these, matters of greater or less interest are brought before thousands of persons interested in rural pursuits, and sufl&ciently educated to compre- hend and discuss the merits of most of the questions. It might appear invidious to single out the names of particular publications, all of which are more or less instructive, and some highly so. It would be difficult to find a single one from which information may not be gained the value of which would greatly transcend the ordinary pit- tance obtained from subscribers. Indeed, the extremely low prices of the annual subscriptions to nearly all our American agricultural periodicals are so far from being remunerative, that their editors may claim to be regarded as missionaries devoted to a high cause, and willing to labor almost without hire for its promotion. Book-farmers have long suflfered under general discredit, and been exposed to abundance of taunt and ridicule, even from their own agricultural brethren. Doub* less the imperfection of much of the scientific data furnished and practised upon has often given occasion to unsatisfactory results. But the rapid progress of science has developed new facts, and furnished much more accurate information. Undei the direction of Davy, agricultural chemistry made vigorous advances. His many splendid discoveries, and especially his demonstration that the common alkalies, pot- ash and soda, and the alkaline earths, magnesia, lime, and alumine, were not simple elementary substances, but the oxides of metals, seemed to give a new impulse to those who sought to make chemistry subserv'ent to agriculture. But even with the brilliant achievomt*iits of Davy and the subsequent valuable researches of Count Chaptal in France, agricultural chemistry remained very imperfect. Too exclusive attention had been devoted to the mineral constituents of soils. Most gratifying and important results have been since obtained through the able investigations of several eminent French chemists, among whom we may name, Raspail, De Saussure, Braconnot, and ^oussingault, all of whom have devoted special attention to ascertaining the nature and properties of organic substances entering into the composition of soils. What England commenced by Davy, and France followed up so ably by her distinguished chemists just named, Germany seems to have the honour of almost perfecting through the brilliant achievements of her chemist. Dr. Liebig, the highly important results obtained by whom have been recently placed before the world in his trea- tises on "Agricultural Chemistry,'^ etc. The interesting developments made in these works, of the chemical agencies operating in the various stages and conditions of growth, INTRODUCTION. 5 "maturity, and subsequent decomposition of vegetable and animal substances, and the mutual relations subsisting between these and the earth and atmosphere, have drawn upon Liebig the admiration of all Europe and America. It must, nevertheless, be owned that though generally adopted, the accuracy of some of liiebig's results has been more than questioned by distinguished chemists in Europe and the United States. The particulars of these and the effects of the several agencies acting upon the life of vegetables and animals, will be found in the Encyclo- paedia of Agriculture, arranged under various heads, such as. Soils, Humus, Carbon, Oxyofen, Azote or Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Ammonia, etc. Whilst agriculture has, within the last few years, been thus receiving such rich tributes from abroad, many scientific investigators of the highest merit have been zealously and successfully engaged in the United States, in experimental researches which have added greatly to the stock of useful knowledge. Among these, it would be signal injustice to pass unnoticed the names of Professors Jackson and Dana of Massachusetts, who have devoted great attention to the analyses of soils, the chemical composition and properties of humus as found in ordinary mould, and in peats and bog-nmd, the results of which have been published in the reports of the Agricultural and Geological Surveys of Massachusetts, and in separate essays. Professors Rogers and Booth of Philadelphia, the former in his Geological Report of New Jersey, and the latter of Delaware, have furnished numerous and highly accurate analyses of the valuable calcareous marls and green-sand deposits found so abundantly in the states named, as well as in others of the middle and southern regions, together with much information relative to the application of these inexhaustible agents of fertility. The works of Dr. Harris on Destructive Insects, Dr. Flint on Grasses, and Prof S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, on Fertilizers, etc., are rich contributions to agricul- tural knowledge. The success with which science has developed the agencies concerned in the various stages and processes of vegetation, and the certainty with which deficiences of soil can now be detected and remedied, have suddenly elevated agriculture from the condition of an art under the guidance of common observation and ^pirical ex- periment, to a science regulated by recognised principles of induction. We are indeed much mistaken if the day has not arrived when the successes of the book-farmer shall cause his incredulous brother farmer of the old routine system, to cease his taunts and spend some of his leisure hours in searching into books containing modern information in regard to matters of husbandry. In preparing the work for the American farmer, the editor has had several objects to fulfil. Of these, one of the principal was the reduction of the price, the cost of the imported copy being so great as to prevent any extensive circulation of it in the United States. Much of the irrelevant and less important materials in the original have been omitted, their place being supplied by the addition of information con- nected with the interests of American husbandry. In the selection of such informa- tion, the editor has to acknowledge his great indebtedness to distinguished writers at home and abroad, who have contributed, by elaborate works, separate treatises and communications in periodicals, to promote the cause of agriculture. The American edition will contain a far greater number of plates and figures illus- trating the various subjects; notwithstanding which, its cost will be only about one- fourth that of the imported work. However many books one may possess treating of the innumerable subjects con- nected with country life, one standard and comprehensive volume should always be at hand for ready reference. a2 THB L 1 J3 1 I UNIVEK81T, CALIFORNIA AEMER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA, AKD DICTIONARY OF RURAL AFFAIRS. lATE (French, abbatre; Spanish, aha- ' i Italian, abbatere); to beat down. In com- merce, lo let down the price in selling. In law, means the beating down or removal of an obstruction or nuisance, which, accord- ing to the common law of England, any per- son may remove, provided he does it in a peaceable manner, so as not to occasion a breach of the peace, such as the obstruction of an ancient light, which is a private nuisance, or the erection of a gate across a common road, which is a public nuisance, and which any one may beat down and remove. ABELE TREE (Fs to an)' other which accident or invest igation may reveal. In the meantime, the number of abortior.s may be diminished by carefully avoiding all those causes which are known to be capable of producing it. Let the cows be regularly fed ; let their food be good, and in proper quantities ; let them have water as often as they will take it; avoid sudden ex- posure to cold or heat ; and, above all, let the cow-house be well ventilated. Prohibit all manner of rough usage on the part of those who look after the cows, whether they be preg- nant or not. If any of them accumulate flesh too rapidly, gradually reduce their allowance; and, on the other hand, if any become emaci- ated, discover the cause, and remedy it, always by slow degrees. Sudden changes in the matter or mode of feeding should also be avoided. The same sort of diet docs not agree equally well with all the cows ; and this, in general, is indicated by undue relaxation, or constipation of the bowels; this should be watched, and removed at once. Attention to these, and many other minor circumstances, will amply repay the proprietor for the little additional trouble. " That improper or too little food,'* says Mr. Lindsay, " is a prominent cause of abortion, is strongly indicated by the following facts. A friend of mine, a respectable grazing fanner, kept a dairy of twenty-two cows, ten of which slipped calf at different periods of parturition. The summer had been very unfavourable in every respect, both as regarded the ground "where the cows were pastured, and in getting in the hay crop. He had little or no hay of the last year's growth, and the hay of that year when cut into was in a very bad state ; but as he had no other, he was obliged to give it to his cattle. The consequence was as men- tioned above ; and besides, many of his stock died of various disorders ; and many of those which recovered remained long weakly." "The most common cause of abortion in cows," says White, " is improper feeding dur- ing winter and spring, before they are turned to pasture. The filthy pond-water they are often compelled to drink, and feeding on the rank fog-grass of October and Novem- ber, especially when covered with hoar-fro5>t, are likewise frequent causes of miscarriage. I remember a farm near Berkeley, in Glouces- tershire, which afforded a striking proof of the injuries of stagnant pond- water, impregnated wiiiidungani urine. This %rm had been given up by three farmers successively, in consequence of the losses they sustaiuod through abortion ii^their cattle, thoir not being in season (that is, not conceiving), red water, end other diseases. At length a Mr. Dimmery, after suffering considerably in his live itock for the first five years, suspected that the water of his ponds, which was extremely filthy, might be the cause of the mischief. He ther-^ fore dug three wells upon his farm, and having fenced round the ponds to prevent his cattle from drinking there, caused them to be sup- plied with well-water, in stone troughs erected for the purpose; and from this moment his live stock begin to thrive, became uncom- monly healthy, and the quality of the butcer ' and cheese made on his farm was greatly inv- proved. It should be observed, that on this farm the cattle were regularly ied with good ; hay during the winter, and kept in good pas- I ture in summer : so that there cannot exist a j doubt that the losses sustained by Mr. Dim- mery were entirely attributable to the unv/hole- some water the animals were compelled to drink." "In order," adds Mr. White, "to show that the accident of warping may arise from a viti- ated state of the digestive organs, I shall here notice a few circumstances tending to corro- borate this opinion. In January, 1782, all the cows in the possession of farmer D'Euruse, near Grandvilliers, in Picardy, miscarried. The period at which they Avarped was about the fourth or fifth month. Tlie accident was attri- buted to the excessive heal of the preceding summer; but as the water they were in the habit of drinking was extremely bad, and ther as the oak tree. A cubic foot of Acacia, in a dry state, weighs from forty-eight to fifty-three pounds' weight. If we compare its toughness, in an unseasoned state, with that of oak, it will not be more than 8-100 less. Its stiffness is equal to 99-100 of oak ; and its strength nearly 96 100; but, if it were properly seasoned, it might, possibly, be found much superior to oak in strength, toughness, and stiffness. A piece of Acacia, unseasoned, two feet six inches long, and an inch square in the vertical sec- tion, broke when loaded with a weight of two hundred and forty-seven pounds avoirdupois. Its medium cohesive force is about 11-500 pounds. {Dictionary of Architecture.) "We are not aware that this tree has added in any shape to the list of medicines. The Acacia of the shops was formerly made from the unripe pods of the true Acacia tree; but of later years, the Acacia Germanica of the shops is made from unripe sloes, and is pre- ferred as an astringent medicine to the true Acacia. The Acacia i*' easily propagated from seeds or suckers. (Mii/er.) [The following highly interesting account of this tree, and the mode of cultivating it in the United Slates, is given by Dr. 8. Ackerly. "The cultivation of the locust tree, on Long Island, and in other parts of the slate of New York, has been attended to with considerable profit to the agricultural interest, but not with that earnestness which the importance of the subject demands. This may have arisen from the difficulty of propagating it by trans- planting, or not understanding how to raise it from the seed. • • • • • "The locust is a tree of quick growth, the wood of which is hard, durable, and princi- pally used in ship-building. To a country situ- ated like the United States, with an extensive line of sea-coast, penetrated by numerous bays, and giving rise to many great rivers, whose banks are covered with forests of extraordi- nary growth, whose soil is fertile, rich, and variegated, and whose climate is agreeably di- versified by a gradation of temperature; to such a country, inhabited by an industrious and enterprising people, commerce, both fo- reign and domestic, must constitute one of the principal employments. As long as the coun- try possesses the necessary timber for ship- building, and the other advantages which our situation affords, the government will continue to be formidable to all other powers. We have within ourselves four materials necessary for the completion of strong and durable naval structures. These are the live-oak, l>cust, cedar, and pine, which can be abundantly supplied. The former is best for the lower timb^s of a ship, while the locust and cedar form the upper works of the frame. The pine supplies the timber for decks, masts, and spars. A vessel built of live-oak, locust, and cedar, uill last longer than if constructi^d of any other wood. Naval architecture has arrived in thb place and other parts of the United States, to as great perfection, perhaps, as in any other country on 3 ACACIA TKEE. the globe. Our ' fir-built frigates' have been compared with the British oak, and stood me test ; and in sailing, nothing has equalled the fleetness of some of our sharp vessels. The pre- servation and cultivation of these necessary articles in ship-building, is a matter of serious consideration. It might not be amiss to sug- gest to the Congress of the United States to prohibit the exportation of them. The pine forests appear almost inexhaustible, and Ihey will be so in all probability for many genera- tions to come ; but the stately cedars of Mobile, and the lofty forests of Georgia, where the live- oak is of a sturdy growth, begin to disappear before the axe of the woodsman. The locust, a native of Virginia and Maryland, is in such demand for foreign and domestic coubumption, that it is called for before it can attain its full growth. It has been cultivated as far eastward as Rhode Island, but begins to depreciate in quality in that state. Insects attack it there, which are not so plentifully found in this state, or its native situations. These give the timber a worm-eaten appearance, and render it less useful. The locust has been extensively raised in the southern parts of the state of New York, but the call for it has been so great, that few trees have attained any size before they were wanted for use. Hence they are in great de- mand, and of ready sale, and no ground can be appropriated for any kind of timber with so much advantage as locust. Besides its appli- cation to ship-building, it is extensively used for fencing ; and for posts, no timber will last longer, in or out of the ground. On Long Island, where wood is scarce and fencing tim- ber in great demand, the locust becomes of much local importance from this circumstance alone, independent of its great consumption in this city among the ship-builders. In naval structures it is not exclusively applied to the interior or frame. In many places where strength is wanting, locust timber will bear a strain which would break oak of the same size. Thus an oak tiller has been known to break near the head of the rudder in a gale of wind, which has never happened Avith a locust one. Tillers for large sea vessels are now uniformly made of locust in New York. It is the best timber also for pins or trenails (commonly called trunnels), and preferable to the best of oak. The tree generally grows straight with few or no large limbs, and the fibres of the wood are straight and parallel, which makes it split well for making trenails, with little or no loss of substance. These are made in considerable quantities for exportation. " The locust tree does not bear transplanting well in this part of our country, but this in all probability arises from the custom of cutting off' the roots, when taken up for that purpose. Most of the roots of the locust are long, c)^lin- drical, and run horizontally not far under the surface. In transplanting, so few of the roots are left to the body of the tree removed, that little or no support is given to the top, and it consequently dies. If care was taken not to destroy so much of the roots, a much larger proportion of those transplanted would live and thrive. So great has been the difficulty in raising the locust in this way, that another b2 17 ACACIA TREE. ACANTHUS. method of propagating it, has been general!}' resorted lo. Whenever a large tree was cut down for use, the ground for some distance around was ploughed, by which operation the roots near the surface were broken and forced up. From these roots suckers would shoot up, and the ground soon become covered with a grove of young trees. These, if protected from cattle, by being fenced in, would grow most rapidly, and the roots continuing to ex- tend, new shoots would arise, and in the course of a few years, a thrifty young forest of locust trees be produced. The leaves of the locust are so agreeable to horses and cattle, that the young trees must be protected from their approach. When growing in groves they shoot up straight and slender, as if striving to out- top each other, to receive the most benefit from the rays of a genial sun. "Another ditliculty has arisen in propagating the locust, from inability to raise it from the seed. The seed does not always come to per- fection in this part of the state of New York, and if it does, it will not sprout, unless pre- pared before planting. The method best adapted to this purpose was proposed by Dr. Samuel Bard ; but it is not generally known, or if known, is not usually attended to. When this shall be well understood and practised, the locust will be easily propagated, and then, in- stead of raising groves of them, the waste ground along fences, and places where the Lombardy poplar encumbers the earth, will be selected to transplant them, as, by having them separated and single, there will be an economy in using the soil, the trees will grow much better, and the timber be stronger. "Doctor Bard's method of preparing the seeds was to pour boiling water on them, and let it stand and cool. The hard outer coat would thus be softened, and if the seed swelled by this operation, it might be planted, and would soon come up. This has been followed with success in Long Island; and on a late visit to North Hempsted, I was led to admire Judge Mitchell's nursery of young locust trees, plant- ed in the spring. ** The judge took a quantity of seed collected on this island, and put it in an earthen pitcher, and poured upon it water near to boiling. This he let stand for twenty-four hours, and then decanted it, and selected all the seeds that were any ways swelled by this application of heat and moisture. To the remainder he made a second libation of hot water, and let it remain also twenty-four hours, and then made a second selection of the swelled seeds. This was re- peateda third time on the unchangedones, when nearly all were swelled, and then he prepared the ground and planted them. He planted the seeds in drills about four feet apart, and* in eight or ten days they were all above ground, and came up as regular as beans, or anv other seeds that are cultivated in gardens. When I saw them, the middle of July, they were about a fool high, all thrifty and of a good colour and condition. •*It is the judge's intention lo leave them in their present situation about three years, and then transplant; and provided he does not mu- uia» tnc roots ii» removing them, they will ii bear transplanting, live, and thrive, and be the most productive forest tree that a farm can have. This method of preparing the seeds and planting the locust, cannot be too warmly recommended to the farming interest. Oa Long Island, where fencing timber is growing scarce, the cultivation of the locust tree is of great moment. In the centre of the island, on and about Hempsted plains, when there Is no timber at all, it must be a most valuable acqui- sition ; and from the trials made in raising it from the seed, all difficulty must be removed to its extensive cultivation." After this account was written. Judge Mit- chell transplanted the young trees referred to, on a side hill of waste ground which had lain for many years uncultivated, and his farm was soon improved by the addition of a large grove of valuable locust trees, in the most thrifty con- dition. When planted out from the nursery, the young trees must be protected from cattle, which are fond of the young buds. Professor Henshaw lately made some expe- riments, with the view of determining how far the vitality of the seeds of the locust acacia was impaired by heat. He put some of these seeds into boiling water ; others he actually boiled 1|, 3, 6, and even 15 minutes ; he plant- ed them afterwards in the earth, and they all sprouted and grew in half the time that seeds did which had not been boiled or soaked.] ACACIA. The Rose Acacia (Lat. Rohinia hispidd). This graceful shrub is a native of North America. It grows twenty feet high, when the soil and situation agrees with it, and its beautiful rose-coloured drooping flowers bloom in June. It often blows again in July and August. Its branches are covered with prickles till they are two years old, when they fall off. This gives it the appellation of hispida^ or hairy. It loves a good soil, and is very hardy. The flowers bloom on the wood of the same year; therefore the plants should be shortened every season, unless they are planted in a shrubbery, in which case cut away only the dead wood. The smooth tree Acacia (Lat. Mimom Julibnssin) is a green-house shrub, and a native of the Levant, but it succeeds in the open ground if carefully sheltered from frost and cold wind. It loves a fresh, light mould, and blows its beautiful rose-coloured flowers in August. It is multiplied by layers. The Sponge tree Acacia (Lat. Mimosa fumesiana) is also a green-house shrub ; but it will thrive in the open air if very carefully protected. I comes originally from St. Domingo, and i August it throws out a small head of sweet scented yellow flowers. It loves a good rich soil, with a sheltered south aspect. It is raised by seed, and multiplied by layers. (L. Johnson.) ACANTHA. The prickle of thorny p ants. ACAifTHIS. The plant called grouncsel. ACANTHUS (Lat.). The name of the herb bear's breech, remarkable for being the model of the foliage on the Corinthian capital. Mil- ton, in his Paradise Lost, iv. 696, speaks of it, " On either side Jicanthva, and each odorous bushy shrub, Fenced up the verdant wall." Todd's JohnsofU ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. In modem botany, Acanthus is a genus of herliaccous plants found in the South of Europe, Asia Minor, and India, belonging to the natural order Acanfhactap. ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. This term has been applied to the act of accustoming plants to 'uipport a temperature or a climate dilferent from that in which they are found originally growing. This differs from natu- ralization, which is the act of transporting or transferriag a plant into a country dilferent from its native place of growth. Nobody can deny the possibility of these naturalizations; but there are some doubts upon the acclima- tions of plants, doubts which have been corro- borated by M. Schubler (Linnfea, 1829, p. 16) ; and it renders this important question the more deserving of examination, that the facts which are reported are complex and somewhat con- tradictory. On the one hand, we see wild plants appear fixed within the same climate from the epoch of which we have any knowledge, and culti- vated trees, such as the olive, that have for many centuries kept within the same limit. On the other hand, we see certain trees, such as the horse-chestnut, which, although originally from the tropics, have reached as far north as Sweden. We see that in garden- ing, the Aucubajaponica and the Pseoniu Mouiun, after having been cultivated in the hothouse, have passed into the greenhouse, and now flou- rish in the open air. But before we infer from these facts the possibility of acclimation, it will be necessary to analyze them more fully. Taking the instance of a plant which may have been placed at the first in the hothouse, and ai'terwards cultivated in the open ground, what are we to conclude, but that, while igno- rant of its nature, and while its rarity rendered it more precious, we were unwilling to run the risk of losing iu There is not a gardener, or one who has had the management of a botanic garden, who has not made such calculation a hundred times, and who, doubtful of success, has been led to follow this prudent course with a multitude of plants. Those plants which are received from tropical countries are usually thus treated, on the supposition that they par- take of the general nature of plants brought from those countries ; and we afterwards try, by groping in the dark, those which form ex- ceptions to the general law. We thus succeed in naturalizing some of them; but this does not yet prove that they have been acclimated, for they have not been exposed on their arrival in ihe climate they were afterwards seen to sup- port. Even had this been done, the experiment would have been frequently doubtful ; for when plants arrive in Europe they are for the most part weak, and too young to try the experiment with ; while every one knows that young plants, such as those of the bead tree and the silk tree, will thrive in a temperate climate in their adult age, if they are very vigorous when planted, but which are easily destroyed by the frost when young. An exact knowledge of the manner of living of each species tends to explain some of the illusions which we are apt to fall into on this subject. Thus, when a plant newly arrived in ACCLIMATION OF PI ANTS Europe, and consequently little known, is cul- tivated in the open ground, it often happens that it is placed in a soil or a position contrary to its nature, that it is watered too much or too little, and that it is pruned unseasonably, and the like; it consequently perishes without the temperature of the climate being to blame Some years afterwards its nature becomes better known, and the management which it re quires ; it is planted anew in the open ground is properly cultivated, and it succeeds, and we then say it is acclimated, while it is simply naturalized. The greater number of cultivators think that plants produced from seeds collected in the same country are much stronger than those. produced from foreign seeds, and make this an argument to prove the doctrine of acclima- tion. Sir Joseph Banks (Trans. Horl. Sue. i. 21), in particular, adduces in favour of this opinion the culture of Zizania aquatica, esta- blished by him at Spring Grove ; but he also relates that the first seeds collected in England produced delicate plants, and the second strong plants, so that this example proves as much against as in favour of the theor}-. Dr. Mac- culloch, also (Journ. of Science, 1825, p. 20 ; Ferusa. Bull., Sc. Agr., ix. p. 262), in his Essay on the Island of Guernsey, strongly doubts this pretended superiority of plants coming from seeds. We will net slop to notice that this opinion is in opposition to the very generally received idea, that the changing of seeds is useful. We do not think it less probable that those seeds taken from trees supposed to be languishing, in consequence of not being yet properly acclimated, produce young plants much stronger than those which are taken from trees more healthy, and growing in their natal soil. We will not discuss that which certain cultivators, such as M. J. Street (Trans. Hort. Soc, viii. 1 ; Ferussac, Bull., Agr.), assert, that the individual plants coming from cuttings are much stronger than those coming from seeds; but we will ask whether this experi- ment has been made with any degree of cer- tainty, that is to say, in a comparative manner; and when the fact is so, that native seeds have had better success, whether this may not have arisen from the circumstance that certain sorts of seeds do not succeed well when they are not sown immediately after maturity, as in the case of the coffee plant, or perhaps from their being a greater number of seeds to dispose of, and more of them sown 1 In fine, supposing that experiments are in accordance with the ad- mitted opinion, does this prove any thing more than that a tree which produces good seed is of a nature to accommodate itself to the soil; and is not this rather a proof of naturalization than of acclimation? Let us see if there exist any clearer proofs of the reality of accli- mation. One of the principal results of culture is th« formation of varieties which otherwise would have no existence in nature, and which have diflTerent degrees of susceptibility according to the temperature. We know that these varie- ties, in many instances, are much more delicate than the wild species. We may instance •- varieties of double flowers, which are ; 19 ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. hardy than those of single varieties of the same species ; varieties ot white flowers, which are generally less hardy than red or yellow varieties ; and the varieties of the oleander, with double rose-red flowers, and with single white flowers, are often killed by the frost, while the common oleander, with single rose- red flowers, may stand the winter. It is, however, those species produced by culture, and chiefly by hybridizing, which are of a more hardy nature than the wild species. Now we conceive that the choice of these va- rieties aflTords the means of introducing certain irts into climates where the original species ould not have succeeded. This effect is most apparent in such varieties as have under- goAe some change in the season of vegetation : thus the late variety of the walnut tree, which we call St. John's walnut, will thrive in those localities where the frosts are felt late in the spring, and where the common walnut tree is soon killed by the cold. Thus the very early varieties of the vine will bear fruit in certain climates, where either from there being little heat, or from the rapid approach of autumnal frosts, other varieties would not succeed. There exists, in many species of plants, the remarkable phenomenon of certain individuals being more early or more late than others, with- out our being able to attribute the circum- stance to the influence of locality ; while, at the same time, we cannot perceive any sen- sibls difference in the organization. Now, by car^t^ully collecting the seeds, or the layers, or the tubercles, or grafts, of such early and late varieties, we obtain artificially such agricul- tural sorts or varieties as present certain use- ful qualities, and such, in particular, as will thrive in climates where the original species would not succeed. For example, by gather- ing the tubers of such potatoes as ripen first, and by repeating the same, many times in suc- cession, we may by this means obtain a va- riety M'hich will ripen in three months. To us, such a variety is of no more advantage than in giving us an early vegetable ; but if cultivated in climates farther north, it might introduce the useful culture of the potato in places where this was previously unknown. Attentive observation of such species and va- rieties may furnish means of advancing the culture of certain vegetables beyond their ordi- nary limits. For example, if the varieties of the olive brought from the Crimea, which ap- pear less affected with cold than European varieties, should come to be introduced on the shores of the Mediterranean ; or if they should propagate extensively the variety caWedCaillou in Provence, we might be led to conclude that the olive is accustomed to a greater degree of cold, although there might only be the substi- tution of a hardier sort for a more delicate one. In fine, although we are not authon'^pd to observe that the vegetable tissue cann )t, by the effects of habit, accustom itself to a differ- ent temperature than that of its native climate; and although we are disposed to recognise, in many cases, this influence of habit, yet the preceding facts seem to lead to the following inferences : 1. That if certain species of vege- 20 tables are susceptible of being acclimated, this occurs within very narrow limits ; and we fre- quently exaggerate these limits by confounding acclimation with naturalization. 2. That the cases in which acclimation appears to take place in reality, chiefly, if not exclusively, comprise species where there is a formation of new varieties, or where we have managed to change the season of the vegetation of plants, as arising from periodicity. 3. That practical results, almost as important as those of acclimation, more properly so called, are obtained by ably following up certain pro* cesses of culture. ( Miller's Dictionary.) [A sensible and eloquent writer in ths American Jonrnal of Geology, has, in a paper upon the "Acclimating Principle of Plants," treated the subject in a highly interesting manner, and illustrated it by referring to many instances where plants have actually adapted their growth and habits to a great extent of country, and diversity of latitude. His views, it will be seen, are not in exact accordance with those contained in the preceding article upon a similar topic. They are, however, cal- culated to be particularly interesting in the meridian of the United States. "Plants," observes the writer referred to " have directly no locomotive powers, but indi redly, they have in a great degree the faculty of changing their places, and, consequently, their climate. The embryo germ wrapped in a kernel, or seed, is virtually a plant, ready to germinate when thrown upon its parent earth, and affected with heat and moisture. It is in a most portable shape, and can be transported with ease to an unlimited distance. Nature in many instances superadds to seeds, wings, down, feathers, and chaflT, by which they be- come buoyant, and are carried by the winds of heaven, by the storms rhat sweep the forest, and by the streams, and currents of rivers, and th«' ocean, to an immense distance, and through many degrees of latitude ! They be- come finally deposited in some genial soil, and at one remove, or through a succession, they occupy extensive regions. Nature manifests her great care of the embryo, by coating some of her seeds with shells, which protect them from the attacks of insects, and the action of the elements ; others have bitter, narcotic, or poisonous qualities, which forbid animals eat- ing them ; and many are filled with oily, or resinous matter, which resists, for ages, and even centuries, the action of the elements, un- less acted upon by the proper degret jf heat and moisture. By such qualities they endure, and await a suitable time and conveyance to their destined place, in order to extend and vary their families. Birds also convey the seeds of plants in their crops over a wide extent, before they be- come triturated and digested ; and when these winged carriers die, or decay, from accident or age, the seeds are deposited, and take root in some distant land. Animals also convey them in their stomachs to a considerable dis- tance, and pass them uninjured by the powers of digestion. Man, more provident than all, to whom plants are necessary, whose suppori, whose r ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. eomforts, and whose pleasures connect him with them, carries their choice seeds, slips, and scions, far and wide. His interests foster their growth, his attentions enrich their pro- ducts, and his skill and science preserve their existence, and adapt them to their new condi- tion. In an improved community, man's wants multiply; he has occasion for the more varied and rich fruits ; more abundant and luxurious clothing, and furniture of vegetable growth ; odours to regale his senses, vegetable flavours to pamper his appetites, and all the medicinal plants to heal his various diseases, and invigorate his shattered constitution. He attaches himself to agriculture and horlicul- turr : plants become his companions , he car- ries a creative resource into those departments, and by his attentions, forms new varieties and excellences, unknown to the wild state of vegetable existence. Such are the means na- ture has provided for the propagation and extension of plants ; such are the indirect locomotive powers they possess. We must no longer, therefore, consider vegetables such inert and sluggish beings. Human care, and the providences of nature, have given to many plants a great extent of climate and latitude, an enlarged growth, and an increased and improved product Let us bring together such instances as are within the knowledge of all, and which ought to stimulate cur cultivators to greater efforts. The valley of the Euphrates was doubtless he native region of all those fine and delicious fruits wiTich enrich our orchards, and enter so largely into the luxury of living. We thence derived all the succulent and nutritious vege- tables that go so far to support life ; and even tLe farinaceous grains appertain to the same region. The cereal productions began in that same valley to be the staff of life. Our corn, our fruit, our vegetables, our roots, and oil, have all travelled with man from Mesopotamia up to latitude 60°, and even farther, in favourable situations. The cares of man have made up for the want of climate, and his cultivation atoned for this alienation from Iheir native spot. The Scandinavians of Europe, the Canadians of North America, and the Samoides of Asia, a/e now enjoying plants which care and cultivation have natu- ralize<\ in their bleak climes. Melons and peaches, with many of the more tender plant J and fruits, once almost tropical, have reached the 45th degree of latitude in perfec- tion, and are found even in 50°. R^ce has trav ^lled from the tropics to 36°, and that of Notlh Carolina now promises to be better than that of more southern countries. The grape has reached 50°, and produces good wine and fruit in Hungary and Germany. The orange, lemon, and sugar-cane, strictly tropical, grow >yell in Florida, and up to 31 i°, in Louisiana, and ihe tVuit of the former much larger and better than under the equator. Annual plants grown for roots and vegeta- bles, and grain, go still farther north in pro- portion, than the trees and shrubs, because their whole growth is matured in one summer; j and we know that the developement of vegeta- | fion is much quicker when spring does open j ACCLIMATION OF PLANTS. in countries far to the north, than in the tn- pics. In Lapland and on Hudson's Bay, th#> full leaf is unfolded in one or two weeks, when spring begins, although it requires six or eight weeks in the south. Nature makes up in despatch for the want of length in her seasons, and this enables us to cultivate the annual plants very far to the north, in full per- fection. The beans, pumpkins, potatoes, peas, cabbages, lettuce, celery, beets, turnips, and thousands ol others, seem to disregard climate, and grow in any region or latitude where man plants and cherishes them. The fig is becom- ing common in France; the banana, pine- apple, and many other plants, have crossed the line of the tropics, and thousands of the plants valuable for food, clothing, and medicine, and such as are cultivated for their beauty, fra- grance, or timber, are extending their climates, and promise much comfort and resource to man. Plants lately introduced, whose cultiva- tion has not run through many ages or years, have acquired but little latitude in their growth, and jihow but little capacity to bear various climates, because time has not yet habituated them to such changes, and human cares have not imparted to them new habits and new powers. Nothing can be effected by suddenness in acdimating plants; too quick a transition would shock them ; it must be a very gradual process, embracing many years, and many removals. The complete success that has at- tended the plants first named, the earliest com- panions of man, proves this. In the more recent plants, success is exactly in proportion to the length of time that a plant has been in a train of experimental culture. The most striking method of testing the effect of climate on plants, is to carry suddenly back to the south, such as have been extended far, and become habituated to a northern cli- mate. Such plants have so much vigour, and the habit of a quick and rapid growth so firmly fixed on them, by a long residence in the north, that when suddenly taken to the south, al- though the season be long and ample, they continue, from habit, to grow and mature quick, and obtain the name of rare-ripe ; be- cause they do not take half of the time to mature, that those of the same family require, which have never been so changed. Garden- ers give us early corn, peas, fruit, and turnips, by getting seed from places far to the north; and cotton growers renew the vigour of the plant by getting the most northern seed. This practice is common in the case of most plants, and is founded on the supposition that planfi do, and can acquire habits. The fact supported in the first number of the American Journal of Geology and Natural Science, "that plants are most productive near the northern limit in which they will grow," that they bear more seed or fruit, and have more vigour of constitution, offers much en- couragement to agriculturists. This proves that it is not a meager, stinted existence, de- void of profit or productiveness, that we give to plants, by pushing their culture far north, but a strong and healthful growth, one that repays the labour and attention, by a great*" ACER. ACIDS. pr iduct than belongs to more southern situ- ations. Every view that we can take of this interesting subject, every fact within our knowledge, whether drawn from the actual state of cultivation, or from physiological in- vestigations into the habits, nature, and con- struction of plants, goes to show that plants do become acclimated, both in the natural ard artificial Avay, to a great extent. Enough has been witnessed to prove that plants have a phy- sical conformation, that does accommodate itself to circumstances, and have capacities more extensive than are generally ascribed to them : enough has been realized to encourage farther efforts, and to give us hopes of much future benefit." As allied to this subject see Climate, influ- ence of, on the Fruiffulness of Plants.] AccouxTS, Fabm. See Fakm accounts. ACER. The Roman name for a genus of trees, comprehending different species of the large deciduous kind, as the sycamore, &c. See Maple Tree. ACETIC ACID, and ACETUM, terms em- ployed to signify Vinegar, which see. ACETOSA. See Sorrel. ACHILLEA. A genus of plants consisting of sixty or seventy species, found exclusively in the colder climates of the northern hemis- phere. They are all herbaceous, perennial weeds of little importance, except to botanists, and are only seen in cultivation in the collec- tions of the curious. ACIDS (Lat. acefum ; Goth, aceit ,• Sax. aecer»). Liquids and other substances are called acids, which commonly, but not always, affect the taste in a sharp, piercing, and pecu- liar manner. The common way of trying whether any particular liquor hath in it any acid particles is by mixing it with syrup of [blue] violets, when it will turn of a red colour; but if it contains alkaline or lixivial particles, it changes that syrup green. [The blue liquor obtained by steeping purple cabbage leaves in hot water, is also a convenient test liquor for acids as well as alkalies.] They combine with various earths, alkalies, and metallic ox- ides, and form the peculiar class of bodies called salts. (Todd's Johnson.) [In agricultural chemistry, the acids are di- vided into the inorganic and organic. The first kind, or inorganic, are derived from sources wholly mineral. The second kind, or organic, are derived from animal or vegetable orga- nized substances. The sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is one example of a mineral or in- organic acid. It exists abundantly in nature, combined with mineral bases, as in plaster of Paris, where it is combined with lime, forming the sulphate of lime, or gypsum. Muriatic acid is another very abundant inorganic or mi- neral acid, and abounds in sea-salt, combined with soda, forming the muriate of soda or com- mon salt. Nitric acid, or aquafortis, is another of this class of acids, existing abundantly in the well known substance called saltpetre, or nitrate of potash. Thtae three constitute the principal inorganic or mineral acids. As all ve^tables contain acids, these may l»e resrarded as essential to their life. But these acids do not always exist in a free state, being generally combined with some of the alkalies or alkaline substances, such as potash, soda, lime, and magnesia. "These bases evidently regulate the formation of the acids, for thediminution of the one is followed by a decrease of the other : thus, in the grape, for example, the quantity of potash contained in its juice is less, when it is ripe, than when unripe ; and the acids, under the same circumstances, are found to vary in a similar manner. Such constituents exist in small quantity in those parts of a plant in which the process of assimilation is most ac- tive, as in the mass of woody fibre ; and their quantity is greater in those organs whose of- fice it is to prepare substances conveyed to them for assimilation by other parts. The leaves contain more inorganic matters than the branches, and the branches more than the stem. The potato plant contains more potash before blossoming than after it. "Now, as we know the capacity of saturation of organic acids to be unchanging, it follows that the quantity of the bases united with them cannot vary, and for this reason the latter sub stances ought to be considered with the strict- est attention both by the agriculturist and physiologist. "We have no reason to believe that a plant in a condition of free and unimpeded growth pro- duces more of its peculiar acids than it re- quires for its own existence ; hence, a plant, on whatever soil it grows, must contain an in- variable quantity of alkaline bases. Culture alone will be able to cause a deviation. "In order to understand this subject clearly^ it will be necessary to bear in mind, that any one of the alkaline bases may be substituted for another, the action of all being the same. Our conclusion is, therefore, by no means en- dangered by the existence of a particular al- kali in one plant, which maybe absent in others of the same species. If this inference be cor- rect, the absent alkali or earth must be sup- plied by one similar in its mode of action, or in other words, by an equivalent of another base. "Of course, this argument refers only to those alkaline bases, which, in the form of organic salts, form constituents of the plants. Now, those salts are preserved in the ashes of plants, as carbonates, the quantity of which can be easily ascertained. " From these considerations we mustperceive, that exact and trustworthy examination of the ashes of plants of the same kind growing upon different soils would be of the greatest import- ance to vegetable physiology, and would decide, whether the facts above mentioned are the re- sults of an unchanging law for each family of plants, and whether an invariable number can be found to express the quantity of oxygen which each species of plant contains in the bases united with organic acids. In all proba- bility, such inquiries will lead to most import- ant results ; for it is clear, that if the produc- tion of a certain unchanging quantity of an organic acid is required by the peculiar nature of the organs of a plant, and is necessary to its existence, then potash or lime must be ta- ken up by it, in order to form salts with this acid ACIDS. that if these lo aot exist in sufficient quantity in the soil, other bases must supply their place'; and that the progress of a plant must be wholly arrested when none are present. " Seeds of the Sjlsola Kali, when sowh in common garden soil, produce a plant contain- ing both potash and soda; while the plants grown from the seeds of this contain only salts of potash, with mere traces of muriate of soda. (Cadet.) "The existence of vegetable alkalies in com- bination with organic acids gives great weight to the opinion, that alkaline bases in general are connected with the developemeni of plants. " If potatoes are grown where they are not supplied with earth, the magazine of inorganic bases, (in cellars for example,) a true alkali, called Solanin, of very poisonous nature, is formed in the sprouts which extend towards the light, while not the smallest trace of such a substance can be discovered in the roots, h- rbs, blossoms, or fruits of potatoes grown in Ids. (Otto.) • When roots find their more appropriate sufficient quantity, they will take up iioiher."— (Li«6/^» Organic Chem.^] „ uble acids abound in most plants ; thus. Acetic acid {vinegar^ is found in the chick I (Ciccr arieiinum)y in the elderberry (Sl«m- H9 nigra), in the date palm tree (Fhanix lylifera), and in numerous others. i'he Oxalic acid is found combined with ;ash in the Oxali» AcetoMlla, or wood-sorrel v iience its name), and many other plants; i.iiited with lime, it is detected in the root of • rhubarb, in parsley, fennel, soapwort, lills, &c.; and in an uncombined state in ' liquid which exudes from the Ciccr aricti- num, [chick peot or Spanitth Garbimza,] Tartaric Acid [or Cremor tartar] is com- iily procured from tartar or tartrate of pot- I (whence its name). It has been detected . plants, such as in gr^es, tamarinds, s, white mulberries, the Scotch fir, rass, dandelion, Ac. &c. Acid has been found in oranges and , cranberries, red whortleberrj', bird- -■rry, woody nightshade, the hip, and the won. Malic Acid is the only acid existing in the apple, [pear,] barberry, plum, sloe, elder, ser- vice, &c. It is found with the citric acid in the gooseberry, currant, bleabcrry, cherr)', strawberry, raspberry, &c. ; combined with lime, it is found in the house-leek, wakerobin, Sec. ; and with potash and lime, in rue, garden purslane, madder, spinach, lilac, mignionette, &c. Benzoic Acid. — ^This acid is found in ben- roin, balsam of Tolu, storax, &c.; and in marjoram, clary, chickpea. Tonkin bean, &c. The Frussicj or Hi/droeyanic Acid, exists in ' urel leaves, peach blossoms, bitter almonds, wcTS of the sloe, leaves of the bay-leaved ; ' low, &c. : there is little doubt but that all the I liter almond kernels contain this acid. Gallic Acid abounds in the barks of many .nis, such as the elm, oak, chestnut, beech, lilow, elder, plum tree, sycamore, birch, Try tree, sallow, mountain ash, poplar, zel common ash, sumach, &c. Hviirogeii Acetic acid - - 6-35 Oxalic acid - - 0244 Tartaric acid - - 3 951 Citric acid - - 3800 Benzoic acid - - 5- 16 Gallic acid - • 5 00 At. IDS. These are the chief vegetable acids. There are others which have been detected occa- sionally ; such as the moroxylic, in the Morm alba, or M'hite mulberry; the boletic, in the Boletus pseudo-igyiiarius ; [a species of mush- room,] the meconic, in opium ; tho kinic, in the bark of the Cinchona ufficinaVs ,• the cam- phoric from camphor; the suberic fioir. cork, &c.; but none of these are of that importajice to the cultivator to require a particular notice in this place. The composition of the princi- pal vegetable acids is much more similar than the intelligent farmer might be inclined to suspect, as will be readily seen from a com parison of the following table of their composi- tion, chiefly by M. Berzelius : — CarboB. Oxv?en. 4683 4682 33'::22 66 534 36167 50-882 41 309 64-831 74-41 2043 56-64 3836 (.Thomson's Chem.) [The organic acids of animal origin are, like those obtained from vegetables, very numerous. As examples, there are, the formic acids, first obtained from ants, but now ascertained to exist in sugar and some other vegetable sub- stances: Lactic acid, obtained from milk; — Uric acid, procured from human urine, and Hippuric acid, from the urine of the horse and other animals when stall-fed : Margaric and Stearic acids from fat, etc. The Phosphoric acid, though found combined with minerals, is very abundant in the animal system, being combined with lime to form the bones, and ex- isting in the urine and other fluids and solids, in union with alkaline bases, forming phos- phates of soda, potash, lime, and magnesia- Phosphoric acid has also been found in all plants, the ashes of which have been examined by chemists, always, however, in combination with potash, soda, magnesia, or lime. Most seeds contain certain quantities of the phos- phates formed by the union of phosphoric acid with some one or more of the alkalies just named. In the seeds of difierc." ' 'rinds of grain, there is abundance of phosphate of magnesia. Phosphoric acid, in one or other of its com- binations, plays indeed an important part in agriculture, and is an indispensable constituent of all good land. " The soil in which plants grow furnishes them with phosphoric acid, and they in turn yield it to animals, to be used in the formation of their bones, and of those constituents of the brain which contain phosphorus. Much more phosphorus is thus afforded to the body than it requires, when flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain are used for food, and this excess in them is eliminated in the urine and the solid excrements. We may form an idea of the quantity of phosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we consider that the concre- tions in th.. toecum of horses consist of phos- phate of magnesia and ammonia, which must have been obtained from the hay and oats con sumed as food. Twenty-nine of these stones were taken after death from the rectum cf h horse belonging to a miller in Eberstadt, tha total weight of which amounted to 3 lbs. 23 ACINUS. ACORNS. " It is evident that the seeds of wheat could not be formed without phosphate of magnesia, which is one of their invariable constituents ; the plant could not, therefore, under such circum- stances attain its proper developement, so far as its fructification was concerned."] The Creuic, is another organic acid lately dis- covered by Berzelius. From its containing ni- trogen and being a constituent in all fertile soils, it is believed to exercise a beneficial action on vegetation. It is always accompanied by the Apocreinc acid, changed from the crenic by oxy- dation. ACINUS. The stone of any berry. ACONITE. 3ce Wolfsbane. ACORNS. The seed or fruit of the oak ; Bcejin, Saxon, from ac, an oak, and copn, corn or grain ; that is, the grain or fruit of the oak. The Greeks had a tradition, that the oak was the first created tree ; and hence, having a similar idea as to the Arcadians being the first created men, they compared them to the oak. Virgil tells us to "Thresh the wood, For masts of oak, your father's homely food." And Ovid corroborates their use : — "Content with food which nature freely bred, On wildings and on strawberries they fed, Cornels and bramble berries gave the rest, And fallen acorns furnieh'd out a feast." Turner, who is the earliest English author on this subject, writes, " Oke, whose fruit we call uotrn, or an eykorn (that is, the corn or fruit of an cyke), are hard of digestion, and nourish very much, but they make raw hu- mores. Wherefore, we forbid the use of them for meates." They were long the food of the early Greeks, as they are of the lower order of Spaniards, even to this day ; but then it must be remembered, that the acorns of Spain are more sweet and nutritious than those of England. And yet the early Britons certainly eat them : their priests, or Druids, taught them, that every thing that was produced on the oak, even to the parasitical mistletoe, was of hea- venly origin, a superstition which was com- mon, also, to thp Persians and the Massagetse. The Saxons valued them chiefly fbr fatten- ing swine. Their king Ina, in the seventh century, gave them a law, respecting the fat- tening of their swine in the oak woods, which privilege was called a pawnage, or pannage. The oak is often mentioned in Holy Writ, as the oak of Ophra, Judges vi. 1 1 ; of Shechem, Gen. XXXV. 4; and of "Deborah's Grave, Gen. XXXV. 8. See Oak. Although acorns are said to have been the primitive food of mankind, at present they are only used in raising young oaks, or for the purpose of fattening deer and hogs, for which last they are said to be a very proper and use- ful kind of food. In Gloucestershire, according to Mr. Mar- shall, they are in high esteem among the far- mers, who seem to be as anxious about them as their apples. They consider them as the best means of fatting hogs, and think they make the bacon firm, and weigh better than bean-fed bacon. The price of acorns there- is from \s. 6d. to 2s. per bushel, according to the season and the price of beans. Few are sold, 24 however; every farmer collecting his own, or letting his pigs feed upon them. Some care is necessary to be taken when hogs are fed upon acorns, for otherwise they will be subject to constipation, and the disease called the garget. These may, however, be avoided, by mixing laxative substances with them, and not allowing them to have too many at a time ; at first a few, twice a day is often enough ; afterwards three times a day. The hogs, while they eat this food, should not be confined to the stye, but be suffered to run at large ; for if their liberty be too much abridged, they never thrive well, or grow fat on this sort of food. In Hertfordshire, and the New Forest in Hampshire, it is no uncommon thing, with the management above directed, and the assistance of a little wash, and a few grains now and then, for a farmer to kill several hogs in a season, which weigh from eight to ten score, and sometimes even more. Hogs fed in this way make very good well-flavoured meat ; but it is not thought by some so fine as when they are taken up, and four or five bushel of pease or barley-meal given to each to complete their fattening. " The pigs are gone acaming,^^ is a very com- mon provincialism (see Mr. Wilbrahanis Che- shire Glossary); and the expression is also con- firmed by Shakspeare's " full-flcomW boar." Acorns are sometimes given to poultry, and would be found an advantageous food for them, when dried and ground into meal. Tusser, speaking of acorns, says, " Some left among bushes shall pleasure thy swine. For fear of a mischief, keep acorns from km© " They are considered injurious to cows, because they swell in their stomachs, and will noi come up to the cud again ; which causes them to strain as it were, to remit, and to draw their limbs together. In medicine, a decoction of acoms is reput- ed good against dysentaries and colics. Pliny states, " that acorns beaten to powder, an d mixed with hog's lard and salt, heal all hard swell- ings and cancerous ulcers ; and when reduced into a liniment, and applied, stays haemor- rhage." (Phillips Fruits.) When employed for raising oak timber from, the method of planting the acorns, which is practised by some, is to make holes to receive them, at the distance of 12 or 15 inches from each other, in an oblique direction, so as to raise up a tongtie of turf under which they are to be deposited, and where they require no farther kind of nursing. In the course of from twenty to thirty years, in this mode of planting, the spot, it is said, will be fit to be coppiced, that is, partially cut down as underwood, leav- ing the most healthy plants. The thinnings may be sold for railing, and generally fetch a good price. A better method is, however, to j dibble them on land that has been properly ' prepared by ploughing or digging, which may : be done by women, three or four within a square yard ; or they may be sown broad-casi, when the surface is fine and moist, and rolle^.^ in with alight roller. The former is probably the better practice. They may likewise be sei about the middle of November, by a land chain. ACORUS. a quarter of a rod asunder, and six inches apart in the rows; dibbling them in, zigzag, alternately on either side a line stretched tightly on the surface, with blunt-pointed dib- bles, letting a little mould fall down to the bottoms of the holes, to prevent water lodging round them, and burying them about two inches beneath the surface. Each square rod, when planted in this way, takes 132 acorns, nearly a pint, when they are middle-sized, which is equal to two statute bushels and a half on an acre. The expense, in England, of planting acorns in this manner is about 5*. an acre. See PLAyxiNc. ACORUS, from the Greek «t, privative, and «:*», the pupil of the eye. The botanical name 0*1 a plant of the thistle kind, that produces the drug called in the shop Calamus arumaticus. It is found abundantly in the neighbourhood of freshwater marshes. The ancient practice of strewing the floors with the leaves of these sweet rushes is still kept up in some of our cathedral churches upon certain high festivals. The plant, which belongs to the natural order Aroideie, flourishes luxuriantly in loose, moist soils, and sends forth many deep-green, long sword-shaped leaves from its perennial, creep- ing, and horizontal stems. It seldom flowers, but the blossoms which it sends forth are of a greenish colour. The root, or more properly tfie stem, is the part which, when dried, is used medicinally, occasionally as a stimulant. It is slightly acrid and aromatic. (Thonuun^s Dispensary.'^ ACRE (aecpe, Sax. Acre, Lye says, is common to all the European languages. Sax. Die). He might have added further, that it is an Eastern word ; and that agr^ akoro, and akko- rariy denote in the Hebrew, Syriac, and Arabic, a field, a husbandman. So the Saxon aeccep- mon, a husbandman. Wachter, in his Glos- sary, gives ukerman, a day-labourer. {TudcTs Johnsirn.) In Shakspeare^a King Lear, we have — •* Search ev try acre In the high grown field. And bring him to our eye." The prevai ing and standard measure of land in Britain. \n acre in England contains 4 square rood: ; a rood, 40 perches, rods, or poles, 5h ya.ris, or 16^ feet each, according to the statute ir the act passed in 1824, for the equalization of weights and measures through- out the UniieJ Kingdom, which is in this in- stance confirmatory of the old law of England. But in some parts of England there are other measurcr of Inches Square Inches Plants. over. asunder. tu each. 2450 4 4 by 4 16 1960 , , 5—4 20 1633 12 6—4 24 1069 , , 6—6 36 816 36 8—6 48 612 36 8—8 64 490 4 10—8 80 392 4 10 — 10 100 ! 272 36 12 — 12 144 1 261 54 15 — 10 150 An acre will contain Trees or Plants. 108 160 134 302 435 680 888 1089 1210 1361 14.52 1555 1815 2178 2722 2904 3630 4840 5445 7260 8712 10,890 19,305 21,780 43,560 Inches over. 360 144 72 60 40 48 20 Number of feet asunder. 20 16^ 18 12 10 8 7 8 by 5 6 8 —4 6 —5 7 —4 6 —4 5 —4 4 —4 5 —3 4 —3 3 —3 4 —2 3 —2 2^ — 2 2 —2 1^-1^ 2 —1 1 Square feet to each 400 272i 324 144 100 64 49 40 36 32 30 28 24 20 16i / 15 12 2''^ ACRE. ACRE. A Table for reducing Square Yards into Acres, Roods, and Perches. Sq. Yds. 30 60 91 121 151 A. R. P. 1,100 1,200 1,300 1,400 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,900 2,000 2,100 2,200 2,300 2,400 2,500 2,600 2,700 2,800 2,900 3,000 3,100 3,200 3,300 3,400 3,500 3,600 3,700 3,800 3,900 4.000 4,100 4,200 4,300 4,400 4,500 4,600 4,700 4,800 4,900 5,000 5,100 5,200 5,300 200 7 300 10 400 13 500 17 600 20 700 23 800 26 900 30 1,000 33 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 1 1 1 36 3 6 10 13 16 20 23 26 29 33 36 39 3 6 9 13 16 19 22 26 29 32 36 39 2 6 9 12 16 19 22 25 29 32 35 39 2 6 12 15 Sq. Yds. 5,400 5,500 5,600 5,700 5,800 5,900 6,000 6,100 6,200 6,300 6,400 6,500 6,600 6,700 6,800 6,900 7,000 7,100 7,200 7,300 7,400 7,500 7,600 7,700 7,800 7,900 8,000 8,100 8,200 8,300 8,400 8,500 8,600 8,700 8,800 8,900 9,000 9,100 9,200 9,300 9,400 9,500 9,600 9,700 9,800 9,900 10,000 10,100 10,200 10,300 10,400 10,500 10,600 10,700 10,800 10,900 11,000 19 22 2d 29 1 15 18 21 25 28 1 31 35 38 1 5 8 11 2 15 2 18 2 21 2 24 2 28 2 31 2 34 2 38 3 18 3 21 3 24 3 27 3 31 3 34 3 37 11 14 17 20 24 27 30 34 37 1 Sq.Yds. 11,100 11,200 11,300 11,400 11,500 11,600 11,700 11,800 11,900 12,000 12,100 12,200 12,300 12,400 12,500 12,600 12,700 12,800 12,900 13,000 13,100 13,200 13,300 13,400 13,500 13,600 13,700 13,800 13,900 14,000 14,100 14,200 14,300 14,400 14,500 14,600 14,700 14,800 14,900 15,000 15,100 15,200 15,300 15,400 15,500 15,600 15,700 15,800 15,900 16,000 16,100 16,200 16,300 16,400 16,500 16,600 16,700 16,800 1 7 1 10 1 23 1 27 2 1 30 1 33 1 37 3 7 10 13 17 20 23 26 30 2 33 2 36 2 3 2 3 2 3 3 6 2 3 10 2 3 13 2 3 16 2 3 20 3 23 2 3 26 2 3 29 3 33 3 36 3 39 3 19 3 22 3 26 3 29 3 32 3 36 3 39 3 1 2 3 1 6 3 1 9 3 1 12 3 1 16 3 1 19 3 1 22 3 1 25 1 29 32 35 Sq.Yds. 16,900 17,000 17,100 17,200 17,300 17,400 17,500 17,600 17,700 17,800 17,900 18,000 18,100 18,200 18,300 18,400 18,500 18,600 18,700 18,800 18,900 19,000 19,100 19,200 19,300 19,400 19,500 19,600 19,700 19,800 19,900 20,000 20,100 20,200 20,300 20,400 20,500 20,600 20,700 20,800 20,900 21,000 21,100 21,200 21,300 21,400 21,500 21,600 21,700 21,800 21,900 22,000 22,100 22,200 22,300 22,400 3 1 39 3 2 2 22.500 I 4 26 Waierson^s Manual of Commerce, ACRIMONY. Table of Land Measure, In an acre are 4 roods, each rood forty perches. 160 perches, sixteen feet and a half each. 4,840 square yards, nine feet each. ^^ 43,560 square feet, 144 inches each. ^^H 174,240 squares of six inches each, thirty-six HP incties each. 8,272,640 inches, or squares, of one inch each. ACRIMONY (Acrtmonia, Lat.). A sharp property in some plants and vegetables, by which they excoriate and blister the tongue, mouth, or other parts of the body, on being applied to them. The nature of this sort of acrimony has not yet been sufficiently exa- mined by chemical investigation. It seems to differ in some measure according to the nature of the plants; as in the common onion, water- cresses, cabbages, &c., a part of their acrimony is lost, by their being exposed to a boiling heat ; while other kinds, as ginger, capsicum, arum, &c., do not become much milder by undergo- ing that process. The juice of the fungous excrescences of some trees possess so much acrimony as to be capable of blistering; and some kinds of fungi contain a juice or liquor of a very cor- rosive quality ; and it is probably on this ac- count that many of those which are commonly procured disagree so much with the patient, when made use of as articles of diet. By being more perfectly stewed, or otherwise pre- pared by mean*? of heat, they might most likely be rendered safe and nutritious. Much caution should, however, be used, even when thus prepared, in eating such kinds as are un known. "There be some plants," says Bacon, in his Nat. J list., "that have a milk in them when they are cut ; as figs, old lettuce, sow- thistles, spurge. The cause may be an incep- tion of putrefaction : for those milks have all an acrimony, though one would think they |. should be lenitive." ^ ADAPTER {Adapto, Lat.). In the manage- ment of bees, is a board used to place the hives or glasses upon. ADDER (Aerrep, aerrop, nattt)ne, as it seems, from eicceji, Sax. poison; Moes-Goth. nadr, vipera ; Teut. adder). A viper, a poison- ous reptile, perhaps of any species. In com- mon language, however, adders and snakes are not the same, the term adder being generally understood to imply a viper. See Aximal Poisoxs. V. ADKPS. In veterinary science, animal oil or fat. The fat differs in different animals; and hence it has received different names. In the horse it is called grease ; in the ox and sheep, tallow, fat, suet ; and in the hog, hog's lard. At a low temperature alj these possess various degrees of consistence ; but in the living ani- mal, they all exist in a fluid state, and are dis- tributed over various parts of the body. An immense quantity of fat is often found in the belly, all deposited in extremely small cells, which have no communication with each other. No fat is ever found within the skull. Fat performs important functions in the animal economy. When the supply of ali- AEROLITES. ment, for example, is greater than the demand, the surplus is stored away in the form of fat; and when the demand, either from deficiency of food, over-exertion, or disease, becomes greater than the supply, then the absorbents carry the fat into the circulation, and thus, for a time, the evils that would very soon arise from a defect in the quantity of blood are pre- vented. Some animals accumulate fat more readily than others. Health, a round chest, a short back, and tranquil temper are highly favourable to its formation; and when to these qualities are added inaction, clean litter, and a plentiful supply of nourishing food, the animal is soon fit for the butcher. A warm atmo- sphere, provided it be a pure one, is also favourable to fattening. [See Lard Oil, &c.] {Miller's Dictionary). AERATION. The process by which the soil is exposed to the air and imbued there- \Tith, air being indispensable to the healthy growth of plants. When a flower-pot is filled with rather dry earth, if it be plunged under water a profusion of air-bubbles will be seen to rise, owing to the water penetrating between the particles of the dry earth, and forcing out the air previously lodged there. As the more loose and porous a soil is, the greater quantity of air it will contain, it will follow, that the more a soil is ploughed and harrowed, or dug and raked, the better it will be aerated — one of the chief beneficial effects of frequently repeating these opera- tions. Besides the direct influence of the atmo- sphere, the agency of water is all-important in the process of aeration. All water openly ex- posed contains more or less atmospheric air; and, in consequence of this, it acquires an agreeable taste, always destroyed by boiling, which renders it vapid and disagreeable, by expelling the air. The importance of air con- tained in water to the growth of plants appears from water being found beneficial in propor- tion as it has had opportunities of becoming •mixed with air. But the best water, with re- spect to the properties of the air it contains, is rain, which, falling in small drops, often tossed about by the wind, has an opportunity of col- lecting a large proportion of air, and, accord- ing to Liebig (Organic Chem.), ammonia, during its descent to the earth ; and hence the smaller the bore of the holes in a garden water- ing-pot, the better; and the more minutely the garden-engine scatters the water, the more ad- vantageously, so far as the air is concerned. There is another point of view in which aeration appears beneficial, arising from the excrementitious matters thrown into the soil by growing plants, as ascertained by M. Ma- caire; for as these matters become decom- posed in the processes of fallowing, irrigation, and draining, the gases there produced would not so readily be carried off from the soil, but for a due circulation of the common air through the earth. See Gases, their use to vegetation. (Miller's Dictionary). AEROLITES (From the Greek an?, air, and \i6'.i, a stone). Meteoric stones, bodies that fall from the heavens. The origin of these remarkable bodies is still a mystery. 27 AFRICAN MARIGOLD. AFTER-GRASS. AFRICAN MARIGOLD (Togites erecta, Lin.). A favourite hardy annual, which does not come from Africa, as its name would indi- cate, but from Mexico. See MAiiiGotn. AFTER-GRASS, or AFTERMATH. The second crop of grass, or that which springs after mowing, or the grass cut after some kinds of corn crops. The composition of the after-grass generally varies considerably from that of the first or spring crop. The nutriment of the latter, from most of the grasses, is materially less than that of the former. This was clearly ascer- tained by the elaborate experiments of the late Mr. G. Sinclair, the results of which are dis- persed throughout his valuable work on the Grasses. To give a few instances only — First Crop. Second Crop dr. gr. dr. gr. 64 dr. of round-pankled cock's-foot grass alTorded of nutritive matter 2 1 12 Meadow fox-tail grass - - 3 1 2 Lar>rer-ieaved creeping bent-crested do^'s-tail grass - - _ 4 1 2 2 Hani fescue grass - - - 3 2 11 VVelcii fescue grass - - 2 1 11 yellow oat grass - - - 3 3 11 And the same remark applies to the rye-grass {Lolium perenne), not only of upland pastures but of meadows. Thus, Sinclair found (Hurt. Gram. Wub. 384) that this grass when flower- ing, taken from a water meadow that had been fed off with sheep till the end of April, yielded of nutritive matter 72 grs. But the same grass from the same meadow which had not been fed off, yielded 100 grs. The same weight of this grass, from a rich old pasture that had been shut up for hay at the same time, yielded of nutritive matter 95 grs. But the grass from the same field, which had not been depastured, yielded 120 grs. Some of them, however, contain exactly as much nutritive matter in the aftermath as in the first crop : thus, 64 drs. of the First Crop. Latter Crop, dr. gr. dr. gr. Bweet-scented soft grass yielded 4 1 4 1 Smooth-stalked meadow grass 13 13 Short blue meadow grass - 2 2 Cow grass - - - 2 1 2 1 Creeping fescue - - 12 12 and one or two were found to contain more nutritive matter in the aftermath than in the first CI op: thus 64 drs. of the First Crop. Latter Crop' dr. gr. (ir. gr. Sweet-scented vernal grass yielded 13 2 1 In the vicinity of London most of the after- grass, or second crop, was formerly made into hay, and was considered of considerable value for the ewes of suckling lambs, and milch cows; but in harvesting this crop, so as to make it sell well, great nicety is requisite, the nature o2 after-grass being more soft, spongy, and porous than the first growth, and conse- quently more liable to be hurt by rains. The practice is therefore on the decline. In the midland counties their management of the feeding off the after-grass is in general judicious. It is commonly suffered to get up (o a full bite before it is broken, and not turned in upon as .»oon as the hay is off, or suffered to stand unti. much of it becomes improper for the food of animals. Farmers, however, make 28 a point of saving autumnal grass for spring feed, and contend that it is the most certain, and, on the whole, the best spring feed yet known. This would seem to be a wasteful practice, at least in respect to the more for- ward after-grasses. These ought certainly to be broken sufficiently early to be eaten, without waste, before winter setSe.in; and the latest, that is to say, the shortest, may be shut in for spring feed. If after-grass be too long and gross, it is apt to lodge, and rot upon the ground in winter ; therefore, on rich lands, it ought always to be more or less off before Mi- chaelmas, in order to prevent its being wasted or lost in the winter. It is rem.arked by the author of " Practical Agriculture." that, " In some districts much of the after-grass is frequently cut and made into a green soft sort of hay, as has been already mentioned ; but in others it is fed off by live stock in the autumn." And that " both modes may be useful under different circumstances. In situations where plenty of manure can be procured, as near large towns, and where the chief dependence is upon the sale of hay, or where lamb-suckling prevails, it may fre- quently be a beneficial practice to take a se- cond crop of hay, as the first may by that means be more fully spared for sale, the after- crop supplying the cows or other cattle that may be kept on the farm. But in cases where manure cannot easily be obtained, and there is no local practice carried on which requires such sort of hay, it is better to let it be fed off by stock than run the risk of exhausting and injuring the ground by taking off repeated crops. There is also another circumstance,'* he says, "to be considered in this business, which is, that of the state of the land in respect to dryness, as where it is low, wet, and very retentive of moisture, it may be often more hurt by the poaching of the cattle in feeding off the herbage than by a second crop of hay." But that, " independent of these considerations, it may, in general, be a more safe and usual .practice to eat off the after-grass by stock, and only take one crop of hay, as by such means a more abundant annual produce may be afford- ed, and the land sustain less injury." It is, however, added, that " where a crop of rowen is made into hay, the most profitable application of it is probably in the foddering of such cows as are in milk ; as it is well suited, by its grassy quality, and its not heat- ing so much, when well made, as other sorts of hay in the stack, to afford a large flow of milk. It is this reason that induces the cow farmers to cut their grass so many times in the summer. Another beneficial application of this hay is, as has been seen, in the feeding of such ewes as are employed in the suckling of house-lambs during the winter season ; the intentiorf in this case is the same as in that of the preceding instance. There is another ad- vantageous use to which this sort of produce may be applied, which is that of supporting young calves, and all sorts of young cattle that are kept as store stock." And that, " where sheep require the support of hay in the winter season, it is also well adapted to that use." In the manner of feeding after-grass, there ii AGARIC OF THE OAK. also much variety in different districts. " It has," the same author says, "been observed by a farmer in Middlesex, that the condition on which he rents his farm is that of taking out the cattle at Michaelmas, but that sheep remain till February." In tliat county the practice is to turn on the cattle immediately after mow- ing ; but in the northern districts, this grass, to whicli they have given the name of eddish, is kept till November, or even a later period, for the purpose of furnishing fat stock, or for the pasturage of milch cows, from which a supe- rior quality of cheese is made, and by which time it has attained a considerable head: how- ever, this latter practice would seem to be attended with some loss, as has been shown from its being trodden and trampled under foot. In the stocking of after-grass, Marshall found the midland graziers of opinion, that one cow to an acre, on well-grown after-grass, was an ample stock. Good grass-land may, how- ever, admit something more ; and instead of pasturing of rowen, or after-grass, by heavy cattle in the autumn, to avoid poaching the ground, particularly at a late period in that or the winter season, it has been recommend^ by Dr. Wilkinson, "to confine the consumption of this grass principally to the support of sheep, unless in very favourable seasons, or where the soil is uncommonly dry ; in which cases milch cows, or other heavy cattle, may be admitted without inconvenience." In some places it is the practice, as " where there is a great scarcity of spring feed, to re- serve after-grass in the autumn for spring use." Some, on the basis of experience, con- tend that it is the most certain, and, on the whole, the best spring feed yet known. It would seem, however, as has been shown, to be a wasteful practice, at least in respect to tlie more forward after-grasses. The for- wardest ought certainly to be eaten without waste before winter sets in; and the latest, that is, the shortest, be shut up for spring feed. Arthur Young, it is stated, found, from repeat- ed experiments, as suggested above, " that old after-grass feeds sheep that give milk better than turnips, which are more adapted to the fattening of stock ; and that this grass holds to a period, if wanted, when most other resources fail, the last half of April and the first half of Ma)' — periods always of want and difliculty, where rye-grass is not sown." Marshall also assures us, that as a certain and wholesome supply of food for ewes and lambs in the early spring, the preserved pasture is to be depended on as " the sheet anchor, in preference to tur- nips, cabbages, or any other species whatever, of what is termed spring feed:" and the same thing has been experienced by Dr. Wilkinson, who has observed, that " this food with him afforded a more nutritive and healthful quality of milk from the ewes to their tender lambs than turnips, even in their best state." But however useful after-grass pastures may be under this management, there is evidently a great loss of food incurred by it, especially in severe winters. (^Sinclair's Hart. Gram. ; Lowe\f Prac. As^.) AGARIC OF THE OAK. [Spunk, or touch- ^ood.] In farriery, a substance sometimes AGE OF ANIMALS. employed for restraining the bleeding of small vessels. AGARICUS. See Mushroom. AGAVE. In botany, comprehends those plants which gardeners call American aloes. AGE OF ANIMALS. The age of a horse may be ascertained by his mouth, and the exa- mination of his teeth, till he is eight years old, after which the usual marks commonly wear out. These are usually forty in all ; of which twenty-four are double teeth, and from their office, denominated grinders, four tushes, or corner teeth, and twelve fore-teeth. The first which appear are the foal-teeth, which generally begin to show themselves a month or two after foaling ; they are twelve in number, six above and six below, and are easily distinguished from the teeth that come afterwards, by their smallness and whiteness, having some resemblance to the incisores, or fore-teeth of man. When the colt is about two years and a half old, he commonly sheds the four middlemost of his foal-teeth, two above and two below; but sometimes none are cast till near three years old. The new teeth are readily distin- guished from the foal-teeth, being much stronger, and always twice their size, and are called the nippers or gatherers, being those by which horses nip off the grass when they are feeding in the pastures, and by which, in the house, they gather their hay from the rack. When horses have got these four teeth com- plete, they are reckoned to be three i^^ears old. When they are about three and a "half, or 'n the spring before they are four years old, they cast four more of their foal-teeth, two -fti the upper and two in the lower jaw, one on each side the nippers or middle teeth ; so that when you look into a horse's mouth, and see the two middle teeth full grown, and none of the foal- teeth, except the common teeth, remaining, you may conclude he is four that year, about April or May. Some, indeed, are later colts, but that makes little alteration in the mouth. The tushes appear near the same time with the four last-mentioned teeth, sometimes sooner than these, and sometimes not till after a horse is full four years old ; they are curved like the tushes of other animals, only in a young horse they have a sharp edge all round the top and on both sides, the inner part being somewhat grooved and flattened, so as to incline to a hollow. When a horse's tushes do not appear for some time after the foal-teeth are cast, and the new ones come in their room, it is generally owing to the foal-teeth having been pulled out before their time, by the breeders or dealers m horses, to make a colt of three years old ap- pear like one of four that he may be the more saleable ; for when any one of the foal-teeth have been pulled out, the others soon come m their places ; but the tushes having none thai precede them, can never make their appear ance till their proper time, which is when a horse is full four, or coming four ; and there- fore one of the surest marks to know a four- year old horse is by his tushes, which are then verv small, and sharp on the tops and edges. At the time when a horse comes five, •? c2 2Q AGE OF ANIMALS. AGE OF ANIMALS. rather in the spring before he is five, the cor- ner teeth begin to appear, and at first but just equal with the gums, being filled with flesh in the middle. The tushes are also by this time grown to a more distinct size, though not very large : they likewise continue rough and sharp on the top and edges. But the corner teeth are now most to be remarked ; they differ from the middle teeth in being more fleshy on the inside, and the gums generally look rawish upon their first shooting out, whereas the others do not appear discoloured. The middle teeth arrive at their full growth in less than three wieeks, but the corner teeth grow leisurely, and are seldom much above the gums till a horse is full five ; they differ also from the other fore-teeth in this, that they somewhat re- semble a shell ; and thence are called the shell- teeth, because they environ the flesh in the middle half-way round ; and as they grow, the flesh within disappears, leaving a distinct hoUowness and openness on the inside. When a horse is full five, the teeth are generally about the thickness of a crown-piece above the gums. From five to five and a half they will grow about a quarter of an inch high, or more : and when a horse is full six, they will be near half an inch, and in some large horses a full half-inch above the gums. The corner teeth in the upper jaw fall out before those in the under, so that the upper corner teeth are seen before those below ; on the contrary, the tushes in the under gums came out before those in the upper. When a horse is full six years old, the hol- lowness on the inside begins visibly to fill up, and that which was at first fleshy grows into a brow^nish spot, not unlike the eye of a dried garden-bean, and continues so till he is seven ; with this difference only, that the teeth are gradually more filled up, and the marks, or spots, become fainter, and of a lighter colour. At eight, the mark in most horses is quite worn out, though some retain the vestiges of it a longer time ; and those who have not had a good deal of experience may sometimes be deceived by taking a horse of nine or ten years old for one of eight. It is at this time only, when a horse is past mark, that one can easily err in knowing his age ; such practices are used to make a very young horse or colt appear older than he really is, by pulling out the foal-teeth before their time, which may be discovered by feeling along the edges where the tushes grow, for they may be felt in the gums before the corner teeth are put forth ; whereas, if the cor- ner teeth come in some months before the tushes rise in the gums, we may reasonably suspect that the foal-teeth have been pulled out at three years old. It is not necessary to mention the tricks that are used to make a false mark in a horse's mouth, by hollowing the tooth with a graver, and burning a mark with a small hot iron ; be- cause those who are acquainted with the true marks will easily discover the cheat by the size and colour of the teeth, by the roundness and uiuntness of the tushes, by the colour of the false Tuark, which is generally blacker and nicrr impressed than the true mark, and bv SO other circumstances which denote the ad vanced age of horses. After the horse has passed his eighth vear, and sometimes at seven, nothing certain can be known by the mouth. It must, however, be remembered, that some horses have but in. diflerent mouths when they are young, and soon loose their mark ; others have their mouths good for a long time, their teeth being white, even, and regular till they are sixteen years old and upwards, together with many other marks of freshness and vigour ; but when a horse comes to be very old, it may be discovered by several indications, the constant attendants of age ; such as his gums wearing away insensibly, leaving his teeth long and naked at their roots ; the teeth also growing yellow, and sometimes brownish. The bars of the mouth, which in a young horse are always fleshy, and form so many distinct ridges, are in an old horse, lean, dry, and smooth, with little or no rising. The eye-pita in a young horse are generally filled up with flesh, look plump and smooth ; whereas, in an old one, they are sunk and hollow, and make him look ghastly. There are also other marks which discover a horse to be very old, as gray horses turning white, and many of them being all over flea-bitten, except their joints. This, however, happens sometimes later, and some- times sooner, according to the variety of colour and constitution. Black horses are apt to grow gray over their eyebrows, and very often a I III, J AGE OF ANIMALS. over a great part of their faces ; and all horses, when very old, sink more or less in their backs ; and some horses that are naturally long- backed, grow so hollow with age, that it is scarcely possible to fit them with a saddle. The various progressive changes that take place in th', and much more in other parts of the world, the produce is a mere fraction of what the total soil is capable of returning. Agriculture is the art of obtaining from the earth food for the sustenance of man and his domestic animals ; and the perfection of the art is to obtain the greatest possible produce at the smallest possible expense. Upon the importance of the art, it is needless, therefore, to insist; for by it every country is enabled to support in comfort an abundant population. On this its strength as a nation depends ; and by it its independence is secured. An agricul- tural country has within itself the necessaries and comforts of life; and, to defend these, there will never be wanting a host of patriot soldiers. Of the pleasure attending the judicious cul- tivation of the soil, we have the evidence of facts. The villa farms sprinkled throughout our happy land, the establishments of Holk- ham, Woburn, &c., would never have been formed if the occupation connected with them was not delightful. We have an unexception- able witness to the same fact in the late Mr. Roscoe, the elegant, talented author of the Lives of Lorenzo de Medici and of Leo the Tenth. Mr. Roscoe was the son of an exten- sive potato grower, near Liverpool. In the cultivation of that and other farm produce, he had been an active labourer; and he who thus had enjoyed the delights that spring from lite- rary pursuits, and from the cultivation of the soil, has left this recorded opinion, "If I was asked whom I consider to be the happiest of the human race, I should answer, those who cultivate the earth by their own hands." We have but little information to guide us as to the country in which man first cultivated the soil ; nor of that in which he first settled after the deluge. Thus much, however, is cer- tain, that we have the earliest authentic ac- count of the state of agriculture as it existed among the Egyptians and their bond-servants, the Israelites. From the former, probably, the Greeks were descended. The Romans, at a AGRICULTURE. later period, were a colony from Greece ; and from the Romans the other countries of Europe derived their earliest marked improvement in the arts. Our brief history of the progress of agricul- ture, then, will be divided into, 1. The agricul- ture of the Egyptians and other eastern nations ; 2. The agriculture of the Greeks ; 3. The agriculture of the Romans; 4. The agriculture of the Britons, including a cursory notice of its present state among the chief nations of Europe. I. The Aghiculture of the Egxptiaks, Israelites, and other earlt Eastern Nations. Every family of these primitive i.v.tio'is had its appointed district for pasturage, ii it pur- sued a pastoral life ; or its allotted enclosure, if it was occupied by tilling the earth. There was no distinction in this respect between the monarch and his people: each had a certain space of land from which he and his family were to derive their subsistence. The Egyptians, as well as the Israelites, were flock-masters. The latter were particu- larly so; and, as Joseph's brethren said to Pharaoh, "their trade was about cattle from their youth." {Gen. xlvi. 34.) When, there- fore, they came into Egypt, they desired the low-lying land of Goshen, as producing the most perennial of pasture. {Gen. xlvii. 4.) It is true that the same authority says, "Every shepherd is an abomination unto the Egyp- tians;" but this was because, about a century before the arrival of Joseph among them, a tribe of Cushite shepherds from Arabia had conquered their nation, and held them in sla/- very ; till, after a sanguinarj- contest of thirty years, they regained their liberty about twenty- seven years before Joseph was promoted by Pharaoh. That the Egyptians were flock- masters is certain, from many parts of the Scriptures. Thus, when Pharaoh gave per- mission to the Israelites to dwell in Goshen, he added, as he spoke to Joseph, "And if thou knowest any men of activity among them, then make them rulers over my cattle" {Gen. xlvii. 6.) ; and when the murrain came into Egypt, it was upon their horses, asses, camels, oxen, and sheep. {Exod. ix. 3.) The attention and care necessary to be paid to their domestic animals were evidently well known and attended to; for when they pro posed to settle in a land, their first thought was to build "sheepfolds for their cattle.** {Numb, xxxii. 16.) They had stalls for their oxen {Hab. iii. 17), and for all their beasts Thus King Hezekiah is said to have made " stalls for all manner of beasts, and cotes for flocks; moreover, he provided him possessions of flocks and herds in abundance" (2 Chron xxxii. 28) ; and that this abundance exceeded the possessions of the greatest of our mqderi. flock-masters, we may readily acknowledge, when we read that " Mesha, king of Moab, was a sheep-master, and rendered unto the king ol Israel 100,000 lambs, and 100,000 rams, with the wool." (2 Kings, iii. 4.) ^ They prepared the provender for their horses and asses of chaff, or cut straw and 33 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. barley. (Judges, xix. 21 ; 1 Kings, iv. 28.) Our translation does not explicitly state this, but it is clear in the Hebrew original. . (Dr. KennicotCs xxivth Codex; Harmtr's Observa- tions, i. 423.) It is also certain, from the He- brew original, that they tied up calves and bullocks for the purpose of fattening them (Jerem. xlvi. 21 ; Amos, vi. 4, &c., Parkhursv^s Hebrew Lexicon, 673) ; and that they were ac- quainted with the arts of the dairy " Surely the churning of milk," says Solomd.i, "bring- eth forth butter" (Prov. xxx. 31) ; and Sapiuel speaks of the "cheese of kine." (2 Sam. xxvii. 29.) The chief vegetable products cultivated by these eastern nations were, wheat, barley, beans, lentils, rye, the olive, and the vine. (Exod. ix. 31; Levit. xix. 10; '2, Sam. xvii. 28, &c.) The scanty notices which we have of their tillage, give us no reason to doubt that they were skilful husbandmen. The name for till- age (Obed) emphatically expresses their idea of it ; for it literally means to serve the ground. (Parkhurst, 508.) And that the cares and at- tention necessary were well sustained, is evi- denced by the fact, that David, for his extensive estate, had an overseer for the storehouses in the fields ; another over the tillage of the ground ; a third over the vineyards ; a fourth over the olive trees ; two to superintend his herds ; a seventh over his camels ; an eighth to superintend his flocks ; and a ninth to attend similarly to the asses. (1 Chron. xxvii. 25 — 31.) Of their ploughing, we know that they turned op the soil in ridges, similarly to our own practice ; for the Hebrew name of a husband- man signifies a man who does so. (Parkhurst, 93.) That they ploughed with two beasts of the same species attached abreast to the plough. (Deut.xxix.lQ.) That the yoke,or collar was fast- ened to the neck of the animal ; and that the plough, in its mode of drawing the furrows, re- sembled our own ; for we read of their sharp- ening the coulter and the ploughshare. (1 Sam. xiii. 20, &c.) Ploughing was an operation that they were aware might be beneficially performed at all seasons ; for Solomon men- tions it as a symptom of a sluggard, that he will not plough in the winter (Prov. xx. 4); and that too much care could not be devoted to it, they expressed, by deriving their name for ploughing from a Hebrew root, which signifies silent thought and attention. (Parkhurst, 24:4.) Their sowing was broadcast, from a basket (Amos, xi. 13 ; Psalm cxxvi. 6) ; and they gave the land a second superficial ploughing to cover the seed. It is true that harrowing is mentioned in our translation (Job, xxxix. 10) ; but Schultens and other Hebraists agree that harrowing was not practised by them. Rus- ^•elI, in remarking upon the mode of cultivation now practised near Aleppo, says, " No harrow is used, but the ground is ploughed a second time after it is sown, to cover the grain." (Parkhurst, 720.) The after-cultivation apparently was not neglected; they had hoes or mattocks, which they employed for extirpating injurious plants. "On all hills," says the prophet, "that shall tw digged with the mattock, there shall not 34 come thither the fear of briers and thorns." (Isa. vii. 25.) In those hot climates a plentiful supply of moisture was necessary for a health- ful vegetation; and the simile of desolation, employed by the same prophet, is " a garden, that hath no water." (/««. i. 30.) In Egypt they irrigated their lands ; and the water thus supplied to them was raised by an hydraulic machine, worked by men in the same manner as the modern tread-wheel. To this practice Moses alludes, when he reminds the Israelites of their sowing their seed in Egypt, and water- ing it with their feet, a practice still pursued in Arabia. (Deut. xi. 10 ; Niebuhr, Voyage en Arahie, i. 121.) When the corn was ripe, it was cut with either a sickle or a scythe (jer. 1. 16; Joel, iii. 13), was bound into sheaves (Psalm cxxix. 7; Dent. xxiv. 19, &c.), and was conveyed in carts (Amos, ii. 13), either immediately to the threshing-floor or to the barn. They never formed it into stacks as we do. These pas- sages in the Scriptures (Exod. xxii. 6 ; Judg, XV. 5; Job, V. 26) refer exclusively to the thraves or shocks in which the sheaves are reared as they are cut. (Harmer's Observ iv. 145, &c.) The threshing-floors, as they are at the present day, were evidently level plats of ground in the open air. (Judg. vi. 37; 2 Sam-, xxiv. 18 — 25, &c.) They were so placed that the wind might, at the time of the operation, remove the chief part of the chaff. They, perhaps, had threshing-floors under cover, to be used in inclement seasons ; for Hosea (ii. 35), speaking of "the summer threshing-floors," justifies such surmise. The instruments and modes of threshing were va- rious. They are all mentioned in these two verses of the prophet ; " Fitches are not threshed with a threshing instrument, neither is a cart-wheel turned upon the cummin, but the fitches are beaten out with a staff", and the cummin with a rod. Bread-corn is bruised because he will not ever be threshing it, nor break it with the wheel of his cart, nor bruise it with his horsemen." (Isaiah, xxviii. 27, 28.) When the seed was threshed by horses, they were ridden by men ; and when by cattle, al- though forbidden to be muzzled (Dm/, xxv. 4), yet they were evidently taught to perform the labour. (Hosea, x. 11.) The "instrument'* was a kind of sledge made of thick boards, and furnished underneath with teeth of iron. (Isaiah, xli. 15; Parkhurst, 242, 412.) The revolving wheels of a cart, and the various sized poles employed for the same purpose need no further comment. To complete th dressing of the corn, it was passed through sieve (Amos, ix. 9), and thrown up against the wind by means of a shovel. The fan was, and is still, unknown to the eastern husband- men ; and where that word is employed in our translation of the Scriptures, the original seems to intend either the wind or the shoveL (Isaiah, xxx. 24; Jer. xv. 7; Parkhurst, 183, 689.) Of their knowledge of manures we know little. Wood was so scarce that they con- sumed the dung of their animals for fueU (Parkhurst, 764.) Perhaps it was this defi- ciency of carbonaoc'?-is matters for their lands AGRICULTURE. that makes an alteniion to fallowing so strictly enjoined. {Levit. xix. 23 ; xxv. 3; Husea, x. 12, &c.) The landed estates were large, both of the Kings and of some of their subjects; for we read that Uzziah, king of Judah, '* had much both in the low country and in the plains ; husband- men also, and vine-dressers in the moun- tains and in Carmel, for he loved husbandry" (2 Chron. xxvi. 10) ; that Elijah found Elisha with twelve yoke of oxen at plough, himself being with the twelfth yoke (1 Kimrs, xix. 19) ; and that Job, the greatest man of the east, had 14,000 sheep, 6000 camels, 1000 yoke of oxen, and 1000 she-asses. (7«6, i. 3 ; xlii. 12.) In the time of Isaiah, the accumulation of landed property in the hands of a few proprietors was so much on the increase, that a curse was ut- tered against* this engrossment. " Wo unto tliem," says the prophet, " that join house to house, that lay field to field, till there be no place, that they may be placed alone in the midst of the earth." (haiah, v. 8.) II. TUE AcRICUtTUBE OF TUE GrEEKS. 1. Anriont implement from a tombstone at Athens. 2 The Greek plough. 3. The apade. 4 and 5. Hoes. Revelation has taught us to offer up our prayers and thanksgivings for all benefits to the one omni-beneficent Creator and provider of the universe. The less enlightened ancients, whose religion was mythological, equally con- vinced with ourselves of the existence of some divine first cause and providence, like us of- fered up their votive petitions and hymiis of praise, though the objects of their worship were as many as the benefits or the evils to which man is subject. Agriculture was too important and too bene- ficial an art not to demand, and the Greeks and Romans were nations too polished and dis- cerning not to afford to it, a very plentiful se- ries of presiding deities. They attributed to Ceres — as their progenitors, the Egyptians, did to Isis — the invention of the arts of tilling the soil. Ceres is said to have imparted these to Triptolemus, of Eleusis, and to have sent him as her missionary round the world to teach mankind the best modes of ploughing, sowing, and reaping. In gratitude for this, the Greeks, about 1356 years before the Christian era, es- tablished, in honour of Ceres, the Eleusinian mys4eries, by far the most celebrated and en- during of all their religious ceremonies ; for they were not established at Rome till the close of the fourth century. Superstition is a pro- lific weakness ; and, consequently, by degrees, every operation of agriculture, and every pe- riod of the grow^lh of crops, obtained its pre- siding and tutelary deity. The goddess, TerrOy waj the guardian of the soil ; Stercutius pre- AGRICULTURE. sided over the manures ; Volutia guarded the crops whilst evolving their leaves ; Flora re- ceived the still more watchful duty of shelter- ing their blossom ; they passed to the guardian- ship of Ladantia when swelling with milky juices; Rubigo protected them from blight; and they successively became the care of Hos- tilina, as they shot into ears ; of Matura as Jhey ripened ; and of Tutelina when they were reaped. Such creations of polytheism are fa- bles ; but they are errors that should even now give ri'se to feelings of gratification rather than of contempt. They must please by their ele- gance ; and much more when we reflect that it is the concurrent testimony of anterior nations, through thousands of years, that they detected and acknowledged a Great First Cause. Unlike the arts of luxury. Agriculture has never been subject to any retrograde revolu- tions ; being an occupation necessary for the existence of mankind in any degree of com- fort, it has always continued to receive their first attention ; and no succeeding age has been more imperfect, but in general more expert, in the art than that which has preceded it. The Greeks are not an exception to this rule; for their agriculture appears to have been much the same in the earliest brief notices we have of them, as it was with the nation of which they were an offset. The early Grecians, like all new nations, were divided into but two classes; landed proprietors, and Helots, or slaves; and the estates of the former were little larger than were sufficient to supply their respective households with necessaries. We read of princes among them ; and as we dwell upon the splendid details of the Trojan war, associate with such titles, unreflectingly, all the pageantry and luxury of modern potentates, that are distinguished by similar titles. But in this we are decidedly wrong ; for there was probably not a leader of the Greeks who did not, like the father of Ulysses, assist with his own hands in the farming operations. {Ho- mer's Odyss. 1. xxiv.) Hesiod is the earliest writer who gives us any detail of the Grecian agriculture. He appears to have been the contemporary of Homer ; and, in that case, to have flourished about nine centuries before the Christian era. His practical statements, however, are very meager ; we have, therefore, preferred taking Xenophon's (Economics as our text, and introducing the statements of other authors, as they may occur, to supply deficien- cies or to afford illustrations. Xenophon died at the age of ninety, 359 years before the birth of Christ. The follow- ing narrative of the Greek agriculture is from his " Essay," if not otherwise specified. In Xenophon's time the landed proprietor no longer laboured upon his farm, but had a steward as a general superintendant, and nu- merous labourers, yet he always advises the master to attend to his own affairs. " My ser- vant," he says, " leads my horse into the fields, and I walk thither for the sake of exercise in a purer air; and when arrived where my work- men are planting trees, tilling the ground, and the like, I observe how every mmg is per- formed, and study whether any of these opera- tions may be improved." After his ride, hw 3n AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. servant took his horse, and led him home, "taking with him," he adds, "to my house, such things as are wanted, and I walk home, wash my hands, and dine off whatever is pre- pared for me moderately." "No man," he says, " can be a farmer, till he is taught by experience ; observation and instruction may do much, but practice teaches many particu- lars which no master would ever have thought to remark upon." " Before we commence tife cultivation of the soil," he observes, that, " we should notice what crops flourish best upon it; and we may even learn from the weeds it pro- duces, what it will best support." " Falliiivhff, or frequent ploughing in spring or summer." he observes. " is of great advan- tage ;" and Hesiod advises the farmer ( Works and Days, 50) always to be provided with a spare plough, that no accident may interrupt the operation. The same author directs the ploughman to be very careful in his work. " Let him," he says, " attend to his employment, and trace the furrows carefully in straight lines, not looking around him, having his mind intent upon what he is doing." Ibid. 441 — 443. Theophrastus evidently thought that the soil could not be ploughed and stirred about too much, or unseasonably; for the object is to let the earth feel the cold of winter and the sun of summer, to invert the soil, and render it free, light, and clear of all weeds, so that it can most easily afford nourishment. {De Cau- gis Plant, lib. iii. cap. 2, 6.) Xenophon recommends green plants to be ploughed in, and even crops to be raised for the purpose ; " for such," he says, " enrich the soil as much as dung." He also recommends earth that has been long under water to be put upon land to enrich it, upon a scientific prin- ciple which we shall explain under Iuriga- Tiox. Theophrastus, who flourished in the fourth century b. c, is still more particular upon the subject of manures. He states his convic- tion that a proper mixture of soils, as clay with sand, and the contrary, would produce crops as luxuriant as could be effected by the agency of manures. He describes the pro- perties that render dungs beneficial to vegeta- tion, and dwells upon composts. {Hist, of Plants, ii. cap. 8.) Xenophon recommends the stubble at reaping time to be left long, if the straw is abundant; " and this, if burned, will enrich the soil very much, or it may be cut and mixed with dung." " The time of sowing," says Xenophon, "must be regulated by the season ; and it is best to allow seed enough." Weedx were carefully eradicated from among their crops ; " for, besides the hindrance they are to corn, or other profitable plants, they keep the ground from receiving the benefit of a free exposure to the sun and air." Homer describes Laertes as hoeing, when found by his son Ulysses. (0(h/ss. xxiv. 226.) Water-courses and ditches were made to drain away " the wet which is apt to do great damage 10 corn." Homer describes the mode of threshing corn by the trampling of oxen (7//ac?, xx. lin. 495, &c.) • and to get the grain clear from the straw, Xenophon observes, " the men who have the care of the work take care to shake up the a6 straw as they see occasion, flinging into the way of the cattle's feet such corn as they ob- serve to remain in the straw." From Theo- phrastus and Xenophon combined, we can also very particularly make out that the Greeks separated the grain from the chaff by throwing it with a shovel against the wind. III. The Agriculture of the Romans. 2 1, 2, 3, Ploughs used by the Romans in different agea 4. The yoke for fixing the cattle. 6. The reaping hook 6. The scythe. It is certain, that at a very early age Italy received colonies from the Pelasgi and Arca- dians ; and that, consequently, with them the arts of Greece were introduced ; and we may conclude that there was then a similarity in the practice of agriculture in the two coun- tries. About 753 years before the nativity of Christ, Romulus founded the city of Rome, whose in- habitants were destined to be the conquerors and the improvers of Europe. The Roman eagle was triumphant in Egypt, Persia, Greece, Carthage, and Macedon ; and the warriors who bore it on to victory, in those and other coun- tries, being all possessors of land of a larger or smaller extent, naturally introduced, upon their return, any superior vegetable, or im- proved mode of culture, which they observed in those highly civilized seats of their victories. Thus the arts of Rome arrived at a degree of superiority that was the result of the accu- mulated improvements of other nations ; and. b AGRICULTURE. finally, when Rome became in turn the con- quered, the victors became acquainted with this accumulated knowledge, and diffused it over the other parts of Europe. Of the agriculture of the early Romans we know but little ; but of its state during the period of their greatest prosperity and improve- ment, we fortunately have ver}^ full informa- tion. Cato in the second, and Varro in the first century before the Christian era, Virgil, at the period of that event, Columella and Pliny but few years subsequentl}% and Palla- dius in the second or fourth centurj', each wrote a work upon agriculture, which, with the exception of that by Columella, Ijave come down to us entire. From these various authorities we derive full information; and we are convinced that many of our readers will be surprised a* the correct knowledge of the arts of cultivation possessed by that great nation. 1. Size of the Roman Farms. — When Romu- lus first partitioned the lands of the infant state among his followers, he assigned to no one more than he could cultivate. This was a space of only two acres. (Varro, i. 10; Pliny, xvii. 1 1 .) After the kings were expelled, seven acres were allotted to each citizen. {Pliny, xviii. 3.) Cincinnatus, Curius Dentatus, Fa- bricius, Rcgulus, and others, distinguished as the most deserving of the Romans, had no 'arger estates than this. Cincinnatus, accord- 4ng to some authorities, possessed only four acres. {Ibid.,- Columella, i. 3, &c.) On these limited spaces they dwelt, and cultivated them with their own hands. It was from the plough that Cincinnatus was summoned to be dictator {Livy, iii. 26) ; and the Samnian ambassadors found Curias Dentatus cooking his own repast of vegetables in an earthen vessel. {Plutarch, in vita Cato. Cens.) Some of the noblest families in Rome derived their patronymic names from ancestors desig- nated after some vegetable, in the cultivation of which they excelled, as in the examples of the Fabii, Pisones, Lentuli, Cicerones, and the like. (Pliny, xviii. 1.) In those days, "when they praised a good man, they called him an ^agriculturist and a good husbandman : he was thought to be very greatly honoured who was thus praised." (Cato, in Prsef.) As the limits of the empire extended, and its wealth increas- ed, the estates of the Roman proprietors became very greatly enlarged; and, as we shall see more particularly mentioned in our historical notices of gardening, attained to a value of 80,000/. (Plutarch in vit. Morius et Lucullus.) Such extensive proprietors let portions of their estates to other citizens, who, if they paid for them a certain rent, like our modem tenants, were called Coloni (Columella, i. 7; Pliny, Epist. X. 24) and Politores, or Partiarii, if they shared the produce in stated proportions with the proprietor. (Pliny, Epist. vii. 30, and ix. 37, &c.) Leases were occasionally granted, which appear to have been of longer duration than five years. (Ibid. ix. 37.) 2. Distinction of Soils. — Soils were charac- terized by six different qualities, and were described as rich or poor, free or stiff, wet or dry. (Colum. ii. 2.) AGRICULTURE. The best soil they thought had a blackish colour, was glutinous when wet, and friable when dry; exhaled an agreeable smell when •ploughed, imbibed water readily, retaining a sufficiency, and discharging what was super- fluous ; not injurious to the plough irons by causing a salt rust; frequented by crows and rooks at the time of ploughing; and, when at rest, speedily covered with a rich turf. ( Virg. Georg. ii. 203, 217, 238, 248 ; Plimj, xvii. 5.) Vines required a light soil, and corn a heavy, deep, and rich one. (Virg. Georg. ii. 29; Catoy vi.) 3. Manures. — The dung of animals was par- ticularly esteemed by the Romans for enrich- ing their soil. " Study," says Cato, " to have a large dunghill." (Cato, v.) They assidu- ously collected it and stored it in covered pits, so as to check the escape of the drainage. (Colum. i. 6; Pliny, xvii. 9, and xxiv. 19.) They sowed pulverized pigeons' dung and the like over their crops, and mixed it with the surface soil by means of the sarcle or hoe. (Colum. i. 16 ; Cato, xxxvi.) They were aware of the benefit of mixing together earth of oppo- site qualities (Ibid.), and of sowing lupines and ploughing them in while green. ( Varro, i. 23.) They burnt the stubble upon the ground, and even collected shrubs and the like for the similar purpose of enriching the soil with their ashes. ( Virg. Georg. i. 84 ; Pliny, xvii, 6, 25.) Pliny also mentions that lime was employed as a fertilizer in Gaul, and marl in the same country and Britain ; but we can only surmise hence that they were also probably employed by the Romans. (Pliny, xvii. 8, and xvii. 5.) 4. Draining. — The superfluous water of soils was carried off by means both of open and covered drains. (Colum. ii. 2, 8 ; Pliny, xvii. c. ; Virg. Georg. i. 109.) Cato is very particu- lar in his directions for making them. (Cato, xliii. clx.) 5. Crops. — They cultivated wheat, spelt, barley, oats, flax, beans, pease, lupines, kidney- beans, lentils, tares, sesame, turnips, vines, olives, willows, and the like. To cite the au thorities who mention each of these would be needless, for they are noticed in all the Roman writers upon agriculture. Of the relative im- portance or proportion in which the crops were profitable to the Romans, we have this judgment of Cato : — "If you can buy 100 acres of land in a very good situation, the vineyard is the first object if it yields much wine ; in the second place, a well-watered garden ; in the third, a willow plantation ; in the fourth, an olive ground ; in the fifth, a meadow ; in the sixth, corn ground; in the seventh, an underwood, a plantation yielding stout poles for training the vine; and in the ninth, a wood where mast grows." (Cato, i.) They made hay, and the process appears to have been the same as in modern timt.s. After being cut it was turned with forks, piled into conical heaps, and finally into stacks or under cover. But the mowing was imperfectly per- formed ; for, as soon as the hay was removed from the field, the mowers had to go over it again. ( Farro ; Colum. ii. 22.) 6. Implements.— The plough consisted of »" D 37 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. veral parts : the beam to M-hich the yoke of the oxen M'as fastened ; the tail or handle termi- nated in a cross bar, with which the ploughman guided the instrument; it had a ploughshare, the share-beam to which it was fixed, and two mould-boards, a coulter, and a plough-staff for cleaning the ploughshare. {Ooid. Pont. i. 8, 57; Virg. G. i. 170 ; Pliny, xvii. 18, 19.) Some of their ploughs had wheels, and some were without coulters and earth-boards. Besides this, they had spades, rakes, hoes, with plain and with forked blades, harrows, mattocks, and similar implements. 7. Operations. — Ploughing was usually per- formed by two oxen, though three were some- times employed. They were yoked abreast, and trained when young to the employment. {Cicero, in Verr. iii. 21 ; Col. vi. 2, 10 ; Pliny, xviii. 18 ; Virg. G. iii. 163, &c.) They were usually yoked by the neck, but sometimes by the horns. {Pliny, viii. 45; Colum. ii. 2.) There was but one man to a plough, which he guided, and managed the oxen with a goad. {Pliny, Epist. viii. 17.) They sometimes ploughed in ridges, and sometimes not. They did not take a circuit when they caifte to the end of the field, as is our practice, but returned close to the furrow. They were very particular in drawing straight and equal sized furrows. ( Pliny, xviii. 1 9, s. 49.) They seem to have ploughed three times al- ways before they sowed ( Varro, i. 29) ; and to stiff soils even as many as nine ploughings were given. ( Virg. G. i. 47 ; Pliny, xviii. 20 ; Pliny, Epist. V. 6.) The furrows in the first plough- ing were usually nine inches deep. When the soil was only stirred about three inches, it was called scarification. {Pliny, xviii. 17 — 19.) They usually fallowed their land every other year. {Vij-g. G. i. 71.) Sowing was performed by hand, from a bas- ket ; and that it might be performed regularly, the hand moved with the steps. {Colum. ii. 9 ; Pliny, xviii. 24.) The seed was either scat- tered upon the land and covered by means of rakes and harrows, or more commonly by sow- ing it upon a plain surface, and covering by a shallow ploughing, which caused it to come up in rows, and facilitated the operation of hoeing. {Pliny, xviii. 20.) They were particular as to the time of sowing, the choice of seeds, and the quantity sown. ( Varro, i. 44 ; Pliny, xviii. 24, s. 55 ; Virg. G. i. 193, &c.) Weeding was performed by hoes, hooks, and by hand. In dry seasons the crops were watered. {Virg. G. i. 106.) If they appeared too luxu- riant they were fed off. (Ibid. 193.) Reaping and mowing were the usual modes of cutting down the corn crops, but the ears were sometimes taken off by a toothed machine, called butilium, which «:eems to have been a wheeled cart, pushed by oxen through the corn, and catching the ears of corn between a low of teeth fixed to it, upon the principle of the modern daisy rake. In Gaul, the corn was cut down by a machine draAvn by two horses. {Varro, i. 50; Virg. G. i. 317; Colum. ii. 21 ; Pliny, xviii. 30.) They do not seem to have ver bound their com into sheaves. {Colum. 1.) as ! Threshing was performed by the trampling ' of oxen and* horses, by flails, and by means of I sledges drawn over the corn. {Pliny, xvii. 30 ; \ Colum. i. 6; Virg. G. iii. 132; Tibullus, i. 5, I 22 ; Varro, i. 52.) The threshing-floor was circular, placed near the house, on high ground, and exposed on all sides to the winds. It was highest in the centre, and paved with stones, or more usually with clay, mixed with the lees of the oil, and very carefully consoli- dated. {Colum. i. 6; Varro, i. 2; Virg. G. i. 178 ; Cato, xci. and cxxix.) Dressing was performed by means of aseive or van, and by a shovel, with which it was thrown up. and exposed to the wind. {Varro^ i. 52 ; Colum. ii. 21.) It was finally stowed in granaries or in pits, where it would keep fifty years. {Pliny, xviii. 30 ; Varro, i. 57.) 8. Animals. — Oxen, horses, asses, mules, sheep, goats, swine, hens, pigeons, pea-fowls, pheasants, geese, ducks, swans, guinea-fowls, and bees, are mentioned by various authors as products of the Roman farms. Directions for breeding many of these are given in the third and fourth books of the Georgics. Such is an outline of the Roman agriculture ; and in it our readers will doubtless find suffi- cient evidence to warrant them in agreeing with us, that it was but little different from that pursued by the present farmers of England. We are superior to them in our implements, and consequently in the facility of performing the operation of tillage ; we perhaps have su- perior varieties of corn, but we most excel them in our rotation of crops, and in the ma- nagement of stock. We differ from them, also, in not practising the superstitious rites and sacrifices which accompanied almost all their operations (see Cuto, cxxxiv. c.) ; but of the fundamental practices of agriculture, they were as fully aware as ourselves. No modern wri- ter could lay down more correct and compre- hensive axioms than Cato did in the following words ; and whoever strictly obeys them will never be ranked among the ignorant of the art. " What is good tillage 7" says this oldest of the Roman teachers of agriculture ; " to plough. What is the second ? to plough. The third is to manure. The other part of tillage is to sow plentifully, to choose your seed cau- tiously, and to remove as many weeds as pos- sible in the season." {Caio Ixi.) Such is an epitome of their agricultural knowledge ; a knowledge which has since in- creased, and can only in future be added to by attending to this advice of another of their writers. " Nature," he observes, " has shown to us two paths which lead to a knowledge of agriculture — experience and imitation. Pre- ceding husbandmen, by makmg experiments, have established many maxims ; their poste- rity generally imitate them ; but we ought n«t only to imitate others, but make experiments, not directed by chance, but by reason." {Varro, i. 18.) IV. The Agiuculture of Englats^d. The historian of English agriculture has not the least trace of authority from which he can obtain information of its state beyond the pe IT nuawnen the I AGRICULTURE. tn the Romans invaded this island, and the annals of even that period are meager and unsatisfactory. When Cocsar arrived in England, about 55 B. c, he describes the Cantii, or inhabitants of Kent, and the Belgoe, inhabiting the modern counties of Somerset, Wilts, and Hants, as much more advanced than the rest of the peo- ple in the habits of civilized life. They culti- vated the soil ; employed marl as manure ; stored their cornnnthreshed, and freed it from the chaff' and bran only as their daily demands required. The interior inhabitants lived chietly upon milk and tlesh, being fed and clothed by the produce of their herds. " The country," adds Cassar, " is well-peopled, and abounds in buildings resembling these of the Gauls, and they have a great abundance of cattle. They are not allowed to eat either the hen, the goose, or the hare, yet they take pleasure in breeding them." {Cos, v. c. 10 ; Utrabo, iv. 305 ; Diodor. Sic. V. 301 ; Pliny, xvii. 4.) Cicero, in one of his letters, says, " There is not a scruple of money in the island ; nor any hopes of booty, but in slaves; (Lib. iv. Ep. 17) ; a description, that the industry and intelligence of succeed- ing ages has rendered singularly inapplicable. The ftrst steps in that improvement were owing to the Romans themselves. Rutilius has ele- gantly and correctly said, that Rome filled the world with her legislative triumphs, and caused all to live in on« common union, blending dis- cordant nations into one country, and, by im- parting a companionship in her own acquire- ments and laws, formed one great city of the world. Agricola was the chief instrument in impart- ing to the Britons the improved arts and civi- lization of the Romans. "To wean them from their savage habits, Agricola held forth the baits of pleasure, encouraging the natives, as well by public assistance as by warm exhorta- tions, to build temples, courts of justice, and commodious dwelling-houses. He bestowed encomiums on such as cheerfully obeyed ; the slow and uncomplying were branded with re- proach ; and thus a spirit of emulation diffused itself, operating like a sense of duty. To es- tablish a plan of education, and give the sons ef the leading chiefs a tincture of letters, was part of his policy. By way of encouragement he praised their talents, and already saw them, »by the force of their natural genius, rising su- perior to the attainments of the Gauls. The consequence was, that they who had always disdained the Roman language began to culti- vate its beauties. The Roman apparel was seen without prejudice, and the toga became a fashionable part of dress. By degrees, the charms of vice gained admission to their hearts ; baths, porticos, and elegant banquets grew into vogue ; and the new manners, which in fact served only to sweeten slavery, were by the unsuspecting Britons called the arts of polished humanity." {Tacitus, Agricola, xxi.) Thus eloquently does Tacitus describe the dif- fusion of the Roman arts among the early na- tives of England ; and that agriculture was one of those in which they so rapidly improved, is attested by the fact that in the fourth century the Emperor Julian, having erected here gra- AGRICULTURE. naries in which to store the tributary corn that he exacted from the natives, at one time sent a fleet of 600 large vessels to convey away the store they contained. Julian himself particu- larizes the transaction. "If," says Gibbon, "we compute those vessels at only seventy tons each, they were capable of exporting 120,000 quarters ; and the country which could bear so large an exportation must have attained an improved state of agriculture." {Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. c. xix.) Possessing this improved agriculture, Eng- land was successively subdued by the Saxons, the Danes, and the Normans ; but as these all came to improve their fortunes, and to win the comforts of life, agriculture continued to flou- rish : her operations were interrupted, her pro- ducts destroyed, in whichever direction swept the tide of war; but no sooner was peace re- stored than the inhabitants, though of varied extraction, united their knowledge in the pur- suit of this art, on which not only their com- fort, but their existence chiefly depended. A similar summary observation applies to all succeeding ages ; and our agriculture has con- tinued slowly to improve in spite of every ob- stacle that has occasionally delayed, or that has permanently retarded its advance. 1. Tenures — Size of Estates. — The native Britons, it is very certain, appropriated but small portions of the land for raising corn, or other cultivated vegetables, and the rest of the country was left entirely open, affording a common pasturage for their cattle, and pan-^ nage for their swine. Under the Roman government, we have seen that the extent of cultivated ground must have considerably in- creased,* yet the oldest writers agree, that by far the greatest proportion of the country was occupied by heaths, woods, and other unre- claimed wastes. When the Saxons established themselves in the island, an almost total revolution in the proprietorship of the lands must have occur- red. The conquest was only accomplished after a bloody struggle ; and what was won by the sword was considered to possess an equitable title, that the sword alone could dis- turb. In those days it was considered that the lands of a country all belonged to the king ; and on this principle the Saxon monarchs gave to their followers whatever districts they pleased, as rewards for the assistance afforded in the conquest, reserving to themselves cer- tain portions, and imposing certain burdens upon each estate granted. ( Coke's Littleton, 1. 58. 2 ; Blackstone's Comm. 45, &c.) This was only a continuance of that feudal system that prevailed upon the Continent. As this feudal system declined, and was finally extinguished in the twelfth year ff Charles II., so proportionally did the landed interest increase in prosperity. Freed from the burden of furnishing a soldier and hi'» armour for every certain number of acrf*, and all restrictions as to lands changing hands bemg removed, and the numerous impositions being got rid off", with which the lords op- pressed their sub-infeudatories, it soon becamt a marketable species of property; and, a» money and merchandibi increased, and the ^ 39 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. proprietor lived less upon his estate, it soon became the most eligible plan for both landlord and tenant, that the whole rent should be paid in money. Of the size of these early farms we have no precise information; but, from the laws of Ina We may perhaps conclude that a hide of land, equal to about 100 or 120 acres, was the customary size ; for, in speaking of the pro- duce to be given to the lord for ten hides, the law speaks of the smallest division of each county of which it was particularly cognisant; namely, of ten families, or a tithing, as they were collectively called. Again, Bede ex- pressly calls a hide of land familia, and says it was suificient to support a family. It was otherwise called mansum, or manerium, and was considered to be so much as one could cultivate in a year. War succeeded war, and chivalry and the chase were the engrossing occupations of the landed proprietors during the whole of the middle ages; yet amid all these convulsions, and all this neglect, agriculture continued to obtain a similar degree of attention, and its practitioners to occupy a similarly humble, yet more independent station of life. Bishop Latimer flourished in the first half of the six- teenth century ; and Lis father was among ihe most respectable yeomen of his time, yet his farm evidently did not exceed 100 acres. "My father," says Latimer, "was a yeoman, and had no lands of his own ; he had only a farm of three or four pounds by the year, at the utmost; and hereupon he tilled as much as kept half a dozen men. He had a walk for 100 sheep ; and my mother milked thirty kine," &c. {Latimer's Sermons, p. 30.) But Ihat this class of society was then not very refined, is proved by Sir A. Fitzherbert, in his Book of Husbandry, declaring, "It is the wife's occupa- tion to winnow all manner of corn, to make malt, to wash and wring, to make hay, to shear corn, and in time of need to help her husband to fill the muckwain, or dung-cart ; to drive the plough, to load corn, hay, and such other ; and to go or ride to the market ; to sell butter, cheese, milk, eggs, chickens, capons, hens, pigs, geese, and all manner of corn." This race of farmers, and this extent of farm, continued much the same till the closing years of the eighteenth century. The wife, indeed, had long previously ceased to partici- pate in the above-mentioned drudgery, but she still attended the dairy, and sold its products at market, as her husband still participated in the usual labours of his farm ; but in the latter half of that century, and thence to the present time, a diflTerent class of men have engaged in the cultivation of the soil. The accumulation of wealth from the vast increase and improve- ment of manufactures and commerce, the diffusion of better information, and the in- creased population, have all contributed to this effect. Individuals engage in the pursuit whose education and habits require a larger income for their indulgence than can be afforded by the profits of a small farm ; and, consequently, in districts having the most fer- hie soils, farms of from 300 to 500 acres are very common ; whilst in less productive dis- 40 tricts they extend even to 1000 ah'- ^000 acres* With the present expenditure of vent, tithe, taxes, rates, and labour, and the reduced prices of agricultural produce, farms, even of those extents, cannot yield a profit sufficient to support the farmer of refined habits. And if the present artificial system of corn laws is removed, we do not see any possible rct^ult but a return to smaller farms, and a more labour- ing class of tenants ; for it admits of perfect demonstration, that small farms, having that manual labour, and that careful tillage which small plots obtain, return a more abundant produce than those which are too large to be so attentively cultivated. Enclosure of Land. — It is a rule, founded upon general observation, that the most en- closed country is always the best cultivated i for, as Sir Anthony Fitzherbert observed, in the reign of Henry VIII., live stock may be better kept, and with less attendance, closes be better alternately cropped, and the crops better sheltered in inclement seasons, "if an acre of land," he concludes, "be worth six- pence an acre before it is enclosed." We have seen, already, that hedges, ditches, and other fences, marked the boundaries of the early Saxon estates ; and these were cer- tainly not adventitious distinctions, for they are mentioned in most of the Saxon grants of which we are aware, and are strictly regulated and protected by law. If a tenant omitted to keep his farm enclosed, both in winter and summer, and to keep his gate closed, if any damage arose from his hedge being broken down, or his gate being open, he was declared to be legally punishable. ( Wilkins, Leges Sax, 21.) If a freeman broke through another's hedge he was fined 6s-. (Ibid.) As woollen manufactures improved, the de- mand for broad cloths became excessive, not only in England but in the continental na- tions; and the consequent consumption of wool was so large, and the price was so en- hanced, that self-interest dictated to the landed proprietors, even in the reign of Henry III., that the enclosure of their manorial wastes, on which to feed sheep upon their own account, or to let out as pasture farms, would be a source of extensive emolument. The statutes, of 20 Hen. 3, 13 Edw. 1, and others, were con- sequently passed for sanctioning and regu- lating the practice. The demand for woollens « continued, and became so great, that rapidity of manufacture was the chief consideration. " Yet as ill as they be made," says King Ed- ward VI., in his private journal, " the Flemings do at this time desire them wonderfully." The consequences are depicted by the same genuine authority. "The artificer will leave the town, and for his mere pastime will live in the coun- try ; yea, more than that, will be a justice of the peace, and will scorn to have it denied him, so lordly be they now-a-days ; for they are not con- tent with 2000 sheep, but they must have 20,000, or else they think themselves not well. They must have twenty miles square their own land, or full of their farms : four or five crafts to live by is too little. Such hell-hounds be they.** (Edward the Sixth's Remains, p. 101.) The rents of land were consequently enormously AGRICULTURE. raised, and the corn farmers were mined. " They everywhere," says Roger Ascham, " la- bour, economize, and consume themselves to satisfy their owners. Hence so many families dispersed, so many houses ruined, so many tables common to every one, taken away. Hence the honour and strength of England, the noble yeomanry, are broken up and desrroyed." {Ascham' s Epistles, 293 — 295.) Bishops Story, Latimer, and others, raised their voices in their behalf, and hurled their invectives from the pulpit upon those who op- pressed them. "Let them," said Latimer, in a sennon preached before the king, " let them have sutlicient to maintain them, and to find them in necessaries. A plough land must have sheep to dung their ground for bearing corn ; they must have swiue for their food, to make their bacon of; their bacon is their veni- son, it is their necessary food to feed on, which they may not lack ; they must have other cattle, as horses to draw their plough, and for carriage of things to the markets, and kine for their milk and cheese, which they must live upon, and pay their rents." The short-sighted executive of that period endeavoured to prevent these enclosures by a prohibitory proclamation, as the legislature had done by the statutes 4 Hen. 7, c. 16, 19. There doubtless was great distress, and always will be upon any sudden change in the direc- tion of the national industry, and in none more extensively than in the return from an agri- cultural to a pastoral mode of life. But, as is observed by one of the most impartial of our historians, "every one has a legal and social right of employing his property as he pleases ; and how far he will make his use of it com- patible with the comforts of others, must be always a matter of his private consideration, with which no one, without infringing the com- mon freedom of all, can ever interfere. That no national detriment resulted from this exten- sive enclosure — no diminution of the riches, food, and prosperity of the country at large, is clear to every one who surveys the general state and progress of England with a compre- hensive impartiality." {Turners History of Edward the Sixth, &c.) " The landlord," he further observes, " advanced his rent, but the farmer also was demanding more for his pro- duce." The evil of converting arable to pasture land cured itself. The increased growth of wool in other countries, and the improvement of their manufactures, by degrees caused the production of it in England to diminish : and as dearths of corn accrued, and the consequent enormous increase of its value rendered its growth more lucrative, pasture-land gradually returned to the dominion of the plough. Since that period enclosures have gone on with various, but certainly undiminished, de- grees of activity. More than 3000 enclosure bills were passed in the reign of George III. The land so enclosed was, and is, chiefly dedi- cated to the growth of corn ; but since the field culture of turnips was introduced in the seven- teeth, of mangel wurzel in the nineteenth cen- tury, and other improvements in agricultural practice, every farm is ecabled to combine 6 AGRICULTURE. the advantages of the stock and tilla'^e hns- bandry. "^ Implemen1s.~lx is very certain that the state of any art is intimatelv connected with that of Its instruments. If these are imperfect it can- not be much advanced ; and this is so univer- sally the case, that agriculture, of course, is no exception. 1. Norman plough, with the hatchet carried by the plouphnian for breaking the clods. 2. Sowing, as re- presented bj Striitt. 3. Reaping. 4. Threshing. 5. Whet- ting. 6. Beating hemp. We find, in the earliest of our national records, that the plough, the most impc;rtant implement of husbandmen, was then of £. very rude construction. In general form it rudely resembled the plough now employed, but the workmanship was singularly imperfect. This is no matter of surprise ; for among the early- inhabitants of this country there were n»» arti- ficers. The ploughman was also the piough- wright. It was a law of the early Britoni that no one should guide a plough until he could make one; and that the driver should make the traces, by which it was drawn, of withs or twisted willow, a circumstance which affords an interpretation to many corrupt terms at present used by farming men to distinguish the parts of the cart harness. Thus the womb withy has degenerated into wambtye or wanly e,- withtn trees into whipping or Whipple trees ,- be- sides which we have the tail withes, and some others still uncorrupted. {Leges WaUicse, 283 —288.) We read, also, that Easterwin, Abbot of Wearmouth, not only guided the plough and winnowed the corn grown on the abbey land?, but also with his hammer forged the instru- ments of husbandry upon the anvil. {Bede, Hist. Abb. Wearmoth, 296.) Whether the early British or Saxon ploughs had wheels is uncer- tain, but those of the Normans certainly had such appendages. Pliny says that whtels were first applied to ploughs by the Gau)u D 2 4» AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. The Britons were forbidden to plough with any other animal than the ox; and they attached any requisite number of oxen to the plough. The Normans had been accustomed, in their light soils, to employ only one, or at most two. {Leges Wiilliae, 288; Motiffaucon's Monumens dt Monarckie Frangois I. Planche, 47 ; Giraldus Cainbrensis^c. 17.) The gigantic and universal impulse that seemed simultaneously to affect the human mind in the sixteenth century, tended to the improvement of sciences which could not be benefitted without agriculture sharing in the ood. Metallurgy and its subservient arts, and pplied mathematics, were thus assistant to mproving the plough. It received the first improvement among the Dutch and Flemings in the sixteenth century ; and still more so in Scotland in the following one. The common wooden swing-plough is the state to which it was brought in the last-named country, in the eighteenth century, and still is known in many countries, as the improved Scotch plough. The first author of the improved form is differently stated. A man of the name of Lummis has by one writer this credit as- signed to him, though he learned the improve- ment in Holland. He obtained a patent for his form of construction ; but another ploughman, named Pashley, living at Kirkleathem, pirated his invention. The son of Lumrais established a manufactory at Rotherham in Yorkshire, whence it is sometimes called the Rotherham plough ; but in Scotland it was known as the Dutch or Patent Plough. On the other hand, the Rotherham plough is said to have been made at that town in 1720, or ten years before Lummis's improvements. The grandmother of the Earl Buchan, Lady Stewart of Goodtrees, near Edinburgh, is also named as an improver. She invented the Rutherglen plough, formerly much employed in the west of Scotland. Mr. Small, in 1784, and Mr. Bailey, in 1795, pub- lished upon the proper mathematical form of this implement. In the fourth volume of the Transactions of the Highland Society, and in the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture for Februar)'', 1829, there are also two valuable Essays upon the same subject. In 1811 this plough came very generally to be made of cast iron. (Amos's Essay on Agricultural Machines, Survey of W. Riding of Yorkshire, Sec.) Wheel ploughs have been commensurately improved. The objects to be attended to in the formation of a plough, and that is the best which attains to them most effectually, are, first, that it shall enter and pass through the oil with the least possible resistance ; se- condly, that the furrow-slice be accurately turned over; and, thirdly, that the moving power or team shall be placed in the most beneficial line of draught. Scarifiers and horse hoes are implements wnich were unknown till within about a cen- tury ago. Hoeing by manual labour had, in very early ages, been partially practised ; for the earliest writers, we have seen, recom- mended particular attention to the cutting down and destroying of weeds. But to Jethro Tull, is indisputably due the honour of having first demonstrated the importance of frequent hoeing, not merely to extirpate weeds, but for the purpose of pulverizing the soil, by which process the gases and moisture of the atmos= phere are enabled more freely to penetrate to the roots of the crop. The works of Tull ap- peared between the years 1731 and 1739. Drills. — We noticed, when considering the Roman agriculture, that the Romans endea- voured to attain the advantages incident to row-culture by ploughing in their seeds. A rude machine is described in the Transactions of the Board of Agriculture, as having been used immemorialiy in India for sowing in rows. The first drill for this purpose intro- duced into Europe seems to have been the in- vention of a German, who made it known to the Spanish court in 1647. {Harte's Essays mi Husbandry.) It was first brought much into notice in this country by Tull, in 1731 ; hut the practice did not come into any thing like ge- neral adoption till the commencement of the present century. There are now several im- proved machines adapted to the sowing of corn, beans, and turnips. See Duills. Draining, as we have seen, was attended to by the Romans, and it was unquestionably practised in Britain during the middle ages ; for where lands were too retentive of moisture, or abounded in springs, the obvious remedy was to remove it by drains. This, however, and far simpler operations, are seldom per- formed in the most correct mode without a knowledge of the sciences connected with their success. Draining was never correctly understood till the scientific observations of Dr. Anderson, and the practical details of Mr. Elkington, about the year 1761, placed it upon a more enlightened and correct system. The important benefits that have arisen from the adoption of this system are very extensive ; and the acknowledgment of 1000/., voted to Mr. Elkington, was a just testimony that the landed interest appreciated the boon, and that the benefiter of this country is duly estimated by its legislature. There are numerous kinds of drain ploughs. The mole plough was invented by a Mr. Adam Scott, and improved by a Mr. Lumley of Gloucestershire during the present century. The past and the present century have also given birth to machines totally unknown in previous ages ; of these are rollers, machines for haymaking, reaping, threshing, and dress- ing; and if to these be added the immense im- provement that has taken place in the form and quality of all other agricultural imple- ments, the saving of labour, and the power to pursue the necessary operations neatly and well, will be found to be incalculably pro- moted. Crops. — It is probable that wheat was not cultivated by the early Britons ; for the cli- mate, owing to the immense preponderance of woods and undrained soil, was so severe and wet, that in winter they could attempt no agri- cultural employments ; and even when Bcde wrote, early in the eighth century, the An^lo- Saxons sowed their wheat in spring. {Bedels Works, p. 244.) The quantity cultivated iji the reign of Henry III. does not appear to have exceeded the quantity necessary for the year's AGRICULTURE. consumption; for in a very wet, inclement year, 1270, wheat sold for six pounds eight shillinofs per quarter, which, calculating for the difference of the value of money, was equal to twenty-five pounds of our present cur- rency. It continued an article of comparative luxury till nearly the 17th century commenced; for in the household books of several noble families it is mentioned that mnnchetf, and other loaves of wheat flour, were served at the master's table, but there is only notice taken of coarser kinds for the servants. That the cultivation of wheat was very partial in the reif^n of Elizabeth is attested by Tusser, who, writing at that period, says, — "In Sii/Tolk Renin, whereas wheat iievi^r jyrew. Good husbandry used, good wheat-land I knew." As the climate has improved by the clearing and drying of the surface of the country, so proportionally, has the cultivation of wheat extended. It was probably owing to the fickle and in- clement climate of England rendering the successful completion of harvest a much rarer and more hazardous event than now, that our forefathers made on the occasion such marked and joyous festivities. We do not know the motive that actuated the farmer, but no dread of an uncertain harvest could have made him more prompt and vigorous, who, in 1289, cut and stored 200 acres of corn in two days. 'J'hc account is given in " The History of Haw- stead." About 250 reapers, ihatchers, and others, were employed during one day, and more than 200 the next. The expenses of the lord on this occasion axe thus stated : — Nine- teen reapers, hired for a day at their own board, Ad. each ; eighty men one day, and kept at the lady's board. Ad. each ; 140 men, hired for one day, at Zd. each ; wages of the head reaper, 6«. %d. ; of the brewer, 3*. Ad. ; of the cook, 3*. Ad. ; thirty acres of oats, tied up by the job, U. 8d. ; three acres of wheat, cut and tied up by the job, U. llrf.; five pair of gloves," &c. Barley is probably the grain which was most cultivated by the early Britons. The re- presentation of it occurs upon their coins. {Camden's Britannia, by Gibson, Ixxxviii.) It was not only the grain from which their pro- genitors, the Cymri, made their bread, but from which they made their favourite bever- age, beer. Oats being well-known and cultivated by the Germans and other continental nations when Pliny wrote, they were probably known also to this island in the earliest ages. In all periods, even to the present time, lyead made of oatmeal has been a very prominent part of the food of the inhabitants of the northern parts of Britain. "In Lancashire," says Gerarde, in 1597, "it is their chiefest bread-corn, for jamrocks, haver-cakes, thorffe-cakes, and those which are called generally OcJen-cakes ; and for the most part they call the grain haver, whereof the} Jo likewise make drink for want of barley." It is so hardy that it is admirably calculated for a cold climate, and there is scarcely any soil in which it will not be pro- ductive. In southern climates it will not flourish. AGRICULTURE. "Rye," says Gerarde, grcweth very plenti- fully in the most parts of Germany and Polo- ma, as appeareth by the great quantity brought into England in times of scarcity of com, as happened in the year 1596; and at other times, when there was a general want of bread-corn, by reason of the abundance of rain that fell the year before, whereby great penury ensued, as well of cattle, and all other victuals, as of all manner of grain. It groweth, likewise, very well in most places of England, especially towards the north." Its hardiness probably rendered it a prin- cipal grain with the early Britons ; but as it is a great impoverisher of the soil upon which it grows, and the grain makes very inferior bread, it is now cultivated to a very small extent. Peas have been extensively cultivated in England from a very early period ; but they have been much less since the bean has be- come a more general field crop, which it did not till within the present century. Lentils were brought to England about 1548. Gerarde says he had heard they were cultivated as fod- der near Waterford. Maize, or Indian corn, was made known in England in 1562. It is commonly cultivated in the south of France as a field crop, and for the same purpose was tried in England in 1828, at the recommenda- tion of Mr. Cobbett, but it has not succeeded. Tares, in 1566, according to Ray, were grown as a seed crop, and given to horses, mixed with oats and peas, though they were some- times cut green as fodder. This is now their chief use. Potatoes were introduced from South Ame- rica, by Sir Walter Raleigh, about 1586. Sir Robert Southwell, President of the Royal Soci- ety, informed the Fellows, in 1693, that his father introduced them into Ireland, having received them from Sir Walter. (MS. Jourruu of Royal Society.) It long continued to be neglected by gardeners. In 1663, however, attention was drawn to its extensive culture. But notwithstanding the exertions of the Royal Society to effect this purpose, potatoes did not become a field crop till the early part of the last century. They became so in Scotland about 1730, a day-labourer of the name of Prentice having the honour of first cultivating them largely two years previously. Every county of England now grows them exten- sively, ancashire and Cheshire are particu- larly celebrated for them. In the counties round London, especially in Essex, about two thousand acres are annually cultivated for supplying the metropolis with this root. Turnips and clover, though known in Eng- land during time immemorial, were never much cultivated in the field before the early part of the seventeenth century, and we men- tion them together, because their introduction among the farmer's crops caused the greatest improvement in the art that it ever received. In 1684, it is observed as a modern discovery, " sheep fatten very well on turnips, these prov- ing an excellent nourishment for them in hard winters, when fodder is scarce ; for they will not only eat the greens, but feed on the roots in the ground, scooping them out even *3 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. to the very skin." This is the first notice we have of feeding ofl' turnips ; and the same authority adds, " ten acres sown with clover, turnips, &c., will feed as many sheep as one hundred acres would have done before." {Houghton's Collections on Hushtmdry, &c., iv. 142 — 144.) Brown, Donaldson, and all other writers upon agriculture, agree, that the intro- duction of the improved mode of cultivating these crops revolutionized the art of hus- bandry. Previously, light soils could not be cropped Math advantage ; there was no rotation that the judgment could approve. Tusser, in the sixteenth century, in the following homely, lines, tells us that two corn crops were grown consecutively and then a fallow; and many authorities could be quoted to show that some soils were fallowed on alternate years, so that they afforded only one crop in two years. " First rie and then barlie, the champion saies, Or wheat before barlie, be champion w.iies : But drinii before bread-corn, wiih Middlesex men, Then laie on more compas, and fallow agen." But now, by the aid of green crops, a fallow usually occurs but once in four years. " Clo- ver and turnips," it has been observed, " are the two main pillars of the best courses of British husbandry; they have contributed more to preserve and augment the fertility of the soL for producing grain, to enlarge and improve breeds of cattle and sheep, and to afford a regular supply of butcher's meat all the year, thaa any other crops." It was pre- viously a difficult task to support live stock through the winter and spring months ; and as for feeding and preparing cattle and sheep for market during these inclement seasons, the practice was hardly thought of, and still more rarely attempted. Mangel wurzel has only been cultivated by the farmer for a few years past Its chief ad- vantage is, that as it will succeed upon tena- cious soils which will not produce turnips, it enables farms in which such soils predomi- nate to support a larger quantity of live stock. Its cultivation seems on the increase, its fat- tening qualities being good, the produce heavy, and liability to failure small. Hops, although indigenous to England, were little attended to, and never employed in brew- ing till the sixteenth century ; and then, when they began to be more used, the citizens of London petitioned parliament to prevent them as a nuisance. " It is not many years since," says Walter Blith, writing in the year 1653, " the famous city of London petitioned against two nuisances, and these were Newcastle coals, in regard of their stench, «fec., and hops, in regard they would spoil the taste of drink and endanger the people." (English Improver Improved, 3d ed. 240.) There are many other crops occasionally cultivated by the farmer which may be enu- merated here, and most of them first exten- sively cultivated within the last 150 years, but which in this place will require no further notice — such as the artificial grasses, rape, mustard, caraway, coriander, flax, hemp, buck- vheat or brank, teasel, madder, saintfoin, mcerne, cabbage, carrots, and others. General cultivation. — We have no informa- 44 tion as to whether the early inhabitants of Britain varied their modes of ploughing with the nature of their soil. They sometimes ploughed with two oxen, sometimes with more ; some ploughmen, represented in very old pic- tures, evidently drove the team as well as guided the plough ; but it was usual for them to have a driver. There is a very old Saxon dialogue extant, in which a ploughman, in stating his duties, says, " I go out at day-break, urging the oxen to the field, and I yoke them to the plough — the oxen being yoked, and the share and coulter fastened on, I ought to plough one entire field or more. I have a boy to threaten the oxen with a goad, who is now hoarse through cold and bawling. I ought, also, to fill the bins of the oxen with hay, and water them, and carry out their soil." {Tur- ner^s Anglo-Saxon}!, ii. 546, ed. 5.) Repeated ploughings and fallowings, to prepare the soil for wheat, was the common practice ; for Giral- dus Cambrensis, speaking of the Welsh, says, with astonishment, " they ploughed their lands only once a year, in March or April, in order to sow them with oats ; but did not, like other farmers, plough them twice in summer and once in winter, to prepare them for wheat." {Descript. Cambria;, c. viii.) In a law tract, called Fleta, and written early in the fourteenth century, are given several agricultural directions, especially upon dress- ing and ploughing fallows. In summer, the ploughing is advised to be only so deep as to bury and kill the weeds ; and the manure not to be applied till just before the last ploughing, which is to be deep. (Fleta, lib. ii. c. 73.) Sowing was anciently performed in all cases by hand. In the famous antique tapestry of Bayeux, a man is represented sowing. The seed is contained in a cloth fastened round his neck, is supported at the other extremity by his left arm, and he scatters the seed with his right hand. All agricultural writers, from the earliest era to the present, have recommended the seed to be soaked in some medicament or other previously to sowing. Virgil recommends oil and nitre for beans ; others direct the employ- ment of urine ; and Heresbachius, who wrote in 1570, mentions the juice of the houseleek. " Sow your ridges," says the same author, " with an equal hand, and all alike in every place, letting your right foot, especially, and your hand go together. Wheat, rye, barley, oats, and other large seeds must be sown with a full hand, but rape seeds only with three fingers." (Googe's Heresbachius, 246.) The tapestry of Bayeux, already mentioned, represents a man harrowing ; one harrow only being employed, and one horse. In the time of Heresbachius, though harrowing was the usual mode of covering the seed, yet he r^ys, " in some places it is done with a board tied to the plough." Rakes seem to have been employed by the Anglo-Saxons ; for the accu- rate researches of Mr. Turner do not appear to have discovered any mention of other im- plements that were employed by them for the purpose. (Hist. Anglo-Sax. ii. 544.) We find no very early mention made of hoeing by any English agricultural writer. AGRICULTURE. Though there is generally some directions for •* plucking up the naughty weeds." Heresba- chius is the first that we have met with who notices the advantage of loosening the surface of the soil about growing crops. " Sometimes," he says, "raking is needful, which, in the spring, loosens the earth made clung by the cold of winter, and letteth in the fresh warmth. It is best to rake wheat, barley, and beans twice. Moreover, they break asunder with a roller the larger and stiffer clods." {Guoge's Heresbuchius, [printed in 1578,] 256.) It was not till the time of Tull, 1731, that the due im- portance of this was appreciated. Of the other operations of agriculture, as reaping, mowing, stacking, and the like, there seems no need of making mention: they were performed much in the same way as now. " Corn," says the author last quoted, " should be cut before it is thorough hard ; experience teacheth that if it be cut down in due time, the seed will grow to fulness as it iieth in the barn." (Googe'a Heresbac/ttus,A06.) According to Henry, the practice with our ancestors was for the women to thresh and the men to reap. (Hist, of Britain, vi. 173.) Irrigation seems to have been practised in a few places in Britain from the time of the Ro- mans, there being meadows near Salisbury which have been irrigated from time immemo- rial. Lord Bacon mentions it as a practice well understood in his time (1560 — 1626) ; and at the same period, 1610, appeared a work by Robert Vaughan, detailing the mode of "sum- mer and winter drowning of meadows and pastures, thereby to make those grounds more fertile ten for one." It was not, however, till the close of the last century that the attention of agriculturists was much aroused to the sub- ject. The writings of Boswell, Wright, West- ern, and others, between the years 1780 and 1824, partially awakened the farmers to the importance of the practice. The best exam- ples of it are to be observed in Gloucestershire and Wiltshire ; but it is now one of the prac- tices of farming that is the most undeservedly neglected. Mr. Welladvise was its great pro- moter in Gloucestershire. Live Stock. — Cattle and sheep were the chief riches of the Britons when they became first known to the Romans (Ceesar, v. c. x.), and they are still a great source of our agricultural riches. Sheep. — In a very early Anglo-Saxon MS. a shepherd is represented as saying, " In the first part of the morning I drive my sheep to their pasture, and stand over them in heat and in cold with dogs, lest the wolves destroy them. I lead them back to their folds, and milk them twice a day ; and I move their folds and make cheese anv^ butter." (Turner's Angli-Sax. ii. 54 1^) This attention to sheep was attended with so much success that they became an object of acquirement by the continental nations ; and in the reign of Edward IV. at the time a treaty of peace was concluded with Spain (1466), a license was granted by that monarch " for cer- tain Coteswold sheep to be transported to Spain, as people report, which have there so multiplied anl increased, that it hath ramed AGRICULTURE. the commodity oi'England much to the Spanish profit, and to the no small hinderance of the gain which was beforetimes in England raised of them." (HaWs Chronicle, 266. Holimhed, 668.) The sheep thus exported were probably improved by attention and climate till they had become that breed of Merinos which was re imported to this country early in the present century. The statute 3 H. 6, c. 2, forbids the exportation of sheep. The fears which old chroniclers may have ignorantly entertained, that the exporting of sheep would be injurious to our native commerce, have in all succeed- ing years been proved to be fallacious. The demand for our wool was so large, and the consequent increase of the breed of sheep was so great, that an impolitic legislature in 1533 endeavoured to check it. The preamble of the act states, that " divers of the king's subjects, to whom God of his goodness hath disposed great plenty and abundance of moveable sub- stance, now of late, within few years, have daily studied, invented, and practised ways and means to accumulate into few hands, as well great multitudes of farms as great plenty of cattle, and in especial sheep, putting such lands as they can get to pasture and not to tillage, whereby they have not only pulled down churches and towns, and enhanced the old rates of the rents, and that no poor man is able to meddle with it, but also have raised the prices of all manner of corn, cattle, &c., almost double above the prices accustomed, to the great injury, &c., of his majesty's sub- jects ; and as it is thought that the greatest occasion of this accumulation is the profit that Cometh of sheep, which now be come to a few persons' hands of this realm, that some have 24,000, some 20,000, &c., by which a good sheep for victual, that was accustomed to be sold for 2*. 4rf., &c., is now sold for 65., &c. ; which things thus used be principally to the high displeasure of Almighty God, to the decay of the hospitality of this realm, to the diminish- ing of the king's people, and to the let of cloth- making," &c. It then enacts, that no one shall have more than 2000 sheep ; though, as a sub- sequent section declares every hundred to con- sist of six score, the limited number was 2400. And it further enacts, that no man shall have above two farms. (25 H. 8, c. 13.) Harrison, who died in 1593, describes our sheep as very excellent, *' sith for sweetness of flesh they pass all other. And so much are our wools to be preferred before those of Milesia and other places, that if Jason had known the value of them that are bred and to be had in Britain, he would never have gone to Colchis to look for any there." (Description of Englandj prefixed to Hulinshed, 220.) Heresbach, ivho was a contemporary, gives such a description of the best form and qualities of sheep, that it is evident that the excellence of the breed was not the mere effect of chance. (Googe's Heres- bach. 1376.) From that period till the latter half of the eighteenth century, Ave are not ac- quainted with^any efforts further to improve it. This last-mentioned period was .he era of tho improvements effected by Mr. Bakewell and his pupils, the Messrs. Culley. ^. , , . Bakewell was born in 1726, at Ditchley m 15 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. Leicestershire, and about the year 1755 com- menced those experiments wliich finally efiect- ed a greater improvement in our sheep than was ever effected in any species of ajt^ricultu- ral produce by the exertions of one individual. He travelled over England, Ireland, Holland, and other places, for the purpose of examining the various breeds of cattle, and by careful se- lections, and judicious crosses, succeeded in procuring a stock that obtained for the Ditch- ley sheep a previously unheard of excellence. Fortunately the English agriculturists appre- ciated the importance of his success ; and it is a fact that, in 1789, three of his rams, the pro- duce of one birth, were let for the breeding season, for 1200 guineas, and the whole pro- duce of his letting was at least 3000 guineas. One of his rams obtained for Mr. Bakewell, in one season, 800 guineas ; and when it is taken into the calculation, that the same animal served for his own flock, it produced for its owner in that year 1200 guineas. Mr. Bake- well died in 1795. Messrs. Culley introduced these improve- ments into Northumberland, and the other northern counties of this island. When they first settled in that district, the sheep kept there were large, slow-feeding, long-woolled animals ; and a breed between those and the Cheviot sheep. These breeds rarely became fat before they were three years old ; but the Leicesters introduced by the Messrs. Culley were sold fat at little more than a year old. They at first met with much opposition ; but as it was soon seen they were improvers, and not mere inno- vators, the flocks have generally been made to improve by their example. They became the general patrons of improvement, and their great attention to minutiae, unremitting indus- try, and superior cultivation, gave birth to a spirit of emulation, and their own merits were rewarded with a liberal success. For several years they occupied farms to the amount of about 8000/. per annum. They had pupils with liberal premiums from all parts ; and these again were the means of m.aking known, not only their enlightened husbandry, but the encouraging illustration they afforded of in- dustry, economy, and intelligence duly re- warded. Merino sheep were imported by George III. in the years 1788 and 1791. This breed at- tracted much attention in 1804, when his majesty commenced his annual sales. Dr. Parry, Lord Somerville, and others have paid considerable attention to them; but the climate of England has a considerable effect in deteriorating their fleeces, and the flesh is too indifferent to permit them to be much en- couraged in a country where mutton is so considerable an article of food. (Hunfs Agri- cultural Memoirs ,- GenVs Magazine ,- Enc. Bi-it.) Mr. Ellman, of Sussex, during an enlight- ened practice of more than fifty years has brought the South Down variety of sheep to a state of the highest improvement. Perhaps the best description of the varieties of the jheep reared in England has been written by Ihis gentleman for "Baxter's Agricultural Li- brary." Cattle, a.i we have already noticed, have al- 46 ways been a prominent production of Great Britain. They were mentioned by Caesar, Strabo, and other ancient writers. They have ever since continued, more or less, particularly to engage the attention of the husbandman, not only for the dairy and the plough, but also as j a source of food. The breeding of cattle, how- ! ever, had been so much neglected for the more profitable pasturage of sheep, tnat in 1555, an act of parliament was passed to remedy the evil. The preamble states that, " For- asmuch as of late years a great number of persons in this realm have laid their lands, farms, and pastures, to feeding of sheep, oxen, runts, scrubs, steers, and heifers, &c., having no regardor care to breed up youngbeasts or cattle, whereby is grown great scarcity of cattle and victual ;" and, therefore it is enacted that a cow shall be kept wherever are sixty sheep, and a calf reared where there are one hundred and twenty, &c. (2 & 3 Phil «V Mary, c. 3.) Many other legislative enactments occur in the records of that and contiguous periods ; but reason and interest are better promoters of im- provement than acts of parliament. A due at- tention to the breedingof cattle was first aroused by Mr. Bakewell, who has just been mentioned as an improver of sheep. He let bulls for 150 guineas during four months, and 5 guineas per cow M^as no uncommon charge. Pedigrees have been preserved of different animals with as much care as those of race-horses. The attention and care that have thus been paid to their breeding have met with an appropriate recompense. In no other country is there to be found such breeds of cattle ; and that none are so highly estimated, is proved by the prices that have been given for individuals. {Mar- shalVs Midland Counties, i. 334 ; Parkinson on Lire Stock, ii. 469.) ^ Horses. — That the ancient Britons had horses with which they impelled their war chariots, we know upon the authority of those who.had seen them — Caesar, Strabo, and others. In the epitome of Dion Cassius, by Xiphelin, those horses are described as small and swift. They appear not to have been usually employed in the operations of agriculture ; and their em- ployment was not considered desirable ; for in the old Cambrian laws, oxen are exclusively directed to be employed. (Leges Wallicae, 288.) Under the Saxons, and still more under the Normans, who flourished here in an age that, from its excelling in noble horsemanship, has been distinguished as the chivalric, the breed of horses was undoubtedly improved. "Richard De Rulos, Lord of Brunne and Deeping, was much addicted to agriculture, and delighted in breeding horses and cattle." (Jngulphus's Chron. lib. i.) In the year 1494, the exportation of horses was so extensive, and the price of them so much enhanced, that an act of parliament or- dained that none should go out of the realm without the king's license (2 H. 8, c. 6 ; 32, c 13 ; 33, c. 5) ; but these being evidently intend- ed for the improvement of war horses, " for the ! defence of the realm," would only collaterally 1 benefit those employed by the husbandman. Il I was provided by the second of the acts jusi ; quoted, tnai no stallion should be kept that di«* AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. not measure fifteen hands from the sole of the ! hoof to the highest part of the wither ; each hand to be four standard inches. We find, however, that at this period draught horses [ were fine and powerful animals, for Harrison, who lived at this era, and whose appendix to Holinshed we have before quoted, after ex- pressing his admiration of them, says, that five or six of them would draw with ease three thou- sand weight of the greatest tale for a long journey. We must remember, too, that in those days the roads were totally different from what they are at present. It is within the me- mory of persons still living in the hundreds of Essex, that no more than a load of wheat was ever sent out in a wagon, the roads there being, until within less than a half a century, exceedingly bad. We have already noticed that in the tapestry of Bayeux a man is represented harrowing with a horse. This tapestry was woven in the year 1066, and this representation is the first notice, of which we are aware, of the horse being employed in agriculture. The first attempt that historians notice, to improve the breed of our husbandry horses, was in the reign of King John. Tyrant and despot as he was, yet his evil qualifications gave two bene- fits to England. His tyranny gave birth to Magna Charta; and his pride, rendering it hateful to him to see foreigners surpass him in the excellence of their horses, induced him to import 100 stallions from Flanders; and from that era may be dated the improvement of our draught horses. His object did not entirely succeed ; for a century subsequently, in the reign of Edward II., we find that horses were still imported from Lombardy and Flanders. W^e have already noticed some of the enact- ments to improve the breed of horses, but these shared the fate of most other compulsory measures ; for when Elizabeth summoned her forces to defend her realm, in the prospect of a Spanish invasion, she could obtain no more than 3000 cavalry. Sir A. Fitzherbert, who wrote in the reign of Henry VIII., says, in his Boke of Husbandry, — " A husbande may not be without horses and mares, and specially if he goe with a horse- plough, he must have both; his horses to droive, and his mares to brynge colts to up- holde his stocke, and yet at many times these may droive well if they be well handled." The roguery of horsedealers was an early sin ; for one of the old Cambrian laws provides, that the purchaser of a horse shall have three nights to ascertain whether he is infected with the .staggers ; three months to prove his lungs ; and twelve months to discover whether he is infected with the glanders. For every blemish not discovered before purchasing, if it was not in the ears or tail, one third of the price was to be returned. {Laws of Howell Dhu.) The deceptions practised by the dealers in horses IS still proverbial ; and there does not appear with their fraternity to have been any interme- diate age of innocence ; for Sir A. Fitzherbert •ays, " Thou grayser, that mayest fortune to be of myne opinion or condytion to love koartes, and young coltes and foles to go among thy cattle, take hede that thou be not beguiUid as I have been a hundred times and more. And first, thou shall knowe that a good horse has fifty-four properties ; that is lo say two of a man, two of a badger, four of a lion, nine of an oxe, nine of a hare, nine of a fox, nine of an asse, and ten of a woman." Since the days of Elizabeth, every variety of horses has been gradually improving, in England, and four kinds, tne Suffolk Punch, the Cleveland bays, the Clydesdale, and the Lincolnshire or dray, are surpassed by no country in the world. The numerous cart stallions attending every market town during the covering season, is an attestation that this care is not on the decrease. It is stated, as a further proof, that a few years since a Suffolk cart-mare and her oflfspring sold at Woodbridge Lady-day fair for 1000/. Pigs have been among the usual animals fostered by the farmer in times at least as early as the Anglo-Saxons. In those days they were evidently the most numerous of their live stock ; scarcely an estate is mentioned without its being stated that it afforded /;a«- nage, or mast in its wood, for such a number of swine. They were a very prominent por- tion of their wealth; and, indeed, a chief ne- cessary, for they were in winter obliged to use almost exclusively salted meat, and the great preponderance of woodland supported best this kind of stock. {Turner's Anglo-Saxons, iii. 22.) Heresbach is particularly earnest in commending the pig; and after mentioning it as abominable to the Jews, says, with a boast- ful feeling that made him forget its impiety, " I believe, verily, they never tasted the flitches of Westphaly." Enactments occur in our statute book, in 1225 and 1534, regulating the pannage of swine. There are now a great many varieties of pigs, everj' district of Englant^Varying in the size and qualities of those it prefers. Some attention has of late years been \ aid to im- prove the stock, but in general they have been too much neglected. We have not particu- larized the progress of husbandry in Scotland, because previously to the time of its union with this country. Lord Karnes and Mr. Fletcher agree that its agriculture was deplorable ; and since then the improvement of the art in that most generally enlightened part of tiie island has, in many districts, outstripped, and, in most, at least kept pace with that of England ; and its future advance will probably surpass that of England, because good education is more completely diffused among its inhabi- tants. Ireland is in general deplorably behind in all the arts of life ; nor will this be obvialed until the effect of education and wealth is more generally felt and appreciated by its generous and hospitable, but far from wealthy nlmbi- tants. Wales, for the most part, has an agriculture as bad as that of Ireland ; and we cannot have much hope of its improvement, when Mr. Adam Murray, in his evidence before the Com mittee of Agriculture in 1833, stated that the Welsh have a great antipathy againsv Bt> AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. Saxons, or Sassenachs ,- and that they take every advantage of any Englishman that settles iimong them. V. CoXTINENTAL AoUICULTURE. We have now brought to a conclusion our ;:5ketch of the progress of agriculture. The limits of our work preclude us from giving here more- of the ample details that have come under our notice in the research for the ma- terials, of which we have given the abstract. We have not withheld oar attention from the husbandry of other nations, but have found little concerning the history of their progress in the art; and the examination of their present operations made it so apparent, that with the exception of Flanders, they were all so much behind in general practice, that the conviction is forced upon us, that little instruction could be obtamed from its detail. Several of them, however, excel us in some particular points: and in noticing these we shall avail ourselves of the opportunity to enfore the importance of extra attention to them upon our own agricul- turists. Flanders. — This country was certainly the first of modern countries to improve tlie prac- tice of agriculture. Its farmers were the first tutors of England; and from the time of Sir Richard Weston, who published an account of their husbandry, in 1645, till that of the Rev. T. Radcliff in 1819, the Flemish husbandmen have continued models of neat and economi- cal farming. In this respect we fall short of them. It is a leading principle with them to make their farms closely resemble gardens. Consequently, to effect this, the};- have small farms, and devote their efforts to these three grand points — the accumulation of manure — the destruction of weeds — and the frequent and deep pulverization of the soil. We recom- mend for the perusal of our readers the w^ork (^Tour in Flanders) published by Mr. Radcliff, and the Flemish Husbandry of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and.we are convinced that they will benefit by the time so occupied. We do not expect that they will induce them to try to cultivate a large surface of land with the minute accuracy of a garden ; but it might pursuade them to adopt that more cleanly system of cultivation which is the only one that is permanently profitable. We shall only remark more particularly upon the assiduous care the Flemish farmers bestow upon the collection of manures. They were the first among the moderns to raise crops for the sake of ploughing them in "whilst growing; and theycontmue if more ex- tensively man any other nation. This prac- tice, we may say, is entirely neglected by our farmers'; but if they knew sufficient of che- mistiy to understand how much fertilizing ma- terials such green crops impart to the soil, it (vould ue a practice more extensively adopted. Every fragment of animal and vegetable mat- ter is preserved by the Flemish farmers for the fertilizing of their lands ; and the ready HXie which all such decomposable substances meet, is> one cause of the broom and the bar- w succeeding in keeping their town so scru- bs pulously neat. Saw-dust, chips, and similar refuse all tend to increase their composts ; and on their barren land§ trees are frequently planted for the purpose of creating in time a fertile soil by the agency of their falling leaves. Their dunghills are so constructed that all the drainage is collected in cisterns, with which liquid is mixed the emptyings of privies, pulverized rape cakes, and the like ; and this most fertilizing compound is conveyed to their fields by means of barrels fixed on wheels, and is spread by means of a scoop, 2840 gal- lons per acre being allowed for their flax crop. (Johns, on Li(/. Manure.) The slovenly management of his dunghill is one of the most general specimens of the ignorance or carelessness of a farmer. He allows the most soluble and valuable portions to drain away ; and treats with ridicule the idea of carrying out manure in a liquid form. As this arises from ignorance and bigoted at- tachment to old practice, it should excite our pity more than our anger. Liquid manures, notwithstanding stupidity and prejudice, are amongst the best of fertilizers, and will, in a coming age, be generally employed, since it is a fallacy to argue that they cannot be employed on a large scale ; for the comparative expense of preparation and application is unquestiona- bly smaller on a large scale than on a less. Holland. — The husbandry of this country is almost exclusively confined to the dairy and to stall feeding. There are two points in their practice in which other farmers would do well to imitate them. It is a common prejudice that a cow for the dairy should never be fat. This is thus far true, namely, that if a cow inclines to fatten easily, she does not yield so much milk as one that generates fat less readily. But a good dairy cow, that is, one that secretes milk abundantly, will not fatten whilst in that con- dition, and therefore the abstaining from giving them nutritive food is an erroneous conclusion. The Hollanders know that the contrary is the correct practice, and once a day, or oftener, they give their cows rape cake, and other nu- tritious preparations. The iguorance of the common English practice is evident from this fact, that without one exception, other ani- mals, when suckling, are always kept much higher than at other periods. The other point of their practice that merits imitation is the cleanliness with which they keep all their animals. It M'ill excite a laugh with some of our agricultural readers, when we recommend not only the most scrupulous daily cleaning and washing out of cow-sheds, pig-styes, and the like, but that the animals themselves should be cleaned. This, however, is not a mere speculative precept, for the na^ tional example of Holland attests its utility. We have known the beneficial effects of such treatment upon the health of cows and pigs in this country. But in the absence of all facts, if the farmer would but allow his own common sense to direct him ; if he would but reflect that no animal will thrive that is not healthy; that his horse becomes diseased if not kept clean ; and that by no possibility can it be AGRICULTURE. otherwise but that fetid stenches, and encum- bering filth must tend to breed disease, he would not allow so baleful a neglect to con- tinue. It is fulile to urge that where stock is large, the attendance to such treatment is im- possible ; for if it is beneficial it will pay to adopt it ; and no one should engage in a larger concern than he can manage in the most bene- ficial mode. Germany. — The inhabitants of the diflferent districts of this extensive empire pay particu- lar attention to the cultivation of timber trees. The number of German books on the subject is excessive. It is a subject which has of late years been gaining much attention also in England, and planting will probably be still further extended over many cxf the poorer soils that at present will not pay whilst producing corn. The careless and ignorant manner in which the labourer is allowed to mutilate timber trees that grow upon most farms, cannot be too se- verely deprecated. To train trees correctly, requires as much judgment as any operation in which the gardener or forester is concerned. Not ail unnecessary wound should be inflicted upon them ; for the process of healing each wound not only deducts so much from the growth of the tree, but is usually the intro- ducer of decay. Yet the hedger, with no other instrument than his bill, is generally allowed an unguided use of so unfit and mutilating a tool. Lombardy. — ^In this, and most of the other Italian states, all rivers, and in some, even all springs, are considered to be the property of the government, for they are the source of a considerable revenue. Any one desiring a canal from a river has to pay for it to the government ; and he may cut it through an- other person's ground without the latter having the power to prevent it, upon paying the value of the land. Such canals are considered as im- proving the value of an estate, for they irrigate not only their grass lands, but their corn, vines, and other crops, . numerous little channels being cut for the purpose down the ridges. The water from a river is purchased at,a certain price for so many hours' or days' run in the year, through a sluice of a stated dimension. Arthur Young mentions that the fee-simple of an hiHir's run per week through a particular sized sluice at Turin, sold in 1788, for 1500 livres. Watered lands usually let for one third more than lands that are unwatered. We have already noticed, and shall again have to recur to the subject of irrigation ; but we could not but notice the above national evi- dence in favour of what we know to be one of the most beneficial practices neglected by our agriculturists. Tuicunif. — Sismondi informs us that it is the practice in this country, where he was himself for five years a cultivator, to trench one-third of the farm every year with the spade, bring- ing the lower soil to the top. This mode of culture bringing a new soil for the promotion of vegetation, for it has been in a manner lying two years fallow, is sanctioned by reason a? well as confirmed by practice. We are not tnp advocates of a general system of spade 7 AGRICULTURE. husbandry. There are objections to it thai at present are insuperable. But we do recom- mend, and that from our own experience, its partial adoption. There is no parish in Eng- land in which many of the labourers are not out of employ during a considerable portion of the year. Perhaps the average of the poor's rates were 10«. in the pound upon the farmer's rental; and this might have been reduced more than one half, if every farmer had em- ployed one man in spade husbandry for every thirty acres he cultivated. Thus he would have had some return for the money he ex- pended ; and the saving of horse labour, and the benefit of the extra cultivation, would have turned the balance in his favour, and he would thus have got rid, in a great dej^ree, of the worst of all outlays — an outlay without a pos- sibility of a return. I have searched various statements of the agriculture of the other European countries ; but though I am gratified by the conviction that they are all more or less improving, yet in almost all their practices, except the culture of the vine, they are very far behind England. For that reason I leave them unnoticed, be- cause there is no instruction to be extracted from a detail of deficiencies that have already been overcome. Upon a revision of the whole, I may remark that agriculture, in common with all other kinds of knowledge, is always flourishing, in proportion to the freedom of the people. Spain, subjugated by its despotic monarchy and priesthood, has an agriculture imperfect and degraded beyond that of any other European nation. Flanders has always had a liberal government, and its agriculture improved before our own, and is its equal now. By freedom, I mean security of property and person, unrestricted discussion of every virtu- ous opinion, and an untainted distribution of justice. With us, the era that introduced such freedom into England was that of the Reform- ation, confirmed and strengthened by the ex- clusion of the Stuarts in 1688. The introduction of the scholastic philoso- phy, which revived that activity of mind which the Grecian vanity had so much abused, and the Romans, by their gross habits, had so long paralysed; the mathematical sciences which the Grecians had imported from Alex- andria and had forgotten; that natural and experimental knowledge which neither the Grecians nor Romans had ever much or per- manently pursued ; the reformation of religion, which removed from the mind that incubus that forbad man to trust to his own reason, but made it the bond-slave of interested ignorance • the invention of printing, which became the mighty engine of diffusing accumulated know- ledge ; were all events that preceded the seven- teenth century, and rendered it an era splendid by the general improvement which it afforded in all the arts and sciences. These have justly been represented as forming a circle, for they are so united, so blended together, and so co- assistant, that one cannot be improved withoat the benefit being shared in some way by the others. Agriculture participated in the general pro- " E 49 AGRICULTURE. AGRICULTURE. p^-ess ; and the impetus that was j^iven to the i hupian mind, tutoring it to follow reason rather ' than habit, was feU by the cultivators of the soil. The eighteenth and present centuries have been those in which the improvement has been marked, and the instances of which have already been noticed. The reason of this is to be found in its having then very generally engaged the attention of a more en- lightened class of society. The noblemen, the gentry, and even the monarch of England, be- came practical agriculturists; and under the patronage of George III., the Duke of Bedford, Lords Sheffield, Suffield, and Albemarle, Coke, Western, and many others, it was sure to ob- tain the benefit of all the improved knowledge of the day. In 1723 was instituted the Society of Improvers in the Knowledge of Agriculture in Scotland; in 1749, the Dublin Agricultural Society; in 1777, the Bath and West of Eng- land Society; in 1784, the Highland Society of Scotland; in 1793, the London Board of Agricultare, and the Royal Agricultural So- ciety of England in 1838. The last chiefly through the exertions of Mr. W. Shaw and Mr. Handley, Lord Spencer and the Duke of Richmond. This, although supported entirely by voluntary subscriptions, promises to be of the highest advantage to agriculture, and by its excellent arrangements, of which carefully avoiding all political discussions is a promi- nent feature, it now includes in its copious list of members, men of all parties, who are united not for the sake of indirectly forwarding party objects, but for the improvement in all its im- portant branches of practical agriculture. The fate of the Board of Agriculture, which erpired about the year 1812, from the with- drawal by government of the annual parlia- mentary grant for its support, should operate as a warning to all other agricultural societies ; for this society failed, not from a want of talent or of industry, but from its efforts being paralysed, and its resources curtailed by its being considered the society of a party, and made the arena for the discussion and promul- gation of political doctrines. From none of these have arisen any splendid discoveries, for such are not to be made in agriculture : there can never arise, so far as we can foresee, any Newton or Watt in this art ; but they have eftected and are accomplishing all that such associations can be expected. They have oc- casioned the collision of opinion, they have stimulated the desire of improvement, and they have promoted the general communica- tion of its acquirements. The general im- provements introduced into agriculture, under the auspices of these valuable societies, have been, amongst several others, 1. The general introduction of green crops ; 2. The improve- ment of agricultural machinery, such as the drill, the thrashing-machine, the plough, &c.; 3. Better breeds of all kinds of live stock ; 4. Better and more numerous varieties of seeds. Of the benefits conferred by other sciences upon agriculture, by chemistry, botany, and physiology. I shall hereafter have much to say. They are branches of knowledge hitherto too seldom combined with practical skill to 50 have yet accomplished much ; but of what they are capable of achieving, an estimate may be formed from the perusal of De Cau- dolle's Physiologic Vegetale. "It is certain," as the writer of this has elsewhere observed, "that a cultivator of the soil should have a knowledge of botany and of chemistry. With- out the first he will be unable to understand terms and observations that must occur in every well-written work on his art; unable to comprehend the nature and habits of the ob- jects of his culture, or to render observations which he makes intelligible to others or even to himself. Chemistry is of as much, if not greater, importance to him. The nature of soils, of manures, of the food and functions of plants, would all be unknown but from the analyses which chemists have made. Science can never supersede the dung-hill, the plough, the spade, and the hoe; but it can be one of their best guides — can be a pilot even to the most experienced." {Baxter's Agricultural Li- brary, 110.) Oif the literature of agriculture, I have little to say in this place. From the days of Hesiod until the sixteenth century, the authors upon this art were very few ; but from that period to the present, they have continued to increase"; and its literature, if now collected, would form a copious library. There have been professorships of agricul- ture for some tim*; proposed at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. There was one appointed at Edinburgh in 1790, and the chair is now (1841) filled by Mr. Low ; another at Oxford in 1840, of which Mr. Daubeny is the present holder. A prejudice too generally existed amongst farmers against the agricultural knowledge contained in books ; but now they are gene- rally better educated, this prejudice will cease. Ignorance is always bigoted and obstinate , and it is the same mental sterility which made the m jealous of all new practices, that made the Irish persist in fastening their horses to the plough by their tails, until it was absolutely prohibited by the government. The Irish said in defence of their practice what some English farmers say in defence of theirs, however erro- neous, " My grandfather did well enough this way." Such foolish observations amount to no more than this, " We will not trj- to im- prove." This race of stagnant cultivators is gradually disappearing; and those who are succeeding them, we see reason to believe, are more enlightened, and consequently more ready to adopt improvements. We most heartily rejoice at this ; and we hope to see them more and more a class of reading men. Practice must ever be their chief tutor, as in all other arts; but likewise, as in all other arts, that practice will always be the most cor- rect in its details which is founded upon scientific knowledge. {G. W. Johrison. Miller's Gard. Diet, by Orr Sf Co.) [Agriculture itt the Uxited States. A glance into the agricultural history of the United States has been given in the introduc- tion to this work. It will not therefore bo AGRICULTURE. necessary to say much upon that topic here, where the agricultural resourses of the Re- public will be mainly dwelt upon. Notwithstanding the desolation to which a scourging course of tillage has reduced so many of the once rich acres in the Atlantic states, the agricultural productions of the country are exceedingly abundant. Until very recently, the value of these products has been a subject for conjecture and approximate com- putation. The act of Congress for taking the Census of 1840, provided that the persons en- gaged in enumerating the population, should collect facts so as to show the amount of the products of husbandry, as well as of every other branch of industry pursued throughout the country. A fund of authentic information of the highest interest has been thus obtained, exhibiting not only the aggregate value, but the relative proportions the several products of agriculture, commerce, the forests, and the manufactures, bear to each other. As the agriculture of the country yields the immediate means of subsistence, so does it furnish the basis of commerce, and the various branches of industry, all of which must prosper or languish according to the good or bad suc- cess attending rural affairs. " Land and trade," says a quaint old English writer, " are twins, and ever will wax and wane together. It cannot be ill with trade but lands will fall, nor ill with lands, but trade will feel it." (Sir Joseph Child.) " In the pursuit of agriculture," says a sen- sible writer in Hunt's Magazine, " we are, in effect, advancing the other great interests of the country, a fact which we are too apt to forget in discussing any single interest with ex-parte views. We will take the mere subject of commerce, which is supposed to be inimi- cal to the other interests of the nation, and what a mighty spring is given to the internal trade of the country by agricultural enterprise, looking at the actual condition of the trans- portation of agricultural products upon the principal lines of commercial communication, both at the east and we»;t. How large a por- tion of the freights is furnished by the agricul- ture of the south to the ships which are con- tinually plying from its ports to the inland ports of our own territory, and to the prominent cotton markets abroad. Of the vessels that are daily taking in their cargoes in the harbours of Charleston and New Orleans, and the inter- vening ports, it is safe to say that the princi- pal portion of those freights is derived from the cotton, sugar, tobacco, and rice, as well as the other agricultural staples of the surround- ing territory. The same is the case with the commerce of the Mississippi : and we find the numerous steam ships and flat boats which ply upon that river during the season of navi- gation, are laden with the agricultural products of the states that border its banks, or that are sent down through the interior by the Ohio. The commerce of the lakes is maintained, more- over, in a great measure by the transportation of the agricultural produce of the great states of Ohio, Illinois and Michigan, lying upon their borders, to the eastern markets : and the same may be said of the can»l and rail-ioad trans- AGRICULTURE. portation of the greater number of the states as well as our coastwise trade. Furthermore, if we examine the decks and holds of the ships which are constantly setting sail from cur commercial towns both at the east and south, we find that agriculture supplies the great bulk of the cargoes which are exported abroad. It is agriculture indeed which gives life-blood to the trade and commerce of the country, and is doubtless as important to the solid vigour of commercial enterprise as nutritious food to the health of the human body. Withdraw this re- source from our commerce, and the veins and arteries of the commercial system would sink into a state of collapse, exhijjiting the cadave- rous and pallid hue of disease and starvation. Of the amount of the several species of agri- cultural products yielded by the country, we are furnished with the following statements. An estimate of the products of labour and cap- ital in the U. S., for the year 1848, is given, as a means of comparison with more recent statements which follow. Agricultural PrO' ducts. Wlieiit (a) Indian corn Barley ,... Rye OatB -... Buckwheat Potatoes Beans Peas -. Flaxseed -... Hay Hemp and Flax. Tobacco Cotton -... Rice Sugar (including maple) Sillc cocoons Hops Beeswax (6) .... Honey Molasses (c) Wine Pasturage, annual value Value of the residu Mm of crops: straw chaff, &c. (d) Manure (e) Products of orchards Value in 1840 Increase 25 per cent Products of gardens Number estimated at 3,000,000 . . . Products of nurseries Value of in 1840 . . Increase 25 percent Live stock and its products. Sheen, No. in 1848, W^ool, pounds .... Neat cattle, number in 1848 Swine, number in 1848 ^ . • • Quantities Bushels. 126,364,600 583,150,000 6,222,0.50 32,951,500 185,500,000 12,523,000 114.475,000 10,000,000 20,000,600 1,600,000 Tons. 15,735,000 100,000 Pounds. 218,909,000 1,066,000,000 119,199,500 275,000,000 400,000 1,506,301 789,.525 23,685,750 Gallons. 9,600,000 500,000 Dollars. 7,256,904 1,814,226 Annual value, cstimattd at 15 dolU. per garden 593,5.34 148,383 25,000,000 60,000,000 18,714,482 35,000,000 Dollars 1 15 59 65 65 35 50 30 1 00 87, 1 20 8 00 180 00 04 07 03 05 2 00 30 Dollars 145,319,290 344,0.58,-500 4,044,332 21,418,475 64j925,000 6,266,500 32,-342,500 10,000,000 17,500,000 1,920,000 125,880,000 18,000,000 8.7.56,360 74^620,000 3,575,985 13,750,000 800,000 140,96 165,80 2,368,575 2,736,000 500,000 60,768,136 100,000,000 60,000,000 1.119,866,420 9,071,130 45,000,000 741,917 54,813,047 18,000,0« 51 AGRICULTURE. AGROSTIS. Estimate — co7itimced. Butchers^ meat (g) including mutton, beef, & pork, lbs. Value ol" hides, pelts and tallow Increase ot" neat cat- tle in 1818, estima- ted at 3 per cent. 6incel8l7, in num- ber 4 19,U7, at $10 per head Horses, mules fr asses Number in 1848.... Value of incr'se (la- bour not estimated Poultry. Value in 1840 Increase 25 percent. Eggs, No . consumed Live geese feathers lbs. Products of the dairy. Value in 1840 Increase 23 percent. Milk, value of Products of the forest., including lumber, furs, and .skins .. Firewood, No. c'ds Products of the fishe- ries, including whale, cod, mack- erel, and all other fislieries ^ . .. Capital employed in comtrif'rce, trade, Sf internal transport- ation - . . Profits at 6 per cent. Manufactures. Products, value of . Mines. Products of, inclu- ding iron, lead, gold, silver, mar- ble, gr.-inite, salt, coal, &c. &c Banking and insu rnnce. Bank capital Capital of insurance companies Profits of Money loaned at inte- rest. Profits of .. Rentals. Of houses and lands I Professions. Profits of ^. Quandtiet. 3.664,934,000 5,419,586 9,344,410 2,330,102 1.084,300,000 2,000,000 33,787,008 8.446.750 20:000,000 25,000.000 400,000,000 212,000,000 Dollars 04 i cent 50 1 50 Dollars. 146,597,360 20,000,000 4,401,470 8,129,350 11,680,512 5,421,500 1,000,000 42,233,758 20,000,000 277,553,950 22,250,000 37,500.000 59,750,000 17,581,339 24,000,000 I -. 550,000,000 75,000,000 20,000,000 20,000,000 50,000,000 50,000,000 2.323,561,756 (a) The estimates above given by the Commis- sioner of Patents, for 1848, are founded upon the bases furnished in the census returns for 1840, with the addition of 22 per cent., that being the computed increase of population since that period. The prices are generally the average prices of the different articles in the New York market. The quantities and values of hemp, flax, hops, beeswax, molasses, wine, products of orchards 52 and nurseries, have 25 per cent, allowed foi - increase, except where later information justifies a departure from this rule. (A) The census of 1540 contains no returns of honey. Bevan estimates 30 pounds of honey for each pound of wax produced, and this is taken as the basis of the present estimate. (c) A little more than 45 gallons of molasses are allowed by authors treating on the subject of sugar-growing and manufacture, for every 1000 lbs. of cane sugar. (d) In France 11| per cent, upon the value of the products of the land and forest is allowed for the refuse of crops. From the returns of estimates made by farmers in various parts of the Union in 1818, it appears that many allow 1 ton of straw to 20 bushels of wheat and other small grain produced, and 1 ton of fodder for about 25 bushels of Indian corn. The straw is valued at $2.50, and the fodder at S2 per ton : very low prices. If to *hese be added the refuse of the cotton, sugar, rice, and other crops, it will make the total value exceed $100,000,000. In England, the annual value of straw alone, used for thatching, &c., is estimated at about $40,000,000. («?) The average price of manure in the pre- sent estimate is 6Cj cts. per cord. The value of the manure produced in England was com- puted, in 1835, at 329,300,000 l§ads, valued at about $295,000,000, exclusive of the drOppings from grazing stock, equal to about ^ more. (g) See Food and Venttlation. [AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS, Consump- tion OF. To one who examines statements of the agricultural products of various kinds every year yielded in such immense quantities, it seems, at first glance, difficult to imagine how these can all be consumed, before fresh crops would glut the markets and do away, for a time, with the labours and profits of the hus- bandman. It is, however, only necessary for one to inquire into the consumption of the pro- ducts of the soil constantly going on in some of the most populous countries and cities, to give him courage to persevere in his productive ef- forts, even with renewed ardour. It has, for example, been estimated that the daily con- sumption of corn in England and Ireland, is, 1,238,096 bushels of wheat and barley; besides annually, 100,000 bags of rice, and 450,000,000 lbs. of sugar. The immediate products of the grasses, which, consumed by animals, forms the food of man, constitutes an amount almost inconceivable. In London alone there is an- nually consumed 155,000,000 lbs. of butcher's raeat. Of cheese, another production of grass, 11,500 tons are annually introduced into Lon- don, from Cheshire, about 20,000 tons from Warwickshire, besides that imported from many other countries. Of butter, the annual con- sumption is about 50,000,000 lbs., the produce of 300.000 cows; and in London^ between 9 and 10,000 cows are kept for the supply of milk to the inhabitants, which produce annually about 30,000,000 qts. (Johnso7i's Lectures on Botavy.)'] Agricultural Products of the U. S. in 1860, made from Census returns. Column A in- cludes 23 Eastern, Northern, Middle, and West- ern States ; Column B includes the Southern States of Virg., Tenn., N. Car., S. Car., Georg., Flor., Alab., Missis., Louis., Tex., and Ark. ^B Products. AGKICULTURE. Horses, numbers. Mules do Cattle do Sheep do Swine do "Wool pounds. Cheese do Butter do Wheat. ...bushels. Rye do... Indian corn, do... Oats do... Barley do- Buckwheat. ..do... Potiitoes do... Peas & beans, do... Hops pounds. Hay tons. Tobacco, pounds. Cane sugar ...do... Maple f ugar..do... Cane mo- lasses. ...givUons Maple mo- lasses do... Sorghum molasses ...do... Rice i>onnd9. Cotton, bales, 400 iK>unds. Wine ^'allons. Clover seed,buHh8. Grass seed... .do .. Yalao of market gardens Value of orchard products Value of home uianutactureti... Value of live stock Value of Hlaugh- tert>d animals... Value of farm im- plements and nuichinery Value of farms.... 6,277,950 390,457 16,675.107 17,198,219 19,180,379 50,lS:l,626 104,996,049 399,76;j,525 13S,^09,133 18,792,013 647,02y,514 152.168,667 15,433,29' 17,114,949 107,372,255 3,544,140 10.993,807 18,004,443 230,a43,321 37,772,717 1,631,832 6,860,801 1,639,197 881,868 791,698 $13,209,603 16,839,327 e,8W.161 707,900,731 130,549,764 162,131,142 4,767,474,861 1,980,357 881,384 12,080,208 6,097,587 16,780,312 9,748,702 7u2,60o 59,909,127 31,36fi,Ny4 2,17. •5,033 280.665,014 19,920,408 1S0,292 •536,112 44,287,4321 11,555,606 16,018 1,069,283 1 199,021,430 1 301,922,000 1,090,851 16,313,903 312,467 1,316,241 187,320,581 6,192,746 211,622 46.931 los.no $2,091,282 2,867,015 14..'562,300 390,962,274 81,482,301 Total. 7,258,307 1,271,841 28,755,315 23,295,806 35,960,691 59,932,328 105,788.652 459,672.652 170,176,027 20,965,046 827,694,528 172,089.095 15,613,589 17,651.061 151,659,687 15,099,746 11,009,825 19,073,726 429,364,751 301,922,000 38,863,568 16,313,903 1,944,299 7,176,042 187,320,581 6,192,746 1,850,819 928,799 $15,300,886 19,60«,842 24,226,461 1,098,863,005 212,032,085 83,993,793 246,124,935 ,870,938,9-20 6,638,413,771 The territory of the United States, in 1867, contains 2,936,166 square miles, or 1,879,146,- 240 acres. When the hite Russian possessions are added, the total will be 3,491, 553 sq. miles, of 640 sq. acres each. (For further particulars of States and coun- ties, see Census of U. S. for lb60, aud sum- mary in the Report of the Commission of Patents for 1862.) Valuation of Taxed Property. In 1791, estimated $750,000,000 1816, estimated 1,800,000,000 1850, Official valuation 7,135,780,228 1860, " '♦ 16,159,616,068 Showing an increase in the last decade alone of $9,023,835,840, equal to 130 per cent, for last 10 years. A very satisfactory explanation of this sud- den and surprising development of prosperity fis perhaps furnished by the completion of ca- nals and railways on which the products of vast tracts of fertile Western lands have been brought to the sea-board. During the ten years ending in 1860, the sum of $413,541,510 was expended within the interior central group, known as the " food-exporting States," in constructing 11,212 miles of railway. The total number of miles of railroad in the U. S. amount, in 1867, to 40,000. The public lands belonging to the govern- AGRICULTURE. ment amounted in 1862 to 964,901,625 square acres. The quantity surveyed and ready for sale was 135,142,999 acres. This land is granted gratuitously to actual settlers, or sold at prices not exceeding $1.25 per acre to othei'S than settlers. Population of the JJ. S. from Census returns made in 1850-60, showing the increase. States. 1850. 1860. Per cent, increase. California 92,597 370,792 91,532 851,470 988,416 192,214 982,465" 583,169 994,514 683,034 397,654 6.077 682,044 317,976 489,555 3,097,394 1,980,329 13,294 2,311,786 147,545 314,120 305,391 365,439 460,147 112,216 1,711,951 1,350,428 674,913 107,206 1,155,684 628,279 1,231,066 687,049 749,113 172,123 1,182,012 326,073 672,035 3,880,735 2,339,551 52,465 2,906,115 174,620 315.098 775,881 310.37 42.10 22.60 101.06 36.63 256.64 Delaware Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky 17.64 7.74 23.79 17 84 Maine Massjichusetts Michigan 88 38 Minnesota. Missouri 73 30 New Hampshire New Jersey 2^55 37 27 New York Ohio 25.28 1814 Oregon 294 65 25.71 Rhode Island Vermont 18.35 31 Wisconsin 12 ''9 Total 15,793,308 22,030,199 Population of 11 Southern States. 771,623 209,897 87,445 906,185 517,762 606,526 869,039 668,507 1,002,717 212,592 1,421,661 964,201 435,450 140,425 1,057,286 708,002 791,306 992,622 703,708 1,109,801 604,215 1,596,318 24.96 Arkansas 107.46 Florida 60.59 16.67 IiOuisiana 36 74 Mississippi 30 47 North Carolina. South Carolina 14.20 6.27 10.68 184.22 Virginia 12.29 Total 7,273,954 9,103,333 The increase of population since the estab- lishment of the government has been as fol- lows : — 1790, 3,929,827, 1800, 5,305,937, increase 35.02 per cent. 1810, 7,239,814, " 36.45 1820, 9,638,191, '* 33.13 «' 1830, 12,866,020, " 33.49 " 1840, 17,069,453, " 32.67 " 1850, 23,191,876, ** 35.87 " 1860, 31,445^080, " 35.59 The increase from foreign emigration has been a yearly average, for 40 years, of 126,- 560, and for the 10 years previous to 1860 270,761. Of 5,062,414 arrivals from foreign countries in 40 years, from 1820 to 1860, there were from Ireland 967,366 England 302,665 Scotland 47,800 Wales 7,935 Great Britain and Ire- ^ ^^^ land 1,425,018=2,750,784 e2 53 AGRICULTURE. AGROSTIS. Germany 1,546,976 Sweden 36,129 ^ Denmark and Norway .. 5,640=1,688,646 ■'' France 208,063 Italy 11,302 Switzerland 37,732 Spain 16,245 British America 117,142 China, (in California al- most exclusively,) ... 41,443 All other countries, or unknown 291,558= 723,485 6,062,414 The increase of the whole population of the United States in the seven decades, from 1790 to 1860, is very nearly at the rate of 33J per cent, for 10 years. Though a very few years have elapsed since the hitherto almost mythic land of California came into possession of those capable of de- veloping its extraordinary resources, surpris- ing progress has already been made. To say nothing of its almost infinite mineral wealth, its agricultural advantages are incalculable, and the cereal products are perhaps eclipsed by those of its fruit-growing capacities. Es- pecially is its soil and climate adapted to the vine and the production of wines, which even now rival the best vintages of Europe, and will doubtless soon eclipse them in the markets of the world. They are recommended not only by their general purity and grateful qualities, but by their being more readily digested and freed from excess of acids and other oflfensive qualities which often render European wines irritating and unwholesome. This remark is particularly applicable to the Sonoma hocks, and to the Angelica and other wines of Los Angelos. Some of the red wines, misnamed Port, rival the Burgundy and Hermitage of Southern France in their rich violet bou- quet. AGROSTIS. The bent grass. An exten- sive genus of grasses, which from their gen- eral character of thriving best on marshy or wet soils, are of comparatively little value to the farmer. In America they have obtained little notice ; but in England they are often made of considerable account, and the follow- ing varieties are noticed. Agrostis alba, or white bent, smaller than other varieties, with roots difficult to extir- pate in clay soils. Late, unproductive, and but little nutritive. A great exhauster of the soil. • Agrostis canina, var. mutica. A useless va- riety of brown bent, or Creeping-stalked brown bent. Common in deep bogs. A diminutive plant. Worthless. Agrostis canina capillaris. Fine-panacled brown bent, or tufted bent. Common in old pastures, or poor and moist clay soils. Called winter fog, in England. Of no value. Agrostis lobata. Lobed, or sea-side bent. Agrostis nivea. Snowy bent, or straw-col- ored bent grass. Agrostis Palusiris, or marsh-bent. See Fio- EEN Grass and Agrostis Stolonifera, p. 577. Agrostis Mexicana. Naturalized in England, 54 where it grows best in calcareous and clay soils. Hardy, but without superior nutritious properties. Agrostis ramorissima, lateral-branching bent grass. Nearly allied to the A. Mexicana. Re- markable for the number of branches that issue from its joints, and woody nature of its stem. Agrostis repens, creeping rooted bent, or white bent. This is a species of couch grass very difficult to eradicate, the roots striking deeper than the plough, and shooting up from the least particle left in the ground. Hand- picking is the most eflFectual means of de- struction. The Agrostis stolonifera, (var. Latifolia,) or long-leaved creeping bent, or fi or en, is repre- sented in Plate No. X. of the Hay-grasses, n. It appears to be much superior in point of productiveness and nutritive qualities to the other varieties of Agrostis stolonifera, from which it differs so little in appearance as to make it difficult to discriminate between them. This variety appears to be confined to rich old pasture land, whilst the others are found in different soils, the clays, light sands, moors, bogs, marshes, bottoms of ponds and ditches, etc. Several years ago the Agrostis stoloni- fera was introduced into England by Dr. Wil- liam Richardson, under the name of Fio- ren. He published an account setting forth its characteristics, with experiments showing its nutritive qualities, from which it would appear to be a valuable grass for some situa- tions, at least in the moist climates of England and Ireland, The variety which has been called by bota- nists Agrostis vulgaris, is common in fields laying out in grass, and has doubtless given the name to the genera, derived from the Greek word Agros, a field. The well-known Herds, or Red-top of the Middle and Northern States be- long to this family, and has received the name of Foul Meadoio Grass from the difficulty with which it is eradicated when it has once ob- tained a footing. Another variety is called White-top. There has been much prejudice existing against the different species of Agrostis in gene- ral ; but let the proprietor of a rich ancient pasture divest a part of it of this grass entire!)', and the value of the plant will be demonstrated in the comparative loss of late and early herb- age. The cock's foot grass is superior to the larger variety of the creeping bent, in the pro- portion nearly of 11 to 9. The meadow fescue is also superior to florin in nearly the like pro- portion as cock's foot The meadow fox-tail grass is inferior to florin in the proportion nearly of 6 to 7. When cultivated separately, for the purpose of green food or hay, fiorin requires to be kept perfectly clear of weeds, its couchant habit of growth affording great encouragement for the health of upright growing plants — under this circumstance, weeds. It flowers in England about the second and third weeks of July, and the seed is ripe about the second and third weeks of August. The mo'le of convert- ing fiorin into hay, duting the winter months, is amply detailed in Dr. Richardson's publica- tions on Fiorin. Full information will ihere AGROSTIS. AGROSTIS. be likewise found on the productive powers, uses, modes of cultivation, &c., of this grass, deduced from the Doctor's own experiments. Agrostis strida. Rock bent; upright bent. Trichudiuin rupestre (Schrader). This species being inferior to the common bent in most points, its value to the agriculturist can be but little. The only property that renders it worthy of notice is, the small degree in which it im- poverishes the soil : when cultivated on a poor, silicious, sandy soil, the produce, though some- what inferior, continued for six years, without diminishing in the yearly quantity, and without any manure being applied ; a circumstance which was not manifested in any other species of grass. AiTiostis vulgaris canina. Awned fine bent. (Brown bent, or Agrostis caninoy Wither. Arr. Smit/ts Engl. Flora, Agrostis vulgaris var. /2. Du. var. 1.) As this is a much less common plant than the variety of Agrostis vulgaris before described, and as it differs so much from that variety in the properties which constitute the farmer's distinguishing charac- ters of grasses, the name canina is here added. The vulgaris mutica is more common to sandy soils ; the v. canina to clayey soils. The weight of nutritive matter in which the produce of one acre of the awnless variety of Agrostis vulgaris canina exceeds that of the awned va- riety is 151.8. The comparative merits of the Agrostis vulgaris exceed those of the Agrostis vulgaris canina nearly as 2 to 1. The crop of the awnless variety is greater than that of the awned, but it is much less nutritive, being as 10 to 7; the spring and autunm produce is likewise superior. Neither of these varieties appears to be of much value to the farmer. The rust attacks the culms and leaves of both varieties which gives the plants a dirty brown appearance ; the Agrostis vulgaris is always free from this disease. The brown bent flowers in the second and third weeks of July, and ripens the seed in the end of August. Agrostis vulgaris muticu. Common bent; fine bent grass. [See Plate 6, d, of Hay Grasses.] This species has four varieties, according to Dr. Schrader. The first is distinguished by being awned (see Agrostis vulgaris canina, and Trichodium caninurn) ; the second by awnless and diseased flowers (see Agrostis pumila of Willd. Spec. Plant, i. p. 371) ; the third by its diseased awned flowers ; the fourth, by having the flowers viviparous, Agrostis sylvatica. The common bent is one of the earliest of the bent grasses ; in this respect it is superior to every other of this family ; but inferior to several of them in the quantity of produce it aflbrds, and the nutritive matter it consumes. It is the most common grass on natural sandy pastures ; and even on more tenaceous soils, that are elevated and exposed, it is fre- quent. It flowers from the third week of June till the second week of July, and the seed is ripe the beginning of August. The following tabular arrangement shows at a glance the proportional value of the seve- ral varieties of Agrostis, in seed and in flower, and their yield per acre of green and dry pro- duce on various soils, and comparative quali- ties of nutrition. DeKriptioo. Green Pro- duce per Acre. Dry Produce per Acre. Produce per Acre of Nutrive matter. Agrostis alba. In flower, - - - - - — canina, in (lower - - - - caiiiua, when seed ripe _ - . palugtris, in flower - - - - pa/uji(ri»-, when seed ripe - - - repens, in flower, _ - - - btolonifera arittata, in flower stvlonifera arijitata, in December ttolonifera an^stifolia, when seed ripe stoluntfera anguatifoha, in December - canina ca)>i//artA, ill flower - - - cawina/w-i-./arnj, in flower canina /(uicu/am, in seed - - - mexicana, in flower - - - - ntrea, in flower - - - - - nirea, when seed ripe - - . raiHcsissigima, in flower - - - stolonifera latifolia, in flower stolonifera lattfolia, seed ripe lobata, in flower _ . _ _ lobata, seed ripe - - - - - \ strtcta, in flower _ - - - j stricta, seed ripe - - - - - vulgaris mutico, in flower , - - vulgaris viutita, in seed - - - vulgaris canina _ _ - - Clay Bog Clayey loam Bog Sandy ?.^m Sandy C Rich, black, siiici- ^ \ OU8, sandy j Sandy Strong clayey loam Peal Silicious sand Bog Silicious sand Sandy loam ibi. 8,167 8 5,445 6.135 10 10,209 6 13,612 8 6,125 10 8,848 10,209 6 16,335 17,015 4,764 6 2,722 8 4.083 12 3,471 3 1,497 6 2,603 5 4,534 3 5,445 2,679 15 4,210 12 4,594 3 7,350 12 8,507 8 1,310 3 680 10 1,429 5 lbs. 2,255 3 12 148 14 239 4 8 438 10 584 14 287 2 368 10 438 10 15 765 11 930 8 148 14 85 1 239 4 ^9,057 8 6,125 10 4,764 6 28,586 4 17,696 4 19,057 8 6,806 4 6,125 10 9,528 12 7,486 14 10,209 6 9,528 12 6,125 10 6,670 2 2,603 6 4 1,310 3 4 1, 434 7,742 1 12 8,575 14 3,403 2 2,679 15 6 4,764 6 2,713 15 14 4,594 3 8 4,764 6 2,603 6 4 4 595 8 12 239 4 8 148 14 3 893 5 967 12 3 1,042 3 5 319 11 287 2 3 251 3 15 175 7 9 531 11 3 251 3 15 239 4 8 This family of grasses has been held in little esteem by farmers, principally on account of their lateness of flowering. (^Sincluir^s Hort. Gram. ; Smith's Eng. Hot.) [Several of the species thus enumerated, as existing in England, have found their way to America, doubtless introduced mixed in grain and grass seeds. They are, however, so dry and wiiy as to be esteemed of little or no value to the farmer, Among these are, the — A. vulgaris, which Pursh, the celebrated botanist, says, is common in all grassy field.,, flowering in July. This is doubtless the species which gives name to the genera, de rived from Agros, a Greek word signifying a field. Dr. Darlington says it is the grass ex tensively known in the Middle States as Herd* or Red-top, and sometimes in the Eastern State* 55 AIR, AIRA. called Foul Meadow Grass. The last name being evidently derived from the great difficulty with which it is eradicated when it has once obtained a footing. The grass called white-top, appears to be a variety of Herds. There seems to be considerable obscurity and confu- sion in the descriptions given of this grass. The common characteristics of the plant, as seen in the meadows of Pennsylvania, Dr. Darlii gton says, resemble those of the A, alba, the W hite or Yellow Tops of the Eastern States. Itaff'.fds a tolerably good pasture for cattle, and ..'. valuable m swampy grounds, which its Too'x. lend to consolidate ; but it is not much estf <»jried for hay, and is now seldom, if ever, an cbject of special cultivation in the Middle Stages. The Pennsylvania farmers are so op- po'jed to having Herds grass rooted in their fields and meadows that they reject clover and every other grass, seed in which the least Herds appears. Among the species found in the United States, are the following — A. pungens, or Virginian Agrostis, frequenting dry, sandy banks, and road-sides, flowering in the southern part of Pennsylvania, in August. This species diflers much, in habit, from most others. A. cinna, common on rivers and islands be- low tide-water, from Canada to the Carolinas, flowering in June, &c. A. jiincea, found in barren, sandy places, from New Jersey to Florida ; flowering from July to August. -1. laterifulia, found in rich soil on the edges of woods from New York to Florida, especially in the western countries, where it appears to be of more value. In the southern parts of Pennsylvania it affords an indifferent pasture in the latter part of summer, but is not regarded as of much consequence, which may indeed be said of most, if not all, of the Ame- rican species of agrostis. The late Judge Peters introduced the florin into PhiLadelphia county, in 1812, by import- ing a quantity of the strings or layers from which it is always propagated in Ireland. For some reason its cultivation has not been kept up, and at present it is difficult to be found in America. When once it has obtained a foot- ing in a suitable soil, it is scarcely to be eradicated, for which reason it is not adapted to the alternate system of husbandry.] AIR {Air, French, aer, Lat). The element or thin medium in which terrestrial animals move and breathe, and which surrounds the earth to a considerable height. See Atmo- sphere and Gases. AIRA. A genus of grasses, of which there are but few species capable of being cultivated to advantage as field grasses. Aira aqwdicn. Water hair-grass. This plant is an aquatic, found naturally growing in the mud of standing pools, or running waters in England. It is, therefore, unfit for cultivation. Mr. Curtis says, that it is the sweetest of the British grasses; but there are several species which contain more sugar, in proportion to the other ingredients which compose their nutri- tive matter, as the Glyceric Jliiitans, Elymus arcfiarius. Poa nemoralis var. angustifolia, Poa nqkotica Aira csespilosa. Turfy hair-grass ; hassock grass. [See Plate 6. of Pasture Grasses, m.] This grass is of a ver}' innutritions nature ; but even if it had greater nutritive powers, the extreme coarseness of the foliage would render it unfit for cultivation. It delights in moist clayey soils, where the water stagnates ; but is found in almost every kind of soil, from the dry sandy heatli to the bog. It forms dense tufts in pastures very disagreeable to the sight, which are termed hassocks, bull's faces, &c., by farmers. It is a most difficult plant to ex- tirpate, when in considerable quantity. Some persons, to get rid of it, dig up the tufts, and fill up the holes with lime compost ; this, no doubt, would answer the end, at least for a few years, if all the roots were destroyed ; but this is never the case: a circle of roots is left, which, in one or two seasons, produce larger hassocks than before ; and besides, when the hassocks are numerous, the expense attending this process is considerable. Others depend on occasional mowings to keep the hassocks under; but this is productive of little, good, particularly if the mowing of the tufts be de- ferred till the autumn, which I believe is the common practice. I have found no treatment weaken or retard the growth of grass so much as cutting it closely, before and after the first tender shoots appear in the spring. But the only effectual and most profitable mode of ex- tirpating this grass is by first paring and burn- ing the surface of the land, and by making proper drains, to correct, as much as possible, the tenacious nature of the soil ; in this case surface-drains are as necessary as those termed hollow. Sand should likewise be ap- plied during the course of crops taken previous to returning the land again to permanent pas- ture, if such should be desirable, from its local situation ; as that, for instance, of a park oi policy. This grass flowers about the third week in July, and the seed is ripe towards the end of August. Aira cristata. Crested hair-grass. Poa cris- lata. Crested meadow-grass. Host. ii. p. 54, t. 75. This native grass was formerly ranked by botanists under the genus Poa, but has since been referred to that of Aira, to which it is more closely allied. The produce of this species, and the nutritive matter it affords, are equal to those of the Festuca ovina at the time the seed is ripe ; they equally delight in dry soils, though the Aira cristata will thrive well and remain permanent in soils of a moist and clayey nature, which is different from the Fes iuca ovina. The greater bulk of the produce of the Aira cristata, in proportion to its weight, makes it of inferior value to the Festuca ovina. In some parts of the country it grows on dry pastures plentifully, where it appears to be but sparingly eaten by cattle, particularly if the pasture be not overstocked. Rye-grass (Lo' Hum perenne), sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina), yellow oat-grass {Arena Jlavescens), crested dog's tail {Ci/nosurus cristatus), meadow barley {Hordeum prutense), flexuose hair-grass {Aira Jlextiosa), are all preferred by cattle to the crested hair-grass. The nutritive mntter of this grass differs but little in its composition from those of the above ; it approaches nearest AIRING to ftat of the Aira fiexnos\i, differing only in having less bitter extractive matter and of more tasteless mucilage; but the soft hairy foliage of the grass appears at once the cause of this dislike in cattle to eat it. It flowers about the first week in July, and the seed is ripe about the beginning of August. Aira Jlexuosa. Zig-zag hair-grass ; wavy mountain hair-grass. Tiie Aira Jlexuosa is much more productive on its natural soil than the Fesluca ovina ,- but it requires a deeper soil though not a richer. The Festuca ovina is more common among heath, the Aira Jlexuosa among furze, though both grasses frequently grow intermixed on the same soil. To those who attempt the improvement of such soils in ALBURNUM. a secondary manner only, this species of hair grass appears to be the best of those grasses natural to the soils in question, and may form a principal part of a mixture of seeds for that purpose of improvement. The produce of this grass on a heath soil is superior to that on a clayey loam in the proportion of 2 to 1. The proportional value in which the grass at the time of flowering exceeds that of the latter- math, is as 8 to 7. Flowers in the first week of July. Seed ripens in August. In England the proportionate value of the dilferent varieties of Aira as deduced from ex- periments may be ascertained by reference to the following classified table of results : DeacriplioD. Aira aquatiea^ in flower c6sy, and of a deep brown colour sprinkled 60 with white. It is employed by hatters for dying black. (North American Si/lva.)] ALDERNEY COWS. This admired bree(? of cows is in general fine-boned, but small and ill-made, and of a light red or yellowish colour. Cows of this breed are most frequently met with in England about the seats of the opulent, from their milk, tliough smaller in quantity^ being more rich in quality than that of most other kinds, and yielding from the same mea- sure a larger proportion of cream and batter, which is of a beautiful yellow colour and fine flavour. They are much inclined to fatten, and their beef has a very fine grain, and is well tasted, but rather more yellow or high-coloured than that of other sorts. Mr. Lawrence in his general treatise on cattle, however, supposes, "that the cattle of the islands on the French coast are collectively known by the name of Alderney ;" and that " these are a variety of, and smaller than, the Norman ; light red, yellow, dun, and fawn- coloured ; short, wild-horned, deer-necked, with a general resemblance to that animal ; thin, hard, and small-boned; irregular, often very awkwardly shaped." But he considers this de- scription to refer chiefly to the cows. He thinks " they are amongst the best milkers in the world as to quality, and in that respect are either before or immediately next to the long horn, but that in weight of butter for inches they are far superior to all. He has been as- sured by a respectable friend, that " an Alder- ney strayed cow during the three weeks she was kept by the finder made nineteen pounds of butter each week; and the fact was held so extraordinary, as to be thought worth a memo- randum in the parish books." And it is added, that " the Norman and island cattle make fat very quick, and for their bulk arrive at consi- derable weight. The beef," in his opinion, " is of the first class, very fine grained, in colour yellow, or of a high colour, with a bluish cast and elastic feel, which denotes the closest grained, most savoury, and finest meat." It is in his recollection, that, " some years since, a heifer, bred between Alderney and Kentish home-bred stock, and fattened on cabbages and carrots, made one hundred and fifty stone, dying uncommonly fat." On this ground he supposes, that "this species is, in course, a proper cross for the large and coarse-boned •, but in that view he would prefer the real Nor- mans from the Continent, as generally better shaped than the islanders." He likewise states, that "many persons near the metropolis, and along the south and western coast, maki a trade of importing these cattle, which are extremely convenient for private families, and make a good figure in parks and lawns." Mr. Culley, however, remarks, that they are a breed of cattle too delicate and tender to be much attended to by the British farmer, and not capable of bearing the cold of this island, especially the northern parts of it. By an experiment which is stated in the Re- port for the Connti/ of Kent, made between a large home-bred cow of eight years old and a small Alderney of two years old, it appears that the home-bred cow in seven days gave thirty-five gallons of milk, which made teu ALB. ALEHOOF. pdnnds and three ounces of butter, and the ' Alderney cow, in the same length of time, gave only fourteen gallons of milk, but which made six pounds and eight ounces of butter. Very useful cattle may be bred by crossing these cows with short-horned bulls. The late Mr. Hunter also produced a very beautiful cow from the Alderney by a buffalo, which is said, in the Middlesex Report, to have kept plump and fat, both in summer and winter, on much less food than would be sufficient to support a beast of the same size of the ordinary breed. ALE (Sax. eale). A liquor obtained from the infusion of malt and hops by fermentation. Ale differs from beer chiefly by having a smaller proportion of hops. There are differ- ent sorts of ale brewed, such as strong ale, table ale, pale ale, and brown ale. The pahe ale is made from malt which has only been slightly dried, and is generally considered as of a more viscid quality than the brown ale, which is produced from malt that has been roasted, or very hard dried. (Milkr.) See Bekr and Bhewixo. The fertility of the soil in grain, and its being not proper for vines, put the Egyptians upon drinlcing ale, of which they were the inventors. (Arbuthnof.) A liquor made from fermented barley is mentioned by Herodotus (I. ii. c. 77) : the earliest manufactured kind of intoxicating liquid was probably, however, mead. Tacitus notices the use of beer by the Germans. Pliny •ffescribes it as common to all the nations of the west. It has long been a favourite bever- age of the inhabitants of England. Our Saxon and Danish forefathers drank beer to excess. They regarded it as the drink allotted to those admitted into the Hall of Odin. Ale is named amongs; the laws of King Ina; and it was long thj custom, when the Norman princes were on the throne, to regulate its price by statute; thus, in 1272, it was ordained that a brewer should sell two gallons of ale in a city for a penny, or three or four gallons for the same price in the country. Hops were apparently first used for beer in Germany, and in the Dutch breweries about the year 1400 ; but they were not used gene- rally in England until about ihe year 1600. Henry Vin., in 1530, even forbade the brewers to mix hops in their beer; and yet, according to Beckmann (Hist, of Inv. vol. iv. p. 336), plantations of hops had begun to be formed in England, a. b. 1552 : The distinction between ala and beer is thus stated by Dr. Thomson: *'Both are obtained by fermentation from the malt of barley, but they differ from each other in several particulars, ale is light-coloured, brisk, and sweetish, or at least free from bit- ter; while beer is dark-coloured, bitter, and much less brisk. Porter is a species of beer, and is what was formerly called strong beer. The original difference between ale and beer was owing to the malt, from which they were prepared. Ale malt was dried at a very low heat, and consequently was of a pale colour ; while beer or porter malt was dried at a higher temperature, and had in consequence acquired a brown colour. This incipient charring had developed a peculiar, and agreeable bitter taste, which was communicated to the beer along with the dark colour. This bitter taste rendered beer more agreeable to the palate, and less injurious to the constitution than ale. It was manufactured in larger quantities, and soon became the common drink of the lower ranks in England. When, during the wars of the French Revolution, the price of malt was very materially increased, the brewers found out that a greater quantity of wort of a given strength could be procured from pale malt, than from brown malt; the consequence was, that pale malt was to a considerable extent substituted for brown malt in the brewing of porter and beer. The wort now, however, was paler, and wanted that agreeable biiier flavour which characterized porter. The por- ter brewers endeavoured to remedy these de- fects by several artificial additions, such as burnt sugar, quassia, &c., and most of which the chief London porter brewers have, I be- lieve, long since discontinued." Brewers are obliged, under the 6 Geo. 4, c. 81, to take out an annual license, for which they pay if b^et.- ers of strong beer. Barrels. 20 2.000 20,000 40,000 40,000 L. ». 10 3 30 60 75 Of not exceeding _ _ - Of exceeding 1,000 and not exceeding — 10,000 — — 30,000 — Exceeding - - - - - Considering the increase of population in England, the consumption of beer has not materially increased since 1787, as the follow- ing table of the beer brewed in this country in various years will show. Tean endins 6,hJ»ly. Strong Beer. - 1 Table Beer. 1787 1797 1807 1817 1825 Barrels. 4,426,482 5,839,627 5,577,176 5,236,048 6,500,664 Barrels. 485,620 584,422 1,732,710 1,453,960 1,485,750 The number of barrels of beer exported from England is considerable and increasing, amounting in the years ending the 5th of January, 1826 to 53,013 barrels. — 1828 — 59,471 — _ 1830 — 74,902 — (M'Culloch's Did. of Com.) ALEHOOF (Hedera terrestris. From ale, and hoopt:, head). Ground-ivy, so called by our Saxon ancestors, as being their chief in- gredient in ale. This wild plant creeps upon hedge banks, at the foot of trees, and in every shady place, flowering in spring. It takes root at every joint, like the strawberry runners, and its leaves are roundish and notched at their ed^es, becoming a purple colour as the spring advances. Its flowers are blue, and its roots fibrous. This plant has a peculiar and strong smell ; and it is best gathered when in flower. It is an excellent vulnerary or wcund- herb, applied outw^ardly, and taken inwardly. An ointment made from alehoof, or ground- ivy, is very healing to ulcers and fistula. The decoction of the herb drank daily for a con- tinuance is deemed useful for cleansmg the stomach, promoting the proper secreticns, and sweetening the blood. [The old writers are full of commendations of the medical virrae^ of ground-ivy, which are extolled for a great F 61 ALEXANDER. ALKALI. variety of ailments and " griefs," operating as a diuretic, and being excellent in disorders of the lungs and breast.] It obtained its name of Alehoof among the poor, who infuse it in ale or beer, and drink it warm for all internal ail- ments. (L. Johnson.) ALEXANDER (Hipposelimtm). This gar- den vegetable has been superseded by celery, yet it is an excellent vegetable, and grows abundantly wild almost everywhere in Eng- land. The seeds and root are hot and dn^like those of parsley, and preparations of them are much in use as a popular medicine. [Some wild species of Alexander are known in the United Stares. (See F/or. Ces.)] ALIMENT (Lat. alimentum). That which nourishes, nutriment or food. Of alimtntary roots, some are pulpy and very nutritious, as turnips and carrots. These have a fattening quality. {Arbulh. on Ailments.) See Gasks, Eakth, Watkr, &c. The food of animals, whether of a solid or liquid kin(J, should be adapted to their different organs both in quantity and quality, in order that they may exist in the most perfect state. It is observed, that nature directs every animal, instinctively, to choose such substances for food as are best adapted to its health and support ; but as some are withdrawn from their natural condition for the convenience of man, and, in their domesticated state, are fed on artificial productions, not of their own choice, it be- comes a matter of serious importance to the owners of cattle, horses, &c., to make them- selves acquainted with their nature and habits, and also with the qualities of those substances which are usually designed as food for tliem, since there is no doubt but errors in the choice of the latter must be a fruitful source of disease. Besides, in the view of the grazier, some sorts of food may be much more advantageous in the quality of fattening animals than others — a circumstance of vast importance. See Food. ALKALI. The word alkali comes from an herb oalled by the Egyptians kali,- by us glass- wort. This herb they burnt to ashes, boiled the ashes in water, and after having evaporat- ed the water, there remained at the bottom a white salt — this they called sal kali or alkali. {Todd's Johnson.) The word is of Arabic ori- gin ; according to Albertus Magnus it signifies " the dregs of bitterness." ( Thomson, vol. ii. p. 49.) The chief alkalies found in plants are potash and soda ; amironia, it is true, is produced by the distillation of certain vegetables, but it is a product of the distillation ; and again, mor- phia is obtained from opium, quinia from the Peruvian bark,' &c. ; but these alkaline sub- stances are but rarely met with by the cultivator, and do not involve any very important facts of vegetable chemistry. Potash is found in all vegetables growing at a distance from the sea ; that of commerce is procured by merely burning the vegetable, irashing the ashes in water, and evaporating the solution of potash thus obtained to dryness. In this manner the potash of commerce is made. The proportion, however, of potash, existing ia plants varies very considerably, as 62 may be seen from the following table of the quantities of ashes and potash obtained from 100 parts of various plants: — Sallow Ashei. Potash. 2-8 0-'285 Elm - - 236727 0-39 Oak - _ 1-35185 15343 Pi.plar _ 123476 0-07481 Horribeain - . 11283 01254 B«ach - 58132 0-14572 Fir _ 0-34133 Rue brandies . 3379 0-55 Common nettle . 10-67186 2 5033 Common thistle _ 4-04265 0-53734 Fern - 4 00781 06259 Stalks of maize 8-86 1-75 Wormwood - 9744 7-3 Fumitory 21-9 7-9 Trifolium pratense 0078 Vetches - - 2-75 Beans, with their stalks 20 Thomson's Chem. iv. 189. The potash thus obtained, however, must not be regarded as a pure alkali, for it contains almost always a small portion of various salts, such as the sulphate of potash, muriate of pot- ash, sulphate of lime, phosphate of lime, &c. Soda abounds in marine plants generally to a much greater extent than potash does in the vegetables of inland districts ; the barilla of Spain is extracted from the salsola sativa and vermiculata, and some of these plants yield nearly 20 per cent, of ashes, which contain about 2 per cent, of soda. The union of alkalies with acids forms the class of bodies known as the alkaline salts. [Plants, in their growth, derive certain ele- ments for their subsistence from the atmos- phere, namely, carbonic acid, water, and am- monia, the decomposition of the last furnish- ing their nitrogen. They, however, require other materials for the perfection of certain organs or parts appropriated to the performance of special functions, such, for example, as the perfection of the seed, which is destined to re- new the plant. These elements are furnished by the soil, and consist of salts or alkaline substances, such as potash, soda, lime, alumine, magnesia, metallic oxids, and phosphates. The proportion of these contained in soils regulate, in a great degree, their capacities for the pro- duction of diflerent plants. Connected with agricultural philosophy, the alkalies are subjects of the deepest interest. The salts of potash and soda, and of the al- kaline earths or minerals, lime, alumine, and even magnesia, can be obtained, by burning and certain chemical processes, from parts of the structure of all plants. This shows the great importance of alkalies, and alkaline sub- stances, to the growth and welfare of every pro- duct of the soil. It follows also that with every crop removed, a portion of the potash, etc., must be removed from the land. To compen- sate for such losses, ashes, farm-yard manure, &c., supply alkalies to the soil, along with other fertilizing substances. In rocky districts of country natura.1 sources exist from whence the soil derives a regular supply of potash, namely, the disintegration of granite, and de- composition of its felspar and mica, both of which contain this alkali. ALKALI. Ttvr years after gypsum was introduced I into general use, farmers began to observe a \ diminution of their hay crops, and to condemn | it as an exhauster of the soil. But this charge | against plaster was not well founded, at least in the sense it was made. The numerous instances given by Liebig, of the importance of the alkalies and metallic oxides on vegetation, show that their influence has been too much overlooked. It has been thought remarkable by some vegetable physi- ologists, that those cereal grasses which furnish food for man, should, as it were, follow him wherever he goes. The reason is lO be found in the fact, that none of our grain plants can produce perfect seeds, or seeds yielding farina, without a greater supply of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia than can be found in regions where these salts, resulting from organized vitality, are less abundant. {Cultivator.) Plants growing on a soil, containing a due mixture of earthy ingredients, always select a proportion of each, according to their several capacities or wants. It is a lact of the highest practical value to the agriculturist to know, that where a soil which originally contained all the elements essential to the production of a crop, becomes exhausted of one alkaline or earthy element, another may be substituted so as to compensate for the privation. "Where, for example, there is a deficiency in a soil of the alkaline earth — lime, the addition of potash, soda or magnesia, alt of which exist in the ashes of wood and other vegetable substances, may be resorted to for the purpose of making it up. Thus, plants when growing in a soil where there is no potash will make up the deficiency by taking up soda, if this last alkali be present. Plants which grow on or near the sea-shore assimilate or take up soda instead of potash. Sea-salt consists almost entirely of soda, and the sea is therefore to be regarded as the great source of this alkali. It is, however, found in England and many other countries in the form of native rock salt, and also exists in most soils combined with potash. The soda of com- merce is usually obtained from the ashes of plants growing on the sea coast, just as potash is procured from the ashes of tn^es and other vegetables growing inland. (See Soda, Kelp,&c.) The sowing of the earth with salt has from the earliest times been deemed an infallible means of producing total barrenness, and the excess of any salt in a soil is still known to be destructive of fertility. The perfect developement of a plant is, never- theless, according to Liebig, dependent on the presence of due proportions of the alkalies or alkaline earths, since, when these substances are totally wanting, its growth -will be arrest- ed, and when they are only deficient it must be impeded. "Let us compare," says this emi- nent chemist, " two kinds of trees, the wood of which contains unequal quantities of alkaline bases, and we shall find that one of these grows luxuriantly in several soils, upon which the others are scarcely able to vegetate. For example, 10,000 parts of oak wood yield 250 ALKALI. parts of ashes, tne same quantity of fir-wood only 83, of linden-wood 500, of rye 440, and of the herb of the potato-plant 1500 parts. "Firs and pines find a sufficient quantity of alkalies in granitic and barren sandy soils, in which oaks will not grow ; and wheat tlirives in soils favourable for the linden-tree, bf cause the bases, which are necessary to bring it to complete maturity, exist there in sufficienl quantity. The accuracy of these conclusions, so highly important to agriculture and to the cultivation of forests, can be proved by the the most evident facts. " All kinds of grasses, the Eqtiisetaceas, for example, contain in the outer parts of their leaves and stalk a large quantity of silicic acid and potash, in the form of acid silicate of potash. The proportion of this salt does not vary perceptibly in the soil of corn-fields, be- cause it is again conveyed to them as manure in the form of putrefying straw. But this is not the case in a meadow, and hence we never find a luxuriant crop of grass on sandy and calcareous soils which contain little potash, evidently because one of the constituents in- dispensable to the growth of the plants is wanting. Soils formed from basalt, grau- wacke, and porphyry are, cxteris paribus, the best for meadow land, on account of the quan tity of potash which enters into their composi tion. The potash abstracted by the plants is restored during the annual irrigation.* That contained in the soil itself is inexhaustible in comparison with the quantity removed by plants. "But when we increase the crop of grass in a meadow by means of gypsum, we remove a greater quantity of potash with the hay than can, under the same circumstances, be restored. Hence it happens, that after the lapse of seve- ral years, the crops of grass on the meadows manured with gypsum diminish, owing to the deficiency of potash. But if the meadow be strewed from time to time with wood-ashes, even with the lixiviated ashes which have been used by soap-boilers, (in Germany mr.ch soap is made from the ashes of wood,) then the grass thrives as luxuriantly as before. The ashes are only a means of restoring the potash. " A harvest of grain is obtained every thirty' or forty years from the soil of the Luneburg heath, by strewing it with the ashes of the heath-plants {Erica vulgarin) which grow on it. These plants during the long period just mentioned collect the potash and soda, which are conveyed to them by rain-water ; and it is by means of these alkalies, that oats, barley and rye, to which they are indispensable, are enabled to grow on this sandy heath. ♦ A very high value is attached in Germany to the cultivation of grass as winter provision for cattle, and the greatest care is used in order to obtain the greatest possible quantity. In the vicinity of Liegen (a town m Nassau), from three to five perfect crops are obtained from one meadow, and this is effected by covering the fields with river-water, which is conducted over tne meadow in spring by numerous small canals. This la found to be of such advantage, thatsupposingajmeadovv not so thus watered cultivation o. , . coasidered to be the best in all Germany.—/-. o be of such advantage, that supposing a meauow treated to yield 1,000 lbs. of hay, then from on« itered 4,500 lbs. are produced. In respect to the tion of meadows, the country around Liegen M C3 AI.KALL aLKALL "The woodcutlerfi in the vicinity of Heidel- borg have the priv/lege of cuUivating the soil for their own use, after felling the trees used for making tan. Before sowing the land thus obtained, the branches, roots, and leaves are in every case burned, and the ashes used as a manure, which is found to be quite indispen- sable for the growth of the grain. The soil itself, upon which the oats grow in this dis- trict, consists of sandstone ; and although the trees find in it a quantity of alkaline earths sufficient for their own sustenance, yet in its ordinary condition it is incapable of producing grain. "The most decisive proof of the use of strong manure was obtained at Bingen (a town on the Rhine), where the produce and develope- ment of vines were highly increased by ma- nuring them with such substances as shavings of horn, &c., but after some years the forma- tion of the wood and leaves decreased to the great loss of the possessor, to such a degree, that he has long had cause to regret his de- parture from the usual methods. By the ma- nure employed by him, the vines had been too much hastened in their growth ; in two or three years they had exhausted the potash in the formation of their fruit, leaves, and wood, so that none remained for the future crops, his manure not having contained any potash. "There are vineyards on the Rhine, the plants of which are above a hundred years old, and all of these have been cultivated by ma- nuring them with cow-dung, a manure con- taining a large proportion of potash, although very little nitrogen. All the potash, in fact, which is contained in the food consumed by a cow is again immediately discharged in its exfcrements. " The experience of a proprietor of land in the vicinity of GtJttingen offers a most remark- able example of the incapability of a soil to produce wheat or grasses in general, when it fails in any one of the materials necessaiy to their growth. In order to obtain potash, he planted his whole land with wormwood, the ashes of which are well known to contain a large proportion of the carbonate of that alkali. The consequence was, that he rendered his land quite incapable of bearing grain for many years, in consequence of having entirely deprived the soil of its potash. "The leaves and small branches of trees contain the most potash ; and the quantity of them which is annually taken from the wood, for the purpose of being employed as litter, contain more of that alkali than all the old wood which is cut down. The bark and foli- age of op.ks, for example, contain from 6 to 9 per cent, of this alkali; the needles of firs and pines 8 per cent. " With every 26.50 lbs. of fir-wood, which are yearly removed from an acre of forest, only from 0-114 to 0-53 lbs. of alkalies are abstracted from the soil, calculating the ashes at 0-83 per cent. The moss, however, which covers the ground, and of which the ashes are known to contain so much alkali, continues uninterrupted in its growth, and retains that potash on the surface, which would otherwise »c easily penetrate with the rain through the 64 I sandy soil. By its decay, an abundant provi- j sion of alkalies is supplied to the roots of the trees, and a fresh supply is rendered unneces- sary. " The supposition of alkalies, metallic oxides, or inorganic matter in general, being produced by plants, is entirely refuted by these well- authenticated facts. " It is thought very remarkable, that those plants of the grass tribe, the seeds of which furnish food for man, follow him like the do- mestic animals. But saline plants seek the sea-shore or saline springs, and the Chenopo- dium* the dunghill from similar causes. Sa- line plants require common salt, and the plants which grow only on dunghills, need ammonia and nitrates, and they are attracted whither these can be found, just as the dung-fly is to animal excrements. 8o likewise none of our corn-plants can bear perfect seeds, that is, seeds yielding flour, without a large supply of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, sub- stances which they require for their maturity And hence, these plants grow only in a soil where these three constituents are found com- bined, and no soil is richer in them, than those where men and animals dwell together ; where the urine and excrements of these are found corn-plants appear, because their seeds cannot attain maturity unless supplied with the con- stituents of those matters. "When we find sea-plants near our salt- works, several hundred miles distant from the sea, we know that their seeds have been car- ried there in a very natural manner, namely, by wind or birds, which have spread them over the whole surface of the earth, although they grow only in those places in which they find the conditions essential to their life. "The first colonists of Virginia found a country, the soil of which was similar to that mentioned above ; harvests of wheat and tobacco were obtained for a century from one and the same field without the aid of manure, but now whole districts are converted into un- fruitful pasture land, which without manure produces neither wheat nor tobacco. From every acre of this land, there were removed in the space of one hundred years 1,200 lbs. of alkalies in leaves, grain, and straw; it became unfruitful, therefore, because it was deprived of every particle of alkali, which had been reduced to a soluble state, and because that which was rendered soluble again in the space of one year, was not sufficient to satisfy the demands of the plants. Almost all the cul- tivated land in Europe is in this condition; fallow is the term applied to land left at rest for further disintegration. It is the greatest possible mistake to suppose that the temporary diminution of fertility in a soil is owing to the loss of humus; it is the mere consequence of the exhaustion of the alkalies. " Let us consider the condition of the country around Naples, which is famed for its fruitful corn-land; the farms and villages are situated from eighteen to twenty-four miles distant from one another, and between them there are no ♦ Chenopodium album, called in the United State* Lamb's Quarter, a troublesome weed about gardens and houses. ALKALI. ana consequently no transportation of manure. Now corn has been cultivated on this land for thousands of years, without any part of that which is annually removed from the soil being artificially restored to it. How can any influence be ascribed to humus under such circumstances, when it is not even known whether humus was ever contained in the soil] "The method of culture in that district com- pletely explains the permanent fertility. It appears very bad in the eyes of our agricul- turists, but there it is the best plan which could be adopted. A field is cultivated once every three years, and is in the intervals allowed to serve as a sparing pasture for cattle. The soil experiences no change in the two years during which it there lies fallow, further than that it is exposed to the influence of the wea- ther, by which a fresh portion of the alkalies contained in it are again set free or rendered soluble. The animals fed on these fields yield nothing to these soils M'hich they did not formerly possess. The weeds upon which they live spring from the soil, and that which they return to it as excrements, must always be less than that which they extract. The field, there- fore, can have gained nothing from the mere feeding of cattle upon them ; on the contrary, the soil must have lost some of its constitu- ents. " Experience has shown in agriculture, that wheat should not be cultivated after wheat on the same soil, for it belongs with tobacco to the plants which exhaust a soil. But if the humus of a soil gives it the power of producing corn, how happens it that wheat does not thrive in many parts of Brazil, where the soils are particularly rich in that substance, or in our own climate, in soils formed of mouldered wood; that its stalk under these circumstances attains no strength, and droops prematurely? The cause is this, — that the strength of the stalk is due to silicate of potash, and that the corn requires phosphate of magnesia, neither of which substances a soil of humus can afibrd, since it does not contain them; the plant may indeed, under such circumstances, become an herb, but will not bear fruit. " Again, how does it happen that wheat does not flourish on a sandy soil, and that a calcare- ous soil is also unsuitable for its growth, unless it be mixed with a considerable quan- Uty of clay 1 It is because these soils do not contain alkalies in sufficient quantity, the growth of wheat being arrested by this circum- stance, even should all other substances be presented in abundance. "Trees, the leaves of which are renewed annually, require for their leaves six to ten times more alkalies than the fir-tree or pine, and hence, when they are placed in soils in which alkalies are contained in very small quantity, do not attain maturity.* When we see such trees growing on a sandy or calcare- ♦ One thousand parts of the dry leaves of oaks yielded 55 pTrts nf ashps, of which 24 parts consisted of alkalies soluble in water ; the same quantity of pine leaves gave only 29 parts of ashes, which contained 46 parts of ■Oiuble sails (De Sauasure ) 9 ALKALL ous soil,— the red-beech, the service-tree, and the wild-cherry, for example, thriving luxuri- antly on limestone, we may be assured that alkalies are present in the soil, for they are necessary to their existence. Can M^e, then, regard it as remarkable, that such trees shcald thrive in America, on those spots on which forests of pines which have grown and col- lected alkalies for centuries, have been burnt, and to which the alkalies are thus at once restored; or that the Spartium scoparium. Erysimum latifollum, Blltum capitatum, Senecio viscosus, plants remarkable for the quantity of alkalies contained in their ashes, should grow with the greatest luxuriance on the localities of conflagrations.* " Wheat will not grow on a soil which has produced wormwood, and, vice versa, worm- wood does not thrive where wheat has grown, because they are mutually prejudicial by ap- propriating the alkalies of the soil. " One hundred parts of the stalks of wheat yield 15*5 parts of ashes (H.Duvy); the same quantity of the dry stalks of barley, 8-54 parts (Schrader) ; and one hundred parts of the stalks of oats, only 4-42; — the ashes of all these are of the same composition. " We have in these facts a clear proof of what plants require for their growth. Upon the same field, which will yield only one har- vest of wheat, two crops of barley and three of oats may be raised. " All plants of the grass kind require silicate of potash. Now this is conveyed to the soil, or rendered soluble in it by the irrigation of meadows. The equisetacex, the reeds and species of cane, for example, which contain such large quantities of siliceous earth, or sili- cate of potash, thrive luxuriantly in marshes, in argillaceous soils, and in ditches, streamlets, and other places, where the change of water renews constantly the supply of dissolved silica. The amount of silicate of potash re- moved from a meadow, in the form of hay, is very considerable. We need only call to mind the melted vitreous mass found on a meadow between Manheim and Heidelberg after a thunder-storm. This mass was at first sup- posed to be a meteor, but was found on exami- nation (by Gmelin) to consist of silicate of potash; a flash of lightning had struck a stack of hay, and nothing was found in its place except the melted ashes of the hay. " Potash is not the only substance necessary for the existence of most plants, indeed it has been already shown that the potash may be replaced, in many cases by soda, magnesia, or lime ; but other substances, besides alkalies, are required to sustain the life of plants. The soil in which plants grow furnishes them with phosphoric acid, and they in turn yield it to animals, to be used in the formanon of their bones, and of those constituents of the brain which contain phosphorus. Much more ♦ After the great fire in London, large quantities of the Erysimum latifolium were observed growing on the spots where a fire had taken place. On a similar occasion, the Blitum capitatum was seen at Copenhagen, the Senfcw viscosus in Nassau, and the Spartium scoparium mLan- guedoc. After the burnings of forests of pines in North America poplars grew on the same soil. ^Franklin.) f2 6£ ALKANET. ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. phosphorus is thus afforded to the body than it requires, when flesh, bread, fruit, and husks of grain are used for food, and this excess in them is eliminated in the urine and the solid excrements. We may form an idea of the quantity of phosphate of magnesia contained in grain, when we consider that the concre- tions in the coecum of horses consist of phos- phate of magnesia and ammonia, which must have been obtained from the hay and oats con- sumed as food. Twenty-nine of these stones ■were taken after death from the rectum of a horse belonging to a miller in Eberstadt, the total weight of which amounted to 3 lbs. ; and Dr. F. Simon has lately described a similar concretion found in the horse of a carrier, which weighed 1^ lb. * "It is evident that the seeds of corn could not be formed without phosphate of magnesia, which is one of their invariable constituents ; the plant could not under such circumstances reach maturitv." {Organic Chemistry.)'] ALKANET {Ancliusa, Lat.). this plant is a species of bugloss with a red root, brought from the southern parts of France, and used in medicine.. It grows wild in Kent and Corn- wall, but in other counties only in gardens. It flowers in summer, and its root becomes red in Autumn. The root is astringent : the leaves not so much so. [The puccoon {Batschia Canadensis) is called alkanet in the United States. See Flor. Ces. p. 118, obs.] ALLIUM. See Oniox, Garlic, Leek, Sha- XOT, CuiVF.S, &C. ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. This designation has been applied in England to a plan for bettering the condition of the poor, by allotting to each family in a parish an extent of ground for the purpose of cultivation with the spade. Under the article Aghicultuke it is noticed, that in England, during the feudal times, an allotment system existed. Its object, however, was different ; the lords of the soil, having an interest in obtaining as many tenants as they could, for their power was proportionate to their number, portioned their estates into as many small allotments as they could obtain family tenants, receiving in return certain days of military or other service. When the feudal system was destroyed, the lords let their lands in a similar manner, re- ceiving as rent certain quantities of labour from the tenant, or produce of the land he rented ; although, it not being now an object to maintain the number of their tenants, but rather to acquire an increased return of pro- duce, and to obtain a prosperous tenantry, no obstacle was thrown in the way of increasing the size of farms. Land was left like any other subject of investment, and a man ob- tained as much as his means of cultivating permitted, or as he found to be profitable. These were powerful limitations, for money was scarce, and the agriculturists were chiefly tenants, labourers for hire being few. In the fourteenth century occurred the great- est revolution that ever happened to the agri- culture of England. The increased demand for wool in the Netherlands and at home, ren- ii^red the breeding of sheep much more profit- able than the growing of corn, and conse- 66 quently the arable lands were converted intc pastures. England had been very closely cul- tivated, and the small or cotter farms were extremely numerous. These were now gene- rally exterminated, and the land proprietor be- coming a great flock-master, converted them all into one breadth of grazing land. " Yoar sheep," says Sir Thomas More in his U/opia, "that were wont to be so meek and tame, and such small eaters, are now become such great devourers, and so wild, that they eat up and swallow down the very men themselves." — " One covetous and unsatiable cormorant, and very plague of his native country, compasses about and encloses many thousand acres of ground together within one pale or hedge, the husbandmen are thrust out of their own, or else, either by covin and fraud, or by violent op- pression, they are put beside it, or by wrongs and injuries they be so wearied that they be compelled to sell all; by one means or other, either by hook or by crook, they must needs depart away, poor, silly, wretched souls, men, women, husbands, wives, fatherless children, widows, woful mothers and their young babes, and their whole household, small in substance and much in number, as husbandry requireth many hands. For one shepherd or herdsman is enough to eat up that ground, to the occu- pying whereof about husbandry many hands were required." Some few of the cotter farmers were reduced to the grade of hired shepherds ; others became artisans, a still smaller number retained a plot of land, but a large portion (for even monastic support was now abolished) became beggars, who, as all records agree, infested England. This gave birth to the poor laws, and the same reign of Elizabeth was the era of an etfort to remedy the evils which had arisen from this destruction of small farms. It had been experienced that though the tenants of those small farms had been poor, yet none of them were paupers ; it was tliere- fore thought that every mode of recurring to such a system must be beneficial ; and in ac- cordance with this opinion an act of parlia- ment was passed, commanding that to every cottage that should be erected, four acres of ground should be allotted. This first sugges- tion of the allotment system failed. The quai>- tity of ground allotted was too large, and from its interfering with the just liberties of the landed proprietors, this act was repealed in the last century. As the value of all farming produce in- creased from various causes, the profits be- coming commensurately large, cultivators re- quired more extensive forms, consolidation proceeded, and in 1709 the first enclosure act passed ; and from that time to the present the small occupiers have gradually further diminished, as their right of commonage and the like was taken away by the four thou- sand enclosure bills that have smce been enacted. When small farmers are deprived of their tenements, they become, if they continue agn- culturists, farming labourers. It becomes a subject of very great political importance, therefore, to ascertain how the character r ALLOTMENT SYSTEM. and comfort of these, who are now by far the most numerous class in society, can be best promoted. It would be here misplaced to examine how the system of poor laws has served in various ways to debase and depress them ; our present object must beto consider how the allotment system may De the best made to promote contrary effects. This system, we have noticed, suggested it- self to the legislature in the reign of Elizabeth, but it was of very limited operation. On the Continent, a system of larger allot- ments was partially adopted in the year 1707, in the Duchy of Cleves, but we are not aware that the example was followed, till, after the lapse of more than a century, the Dutch go- vernment, in 1818, divided tracts of poor soil at Frederick's Oord, and other places, into al- lotments of seven acres. The government provided overseers to notice the moral con- duct and industry of the tenants; advanced capital when needed, which was to be repaid; and an annual rent was to be returned. Manual labour was exclusively adopted. The expense of establishing each individual was 22/. 6». 4d. ; and the annual excess of produce over the subsistence of the family, after deducting the rent, twelve shillings per acre, was 8/. 2s. 4d. {M. de Kirehoff. Jacob on the Com Trade, &c.) About the year 1800, Dr. Law, Bishop of Bath and Wells, commenced the allotment system ; Sir H. Vavasour communicated to the Board of Agriculture, about the same pe- riod, some experiments demonstrating the great benefit of "the Flemish," or "field-gardening husbandry;" and, in 1802, Charles Howard, Esq. followed the example. " On Pulley Common, in Shropshire," says Sir W. Pulteney, " there is, at least there was, a cottager's tenement of about 612 square yards, somewhat more than one-ninth of an acre. The spade and the hoe are the only implements used, and those chiefly by his wife, that he may follow his daily labour for hire. The plot of land is divided into two parcels, whereon she grows wheat and pota- toes alternately. In the month of October, when the potatoes are ripe, she takes off the stalks of the plants, which she secures to pro- duce manure by littering her pig. She then goes over the whole with a rake, to collect the weeds for the dunghill. She next sows the wheat, and then takes up the potatoes with a three-pronged fork ; and by this operation the wheat seed is covered deep. She leaves it quite rough, and the winter frost mellows the earth ; and by its falling down in the spring it adds vigour to the wheat plants. She has pur- sued this alternate system of cropping for several years without any diminution of pro- duce. The potato crop only has manure. In 1804, a year very noted for mildew, she had firteet Winchester bushels of wheat from 272 square yards, being four times the general averaging crop of the neighbouring farmers. It is to be wished such instances of cottage industry were more frequent; and more fre- quent they would be, were proper means made use of to invigorate the spirit of exertion in the laboui ing class." ALLUVIUM. Since that period the patrons of the system have been very numerous. The clergy have been especially promoters of this system. Where this system, well regulated, has been tried, and the experience is now very exten- sive, the results have been most happy. The condition of the poor has been ameliorated; by rendering them more independent, they have become more contented and more careful ; bet- ter as citizens, and better as individuals. If the allotments much exceed a quarter of an acre, or in any way approach to the nature of cotter farms, a proportionate blow is made at that employment of capital and talent in agriculture which has raised it to its present improved state. " The advantages attending this system," says a clerical writer in the Christian Ob- server for 1832, "besides the comfort of the poor man, are the diminution of the poor's rate, and the moral improvement of the la- bourer. Since this plan has been in opera- tion, the poor-rate has been steadily declining from about 320/. to about 180/. per annum, with the prospect of still further diminution. When the farmer's work is scarce, the poor man finds profitable employment on his patch of ground, which if he had not to occupy him, he would be sent to idle upon the roads at the expense of the parish. The system has the further and very important eflfeot of improving his character. When the labourer has his little plot of ground, from which he feels he shall not be ejected as long as he conducts himself with propriety, he has an object on which his heart is fixed ; he has something at stake in society ; he will not hang loose on the community, ready to join those who would dis- turb it; so much so, that in the late riots, no man in the parish showed any disposition to join them." From the year 1828 to the present time, nu- merous paniphlets upon this subject have ap- peared, and for further information readers are referred to those of Dr. Law, and of Messrs. Scobell, Scrope, Banfill, Denson, Blackistcn, Withers, &c. ALLOWANCES TO TENANTS. Such as are agreed to be made to them on their quitting farms, or under any other circumstances. See Customs of Counties and Appraisement. ALLUVIUM, or ALLUVION (from the La- tin Alluvio, " an inundation"), is a term which, in the English language, has no very defined meaning. Some authors use it to designate all those rocks which have been formed by causes now acting on the surface of the earth, includ- ing those of volcanic origin ; while others, ad- hering to the literal- meaning of the original term, confine its application to deposits, what- ever be their character, that have resulted from inundations. Neither of these definitic ms convey the same meaning as is usually at- tached to the word, the one includmg toe much, the other too little. The term has beeu badly selected, but is used in its proper app i- cation to designate all those deposits recently formed, or now forming, by the agency ot wa- ter, whether from an uninterrupted and con- stant stream, or from casual mundation. All streams, lakes, rivers, seas, and tJie ALLUVIUM. ALLUVIUM. ocean itself, hold a large quantity of earthy- matter in mechanical solution, which they de- posit in their beds. The character of the sedi- ment is governed by the nature of the rocks over which the waters flow; and the quantity depends partly upon the constitution of the rocks, and partly upon the power of the water. If the rock be easily destroyed, and a large body of water flow over it with a considerable velocity, the destructive effect will be great, and much worn materials (detritus) being formed, the stream will have a thick and tur- bid appearance. The same effect is frequently produced by the discharge of a number of tri- butary streams into a river, all of which accu- mulate a greater or less quantity of the earths over which they flow. The distribution of water at the present time, and I more particularly refer to rivers, is very different from that of former periods. The majority of the valleys through which rivers are now flowing, have been produced by the action of water, which, running from higher lands, has not only scooped them out, but has spread over them the worn material which it accumulates in its passage. By the operations which have since been going on, the waters have been collected together in comparatively narrow channels of consider- able permanency. On this account, the influ- ence of water that flows over the portions of the earth inhabited by terrestrial animals is great- ly restricted ; and the production of new beds of rock or soil is rather an accidental than a necessary consequence. But, although the influence of water has been thus confined, all lands, and especially the surfaces of mountainous districts, are un- dergoing change, and the superficial covering of one district is conveyed to another. The showers of heaven are constantly sweeping away the soil and decomposed rocks of the uplands into the valleys, over which they are transported by streams and rivers, the larger and heavier particles falling to the bottom, the smaller being united with the water in mechani- cal mixture. That portion of earthy matter which is carried away from a district by the running water, is, as far as the district itself is concerned, the most valuable, being the superficial covering or soil, and would be for ever lost to that portion of the earth inhabited by man, were it not arrested in its passage to the ocean, by deposition in the bed of the river, or on those lands which the waters may happen to overflow. It is well known to those who have visited elevated districts, that many mountains are already deprived of their soils, and are but the skeletons of the earth, without covering or life. By this action the valleys are in the process of elevation, and the mountains of depression ; and if we could conceive it to proceed without limitation, we may imagine a time when all the varieties of elevation and depression, which now give beauty to the surface, will be de- stroyed, and an entirely different condition of the distribution of land and water will be established. But, at the same lime, it cannot be denied that these changes, as far as they Uave hitherto proceeded, have been advanta- 88 geous \o man, whatever might be their result under the conditions to which we have alluded. The mountainous regions are, from their ele- vation, less suited to the progression of so- ciety, so intimately connected with agricultu- ral prosp£rity, than the plains. As we rise above the^Vel of the sea, the atmosphere be- comes more rarified, and the cold more in- tense, both of which are injurious to vegeta tion in general, and unsuited to promote the comfort of animal life. The plains are, there- fore, preferred by men when they congregate together, and form societies. It cannot be considered an unwise or unfit result, that the lowlands should be enriched with alluvial soils, produced by the destruction of the rocks and natural soils of mountainous regions. It is reported of Dioclesian, that he told his col- league, Maximilian, he had more pleasure in the cultivation of a few potherbs which, in the gardens of Spalatro, grew in the soil that on the top of Mount Hoemus had only produced moss and dittany, than in all the honours the Roman empire could confer. From the defini- tion I have given of the word "alluvium," I must include the gravels and sands that are of recent formation among the alluvial deposits ; but our attention is chiefly directed to the soils, or those beds which are suited to sustain vege- table life. It is true that the gravels may be made available for the cultivation of some plants, but the beds which are so used belong rather to that class of rocks denominated dilu- vial by geologists, than to the deposits of which we are speaking. If we trace the circumstances under which alluvial soils are formed to their cause, we shall find that they have their origin in the fall of heavy rains, and the melting of snows, in mountainous regions. The water, in its pas- sage to the valleys, collects the superficial soil and decomposed earthy material that lies in its path, and transports them into the channels to- wards which it flows. The streams that are formed on the mountain slopes are generally united together before they reach the plains, and form impetuous torrents, overcoming all obstacles, until their velocity is lost, when, in their winding courses, they meet each other, and form rivers. Rivers, in every part of their course, are subject to inundation; when, throwing their waters over a considerable space, they deposit the earthy materials they have accumulated. If such inundations had not occurred, the ac- cumulated worn materials (debris) would have been deposited in the bed of the river, or car- ried into the lake or sea where the waters themselves are discharged. There are abun- dant instances on record of the filling up of rivers by the worn materials (detritus), which have been carried into their courses; and any river of our own country will afford a limited example of this result. Many rivers and es- tuaries, which a few years since were navi- gable, have ceased to be so on account of the large amount of alluvial matter deposited in their beds; and many of our towns, which were once populous and wealthy, have on this account become poor and almost deserted. If we would see the effect of the transport of worn ALLUVIUM. materials into lakes, we cannot have a more favourable opportunity than in Switzerland. Many of the lakes of this sublime and majestic country are rapidly fiUinj;^ from this cause; and ill some of them water plants are seen above the surface of the water, out when a river suffers inundation, the earthy matter, which is held in mechanical mixture, is ar- rest ed, and deposited on the land that is over- flowed, and a richly productive soil is formed. One or two examples may illustrate these re- marks. The Ganges annually overflows its banks, and deposits a rich alluvial soil over the country it inundates. This magnificent river was supposed to take its rise on the northern side of the Himalaya mountains, until it was proved, in 1819, by Lieutenant Webb, that all the streams which unite to give its existence, take their rise on the south side of the Hindoo Coast, or Snowy Mountains. The melting of the snows, and the heavy periodical rains aug- ment the volume of the water, and by the end of June, before the rainy season has com- menced iu the low country, the river has ge- nerally risen fifteen feet; but after the rains in Bengal it usually attains a height of thirty-two feet above its ordinary level. By the end of July all the low countries adjoining the Ganges and the Burrampooter are overflowed, and no- thing but houses and trees are seen for many miles inward. The province of Bengal is divided into two nearly equal parts by the Ganges ; and as a large portion of the country on the banks of the river is low, it is especially exposed to inundation, from which circum- stance it probably derives its name, such dis- tricts being called beng. A deep bed of rich soil is deposited during the period of the over- flow, and the vegetable productions are of the most varied and luxuriant character. Rice, wheat, barley, tobacco, indigo, cotton, the mul- berry, and the poppy, are all cultivated with success on the alluvial soils. It is well known that Egypt has been from time immemorial indebted to the overflow of the Nile for a rich alluvial soil, as well as for the means of irrigating the land. The an- cients seem to have been altogether at a loss to account for the periodical overflow of this river; and when we consider the appearances before them, we are not surprised at the diffi- culties they experienced. They observ^ed it in a country that was not moistened by a drop of rain, and where it was unaided by a single stream, and yet, at its stated period, it began to lift its waters from their bed, and rising higher and higher, overflowed its banks, and spread itself like a sea over Lower Egypt, re- freshing the parched earth with moisture, and aiding its productiveness with the formation of a superficial covering of rich loam. The philosophers speculated without success upon Its cause ; but while they were disputing as to the origin of the phenomenon, year by year the Nile rose, and left the evidence of its be- neficial sway in the richness of the crops and the luxuriance of the countr)% From the in- [ vestigations that have now been made, we ! know that the rise of the Nile is occasioned , by the rains which fall on the high mountains ALLimUM. in the interior and tropical regions, and not, as many of the ancients supposed, from the Ete- sian winds, which, blowing periodically from the north, prevent the waters from reaching the sea. The great importance of rivers, as agents in the production of alluvial soils, cannot be more strongly proved by any positive evidence than by a consideration of the state of Austra- lia, a country remarkable for the fewness of its rivers, and the general poverty of its soil Contrary to all precedents, the richest soils iu this land, excepting the alluvial, are found on the summits of hills. The fires which so fre- quently happen on the plains, the peculiar character of the vegetation (chiefly consisting of ever-greens), and the sparing distribution of water, are the principal causes of the steri- lity of this otherwise desirable country. There are, however, spots which, covered with allu- vial soil, can rival the richest and most culti- vated districts of England; and the compari- son of these with other lands impresses the observer the more strongly with the great im- portance of the natural provision for ihe resti- tution of that portion of the earth inhabited hy man, by the deposition of new earthy matter and a virgin soil. The alluvial flats of the Nepean, the Hawksbury, and the Hunter rivers, are spoken of by all writers as remark able for their fertility. The rich valley in which the Lake Alexandrina is situated may be noticed as another example of the influence of alluvial soils. The country around this lake appears to be one of the most beautiful and fertile in Australia ; and a glance at the map will immediately inform the inquirer of the cause. It is so situated as to receive the worn materials of the mountain chain that ranges along the promontory of which Cape Jervis is the southern point, and also to obtain moisture at all times from the lake, and a re- novating soil whenever it may overflow its banks. Alluvial soils are produced by the discharge of mountain streams into valleys, as well as by the overflow of rivers. We have already ex- plained the manner in which they collect the superficial covering of mountainoiis districts, and being charged with earthy matter, bring it into the plains. This may be deposited before the streams are united together in an individual channel as well as after, and should this be done, the valley may be covered with alluvial products. The formation of a river is a pro- cess which requires time, and many changes must happen before the flowing waters can form for themselves a local habitation ; obsta- cles must be removed, a bed must be scooped out, and an outlet must be formed, in the per- formance of which earthy matter must be ac- cumulated, and extensive deposits be formed. A third cause in the production of alluvial deposits may be mentioned. Tlu' sea is mak- ing great inroads upon many of its shores, carrying on a destructive war against the cliff's that vainly endeavour to oppose its force; while on the other hand it is in some instances receding from the shores against which it once beat ; and thus, as though to recompense nian for what it takes away, gives to him a portioo 6ii ALLUVIUM. of its own territor}\ Those districts which are thus added to the land are usually superposed by a fine rich alluvial soil, as also are those which have at a former period been covered by the sea, and would be at the present day, were it not for the ingenuity and works of man. The districts in which are situated New Or- leans in America, and Missolonghi in Greece, are chiefly alluvial, and nearly the whole of Holland has the same character, and can only be described as a district of which man has robbed the ocean. That part of the coast of Germany which is bordered by the North Sea is alluvial, and additipns are constantly made to the shores by the gradual depositions of earthy matter upon the immense flats which extend along them. The first sign of vegeta- tion on these lands is the appearance of the saltwort (Salicornia maritima], which is suc- ceeded by the sea grass (Foa marif ima), 'dnd when the land is very rich, by the marsh star- wort (Anter Tripolium). The land is after- wards dyked, and used as pasture for sheep and cattle ; so that the spot over which the sea has perhaps for ages exercised an undisputed control, is brought under the power of man in Estate most admirably adapted tosuit his wants. In Lincolnshire and other parts of the Eng- lish coast, where the land is beneath the level of high-water mark, unfruitful districts are often restored to a state of fertility by the re- moval of the artificial banks that prevent the sea-water from flowing over it. In this way the land is thrown open to the sea, and as the tide rises, it is covered by water, which, being overcharged with earthy matter, deposits in two or three years a bed five or six feet thick of rich soil, which may be brought under cultivation by the exclusion of the agent that was instrumental in its produc- tion. (See Wakping.) But it may be asked, whence does the sea obtain the earthy matter with which it abounds ? Rivers discharge themselves into the ocean, and it has been already stated that their waters are charged, more or less, with the superficial soil of mountainous countries, and the de- stroyed materials of rocks. A part of this may be arrested by occasional or periodical inundations, and by deposition in the bed of the river, but a large quantity must still be cp.rried into the ocean. It must also be re- membered that the water which is conveyed in a channel is constantly endeavouring so to arrange its course as to suflTer the least possible resistance. In this attempt, it attacks the banks that confine it, and widens its course, precipitating much earthy matter into the stream, to be removed by the flowing water. It frequently happens, and especially after the fall of heavy rains, that the water at the mouths of rivers is thick and turbid from the quantity of alluvial matter it holds in solution, and very many large rivers are rendered unsafe for na- vigation by the existence of large bars of sand or clay at their outlet. But the sea is not merely a passive recipi- ent of the product of destructive causes, but iS itseL a cause. Sea coasts are constantly suffering depredation by the action of the waves that beat upon them. Whether we look 70 ALLUVIUM. at the soft and almost unresisting rocks of the eastern coast of England, or the hard primary rocks of Devonshire, Cornwall, and the Shet- land Isles, the same results will be observed. During the stormy months of winter, when the waves are tossed upon the coasts with an almost uncontrolled violence, no rock is suffi- ciently hard to resist its energy, and when un- ruflled by a passing breeze in the months of summer, its influence upon the softer rocks is hardly less destructive, though more insidious, for it then attacks the base of the cliffs, and removing the support of the superincumbent mass, causes the precipitation of large portions into the sea. By these two causes the sea is provided with the materials for the formation of alluvial soils. Some estimate may be formed of the violence and extent of these causes, by an examination of the present state of the German Ocean, one fifth of which is covered by banks that appear to have been produced in the same way as the alluvial soils on the northern coast of Germany. Water, then, is a most powerful agent in the destruction and production of rocks, and were there no conservative principle, the changes that are going on would be more extensive than they are in the present day. The floods to which some rivers are subject are so impe- tuous that they frequently sweep away all op- posing objects, and involve an entire district in ruin. These effects, however, are much more common in countries that are thinly covered by vegetation than in those where it is luxuriant, for it acts as a conservative agent, increasing the power of the resistance, by binding the soil more closely together. This, therefore, will account for the diminished influ- ence of floods upon lowlands, and for the fre quent deposition of rich and fertile alluvial soils. The composition of the alluvial soils that have been brought under cultivation is exceed- ingly various ; but they are generally re- markable for their fertility, and are admirably suited for pasture lands. "In general," says Sir Humphry Davy, "the soils, the materials of which are most various and heterogeneous, are those called alluvial, or which have been formed by the deposition of rivers ; many of them are extremely fertile. I have examined some productive alluvial soils, which have been very . different in their composition. A specimen from the banks of the river Parret in Somersetshire, afforded me eighty parts of finely divided matter, and one part of silicious sand ; and an analysis of the former gave the following result ; Carbonate oflime - - - - - 360 parts. Alumina ------- 25 Silica -------20 Oxide of iron ------ 8 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter - - 19 " A rich soil from the neighbourhood of the Avon, in the valley of Evesham, in the Wor- cestershire, afforded me three-fifths of fine sand and two-fifths of impalpable matter. This last consisted of — Alumina -------41 parts< Silica --------42 Carbonate of lime ----- 4 Oxide of iron -__-.- 5 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter - 8 ALMOND. ALMOND. " A soil yielding excellent pasture, from the valley of the Avon, near Salisbury, afibrded one eleventh of coarse silicious sand, and the finely 'divided matter consisted of — Alumina _----. Silica - - Carbonate of lime _ - _ . Oxide of iron _ - - - . Vegeiuble, animal, and saline matter 7 parts. 14 63 2 14." Another striking cause of the fertility of al- luvial soils will come more properly under Ir- BiGATiox. — ( Miller's Dictionary.) ALMOND, Silver-leaved (Lat. Amygdalus ar- fentea). A beautiful shrub originally from the iCvant. It grows from eight to ten feet high, and blows rose-coloured flowers in April. Its leaves are covered on both sides with a sil- very-coloured down, but they do not appear till the flowers arc gone. All the almond tribe are hardy, and will bear any situation, if the soil is tolerably good. Propagate by grafting upon the bitter almond or a plum stock. The double dwarf almond., Lat. Amygdalus pumila, is a smaller shrub, with pale, rose-coloured double flowers, blowing in May, and again in September. The common dwarf almond^ Lat. Amygdalus nana^ grows only three feet high, and is a native of Russia. It blows its pink flf the wool in a natural state being about fift)- c« ts per pound. This wool is naturally free from grease, in which resnect it diflfers materi- 76 ally from that of common sheep, and the ani- mal requires no washing before shearing. Mr. Daw^son remarked, that it was not certain whether the alpaca could be made to thrive in Great Britain. The last remark might raise a doubt v/hether it could be raised to advantage in the United States. Should it be proved that the alpaca was not adapted to any part of Great Britain, it would furnish no solid argu- ment against their adaptation to the climate of the United States, especially the Northern States, and the mountainous districts every- where. An interesting account of this animal will be found in the third volume of the Ameri- can Farmer.] ALTERATIVE MEDICINES. In farriery, are such medicines as possess a power of changing the constitution, without any sensi- ble increase or diminution of the natural evacuations. ALTERNATE HUSBANDRY. That sort of management of farms, which has one part in the state of grass or sward, while the other is under the plough, so as to be capable of being changed as there may be occasion, or as the nature of the land may require. This sys- tem of management is supposed to lessen the expense of manure, and keep the land more clean. (See Husbandry.) ALTITUDE (Lat. alitudo, from alius, high). In vegetable physiology, altitude or elevation of surface above the level of the sea is equiva- lent to a receding, whether north or south, from the line of the equator, 600 feet of altitude being thought to be equal to a degree [of lati- tude.] Hence it follows that all varieties of climate, and consequently all varieties of vegetable habitat, may exist even in the same latitude, merely by means of variety in the altitude of the spot. This was found by Tourne- fort to be literally the fact, during his travels in Asia. At the foot of Mount Ararat he met with plants peculiar to Armenia; above these he met with plants which are found also in France ; at a still greater height he found him- self surrounded with such as grow in Sweden, and at the summit, with such as vegetate ia ALTITUDE. the p«»lar regions. Baron Humboldt, in his Personal Narrative, gives us a similar account of the several zones of vegetation existing in a height of 3730 yards on the ascent of Mouiit Teneriffe. The first zone is the region of vin, olives, vines, and wheat. The second zone is the region of laurels, extending from about 600 to 1800 yards, producing many plants with showy flowers, and moss and grass beneath. The third zone is the region .of pines, com- mencing at 1920 yards, and having a breadth of 850 yards. The fourth zone is the region Retama, or broom, growing to a height of nine or ten feet, and fed on by wild goats. The last zone is the region of grasses, scantily covering the heaps of lava, with crj'ptogamic plants in- termixed, and the summit of the mountain bare. This accounts for the great variety of plants which is often found in no great extent of country; and it may be laid down as a botani- cal axiom, that the more diversified the surface of the country, the richer it will be in species, at leaust in the same latitudes. It accounts, also, for the want of correspondence between plants of dirterent countries, though placed in the same latitudes ; because the mountains, or ridges of mountains, which may be found in the one and not in the other, will produce the greatest possible difference in the character of the genera and species. To this cause we may ascribe the diversity that often actually exists between plants growing in the same country and in the same latitudes ; as between those of the north-west and north-east coasts of North America, as also of the south-west and south-east coasts ; the former being more mountainous, the latter more flat. Sometimes the same sort of difference takes place between the plants of an island and those of the neigh- bouring continent ; that is, if the one is flat and the other mountainous ; but if they are alike in their geographical delineation, they are generally alike in their vegetable productions. [Meteorologists generally compute, that as land rises above the level of the sea or tide- water, the temperature of its climate grows colder at the rate of 1° Fahrenheit, for every 300 feet or 100 yards of elevation. It has however been found that the decline of tem- perature on rising above the common level of the sea, is less where large tracts of country rise gradually than when the estimate is made either by balloon ascension, or scaling the sides of isolated, and precipitous mountains. A striking illustration of this is offered by the ridges and valleys of the great I^immaleh mountains of Southern Asia, where immense tracts, which theory would consign to the dreariness of perpetual congelation, are found richly clothed in vegetation and abounding in vegetable and animal life. At the village of Zonching, 14,700 feet above the level of the sea, in lat. 31° 36 N. Mr. Colebrook found flocks of sheep browsing on verdant hills ; and at the village of Pui, at about the same eleva- tion, there are produced, according to Captain Gerard, the most luxuriant crops of barley. ALUMINA. wheat, and turnips, whilst a litUe lower the ground is covered with vineyards, groves of apricots, and many aromatic plants. The elTecis of gradual elevation in lessening the falling off in temperature, is manifested upon a moderate scale in our own country. The [annual] mean temperature of Eastport, Me., for example, is 42°.95, whilst that of Fort Snelling in the same latitude, but far in the interior, with an elevation of some 600 or 800 feet above the sea, is 2°.88 higher, namely, 4r>°.83, instead of being two or three degrees colder, to correspond with the law of eleva- tion. {Amer. Med. Jour. .July, 1842.)] ALUM (Lat. Alumen). The sulphate of alumina and potash of the chemist, [or com- mon alum], is composed, according to the ana- lysis of Berzelius {Ajin. de Chim. 82 — 258), of Sulphuric acid ----- 3423 Alumina ------ 10 86 Potash 981 Water ------ 4500 99-90 In veterinary practice, alum in powder is sometimes used externally for destroying trifling excrescences, arresting bleeding, &c. A little, very finely powdered, is occasionally blown through a quill into the eye for the pur- pose of removing specks of long standing. Alum lotion is prepared by dissolving from six to eight drachms of alum powder in two pints of water. This forms an inexpensive and tolerably efficacious application for mild forms of grease, cracks in the heels of horses, and for superficial sores of all kinds. It should not be used till the surrounding inflammation has been subdued by time or proper remedies. In its weakest state, the alum lotion is service- able in the cankered ear of dogs, and wounds or ulcers of the mouth in any animal. Alum ointment is composed of one drachm of the powder to one ounce each of turpentine and hog's lard, incorporated by heating. This supplies the place of the lotion when the sores are apt to become dry and hard. It is, how- ever, very little used. Burnt alum is made by boiling a solid piece of the salt on an iron plate over a fire till it becomes quite dry and white, taking care not to make the heat so strong as to decompose it This, in powder, is sometimes used for specks in the eye. (Miller's Dictionary.) ALUMINA. The pure earth of clay, was so named from having been obtained in a state of the greatest purity from alum, in which salt it exists combined with sulphuric acid, and potash. This earth when pure has but little taste, and no smell. The earthy smell which clay emits when breathed upon, is owing to the presence of oxide of iron. Its specific gravity is 2-00. When heated it parts with a portion of water, and its bulk is consi- derably diminished. Hence most clay lands are apt to crack, by their contraction in dry weather. There is little doubt, from the expe- riments of Davy, but that alumina is the oxide of a metal, which has been denominated aluminum, although he did not succeed m pro- curing it in a separate state. Of all the earths alumina is found in plants in the smallest proportions, 32 ounces of the g2 77 ALVEARIUM. AMERICAN BLIGHT. iaeds of wheat only contain 0-6 of a grain, and those of the barley and the oat only about 4 grains. If some clay be dissolved in water, and some nqua ammonia (hartshorn) be added to it, the mixture will assume a milky whiteness, and if left to stand awhile, a white substance will be precipitated, called in chemical language alu- mina. Prof. J. F. W. Johnston does not regard this as a nourishing element to plants. Its dse in soils he considers entirely mechanical, bind- ing the other materials together by its tenacity, so as to furnish that degree of stiffness necessary for the support of plants. Liebig takes a ditfer- ent view of the subject. " It is known," he says, " that the aluminous minerals are the most widely diff'used on the suface of the earth, and, as we have already mentioned, all fer- tile soils, or soils capable of culture, contain alumina as an invariable constituent. There must, therefore, be something in aluminous earth which enables it to exercise an influ- ence on the life of plants, and to assist in tlieir developement. The property on which this depends is that of its invariably containing potash and soda. "Alumina exercises only an indirect influ- ence on vegetation, by its power of attracting and retaining water and ammonia ; it is itself very rarely found in the ashes of plants, but silica is always present, having, in most places, entered the plants by means of alkalies." (Lie- big.)] (See Earths ; their use to vegetation.) {Davy, El. Chem. Phil. ; Thomson's System ,- Professor Schiibler, Jour. Roy. Ag. Sac. vol. i. p. 177; [Liebig' s Organic Chem.]) ALVEARIUM. A term sometimes employed to signify a bee-hive. AMAUROSIS. In farriery, is a total blind- ness, without any altered appearance in the eye. [This irremediable affection proceeds from a paralysis of the nerve of sight, or optic nerve.] AMBLE. In horsemanship, is a peculiar kind of pace, in which both the horse's legs of the same side move at the same t'me. In this pace the horse's legs move nearer to the ground than in the walk, and at the same time are more extended : but what is most extraor- dinary in it is, that the two legs of the same side, for instance, the off" hind and fore leg, move at the same time ; and then the two near legs, in making another step, move at once ; the motion being performed in this alternate manner, so that the sides of the animal are alternately without support, or any equilibrium between the one and the other, which must necessarily prove very fatiguing to him, being obliged to support himself in a forced oscilla- tion, by the rapidity of a motion, in which his feet are scarcely off the grqjmd. For if in the ambip he lifted his feet as in the trot, or even in a walk, the oscillation would be such, that he could not avoid falling on his side. Those who are skilled in horsemanship observs, that horses which naturally amble, never trot, and that they are considerably weaker than others. Colts often move in this manner, especially when they exert them- j selves, and are not strong enough to trot or ; gallop. Most gc'od horses, which have been ' over-worked, and r-n the decline, are also ob- served voluntarily tf amble, when forced to a ; 78 motion swifter than a walk. The amble may, therefore, be considered as a defective pace, not being common, and natural only to a very feu- horses, which, in general, are weaker thaK others. Add to this, that such amblers as seein the strongest are spoiled sooner man those which trot or gallop. AMEL4];0RN. A diseased sort of grain, [resembling spelt.] AMELIORATING CROPS. In husbandr-, are such as are supposed to improve the land s on which they are cultivated. Carrots, turnips, artificial grasses, such as contain a large pro- portion of nutritious materials, and many other green vegetable products, especially if fed off, [or ploughed in,] are considered as ameliorat- ing; but all kinds of crops, carried off' the land, are in some degree or other exhausters of the ground; and green crops, such as have been just mentioned, are only less so than crops of grain or other ripe vegetables. The improve- ment of lands, therefore, by what are commonly termed ameliorating crops, depends, in a great measure, upon the culture which the ground receives while they are growing, and the returns which they make to it in the way of manure, after being consumed by animals. AMELIORATING SUBSTANCES. In agri- culture, are such substances, as, when applied to land, render it more fertile and productive. AMERICAN BLIGHT. [A popular, but very inappropriate name used in England to designate the injurious effects upon apple trees caused by a species of plant-louse or Aphis, (the Eriosoma mali, of Leach, and the Aphis lanigera, of Illiger.) Its American origin is rendered doubtful from the fact that nursery- men in the Middle States have never witnessed the mischievous effects described as common in Europe from this kind of blight.] A de- tailed account of the insect is given in the Journal of a Naturalist, which, with the correc- tion of a few errors and oversights of the author, we shall now follow. Early in summer, and even in spring, about March, a slight hoariness is observed upon the branches of certain species of our orchard fruit. As the season advances this hoariness increases, and becomes cottony ; and toward the middle or the end of summer, the upper sides of some of the branches are invested with a thick, doAvny substance, so long as at times to be sensibly agitated by the air. Upon exa- mining this substance, we find that it conceals a multitude of small, wingless creatures, which are busily employed in preying upon the limb of the tree beneath. This they are \vell enabled to do, by means of a beak terminating in a fine bristle ; this being insinuated through the bark, and the sappy part of the wood, enables the creature to extract, as with a syringe, the sweet, vital liquor that circulates in the p.ant. This terminating bristle is not observable in every individual, from being usually, when not in use, so closely concealed under the breast of the animal, as to be invisible. In the younger insects it is often manifested by pro- truding, like a fine termination, to the vent (a7ius) ; but as their bodies become length- ened, the bristle is not in this way observable. The pulp wood {alburnum) being thus wound- ERICAN BLIGHT. cd, rises up in excrescences and nodes all over the branch, and deforms it; the limb, deprived of its nutriment, grows sickly ; tlie leaves turn yellow, and the part perishes. Branch after branch is thus assailed, until they become leafless, and the tree dies. ]*lant lice (^Aphides), in general, attack the ro *nger and softer parts of plants ; but this ;5': ect seems easily to wound the harder bark of the apple, and does not always make choice of the most tender branch. They give a pre- ference to certain sorts, but not always the most rich fniits, as cider apples, and wildings, are greatly infested by them ; and from some unknown cause, other varieties seem to be exempted from their depredations. The Wheeler's russet, and Crofton pippin, have never been observed to be injured by them ; and the insect is so fastidious in its selections, that it will frequently attack the stock or the graft, leaving the one or the other untouched, should it consist of a kind not to its liking. This insect is viviparous, or produces its young alive, forming a cradle for them by dis- charging from the extremities of its body a quantity of long, cottony matter ; which, be- coming interwoven and entangled, prevents the young from falling to the earth, and completely envelopes the parent and the offspring. In this cottony substance, we obscr^'c, as soon as the creature becomes animated in the spring, and as long as it remains in vigour, many round pellucid bodies, which at the first sight look like eggs, only that they are larger than we might suppose to be ejected by the animal. They consist of a sweet glutinous fluid, and are not the eggs but the discharges of the in- sects. In the autumn, the winds and rains of the season partly disperse these insects ; and we observe them endeavouring to secrete themselves in the crannies of any neighbour- ing substance. Should the savoy cabbage be near the trees whence they have been dis- lodged, the cavities of the under sides of its leaves are commonly favourite asylums for them. Multitudes perish by these rough remo- vals, but numbers yet remain ; and we may find them in the nodes and crevices, on the under sides of the branches, at any period of the year, the long, cottony vesture being nearly all removed ; but still they are enveloped in a fine short downy clothing, to be seen by a mag- nifier, proceeding apparently from every suture or pore of their bodies, and protecting them in their dormant state from the moisture and frosts of our climate. This insect in a natural state, usually awakens and commences its labours very early in the month of March ; and the hoariness on its body may be observed in- creasing daily; but if an affected branch be cut in the winter, and kept in water in a warm room, these creatures will awaken speedily, spin their cottony nests, and feed and discharge as accustomed to do in a genial season. [For further particulars relating to the habits of these and other similar insects, see Aphis and Aphldiava.'] Hemedies. — A considerable number of me- thods have been proposed for getting rid of the insect in question. White-washing, or wash- ing with lime-water, has been tried, but is not AMERICAN CRESS. so efficacious as thp application of any gluti- nous substance, which may cover the insects and dry over them. Double size or glue, liquefied by heat, and applied by means of a brush, particularly in March, when the insects begin to show more cottony than in winter, is a very effectual remedy, if no crevice of a tree is left unsized. This, however, may be dis- solved by the rain, and therefore a varnish is recommended by Mr. Knapp, as follows : " Melt about three ounces of resin in an earthen pip- kin, take it from the fire, and pour it into three ounces of fish oil ; the ingredients, perfectly unite, and when cold, acquire the consistence of honey. A slight degree of heat will liquefy it, and in this state paint over every node or infected part in" your tree, using a common painter's brush. This I prefer doing in spring, or as soon as the hoariness appears. The sub- stance soon sufficiently hardens, and forms a varnish, which prevents any escape, and stifles the individuals. After this first dressing, should any cottony matter appear round the margin of the varnish, a second application to these parts will, I think, be found to effect a perfect cure. The prevalence of this insect," adds this author, "gives some of our orchards here the appearance of numerous white posts in an extensive drj'ing ground, being washed with lime from root to branch ; a practice, I appre- hend, attended with little benefit. A few of the creatures may be destroyed by accident ; but as the animal does not retire to the earth, but winters in the clefts of the boughs, far be- yond the influence of this wash, it remains un- injured, to commence its ravages again when spring returns." All oily or resinous substances, however, being prejudicial to trees, Mr. George Lindley recommends vinegar as a wash for young trees ; and, as less expensive for old trees, a sort of paint, composed of one gallon of quick- lime, half a pound of flowers of sulphur, and a quarter of a pound of lamp-black, mixed with boiling water to the consistence of whitening for white-washing, and laying it on rather more than blood warm with a brush. This should be done in March, and again in August when the winged insects spread from tree to tree. Mr. Couch, as a cheap and certain remedy, recommends three quarters of an ounce of sul- phuric acid [oil of vitriol], by measure, to be mixed with seven ounces and a half of water. It should be applied all over the bark by means of rags, the only parts excepted being the pre- sent year's shoots, which it would destroy. This destroys moss and lichens, as well as in- sects ; and if applied in showery weather, will be washed into every crevice in which they can harbour. AMERICAN CRESS (Lepidium virgmi- cum). From act-/?, a scale, on account of the form of the seed-vessel. For the winter stand- ing crops, a light dry soil, in an open but warm situation, should be allotted to it, and for the summer, a rather moister and shady border is to be preferred. In neither instance is it re- quired to be rich. It is propagated b) seed, which must be sown every six weeks f'-om March to August, for summer and autumn, but 7i) AMERICAN GRASS. AMMONIA only one sowing is necessary, either at the end of August, or beginning of September, for a supply during winter and spring. It may be sown broadcast, but the most preferable mode is in drills nine inches apart. Water may be given occasionally during dry weather, both before and after the appearance of the plants. : If raised from broadcast sowings, the plants j are thinned to six inches apart; if in drills, i only to three. In winter they require the [ shelter of a little litter or other light covering ; ' and to pre%''ent them being injured by its pres- sure, some twigs may be bent over the bed, or some light bushy branches laid amongst them, which will support it. The only cultivation they require is to be kept clear of weeds. In gathering, the outside leaves only should be stripped otf, which enables successional crops to become rapidly fit for use. When the plants begin to run, their centres must be cut away, which causes them to shoot afresh. For the production of seed, a few of the strongest plants raised from the first spring sowing are left ungathercd from. They tiower in June or July, and perfect their seed before the com- mencement of autumn. (G. W. Johnson^ s Kit- chen Gurdtn.) [This plant in America is commonly called wild pepper-grass. It is frequent in fields and on roadsides in the Middle States.] AMERICAN GRASS. A term sometimes applied [in England] to a species of agrostis. AMMONIA. The name given by chemists to the volatile alkali, from its being first pre- pared in the East from camels' dung near to a temple dedicated to Jupiter Amnion. It is known in commerce under the name of harfs- fiorn, ml v/datile, &c., and is prepared by the dry or destructive distillation of animal sub- stances. It is formed also most commonly wherever animal substances undergo putre- faction. It is composed of Hydrogen --.---_ 0- 125 A/.ote or nitrogen - - - - 175 Ammonia is usually produced in the state of carbonate of ammonia, or united with car- bonic acid gas, and in this state, or in fact in combination with most other acids, it forms salts, which possess peculiarly fertilizing pro- perties. This alkali fulfils, there is little doubt, a very important part in many organic ma- nures. It is a very universally diffused sub- stance, has been detected in rain-water and even in snow, and there is little doubt but that it exists, and prejudicially too, to the health of the inhabitants, in the atmosphere of many places crowded with animal life. {Liehig's Organic Chem. 76, 77.) Wherever this alkali is detecte! in a substance, such as it commonly is, for instance, in urine, gas-water, &c., the most excellent effects may be anticipated to vegeta- tion by its use. Fresh urine contains phosphate of ammonia, muriate of ammonia, and lactate of ammonia, and there is perhaps no fertilizer more powerful in its effects than this. [One of the most important discoveries bear- ing upnie of these may materially affect the fertility. In most cases there will be some- thing to indicate the presence of metals. Iron abounds in most soils : when the quantity is considerable, it will be detected by pouring a decoction of gall-nuts into the water which has washed the earth; it will immediately be- come of a bluish dark colour. The other me- tals are not of frequent occurrence. Sulphate of lime or gypsum, and also magnesia, are found in some soils; but the separation of them can only be effected by those who are well acquainted with chemistry-: they fortu- nately occur very seldom, and the places where they are found are generally well known. For all practical purposes it is suf- ficient to ascertain the proportion of sand, clays, carbonate of lime, and humus, which any soil contains. Many soils which have been highly manured, contain portions of un- decomposed vegetable substances, and fibres of roots : these will be found mixed with the coarser earths separated by the sifting: not being a part of the natural soil, they need not be taken into the account ; but they may be separated by washing the earths, as they are much lighter, and will come over in the first decantations They mav be dred and weighed, l3 I and the quantity set down in the result, if it ig j desirable. Some very barren sands, contain- ! ing very little argillaceous earth or humus, may readily be known by the copious sandy deposit which they rapidly make when dif- fused through water. Good natural loams are not so easily judged of; but the preceding mode of analysis will in general detect their intrinsic value. When a soil contains peaty matter, it is easily discovered by the irregular black particles which are visible in it. Peat differs from humus only in being in a different state of decomposition, and containing a con- siderable portion of tannin : when acted upon by lime or alkalies, and brought into a state of greater decomposition, it is not to be dis- tinguished from humus in its qualities. The only instruments absolutely required for the foregoing analysis are, in the first place, twc good balances, one capable of weighing a pound and turning with a grain, and one weighing two ounces and turning with the tenth part of a grain. Next, the combination of sieves which we have described, and which may easily be made by any tinsmith. But any sieves of the required fineness, whether of metal, horse-hair, or silk, provided thsy be of the proper texture, will answer the purpose for a trial. Some earthen or glass jugs, and two or three glass tubes, 18 inches long, open at both ends, which may be obtained at any glass-blower's or chemist's, a glass funnel, and some filtering paper, M'ill complete the apparatus. The only chemical substance in- dispensable to the analysis is some muriatic acid, commonly called spirit of salt. A little test-paper to detect acids in the water with which the soil has been washed, and an infu- sion of gall-nuts to ascertain the presence of iron, may be useful. A small glass phial will serve for the specific gravities. The whole of these instruments and materials may be procured for a very small sum. If the fore- going process is carefully followed, any per- son, however unaccustomed to chemical ope- rations, will soon be enabled to satisfy him- self as to the composition of any soil of which he desires to know the comparative value. He must not be disheartened by a few failures at first. However simple every operation may appear, it requires a little practice and much patience, if we would come to a very accurate result. Every portion must be dried to the same degree before it is weighed : minute por- tions which adhere to the vessels when dried must be carefully collected by scraping and brushing off with a feather : pieces of filtering- paper and linen must be weighed before they are used, that small portions of matter adher- ing to them may be ascertained by the in- crease of weight. By attending to these par- ticulars, it is surprising how nearly the whoie original weight is accounted for in the sum- ming up of the separate parts. If this mecha- nical analysis should be thought lightly of by experienced chemists, let them only carefully analvse a portion of soil by this process, and then another by any more perfect mode, and compare the importance of the results as re- gards practical agriculture. The object is to H 2 8^ ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS. ascertain the productive powers of the soils ; and for this purpose the separation of the dif- ferent earths is sufficient, in the present im- perfect state of our knowledge of the mysteries of vegetation. The process which we have described, simple as it is, may yet be too te- dious for the farmer who is desirous of speedily comparing different soils; and we will indicate a still simpler method of ascertaining, neaiiy, the composition of a soil, and a simple instru- ment by which it may be done. Take a glass tube, ^ths of an inch in diameter, and three feet long; fit a cork into one end and set it upright; fill it half full of pure water; take nearly as much water as has been poured into the tube, and mix with it the portion of soil which is to be examined, in quantity not more than will occupy 6 inches of the tube ; pour the mixture rapidly into the tube, and let it stand in a corner of a room, or supported upright in any way ; in half an hour it may be examined. The earths will have been de- posited according to the size and specific gra- vity of their particles. The portion still sus- pended in the water may be allowed to settle ; and there will appear in the tube layers of sand, clay, and humus, which may be mea- sured by a scale, and thus the proportion nearly ascertained. When a farmer is about to hire a farm of which the quality is not well known to him, he may be much assisted in his judgment by this simple experiment, if he has no time or opportunity for a more accurate analysis. For the glass tube may be substituted one of tin or zinc two feet in length, with a piece of glass tube a foot long joined to it by means of a brass collar or ferule with a screw cut in it, which is cemented to the glass, and screws on the metal tube; and thus the instru- ment may be made more portable. When the water has been poured oflT, and the earths only remain, the cork may be taken out and the contents pushed out on a plate, by means of a rod and a plug which exactly fits the inter- nal diameter of the tube. They may thus be more particularly examined. The result of various accurate analyses of soils shows that the most fertile are composed of nearly equal quantities of silicious and argillaceous earths in various states of division, and a certain proportion of calcareous earth, and of humus in that state in which it attracts oxygen and becomes soluble, giving out at the same time some carbonic acid. No chemist has yet been able to imitate the process of nature in the formation of this substance ; and the circum- stances which are most favourable to it are not yet fully ascertained. Here is the proper field for the application of science and accu- rate chemical analysis. As an example of an ana'ysis will be useful to those who may ae- sirc to try the proposed method, we will add one actually made under very unfavourable circumstances, and without any apparatus ; the onlv instrument at hand were scales and weights of tolerable accuracy, three glasses a foot long, and 1^ inch in diameter, belonging to French lamps, a tin coffee-strainer, a piece of fine gauze, and a very fine cambric pocket- iaandkerchief. A little muriatic acid was ob- 90 I tained at the apothecary's. The soil to be ] analyzed was taken from a piece of good arable land on the south side of the slope of j the Jura mountains in Switzerland. Its spe» I cific gravity was taken as described before, [ and found to be 2-358 nearly. 500 grains of I the dry soil were stirred in a pint of water, and set by in a basin. To save time, 500 ' grains more of the same soil were weighed, ; after having been dried over the fire. It was well pulverized with the fingers, and sifted , through the coffee-strainer, then through gauze, and, lastly, through the cambric handkerchief. ' Some portion was left behind at each sifting. I The two first portions were washed in the strainer and the gauze. The residue was sand of two different degrees of fineness, which, when dried, weighed, the coarser, 24 grains, the next, 20 grains. The earth and water which had passed through the strainer and the gauze were now strained through the cam- bric, and left some very fine sand behind, which, dried, weighed, and added to what had remained on the cambric, when sifted in a dry state, weighed 180 grains. All that which had gone through the cambric was mixed with water in a jug and stirred about. The heavier earth subsided, and the lighter was poured in one of the lamp-glasses, which had a cork fitted into it, and was placed upright. In about two minutes there was a deposit, and the lighter portion was poured into a similar glass, where it was left some time to settle. In this a slower deposition took place, and in about a quarter of an hour the muddy water was poured oflTinto the third glass. The three glasses were placed upright, and left so till the next day. In the first glass was some very fine earth, apparently clay; in the second the same, but more muddy; and in the third no- thing but thin mud. The contents of No. 3 were divided between No. 1 and No. 3, by pouring off the muddy part into No. i3 after some of the pure water had been poured oflf, and the remaining earth into No. 1 ; they were then left to settle. As much water as appeared quite clear over the sediment was decanted off. The sediment was poured on a plate by taking the cork out of the tube, which was cleaned with a piece of fine linen, which had been carefully dried and accurately weighed. The plates were examined, and some of the lighter part, which floated on the least agitation, was poured from one plate to another, until it was thought that all the humus had been separated. Most of the water could now be poured off the earths, by inclining the plates gently, without any muddiness. It was, however, passed through a piece of filtering-paper, which haa been previously dried and weighed. The earth was slowly dried, by placing the plates on the hearth before a good fire, until they were quite dry, and so hot that they could not be easily held in the hand. The deposit left in the jug was poured on a plate, and a little muddy part, which was observed, was poured ofl' with the water on another. This was again transferred, and the finer added to that which was in the second plate. Collecting now all the separate portions, there were found ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS Gra'iM Of coarse sand -.--_. 24 Finer sand ------ 20 Very fine sand ---... iso Clay deposited in the jug, and first plate dried 240 Deposit in the second plate . . ^ 24 — on the filtering paper . . . i^ — on the linen rag - - - . o^ Leaving 10 grains to be accounted for. Each portion, except the three last, was now put into a cup, and diluted muriatic acid poured over them : an effervescence appeared in ail of them, which continued on the audition of diluted acid, and when the contents of the cups were stirred with a piece of tobacco-pipe They were left till the next day, when all effer- vescence ceased, and the calcareous part seemed entirely dissolved : pure water was added to dissolve all the muriate of lime which had been formed. After some time, the clear liquor was poured off, and the remainder was strained through filtering-paper, and dried on plates before the fire. The earths were now found to weigh, respectively, 20, 17, 162, and 182-5 grains, having lost 4, 3, 18, and 57'.'> grains of calcareous earth dissolved by the acid. The soil and water which had been put by in a basin were now repeatedly stirred, and poured into a filter, and more water was passed through the earth to wash out all the soluble matter: all the water was boiled down and evaporated, and left two grains of a substance which had the appearance of a gum with a little lime in it. Thus the loss was reduced to eight grains, a very small quantity, consi- dering the means used in analyzing the soil. The corrected account, therefore, is as fol- lows : — Silicious Calcareous sand. Impalpable earth. Specific gravity, 2358. C Coarse -J Finer - - . (.Very fine - r Coarse ^ Finer (.Very fine - relay - - . < Carb. of lime (^Hiinius Soluble matter Loss ... GraiM. 199 17 I 62 i 3V 25 182-5 57-5 Or, in round numbers, — 500 40 per cent. Sand. ■ • 36 — Clay. 17 — Calcareous earth. 5'5 — Vegetable earth, or humus. 0-5 — Soluble matter. From the composition of this soil, it is evi- dent that it is a most excellent loam, capable of producing with good tillage and regular manuring every kind of grain, artificial grasses, and roots commonly cultivated. The field from which the soil was taken was always considered to be of superior quality. This simple rule will suffice to enable any one to analyze any soil of which he desires to know the component parts, so far as they affect the general fertility. To ascertain minute por- tions of salts or metals, or any peculiar im- pregnation of the waters, must be left to practical chemists. To those who may be in- clined to try the analysis of soils, it may be interesting to compare the results of their own experiments with some which have been ob- tained with great care. Thaer in his very ex- cellent work on Rational Husbandry, •wviHen in German and translated into French, has given a table in which different soils analyzed by him are classed according to their compara five fartility, which is expressed in numbers, 100 being the most fertile. .;>>■" ^ No. CUy. 74 81 79 40 14 20 58 56 60 48 68 38 33 28 23^ Garb, of Li in*. Finely diTided Organic Matter, or Uomua. 10 4 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 u Comparative Value. Rich allavlal soils. /'■*'•■'.„ . c (■ The value of this could not be fixe3,H if Wb \ grass land ; perhaps bog-earth Good wheat and barley lands. Barley land not fit for wheat. Poor sand, fit only for oats or buckwheat. The above table is the result of very patient investigation, the natural fertility of each soil being ascertained by its average produce with common tillage and manuring. [In describing his new method of analyzing soils, Dr. Dana, the distinguished American chemist, sets out by stating that p;eine consti- tutes the basis of all the nourishing part of vegetable manures. By the term geine, he means all the decomposed organic matter of the soil, chiefly derived from decayed vegetable matter. Animal substances, he says, produce a simil2r compound containing azote or nitro- gen. There may be undecomposed vegetable fibres so minutely divided as to pass through the sieve, but as one object of this operation is to free the soil from vegetable fibre, the por- tion will be quite inconsiderable, and can only aflfect the amount of insoluble geine. When so minutely divided, it will probably pass into soluble geine in a season's cultivation. Geine, or the vegetable nourishing matter of soils, exists in two states, in one of which it is solu ble in water, &c., whilst in the insoluble state it resists the solvent power of water. Soluble geine he considers the immediate food of grow- ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS. mg plants, whilst insoluble, geine becomes food after sufficient exposure to air and mois- ture. Hence the reason and result of till- age. Rules of AnfJysis. — " 1. Sift the soil through a fine sieve. Take the fine part; bake it just up to browning paper. "2. Boil 100 grains of the baked soil, with 50 grains of pearl ashes, saleratus or carbonate of soda, in four ounces of water, for half an hour; let it settle ; decant the clear; wash the grounds with four ounces boiling water ; throw all on a weighed filter, previously dried at the same temperature as was the soil, (1) ; wash till colourless water returns. Mix all these liquors. It is a brown-coloured solution of all the soluble geine. All sulphates have been converted into carbonates, and with any phos- phates, are on the filter. Dry therefore that, with its contents, at the same heat as before. Weigh — the loss is soluble geine. " 3. If you wish to examine the geine ; pre- cipitate the alkaline solution with excess of lime-water. The geate of lime will rapidly subside, and if lime-water enough has been added, the nitrous liquor will be colourless. Collect the geate of lime on a filter ; wash with a little acetic or very dilute muriatic acid, and you have geine quite pure. Dry and weigh. "4. Replace on a funnel the filter (2) and its earthy contents; wash with two drachms muriatic acid, diluted with three times its bulk of cold waier. Wash till tasteless. The car- bonate and phosphate of lime will be dissolved with a little iron, which has resulted from the decomposition of any salts of iron, beside a little oxide of iron. The alumina will be scarcely touched. We may estimate ^11 as salts of lime. Evaporate the muriatic solution to dryness, weigh and dissolve in boiling water. The insoluble will be phosphate of lime. Weigh — the loss is the sulphate of lime ; (I make no allowance here for the dif- ference in atomic weights of the acids, as the result is of no consequence in this analysis.) "5. The earthy residuum, if of a grayish white colour, contains no insoluble geine — test it by burning a weighed small quantity on a hot shovel — if the odour of burning peat is given off, the preserfce of insoluble geine is indicated. If so, calcine the earthy resi- duum and its filter — the loss of weight will give the insoluble geine ; that part which air and moisture, time and lime, will convert into soluble vegetable food. Any error here will be due to the loss of water in a hydrate, if one be present, but these exist in too small quan- tities in 'granitic sand' to affect the result. The actual weight of the residuary mass is * granitic sand.' " The clay, mica, quartz, &c., are easily dis- tinguished. If your soil is calcareous, which may be easily tested by acids; then before proceeding to this analysis, boil 100 grains in a pint of water, filter and dry as before, the loss of weight i? due to the sulphate of lime, even the sulphate of iron ma} V^** so consider- ed ; for the ultimate result in cultivation is to convert this into sulphate of lime. " Test the soil with muriatic acid, and having thus removed the lime, proceed as before, to 92 determine the geine and insoluble vegetable matter. " In applying Dr. Dana's rules given in the text, to the soils of Massachusetts, I found it necessary to adopt some method of carrying forward several processes together. I accord- ingly made ten compartments upon a table, each provided with apparatus for filtering and precipitations, also ten numbered flasks, ten evaporating dishes, and a piece of sheet-iron pierced with ten holes, for receiving the same number of crucibles. I provided, also, a sheets iron oven, with a tin bottom large enough to admit laa filters, arranged in proper order, and a hole in the top to admit a thermometer. The sand bath was also made large enough for receiving the ten flasks. In this manner I was able to conduct ten processes with almost as great facility as one could have been carried forward in the usual way." As before stated. Dr. Dana regards geine as the basis of all the nourishing part of vegetable manures. The relations of soils to heat and moisture, he says, " depend chiefly on geine. It is in fact, under its three states of 'vegetable extract, geine, and carbonaceous mould,' the principle which gives fertility to soils long after the action of common manures has ceased. In these three states it is essentially the same. The experiments of Saussure have long ago proved that air and moisture convert insoluble into soluble geine. Of all the pro- blems to be solved by agricultural chemistry, none is of so great practical importance as the determination of the quantity of soluble and insoluble geine in soils. This is a question of much higher importance than the nature and proportions of the earthy constituents and soluble salts of soils. It lies at the foundation of all successful cultivation. Its importance has been not so much overlooked as under- valued. Hence, on this point the least light has been reflected from the labours of Davy and Chaptal. It needs but a glance at any analysis of soils, published in the books, to see that fertility depends not on the proportion of the earthy ingredients. Among the few facts, best established in chemical agriculture, are these : that a soil, whose earthy part is com- posed wholly, or chiefly, of one earth ; or any soil, \vi\h excess of salts, is always barren ; and that plants grow equally well in all soils, destitute of geine, up to the period of fructifica- tion, — failing of geine, the fruit fails, the plants die. Earths, and salts, and geine, constitute, then, all that is essential; and soils will be fertile, in proportion as the last is mixed with the first. The earths are the plates, the salts the seasoning, the geine the food of plants The salts can be varied but very little in their proportions, without injury. The earths admit of wide variety in their nature and proportions. I would resolve all into ' granitic sand ;' by which I mean the finely divided, almost impal- pable mixture of the detritus of granite, gneiss, mica-slate, sienite, and argillite ; the last, giving by analysis, a compound very similar to the former. When we look at the analysis of vegetables, we find these inorganic prin- ciples constant constituents — silica, lime, mag- nesia, oxide of iron, potash, soda, and sulphui ic ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS. and phosphoric acids. Hence, these will be found constituents of all soils. The phosphates have been overlooked from the known diffi- culty of detecting phosphoric acid. Phosphate of lime is so easily soluble when combined with m^jcilage or gelatine, that it is among the first principles of soils exhausted. Doubtless the gcod effects, the lasting effects, of bone manure, depend more on the phosphate of lime, than on its animal portion. Though the same plants growing in different soils are found to yield variable quantities of the salts and earthy compounds ; yet I believe, that ac- curate analysis will show, that similar parts of the same species, at the same age, always contain the inorganic principles above named, when grown in soils arising from the natural decomposition of granite rocks. These inor- ganic substances will be found not only in constant quantity, but always in definite pro- portion to the vegetable portion of each plant. The effect of cultivation may depend, there- fore, much more on the introduction of salts than has been generally supposed. The salts introduce new breeds. So long as the salts and earths exist in the soil, so long will they form voltaic batteries with the roots of grow- ing plants; by which, the *granitio sand' is decomposed and the nascent earths, in this state readily soluble, are taken up by the ab- sorbents of the roots, always a living, never a mechanical operation. Hence, so long as the soil is granitic, using the term as above defined, so long is it as good as on the day of its depo- sition ; salts and geine may vary, and must be modified by cultivation. The universal diffu- sion of granitic diluvium will always afford enough of the earthy ingredients. The fertile characterof soils, I presume, will not be found dependent on any particular rock formation on which it reposes. Modified they may be, to a certain extent, by peculiar formations ; but all our grantic rocks afford, when decomposed, all those inorganic principles which plants demand. This is so true, that on this point the farmer already knows all that chemistry can teach him. Clay and sand, every one knows : a soil too sandy, too clayey, may be modified by mixture, but the best possible mixture does not give fertility. That depends on salts and geine. If these views are correct, the few properties of geine which I have men- tioned, will lead us at once to a simple and accurate mode of analyzing soils, — a mode, which determines at once the value of a soil, from its quantity of soluble and insoluble vegetable nutriment, — a mode, requiring no array of apparatus, nor delicate experimental tact, — one, which the country gentleman may apply with very great accuracy ; and, with a little modification, perfectly within the reach of anv man who can drive a team or hold a plough."] ANALYSIS OF VEGETABLES. The pro- cess or means by which such bodies are re- solved into tlieir constituent or elementary principles. (See Chemistrt, or Vegetable Chkmistht.) CONCENTRATED FERTILIZERS have of late years come into almost universal use among farmers in Europe and the United States, and have contributed to resuscitate worn-out farma and double and quadruple the products of land in many impoverished neighbourhoods to which more bulky manures could not formerly be transported at a reasonable rate. Hence it be- comes of the highest importance to the agri- cultural interests that farmers should have some means of ascertaining their composition and estimating their commercial value, and this can only be accurately determined through analysis. The chief substances classed as artificial manures have been most ably examined by Professor Samuel W. Johnson, Agricultural Chemist in Yale College, from whose published Essays we take the following estimates of their respective values in their different forms and conditions. Comparative commercial value of manures. The commercial value of a manure may be quite independent of its real agricultural value, though it usually depends considerably on its routed agricultural value. The scarcity of a substance, the cost of preparation and trans- portation, the demand for it on account of other than agricultural uses — all these considera- tions of course influence its price. It is com- mercially worth what the dealer can get for it, so much per bushel or ton. Valuation of manures. — What substances are to be regarded as commereially important in costly manures. In any fertilizer which is sold as high or higher than half a cent a pound, there are but three ingredients that deserve to be taken account of in estimating its value. These are ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash. Every thing else that has a fertilizing value may be more cheaply obtained under its proper name. If the farmer needs sulphuric acid, he pur- chases gypsum: if he needs soda, common salt supplies him. Everything but these three substances may be procured so cheaply, that the farmer is cheated if he pays ten dollars per ton for a manure, unless it contains or yields one or all of these three substances in considerable proportion. Mechanical condition of manures. Nothing is so important to the rapid and economical action of a manure as its existing in a finely pulverized or divided state. All costly fertilizers ought to exist chiefly as fine, nearly impalpable powders, and the coarser portions, if any, should be capable of passing through a sieve of say eight or ten holes to the linear inch. The same immediate bene- fits are derived from two bushels of bones rendered impalpably fine by treatment with oil of vitriol, ten bushels of bone-dust, and one hundred bushels of whole bones. Fine- ness facilitates distribution, and economizes capital. Chemical condition of manures— State of solttbtl- ity, ^c. — Ammonia, potential and actual — Phos- phoric acid, soluble and insoluble. The solubility of a manure is a serious question to be considered in its valuation. We are accustomed to speak of ammonia as existing in two states, viz., actual and poten- tial. By actual ammonia, we mean ready- formed ammonia ; by potential ammonia, tfiat ANALYSIS. ANALYSIS. which will result by decomposition or decay — *' that which exists in possibility, not in act." Now the former is almost invariably soluble with ease in water, and is thus readily and immediately available to plants ; while the latter must first become "actual" by decay, before it can assist in supporting vegetation. In Peruvian guano, we have about half of the ammonia ready formed, and easily soluble in water; the remainder exists in the form of uric acid, which yields ammonia by decay in the soil, but may require weeks or months to complete the change. In leather shavings or woollen rags the ammonia is all potential ; and as these bodies decay slowly, they are of less value than guano as sources of ammonia. Oil- cake (linseed and cotton seed) contains much potential ammonia, and in a form that very speedily yields actual ammonia. We do not know with what precise results the process of the decay of ammonia-yielding bodies is accomplished in the soil. Out of the soil, such bodies do not give quite all their nitrogen in the form of ammonia : a portion escapes in the uncombined state, and thus becomes unavailable. Phosphoric acid may occur in two different states of solubility ; one readily soluble, the other slowly and slightly soluble in water. The former we specify as soluble, the latter as insoluble in phosphoric acid. In Peruvian guano we find 3.5 per cent, of soluble phos- phoric acid, existing there as phosphates of ammonia and potash. The remaining 10 to 12 per cent, is insoluble, being combined with lime and magnesia. In most other manures, genuine superphosphates excepted, the phos- phoric acid is insoluble. Among those phosphates which are here ranked as insoluble, there exist great differ- ences in their availability, resulting from their mechanical condition. The ashes of bones, and the porous rock-guano, when finely ground, exprt immediate effect on crops, while the dense, glassy, or crystallized phosphorite of Hurdstown, N. J., and the fossil bones (so- called coprolite of England), are almost or quite inert unless subjected to treatment with oil of vitriol. The reasonable price of phosphoric acid, ammo- nia, and potash. Insoluble phosphoric acid. — There are several substances now in market, which, as fertil- izers, are valuable exclusively on account of their content of phosphoric acid ; which, moreover, are at present the cheapest sources of this substance that possess the degree of fineness proper to an active fertilizer. These substances are the phosphatic guanos, (from the Gulf of Mexico, &c.,) and the refuse bone- black of the sugar refineries. From them we can easily calculate the present lowest com- mercial value of phosphoric acid. If we di- vide the price per ton of the guano, $35, by the number of pounds of phosphoric acid in a ton, which, at 40 per cent., amounts to 800 pounds, then we have the price of one pound as nearly 4J cents. Refuse bone-black may be had for $30 per ton ; it usually contains 32 per cent, of phos- phoric acid. The same division as above 94 gives us 4f cents as the cost of phosphoric acid per pound. In this report I shall adopt the average of these figures, viz. 4^ cents, as the reasonable price of insoluble phosphoric acid. Phosphoric acid is much cheaper in crushed bones; but this material is not in a suitable state of division to serve as the basis of a fair estimate. Soluble phosphoric acid. — This is nearly al- ways the result of a manufacturing process. Professor Way, chemist to the Royal Agricul- tural Society of England, estimates its worth at 10^ cents per pound. Dr. Voelker, of the Royal Agricultural College of England, and Dr. Stoeckhardt, the distinguished Saxon Agricul- tural Chemist, reckon it at 12 J cents per pound. They have deduced these prices from that of the best commercial superphosphates. In this report the price will also be assumed at 12^ cents. This, I believe, is considerably more than it is really worth, but is probably the lowest rate at which it can now be pur- chased. Actual ammonia. — One of the cheapest sources of this body is Peruvian guano. Al- though it contains several per cent, of poten- tial ammonia, yet the latter is so readily con- verted into actual ammonia, that the whole effect of the manure is produced in one sea- son, and therefore we may justly consider the whole as of equal value with actual ammonia. Good Peruvian guano contains : 2 per cent., or 40 pounds per ton, of potash; 3 '* '* " 60 " " " soluble phosphoric acid ; 12 per cent., or 240 pounds per ton, of insol- uble phosphoric acid ; and yields 16 per cent., or 320 pounds per ton, of am- monia. If we add together the values of the potash and of the phosphoric acid, soluble and insol- uble, and subtract the same from the price of guano, we shall arrive at the worth of the am- monia — namely, $45.10 per 320 lbs., or about 14 cts. per pound. This price, 14 cents per pound, will be em- ployed in these estimates. Potential ammonia, (flesh or other animal matter.) The value of this varies so greatly, being, for example, as uric acid in guano, not inferior to actual ammonia, while in woollen rags it is not worth more than one-half as much, that we can fix no uniform price, but must decide what it shall be, in each special case, separately. Potash. The value of potash is diflScult to estimate, because it may vary exceedingly ac- cording to circumstances. Wood ashes are its chief sources ; these are poor or rich in pot- ash according to the kind of tree that yields them, and the soil on which it has grown. It may vary from five to twenty per cent. Stoeckhardt, who estimates the value of am- monia at twenty cents, makes potash worth four cents per pound. The price of potashes cannot serve as a guide, for they are never used for agricultural purposes. Four cents is certainly high enough for this country if it is correct for Germany. ■•^W-j I. t ANALYSIS. Potash may he usually neglected. Most concentrated manures contain very little or no potash. In guano it rarely ex- ceeds three per cent. Superphosphate of lime can contain none of consequence. Potash cannot be economically added to manufactured manures, because nearly pure potash, or even the raw material from which it is extracted, viz. wood ashes, has a higher commercial value for technical than for agricultural pur- poses. Besides, potash is not generally de- ficient in soils, and therefore farmers do not wish to pay for it as an ingredient of costly manures. It is only when a manure is pro- fessedly sold as containing much potash, that this ingredient deserves to be taken account of in its valuation. Computing the money-valtie of concentrated ma- nures. In what immediately precedes, is contained the data for calculating approximatively the price that can be afforded for a high-priced manure, if we have before us the results of a reliable analysis. The actual calculation is very easy, and has been illustrated already in deducing the value of ammonia from Peruvian guano. We give here a resume of the prices adopted in this report, viz.: Potash, per pound 4 cts. Insoluble phosphoric acid, per pound, 4J •• Soluble ♦• *♦ " 12J " Actual, and some forms of potential ammonia 14 " As a further example of the calculation, here may follow the details of the valuation of a superphosphate of lime. Analysis gave the following percentages: Actual ammonia 239, say 2,4 Potential " 1.06, '* 1.0 Soluble phosphoric acid ... 2.56, '* 2.6 Insoluble '* " ...22.98, '* 23.0 Multiplying the percentage of each ingre- dient by its estimated price, and adding to- gether the products thus obtained, gives the value of one hundred pounds; this taken twenty times, gives us the worth- of a ton of two thousand pounds, namely 36.80 per ton. In the case before us, the quantity of po- tential ammonia is so small that we may reckon it with the actual ammonia without materially influencing the result. Lime. — Its agency in liberating potash, soda, &c. Burned lime, while in its caustic Btate (freshly slaked or hydrate), exerts great activity in decomposing the insoluble organic as well as inorganic constituents in any soil. This is demonstrated by the chemist who, ■wanting to separate potash and soda from a portion of earth, heats this red-hot, in a cru- cible, with a portion of lime. After cooling, all the potash and soda contained in the por- tion of earth can readily be washed out by simply passing water through it. Carbonate of lime added to a soil will also effect the liberation of potash, soda, and am- monia present, but it will require considerable time. Caustic lime produces these effects at once. Hence the great advantage of applying lime to land in a caustic state — when a com- ANALYSIS. paratively small portion will do the work for which a very large quantity of effete carbonate of lime would be required. As a matter of economy, this knowledge is of the greatest consequence. Another important agency of lime is in de- composing the insoluble silicates, phosphates, etc., and rendering these soluble so as to be readily absorbed by the roots of growing plants. Oyster-shells.— 100 parts, according to Kane's analysis, contain Carbonate of lime 98.5 Phosphate of lime 1.0 Animal membrane 0.5 100.0 From this it would appear that 100 bushels of oyster-shells would contain 1 bushel (say 75 or 80 lbs.) of phosphate of lime — in ad- dition to 98J bushels of carbonate of lime. Gas Lime, or refuse lime from gas-works. This has been analyzed and found to vary in its constituents in the various places, accord- ing to the composition of the lime employed and other causes. The following analysis, reported by Professor Johnson, of England, shows results obtained from this refuse from the gas-works of Edinburgh and London. Edinb. London. Edinb. London. Water and coal tar 12.91 9.59 12.91 9.59 Carbonate of lime 69.04 58.88 67.39 56.41 Hydrate of lime, (caustic,) 2.49 5.92 Sulphate of lime, (gypsum,) 7,33 2,77 16.45 29.32 Sulphite and hypo- sulphite of lime 2,28 14.89 Sulphuret of cal- cium 0.20 0.36 Sulphur 1.10 0.92 Prussian blue 2.70 1.80 2.70 1.80 Alumina and oxide of iron 3.40 3.40 Insoluble matter, (sand, &c.) 0.64 1.29 0.64 1.29 98.69 99.82 100.00 101.81 From the above analysis it appears that the two most noxious constituents — sulphite and hyposulphite of lime — constitute 14 per cent, and more in the sample from the London Gas Works, whilst it only makes about 2 per cent, of the sample from Edinburgh. As these forms of lime are pernicious to vegetation, un- favourable results might be reported from the gas lime in which they most abound, which would be contradicted by those who used tho lime from places where these constituents were present in minuto proportions. Hence the great importance of determining the qualities or constituents of gas lime before making use of it. In Philadelphia the gas lime is made from oyster-shells. In other cities, stone lime is employed in the gas-works. Any danger from the noxious ingredients often contained in gas lime may be removed by composting with muck, peat, or barn-yard manure, and suffering to remain long enough to admit of the noxious substances being converted into 95 ANDES GRASS. ANDES GRASS. harmless compounds through sufBcient expo- sure to atmospheric and chemical agencies. There are many different opinions among farmers in regard to the agricultural value of gas lime, some preferring it to ordinary car- bonate of lime, while others believe it greatly inferior, and even pernicious to vegetation. In some parts of England the farmers will not haul it away when given to them. Gas lime contains a considerable portion of sulphur. When exposed to the atmosphere, this must combine with oxygen and form sul- phurous acid, the union of which with the lime and ammonia generally present, form sul- phates of lime and ammonia, both valuable fertilizers. The amount of the sulphate of lime thus produced must often be very large. [ANDES GRASS. The Holcm avenacens of some writers, and Arena elafior of others. Oat Grass, and sometimes Tall MeadoAV Grass. (Plate 5, ee.) A perennial cultivated grass, flowering in the Middle States in May, and ripening its seeds in July. (Flor. Cestrica.) Its name would imply that it came originally from the mountains of South America, whereas the English botanists treat of the Holcus avena- ceus, or Avena elatior, as a native of Britain. The Andes Grass was introduced to the notice of American farmers several years ago, when its merits were perhaps too highly extolled, which has contributed to its being now esti- mated much below its real worth. Perhaps, too, that those who have reported unfavour- ably of the value of Andes Grass, have mis- taken some other plant for it, a very common occurrence, leading to great discrepancy of opinion. This grass is certainly highly prized by many persons in the Middle States, where, especially in the state of Delaware, it is fre- quently, though not very extensively, cultivat- ed. It grows luxuriantly in soils of clay loam, even of a very light description, affording very early as well as late pasture. Even an open spell in winter, with a few warm days, will start this: grass to vegetating so rapidly as to furnish a good bite to cattle. The grass grows very tall, and the hay, if left too late before cutting, is coarse. It grows in tufts, is very durable, and extremely difficult to eradicate from the soil when once well set. This last circumstance perhaps constitutes the most common objection to its introduction into fields and meadows. It stands drought well, and would probably be found a highly valu- able grass for southern pastures. It certainly deserves more attention than it now receives, and is, we think, destined to be much more ex- tensively cultivated as a permanent pasture grass. Its durability renders it unfit for alter- nate husbandry. Frf^ni Colman's Fouich Report of the Agri- culture of Massachusetts the following pas- sage is extracted. " The tail meadow oat {Avcna elatior) has been cultivated in the county. This grass is not familiar to our farmers, but the success which has attended its cultivation encourages its ex- tension. A Virginia farmer of the highest authority speaks of it, after fifteen years' ex- perience, as a hardy plant, bearing drought snid frost, heat and cold, better than any other 96 grass known to him. A Pennsylvania farmer pronounces it of all other grasses the earliest, latest, and best for green fodder or hay. It blossoms about the middle of June, and is preferred to all others by horned cattle. It must be cut seasonably or it becomes hard like straw. A Middlesex farmer, who has cul- tivated it several years, and whose authority is of the highest character, confirms the above statements of its excellence both for grazing and hay. He says, from its early flowering it is adapted to be sown with red clover, and is fit to be cut about the first of June. His own account is as follows : " ' In the spring he sowed with barley a field of four acres, and put on 2^ bushels of oat- grass seed, 5 lbs. of red clover, cand 2 lbs. of white clover seed, to the acre. The soil was thin, and had been exhausted by long crop- ping. On the 3d of June in the following year it was cut, and gave two tons to the acre of the finest and best hay, either for cattle or horses, he ever had in his barn.' "He thinks three bushels of seed should b? sown to the acre. It is well adapted for graz- ing on poor and exhausted lands, as well as on those of a richer quality. It is a fortnight earlier than the common grasses, and through- out the dryest weather exhibits a green ap- pearance. From three-fourths of an acre, in good condition, he obtained over 20 bushels of w-ell-cleaned seed. " The late John Lowell, a man behind no other in his intelligent, successful, and disin- terested efforts to advance the cause of an im- proved agriculture in Massachusetts and New England generally, says that, 'under his cul- tivation, it has proved a most valuable grass, and fully sustained its high character. It is a very early and tall grass, yielding a good bur- den. It will start rapidly after cutting. It is a perennial and enduring grass, and on his first experiment it lasted seven years without the necessity of renewal.' " A farmer in Waltham objects to sowing the tall meadow oats and the herdsgrass (Timothy) together, as they do not ripen at the same time. The tall meadow oats, when I visited him, would be ready for the scythe in ten days, or about the middle of June, while the herds- grass, at the same time, had not begun to show its head. " ' This grass — Avena elatior, tall oat grass — sends forth flower-straws during the whole season; the latter math contains nearly an equal number with the flowering crop. It is subject to the rust, but the disease does not make its appearance till after the period of flowering. It affects the whole plant, and at the time the seed is ripe the leaves and straws are withered and dry. This accounts for the superior value of the latter math over the seed crop, and points out the propriety of taking the crop when the grass is in flower. The nu- tritive matter afforded by this grass, when made into hay, according to the table is very small.' {Geo. Sinclair.) "J. Buel speaks of his * field experiments with this grass not being so successful as he expected — owing partly to the seed not vege- tating well ; and panly, he supposed, to thy ANETHUM. ANIMALS. soil (a light sandy loam) not being sufficient- ly strong and tenacious.' "Taylor, o-f Virginia, says that, 'according to his experience, it will not succeed in lands originally wet, however well they are drained.' "The opinion of the farmers generally in this county is in favour of cutting herdsgrass (Timothy) early rather than late ; perhaps for the reason that the hay is then of a bright green, and on this account commands in the city market a higher price. If we can rely upon chemical examination in determining the nutritive properties of grasses, it will be found that the grain in this respect, in cut- ting herdsgrass when, its seed is ripe over cut- ting it when in floAver. is as 86-1 to 37-2."] ANETHUM. See Dill and Fexxel. ANEURISM. In farriery, a throbbing tu- mour, produced by the dilatation of the coats of an artery in some part of the body of an animal. Aneurisms in the limbs may be cured by making an incision, exposing the artery, and tying it above and below the tumour with a proper ligature. ANGELICA (Angelica Archangelicd). This plant was formerly blanched and eaten like celery ; but at present its tender stalks are the only part made use of, which are cut in May for candying. It grows in gardens, and also wild. It flowers in July and August in England, and the roots perish after the seed has ripened. This plant grows as high as eight feet; the stalks robust, and divided into branches. The flowers are small, and stand in large clusters of a globular form. Two seeds follow each flower. It may be grown in any soil and exposure, but flourishes best in moist situations ; conse- quently the banks of ponds, ditches, &c., are usually allotted to it. It is propagated by seed, which is to be sown soon after it is ripe, about September, being almost useless if pre- served until the spring, as at that season not one in forty will be found to have preserved its vegetative powers ; if, however, it be ne- glected until that season, the earlier it is in- serted the better. It may be sown either broadcast moderately thin, or in drills a foot asunder, and half an inch deep. When arrived at a height of five or six inches, they must be thinned, and those removed transplanted to a distance of at least two feet and a half from each other, either in a bed, or on the sides of ditches, &c., as the leaves extend very wide. Water in abundance must be given at the time of removal, as well as until they are establish- ed; but it is better to discontinue it during their further growth, unless the application is regu- lar and frequent. In the May or early June of the second year they flower, when they must be cut down, which causes them to sprout again ; and if this is carefully attended to, they will continue for three or four years, but if permitted to run to seed, they perish soon after. A little seed should be saved annually as a re- source in case of any accidental destruction of the crop. (G. W. Johnaoiis Kitchen Garden.) Angelica is fragrant when bruised, and every part of it is medicinal. The bruised seeds are ilie most powerful. They are cordial and su- 13 dorific. Three table-spoonfuls of the distilled water is a remedy for liatulence and pains in the stomach. A paste of the fresh rout of an- gelica, beaten up in vinegar used to be carried by physicians in times of great contagion, to apply to the nose. Some preferred holding a dry piece in their mouths, to resist infection. It has always been celebrated against pestika tial and contagious diseases. The stalks of the angelica candied are much esteemed in winter desserts as a sweetmeat in England. The Laplanders boil or bake the stalks till ex- tremely tender, and eat them as a delicacy. The seeds bruised are cordial, stomachic, and sudorific. (L. Johnson.) ANGINA. ■ In farriery, a name sometimes applied to the quinsy, or what in animals is termed anticor. ANGLE-BERRY. In farriery, a sort of fleshy excrescence, to which cattle and some other animals are subject under different circum- stances ; and are supposed to proceed from a rupture of the cutaneous vessels, which give vent to a matter capable of forming a sarcoma^ or fleshy excrescence. They frequently appear upon the belly and adjacent parts, hanging down in a pendulous manner. ANGORA GOAT. A particular species of goat. ANIMAL. A creature that is endowed with life, and commonly with spontaneous motion, though in some cases without it. They are distinguished in general from vegetables by having motion, though this gives us no perfect definition, as there are entire classes of ani- mals which are fixed to a place, as the litho- phytes and zoophytes, which are produced and die upon the same spot; and on the other hand, certain vegetables have as much motion in their leaves and flowers as certain animals. However, by attending to the most general characters, they may be defined to be bodies endued with sensation and motion necessary to preserve their life. They are all capable of reproducing their like : some by the union of the sexes, produce small living creatures; others lay eggs, which require a due tempera- ture to produce young ; some multiply without conjunction of the sexes ; and others are re- produced when cut in pieces like the roots of plants. See Botany. For periods of Breeding and Hatching, with other interesting facts con- nected with the subject, see Gestation and In- cubation. ANIMALS, DANGEROUS. See Nuisance. ANIMALS, WILD, STEALING OF. In England no larceny at common law (says Mr. Archbold in his Crim. Law, p. 165) can be committed of such animals, in which there is no property either absolute or qualified ; as of beasts that are ferae naturae, and unreclaimed, such as deer, hares, and conies, in a forest, chase, or warren ; fish, in an open river or pond ; or wild fowls, rooks for instance (Han- man V. Ilocketl, 2 B. «& C. 934; 4 D. & R. 518) at their natural liberty. (1 Hale, 511 ; Fast 366.) But if they are reclaimed or confined, and may serve for food, it is otherwise ; for of deer so enclosed in a park that they may be taken at pleasure, fish in a trunk or net, and pheasants or partridges in a mew, larceny ma I 9^ ANIMALS. ANIMAL MANURES. be committed. (1 Hale, 511 ; 1 Hawk. c. 33, s. 39.) Swans, it is S9,id, if lawfully marked, are the subject of larceny at common law, al- though at large in a public riv^er {Dalt. Just. c. 156) ; or whether marked or not if they be in a private river or pond, {lb.) So, all valuable domestic animals, as horses, and all animals Homitse naturae, which serve for food, as swine, sheep, poultrjs and the like, and the product of any of them, as eggs, milk from the cow while at pasture (Foster, 99), wool pulled from the sheep's back feloniously (R. v. Martin, 1 Leach, 171), and the flesh of such as are ferae nuturx, may be the subject of larceny. (I Hale, 511.) 13ut as to all other animals which do not serve for food, such as dogs, fer- rets though tame and saleable {R. v. Spearing, R. & R. 250), and other creatures kept for whim and pleasure, stealing these does not amount to larceny at common law. (1 Hale, 512.) But now, to course, hunt, snare, or carry away, or kill or wound, or attempt to kill or wound, any deer kept or being in the enclosed part of any forest, chase, or purlieu, or in any enclosed land wherein deer are usually kept, is felony, punishable as simple larceny; and if committed in the unenclosed part of any forest, chase, or purlieu, the first offence is punishable upon summary conviction by fine not exceed- ing 50/., and the second after a previous con- viction is felony, and punishable as simple lar- ceny. (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 27.) Summary punishment may also be imposed by fine, not exceeding 20/., upon any person who shall have in his possession, or upon his premises, with his knowledge, any deer, or the head, skin, or other part thereof, or any snare or engine for the taking of deer, without satisfactorily ac- counting for such possession (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 27) ; or who shall set or use any snare or engine whatsoever for the purpose of taking or killing deer in any part of any forest, chase, or purlieu, whether enclosed or not, or in any fence or bank dividing the same from any land adjoining, or in any enclosed land where deer are usually kept, or shall destroy any part of the fence of any land where deer are then kept. (7 «& 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 28.) To take or kill hares or coneys in the night-time, in any warren or ground lawfully used for the breeding or keep- ing of the same is a misdemeanor; and to take and kill them in any warren or ground in the da5''-time, or at any time to set any snare or engine for the taking of them, is punisha- ble upon summary conviction by fine. (7 & 3 G, 4, c. 29, s. 30.) Stealing dogs, or any beast or bird ordinarily kept in a state of con- finement, not being the subject of larceny at common law (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 31) ; know- ingly being in possession thereof, or of the skin or plumage thereof (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 32); killing, wounding, or taking any dove- house pigeon, under such circumstances as shall not amount to larceny at common law (..ee R. V. Brooke, 4 C. & P. 131 ; 7 & 8 G. 4, c 29, s. 33), is punishable upon summary con- viction by fine, imprisonment, and whipping, according to the nature of the offence. So, to take or destroy any fish in any water which shall run through, or be in any land adjoining i/[ Delonging to the dwelling-house of any per- 98 son, being the owner of such water, and having a right of fishery therein, is a misdemeanor; and to take and destroy fish in any other water, being private property, or in which there shall be any private right of fishery ; and to destroy fish by angling, in the day-time, in either de- scription of water is punishable u})on summa- ry conviction by fine, varving according to the nature of the offence. (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 34.) And, lastly, to steal any oyster or oyster brood from any oyster bed, laying, or fishery, being the property of another, and sufficiently marked out or known as such, is larceny ; and to use any dredge or any net, instrument or engine whatsoever within the limits of such oyster fishery for the purpose of taking oysters or oyster brood, although none be taken, or to drag upon the soil of any such fishery with any net, instrument, or engine, is a misde- meanor. (7 & 8 G. 4, c. 29, s. 36.) ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. See Chkmistrt. ANIMAL MANURES. For the information I have to furnish with regard to animal ma- nures, I must refer the farmer to other heads of this work, such as FAUM-YAHn Manure, Night-soil, Boxes, Liaum Maxuue, Fish, &c. A very elaborate paper by Dr. C. Spren- gel, translated by Mr. Hudson, will be found in the Journal of the Roy. Ag. Soc. of Eng., vol. i. p. 455, and to that I am indebted for most of the general observations on animal manures in this article. The excrements of animals vary with the age of the animal, its food, &c. That of young animals is poorer than that of the aged, for the young and growing animal requires, for its nourishment and increase in size, a greater proportion of the phosphate of lime, and other solid ingredients of its food, than the more aged animal, because the excre- ments or refuse matters of the vegetables con- sumed are proportionately diminished in quan- tity and in richness. The richer the food, too, the better is the quality of the manure. That from animals fed upon oil-cake is the richest ; then that from corn-fed animals ; then that from green crops, hay ; and, lastly, that from straw-yard cattle is decidedly the poorest. Then again the water consumed by animals to some extent influences the quantity of their manure. In the water usually drank by an ox, amounting daily to about 80 lbs., is often found from half an ounce to an ounce of sa- line matter. These consist of gypsum, com- mon salt, carbonate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. " It may be alv/ays regarded," as is observed by M. Sprengel, •' as an indication that the excrements of animals contain many powerfully manuring substances when they pass quickly into the putrefactive state, and develope a large quantity of the offensive gases, ammonia; for in such cases they contain not only much sulphur, phosphorus, and nitrogen, but an abundance also of chlorine, soda, pot- ash, lime, and magnesia, the whole of which are so much the more important in vegetation, as the soil manured with the excrements is deficient in these particular substances." The mode in which animal fertilizers ope- rate, varies, however, according to their chemi- cal composition. Some are enriching from possessing peculiar saline substances, which ANIMAL POISONS ftre direct food for plants. Thus bones abound ivith phosphate of lime. Night-soil and urine do the same. Farm-yard compost contains all the essential ingredients of the farmer's crops, and they all copiously yield, by their decomposition, the gases of putrefaction, such as the carburetted hydrogen, and car- bonic acid gas, as well as various easily decomposible salts of ammonia; all of which are found to be highly nourishing when applied to the roots of the plants, or even to their leaves. And, in fact, some of the most powerful of the animal fertilizers, such as train-oil, whale-blubber, &c., can yield the plant nothing else : they do not contain either saline or earthy matters. It is their gaseous elements only, therefore, which, when applied to the roots of vegetables, produces such a rankness of growth, such a dark green, as the farmer invariably finds to follow in moist sea- sons from their use. The quantity of animal manures employed in England besides that produced by the farmer's live stock, is annually increasing, and it is a happy circumstance that it is so. Not only are sprats and other cheap fish bought up in every direction, but all northern Europe, and even the South Sea, is searched for bones ; refuse train oil, and greaves are, to a conside- rable extent, also used, and there are several manufactories in the metropolis for the prepa- ration of manure powders of an animal de- scription, such as the urate of the London Ma- nure Company, and the disinlected night-soil of M. Poittevin. These are both, especially the first, powerful enrichers, and are admirably- adapted for application by the drill. ANIMAL POISONS. Several animals are furnished with liquid juices of a poisonous nature, which, when injected into fresh wounds, occasion the disease or death of the wounded animal. Well known examples are furnished by the sting of serpents, bees, scorpions, spi- ders, &c. The poison of the viper is a yellow liquid, which lodges in two small vesicles in the animal's mouth. These communicate by a tube with the crooked fangs which are hollow, and terminate in a small cavity. When the ani- mal bites, the vesicles are squeezed, and the poison forced through the fangs into the wound. This poisonous juice occasions the fatal etfects of the viper's bite. If the vesi- cles be extracted, or the liquid prevented from flowing into the wound, the bite is harmless. It hns a yellow colour, resembling gum, but no taste ; and when applied to the tongue occa- sions numbness. The poison of the viper, and of serpents in general, is most hurtful when mixed with the blood. Taken into the stomach, it kills if the quantity be considera- ble. Fontana has ascertained that its fatal ef- fects are proportional to its quantity compared with the quantity of the blood. Hence the danger diminishes as the size of the animal increases. Small birds and quadrupeds die immediately when they are bitten by a viper ; but to an adult the bite seldom proves fatal. "Sweet oil," says Mr. Beckford, "has long been esteemed as a certain antidote to the bite of a viper ; some should be applied to the part, and some taken inwardly ; but the common J AJOU CABBAGE. cheese-rennet, externally applied, is asserted to be a more efficacious remedy than oil. Ammo- nia, or spirits of hartshorn, has also been pro- posed as an antidote. It was introduced in con- sequence of the theory of Dr. Mead, that the poison was of an acid nature. The numerous trials of that medicine by Fontana robbed it of all its celebrity; but it has been lately re- vived and recommended by Dr. Ramsay'as a certain cure for the bile of the rattlesnake." {Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 125.) The I'jenom of the bee and the wasp is also a liquid contained in a small vesicle, forced through the hollow tube of the sting into the wound inflicted hy that instrument. From the experiments of Fontana we learn that it bears a striking resemblance to the poison of the viper. That of the bee is much longer in drying when exposed to the air than the venom of the wasp. The sting of the bee should be immediately extracted ; and the best applica- tion is opium, and olive oil ; one drachm of the former finely powdered, rubbed down with an ounce of the latter, and applied to the part affected by means of lint, which should be frequently renewed. (See Bee.) The poison of the scorpion resembles that of the viper. But its taste is hot and acid, which is the case also with the venom of the bee and the wasp. No experiments upon which we can rely have been made upon the poison of the spider tribe. From the rapidity with which these animals destroy their prey, and even one another, we cannot doubt that their poison is sufliciently virulent. {Mead aiid Fontana on Poisons; Thomson's Chem. vol. iv. pp. 531 — 533.) [Soft poultices of fresh flesh, bread and milk, or in the absence of these, even mud, are excel- lent applications to stings of insects and even the bites of the most venomous snakes. The vaunted specifics recommended in such cases for internal use, are not to be compared in effi- cacy with the timely application of a poultice of the flesh of a chicken or other animal recently killed. The flesh of the rattle-snake itself is in some parts of America reckoned to possess spe- cific virtues, and doubtless will answer nearly, if not quite as well, as any other good soft- and moist poultice, which will seldom fail to effect a cure when promptly applied and frequently renewed. In this way the irritation and in- flammation induced by the poison in the part bitten is often arrested at once, and prevented from extending to vital parts. These conclu- sions are the results of experiments made with the poison of the rattle-snake, in which the most celebrated Indian and other specifics were used with little if any advantage.] ANJOU CABBAGE. An excellent vege- table both for the kitchen and the food of cattle. The great Anjou cabbage, said the Marquis de Turbilly, is one of the most useful legumin- ous plants for country use. It will grow in almost any soil, not excepting even the most indifferent, provided it be sufficiently dung»»d. The seeds of this cabbage are commonly sown in June, in a quarter of good mould, in the kitchen-garden, and watered from time to time in case of drought. The plants will rise pretty speedily, and should be thinned soon after. ANNONA. ANNOTTA. wherevei they stand too thick. The next care is to keep them free from weeds whilst they continue, by hoeing the ground between them. About the first of November (probably Sep- tember or October would be better in this cli- mate), they should be transplanted into the field where they are to remain. They should be planted there in trenches dug with a sppde, pretty deep; that is, they should be buried almost up to the leaves. The distance between them should be two feet or two feet and a half every way, according to the soil. Particular care should be taken never to plant them with a dibble, as gardeners plant other sorts of cab- bages. A layer of dung should be spread along the bottom of the trench, and the roots of the transplanted cabbages covered therewith. The mould taken out should then be returned back upon the dung ; and, as the trench will then no longer hold it all, there will remain a ridge between each row of cabbages. Towards the middle of the ensuing May, the ground should be well stirred between the plants with a spade, or some other proper instrument, and its whole surface laid quite level. After this, nothing more remains to be done, except pulling up the weeds, from time to time, as they appear. In the month of June, such of these cabbages as are already large, and do not turn in their leaves for cabbaging, but still continue green, begin to be fit for use, and soon arrive at their full perfection, which they retain till the next spring, when they begin to run up, and after- wards blossom. Their seeds ripen towards the end of July, and what is intended for sow- ing should then be gathered. In Anjou, when these cabbages are entirely run up, they gene- rally grow to the height of seven or eight feet ; sometimes they reach to eight feet and a half, or nine feet; nay, some have even been seen of a greater height. From the month of June, when these cabbages begin to be fit for use, their leaves are gathered from time to time, and they shoot out again. The}'- are large, excellent food, and so tender that they are dressed with a moment's boiling. They never occasion any flatulencies or uneasiness in the stomach ; and are also very good for cattle, which eat them greedily. They likewise greatly increase the milk of cows. Such are tiie properties of this kind of cabbage, which is greatly esteemed in the districts formerly denominated Anjou, Poitou, Brittany, Le Maine, and some other neighbouring provinces. In the first, farmers were formerly bound by their leases to plant early a certain number of these cabbages, and to leave a certain number of them standing when they quitted their farms. ANNONA {Triloba). The North American Papaw. This is the only sort which will grow in the open air in England. [See Papaw.] ANNOTTA, or ARNOTTA (Fr. rocnu ; Ger. orkan ; It. oriana). In rural economy, anatto or arnatto, for it is written in various ways, is a colouring substance, or dye, ob- tained from the skin or pulp of the kernel of the Blxa ordlana of South America and the West Indies. Of the preparation of this matter from the red pulp which covers the seeds, Mr. Miller gives the following account : — The contents of 100 the fruit are taken out and thrown into a wooden vessel, where as much hot water is poured upon them as is necessary to suspend the red powder or pulp, and this is gradually washed off' with the assistance of the hand, or of a spatula, or spoon. When the seeds appear quite naked, they are taken out, and the wash is left to settle ; after which the water is gently poured away, and the sediment put into shal- low vessels to be dried by degrees in the shade. After acquiring a due consistence, it is made into balls or cakes, (which are known in com- merce as the flag, or cake, and roll arnotta, and comes chiefly from Cayenne,) and set to dry in an airy place until it be perfectly firm. Some persons first pound the contents of the fruit with wooden pestles ; then, covering them with water, leave them to steep six days. This liquor being passed through a coarse sieve, and afterwards through three finer ones, it is again put into the vat or wooden vessel, and left to ferment a week ; it is then boiled until it be pretty thick, and when cool spread out to dry, and afterwards made up into balls, which are usually wrapped up in banana leaves. Arnotta, when of good quality, is of the co- lour of fire, bright within, soft to the touch, and capable of being dissolved in water. But the substance commonly met with under this name is a preparation made by the druggists, in which madder is probably a principal ingre- dient; it is of a brick colour, and a hard com- pact texture. Arnotta is much used in Glou- cestershire, and other cheese counties, a.nd in the butter dairies. The method of using the soft, or genuine sort, is simply by dissolving such a quantity as is necessary in a small por- tion of milk ; allowing such particles as will not dissolve to settle to the bottom. The milk thus coloured is then poured off, and mixed with that which is to be made into cheese. But when the hard preparation is used, pieces of it are frequently under the necessity of being rubbed against a hard, smooth, even-faced pebble, or other stone, being previously wetted with milk to forward the levigation, and to collect the particles as they are loosened. For this purpose, a dish of milk is generally placed upon the cheese-ladder ; and, as the stone be- comes loaded with levigated matter, the pieces are dipped in the milk from iime to time, until the milk in the dish appear to be sufficiently coloured. The stone and the " colouring" being washed clean in the milk, it is stirred briskly about in the dish ; and, having stood a few minutes for the suspended particles of colouring-matter to settle, is returned into the cheese-cowl ; pouring it off gently, so as to leave any sediment which may have fallen down in the bottom of the dish. The grounds are then rubbed with the finger on the bottom of the dish, and fresh milk added, until all the finer particles be suspended: and in this the skill in colouring principally consists. If any fragments have been broken off in the opera- tion, they remain at the bottom of the dish : hence the superiority of a hard closely-textured material, which will not break off or crumble in rubbing. The decoction of arnotta has a peculiar smell and a disagreeable flavour. An ANNUAL MEADOW-GRASS. ounce of arnotta will colour about twenty cheeses of 10 or 12 lbs. each. The rolls usually weigh 2 or 3 oz. each. In Gloucester- shire, it is usual to allow 1 oz. to a cwt. of cheese; in Cheshire, 8 pennyweights to a cheese of 60 lbs. By the Spanish Americans, it is mixed with their chocolate. The average annual import of arnotta [into England] in the tliice years ending in 1831, was 128,528 lbs. (Camp. Farm. , M^Culludi's Com. Did. ,- Grays Supplement ; Loudon's Encyc. ,- Thom- son's Chem.) ANNUAL MEADOW-GRASS. See Poa ASXI'A. ANNUAL PLANTS. Such as are only of one year's duration, or which come up in the spring and die in the autumn. They are fre- quently denominated simply annuals. Wheat, oats, barley, beans, peas, &c., are of this kind. ANNULAR, Having the form or resem- blance of a ring. This appearance is observed in the wood of some kinds of trees after they have been cut down ; and in the horns of cattle and sheep, by which their ages may in some measure be ascertained. ANODYNE. In farriery, a term applied to such medicines as ease pain and procure sleep. ANOREXY. In farriery, a term applied to a want of appetite. ANT. A sort of insect, extremely injurious to pasture lands and gardens ; in the former by throwing up hills, and in the latter by feed- ing on the fruit, &c. The best methods of keeping them from trees, are those of having the earth round them constantly dug up, and the application of saw-dust, coal-ashes, or other matters of the same kind, about their roots. The same purpose may be effected by covering the bottom part of the trees with tar ; but, as it is prejudicial to the trees, night-soil may, perhaps, answer better; as it is found to destroy them when spread upon or put into their hills. A liquor, prepared by boiling rain- water with black-soap and sulphur, has been made use of for destroying those animals, it is said, with considerable success. Where this liquor is employed, care should be taken that tiie ground where they inhabit be perfectly saturated with it. ANT-HILLS. The habitations of ants, con- sisting of little eminences, composed of small particles of sand or earth, lightly and artfully laid together. These hills are very detrimental to the farmer, depriving him of as much land as the hills cover, which may often be com- puted at a tenth part, or more, of his grass- lands. And in some places, where negligence has sntTered them to multiply, almost half of it has been rendered useless, the hills standing as thick together as grass-cocks in a hay-field : and what is very surprising is, that, by some, this indolence is defended, by affirming, that the area or superficies of their land is thereby increased ; whereas it is well known that very little vv no grass ever grows thereon ; and, therefore, if the surface be increased, the pro- duce is proportionably decreased. In order to remove the hills, and destroy the Insects, it has been a custom in some places, at the beginning of winter, and often when the ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM. weather was not very cold, to dig up the ant- hills three or four inches below the surface of the ground, and then to cut them in pieces, and scatter the fragments about. But this practice only disseminates the ants, instead of destroy- ing them, as they hide themselves among the roots of the grass for a little time, and then col- lect themselves together again upon any little eminence, of which there are great numbers ready for their purpose, such as the circular ridges round the hollows where the hills stood before. It is, therefore, a much better method to cut the hills entirely off, rather lower than the surface of the land, and to let them lie whole at a little distance, with their bottom up- wards : by this means the ants, who continue in their habitations until the rains, running into their holes of communication, and stag- nating in the hollows formed by the removal of the hills and the frosts, which now readily penetrate, will be destroyed. If a little soot is sown on the places, it will contribute to the intended effect. The hills, when rendered mellow by the frosts,"may be broken and dis- persed about the land. By this method of cutting off the hills, one other advantage is gained : the land soon becomes even and tit for mowing, and the little eminences being re- moved, the insects are exposed to the rain, which is destructive to them. In wet weather these insects are apt to accumulate heaps of sandy particles among the grass, called by labourers sprout-hills, which quickly take off the edge of the scythe. These hills which are very light and compressible, may be removed by frequent heavy rolling. ANTHELMINTIC. In farriery, a term ap- plied to such remedies as are supposed to destroy or carry off the worms which lodge in the intestines of an animal. ANTHOXANTHUM ODORATUM. The sweet-scented vernal grass. [See Plate 6, a.] This grass constitutes a part of the herbage of English pastures on almost every kind of soil, attaining its greatest perfection on the deep and moist, loving shady places, such as the skirts of woods. Its very early growth and hardiness, with the superior nutritive pro- perties of its latter-math, give it high claims in the composition of all permanent pastures. In England it comes into flower about the mid- dle of April, and in Pennsylvania about the middle of May, the seed ripening in both coun- tries about the second week in June. In the moist climate of England it continues throw- ing up flower stalks till the end of autumn, but in Pennsylvania the efflorescence is con- fined to spring. When properly combined with other grasses, and mown at maturity, it gives to the hay a peculiarly delightful fragrance. ^ The cause of the high flavour for which Phi- ladelphia " May butter" is so highly celebrated, has hitherto been a matter of vague specala- tion. This superior flavour, like that distm- guishing the Eppiug and Cambridge butter ot the London market, has very naturally been ascribed to something eaten by the cows ; but this something has never yet been defined OP specified so as to enable persons m other locali« ties to avail themselves of it for the improvo ment of their own pastures and dairy products 1 2 101 ANTICOR. APHERNOUSLI. The Aiuerican editor of the Farmer's Ency- clopoedia claims to have traced the source of the peculiar flavour of Philadelphia " May but- ter" to the sweet-scented vernal grass natural- ized and abounding in the pastures within marketing distance of the city. He assigns the following reasons for this conclusion. 1. In the dairy region around Philadelphia the vernal grass, with its vanilla fragrance, coi sti- tutes the predominant spring herbage on all pasture-fields and meadows left several years unploughed. The older the pasture the greater the proportion of the vernal grass, and the higher flavoured the butter. 2. The flavour continues during the development of this grass, and invariably declines with its seeding, after which the cattle push its dry stems aside in search of fresher herbage. 3. The sweet- scented vernal grass is shown by chemical ana- lysis to contain an aromatic essential oil, the basis of which is benzoic acid or flowers of ben- zoin. This is abundant, and can be distilled so as to furnish a delightful perfume. As the milk of animals is so very susceptible of ac- quiring disagreeable tastes from substances fed upon, it is natural to infer that it may be im- bued with agreeable flavours could the propef agents for this purpose be presented in their food. That the benzoic acid is the proximate cause of the peculiar fine flavour of butter made from pastures where the sweet-scented vernal grass abounds, he has shown by several experiments made in diflerent places where the floAvers of benzoin given to cows produced the characteristic flavour. Fi-om 20 to oO grains of the benzoin was administered twice a day, previously mixed with a little rye or wheat flour, then stirred up with some hot water and mingled with the customary mess. Hitherto, but little, if any, exact knowledge has been acquired in regard to the effects of particular grasses in improving the flavour of dairy products, or the meat of animals. The abundant presence of the sweet-scented vernal grass in pastures will, it is believed, not only contribute a rich flavour to dairy products, but to the mutton and beef of cattle and sheep pastured upon it. [See Dr. Emerson's communication to J. S. Skinner, on the subject of Philadelphia butter, originally published in the Farmer's Library for April, 1846.] Description of Gr Anthoxanthnm odoratum, on Ist Apfil , in flower - , seed ripe - , latter-math Brown sandy loam Green Produce per Acre. lbs. 3,4S8 7,827 3 6,125 10 6,806 4 Dry Produce per Acre. 2,103 8 14 1,837 11 Produce per Acre of Nutritive Matter. 95 122 311 6 4 12 1 1 4 8 ANTICOR. In farriery, a disease among horses, arising from an inflammation in the gullet and throat, or a kind of quinsy. The swelling sometimes extends as far as the sheath ; and is attended with fever, great de- pression, weakness, and a total loss of ap- petite. ANTIDOTE. See Poisoir, and Animal and Vegetable Poisons. ANTIMONY, SULPHURET OF. In far- riery, a mineral substance, of a shining, stri- ated appearance, hard, brittle, and very heavy. It is employed as a remedy in many diseases of horses and other animals, and is said to have been given to . fattening cattle and hogs with advantage. An ounce is the common quantity for a full-grown animal, which may be repeated according to circumstances. It is composed according to Dr. J. Davy {Phil. Trans. 1812, p. 231), of Antimony Sulphur 100 34-960 ANTISEPTIC SUBSTANCES. In agricul- ture, are such substances as have a tendency to resist the putrefaction and decay of animal and vegetable matters. ANTISPASMODICS. In farrier)% are such medicines as are suited to cure spasmodic af- fections. Opium, assafoBtida, and the essential oils of many vegetables, are the most powerful remedies of this kind. ANTLER (Fr. andoulUer). Properly the first briuiches of a stag's horns ; but, popularly and generally, any of his branches, and so used, by poetic license, in all our modern authors. 102 AORTAL ARTERIES, of vegetables. The large vessels destined to convey the elaborated juice or blood of plants to the leaves and ex- tremities, are so denominated by Dr. Darwin. APERIENTS. In farriery, are such reme- dies as are calculated to keep the bowels of animals in a gentle open state. APHERNOUSLI, or ARKENOUSLL A species of fir, pine, or pinaster, which grows wild on the Alps. The timber of this tree is frequently large, and has many uses for internal work. The branches resemble those of the spruce-fir: but the cones are more round in the middle, being of a purplish colour, shaded with black. The bark of the trunk, or bole of the tree, is not reddish like the bark of the pine, but of a whitish cast like that of the fir. The husk, or sort of shell, which encloses the kernels, is easily cracked, and the kernels are covered with a brown skin, which peels oflf; they are about as large as a common pea, triangular like buckwheat, and white and soft as a blanched almond; of an oily agreeable taste, but leaving in the mouth that small degree of asperity which is peculiar to wild fruits, and is not unpleasant. These kernels sometimes make a part in a Swiss dessert ; they supply the place of mushroom-buttons in ragouts, and are also recommended in consumptive cases. Wainscoting, flooring, and other joiner's work, may be made with the planks of apher- nousli., which is a wood of a finer grain, and more beautifully variegated than deal, and the smell is more agreeable. The aphernousli is a tree of a healthy, vigorous growth, and will bear removing when it is young, even in dry APHIDIANS. APHIDES. warm weather. From this tree is extracted a white odoriferous resin. The wood also makes excellent tiring in stoves, ovens, and kilns. [APHIDIANS. A group of minute insects, which includes those commonly called plant- lice. Some of these insects have the power of leaping, like the leaf-hoppers, from which, how- ever, they differ. These hoppers are by no means so prolific as other kinds of plant-lice, since they produce only one brood during the year. They live in groups, composed of about a dozen individuals each, upon the stems and leaves of plants, the juices of which they im- bibe through their tubular beaks. The young are often covered with a substance resembling fine cotton arranged in flakes. This is the case with some which are found on the alder and birch in the spring of the year. Another tribe of aphidians called Thrips, are very small and slender insects, exceed- ingly active in their motions. They live on leaves, flowers, buds, &c. Their punctures appear to poison plants, and often occasion deformities in the leaves and blossoms. The peach tree sometimes suflers severely from their attacks, as from those of the true plant- lice ; and they are found beneath the leaves, in little hollows caused by their irritating punc- tures. The same applications that are em- ployed for the destruction of plant-lice may be used with advantage upon plants infested with Thrips. (Dr. Harris's Report on Destructive Insects.)] [APHIDES, or plant-lice, as they are com- monly called, are found upon almost all parts of plants, and there is scarcely a plant which does not harbour one or two kinds peculiar to itself. They are exceedingly prolific, and Reaumur has proved that one individual, in five generations, may become the progenitor of nearly six thousand millions of descendants. It often happens that the succulent extremi- ties and stems of plants will, in an incredibly short space of time, become completely coated with a living mass of little lice. These are usually wingless, consisting of the young and of the females only ; for winged individuals appear only at particular seasons, usually in the autumn, but sometimes in the spring, and there are small males and larger females. After pairing, the latter lay their eggs upon or near the leaf-buds of the plant upon which they live, and, together with their males, soon afterwards perish. The genus to which plant- lice belong is called Aphis, from a Greek word signifying to exhaust They hatch out in the spring and immediately begin to pump up sap from the tender buds, stems, and leaves, in- crease rapidly in size and quickly come to ma- turity. " Plant-lice seem to love society, and often herd together in dense masses, each one re- maining fixed to the plant by means of its long tubular beak; and they rarely change their places till they have exhausted the part first attacked. The attitudes and manners of these little creatures are exceedingly amusing. When disturbed, like restive horses, they be- gin to kick and sprawl in the most ludicrous manner. They may be seen, at times, sus- pended by tiieir beaks alone, acvt throwing up their legs as if in a high frolic, but too much engaged in sucking to withdraw their beaks. As they take in great quantities of sap, they would soon become gorged if they did not get rid of the superabundant fluid through the two little tubes or pores at the extremity of their bodies. When one of them gets running-over full, it seems to communicate its uneasy sen- sations, by a kind of animal magnetism, to the whole flock, upon which they all, with one ac- cord, jerk upAvards their bodies, and eject a shower of the honeyed fluid. The leaves and bark of plants much infested by these insects, are often completely sprinkled over with drops of this sticky fluid, which, on drying, becomes dark coloured, and greatly disfigures the foliage. This appearance has been denominated honey- dew; but there is another somewhat similai production observable on plants, after very dry weather, which has received the same name, and consists of an extravasation or oozing of the sap from the leaves. We are often ap- prized of the presence of plant-lice on plants growing in the open air by the ants ascending and descending the stems. By observing the motions of the latter we soon ascertain that the sweet fluid discharged by the lice is the occa- sion of these visits. The stems swarm with slim and hungry ants running upwards, and others lazily descending with their bellies swelled almost to bursting. When arrived in the immediate vicinity of the plant-lice, they greedily wipe up the sweet fluid which has dis- tilled from them, and, when this fails, they station themselves among the lice, and catch the drops as they fall. The lice do not seem in the least annoyed by the ants, but live on the best possible terms with them ; and, on the other hand, the ants, though unsparing of other insects weaker than themselves, upon which they frequently prey, treat the plant-lice with the utmost gentleness, caress- ing them with their antennae, and apparently inviting them to give out the fluid by patting their sides. Nor are the lice inattentive to these solicitations, when in a state to gratify the ants, for whose sake they not only seem to shorten the periods of the discharge, but actu- ally yield the fluid when thus pressed. A sin- gle louse has been known to give it drop by drop successively to a number of ants, that were waiting anxiously to receive it. When the plant-lice cast their skins, the ants in- stantly remove the latter, nor will they allow any dirt or rubbish to remain upon or about them. They even protect them from their enemies, and run about them in the hot sun- shine to drive away the little ichneumon flies that are forever hovering near to deposit their eggs in the bodies of the lice." Plant-lice differ much in form, colour, length of tubes, &c. The Rose-louse (Aphis Rosas) has a long tube. The cabbage-louse (Aphts Brassicse) has also long honey-tubes, its body being covered with a whitish mealy substance. This species is very abundant on the lower side of cabbage-leaves in the month of Au- gust. The largest species of plant-lice ob- served by Dr. Harris, he found m clusters beneath the limbs of the pig-nut hickory. He 103 APHIDES. APHIDES. also found another large species living on the under side of the branches of various kinds of willows, and clustered together in great numbers. This species, the Doctor thinks, cannot be identical with the willow-louse de- scribed by Linnseus. When crushed, it com- municates a stain of a reddish or deep orange colour. Some plant-lice live in the ground, and de- rive their nourishment from the roots of plants, which they often exhaust and destroy. Indian corn crops frequently suffer severely from their depredations, especially when the soil is light and reduced. They are generally of a white colour, and are closely clustered to- gether on the roots. Dr. Hairis, from whose Report all the information upon this subject is obtained, says that he never has been able to ascertain whether these are of the same spe- cies as the root-lice described by European writers. It is stated by those great entomolo- gists, Kirby and Spence, that ants bestow the same care upon the root-lice as upon their own ofispring, defending them from the attacks of other insects, bringing them in their mouths to the surface of the ground to give them the advantage of the sun, &c. The sweet fluid which exudes from them whilst pumping in the sap of the roots, forms the chief nourish- ment of the ants and their young. "The injuries occasioned by plant-lice are much greater than would at first be expected from the small size and extreme weakness of the insects ; but these make up by their num- bers what they want in strength individually, and thus become formidable enemies to vege- tation. By their punctures, and the quantity of sap which they draw from the leaves, the functions of these important organs are de- ranged or interrupted, the food of the plant, which is there elaborated to nourish the stem and mature the fruit, is withdrawn, before it can reach its proper destination, or is conta- minated and left in a state unfitted to supply the wants of vegetation. Plants are differently affected by these insects. Some wither and cease to grow, their leaves and stems put on a sickly appearance, and soon die from ex- haustion. Others, though not killed, are great- ly impeded in their growth, and their tender parts, which are attacked, become stunted, curled, or warped. The punctures of these lice seem to poison some plants, and affect others in a most singular manner, producing warts or swellings, which are sometimes solid and sometimes hollow, and contain in their interior a swarm of lice, the descendants of a single individual, whose punctures were the original cause of the tumour. I have seen reddish tumours of this kind as big as a pigeon's egg, growing upon leaves, to which they were attached by a slender neck, and containing thousands of small lice in their in- terior. Naturalists call these tumours galls, oecause they seem to be formed in the same way as the oak-galls which are used in the making of ink. The lice which inhabit or pro- duce them generally differ from the others, in having shorter antenna , being without honey- lubes, and in frequently being clothed with a 104 kind of white down, which, however, disappears when the insect becomes winged. " These downy plant-lice are now placed in the genus Eriosoma, which means woolly body, and the most destructive species belonging to it was first described, under the name of Aphis lanis;era, by Mr. Hausmann, in the year 1801, as infesting the apple-trees in Germany. It seems that it had been noticed in England as early as the year 1787, and has since acquired there the name of American blight, from the erroneous supposition that it had been import- ed from this country. It was known, however, to the French gardeners for a long time pre- vious to both of the above dates, and, accord- ing to Mr. Rennie, is found in the orchards about Harfleur, in Normandy, and is very de- structive to the apple-trees in the department of Calvados. There is now goody reason to believe that the miscalled American blight is not indigenous to this country, and that it has been introduced here with fruit-trees from En- rope. Some persons, indeed, have supposed that it was not to be found here at all ; but the late Mr. Buel has stated that it existed on his apple-trees, and I have once or twice seen it on apple-trees in Massachusetts, where, how- ever, it still appears to be rare, and conse- quently I have not been able to examine the insects sufficiently myself. The best account that I have seen of them is contained in Knapp's 'Journal of a Naturalist,' from which, and from Hausmann's description, the follow- ing observations are chiefly extracted. "The eggs of the woolly apple-tree louse are so small as not to be distinguished without a microscope, and are enveloped in a cotton-like substance furnished by the body of the insect. They are deposited in the crotches of the branches and in the chinks of the bark at or near the surface of the ground, especially if there are suckers springing from the same place. The young, when first hatched, are covered with a very short and fine down, and appear in the spring of the year like little specks of mould on the trees. As the season advances, and the insect increases in size, its downy coat becomes more distinct, and grows in length daily. This down is very easily re- moved, adheres to the fingers when it is touched, and seems to issue from all the pores of the skin of the abdomen. When fully grown, the insects of the first brood are one tenth of an inch in length, and when the down is rubbed off, the head, antennas, sucker, and shins are found to be of a blackish colour, an the abdomen honey-yellow. The young are produced alive during the summer, are buried in masses of th^ down, and derive their nou- rishment from the sap of the bark and of the alburnum or young wood immediately under the bark. The adult insects never acquire wings, at least such is the testimony both of Hausmann and Knapp, and are destitute of honey-tubes, but from time to time emit drops of a sticky fluid from the extremity of the body. These insects, though destitute of wings, are conveyed from tree to tree by means of their long down, which is so plentiful and so light, as easily to be wafted by the winds of TEWumn, and th APHIDES. fumn, and thus the evil will gradually spread tiiroujjhout an extensive orchard. The nume- rous punctures of these lice produce on the tender shoots a cellular appearance, and wher- ever a colony of them is established, warts or excrescences arise on the bark ; the limbs thus attacked become sickly, the leaves turn yellow and drop off; and, as the infection spreads from limb to limb, the whole tree becomes diseai»ed, and eventually perishes. In Glou- cestershire, England, so many apple-trees were destroyed by these lice in the year 1810, that it was feared the making of cider must be abandoned. In the north of England the apple- trees are greatly injured, and some annually destroyed by them; and in the year 1826 they abounded there in such incredible luxuriance, that many trees seemed, at a short distance, as if they had been whitewashed. " Mr. Knapp thinks that remedies can prove efficacious in removing this evil only upon a small scale, and that when the injury has existed for some time, and extended its inllu- ence over the parts of a large tree, it will take its course, and the tree will die. He says that he has removed this blight from young trees, ajid from recently attacked places in those more advanced, by painting over every node or infected part of the tree with a composition consisting of three ounces of melted resin, mixed with the same quantity of fish oil, which is to be put on while warm with a painter's brush. Sir Joseph Banks succeeded in extir- pating the insects from his own trees by re- moving all the old and rugged bark, and scrub- bing the trunk and branches with a hard brush. The application of the spirits of tar, of spirits of turpentine, of oil, urine, and of soft soap, has been recommended. Mr. Buel found that oil sufliced to drive the insects from the trunks and branches, but that it could not be applied to the roots, where, he stated, numbers of the insects harboured. The following treatment, I am inclined to think, will prove as success- ful as any which has heretofore been recom- mended. Scrape off all the rough bark of the infected trees, and make them perfectly clean and smooth early in the spring ; then rub the trunk and limbs with a stiff brush wet with a solution of , potash, as hereafter recommended for the destruction of bark-lice ; after which remove the sods and earth around the bottom of the trunk, and with the scraper, brush, and alkaline liquor cleanse that part as far as tl e roots can conveniently be uncovered. The earth and sods should immediately be carried away, fresh loam should be placed around the roots, and all cracks and wounds should be filled with grafting cement of clay or mortar. Small limbs and extremities of branches, if infected, and beyond reach of the applications, should be cut off and burned." Dr. Harris found in Massachusetts several other species of Eriosoma or downy lice, in- habiting various forest and ornamental trees, some of which he thinks may have been in- troduced from abroad. Remedies. With regard to the best means of destroying plant-lice, Dr. Harris recom- mends as follows : *' Solutions of soap or a U APHIDES. mixture of soap-suds and tobacco water, used warm, and applied with a watering pot or with a garden engine, may be employed for the de- struction of these insects. It is said that ho» water may also be employed for the same pur- pose with safety and success. The water, tobacco-tea, or suds, should be thrown upon the plants with considerable force, and if they are of the cabbage or lettuce kind, or other plants whose leaves are to be used as food, they should subsequently be drenched tho- roughly with pure water. Lice on the extre- mities of branches may be killed by bending over the branches and holding them for seve- ral minutes in warm and strong soap-suds. Lice multiply much faster, and are more inju- rious to plants, in a dry than in a wet atmo- sphere; hence in green houses, attention should be paid to keep the air sufficiently moist ; and the lice are readily killed by fumigations with tobacco or with sulphur. To destroy subter- ranean lice on the roots of plants, I have fount that watering with salt water was useful, if the plants were hardy; but tender herbaceou.' plants cannot be treated in this way, but may sometimes be revived, when suffering from these hidden foes, by free and frequent water- ing with soap-suds." A solution of whale oil soap, in the propor- tion of two pounds of sonp to fifteen gallons: of water, is recommended as the best known means of destroying plant-lice, and other in- sects i))jurious to plants, flowers, and fruits. It was first made known by Mr. Haggerston, of Boston, who desij led it originally for the destruction of the rose slug, and received a pre- mium of $125 from the Massachusetts Horticul- tural Society for his discovery. In preparing the solution of soap, the weight required for use IS to be taken and dissolved in boiling water in the proportion of a pound to a quart. Strain this strong solution through a fine wire or hair sieve, which takes out the dirt, and prevents its stopping the valves of the engine, or rose of the syringe. Then add cold water to bring it to the proper strength, namely, about two pounds of the soap to fifteen gallons of water, and apply to the rose bush, or other plant, with a hand engine or a syringe, using as mucn force as practicable, saturating every part of the foliage. What falls on the ground will not be lost, but do much good in destroying worms and enriching the soil. From its trilling cost, it can be used with profusion, a hogshead of 136 gallons costing only about 45 cents. Tlie soap sells for about 6 or 7 cents per pound. Early in the morning, or in the evening, is the proper time for making the application. Among other insects mentioned by Mr. Hag gerston as destroyed by the solution of whale oil soap, are the Aphis, or plant-louse, which goes by the name of the brown fly; an insect not quick in motion, very abundant on, and destructive to, the young shoots of the rose, peach trees, and many other plants ; and thf black fly, a very troublesome and destructive insect, that infests the young shoots of the cherry and the snowball tree. " I have never," he says, "known any positive cure for this insect until this time." APIUM. APPRAISEMENT. "Two varieties of insects that are (destruc- tive to and very much disfigure evergreens, the Balsam or Balm of Gilead fir in particular; one an aphis, the other very much like the rose-slug. " The above insects are all destroyed by one application, if properly applied to all parts of the leaves ; the eggs of most insects continue to hatch in rotation during their season; to keep the plants perfectly clean, it will be ne- cessary to dress them two or three times." As every plant has its insect destro)^ers, so have these their created enemies to keep them in check. If this was not so, the astonishing fecundity of plant-lice would make them far more formidable than at present. Indeed it is difficult to say where the plague might end. The destroyers of plant-lice described by Dr. Harris are of three kinds. — The first are the young or larvae of the hemispherical beetles familiarly known by the name of lady-birds, and scientifically by that of Coccinella. These little beetles are generally yellow or red, with black spots, or black, with white, red, or yellow ijpots ; there are many kinds of them, and they are very common and plentiful insects, gene- rally diffused among plants, living upon plant- lice, and thus performing a great service to the husbandman and gardener. The second kind of plant-lice destroyers are the young of the golden-eyed lace-winged fly (Chrisopa perla), a fly of a pale green colour, with four wings resembling lace, and eyes of the brilliancy of polished gold, as its generic name implies. But, notwithstanding its bril- liancy, it is extremely disgusting, from the oflfensive odour it exhales. It makes great havoc among the plant-lice. The third and last enemy are the maggots or young of various two-winged flies belonging to the genus St/rphus, many of which flies are black, with yellow bands on their bodies. The eggs are laid and the destructive maggot hatched immediately among the sluggish lice which become its victims. The more minute account given by Dr. Har- ris, of the nature and habits of all these in- sects, is extremely interesting. (See his Report upon Destructive Insects submitted to the legis- lature of Massachusetts in 1841.)] APIUM. See Celkky and Patislet. APOPLEXY. In farriery, is a disease which is often called the staggers, to which horses and other animals are subject, and by which they drop down suddenly, without sense or motion, except a working of the flanks. (See Shkep, Diseases of.) APPETITE. Horses, more than most other creatures, are subject to diseases of the sto- mach, particularly to a want of appetite, and a vitiated or voracious appetite. Want of appetite is when a horse feeds poor- ly, and is apt to mangle his hay, or leave it in the rack, and at the same time gathers little flp..h, his dung being habitually soft, and of a pale colour. This state of the stomach evi- dently arises either from some error in respect of diet and management, want of grass, or from R. relaxed constitution, in which the stomach 106 and bowels are more particularly affected with debility. This weakness of the digestive or- gans may be either accidental or constitution- al ; and it may proceed from the use of food administered m an improper state, such as too much scalded bran, or hot meal of any kind, which relaxes the tone of the stomach and bowels, and ultimately produces a weak di- gestion, and consequently a loss of appetite* The best method to strengthen and recover horse*; in this state, is to give them gentle exercise in the open air, especially in dry weather; never to load their stomachs with large feeds ; and to keep them as much as possible to a dry diet, indulging them now and then with a handful of beans among their oats. But where the disorder has been caused by over-feeding with dry food, and the neglect of proper evacuation and exercise, mashes, with gentle saline purges, would seem to be the most suitable remedies ; and where horses do not gain strength under the above manage- ment, a run at grass will most probably be the readiest method of removing their com- plaints. APPLE. See Malus. APPLES OF LOVE (Poma amoris ; to- mato). These apples are juicy, and large fruit, growing upon a low plant in gardens. The flowers are yellow and small ; when the fruit ripens, it becomes red, containing soft juicy pulp and seeds. Its juice is cooling to the system, and is applied externally to remove eruptions upon the skin. (L. Johnson.) See Tomato. [APPLE-TREE BLIGHT, and Apple-tree lice. See Aphides and Blight.] [APPLE-TREE BORER. The larva of a kind of beetle. See Borers.] APPRAISEMENT. It is not only custom- ary, but essential to the maintenance of the good condition of a farm, that the outgoing tenant should be induced to carry on the pro- per course of husbandry up to the period of his quitting the farm ; notwithstanding that much of the labour and manure he bestov/s is for the benefit of crops which a succeeding tenant wih reap. Hence the good practice has arisen, that the outgoing tenant shall be allowed for these matters, according to agreement, or, in its ab- sence, by the custom of the district, which varies considerably. (See Custom of thk COUJTTIES.) The following real appraisement of a farm in Surrey, by Mr. Hewitt Davis, an eminent appraiser of the Haymarket, London, will af- ford the young farmer a complete view of the matters usually included in such appraise- ments. It is usual for these valuations to be made by appraisers, one being appointed by the outgoing, and the other by the incoming tenants, M-ho choose an umpire to decide in case of diflference. [The document cannot fail to be acceptable to the American farmer, since it comi^unicates so many interesting facts relating to the esti- mates of putting in crops, the value of manures, various workings, rent, rates, taxes, &c., in England.] APPRAISEMENT. Appraisement of the Tenant's Property on the Farm^ County of Surrey, made this 'Z^th September, 1841. From , outgoing tenant. To , incoming tenant. By , outgoing tenant's appraiser. And , incoming tenant's appraiser. Made according to the terms of the Lease, which says, " at leaving the Landlord or Incoming Tenant shall pay for the Turnips, Leys, Seeds sown, and Crops in or on the Ground, Plough- ings. Dressings, Half Dressings, Fallows, Half Fallows, and preparations of the Land for the Manure and Underwoods, according to their growth, and all other Matters and Things accord- ing to the Custom of the County." The farm is principally a light turnip soil, and consists of— Arable ------ 227^ acres. Grass 48 — f r p ] > i. y Wood 24 -Jj I »> i^' 'A it Hedges 10 — 309^ ' \ ' • ', ! : !• \- And has been very highly cultivated on the Scotch Drill system. DRESSING AND TILLAGES, viz., ^1 1 ^ 1 i ' O 1 ( ^% LosoK FiBLB, 17 kcTL^i.— Swedes. £ 5. d. £ ». d. Ploughed, 2 horses, three times at 10s. 25 10 Ridging and splitting - - - - - 145. 11 18 Ox harrowed, four times - - - - l5. 6rf. 5 2 Small harrowed, eight times - - - 9d. 5 2 Rolled twice - - - - - - l5. 1 14 Handpicking - - - - - - 17 Dung, 295 loads - - - - - 65. 88 10 Seed, 2 lb. per acre, per lb. - - l5. 1 14 Drilling - . - - - - l5. 17 Scuffling twice - . . - - 25. 6d. 4 5 Hand-hoeing - - - - - - 8*. 6 16 Handpicking, rent, rates, and taxes, - - 305. 25 10 177 15 Lower Loam Pit, 12 Acres. — Preparing for Wheat. Half dressing, 230 loads dung - - - at 35. 34 10 Ploughed twice, 2 horses - - - - 105. 12 Harrowed, Finlayson - - - - 35. 1 16 Ox harrowed twice - - - - ls.6d. 1 16 'SO 2 Middle Loam Pit, 7^ Acres.— &«r.) ARBUTUS. A genus of evergreen shrubs which is characterized by its fruit being a berry, containing many seeds. The only va- riety necessary to be enumerated in these pages is the Arhutus unedo, or strawberry tree. In Pliny's time, when Rome abounded in wine and oil, they called the tree uuedn, which was an abridgment of unum edo, meaning, »* You will eat but one." It has the name of strawberry-tree with us, because its berries so nearly resemble in appearance that delicious fruit. It is found growing spontaneously on rocky limestone situations in the west of Ire- land, particularly in the county of Kerry, near the lake of Killarney, where the peasants eat the fruit. The arbutus is a native of the south of Europe, Greece, Palestine, and many other parts of Asia. Horace celebrates the shade of this tree : — " Nunc viridi membra sub arbuto Stratus." But Virgil describes its foliage as rather thin (Eel. vii.), and recommends the twig as a winter food for goats. The arbutus tree succeeds best in a moist soil, for when planted in dry ground it seldom produces much fruit. It is therefore recom- mended to place it in warm situations ; and if the earth is not naturally moist, there should be plenty of loam and rotten neat's dung laid about its roots, and in dry springs it should be plentifully watered. The arbutus trees may be propagated by ^ layers, but they are principally raised from : seed ; and they require to be kept in pots for | several years before they are ready for the plantation. We meet with a variety of this , ARROW-HEAD. I tree in our shrubberies with double blossoms, and another with red flowers. Aiton enume- rates five different species of the arbutus, and j there are several varieties of them in the JPari- sian gardens not to be seen ii our shrubberies. The leaves of the arbutus are said to be use- fully employed by tanners in preparing their leather. (Fhil/ips^s Si/lra Fbi-ifem.) This beautiful evergreen grows to the height of ten and fifteen feet. Its flowers, which are of a yellowish white or red colour bloom in September, October, and November, and are succeeded by the fruit, which remain till the flowers of the following year are full blown, thus giving the tree a beautiful appearance. ARCHED. A term employed among horse- men. A horse is said to have arched legs when his knees are bent archwise. This only relates to the fore-quarters, and the infirmity sometimes happens to such horses as have their legs spoiled in travelling. ARGILLACEOUS. [Clayey.] Containing clay. ARM OF A HORSE. A term applied to the upper part of the fore-leg. ARNOTTO. See Anxotta. AROMATIC. An epithet applied to such plants, and other bodies, as yield a fragrant odour, and have a warm spicy taste. AROMATIC REED (Acorm cnlamus). The common sweet-flag. A marshy perennial plant of the easiest culture, flowering from June till August, which grows among rushes in moist ditches and watery places, about the banks of rivers, but not very general. Root, thick, rather spongy ; leaves, erect, two or three feet high, bright green, near an inch broad. It rarely flowers unless it grows in water, but when it does bloom, it puts forth a mass of very numerous, thick-set, brownish green flowers, which have no scent except when bruised. Every part of the herbage is stimu- lant, and very aromatic, but the roots are espe- cially so. The dried root powdered is used by the country people of Norfolk, [England,] for curing the ague. It is atfirmed to possess car- minative and stomachic virtues, having a warm, pungent, bitterish taste, and is fre- quently used in preparing bitters, though it is said to impart a nauseous flavour. It is the Calamus aromnticus of the shops, and Linnoeus says, the roots powdered might supply the place of foreign spices. (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 1 57 ; Paxton's Bot. Did. ; Willich's Dunu Enci/c.) ARPENT. The French name for an acre. [The French arpent contains 51,691 square English feet, or very nearly one acre and three- quarters of a rood English measure.] ARROW-GRASS (Triglochm). Perennial marsh herbs, of which there are two kinds, the marsh arroAV-grass and the sea arrow-grass, both perennials, flowering from May till Au- gust. They grow in wet boggy meadows and salt marshes, &c., abundantly, and are very grateful to domestic cattle, the herbage con- taining a large proportion of salt. (Eng. Flor, vol. ii. p. 200.) . ARROW-HEAD {Sagittana sagittifoha, from sagUta, an arrow; because of the resem- blance of the leaves to the head of that weapon) ARROW-ROOT. ARTICHOKE. [In England,] an indigenous, aquatic, perennial herb, flowering in July or August. Root, tuberous, nearly globular, with many long fibres. It is industriously cultivated in China for its esculent properties : its mealy nature rendering it easily convertible into starch or Hour. It is much relished by most cattle. Nothing is more variable than the breadth and size of the floating leaves, which are dimi- nished almost to nothing when deeply im- mersed in the Avater, or exposed to a rapid current. Hence has arisen the several varie- ties mentioned by authors, but which the slightest observation will discover to be eva- nescent. This plant, especially the seed, was formerly supposed to possess medicinal pro- perties, which time and improved knowledge have demonstrated to be imaginary. The leaves, however, feel cooling when applied to the skin ; hence they have been used and may be serviceable as a dressing to inflamed sores. (Eng. Flor. vol. iv. p. 144 ; Willich's Dorn. Enci/c.) [ARROW-ROOT. This nutricious flour, which constitutes a very mild, light, agreeable and easily digested article of diet, so much resorted to for the sick and convalescent, and also for children, is the fecula or starch most commonly obtained from the root of a plant called Maranfa arundinacea. It is a native of South America, where, as well as in the West Indies, it is extensively cultivated. It grows also in Florida, in the southern parts of which it is manufactured at the very low price of 6 to 8 cents per lb. The low price at which arrow-root is sold at Key West and other parts of Florida, allows of its being used for the common purposes of starch, and also for the preparation of niceties for the table, being in fact often substituted for the ordinary bread- stufls. Though thus cultivated in the south, still most of that used is imported from the West Indies and Brazil, the best coming from Bermuda. The mode generally pursued in the West Indies for obtaining the fecula from the root and subsequently preparing it, is as follows : — The roots are dug up when a year old, washed, and then beat into a pulp, which is thrown into water, and agitated so as to separate the starchy from the fibrous or stringy portion. The fibres are removed bv the hand, and the starch remains suspended in the water, to which it gives a milKy colour. This milky fluid is strained through coarse linen, and allow- ed to stand that thr fecula may subside, which is afterwards washed with a fresh portion of water and then dried in the sun. The powder is a light white colour, sometimes having small masses easily crushed. It is a pure starch like that obtained from wheat, potatoes, and several other vegetable substances, espe- cially the plant called in the West Indies Jatnipa Muni/iof, which yields the substance called Tapioca, used for similar purposes with arrow-root.] [ARROW-WOOD. A name given in the United Stales to a shrub {Viburnum) the young and straight branches of which were, according to Marshall, formerly used by the aborgines for making arrows. The slender siemi, when the pith is removed, afford good 112 fuse-sticks for blasting rocks. Ten or twelve species of Viburnum are enumerated in the United States. (See Darlingfun^s Flor. Ceslrica.)] ARSENIC. See Poison. ARTEMISIA. See WouMwoons. ARTESIAN WELLS have been so named from the opinion that they were first used in Artois, in France. These wells have been found extremely beneficial in the low lands of Essex and Lincolnshire, and in some other districts where good water is scarce, and that of the surface of indifferent quality. Some practical knowledge of geology is necessary in order to fix wiih judgment upen the most eligible spot for sinking these wells, or else much labour and expense may be uselessly applied. They are formed by boring with a long auger and rod to such a depth into the earth, that a spring is found of sufficient power to rise to and run over the surface. ARTICHOKE (Cynara). From cmere, ac- cording to Columella, because the land for artichokes should be manured with ashes. [" A plant little cultivated in America, but very well worthy of cultivation. In its look it very much resembles a thistle of the big- blossomed kind. It sends up a seed stalk, and it blows, exactly like the thistle that we see in the Arms of Scotland. It is, indeed, a thistle upon a gigantic scale. The parts that are eaten are, the lower end of the thick leaves that envelope the seed, and the bottom out of which those leaves immediately grow. The whole of the head, before the bloom begins to appear, is boiled, the pod leaves are pulled off by the eater, one or two at a time, and dipped in butter, with a little pepper and salt, the mealy part is stripped off by the teeth, and the rest of the leaf put aside, as we do the stem of asparagus. The bottom, when all the leaves are thus disposed of, is eaten with knife and fork. The French, who make salads of almost every garden vegetable, and of not a few of the plants of the field, eat the artichoke in salad. They gather the heads, when not much bigger round than a dollar, and eat the lower ends of the leaves above mentioned raw, dipping them first in oil, vinegar, salt and pepper ; and, in this way, they are very good. Artichokes are propagated from seed, or from offsets. If by the former, sow the seed in rows a foot apart, as soon as the frost is out of the ground. Thin the plants to a foot apart in the row; and, iu the fall of the year, put out the plants in clumps of four in rows, three feet apart, and the rows six feet asunder. They will produce their fruit the next year. When winter ap- proaches, earth the roots well up ; and, before the frost sets in, cover all well over with litter from the yard or stable. Open at the breaking up of the frost; dig all the ground well be- tween the rows ; level the earth down from the plants. You will find many young ones, or offsets, growing out from the sides. Pull these off, and, if you want a new plantation, put them out, as you did the original plants. They will bear, though later than the old ones, that same yea.T. As to sorts of this plant, there are two, but they contain no difference of any con- sequence: one has its head, or fruit pod, round, and the other rather conical. As to the ARTICHOKE. ARTICHOKE. quantity for a family, one row across one of sucker must be removed and every bud rubbed tJie plats will be sufficient." {Cobbett^s Ame- off, otherwise more will be produced, to the rican Gardener.)] i detriment of those purposely left. These must Those plants produce the finest heads which are planted in a soil abounding in moisture, but in such they will not survive the winter. Manure must be applied every spring, and the best compost for them is a mixture of three parts of well-putrefied dung, and one part of fine coal-ashes. They should always have an open exposure, and, above all, be free from the influence of trees ; for, if beneath their shade or drip, the plants spindle, and produce worth- less heads. For planting, these must be slipped ofl^ in March or early in April, when eight or ten inches in height, with as much of their fibrous roots pertaining as possible. Such of them should be selected as are sound and not woody. The brown, hard part, by which they are attached to the parent stem, must be re- moved ; and if that cuts crisp and tender, it is evidence of the goodness of the plant ; if it is tough and stringy, the plant is worthless. Further, to prepare them for planting, the large outside leaves are taken off so low, that the heart appears above them. If they have been some time separated from the stock, or if the weather is dry, they are greatly invigorated by being set in water for three or four hours be- fore they are planted. They produce heads the same year, from July to October, and will continue to do so annually, if preserved in succeeding years, from May until June or July; consequently, it is the practice, in order to obtain a supply during the remainder of the summer and autumn, to make an annual plantation in some, milk. The heads of the second crop of arti moist soil, as the plants are not required to continue. As often as a head is cut from the perma- Rent bed, the stem must be broken down close to the root, to encourage the production of suckers before the arrival of winter. In No- vember or December they should receive their winter's dressing. The old leaves being cut away without injuring the centre or side shoots, the ground must be dug over, and part of the mould thrown into a moderate ridge over each row, close about the plants, but leaving the hearts clear. If this dressing is neglected until severe frosts arrive, or even if it is performed, each plant must be closed round with long litter or pea haulm : it is, how- ever, a very erroneous practice to apply stable- dung immediately over the plants, previous to earthing them up, as it in general induces decay. Early in February all covering of this description must be removed. In March, or as soon as the shoots appear four or five inches above the surface, the ridges thrown up in the winter must be levelled, and all the earth re- moved from about the stock to below the part from whence the young shoots spring. All of these but two, or at most three of the straightest and most vigorous, must be removed, care being taken to select from those which proceed from the under part of the stock ; the strong thick ones proceeding from its crown, havin be separated as far apart as possible without injury, the tops of the pendulous leaves re- moved, and the mould then returned, so as to cover the crowns of the stocks about two inches. Some gardeners recommend, as soon as the ground is levelled, a crop of spinach tc be sown, which will be cleared off the ground before the artichokes cover it ; but this mode of raising or stealing a crop is always in some degree injurious. Although the artichoke, in a suitable soil, is a perennial, yet after the fourth or fifth year the heads become smaller and drier. The bods, in consequence, are usually broken up after the lapse of this period, and fresh ones formed on another side. If any of the spring-planted suckers should not produce heads the same year, the leaves may be tied together and covered with earth, so as just to leave their tops visible, and, on the arrival of frost, being covered with litter, so as to preserve them, they will afford heads either during the winter or very early in spring. As a vegetable, the artichoke is wholesome, but not very nourishing ; and as a medicine, it is of little use. Sir John Hill, M. D., states having known patients cured of jaundice, by perseverance in this medicine alone, without combining its virtues with any other plant; but the statement of Sir J. Hill is of no value in the present day. The flowers of the arti- choke have the property of rennet in curdling chokes, when dried, are excellent baked in meat pies, with mushrooms, as they dress them in France. ( G. W. Juhnson's Kitchen Gar- den.) ARTICHOKE, JERUSALEM (Helmnthus iuberosus, from 'Hxioc, the sun, and uvboc, a flower). It flourishes most in a rich light soil, with an open enclosure. Trees are particularly inimi- cal to its growth. As it never ripens its seeds in England, the only mode of propagation is by planting the middle-sized tubers or cuttings of the large ones, one or two eyes being pre- served in each. These are best planted towards the end of March, though it may be performed as early as February, or even in October, and continued as late as the beginning of April. They are planted by the dibble, in rows, three feet by two feet apart, and four inches deep. They make their appearance above ground about the middle of May. The only attention necessary is to keep them free from weeds, and an occasional hoeing to loosen the surface, a little of the earth being drawn up about the stems. Some gardeners, at the close of July or early in August, cut the stems off about their middle, to admit more freely the air and light; in other respects it may oe beneficial to the tubers. The tubers may be taken up as wanted dm« ing September; and in October, or as soon as „ ^ ^_ ^ ^_ , ^ the stems have withered, entire for preserva- ha7dV'oodv*s\emrar?p7oductive'of indifferent ' tion in sand, for winter's use. They should be heads. Those allowed to remain should be raised as unbroken as possible, for the smalJ- tarefully preserved from injury. Every other , est piece of a tuber will^ vegetate, and^appear ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. ASH. in the spring; for which reason they are often allotted some remote corner of the garden; but their culinary merits certainly demand a more favourable treatment. (C. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden). The Jerusalem Artichoke ihxivQS well in the United States on soft, moist, and it is said even on peaty soils. This root is abundant in the English and French markets, where it sells for a little more than the price of Irish potatoes. The fibres of the stems may be separated by maceration similar to hemp, so as to be capa- ble of being manufactured into cordage or cloth, as is practised in some parts of Europe, where the plant is an object of field culture, especialh" on the poor and sandy soils. The artichoke will yield, with similar culture, 30 per cent, more than the potato, and if the land be poor, they will yield at least double the quantity per acre that can be raised with tiie potato, and the expense of culture is no more. They are particularly adapted to the climate and soil of the Middle and Southern States, and being hardy, can be left during the fall and winter in the ground to be rooted up by hogs, great numbers of which may be thus fattened at little expense. Or they may be taken up and given to all kind of stock, for which purpose it is more requisite to steam them than potatoes. One of the chief objec- tions urged against their culture is, that not being killed in winter by the frost, they grow among the crops which succeed them. But this is a comparatively trifling objection. The Jerusalem artichoke certainly deserves more attention from farmers than it now gets in the United States. ARTIFICIAL GRASSES. See Grasses. ARUM. Common Cuckow-pint, or Wake- Robin {Arum macutatum). See Wakk-Robin and IxniAX Tuiixip. ARUNDO. A genus of grasses in which a number of useful species was once compre- hended ; but in consequence of the altered views of botanists regarding the limits of ge- nera, it is now confined to the Arundo donux, and the species most nearly agreeing with it. These are grasses of considerable size, some- times acquiring a woody stem, and found only in the warm parts of the world. The Arundo is closely allied to the genus Saccharum, the last of which includes the sugar-cane. (Penny Cychp.) Arundo arenaria. Sea-reed, marram, starr, or bent. (See Plate 7, o.) The nutritive mat- ter of this grass affords a large portion of sac- charine matter when compared with the pro- duce in this respect of other grasses. The Elymus arenuriiis, however, affords about one- third more sugar than the present plant. The quantity of nutritive matter afforded by the Elymus arenarlns is superior to that afforded by the Arundo arenaria, in the proportion of 4 to 5. From experiments as to the produce, it would appear that the A. arenaria is unworthy of cultivation as food for cattle, out of the in- fluence of the salt spray. But from the habit of the plant in its natural place of growth, it is of great utility, particularly when combined with the Elymus arenarius, in binding the loose •ands of the sea-shore, and thereby raising a 114 natural barrier, the most lasting against 'he encroachments of the ocean upon the land. So far back as the reign of William III., the im- portant value of the Elymus urenarius and Arundo arenaria was so well appreciated as to induce the Scottish parliament of that period to pass an act for their preservation on the sea-coasts of Scotland. And these provisions were, by the British parliament in the reign of George I., followed up by other enactments, ex- tending the operation of the Scottish law to the coasts of England, and in passing further penal ties for its inviolability, so that it was rendered penal, not only for any individual, not even ex- cepting the lord of the manor, to cut the bent, but for any one to be in possession of any within eight miles of the coast. This plant is likewise applied to many economical purposes ; hats, ropes, mats, &c., being manufactured from it. (Sinclaiys Hort. Gram. Wob.) ASCARIDES. See Woiois, Ixtestixal. ASH (Frdxinus excelsior). This tree was called by the Greeks jutKiu, and by some /uixi*. The Latins, it is thought, named it Fraxinus, quia facile frangitur, to express the fragile na^ ture of the wood, as the boughs of it are easily broken. We are thought to have given the name of ash to this tree, because the bark of the trunk and branches is of the colour of wood-ashes, whilst some learned etymologists aflirm that the word is derived from the Saxon ffipe. Virgil tells us that the spears of the Ama^- zons were of this wood, and Homer celebrates the mighty ashen spear of Achilles. Many of the ancient writers highly extolled the ash. It has been asserted that serpents have such an p antipathy to the ash, that they will not ap- proach even within its morning or evening shadows; and Pliny tells us (he says upon ex- perience), that if a fire and serpent be sur- rounded by ash boughs, the serpent will sooner run into the fire than into the boughs. There are many other superstitious notions attached to the ash, which it would be foreign to our purpose to notice. There are several varieties of the ash, among which are, 1. The weeping, which forms a beautiful arbour when grafted upon a lofty stem • it is said to have originated incidentally in a field at Garntingay, Cambridgeshire: 2. The entire leaved : 3. The curl-leaved, which has a dark aspect : and, 4. The wasted. Ash plantations have lately been formed in many parts of the kingdom to a very consider- able extent. The Romans used the ash-leaves for fodder, which were esteemed better for cat- tle than those of any other tree, the elm ex- cepted: and they were also used for the same purpose, before agriculture was so well un- derstood, and our fields clothed with artificial grasses. In Queen Elizabeth's time, the in- habitants of Colton and Hawkshead Fells re- monstrated against the number of forges in the country, because they consumed all the loppings and croppings which were the sole winter food for their cattle. In the north of Lancashire the farmers still lop the tops of the ash to feed their cattle in autumn, when the grass is on the decline ; the cattle peeling off the bark as food. The Rev. Mr. Gilpin tells us, that in forests the keepers make the deer w orovSe on sum ASH. e on summer evenings on the sprays of ash, that they may not stray too far from the walk. The branches are frequently given to deer in time of frost. The ash-tree, in early days, served both the soldier and the scholar. It was also a principal material for forming the peaceable implements of husbandry, as it continues to be with us to this day, in the snape of carts, wagons, teeth and spokes of wheels, harrows, rollers, &c. The gardener recognises it in his rake-stem, spade-tree, and other tool handles. The hop-planter knows its value for poles, the thatcher for spars, the Guilder for ladders, the cooper for hoops, the turner for his lathe, the shipwright for pulleys, the mariner for oars and ship-blocks, the fisherman for tanning his nets and drying his herrings ; the wheelwright employs it usefully, and the coach-maker profitably, whilst the ca- binet-maker palms it off' upon us as green ebony. The ashes of this wood afford very good potash, and the bark is used in tanning calf-skins, and dyeing green, black, and blue. The ash-keys were formerly gathered in the green state, and pickled with salt and vinegar, and served to table for sauce. Were we to transcribe all we have seen written on the medicinal virtues of this plant, it might naturally be asked how it happens that we do not meet our ancestors upon earth, who had in this tree a cure for every malady 1 The Arabian as well as the Greek and Roman physicians, highly extol the medicinal proper- ties of the seed which the Latins named lii>ffua avig, bird's tongue, which it resembles. Drs. Taner, Robinson, and Bowles, are amongst the later physicians who commend the good quali- ties of this little seed. The common ash pro- pagates itself plentifully by the seed, so that abundance of young plants may be found in the neighbourhood of ash-trees, provided cattle are not sutTered to graze on the land. It pro- duces its leaves and ket/s in spring, and the seeds ripen in September. The foliage changes its colour in October. (Baxter's Lib. Ag. Kn.,- Phillips's Syl. Flur.) [Michaux states that eight species of ash are mentioned by botanists as indigenous to Europe, whilst a much greater number exist in the United States. Probably more than thirty species can be found east of the Mississippi. A striking resemblance runs through the whole genus ; but it is the white ash of America, the wood of which, by its strength and elasticity, is adapted to so many useful purposes, that bears the nearest resemblance to the common ash of Europe.] ASHES {Goi\i. atzgoy oz^o, dust ; Sax. apca ; Dutch and Germ, asche ; Su. Goth. aska). " Ashes contain a very fertile salt, and are the best manure for cold lands, if kept dry, that the rains doth not wash away their salt." (Mnrf. Husb.; Todd's Johnson.) The use of ashes may be traced to a very early age. The Romans were well acquainted with paring \nd burning. Cato recommends the burning oJthe twigs and branches of trees, and spreading them on the land. Palladius says, that soils so treated would require no other manure for five years. They also burnt their stubbles, a practice common among the Jews. The ancient Britons, according to Pliny, ASHES. used to burn their wheat-straw and stubble, and spread the ashes over the soil. And Con- radus Heresbachius, a German counsellor, in his Treatise on Hiishandry, published in 1570 which was translated by Googe, tells us, p. 2o) that " in Lombardy, they like so well the use of ashes, as they esteem it farre aboue any doung, thinking doung not meete to be used for the unholsomnesse thereof." It is the earthy and saline matters of the burnt soils, and combustibles emplo3'ed, which constitute the substance of the ashes employed in agriculture. Their use as a ma- nure is very general in most parts of England, although many errors are usually committed in their application, and much erroneous rea- soning wasted in accounting for their unsuc- cessful application in some districts, or their general success in others. Those usually em- ployed for agricultural and horticultural pur- poses in this country are, 1. The ashes of coal ; 2. Ashes of wood ; 3. Peat ashes ; 4. The ashes from turf, as in paring and burning; 5. The ashes of burnt clay; 6. The ashes from soap-boilers. I will remark upon these, in the order in which I have enumerated them. 1. Cotd Ashes. — The only analysis of coal that I am acquainted with is that of earth-coal, by M. Klaproth : he found it to be composed of— Volatile matter Charcoal Lime Sulphate of lime Oxide of iron - Alumina Sand ■=82-5 62 25 20 25 02 00') 0205 0100 ^=17-5 0005 I 11 05 J 100 The combustion of the coals dissipates al- most all the gaseous matters, and much of the charcoal ; and the ashes, therefore, will consist almost entirely of the various earths, a small portion of charcoal, and the saline matters of which the sulphate of lime (gypsum) and lime constitute about a fourth. The presence of these last-named substances gives to the coal-ash almost all its value as a fertilizer, for these ashes are always most beneficially applied to those crops which con- tain sulphate of lime in sensible quantities, such as to lucern, sainfoin, red-clover, &c. In the garden, they are more often employed for the purpose of forming walks, and to prevent the ravages of garden-nSice, than as a manure ; or, when they are employed as an addition to the soil, it is generally in considerable quanti- ties, on stifi" clay soils, with the intention, by the mechanical operation of the cinders, of rendering the soil more friable and permeable by the gases of the atmosphere. As a top dressing for lucern, red clover, sainfoin, and other grasses, there is no application superior to coal ashes. This fact was clearly proved in some comparative experiments made by Lord Albemarle, with a variety of manures, as a top dressing for sainfoin. He found coal ashes far superior in value to any other ferti- lizer. As a manure for gardens, it is generally employed in quantities much too large ; and thence an idea has been entertained by many gardeners, that coal ashes are minncal to plants and trees. Mr. Loudon has given seve- ral experiments of this description. In these, 116 ASHHS. ASHES. one gardener imbedded his potted chrysan- themums, by placing a "large handful" at the bottom of each of his pots, and then was surprised that other pots, not thus partly filled, produced better plants. Another "horticultural friend" states the case of a Scotch gardener, who " coated over," for two successive years, his garden with coal ashes ; and then our ex- perimentalist, who was, doubtless, a persever- ing character, finding that, with this over-dose of cinders, the " fruit trees did not thrive so well as he expected," actually took them up, and placed them under a "substratum of ashes, in order to lay them," as he said, " dry and comfortable." The trees of course grew worse, and were taken up. (Gard. Mag. vol. vi. p. 224.) It is to be lamented that such trials as these are ever brought forward; they are merely sources of erroneous conclusions, and strong proofs of the ignorance of those who have thus been wasting their master's time and property. Mr. Loudon has, in another place (Gard. Mag. vol. ii. p. 406), given some experiments of a very different character, which I shall give in his correspondent's own words : — " I sowed, on the 15th of May, 1826, three rows of Swedish turnips. No. 1, was manured with well-rotted dung from an old melon bed. No. 2, with the tops of cabbages just come into bloom. No. 3, with coal ashes. They vegetated about the same time, but the row manured with the cabbage-tops seemed to suifer most from the drought ; the season being hot and dry, they made little progress until the end of August, and in November they were a middling, or rather a bad crop. The row manured with coal ashes had, all along, a more luxuriant appearance than the other two. The rows were 20 yards in length, 3 feet apart, and 15 inches from plant to plant in the row. I took them up in February, and they weighed as fol- lows :— No. 1, 78 lbs.; No. 2, 88 lbs. ; No. 3, 121 lbs.; which is very much in favour of the coal ashes." It may be remarked, that sulphate of lime, which abounds in coal ashes, is found in very sensible quantities in turnips. In the garden, coal ashes are very useful when spread ovf r the surface, to prevent the depredations of garden-mice ; they cannot burrow through them ; and, in the case of early sown peas, it will be found that the peas covered on the sur- face of the ground, with coal ashes, say a quarter, or half an inch in thickness, will be three or four days earlier than those to which the ashes have not been applied. This may be attributed to the greater heat absorbed from the sun by the black coal ashes. Wi>od Ashes. — The wood of various trees, &c., has been analyzed by M. Saussure, Jun.; the following was the result {Chem. Rec. Veg.) : — 1000 parts of the dry wood of a young oak, yielded - . - - 1000 ditto of the hark of oak 1000 ditto of perfect oak wood - 1000 ditto of poplar wood - - - 1000 ditto of poplar hark - - - 1000 ditto of wood of hazel 1000 ditto bark of ditto - - - 1000 ditto wood of mulberry 1000 ditto bark of ditto - - - 1000 ditto wood of hornbeam 116 - 2 - 60 - 2 - 8 - 72 - 5 . 62 - 7 - 89 . 6 1000 ditto bark of ditto 1000 ditto wood of horse-chestnut 1000 ditto straw of wheat 1000 ditto branches of the pine - 134 35 43 15 100 parts of these ashes were found to consist of the following substances, in varying propor- tions. I have arranged the results in a tabular form, by which my readers will readily ascer- tain the composition of the ashes procured by the combustion of various woods, barks, &c.: — II 4 ^1 ^1 Z 9 "1 Silica. fl So Loes. 100 parts of ashes of young oak dry wood, contain - - - - 260 28 5 11225 012 1- •58 Bark of ditto, ditto - 70 4-5 )63-25 2.') 1-75 22-75 Perfect oak wood, do. 38-6 4-5 32- 2- 2-25 20 65 Poplar wood, ditto - 16-75 27- 3-3 1-5 24-5 j Poplar bark, ditto 6- 5-8 ,60- 4- 15 23-2 iWood of the hazel, do. 24-5 35- 8- 25 0-12 .S2-2 [Bark, ditto, ditto - - 12-5 5-5 '54- 0-2.5 1-75 26- Mulberry wood, ditto 21- 2-25 56- 0-12 025 20-38 (Cut in November.) 1 Bark of ditto, ditto - 7- 8-5 '45- 15-25 1-12 ?:-i3 Wood of hornbeam - 22- 23- 26- 012 2-25 26-63 Bark, ditto - - 4-5 4-5 59- 1-5 0-12 30-38 Wood of chestnut - - 9-5 — Straw of wheat - - 225 6-2 1- 61~5 1- 7-8 Branches of«the pine - 15- — — The soluble salts of these ashes are chiefly carbonate and muriate of potash. The earthy phosphates are the phosphates of lime and magnesia (or the principal salt of bones) ; the earthy carbonates are those of lime (chalk), and magnesia ; silica is the pure earth of JUnt,- and the oxides were those of iron and manga^ nese. The cultivator will readily see, by the results of these valuable investigations, the reason why wood ashes are so much superior to those from coal as a manure. The ashes from wood, he will notice, contain a very consider- able proportion of the phosphates of lime and magnesia ; those from the hazel, containing 35 per cent., and those from the wood of young oak 25 per cent., essential vegetable ingredients, of which the ashes from coal are entirely desti- tute. The phosphate of lime, it will be re- membered, is the chief fertilizing constituent of bones, in which valuable manure it is inva- riably present, in proportion varying from 37^ per cent, in the bones of the ox, to 35 per cent, in those of the hare. Wood ashes also contain a considerable proportion of carbonate of pot- ash, a salt which is more or less present in all vegetable substances, and for which, therefore, it must be highly serviceable as a food. The carbonate of potash, too, promotes the disso- lution of dead vegetable substances, and it also, from its attraction of moisture from the atmosphere, must promote an increased sup- ply to the soil. Wood ashes are often very judiciously added to common manure, the quality of which is much improved by the mix- ture. The leaves of trees, when burnt, gene- rally produce more ashes, or potashes as they are called, (from being formerly produced by burning vegetable substances in large open pots), than the branches, and the stem of the tree the least of all ; herbs produce four or five times, and shrubs three or four times as much as either. All vegetables produce more ASHES. ASHES. ashes if burnt when green than when they are previously dried. Davy {Lectures, p. 113) has given a table of the quantity of potashes fur- nished by the combustion of various common vegetable substances, which I shall here insert, as the cultivator will see by it that there is a very remarkable difference in the quantity pro- duced by equal weights of different trees and plants. 10,000 parts of the poplar produced — — beech — — — oak — — — elm — — — vine — — — thistle — — — fern — — — cow thistle — — — beans — — — vetches — — — wormwood — — — fumitory — Parts of Potashe*. - 7 - 12 - 15 - 39 - 55 - 53 - 62 - 196 - 200 - 275 - 730* - 790 Peat Ashes. — Peat ashes are made in many parts of England for the use of the fanner by burning peat in large heaps, after it has been sufficiently dried by the heat of the sun ; and for grass lands and turnips they have been found a very valuable manure. They are usually applied as a top dressing. The com- position of peat ashes more nearly resembles that of coal ashes than those from wood or vegetables — which is a result hardly to be ex- pected, when we consider that the immense beds of peat, or turf, as it is sometimes called, which are dispersed over Britain, are evidently composed of the remains of vegetable sub- stances ; trunks of trees, leaves, fruits, stringy fibres, the remains of water mosses, &c., and this in some places to a depth of 15 yards. Peat ashes were analyzed by Davy, with much care : he came to the conclusion that they owe most of their fertilizing properties to the pre- sence of gj'psum (or sulphate of lime). In the Berkshire and Wiltshire peat ashes, he discovered a considerable portion of it. The Newbury peat ashes he found to be composed of from one-fourth to one-third gypsum, and in the peat ashes of Stockbridge and Hampshire, a still larger proportion of the same substance. The other constituents of peat ashes are cal- careous, aluminous, and silicious earths, with varying quantities of sulphate of potash, a little common salt, and occasionally oxide of iron, especially in the red varieties of peat ashes. « These peat ashes," said Davy, " are used as a top dressing for cultivated grasses, particu- larly sainfoin, clover, and rye-grass. I found that they afforded considerable quantities of gj^sum, and probably this substance is inti- mately combined as a necessarj' part of their woody fibre ; if this be allowed, it is easy to explain the reason why it operates in such small quantities ; for the whole of a clover or sainfoin crop on an acie, according to my esti- mation, would afford, by incineration, only three or four bushels of gypsum. In examin- ing the soil in a field near Newbury, which was taken from below a footpath, near the gate, where gypsum could not have been artificially furnished, I could not detect any of this sub- ♦ Hence potash was formerly called " salt of worm- wood." stance m it, and at the very time I collected the soil, the peat ashes were applied to the clover in the field. I have mentioned certain peats, the ashes of which afford gypsum : but it must not be inferred from this, that all peals agree with them. I have examined various peat ashes from Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and the northern and western parts of England, which contained no quantity that could be useful ; and these ashes abound in silicious, aluminous earths, and in oxide of iron. Lord Charleville found in some Irish peat ashes, sulphate of potash. Vitriolic matter is usually found in peats ; and if the soil or substratum IS calcareous, the ultimate result is the produc- tion of gypsum. In general, when a recent potash emits a strong smell resembling that of rotten eggs (sulphuretted hydrogen), when acted upon by vinegar, it will furnish gypsum.'* {Agric. Chem. p. 336.) In the valley of the Kennet, in Berkshire, where the peat ashes are made in very consi- derable quantities, and are used by the farmers as a manure for both grass and turnips, they are sold at three-pence per bushel, and are ap- plied at the rate of 40 or 50 bushels an acre broadcast. On most grass lands there is no dressing equal to them ; and on some soils, near to Hungerford, they produce the most luxuriant crops of grass, in cases where the effects of common farm-yard manure are hardly perceptible. As a manure for turnips, they answer best in wet seasons. In very dry weather, the crops growing on the ashed land are described by the farmers as putting on a "burned" appearance. Peat ashes are extensively employed in Flanders as a manure ; they are carefully pre- served by the householders, who burn turf or peat, and are sold to the farmers by the bushel, in the same way that those of Newbury are in England. Their use is chiefly confined to clo- ver, for which purpose they are an excellent top dressing. Mr. Radcliffe, in his Agriculture of Flanders, has given an analysis of these ashes, from which the farmer will see they owe nearly all their fertilizing properties to the presence of 12 per cent, of gypsum. 100 parts are composed of — Silicious earth ------ 32 Sulphate of lime 12 Sulphate and muriate of soda - - - 6 Carbonate of lime 40 Oxide of iron ------ 3 Loss --------7 100 Paring and burning Ashes. — This is hardly the place to enter into the often argued and yet undecided question, as to the advantages of paring and burning. It is pretty universally agreed, that the practice is highly injurious to sandy soils, beneficial to clay lands, and sti . more advantageous to those of a peaty descrip- tion ; that is, to soils where there is an excess of inert vegetable remains. The cultivator of the I soil will see, by the results of the analysis by Davy of the ashes produced by the paring and I burning of three different descriptions of soil, the usual products of paring and burning. 200 ASHES. ASHES. grains of the ashes from paring and burning a chalk soil in Kent, yielded that great chemist 80 grains of chalk, 11 — gypsum, 9 — charcoal, 15 — oxide of iron, 3 — saline matter, consisting of sulphate of potash, muriate of magnesia, and ve- getable alkali, 82 — alumina(clay), and silica (flint). According to the estimate of Mr. Boys, who has published a treatise upon paring and burn- ing, it appears that on the chalk soils of Kent, about 2660 bushels of ashes are usually pro- duced by paring and burning an acre of ground, and that this quantity of ashes, which he cal- culates will weigh 172,900 lbs., will contain Chalk 69,160 lbs. Gypsum 9,509 Oxide of Iron 12,967 Saline matter ----- 2,594 Charcoal - 7,781 The second specimen of ashes was from a soil at Colerton, in Leicestershire, composed of three-fourths sand, one-fourth clay, and about 4 per cent, of chalk. 100 grains of the ashes yielded 6 grains charcoal, 3 — common salt, sulphate of potash, and a trace of vegetable alkali, 9 — oxide of iron, 82 — sand, clay, and chalk. loo The third variety of ashes was produced by paring and burning a stiff clay soil at Mount's Bay, in Cornwall. 100 grains of these were found to contain 8 grains of charcoal, 2 — common salt, and other saline matters, 7 — oxide of iron, 2 — chalk, 81 — clay and sand. 100 Such are the ashes from paring and burning. The cultivator of the soil will judge whether any of these products are required by his land, and whether all the good results of paring and burning might not be generally obtained by other means, without destroying that large portion of the vegetable matters of the turf, destroyed during combustion. In those cases, however, where it is practicable to transfer the ashes produced by paring and burning a chalk soil to a clay, or, vice versa, the ashes of a clay soil to a chalk, the result must, in general, be highly and permanently beneficial to both. The Ashes of burnt Clay. — The composition of the ashes of burnt clay, although varying according to the earthy proportions of the soil, will be found pretty generally to accord with th'^ analysis of the ashes from the clay soil, /rom Mount's Bay, given above under the head, J'aring and btirning Ashes. Clay burning is practised with decided success in many dis- tricts of England, and, in every point of view, is by far the most eligible mode of producing ashes for manure ; for the soil of the field is not thereby impoverished of its vegetable re- mains, the cla^' which is burnt being generally 118 procured from ditches, banks, hedgerows, &c. The account of clay burning, given several years since by General Vavasour, of Melbourne Hall, in Yorkshire, is so practical and satisfac- tory, that I cannot do better than quote his own words: — "I would recommend to a beginner, that the kiln should be made small, about three yards wide, and six yards long in the in- side; as he becomes more skilful, they n: ay be made larger. The walls of the kiln are to be made of sods, two feet thick at the bottom, and one foot thick at the top, leaving two Hues on each side, and one at each end, about one foot square; these walls may be built at first four feet high. We then put in the wood, be- ginning with the larger pieces at the bottom, particularly near the flues, supported by sods to keep them open, adding tops of firs, or any brushwood, until the kiln is nearly filled. It might be burnt witli coal or peat, if more con- venient. Cover the wood with a layer of clay taken from some bank or ditch in the field, and which has been digged sometime before to dry ; it is not necessary that it should be very dry. The fire is then to be lighted at the tiue by means of straw previously placed there. The greatest care is required that the fire shall not escape at the top ; but fresh clay constantly thrown on, wherever it seems likely to burn out, at the same time not overloading the kiln, so as to put out the fire. As the quantity of clay is increased, the walls should be raised, keeping them a foot higher than the clay. About six feet will be as high as can be conve- niently burned. The chief art seems to be, to procure a great mass of fire at first, and to let the fire rise through the clay as you go, to let it smoke in every part at the top, but not to burn out. My men, who burnt by contract, watch the kilns by night and day. I have applied the ashes almost exclusively for wheat, upon a clay soil, spreading them on a fallow after the last ploughing, and harrowing them in with the seed, at the rate of 30 tons per acre, on 80 acres. The longer the ashes remain upon the land, before harrowing, the better, that the lumps may fall, and mix with the soil. If the walls are well made, one end may be taken down, and, after the kiln is emptied, rebuilt for a second burning ; if not likely to stand, they may be entirely burned in a succeeding kiln. If the weather should not be moist, the kilns will burn for some weeks, as the clay will con- tinue hot long after the wood is consumed.'* Clay ashes have been used to a very con- siderable extent by Mr. Hewitt Davis, of Spring Park, near Croydon, on several of his farms, and with the most decided success. This ex- cellent farmer and land-agent has the clay dug out in pits, that it may be more readily dried. He burns in heaps ; and employs as fuel col- lections of hedge-clippings, furze, &c. ; and these he thinks it best not to use in too dry a state, since one great object in clay-burning, he is of opinion, is to produce a steady moul- dering heat, not too fast. A fire, therefore, should not be suffered to flame. The fire in the heaps usually works against the wind, when those heaps are properly made. He ap- plies about 150 bushels of the ashes per acre; pays Id. to l^d. per bushel for burning; dress- ASHES. ASHES. lug wit^ them with ^reat advantage all kinds of soil, lor turnips, &6. Mr. Poppy, of Witnesham, in a pamphlet published in 1830, after giving various direc- tions for burning clay, adds: — "Salt (the only inexhaustible universal manure, besides burnt earth) does not increase the bulk of straw; and although it may be, and is, beneficial to corn, it will not be very extensively used, be- cause its benefit is not apparent to the eye : burnt earth produces an abundance of straw. I have seen the corn so luxuriant on the sites of the heaps, where due caution was not used in laying a floor of earth under the fire, that it was rotted on the ground, and destroyed the clover plant. I have seen the beans on the site of a burnt-earth heap even too luxuriant; and potatoes and mangel wurzel a double pro- duce to the rest of the crop. There is no limit to burning earth on stiff clay soils, because the most sterile subsoil^ brought up purposely by the plough will, by the action of fire, be con- verted into useful manure. If it is converted into staple, it increases the depth of titheable soil, and acts both physically and mechani- cally." The Suffolk plan of clay-buming is similar to that adopted in Yorkshire. " The common mode of burning earth is to dig old borders, surfaces of banks, &c.; turn it over, and, when dry, cart it to a heap, and bum ; formerly much wood was used, but haulm, straw, dry weeds, and a few bushes, whins, or any thing of that kind, may be employed ; then build a circular wall of turfs around it, cover the heap slightly with turfs and earth, and set fire to it in sever.al places ; feeding with the most inflammable materials at first, afterwards clay or any earth will burn ; when all the earth is on the heap, the walls may be pulled down and thrown on, raising it by degrees as the fire ascends, in the shape of a cone, till all is con- sumed." The expense of this kind of clay-buming is thus estimated by Mr. Poppy : — £ 8. d. Labour, digging, and burning 100 loads, at 9d. per load -3 15 Filiine, \s. 6d. per score— 7s. 6d. ; carting three horses and two carts, 16». - - - - 1 3 6 Filling and spreading after burning, 34f. per acre 15 Carting, and laying oni over two acres - - 16 Toul per 100 loads £6 9 6 Or 3/. is. 9rf. per acre for 50 loads, or U. id. per load. Clay-burning, according to Mr. Poppy, is certainly not a modem Suffolk improvement. "I have constantly seen it practised for half a centurj'; and the oldest man I ever con- versed with on the subject, spoke of it as com- mon as long as he could remember. I have a workman on the farm who is, I think, upwards of eighty years of age, and has always followed tlie vocation of burning earth," The Ashes from Soap Boilers. — Soap boilers' ashes are a mixture of a peculiar description; they are principally the insoluble portion of the barilla, potashes, or kelp, employed in soap-making, mixed with cinders, lime, salt, and other occasional additions ; and also with muriate of potash, common salt, and other saline matters. The quantity of pearl and potashes import, ed into the United Kingdom is very consider- able; in 1837, it amounted to 147,329 cwis.; in 1838, to 127,101 cwts.: of barilla and alkali in the same year were imported 102,135 owls, and 72,587 cwts. {M'CuHoch's Dictionary of Commerce.) The insoluble portion of barilla consisvi principally of lime, charcoal, sand, and oxide of iron. The insoluble portion of potash, or ashes, as they are denominated by the trad?, will consist of a considerable portion of the same ingredients, added to a varying portion of phosphate of lime. Much difference of opinion has subsis-ted among farmers with re- gard to the advantages of soap-makers' ashes. It has been recommended as very useful upon strong, cold soils, on peat moss, and on cold, wet pastures. The quantity recommended to be applied per acre by Arthur Young, was 60 bushels for turnips ; to be harrowed in with the seed. For wet grass lands, six loads per acre. For wet arable soils, seven loads per acre. He describes the immediate effects as very great. For poor loamy land, ten loads per acre : the effect very satisfactor3\ Dr. Co- gan, who has written a paper on the use of soap ashes, has given this letter of one of his correspondents, whom he describes as a plain, sensible farmer: — "My experience of soaper's ashes is confined to the application of it as a top dressing on pasture land. About twelve years ago, I agreed with a soap boiler for 1500 tons of soapers' ashes. I used to apply about twenty wagon loads per acre, and a single bushing would let the whole in. I was laughed at, and abused by every body for my folly: these wiseacres alleging that my land would be burned up for years, and totally ruined ; all which I disregarded, and applied my soaper's ashes every day in the year, reeking from the vat, without any mixture whatever. "I tried a small quantity (^ay six acres), mixed up with earth ; but I found it was only doing things by halves. My land never burned, but, from the time of the application, became of a dark green colour, bordering upon black, and has given me more, but never less than two tons per acre, ever since, upon being hat/ned, forty-two days, viz. from May 31 to July 11. The ground I so dressed was twenty-four acres ; and I have had 120 sheep (hogs of the new Leicester breed), upon the ground from last August to this day (March 2); but I allowed them plenty of hay: and although they were culled in August last, as the worst I had out of 700 lambs," and selected for this ground on purpose to push them, they are now as good as the best I have." As by far the most considerable portion of soap ashes is lime and chalk, wherever lime or calcareous matter is a fertilizer to the soil, soap-makers' ashes will generally, if not in- variably, succeed ; but they must be applied in quantities nearly as large as if lime was employed. Such are the chief agricultural properties of the various ashes hitherto employed m agriculture. The research is, however, by no means nearly exhausted, for these fertilizers have showed the fate generally attendant upon 119 ASHES. all agricultural or horticultural investigations: they have been lauded as equally beneficial to every description of soil, and in all situations; or they ^have been condemned, with equal folly, by the results of blundering trials — be- gun in ignorance, continued without care, and perhaps nearly forgotten in the hurry of a con- clusion. They furnish ingredients, such as the car- bonate of lime, carbonate of potash, charcoal, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, &c., which, in limited q.uantities, enter into the composition of all plants, as an absolute con- stituent part ; and for these they must, accord- ing to the natural deficiency of the soil in these ingredients, be extremely useful. They absorb moisture from the atmosphere, too, in quantities much superior to what is generally believed, and in this property the ashes of burnt clay and coal ashes considerably ex- ceed both chalk, lime, gypsum, and even crushed rock salt, as will be seen by the re- sult of the experiments given under the head Maxuiies. Some very valuable comparative experi- ments on the influence of ashes upon the growth of potatoes were made by the Rev. Ed- mund Cartwright, of Hollenden House, in Kent. ( Com. Board of Agric, vol. iv. p. 370.) "The soil on which these experiments were made was previously analyzed: 400 grains gave — "Silicioiis sand, of different degrees of fineness ...... 280 grs. Finely divided matter - - - - 104 Loss in water -.--_. ig ASPARAGUS. Another series of experiments was made b] Dr. Cartwright, upon a cold, wet, tenaciouf clay, with burnt clay, wood-ashes, and soot; ir all of which tne clay ashes had a decided supc riority of efl'ect. The following table showf the quantity of manure applied per acre, anc the produce of the land thus fertilized. {Tram Svc. Arts, vol. xxxvi.) 400 The finely divided matter contained — "Carbonate of lime . - - . _ Oxide of iron - - . . . Loss by incineration (probably vegetable decomposing matter) .... Silex, alumina, &c. - - . _ 18 grs. 7 17 62 "It will appear," says Mr. Cartwright, "from the above analysis, that these experiments could not have been tried upon a soil better adapted to give impartial results; for of its component parts there is no ingredient (the oxide of iron possibly excepted) of sufficient activity to restrain or augment the peculiar energies of the substances employed." The beds were laid out and planted on the same day, the 14th of April ; they were manured as in the following table. These beds were each forty yards in length, and one yard wide. Every bed was planted with a single row of potatoes, "and, that the general experiment might be conducted with all possible accuracy, each bed received the same number of sets?' The potatoes were taken up on the 21st of Sep- tember wnen the produce of the beds were as follows : — Land without any manure produced, per acre .... with 60 bushels of wood-ashes - 60 bushels of wood-ashes, salt 8 bushels ... peat 363 bushels ... . . — peat ashes 368 bushels, salt 8 bushels ... — peat 363 bushels, salt, 8 bushels - 120 Potatoes in Bushels. 157 187 217 I5y 185 171 Produce per Acre. Swedes. Po'atoes. Barley. bush. T r Burnt clay, 400 bushels - 25 2 480 Wood ashes, 100 bushels 23 12 456 4 2 Soot 50 16 m 432 4 2 Soil simple ... 10 4 340 3 The operation of burning clay produces but a slight chemical alteration in the composition of the clay ; its tenacity is merely destroyed, and a portion of soot and of carbonized animal and vegetable remains are diiffused through the ashes; added to which, the ashes of the wood employed for the burning, which usually contain a quantity of phosphate of lime and potash, are mixed up with the mass. (Johnson on Fertilizers, 296; Brit. Farm. Map;., vol. L p. 58.) ASPARAGUS (from the Greek aLTTrapxy.^, a young shoot before it expands). Tliere are only two varieties, the red-topped and the green-topped; the first is principally culti- vated. There are a few sub-varieties which derive their names from the places of their growth, and are only to be distinguished for superior size or flavour, which they usually lose on removal from their native place. The soil best suited to this vegetable is a black, fresh, sandy loam, made rich by the abundant addition of manure ; it should be neither tena- cious from the too great preponderance of clay, nor too dry from a superabundance of silica, but should be retentive of moisture chiefly by reason of its richness. To raise fine roots for hot-beds, they may be raised in a much moister soil {Miller's Dictionary) ; but for natural productions this will not answer, as such plants are much shorter lived. The site of the beds should be such as to enjoy the in- fluence of the sun during the whole of the day, as free as possible from the influence of trees and shrubs, and, if choice is allowed, ranging north and south. The subsoil should be dry, or the bed kept so, by being founded on rubbish or other material to serve as a drain. The space of ground required to be planted with this vegetable for the supply of a small family is at least eight rods, if less, it will be incapa ble of affording one hundred heads at a time (Marshall says six rods will afford this quan- tity), so that part must be kept two or three days after it is cut, especially in ungenial sea- sons, to allow time for the growth of more to make a sufficient number for a dish. Sixteen rods will, in general, affi)rd two or three hun- dred every day in the height of the season. To raise plants the seed may be sown from the middle of February to the beginning of April ; the most usual time is about the middle of March. The best mode is to insert them by the dibble, five or six inches apart and an inch below the surface, two seeds to be put in each ■r hole : or they i ASPARAGUS. )le ; or they may be sown in drills made the same distance asunder, or broadcast. If dry weather, the bed should be refreshed with mo- derate, but frequent waterings, and if sown as late as April, shade is required by means of a little haulm during the meridian of hot days, until the seeds germinate. Care must be taken to keep them free from weeds, though this operation should never commence until the plants are well above ground, which will be in the course of three or four weeks from the time of sowing. If two plants have arisen from the same hole, the weakest must be removed as soon as that point can be well determined. Towards the end of October, as soon as the stems are completely withered, they must be cut down, and well-putrefied dung spread over the bed to the depth of about two inches : this serves not only to increase the vigour of the plants in the following year, but to preserve them during the winter from injury by the frost. About March in the next year, every other plant must be taken up, and transplanted into a bed, twelve inches apart, if it is intended that they should attain another, or two years' further growth, before being finally planted out ; or they may be planted immediately into the beds for production. It may be here re- marked, that the plants may remain one or two years in the seed-bed ; they will even succeed after remaining three, but if they continue four they gfenerally fail: it is, however, nearly cer- tam that they are best removed when one year old, for the earlier a plant can possibly be re- moved, the more easily does it accommodate itself to the change, and less injury is it apt to receive in the removal. Some gardeners sow the seed in the beds where they are to remain for production. This mode, too, has the sanc- tion of Miller. The time for the final removal is from the middle of February until the end of March, if the soil is dry and the season warm and forward; otherwise it is better to wait until the commencement of April. The plan which some persons have recommended, to plant in autumn, is so erroneous, that, as Miller emphatically says, the plants had better be thrown away. Mr. D. Judd has mentioned ( Trans. Hort. Soc. Loud., vol. ii. p. 236) a very determinate signal of the appropriate time for planting, which is, when the plants are begin- ning to grow : if moved earlier, and they have to lie torpid for two or three mouths, many of them die, or in general shoot up very weak. Immediately that the buds begin to swell they should be removed, and this may easily be ascertained by occasionally opening the ground down to the stool. A successful expe- riment, tried by Mr. J. Smith, gardener to the Earl of Kintore, would evince that one year old asparagus plants may be removed even as late as June. The stems of his plants, at the time of removal in that month, were twelve or fifteen inches high : they were removed and treated with the greatest care, the earth being gently pressed round the root, and water given plentifully ; but although the experiment per- fectly succeeded, for none of them died, and although they surpassed in growth those left in the seed-bed — so much so, that they might have been cul from— -yet still, for many reasons, we 16 ASPARAGUS. are justified in considering that this must h: • been tried under accidental or very favoura..-3 circumstances of soil and season, and it re- quires repeated experiments from different counties before the practice is confirmed. {Caled. Hort. Mem., vol. i. p. 71.) In forming the beds for regular production, it is customary to have them four or five feet wide. In the first instance, they have three rows of plants, in the latter four. The site of the bed being marked out, the usual practice is to trench the ground two spades deep, and then to cover it with well-rotted manure from six to ten inches deep; the large stones being sorted out and care taken that the dung lies at least six inches below the surface. To mix the manure with the soil eflfectually, Mr. D. Judd, before men- tioned, trenches his ground two feet deep, three times successively during the autumn or win- ter, at intervals of a fortnight, and then Jays it in ridges until wanted, performing the work in the absence of rain or snoAv: he justly ob- serves, that the preparation of the soil is of more consequence to be attended to than all the after management. {Tra?is. Hort. Sue. Lond., vol. ii. p. 234.) In France, however, where the beds are cele- brated for the number of years they continue in production, a pit is dug five feet in depth, and the mould that is raised from it sifted, care being taken to reject all stones, even as small as a filbert ; the best part of the mould is laid aside for making up the bed. The bed is then formed as follows, beginning at the bot- tom; six inches deep of common manure — eight of turf, very free from stones — six of manure — six of sifted earth — eight of turf — six of very rotten dung — eight of best earth ; finally, this last layer of mould is well incor- porated with the adjoining one of dung. The bed is then ready for the reception of the plants. (Dr. M'Culloch, in the Ceded. Hort. Mem.) The plants being taken from the seed- bed carefully Avith a narrow, prolonged dung- fork, with as little injury to the roots as possi- ble, they must be laid separate and even to gether, for the sake of convenience whilst planting, the roots being apt to» entangle, and cause much trouble and injury in parting them. They should be exposed as short a time as possible to the air; and to this end it is ad- visable to keep them until planted in a basket, with a little sand, and covered with a piece of mat. The mode of planting is to form drills or narrow trenches, five or six inches deep and a foot apart, cut out with the spade, th line side of -^ach drill being made perpendicu- lar, and against this the plants are to be placed, with their crowns one and a half or two inches below the surface, and twelve inches asunder: in France eighteen are al- lowed. The roots must be spread out wide in the form of a fan, a little earth being drawn over each to retain it in its position whilst the row is proceeded with. If the plants have bt^ gun to shoot, it is the practice in France io remove the sprouts, and with this precaution the planting is successfully performed as late as July, and if any of those die which weru first planted, they are replaced at that season This is a practice to be avoided as much a;. ^ L 121 . ASPARAGUS. ASPARAGUS. possible, for it obviously must weaken the plants, and be particularly detrimental to such I young plants. For the sake of convenience, j one drill should be made at a time, and the | plants inserted and covered completely before j another is commenced; the two outside drills i must be each six inches from the side of the | bed. When the planting is completed the bed is to be lightly raked over, and its outline dis- tinctly marked out. Care must be had never to tread on the beds — they are formed narrow to render that unnecessary — for every thing tending to consolidate them is injurious, as, from the length of time they have to continue without a possibility of stirring them to any considerable depth, they have a natural tend- ency to have a closer texture than is beneficial to vegetation. Water must be given occasion- ally ill dr}'- weather until the plants are estab- lished. The paths between the beds are to be tAVo and a half feet wide. Throughout the year care must be taken to keep the beds clear of weeds. In the latter end of October or com- mencement of November the beds are to have their winter dressing: the stalks must be cut down and cleared away, and the weeds hoed off into the paths, care being taken not to com- mence whilst the stems are at all green, for if they are cut down whilst in a vegetating state, the roots are very prone to shoot again, and consequently are proportionably weakened. This habit might perhaps be taken advantage of in assisting our forcing this esculent; cut- ting down the summer-produced stems of such stools as are intended for the hotbed, a consi- derable time before -they lose their verdant co- lour, would give them a natural tendency to shoot again, and consequently assist the effect of the artificial heat employed. It is generally recommended not to add any manure until the bed has been two or three years in production, and then only to apply it every other year ; but I consider it much more rational to manure regularly every year from the time of forming the bed, though in less quantity than if done every other year. I put on about two inches of well decayed hotbed. By this means a con- tinued and regular supply of decomposing matter is kept up, which is not so perfectly effected by the usual mode ; and from the ex- periments purposely instituted by Miller, we learn, that on the richness of the ground and warmth of the season the sweetness of aspara- gus depends ; in proportion to the poverty of the soil it acquires a strong flavour. The dung needs merely to be laid regularly over the bed, and the weeds, as well as some ma- nure, to be sl'ghtly pointed into the paths, some of the mould from which must be spread to the depth of two inches over the dung just laid upon the beds. In France the asparagus beds at this season are covered with six inches depth of manure and four of sea sand if pro- curable, otherwise, of river sand or fine earth. No forking is required ; but the boundaries of ihe bed must be marked out distinctly, as they should be kept, indeed, at all times. In the end of March or early in April, before the plants begin to sprout, the rows are to be itirred between to a moderate depth with the asparagus fork, running it slantingly two or 122 three inches beneath the surface, as the object is merely to ^ir the surface and slightly mix it with the dung. Great care must be taken not in the least to disturb the plants. Some gardeners recommend that the beds shoul(? only be hoed again, so fearful are they of the injury which may be done to the stools ; but if it be done carefully as above directed, the fork is the best implement to be employed, as by more effectually loosening the soil, it is by far the most beneficial in its effects upon the plants. This course of cultivation is lo be continued annually, but with this judicious modification, that earth be never taken from the paths after the first year, but these merely be covered with dung, and which is only to be slightly dug in ; for every gardener must have observed that the roots of the outer row extend into the alleys, and are consequ*'ntly destroyed if they are dug over ; and rather than that should take place, the beds should have no winter covering, unless mould can be obtained from some other source, as asparagus does not generally suffer from frost, as is commonly supposed. In May the beds are in full pro- duction of young shoots, which, when from two to fiv^e inches high, are fit for cutting, and as long as the head continues compact and firm. Care must be taken, in cutting, not to injure those buds which are generally rising from the same root, in various grades of suc- cessional growth within the ground. The knife ought to be narrow-pointed, the blade about nine inches in length, and saw-edged: the earth being carefully opened round the shoot, to observe whether any others are arising, the blade is to be gently slipped along the stalk until it reaches its extremity, where the cut is to be made in a slanting direction. It almost always occurs that the same stool produces a greater number of small heads than large ones, but the latter only should be cut; for the oftener the former are removed, the more numerously will they be reproduced, and the stools will sooner become exhausted. Great attention must be paid to the seed. For the obtaining it, some shoots should be marked and left in early spring, for those which are allowed to run up after the season of cutting is over, are seldom forward enough to ripen their seeds perfectly. In choosing the shoots for this purpose, those only must be marked which are the finest, roundest, and have the closest heads ; those having quick opening heads, or are small or flat, are never to be lefL More are to be selected than would be neces- sary if each stem would assuredly be fruitful ; but as some of them only bear male or unpro- ductive blossoms, that contingency must be allowed for. Each chosen shoot must be fas- tened to a stake, which, by keeping it in its natural position, enables the seed to ripen more perfectly. The seed is usually ripe in September, when it must be collected, and left in a tub for four or six weeks, for the pulp and husk of the berry to decay, when it may be well cleansed in water. The seeds sink to the bottom, and the refuse floats and will pass away with the water as it is gently poured off. By two or three washings the seeds will be completely cleansed ; and when perfectly dried ASPARAGUS. by exposure to the sun and air, may be stored for use. Some gardeners keep them in the pulp until the time of sowing, unless required to be sent to a aistance. To force Asparagus. — Such plants must be inserted in hotbeds as are five or six years' old. and appear of sufficient strength to pro- duce vigorous shoots : when, however, any old natural ground plantations are intended to be broken up at the proper season, some of the best plants may be selected to be plunged into a hotbed or any spare corner of the stove bark-beds. When more than ten years old, they are scarcely worth employing. To plant old stools for the main forcing crop, is, how- ever, decidedly erroneous ; for, as Mr. Sabine remarks, if plants are past production, and unfit to remain in the garden, little can be ex- pected from them when forced. The first plantation for forcing should be made about the latter end of September: the bed, if it works favourably, will begin to produce in the course of four or five weeks, and will continue to do so for about three ; each light producing in that time 300 or 400 shoots, and stfTording a gathering every two or three days. To have a regular succession, therefore, a fresh bed must be formed every three or four weeks, the last crop to be planted in March or the early part of April: this will continue in production until the arrival of the natural ground crops. The last-made beds will be in production a fortnight sooner than those made about Christ- mas. The J^A must be substantial, and propor- tioned to the size and number of the lights, and to the time of year — being constructed of stable dung, or other material. The common mode of making a hotbed is usually followed ; but, as Mr. Sabine remarks, the general ap- pearance of forced asparagus in December and the two following months, gives a suffi- cient indication of defective management. The usual mode he considers erroneous, inasmuch as that the roots of the plants come in contact with, or are over, a mass of fermenting matter; and the mode of raising potatoes practised by Mr. Hogg, which will be hereafter stated, first suggested the plan for obviating this defect, and it has been confirmed as correct by the suc- cessful practice of Mr. Ross, gardener to E. Ellice, Esq., of Brentford, wht», by planting his asparagus in the tan of his exhausted pine pits, which consist of eighteen inches of leaves, and over that the sr.me depth of tan, and applying hot dung, successively renewed, round the sides, and thus keeping up a good heat, produced in five weeks asparagus so fine, and by admitting as much air as possible during the day, of such good colour and so strong, as nearly to equal the natural ground crops. It is the best practice to plant the as- paragus in mould laid upon the tan, which, or some other porous matter, is indispensable for the easy admission of the heat from the linings. The bed must be topped with six or eight inches of light rich earth. If a small family is to be supplied, three or four lights will be sufiicient at a lime ; for a larger, six or eight will not be too many. Several hundred plants may be inserted under each, as they may be ASPARAGU crowded as close as possible ^/)gether; from 500 to 900 are capable of being -nserted under a three-light frame, according to their size. In planting, a furrow being drawn the whole length of the frame, against one side of it the first row or course is to be placed, the crowns upright, and a little earth drawn on to the lower ends of the roots ; then more plants again in the same manner, and so continued throughout, it being carefully observed to keep them all regularly about an inch below the surface ; all round on the edge of the bed some moist earth must be . banked close to the out- side roots. If the bed is extensive, it will probably ac- quire a violent heat ; the frames must there- fore be continued off until it has become regu- lar, otherwise the roots are liable to be de- stroyed by being, as it is technically termed, scorched or steam-scalded. When the heat has become regular the frames may be set on, and more earth be applied by degrees over the crowns of the plants, until it acquires a total depth of five or six inches. The glasses must be kept open an inch or two, as long and as often as possible, without too great a reduction of temperature* occurring, so as to admit air freely and give vent to the vapours, for on this depends the superiority in flavour and appear- ance of the shoots. The heat must be kept up by linings of hot dung, and by covering the glasses every night with mats, &c. The tem- perature at night should never be below 50°, and in the day its maximum at 62°. In gather- ing, for which the shoots are fit when from two to five inches in height, the finger and thumb must be thrust down into the earth, and the stem broken off at the bottom. This excellent vegetable possesses some diuretic properties. Its juice contains a peculiar crystallizable substance, which was discovered by Vauquelin and Robiquet, and named by them Asparagine. It is hard, brittle, colourless, and in the form of rhomboidal prisms : its taste is nauseous. The decoction of the plant is sometimes used on the Continent as a diuretic ; but it is rarely or never prescribed in England. M. Dubois, of Paris, has submitted asparagus berries to fermentation, and procured a spirit from them by distillation, with which he makes an excel- lent liqueur. {Diet, des Drogues ,- G. W. John- so7i''s Kitchen Ga7-den, 81 ; Miller''s Dictionori/ ; Trans. Horf. Soc. Lond. vol. ii. pp. 234, 26^, 361 ; Dr. Macrulhch, Caled. Horf. Mem. vol. i.) ASPEN TREE {Populas Tremnla). This is a branch of the poplar family, which derives its Latin name from the incessant trembling of its leaves. The English name is from the German espe, which is the general name for all poplars. The heart-shaped leaves adhere to the twigs by a long and slender stalk, :he plane of which is at right angles to that o' the leaf, and consequently allows them a J'iuch freer motion than other leaves that have their planes parallel with their stalks. This, with their cottony lining below, and their hairy surface above, causes that perpetual motion and quivering, even when we cannot perceive by other means the least breath of air stirring in the atmosphere. This trepidation is attende*) of course with a rustling noise, on which ac< 123 ASPEN, AMERICAN. AS8. count country people often call it ratiler. The aspen tree may be planted so as to ornament large grounds, but its effect is lost when crowded. When it meets the eye as a fore- ground to plantations of firs, it has both a pleasing and singular appearance, as its foliage changes with the wind from a silver gray to a bright green, for when the sight goes with ihe wind, it catches only the under side of the leaves which are covered with a pale floss ; but when it meets the current of air, the tree presents the upper surface of its foliage to the view ; thus its tints are as changeable as its nature is tremulous. Like its relative, the poplar, this tree is of speedy growth, and will thrive in any situation or soil, but worst in clay. It is cultivated to the greatest advantage on such as are inclined to be moist, without hav- ing much stagnant surface water. In such situations they sometimes grow to a conside- rable size. It is accused of impoverishing the land, and its leaves are charged with destroy- ing the grass, whilst its numerous roots, which spread near the surface, will not, it is said, permit any thing else to grow. The wood is extremely light, white, soft, and smooth, but it is of little value as timber, being chiefly used for making milk-pails, wooden shoes, clogs, and pattens, &c. From its lightness it might, however, probably be used to advantage for the construction of common field-gates. The bark is the favourite food of beavers, whilst the leaves and the stalks form the nourishment and birthplace of the tipula juniperina, a spe- cies of long-legged fly. The aspen tree will not bear lopping, like other species of the pop- lar. ( Phillip's Si/lva Flurifera.) [ASPEN, AMERICAN (Pnpulus Tremu- loides). This species of poplar is common in the northern and middle sections of the United States, and Michaux thinks, still more common in Lower Canada. The same author remarks, that in the vicinity of New York and Phila- '"'Iphia, where he observed it, it appeared to ^fer open lands of a middling quality. Its «. - dinary height is about 30 feet, and its diame- ter 5 or 6 inches. It blooms about the 20th of April, 10 days or a fortnight before the birth of the leaves. Of all the American poplars, this species ha3 the most tremulous leaves, the gentlest air being sufficient to throw them Into great agitation. The wood of the American aspen is light, soft, and without either strength or durability. The most useful purpose which the wood sub- serves, is perhaps the furnishing of thin laminoe, for the manufacture of women's hats, light baskets, &c. The tree is considered very inferior to several species of the same genus, the Virginia poplar, for example, which is three times as larg^-;, more rapid in its growth, and of a more plea ing appearance. The large American aspen {Popxthm grandl- dentala), belongs rather to the Northern and Middle, than to the Southern Slates. In the most northerly districts it is rather a rare tree, so that a person may perhaps travel several days without seeing one. For this reason, Michaux thinks it has been confounded with the preced- ing species, which is more multiplied. It sur- passes the trembling aspen in height, on which 124 account it has received from Michaux ita name. It grows as favourably on uplands as on the border of swamps, and attains a height of about 40 feet, with 10 or 12 inches in di- ameter. In the spring, the leaves are covered with a thick white down. The wood is light, soft, and unequal to that of the Virginia and Lombardy poplars. It possesses few, if any valuable qualities for the arts, and is only valuable for its agreeable foliage, which enti- tles it to a place in yards and ornamental gap- dens. {Michmix's Am, St/lva.)] ASS (Fr. Ane ; Ger. Esel; It. Asino ; Lat. Asinus). A well-known and useful domestic animal, whose services might be rendered even still more useful for various purposes of hus- bandry, if it were properly trained and taken care of. Buffbn has well observed, that the ass is despised and neglected, only because we possess a more noble and powerful animal in the horse; and that if the horse were unknown, the care and attention which are lavished upon him being transferred to his now neglected and despised rival, would have increased the size, and developed the mental qualities of the ass, to an extent which it would be difficult to anticipate, but which Eastern travellers, who have observed both animals in their native climates, and among nations by whom they are equally valued, and the good qualities of each justly appreciated, assure us to be the fact. Indeed the character and habits of these two quadrupeds are directly opposed in almost every respect The horse is proud, fiery, and impetuous, nice in his tastes, and delicate in constitution; like a pampered menial, he is subject to many diseases, and acquires artifi- cial wants and habits which are unknown in a state of nature. The ass, on the contrary, is humble, patient, and quiet, and bears correction with firmness. He is extremely hardy, both with regard to the quantity and quality of his food, contenting himself with the most harsh and disagreeable herbs, which other animals will scarcely touch. In the choice of water he is, however, very nice ; drinking only of that which is perfectly clear, and at brooks with which he is ac- quainted. This animal is very serviceable to poor cot- tagers, and those who are not able to buy or keep horses ; especially where they live near heaths or commons, the barrenest of which will keep the ass, who is contented with any kind of coarse herbage, such as dry leaves, stalks, thistles, briers, chaff, and any sort of straw. Animals of this sort require very little looking after, and sustain labour, hunger, and thirst, beyond most others. They are seldom or never sick ; and endure longer than most other kinds of animals. They may be made useful in husbandry to plough light lan'!b, to carry burdens, to draw in mills, to fetch water, cut chaff, or any other similar purposes. They are also very serviceable in many cases for their milk, which is excellent for those who have suffered from acute diseases, and are much weakened; and they might be of much more advantage tD the farmer, were they used, as they are in foreign countries, for the pur pose of breeding mules. ASS. ATMOSPHERE The subjugation of the ass appears, from the records of the Bible, to have preceded that of the horse ; and we infer from the same autho- rity, that this subjugation took place prior to that of the dog. The structural difference between the horse and the ass are trifling ; perhaps that on which the very diflerent tones emitted by the voice depends is one of the most striking. In all other essential points the organization of the horse and ass is the same ; and, with the ex- ception of the lengthened ears of the ass, their form, size, and proportions in a wild state, they diflfer but little ; consequently, they possess conditions more favourable to the multiplica- tion of species than those afforded by any other nearly allied animals. The ass is, pro- perly speaking, a mountain animal ; his hoofs are long, and furnished with extremely sharp rims, leaving a hollow in the centre, by which means he is enabled to tread with more secu- rity on the slippery and precipitous sides of hills and precipices. The hoof of the horse, on the contrary, is round and nearly fiat under- neath, and we accordingly find that he is most serviceable in level countries; and indeed ex- perience has taught us that he is altogether unfilled for crossing rocky and sleep moun- tains. As, however, the more diminutive size of the ass rendered him comparatively less important as a beast of burden, the ingenuity of mankind early devised a means of remedy- ing this defect, by crossing the horse and ass, and thus procuring an intermediate animal, uniting the size and strength of the one with the patience, intelligence, and sure-footedness of the other. The varieties of the ass in countries favour- ab-C 10 their developement are great. In Guinea the asses are large, and in shape even excel the native horses. The asses of Arabia (says Chardin) are perhaps the handsomest animals in the world. Their Coat is smooth and clean; they carry the head elevated, and have fine and well formed legs, which they throw out grace- fully in walking or galloping. In Persia, also, they are finely formed, some being even stately, and much used in draught and carrying bur- dens, while others are more lightly propor- tioned, and used for the saddle by persons of quality, frequently fetching the large sum of 400 livres ; and being taught a kind of easy ambling pace are richly caparisoned, and used only by the rich and luxurious nobles. With us, on the contrary, the ass unfortunately ex- hibits a stunted growth, and appears rather to vegetate as a sickly exotic, than to riot in the luxuriant enjoyment of life like the horse. The diseases of the ass, as far as they are known, bear a general resemblance to those of the horse. As he is more exposed, however, and left to live in a state more approaching to that which nature intended, he has few dis- eases. Those few, however, are less attended to than they ought to be ; and it is for the ve- lerninary practitioner to extend to this useful and patient animal the benefit of his art, in common with those of other animals. The ass is seldom or never troubled with vermin, pro- bably from the hardness of its skin. {Blaine's Encyc. Rural Sports.) ASTRINGENT (^s/m?go, Lat.). In farriery, a term applied to such remedies as have the property of constringing or binding the parts. ATMOSPHERE. The name given to the elastic invisible fluid, which, to a considerable height, surrounds our globe. It is composed chiefly of two simple or undecomposed gases, viz. : — Azote, or Oxygen iitrogen 7916 20 84 100- It contains, also, about Tyhis^^ of its weight of carbonic acid gas, or fixed air, a considera- ble portion of aqueous vapour (which is always the most considerable in amount in dry wea- ther), and occasionally foreign substances, called Aerolites. The average proportion m which these exist in the atmosphere, are — Air Watery vapour Carbonic acid gas 100- {Thomson's Chem. vol. iii. 181.) It fulfils a very essential ofiice with regard to the growth of plants. (See Gases, their Use to Vege- MoNTHLT Atmospherical Observatiohts. Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Deo. j Barometer, average mean \ 29-921 30-067 29 843 29S81 29-888 30036 29-874 29-891 29-931 29-774 29-776 1 29-693 height in inches Highest - Lowest 3 30-770 28-890 30-820 29 170 30 770 28-870 30-540 29-200 30 380 29-160 30-460 29600 30-300 30-260 29-390 29-350 30-410 29410 30610 28-740 30-270! 30-320 29 080 129- 1 ':0 Thermometer, average! mean temperature in f 31 1 38- 43-9 49-9 54- 58-7 61- 616 57-8 48-9 42-9 393 degrees Highest - Lowest J 52- 11- 53- 21- 66- 24- 74- 29- 70- 33- 90- 37- 76- 42- 82- 41- 76- 36- 68- 27- 62- 23- 55-. 17- Rain, mean quantity inches Evaporation of earth in") in| 1-483 0-413 0-746 0-72 1-440 1-488 1-786 2-290 1-653 0-286 1-830 3-760 2-516 3-293 1-453 3-327 2-193 2620 2073 1-488 2-400 O-770 2-426 0-516 inches (mean) fVinds in days : North - - - North-east - East . _ - Houth-east - South - - - South-west - West - North-west - ll 2i If 6i 6i 4i 2t n 5 24 4 2 6i- 4i 2,^ f 4 5i 5i 3 4 4i 4 1 3 3 5 I' 4 1 f 5 21 3 2 4 2i 7 5 1 n 3 2i 6 U 2 2 4 1 4 6 6 6 » H 2 3i 2- H 5 6i 3 3 3 2 3 6 5 6 2i I* 2 8> 6 4 1 £ 2 125 ATMOSPHERE ATMOSPHERE TATioiT ) The composition of the atmosphere is always the same, although it has been ana- lyzed when obtained from the most elevated mountains, the lowest marshes, from crowded cities, and the surface of the ocean, in all winds, and in all states of the barometer. The following table exhibits the atmosphe- ric mean temperatures in various parts of the United States and Territories, not only for the whole year, but for each month. It is abridged from Dr. Forry's Treatise upon the Climato- logy of the United States. The mean tempe- ratures of some other celebrated places in the old world, are subjoined for the purpose of comparison. The mean temperatures of the various mili- tary posts, are the results of 90 observations for each month, and 1095 for each year. The rule followed for computing the mean, was that adopted by the regents of the University of New York, viz.: — Take the lowest morning temperature, the highest afternoon tempera- ture, and the temperature an hour after sunset. The mean of these observations for the day is found, by adding together the first, twice the second and third, and the first of the next day, and dividing the same by six. To most common observers this will appear rather an intricate mode of attaining an object which is so con- veniently, and, in general, so satisfactorily ac- complished by the very simple process of dividing the sum of the highest and lowest ob- servations during the day. Strictly speakings the mean temperature of a day is equal to the sum of the temperature observed by the ther- mometer every hour or every minute, divided by the number of hours or minutes in the day. The hourly changes of atmospheric tempera- ture have actually been observed for a con- tinued year in some instances, among which we may mention that at the Arsenal at Frank- ford, near Philadelphia, in the year 1835 — 6, conducted under the superintendence of Capt. Mordecai, of the United States army. The results of these hourly observations are pub- lished in the 19th volume of the Journal of the Franklin Institute, New Series. PLACES OF OBSERVATION MEAN TEMPERATURE OF EACH MONTH. I I Fort Vancouver, Oregon Territory, - • - Fort Brsdy, Outlet of Lake Superior, - • Hancock Barracks, Houlton, Maine, - - • Fort .Snelling, at the confluence of the St Peter's aiiid Mississinpi, Fort Sullivan, Eastpori, Maine, - . - • Fort Howard, Green b^7, Wisconsin, • • Fort Preble, Portland, Jiiine, Fort Niagara, Yojngsviwn, N. Y. • • • • Fort Constitution, Pcrts:uouth, N. H. • - Fort Crawford, Prairie du Chien, - • • - Council Blufff, near the junction of the Platte and Missouri, Fort Wolcolt, Newport, R. I. Fort Armstrong, Rock Island, Illinois, - - West Point, New York. Fort Trumbull. New London, Conn., • • I Fort C'>lunibus, New York Harbour, - - • i Fort Mifflin, near Philadelphia, .... Washington City, U. C. Jett'erson Barracks, near St. Louij, • - - Fort Monroe. Old Point Comfort, Va., - - Fort Gibson, Arkansas, Fort Johnston, Coast of North Carolina, - Augusta Arsenal, Georgia, Fort Moultrie, Charleston Harbor, - - • Fort Jessup, near Sabine River, Louisiana, • Cantonment Clinch, near Pensacola, - - - Petite Coquille, near New Orleans, • • . Fort Marion, St. Augustine, Florida, • • . Fort King, Interior of East Florida, • • - Fort Broiike, 'J'ampa Bay, Florida, . • • Key West, or Thompson's Island ;— 43-— 43 22-28 26 48 Foreign Climates, designed for t?te purpott of comparison. Edinburgh, Scotland, • London, Enghnd, - • Environs of London, • Paris, France, - - • Nice. Italy, - - . - Montpelier, France, Home, Italv, - • Naples. Italy, - - Madeira, Island of Cairo, EgypI 39 54 39-60 1 45-84 40-44 42-64 48 — 78 41-51 46 89 40-50;43-5O 49-6(1 51-45;r.7-— 45— 47— '53-— 60— 49-45 5205 56-40 64-50 54-50 52-— :5--— 166-50 58 50 61-06 62-S0:63— 56-12 64-58 77-90l78-26 45-52 33-1 4V84 32-80 49 27 33-36 47-22 35 -831 27 -35 47 51 34 29(21 — 49-28 38-4n'3l-32 5S-94 48 l2]39-32 59-09! 50-43 40-32: 33- ■>8 11-60 45-45 330b{l804 65-24 53 65,38 50 24 21 J-e.'* 54-45 43-39'36-53 j vJ-67 64-58! 39-82 i 30-53 i e2-87 53-11 43-64 38-10 ^68 02 5810 ;46-70 43-95 ! i 66-72|55-S2'44-05l35'g6 | ■ 73-35 57 20;44.40i37-l6 ' )68-50!57-l7;44-93',39-36 I 6S-57;56-84;47-37|4-'07 ) 72 72 '63-78 53-49 47-82 65-95! 54-12 46-20 69-11 160-13:53 83 65-84156-36152-49 67-32 57-56i 52-81 68 29 58-55;.53 17 70-27 b1 -13 5807 72-12 6?-09|61-68 73-83 63-55(60-92 r2-81 6l-9si59-'25 "5-23 69-06 64-42 76-76 73-23 "0 08 57-74 55-61 48 37 52 58-80 51-78 61-35 66-22 50-24 65-20160-40 '52-40 74-30169-35 61 85 75— 171-— 61-— 74-02(69-50 63-60 76-50 72-50 65-—' 73-— 71-50 67 50 85-82 79 16 72-32 43-47 40-93 44-20 53-70 52— 58-80 64-50 6270 62-961 38-50 39-58 37 66 39-20 48-60 46 — 4962 .50 50 60 50 61-34 For further information relative to weather, and atmospheric conditions in general, see Ba- ROMKTKR, Climate, Temperature, &c. ATROPHY. In farriery, a morbid wasting and emaciation, attended with a great loss of strength in animals. AUGER, BORING. An implement for bor- ing into the soil. An auger of the above kind, wnen made of a large size, and with different pieces to fix on to each other, may be very usefully apniieJ to try the nature of the under soil, the discovering springs, and drawing off -2« water from lands, &c. In order to accomplish the first purpose, three augers will be neces- sary ; the first of them about three feet long, the second six, and the third ten. Their diame- ters should be near an inch, and their bits large, and capable of bringing up part of the soil they pierce. An iron handle should be fixed crossways to wring it into the earth, from whence the instrument must be drawn up as often as it has pierced a new depth of about six inches, in order to cleanse the bit, and examine the soil. AUGER, DRAINING. A VENA. AUGER, DRAINING. An instrument em- ployed for the purpose of boring into the bot- toms of drains or other places, in order to discover and let off water. It is nearly similar j to that made use of in searching for coal or | other subterraneous minerals. The auger, shell, or wimble, as it is variously called, for excavating the earth or strata through which it passes, is generally from two and a half to three and a half inches in diameter ; the hollow part of it one foot four inches in length, and constructed nearly in the shape of the wimble used b)' carpenters, only the sides of the shell come closer to one another. The rods are made in separate pieces of four feet long each, that screw into one another to any assignable length, one after another as the depth of the hole requires. The size above the auger is about an inch square, unless at the joints, where, for the sake of strength, they are a quarter of an inch more. There is also a chisel and punch, adapted for screwing on, in going through hard gravel, or other metallic substances, to accelerate the passage of the auger, which could not other- wise perforate such hard bodies. The punch is often used, when the auger is not applied, to prick or open the sand or gravel, and give a more easy issue to the water. The chisel is an inch and a half or two inches broad at the point, and made very sharp for cuuing stone; and the punch an inch square, like the other part of the rods, with the point sharpened also. As it is remarked by Johnstone, in his ac- count of Elkington's mode of draining, to judge when to make use of the borer is a difficult part of the business of draining. Many who have not seen it made use of in draining, have been led into a mistaken notion, both as to the manner of using it and the purpose for which it is applied. They think, that if by boring indiscriminately through the ground to be drained, water is found near enough the sur- face to be reached by the depth of the drain, the proper direction for it is along these holes where water has been found ; and thus make it the first implement that is used. The con- trary, however, in practice, is the case, and the auger is never used till after the drain is cut; and then for the purpose of perforating any retentive or impervious stratum, lying be- tween the bottom of the drain and the reser- voir or strata containing the spring. Thus it greatly lessens the trouble and expense that would otherwise be requisite in cutting the trench to that depth to which, in many in- stances, the level of the outlet will not admit. The manner of using it is simply thus : — in working it, two, or rather three men, are ne- cessary. Two stand above, on each side of the drain, who turn it round by means of the wooden handles, and when the auger is full they draw it out ; and the man in the bottom of the trench clears out the earth, assists in pulling it out, and directing it into the hole, and who can also assist in turning with the iron handle or key when the depth and length of rods require additional force to perform the operation. The workmen should be cautious in boring not to go deeper at a time, without drawing, than the exact length of the shell, otherwise the earth, clay, or sand, through which it is boring, after the shell is full, makes it very difficult to pull out. For this purpose the exact length of the shell should be regu- larly marked on the rods, from the bottom up- wards. Two flat boards, with a hole cut into the side of one of them, and laid alongside of one another over the drain, in the time of boring, are very useful for directing the rods in going down perpendicularly, for keeping them steady in boring, and for the men stand- ing gn when performing the operation. AVENA. A genus of grasses; the oat- grass. Some of the species may be cultivated to advantage in suitable situations, intermixed with a due proportion of other grasses. AvenaJIavescens. Golden oat, or yellow oat- grass. This is one of those grasses which never thrives when cultivated simply by itself: it requires to be combined with other grasses to secure its continuance in the soil, and to obtain its produce in perfection. It thrives best in England when combined with the Hor- deum pratenae (meadow barley), Cynosurus cristatus (crested dog's-tail), and Anthoxtmtum odoratum (sweet-scented vernal -grass). It affects most a calcareous soil, and that which is dry. It grows naturally, however, in al- most every kind of meadow : it is always present in the richest natural pastures in Eng- land where its produce is not, however, very great, nor its nutritive qualities considerable. The nutritive matter it affords from its leaves, (the properties of which are of more import- ance to be known than those of the culms, for a permanent pasture grass,) contains propor- tionally more bitter extractive than what is con- tained in the nutritive matters of the grasses with which it is more generally combined in na- tural pastures, and which have just now been mentioned. This latter circumstance is the chief claim it has to a place in the composition of the produce of rich pasture land ; but more particularly, if the land be elevated, and with- out good shelter, this grass becomes more valuable, as it thrives better under such cir- cumstances than most other grasses, and sheep Deseriplion of Gnus. Avetid fiaveseena, in flower in seed ripe latter-math A frateneis, in flower , in seed, ripe - Jl. fubeseens, in flower , in seed, ripe Clayey loam Sandy loam Green Produce per Acre. Ibi. 8,167 8 12,251 4 4,083 12 6,806 4 9,528 12 15,654 6 6,806 4 Dry Produce per Acre. lbs. 2,858 10 4,900 8 1,871 11 2,858 10 5,870 6 1,361 4 Produce per Acre of Nutjitive Matter. lbs. 478 9 430 11 79 12 239 4 148 14 366 14 212 11 (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.) ^ 127 AVENA. AVENUE. eat it as readily as they do most others. The need is very small and light ; but it vegetates I'reely if sown in the autumn, or not too early in the spring. I have sown the seeds of this grass in almost every month of the year, and after making due allowance for the state of the weather, the third week in May, and the first week of August to September, were evidently the best. It flowers in England in the fiist, and often in the second week of July, and ri- pens the seed in the beginning of August. The value of the grass, at the time of flowering, is to that at the time the seed is ripe, as 5 to 3. The value of the grass, at the time of flower- ing, exceeds that of the latter-math, as 3 to 1 ; and the value of the grass at the time the seed is ripe is to that of the latter-math, as 9 to 5. Avena pratcnds. Meadow oat-grass. This species of oat-grass is much less common than the Avena pubescens, or Avena Jluvescens. It is found more frequent on chalky than on any other kind of soils: I have also found it in moist meadows as well as on dry heaths. This property of thriving on soils of such opposite natures is not common to the diflTer- ent species of grass. When this grass was planted in an irrigated meadow, the produce did not appear to exceed that which it afford- ed on a dry elevated soil, though it appeared more healthy, by the superior green colour of the foliage; and it thus appears to thrive under irrigation. The produce and nutri- tive powers, however, seem to be inferior to many other species of the secondary grasses. The produce or value of the yellow oat is su- perior to that of the meadow oat in the pro- portion nearly of 7 to 3. The downy oat-grass is also superior to the meadow oat-grass in the quantity of nutritive matter it affords from the crops of one season, in the proportion nearly of 3 to 2. From these facts and obser- vations it cannot justly be recommended for cultivation in preference to either of the two species with which it has now been compared. Its nutritive matter contains a less proportion of bitter extractive and saline matters than any other of the oat-grasses that have been submitted to experiment. It flowers in July, and the seed is ripe in August. Avena puheficens. Downy oat-grass. [See Plate 6, bJ] This grass has properties which recommend it to the notice of the agriculturist, being hardy, and a small impoverisher of the soil ; the reproductive power is also consider- able, though the foliage does not attain to a great length if left growing. Like the Poa prafensis, it seldom or never sends forth any flowering culms, after the first are cropped, which is a property of some value for the pur- pose of permanent pasture, or dry soils, whi^-h are sooner impoverished by the growth of plants than those that are moist. Among the secondary grasses, therefore, I hardly know one whose habits promise better for the pur- pose now spoken of. The nutritive matter it aflfords contains a greater proportion of the bitter extractive principle than the nutritive matter of those grasses that aflfect a similar soil, which lessens its merits in those respects and must prevent its being employed in any considerable quantny as a constituent of a 128 mixture of grasses for laying down such soils to grass. In one part of Woburn Park, where the soil is light and silicious, the downy oal grows in considerable abundance. The downy hairs which cover the surface of the leaves of this grass when growing on poor, dry, or chalky soils, almost disappear when cultivated on richer soils. The crop at the time of flower- ing is superior to that at the time the seed is ripe, in the proportion nearly of 5 to 3. The grass of the latter^math, and that at the time the seed is ripe, are of equal proportional va- lue. It flowers in the second or third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the begin- ning or in the middle of July. [Avena elatior. See Axoks Grass. Avena saliva. Cultivated oats. Avena sterllis. Animated oats, grown in gardens as a curiosity.] AVENS, COMMON, or HERB BENNET (Geuni urbanum). An indigenous perennial plant, which grows plentifully in woods and about shady dry hedges, psoducing small bright yellow flowers from May till August. The stalks of this useful plant attain two feet high, they are erect, round, finely, hairy branched at the upper part, bearing several flowers. The root consists of a root-stock and many stont brown fibres, which are astringent, and in some degree aromatic in spring. They are said to impart an agreeable clove-like flavour when infused in beer or wine. In medicine, the powdered root of the common avens has been employed with good effect in conjunction with Peruvian bark, or quinine, in cases of ague and intermittent fever, and it is also valuable in long-standing cases of diarrhoea, and in the last stage of dysentery. The dose is from thirty to sixty grains. Sheep are extremely fond of its herbage, which may likewise, when young, be used for culinary purposes, and especially in the form of salad. It is stated (Trans, of Swed. Acad.) that if a portion of the dried root be placed in a bag and hung in a cask of beer, it will prevent the beer from turning sour. There is a variety of this plant called the great-flowered avens. (Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 429 ; Wil/ich's Dom. Ency.) AVENS, WATER. A variety of the before- named plant, which is common in moist mea- dows and woods, especially in mountainous C(?untries, and is not rare in the north of Eng^ land, Scotland, Wales, nor even in Norfolk, It has drooping flowers, which distinguish it from the common avens. It is readily pro- duced by transplanting the wild roots into a dry gravelly soil, by which the flowers become red, as well as double and proliferous, with many strange changes of leaves into petals, and the contrary. (Smith's Eng. Flora.) AVENUE (Fr.). An alley or walk planted on each side with trees. These kinds of walks were formerly much more the fashion than they are at present. When they are to be made, the common elm answers wery well for the purpose in most grounds, except such as are very wet and shallow, and is preferred to j most other trees, because it bears cutting, I heading, or lopping in any manner. The rough j Dutch elm is approved by some, because of its . quick growth ; and it is a tree that will nc ' AVERAGES. AZOTE. oj'y bear removing very well, but that is green in the spring almost as soon as any plant what- ever, and continues so equally long. It makes an incomparable hedge, and is preferable to all other trees for lofty espaliers. The lime is very useful on account of its regular growth and fine shade ; and the horse-chesnut is pro- per for such places as are not too much ex- posed to rough winds. The common chesnut does very well in a good soil, or on warm gra- vels, as it rises to a considerable height when planted somewhat close ; but, when it stands single, it is rather inclined to spread than grow tall. The beech naturally grows well with us in its wild state, but it is less to be chosen for avenues than others, because it does not bear transplanting well. The abele may also be employed for this use, as it is adapted to al- most any soil, and is the quickest grower of any forest tree. It seldom" fails in transplant- ing, and succeeds very well in wet soils, in which the others are apt to suffer. The oak is but seldom used for avenues, because of its slow growth. The old method of planting avenues was by regular rows of trees, a practice which has been adhered to till lately; but now, when they are used, a much more ornamental way of planting them is adopted, which is by setting the trees in clumps or platoons, making the opening much wider than before, and placing tlie clumps of trees from one to three hundred feet distant from each other. In these clumps there should alwavs be planted either seven or nine trees; but it must be observed that this method is only proper to be practiced where the avenue is of considerable length, as in short walks such clumps will not appear so sightly as single rows of trees. The avenues made by clumps are the most suitable for large parks. The trees in the clumps in such should be planted thirty feet asunder; and a trench thrown up round each clump to prevent the deer from coming to the trees and barking them. AVERAGES (Fr. aver,- Lat. averagium). In the corn trade, is the average amount of the prices at which the several kinds of corn are sold in the chief corn markets of England, as ascertained by the returns of certain inspec- tors, according to the act of the 9 G. 4, c. 60. (See Conx Laws.) AVERDUPOIS, or AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT (^Avolr du poid, Fr., Dr. Johnson says, but he should have added, averia ponde- m, Lat., literally goods of weight, goods sold by weight ; aver in old French, and avoir in modern, signifying goods, like the low Lat. averiiim, averuniy avere). That kind of weight commonlj'^ made use of for weighing most kinds of large and coarse goods, as cheese, butter, salt, hops, flesh, wool, &c. According to it, sixteen drachms make an ounce, sixteen ounces one pound, one hundred and twelve pounds one hundred weight, and twenty hun- dred weight one ton. It is most commonly written avoirdupois. AVIARY (Lat. avis, a bird). A place set apart for the feeding and propagating birds. AWNS (Goth, ahana; Sw. agri). The nee- dle-like bristles which form the beards of 17 wheat, barley, and other grasses. T\ie word is in some parts of England pronounced ails and i/es. AXIS (Lat., axel, Sw.), or axle-tree. The strong piece of wood or iron which supports the weight of wagons, carts, carriages, &c., and round the extremities of which the wheels turn. AZALEA. American honey-suckle ; the white-flowered (Lat. Azalea viscosa). A hardy shrub growing three feet high, and blowing its white flowers in June and July. Azalea nudi- Jlira, also a native of North America, grows three feet high, with red flowers, blooming in May and June ; and Azalea pontica, a native of the neighbourhood of the Black Sea, bloom- ing yellow flowers in May : it grows three feet high. These hardy shrubs love shade and a moist soil. Propagate by layers and suckers : the seed does not ripen well in this climate. Do not prune, only cut out the dead wood. Remove the young well-rooted plants with a good ball of earth in the autumn or early in spring. AZOREAN FENNEL {Anethum azoricum, or Finochio ; from Av^bov, on account of its run- ning up straight). A plant kept in kitchen gardens ; it is not in much esteem here, its peculiar flavour being agreeable to few pa- lates. In Italy, and some other countries, it is served with a dressing like salads. AZOTE is as commonly known by the name of nitrogen. The name of azote (derived from the Greek at, from, and ^ot, life), was given to it by the French chemists, from animals being unable to breathe it [in a state of purity.] This gas, which constitutes 79-16 parts per cent, of the air we breathe, was discovered in 1772 by Dr. Rutherford. Before his time there had been much confusion with regard to the composi- tion of the atmospheric and other gases ; they were chiefly regarded by the old chemists as being all of the same kind, but mixed with various unknown substances. When all the oxygen is absorbed from a confined portion of atmospheric air, the remainder is nearly pure azote ; it is known only in the state of gas. Azotic gas is invisible and elastic, and has no smell; its specific gravity is 0.969. Animals cannot breathe it [in a pure state :] when they are placed in a jar of it, they die as rapidly as if immersed in water ; neither will it support combustion. It unites with oxygen in various proportions ; thus,— Parts. Parts. 1-75 azote and 2 oxygen forms nitrous gas. 1-75 — 5 — nitric acid, or aquafortis. 1-75 _ 4178 — nitrous acid. Azote, or nitrogen, abounds in animal sub stances, for it forms 16-998 per cent, of gela tine ; 15-705 per cent, of albumen (white of eg%), &c., and these are commonly present in all animal substances. Azote unites also with hydrogen gas, and forms the volatile alkali ammonia, which is composed of— Azote - Hydrogen 26 parts 74 Now, as both these substances exist m am mal matters, when such substances putrefy, or are subjected to the destrucuve distillation, AZOTE. AZOTE. they rendily unite and form the volatile alkali ammonia. Azote exists also in gluten; and wherever this substance is present in vegetable matter, there, in consequence, azote is to be found, but otherwise it does not often enter into the composition of vegetable substances. And yet it is worthy of remark, that although azote can- not be regarded as a direct food of plants, yet most of those substances which contain it are exceedingly grateful to them, such as ammo- nia, saltpetre, animal matter, &c. ; and again, vegetables certainly emit, and probably inhale, this gas. Thus some plants of Vinca minor being made to vegetate in a confined portion of air for six days, and the composition of the air being ascertained by M. Saussure (Rech. Chirn. p. 40), the following were the results in cubic inches : — Composition of atmosphere, when put in. when lalien out. Azote - - 211-92 - - - 218.95 Oxygen - - 5633 - - - 7105 Carbonic acid - 21.75 - - - 000 290- 290. The plants, therefore, had evidently in- creased the proportion of azote and oxygen, but had entirely exhausted the air of its car- bonic acid gas. Similar experiments made with the Mentha aguafica, Cactus opuntia, Lythrum salacaria, and the Finns genevensis, afforded similar re- sults. Azote, therefore, evidently fulfils a more con- siderable office in vegetable economy than we are yet exactly aware of, and it is more than probable that considerable discoveries are yet to be made in the investigation of its uses to vegetable life. See Gases, their use to vege- tation. (Davy's Chem. Phil. p. 255 ; Thomson's Chem.) [The chief element contained in vegetable substances resorted to for the support of ani- mals, is azote or nitrogen. On the other hand we see, in the vegetable kingdom, plants ap- propriating carbon as the prime element of their structure. The quantity of food which animals take for their nourishment diminishes or increases in the same proportion as it con- tains more or less of the substances yield- ing nitrogen. A horse may be kept alive by feeding it with potatoes, which contain a very small quantity of nitrogen; but life thus sup- ported is a gradual starvation ; the animal in- creases neither in size nor strength, and sir\ks unde"- every exertion. The quantity of rice which an East Indian eats astonishes the Eu- ropear. oi American ; but the fact that rice contains less nitrogen than any other grain, at once explains the circumstance. " We cannot suppose," says Liebig, " that a plant would attain maturity, even in the rich- est vegetable mould, without the presence of matter containing nitrogen ; since we know that nitrogen exists in every part of the vege- table structure. The first and most important question to be solved, therefore, is : How and in what form does nature furnish nitrogen to vegetable allumen, and gluten, to fruits and "This question is susceptible of a very sun pie solution. " Plants, as we know, grow perfectly well in pure charcoal, if supplied at the same time with rain-water. Rain-water can contain nitro- gen only in two forms, either as dissolved at- mospheric air, or as ammonia. Now, the nitro- gen of the air cannot be made to enter into combination with any element except oxygen, even by employment of the most powerful chemical means. We have not the slightest reason for believing that the nitrogen of the atmosphere takes part in the processes of as- similation of plants and animals ; on the con- trary, we know that many plants emit the nitro- gen, which is absorbed by their roots, either in the gaseous form, or in solution in water. But there are, on the other hand, numerous facts, showing that the formation in plants of sub- stances containing nitrogen, such as gluten, takes place in proportion to the quantity of this element which is conveyed to their roots in the state of ammonia, derived from the pu- trefaction of animal matter. "Ammonia is a compound gas, consisting of one volume of nitrogen and three volumes of hydrogen. It is produced during the de- composition of many animal substances. It is given off when sal-ammoniac and lime are rubbed together. It was formerly called vola- tile alkali. "Ammonia, too, is capable of undergoing such a multitude of transformations, when in contact with other bodies, that in this respect it is not inferior to water, which possesses the same property in an eminent degree. It pos- sesses properties which we do not find in any other compound of nitrogen ; when pure, it is extremely soluble in water ; it forufs soluble compounds with all the acids ; and when in contact with certain other substances, it. com- pletely resigns its character as an alkali, and is capable of assuming the most various and opposite forms." With regard to the sources from which vegetables draw those supplies of nitrogen, so essential to their growth and developement, Liebig makes the following observations : — " Let us picture to ourselves the condition of a well-cultured farm, so large as to be in- dependent of assistance from other quarters. On this extent of land there is a certain quan- tity of nitrogen contained both in the corn and fruit which it produces, and in the men and animals which feed upon them, and also in their excrements. We shall suppose this quan- tity to be known. The land is cultivated with- out the importation of any foreign substance containing nitrogen. Now, the products of this farm must be exchanged every year for money, and other necessaries of life, for bodies therefore which contain no nitrogen. A cer- tain proportion of nitrogen is exported with corn and cattle; and this exportation takes place every year, without the smallest com- pensation ; yet after a given number of years, the quantity of nitrogen will be found to have increased. Whence, we may ask, comes this increase of nitrogen? The nitrogen in the excrements cannot reproduce itself, and the BACCIFEROUS. BAKING. eLfth cannot yield it. Plants, and consequent- 1)- animals, must therefore derive_their nitro- gen from the atmosphere." (Org. Cheni.) B. BACCIFEROUS (from hacca, a berry, and fero, to bear). A term applied to trees bear- ing berries. BACK, the spine. The back of a horse should be straight, in order that it may be strong : when it is hollow, or what is termed sadiUe-bucktd, the animal is generally weak. Back sore. A complaint which is very com- mon to young horses when they first travel. To prevent it, their backs should be cooled every time they are baited, and now and then washed v/ith warm water, and wiped dry with a linen cloth. The best cure for a sore back is a lotion of 1 oz. of Goulard's extract (sugar of lead and vinegar), 1 oz. of turpentine, 1 oz. of spirit of wine, and 1 pint of vinegar. Back sinews, sprain of the. This is often oc- casioned by the horse being overweighted, and then ridden far and fast, especially if his pas- terns are long ; but it may occur from a false step, or from the heels of the shoes being too much lowered. Sprain of the back sinews is detected by swelling and heat at the back of the lower part of the leg; puffiness along the course of the sinews ; extreme tenderness, so far as the swelling and heat extend ; and very great lameness. The first object is to abate the inflammation, and this should be attempted by bleeding from the plate vein ; by means of which blood is drained from the inflamed part. Next, local applications should be made to the back of the leg, in the form of fomentations of water sufficiently hot and frequently repeated. At the same time, as much strain as possible should be taken from the sinew, by putting a high calkin on the heel of the shoe. BACON. Probably from baken, that is, dried flesh. Dr. Johnson says, and Mr. Home Tooke contends, that it is evidently the past participle of the Saxon bacan, to bake or dry by heat. (Div. of Pur. vol. ii. p. 71.) I may, however, refer perhaps as strongly to the old French bacon, which means dried flesh and pork. The Welsh also have bacwn. The flesh of the hog after it has been salted and dried, and it is either smoked or kept without smoking, when it is termed green bacon. {Todd.) Such hogs as have been kept till they are full grown, and have then attained to a large size, are for the most part converted to the purpose of bacon. The seasons for killmg hogs for bacon are between October and March, but it of course varies according to custom and circumstances in peculiar districts. The process of curing bacon is so well known throughout the country, that it is scarcely ne- cessary to add any thing on the subject ; but the following practical hints may not be with- out their utility. In order to have good bacon, the hair should be sweated oflT, not scalded, the flesh will be more solid and firm. The best method of doing this is to cover the hog thinly with straw, and to set light to it in the direction of the wind. As the stra^ is burnt ofi", it should be renewed, taking care, however, not to burn or parch the ikin. After both sides have been treated in this way, the hog is to be scraped quite clean, but water must not be used. After the hog has been properly cut up, the inside, or flesh-side of each flitch is to be well rubbed with salt, and placed above each other in a tray, which should have a gutter round its edge to drain off" the brine. Once in four or five days the salt should be changed, and the flitches i'requentl}'- moved, putting the bottom one at top, and then again at the bot- tom. Some persons, in curing bacon, add for each hog half a pound of bay salt, and a quarter of a pound of saltpetre, and one pound of very coarse sugar or treacle. Very excel- lent bacon may, however, be made with com- mon salt alone, provided it be well rubbed in, and changed sufliciently often. Six weeks, in moderate weather, will be time sufficient for the curing of a hog of twelve score. Smoking the bacon is much better than merely drying it. The flitches should, in the first place, be rubbed over with bran or fine saw-dust (not deal), and then hung up in a chimney out of the rain, and not near enough to the fire to melt. The smoke must be from wood, stubble, or litter. If the fire is tolerably constant and good, a month's smoking will be sufficient. The flitches are afterward frequently preserved in clear, dry wood ashes, or very dry sand. The counties of England most celebrated for bacon, are York, Hants, Berks, and Wilts. Ireland produces great quantities, but it is neither so clean fed, nor so well cured as the English, and is much lower priced. Of the Scotch counties, Dumfries, Wigtown, and Kirkcudbright, are celebrated for the excel- lence of their bacon and hams, of which they now export large quantities, principally to the Liverpool and London markets. The imports of bacon and hams from Ireland have increas- ed rapidly of late years. The average quan- tity imported during the three years ending the 25th of March, 1800, only amounted to 41,948 cwt. ; whereas during the three years ending with 1820, the average imports amounted to 204,380 cwt. ; and during the three )• ears ending with 1825, they had increased to 338,218 cwt. In 1825 the trade between Ireland and Great Bdtain was placed on the footing of a coasting trade ; and bacon and hams are imported and exported without any specific entry at the Custom-house. We believe the imports of bacon into Great Britain from Ireland amounts, at present, to little less than 500,000 cwt. a year. The quantity of bacon and haras ex- ported from Ireland to foreign countries is inconsiderable, not exceeding 1500 or 2000 cwt. a year. The duty on bacon and haras being 8s. the cwt. is in effect prohibitory. See Provisions Trade. BAIT (Sax. baran, German, baitzen). A feed of oats, or any other material given to an ani- mal employed in travelling or labour. These should always be proportioned to the condition of the animal, and' the nature of his labour. It also signifies any thing applied with the view of catching an animal. , . , , . k«o« BALK. A piece of land which has not beea turned up in ploughing. lol BAKING OF LAND. BALSAM. BAKING OF LAND. A term applied to ?uch kinds of land as are liable, from the large proportions of clayey or other matter which they contain, to become hard and crusty on the surface. In order to prevent this, the best practice is to lessen the tenacity of such soils by the application of substances capable of rendering them more open and friable, as lime, and other calcareous materials, .ich earthy composts, sand, &c. BALL. Whatever was round was called by the ancients either bal, or bel^ and Likewise bol and bill. In farriery, a well-known form of medicine, for horses or other animals, which may be passed at once into the stomach. They should be made of a long oval shape, and about the size of a small e^g, being best con- veyed over the root of the tongue by the hand. This method of administering medicines is preferable in most cases to that of drenches. I subjoin the recipes for a few of those balls most commonly used by the farmer. Mild Physic Ball. drachms. Barbadoes aloea - - - Powdered ginger - - - - 2 Castile soap - - - - 2 Oil of cloves - - r - 20 drops. Syrup of buckthorn sufficient to form a ball. Strong Physic Ball. Barbadoes aloes - - - . 8 drachms. Ginger, powdered - - - - 2 Castile soap _ « - _ 2 Oil of cloves _ _ _ - 20 drops. Syrup of buckthorn sufficient to form a ball. Calomel Ball for a Riding Horse. Calomel ----- l drachm. Aloes, powdered - - - - 6 Ginger, powdered - - - - 2 Castile soap - - _ - 2 Oil of cloves _ - _ - 20 drops. Syrup of buckthorn sufficient to make into a ball. Calomel Ball for a Cart Horse. Aloes, powdered - - - Otherwise same as the last. Diuretic Ball. - 8 drachms. 4 ounces. - 2 Castile soap Nitre, powdered - Rosin, powdered - Oil of juniper _ - _ - ^ Aniseed powder and treacle sufficient to make into eight balls. Cordial BalL Cummin seed, powdered Aniseed, powdered Caraway seed, powdered Liquorice powder Ginger, powdered - 4 ounces. - 4 - 2 Honey sufficient to make into balls the size of a hen's egg. BALM, or BAUM {Melissa officinalis. From Gr. /ui\i, honey, on account of the bee being supposed to collect it abundantly from their ftcwers). Balm is used both as a medicinal and culinary herb. The leaves are employed green, or dried. The soil best suited to its growth is any poor fjj;iable one, but rather inclininj to clayey than s..t.jcious. Manure is never required. An frsiern aspect is best for it. It is propagated oy ottsets of the roots, and by slips of the 2^./?fiD, to feed or nourish, whence pog^e» and forbea, and, changing the b into d, fordeum. ( Vossius.) The name is, how- ever, derived by Junius from the Hebrew na. The plant belongs to the natural order Grami- nex, or grasses. It readily accommodates itself to any climate, bearing the heat of the torrid zone, and the cold of the frigid, and ripening in both equally well. Of the genus Hordeum, says Professor Low, the following species may be enumerated as cultivated for their seeds : — \. Two-rowed barley (^Hordeum distichum), PI. 3, a. 2. Two-rowed naked barley {H. GymnodiS' iichum). 3. Two-rowed sprat, or battledore barley (H. dlsticho-zeocrifon). PI. 3, d. 4. Six-rowed winter barley {H. hexastichum). PI. 3, b. . 5. Six-rowed naked barley {H. Gymno-hexa- sfichum). ,„ 6. Six-rowed sprat, or battlebore barley {M I hexasticho-zeocriton). . . I The two leading species of this gram m cul- tivation are (No. 1.) the two-rowed, or common j barley, and (No. 4.) the six-rowed barley. Thtf Barley. BARLEY. minor varieties of two-rowed barley are nume- rous, and are distinguished chiefly by the quality of the grain, and by their habit of early or later ripening ; and some varieties are more productive than others : effects apparently de- pendent upon differences of climate and situ- ation. Barley is an annual plant, but like wheat it may be sown in autumn, and then it acquires the habit of later ripening, and is termed winter barley. Two-rowed naked barley is said to have been introduced into England in the year 1768. It is now little cultivated, and is by some as- serted, though without any evidence, to merge into the common species. The next species, two-rowed sprat, or battle- dore barley, is scarcely cultivated in England, the shortness of the straw being regarded as an objection ; but it is much esteemed in Ger- many, where it is termed rice barley, owing to its smelling like rice in boiling, when it is de- corticated. The fourth enumerated species is six-rowed barley. When sown before winter, this species acquires the habit of late-ripening, and is then termed winter barley. One of the kinds of six-rowed barley, and the best known in this country, is here, bear, or bigg. Bigg ripens its seeds in a shorter period than the two-rowed barleys. It is culti- vated very generally in the north of Scotland, in Denmark, Sweden, and other parts of Eu- rope, and in the south of England for green iood in spring, and for this purpose is sown early in the autumn. The number of its grains is greater than in the two-rowed kinds, but they do not weigh so heavy in proportion to their bulk. It is hence regarded as an inferior crop, and is only cultivated in the more elevated parts of the country. It ripens very early when sown in spring, thence the advantages which it possesses in a late climate. {^Luw's Prac. As^r. p. 240.) The six-rowed naked barley is cultivated in various parts of Europe, and is greatly es- teemed for its fertility. In some parts of Ger- many it is regarded as the most valuable kind of barley, and by the French, on account of its supposed productiveness, it has been termed orge celeste. An excellent variety of this naked barley has been produced by Mr. C. Alderman, of Kintbury, in Berkshire, and M. Mazucco, in a French paper, earnestly recommends the more general cultivation of naked barley, as he states that it weigh'' a" much as the best wheats, and its quality resembles them so much that it may be used for the purpose of making good bread, and also for pearl barley. In mountainous countries, its produce is twenty- four to one. (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. iii. p. 373.) This and the other superior kinds of barley deserve more attention than they have yet received. Mr. Warren Hastings, (in an article in the Com. to the Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 304), after twelve years' experience in the cultivation of naked barley, very justly ob- serves, " thai; it is of the greatest importance to promote the cultur** of this sort of grain." " It is," he adds, " the corn that, next to rice, gives the greatest weight of flour per acre, and 140 it may be eaten with no other preparation than that of boiling. It requires little or no dress- ing when it is sent to the mill, having no husk, and consequently produces no bran. It is gathered into the barn, and may even be con- sumed, when the seasons are favourable, in about eighty or ninety days after being sown; and there is no species of grain belter calcu- lated for countries where the summer is short, provided the vegetation be rapid." The last of the species to be mentioned, says Professor Low, is six-roAved sprat, or battledore barley. This has been sometimes termed six-rowed barley ; whereas the charac- ter of six-rowed barley does not belong to it alone. An examination of the plant will show that it is the common battledore barley, with all the florets entire. Much confusion has arisen in the arrangement by agriculturists of the cultivated barleys, and in an especial de- gree, by their speaking of four-rowed and six- rowed kinds. There is, however, no barley to which the term four-rowed can be applied. Barley is termed two-rowed, or six-rowed, ac- cording to the number of its fertile florets. In two-rowed barley, one row of florets on each of the two sides of the spike is fertile, and consequently one row of seeds on each side is perfected. In six-rowed barley, three rows on each side are perfected. In this sense only it is termed six-rowed barley. But there is no species known to us in which only two rows on each side of the spike are fertile. Slightly examined, indeed, six-rowed barleys frequently present the appearance of four rows ; but this is in appearance only, for such barleys have always the three rows on each side perfect. In poor soils and unfavourable situations, two of the rows run much into each other, and this has perhaps given rise to the mistake ; but the tw(. rows which thus run into each other in appearance are on the opposite sides of the ra- chis. I have ventured, adds Professor Low (from Avhose work the above preliminary ob- servations are taken), to propose a new ar- rangement of the cultivated barleys ; under which it will be seen that the Hordtum vulgare of some botanists is Hordeum hexnsftchum, and that of the Hordeum hexastichum, of some bota- nists is Hordeum hexasficko-zeocriton. Particu- lar varieties have been in great repute at differ- ent times, when first introduced, and then seem to have, on many soils, lost their superiority. " Of this kind is the Moldavian barley, which Avas much sought after some years ago; and lately, the Chevalier barley, so called from the gentleman who first brought it into notice, has risen into great repute. It is said, that, having observed an ear of barley in his field, greatly superior to the rest, he carefully sowed the seed, and cultivated it in his garden, till he had a sufficient quantity to sow a field. It has since been extremely multiplied and diffused through the country. Some eminent malisters and brewers have declared, that it forms more saccharine matter than any other sort; and the trials hitherto made have convinced m.ost agriculturists that it is not only heavier in the grain, but more productive. In 1832 Lord Leicester, who was always foremost in all agri- BARLEY. cultural experiments and improvemvmts, sowed a considerable portion of land with this b "rley, and the result is said to have been perffe".tly satisfactory. In 1833 two acres of Chevak°r barley were sown in the same field with somv" of the best of the common barley. The soil was poor, light sand, but in good order and very clean. The produce of the whole was nearly the same, 4 quarters per acre ; but the Cheva- lier barley weighed 57 lbs. per bushel, while the common barley weighed only 52. This gives the farmer an advantage of ten per cent. The sample was very fine, and the whole that the cultivator could spare was eagerly pur- chased by his neighbours for seed at his own price. It is long in the ear, and very plump, and the plant tillers so much, that half a bushel of seed may be saved per acre. This is proba- bly owing to its grains being all perfect, and vegetating rapidly. The straw, like that of the other long-eared barleys, appears weak in pro- portion to the ear ; it is said also to be harder, and not so palatable to cattle. These are cir- cumstances which experience alone can as- certain. That hitherto it has a decided supe- riority over the common sorts, no one who has tried it fairly in well-prepared lands seems to deny." (Penny Ci/c.) A new and seemingly very superior variety has lately been introduced, called the Annat barley. (See Quart. Jotirn. of Agr. vol. v. p. 618.) It is the produce of three ears which were picked by Mr. Gorrie in a field in Perth- shire, in the harvest of 1830, since which pe- riod it has been grown at Annat Gardens, thence its name. In 1834, it was sown on a ridge in the middle of a field, with common barley on the one side and Chevalier barley on the other. In balk of straw it seemed to have the advantage of both these kinds ; it was five days earlier ripe than the former, and about a fortnight before the latter, and it was also 2^ lbs. per bushel heavier than the Chevalier. At a meeting of the Stoke Ferry Farmers' Club, in February of the present year (1841), it was stated by one of the members, that the Cheva- lier was decidedly the best stock for good bar- ley land; but for very poor soils he preferred the Moldavian ; though, probably even this was surpassed by the stock usually known as the old field barley. The Annat barley was allud- ed to by one gentleman who had tried it last season ; but not having thrashed it, he could only say that from its appearance it augured well. He always adopted the drill system, using wide, winged coulters, so as to disperse the grain in the rows as much as possible, giv- ing the field the appearance of having been ploughed in. Very little difference of opinion existed as to the superiority of the Chevalier over any other variety, on the average of soils. One member had grown 15 coombs an acre on it; but he acknowledged it was on very excel- lent land. A curious fact was elicited in con- nection with this stock of barley ; which was, that however much the crop might be laid and beaten down, either by storms or its own weight, the grain did not receive that injury to which any other sort under similar circumstances would be liable. {Brit. Farm. Mag.vol. v. p. 190.) BARLEY. There can be no doubt of the general supe- riority of the Chevalier as a malting barley. Its introduction has occasioned a complete re- volution in certain districts, v/here formerly no such thing as malting barley was thought of. It is one of the greatest improvements of mo- dern times, and now commands a higher price in the market than other barleys by two or three shillings a quarter. Barley is evidently a native of a warmer cli- mate than Britain ; for in this moist atmosphere it is observed to degenerate, when either ne- glected or on a poor soil. We have the best authority for its having been cultivated in Syria so long back as 3153 years; therefore that part of the world may be fairly fixetl as its native soil. We find that the Romans ob- tained barley from Egypt, and other parts of Africa, and Spain. It was also grown in France, as Columella calls one variety of bar- ley Galaticum. Barley, like all grains, is liable to diseases, namely smut, the burnt ear, blight, and mil- dew : for an account of which I must refer the reader to these words. It is also apt to germi- nate in the ear even before it is reaped, in wet weather, giving the ear a singular appearance, and rendering the grain, even when kiln-dried, unfit for malting, and only of use to feed fowls or pigs. The diseases of barley are not so n'> mcrous or fatal as those of wheat. It is at- tacked by the larvce of certain flies. The smut, which attacks it in a partial degree, is gene- rally the fungus uredo segetum. Barley is now extensively cultivated in most European countries, in America, and in the temperate districts of Asia and Africa. It may also be raised between the tropics, but not at a lower elevation than from 3000 to 4000 feet, and then it is not worth cultivating. In Spain and Sicily it produces two crops in the year. Large quantities of barley have been for a lengthened period raised in Great Britain. Re- cently, however, its cultivation has been sup- posed, though probably on no good grounds, to be declining. In 1765, Mr. Charles Smith esti- mated the number of barley consumers in England and Wales at 739,000 ; and as a large proportion of the population of Wales, West- moreland, and Cumberland continue to subsist chiefly on barley bread, I am inclined to think that this estimate may not, at present, be very wide of the mark. " Barley" (husked), says Pliny, "was the most ancient food in old times, as will appear by the ordinary custom of the Athenians, according to the testimony of Me- nander, as also by the surname given to the sword fencers, who, from their allowatice or pension of barley, were called Hurdearii, bav- ley men." (Book xviii. chap. 7). It was not until after the Romans had learned to cultivate wheat, and to make bread, that they gave bar- ley to their cattle. They made barley-meal into balls, which they put down the throats of their horses and asses, after the manner of fat tening fowls, which was said to make them strong and lusty. There are no means of ascertammg whether barley was cultivated in Britain .vhen the Ro- mans discovered that country; but as Ca-stT 141 BARLEY. BARLEY. found corn g •owing on the coast of Kent, it is probable tha. this species of grain had been obtained from Gaul. In the rotation of crops, barley may succeed to summer fallow, to potatoes, turnips, or any other green crop, and to any of the pulse crops. It novvr generally follows turnips iu England, and is a very important crop in the rotation, best adapted to light soils. The principal bar- ley counties of England are Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Bedford, Herts, Leicester, Notting- ham, the upper parts of Hereford, Warwick, and Salop. The produce varies according to soil, preparation, season, &c., from about 25 to 60 or 70 bushels an acre. The usual crop is from 28 to 36 or 38 bushels. The Winches- ter bushel of. good English barley generally weighs about 50 lbs.; but the best Norfolk bar- ley sometimes weighs 53 or 54 lbs. Its pro- duce in flour is about 12 lbs. to 14 lbs. of the grain. Barley is said to contain 65 per cent, of nu- tritive matter; wheat contains 78 per cent. A bushel of barley weighing 50 lbs. will there- fore contain about 32 lbs. of nutriment; while a bushel of wheat weighing 60 lbs. contains 47 lbs. Good oats weighing 40 lbs. contain about 24 lbs. of nutritive matter; s.o that the comparative value of wheat, barley, and oats, in feeding cattle, may be represented by 47, 32, and 24, the measure being the same. The experiments on which this calculation is founded were carefully made by Einhof, and confirmed on a large scale by Thiier, at his establishment at Mogelin, the account of the results being accurately kept. Barley is a tender plant, and easily hurt in any stage of its growth. It is more hazardous than wheat, and is, generally speaking, raised at a greater expense, so that its cultivation should not be attempted except where the soil and climate are favourable for its growth. There is no grain perhaps m re affected (says Baxter, in his Lib. of Agr. Knowledge, p. 36,) by soil and cultivation than barley, the same species exhibiting opposite qualities, modified by the nature of the soil from which it is pro- duced ; these opposite productions of the same individual will, if sown at the same period, on the same land, and under the same course of cultivation, exhibit corresponding differences, which pre manifested during the growth of the crop, and subsequently in the quality of the sample when in hand. Thus the finest sam- ples, the growth of suitable and well-cultivated lands, would, if sown on a poor and sterile soil, become alike coarse in appearance, and indifferent in quality. This fact, however im- portant, has hitherto but little engaged the at- tention of the farmer; and the spring or early barley is therefore indiscriminately sown, as being found more productive for the purpose of malting than any of the afore-mentioned varieties. The sprat, or battledore barley, makes good malt; and being short and erect in the ear, and tapering in the stem, is, on strong lands, less liable to injury from falling, and is consequently 'preferred by a few indi- V iduals. The common, or long-eared barley, being long in the ear and weak in the straw, IS very Halle to lodge early, whereby the grain 142 I is rendered inferior in quality, and is, there- j fore, not extensively cultivated. Naked bur- ley, or wheat barley, is so termed in conse- j quence cf the grain separating readily from ; the chaff Avhen thrashed. It is a native of the j north, and will bear sowing early iu the sea- !son; it is not, however, in much estimation in the south of England, and is seldom culti- vated, although it makes strong malt, and is excellent for fattening of hogs and cattle. Win- ter barley, or square-eared barley, is grown to a considerable extent in the north-western part of England, and in Scotland. It is usually sown for the feeding of sheep in the south of England, and mixed with tares for the soiling of cattle. • As food for sheep, it is far more productive than rye, as it admits of being fed down every two or three days during summer; and if intended for seed, it may previously be fed off by sheep early xT tiie season, without injury to the crop. The land that produces he best barley is generally of a silicious, light, dry nature ; for a good melloAv preparation and free soil are essential to the growth of malting barleys. Cold, wet soils, which are peculiarly retentive of water, are ill adapted to the growth of this grain, both in reference to its weight and its malting qualities. The whole matter of bar- ley and its straw contains more silicious par- ticles than that of any other grain cultivated by the British farmer; and hence one reason why a sandy soil is most congenial to the growth of this plant. Barley is propagttted by seed, sown either broadcast or in drills, the quantity varying according to the quality of the soil, cultivation, and time of sowing ; less being required on rich mellow lands than on poor soils ; early sowing, with good tillage, re- quiring less seed than the late sowing with in- different tillage. The quantity of seed gene- rally varies from 2| to 4 bushels the acre (or sometimes more), when sown broadcast; but when drilled, the quantity of seed need not ex- ceed two bushels to the acre. Barley is an early ripening grain. It may be sown at a late period, but the sooner the better. The more early that barley can be sown, the produce in grain is the surer, though the bulk of the straw will be less. The com- mon sprat barleys may be sown from the second week in March, if the weather prove dry, until the 10th of May. The bigg, a variety of the winter barley, will stand against the wind, and may be sown either in the autumn or the beginning of March. The bear, or square barley, should be sown as early in the autumn as the clearing of the harvest will admit, and may be sown after wheat, barley, oats, or any pulse crop, being a plant of sturdy growth. In the choice of seed, great care should be taken that it is not of a reddish hue, \ as in that case it is more than probable that a > great part of it will never vegetate ; the sample should be of a pale, lively colour, and uniform. Some farmers, not aware of its importance, are in the habit of sowing thin corn ; but unless the land is quite adapted, from its nature and cultivation, for the fullest encouragement of the plant, it will in the end be found a "penny- j wise and pound-foolish" speculation. In aJI BARLEY. BARLEY. cases it will be well for the farmer to select the finest samples and the plumpest grain ; for in unfavourable seasons the crop from thin grain is always delicate, and assumes an un- kindly hue, whilst, on the contrary, plump seed throws up strong, healthy stems, capable of resisting the effects of inclement seasons, and, in more congenial weather, pushing forth with renewed vigour and redoubled strength. In England, barley, for the most part, succeeds best after turnips, tares, potatoes, carrots, man- gel wurzel, or other green ameliorating crops ; but does not succeed so well after wheat or other white straw crops, nor after rape so well as other green crops, except on ihe South Downs of Sussex, and certain lan^s adjoining the sea-coast, where both the quantity of grain is greater, and the quality better, after wheat (particularly wheal sown upon a clover ley), and also after rape, than from any other course of tillage. The lands require more or less ploughing, according to the quality of the soil, and the state in which it is found after the sea- son for the working of it commences. On re- tentive soils, as compact gravelly clay, if the turnips have been fed off during wet weather, the earth breaks up in large clods, and requires to be reduced by the roller, and at least a se- cond ploughing should be given before the barley cim be safely sown. On light soils of the best quality one ploughing may be suffi- cient ; but if the land is twice ploughed in the spring, as soon as it is sufficiently dry for that purpose, it will be found amply to repay both the labour and expense. After the grass-seeds are sown, the barley-land admits of no further tillage. Should any larger weeds appear, they may be pulled up by the hand ; but it is the evidence of bad husbandry if a spring-sown barley crop requires weeding during the com- paratively short period in which it is on the ground. If weeding be necessary, it should be attended to early, or the crop will be injured by treading, and the roller should be used be- fore the blade becomes spindled. In the harvesting of barley more care is re- quisite than in taking any other of the white crops, even in the best of seasons ; and in bad years it is often found very difficult to save it. When the period of harvest arrives, barley must be allowed to be sufficiently ripe, but not become what is termed " dead ripe." It may be cut either by the scythe or the sickle. Bar- ley, says Professor Low, on account of the soflncis of its stem, and the tendency of its ears to vegetate, is more apt to be injured, and even destroyed, by wet weather than any of the other cereal grasses. For this reason the safer course, in a humid climate like ours, is to place it when cut down in sheaves and shocks, and not to allow it, as is frequently practised, to lie loose upon the ground. By some farmers, however, it is suffered to lie in the fields until the straw is quite dry, being turned over early in the morning while the dew is still upon it. This practice, they say, is found to improve the colour of the skin, and thereby render the grain of more value to the maltster. It should never be carried unless perfectly dry, otherwise it is in danger of being heated in the mow, which reduces the value very materially, for the undue action of the heat destroys the spear, or germination of the grain ; the mailing process is consequently very unequally performed, and as the duty has to be paid upon the whole bin, maltsters will scarcely purchase such samples, unless for the purpose of grinding, and then always at an inferior price. It will be prudent, there- fore, not to carry barley until the heat of the sun has evaporated the dew from it, when it should be carried in a perfectly dry state the remainder of the day, until the dew is again deposited in the evening. It is a very common practice to sow clover and other grass seeds with this crop ; but great care must be taken that they are thoroughly harvested, for other- wise considerable fermentation will be created, and the sample injured. It not unfrequently occurs, that when it is supposed to be wei? harvested, heat is soon found to subsist iu the mows, which should be daily examined, by placing a long iron spit, that should be kept for that purpose, deep into the mow ; when, if the heat is found to increase, no delay should take place, but the middle should be instantly cut asunder, and taken out in proportion to the size of the mow, when it will generally escape without further injury. This operation, how- ever, must not be deferred, as the injury sus- tained rapidly increases. By heating in the stalk, it quickly becomes discoloured and in- jured. When barley is grown in large quan- tities, it is usual to tread the mows with horses or oxen, to get as much as possible into the bams, in which case more guarded caution is necessary than when thrown losely over the floor. This grain should never be thrashed by a machine, as the injury done thereby is fre- quently of a very serious nature ; it bruises the malting spear, which is as injurious to the maltsters as if heated in the mow, and, there- fore, should be guarded against. Care must also be taken not to have too large heaps lying together without frequent examination, as, un- til it has undergone a proper fermentation in the mow, it will be very apt to heat in the heap ; in order to prevent which it requires to be moved daily, or every other day, till cleaned up from the chaff, which, from the fineness of its texture, scarcely admits the introduction of air, and consequently promotes fermentation. The principal demand for barley in Great Britain is for conversion into malt, to be used in the manufacture of ale, porter, and British spirits; and though its consumption in this way has not certainly increased proportionally to the increase of wealth and population, still there does not seem to be any grounds for sup- posing that it has diminished. But it is not only the most useful for making into malt, it is the best food for promoting the fattening of hogs, after they have been fed to a certain extent with beans, peas, &c., from which it has been found that the meat is not only more tender, but increases in boiling whilst the meat of those fed on beans and peas alone has not only been hard, but has not yielded any increase. Barley is employed for various other purposes. It is excellent for fattening poultry. The flour is snll used m 43 BARLEY. some parts for bread; but the bread, though sufficiently nutritious, is dark and strong- tasted. Barley, in its green state, especially the Siberian winter-barley, makes excellent spring food for milch cows, as is well known to the cow-keepers about London ; it comes in early, and greatly increases the milk. For sheep it is more nourishing than rye, and is earlier. When fed off quite close in April, it will spring up again, and on good land pro- duce a fair crop of grain in August ; but, in general, it is ploughed up as soon as it is fed off, and succeeded by spring tares or turnips. It is also good food for horses, when given in the spring of the year in small proportion with oats, sparingly at first, and after being soaked in water, and allowed to vegetate. It is in ge- neral use in the south of Europe {Com. Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 298). Mixed with other grain, in its ground state, it has been found an excellent food for fattening bullocks. The straw is employed partially for fodder, but chiefly for litter. It is lighter than the straws of oats and wheat, and less esteemed than either. The awns are given to stock, either in their natural state or boiled. Malt is the great pur- pose, hoAvever, to which barley is applied in this country. To understand the process of malting, it may be necessary to observe, that, in the germination of grasses and grains be- fore the young plant is produced, the fecula of the seed is changed by the heat and moist- ure of the earth into sugar and mucilage. Malting grain is only an artificial mode of effecting this object. The grain is steeped in cold water during a certain period ; the water is then allowed to drain off, the grain is spread out into a deep heap : it gradually heats, the rootlets begin to shoot out, afterwards the plu- mula begins to grow ; and when this has grown to a certain extent within the grain, the further germination is checked by exposing the grain on a kiln, heated by fire to such a degree as extinguishes the vitality of the seed. At this period it is found that the starch is, in a great measure, converted into saccharine matter, and by subsequent fermentation, or distillation, either beer or spirits is obtained. (See Fer- MKXTATiox, Malting, and Brewing.) It is only necessary to add here that malt requires the best and heaviest barley, with its germinat- ing powers entire. Barley was formerly in general use in Eng- hnd as bread corn : it is still, for this pur- pose, much used on the Continent. It is gene- rally used in the warmer climates as the food for iiorses, for which purpose, in fact, it ap- pears to answer equally as well as oats. In this country, in some seasons, a considerable saving may be made by using for this purpose inferior barley. This was done in the season of 1840 by Mr. Hewitt Davis, of Spring Park, who sold his oats at the same price that he gave for the barley. And to this end the farmer should remember, that two parts of barley are luUy equal, in feeding properties, to three parts vf oats In Germany they grind the barley, and form it into cakes, with which they feed their horses ; and it is no unusual circum- stance, in travelling in that country, to see the 144 BARLEY. driver take a slice of the loaf with which he baits his horses. Wine made from malt, when kept to a pro- per age, has a good body, and a flavour nearly as agreeable as the generality of Madeira wines. The wort of malt is useful in scurvy, but it is apt to increase the diarrhoea which attends that disease. Barley was used by the ancients for many medicinal purposes. Pot barley, pearl barley, and French barley, are only barley freed from the husk by a mill ; the distinction between them being, that the pearl barley is reduced to the size of small shot, all but the very heart of the grain being ground away. For a description of the mode of ma- nufacture, I^refer the reader to the Penny Cy- clop, vol. iii. p. 466. Barley-water is a decoc- tion of either of these, and is reputed soft and lubricating; a very useful cooling drink or gruel in many disorders, and is recommended to be taken with nitre in fevers. Its use is of great antiquity, as Hippocrates wrote a whole book on the merits of gruel made of barley. Barley-water is an admirable liquid to admi- nister any medicine in, being pleasant, emol- lient, and cooling. The French or Scotch barley is principally used to thicken broth and soup. The German chemist, Einhof, has analysed ripe barley, and found 100 parts to consist of 70-05 parts of meal, 18-75 of husk, and 11-20 of water. The meal he found to contain 67-18 parts of starch, 5-21 of uncrystullizable sugar^ 4-62 of gum, 3-52 oi gluten, 1-15 of albumen, 0-24 of superphosphate of lime, and 10-79 of water and loss, in 100 parts. The husk con- tains a bitter principle which is tasted in the decoction of entire barley. M. Saussure has carefully analysed the ashes produced by burning barley and its straw, and the result of his experiments is given in Re- cherches Chem. sur la Veg., Paris, 1804. The grain reduced to ashes, with its skin, gave, out of 100 parts, 18 of ashes, which con- tained: — Potash ------- 18- Phosphate of potash - - - - 92 Sulphate of potash - - - - 1*5 Muriate of potash ----- 0*25 Earthy phosphates ----- 3'25 Silica 35-5 Metallic oxides . _ - - - 0*25 Loss 28 100- 1000 parts of the straw produced 42 of ashes, containing : — Potash 16- Sulphate of potash ----- 35 Muriate of potash ----- 0*5 Earthy phosphates ----- 7-75 Earthy carbonates ----- 12 5 Silica 57- Metallic oxides - - - - - 5 Loss 2'25 100- These products no doubt vary in different soils ; but the proportion of silica in the straw and in the skin of barley is remarkable. This barley grew on a chalky soil. In addition to these the cubic saltpetre, or nitrate of soda, is usually found in minute proportions in barley. BARLEY GRASSES. Tlie average price in England, per Win- chester quarter of barley, according to M'Cul- loch, was in £ s- d. £ s. d. 1771 - - 1 5 8 1815 - - 1 10 3 1775 - - 1 6 1819 - - 2 6 8 17N) - - 17 1785 - - 1 4 Perlmp. Quar. 1790 - - 1 5 6 18-20 - - 1 13 10 1795 - - 1 17 8 1825 - - 2 1 1800 - - 3 1830 - - 1 12 7 1803 - - 2 4 8 1835 - - 1 9 11 1810 - - 2 7 11 1840 - - 1 12 8 The account in imperial quarters of the fo- reign barley and barley-meal entered for home consumption every five years since 1815, was (Mcculloch's Com. Diet.)— • Qr». 1815 - 160- 1820 1^25 270-679 1830 - 52-107 1835 -.--... 137-374 The annual average, from 1801 to 1825, of barley imported into England, in Winchester quarters, was from Qn. Russia . - - - . . - 7112 Sweden and Norway - - . - -987 Denmark ...... 18-808 Prussia - - 18718 Germany ----__ 84-839 Netherlands ...... 9-500 France and Southern Europe . - I 097 United States - - - ■ . 31- British North America - - - - 51- Other countries ..... 2-194 Ireland ....... 33331 For further particulars as to its consumption and culture, see Smith's Tracts on the Com TradCy 2d edit. p. 182 ; Penny Cyclop., vol. iii. p. 461; Brown on Rural Affairs, vol. ii. p. 42; and Elements of Pruc. Agr., by Pr^. Low, p. 246, &c. ; to which last-named valuable work I have, in this and other articles, been under verv considerable obligation. (Phillips Cult. VefT.i M'Cull>ch*s Com. Diet.; Com. Board nf Ag. vol. vi. ; Uitchin, in Baxter's Ag. Lib. ; Professor Low's El, of Ag. ; Brande's Diet, of Science.) Barley, in the United States, is cultivated almost exclusively for the breweries, the grain being rarely given to cattle, and barley-bread being unknown to native Americans. BARLEY GRASSES. Some coarse kind of grasses which are known under the several names of meadow barley grass (Plate 7, d), wall barley grass, way-bennet, and mouse bar- ley, and are of little use to the farmer. (See HonnEu.H murinum, and H. pratense.) BARLEY HUMMELLER. This is an in- strument worked by the hand, which is em- ployed when the threshing machine is not in use, or performs its work imperfectly. It con- sists of a set of parallel iron plates fixed to a frame, and worked by the hand like a paver's instrument. The barley to be hummelled is laid upon the barn-floor, and by repeated strokes of th; hummeller, is freed from its awns. Messrs. Grant, wheelwrights of Aber- deenshire, have described this instrument very fully, with some improvements, in Trans. High. S»c. vol. iv. p. 334. BARM. The foam or froth of beer or any other liquor in a state of fermentation, which ii used as a leaven in the making of bread, &x. (See Yeast.) 19 BARN OWL. BARN. A covered building, constructed for the purpose of laying up grain, &c. Farms should always be furnished with barns pro- portioned to the quantity of grain they produce; but since the practices of stacking and thrash- ing by mills have become more general, there is much less need of large barns. They should have a dry situation, and be placed' on the north or north-east side of the farm yard, so that the sun at noonday may shine "on th thrashing-floor, and the lean-toos for stock in the yard be thus open only to the south. Every farm should have at least two thrashing-floors, that different kinds of grain may be thrashing at the same time. Barns may either be con- structed of timber, or be built of brick or stone, whichever the country affords in the greatest plenty, but wooden barns are the best for the corn ; and in either case there should be such vent-holes or openings in their sides or walls as to afford free admittance to the air, in order to prevent the mouldiness that would otherwise occur from the least dampness lodging in the grain. The foundations, and for two feet out of the ground, are best made of brick or stone, on account of greater solidity, and the protec- tion from vermin ; the whole may be roofed with either thatch, slate (\vhich is the best of all), or tiles, as can be most conveniently pro- cured. They should have two large double folding doors facing each other, one in each side of the building, for the convenience of carrying in or out wagon-loads ; and these doors should be of the same breadth as the thrashing-floor, to afford the more light and air. Formerly, a much larger expenditure in the number and size of these buildings was in- curred than is now requisite, since the practice of stacking has become general. It is found that all grain is a better sample from stacks than from barns ; vermin have less chance of injuring it, indeed may be set at defiance, and at harvest the corn may admit of being carried two days sooner for stacking than for housing. BARNACLES. A name given to horse twitchers or brakes, a sort of instrument used by farriers to put upon horses' noses, when they will not stand quietly to be shod, bled, or dressed. BARN OWL (Sfrix Jlammea). The white, or screech owl, unlike some of the species, is resident in England throughout the year, and is so peculiar in the colour of its plumage, and so generally diffused, that it is probably the best known of all the British species of owls. It inhabits churches, barns, old malting kilns, or deserted ruins of any sort, and also holes in decayed trees. If unmolested, the same haunts are frequented either by parent birds or their offspring, for many years in succession. As a constant destroyer of rats and mice, and that to a very considerable extent, the services per- formed by barn owls for the agriculturists have obtained for these birds toleration at least, while by some they are, as they deserve to be, strictly protected in return for benefits received. Unless disturbed, these birds seldom leave their retreat during the day ; and, if the place of concealment be approached with caution, and a view of the bird obtained, it will generally N 145 BAROMETER. BAROMETER. be observed to have its eyes closed as if asleep. About sunset, the pair of owls, par- ticularly when they have youn"^, issue forth in quest of food, and may be observed flapping gently alonj?, searching lanes, hedgerows, or- chards, and small enclosures near outbuildings. "In this irregular country," says White of Selborne, " we can stand on an eminence and see them beat the fields over like a setting dog, and often drop down in the grass or corn.*' Besides rats and mice, they feed on shrews, small birds, insects, &c., and have sometimes been known to capture and eat fish. It is said of this owl, that when satisfied, it will hide the remainder of its meat like a dog. The barn owl lays from three to five eggs, which are oval and white, measuring one inch six lines in length, and one inch three lines in breadth. Young birds are found from July to September, and occasionally as late as Decem- ber. The young birds are easily tamed, and live in harmony with other birds. The barn owl is common in most, if not all the counties of England, and, according to Mr. Thompson, it is also the most common owl in Ireland. In Scotland, it is less numerous. Over the tem- perate part of the European continent, and in North America, it is generally diffused. Its form and colour are too common to need de- scription. The whole length of the bird is about fourteen inches. ( YarreWs Brit. Birds, Tol. i.) BAROMETER. The word is derived from two Greek words, which signify the measurer of weight. This, the most valuable instrument for meteorological observations in the farmer's possession, was invented about the middle of the 17th century, by Torricelli, an Italian phi- losopher. Some observations of Galileo had, perhaps, led the way to the discovery ; the at- tention of this great philosopher, according to a well knoAvn story, having been drawn to the fact that water would not rise higher than 32 feet in a tube exhausted of air, by some work- men of the Duke of Florence, who had vainly endeavoured to construct a comon lifting pump to raise water a greater height. Galileo ex- plained the phenomenon, by saying that nature had a horror of a vacuum, but that this horror had its limits. It was found by Torricelli, that a column of water of about 32 feet exactly balanced the weight of the atmosphere which surrounds our earth, and that this was equal to the weight of a column of mercury of about 88 inches. Now this column of mercury, under various outward shapes, forms the ba- rometer, or weather-glass, so useful to the far- mer. For as the pressure of the atmosphere commonly varies with approaching changes in Ihe weather, the consequent rise or fall of the mercury merely marks its amount : one end of the mercurial tube is hermetically sealed and is void of air, so that the quicksilver rises or falls in it unresisted ; but the other end of the tube is open, and the atmosphere forces the mercury through this, by pressure on the sur- face of the fluid mercury in the cistern. Thus, th*» atmosphere operates by its varying pres- sure. When, therefore, the quicksilver Hses, the atmospheric pressure is increasing ; when \i Jails, the pressure is diminishing. 146 The more dense the state of the atmosphere, the higher the mercury will rise in the instm- ment. It is a popular notion that the atmos- pheric pressure must be greatest when the air is thick and cloudy. The term density, when applied to the condition of the atmosphere and its relations with the barometer, means specific weight, without reference to its clearncL? or cloudiness. Vapour or moisture in the air al- ways lessens its weight, and the more vapour, whether this be invisible, or in the condensed states constituting fogs and clouds, the less the weight or density and pressure upon the ba- rometer. It is more from this rising and falling of the barometer, observes Mr. Forster, than from its height or lowness, that we are to infer fair or foul weather. In very hot weather the falling of the mercury indicates thunder: in winter, the rising indicates frost ; and in frosty weather, if the mercury fall three or four divisions, there will follow a thaw ; but in a continued frost, if the mercury rises it will snow. When foul weather happens soon after the falling of the mercur}% it will not continue ; and, on the contrary, you may expect, if the weather be- comes fair as soon as the mercury rises, that it will be of short duration. In foul weather, when the mercury rises much and high, and so continues for two or three days before the foul weather is quite over, then expect a con tinuance of fair weather to follow. The words usually inscribed on the scale plates of barometers, such as " Very Dry," " Set Fair," " Fair," etc., etc., are extremely falla- cious, and have tended to bring the instrument into great! discredit as a weather glass. We may perhaps except " Stormy," for when the lowest falls happen, they are always the pre- cursors of very high winds and storms. The words inscribed are, perhaps, better indica- tions of the weather in England than on the American side of the Atlantic. It must be evident that when a barometer, with a scale plate marked as usual, is carried to high and mountainous positions, the mercurial co- lumn falls, and has its relations with the words on the scale plate entirely changed. The per- son who wishes to make the barometer useful in foretelling the changes of weather in the United States must throw aside all dependence upon inscriptions, with the exception mention- ed, and study its fluctuations with reference to the prevailing winds, dew-point, and other conditions of the weather at the time. Rain or snow is frequently preceded by a rise, instead of a fall, of the mercurial column, and a fall of the barometer often indicates the cessation of rain. The rise in the mercurial column generally indicates a northerly wind. The highest con- ditions of the barometer in the United States, near the Atlantic, commonly preceoe north- easterly storms of rain and snow. The very highest elevations have been attended Avith very cold weather and a light wind from the north, followed by snow or rain within forty- eight hours. A subsidence of the mercury ge nerally indicates wind from a southerly point, and should this be so far round as to blow from land, the fall of rain or snow will commonly BARREL. BARROWS. cease, for a while at least. When, during a wet spell oi weather, the wind has veered to the south-easterly points, with a cessation of rain, the wind rising to east and north-east is generally preceded or attended by a rise of the barometer and a renewal of the rain. When the wind has been from the south and south- west, with a moist condition of the atmosphere, or high dew-point, a rise of the barometer in- dicates that the wind is coming from a point north of west, and a clearing up shower about to ensue. 'J'he following tabular view is intended to show the manner in which the mercurial column of the barometer fluctuates at Phila- delphia, a position in the United States, which may be regarded rather central and removed from the extremes of more northerly and southerly situations. The higher north, the greater the fluctuations of the barometer. The observations were carefully made during the year 1842, by Mr. Owen Evans, a member of the Committee on Meteorology, of the Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. The graduation of his barometer agrees with that of the standard constructed for the Committee on Meteorology, by which the instruments distributed to the va- rious counties of Penns}dvania are regulated. The elevation of the place of observation is about 30 feet above high-water mark of the Delaware. The means are corrected for tem- perature to 42° Fahr. Mean of Bamnieter for each month of the year 184*2, - _ - . Greatest height at the hours of obser- vation, -. - - - - Lowest falls at the hours of observa- tion, Jao. 3004 Feb. 3000 30-63 30-4: 29-53 2912 March 3004 April 29- '.)5 30 51J30 4-2 a9-62j29 57 May 2'JIO 3031 •29-60 June. 29-92 30-41 2'J-70 July. Au?. 29-90 29-98 30-30 30-37 29-78 29-75 Sept. 29 97 30-22 30-00 30-34 Nov. 3001 30-43 29-63^29-66 29-37 29-99 30-47 29-32 30-63 29-12 Many are the natural indications of vegetables which portend changes in the weather ; thus, the Pimpernel, or Red Chickweed (Anagallis. arvensis), is styled the poor man's weather- glass. This little plant blooms in June, in stubble fields and gardens, and continues in flower all the summer. When this plant is seen in the morning with its little red flowers widely extended, we may generally expect a fine day ; on the contrary, it is a sign of rain when its petals are closed. (The Farmer^s Al- manac.) The following table has been constructed from a long series of observations made in London ; they will apply, however, to a consi- derable distance around the metropolis : — Barometer, -rbermoiDeter, Mean qnasiity January - mean Height mean Tempera- ture. iDcbea. 29-921 361 1-483 February - 30067 38- 0746 Marcli 29843 43-9 1440 April 29 881 49-9 1-786 May 29 898 54- 1-853 June 30 020 587 1-830 July 29-874 61 2-516 August 29891 616 1-453 September 29-931 57-8 2-193 October - 29-774 48-9 2073 November 29-776 42-9 2-400 December - 29-693 39-3 2-426 BARREL. A cask or vessel for holding liquids, particularly ale and beer. Formerly the barrel of beer in London, contained only 32 ale gallons =■ 32^ Imperial gallons. By a statute of 1 W. & M., the ale and beer barrels were equalized for every part of England, ex- cept London, and ordered to contain 34 gallons ; but it was enacted by 43 Geo. 3, c. 69, that 36 gallons of beer should be taken to be a barrel ; and by the 6 Geo. 3, c. 58, it is enacted, that whenever any gallon measure is mentioned in any excise law, it shall always be deemed and taken to be a standard Imperial gallon. At present, therefore, the barrel contains 36 Impe- rial gallons. It may be worth while observing, that the barrel or cask is exclusively the pro- duce of European ingenuity, and that no such article is known to any nation of Asia, Africa, or America, who have not derived it from Eu- ropeans. The term barrel was formerly used to denote, in a rough way, other sorts of goods. Thus, a barrel of salmon was 42 gallons; a barrel of soap, 256 pounds. In common lan- guage, any hollow cylinder is called a barrel. Air and water-tight iron barrels coated with waterproof composition are now used in the navy, and might be made useful to the farmer. (APCulloch's Com. Did.,- Brande's Did.' of Science.) A measure for Indian corn, in Maryland, Vir- ginia, and other Southern States, containing 10 bushels in the ear = to 3 flour barrels. BARREN FLOWERS are those which either have stamens and no pistil, or which have neither stamens nor pistil. The latter are the production of art. BARREN SOILS, in general, owe their sterility to the presence of too great a propor- tion of particular earths — saline, or organic mat- ters. No soil can be productive in which 19 parts out of 20 are composed of any one earth or other substance. The improvement of such soils constitutes the great art of all manuring and tillage. Lands containing an excess of calcareous, matter may be improved by tne ad- dition of clay or sand. Sands may be dressed with clay or marl, or vegetable matter. Where organic matters are in excess, the earths may be applied. Water must be removed by drain ing. (Davi/'s Ledures, p. 203.) See Soils. BARROWS. The common term for tumuli, or huge mounds of earth which were raised in former times over the bodies of heroes and warriors : many of which exist to the present day on the plains of Wilts and the downs of Dorset, Surrey, Sussex, and other counties. Barrow is also the name for a hog, and for any kind of carriage moved or borne by the hand. The most common barrows in use at present are the wheel-barrow, which is employed for the carriage of light loads, as of earth to short distances, lime for building, manure from the 147 BARS. BASS. heaps for spreading, and the like. The hand- barrow is, under certain circumstances, substi- tuted for the wheel-barrow. The load-barrow IS used for carrying filled sacks to and from the granary, &c. BARS. In farriery, a term applied to those portions of the crust or hoof of horses that are reflected inwards, and which form the archrs that are situated between the heels and the frog. Bars of a Horse^s Mouth. — The fleshy rows that run across the upper part of the mouth, and reach almost quite to the palate, very dis- tinguishable in yome young horses. They form that part of the mouth on which the bit should rest, and have its efiect. BAR-SHOE. A particular kind of shoe, which is sometimes of necessity used to protect a tender frog from injury, the hinder part of the shoe being thickened and hollowed over the .TOg ; but unless it is made exceedingly heavy, it will soon be flattened down, and in the mean time it will most injuriously presi upon the heels. BARTER (Span, baratar ,- Fr. harrater ,- Ital. barratare, which signify to cheat as well as to barter: hence also our word barratry). The exchanging one commodity for another, with- out the payment of money. The term barter seems to have been derived from the lan- guages of southern Europe. This rude mode of trade grows into desuetude as a country or nation advances in commercial knowledge, and progresses in civilization ; and even where an actual exchange of commodities does take place between merchants and traders, their comparative value is expressed by certain current moneys, and balanced accordingly, and not by the proportionate value one article bears to another. The exchange of a civilized peo- ple amongst themselves, or with other coun- tries, are principally carried on by bills of exchange. The actual money payments in a country, by no means represent the amount of its commercial transactions. {Penny Cyclop.) BARTH. A provincial term, which sig- nifies a warm enclosed place or pasture for calves, lambs, and other young animals. BARTON, or BARKEN (Sax. bepe-tun, an area). A term employed in some districts to signify the yard of a farm-house. Blount de- scribes this word as meaning the demesne lands of a manor; the manor-house itself, and sometimes the out-houses. Most of our old lexicographers explain it as an enclosed place, or inner yard, where poultry is kept, or hus- bandr)'^ used. Blount's is the provincialism of the west of England ; the latter is still used in other places. BASIL, SWEET (Ocymum. Probably from o^cD and ju»/oi), on account of its lasting fra- grance). A culinary aromatic exotic used in salads and soups ; the peculiar flavour of motk-turtle soups is chiefly derived from this valuable pot-h^irb. There are two species com- monly cultivated, both annuals, and originally coming from the East Indies. 1. The sweet- scented or larger basil (O. hasilicum), and, 2. The dwarf-bush oasil (0. minimum). They til rive most in a rich light soil, entirely free {mm. any overshadowing body; but they re- US quire, especially for the earliest plants, a she*, tered border. In wet earth, the seed always rots. BASIL, COMMON WILD (Ckenopodium vulgare). This is also slightly aromatic, and is a perennial succulent herb, growing in bushy places, about hedges, and by road sides, on a gravelly or chalky soil. The herb rises about a foot high on a wavy, light green, hairy stem, with ovate leaves, an inch long, serrated, and the ribs beneath armed with bristly hairs. The whole of the flowers are also bristly, on branched hairy stalks, both arising from the axilla of the leaves and the top of the stem, of a light purple colour. The flowers blow in July and August. This plant flourishes abun- dantly in gardens. It is well known among kitchen herbs. Its very odour is fragrant and refreshing. BASIL -Thyme. Field Thyme (Thymus acina). A leafy, small annual plant, much branched and spreading, but scarcely nine inches high, with acute, bluntly serrated leaves, rough at the edges, and islightly aro- matic. The flowers are in axillary whorls of a bluish colour, variegated at the tip with white and dark purple ; six on a whorl on simple -stalks. It grows luxuriantly in cultivated fields, especially on a sandy, gravelly, or chalky soil. (Smith's Eng. Flor.) BASIL. The skin of a sheep tanned. BASILISK. (Lat.) The name for a serpent. BASIN, or BASON (Fr. bnssin .- It. bacino). In agriculture, a natural or artificial hollow or excavation in the ground, for the reception and preservation of water. See Poxi>. BASKETS (Basged, Welsh ; bascauda, Lat probably from bass, of which baskets were often made). They are made principally of the in terwoven twigs of willow, osier, and birch, &c., but frequently also of grass, rushes, splinters of wood, straw, &c. They are made to hold all sorts of dry goods, and constructed of every variety of quality and shape, from the small fruit-pottle to the bushel basket. For market baskets the osiers are used whole. Besides the vast quantities made in England, some of the finer kinds are imported under an ad valo- rem duty of 20 per cent. In 1832 this dut}'^ pro- duced 1044/. Is. 9d., showing that the value of the foreign baskets entered for home consump- tion in the same year had been 5221/. 18s. 9d. The fishing basket, pannier, or creel for the angler, should be made of wicker-work, with two openings for a leather strap to pass through, which strap should encircle one shoulder and be buckled, so thai it may be let down or taken up as occasion may suit. There are great varieties of these panniers; some are made of sufficient width to carry a fish of four or fivo pounds at full length. BASS. The material of which packing mats are made. It consists of the bark of the lime tree. The American Bass wood, or American Lime, or Linden (Tllia Americana), abounds in the forests east of the Mississippi. It exists in Canada, but is most common in the more northern portions of the United States. It be- comes less frequent towards the south, and in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia, is found EASTARP ALKANET. BAY OF A BARN. only on ihe mountains. Michaux says he found this species of lime tree most abundant in the Genessee country, bordering on Lakes Erie and Ontario, where it frequently consti- tutes two-thirds, and sometimes the whole of the forests. The sugar maple, the white elm, and the white oak are the trees with which it most frequently associates. On newly cleared land its stump and roots frequently sprout, causing no little trouble to the settler The presence of the lime tree indicates a loose, deep, and fertile soil. It is sometimes more than eighty feet high and four feet in diameter. Its straight and even trunk, termi- nating in an ample and tufted summit, forms a beautiful tree. The wood is white and soft. In the Northern States, where the tulip poplar does not grow, it is used for the pannels of carriage bodies and the seats of Windsor chairs. It is, however, apt to split, and is not considered equal to pop- lar for such and other useful purposes. (North Amer. Si/lva.) The American Lime tree or Linden is extensively cultivated in Europe, where its larger leaves easily distinguish it from the European Lime or Linden, which last bears such sweet blossoms, perfuming the air like the mock orange. The European Lin- den is so much the prey of insect borers and caterpillars as to make its preservation ex- tremely difficult, especially in cities. The American Linden escapes much better. BASTARD ALKANET (Corn Gromwell, Lithosjjermum arvense). An annual weed com- mon in waste grounds and corn-fields, espe- cially among rye, flowering in May and June. It may be easily known by its tapering root, with a bright red bark, which communicates its colour to oily substances, as well as to pa- per, linen, and pale faces; arid it is therefore occasionally used by the young girls in Sweden to colour their cheeks. This colouring matter is also used to tinge some ointments, especi- ally lip-salves, of a red colour. From the root usually rises a single stem, about a foot high, rough, and generally branched and spreading at the top ; sometimes decumbent. The flowers are small and white, surrounded with five long, narrow, hairy leaves. Wildenow says, he has seen a variety with blue flowers. (Smith's EiiiT. Fhr.) BASTARD -TOADFLAX (Thesium lino- phylhi/n). An English perennial wild plant, with terminal clusters of whitish or yellowish blossoms, many-flowered, erect, generally branched or subdivided, flowering in July. Its root is woody and yellowish, stems widely spreading, angular, leafy, a span or more in length : leaves turned to one side, rough-edged, light-green, an inch long at most. Found in high open chalky pastures. The only species of this genus known in the United States is the Thesium umbcllalum. (See Darlington's Flora Cesfrica.) BAT, or FLITTERMOUSE (Cheiroptera, a hand and wing). A mammiferous animal which has a body like a mouse, with wmgs not feathered, but consisting of a membranous skin extended. These wings of the bat, osteo- logically considered, are hands; the bony stretchers of the cutaneous membrane being the digital phalanges, or fingers; extremely elongated; one digit or finger of each wing is tipped with a small nail. Bats are widely spread over the globe ; they are to be found in the Old and New World, and in New Holland. A tolerably temperate climate seems necessary for them, and the greatest developement of the form takes place in warm countries. Gene- rally speaking, they remain in concealment during the day in caverns, ruinous buildings, hollow trees, and such hiding places, and fli't forth at twilight or sunset to take their prey. They feed mostly on flies, insects, &c., but do not refuse raw flesh, so that the notion that bats go down chimneys and gnaw men's bacon is no improbable story. Bats are divided into two classes, the omni- vorous or fruit-eating, and the insectivorous. Those who are desirous of further investigating the subject will find ample particulars under the head " Cheiroptera" in the Pen7iy Cydo. vol. vii. p. 19. BATEABLE HERBAGE. Provincially, such herbage as has the tendency of readily fattening stock of difierent kinds. BAT FOWLING. A particular manner of bird-catching in the night, while they are at roost under the eaves of barns, or upon trees or hedges. The fowler lights torches or straw, and beats the bushes, upon which the birds, dazzled by the light, fly into the flames, and are then knocked down with sticks, or caught either with nets or by other means. BATING. An abbreviation of abating. From bate, to lessen any thing, to retrench, to sink the price. Thus Locke says, " When the landholder's rent falls, he must either bate the labourer's wages, or not employ or not pay him." It is also used synonymously with barring, to except. BATTEN (probably from the French baton, from its slender width). A name in common use for a slip or scantling of wood from two to four inches broad and one inch thick, the length inconsiderable, but undefined. If above seven inches wide, it is called deal. It also signifies strong broad fencing rails. It is sometimes written button. BAY (Lat. badins ,• old Fr. baye, bai, rouge brun; Ital. baio). The term for a colour in- clining to a chestnut. In reference to the horse this colour has various shades, from the very light bay, to the dark bay, which approaches nearly to the brown ; but it is always more gay and shining. There are also colouied horses that are called dappled bays. All bay horses are commonly called brown. Bay horses have black manes, which distinguish them from the sorrel, that have red or white manes. There are light bays, and gilded bays, which are somewhat of a yellowish colour. The chestnut bay is that which comes nearest to the colour of the chestnut. The bay is one of the best colours of horses, and horses of ail the different shades of bays are commonly good. BAYARD. A provincial term fcr a bay horse. , ^, BAY OF A BARN. That part where the mow is placed. Hence such barns as have the thrashing-floor in the middle, and a space N 2 J49 BAY-SALT. BEAGLE. for a mow on each side, are called barns of two bays, &c. BAY-SALT. The salt made naturally on the sea-shore at St. Ubes and other bays, in the natural hollows of the sea-shore which are only overflowed at spring tides. The salt thus made at a low temperature by the action of the sun and wind is the strongest and best for but- ter and other agricultural purposes. (Brown- rigg on Salt; Brande's Diet, of Science.) Bay-salt is in large, moderately white cubes. St. Ubes' salt contains 960 parts of pure chloride of sodium in 1000 parts; the remainder consists of 28 parts of sulphate of lime and of magnesia; 3 parts of chloride of magnesia, or bittern ; and 9 of insoluble matter. It is con- sequently very pure. Similar salt, but less pure, is made at St. Martin and Oleven. (For its dietetical usco and as a manure, see Salt, Salting.) BAY-TREE (Latirus nobilis). This plant, the laurel of antiquity, is a native of classical ground. We cannot ascertain at what exact period the bay-tree was first cultivated in this country ; but in all probability it was planted by the Romans, and fell with their villas. Chaucer, who wrote in the time of Edward III., mentions it ; and Turner, our oldest writer on plants, says, in 1564, "the bay-tre in England is no great tre, but it thryueth there many parts better, and is lustier than in Germany." We find that during the reign of Elizabeth it was common to strew the floors of distinguished persons in England with bay-leaves. And we may conclude that it was rare in this country, even so late as the beginning of the eighteenth century, for Bradley says, in 1716, " they (bay- trees) should be put in pots or cases, and housed in the winter, that their beauty may be preserved." He states, that " he has seen pyra- mids and headed plants of bays introduced in parterre work, but he cannot advise the doing it, lest they should be injured by the weather." There need be no such care taken now, for they have become thoroughly hardy and accli- mated. Bradley adds, the finest bay-trees he had ever seen, either abroad or in England, were then in the royal gardens of Kensington, and were of very great value. The bay is a small tree, seldom exceeding fifteen to twenty feet in height. The bark is greenish, smooth, and aromatic : the leaves lanceolate, sharp-pointed, wavy on the edge, and leathery and smooth on both sides. The flowers are four or six in a cluster, of a yel- lowish white, glandular, and dotted. The fruit is about the size of a large pea, black, and succulent. Observation instructs us to place this tree in situations where it is sheltered from north and north-east winds, which affect its beauty, and often its growth. It thrives under the very wings of larger trees, where it is difficult to make other shrubs prosper, and this is of im- portance in our plantations. A warm, dry, sandy, or gravelly soil is recommended for the bay; but it thrives well on a rich loam. We are told by Mortimer, that bay-trees, whose branches are killed by the weather, or other accident, if cut down to the ground, will send np strong ohoots, which we know by experi- 150 ence to be correct ; therefore, the roots should not be grubbed up too hastily. This tree should never have a branch taken from it but in the spring. The directions for raising these trees ; from seed are given in the same manner by all writers on the subject, from Pliny do\vn to Miller. It is, to gather the fruit when quite ripe, which is not before January or February. The berries are then to be preserved in dry sand until the middle of March, when they may be sown in a shady border of rich, loose, undunged earth. The berries, should be drop- ped in rows as French beans are planted, and covered. with fine, rich mould about an inch thick. The young plants will require frequent but moderate watering for the first two years. The French nurserymen raise them under glass, or in an orangery. The bay-tree will grow by cuttings, but these should be planted in a moderate hot-bed, and kept moist and co- vered from the heat of the sun during summer, and from the frost in winter. April is the pro- per time to plant cuttings, but layers may be laid down either in March or August, which, by the second spring, will make good plants. The variegated bay is increased by budding it on the common sort. Neither the broad nor the narrow-leaved varieties are so hardy as the common bay. The leaves and berries of the bay-tree have an aromatic, bitter, astrin- gent taste, and a fragrant smell : and are ac- counted stomachic, carminative, and narcotic; but they are not much used in medicine at the present day, although old writers are very voluminous in describing their virtues. (Phil- lips^s Syl. Flor.) This well-known evergreen is always hand- some in shrubberies, and grows well. It pre- fers a northern aspect: indeed, we may almost consider the bay-tree a native of England, since gardens and shrubberies are now rarely formed without their presence. The leaves and berries are used as medicine ; the leaves should be dried in the proper way, pounded, and kept in glass bottles ; they are said to be cordial and beneficial in nervous complaints, and in paralysis : in large doses they prove emetic. The green leaves applied to the part allays the pain of the sling of bees. The ber- ries of the bay-tree contain both volatile and fixed oil, wax, resin, uncrystallizable sugar, gums, starch, some salts, and a peculiar sub- stance, which has been named laiirin, and bears some resemblance to camphor. The dried berries are given in powder or infusion in flatulent colic ; but they are of little value. BEAGLE (Fr. bigle). A small well-propor- tioned hound, slow but sure, having an excel- lent nose and most enduring diligence ; form- erly much in fashion for hunting the hare, but now comparatively neglected, its place being occupied, where hare-hunting is patronized, by the harrier. There are still several varieties of beagles, but formerly there appear to have been many more, from the deep-flewed dimi- nutive type of the old southern hound, to the fleet and elegant fox-hound beagle, to which we may add the pigmy breed called lap-dog beagles. Beagles were formerly distinguished into the rough and the smooth. The rough, wire-haired, or terrier beagle, is now seldom BEAM. BEANS. met with, although it was a hardy, and alto- gether a vermin-loving breed, and ver3'strjngly formed. {Blaine^s Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports.) BEAM. The principal piece of timber which supports a building. BEAM OF A PLOUGH. The upper prin- cipal timber into which the handles and all the other parts of the tail of the plough are fixed. It is most commonly made of ash wood, some- what bent in its form, and of different lengths according to the nature of the plough. (See Ploughs.) BEAM-TREE. The Pynts aria of botanists. The white beam-tree or wild pear-tree, is a de- ciduous British tree of small growth inhabiting the mountainous parts of the country, and re- sembling a small apple-tree with berries like those of the mountain ash. Its leaves are strongly veined, in a plaited manner, and white underneath ; the wood is hard, compact, and tough, and is used for axle trees, naves of wheels, and cogs of machinery. (Brande's Diet. Science.) BEANS ( Vida Faba). A well-known vege- table of the pulse species, largely cultivated both in gardens and fields. Sax. bean ; vicia is the Latin name for the tare or vetch ; derived, •iccording to Varro, a vicinrdo, because its ten- drils entwine or bind round other plants. The bean was called in Greek Kwe eye has attained its deepest dye, and instantly, if dry weather, sheaved. The sheaves of any grain or pulse ought not to exceed nine inches in diameter ; and I think that sheaves from six to eight inches would be far safer in this variable cli- mate. By cutting at this period of the state of the crop, the bean-straw will be of triple value of what stands till the leaves fall off'; the grain too will be superior to that bleached by the weather for weeks, after the haulm and grdin of the first is secured in the rick. Shocks of any crop of pulse or grain ought not to exceed six sheaves of the above-mentioned size." The Rev. John Ramsay, of Ayrshire, and Mr. John Boys, of Kent, also give the result of their observations on bean husbandry (Com. Board of Agr., vol. vi. p. 141—146), which, though valuable, are of too confined and local a na- ture for me to notice. The diseases to which beans are subject ir» England, are the rust, or mildew, which is a minute fungus that grows on the stems of leaves, attributed to cold fogs and frequent sudden transitions of weather, and the black dolphin or fly, also called the collier, an insect of the aphis tribe. For the mildew no remedy has vet been found. Whenever it has attacked BEANS. BEANS. the plants, generally before the pods are filled, the best method is to cut down the crop in its green state ; and if it cannot be consumed in the farm-yard, to plough it into the ground, where it will decay rapidly, and be an excel- lent manure for the succeeding crop of wheat. If allowed to stand, the crop will not only be unproductive, but the weeds will infest the ground, and spoil the wheat crop by tneir seeds and roots, which will remain in the soil. Whenever the tops of the beans begin to be moist and clammy to the feel, it is the fore- runner of the aphis. They should then be im- mediately cut off, and this, if done in time, may save the crop from the ravages of the insects ; but the most effectual way to prevent any disease from attacking the plants in their growth, is to have the ground in good heart, and well tilled; to drill the beans at a suffi- cient distance between the rows, to allow the use of the horse-hoe, and thus to accelerate the growth of the plants, and enable them to out- grow the effect of incipient disease, which seldom attacks any but weak plants. In the year 1831, there were imported from abroad 23,388 qrs. of beans. The largest proportion came from the following countries ; Denmark, 1299 qrs.; Prussia, 1157 qrs.; Germany, 7664 qrs. ; the Netherlands, 7070 qrs.; France, 1454 qrs.; Italy, 3691 qrs.; Malta, 1031 qrs. The total quantity of pulse (for beans and peas are included in the return) entered for home con- sumption in 1834, was 102,080 qrs. ; in 1835, 94,540 qrs. {Appendix fo Second Agr. Report for 1836, p. 282.; Phillips's Cultivated Vege- tables ; Penny Ct/c. vol. iv. ; Baxter's Agr. Lib.; Prof. Low's work on Agr. ,- Com. Board of Agr., vols. iv. and vi. ; M'Cullock's Com. Did.) Garden Beans. — The following varieties are those principally cultivated: — Early mazagan, a great bearer, and a good sort. Early Lisbon, or Portugal bean, a small and sweet kind. Common sword, and other long-pods, the most abundant bearers, and consequently more generally found in the cottager's garden than any other sort. Small Spanish. Broad Spanish. Toker, a good bearer, middling large. White and black blossomed, good sorts, and bear well ; middling size: the seed, when old, is apt Jo degenerate if not saved with care. Windsor, one of our best-tasted beans when young ; but not a hardy kind. Green nonpa- reil, smallish. Besides these, there are the Munford, Dwarf-cluster, or Fan, and the Red blossomed, varieties of little value. In some places the Fan is, however, much grown. It grows only from six to twelve inches high ; the branches spread out like a fan, and the pods are produced in clusters. The soil should vary with the season. For the winter- standing and early crops, a moderately rich and dry soil is best adapted to them, since, if GO moist, the seed is apt to decay, &c., whilst a moist aluminous one is best for the spring and summer insertions. Although the bean V, ill succeed in much lighter soils than is ge- ijerally imagined, yet, if such are allotted to it when thus late inserted, the produce is much diminished. The situation cannot be too un- incumbered, but still a protection from violent ariiids is very beneficial, as no plant is more 154 liable to suffer if its leaves are much injured. It is propagated by seed. For the first produc- tion, in the following year, a small plantation may be made at the close of October, or during November, and a rather larger one in Decem- ber. These should be inserted on a south border, in a row, about a foot from the fence, or in cross-rows. If intended for transplanting, the seed may be sown likewise during these months. Regular plantations may be continued to be made from the beginning of January to the end of June, once every three weeks. Early in July and August the two last crops must be inserted. The Windsor, which is the principal variety then planted, should have a south border allotted ; it comes into production about Michaelmas. The experiments of Bradley serve as a guide in some respects, whereby to apportion the extent of the plantations. He found that a rod of ground, containing fourteen rows, in pairs, at two feet distance, the plants in which are six inches apart, or thirty-four in number, will yield forty-seven quarts of broad beans. Smaller varieties only from one-half to one- third as many. (General Treat, on Husband, and Garden., vol. iii. p. 16.) If the plants are intended to be transplanted, which is only practised for the early crops, the seed must be sown thick, about an inch apart, in a bed of light earth, in a sheltered situation, and of such extent as can be covered with a frame. If frames and hand-glasses are deficient, matting or litter, kept from pressing on and injuring the plants, by means of hooping, &c., are sometimes employed. These, however, afford such imperfect shelter, that there is scarce any advantage superior to the mode of sowing at once, where the plants are to remain, since the intention of this practice is to keep them in vigour, and to forward their growth, by secur- ing them from ungenial weather. Care must be taken that they are not weakened from a deficiency of air or light; to guard against this, the lights should be taken entirely off every day that excessive wet or cold does not imperatively forbid their removal. The usual time for removing them into the open ground, in a south border, is February; if, however, the season is inclement, they may be kept under the frame until May; but then a week previous to their removal, Bradley informs us, they ought to be cut down within two inches of the ground. {Gen. Treat, oji Husband, and Garden.) When removed, as much earth as possible should be retained round the roots of plants; and they must be set at similar dis- tances as the main crops. No water is re- quired, unless the season be very dry. When sown to remain, the seed may be inserted in rows, by a blunt dibble, or in drills, drawn by the hoe, from two and a half to three feel apart, from two to four inches apart in the row, and two deep, the earliest crops and shortest varieties being set at the smallest dis tances. These spaces may be considered as large by some gardeners ; but the beans, Miller. from experience, asserts, are more productive than if set twice as close. Previous to sowing, in summer, if dry weather, ihe seed should be soaked for two or three hours in water, or if BEAN, KIDNEY. BEAN, KIDNEY. sown in drills, these must be well watered im- 1 mediately before the insertion. When advanced to a height of two inches, hoeing between, and ' drawing earth about the stems of the plants may commence. Tliis must be often repeated, and even sooner begun to the early and late crops, as it affords considerable protection from frost and wind. As soon as the various crops come into blossom, two or three inches length of each stem is broken off; this, by preventing its increase in height, causes more sap to be af- forded to the blossom, consequently causing it to advance with more rapidity, and set more abun- dantly. Some gardeners recommend the tops to be taken off when the plants are young, not more than six inches high, declaring it makes them branch, and be more productive. This may be ultimately the effect, but it is certainly incorrect to state that it brings them into pro- duction sooner: the effect in this respect is much the contrary. The winter-standing crops require, in the early stages of their growth, the shelter of dry litter, prevented touching the plants by small branches, &c. This is only requisite during very severe weather; it must be constantly removed in mild open days, ''therwise the plants will be spindled and weakened. For the production of seed, plan- tations of the several varieties should be made about the end of February, in a soil lighter than that their produce is afterwards to be grown upon. No two varieties should be grown near each other ; and in order to preserve the early ones as uncontaminated as possible, those plants only which blossom and produce their pods the first should be preserved. Water ought to be given two or three times a week, from the time of their blossoming until their pods have done swelling. None of the pods ought to be gathered for the table from them ; the after-production of seed is never so fine, and the plants raised from it are always defi- cient in vigour. They are fit for harvesting when the leaves have become blackish, which occurs at the end of August or early in Sep- tember. They must be thoroughly dried, being reared against a hedge until they are so, before the seed is thrashed out and stored ; and those only should be preserved that are fine and per- fect. Some gardeners even recommend the pods from the lower part of the stem alone to be selected. Seed beans will sometimes vege- tate after being kept for eight or ten years, but are seldom good for any thing when more than two. The plants arising from seed of this age are not so apt to be superluxuriant as i om that produced in the preceding year. BEAN, KIDNEY {Phaseolus vulgaris, from its pods resembling a species of ship, supposed first to have been invented at Phaselis, a town of Pamphylia). Of this vegetable there are two species, the one being a dwarf bushy plant, the (Xher a lofty climbing one. Of the Dwarfs there are twelve varieties : — Early liver-coloured. Early red-speckled. Early white. Early negro, or black. Canterbury white. Battersea white. Black speckled. Brown speckled. Streaked or striped. Large white. Dun-coloured. Tawny. Of the Runners there are six varieties : — Scarlet runner. Canterbury small white. Large white. Small white. Large white Dutch. Variable runner. The soil for them may be any thing rather than wet or tenacious, for in such the greater part of the seed, in general, decays without germinating; whilst those plants which are produced are contracted in their produce and continuance, A very light mellow loam, even inclining to a sand, is the best for the earliest sowings, and one scarcely less silicious, though moister, is preferable for the late sum- mer crops ; but fc r the later ones a recurrence must be made to a soil as dry as for the early insertions. In ail cases the subsoil must be open, as stagna/t moisture is inevitably fatal to the plants or seed. For the early and late crops a sheltered border must always be allot- ted, or in a single row about a foot from a south fence, otherwise the situation cannot be too open. Dwarfs. — The sowing commences with the year. They may be sown towards the end of January in pots, and placed upon the flues of the hot-house, or in rows in the mould of a hot- bed, for production in March ; to be repeated once every three weeks in similar situations during February and March, for supplying the table during April, May, and June. At the end of March and April a small sowing may be performed, if fine open weather, under a frame without heat, for removal into a sheltered bor- der early in May. During May, and thence until the first week in August, sowings may be made once every three weeks. It. Septem- ber, forcing recommences : at first merely un- der frames without bottom heat, but in Octo- ber, and thence to the close of the year, in hot- beds, &c.,%.s in January. Sowings, when a re- moval is intended, should always be performed in pots, the plants being less retarded, as the roots are less injured, than when the seed is inserted in patches or rows in the earth of the bed. It is a good practice likewise to repeat each sowing in the frames without heat after the lapse of a week, as the first will often fail, when a second, although after so short a lapse of time, will perfectly succeed. In every in- stance the seed is buried one and a half or two inches deep. The rows of the main crops, if of the smaller varieties, may be one and a half, if of the larger, two feet apart, the seed being inserted either in drills or by the dibble four inches apart ; the plants, however, to be thinned to twice that distance. If any considerable vacancy occurs, it may always be filled by plants which have been carefully removed by the trowel from where they stood too thick. A general remark, how- ever, may be made, that the transplanted beans are never so productive or continue so long in bearing (although sometimes they are earlier) as those left where raised. The rows of the earlier crops are best ranged north and south. The seed inserted during the hottest period of summer, should be either soaked in water loi five or six hours, laid in damp mould for a day or two, or the drills be well watered previous to sowing. The only after-cultivation requ •re'' BEAN. KIDNEY. BEARD-GRASS. .'s the destruction of weeds, and earth to he drawn up round the stems. The pods of both species are always to be gathered while young ; by thus doing, and care being had not to injure the stems in detaching them, the plants are rendered as prolific and long-lived as possible. Furclvg. — The hotbed must be of moderate size, and covered with earth eight or nine inches thick. When the heat has become re- gular, the seed may be inserted in drills a foot apart, and the plants allowed lo stand six inches asunder in the rows. Some gardeners erroneously sow thick in a hotbed, moulded over about six or seven inches deep, and re- move ^the plants, when two or three inches high, to the above-mentioned distances in an- other for producing, water and shade being alforded until they have rooted. Air must be admitted as freely as to the melon. The same precautions are likewise necessary as to keep- ing up the temperature, taking the chill oif the water, &c., as for that plant. When the seed begins to sprout, the mould should be kept re- gularly moistened; and when grown up, wa- ter may be given moderately three times a week. The temperature should never be less than 60°, nor higher than 75°. Some plants of the hotbed sowing at the end of March, are often, after being gradually har- dened, planted in a warm border; this will at most hasten the plants in production a fort- night before those sown in the open ground in May. Those sown under frames in March for transplanting into a border, when two or three inches in height, must in like manner be har- dened gradually for the exposure, by the plen- tiful admission of air, and the total removal of the glasses during fine days. If any are raised in pots in the hot-house, they must in a like manner be prepared for the removal, by setting them outside in fine days, and there watering them with colder water. If the sea- son is too ungenial after all to remove them even to a warm border, the plants are often inserted in patches, to have the protection of frames or hand-lights at night, or as the wea- thex demands. It has been lately stated in a provincial paper, that kidney-beans appear of a perennial nature. In Somersetshire, they have been observed to vegetate for several years — the plants being in the vicinity of a steam-engine, and so situated that the frost could not penetrate to the roots. I have not yet had an opportunity of putting this state- ment to the test of experiment. Runners. — As these are more tender, and the seed is more apt to decay than those of the Dwarfs, nu open ground crop must be inserted before the r.lose of April, or early in May, to be continued at intervals of four weeks through June and July, which will ensure a supply from the middle of this last month until October. Some gardeners force them in a similar manner to the Dwarfs : they certainly require similar treatment; but they will en- dure a higher temperature by a few degrees. They are so prolific, and such permanent rearers, that three open-ground sowing-" of a 15t size proportionate to the consumption will, in almost every instance, be sutficient. The runners are inserted in drills, either singly, three feet apart, or in pairs, ten or twelve inches asunder, and each pair four feet distant from its neighbour. The seed is buried two inches deep and four inches apart in the rows, the plants being thinned to twice that distance. If grown in single rows, a row of poles must be set on the south side of each, being fixed firmly in the ground ; they may be kept together by having a light pole tied hori- zontally along their tops, or a post fixed at each end of a row, united by a cross-bar at their tops; a string may be passed from this to each of the plants. If the rows are in pairs, a row of poles must be placed on each side, so fixed in the ground that their summits cross, and are tied together. They are sometimes sown in a single row down the sides of bor- ders, or on each side of a walk, having the support of a trellis- work, or made to climb poles which are turned archwise over it. As the plants advance to five or six inches in height, they should have the earth drawn about their stems. Weeds must be constantl)' cleared aAvay as they appear. When they throw up their voluble stems, those that strag- gle away should be brought back to the poles, and twisted round them in a direction contrary to that of the sun : nothing will induce them to entwine in the contrary direction, or from left to right. For the production of seed, forty or fifty plants of the Dwarf species wi.l be sufficient for a moderate-sized family, ct thirty of the Runner. They must be raised purposely in May, or a like number from the crop in that month may be left ungathered from; for the first pods always produce the finest seeds, and ripen more perfectly. In autumn, as soon as the plants decay, they must be pulled, and, when thoroughly dried, the seed beaten out and stored. {G. W. Johnson^s Kitchen Garden.) BEAN-FLY. A beautiful bluish black fly, generally found on bean flowers. It is some- times called the collier. The aphides of beans are invariably brought on by very dry weather; they are most prevalent on the summits of the plants. (See Beans.) The larva; of the lady- bird, or lady-cow (Coccinella septempunclata), as well as the perfect insects, devour the aphis greedily, feeding almost entirely upon these in- sects. Several of the English summer birds also live upon them. BEAR. A species of barley, called also winter barley, square barley, and big. It is sometimes written here. This grain is chiefly cultivated in Scotland, the northern parts of England, and Ireland. It yields a very large return, but is not esteemed so good for malt- ing as the common barley, for which reason it is very little cultivated in the southern parts j of England. I BEAR-BIND. See Black Bind-weed. ! BEARD (Sax. heap©). The same with he \ awn of a plant. i BEARD-GRASS (Poli/pogon). There are I two sorts, the annual beard-grass (P. monspe- ; iiensis) and the perennial beard-grass (P. lilio- r BEARDED OAT-GRASS. ralis). They are found in moist pastures and near the sea, in muddy salt-marshes, but are not often met with. BEARDED OAT-GRASS. SeeWiM Oats. BEAR'S-FOOT. See Hellebore. BEAST (Su. Goth, beest, Ger. bestie, Fr. beite, Lat. besliu). A term generally applied to all such quadrupeds, or four-footed animals, as are made use of for food, or employed in labour; but farmers apply the term more particularly to neat cattle. BED-STRAW, YELLOW, LADIES' (Ga- Uvin verum). It is sometimes termed cheese- rennini^ and maid's hair, or petty mu^uet or mug^itorf, and yellow goose-grass. A perennial weed, flowering from June till October, more common in the hedges and Avaysides than in the body of pastures. Its slender stalks rise to about a foot in height. The leaves come out in whorls, eight or nine together. They are long, narrow, and of a green colour. Two little branches generally come out near the lop of the sialic, supporting a considerable number of small golden yellow flowers, con- sisting of one petal divided into four parts, and succeeded by two large kidney-shaped seeds. The flowers of this plant are said to coagulate boiling milk, and the better sorts of Cheshire cheese are soioflimes prepared with them. A kind of vinegar is stated to have been dis- tilled from the flowering tops. The French prescribe them in epileptic and hysteric cases; but they are ot no value. Boiled in alum- water, they tinge wood yellow. The roots dye a line red not inferior to madder, and are used for this purpose in the island of Jura. Sheep and goats eat the plant ; horses and swine re- fuse it ; cows are not fond of it. Smith enu- merates seventeen species of bed-straw : — I. Cioss-wort bed-straw, or mugweed; 2. White water bed-straw ; 3. Rough heath bed-straw ; 4. Smooth heath bed-straw ; 5. Rough marsh bed-straw; 6. Upright bed-straw; 7. Gray spreading bed-straw; 8. Bearded bed straw; 9. Warty-fruited bed-straw ; 10. Rough-fruited corn bed-straw, or three-flowered goose-grass ; II. Smooth-fruited corn bed-straw ; 12. Least mountain bed-straw; 13. Yellow bed-straw; 14. Great hedge bed-straw ; 15. Wall bed-straw; 16. Cross-leaved bed-straw; 17. Goose-grass, or cleavers. (^Hort. Gram. Wob.-p. 329; Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. i. pp. 199—210.) Dr. Darlington, in his Flora Cestrica, enu- merates twenty^ne species of this plant found in Chester county, Pennsylvania. Among these are the wild madder (Galium tinctorium), sometimes called Dyer's goose-grass, frequent in low grounds. The roots of this and another species of galium (horeale) are used by the Indians in dying their porcupine quills, and other ornaments, of a red colour. Wild liquo- rice {Guliuni. Circaezuns), frequent in rich woodlands and having a sweet taste. Common cleavers, Robin-run-the-hedge, or Yellow goose- p-ass (PI. 10, s)i a troublesome weed. BEECH (Fugtis fylvatica. Sax. bece or boc^. The beech h' one of the handsomest of our native forest trees, and in stateliness and grandeur of outline vies even with the oak. Its silvery bark, contrasting with the sombre trunks of other trees, renders its beauties BEECH conspicuous in our woods ; while ihe o-raca fully spreading pendulous boughs, with" their glossy foliage, mark its elegance in the park or paddock. There is only one species, the difference in the wood arising from the effects of soil and situation. The beech is a native of the greater part of the north of Europe and America. The finest beeches in England are said to grow in Hampshire. The tree is also much grown in Wiltshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent. The forest of St. Leonard's, near Horsham, Sussex, abounds with noble beech trees. The shade of the beech tree is very injurious to most sorts of plants that grow near it, but it is believed by the vulgar to be very salubrious to human bodies. The Avood of this tree, which is hard, and rather hand- some, Brande tells us (in his Did. i>f Science, p. 139), is brittle and perishable, and liable to become worm-eaten. Phillips admits, that it is subject to worms, when exposed to the air without paint; but says, that the timber of the^e trees, in point of actual utility, follows next to the oak and the ash, and is little inferior to the elm for water-pipes. It is used, he adds (i/t.sY. of Fruits, p. 60), by wheelwrights and chairmakers, and also by turners for making domestic wooden ware, such as bowls, shovels, churns, cheese-vats, dressers, shelves for dai- ries, «&c. it being as white as deal, free froin all disagreeable smell, and without any incon- venient softness. Bedsteads and other furni- ture are often made with this timber; and no wood splits so fine, or holds so well together^ as beech, so that boxes, sword-sheaths, and a variety of other things, are made from it. The baskets called pottles, in which strawberries or raspberries are usually sold in London, are made from beech twigs and cuttings, and the wood is also much in use for poles, stakes, hoops, &c. Near large towns it is in great demand for billet wood. It affords a large quantity of potash and good charcoal. It is manufactured into a great variety of tools, for which its great hardness and uniform texture render it superior to all other sorts of wood. It is not much used in building, as it soon rots in damp places, but it is useful for piles in places which are constantly wet. The purple and copper beeches seen in plantations are seed- ling varieties of Fagus sylvatica. The beech- tree thrives best and attains to a great size on clayey loams incumbent on sand: silicious sandy soils are also well adapted for its growth, and it will prosper on chalky, stony, and barren soils, where many other timber trees will not prosper ; and it is found to resist winds on the declivities of hills better than most other trees. Where the soil is tolerably good, beech will become fit to be felled in about twenty-five years. The tree bears .op- ping, and may, therefore, be trained to form very lofty hedges. The leaves of the beech, gathered in autumn before they are much injured by the frost, are said to make better mattresses than straw or chaff, as they remain sweet and continue soft for many years ; they are also profitably em- ployed in forcing sea-kale, asparagus, &c. in hot-beds. The beech is propagated by sowmg the nuts, or mast, which should be gathered O 157 BEECH. BEECH. about the middle of September, when ihey are ripe, and begin to fall, and spread out on a mat in an airy place for a week to dry, when they may be sown. It is, however, recom- merded to keep them dry in sand until the spring, as there is less danger of their being then destroyed by field mice and other vermin. These nuts do not require to be covered more than an inch deep in mould, and it will be ob- served that only a part of them germinates the first year. Two or three bushels of seed are sufficient for an acre, to be sown mixed with sand, in the same manner as the ash. The flowers of this tree come forth in May, and its kernels ripen in September. The Ro- mans used beech leaves and honey to restore the growth of hair which had fallen off; but the moderns have not found it efficacious. The nuts or seed of this tree, termed beech mast, are the food of hogs, and of various small quadrupeds. They are often called buck-mast in England, from the eagerness with which deer feed on them. An oil, nearly equal m flavour to the best olive oil, with the advantage of keeping longer without becoming rancid, may be obtained from the nuts by pressure. It is very common in Picardy, and other parts of France, where the mast abounds; in Silesia it is used by the country people instead of butter. And in the reign of George I. we find a petition was pre- sented, praying letters patent for making but- ter from beech nuts. The cakes which remain from the pressure, after the oil is made, are given to fatten swine, oxen, or poultry. A bushel of mast is said to produce a gallon of clean oil ; but the beech tree seldom produces a full crop of mast oftener than once in three years. This nut is palatable to the taste, but when eaten in great quantities occasions headache and giddiness ; nevertheless, when dried and ground into meal, it makes a wholesome bread. Like acorns, the fruit of the beech was long the food of mankind before the use of corn. Roasted, the mast has been found a tolerable substitute for coffee. (Phillips's Hist, of Fruits, p. 56 ; JW' Culloch's Cum. Diet. ; Baxter's Agr. Li- brary ,- Brande's Diet, of Science.) In North America, as in Europe, the beech is one of the common trees of the forest. Two distinct species are found in the Northern States, which have been often treated by bota- nists as varieties. Michaux, who makes this distinction, calls one the white beech, {Fagus sylvestris), and the other the red beech (Fagus ferruginea), both the popular names being de- rived from the colour of the wood. In the Middle Western, and Southern States the red beech does not exist, or is very rare. A deep moist soil and a cool atmosphere are necessary to the utmost expansion of the white beech. In the Middle Statc^:, east of the mountains, it is insulated in the forests, whilst in the Northern parts of Pennsylvania, the Genessee district in New York, and in the sta^^^es of Kentucky and Tennessee, it composes large masses of the primitive forests. The soils on which the beech mostly abounds have generally a stra- tum of clay or gravel, termed hard-pan, which ])revents any roots from descending. This 158 , forces the trees to obtain their subsistence from ! the upper soil, and the roots spread around the ! trees to a distance sometimes of a hundred I feet or more, and so numerous withal as to be I greatly in the way of the settler when he first clears his grounds. But he has the satisfaction of knowing that they soon rot away and yield to his plough. The white beedi is more slen- der and less branchy than the red beech ; but its foliage is superb, the green being of the most agreeable shade, and its general appear- ance very beautiful. On the banks of the Ohio and in some parts of Kentucky, Avhere the oak is too rare to furnish enough bark for tanning, the deficiency is supplied by that of the white beech. The leather made with this is white and servicea,ble, though avowedly inferior to what is prepared with the bark of the oak. The red beech bears a greater resemblance to that of Europe than the w^hite species. It equals the white beech in thickness, but not in height, has a more massive and spreading summit, and more tufted foliage. The leaves are very similar, but those of the white beech are not quite so thick and large, with rather shorter teeth. To these diflerences must be added a more important one in the wood. The red beech 15 or 18 inches in diameter consists of 3 or 4 inches of white wood and 13 or 14 inches of red wood or heart, the inverse of which proportion is found in the white beech. The wood of the red beech is stronger, tougher, and more compact. In the state of Maine and in the British Provinces where oaks are rare, it is employed with the sugar maple and yel« low birch for the lower part of the frame of vessels. As it is extremely liable to injury from worms, and speedily decays when ex- posed to alternate dryness and moisture, it is rarely used in the construction of houses. In the state of Maine the hickory is rare, and the white oak does not exist, and when the yellow birch and black ash cannot be procured in sufficient abundance the red beech is selected for hoops. Experience has demonstrated the advantage of felling the beech in the summer, whilst the sap is in full circulation. Cut at this season it is very durable, but felled in winter, it de- cays in a few years. The logs are left several months in the shade before they are hewn, care being taken that they do not repose immedi- ately upon the ground. Aft^r this they are hewn and laid in water for three months, which process, it is said, renders them inac- cessible to worms. The beech is very durable when preserved from moisture, and incorruptible when con- stantly in the water ; but the white or exterior portion of the wood decays rapidly when ex- posed to alternations of dryness and dampness. The interior red wood, or heart, as it is usually called, is very durable. In the northern por- tion of the United States, the red beech consti tutes a large proportion of the fuel consumed, and, as in Europe, the wood of the beech sub- serves a great variety of useful purposes. The ashes of both species of beech yield a very large proportion of potash. Michaux, who describes the process of ex tracting the oil, says that it equals one-sixth w ei the irnts as BEEF. ©f the irnts ased. The quality of the oil de- pends upon the care with which it is made, and upon the purity of the vessels in which it is preserved- It should be twice drawn off during the first three months, without disturb- ing the dregs, and the third time at the end of six mouths. It arrives at perfection only when it becomes limpid, several months after its ex- traction. It improves by age, lasts unimpaired for ten years, and may be preserved longer than any other oil. The manner of making beech nut oil most commonly pursued in the districts of the United States where the tree abounds, is somewhat different from that described in Michaux's Si/lra. Instead of resorting to the rather te- dious process of gathering the nuts and press- ing them through screw-presses, the farmers turn out their hogs immediately after the first frost, who secrete the oil under their skin. In a favourable year they become perfect masses of blubber. Unless they be fed, sometime before killing, on Indian corn, the bacon has little solid consistency, becomes liquid upon the slighest application of heat, and keeps that state, — resembling in this respect the lard of hogs fed upon acorn mast. The nuts are only plentiful about every third or fourth year, and every farmer keeps a number of half- starved swine in the intervening period to take advantage of the happy event. BEEF (Fr. bauf), is used either fresh or salted. Beef is also sometimes used for the name of an ox, bull, or cow, considered as fit for food. Formerly it was usual for most tamilies, at least in England, to supply them- selves with a stock of salt beef in October or November, which served for their consumption until the ensuing summer; but in consequence of the universal establishment of markets where fresh beef may be at all times obtained, the practice is now nearly relinquished, and the quantity of salted beef made use of as compared with fresh beef is quite inconsider- able. Large quantities of salted beef are, however, prepared at Cork and other places for exportation to the East and West Indies. During the war large supplies were also re- quired for victualling the navy. The vessels engaged in the coasting trade, and in short voyages, use only fresh provisions. The Eng- lish have at all times been great consumers of beef; and at this moment more beef is used in London, as compared with the population, than anvwhere else in Europe. BEELD, or BIELD (Sax. behlman; Icel. boele, a dwelling). A term provincially applied m the north of England to any thing which affords shelter, such as a clump or screen of trees planted for the protection of live-stock. BEER (Welsh, bir,- Germ, bier.- Sax. beaji ; Goth, bar, barley). A liquor made from malt and hops, which is distinguished from ale either by being older or. smaller. It may be prepared from any of the farinaceous grains, out barley is most commonly employed. Beer is, properly speaking, the wine of bar- ley. The meals of any of these grains being extracted by a sufficient quantity of water, and remaining at rest in a degree of heat requisite for this fermentation, are changed into a vinous BEER. liquor. But as these matters render the water mucilaginous, fermentation proceeds slowly and imperfectly. On the other hand, if the quantity of farinaceous matter be so dimi- nished that its extract or decoction may have a convenient degree of fluidity, this liquor will be impregnated with so small a quantity of fermentable matter, that the beer or wine of the grain will be weak, and have little taste. These inconveniences are therefore remedied by preliminary operations which the grain is made to undergo. These preparations consist in steeping it in cold water, that it may soak and swell to a certain degree ; and in laving it in a heap with a suitable degree of heat, by means of which, and of the imbibed moisture, a germmation begins, which is to be stopped by a quick drying, as soon as the bud shows itself. To accelerate this drying, and to prevent the farther vegetation of the grain, which would impair its saccharine qualities, the grain is slightly roasted, by means of a kiln, or making it pass down an inclined canal sufliciently heated. This germination, and this slight roasting, change considerably the nature of the mucilaginous fermentable matter of the grain, and it becomes the malt of commerce. This malt is then ground; and all its substance, which is fermentable and soluble in water, is extricated by means of hot water. This ex- tract or infusion is evaporated by boiling in. cauldrons ; and some plant of an agreeable bitterness, such as hops, is added to heighten the taste of the beer, and to render it capable of being longer preserved. Lastly, this liquor is put into casks, and fermented, assisted by the addition of barm. Beer is nutritious from the sugar and muci- lage it contains, exhilarating from the spirit, and strengthening and narcotic from the hops. Mr. Brande obtained the following quantities of alcohol from 100 parts of different beers : — Burton ale, between 8 and 9 ; Edinburgh ale, 6 to 7 ; Dorchester ale, 5 to 6. The average of strong ale being between 6 and 7 ; brown siout, 6 to 7; London porter about 4 (average) ; London brewers' small beer between 1 and 2. (See Brewing.) "The distinction between ale and beer, or porter, has been," says Mr M'Culloch, "ably elucidated by Dr. Thomas Thomson in his valuable article on brewing in the supplement to the Encyc. Brit." " Both ale and beer are in Great Britain ob- tained by fermentation from the malt of barley but they differ from each other in several par ticulars. Ale is light-coloured, brisk, and sweetish, or at least free from bitter; while beer is dark-coloured, bitter, and much less brisk. What is called porter in England is a species of beer ; and the term ' porter,' at pre- sent signifies what was formerly called strong beer. The original difference between ale and beer was owing to the malt from which they were prepared ; ale malt was dried at a very low heat, and consequently was of a pale co- lour , while beer or porter malt was dried at a higuer temperature, and had of consequencr acquired a brown colour. This incipient charring had developed a peculiar and agree- able bitter taste, which was communicated to the beer ilong with the dark colour. This bit BEES. BEES. ter taste rendered beer more agreeable to the palate and less injurious to the constitution than ale. It was consequently manufactured in greater quantities, and soon became the common drink of the lower ranks in England. When malt became high priced, in conse- quence of the heavy taxes laid upon it, and the great increase in the price of barley which took place during the war of the French revo- lution, the brewers found out that a greater quantity of wort of a given strength could be prepared from pale malt than from brown malt. The consequence was, that a consider- able proportion of pale malt was substituted for brown malt in the brewing of porter and beer. The wort, of course, was much paler than before, and it wanted that agreeable bitter flavour which characterized porter, and made it so much relished by most palates. At the same time various substitutes M-ere tried to supply the place of the agreeable bitter com- municated to porter by the use of brown malt; quassia, cocculus indicus, and we believe even opium, were employed in succession ; but none of them was found to answer the purpose suffi- ciently." The use of the articles other than malt, referred to by Dr. Thomson, has been ex- pressly forbidden under heavy penalties by repeated acts of parliament. In England, the classification of the ditfeient sorts of beer ac- cording to their strength, originated in the duties laid upon them ; and now that these du- ties have been repealed, ale and beer may be brewed of any degree of strength. The duty on beer being repealed in 1830, there are no later accounts of the quantity brewed. The number of bai/eis of strong beer brcAved in Scotland in the five years ending 1830, was 597,737 ; tabic beer, 1,283,490 ; amount of duty paid thereon, 393,136/. {Pari. Paper, No. 190, Sess. 1830.) No account has been kept of the quantity of beer brewed in Ireland since 1809, when it amounted to 960,300 barrels. {Morewoodun In- toxlcatiriif Liquors, p. 353.) Perhaps it may now amount to from 1,000,000 to 1,200,000 bar- rels. Ale or beer exported to foreign parts is allowed a drawback of 5^. the barrel of 36 gallons, Imperial measure. The number of barrels of strong beer annually exported is, from England, about 70,000 barrels ; Ireland, 15,000, and Scotland, 3,000. {M'Cullocfi's Com. Dicf.) BEES (Sax. oeo, Lat. api'es). These indus- trious and useful insects are worthy the atten- tion of all classes, and will repay the utmost care that can be taken in their management. No farm or cottage garden is complete with- out a row of these busy little colonies, with their warm, neat straw roofs, and their own particular, fragrant bed of thyme, in which they especially delight. Select a sheltered part of the garden, screened by a wall or hedge from the cutting north and easterly winds ; let them enjoy a southern sun, but do not place ihem facing his early beams, because bees must never be tempted to quit their hive in i the heavy morning dew, which clogs their ' limbs and impedes their flight. Place them, if | possible, near a rurining stream, as they de- ; 16t light in plenty of water ; but if none is within their easy reach, place pans of fresh water near the hives, in which mix a little common salt ; and let bits of stick float on the surface to enable bees to drink safel}'-, instead of slip- ping down the smooth sides of the vessel, and perish. Never place hives in a roofed stand : it heats them, and induces the bees frequently to form combs outside of their hives instead of swarming. Let the space before the hives be perfectly clear of bushes, trees, and every impediment to their movement, that they may wing their way easily to seek for food, and re- turn without annoyance. Bees, returning heavily laden and wearied, are unable to bear up against any object, should they hit them selves and fall. Let their passage to and from their hives be clear; but trees and bushes in the vicinity of their residence are advisable, as they present convenient spots for SAvarms to settle which might otherwise go beyond sight or reach. A swarm seldom goes far from home, unless the garden is unprovided with resting-places, to attract the queen, who takes refuge in the nearest shelter. In the month of November remove your hives upon their stools, into a cool, dry, and shady room, outhouse, or cellar, where they will be protect- ed as well from the winter sun as from the frosts. Warm days in winter often tempt bees to quit their cells, and the chilling air numbs and destroys them. Let them remain thus un- til February or March, should the spring be late and cold. Do not be satisfied with stop- ping the mouth of the hive with clay ; the bees will soon make their w-ay through it. Remove them. Bees are very subj.ect to a disease in the spring, similar to dysentery. Before you place the hives in their summer quarters, examine the state of the bees by turning up the hive, and noticing the smell proceeding from it. If the bees are healthy, the odour will be that of heated wax ; but if diseased, it will appear like that of putrefaction. In this case, a small quantity of port wine or brandy mixed with their food will restore them. In the early spring feed them, and do the same when the flowers pass away in autumn, until they are taken into the house ; then disturb them no more. The proper food is beer and sugar, in the proportion of one pound to a quart; boil it five minutes only. In May, bees begin to SAvarm, if the Aveather is Avarm. New and dry hives must be prepared without any doorAvay ; the entrance must be cut in the stool. This is recommended by " An Oxford Conservative Bee Keeper." Sticks across the inside of the hive are use- less, and very inconvenient. Let the hive be Avell Avashed with beer and sugar before you shake the bees into it. After swarming, place it upon a cloth with one side raised upon a stone ; shade it with boughs, and let it alone till quite dusk, then remove it to the stool where it is to stand. The " Oxford Bee Keeper" advises food to be given to a SAvarm after hiv- ing, for three or four days. Large hives are best; they do not consume more food than small ones ; this is a fact, and the same Avriter mentions it. Smarts and casts are the second and third swarms from a hive : they seldom BEES. BEES. Ave t}irou£:h the winter, and ought to be united 10 each other, or to a weak hive. This is the plan recommended by several writers ; as also returning a smart or cast to the parent hive, if )'ou have no hive weak enough to re- quire an increase of numbers. In this last case, Huish recommends the following plan : Place the back of a chair parallel with the entrance of the hive, over which spread a sheet ; then holding the hive containing the smart '»ver it, give a few sharp knocks at the top, arid the bees will immediately fall down on iWi cloth ; proceed then, either with your fingtfr or a stick, to guide a few of the bees to the /mtrance of the parent hive, and they will ins/antly crowd into it. The queen bee should be /caught and secured as they proceed; if this is pot done, they kill her, but in a less merciful w/ly. JlTo form a junction of two weak hives, or a sjrarm and a hive, Huish discovered the fol- lowing method: Smoke each hive, as if for tj.king, only with a less destructive fume, yhich will be mentioned presently. Spread /.ll the bees of one hive upon a table, and Search carefully for the queen ; destroy her ; / sweep the bees of both hives together into one, sprinkling them with some beer and sugar mixed ; replace the hive. The fungus used for smoking bees is that called frog's cheese, found in damp meadows ; take the largest, and put it into a bag; squeeze it to half its size, then dry it in an oven or before the fire, but not by a very quick heat. Take a piece of this dried fungus, the size of two eggs, and put it in a stick split at one end, and sharp at the other, which is to be fixed into the bottom of an empty hive turned upside down, to receive the stupified bees as they fall. To prevent swarming, the "Oxford Bee Keeper" recommends this treatment : — " You see in the following figure a wooden h b c { ^ -J bottom board, with the doorway a a cut in it. It has another doorway, b 6, on the right side. The ring is meant to show where a hive stands on it. The other bottom board is just like it, only the second doorway is on the left hand, so as to fit exactly to the side entrance of the first board, when pushed close together. As soon as the bees begin to hangout, in May, push the two boards c ose together. In the evening, when they are all in, stop up the entrance a a, and open the right hand one b b. Put an empty hive on the new board, with a glass worked into the back for observation. Each doorway has a bit of tin laid over as much of it as juts out beyond the hive. The bees must then find their way out by the new doorway; rub it with a little honey, and they will soon take to it. When the second hive is full, remove it thus : in the heat of the day, when many bees are out, sMp a piece of tin or card between the two doorways, shut up the doorway c c, and open 21 the old doon^'ay a a. If the bees go on -w orkir. g quietly all day, you will be sure that the queen is in the old hive, and all is right. About half an hour before dusk, open again the doorway c c, and the bees, frightened by their long im- prisonment, will hurry from one doorway to another to join the queen. As soon as they are gone, take away the full hive for yourself. If the old hive is very uneasy all day, you may be sure the queen is shut up in the new hive ; if so, draw out the card or tin to join them again, and wait till another day." Never destroy a bee ; this is the first great principle in their treatment. Bees only live one year, therefore, by killing them in Septem- ber, you destroy the young vigorous ones ready to work the following spring : the year- old bees die in August. When a hive is to be taken, smoke the bees as directed for joining hives ; replace them in a fresh hive, taking care to ascertain that the queen is safe among them, and feed them through the autumn and spring ; they will be ready to work with the rest, and a hive is thus added to the general stock. The queen is easily knov^^n from the working bees, as the size is larger. By fumigating the bees with tobacco smoke while operating upon a hive, they are rendered perfectly harmless. It is well to protect the face, neck, and hands, to prevent alarm or the chance of accident. When stung, extract the sting, and apply Goulard water immediately, or laudanum, or sweet oil. In February bees first begin their labours. May is their busiest month. In November their labours end, and they remain torpid for the winter. For more particular instructions, see Huish on Bees,- The Conservative Bee Keeper's Letter to Cottagers ; Wildtnan's Treatise on Bees; The Honey Bee, by Dr. Bevan; Penny Cyclo.; Qnart. Journ. ofAgr. vol. ii. p. 594 ; Baxter's Agr. Lib. pp. 46 — 53. Several of these treatises have been repub- lished in the Unite'^ States, where, besides separate works upon the subjects, the agricul- tural periodicals and newspapers abound with suggestions and instructions relative to the management of bees, &c. Loudon, in his lately published Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, says, that after all that has been done in England, France, and Italy, the Dee is still more successfully managed and finer honey produced in Poland, by persons who never saw a work on the subject, or heard of the mode of depriving bees of their honey without taking their lives. Much as has been written in France and England upon this sub- ject, it is, he observes, still found the best mode to destroy the bee in taking the honey, a practice for which he thinks unanswerable reasons are given by La Grenee, a French apiarian, and which is allowed to be conclu- sive as to profit even by Huish. " Suffocation is performed when the season of flowers begins to decline, and generally in October. The smoke of paper, or rag soaked or smeared with melted sulphur, is introduced to the hive, by placing it in a hole m the ground where a few shreds of these articles are undergoing a smothering combustion ; or the full hive may be placed on an empty one. inverted as in partial deprivation, and the sui o 2 161 BEES. BEES. phurous smoke introduced by fumigating bel- lows, &c. The bees will fall from the upper to the lower hive in a few minutes, when they may be removed and buried to prevent re- suscitation. Such a death seems one of the easiest, both to the insects themselves and to human feelings. Indeed, the mere deprivation of life, to animals not endowed with sentiment ov reflection, is reduced to the precise pain of the moment, without reference to the past or the future ; and as each pulsation of this pain increases in effect on the one hand, so, on the other, the susceptibility of feeling it diminishes. Civilized man is the only animal to whom death has terrors, and hence the origin of that false humanity which condemns the killing of bees in order to obtain their honey, but which might, with as much justice, be applied to the destruction of almost every other ani- mal used in domestic economy, as fowl«. game, fish, cattle, &c." {Encyc. of Agriculture, 7614.) As to the best situation for bees during their working season, this must depend upon circumstances of climate and locality. In southerly latitudes and warm exposures, — where the climate will admit of the hives re- maining upon the stands during winter, — it may still be advisable to give some shelter, and the principal object should be to ward off the sun, the warmth from which invites the bees to fly abroad at an unprofitable sea- son, and makes them sensitive to the sudden spells of cold experienced throughout the United States. In summer, the extreme heat of the sun should certainly be warded off by sheds and suitable shades, although it is im- proper to oblige the bees to pass through bar- riers of boughs and bushes. The heat accu- mulated by objects exposed to the direct rays of the sun often increases to 130° or 140° of Fahrenheit, a temperature which must be in- jurious, not only to the bees themselves, but to their honey and wax. Whitewashing the hives and stands will tend much to prevent the accumulation of heat. The hives may front the east, south-east, or south-west, ac- cording to circumstances. In the northerly portions of the United States, means are generally used to protect the swarms in winter, by removal to some cool and dry out-house or cellar. Some bury the hives either partly or entirely under ground, as is practised with many kinds of vegetables. The place should be very dry, and the hives set upon clean straw, without any bottom board to rest on, one side being raised about two inches by means of a stick or stone. An empty space must be left around, three times the size of the hive, covered over with bridging and earth, six, eight, or ten inches in depth, heaped up well so as to turn off water. They may remain thus covered about three months. Whilst some persons contend for the ne- cessity of protecting bees against the extreme cold of American winters, others deem it not only useless, but destructive to the health and welfare of swarms to remove the hives from ! their usual situations, however exposed these \ may be. Among apiarians who disapprove of • lh« removal of hives in the winter, is Dr. J. '. 162 V. C. Smith, of Boston, who, in a neat little duodecimo volume of about a hundred pages, " On the Practicability of Cultivating the Ho- ney Bee in Maritime Towns and Cities, as a source of Domestic Economy and Profit." holds the following testimony; — " During the season of rest, from the first of October to the first or middle of April, the quantity of honey consumed by such a hive as has been spoken of, as worth keeping, varies according to the average temperature of the weather, from ten to twenty pounds. It is better that the bees should have too much than too little in store. They are very econo- mical in the expenditure of food, and therefore there is no risk in trusting them with well stocked granaries. All hives should have the weight marked on the back, which will enable the manager to judge pretty accurately of the quantity of honey and wax on hand. Taking five pounds as the standard weight of the bees, and a half pound of wax to every fifteen pounds of honey, almost the exact quantity of honey can thus be ascertained. My rule has invariably been, to let the bees remain in win- ter, wherever they have stood through the sum- mer ; all attempts on my part to prepare them for the inclemencies of approaching cold were invariably anticipated, and seasonably attend- ed to by the bees themselves. " Feeling peculiar commiseration for a swarm, two years since, whose bleak locality, I feared, would be the certain destruction of the hive before spring, they were placed in the lob- by of an adjacent building for comfort. In the month of March, discovering that thousands of them were dead on the floor, and that the bees were sickl)^, they were carried back to their old stand in the open air, at the summit of a high, exposed hill, where they were per- fectly restored to health in about twelve days. If they are housed in winter, the torpidity which seems to be constitutionally requisite, both for the future health of the bee, and the saving of its honey, is obviated, and indisposition, in consequence of constantly feeding, without ex- ercise, is the invariable result. The colder they are, the better: I am fully persuaded that bees, in their hive, cannot be frozen to death. Animation may be suspended several weeks or months with impunity — vitality may merely appertain to organized matter ; but, when the genial warmth of spring comes gently on, the little spark of life is again rekindled into vigo- rous flame. "On the 21st of March, 1831, in company with Mr. J. S. C. Greene, we examined a hive of bees that had, probably, died for want of proper ventilation. There were two thousand two hundred bees. A common flint tumbler contained one thousand, weighing six ounces and a half. It was obvious they did not die of starvation, as there was a good supply of beautiful honey, which, together with the comb, weighed twenty-two pounds. Allowing one half pound of cell comb for holding every fif- teen pounds of honey, the quantity was easily ascertained. Taking this in connection with that which was taken from them in the autumn, and at the same time admitting that five hun- dred bees were lost by high autumnal winds, BEES. storms, and early frosts, the whole colony con- sisted, originally, of thirty-two hundred bees, which, in eight weeks, or thereabouts, collect- ed the wax, constructed the cells, and made over one hundred pounds of honey, in a gar- den on Pemberton's Hill, nearly in the centre of Boston ! It should be remarked, that a bee answering the general description of the queen, as it relates to external appearance, was found in a cluster of dead ones. Not a drone was discovered, nor a young bee in any stage of infancy." It is probable that bees can preserve their vitality in ordinary hives exposed to the most intense cold, so long as they remain in the torpid condition in which they are prepared for the worst. But when roused from this condition by the occurrence of a premature warm spell, they are then rendered sensitive to the effects of cold, and when this comes upon them sud- denly and with severity, they perish under it. The great object therefore appears to be, to place the swarms during winter in some dry situation where they may be kept at a cool and equable temperature. A good dry and cool cellar must answer all the purposes admira- bly, and from such a situation it is easy to remove them occasionally, in good mild wea- ther, and give them an airing. Loudon, who adopts the views of Howison and Huish, says that the bejit malerial and furm for hives is a straw thimble, or flower-pot, placed in an inverted position. Hives made of straw, as now in use, have a great advan- tage over those made of wood and other mate- rials, from the effectual defence they afford against the extremes of heat in summer and cold in winter. A full-sized straw hive will hold three pecks ; a small-sized, from one and a half to two pecks. {Encyc. of Agric.) The feeding of bees is generally deferred till winter or spring; but this is a most erroneous practice: hives should be examined in the course of the month of September, or about the time of killing the drones; and if a large hive does not weigh thirty pounds, it will be necessary to allow it half a pound of honey, or the same quantity of soft sugar made into syrup, for every pound that is deficient of that weight; and in like proportion to smaller hives. This work must not be delayed, that time may be given for the bees to make the deposit in their empty cells before they are rendered tor- pid by the cold. Sugar simply dissolved in water (which is a common practice), and su- gar boiled in water into a syrup, form com- pounds very differently suited for the winter store of bees. When the former is wanted for Iheir immediate nourishment, as in spring, it will answer equally as a syrup ; but if to be laid up as a store, the heat of the hive quickly evaporating the water, leaves the sugar in dry cr}'stals, not to be acted upon by the trunks of the bees. Hives may be killed with hunger while some pounds' weight of sugar remain in this state in their cells. The boiling of su- gar into syrup forms a closer combination with the water, by which it is prevented from flying off, and a consistence reserablingthat of honey retained. Howison has had frequent experi- ence of hives, not containing a pound of honey, BEES. preserved in perfect health through the winter with sugar so prepared, when given in proper time and in sufficient quantity. In the article from Loudon, from which we are now quoting, it is recommended to protect hives from cold, by covering them with straw or rushes, about the end of September, or later, according to the climate and season. This perhaps only applies to board hives, as those made of thick rye-straw or rushes will do without additional covering. Well protect- ed hives always prosper better the following season than such as have not been covered. In October, the aperture at which the bees enter should generally be narrowed, so that only one bee may pass at a time. Indeed, as a very small portion of air is necessary for bees in their torpid state, it were better during severe frosts to be entirely shut up, as num- bers of them are often lost from being enticed to quit the hive by the sunshine of a winter day. It will, however, be proper at times to remove, by a crooked wire or similar instru- ment, the dead bees and other filth, which the living at this season are unable to perform of themselves. To hives whose stock of honey was sufficient for their maintenance, or those to which a proper quantity of sugar had been given for that purpose, no further attention will be necessary until the breeding season arrives. This, in warm situations, generally takes place about the beginning of May ; and in cold, about a month after. The young bees, for a short time previous to their leaving their cells, and some after, require being fed with the same regularity that young birds are by their parents ; and if the store in the hive be exhausted, and the weather such as not to ad- mit of the working bees going abroad to col- lect food in sufficient quantity for themselves and their brood, the powerful principle of affection for their young compels them to part with what is not enough for their support, at the expense of their own lives. To prevent such accidents, it is advisable, if during the breeding season it rain for two successive days, to feed all the bees indiscriminately, as it would be difficult to ascertain those only which require it. The swarming of bees generally commences in June, in some seasons earlier, and in cold climates or seasons later. The first swarming is so long preceded by the appearance of drones, and hanging out of working bees, that if the time of their leaving the hive is not ob- served, it must be owing to want of care. The signs of the second are, however, more equi- vocal, the most certain being that of the qneen, a day or two before swarming, at intervals of a few minutes, giving out a sound a good deal resembling that of a cricket. It frequently happens that the swarm will leave the old hive, and return again several times, which n always owing to the queen not having accom- panied them, or from having dropped on the ground, being too young to fly to a distance. Gooseberry, currant, or other low bushes, should be planted at a short distance from the hives, for the bees to swarm upon, otherwise they are apt to fly away; by attending to thus, Howison has not lost a swarm by straying for 163 BEES. BEES. several years. When a hive yields more than two swarms, these should uniformly be joined to others that are weak, as, from the lateness of the season, and deficiency in number, they will otherwise perish. This junction is easily formed, by inverting at night the hive in which they are, and placing over it the one you in- tend them to enter. They soon ascend, aiid apparently with no opposition from the former possessors. Should the weather for some days after swarming be unfavourable for the bees going out, they must be fed with care until it clears up, otherwise the young swarm will run a great risk of dying. The honey may be taken from hives of the common construction by three modes, partial deprivation, total deprivation, and suffocation. Partial deprivation is performed about the beginning of September. Having ascertained the weight of the hive, and consequently the quantity of honeycomb which is to be ex- tracted, begin the operation as soon as evening sets in, by inverting the full hive, and placing an empty one over it; particular care must be taken that the two hives are of the same dia- meter, for if they differ in their dimensions it will no be possible to effect the driving of the bees. The hives being placed on each other, a sheet or large table-cloth must be tied round them at their place of junction, in order to prevent the bees from molesting the operator. The hives being thus arranged, beat the sides gently with a stick or the hand, but particular caution must be used to beat it on those parts to which the combs are attached and which will be found parallel with the entrance of the hive. The ascent of the bees into the upper hive will be known by a loud humming noise; in a few minutes the whole community will have ascended, and the hive with the bees in it may be placed upon the pedestal from which the full hive was removed. The hive from which the l^^es have been driven must then be taken into the house, and the operation of cutting out the honeycomb commenced. Hav- ing extracted the requisite quantity of comb, this opportunity must be embraced of inspect- ing the hive, and of cleaning it of any noxious matter. In cutting the combs, however, par- ticular attention should be paid not to cut into two or three combs at once, but having com- menced the cutting of one, to pursue it to the top of the hive ; and this caution is necessary for two reasons. If you begin the cutting of two or three combs at one time, were you to abstract the whole of them you would perhaps take too much ; and secondly, to stop in the middle of a comb will be attended with very pernicious consequences, as the honey would drop from the cells which have been cut in two, and then the bees, on being returned to their native hive, might be drowned in their own sweets. The bees also, in their return to their natural domicile, being still under the impression of fear, would not give so much attention to the honey which flows from the divided cells; and as it would fall on the board, and from that on the ground, the bees belonging to the other hives would immedialely scent the wasted treasure, and a general attack on the de- rrivated hive might be the consequence. The 164 deprivation of the honeycomb being effected, the hive may be returned to its former position, and reversing the hive which contains thr bees, and placing the deprivated hive over it, they may be left in that situation till morning, when the bees will be found to have taken possession of their native hive, and, if the season proves fine, may replenish what they have lost. (Huish's Treatise on Bees.) Total deprivation is effected in the same manner, but earlier in the season, immediately after the first swarm; and the bees, instead of being returned to a remnant of honey in their old hive, remain in the new empty one: which they will sometimes, though rarely, fill with comb. By this mode it is to be observed, very little honey is obtained, the bees in June and July being occupied chiefly in breeding, and one, if not two, swarms are lost. {Loudoii's Encyc. of Agriculture.) The mode of suffocation to be adopted by those who prefer destroying bees in taking honey, has already been given. Particular attention should be paid to the culture of such plants as supply the bees with the best food and materials for making honey, such as thyme, clover, broom, and mustard, &c. As a good deal of difference of opinion eiists relative to the construction of hives and ma- nagement of bees, we have endeavoured to condense the views upon the subject enter- tained by the most respectable authorities. It is a great desideratum that honey be brought to market without removal from the hive in which it is originally deposited, which enables the purchaser to keep it in fine condition for any length of time. Few persons will pur- chase the contents of a very large hive, when honey in small boxes generally sells readily. Hence one great advantage of having the hives constructed in sections, which, being of the same size, can always be fitted over or under each other. According to the views of Mr. Harasti, a skilful bee-cultivator, a good bet- hive ought to possess the following properties : First, it should be capable of enlargement or contraction according to the size of the swarm. Secondly, it should admit of being opened without disturbing the bees, either for the pur- pose of cleaning it from insects, increasing or dividing the swarm, &c. Thirdly, it should be so constructed, that the produce may be removed without injury to the bees. Fourthly, Fig. 1. BEES. BEES. it shduld be internally clean, smooth and free from cracks or Haws. All these properties seem best united in the section-hive, which is constituted of two, three, four, or more square boxes of similar size as to width, placed over each other. Such hives are cheap, and so simple that almost any one can construct them. (See Fig. 1.) The boxes A, B, C, D, may be made from ten to fourteen inches square and about five inches in depth, inside measure. Every bee- keeper should have his boxes made of the same size, so as to fit on to each other. Every hive must have a common top-board, a, which should project over the sides of the hive. The top-board of each section should have about sixteen holes bored through at equal distances from each other, and not larger than ^ or smaller than J of an inch. Or, instead of such holes, chinks of proper size may be cut through to allow the bees to pass up and down. At the lower part of each box or section, in front, there must be an aperture or little door, c,c,c,rf, just hish enough to let the bees pass, and about an inch and a half wide. The lowermost aper- ture, d, is to be left open at first, and when the hive is filled the upper ones may be succes- sively opened. By placing over the holes in the top of the upper section, glass globes, jars, tumblers, or boxes, the bees will rise into and fill them with honey. These may be removed at any time after being filled. The holes in the tops of the hive which do not open into the glasses or boxes should of course be plugged up. These glass jars, &c. must be covered over with a box so as to keep them in the dark. Every box or section, on the side opposite the little door, should have a narrow piece of glass inserted, with a sliding shutter, by drawing out which the condition of the hive can always be inspected. To make the bees place their combs in parallel lines, five or six sticks or bars may be placed at the top of every section, running from front to rear. The bees will at- tach their combs to these bars, and the intermediate space will afford suffi- cient light to see them work. The slides cover- ing the glasses should never be left open longer than is just necessary for purposes of inspec- Fig. S. tion. When one section is removed from the top, a wire or long thin knife must be previously run between this and the one immediately be- low, so as to destroy the attachments. Then remove the upper section, placing the top upon the one below, which is now the highest divi- sion of the hive. Another section is to be placed beneath, lifting up the whole hive for the purpose. Sometimes a second section has to be put under during a good season. If the swarm is not very large three or even two boxes will be sufficient for its accommodation. The boxes or sections may be secured upon each o'her by buttons, h, b, or rabbits, and the joints closed with cement. A good swarm of bees should weigh five or SIX pounds, and one weighing eight pounds ^ considered large. The weight diminishes to one pound. Such as are less than four pounds w^eight should be strengthened by a small ad- ditional swarm. The hives ought not to be too large, as bees are apt to lose time in filling up vacancies with wax instead of making honey. Honey collected from flowers growing in meadows, pasture lands, trees, and cultivated crops, is almost as limpid as the purest oil, and the wax nearly as white as snow. Honey collected from buckwheat has a harsh taste. When taken once in two years, it is considered richer and more solid, and will keep better than what is taken every year. Some of the plants from which bees collect their stores possess poisonous properties and impart these to the honey. The late Dr. B. S. Barton wrote an interesting and valuable pa- per upon this subject, which is published in the Transactions of the American Philosophical So- ciety, volume 5th. The plants which, in the United States, most frequently, afford poi- sonous honey, are the dwarf laurel (Kalmia ans^tisti folia), and the great laurel {Kalmia lati- fiilia), the mountain laurel {Rhododendron maxi- nius), wild honey-suckle {Azalia nudijiora), Jamestown weed, and broad-leaved moorwort of the south {Andromeda marlann). Most of these plants are known to produce poisonous honey, whilst a few of them are only suspi- cious. Of the trees and shrubs resorted to by bees, some furnish them with the farina or flower-dust which yields the spring food for their young, — some, the gummy or re- sinous exudations or secretions from which they derive the propolis or wax for sealing the hives of fresh swarms, — whilst others yield them honey in greater or less purity. The willow is much resorted to by bees for all the objects mentioned, furnishing the farina, the propolis, and honey-dew (the last from their aphides), in regular succession. When swarms are in the vicinity of the American sweet gum or styrax, they make their propolis from its fragrant gum. At other times they resort to the Athenian poplar. The sweet box myrtle blooms very early in the spring, and its flowers are always thickly beset by bees. The Eu- ropean, or sweet-flowered linden or lime tree, is likewise greatly resorted to by bees when in bloom, and also various kinds of fruit trees, especially the cherry and apple. The sweet juice exuded by the hickory is eagerly sought after by bees, but there is no American forest tree which affords them such ample supplies of the most limpid honey as the tulip poplar of the Middle States. This stupt^ndous tree sometimes rises, in fertile bottomlands, above one hundred feet in height, ha\ '.ng a trunk five or six feet in diameter. Such a tree, with every branch from the ground to the summit covered with splendid tulips is a magnificent sight, and a most valuable acqui- sition when within reach of the apiary. Among the verv sreat variety of plans which have been adopted by American inge- nuity to improve the bee culture, there is one which has acquired much celebrity from its enabling the surplus honey to be taken with- out destroving the bees, which iiost persons ■prefer doing. The plan referred to, is that of loo BEES. BEES. Mr. Luda, of Connecticut. By it the bees are made to build their cells and deposit their ho- ney in the ciiamber of a dwelling-house appro- priated for the purpose, in neat little drawers, from which it may be taken fresh by the owner, without killing the bees. The hive has the appearance of, and is in part, a mahogany bureau or sideboard, with drawers above and a closet below, with glass doors. This case or bureau is designed to be placed in the cham- ber of a house, or any other suitable building, and connected with the open air or outside of the house by a tube passing through the wall. The bees work and deposit their honey in drawers. When these or any of them are full, or it is desired to obtain honey, one or more of them may be taken out, the bees al- lowed to escape into the other part of the hive, and the honey taken away. The glass doors allow the working of the bees to be observed ; and it is said that the spaciousness,' cleanli- ness, and even the more regular temperature of such habitations, render them the more in- dustrious and successful. A recent plan called the " Kentucky Bee- house," has been highly commended for its successful adaptation, convenience and cheap- ness. One is described in the Farmer's Cabi- net, for June, 1839, by Mr. F. C. Fisher. "The building is twelve feet long, eight wide, and seven feet high from the floor to the plate or ceiling (the floor being eighteen inches from the ground), and consists of four posts, eleven feet six inches long, let in the ground three feet, which is weather-boarded round, and covered in so as to prevent the bees from getting in the house, they being confined in six boxes, three on either side of the house, placed fifteen inches one above another. " The draw- ing (fig. 3) re- presents a side of the house, viewed from without. Nos. 1,1, are copper troughs run- ning round the post, halfway between the floor and ground, which are kept filled with water to prevent ants and other insects from getting in the house. Nos. 2, 3, and 4 are tubes eight inches wide, and one-eighth of an inch deep, to convey the bees through the wall into the long boxes, and entering them at the bottom, there being three to each long box. The drawing (fig. 4) represents one side of the house, viewed from the inside. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 are A- ! 1 f— ' 1 1 I l_ 3 I 1 n 1 1 1 1 2 r—j -1 3-1- Fig. 3. r\r\r\ r \ r> /^ r^ r\ r\n .^n nn nd \^r^r\ r\ rxC\ Fifr. 4. long boxes, eighteen inches wide and twelve deep, extend- ing the whole length of the house, with eight holes, four inches square, in each box, upon which IS set two gallon caps, with two half inch holes in each, one near the top, the other about the centre of the cap, in which the smoke of a turning rag is blown to drive the bees from 1B6 the cap into the long box. When they are all in the long box, — which can be known by strik- ing the caps, — a knife or wire should be drawn under the bottom of the cap to separate the comb from the box. The cap of honey may then be removed, and an empty one put in its place. Nos. 4 and 6 are tubes three inches square, to convey the bees from one box to another, that one swarm of bees may do the whole work, or if one or more swarms be put m each box, that they may become as one, as they will not permit more than one queen when put together, by which they are prevented from destroying themselves by fighting. A house of this description, when the long boxes are filled, will afford, at a moderate calcula- tion, ninety-six gallons of honey in the comb annually." A hive under the very pompous name of " Patent Fortified Transparent Royal Bee Pa- lace," invented a few years since by Mr. William Groves, of Cleaveland, Ohio, is said to possess real merits, notwithstanding its un- promising and ridiculous name. It is so con- structed that the bees never swarm, and are enabled to reject and roll off" all off'ensive mat- ters, besides defending themselves against intruders. For the preservation of the bees it is said to be preferable to any other hive, and it admits of the convenient removal of honey in any desirable quantity, at all times without disturbing the bees, which are kept clean, well- ventilated, and healthy. A correspondent of the Farmer's Cabinet residing in Western Pennsylvania furnishes the following description of an improved hive, which he says embraces more advantages than any other he has ever seen. Among these are the following : — " 1. It prevents the ravages of the miller, whose worm is the bee's most fatal enemy. The miller deposits its eggs in the bee dirt ; which in the common hive is constantly accumulating on the bottom. This difficulty is obviated by the slanting bottom of the stand; the dirt fall- ing on this rolls out at D, and the bottom is kept clean. "2. The cruel practice of destroying the hees is entirely superseded by the use of this hive. By blowing a small quantity of tobacco smoke into the upper box, through a hole made for that purpose, the bees will descend into the box next below ; the upper box can be remov- ed ; fifty or sixty pounds of honey, entirely free from dead bees and dirt, can thus be taken from a good hive ; and enough remain to win- ter the bees without any risk of loss. " 3. The swarming (f the bees can be regulated by the rise of this hive, and the new swarms taken at the season of the year when they are most valuable. The bees can be prevented swarming again for the season, by additional boxes as the young bees increase. "4. This hive is cheap and requires but little mechanical knowledge in its construction ; any farmer with ordinary tools can make it from the following description:" — Fig. 5, A, is the stand of Mr. Groves's hive, the legs of which are sixteen inches high, the stand itself eighteen inches square. B represents a three-cornered box, open on the top, with a LEES. slanting bottom c, e,- a space is to be left open in the front of the hive the whole length at D, to a:lmit the bees and allow the dirt to slide (nS the slanting bottom. Fig.i. " V t, and 3, are boxes or hives, nineteen i».viii5> square, and seven inches high, with ». *. . ^ tiled across, a sufficient distance from CTi'.^ ther to admit the free pa>sage of the bees ; bars are to be put across the hive to support the comb. The top is to be secured by a tight cover. The bees enter at D, and pass up the slanting bottom of the stand into the boxes above, and the boxes can be i».creased by adding others, always placmg the additional boxes nearest the stand." Mr. T. Afliick, of Cincinnati, has recently published an interesting pamphlet on bees and their hives, entitled " Bee-Breeding in the West," which contains much useful informa- tion. His plan for constructing and placing hives seems to combine economy, simplicity, and durability, with the great desideratum of securing the bees against the moth. The invention is called the Subtended hive, and may be constructed by any farmer who can handle a saw, a plane, and a hammer, by pursuing the following directions. " The boxes of which it is to be composed, must be formed of well-seasoned boards, free from knots and wind-shakes, one inch thick ; they may be ten, eleven, or twelve inches square in the clear, well-dressed on each side, and joined on the edges, so as to fit close, without being tongued or grooved. Before nailing together at the sides, lay a strip of thick white-lead paint on the edge, which will render the joint impervi- ous to the ovipositor of the moth. In the top of each box cut two semicircular holes, at the front and back, one inch and a half in diame- ter, the straight side being in a line with the back and front of the box, so that the bees may have a straight road in their way from one story to the other; the top of the upper box must have an extra cover fixed with screws, that it may be easily removed in case of need, so as to form a second box when requir- ed : pour a little melted bee«-wajc over the in- BEES. side of the top, which will enable the bees trt attach their comb more firmly. We will sup- pose the boxes thus made, to be a cube of twelve inches inside measure; in that case, the tunnel-stand will be made thus : take a piece of two-inch pine plank, free from knots and shakes, twenty-six inches long and eight- een inches broad ; now, ten inches from one end, and two inches from the other and from each side, mark off a square of fourteen inches ; from the outside of this square, the board is dressed off with an even slope until its thickness at the front edge is reduced to half an inch, and at the other three edges, t. about an inch. The square is then to be re- duced to twelve inches, in the centre of which is bored an inch auger-hole, and to this hole the inner square is gradually sloped to the depth of an inch — thus securing the bees from any possibility of wet lodging about their hive, and affording them free ventilation. There will then be a level, smooth strip, of one inch in width, surro.uiding the square of twelve inches, on which to set the box or hive. Two inches from the .'ront edge of the stand, com- mence cutting a channel two inches in width, and of such a depth as to carry it out on an even slope half-way between the inner edge of the hive and the ventilating hole in the centre ; and over this, fit in a strip of wood as neatly as possible, dressing it down even with the slope of the stand, so as to leave a tunnel two inches in width and a quarter of an inch deep. Under the centre hole, and over the outlet of the tunnel, hang small wire grates, the first to prevent the entrance of other insects, and the other to be thrown over to prevent the exit of the bees, or fastened down to keep them at home, in clear, sunshiny days in winter. For feet to the stand, use four or five inch screws, screwed in from below far ♦enough to be firm ; and the whole should have two coats of white paint, sometime before it is wanted, that the smell may be dissipated, as it is very offensive to the bees." {Farmers Cabinet.) A great variety of patent and fancy hives are from time to time vaunted for their very superior qualities, but in general the simplest construction answers best, and there is per- haps no hive which combines so many advan- tages as that composed of sections. In most of the oldest settled parts of the United States, the larva or maggot of 'he bee- moth (Phu/sena cereana), a small gra} miller, commits great devastation among the swarms of bees. In many places in New England, the farmers have been induced to abandon the bee-culture entirely on account of the destruc- tion caused by the bee-moth. These lay their eggs in the corners and other interior parts of the hive, which they enter at night. In due time these eggs are hatched out into maggots, and growing into worms with strong mandibles, they gnaw their way in any direction they choose to go, making destructive tracks through the honey-comb. After this destructive course, the worm envelopes itself in a thick, soft case or web, and there awaits the final change by which it is converted into the perfect wmged miller. Numerous are the expedients resorted to and recommended to obviate the destruction 167 BEES BEE-MOTH. produced through the moth. Some of the most intelligent apiarians put their chiet trust in the strength of the SAvarms,and when these become reduced and weak, unite them so as to enable the bees to defend their hive against intruders. Placing boxes for wrens near the apiary is also strongly recommended, and with good reason, since these little birds are very acti' e in catching all kinds of moths. To enable the wren to get under the hive, it has been recom- mended to raise these an inch or an inch and a half above the stand, by means of small blocks. Another plan frequently adopted, and, it is said, with much success, consists in placing, early in the evening, a burning lamp in a pail, near the hive-stand. Some fresh honey or molasses and water may be spread upon the bottom as a bait. A keg Avith only one head is thought preferable to a pail for this purpose, owing to the curvature of the staves, which serves to prevent the insect from flying out so readily, and before it has met its destruction from the flame of the lamp. A small fire kept up early in the evening near the apiary is also frequently resorted to for attracting and de- stroying the night-flying miller. Placing shal- low vessels containing sweetened water, with cne gill of vinegar added for each pint, is said to attract and drown the moths in great num- bers. Shutting up the apertures for the exit and entrance of the bees, early in the evening, is also advised, as the moth intrudes itself in the evening and night. But when this is done the apertures must be opened again very early in the morning. When millers are numerous, each hive should be raised at least twice a week, upon one side, and the worms sought for and destroyed. In this operation a pufl" of smoke under the hive keeps the bees quiet during the search, which should be performed with as little jarring or disturbance to the swarm as possible. A correspondent of the Farmer's Register recommends, that as soon .as the bees com- mence working in the spring, the hives are to be examined, and with a piece of hoop- iron or other suitable implement, the stand well scraped immediately under the hive, especially around the inner edge of the box. The whole secret of keeping off the moth con- sists, he thinks, in keeping the hives free from the web formed by the moth. After this ope- ration, four small blocks of wood are to be placed under each corner of the hive so as to raise it not quite half an inch from the stand. This will permit the hive and stand to be cleaned without raising the box. This scraping operation must be repeated every three or four days, especially if there be any appearance of web. In winter the blocks must be removed, and the hive let down upon the stand as a se- curity against mice, and other depredators upon the honey. The person who recommends this plan as a certain security against the ravages of the worm, advises that an entrance be made for the bees, by cutting a perpendi- cular slit, one-eighth of an inch wide and two and a half inches long, situated about halfway from the bottom. Just under this a small «nf If i= to be placed as a resting-place for the 168 bees in going out and returning to the nive The bees soon get accustomed to this new place of entrance. The plan has, it is said, often proved an eflectual security against the worm, after every other remedy has failed. Some persons have contrived drawers under the hives into which the millers enter by night. The drawers are slipped out every morning, and the moths found in them destroyed. In the western country and in the new set- tlements of the Atlantic states, the bee-moth is rarely met with. Bees, Italian. — For an account of Italian honey-bees, and their first introduction into the United States, and first announceuicnt in thisEncyclopajdia of the Movable-Comb-IIive, see article Honey, (page 631.) BEE-MOTH. The following interesting details relative to the natural history of the bee- moth or wax-moth, are from Dr. Harris's Trea*- tise on Destructive Insects. This pernicious insect belongs to a group called Cambrians, and M'as well known to the ancients, as it is mentioned under the name of Tinea, in the works of Virgil and Columella. " In the winged state, the male and female diflfer so much in size, colour, and in the form of their fore- wings, that they were supposed, by Linnaeus and by some other naturalists, to be different species, and accordingly received two different names. (Turtrix cereana, the male ; Tinea mellonella, the female.) To avoid confusion, it will be best to adopt the scientific name given to the bee-moth by Fabricius, who called it Galleria cereana, that is, the wax Galleria, because in its cater- pillar state it eats beeswax. Doubtless it was first brought to this country, with the common hive-bee, from Europe, where it is very abun- dant, and does much mischief in hives. Very few of the Tinex exceed or even equal it in size. In its perfect or adult state it is a winged moth or miller, measuring, from the head to the tip of the closed wings, from five-eighths to three quarters of an inch in length, and its wings expand from one inch and one-tenth to one inch and four-tenths. The male is of a dusty gray colour. The female is much larger than the male, and much darker coloured. There are two broods of these insects in the course of a year. Some winged moths of the first brood begin to appear towards the end of April, or early in May; those of the second brood are most abundant in August; but be- tween these periods, and even later, others come to perfection, and consequently some of them may be found during the greater part of the summer. By day they remain quiet on the sides or in the crevices of the bee-house ; but, if disturbed at this time, they open their wings a little, and spring or glide swiftly away, so that it is very difficult to seize or to hold them. In the evening they take wing, when the bees are at rest, and hover around the hive, till, having found the door, they go in and lay their eggs. Those that are prevented by the crowd, or by any other cause, from getting within the hive, lay their eggs on the outside, or on the stand, and the little worm-like caterpillars hatched therefrom easily creep into the hiv6 through the cracks, or gnaw a passage for themselves under the edges of it. These cater- BEE-MOTH. BEET. pillars, at first are not thicker than a thread. I they have sixteen legs. Their bodies are soft ! and tender, and of a yellowish white colour, sprinkled with a few little brownish dots, from ' each of which proceeds a short hair; their' heads are brown and shelly, and there are two \ brown spots on the top of the first riug. Weak | as they are, and unprovided with any natural i means of defence, destined, too, to dwell in the I midst of the populous hive, surrounded by watchful and well-armed enemies, at whose expense they live, they are taught how to shield themselves against the vengeance of the bees, and pass safely and unseen in every direction through the waxen cells, which they break down and destroy. Beeswax is their only food, and they prefer the old to the new comb, and are always found most numerous in the upper part of the hive, where the oldest honey-comb is lodged. It is not a little won- derful, that these insects should be able to get any nourishment from wax, a substance which other animals cannot digest at all; but they are created with an appetite for it, and with such extraordinary powers of digestion that they thrive well upon this kind of food. As soon as they are hatched they begin to spin; and each one makes for itself a tough silken tube, wherein it can easily turn around and move backwards and forwards at pleasure. During the day they remain concealed in their silken tubes ; but at night, when the bees can- not see them, they come partly out, and devour the wax within their reach. As they inciease in size, they lengthen and enlarge their dwellings, and cover them on the outside with a coating of grains of wax mixed with their own castings, which resemble gunpowder. Protected by this coating from the stings of the bees, they work ilieir way through the combs, gnaw them to pieces, and fill the hive with their filthy webs ; till at last the discouraged bees, whose dili- gence and skill are of no more use to them in contending with their unseen foes, than their superior size and powerful weapons, are com- pelled to abandon their perishing brood and their wasted stores, and leave the desolated hive to the sole possession of the miserable spoilers. These caterpillars grow to the length of an inch or a little more, and come to their full size in about three weeks. They then spin their cocoons, which are strong silken pods, of an oblong oval shape, and about one inch in length, and are often clustered together in great numbers in the top of the hive. Some time afterwards, the insects in these cocoons change to chrysalids of a light brown colour, rough on the back, and with an elevated dark brown line upon it from one end to the other. When this transformation happens in the au- tumn, the insects remain without further change till the spring, and then burst open their cocoons, and tome forth with wings. Those which become chrysalids in the early part of summer are transformed to winged moths fourteen days afterwards, and immedi- ately pair, lay their eggs, and die. Bees suffer most from the depredations of these insects in h )t and dry summers. Strong and healthy swarms, provided with a constant supply of food near home, more often escape 22 tnan small and weak ones. When the moth worms have established themselves in a hive, . their presence is made known to us by the lit- tle fragments of wax and the black grain ;< scattered by them over the floor." BEESTING or BIESTING, written also, BEESTNIXG (Flem. blest, biestmelch). The first milk taken from cows after calving. It is thick and yellow. This milk is commonly in part taken away from the cow upon her first calving, lest, when taken in too large a quan- tity by the calf, it should prove purgative. BEET ( Lat. beta ,■ Celt, bett, red ; aiso said to be so named from the Greek characler beta, which its seeds resemble when they begin to swell). The sweet succulent root of Beta vulgaris, a chenopodiaceous plant of biennial duration. It is used in the winter as a salad, for which purpose the red and yellow beets of Castelnan- dari are the best ; for the food of cattle, that which is named mangel worzel being most used ; and for the extraction of sugar, a white- rooted variety with a purple crown is the most esteemed. Sea beet {Beta maritlma) is a well known and excellent substitute for spinach. (Brande's Diet, of Science, p. 139.) The genus beta comprehends several bien- nial species. Miller enumerates five. 1. The common white beet. 2. The common green beet. 3. The common red beet. 4. The turnip rooted red beet. 5. The great red beet. 6. The yellow beet. 7. The Swiss, or chard beet. We have now nine varieties of this esculent, which are described with considerable discrimi- nation by Mr. Morgan, gardener to H. Browne, Esq., Mimms Place, Herts. (Hort. Trans. vol. iii.) Of the red beet, Mr. Morgan enume- rates seven varieties ; of these, the three fol- lowing are generally chosen for cultivation : 1. The long-rooted, which should be sown in a deep sandy soil. 2. The short or turnip-rooted, better adapted to a shallow soil. 3. The green- leaved, red-rooted, requiring a depth of soil equal to that of the long-rooted. There are two distinct species of beet comn.only cultivat- ed, each containing several varieties ; the one called Cicla or Hortensis, or white beet, produc- ing succulent leaves only, the other the red beet {Beta vulgaris); distinguished by its larga fleshy roots. The white beet is chiefly cultivated in gar dens as a culinary vegetable, and forms one of the principal vegetables used by agricultu- ral labourers, and small occupiers of land in many parts of Germany, France, and Switzer- land. A variety known by the name of Swiss chard produces numerous large succuleni leaves, which have a very solid rib running along the middle. The leafy part being stripped off* and boiled is useful a? a subaitute for greens and spinach, and the rib and .stalk are dressed like asparagus or scorzenera; they have a pleasant, sweet taste, and are more wholesome than the cabbage tribe. In a good soil the produce is very abundant; and if cul tivated on a large scale in the field, this specie., would prove a valuable addition to the plants raised for cattle. By cultivating it m rows, and frequently hoeing and stirrmg the inter vals, it would be an excellent substitute tor a fallow on good light loams. All cattle are p 169 BEET, WHITE. BEET, WHITE. fond of the leaves of this beet, which add much to the milk of cows, without giving it that bad taste which is unavoidable when they are fed with turnips or cabbages, and which is chiefly owing to the greater rapidity with which the latter undergoes the putrefactive fermentation. If sown in May, in drills two feet wide, and thinned out to the distance of a foot from plant to plant in the rows, they will produce an abundance of leaves, which may be gathered in August and September, and will grow again rapidly, provided a bunch of the centre leaves be left on each plant. They do not sensibly xhaust the soil. These leaves when boiled Dr steamed with bran, cut with chaff or refuse grain, are an excellent food for pigs or bullocks put up to fatten. {Penny Cychu vol. iv. p. 158.) The white beet is an excellent root, and is preferred by many to the larger and more com- mon intermediate varieties. It has lately been in great repute in France and Belgium, and indeed all over the continent of Europe, for the manufacture of sugar. The process is given in detail by Mr. Samuel Taylor in the sixth vol. of the Gardeners Magazine,- and there are some able articles, entering exten- sively into detail on the subject, in the Quart. Journ. Agr. vol. i. p. 624, and vol. ii. pp. 892 and 907. (For an account of the common field beet for cattle, see MANCfEL Wurzkl.) BEET, WHITE {Beta cicli). This is also known as the chard, or carde. We have two species in common cultivation, the green and the white. They receive their names from the colour of their footstalks ; but the variation is considered by some as fugitive, and that both arc produced from seed obtained of the same plant : but this the experience of Mr. Sinclair denies. The French have three varieties of the white — the white, the red, and the yellow — which only differ from ours in having a larger foliage, and thicker, fleshier stalks, but they are less capable of enduring frost. They are cultivated for their stalks, which are cooked as asparagus. Mangel wurzel is sometimes grown for the same purposes ; but as it is much inferior, tVie notice that it may be thus employed, is sufl^icient. Beets require a rich, mouldy, deep soil ; it should, however, be re- tentive of moisture, rather than light, without being tenacious, or having its alluminous con- stituent too much predominating. Its richness should preferably arise from previous applica- tion than from the addition of manure at the time of sowing ; and to effect this, the compart- ment intended for the growth of these vegeta- bles is advantageously prepared as directed for celery. On the soil depends the sweetness and tenderness of the red and yellow beets, for which they are estimated ; and it may be re- marked, that on poor, light soils, or heavy ones, the best sorts will taste earthy. Again, on some soils the better varieties will not attain any useful size, or even a tolerable flavour, whilst in the same compartftient inferior ones will at- tain a very good taste. The situation should be open, and as free from the influence of trees as possible ; but it is of advantage to have the bed shaded from the meridian sun in sum- mer. I have always found it beneficial to dig Jhe ground two spades deep for these deep- 170 rooting vegetables, and to turn in the whole or part of the manure intended to be applied, ac- cording to the richness of the soil near the sur- face, with the bottom split, so as to bury it ten or twelve inches within the ground. Salt is a beneficial application to this crop, one reason for which undoubtedly is, their being natives of the sea shore. Both species are propagat- ed by seed, and may be sown from the close of February until the beginning of A]')ril : it being borne in mind that they must not be in- serted until the severe frosts are over, which inevitably destroys them when in a young sta^e of growth. The best time for inserting the main crop of the beet root for winter supply is early in March ; at the beginning of July or August, a successional crop of the white beet may be sown for supply in the winter and fol- lowing spring. It is best sown in drills a foot asunder, and an inch deep, or by dibble, at the same dis- tance each way, and at a similar depth, two or three seeds being put in each hole : it may, however, be sown broadcast and well raked in. During the early stages of its growth, the beds, which, for the convenience of cultivation, should not be more than four feet wide, must be looked over occasionally, and the largest of the weeds cleared away by hand. In the course of May, according to the advanced state of their growth, the beds must be cleared thoroughly of weeds, both by hand and small hoeing ; the beet roots thinned to ten or twelve inches apart, and the white beet to eight or ten. The plants of this last species which are re- moved may be transplanted into rows at a similar distance, and will then often produce a finer and more succulent foliage than those re- maining in the seed bed. Moist weather is t® be preferred for performing this operation: otherwise, the plants must be watered occa- sionally until they take root: they must be fre- quently hoed and kept clear of weeds through- out the summer. It is a great improvement to earth up the stalks of the white beet in the same manner as celery, when they are intended to be peeled, and eaten as asparagus. In October, the beet-root may be taken up for use as wanted, but not entirely for preser- vation during the winter until November or the beginning of December, then to be buried in sand in alternate rows, under shelter ; or, as some gardeners recommend, only part at this season, and the remainder in February ; by this means they may be kept in a perfect state for use until May or June. If prevented running to seed, they will produce leaves during the succeeding year ; but as this second year's production is never so fine or tender, an annual sowing is usually made. For the pro- duction of seed some roots must be left where grown, giving them the protection of litter in very severe weather, if unaccompanied with snow; or if this is neglected, some of the finest roots that have been stored in sand, and have not had the leaves cut away close, may be planted in February or March. Each species and variety must be kept as far away from the others as possible, and the plants set at least BEETLE. BEETLE. two feet from each other. They flower in Au- gust, and ripen their seed at the close of Sep- tember. Seed of the previous year is always to be preferred for sowing, but it will suc- ceed, if carefully preserved, when two years oH. As a medicine, the seed of the beet is diure- tic. The juice of beet-root snuffed up into the nostrils promotes sneezing, and is beneficial m headache and toothache. BEETLE (Scarabceic/eae ; Sax. byrei). The generic name of a class of insects, of which there are a great many species, all of them having elytra or sheaths over their wings to defend them from hard bodies, which they may meet with in digging holes in the ground, or gnawing rotten wood with their teeth, to make themselves houses or nests. These insects are extremely destructive to many sorts of crops. The beetles most destructive to vegetables and animals are the weevil beetle, the tumip-Jiea beetle, the wnud-horing beetle, and some others, which are described at length by Mr. J. Dun- can in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 394. American beetles. — Passing over many groups into which the extensive beetle family is divid- ed, such as the ground-beetles, earth-borers, and dung-beetles, which last, in all their states, are found in excrement; the skin-beetles, which inhabit dried animal substances, and the gigan- tic Hercules-beetles, which live in rotten wood or beneath old dung-heaps, we come to those groups which require more particular notice from their depredations upon plants, fruits, and trees. One of the most common, and at the same time most beautiful of the tree beetles of the United States, is the Woolly Areoda, sometimes called the goldsmith (Areoda lanlgera), which is thus described by Dr. Harris, in his highly interesting and valuable "Treatise upon In- sects injurious to Vegetation." — " It is about nine-tenths of an inch in length, broad oval in shape, of a lemon-yellow colour above, glittering like burnished gold on the top of the head and thorax ; the under side of the body is copper-coloured, and thickly covered with whitish wool ; and the legs are brownish- yellow, or brassy, shaded with green. These fine beetles begin to appear in Massachusetts about the middle of May, and continue gene- rally till the twentieth of June. In the morning and evening twilights they come forth from their retreats, and fly about with a humming and rustling sound among the branches of trees, the tender leaves of which they devour. Pear-trees are particularly subject to their at- tacks, but the elm, hickory, poplar, oak, and probably also other kinds of trees, are fre- quented and injured by them. During the middle of the day they remain at rest upon the trees, clinging to the under-sides of the leaves ; and endeavour to conceal themselves by drawing two or three leaves together, and holding them in this position with their long unequal claws. In some seasons they occur in profusion, and then may be obtained in great quantities by shaking the young trees on which they are lodged in the daytime, as th^y do not attempt to fly when thus disturbed out fall at once to the ground. The larvse of these insects are not known ; probably they live m the ground upon the roots of plants." Another member of the Rulilian tribe, to which the goldsmith belongs, is the Spotted Pelidnota, a large beetle found on the cultivat- ed and wild grape-vine, sometimes in great abundance, in the summer months. "It is," says Dr. Harris, "of an oblong oval shape, and about an inch long. The wing-covers are tile-coloured, or dull brownish yellow, with three distinct black dots on each ; the thorax is darker, and slightly bronzed, with a black dot on each side; the body beneath, and the legs, are of a deep bronzed green colour. These beetles fly by day, but may also be seen at the same time on the leaves of the grape, which are their only food. They sometimes prove very injurious to the vine. The only way to destroy them is to pick them off" by hand, and crush them under foot. The larvce live in rotten wood, stumps, and roots." Among the tree-beetles, those commonly called dors, chafers, Maj^-bugs, and rose-bugs, are the most interesting to the farmer and gar- dener, on account of their extensive ravages, both in the winged and larva states. Whilst the powerful and horny jaws possessed by most of these, are admirably fitted for cutting and grinding the leaves of plants upon which they subsist, their notched and double claws support them securely on the foliage ; and their strong and jagged fore-legs, being formed for digging in the ground, point out the place of their transformations. "The general habits and transformations oi the common cock-chafer of Europe have been carefully observed, and will serve," says Dr. Harris, "to exemplify those of the other in- sects of this family, which, as far as they are known, seem to be nearly the same. This in- sect devours the leaves of trees ane shrubs. Its duration in the perfect state is vi ry short, each individual living only about a week, and the species entirely disappearing in the course of a month. After the sexes have paired, the males perish, and the females enter the earth to the depth of six inches or more, making their way by means of the strong teeth which arm the fore-legs; here they deposit their eggs, amounting, according to some wi iters, to nearly one hjmdred, or, as others assert, to two hundred from each female, which are abandoned by the parent, who generally as- cends again to the surface, and perishes in a short time. " From the eggs are hatched, in the space of fourteen days, little whitish grubs, each provided with six legs near the head, and a mouth furnished with strong jaws. When in a state of rest, these grubs usually curl them selves in the shape of a crescent. They sub- sist on the tender roots of various plants, com- mitting ravages among these vegetable sub- stances, on some occasions of the most deplorable kind, so as totally to disappomt the best founded hopes of the husbandman. Dui ing the summer, they live under the thm coat of vegetable mould near the surface, but, as winter approaches, they descend below the reach of frost, and remain torpid until the sue ceeding spring, at which time they change BEETLE. BEETLE. their skins, and reascend to the surface for food. At the close of their third summer, (or, as some say, of the fourth or fifth), they cease eating, and penetrate about two feet deep into the earth ; there, by its motions from side to side, each grub forms an oval cavity, which is lined by some glutinous substance thrown from its mouth. In this cavity it is chanj'ed to a pupa by casting off its skin. In this state the legs, antennae, and wing-cases of the future beetle are visible through the transparent skin which envelopes them, but appear of a yellow- ish white colour; and thus it remains until the month of February, when the thin film which encloses the body is rent, and three months afterwards the perfected beetle digs its way to the surface, from which it finally emerges dur- ing the night." Some account of the destruction occasion- ally wrought by these insects may be found under the head of Cock-chafeh. In their winged state, many species of tree- beetles act as conspicuous a part in injuring trees as their grubs do in destroying herbage. " During the month of May they come forth from the ground, whence they have received the name of Ma5'-bugs or May-beetles. They pass the greater part of the day upon trees, clinging to the under-sides of the leaves, in a state of repose. As soon as evening ap- proaches, they begin to buzz about among the branches, and continue on the wing till to- wards midnight. In their droning flight they move very irregularly, darting hither and thi- ther with an uncertain aim, hitting against ob- jects in their way with a force that often causes them to fall to the ground. They frequently enter houses in the night, apparently attracted, as well as dazzled and bewildered, by the lights. Their vagaries, in which, without hav- ing the power to harm, they seem to threaten an attack, have caused them to be called dors, that is, darers ; while their seeming blindness and stupidity have become proverbial in the expressions 'blind as a beetle,' and 'beetle- headed.' Besides the leaves of fruit-trees they devour those of various forest-trees and shrubs, with an avidity not much less than that of the lo- cust, so that in certain seasons, and in particular districts, they become an oppressive scourge, and the source of much misery to the inhabit- ants. Mouffet relates that, in the year 1574, such a number of them fell into the river Severn, as to stop the wheels of the water-mills; and, in the Philosophical Transactions, it is stated that, in the year 1688, they filled the hedges and trees of Galway in such infinite numbers as to cling to each other like bees when swarming; and, when on the wing, darkened the air, annoyed travellers, and produced a sound like distant drums. In a short time the leaves of all the trees, for some miles round, were so totally consumed by them, that at mid- summer the country wore the aspect of the depth of winter." The animals and birds appointed to check the ravages of these and other insects so de- .structive to vegetation, are different in differ- ; ent countries. In Europe, according to the | ^reat French naturalist Latreille, they are the ^ ad^er, weasel, martin, bats, rats, common ' 172 dung-hill fowl, and the goat-sucker, or night- hawk. In the United States, various birds may be always seen in the spring of the year fol- lowing the plough, among which the black* bird family is by far the most numerous. 'J'hese ought to meet with the utmost protec- tion, and by no means to be stoned, shot at, killed, and frightened away, as is too often done by the idle and inconsiderate. The fol- lowing view of the subject will serve to set the subject in the important light it deserves. In "Anderson's Recreations," it is stated that "a cautious observer, having found a nest of five young jays, remarked that each of these birds, while yet very young, consumed at least fifteen of these full-sized grubs in one day, and of course would require many more of a smaller size. Say that, on an average of sizes, they consumed twenty a-piece, these for the five make one hundred. Each of the parents consume, say fifty; so that the pair and family devour two hundred every day. This, in three months, amounts to twent}' thousand in one season. But, as the grub continues in that state four seasons, this single pair, with their family alone, without reckoning their descend- ants after the first year, would destroy eighty thousand grubs. Let us suppose that the half, namely forty thousand, are females, and it is known that they usually lay about tAvo hundred eggs each ; it will appear that no less than eight millions have been destroyed, or pre- vented from being hatched, by the labours of a single family of jays. It is by reasoning in this way that we learn to know of what im- portance it is to attend to the economy of na- ture, and to be cautious how we derange it by our short-sighted and futile operations." Our own country abounds with insect-eating beasts and birds, and without doubt the more than abundant Melolonthee form a portion of their nourishment. (Harris.) The very numerous varieties of the beetle family may be imagined from the fact taught us by naturalists, that of the genus Melo- lontha to which the beetles belong, more than two hundred have been described. Several of these found in the United States, produce injuries in the perfect grub state which rival those of the European cock-chafer. The May- beetle, as it is generally called {Phyllophaga quercind), is the most common species. "It is of a chestnut-brown colour, smooth, but finely punctured, that is, covered with little impressed dots, as if pricked with the point of a needle ; each wing-case has two or three slightly elevated longitudinal lines ; the breast is clothed with yellowish down. The knob of its antennae contains only three leaf-like joints. Its average length is nine-tenths of an inch. la its perfect state it feeds on the leaves of trees, particularly on those of the cherry-tree. It flies with a humming noise in the night, from the middle of May to the end of June, and fre- quently enters houses, attracted by the light. In the course of the spring, these beetles are often thrown from the earth by the spade and plough, in various states of maturity, some k *>ing soft and nearly white, their superabun- dai.* juices not having evaporated, while others exhibit the true colour and texture of the pec- BEETLE. BEETLE. feet insect. The grubs devour the roots of grass and of other plants, and in many places the turf may be turned up like a carpet in con- sequence of the destruction of the roots. The grub is a white worm with a brownish head, and, when fully grown, is nearly as thick as the little finger. It is eaten greedily by crows and fowls. There is a grub, somewhat resem- bling this, which is frequently found under old manure heaps, and is commonly called muck- worm. It differs, however, in some respects from that of the May-beetle, or dor-bug, and is transformed to a dung-beetle called Scarabaeus relictus by Mr. Say. The beetles are devoured by the skunk, whose beneficial foraging is de- tected in our gardens by its abundant excre- ment filled with the wing-cases of these insects. A writer in the * New York Evening Post,' says that the beetles, which frequently commit serious ravages on fruit-trees, may be effectu- ally exterminated by shaking them from the trees every evening. In this way two pailsful of beetles were collected on the first experi- ment; the number caught regularly decreased until the fifth evening, when only two beetles were to be found. The best time, however, for shaking trees on which the May-beetles are lodged is in the morning, when the insects do not attempt to fly. They are most easily col- lected in a cloth spread under the trees to re- ceive them when they fall, after which they should be thrown into boiling water to kill tliem, and may then be given as food to swine." (//orr/».) In some parts of Massachusetts the beetle called the Georgian leaf-eater takes the place of the quercina. It is extremely common in some places in May and June. Its colour is a bay-brown. The upper side is entirely covered with very short yellowish gray hairs, and mea- sures seven-tenths of an inch, or more, in length. These beetles, with some others of the same genus, are commonly found in Ame- rican gardens, nurseries, orchards, and fields, where they are more or less injurious depre- dators. They also devour the leaves of various forest-trees, such as the elm, maple, oak, «&c. They are all nocturnal insects, never appear- ing, except by accident, in the day, during which they remain under shelter of the foliage of trees and shrubs, or concealed in the grass. (^Harris.) Of the American diurnal or daj'-flying beetles, which belong to the Melolonthians, one is described by Professor Gemar, which he proposes to call £celebs. It resembles the vine- chafer of Europe in its habits, and is found in the months of June and July on the cultivated and wild grape-vines, the leaves of vhich it devours. During the same period the .e chaf- ers may be seen in still greater numoers on rarious kinds of sumach, which they often completely despoil of their leaves. They are rery variable in colour. The head and thorax of the male are greenish black, margined with dull ochre or tile-red, and thickly punctured; the wing-covers are clay-yellow, with punctured furrows. The males are sometimes entirely black, and they commonly measure nearly, and the females rather more than seven-tenths of an inch in length. Should these beetles increase m numbers. Dr. Harris thinks they will be found as difficult to check and extirpate as the destructive vine-chafers of Europe. An account of the natural history and habits of the Rose-bug or chafer, which belongs to the family of day-fliers, will be found under the head Rose-bug. Very few of the beetle tribes which usually subsist upon flowers are injurious to vegeta- tion. Some of them are said to eat leaves, but the greater number live on the pollen and the honey of flowers, or upon the sap which ooze? from the wounds of plants. The flower-beetles. belong chiefly to a group called Cetonians. They are easily distinguished from other bee, ties by their lower jaws, which are generally soft on the inside, and are often provided with a flat brush of hairs that serves to collect the pollen and juices on which they subsist. Most of the bright-coloured kinds are day- fliers ; those of dark and plain tints are gene- rally night-fliers. Some of them are of im- mense size, and have be.m styled the princes of the beetle tribes; such are the Incus of South America, and the Goliah beetle of Guinea, the latter being more than four inches long, two inches broad, and thick and tieavy in propor- tion. (Harris.) A family of beetles called the Lucanians, includes the insects called stag-beetles, horn- bugs, and flying-bulls, vulgar names derived from the great size and peculiar form of their upper jaws, which are sometimes curved like the horns of cattle, and sometimes branched like the antlers of a stag. "These beetles," says Dr. Harris, " fly abroad during the night, and frequently enter houses at that time, some- what to the alarm of the occupants ; but they are not venomous, and never attempt to bite without provocation. They pass the day on the trunks of trees, and live upon the sap, for procuring which the brushes of their jaws anc? lip seem to be designed. They are said also occasionally to bite and seize caterpillars and other soft-bodied insects, for the purpose of sucking out their juices. They lay their eggs in crevices of the bark of trees, especially near the roots, where they may sometimes be seen thus employed. The larvoe hatched from these eggs resemble the grubs of the Scarabceians in colour and form, but they are smoother, or not so much wrinkled. The grubs of the large kinds are said to be six years in coming to their growth, living all this time in the trunks and roots of trees, boring into the solid wood, and reducing it to a substance resembling very coarse sawdust; and the injury thus caused by them is frequently very consider- able. When they have arrived at their full size, they enclose themselves in egg-shaped pods, composed of gnawed particles of wood and bark, stuck together and lined with a kmd of glue; within these pods they are trans- formed to pupae, of a yellowish-white colour, having the body and all the limbs of the future beetle encased in a whitish film, which oeing thrown off* in due time, the insects appear m the beetle form, burst the walls of their P"son, crawl through the passages the larvae had gnawed, and come forth on the outside of th« ,3 173 BEETLE. BEETLE. "The largest of these beetles in the New- England States, was first described by Lin- naeus under the name of Lucanus capreolus, signifying the young roe-buck ; but here it is called the horn-bug. Its colour is a deep ma- hogany-brown ; the surface is smooth and po- lished ; the upper jaws of the male are long, curved like a sickle, and furnished internally beyond the middle with a little tooth ; those of the female are much shorter, and also toothed; the head of the male is broad and smooth, that of the other sex narrower and rough with punctures. The body of this beetle measures from one inch to an inch and a quarter, ex- clusive of the jawo. The time of its appear- ance is in July and the beginning of August. The grubs live in the trunks and roots of va- rious kinds of trees, but particularly in those of old apple-trees, willows, and oaks. " Several other and smaller kinds of stag- beetles are found in New England, but their habits are m.uch the same as those of the more common horn-bug." Another great tribe of beetles is described by naturalists under the name of serricurn, or saw-horned beetles, because the tips of the joints of their f ntennce usually project more or less on the inside, somewhat like the teeth of a saw. The beetles belonging to the family of Buprestians have antenntB of this kind. The popular name for these in England is burn- cow, a very inappropriate appellation for a perfectly harmless insect. The French call them 7'ichards, on account of the rich and bril- liant colours wherewith many of them are adorned. These beetles are frequently seen on the trunks and limbs of trees, basking in the sun. They w^alk slowly, and at the ap- proach of danger, fold up their legs and anten- na; and fall to the ground. Their flight is sw-ift, and attended Avith a Avhizzing noise. They keep concealed in the night, and are in motion only during the day. {Harris.) The larvte of these saw-horned beetles, are wood-eaters or borers, and orchards and forest trees are more or less subject to their attacks, especially after trees have passed the prime of life. The transformations of these insects take place in the trunks and limbs of trees. The larvae that are known have a close resem- blance to each other ; a general idea of them can be formed from a description of that which attacks the pig-nut hickory. These grubs are found under the bark and in the solid wood of trees and sometimes in great numbers. They frequently rest with the body bent side-wise, so that the head and tail approach each other. They appear to pass several years in this lar- va? state, before they cast off the pupa-coat and cut out through the bark in the form of a beetle. " Some of these beetles are known to eat leaves and flowers, and of this nature is pro- bably the food of all of them. The injury they may thus commit is not very apparent, and can- not bear any comparison -with the extensive ravages of their larvae. The solid trunks and limbs of sound and vigorous trees are often bored through in various directions by these insects, w^hich, during a long-con- tinued life, derive their only nourishment from 174 the woody fragments they devour. Pines and firs seem particularly subject to their attacks, but other forest-trees do not escape, and even fruit-trees are frequently injured by these borers. The means to be used for destroying them are similar to those employed against other borers, and will be explained in a subst quent part of this essay. It may not be amiss, however, here to remark, that wood-peckers are much more successful in discovering the re- treats of these borers, and in dragging out the defenceless culprits from their burrows, than the most skilful gardener or nurseryman. " Until within a few years the Buprestians were all included in three or four genera. A great number of kinds have now become known, probably six hundred or more." The largest of these beetles known to Dr. Harris, is called the Virginian Bupestris, or saw-horn beetle. It is of an oblong shape, brassy, or copper-coloured ; sometimes almost black, wdth hardly any metallic reflections. On each wing-cover are two small square im- pressed spots. It measures eight-tenths of an inch to one inch or more in length. This beetle appears in Massachusetts towards the end of May, and through the month of June, on pine trees and on fences. In the larvae state, it bores into the trunks of the different kinds of pines, and is often times very injurious to these trees. (Harris.) The wild-cherry tree {Prunus serotina) and also the garden cherry and peach trees, suffer severely from the attacks of borers, which are transformed to beetles called Buprestis divari- cata, from the wing-covers parting a little at the tips. These beetles are copper-coloured, some- times brassy above, and thickly covered with little punctures. They measure from seven to nine-tenths of an inch. Other species of American wood-eaters or borers are described by Dr. Harris, among which are those attacking the hickory, oak, and white pine. When trees are found to be very much infested by borers, and are going to decay in consequence of their ravages, it will be better to cut them down and burn them immediately, rather than to suffer them to stand until the borers have completed their transfor- mations and made their escape. (Harris.) The family of Spring-beetles, or Elaters, are closely related to the Buprestians. They derive their name from the well known faculty of throwing themselves up with a jerk when laid on their backs, the legs being too short to ena- ble them to turn over by their .assistance. " The larvae or grubs of the Elaters," says Dr. Harris, "live upon wood and roots, and are often very injurious to vegetation. Some are confined to old or decaying trees, others devour the roots of herbaceous plants. In England they are called wire-worms from their slendemess cJid uncommon hardness. They are not to be con- founded with the American wire-worm, a spe- cies of lulus, which is not a true insect, but be- longs to the class Myriapoda, a name derived from the great number of feet with which most of the animals included in it are furnished ; whereas the English wire-worm has only six feet. The European wire-worm is said to live, in its feeding or larva state, not less than five BEETLES. BELLADONA. years; during the greater part of which time it is ! supported by devouring the roots of wheat, rye, oats, and grass, annually causing a large'dimi- , nution of the produce, and sometimes destroy- i ing whole crops. It is said to be particularly | injurious in gardens recently converted from pasture lands. We have several grubs allied to this destructive insect, which are quite com- mon in land newly broken up ; but fortunately, as yet, their ravages are inconsiderable. We may expect these to increase in proportion as we disturb them and deprive them of their usual articles of food, while we continue also to persecute and destroy their natural enemies, the birds, and may then be obliged to resort to the ingenious method adopted by European far- mers and gardeners for alluring and capturing these grubs. This method consists in strewing sliced potatoes or turnips in rows through the garden or field ; women and boys are employed to examine the slices every morning, and col- lect the insects which readily come to feed on the bait. Some of these destructive insects, which I have found in the giound among the roots of plants, were long, slender, worm-like grubs, closely resembling the common meal- worm ; they were nearly cylindrical, with a hard and smooth skin, of a buff or brownish yellow colour, the head and tail only being a little darker ; each of the first three rings was provided with a pair of short legs : the hind- most ring was longer than the preceding one, was pointed at the end, and had a little pit on each side of the extremity ; beneath this part there was a short retractile wart, or prop-leg, serving to support the extremity of the body, and prevent it from trailing on the ground. Other grubs of Elaters diflTer from the forego- ing in being proportionally broader, not cylin- drical, but somewhat flattened, with a deep notch at the extremity of the last ring, the sides of which are beset with little teeth. Such grubs are mostly wood-eaters, devouring tlie woody parts of roots, or living under the bark and in the trunks of old trees. " After their last transformation, Elaters or spring-beetles make their appearance upon trees and fences, and some are found on flowers. They creep slowly, and generally fall to the ground on being touched. They fly both by day and night. Their food, in the beetle state, appears to be chiefly derived from flowers ; but some devour the tender leaves of plants." The largest of the American springing- beetles is of a black colour, covered with a whitish powder, and having a large oval velvet- black spot, like an eye, on each side of the middle, from which the insect derives its name of Omlatxis, or eyed. This large beetle mea- sures from one inch and a quarter to one inch and three quarters in length. It undergoes its transformations in the tnmks of trees, and Dr. Harris has found many in old apple trees. These larvos or worms are reddish yellow grubs. One of them found in April fully grown, measured no less than two inches and a half m length. Soon after this grub was found, it cast its skin and became a pupa, and in due time the latter was transformed to a beetle. {Harris,) Among the night-shining Elaters is the cele- brated Ciicurin, or fire-beetle, of the West In- dies, from whence it is often brought alive to this country as a curiosity. It resembles con- siderably the insect just described, being an inch or more in length. It gives out, eveii by day, a strong light from two transparent eye- like spots on the thorax, and from the seg- ments of its body beneath. It feeds upon the sugar-cane, and its grub is said to be very injurious to this plant, by devouring its roots. Dr. Harris states that above sixty different kinds of spring-beetles are now known to in- habit Massachusetts. The utility of a knowledge of the natural history of insects in the practical arts of life, was perhaps never more strikingly and tri- umphantly displayed than by the great Lin- naeus himself, who, while giving to natural science its language and its laws, neglected no opportunity to point out its economical ad- vantages. On one occasion, this great natu- ralist was consulted by the King of Sweden, upon the cause of the decay and destruction of the ship-timber in the royal dock-yards, and, having traced it to the depredations of insects, and ascertained the history of the depredators, by directing the timber to be sunk under water during the season when these insects made their appearance in the winged state, and were busied in laying their eggs, he effectually se- cured it from future attacks. The name of these insects is Lymexylon navale, or the nava. timber-destroyer, which Dr. Harris thinks cannot be far removed from the tribe of spring- beetles. The odd-looking, long, and slender grubs of the Lymexylon, inhabit oaks, and make long cylindrical burrows in the solid wood. They* are also found in some other kinds of trees. Dr. Harris considers insects of this family rather rare in New England, ant describes only two kinds of American timber- borers. (See his Treatise.) BEETLE. A large wooden instrument ir the form of a mallet, with one, two, or three handles for as many persons, used in driving piles, wedges, hedge-stakes, and in splitting wood, &c. BEETLE, CLODDING. A sort of imple- ment made use of in reducing the clods of tillage-lands, in clayey and other stiff tena- cious soils, to a fine powdery condition. This business may be much sooner performed, and at less expense, by means of rollers construct- ed for the purpose. (See Rolleti.) BEEVES. The plural of beef. A general name employed by farmers for oxen or black BEGGAR'S LICE (Echinaspernum Virgini- cum). An obnoxious weed found along the borders of woods, bearing a small bluish-white flower, frequent in pastures and along fence- rows, the bur-like fruit or nuts of which are furnished with hooked prickles, and often form a matting in the fleeces of sheep, and the manes and tails of horses. {Flor. Cestrica.) BELLADONNA {Atropa belladonna). In bo- tany, the Deadly Nightshade. It is an aero-, narcotic poison. This name, belladonna (sig- nifying Handsome Lady), accordmg to Kay, I To BELL-WETHER. BENT-GRASS. was given to it by the Italians, because the Italian ladies make a cosmetic of the juice. The belladonna, although perennial in re- ference to the root, is annual in its herbage, which is of quick growth, branching, and shrub-like. The leaves are lateral, generally two together, ovate, acute, entire, smooth, and clammy. The flowers are solitary, stalked, rising in the axillae of the leaves, bell-shaped, and of a lurid purple colour. The fruit is a shining, black, sweetish berry, seated in the permanent calyx, about the size of a cherry. The plant is poisonous, having a peculiar al- kali, named atrupia, which, in combination with malic acid, is found in every part of the plant. Its influence is chiefly exerted on the brain and nervous system, causing delirium, movements of the body resembling intoxication, confused speech, uttered with pain, and other symptoms of narcotic poisoning. Buchanan, the Scotish historian, informs us, that the Scots under Macbeth intoxicated the Danes under Sweno by mixing their wine with the juice of the ber- ries of belladonna during a truce, which en- abled Macbeth readily to overcome them. Shakspeare alludes to it in the interview be- tween Macbeth and the witches, when the for- mer says — Or have we drank Of the insaiHj root which takes the reason prisoner? Macbeth, Act 1. The beauty of the berries frequently entices children to eat them ; and, although not often fatal, they cause very distressing effects to the little sufferers. In such cases, the stomach should be quickly emptied by an emetic, and afterwards vegetable acids and decoction of nut-galls should be given. Belladonna is an excellent medicine; but it should not be en- trusted to the ignorant. BELL-WETHER. A sheep which leads the flock, with a bell on his neck. BELT. To belt, in some districts, signifies tf shear the buttocks and tails of sheep. BELT. In planting, a strip or portion of land planted with trees for the purpose of or- nament, or warmth and shelter. Much advan- tage may be derived in this way in improving the climate of the district. (See Plantation.) BENE PLANT I^Sesamtim oriental). The bene or sesamum has been introduced into Ja- maica and other West India islands, where it is quite extensively cultivated in many places. It is commonly calledVan^l') or oil-plant, from the oil which it yields to pressure. The seeds are frequently used in broths, and by some in- troduced into cakes. Many of the Oriental na- tions look upon the seed as a hearty and wholesome food, and express an oil from them, not unlike, or inferior to, the oil of almonds. Attempts have even been made to manufacture oil from it in England, but with little success. tfesamuni orientale, or bene, is frequently cultivated in the eastern parts of the Mediter- ranean as a garden vegetable. The seeds have been introduced into the Carolinas, and other Southern States, by the African negroes. The seeds are used by the blacks for food ; they parch them over the fire, then mix them with water, and then stew them up with other ngreaients. A kind of pudding is also made 176 of them, similar to such as are made of rice or millet. The oil pressed from the seeds will keep many years without acquiring any rancid taste, but in two years becomes quite mild, so that the warm taste of the oil when first drawn is worn off, and it can be used for salads and all the ordinary purposes of sweet oil. In Ja- pan, China, and Cochin-China, where they have no butter, they use the oil for frying fish, and preparing other dishes ; as a varnish, and for some medicinal purposes. Nine pounds of seed are said to yield upwards of two pounds of fine oil. The sesamum is an annual plant. It grows like cotton, from three to six feet high, bearing numerous square pods about an inch and a half long, filled with seeds about the size of flaxseeds. In its growth it requires no sticks, or other support. The product of seed is about twelve or fifteen bushels per acre, and the proportion of oil yielded to pressure has been estimated as equal to one-half the mea- sure of the seed, and some estimate the propor- tion as far greater. The oil may be extracted by bruising the seed and immersing them in hot water, when the oil rises on the surface and may be skimmed off. But the usual mode of extraction is similar to that practised in the expression of linseed oil. In the Southern States many planters cultivate the bene largely, sowing in drills about four feet apart, in the month of April, and gathering the crop of seed in September. The pods ripen suc- cessively, and not all at one time. Bene has been raised in Virginia, Maryland, and the lower part of the peninsula between the Dela- ware and Chesapeake Bays, just as far north as cotton admits of cultivation. In higher lati- tudes, even in the vicinity of Philadelphia, the plant M'ill grow, but seldom ripens its seed. The leaves of the plant are in great repute as a remedy in dysentery, and especially the cholera infantum or summer complaint of children. The freshly gathered leaves are merely dipped into a tumbler of cold water, which immediately becomes ropy, without losing its transparency or acquiring any un- pleasant taste, on which account it is readily and even gratefully received by the little suf- ferers, who are allowed to. sip it in moderate quantities instead of other drinks. Sesamum is indeed a valuable plant, and should be cul- tivated wherever it will grow, for its medicinal and domestic uses, if not for its oil; which last, however, must, under proper management, prove a profitable product of the soil. BENT, or STARR. Names applied in Eng land to the common reed (the Artmdo prug- miies of Dr. Darlington, and the A. arenaria of some other botanists). Sinclair calls the upright sea lyme grass, starr, or bent. (See Plate 7, 1.) One of the chief uses this coarse grass is made to subserve in the United States, as well as in European countries, is to protect banks and sea-dykes exposed to the wash- ings of waves and currents. See Ahundo Arenauta. BENT-GRASS. A species of Agrostis verv common in pasture grounds, the bent or creep- ing stems of which are very difllcult to eradi- cate. (See AttBosTis.) BENTS. BIND- WEED. BENTS. The withered stalks of grass ] standing in a pasture after the seeds have , dropped. It also sometimes signifies a species of rush {J uncus squarrosus), which grows on moorland hills. BERBEREN. A yellow bitter principle contained in the alcoholic extract of the root of the barberry tree. BERBERRY (Berheris). See Barbkhiiy. BERE (Goth, bar; Sax. bepe). The com- mon name for a species of barley, which is also frequently termed big, bear, and square barley. Thus, in Huloei, an old writer, we find " beer-corn, barley-bygge, or moncorne," BERGAMOT (Fr. ber'gumotfe). A species of citron, the fruit of the Citrus benramia (Ris- so). This tree is cultivated in the south of Europe. It is a moderate-sized tree with ob- long, acute, or obtuse leaves, with a pale un- derside, and supported on winged footstalks. The flowers are small and white ; the fruit is pyriform, of a pale yellow colour, and the rind studded with oil vesicles ; the pulp is slightly acidulous. The oil, which is procured from the rind, is imported from the south of Europe, under the name of ot7 or esxence of berf^amot. It is of a pale greenish colour, lighter than water, and used merely as an agreeable perfume. A species of mint, having a highly agreeable odour {Mentha odoratu, Smith), is popularly called bergamot in the United States. BERRY (Macca). A succulent pulpy fruit, which contains one or more seeds, or granules, imbedded in the juice. BETHLEHEM, STAR OF (Omitknsalum). Smith points out four varieties of this flower : the yellow star of Bethlehem, 0. luteum .- the common star of Bethlehem, O. umbellatum, (commonly called ten o'clock) ; the tall star of Bethlehem, 0. pyrenaicum ,- and the drooping star of Bethlehem, 0. nutaiis. The first is met with sometimes, but not very frequently, in grove pastures. The second is found in mea- dows, pastures, and groves in various parts of England. The last is found mostly in fields and orchards, probably naturalized. All are elegant spring flowers. The last is common in country gardens, whence it may have escaped into the fields. Yet the plant may as well be a native of England as of Denmark, Austria, or other parts of Europe and America, where it is found in similar situations. One of the species, commonly called ten o'clock (Ornlikogalum umbellatum), Dr. Darlington says, is a foreigner that has escaped from gar- dens, and has become a nuisance on many farms in the Middle States. Although it rarely perfects its seed, it propagates itself with great rapidity by means of lateral bulbs. These bulbs are extremely difficult to eradicate. (Flor. Cestrica.) An American species of the star of Bethlehem {O.vircns) was found by Lindley on the Delaware Bay. The sea-squill, so ex- tensively used in medicine, belongs to this bulbous-rooted family of plants. {Smith's Eng. Flitra, vol. ii. p. 141—145.) BEVER (Ital. bevere.- old French, beivre). To drink: a word now almost obsolete, but from which we derive beverage. The provin- cial term amongst labourers for the meal be- tween dinner and tea. 23 BIENNIAL (Lat. biennis). Any thing thaJ continues or endures two years. This term is usually applied to plants which grow one year and flower the next, after which they perish. They only differ from annuals in requiring a longer period to fruit in. Most biennials, if sown early in the spring, will flower in the au tumn and then perish, thus actually becoming annuals. (Brande's Did. of Science.) BIG. A term sometimes applied in Eng- land to here or square barley. BILBERRY, or BLEABERRY. See Whor. TLEBKRRT. BILL {Bille; Sax. tibiip, a two-edged axe). A kind of hatchet with a hooked point, and a handle shorter or longer, according to the par- ticular uses for which it is intended. It is mostly employed, by husbandmen for cutting hedges and felling underwood; and Johnson tells us it takes its name from its resemblance, in form, to the beak of a bird of prey. BILLET (Fr. bilot). A small log of wood for the chimney. BIN (Sax. binne). A small box or other con- trivance in which grain of any kind is kept. It is sometimes written binn. Bin also signi- fies a sort of crib for containing straw or other bulky fodder in farm-yards. BIN, CORN-. A sort of convenient box or chest fixed in the stable for the purpose of con- taining grain or other provender for horses. We have also hop-bins, wine-bins, &c. BIND-WEED (Lat. convolvulus). A trouble- some genus of weeds, of which there are in Eng- land three species, the smaller, the great, and the sea bind-weed. The climbing buckwheat {Poly gnnum convolvulus) is also known by the name of black bind-weed. The first or smaller bind weed (C. urvensis), frequently called gravel bind-weed, is very common in hedges, fields, and gardens, and upon dry banks and gravelly ground in most districts, and is an almost un- conquerable weed. Its presence is generally a sign of gravel lying near the surface. Its branching, creeping roots penetrate to a great depth in the soil. The flowers are fragrant like the heliotrope, but fainter, very beautiful, of every shade of pink, with paler or yellowish plaits, and stains of crimson in the lower part; sometimes they are nearly white. They close before rain. The second kind, or great bind-weed ( C. sepium), is also an equally troublesome and injurious weed to the husbandman. It grows luxuriantly in moist hedges, osier holts, and thickets. In an open, clear spot of ground, when the plants are kept constantly hoed down for three or four months, it may sometimes be effect ually destroyed ; as when the stalks are broken or cut, a milky juice exudes, by which the roots are exhausted and decay. Every portion of the root will grow. The roots of this specie* are long, creeping extensively, and rather fleshy; the stems twining, several feet long, leafy, smooth, and slightly branched. Flowers solitary, large, purely white for the most part, occasionally of a uniform flesh or rose colour. It is a perennial, flowering in July and August in England, and a month earlier in Pennsylva^ nia, where it is occasionally found. It is so injurious to crops that farmers should try all means to get rid of it. The black bmd-W'?d. 177 BIRCH. BIRCH. (Plate 10, d), called also dimbing buck-wheat, and bear-bind, is an annual, flowering in June and September. Its root is small and tapering, and the stem twines from left to right, round every thing in its way to the height of five or six feet. The flowers arc drooping, greenish white, or reddish. Several plants of the convolvulus family are highly valuable for tNe food and medicines they furnish. That most active purgative scammony is obtained from C. scammonia, and jalap from a species of Ipomaa. Occasionally the purgative principle is so much ditfused among the foecula of the root, as to be almost inappreciable, as is the case in the C. batatas, or sweet potato of America. The root of the great bind-weed is a strong purgative, fresh gathered and boiled in a little warm liquid, being near akin to the acrid and violent scam- mony. The humbler classes boil it in beer or ale, and find it a never-failing remedy. Among delicate constitutions it should be taken with caution, as its effects are very powerful. In Northamptonshire it grows most abundantly. A decoction of the roots also causes perspira- tion. BIRCH (Sax.bipc; Lat. betula). The Eng- lish word birch seems, however, to be derived from the German birke, or the Dutch berk. All the European languages are similar in the pro- nunciation of the name of this tree. A very hardy, ornamental, and, in some respects, a useful tree, inhabiting the north of Europe, Asia, and America. There are many species of birch, but that best known, and most gene- rally cultivated in this country, is the common birch {Betula alba). The common birch is valuable for its capability of resisting extremes of both heat and cold: its timber is chiefly employed for fire-wood. Its bark is extremely durable : it consists of an accumulation often or twelve skins, which are white and thin like pa- per, the use of which it supplied to the ancients ; and as a proof of its imperishable nature, we are told that the books which Numa composed, about 700 years before Christ, which were written on the bark of the birch tree, were found in a perfect state of preservation in the tomb of that great king, where they had re- mained 400 years. Although thi.s species is not much valued for its timber, it is extremely useful for many other purposes. Russia skins are said to be tanned with its bark, from which the peculiar odour of such leather is derived ; and it is said to be useful in dyeing wool yel- low, and fixing fugacious colours. The High- landers weave it into ropes for their well- buckets. The poor people of Sweden were formerly accustomed to grind the bark to mingle with their bread corn. And in Den- mark, Christopher III. received the unjust sur- name of Berka Kanung (king of bark), because In his reign there was such a scarcity, that the peasants were obliged to mix the bark of ihis tree with their flour. Cordage is obtained from it by the Laplanders, who also prepare a red dye from it; the young shoots serve to nourish their cattle, and the leaves are said to afford good fodder for horses, kine, sheep, and goats. The vernal sap of these trees is well known to have a saccharine quality, and from 178 it the forest housewife makes an agreeable and wholesome wine. During the siege of Ham- burgh, in 1814, by the Russians, almost all the birch trees of the neighbourhood were de- stroyed by the Bashkirs and other barbarian soldiers in the Russian service, by being tap- ped for their juice. Vinegar is obtained from the fermented sap. The inhabitants of Fin- land use the leaves for tea; and both in Lap- land and Greenland, strips of the young and tender bark are used for food. From the tim- ber are manufactured gates and rails, packing- cases, hoops, yokes for cattle, turners' ware, such as bowls, wooden spoons, wooden shoes and clogs, and other articles in which light- ness without much durability is sufficient. Baskets, hurdles, and brooms are often made of part of its shoots. The broom-makers are constant customers for birch in all places in the vicinity of London, or where it is near water- carriage ; but in most other parts the hoop- benders are the purchasers. The larger trees are often bought by the turners. In some of the northern parts of Europe, the wood of this tree is likewise greatly used for making of carriages and wheels, being hard and of long duration. The most general and the most profitable use to which birch at present can be turned is, unquestionably, the manufacture of small casks, as herring barrels, butter tubs, &c. For the latter purpose it is admirably suited, because it is stout, clean, and easily wrought, and communicates no particular taste or smell to the butter. The timber of the birch was more used and more valued in former times. It was not so strong as the ash for har- rows and other farming implements, but it was not so ready to split, and for roofing cottages it is still held in estimation. In Russia, Po- land, and other northern countries, the twigs of this tree cover the dwellings of the peasant, instead of tile or thatch. It afforded our an- cestors arrows, bolts, and shafts, for their war implements. The whole tree is adapted for burning into charcoal of the best quality, and suited for the manufacture of gunpowder. The birch will grow in any soil, but best in shady places. It may, therefore, in some situa- tions, be turned to good account, since it will grow to advantage upon land where other tim- ber will not thrive. Miller says, it loves a dry barren soil, where scarcely any thing else will grow ; and will thrive on any sort of land, dry or wet, gravelly, sandy, rocky, or boggy, and those barren, heathy lands which will scarcely bear grass. It is said to attain sometimes the height of seventy feet, with a diameter of two feet ; in England it does not acquire such con- siderable dimensions. The birch is propagated by seeds, which are easily taken from bearing trees, by cutting the branches in August, before they are quite ripe. The seed may be thrashed out like corn, as soon as the branches dry a little ; they should be then kept in dry cool sand until they are sown, either in the autumn or spring. A great deal of nicety and atten- tion is required in rearing the birch from the seed; they must be sown in the shade, and covered very lightly with soil made as fine as possible, and watered according to the wetness or dryness of the season. The planting out BIRCH. of this tree is performed in the same manner ' as in the ash. If planted for underwood, it should be IVlled before March to prevent its bleeding. The tree bears removing with .<;afely, after it has attained the height of six or seven feet ; and is ready to plash as hedges in four years after planting. When old they 1 are transplanted with considerable difficulty. I The other European birches are the weep- j ing birch (Betula pendula), which is very com- ! mon in different parts of Europe, along with the last, in the properties of which it appears to participate, and with which it is often im- properly confounded. It difiers from the com- mon birch not only in its weeping habit, but also in its young shoots being quite smooth, bright chestnut brown when ripe, and then covered with little white M-arts. The Betula pontica of the nurseries is a slight variety, of a less drooping habit. The third species is the downy birch {Be- tula pubtsc ens), a smaller species than the first, found in the bogs of Germany ; a variety of it is calleil Betula urticlfnUn in gardens. The fourth and last European species is the dwarf birch {Betula nana), a small bush found in Lapland and the mountainous parts of other northern countries. To the people of the south this plant has no value, but to the Laplanders it affords a large part of their fuel, and its winged fruits are reported to be the favourite food of the ptarmigan. The Asiatic species are the Indian paper birch {B. Bftiyjpattra) ; tapering-leaved birch {B. acuminata) ; shining birch {B. nitida) ; cylindrical spiked birch {B. cylindrosiachya). The principal American birches are, 1. The poplar-leaved or white American birch {B. popnlifulia). It is very like the European B. pendula. 2. The red birch {li. nigra). In this country it is gene- rally called B. angulata, and by some B. rubra. The Messrs. Loddiges, of Hackney, were the first importers of this fine but little known species. 3. The yellow birch {B. excehu). 4. The paper or canoe birch {B. papyracea.), which is employed by the North American Indians for a variety of useful purposes. 6. The soft black or cherry birch {B. lento). None of the American birches produce timber so valuable as this, whence one of its Ame- rican names is mountain mahogany. Its wood is hard, close-grained, and of a reddish brown ; it is imported into England in considerable quantities, under the name of American birch, for forming the sides of dining tables, and for similar purposes. It is rarely seen in Eng- land, although it is perhaps one of the best suited to that climate. All the species of birches, except the common and weeping, are multiplied by layers in the usual way. The juice of the birch tree, produced from punctures in the spring of the year, is diuretic. The wine made from this sap is said to be aperitive, and detersive. Old medical writers tell us that the wood was esteemed the best to burn in times of pestilence and contagious distempers ; but, like many old medical saws, that opinion is of no value. {Phillips's Syl. Fltyr. vol. i. p. 123; Pen. Syc. vol. iv. p. 348; Baxter a Agr. Lib.) BIRDS. A few of the feathered tribes may BIRD-CHERRY. be regarded as mischievous depredators upon the farmer and gardener, eating his fruit, as the robin ; pulling up the corn when just sprouted, or eating it from the ear when nearly matured, as is so often done by the crow, the black-bird or grakle. But if account be made of all the services derived from birds in destroying those insects which in their larva or worm state, or their more perfect winged state, commit such serious depredations upon orchards and fields, it will be found that we owe the feathered fa- mily a very large balance. Upon this subject we must refer for further illustration to the articles Beetle, Bouehs, Aphis, and others relating to destructive insects. That distin- guished naturalist, Mr. Nuttall, has the follow- ing beautiful tribute to birds in his interesting Manual of the Ornithology of the United States. "In whatever way we view the feathered tribes which surround us, we shall find much both to amuse and instruct. We hearken to their songs with renewed delight, as the harbingers and associates of the season they accompany. Their return, after a long ab- sence, is hailed with gratitude to the Author of all existence; and the cheerless solitude of inanimate nature is, by their presence, attuned to life and harmony. Nor do they alone ad- minister to the amusements and luxury of life ; faithful aids as well as messengers of the sea- sons, they associate round our tenements, and defend the various productions of the earth, on which we rely for subsistence from the de- structive depredations of myriads of insects, which, but for timely riddance by unnumbered birds would be followed by a general failure and famine. Public economy and utility, then, no less than humanity plead for the protection of the feathered race, and the wanton destruc- tion of birds, so useful, beautiful, and amusing, if not treated as such by law, ought to be con- sidered as a crime by every moral, feeling, and reflecting mind." BIRD-BOLT. A short arrow, having a ball of wood at the end of it, and sometimes an iron point, formerly used for shooting birds. BIRD-CHERRY {Prunus padus). The ber- ries are eagerly sought after by birds, and as the leaf and fruit resemble that of the cherry tree, hence the name of bird-cherry. In Scot- land it is called hogberry. This aboriginal of our English woods possesses beauties that should oftener secure it a situation in the shrubbery, and more frequently a place in or- namental hedge-rows. The bird-cherry rises from ten to fifteen feet in height, spreading to a considerable distance its branches, which are covered with a purplish bark. It flowers in April and May, and the small black fruit, which hangs in bunches, ripen in August. Although the fruit is austere, and bitter to the taste, it gives an agreeable flavour to brandy, and many persons add it, for the same reason, to their made wines. Birds soon devour the fruit, which is nauseous and probably danger- ous, though perhaps, like that of the cherry laurel, not of so deadly a quality as the essen- tial oil, or distilled water of the leaves, which is highly dangerous from containmg much Prussic acid. The wood is hard and close- grained, and is used for whip and knife handles 179 BIRD'S-EYE. BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL. Linnaeus says, that kine, sheep, goats, and ! swine eat the leaves, but that horses refuse them. The scent of the leaves, when bruised, resembles rue. The variety with red fruit, commonly called the Cornish cherry, flowers two or three weeks earlier, and is therefore not so desirable for the shrubbery. The bird- cherry may be propagated by layers, which should be performed in autumn, but the hand- somest trees are raised from seed, which may be sown at the same season. A wet soil is not congenial to this tree. (^Phillips's Syl. Flor. vol. i. p. 134; Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 854.) BIRD'S EYE (Veronica chamaedrys). The Germander Speedwell, or wild germander. A troublesome weed in fields. It is found very commonly in groves, meadows, pastures, and hedges. It is a perennial, flowering in May and June. Herbage light green. Flowers numerous, transient, but very beautiful, bright blue with dark streaks and a white centre ; their outside pale and flesh coloured. The flowers expand in fine weather only. Some take this for the German " forget-me-not." It vies in beauty with the true one, Myoftntis pa- histris. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 23.) See Speedwell. BIRD'S FOOT, COMMON (Ornithopus per- pusillus). A weed found most generally in sandy or gravelly pastures. Root fibrous, an- nual, though it is sometimes propagated by subterraneous lateral knobs in the manner of a potato, in which case the seeds are abortive. The stems, often numerous, are procumbent. from three to ten or twelve inches long. Leaves alternate, of from five to ten or twelve pair, of small uniform elliptical leaflets. Flowers three or four in each little head or tuft. The species of bird's foot are curious on account of their jointed pods, but not worth culture as plants of ornament. 0. sativus is, however, a most valuable agricultural plant. BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL, or CLOVER (Lotus). The common name of a genus of plants that flourishes in a singular manner in the most exposed and dry situations. On bowling- greens and mown lawns it forms a fine green close herbage, even in hot seasons; and in meadow and pasture grounds it is frequently abundant. Its very strong deep tap root is the cause of its resisting drought. Smith describes four species : — 1. Common bird's-foot trefoil (L. corniculaius), a perennial, flowering in the second week of June, and ripening the seed about the end of July, and successively to the end of autumn ; common in open grassy pas- tures. [PI. 9, g.] Some botanists have con- sidered the following species (L. major) to be a variety of the camictiluttts, but the difference between them is obvious at first sight; and this difference remains permanent when the p.ant is raised from seed, and cultivated on different soils. What renders a specific dis- tinction here of most importance to the farmer, is the difference which exists between them in an agricultural point of view. Heads de- pressed, of few flowers, root branching, some- what woody ; the fibres b(fset with small gra- nulacions ; stems several spreading on the 180 ground in every direction, varying in length from three to ten inches, simple or branched Flower stalks erect or recumbent, five time? as long as the leaves, each bearing from two to five bright yellow flowers, dark green when dried, and they change to orange when verging towards decay. This species is recommended for cultivation, though under the erroneous names of milk-vetch and Astragalus glycijphyl- los, by the late Dr. Anderson, in his Agricuhural Essays, as being excellent for fodder as well as for hay. Mr. Curtis and Mr. Wood also re- commended it. Linnaeus says that cows, goats, and horses eat it;, and that sheep and swine are not fond of it. With regard to sheep (says the late. Mr. G. Sinclair, Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 310), as far as my observations have extended, they eat it in common with the herbage with which it is usually combined ; the flowers, it is true, appeared always un- touched, and in dry pastures little of the plant is seen or presented to the cattle, except the flowers, on account of its diminutive growth in such situations. This, however, is nearly the case with white or Dutch clover ; sheep seldom touch the flowers while any foliage is to be found. Mr. Woodward informs us that it makes extremely good hay in moist mea- dows, where it grows to a greater height than the trefoils, and seems to be of a quality equal, if not superior, to most of them. Professor Martyn observes, that, in common with several other leguminous plants, it gives a substance to hay, and perhaps renders it more palatable and wholesome to cattle. The clovers contain more bitter extractive and saline matter than the proper natural grasses, and the bird's foot trefoils contain more of these vegetable prin- ciples than the clovers. In pastures and mea- dows, therefore, where the clovers happen to be in small quantities, a portion of the trefoil (L. cornieulatus) would doubtless be of advan- tage ; but it appears to contain too nluch of the bitter extractive and saline matters to be cultivated by itself, or without a large inter- mixture of other plants. It does not spring early in the season, but continues to vegetate late in the autumn. In irrigated meadows, where the produce is generally more succulent than in dry pastures, this plant cannot with safety be recommended, at least in any con- siderable quantity. It is more partial to dry soils than the next species (L. major) ; it at- tains to a considerable height when growing among shrubs, and seems to lose its prostrate or trailing habit of growth entirely in such situations. 2. The greater bird's-foot trefoil (L. m(tj(rr) flourishes in wet bushy places, osier holts and hedges ; very difl^erent from the fore- going species in general habit, and now techni- cally distinguished by several clear and suffi- cient characters. The stems are from one to two or three feet high, upright, clothed more or less with long loosely-spreading hairs. Leaves fringed with similar hairs ; flowers from six to twelve in each head, of a duller orange than the former. The weight of green food or hay is triple that of the foregoing spe- cies, and its nutritive powers are very little in- ferior, being only as 9 to 8. Thef i two species of bird's-foot trefoil may be compared to each BIRD'S-FOOT TREFOIL. BISCUIT. other \\ ith respect to habits in the same man- ner as the white clover and perennial red clover; and were the latter unknown, there appear to be no plants of the leguminous order, that, in point of habits, would so well supply their place as the common and greater bird's- foot trefoil. They are, however, greatly in- ferior to the clovers. The while clover is superior to the common bird's-foot trefoil in the quantity of nutritive matter it affords, in the proportion of 5 to 4. It is much less pro- ductive of herbage, and is much more difficult of cultivation, the seed being afforded in much smaller quantities. The produce of the greater bird's-foot trefoil is superior to that of the perennial red clover on tenacious or moist soils, and on drier and on richer soils of the first quality ; but the produce is inferior in the proportion of nutritive matter it contains as 5 to 4. The nutritive matter is extremely bitter to the taste. It does not appear to be eaten by any cattle when in a green state, but when made into hay, sheep, oxen, and deer, all eat it without reluctance, and rather with desire. It does not seem to perfect so much seed as the former species, but this is abundantly remedied in its propagation by the creeping or stoloni- ferous roots which it spreads out in all direc- tions. In moist clayey soils it would doubtless be a most profitable substitute for red clover; but the excess of bitter extractive and saline matters it contains seems to forbid its adop- tion without a considerable admixture of other plants. It flowers about the third week of June, and the seed is ripe about the end of the following month. The follo>»-ing analysis will show the comparative value of the two spe- cies : — GrccD Prod.! pertcie. Dry Prod. Lotus comieulatus — major \b*. lb*. It*. 10,209 6 Ol 3,190 6 358 4 9 21,780 8,142 8 OJ 680 10 Nulriment per »cr«. 3. Spreading bird's-foot trefoil (L.decumbens) is, like the two preceding species, a perennial, flowering in England in July. It is found in fields and meadows. The flower-stalks are four or five times the length of the leaves, smooth, stout, and firm, each bearing an umbel of from three to six bright yellow flowers. 4. Slender bird's-foot trefoil (L. angustissimus) is an an- nual flowering in May and June, found in meadows toward*? the sea on the south and western coasts of England. It is smaller, in general, than any of the foregoing species. A species of trifolium (7'. ornithopodinides) also bears the name of bird's-foot trefoil ; but Sir J. Smith very justly observes {Engl. Flor. vol. iii. p. 298), it can scarcely, without violence, be retained in the genus Trifolium ,- yet no one has thought fit to make it a distinct one, however plausible might be the reasons for such a measure. It is an annual plant flower- ing in June and July, found in barren, gravelly, grassy pastures; root fibrous, stems several, spreading flat on the ground, flowers two or three, long, pale, reddish. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. pp. 298, 312; Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Woh.) Two species of lotus, not referred to in the preceding account, are a good deal cultivated in France, on light soils. These are the vil- lous (L. villosus) and the cultivated lotus {Lotier cultive, or Lotus tetrugonolobus, PI. 9, h). The last is an annual sown in gardens. BIRDLIME. This glutinous vegetable pro- duct is procured either by boiling misletoe ber- ries in water until they break, pounding them in a mortar, and washing away the husky re- fuse Math other portions of water ; or, which is the chief mode in which it is made (chiefly in Scotland) for the purposes of bird-catching, &c., from the middle bark of the holly. The bark is stripped in June or July, and boiled for six or eight hours in water, until it becomes ten- der ; the water is then separated from it, and it is left to ferment for two or three weeks, until it becomes a mucilage, which is pounded in a mortar into a mass, and then thoroughly rubbed by the hands in running water till all the branny matters and other impurities are washed away ; the birdlime is then suffered to remain fermenting by itself in an earthen ves- sel for some weeks. (The bird-catchers, when they make their own, place the vessel in a dunghill.) The bark of the wayfaring tree is sometimes employed. The fragrant gum which exudes from the Styrax, or American Sweet Gum, a large tree, growing in the Middle and Southern States, also makes a good birdlime, being extremely tenacious. (Gray's Supple- ment, p. 226 ; Nich. Journ. b. xiii. p. 145 ; Thorn' son. vol. iv. p. 119.) BIRD'S NEST, YELLOW (Monotropa hypo- pitys). A weed occasionally met with in poor and gravelly soils. It is also found sometimes about the roots of beeches and firs, in woods, frequent in all the midland counties. Root fibrous, much branched, and somewhat creep- ing, growing among dead leaves, or in half de- cayed vegetable mould. Stem solitary, five or six inches high, flowers in a drooping cluster. (Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. ii. p. 249.) The species of this plant found in the Middle States, are, that called the Indian Pipe (M. uni- Jlora), and the woolly monotropa. Pine-sap, or False Beach-drops. Both these singular plants are called parasitic. (See Flor. Centric.) BIRD PEPPER. A species of small capsi- cum, which affords the best Cayenne pepper. See Capsicum. BISCUIT (Lat. his, twice; Fr. cuit, baked, Ital. hiscnto). A kind of hard dry bread cake Biscuits are more easily kept than other kinds of bread, and as they contain no ferment, they are better fitted than loaf bread for persons of weak stomachs, and for the pap of infants, who are under the misfortune of being brought up by hand. The best biscuits and the most wholesome, are those prepared for the use of the navy. They are of two kinds, captains' and seamen's biscuit. The latter are composed of wheaten flour, from which the bran only has been taken ; consequently they are more nutritive than the finer sort. In the government bake-houses at Weevil and Deptford, the biscuits are prefera- ble to those baked by ordinary bakers, owmg to the extent of the operations, and the purity of the wheat-meal; 102 lbs. of perfectly dry biscuits are procured from 112 lbs. of meal. BISHOPING. A cant term made use of Q 181 BISON. BISON. among horse-jockeys, implying the practices employed lo conceal the age of an old horse, or the ill properties of a bad one. See Age OF Houses. BISON, AMERICAN (Bos Americnnus). This species of the ox kind is peculiar to the temperate latitudes of Nt>rth America, where it is universally, though incorrectly called the Buffalo, a name properly belonging to a differ- ent species of the ox tribe common to Eastern Asia. The bison was found by the first colo- nists of the Carolinas, and other of the South- ern and Middle States, from which parts of the North American Continent they have long been exterminated or frightened away. So late as the year 1766, they were seen in a wild state in Kentucky. At present none are to be met with east of the Mississippi river, having retired beyond this great stream, and concen- trated in the praries of the Missouri and other rivers of the far west. Here they often unite in immense herds, some of which, travellers and hunters inform us, contain eight or ten thousand. Generally speaking, the bison is rather timid, flying from the hunter, except in the rutting season, about the middle of June, when the males become very fierce, and often kill each other in their terrible combats. The qualities of buffalo beef are highly ex- tolled, and the hump upon the shoulders is re- garded as a particularly choice morsel. The tongues, which constitute a regular article of trade, are exceedingly rich and tender. The thick and rough hairy skins of the bison are tanned by the Indians and trappers, and then sold to be formed into buffalo robes and other articles of comfort, so useful during the severe winters of the United States. The following highly interesting account of the American Bison is taken from the Ameri- can Farmer, (vol. vi. p. 260), under the head of Buffalo Oxen. " The animal known by the name of the Buffalo throughout the valleys of Missouri, and Mississippi differs materially from the buffa- lo of the Old World. At first view, his red fiery eyes, his shaggy mane, and long beard, the long lustrous hair upon his shoulders and fore-quarters, and the comparative nakedness of his hind-quarters, strongly remind a specta- tor of the lion. " In the size of his head, in bulk, in stature, and in fierceness, he resembles the buffalo of Buffon ; but the humps or protuberance be- tween his shoulders, the shape of his head, his curled forehead, short thick arms, and long hind legs, mark a much stronger affinity to the bison. " He carries his head low like the buffalo, and this circumstance, together with his short muscular neck, broad chest, and short thick arms, designate him as peculiarly qualified for drawing ; the whole weight of his body would thus be applied in the most advantageous man- ner to the weight drawn. The milk of the fe- male is equal in quality to that of the cow, but deficient in quantity. It has been supposed that the smallness of the udders is more re- markable in those that have the hump large, and that the diminished size of the hump is evidence of a more abundant secretion of milk The hump, when dressed, tastes like 182 the udder of a cow, and is deemed a delicacy by the Indians. But there is one other particu- lar which distinguishes the buffalo of the New World from its eastern namesake more distinctly than any variety of conformation could do. The cow refuses to breed with the buffalo of Europe ; and such is the fixed aversion between these creatures, that they alwa)'-s keep separate, although bred under the same roof and feeding in the same pas- ture. The American buffalo, on the contrary, breeds freely with the domestic cattle, and propagates a race that continues its kind. Many of the landholders in Louisiana, like the patriarchs of old, possess thousands of cattle which graze at liberty in the unculti- vated prairies. These herds cost their owners little more than the trouble of marking them, and the expense of salting once or twice in a month, to prevent them from becoming wild. By occupying the same pastures, they have be come so much intermixed with the buffalo that it is difficult to say to which race they are most nearly allied. " In procuring the cross, it is necessary to observe one precaution. The domestic breed must furnish the male, and the buffalo the female. The wild bull and the cow can be brought together without difficulty, and the im- pregnation is perfect ; but the pelvis of the cow is not sufficiently capacious to allow the passage of the buffalo's foetus with its hump. The pelvis is the circular bone which connects the spine with the thigh bones, and when the foetus, from disease or any other cause, is too large to pass through it, the female must neces- sarily die in labour. This fact constitutes the principal obstacle to the introduction of the half breed in the old settlements. It would be easy to catch and tame a single male of the wild breed, and to obtain any number of im- pregnations from him ; but it is difficult to pro- cure, and still more to confine a sufficient number of wild females. The amazing strength of the head and breast enables them to overset the strongest fences by running against them ; and unless they are caught very young, they can never be effectually tamed. Nevertheless, some enterprising farmers in this state and Missouri are introducing the breed. Captain Jenkins of Rutherford county, has one three years old and one two years old of the half blood, and several calves of the quarter blood, all of which are large for their age, and pro- mise well. The advantages proposed by the introduction of this breed are, that the oxen thus raised will be stronger, less sluggish, more hardy, and more easily kept, and (if it be true that the buffalo goes twelve months with young) they will probably last longer than the common breed. In addition to these conside- rations, the hides are larger and applicable to a greater number of uses, and the leather is thicker, softer, and more impervious to water. The full grown buffalo on the Missouri are said to be from -sixteen to eighteen hands high, and as the body is larger in proportion to the height, than in the domestic cattle, they must greatly exceed the finest of the imported breed in strength and weight. In the neighbourhood of the settlements, the hunter's dogs and BISSLINGS. praine flies conspire to prevent them from at- taining either full size or mature age." BISSLINGS. A provincial word, applied, like biestings, to the first milk of the newly calved cow. See Bekstixg. BITTER PRINCIPLE. This term has been applied to certain products of the action of ni- tric acid upon animal and vegetable matters of an intensely bitter taste. {Brandt's Did. of Science.) The most important of the plants cultivated with us for their bitter principle are the hop, the common broom, mugwort, ground ivy, marsh trefoil or buck-bean, and the gen- tian family of plants. Quassia, the wood of a tree, is also a very intense bitter, and is used in medicine, and clandestinely in the brewing of beer. The chief combinations of the bitter principle used in medicine are narcotic, aro- matic, astringent, acid, and purgative bitters. (Lowe's El. ufAg. pp. 371—373.) BITTERS. A spirituous liquor m which bitter herbs or roots are steeped. An excessive habit of taking bitters may finally prove detri- mental to the stomach, by over-excitement, or by inducing a kind of artificial demand for food in greater quantity than is salutary to the general health. Habitual drunkenness has often been the sequel of the insiduou^ practice jf taking bitters. BITTER-SWEET, or WOODY NIGHT- SHADE (Solunum dulciwiarn). This wild plant loves moist places, therefore grows most freely in hedges and thickets, near ditches, rivers, and damp situations. It flowers in June and July, and ripens its berries in August, vhich are of a red colour, juicy, bitter, and poisonous. Its flowers are an elegant purple, with yellow threads in their middle, and the berries are oval or oblong in shape. The stalks are shrubby, and run, when supported, to ten feet in length ; of a bluish colour, and when bruised or broken have an odour not very fragrant or desirable, savouring of rotten eggs. A decoction of its wood, and the young shoots sliced, is a valuable medicine, but not to he trifled with. {Eng. Flor., vol. i. p. 317.) BITTERWORT. The old English name for the yellow gentian. See Gentian. BIXA. See Annotta. BLACK. (Sax.) A common colour in horses. Horses of this colour are most esteemed when they are of a shining jet black, and well marked, without having white on their legs. The English black horses have generally more white about them than the black horses of other coimtries. Those that partake most of the brown are said to be the strongest in con- stitution; for the English black oart horses are found not to be so hardy as the bays or chest- nuts. BLACKBERRY. See Bramble. BLACKBIRD. This is a species of bird so generally known, that but little need be said of its habits or its haunts. Numbers are bred in England every season, and those thus reared, it is believed, do not mj :^rate. Its food varies considerably with the se»son. In spring and early summer, larvae of insects, worms, and snails ; as the season advances, fruit of various sorts. When the enormous number of insects and their larvce, with the abundance BLACKBIRD. of snails and slugs, all injurious to vegetation, be duly considered, it may fairly be doubted whether the value of the fruit is not counter balanced by the services performed. The American blackbird differs consider ably from the European. The species found in the United States bear the names of the great crow, the common crow, the cow, the red-winged, and the rusty. The following in- teresting details relative to birds which so often occupy attention in rural life, are from Mr. Nuttail's Manual of the Ornithology of the United States. Treating of the great crow blackbird, {The Quiscalis major o{ Bonaparte) Mr. Nuttall says : "This large and crow-like species, some- times called the jackdaw, inhabits the southern maritime parts of the Union only, particularly the states of Georgia and Florida, where they are seen as early as the close of January or beginning of February, but do not begin to pair before March, previously to which season the sexes are seen in separate flocks. But about the latter end of November, they quit even the mild climate of Florida, generally, and seek winter quarters probably in the West Indies, where they are known to be numerous, as well as in Mexico, Louisiana, and Texas ; but they do not ever extend their northern mi- grations as far as the Middle States. Previous to their departure, at the approach of winter, they are seen to assemble in large flocks, and every morning flights of them, at a great height, are seen moving away to the south. " Like most gregarious birds, they are of a very sociable disposition, and are frequently observed to mingle with the common crow- blackbirds. They assemble in great numbers among the sea islands, and neighbouring marshes on the main land, where they feed at low water, on the oyster-beds and sand-flats. Like crows, they are omnivorous, their food consisting of insects, small shell-fish, corn, and small grain, so that by turns they may be viewed as the friend or plunderer of the planter. "The note of this species is louder than that of the common kind, according to Audubon, resembling a loud shrill whistle, often accom- panied by a cr)"^ like crick crick cree, and in the breeding season changing almost into awarble. They are only heard to sing in the spring, and their concert, though inclining to sadness, is not altogether disagreeable. Their nests and built in company, on reeds and bushes, in the neighbourhood of salt marshes and ponds ; they lay about three to five eggs which are whitish, blotched and lined nearly all over with dusky olive. They begin to lay about the be- ginning of April ; soon after which the males leave their mates not only with the care of in- cubation, but with the rearing of the young, moving about in separate flocks, like the cow birds, without taking any interest in the fate of their progeny. "The general appearance of the male is black, but the head and neck have bluish-pur- ple reflections; the rest presents shades of steel-blue, excepting the back, rump, and mid- dling wing coverts, which are glossed with I cop-er-green ; the vent, inferior tail coverts 18J BLACKBIRD. BLACKBIRD. and thighs are plain black. The .ai\, wedge- shaped, is nearly eight inches in length, and like that of the common species, is capable of assuming a boat-shaped appearance. Iris pale yellow. The bill and feet black. The female is of a light dusky brown, with some feeble greenish reflections, and beneath of a dull brownish white. The yonng, at first, resemble the female, but have theirids brown, and gradually acquire their appropriate plumage." Of the Common Crow-Blackbird, {Tli£ Quts- ealis versicolor of Audubon), Mr. Nuttall says ; " This very common bird is an occasional or constant resident in every part of America, from Hudson's Bay and the Northern interior to the great Antilles, within the tropic. In most parts of this wide region they also breed, at least from Nova Scotia to Louisiana, and pro- bly farther south. In the states north of Vir- ginia they begin to migrate from tht beginning of March to May, leaving those countries again in numerous troops about the middle of No- vember. Thus assembled, from the north and west in increasing numbers, they wholly over- run, at times, the warmer maritime regions, where they assemble to pass the winter in the company of their well known cousins the red- winged troopials or blackbirds ; for both, im- pelled by the same predatory appetite, and love of comfortable winter quarters, are often thus accidentally associated in the plundering and gleaning of the plantations. The amazing numbers in which the present species asso- ciate are almost incredible. Wilson relates that on the 20th of January, a few miles from the banks of the Roanoke, in Virginia, he met with one of those prodigious armies of black- birds, which, as he approached, rose from the surrounding fields with a noise like thunder, and descending on the stretch of road before him, covered it and the fences completely with black : rising again, after a few evolutions, they descended on the skirt of a leafless wood, so thick as to give the whole forest, for a con- siderable extent, the appearance of being shrouded in mourning, the numbers amount- ing probably to many hundreds of thousandb. Their notes and screams resembled the distant sound of a mighty cataract,- but strangely at- tuned into a musical cadence, which rose and fell with the fluctuation of the breeze, like the magic harp of ^olus. " Their depredations on the maize crop or In- dian corn commence almost with the planting. The infant blades no sooner appear than they are hailed by the greedy blackbird as the sig- nal for a feast ; and, without hesitation, they descend on the fields, and regale themselves with the sweet and sprouted seed, rejecting and scattering the blades around as an evi- dence of their mischief and audacity. Again, about the beginning of August, while the grain is in the milky state, their attacks are renewed with the most destructive effect, as they now rissemble as it were in clouds, and pillage the fields to such a degree that in some low and sheltered situations, in the vicinity of rivers, where they delight to roam, one-fuurlh of the crop is devoured by these vexatious visitors. The gun, also, notwiths anding the havoc it pi educes, has little more effect than to chase 184 thnn from one part of the field to the other. In the Southern States, in winter, they hover round the corn-cribs in swarms, and boldly peck the hard grain from the cob through the air-openings of the magazine. In consequence of these reiterated depredations they are de- tested by the farmer as a pest to his industry ; though, on their arrival, their food for a long time consists wholly of those insects which are calculated to do the most essential injury to the crops. They, at this season, frequent swamps and meadows, and familiarly follow- ing the furrows of the plough, sweep up all the grub-worms, and other noxious animals, as soon as they appear, even scratching up the loose soil, that nothing of this kind may escape them. Up to the time of harvest, I have uni- formly, on dissection, found their food to con- sist of these larvae, caterpillars, moths, and beetles, of which they devour such numbers, that but for this providential economy, the whole crop of grain, in many places, would probably be destroyed by the time it began to germinate. In winter they collect the mast of the beech and oak for food, and may be seen assembled in large bodies in the woods for this purpose. In the spring season the blackbirds roost in ftie cedars and pine trees, to which in the evening they retire with friendly and mu- tual chatter. On the tallest of these trees, as well as in bushes, they generally build their nests, which work, like all their movements, is commonly performed in society, so that ten or fifteen of them are often seen in the same tree, and sometimes they have been known to thrusl their nests into the interstices of the fish- hawk's eyry, as if for safety and protection. Occasionally they breed in tall poplars near to habitations, and, if not molested, continue to resort to the same place for several years in succession. They begin their breeding opera- tions from the commencement of April to May. The nest is composed outwardly of mud, mixed with stalks and knotty roots of grass, and lined with fine dry grass and horse-hair. The eggs, usually five or six, are of a dull green, like those of the crow, blotched and spotted with dark olive, more particularly to- wards the larger end. According to Audubon, the same species in the Southern States nests in the hollows of decayed trees, after the man- ner of the woodpecker, lining the cavity with grass and mud. They seldom produce more than a single brood in the season. In the au- tumn, and at the approach of winter, numerous flocks after foraging through the day, return from considerable distances to their general roosts among the reeds. On approaching their station, each detachment as it arrives, in strag- gling groups like crows, sweeps round the marsh in waving flight, forming circles ; amidst these bodies, the note of the old recon- noitring leader may be heard, and no sooner has he fixed upon the intended spot, than they all descend and take their stations in an in- stant. At this time they are also frequently accompanied by the ferruginous species, with which they associate in a friendly manner. "The blackbird is easily tamed, sings in confinement, and may be taught to articulate some few words pretty distinctly. Among the BLACKBIRD. variety i>f its natural notes, the peculiarly affected sibilation of the starling is heard in the wottishee, wottitshee, and whistle, which often accompanies this note. Their intestines and stomach are frequently infested by long, cylindric, tapering worms, which probably in- crease sometimes in such numbers as to de- stroy the bird. " The male is twelve inches long, and eight- ten in alar extent. The prevailing black colour of the body is relieved by glossy reflec- tions of steel blue, dark violet, and green ; the violet is most conspicuous on the head and breast, and the green on the hind part of the neck. The back, nimp, and whole lower parts, with the exception of the breast, reflect a cu- preous gloss. The wing-coverts, secondaries, and coverts of the tail, are light violet, with much of the red ; the rest of the wings and rounded tail are black, with a steel-blue gloss. Iris silvery. The female is rather less, but very similar in colour, and glossy parti- coloured reflections." The Rusty Blackbird. "This species," says Mr. Nuttall, " less frequent than the preceding, is often associated with it, or with the red- winged troopial or the cow-pen bird, and, ac- cording to the season, they are found throughout America, from Hudson's Bay to Florida and westward to the Pacific ocean. Early in April, according to Wilson, they pass hastily through Pennsylvania, on their return to the north to breed. In the month of March he observed them on the banks of the Ohio, near Kentucky river, during a snow-storm. They arrive in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay about the begin- uing of May, and feed much in the manner of the common crow-blackbird on insects, which they find on or near the ground. Dr. Richard- son saw them in the winter as far as the lati- tude of 53*^, and in the summer they range to the 68ih parallel or to the extremity of the wooded region. They sing in the pairing sea- son, but become nearly silent while rearing their young ; though when their brood release them from care they again resume their lay, and may occasionally be heard until the ap- proach of winter. Their song is quite as agreeable and musical as that of the starling, and greatly surpasses that of any of the other species. I have heard them singing until the middle of October. " They are said to build in trees and bushes, at no great distance from the ground, making a nest similar to the other species, and lay five eggs, of a pale blue spotted with black. The young and old, now assembling in large troops, retire from the northern regions in September. From the beginning of October to the middle of November, they are seen in flocks through the Ea'^tern States. During their stay in this vicinity, they assemble towards night to roost in or round the reed marshes of Fresh Pond, near Cambridge. Sometimes they select the willows by the water for their lodging, in pre- ference to the reeds, which they give up to their companions the crow-blackbirds. Early in October they feed chiefly on grasshoppers and berries, and at a later period pay a tran- sient visit to the corn-field. They pass the winter in the Southern States, and like their 24 BLACK GUM. darker relatives, make fajniliar visits to the barn-yard and corn-cribs. Wilson remarks, that they are easily domesticated, and in a few days become quite familiar, being reconciled to any quarters while supplied with plenty of food. " The male is about nine inches in length, and fourteen in alar extent; black, glossed with dark green; with the tail somewhat rounded ; iris silvery. The female is of about the same size with the male, and the rjoimg of the first season, of both sexes, are nearly of the same colour." BLACK CANKER. A disease in turnip and other crops, produced by a species of ca- terpillar. See BoxE Dust. BLACK COUCH GRASS, or BLACK TWITCH. Provincial names for the marsh bent grass, or Agms/is alba. See AsnosTis. BLACK DOLPHIN. A term applied to a small insect which is frequently very destruc- tive to bean, turnip, and some other green crops. BLACK FLY. An insect of the beetle tribe, very injurious to turnips in their early stage. See Flt. BLACK GUM (Nyssa sylvatka). This North American tree is variously designated in different parts of the United States by the names of the Black gum, Yellow gum, and Sour gu7n, the last of which appellation is doubtless derived from the extremely acid taste of its fruit. This consists of deep blue berries of an oval shape. Each stem has twin-berries, and each berry contains a very hard slightly con- vex stone. The leaves are five or six inches long, entire, of an elongated oval shape, with downy stems. The river Schuylkill, in the vi- cinity of Philadelphia, may be assumed as the northern limit of the black gum, which is very common in Delaware, Maryland, and other Middle and Southern States, both east and west of the Alleghany mountains. In Maryland, Virginia, and the Western States, Michaux in- forms us, it grows without any peculiar form on high and level grounds, with the oaks and walnuts. In the lower parts of the Carolinas and Georgia, where it is found only in wet places, with the small magnolia or white-bay, the red-bay, the loblolly-bay, and the water- oak, it has a pyramidal base resembling a sugar-loaf. The black gum frequently attains a height of sixty or seventy feet, with a diameter of eighteen or twenty inches, being larger in the upper part of Virginia, in Kentucky and Ten- nessee, than in the marshy grounds of the maritime parts of the Southern states. The bark of the trunk is whitish and similar to that of the young white oak. The Avood is fine-grained but tender, and its fibres are in terwoven and collected in bundles ; an arrange ment characteristic of the genus. The albur num or sap part, as it is commonly design ate*/, of stocks growing upon dry and elevated lands is yellow. This complexion is considered hy wheel-wrights as a proof of the superior quality of the wood, and has probably given the tree one of its popular names. It is ex- tensively employed in Richmond, Baltimore, and Philadelphia, for the naves or hubs of a 2 1«-'^ BLACK GUM. BLACK THORN. coach and wagon wheels, as well as for hatters' blocks, being so little liable to split ; a quality which also causes it to be chosen by ship- wrights for the cap, or piece which receives tlie top-mast. Tuptlo. — The black gum is often confounded with another tree of the same genus, the Tupelo or Nyssa aquaticn, also called gum tree, sjur gum, and peperidge. The first of these appel- lations, Michaux says, is most common, the second is wholly misapplied, as no self-con- densing fluid distils from the tree, and the third which more appropriately belongs to the common barberry-bush, is used only by the descendents of the Dutch settlers in the neigh- bourhood of New York. The tupelo extends much higher north than the black gum, ap- pearing in the lower part of New Hampshire near the sea ; but it is most abundant in the southern parts of New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania. It grows only in wet grounds. In Delaware, where the black gum and tupelo are found together, the former name is univer- sally applied to both. In New Jersey it is con- stantly seen on the borders of the swamps with the sweet gum, the swamp white-oak, the chestnut white-oak, and the white elm. It rarely exceeds forty or forty-five feet in height, and its limbs, which spring at five or six feet from the ground, grow in a horizontal direc- tion. The trunk is of a uniform size from its base. While it is less than ten inches in diame- ter the bark is not remarkable, but on full- grown and vigorous-stocks it is thick, deeply- furrowed, and, unlike the bark of any other jree, divided into hexagons, which are some- times nearly regular. The leaves are about half the length of those of the black gum, viz.: three inches long, ob- oval, smooth, alternate, and often united in bunches at the extremity of the young lateral shoots. The flowers are small and scarcely apparent. The fruit, which is abundant, is, iike that of the black gum, of a deep blue co- lour, about the size of a pea, and attached in pairs. It is ripe towards the beginning of No- vember, and remaining after the falling of the leaf, it forms a part of the nourishment of the robins and other birds in their autumnal mi- gration to the south. The stone is flattened on one side, a little convex on the other, and striated lengthwise. Bruised in water the berries yield an unctuous, greenish juice, of a slightly bitter taste, which is not easily mingled with the fluid. The tupelo holds a middle place between trees with soft and those with hard wood. When perfectly seasoned, the sap part is of a ight reddish tint, and the heart, of a deep brown. Of trees exceeding fifteen or eighteen inches in diameter more than half the trunk is generally hollow. The woody fibres which compose the body of trees in general are closely united, and usually ascend in a perpendicular direction. By a caiyice of nature, they sometimes pursue an undulating course, as in the red and sugar maples, or, as in the last mentioned species, form riplings so fine, that the curves are only one, two, or three lines in diameter; or lastly, lh«y ascend spirally, as in the twisted elm 186 (Orme tortillard) following the same bent foi four or five feet. In these species, however, the deviation is only accidental, and to be sure of obtaining this form it must be perpe- tuated by grafting or by transplanting young stocks from the shade of the parent tree. The genus which we are considering exhibits, on the contrary, a constant peculiarity of organi- zation ; the fibres are united in bundles, and interwoven like a braided cord. Hence the wood is extremely difficult to split unless cut into short billets ; a property which gives it a decided superiority for certain uses. In New York, New Jersey, and particularly at Phila- delphia, the wood of the tupelo is almost ex- clusively empl^^^ed for the hubs of wheels. In a very few places white oak is used for this purpose, probably because the tupelo is of a bad quality or cannot be readily obtained. Michaux thinks that from its limited size and strength, the tupelo can never be substituted for the twisted elm, where very large naves or hubs are required for wagons destined to sup- port immense burdens. In France, he says, the wheels of their heavy vehicles have naves twenty inches in diameter at the insertion of the spokes, with an axle-tree of three hundred and fifty pounds weight, and are laden for dis- tant transportation with nine thousand pounds. If, to its own organization, the tupelo joined the solidity of the elm, a more rapid vegetation and the faculty of growing on dry and elevated lands, and of expanding to three or four times its present size, it would be the most precious to the mechanical arts of all the forest-trees of Europe and North America. In New Jersey and Pennsylvania, many farmers prefer the tulepo for the side-boards and bottom of carts, as experience has proved its durability. Wooden bowls are made of it, and also the mortars in which Indian corn is beaten with an iron pestle in the process of preparing ho- miny. It burns slowly and throws out a good heat, which makes it a favourite wath those who keep wood fires, especially for the back log, a purpose to which it is almost exclusively devoted. {American Sylva.) See Tupelo. BLACK LEGS. A provincial name *iven in some places to a disease frequent among calves and sheep. In Staffordshire it is called the wood evil. It is a bloody gelatinous hu- mour, settling in their legs, and often in the neck between the skin and the flesh, making them carry their necks awry. BLACK MUZZLE. See Sheep, Diseases ov. BLACK OATS. A' species of oats much cultivated in some parts of England. The oats of this habit have the corolla very dark, are awned, and the seeds are small. They are rather an inferior class of oats, but are hardy and ripen early, and it is this property which suits them for cultivation in cold and elevated climates. {Prof. Low. Ele. Ag., p. 256.) See Oats. BLACK THORN, or SLOE (Prunus spi- j nosa). This rigid bushy shrub is well known, I growing commonly in hedges and thickets. It j is frequently used in making fences, especially i in exposed situations. But it is not reckoned ! so good for this purpose as the white thorn, ' because it is apt to run more into the ground. BLACK TWITCH. and is not so certain of growing; however, when cut, the bushes are much the best, and most lasting of any for dead hedges, or to mend gaps; cattle are not so apt to crop fences of this kind as those of the white thorn. The fruit is well known in the country, and from its acid, astringent, and very austere fla- vour, it is not eatable except when baked, or boiled with a large proportion of sugar, and then it is not good. The juice, when inspis- sated over a slow fire, is a substitute for the Egyptian acacia, or Indian catechu. In some form or other this juice is used in adulterating port wine. The leaves also are reckoned among the adulterated substitutes for tea in England. A water distilled from the blossoms of the sloe is said to be used medicinally in Switzerland and Germany. The juice of sloes checks purgings when no inflammation is present. {Smith's Eng, Flor. vol. ii. p. 357.) What is commonly called the black thorn in the United States is not the sloe or black haw, (a species of vihurnum), but the yellow Crafas- gits of botanists, one of the species of thorn com- monly used for hedges. (See Flor. Centrica.) BLACK TWITCH {Agro^^tis albn). A nox- ious weed of the sub-aquatic marsh bent genus. Ii chokes up drains and underwood, and flou- rishes even in extremely dry situations, prov- ing very injurious to many crops. It is als/o known under the names of black couch and black ivrnck. See Maiisii Bkxt Grass. BLACK WALNUT. See Walxut. BLACK WASH. A lotion composed of ca- lomel and lime water. BLACK WATER. See S.iekp, Diseases of. BLADE (Sax. biact», biet>; Fr. bled; Low Lat. blndus). The spire of grass before it grows to seed ; the green shoots of corn which rise from the seed. {Todd.) BLADE-BONE. In farriery, the popular name for the shoulder-blade {scapula), of an animal. BLAIN (Sax. blejene; Dutch, bleyne, from the Icelandic blina, a pustule). In farriery, in- flammation of the tongue, a disease in cattle, which frequently affects them in the spring of the year or beginning of summer. The disease (says Clater) is neither so frequent nor so fatal in the horse as it is in cattle ; but it does sometimes occur, and the nature of it is fre- quently misunderstood. The horse will refuse his food, hang his head, and a considerable quantity of ropy Quid will be discharged from the mouth. On examining the mouth, the tongue will be found considerably enlarged, and, running along the side of it, there will be a reddish or darkish purple bladder, and which sometimes protrudes between the teeth. The neighbouring salivary glands are en- larged, and the discharge of saliva is very great, while the soreness of the swelled and blistered part causes the horse obstinately to resist every motion of the jaws. The cure is very simple : the bladder must be deeply lanced from end to end : there will not be any great flow of blood. This will relieve or cure the horse in twenty-four hours. If he can be spared from his work, a dose of physic will r-^move the stomach aflection and any slight BLEND-WATER. degree of fever that may have existed. If the disease is neglected, the swelling will at length burst, and corroding ulcers will eat deeply into the tongue, and prove very difiicult to heal. {Clater' s Farriery, p. 64.) BLAST. A vegetable disease, the same as blight. In farriery, it is also a vulgar name for any circumscribed swelling or inflamma don in the body of an animal. See Mildew. BLASTING OF STONES. The operation of tearing asunder large stones or rocks which are in the way of the plough, or other instru- ment employed in breaking up ground, by means of gunpowder. Logs of wood, the roots of trees, and other obstructions, are removed by the same agent. In stone quarries, blast- ing is a necessary business. Perhaps one of the greatest and most successful blasts ever effected was at Craigleith quarry, Scotland, on the 18th of October, 1834, Avhen, by 500 lbs. of Sir Henry Bridge's double-strong blasting pow- der, a mass of upwards of 20,000 tons of solid rock was displaced. ( Quart. Journ. ofAgr. vol. vi. p. 463.) BLAZE. A white mark or star in the face of a horse. BLEEDING (Sax. bie^an); An operation frequently necessary in the disorders of differ- ent kinds of cattle, particularly horses. Such horses as stand much in the stable, and are full-fed, require bleeding more than those which are in constant exercise ; but especially when their eyes look heavy and dull, or red and inflamed ; and when they look yellow, and the horse is inflamed in his lips and the inside of his mouth ; or when he seems hotter than usual, and mangles his hay. These indica- tions not only show that bleeding is required, but likewise the lowering of the diet. The spring is the common season for bleeding horses ; but periodical bleeding, without its necessity being indicated, should never be practised. In summer, it is often necessary to prevent fevers, always choosing the cool of the morning for the operation, and keeping them cool the remaining part of the day. Some farriers bleed horses three or four times a year, or even oftener, by way of prevention, taking only a veiy small quantity at a time, as a pint or a pint and a half. There is, however, this inconvenience from frequent bleeding, that it grows into a habit, which, in some cases, can- not be easily broken off' without hazard ; and besides, horses become weak from frequent bleeding. BLEMISH. In farriery, any kind of imper- fection in a horse or other animal. In horses, they consist of broken knees, loss of hair in the cutting places, mallenders and sal- lenders, cracked heels, false quarters, splents, or excrescences which do not occasion lame- ness ; and wind-galls and bog-spavins, where they prevail to any great degree. In planting, the knots on the outside of trees, and shakes internally, are termed blemishes. BLENDINGS. A provincial word applied to mixed crops, such as peas and beans when grown together. BLEND-WATER. In farriery, the name of a distemper incident to neat or black cattle, in which the liver is affected. 187 BLIGHT. BLIGHT. BLIGHT. The general name for various injuries received by, and diseases incident to, corn, fruit-trees, plants, &c. The terms blight and blast, are indiscriminately applied to plants injured by fungi, insects, disease, frost, &c. Blight originating in cold, which, congealing the sap of the tender shoots and leaves of plants, causes these to perish from the bursting of their sap-vessels. Blight sometimes results from causes the very opposite of this, namely during the prevalence of very sullry, or very dry winds, the effects of which are popularly termed fire- blights, and are similar to those which some- times injure the vineyards of Italy, and the hop- grounds of England. What is called in England the white blight is supposed to originate from want of nourishment. It is most commonly met with in grain fields during very dry spells of weather, especially on thin gravelly soils, when the plants get into head or blossom pre- maturely, and the head or seed-pod ripens without tilling. The mildew, one of the greatest enemies that the agriculturist has to contend with, is nothing more than several species of parasitical fungi, or very minute plants of the mushroom species, which attack different kinds of plants, grain, &c. It varies in its nature and appearance, accord- ing to the plants attacked. (See Pl.2,/,m,n,&c.) Blight originating in fungi, attacks the leaves or stems both of herbaceous and woody plants, such as the common barberry and buckthorn, but more generally grasses, and particularly our most useful grains, wheat, barley, and oats. It always appears in the least ventilated parts of a field and has generally been pre- ceeded by cold, moist weather, which happen- ing in the warm month of July, suddenly chills and checks vegetation. It generally as- sumes the appearance of a rusty-looking powder that soils the finger when touched. In March, 1807, some blades of wheat attacked by this species of blight were examined by Keith ; the appearance was that of a number of rusty-looking spots or patches dispersed over the surface of the leaf, exactly like that of the seeds of dorsiferous ferns bursting their indusium. Upon more minute inspec- tion, these patches were found to consist of thousands of small globules collected into groups beneath the epidermis, which they raised up in a sort of blister, and at last burst. Some of the globules seemed as if embedded even in the longitudinal vessels of the blade. They were of a yellowish or rusty brown, and somewhat transparent. But these groups of globules have been ascertained by Sir J. Banks to be patches of a minute fungus, the seeds of which, as they float in the air, enter the pores of the epidermis of the leaf, particularly if the plant is sickly ; or they exist in the manure or .soil, and enter by the pores of the root. {Sir J. Banks on Blight.) This fungus has been figured by Sowcrby and by F. Bauer and Grew. If is known among farmers by the name of red rust, and chiefl}"^ affects the stalks and leaves. But there is another species of fungus known to the European farmer by the name of red gum, which attacks the ear only, and is extremely prejudicial. In the aggregate it consists of groups of minute globules interspersed with 188 transparent fibres. The globules are filled with a fine powder, which explodes when they are put into water. It is very generally accom- panied with a maggot of a yellow colour, which preys also upon the grain, and increases the amount of injury. Grisenthwaite conjectures that in many cases in which the blight and mildew attack corn crops, it may be for want of the peculiar food requisite for perfecting the grain ; it being known that the fruit or seeds of many plants contain primitive principles not found in the rest of the plant. Thus the grain of wheat contains gluten and phosphate of lime, and where these are wanting in the soil, that is, in the rwanured earths in which the plant grows, it will be unable to perfect its fruit, which of consequence becomes more liable to disease. (^New Theory of Agr.) Smut is a disease incidental to cultivated corn, by which the farina of the grain, together with its proper integuments and even part of the husk, is converted into a black soot-like powder. If the injured ear be struck with the finger, the powder will be dispersed like a cloud of black smoke; and if a portion of the powder be wetted by a drop of water and put under the microscope, it will be found to con- sist of millions of minute and transparent globules, which seem to be composed of a clear and glairy fluid encompassed by a thin and skinny membrane. This disease does nol affect the whole body of the crop, but tha smutted ears are sometimes very numerously dispersed throughout it. Some have attributed it to the soil in which the grain is soAvn, and others have attributed it to the seed itself, alleg- ing that smutted seed will produce a smutted crop; but in all this there seems to be a great deal of doubt. Wildenow regards it as originat- ing in a small fungus, which multiplies and extends till it occupies the whole ear (Frinclp. of Bot. p. 356) J but F. Bauer, of Kew, seems to have ascertained it to be merely a morbid swelling of the ear, and not at all connected with the growth of a fungus. (Smith's Introd p. 282.) It is said to be prevented by steeping the grain, before sowing, in a weak solution of arsenic. But, besides the disease called smut, there is also a disease analogous to it, or a different stage of the same disease, known to the farmer by the names of bags or smul balls, in which the nucleus of the seed only is converted into a black powder, whilst the ovary, as well as the husk, remains sound. The ear is not much altered in its external ap- pearance, and the diseased grain contained in it will even bear the operation of thrashing, and consequently mingle with the bulk; but it is always readily detected by the experienced buyer, and fatal to the character of the sample. It is said to be prevented as in the case of smut. This disorder, so very fatal to the cha^ racter of wheat from the injury it does to flour, is known in some of the United States by the very homely name of bu.st. Mildew is a thin and whitish coating with which the leaves of vegetables are sometimes covered, occasioning their decay and death, and injuring the health of the plant. It is fre- quently found on the leaves of hops, hazlenut, and the white and yellow dead-nettle. It is BLIND, MOON-. found also on wheat in the shape of a glutinous exudation, particularly when the days are hot and the nights without dew. J. Robertson (Hort. Trans, v. 178), considers it as a minute fungus, of which different species attack differ- rent plants. Sulphur he has found to be a specific cure. In cultivated crops mildew is said to be pre- vented by manuring with soot; though by some this is denied, and soot, by rendering the crop more luxuriant, is said to be an encourager of mildew, the richest part of a field being always most infected by it. As it is least common in airy situations, thinning and ventilation may be considered as preventives. See Mildew. ( Loudon's Encye. of Agricult.) Mr. Haggerston, who obtained a premium from the Massachuselt's Horticultural Society for the discovery of a mode of destroying the rose-slug, says — that a weak solution of Vfhale- oil soap, in the proportion of two pounds of soap to about fifteen gallons of water, or weaker, will check and entirely destroy the mildew on the gooseberry, peach, grape vine, &c. &c. For further particulars in regard to the appli- cation of this remedy see Aphis, Rust, and S.HIT. BLIND, MOON-. In farriery, a disease in the eyes of horses, which is commonly the forerunner of cataract, and generally ends in blindness. BLINDNESS. A deprivation or want of sight, originating from various causes; a com- plaint more frequent in horses than in neat- cattle or sheep. Blindness in horses may be discerned by the walk or step being uncertain and unequal, so that they dare not set down their feet boldly ; but when they are mounted by an expert horse- man, the fear of the spurs will frequently make them go resolutely and freely, so that their blindness can hardly be perceived. Another mark by which horses that have lost their sight may be known, is, that when they hear anybody enter the stable, they prick up their ears, and move them backwards and forwards in a parlicitlar manner. Blindness in sheep. A complaint that some- times occurs in these animals, from their being much exposed to either great dampness or long continued snows. BLIND NETTLE. A provincial term for the wild hemp plant. BLIND WORM. A term sometimes applied to the slow-worm {Attguis fragilis). See Slow WORH. BLINKERS. Expansions of the sides of the bridle of a horse, intended to prevent him from seeing objects on either side, but at the same time not to obstruct his vision in front. BLISTERING (Dutch, Z>/«ys/er). In farriery, the operation of stimulating the surface of some part of the body of an animal, by means of acrid applications, so as to raise small ve- sications upon it. It is frequently employed for the purpose of removing local affections of different kinds, such as hard indolent tu- mours. BLISTER FLY. The Cantharis, or Spa- nish flv. BLISTER LIQUID is composed of pow- BLOODWORT. dered alkanet two ounces, and a gallon of spi- rit of turpentine ; adding, on the fourth day, & pound of powdered Spanish flies ; and mace rating the whole for a month, when the clear fluid will form a strong liquid blister. If so powerful an external stimulant be not required, this liquid may be diluted with an equal part of spermaceti oil. {Clater's Farriery.) BLISTER OINTMENT. One ounce of powdered Spanish flies ; half an ounce of powdered euphorbium; four ounces of lard. One ounce of this well rubbed in is sufficient to blister a horse's leg. That commonly sold by farriers generally contains oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid), to make it raise the blister without the trouble of rubbing in the ointment; and, in consequence, a blemish is produced. BLOOD (Sax. blod; old French, 6/oe(/). The fluid which circulates in the bodies of all ani- mals. Blood, when drawn from the body, and allowed to rest, speedily separates into two portions, viz. the fluid, or serum, and the solid clot, crassamentum, or cruor. In quadrupeds, in general, the temperature of the blood is higher than in man. In the sheep, it ranges from 102° to 103° ; in man it is 98° in a state of health. The equal distribution of the blood in the animal system is as essential to the health of quadrupeds as of man. When it is irregularly circulated, and more sent to any organ than it should share, that part becomes oppressed, diseased action is set up in it ; and if the organ be a vital one, life is endangered or destroyed through the violence of inflammation. Blood is an excellent manure for fruit trees; and, mixed with earth, forms a very rich com- post. {Ann. of Phil vol. ii. p. 202.) BLOOD-ROOT. See Bloodwort. BLOOD-SHOT. In farriery, a popular term for that red appearance which the eye exhibits when inflamed. The best treatment is to bathe the eye with a lotion composed of one drachm of white vitriol (sulphate of zinc) dissolved in half a pint of water. BLOOD-SPAVIN or BOG-SPAVIN. In farriery, a swelling of the vein that runs along the inside of the hock of the horse, forming a little soft tumour in the hollow part, often at- tended with weakness or lameness of the hock. Clater {Farriery, p. 272) says, a blister is the proper application. BLOODWORT {Sanguinaria canadensis). A hardy American perennial, flowering in April. It loves a shady situation and bog soil; and may be propagated by parting the roots in spring or autumn. The root of bloodwort IhV-ows out a bright red juice, when pressed, which the Indians paint themselves with. It operates as an emetic and narcotic. BLOODWORT {Rumex sanguineus). This is a beautiful dock, growing wild in many parts of England, but introduced lately into gardens, for 'its fine deep-red appearance. It grows from two to three feet high, and the stalks are firm, stiff, reddish, and branched. The leaves are long and narrow, heart-shaped at the base, and taper gradually towards their point. Sometimes the leaves are a deep green, only stained, or veined with red; sometimea they are entirely a deep blood colour, which BLOOM. BLUE-BIRD. gives them a beautiful appearance. The flowers are in terminal clusters, small and numerous. They blow in June and July, and the seed ripens in August. The dried root, either in powder or in decoction, is astringent; and may be used in spitting of blood, and vio- lent purgings. BLOOM or BLOSSOM. A general n?me for the flowers of plants, but more especially of fruit-trees. The ofiice of the blossom is partly to afibrd protection, and partly to draw or supply nourishment to the fertilizing organs of the plant, for the perfecting of the embryo, fruit, or seed. Bloom is a term applied to the delicate powder which coats the outer surface of such smooth-skinned fruits as the grape and plum. In gathering such fruits, care should always be observed to prevent this bloom from being removed by handling or otherwise, as it injures the appearance. BLOSSOM. A colour in horses, formed by the intermixture of white hairs with sorrel and bay ones. BLOW-BALL. A local name for the flower of the dandelion. BLOW-FLY. The large flesh-fly (Musca cam aria). BLOW-MILK. The milk from which the cream has been blown off". BLOWN. In farriery, a diseased state of the stomach and bowels of cattle, caused by the sudden extrication of air in large quantities from some of the grosser kinds of green food. See HovE?T. BLOWS. A provincial term used to signify the blossoms of beans, &c. BLUBBER. See Fish. BLUE-BELLS (Scilla nutans). A common name given to a bulbous-rooted plant of the hyacinth kind, frequently met with in woods and other places. Its bulb is globular, white, and coated; its leaves linear, channelled, shining, and drooping in their upper half; the flowers form a cluster on an upright stalk, drooping in the upper half; they are blue, pendulous, nearly an inch long, and scented. The bulb is acrid, but loses its acrimony in drying, in which state it answers as a substi- tute for gum-arabic in the art of dyeing, by being simply dried and powdered. BLUE-BIRD. Mr. Nuttall describes three species of the blue-bird (Sialia), found in America. That which is most familiarly known in the United States (the Si/lvia siulis of Wilson), is an insectivorous bird, inhabiting almost every section of the continent east of the Rocky Mountains, from the forty-eighth de- gree of latitude to the tropics. Although they generally spend their winters in the Southern States, they sometimes remain in well-protected warm situations in the southern parts of Penn- sylvania. They breed and pass the summer from Labrador to Natchez. "In the Middle and Northern States," says Mr. Nuttall, " the return of the blue-bird to his old haunts round the barn and the orchard is hailed as the first agreeable presage of returning spring, and he i^ no less a messenger of grateful tidings to the farmer, than an agreeable, familiar, and useful companion to all. Though sometimes 190 he makes a still earlier flitting visit, from the 3d to the middle of March, he comes hither as a permanent resident, and is now accompanied by his mate, who immediately visits the box in the garden, or the hollow in the decayed orchard-tree, which has served as the cradle of preceding generations of his kindred. Af- fection and jealousy, as in the contending and related thrushes, have considerable influence over the blue-bird. He seeks perpetually the company of his mate, caresses and soothes her with his amorous song, to which she faintly replies ; and, like the faithful rook, seeks oc- casion to show his gallantry by feeding her with some favourite insect. If a rival makes his appearance, the attack is instantaneous, the intruder is driven with angry chattering from the precincts he has chosen, and he now returns to warble out his notes of triumph by the side of his cherished consort. The busi- ness of preparing and cleaning out the old nest or box now commences ; and even in October, before they bid farewell to their favourite mansion, on fine days, influenced by the anti- cipation of the season, they are often observed to go in and out of the box as if examining and planning out their future domicile. Little pains, however, are requisite for the protection of the hardy young ; and a substantial lining of hay, and now and then a few feathers, is all that is prepared for the brood beyond the natural shelter of the chosen situation. As the martin and house-wren seek out the favour and convenience of the box, contests are not unfrequent wdth the parties for exclusive pos- session ; and the latter, in various clandestine ways, exhibits his envy and hostility to the favoured blue-bird. The eggs are five or six, of a very pale blue, and without spots. As they are very prolific, and constantly paired, they often raise two and sometimes probably three broods in the season ; the male taking the youngest under his affectionate charge, while the female is engaged in the act of incu- bation. "Their principal food consists of insects, particularly beetles, and other shelly kinds ; they are also fond of spiders and grasshoppers, for which they often, in company with their young, in autumn, descend to the earth, in open pasture-fields or waste grounds. Like oui thrushes, they, early in spring, also collect the common wire-worm, or lulus, for food, as well as other kinds of insects, which they commonly watch for, while perched on the fences or low boughs of trees, and dart after them to the ground as soon as perceived. They are not, however, flycatchers, like the Sylvicolas and MuscicapaSjhntare rather industrious searchers for subsistence, like the thrushes, whose habits they wholly resemble in their mode of feeding. In the autumn, they regale themselves on va- rious kinds of berries, as those of the sour- gum, wild-cherry, and others ; and later in the season, as winter approaches, they frequent the red cedars and several species of sumach for their berries, eat persimmons m the Middle States, and many other kinds of fruits, and even seeds, the latter of which never enter into the diet of the proper flycatchers. They have also, occasionally, in. a state of confinement, BLUE-BOTTLE. been reared and fed on soaked bread and ve- getable diet, on which they thrive as well as the robin." (Nuttairs Ornithology.) The Western Blue-bird (S/a7ia ocddentalis of Townsend), is found along the Pacific coast west of the Kocky Mountains. It possesses many of the habits of the common kind, his song being, however, described as more varied, sweet, and tender than that of the common blue-bird of the Atlantic states. The Arctic Blue-bird (the Sialia artlca of Audubon), is a beautiful species found in the highest latitudes of the North Western portions of the American continent. See NuilulPs Orni- thology of American Lund Birds, Audubon, Wilson, &c. BLUE-BOTTLE (Centaurea). This is a large herbaceous genus, which contains seve- ral species known as weeds ; that, however, which is peculiar to corn-fields is the corn blue-bottle (Centaurea a/anus). It grows amongst corn, and its presence indicates care- less farming. It is an annual, ripening its seeds in autumn. It is also known by the names of knapweed, matfellon, centaury, corn- flower, and hurl-sickle. The expressed juice of its blue flower, when mixed with cold alum- water, may be used as a water colour for painting, being a permanent colour. See Centaurt. This pretty wild flower has been introduced into our gardens for its elegance. The blue- bottle grows a foot high ; the stalk is firm and white, and the leaves are narrow, and of a whitish-green. The root is hard and fibrous. A decoction of the flowers with galls and cop- peras aflbrds a good writing ink. This plant is sometimes known among the common peo- ple by the name of " wound herb." Any reli- ance on the styptic properties of the leaves might prove dangerous by losing time, and a consequent waste of blood, before proper as- sistance can be procured in extensive wounds. Small wounds can unite without its aid. An infusion of the flowers is slightly diuretic. BLUE-GRASS, wire-grass (Poa compressa, compressed or flattened poa. Plate 7, A). A very common perennial grass in the United States, found in fields, pastures, &c. It affords a good nutritious pasture for cattle, but is not so much esteemed as the green meadow-grass, {Poa prat ends). Its great tenacity of life makes it sometimes very troublesome in the tillage of certain crops. {Flur. Caestrica.) The famous Kentucky blue-grass, Dr. Dar- lington says, is the Poa pralensis, smooth- stalked meadow-grass ; green grass ; (Plate 5, h) decidedly the most valuable of all the American pasture grasses. It comes in spon- taneously, in all rich, calcareous soils. The best time for sowing, says a writer in the Western Farmer and Gardener, is as soon as you can get ready after October; or any time before the middle of March. Old fields, on which the sun can exert full power, produce blue grass in the greatest abundance, and of the best quality. Animals feeding thereon without grain, keep better and become fatter than on any other treatment; but even wood-lands will produce good grass. If intended for old or permanent pasture, the BLUE GRASS. fields should be broken up in February or March, and sown in oals. Then sow ten pound of blue-grass seed, half a gallon of red clover- seed, and if a little timothy or orchard-grass be sprinkled on, so much the better. The timothy or orchard-grass will give a quick pasture, and afford protection to the blue-grass until it gets a strong foot-hold, after which no other grass can contend with it. The rains will cover the seed sufliciently to insure vege- tation. The following account of the blue grass is from the Franklin Farmer. " This grass, which constitutes the glory of Kentucky pastures, is esteemed superior to all others for grazing. It flourishes only on cal- careous soils. Opinions and practice vary here, as to the best time of sowing it — some preferring September, for the same reasons, chiefly, which relate to timothy or other grasses, others preferring February or March, to obviate the danger of the tender roots being winter-killed. It is sown either on wood-land or open ground — in the latter case most gene- rally after a succession of exhausting crops in old fields. If sown on woodland, the leaves, brush, and trash must be raked off or burnt. It is particularly important to burn the leaves, else the seed may be blown away with them by the wind, or if not blown away, the leaves may prevent the seed reaching the earth and thus defeat their germination. Many of those who sow in winter, prefer castmg the seed on the snow, as it enables them to effect the ope- ration with more neatness and uniformity. In woodlands, the grass must not be grazed the first year, or at all events till after the seeds have matured. In open land, the practice has been adopted by some, of mixing timothy and clover with blue grass, in which case, half a bushel of the latter seed to the acre is suffi cient. The advantage resulting from this is, that it secures at once, a well-covered pasture that will bear considerable grazing the first year. The blue grass, in a few years, expels the other grasses, and takes entire possession of the field. On open ground, it is frequently sown in March upon wheat, rye, or oats. If the season is favourable, it may be sown in April ; but should the weather prove dry, a great por- tion of the seed will be lost. It is the practice, we believe, of most graziers, to put upon a given pasture as much stock as it will main- tain, without shifting them during the season, as, besides saving labour, it renders the cattle more quiet and contented. Others, however, fence off their pastures into separate divisions, to undergo a regular succession of periodical grazings. This plan secures a constant sup- ply of fresh grass, very grateful to the animals, and is believed to be more economical, as much less is trampled and rejected by the cattle. The number of animals to the acre must depend upon their size and the quality and quantity of grass. The grass on open ground is much more abundant, sweet and nutritious, than on woodland, and consequently will maintain much more stock, perhaps nearly twice as much ; while open woodland will produce much more and better grass than that which is deeply shaded. The best graziers 191 BLUE MILK. BONES. extirpate, as fast as possible, every tree not valuable lor timber or wanted for fuel, and some even prune the branches of those which are allowed to remain." (Farmer's He^uler.) BLUE MILK. Milk that has been skim- med, or had the cream taken off. In large dairies it is chiefly used for feeding hogs. BLUE STONE. The common name for blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. BOAR (Sax. bap ; Dutch, beer). The male of the swine-tribe of animals. See Hog and Swine. In horsemanship, a horse is said to boar when he shoots out his nose level with his ears, and tosses his nose in the wind. BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. A society established in London in 1794, under the pa- tronage of his Majesty, Geo. III., "For the Encouragement of Agriculture, and Internal Improvement," consisting of a president, and thirty ordinary members, with proper officers for conducting the business of the institution. The plan and design of this highly useful establishment, though previously suggested by several writers on rural improvements, was chiefly brought forward, and carried into exe- cution by the unwearied eflTorts and persever- ing industry of Sir John Sinclair, to whom the nation is certainly under much obligation. It was discontinued about the year 1812, in con- sequence of the withdrawal by government of the annual parliamentary grant of 3000/. for its support, chiefly owing to the society's inter- ference Avith political themes, foreign to the improvement of agriculture. A full account of the nature, origin, and plan, with the charter of incorporation of this excellent institution, may be seen in the first volume of the " Com- munications" published by the Board, which extended to seven vols. ; and these contain some excellent papers on various important matters connected with husbandry and agri- culture in general. BOG, and BOG GRASSES. See Peat Soils. BOG-BEAN. See Buck-eean. BOG-RUSH, BLACK (Sc/ioenus nt'grkans). Is found on turfy bogs. Root scarcely creep- ing, of very long, strong fibres, croAvned with black, shining, erect, folded sheaths, a few of which bear very narrow, acute, upright leaves, and embrace the bottom of the otherwise naked stem, which is froni eight to twelve inches high. Head black. Anth. long, yellow. Stigm. three, dark purple. Seed white and polished. {Smith's Engl. Flor. vol. i. p. 50.) Nuttall, in his Gaiera of North American Plants, mentions three species of the bog-rush or saw-grass. This remarkable grass, as he calls it, was discovered in the West Indies by Schwartz, and extends a considerable distance northward beyond Wilmington, North Caro- lina, often almost exclusively occupying con- siderable ponds. The leaves are almost as sharply serrated as those of a Bromelia, and hence it is very properly called saw-gra^s. The genuine species of this genus are principally confined to Europe and Barbary. BOG-SPAVIN. See Blood-Spavin. BOIL (Sax. bile). In farriery, an inflam- matory suppurating tumour affecting cattle or 192 sheep. In order to cure this sort of tumour, it will be necessary to bring it to a head by the application of plasters composed of wheat- flour and tar; and when the boil feels soft under the finger, to open it with a lancet, and let out the matter or pus. BOLE. A term signifying the body or trunk of a tree, and sometimes the stalk or stem of corn. This word is written and pronounced in the north of England boll, and " boilings " is the name for pollards, trees whose tops and branches are lopped off. BOLE, or BOLL (Lat. bnlla). In Scotland, a common measure of grain, containing four bushels. In the old measure of Scotland, for oats and barley, 4 lippies = 1 peck. 4 pecks = 1 firlot. 4 firlots = 1 boll. 16 bolls = 1 clialder. The boll of oatmeal weighs 140 lbs. For wheat, peas, and rye, three oat firlots make one boll. {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 500.) BOLE OF SALT. A measure that contains two bushels. BOLETUS. A genus of mushroom, of which several species have been subjected to che- mical analysis, by the French chemists Bra- connot and La Grange. They yield bolitic acid. BOLSTERS. In horsemanship, those parts of a great saddle which are raised on the bows both before and behind, to rest the rider's thighs, and keep him in a posture to withstand the irregular motions of the horse. BOLT and BOLTING. Terms provincially applied to the trussing of straw. BOLTER. A sort of framed sieve, having its bottom made of linen stuff, hair, or wire, according to circumstances. The bakers em- ploy bolters that may be worked by the hand, but millers have larger ones that move by the machinery of the mill. It is sometimes called boulter. BOLTING, or BOULTING. The operation of separating flour or meal of any kind from the husks or bran, by means of a bolter. BOLTING CLOTH. Linen or hair-cloth made for the purpose of sifting meal or flour through. They are made of different degrees of fineness, and numbered accordingly; hence we have cloths of No. 2, No. 3, &c. BOLTING FOOD. This is a very common vice in greedy horses, especially when they feed out of the same manger. The only re- medy is not to let them fast too long, and to mix chaff in their corn. The teeth of such horses ought to be examined, to see whether the bolting of the corn arises from any uneven- ness of the grinders. BOLTING MILL. A mill or machine hav- ing much lateral or circular motion, by which means the business of sifting meal or flour can be performed with great facility and ex- pedition. The framed sieve that moves within it is termed a bolter. BOLUS. See Ball. BONASUS. A kind of buffalo, or wild bull. BONES (Sax. ban; Su. Goth. 6een,- Germ. hein). The more solid parts of the body of ani- mals. When crushed, a valuable manure. BONES. BONES. The introduction of bones as a fertilizer is perhaps one of the most important and suc- cessful agricultural efforts of modern days, and has been certainly one great means of sufficiently increasing the national production of corn to keep pace with an annually enlarg- ing population. It required, however, like all other agricultural improvements, much perse- verance and unshaken energy in the promoters of this manure, to induce its general adoption; many a long and stubborn argument had to be answered; many hundred loads of the bone refuse of Sheffield and Birmingham had to be given away, before the cautious and suspi- cious Yorkshire farmers could be generally persuaded of the fallacy of the assertion, that " there is no good in bones." To this tardy conviction the erroneous mode of employing them originally adopted mainly contributed, for they were at first used without even roughly breaking them, and, in consequence, they de- composed so very slowly in the soil that the farmer's patience was naturally exhausted : he sought in vain for immediate and striking re- sults.* The introduction of machinery, however, by enabling the cultivator to procure them in a crushed state, did away with this objection, for when crushed, they decompose with much greater rapidity; and this has long since in- duced a consumption of this manure more than adequate to the national produce of bones. It has been necessary, in consequence, to search in other countries for a supply; and for the last fifteen years the quantity of bones imported from abroad has been steadily in- creasing. Thus the declared value of all the bones imported into England — £ 8. d. In the year 1821 was - - 15,898 12 11 _' 1624 — - - 43,940 17 11 _ 1827 — - - 77,956 6 8 — 1830 — - - 58,223 16 8 — 1833 — - - 97,900 6 4 _ 1835 _ . . 127,131 14 10 _ is:i6 — - - 171,806 _ IS37 — - - 254,600 Into the port of Hull alone, in 1815, were im- ported about 8000 tons ; this had increased to 17,500 tons in 1833, and to 25,700 tons in 1835. These came principally from the Ne- therlands, Denmark, and the Baltic, but they have been imported from much more distant places, such as Buenos Ayres and the Medi- terranean ; and I am confident that if the seal fishermen of North America and other distant stations were aware of the fact that the bones of fish are nearly, if not quite, as valuable for the farmer as those of other animals, they would not suffer any falling off in the supply. By the 3 & 4 W. 4, c. 56, a duty of one pound per cent, on the declared value is payable on all bones imported for farming or other pur- poses. The following table, extracted from one by Richard Tottie, Esq., of Hull, will show to the ♦ It is said, in the Doncaster Agricultural Society's Report upon the use of bones, "Colonel St. Leger, then residing at Warnisworth, was the first person who is known to have used them, and his introduction of ihem was in 1775; the earlv progress does not seem to have been rapid, from the 'practice of laying them on almost inbroken, and in very large quantities." 25 farmer from whence the great supply cf fo- reign bones is derived. This table contains the imports during 1827, in which year the following number of vessels entered the port of Hull loaded with bones : — Vessels. Tons of Boan From Russia - - - 6 carrying 822 — Prussia - 9 — 1174 — Sweden and Norway - 6 — 362 — Denn)ark - 57 — 3778 — Hanseatic towns - - 61 3760 — Netherlands - 76 — 6110 — Mecklenberg"i — Hanover > - 33 — — 1702 — Oldenberg } 248 17,718 The import of bones into Hull has since been regularly increasing : it was, according to a letter with which Mr. Tottie favoured me, equal to 23,900 tons in 1834, and to 25,700 in 1835. It would certainly be well to look to other quarters besides the Continent for a future supply, since in some of the German states a duty on their export has been recently im- posed. So considerable, indeed, has the de- mand become,, that by many unprincipled deal- ers several kinds of adulterations are used. These, according to Mr. Halkett {Quar. Juurn. of Agric. vol. ii. p. 181), are the lime that has been used in tan-works to take off the wool and hair, old plaster lime, soap boilers' waste, saw-dust, rotten wood, oyster-shells, &c. The best remedy for these frauds is for the farmer to deal with only respectable crushers, and to pay a fair price for the bones. There is, perhaps, no manure of whose powers the chemical explanation is more easy ; for of the earthy and purely animal matters of which bones are composed, there is not a sin- gle particle which is not a direct constituent or food of vegetables ; thus, if carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, are found in the abounding oil and cartilage of bones, they are equally common, nay, ever present, in all vegetable matters : and if carbonate and phosphate of lime are almost equally common in plants, they are still more universally present in all bones. The bones of animals do not vary much m composition ; they all contain phosphate and carbonate of lime, with a portion cf cartilage or animal matter, with other minor ingredients. The bone of the ox has been analyzed by M. Berzelius : he found that, by calcining these bones, every 100 lbs. lost 38 lbs. in weight. 100 parts of these bones, before calcination, consisted of — Cartilage Phosphate of lime - - - Fluale of lime (Derbyshire spar) Carbonate of lime (chalk) Phosphate of magnesia - Soda, with a little common salt Paris. 33-3 55-35 3. 3-85 205 100- Bones, however, vary slightly in composi- tion, according to the age and condition ol the animal, for MM. Fourcroy ana Vauquelm found some ox bones which they analy»>1, ti» be composed of— BONES. BONES. Furto. Gelatine and oil ----,- 51 Piioaphale of lime ----- 377 Carbonate of lime ----- 10 Piiosphale of magnesia - - - - 1-3 100- The enamel of teeth is the only portion of bones hitherto analyzed, which is entirely des- titute of cartilage. It is true that fossil bones contain none ; but these have probably, in a former state of the earth, been acted upon by fire; for Mr. Hatchett found in some bones from Hythe in Kent, taken out of a Saxon tomb, the same proportion of cartilage as in a recent bone. Teeth have been analyzed by Mr. Pepys : he found them to be composed of Adults'. Children's. Phosphate of lime - - - 64 62 Carbonate of lime - - - 6 6 Cartilage ----- 20 20 Loss 10 12 100 100 M. Merat Guillot has furnished us with a statement of the earthy constituents of 100 parts of the bones of different animals ; from which the farmer will perceive that the com- position of the bones of all animals is very similar. Booes Phosphate of Lime. Carbonate of Lime. Animal Matter. Calf 54 46 Horse 67-5 1-25 31-25 Sheet) 70 25 Elk 90 9 Hog 52 47 Hare 85 14 Pullet - 72 1-5 26-5 Pike 64 35 Carp 45 5 50 Teeth of the Horse - 85-5 205 _ Ivory 64 1 •35 • Lobster shells, egg shells. Sec, are all com- posed of the same ingredients as bone. The poor of Dublin are often employed for the pur- pose of pounding oyster shells for the use of the cultivators of the soil ; and a similar plan might, I should imagine, be very advanta- geously adopted in some of the populous dis- tricts of this country : for, although such shells do not contain the same proportion of phos- phate of lime as bone, yet they contain a suffi- cient quantity to render them highly valuable as fertilizing substances. 100 parts of lobster shells yield — Parts. Carbonate of lime (chalk) - - - - 60 Phosphate of lime ----- 14 Cartilage -------26 100 1 00 parts of cray-fish shells contain — Parts. Carbonate of lime ----- 60 Phosphate of lime ----- 12 Cartilage 28 100 CO parts of hens' egg-shells contain — Parts. Carbonate of lime ----- 896 Phosphate of lime ----- 5 7 Animal matter ------ 47 100- 194 There is yet another source from whence the phosphate of lime might be obtained in large quantities for the use of the farmer, viz., the fossil bones or native phosphate of lime, which is found in various districts of this country, in very considerable quantities, and would only require crushing or powdering to render it nearly as useful to the farmer as the recent bones. That the cartilage or oily matter of the bone does not constitute the chief fertilizing quality is shown by the fact, that the farmers who use bone dust will as readily employ that which has first been steamed, and all it.s fatty portion extracted by the preparers of cart grease, as they will the unused fresh bones. It is acknowledged, says the Doncaster Agr. Soc. in their Report, to be a prevalent opinion amongst intelligent farmers, that manufactured bones are equal, in their effects, to the raw bones. Mr. Short, in the year 1812, "boned twenty-four acres, at the rate of fifty bushels an acre. On one part of the field he put Lon- don bones, which had the oil stewed out of them ; and another part was tilled with bones collected from Nottingham, which were full of marrow, and a third part with horses bones, having much flesh upon them. He could not see any difference in the turnips produced from these : they all produced a good crop. But the next crop was not so good where the fleshy bones had been laid." And Mr. Horn- caslle adds, "A strong fermentation takes place in the boiled bones ; when thrown in a heap they become extremely offensive, and when they obtain this bad smell, I consider they are in a state to break up for manure." — And, says Mr. Halkett, of New Scone, in Perthshire, " After numerous trials between what Ave call green bones with all the marrow and fat in them, and dry ones free from it, I have always found that the latter raised by far the best crops. Therefore, I have arrived at the con- clusion that the less animal fat in them the better, and that the boiling of them before crushing, instead of impairing them is a bene- fit." (Quar. Journ. of Agric. vol. ii. p. 180.) The mineral substance called the Apatite, found in the Cornish tin mines, is nothing but phosphate of lime; 100 pans being composed of— Phosphoric acid Lime Parts. 45 55 100 The phosphate of lime is also found in ma- ny parts of the north of England, in Hungary, and, in immense beds, in Spanish Estrema/- dura, where it is said to be so common in many places, that the peasants make their walls and fences of it. 100 parts of this substance, called by mineralogists the phosphorite, cor^ tain — Partf Phosphoric acid and lime - - - - 93 Carbonate acid ------ 1 Muriatic acid ------ 0'5 Fluoric acid ------ 2 ft Silica 2 Oxide of iron - • - - - - 1 100* BONES. The horns of the deer are similar in compo- Bition to bones ; but those of black cattle are totally different ; they approach nearer in com- position to animal muscle, as may be seen by the following analysis of Dr. John; 100 parts of the horns of black cattle yielding this chemist — Parts. Albumen -------90 Ditto with Gelatine ----- 8 Fat 1 Various salts, &c., &.c. - - - - 1 100 100 parts, however, of a fossil horn, ana- lyzed by M. Braconnot, yielded — Part*. Phosphate of lime ----- 69 2 Water 11 Gelatine ------- 4'6 Carbonate of lime ----- 45 Bitumen ------- 4*4 Silica -------4 Phosphate of magnesia - - - - I Alumina ------- 0*7 Oxide of iron ------ 0*5 100- The excrements of those birds and animals which feed upon animal matters approach very nearly to bone in chemical composition ; and I have little doubt but that the dung of sea birds might be profitably collected from some of the rocky islands on our coasts. This is actually done among the South Sea Islands by the Peruvian farmers, and to such an extent, that, according to M. Humboldt, fifty vessels, each carrying from fifteen hundred to two thousand cubic feet, are annually loaded with this manure at the island of Chinche alone. This manure is known in South America under the name of Guano, Jind is too powerful to be used in large quantities. It abounds in phos- phate of lime. (A quantity has recently been imported into England : it contains 36 per cent, of phosphate of lime.) Some of the dung of sea-fowl collected on a rock on the coast of Merionethshire, was tried at the request of Sir Humphry Davy, at Nannau, by Sir Robert Vaughan, and produced a very powerful, though transient effect, on some grass land. The very soil of some of the rocks, which have been for so many ages tenanted by these water-fowls, must be completely impregnated with the earthy matters of bones. See Guano. All the constituent parts of bones are found in vegetable substances. The cartilage of bones is composed, according to the examina- tions of Mr. Hatchett, of a substance nearly identical in all its properties with solid albu- men. Now, 100 parts of albumen are com- posed of — Carbon 52888 Oxyeen 23872 Hydrogen ------ 754 Azote ------- 15-705 100 " The primary sources from which the bones of animals are derived, are the hay, straw, or other substances which they take as food. Now if we admit that bones contain 55 per cent of the phosphates of lime and magnesia BONES. (Berzelius), and that hay contuins as much of them as wheat-straw, it will follow that 8 lbs. of bones contain as much phosphate of lime as 1000 lbs. of hay or wheat-straw, and 2 lbs. of it as much as 1000 lbs. of the grain of wheat or oats. These numbers express pretty exactly the quantity of phosphates which a soil yields annually on the growth of hay and corn. Now the manure of an acre of land with 40 lbs. of bone dust is sufficient to supply three crops of wheat, clover, potatoes, turnips, &c., with phosphates. But the form in which they are restored to a soil does not appear to be a mat- ter of indifference. For the more finely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more in- timately they are mixed with the soil, the more easily are they assimilated." {Liebig's Organ. Chem.) It is perfectly needless to specify any vege- table substances into which the three first of these substances enter, for the vegetable worM is almost entirely composed of them, and < c- casionally a portion of azote is also found in vegetable substances, but the three first are invariably present. The flour of wheat, the poison oi" the deadly night-shade, the oxalic acid of the wild sorrel, the narcotic milk of the lettuce, the stinking odour of the garlic, and the perfume of the violet, are, by the con- trivance of their divine architect, only s6/«eof the results of the mixture of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. But the chief constituent present in all bones we have already seen is the phosphate of lime ; and how absolutely necessary this substance is for the healthy vegetation of plants, will be apparent from the following ta- ble, which contains the results of the exami- nation by MM. Saussure, Vauquelin, and a few other distinguished chemists, of the ashes or solid contents of a number of vegetable sub- stances : — Parts. 100 parts of the ashes of the grain of the oat yielded of phosphate of lime - - - 393 straw of wheat yielded of phosphates of lime and magnesia - - - 62 — seeds of wheat ----- 445 — bran 465 — seeds of vetches - . - - 27-92 — golden rod {Solidago virgaurea) - 11' — plants of turnsole (Helianthus annus), bearing ripe seeds - - - - 22-5 — chaff of barley 7-75 — seeds of barley ----- 325 — seeds of oats ----- 24- — leaves of oak - - - - - 24' — wood of oak ----- 4-5 — bark of oak f^ — leaves of poplar - - - - 13- — wood of poplar - - - - lO-TS — leaves of hazel ----- 23* — wood of hazel ----- 35* — bark of hazel 5-5 — wood of n»uiberry - - - - 2-24 — bark of mulberry - - - - 8-5 — wood of hornbeam - - - - 'S* — bark of hornbeam - - - - 4-5 — seeds of peas ----- 17-5 — bulbs of garlic - - ---»•« Phosphate of lime has also been found in the marsh bean ( Ficia faba), and in the pea- pod or husk, by Einhof ; in rice, by Braconnot ; in the Scotish fir, by Dr. John ; m the quiu quina of St Domingo, by Fourcroy; m thp fuci, by Gaultier de Claubry, and m njany others; in short, as Dr. Thomson remarks 195 BONES. {System of Chem. vol. iv. p. 319), "phosphate of 'lime is a constant ingredient in plants." The cultivator of the soil will not be incre- dulous as to the power of vegetables to dissolve and feed upon the hard substance of the crushed bones of animals, when he is remind- ed that the ashes of the straw of wheat are composed of 61^ per cent, of silica (flint), a still harder substance than the hardest bone. And this is not a solitary instance ; for the same earth abounds in a still greater propor- tion in the straw of other grain. Vauquelin found 60| per cent, of it in the ashes of the seeds of the oat; and the Dutch rush contains it in such abundance that it is employed by the turner to polish wood and even brass. To the mode and effect of applying bones as a manure, either whole, broken, or in a state of powder, the Doncaster Agricultural Association paid considerable attention, and they have made a very valuable report of the result of their inquiries, in which they say: — "The returns received by the Association sa- tisfactorily establish the great value of bones as a manure. Our correspondents, with only two exceptions, all concur in stating them to be a highly valuable manure, and on light dry soils superior to farm-yard dung and all other manures. In copying the language of one of them, ill reference to dry sandy soils, we ex- press the opinions repeated in a far greater number — 'I consider bone tillage one of the most useful manures which has ever been dis- covered for the farmer's benefit. The light- ness of carriage, its suitableness for the drill, and its general fertilizing properties, render it peculiarly valuable in those parts where dis- tance from towns renders it impossible to pro- cure manures of a heavier and more bulky description.' For, as stated by another far- mer, the carting of six, eight, or ten loads of manure per acre is no trifling expense. The use of bones diminishes labour at a season of the year when time is of the first importance ; for one wagon load, or 120 bushels of small drill bone-dust is equal to forty or fifty loads of fold manure. Upon very thin sand land its value is not to be estimated; it not only is found to benefit the particular crop to which it is applied, but extends through the whole course of crops." The report adds, that bones have been found highly beneficial on the lime- stone soils near Doncaster, on peaty soils, and on light loams ; but that on the heavy soils and on clay they produce no benefit. The late Mr. George Sinclair, of New Cross, has given (Trans. High. Sac. vol. i. p. 78), the analysis of two soils on which bone manure produced very opposite results. 400 parts of the soil on which the bone manure had very beneficial t ffects consisted of — Parts. Silicious sand ------ 167 Calcareous sand ----- 43 Water of absorption ----- 99 Animal and veaeiable matter - - - 24 Carbonate of lime ----- 25 Silica (Hint) 23 Alumina (clay) ------ 9 Oxide of iron ----- 3 Soluble vegetable and animal matter - 5 Moisture and loss ----- 2 BONES^ The soil on "n nich the bone manure had n« such beneficial effect, contained, in 400 parts, Parts. Calcareous sand and gravel (nearly pure carbonate of lime) ----- 217 Animal and vegetable matters - - - 17 Carbonate of lime ----- 39 Silica --------85 Alumina 20 Oxide of iron ------ 5 Soluble matter w^ith gypsum - - - 4 Moisture or loss ----- 13 400 The mode of applying them, adds the Don- caster Report, is either by sowing broadcast or by the drill ; either by themselves, or, what is much better, previously mixed with earth and fermented. Bones which have been thus fer- mented are decidedly superior to those which have not been so. Mr. Turner, of Tring, adopted the practice of mixing with his bone- dust an equal quantity of the dung of the sheep, collected for the express purpose, at an expense of 2^d. per bushel for labour. He prepared the mixture in winter, by laying the sheep-dung in heaps with the crushed bones, and allowing them to ferment together for some months. By this plan the two manures are thoroughly incorporated, and he considers that thirty-five bushels of the mixture are fully equal in effect to twenty-five bushels of the bones. (My Essai/ on Crushed Bones, p. 14.) The quantity applied per acre is about twenty- five bushels of bone-dust and forty bushels of large broken bones. The dust is best for im- mediate profit; the broken half-inch bones for more continued improvement. Mr. Birks says, " If I were to till for early profit, I would use bones powdered as small as saw-dust ; if J wished to keep my land in good heart, I woul' use principally half-inch bones, and in breaV ing these I should prefer some remaining cor siderably larger." The reason for this is very obvious; the larger the pieces of bone, the more gradually will a given bulk dissolve in the soil. Crushed bones are employed with decided success for turnips. The ease with which they are applied by the drill, the ample nourishment they afford the young plants, on the very poor- est soils, and the avidity with which the roots of the turnip encircle and mat themselves around the fragments of crushed bone,' clearly evinces how grateful the manure is to this valuable croo. The evidence in its favour is copious, and decisive of its merits. In a re- cent report of the East Lothian Agricultural Society, Mr. John Brodie, of Aimsfield Mains, has given the result of his experiments upon the comparative cost of crushed bones and other commonly employed manure for tur- nips, which is worthy of attention : — Ist exp.— 20 cart loads of street dung, per Scotch acre, at 5s. dd. per load - - . - - 2d exp.— half a ton of rape-dust, at 110s. 2 15 three quarters crushed bones, at 19s. 2 17 400 £ s 5 10 5 12 3d exp.— 16 loads of farm-yard dung at la. - - 5 12 "The whole turnips," says Mr. Brodie, "brairded beautifully, and from the first to the time of lifting, it was impossible to decide which was the weightiest crop I therefor* i9e BONES. BONES. determined, in the last week in November, to take up alternate rows of the whole, and weigh each separately after the roots and tops were taken off, ar d the result was found to be as follows : — cwt. lbs. l8i exp.— The portion examined of a Scotch acre, manured with tlie street dung, produced of.comnion globe turnip - - - - 301 92 Sd exp.— The samequantity of ground manured with the rape and bone-dust, produced - 301 99 3d exp. — Dflto with f;irni-yard dung - - 312 30 "Mr. Watson, of Keilor," say.^" the Hon. Capt. Ogilvy, of Airlie {Trans. High. Stic. vol. iv. p. 238), "introduced the use of bone ma- nure in Strathmore. The great deficiency of farm-yard dung in 1827 (consequent on the almost failure of the crop of the previous year), first induced me to try four acres of tur- nip without other manure, sown with fifteen bushels of bone-dust per acre : it cost 3s. per bushel, or 2/. 5s. per acre. The crop of turnips on these four acres was, at least, equal to the rest raised with farm-yard manure ; but as the whole of the turnips were pulled, and the land received some dung before the succeeding crop, much stress cannot be laid on the cir- cumstance of the following white crop and grass being good. "Next year, 1828, eight acres were sown with turnip, solely with bone-dust; the soil a light sandy loam; the subsoil gravel and sand, coming in some places nearly to the surface, which is very irregular, but in general has a south exposure. This field had been broken up with a crop of oats in 1827, after having been depastured six years, principally by sheep. The quantity of bone-dust applied was twenty bushels per acre, and cost 2s. 6d. per bushel, or 2/. 10«. per acre. The turnip crop was so heavy, that, notwithstanding the very light nature of the soil, it was judged advis- able to pull one-third for the feeding cattle, two drills pulled, and four left to be eaten on the ground by sheep. The following year, 1829, these eight acres were sown with barley and grass-seeds; and the produce was fifty- seven bolls one bushel, or seven bolls one bushel nearly per acre, of grain equal in qua- lity to the best in the Dundee market, both in weight and colour. Next year, a fair crop of hay for that description of land was cut, about 150 stones an acre; and though I am now con- vinced that the field should rather have been depastured the first year, yet the pasture was better than it had ever been known before for the two following seasons, 1831 and 1832. It is worthy of remark, as a proof of the efficacy of the bone manure, that in a small angle of this field, in which I had permitted a cottager to plant potatoes, well dunged, and which, after their removal, was included in one of the flak- ings of sheep, and had (one might have sup- posed) thereby had at least an equal advan- tage with the adjacent bone-dust turnip land, both the barley and grass crops were evidently inferior, and this continued to be observable until the field was again ploughed up. A very bulky crop of oats has been reaped this season, pr<^ably upwards of eight bolls per acre, but no part of it is yet thrashed. " Having detailed what may be considered a fair experiment, during the whole rotation of the above eight acres, I may add, lha,t turnip raised with bone manure and fed off with sheep, has now become a regular part of the system on this farm. Fifteen, twenty, and last year twenty-five acres were fed off, and invari- ably with the same favourable results, with the prospect of being able to adopt a five-shift rotation, and to continue it without injury to the land. Every person in the least acquainted with the management of a farm, of which a considerable portion consists of light, dry, sandy loam, at a distance from town manure, must be aware of the importance of this, from knowing the expense at which such land was formerly kept in a fair state of cultivation : in- deed, the prices of corn, for some years past, would not warrant the necessary outlay ; and large tracts of land, capable of producing bar- ley little inferior to that of Norfolk, must speedily have been converted into sheep pas- ture, but for the introduction of bone manure." In the valuable experiments of Mr Robert Turner, of Tring, in Hertfordshire, tht soil on which they were made, hitherto a ci nmon, producing only furze, is sandy, with a substra- tum of clay, and then chalk. He began the use of bone manure in 1831 on this land, and has continued its employment for the last three years on a very bold scale, and with unvaried success. The quantity generally employed was from twenty-four to thirty bushels per acre, of the description of half-inch and dust, and the bones were invariably applied to the turnip crop. The bones were usually drilled with the seed at a distance of eighteen inches, and the turnips were always horse-hoed. The year 1831 was a peculiarly good season for this crop generally. The turnips manured with bone-dust, like most others in the district, were very luxuriant. About 2000 bushels of bone manure were this year used by Mr. Tur- ner. In 1832, the turnips were, in general, a very bad plant, the fly committing general de- vastation; many cultivators unsuccessfully sowing four or five times. On the turnip land of Mr. Turner, seventy-four acres were ma- nured with bones, and of this breadth only the last sown four acres were a failure, and there was, in no instance, any necessity to repeat the sowing. The turnips were a much better crop than in 1831. In 1833, the turnips in the neighbourhood of Tring were a very partial crop. On the farm of Mr. Turner, about fifty acres were manured with bones. The effect, with the exception of the very last sown tur- nips, was again most excellent, the crop bemg very heavy, and that too on land now first culti- vated. In 1835 and 1836, Mr. Tuiner conti- nued the use of bones for his turnips, to the same extent, and with equal success. Tjiese experiments the cultivator will deem of ihe very first importance. The soil was not ma- nured with any other fertilizer except bones, and in drilling, every now and then, tor the drill's breadth, the bones were omitted. On the soil not boned, the failure of the tur nips was general and complete : they vege tated, it is true, and came up, bnt they were wretchedly small, and of no use. The turnips being fed off, and the sheep folded on the soi ■n 2 197 BONES. BONES. without any distinction between boned and un- boned land, the comparative experiments upon ihe succeeding crop were rendered uncertain. The experience of two more years, Mr. Turner informs me (1836-7), has confirmed all his former experiments : he continues the use of this valuable fertilizer, with the most satisfac- tory results ; his plot c-i' turnips drilled with bones having been, ii» that dry season, most exceHent. In no part of England is the use of bone dusf rnvue extensive, and more absolutely es- sential to the growth of turnips than in Lin- colnshire. A brief account of its introduction will be fonnd in the following extract from a letter with which I was favoured in the spring .of 1836, IrcftA Thomas Brailsford, Esq., of Barkwith. " The use of f>oms crushed small enough to pass the drill, begun in Lincolnshire about twenty or twenty Ave years ago, and may now be considered &l gtneral over the greatest part of the county, i?ivl universal over the great na- tural divisions — th« heath, and (the corn brash and upper oolite) the cliff, and the wolds (the chalk and green sand-stone measures of geologists). The effect produced has been wonderful: it has converted large tracts of thin-skinned and weak lands into the most fer- tile districts. The quantity now drilled varies from twenty strikes of half-inch bone, with the dust in it, per acre ; and it is used almost ex- clusively for turnips, experience having proved that it is more profitably adapted to the culti- vation of that crop than any other. It may be right to add, that, in this county, it is consi- dered that the feeding quality of turnips raised from bones exceeds that produced by dung. Last year," adds Mr. Brailsford, "I used sul- phur with my crushed bones, mixing 7 lbs. of the former with 100 lbs. of the latter: a few days before I drilled them with the turnip seed, a moderate fermentation took place, which rendered the sulphur active, and produced a pretty considerably smell of brimstone, and had the effect of most effectually defending the young turnip plants from the fly." An opinion has been sometimes entertained, that the black grub or caterpillar, which has for the last two or three years been so de- structive of the turnip crop, has been intro- duced in the bones imported from abroad for manure ; and many equally idle and learned papers have appeared to warn the farmer of the dangers he was incurring by their use. A more absurd supposition, perhaps, was never entertained; for, saying nothing of the total absence of every thing like proof of a single black grub being discovered in an imported bone, all the accurate experiments, and long experience of those who have used bones, ren- der the supposition laughable. In the numerous experiments at which I have assisted and witnessed, it has been al- ways found that the black grub appeared equally numerous among the boned and un- boned turnips : that in those portions of the field, or in the entire field, where bones were Irilled with the turnips, the grubs were not flr»ore numerous than on those lands which 198 were manured with common manure, or drilled without any manure at all. Again, the very habits of this black grub betray the fact that he is not of animal origin ; he lives, he feeds upon, he is composed of vegetable matter. The farmer well knows that the grub or caterpillar which is bred on a cabbage or turnip cannot sustain life, nay, cannot eat animal matters ; it would perish if placed on the most dainty bone. And on the contrary, if a grub bred in a bone is placed, however cautiously and skilfully, on a turnip or cabbage, he dies of absolute starvation, for vegetable matters are not food for him ; his habits, his very nature, make him revolt from the novel food presented to him. And again, if he really be imported from Belgium in the bones, he must be able to resist a very considerable temperature; for it has been clearly established, that the turnip fields which have been manured with the refuse hailed bones of the size and cart-grease makers have been just as much covered with the black caterpillars as those which have been manured with fresh bones. He can live, therefore, even in boiling hot water: or, if he come in the shape of caterpillar eggs, then the believers in this absurd doctrine must be convinced that caterpillar eggs can be hatched even after they have been boiled for hours in a temperature of 212°. But grubs and black caterpillars are not the first living substances which have been sup- posed to have been imported in the foreign bones. Thus, the Nottingham and Lincoln- shire farmers, many years since, found that, by the use of bones, the growth of white clover was surprisingly encouraged ; and that, in fact, wherever a load of crushed bones was spread, in that place the clover sprung up as if by magic. " They appeared," says his Grace the Duke of Portland, in a letter with which he honoured me in February 1836, "so much to encourage the growth of white clover, that I had almost formed the opinion that it was su- perfluous to sow the seed." The honest farm- ers of that fine district naturally had many a puzzling learned cogitation upon this strange yet regular appearance of the white clover, wherever bones were applied ; but then, they recollected that the bones came from the very land of fine white clover seed; and that the seed must, therefore, as a natural consequence, come hid in the bones. The Lancasterian and Cheshire farmers, however, did not fall into this mistake, since they found that the white clover sprung up just as copiously after the use of the boiled bones, as upon the lands ma- nured with those in a fresh or green state. The chemical explanation will occur to every scientific farmer. The white clover abounds in phosphate of lime ; it cannot, there- fore, grow vigorously in soils which do not contain it. Bones supply this necessary food, or constituent ; and enable the white clover to contend successfully in the turf with other and cnarser grasses, and finally extirpate them. There are few soils in England which do not contain the seeds of this plant; it has l^en noticed to spring up in the most unlikely situ- BONES. BONES. ations, even in London, after a fire ; and for precisely the same reason — the ashes of wood abound in phosphate of lime. Bones have been hitherto principally employed upon the turnip crop, but there is another, the potato plant, to which they seem admirably adapted; and of this opinion was Mr. Knight, the late President of the Horticultural Society; he ob- served to me in a communication dated March 26, 1836, written with his usual anxious solicitude to assist on every occasion in any researches which tended to the improved cultivation of the earth,— "I have one large farm, upon which rises a sufficient quantity of spring water to work a thrashing machine and a bone mill, at all seasons ; and upon that I have erected a machine for crushing bones, which my tenant has used largely. The soil is generally strong and argillaceous, but upon this the bone manure operates well, and it is applied by a drill to the turnip ground. My tenant finds that it acts according to the quan- tity of oleaginous matter which it contains ; and I cannot help thinking, that taking away that part must destroy to a ver}' great extent the operation of the manure during at least one year ; particularly if the bones be crushed nearly to dust before boiling. I have tried other animal substances, such as hair, feathers, and the parings and dust of white leather, and none of these have operated till they have had some weeks to decompose. The white leather parings, being almost entirely composed of gelatine, I expect operate very soon, but I found that turnips drilled in over a very sufficient quantity of it did not begin to grow kindly till September ; and I do not entertain a shadow of a doubt but that if bones, after being cnished, were mixed with four or five times their weight of earth, their operation, as a manure, immediately, would be greatly increased. It could not, however, then be conveniently drilled in with the seed, and that process, whenever the soil is poor, is very important, because by being placed close to the seedling plant, that gets well nourished while young. I cannot doubt but the bone manure must con- tinue to operate as long as decomposition of the original substance continues, and under this impression T am willing to find capital to purchase it, upon the tenant's paying a fair amount of increased rent. Much would, of course, depend upon the bones being more or less crushed ; but I cannot think that a good manuring of bone-dust can, under any circum- stances, be soon entirely expended. I have seen bone-dust applied in considerable quanti- ties in planting stone fruit trees, as peaches and plums, with good effect, though such are al- ways greatly injured or destroyed by the appli- cation of stable-yard dung in the same way. My tenant applies his bone manure wholly to his turnips, and the stable-yard manure to the wheat field, in opposition certainly to my opi- nion ; as I think wheat crops yield best when the soil is firm, and turnip crops best when it is hollow, and he purposes to try the effect of reversing the process. If the turnip plant is capable of deriving nourishment from frag- ments of bones, which have been boiled, after t)eing crushed, their roots must, I conceive, have a power of decomposing the substi.ncfl of the bone ; which appears very improbable, though many plants appear to exercise such power on silicious earth. I have someAvhere read an account of experiments, which appeared to prove that the silex found in the epidermis of the different species of Equisetum, grapes, &c., is really dissolved and taken up from the soil, and suDsequently deposited in an organic form ; but as the plants which were subjected to experiment might, owing to having been feeble and sickly, not have deposited any, or the usual portion of silex, I am not satisfied that the remaining half of flint, after its oxy- gen has been driven off, is a simple substance. The number of simple elements (admitting the existence of matter) I suspect to be very small ; such was the opinion of my late la- mented friend, Sir H. Davy. I think it proba- ble that quicklime, if applied to bones contain- ing much oily matter, would operate power- fully by reducing such oil to the state of soap, readily soluble in water; but a part of the ammonia might by this process be dissipated and lost. Valuable as bone-dust certainly is as a manure to the turnips, I doubt whether it may not be employed with more advantage as a manure for the potato ; and my tenant is in- clined to think that the potato crop, though wholly consumed upon the farm, will best re- pay him. The bone manure, when employed to nourish the potato plant, might be buried in the soil two months before it would be ma- terially wanted ; and the crops of barley and oats, upon all except light soils, are much bet- ter after potatoes than after turnips, both being carted off the ground. Early varieties which do not blossom are the most valuable, as they afford the most certain crops, an-d will be quite ready to be taken up in August, after which the ground may be well prepared for wheat. Of such potatoes I have obtained a produce equivalent to 963^ bushels of 80 lbs., and 1248-f bushels of 60 lbs. But early pota- toes vegetate again late in autumn, and they then become much better food without being steamed, than previously." The way in which bone-dust is wsually em- ployed as a manure for potatoes is decidedly wrong ; it is used in much too fresh a state. This error long deceived and perplexed the turnip growers of the east of England, who now invariably let the bone-dust ferment, either by itself, or mixed with earth, for some weeks before it is applied to the soil. And all my experiments have concurred in their re- sult with those of my neighbours in Essex, that if the bones are mixed with five or six times their bulk of earth, and are turned over and mixed together some weeks before they are spread on the potato ground, the more valuable is the application. And this remark is not confined to its use for potatoes ; oats and bar- ley are proportionally benefitted by the pre- vious fermentation and partial dissolution of the bones in the mixed earth. The same ob- servation must apply to Indian corn. It is impossible, in any agricultural experi- ment, to give very minute directions for the farmer's guidance, since soil, climate, and situ- ation, as regards temperature and easy acces i BONES. BONES. to the proposed fertilizer, must be of necessity taken into the agriculturist's consideration ; and these observations particularly apply to those manures of a purely animal nature, whose value I have been endeavouring to il- lustrate. Thus, with regard to bones, the quantity applied per acre must of necessity vary with circumstances ; but, by many care- fully conducted experiments, at some of which I have personally assisted, it has been found that the bones remain in the soil for a length of time proportionate to the size of the pieces, the dust producing the most immediate effect, the larger description showing the longest ad- vantage ; thus, on arable lands, the good ef- fects of the half-inch or inch bones are obser- vable for four or five years ; while, on pasture land, the advantage derived from their appli- cation is observable for eight or nine. But, as practical experience is alone the substitute for our want of general scientific knowledge founded on experiments, the farmer should, in experimenting upon all manures, for the sake of correct information, apply them in varying quantities per acre, and on no account omit to leave, by way of comparison, a fair portion of the field without any manure. There is no delusion more common than that a correct agricultural experiment is easily ac- complished — that it may be taken up as a mere amusement, carried on without care, and concluded without any laborious attempts at accuracy. Some experience in these delight- ful pursuits, amongst some of the most talented farmers of the east of England, has long con- vinced me of the folly of such a conclusion, and of the extreme care and caution necessary for such valuable researches ; for, otherwise, all kinds of errors are almost sure to arise. In applying weight and measure, also, to the crop, there is no need for the farmer to weigh and measure large plots ; a square rod or two care- fully examined, furnishes results nearly as ac- curate and valuable as the examination of acres. The application of bones to grass land is very common in Cheshire and Lancashire. I have already noticed its effect in the produc- tion of white clover, a phenomenon well known to the farmers in the neighbourhood of Man- chester, who are also fully aware of the amaz- ingly increased produce of their grass lands by the application of the refuse bones of the size makers. The quantity which they em- ploy is very large, varying from forty-five to eighty bushels per acre. The result, however, is fully commensurate with the outlay, for they calculate that the produce of their grass fields is nearly doubled by the application. ■ I cannot give a better account of its applica- tion for grass than that very kindly communi- cated to me in March, 1836, by Dr. Stanley, the present Bishop of Norwich. " Bone-dust has been used in Cheshire," said his lordship, " as a manure, to a very considerable extent, for the last seven years, but partially for a much longer period. Formerly, it was laid on pas- lure ground only, and in large quantities, and in large pieces, which rendered it very ex- pensive, and the advantage comparatively *ow • but some pastures that were bone-dusted 200 twenty years ago now show, almost to a yard, where this manure was applied. Bones arc ; now used on every description of soil in Eng- ■ land wijlh the best results, provided the wet sands are first effectually drained. Some thousands of tons are annually consumed, and the demand is daily increasing. The quantity per statute acre varies ; but the average may be, on pasture, from 30 to 40 cwt. of Man- chester or calcined bones or 20 cwt. of raw or ground bones, to the statute acre. For turnips, from 20 to 30 cwt. of calcined bones. For oats or barley (of this latter, however, the quantity grown in Cheshire is very trifling), with clover and grass seeds, 20 to 30 cwt. of calcined bones, or one ton of raw or ground bones. Pasture ground should be well scari- fied or harrowed previous to sowing the bones, and immediately afterward rolled with a heavy roller. For turnips the bones should be pounded, or ground very small, and drilled in with the seed. With spring grain they should be rolled in with clover and seeds. It should be here remarked, that raw bones particularly should be allowed to remain for some days in heaps to ferment before they are applied. They have been used for potatoes ; but expe- rienced persons say they prefer dung. I am also informed, though my informant states his observations to be limited, that on old mea- dows the result has not been found to be so satisfactory as on pastures. On clover, bones have a most extraordinary effect. On old pas- tures that have been boned, although previous- ly the clover was not to be seen, luxuriant crops have soon shown themselves. The best proof, indeed, of their beneficial effect, is the fact, that the farmers, six years ago, in this immediate neighbourhood, had so strong a prejudice against bones that it was with some difficulty they were induced to use them, al- though given byway of reduction of rent; but, for the last three years, they have been most anxious to obtain them, and are now quite willing to be at half the expense. The rents have latterly been well paid, and there is good reason for jjelieving that it is in a great mea- sure owing to the advantage they are deriving from the boned land. On some estates in the county, the proprietors have boned a consider- able quantity of the pasture land, the tenants willingly agreeing to pay, as an increased rent, from eight to ten per cent, on the cost of bones. There is some difference of opinion as to the most advantageous sorts of bones for use, some preferring the dust to the ground bones The dust, or calcined bones, are 3/. per ton and the ground bones 7/. per ton. For turnips, the dust is generally preferred, as being more immediate in its effects. On a very poor peat soil, about 35 cwt. of bone-dust was applied to a statute acre for Swedish turnips. The crop was a fair average one. The turnips were carted off, and the ground sown with wheat, which produced nearly twenty-five measures (of 75 lbs. per measure) to the statute acre. Oats succeeded with seed, principally red clover, a most excellent crop of oats ensuing The clover, also, proved a very heavy full crop, and was mown twice. No manure was applied for this course, except the first set of BONES. bones for the turnips. The remainder of the field, of exactly the same description of soil, was well manured with farm-yard dung, for potatoes, mangel wurzel, and vetches, to be used for soiling. This was then sown \vith wheat; but, being first well set over with a compost of lime and soil, the wheat plant on this part during winter and spring looked much better than the boned part of the field, but did not prove so good a crop ; but the difference in favour of the bones was not much. Oats succeeded here, also, with seeds, but the oat crop bid not prove half so productive any- where as on the part boned; and the clover was still more inferior, and mowed only once, the second crop not being considered worth mowing, while the part boned, alongside of it, was as much as could be well mown." There appears to be on many grass soils some care requisite to ensure the greatest ad- vantage from the application of the bones ; and this observation is not confined to any particular district, since it is strongly alluded to in the following extract from a letter of Mr. William Lewis, of Trentham in Sfafi'ordsiure, transmitted to me in September last, in an f bJiging communication of his Grace the Duke of Sutherland : — " I have never," says this intelligent farmer, '* applied less than one ton of crushed bones per acre for turnips drilled in, and have been generally successful in growing that crop ; and Iheir good effects (I mean the bones) are most conspicuously shown and felt on the grass irop that follows the turnips, showing to an mch how far the ground has been manured with them. I have no genuine fertile land, it being nearly all of a light, dry, sandy, hungry nature; but I have now excellent pastures for sheep, which 1 greatly ascribe to the use of bones ; for the pastures following barley which have been manured with dung I find very in- ferior to that manured with bones — (the differ- ence in the barley crop not being perceivable) — so much so, that I am upon the eve of break- ing up some of my pasture fields which have lain three years, and were intended for perma- nent pasture ; for those manured at the same time with bones are still looking beautiful, with a close, fine, even bottom. I have also applied bones to pastures, and they have gene- rally improved the herbage and verdure very greatly. The top-dressing with the bones I would recommend to be done in moist weather, when the ground is pretty well covered with grass. I consider from one and a half to two tons per acre to be a fair dressing. After sow- ing them, the ground should be well brushed, harrowed length and breadthways, then heavily rolled, and all stock taken from the field for at least ten days. I have seen bones applied to bare pastures, with little or no covering, done in hot, dry weather, showing no beneficial effects whatever afterwards." There is no doubt of the superior advantage of rolling the bones into the soil ; for fresh, or green bones, as they are called in Cheshire, when they are exposed to the atmosphere for some time, lose from one fifth to one fourth of their weight; and even boiled bones, under similar circum- stances, ar3 reduced one third in weight. A 26 BONES. bushel of crushed green bones, of the three- quarter of an inch size, weighs about 45 1-s.— the same bulk of hone-dust 54 lbs. : 75 bushels of crushed green bones weigh about one ton and a half, the same bulk of boiled bones about two tons. The average weight of the bones of an ox is about 2 cwt., or about one fourth of the carcase free from offal ; the bones of a sheep about 21 lbs., supposing the carcase to average 84 lbs. So that, according to this calculation, allowing twenty bushels of crushed bones to manure an acre, the bones of five bullocks or horses, or fifty sheep, are requisite to supply the necessary dressing. Liebig recommends the following method as the one by which the benefits may be most speedily derived from bone applications. " The most easy and practical mode of effecting their division is," he says, "to pour over the bones, in a state of fine powder, half of their weight of sulphuric acid diluted with three or four parts of water,- and after they have been di- gested for some time, to add one hundred parts of water, and sprinkle this mixture over the field before the plough. In a few seconds, the free acids unite with the bases contained in the earth, and a neutral salt is formed in a verv fine state of division." A convenient mode of preparing vitriolized bones, or super-phosphate of lime, is to make a hollow in the centre of a heap of fine mould, and place in this crater the bones to be dis- solved. Upon these apply, gradually, sul- phuric acid, in weight eqvial to half the weight of the bones. These will soon be dissolved, after which the heap of mould and bones is to be thoroughly mixed by shovelling to- gether. Another method is described by Mr. Spooner, in which the ground bones, being placed in a hogshead, have poured upon them one-third of tiieir weight of oil of vitriol ; that is to say, CO lbs. of the sulphuric acid, to 180 lbs. or about 4 bushels of bones. The acid, mixed with half its bulk or measure of water, previously to putting upon the bones, will suddenly produce very great heat, equal to about 300° of Fahren- heit's thermometer. Too much care cannot be taken to prevent the acid from burning the clothes or skin of those employed in this work. After the bones are sufficiently dissolved, they are mixed with ashes, so as to bring them to a state convenient for application by the drill or otherwise. Prepared in this way, the fertilizing properties of bones are rendered much more soluble. Mr. Spooner cites a case in which two bushels of the vitriolized bones, with ashes, gave as good a crop as sixty bushels of com- mon ground bones. In manuring the light lands, cultivated on the four-course system, with bones and with bones only, for a long series of years, I would advise the farmer, whenever he finds any symp- toms of his ground failing to produce clover so well as it was once used to do, to add in that case a dressing of gypsum, either with the bones or with the grass seeds. The value of this latter manure, which is amply sufh- cient, when applied in quantities of not ex ceeding 2 cwt. per acre, being in most situa tions trifling. There is every reason to believe 201 BONES. BONES. *hat i.i those cases which have puzzled some I farmers, where land, after a long course of sue- I cessful bone-dressing, has at last refused to pro- | duce clover, the gradual exhaustion of sulphate j of lime, and perhaps of potash and other elements i of fertility, removed by previous crops, may i account for the failure. I For ornamental plantations of trees there can i be no manure more advantageous than bones. | There is a considerable portion of phosphate of lime in all timber trees, and there is no manure of a mixed animal, earthy, and saline nature j which remains so long in the soil, mixed with ' earth ; and thus previously fermented bones are an excellent dressing for vines, and have been jsed with decided advantage. As a manure for the use of the conservatory and the flower-gar- den, there is no fertilizer more useful than bone- dust; or, what is a still more elegant application, the turnings and chippings of the bone turners. Their use not only promotes the luxuriance of the plant, but the beauty of the flowers. The Sheffield florists are well aware of the value of bone turnings. As it is desirable that American farmers should be instructed in the various and most simple modes of preparing vitriolized bones or super- phosphate of lime — mentioned in a preceding pa- graph — we subjoin a few more of the plans adopted in England. The bones, in the form of bone-dust, or, where bone-mills are not at hand, simply broken in pieces with a hammer, may be put into a cast-iron, stone, earthenware, or strong wooden trough, cask, or other vessel, mixed with half their weight of boiling water, and then with half their weight of the strong oil of vitriol of the shops, stirring constantly while the latter is slowly poured in. A powerful boiling up, or effervescence at first takes place, but which gradually subsides. By occasional stirring, the whole assumes the appearance of a thick paste ; the pieces of bone disappear by degrees, and after a week or ten days the whole may be taken out and mixed with a little sawdust, charcoal- powder, charred peat, or fine dry earth, to make it dry enough to pass through the drill, and thus be immediately applied to the land. It would be better to prepare the bones a month at least before using them, and to lay them up in a heap for awhile, with a view to their more perfect decomposition. Where the pieces of bone are large this is especially desirable, as other- wise they will not be fully decomposed without a larger addition both of water and of acid. Or, the mixture of acid and bones, as above, may after a couple of days be further mixed with a quantity of light friable soil, and laid up into a heap for seven or eight weeks, with occasional turning; the bones thus heat, decompose, and dry up, so as to be ready for putting into the drill without further preparation. This method, how- ever, requires more acid, and it is not unusual, in employing it, to take equal weights of acid and of bones. Professor J. F. W. Johnston re- commends the following plan for preparing bones into a liquid manure : Take equal weights of bone-uust, of boiling water, and of acid, and mix together, occasionally stirring them for a week or ten days; when the particles of bone have nearly disappeared, from 50 to 100 times more water may be added to the mixture, and the (iquid tnus diluted applied by a water cart. If \ 202 it is to be used upon grass land, in the spring, or to young grain, it will be safer to dilute it with 200 waters, but) 50 waters (by weight) will be enough if it be applied to the turnip drills. Mr. Tennant thus describes the method he adopts : — " I put 25 bushels into three old boilers, and next pour in two bottles of acid of al»out 170 lbs. each, and 36 Scotch pints (18 imperial gallons) of boiling water into each boiler. It boils away at a great rate for some time, and in a day or two we empty the boilers into two cart loads of light mould, and turn the mixture over. At this stage the bones are only partially dissolved, but they heat and decompose in the heap, after being turned over three or four times; and in the course of seven or eight weeks the compost becomes dry, and breaks down with a shovel." It is important to know that oil of vitriol varies in strength, from water added purposely or attracted from the atmosphere, as will always be the case when left in open vessels, which, when partly empty, will soon become full again from the water attracted. The purest oil of vitriol has a specific gravity of about 1.85, one gallon weighing as much as 1.7 or 1.8 gallons of water. That of commerce ought to have a specific gravity of about 1.45 or 1.5, that is to say, be about half as heavy again as water, so that one gallon of oil of vitriol shall weigh as much as a gallon and a half of water. More of it must be used if weak. The price varies with the strength, from 2| to 3 cts. per lb. The great heat produced by the mixing of oil of vitriol and water, acting on the animal portions of the bones, makes these of a dark colour; but, if a small quantity of acid only be employed, the mixture is white, from the car- bonate of lime which then predominates. The fat, gristle, and other organic matter united with bones, in the state in which these are usually employed by farmers, constitutes about 1-3 of their weight. Mr. Hannum reckons the soft parts of bone, when very fresh, at 45 per cent. Four bushels of ground bones, which may be considered a fair allowance for an acre, will weigh, in a fine state, from 168 to 180 lbs. This last-named quantity contains 12| lbs. of carbonate of lime, and the first action of the acid is to seize upon this, displace its car- bonic acid, and convert the lime into sulphate of lime or gypsum. The quantity of the acid re- quired for this first change is 10 lbs. The acid having thus decomposed the carbonate of lime in the bones and converted it into plaster of Pa- ris, next turns upon the phosphates, of which the 4 bushels contains about 106 lbs., 47 lbs. being lime and 59 lbs. phosphoric acid. S3 lbs. of the vitriolic acid unites with half the lime, or 23^ lbs., to form more gypsum. The other half of the lime unites with a double portion of phos- phoric acid to produce the desired sup^r-pkos- phate. Thus about 43 lbs. of acid will be re- quired to effect the necessary changes in the 4 bushels of bones. Instead of the sulphuric acid, muriatic acid has been substituted in similar quantity, diluted and treated in the same manner. The cost per acre and the produce obtained were very much the same. Where no manure was applied, and the produce per acre was only about 7 tons of turnips, the superphosphate of lime made from 4 bushels of bones increased the produce to 17 s tons. See Phosphates. BONE SPAVIN. BORECOLE. Tt is hardly necessary for us to add more | autliorities in favour of bone manure. The reader may refer, however, to the experiments of Captain Ogilvy, of Airlie Castle {Trans, of High. Sue. vol. iv. p. 238) ; of Mr. Watson, of Keillor, Cupar-Angus (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vr,.. vi. p. 41 — 43) ; and of Mr. Boswell, of Kingcaussie (Trans, of High. Soc. vol. i. p. 73; Comparative Trial of Bones, Farm-yard Ma- nure, and Rape Cake) : to those of Mr. Billyse on their use for the pastures of Cheshire (Journ. of Roy. Agr. Soc. of Eng. vol. ii. p. 91.) See also Johnson, On Fertilizers, p. 125. (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. vi. p. 308.) The bone mill is described by Mr. Anderson, of Dundee (Trans, of High. Soc. vol. i. p. 401), and again in the Fenni/ Cyclopaedia. BONE SPAVIN (Fr. espavent .- Ital. spava- no), in horses, is a disease of the hock joint, usually brought on by over-exertion, accele- rated by bad shoeing. When this is forming, there is commonly lameness, but this dimi- nishes or ceases when the bony matter, whose deposit causes the spavin, is completely formed, at least when the horse is warm with exercise. It impedes his rising when down, and in consequence spavined horses lie down with reluctance. A spavined horse generally does slow work well enough, and when used in the farm, his disease is commonly amelio- rated or cured. Repeated blisters will either en*irely remove or ameliorate the symptoms. Tt is only as a last resort that the hot iron •houid be used. BOOK-KEEPING. As the merchant, the manufacturer, and the tradesman all find it necessary to keep a set of account books which shall show them the amount of capital em- ployed, the debts owing to and by them, and the profit or loss arising from their diflferent transactions, so to the farmer is this good practice equally essential. The Dutch have a proverb, that no one ever goes to ruin who keeps a correct set of accounts. There is great truth in this sagacious observation of the plodding Dutchmen ; for by consulting correct accounts the farmer will be either warned to retrace his steps, or to persevere in the path he is pursuing. The time required for keep- ing these books is always to be found of an evening after the labours of the day are over. The necessary books to give him this informa- tion are, first, a cash book, in which shall be entered on one side all the moneys received, and from whom ; and on the other side, all payments, and to whom made; secondly, a journal, in which should be entered all deli- veries, and articles received ; and, thirdly, a stock book, in which should be every week entered all addition to or substraction from the stock of the farm ; fourthly, an invoice book, to receive all bills of account; fifthly, a wages book, to keep each labourer's time and wages ; and, sixthly, a ledger, which should contain every person's account with whom the farmer has transactions. With these statements care- fully kept, and an account and valuation of his stock in trade made annually, as if he were about to quit the farm, no farmer's afl^airs can reasonably go wrong; for not only by good Dooking is fraud prevented, and economy pro- moted, but by this means the farmer always knows his real position. I am supported in these opinions by a very considerable farmer and land-agent, Mr. Hewitt Davis, of Spring Park, in Surrey. BORAGE (Borago officinalis). Supposed to be derived from corago, or cur, the heart, and ago, to give, alluding to the renovating power of which it was supposed to be possessed. This ii a well-known plant in all gardens, growing two feet high, with large leaves, and bright blue flowers. The stalks are round, juicy, and thick, and so hairy that they are almost prickly to touch. The leaves are broad, rough, wrinkled, and hairy. The flowers have five bright blue petals or parts, with a black centre ; they blow all through the summer, and continue till late in autumn. They will begin to flower about June, and when their seed is perfectly ripe, the stalks must be gathered and dried completely before it is rubbed out. (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard.) Borage was for- merly considered cordial. The leaves and flowers tied in a bundle, and warmed up in beer, is a great remedy in England among the poor. They consider them cordial, opening, and cooling ; and in many parts of England they make borage one of their materials in brewing. The whole plant, says Smith (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 265), has an odour approaching to cucumber and burnet, which gives a flavour to a cool tankard; but its supposed exhilarat- ing qualities, which caused borage to be reck- oned one of the four cordial flowers along with alkanet, roses, and violets, may justly be doubted. The flavour is nauseous in any other beverage. BORDER (Germ, and Fr. bord; Sax. bopTj). A term which signifies the portion of land next the hedges in fields; but -in ploughed grounds is mostly applied to the parts at the ends on which the teams turn. BORECOLE (Brassica oleracea fimhriata.) A species of winter cabbage, of which the follow ing are the principal varieties commonly cul- tivated in the garden: — I.Brussels borecole. 2. Green borecole (Brassica oleracea selenisia). 3. Purple borecole (B. o. laciniata). 4. Varie- gated borecole. 5. German, or curled kale or curlies. 6. Scotch or Siberan kale (B. o. sabel- lica). 7. Chou de Milan. 8. Egyptian, or Rabi kale. 9. Ragged Jack. 10. Jerusalem kale. 11. Buda, Russian, Prussian, or Manchester kale. 12. Anjou kale. Like the other mem- bers of the cabbage tribe, it is propagated by seed. The first crop to be sown about the close of March, or early in April ; the seed- lin<'s of which are fit for pricking out towards the end of April, and for final planting at the close of May, for production late in autumn and at the commencement of winter ; the sow- ing must be repeated about the middle of May, for final planting during July, and lastly m Au- gust, for use during winter and t-any spring. If transplanting is adopted, their fitness .or pricking out is known when their leaves are about two inches in breadth ; they must be set six inches apart each way, and watered fre- quently until established. In four or five weeks they will be of sufficient growth for final re- moval. When planted, they must be set ir 203 Boiirn. BORERS. rows two feet and a half apart each way; the last plantations may be six inches closer. They must be watered and weeded, as directed for the other crops ; as they are of large spreading growth, the earth can only be drawn about their stems during their early growth. If, during stormy weather, any of those which acquire a tall growth are blown down, they must be supported in their erect posture by stakes, when they will soon firmly re-establish themselves. For the production of seed, such plants of each variety as are of the finest growth, and are true to the characteristics primarily given, must be selected, and either left where grown, or removed during open weather in November, or before the close of February, the earlier the better, into rows three feet apart each way, and buried down to their heads. The seed ripens about the beginning of August. (G. W. Johnson^s Kitchen Garden.) BORER. See Augeh. BORERS. The wood-eating worms called borers, are grubs of various species of the beetle tribe, several of which have been already referred to. Some live altogether in the trunks of trees, boring into the most solid wood; others take up their residence in the limbs. Some devour the wood, others the pith ; some are found only in shrubs, some in stems of herbaceous plants, and others confine themselves to the roots. Certain kinds restrict themselves to plants of one speties, others live indiscriminately upon several plants, provided these belong to the same natural family; for the same borer is not known to inhabit plants dififering essentially from each other in their natural characters. The beetles produced from these worm-borers are of very many kinds, nearly one hundred species having been already found by Dr. Harris in Massachusetts, belonging to the Capricorn family alone. This family of beetles derive their name from their long and tapering antennae, wiiich are curved like the horns of a goat. The head is short and armed with powerful jaws. Most of this family remain upon trees and shrubs during the daytime, and fly abroad at night. • Some, however, fly by day, and may be found on flowers feeding on the pollen and even the blossoms. When annoyed or taken into the hands, they make a squeaking sound by rub- bing the joints of the thorax and abdomen together. " The females are generally larger and more robust than the males, and have rather shorter antennae. Moreover they are provided with a jointed tube at the end of the body, ca- pable of being extended or drawn in like the joints of a telescope, by means of which they convey their eggs into the holes and chinks of the bark of plants. "The larvae hatched from these eggs are ong, whitish, fleshy grubs, with the trans- verse incisions of the body very deeply marked, 60 that the rings are very convex o/ hunched both above and below. The body tapers a little behind, and is blunt-pointed. The head is much smaller than the first ring, slightly bent downwards, of a horny consistence, and is provided with short but very powerful jaws, by means whereof the insect can bore, as with A c ntre-bit, a cylindrical passage through the 204 most solid wood. Some of these borers have six very small legs, namely, one pair under each of the first three rings ; but most of them want even these short and imperfect limbs, and move through their burrows by the alter- nate extension and contraction of their bodies, on each or on most of the rings of which, both above and below, there is an oval space co- vered with little elevations, somewhat like the teeth of a fine rasp ; and these little oval rasps, which are designed to aid the grubs in their motions, fully make up to them the want of proper feet. Some of these borers always keep one end of fii.T turrows open, out of which, from time to Ime, ihey cast their chips, resembling coarse saw-dust ; others, as fast as they proceed, fill up the passages behind them with their castings, well known here by the name of powder-post. These borers live from one year to three, or perhaps more years before they come to their growth. They un- dergo their transformations at the furthest extremity of their burrows, many of them pre- viously gnawing a passage through the wood to the inside of the bark, for their future escape. The pupa is at first soft and whitish, and it exhibits all the parts of the future beetle under a filmy veil which inwTaps every limb. The wings and legs are folded upon the breast, the long antennae are turned back against the sides of the body, and then bent forwards be- tween the legs. When the beetle has thrown ofl" its pupa-skin, it gnaws away the thin coat of bark that covers the mouth of its burrow, and comes out of its dark and confined retreat to breathe the fresh air, and to enjoy for the first time the pleasure of sight, and the use of the legs and wings with which it is provided (Harris's Treatise on Insects.) One family of the Capricorn or goat-hornei beetles, derives its name of Prionidx from k Greek word signifying saw\ It is said thaA some of these saw-beetles can saw off' larg^ limbs by seizing them between their jaws, an nus. It is from one inch and a quarter, to an inch and three-quarters in length, of an oy»a form and pitchy black colour. The grubs o^ this beetle, when fully grown, are as thick as !s man's thumb. They live in the trunks an'^ roots of the balm of Gilead, Lombardy poplaf , and proba])ly in other kinds of poplar. In the second family of the Capricorn beetles, called the Cerambycians, there is one w^hicfe inhabits the hickory, in its larva state forming long galleries in the trunk of this tree in th? direction of the fibres of the wood. " The ground beneath black and white oaks," says Dr. Harris, "is often observed to Vi strewn with small branches, neatly severed from these trees as if cut off" w'ith a saw. Upon splitting open the cut end of a branch, in the autumn or winter after it has fallen, it will be found to be perforated to the extent of six or eight inches in the course of the pith, and a slender grub, the author of the mischief, will be discovered therein. In the spring this grub is transforjned to a pupa, and in June or July it is changed to a beetle, and CM/nes out of th6 BORERS. BORERS. branch. The history of this insect was first made public by Professor Peck, who called it the oak-pruner, or Stenocorus {Elaphidion) putaior. In its adult state it is a slender long- horned beetle, of a dull brown colour, sprinkled with gray spots, composed of very short close hairs ; the antennae are longer than the body, in the males, and equal to it in length in the other sex, and the third and fourth joints are tipped with a small spine or thorn ; the thorax is barrel-shaped, and not spined at the sides ; and the scutel is yellowish white. It varies in length from four and a half to six-tenths of an inch. It lays its eggs in July. Each egg is placed close to the axilla or joint of a leaf- stalk or of a small twig, near the extremity of a branch. The grub hatched from it penetrates at that spot to the pith, and then continues its course towards the body of the tree, devouring the pith, and thereby forming a cylindrical burrow, several inches in length, in the centre of the branch. Having reached its full size, which it does towards the end of the summer, it divides the branch at the lower end of its burrow, by gnawing away the wood trans- versely from within, leaving only the ring of bark untouched. It then retires backwards, stops up the end of its hole, near the trans- verse section, with fibres of the wood, and awaits the fall of the branch, which is usually broken off and precipitated to the ground by the autumnal winds. The leaves of the oak are rarely shed before the branch falls, and thus serve to break the shock. Branches of five or six feet in length and an inch in diame- ter are thus severed by these insects, a kind of pruning that must be injurious to the trees, and should be guarded against if possible. By collecting the fallen branches in the autumn, and burning them before the spring, we pre- vent the developement of the beetles, while we derive some benefit from the branches as fuel. " It is somewhat remarkable that, while the pine and fir tribes rarely suffer to any extent from the depredations of caterpillars and other leaf-eating insects, the resinous odour of these trees, offensive as it is to such insects, does not prevent many kinds of borers from bur- rowing into and destroying their trunks. Se- veral of the Capricorn-beetles, while in the grub state, live only in pine and fir trees, or in timber of these kinds of wood. They belong chiefly to the genus Callidium, a name of un- known or obscure origin. The larvce are of moderate length, more flattened than the grubs of the other Capricorn-beetles, have a very broad and horny head, small but powerful jaws, and are provided with six extremely small legs. They undermine the bark, and perforate the wood in various directions, often doing immense injury to the tree.s, and to new buildings, in the lumber composing which Uiey may happen to be concealed. Their bur- rows are wide and not cylindrical, are very winding, and are filled up with a kind of compact sawdust as fast as the insects ad- vance. The larva state is said to continue two years, during which period the insects cast their skins several times. The sides of the body in the pupa are thin-edged, and finely notched, and the tail is forked. " One of the most common k f an animal, as in the dead nettle; personate, like the mask of an animal, as in snap-dragon. Corollas of more than one petal are termed polypetalous. It is cruciform, as in the wall- flower; roiaceousy as in the rose; papilionaceous, S(10 as in the pea; incomplete, when some part, found in kindred flowers, is wanting. 3. The stamen or stamens are essential lor the perfecting of the seed, and are only absent in double flowers, in which they are changed into petals. They vary in diflerent species, from a single one to several hundreds, and surround the pistil or pistils, which occupy the centre of the flower. A stamen usually consists of two parts; the filament, or slender stem, which is sometimes absent, bearing otherwise on its summit the anther, a cellular organ of various forms in different species of plants, being the part for holding the pollen. 4. The pistil or pistils are in the centre of the flower, and usually fewer in number than the stamens. They are sometimes situated in flowers distinct from the stamen, and even on different plants. No seed can be perfected without the pistil, which consists of the ger- men, or rudiment of the fruit and seed, and, of course, is never absent. The style, or little stem proceeding from the germ, which is not essential, serving chiefly to elevate the stigma — this must always be present : it varies in form and size, being either scarcely more than a point, or forming an orbicular head, or being variously lobed. 5. The seed-vessel is the germen enlarged, va- rying in form, texture, and size in almost every species. What old botanists called naked seeds are seed-vessels or carpels containing only one seed, and which do Aot open when ripe ; the strawberry, wheat, maize, are examples. The only naked seeds are those of the fir cones, and the Cycadea. There are seven kinds of seed-vessels : — 1. A capsule is woody or membranous, containing one or more cells, as in the poppy. 2. A pod is long, dry, and solitar)', formed of two valves, divided by a linear partition into two cells, as in the wall-flower. 3. A legume is solitary, formed of two oblong valves without any par- tition, consequently is one-celled, as the pea. 4. A drupe has a fleshy coat, closely enclosed in a hard nut, as the cherry, peach, &c. 5. A pome has a fleshy coat, enclosing a capsule, as the apple, pear, &c. 6. A berry is fleshy, con- taining its seed or seeds within its pulp, with- out valves, as the currant. A compound berry is instanced in the blackberry, &c. 7. A cone is a catkin hardened into a seed-vessel, as in the fir, birch, &c. 6. The seed. To the perfecting of this part all the other parts of the fructification, and even of the whole plant, are subservient; an- nuals perish immediately after it is perfected, and in ourclimateevenperennials begin todroop as soon as it is ripe. A seed consists of seve- ral parts : — 1. The embryo is the part the wel- fare of which all the other parts unite in pro- moting. It is the rudiment of the future plant. It is very apparent in the bean, pea, &c., and has the form of a heart in the walnut. It is usually within the substance of the seed, as in the above instance ; in the grasses, however, it is on the outside. Upon removing the skin of a pea or bean, it divides easily into two parts ; these are the cotyledons: this is the usual number. In the pine tribe they are four ; in the grasses, &c., BOTANY. nly one; hence the last are called momcoty- ■ilons. The cotyledons, when the seed has sprouted, usually rise, in the course of germi- I ation, out of the ground, and perform the functions of leaves for a while: this is never ttie case in wheat, or any other of the mono- cotyledons; their seeds consist chiefly of the Ibnmeii or white, which is either farinaceous, horny, or tleshy, and remains in the ground nourishing the embryo, until its leaves and loots are sufficiently perfected for that pur- jiose. Athough the albumen is wanting in a cistinct form in several tribes, as those with compound and cruciform flowers, &c., yet the farinaceous matter lodged in the cotyledons is evidently intended to supply the embryo with nourishment during the first efforts of germina- tion. Many plants have it distinct from the cotyledons. Vitellus, the yolk, like the albu- men, serves to nourish the embryo in the com- mencement of germination. If the albumen, US a distinct organ, is present also, the vitellus is situated between it and the embryo. Testa, the skin, envelopes all the preceding )arts, and gives them their form, being itself of a permanent shape, whilst they are in a iquid state. It is of various textures and sub- stance ; sometimes single, but usually lined with a finer membrane. Hilum, or scar, marks where the seed was connected with the seed- \ressel or receptacle. In describing the form or external parts of a seed, it is always to be considered as the base. There are several occasional appendages to leeds, which may as well be considered in this place. The pellicle closely adheres to some seeds, so as to conceal their actual skin. It varies, being downy, membranous, and muci- laginous, or not perceptible until moistened. The hiaic envelopes the seed more o% less loosely, being attached only at the base. The seed-down is the chaffy, bristly, or feathery crown, originating from the partial calyx re- maining attached to the summit of a seed, somewhat resembling a parachute, which we see bearing along the seed of the dandelion, thistle, &c. A tail is the permanent style which remains as an elongated, feathery termination to some seeds, as clematis. A tving, a mem- branous appendage, serving, as the seed-down, to transport the seed it is attached to through the air. It is solitary, except in some umbel- liferous plants. We may now proceed to the last division of the flower, which is, 7thly, the receptacle. — This is the common base or point of connec- tion of the other parts. In compound flowers it serves as a distinguishing mark, and there- fore is of importance. In the daisy it is coni- cal ; in the chrysanthemum, convex ; carduus has it hairy; chamomile, scaly; picris, naked; onopordum, cellular. A compound flower is formed by the union of several sessile florets, or lesser flowers, within a common calyx; each, however, must possess five stamens, their filaments divided, but their anthers united into a cylinder, through which passes the sty^ of a solitary pistil, much longer than the stamens, and hav- ing a sr,igma divided into two parts, which BOTANY. roll backwards. There are various forms, as the thistle, daisy, sunflower, &c. When the flowers are collected round a stem in a complete ring, or merely on two of its sides, it is denominated a whorl, as in the dead nettle (Lamium). Flowers on their own stalks, standing somewhat distant from each other on a common one, or axis, are denominated a ra- ccine, as a bunch of currants. When they are placed together on one common axis, they form a spike, as in lavender (Lavandula). If flowers standing on a common stalk have, in proportion as they stand on it lower down, longer foot-stalks, so that the flowers all stand nearly on a level, it is denominated a corymb^ as in Spircea opidifolia, common in our gardens; in the common cabbage, a corymb of flowers becomes a raceme of fruit. Flowers on par- tial stalks variously divided and inserted, col- lected closely together and level at top, is a fascicle, as in the Sweet William (Dianthus bar-- batus). Sessile flowers collected together in a globular figure form a head or tuft, as in Statice armeria. When several flowers on stalks of nearly equal length spring from a common centre on a general stalk, they form an umbel^ as in the parsley. This is either general or partial ; the latter is termed an vmbellule. When flowers on separate foot-stalks, spring- ing from a common centre, have their foot- stalks variously subdivided, it is termed a cyrue, as in the elder (Sambucus). Flowers growing on partial foot-stalks without any or- der, but loosely spread on a common one, form a panicle, as in the oat {Avena). When the flowers of a panicle grow closely together, somewhat\ approaching an ovate form, as a bunch of grapes, the lilac, &c., it is termed a thyrsus, or bunch. When the flowers are all barren and sessile upon a common axis, it forms the amentum. The exterior covering of plants is called the epidermis or cuticle, answering the same purpose as the scarf-skin or cuticle of animals, viz. protecting the interior and more tender parts from the injuries that might arise from exces- sive heat, cold, &c. ; yet, being porous, it al- lows the absorption and emission of moisture and air, and the admission of light. It cannot but have been observed how the epidermis varies in different plants ; how smooth it is over the petals of most floM'ers — how downy on the fruit of the peach — how rough on the the oak— on the nettle, clothed with perforated poisonous hairs. The cuticle peels off in some plants, as in the cork tree. In some plants, especially the Dutch rush (Equisetum hyemale)^ it is so impregnated with silicious or flinty matter as to serve as a polish for the cabinet- TmlrPT* &lQi Immediately beneath the epidermis is the cellular integument ; this is usually the seat of colour, being red in the petals of the red rose, blue in the common violet, &c. Leaves appear to be little else than masses of cellular integu- ment, enclosed in a case of epidermis, and tra- versed by numerous sap-vessels. Next to the cellular integument occurs the bark. In stems and branches but one year old this consists but of one layer; in older ones there are to be 211 BOTANY. BOTANY. observed a layer for every year of age ; these, however, are of little import to the plant, the vital functions for the time being are carried on in the layer immediately in contact with the wood. This innermost ring is termed the liber. The bark is very conspicuous in some roots, as the parsnip, carrot, &c.; the thick outer ring, observable when these are cut transversely, is the. bark. The bark consists of woody fibres, chiefly running longitudinally, but beautifully interwoven. In one of the me- zereon tribe, a native of Jamaica, and called the lace bark, it may be separated into elegant layers of lace-work. In the bark the peculiar properties of the plant principally reside ; wit- ness the resin in the pine, the fragrant oil of the cinnamon, &c. Next to the liber occurs the ti-ood, which forms the chief bulk of trees. A layer or more of this occurs in all exogenous plants, for in the portion of it which adjoins the liber, and is named the alburnum, are the sap-vessels which convey the fluid from the root to the leaves, whence it descends into vessels situ- ated in the liber, as we shall see hereafter. In trees, a fresh layer of wood is deposited every year adjoining the liber, from which it is formed or deposited ; hence the age of a tree may be known by counting the concentric rings. In the middle of the wood occurs the medulla or pith, commonly a porous, juicy, yel- lowish or greenish substance; even the hollow stems of the onion, &c., are lined with a film of it. It seems to be an extra reservoir of nourishment, required for the formation of the leaves and more recent parts of plants; at all events, in old stems and branches it is usually obliterated. Botanists are not determined as to its uses. When a seed is committed to the ground, if moisture, air, and heat are not all present in certain favourable proportions, it refuses to germinate. (See Wateh, its uses to vegeta- tion.) No seed will vegetate in dry earth, nor in a temperature at or below the freezing point; all require a free admission of air. These circumstances being favourable, the seed swells — the skin bursts — and the radicle, or embryo root, makes its appearance, and sinks into the earth. The cotyledons, if the seed has more than one, by degrees develope themselves, and rise above the surface, afford- ing nourishment to the embryo stem, situated between them, until the radicle has become sufficiently a root to supply food for its growth; when thus rendered useless, they decay. Animal and vegetable matters rendered so- luble in water by putrefaction, various salts and earths, and water, are the chief nourish- ment plants derive from the soil ; but it is also certain that the roots absorb air, which in part accounts for the benefit aflforded to them by loosening the soil about them, and for plant- ing them near the surface. When a plant has got its leaves developed, it possesses another source of acquiring nourishment from the at- mosphere. See Gases, their use to vegetation. The atmosphere, which to our eyes appears a sii.iple uniform fluid, has been demonstrated by chemists to be composed of three different gases or airs with which is constantly mixed 212 [ the vapour of water. The gases are known as j oxygen, carbonic acid, and azote or nitrogen. , Carbonic acid gas is carbon or charcoal com- I bined with oxygen. Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen gases. These facts, by a little attention, will be easily remembered, and render all that follows comprehensible. The nourishment which is absorbed by the roots being in a fluid state, proceeds alor.g the sap-vessels situated in the alburnum of the wood, and spreads through the leaves, flowers, &c. Here, and during its course up the stem, by the varied absorption and decomposition of water and carbonic acid, and the emission of oxygen, the sap is converted into various sub- stances, varying in every species of plants ; gum is formed in the cherry, resin in the fir, &c.; these are deposited as the sap descends through the vessels of the liber. From the sftp likewise is derived the nourishment from whence is formed the wood, &c.; in fact, it is the source of the growth of the parts. Our knowledge of chemistry and vegetable physio- logy is yet too imperfect to enable us to mark the various shades of difference in the pro- cesses of each plant with any degree of pre- cision. We know that in the light all plants absorb carbonic acid gas, and emit oxygen whilst in the dark; on the contrary, they ab- sorb the latter and give out the former by the same surfaces ; but we are utterly unable to point out how the same organs secrete a poi- son in the nightshade and a wholesome food in the potato, which so closely resembles the first in form. A few very simple experiments will serve to fix the above facts upon our me- mories. We may prove that the sap rises through the alburnum, and descends through the bark, by placing the cut end of a leafy twig of the fig tree in an infusion of Brazil wood; after some hours cut oflT about half an inch of the extremity, when a circle of red dots will mark where the infusion ascended, and an outer circle of white dots will show where the juices descend. That leaves throw off" moisture, or perspire, is demonstrated by inverting a tumbler over two or three leaves placed in the light; the inside of the glass will soon be perceptibly covered with dew. That leaves throw off" gas from their sur- faces is demonstrated by plunging one in a ves- sel of water; air-bubbles will soon be perceived to be emitted by and attached to it. In due course of time the flowers of a plant open; the anthers of the stamens swell, burst, and scatter a dust, termed pollen, secreted by them, and which is caught immediately by the moist stigmas of the pistils, or is carried to them by the wind, or accidental contact of some insect. This contact of the pollen with the stigma is found to be absolutely necessary before the seed can be perfected. This course of vegetation is repeated for a series of years in perennials, but the plant decays as soon as the seed is perfected in annuals. Botanists at present are acquainted with nearly 100,000 species of plants; and the care ' with which Providence has provided for me well-being of plants is an earnest of their im portance. That they may never become ex BOTANY. I nct,lhe number of their seeds is often immense : I '.ay counted 32,000 in one poppy-head ! Where I le seeds are less numerous, their safety is se- cured hy the extra strength of the seed-vessel, leir nauseous, poisonous nature, and other leans. The various modes in which they are spread over the face of the country is equal evidence of a peculiar providential care. The seed-down bears some through the air to a dis- ;ince; some cling by their rough appendages t3 the coats of animals; others are borne by r eighbouring streams, or by the winds, to an immense distance; cocoa-nuts float from the tropics to the shores of Norway; African seeds are blown over the southern coasts of Spain ; birds, animals, and even the seed-vessels them- selves, by an ejective power, all perform a part in the office of dissemination. Then, again, the various kinds of defence with which they are endowed: cuticles, woolly, and thorny, and llinty, to preserve an equable temperature and lo prevent injurious wounds. The buds which contain the embryo of leaves to appear the ibllowing year, how enveloped are they in scales, and often coated with resin or gum ! Independent of any general arrangement, slants are divided into species, genera, and /arieties. By species is to be understood a plant which 3y certain permanent signs can be distinguished from all others; for instance, every one can ietermine that the damask rose differs from every other; and botanists, having shown by what specific marks it may always be distin- guished, have determined it to be a species: but there are many other roses which, though hav- ing specific points of difference, very closely resemble the damask rose ; these, botanists have therefore collected into one family, which they term a genus, under the general name of Rosa. Rosa, then, is the generic or family name; but, to distinguish the species, every one has a separate second or specific name : — thus, the -^damask rose is Rosa centifoUa ; the dog rose, Rosa canina; these second names are therefore termed the specific names. By variety is meant a plant varying in an established species, but which cannot produce an exact resemblance of itself by seed. Thus, all our apples are varieties of one species, the crab (_Pyrus) ; and all plants raised from their seed invariably differ from each other and their parent. The whole vegetable kingdom, then, I is divided into families, or genera, composed ' of a greater or less number of species. In I botany the varieties are little noticed. These | genera are distributed by Linnaeus into classes, in what, from him, is denominated the Linnoean System of Botany. I These classes are twenty-four in number, j founded on the number, situation, or propor- \ tion of the stamens. j The plants of the twenty-four classes are j further arranged in subdivisions, denominated | orders. The orders of the first thirteen classes j are founded on the number of pistils the plants I belonging to them contain. | The orders of the 14th class are distinguished by their seed-vessels. j The two orders of the 15th class are distin- ^ uished by the form of the seed-vessels. j BOTS. The orders of the 16th, 17th, and 18ih classes are founded on the number of the stamens, that is, on the characters of the first thirteen classes. The orders of the 19th class (Syngenesia) are marked by the nature of the florets. The orders of the 2dth, 2ist, and 22d classes are distinguished by the characters of some of the classes that preceded them; that is, by the number or proportion of the stamens, the union of the anthers not being attended to. The orders of the 23d class are distinguished upon the principles of the two preceding classes The 24th class {Cryptogamia) is divided intc five orders : — 1. Ferns, 3. Liverworts, 2. Mosses, 4. Algse, 5. Mushrooms. The natural system of M. Jussieu. — Every per- son must have observed, that plants in many instances are arranged by nature in families ; for instance, the grasses, liliaceous plants, the umbelliferous plants, mosses, sea-weeds, ferns, &c., are composed of individuals bearing a very striking resemblance to each other in their forms. The same resemblance holds in their internal qualities, between such plants as resemble one another in configuration. Thus the grasses are all nutritious ; the liliaceous plants in general poisonous; umbelliferous plants growing on high dry soils are generally wholesome ; those of wet situations are gene- rally poisonous. The importance of keeping these families undivided in a botanical classi- fication is evident; and if plants were univer- sally separable into such distinct families as those above mentioned, a natural system would be easy and perfect. But plants are too diver- sified; they approach each other in such va- rious shades, that it is certain a complete natural system can never be perfected, or must be too intricate for general use. Jussieu's sys- tem, with all its merit, is open to both these objections ; it is imperfect, were it only from being founded upon the structure of the seed, that part of plants which is, perhaps, more sel- dom than any other capable of being observed by the botanist. " There are fifteen classes and one hundred orders. The classes have no particular names, but are distinguished by numbers, with a short statement of essential characters. The orders are named after some principal genus in each. There are some inaccuracies in the arrange- ment ; many plants, considered by Jussieu as monocotyledon ous, are now known to be with- out any cotyledons. At the end Jussieu places a large assemblage of genera, consisting of plants, the construction of whose seed is undetermined. This, of course, is an imperfection, but not peculiar to Jussieu's system. It must be the case with all systems founded on nature, unless their contrivers could have at once before them a specimen of every species of plant that the various portions of our globe produce. This system has been greatly modified and improved by Decandolle, Lindley, and others ; and it is now justly pre- ferred to the artificial system of Linnaeus. (G. W.Johnson; Dr. Lindley; G.Sinclair; Trans. High. Soc. vol. i. p. 81.) BOTS. In farriery, a kind :f worms verv 81d BOT-FLIES. BOT-FLIES. troublesome to horses. Bols are the larvos or ' maggots of a species of gad-fly (the (Estrus : «(/Mi), which deposits its eggs on the legs, mane, or those parts of the horse that the animal is most apt to lick. The egg is immediately hatched by the warmth and moisture of the tongue, and the little worm conveyed into the mouth, whence it crawls down t'le oesophasrus into the stomach. It adheres to the cuiicular coat of the stomach by means of little hooks, with which its mouth is furnished ; and there it remains from the summer of one year to the spring of the next, nourished by the mucus of the stomach, or the food which it contains. Then having attained its full size as a maggot, it loosens its hold, and is carried along the in- lesvines with the other contents of the stomach, and evacuated with the fceces. Before it drops, it generally clings for a while to the verge of the anus, and tickles and teases the horse to a very great degree. Except they exist in most unusual numbers, bots do neither good nor harm during their residence in the stomach of the horse. It is the habitation which nature has assigned to them; and the safety of so noble an animal as the horse would not have been compromised for the sake of a maggot and a fly. The best advice that can be given, therefore, is to let them alone, or at most to be content with picking them ofi" when they appear under the tail. There are two good reasons for this. The first is, that there is not any me- dicine that will expel them ; the strongest and even the most dangerous purgative is insuffi- cient. The second reason is, that if the bots are let alone, they will, in due time, come all away without our help or meddling. (Claier's Farriery, p. 168 — 170.) Green food, however, expels them readily, as does common salt in the proportion of two to four ounces to a quart of water. The most simple and efficient reme- dy is a quart of milk, mixed well with a quar- ter of a pound of honey or brown sugar, given fasting. This is much better than aloes. BOT-FLIES. The various insects, impro- perly called bot-bees, are two-winged flies, be- longing to the order Diptera and the family (Estridoe. Bot-flies do not seem to have any mouth or proboscis ; for, although these parts do really exist in them, the opening of the mouth is extremely small, and the proboscis is very short, and is entirely concealed in it, so that these insects, while in the winged state, do not appear able to take any nourishment. The larvae or young of bot-flies live in various parts of the bodies of animals. They are thick, fleshy, whitish maggots, without feet, tapering towards the head, which is generally armed with two hooks, and the rings of the body are i surrounded with rows of smaller hooks or prickles. When fully grown, they drop to the ' ground and burrow in it a short distance. ' After this, the skin of the maggot becomes a ' nard and brownish shell, Avithin which the in- i sect turns to a pupa, and finally to a fly, and comes out by pushing a little piece like a lid from the small end of the shell. i More than twenty different kinds of bot-flies are already known, and several of them are found in the United States. Some of them have bvcn brought here with our domesticated ani- 214 mals from abroad, and have multiplied ai I increased. Three of them attack the horse. The large bot-fly of the horse {Gasterophilus equi) has spotted wings. She lays her eggs about his knees ; the small red-tailed species (G. hccmorrhoidalis), on his lips; and the brown farrier bot-fly (G. velerinus), under hi^ throat, according to Dr. Roland Green. By rubbing and biting the parts where the eggs are laid, the horse gets the maggots into his mouth, and swallows them with his food. The insects then fasten themselves in clusters to the inside of his stomach, and live there till they are fully grown. The following are stated to be the symptoms shown by the horse when he is much infested by these insects. He loses flesh, coughs, eats sparingly, and bites his sides ; at length he has a discharge from his nose ; and these symptoms are followed by a stiff"ness of his legs and neck, staggering, difficulty in breath- ing, convulsions, and death. No sure and safe remedy has yet been found sufficient to remove bots from the stomach of the horse. The pre- ventive means are very simple, consisting only in scraping off" the eggs or nits of the fly every day. Bracy Clark, Esq., who has published some very interesting remarks on the bots of horses and of other animals, maintains that bots are rather beneficial than injurious to the animals they infest. (Dr. Harris.) If a piece of the maAv or stomach of a horse that has died while affected with bots be cut out, it may be held under the jet of the strongest fountain or hydrant, without the maggots or bots leaving go, or loosing their hooks. Experiments have been made to de- stroy them out of the body with spirits of tur- pentine, alcohol, and a great many of the most stimulating and acrimonious substances, in liquid and other forms, all, however, with little apparent effect upon an insect so very tena- cious of life. The bot-maggot is even said to live a considerable length of time in oil of vi- triol and nitric acid or aquafortis. After such results, the chance of destroying them in the body must be small, through means which would not destroy the horse. The following ingenious method has, however, been pursued with success. A full drench has been admi- nistered, consisting of a mixture of milk sweet- ened with molasses, followed soon after by an active purgative drench. The milk and mo- lasses tempt the bot-maggots to let go their holds in order the better to partake of the 'milk, in which condition they are worked off' quickly by the brisk operation of the medicine. The maggots of the (Estnis bovis, or ox bot- fly, live in large open boils, sometimes called wornils or Avurmals, that is, worm-holes, on the backs of cattle. The fly is rather smaller than the horse bot-fly, although it comes from a much larger maggot. The sheep bot-fly (Cephalemyia ovis) lays its eggs in the nostrils of sheep, and the maggots crawl from thence into the hollows in the bones of the forehead. Deer are also afflicted by bots peculiar to them. Our native hare, or rabbit, as it is commonly called, sometimes has very large bots, which live under the skin of his back. The fly (Oestrus buccatus) is as big as our largest humble-bee, but is not hairy. It is of a reddish- BOUND. lack colour; the face and the sides of the )ind-body are covered with a bluish-white tloom; there are many small black dots on t le latter, and six or eight on the face. This ty measures seven-eighths of an inch or more i 1 length, and its wings expand about three- quarters of an inch. It is rarely seen; and ny only specimen was taken in the month of July, many years ago. At the very end of this order is to be placed a remarkable group of insects, which seems to connect the flies with the true ticks and spi- ders. Some of these insects have wings ; but others have neither wings nor poisers. Of the winged kinds there is one (Hippobosca e(jui>i(i) that nestles in the hair of the horse; others are bird-flies {Ornithomyia), and live in the plumage of almost all kinds of birds. The wingless kinds have sometimes been called spider-flies, from their shape ; such are sheep- ticks {Melltyphagus ovis) and bat-ticks (^Nycteri- iin). These singular creatures are not pro- uced from eggs, in the usual way among in- ects, but are brought forth in the pupa state, nclosed in the egg-shaped skin of the larva, >ehich is nearly as large as the body of 'the jiarent insect. This egg-like body is soft and white at first, but soon becomes hard and brown. It is notched at one end, and out of this notched part the enclosed insect makes its ray, when it arrives at maturity. (Br. Harris.) BOUND (Sax. buntje, from bint)an, to bind). In veterinary medicine, a term of various ap- )lication. Any part of an animal that is em- braced with an unnatural force is said to be bound: thus horses are liable to be hoof-bound, hide-bound, &c. Or the bowels may be con- stricted so as not to part with the foeces, in which case the bellv is said to be bound. BOWEL DISEASES (Mod. Fr. boyaux ; old Fr. boailles). The horse and other quadru- peds are liable to various diseases affecting the bowels. Of inflammation of the bowels there are two kinds ; that of the external and that of the internal coat. The former is a ver>' frequent and fatal disease, and is recognised by the farrier under the name of red colic. It is frequently caused by the application of cold to the belly of the horse, either by taking him into the water, ur washing him about the belly with cold water, or suffering him to drink plentifully of it when he is heated, or by expo- sure to rain, over-exertion on a full stomach, &c. From whatever cause it arises, it runs its course with fearful rapidity, and sometimes destroys the horse in less than twenty-four hours. The symptoms should be carefully studied. One of the earliest is the expression of very acute pain. The animal paws, rolls, struggles violently, lies upon his back, groans ; his legs and mouth are cold, the flanks heave violently, the horse shivers and sweats, &c. The violence of the symptoms soon abates, and the horse becomes weak, and scarcely able to stand. Prompt and copious bleeding should be at first resorted to, until fainting nearly or quite succeeds; and mild aperients may be next administered. The whole of the belly should be stimulated with the strong blis- tering liquid, or with spirit of turpentine; and these appliances should be rubbed in as hard'v BOX-TKEE. and thoroughly as the tender state ol the belly will allow. The horse should be kept quiet, warmly clothed, and his legs bandaged. In- flammation of the inner coat of the bowels is usually the consequence of physic, either of bad quality or given in an over-dose ; or the horse may have been ridden or driven far and fast with nothing but green meat in his belly. j This disease can scarcely be confounded with • the foregoing. The horse does not roll so vio lently nor kick so desperately, nor is there an/ heat nor much tenderness of the belly. At the same time he is purged, instead of exhibiting the obstinate costiveness which generally ac- companies the former. Plenty of tolerably thick gruel or starch should be forced down, which will possibly sheathe the coats of the stomach from the effect either of some portion of the physic or the acrimony of the secretion, and the purging will gradually stop. If this should have no effect, bleeding, carefully watcned, and stopped when the pulse falters, must be resorted to ; and thicker gruel and astringent medicine must be administered. As in the last species, warm clothing and bandages about the legs will be of essential service. (Clater's Farriery, p. 173 — 178.) BOWLDERS, or BOULDERS. A term in geology, implying rounded masses of rock ; it is also provinciaily applied to a kind of round stone, common in the soils of the midland dis- tricts. In the north of England it is pronounced sometimes boicder or booder, and also boolher. BOWLDER-WALL. A wall generally on the sea-coast, constructed of large pebbles or bowlders of flint, which have been rounded by the action of water. BOW-LEGGED. In horsemanship, is a de- fective conformation or posture of the fore-legs of a horse. BOWS OF A SADDLE are two pieces of wood laid archwise to receive the upper part of the horse's back, to give the saddle its due form, and keep it steady. BOX DRAIN. An underground drain, re- gularly built, with upright sides, and a flat stone or brick cover ; so that the close section has the appearance of a square box. See Drains and Diiaixing. BOX TREE (Sax. box ; It. basso ; Fr. bins ; Lat. Buxus sempervirens). We consider the English name of this plant to be a corruption of the Latin word buxus, or from the Spanish box, and that it gave the name to the Avooden cases made by the carpenter and turner, rather than derived its own from these cases. The box was formerly much more plentiful in England than at present. Boxwel, in Glou- cestershire, w^as named from this tree, and it also gave the name of Boxhill to those delight- ful downs near Dorking, in Surry, where this shrub seems to have grown naturally, as it is knowm to have abounded there long before the time that the Earl of Arundel retired to that spot, and, as it is stated, planted the box. In 1815 the box trees cut down on Boxhill pro- duced upwards of 10,000/. This evergreen bush, or small tree, is found all over Europe, as well as upon the chalk hills of England ; but it acquires its largest dimensions in the south. The duty on box-wood is quite oppres- 2i 5 BOX. BRAMBLE. sive; being 57. a ton if brought from a foreign country, and 1/. a ton if from a British pos- session. It is from Turkey that the principal part of the wood is imported into England ; whether or not all this is really furnished by Buxus sempennreiis is not known. It is not im- probable that Buxus buleai-ica, a larger species, too tender to thrive in this country, may fur- nish a part, at least, of that which comes ftorri the Mediterranean. It is said, that the wood of this species is coarser, and of a brighter yel- low than that of the common species. At an average of the three years ending with 1831, the entries of box-wood for home consumption amounted to 382 tons a year. In 1832, the duty produced 1867/. 17s. M. Turkey box- wood sells in the London market for from 11. to 14/. a ton, duty included. Box is a very valuable wood. It is of a yellowish colour, close-grained, very hard, and heavy ; it cuts better than any other wood, is susceptible of a very fine polish, and is very durable. In con- sequence it is much used by turners and ma- thematical and musical instrument makers. It is too heavy for furniture. It is the only wood used by the engravers of wood-ci ts for books; and, provided due care be exercised, the num- ber of impressions that may be taken from a box-wood cut is very great; In France, box- wood is extensively used for combs, knife handles, and button moulds. The value of the box-wood sent from Spain to Paris is re- ported to amount to 10,000 fr. a year. Where box trees are required, they should be raised from seed, which should be sown soon after it is ripe, in a shady border of light loam, or sand ; but it is generally propagated by cuttings planted in the autumn, and kept moist, until they have taken root. The box plant is best known for its use in gardens as hedgings to borders ; the kind so employed is a dwarf variety. It is very useful, as it grows freely under the drip and shade of trees. Dwarf box is increased by parting the roots, or planting the slips. The best time for trans- planting this shrub is October; though it may be removed almost at any time, except sum- mer, if it be taken up with a good ball of earth. With respect to its medicinal properties, box-wood has been substituted for guaiacum as a sudorific in rheumatism ; but is now seldom prescribed. Oil of box root is a popular reme- dy for the toothache, when dropped on cotton, and put into a carious tooth. {Phillips's Sylv. Flor. vol. i. p. 44; Brande's Did. of Science; M'CuUoch's Com. Diet.) BOX of a Wheel. The aperture wherein the axis turns. BOX of a Plough. The cross-piece in the head of the plough which supports the two crow-stares. BRACE. The general name for a couple, or pair, of such animals as bucks, hounds, partridges, &c. It is also applied to any thing that serves to strengthen or support. BRACKEN. It is written also broken, and sometimes pronounced breckin in the north of England. The same with brake or fern. See j Fekx. BRAIRD. In the agriculture and gardening | 216 of Scotland, the term braird is applied to the springing up of seeds, which, when they come up well, are said to have a fine braird. BRAKE. The name of a wooden instru- ment for dressing hemp and flax, used to bruise or break the bun or stem, &c. in order to separate the cortical part or rind from it. It is sometimes applied to a thicket, or the place where fern grows ; and is another name for the barnacles, or pincers, used by farriers. Brake is also a sharp bit, or snaffle for horses. A smith's brake is a machine in which horses unwilling to be shod are confined during that operation. Some species of large heavy har- rows are frequently called brakes. See Har- row. BRAMBLE, FLOWERING (Rubus odoror tus). A hardy exotic shrub, five or six feet in height, blowing a pinkish violet-coloured flower in June and August. It loves shade and moist- ure, and is propagated by suckers. It is known also as the flowering raspberry. BRAMBLE or BRAMBLE-BERRY (Sax. bjisembei, formerly written bremble ; Lat. i?it- bus). The bramble, or blackberry, the generic name of a large family of shrubs which creep along the hedge in every soil. The common bramble (Rubus fruticosus) derives both its La- tin and English common name from the colour of its fruit at difl!erent stages of ripeness. However generally the bramble is reprobated as a troublesome weed, we must acknowledge that, when either in fruit or flower, it forms a principal among the numberless hedgerow beauties, and is not without its utility in par- ticular soils, especially in poor sandy lands, where the growth of other hedges is slow, and where, by reason of the looseness of the soil, the ditch is no defence. When planted in such situations, it will, by its quick growth, soon entwine its thorny branches in the dead hedge, and form an almost impervious fence against the invasions of cattle, sheep, and other trespassers. Brambles mixed with other hedge plants will render them thicker and stronger. The objections urged against the more general adoption of bramble fences are, that, by the yearly decay of a portion of the shoots, they soon fill the hedge with dead wood, which has not only an unsightly appearance, but is also hurtful to the other plants; and again it is said, that the leaves are so broad and numerous as to smother every other plants by depriving it of both sun and air. When brambles are in considerable abundance, as is often the case in waste and other lands tha require to be brought into cultivation, they should always be grubbed or hoed up ; and if the land be afterwards ploughed with a good furrow, the remaining roots will be torn up, and the plants at length destroyed. This shrub, which is only used by the chance passenger occasionally plucking its fruit, possesses, how- ever, several advantages which deserve our attention. Its long branches can, in case of need, be employed as cords ; and its fruit pro- duces an excellent wine, the mode of making which is as follows : — Five measures of the ripe fruit, with one of honey and six of wine, are taken and boiled ; the froth is skimmed off, the fire removed, and the mixture being BRAMBLE. BRAMBLE. fiassed through a linen cloth, is left to ferment, t is then boiled anew, and allowed to ferment in a suitable cask. In Provence bramble-ber- ries are used to give a deep colour to particu- lar wines. {Jllgem. Forst und Jagd-Zeitung, Feb. 1828, p. 104.) The juice of the blackberry, mixed with raisin wine before it has fermented, will give it both the colour and flavour of claret. " The berries," says Pliny, " have a desiccative and astringent virtue, and are a most appropriate remedy for the gums and inflammation of the tonsils." The flowers as well as the berries of the bramble were igno- rantly considered by the ancients as remedies against the most dangerous serpents. They are diuretic; and the juice pressed out of the tendrils, or young shoots, and afterwards re- duced to the consistency of honey by standing in the sun, is, adds the above author, "a sin- gularly efficacious medicine, taken inwardly or applied outwardly, for all the diseases of the mouth and eyes, as well as for the quincy, &c." But Pliny has lost his celebrity as a medical authority, if he ever had any ; and modern blackberries have also lost their virtue. Boerhaave affirms, that the roots taken out of the earth in February or March, and boiled with honey, are an excellent remedy against the dropsy. Syrup of blackberries, picked when only red, is cooling and astringent in common purgings or fluxes. The bruised leaves, stalks, and un- ripe fruit, applied outwardly, are said to cure ringworm. Billington, n\ his work on Planting, says, '*To the poor in the vicinity of Newcastle it is of great importance ; many of whom go a great number of miles to gather blackberries while they are in season, and carry them from ten to twenty miles, to Newcastle, Shields, and- Sunderland, where they sometimes sell them as high as 3d. and 4<7. per quart, for puddings, tarts, preserves, or jellies, and even making of wines." The fruit is, in particular, much esteemed and sought after by the wives and mothers of sailors, to send on board the ships, as it is found to be very healthful to the men to eat with their biscuits, as well as for pud- dings, much more so than their common fare of salt beef and pork. All through the season, after the gooseberries are over (for apples, plums, &c., are often scarce and dear), the people are regaled with the fruit of the bram- ble as the greatest domestic luxury, and would probably lay in a store for future consumption if sugar were cheaper. The leaves of the dwarf crimson bramble (Rvbus arcticus) are often used to adulterate tea. See WHonTtEBEHRT. Of the Ricbus fruticosus, or common bramble, we have (says Phillips) five varieties ; and as one has been discovered in a hedge near Ox- ford by Bobart which produces a white fruit, it will be necessary to adopt the proper name j of bramble-berry for this fruit, to avoid the | contradictory appellation of white blackberry, j The variety with a double flower is now one | of the ornaments of the shrubbery; the other i varieties are, one with variegated leaves, one with cut leaves, and the bramble without ; thorns. Smith, in his English Flora, describes | fourteen species of bramble (Rubus) ; which ; 28 include the raspberry, cloudberry, and dew- berry. Several reputed varieties of the com- mon bramble have also been observed in Britain (says Smith, vol. ii. p. 400), differing in the shape and pubescence of their leaflets', not to mention other characters. These have recently been proposed as species in a very able work, with excellent plates partially co- loured, by Dr. A. Weihe and Prof. Ch. G. Nees ab Esenbeck of Bonn, under the title of Rubi Germanica. Notwithstanding the colour of the flowers, I cannot suppose the British R. fruti^ cosns to difler from theirs. (SmiUi's Engl. Florae vol. ii. ; Phillips's Hist, of Fruits, p. 63 ; Quar- terly Journ. of Agr. vol. i. p. 816; vol. iii. p, 182.) The Rubus brier, or bramble genus, consists of about fifty species, which are very widely dispersed over the various continents, extending from the arctic circle to the equatorial limits. Mr. Nuttall enumerates twenty species as found in America, among which are the following: iiK/;Ms/r/«Ms, indigenous, according to Pursh and others, throughout Upper Canada and the north- ern parts of the United States. Dr. Darlington calls this the Antwerp raspberry, so advantage- ously known from its large and finely flavoured berries which are cultivated in most gardens. He doubts its being a native of America. There are several varieties of this species of Rubus. The Rubus occidentalism common black raspberry, or thimble-berry, is common in the Middle States and other portions of the Union, growing along fence-rows, borders of woods, &c. Rubus villosus, common brier, or black- berry bush, is often a great nuisance on farms, from the rapidity with which it spreads and takes possession of neglected fields. R. Cunei- folius, or wedge-leaved rubus or brier, bearing an oval-shaped, small, and well-flavoured blackberry, very common in New Jersey. R. Trivialis, dewberry, or running brier. The black, sweet, and succulent fruit of this species of rubus is a very great favourite. It is not, however, the same as the English dew- berry, which is produced by the Rubus Casius. In treating of the American dewberry, or run- ning brier. Dr. Darlington says, "the plough- boy is apt to get well acquainted with this species, — by the long trailing stems, with their recurved prickles, drawing across his naked ankles!" R. odoruius, found on the banks of the Wisahickon, near Philadelphia, abundant in mountainous districts, always among rocks. The tall blackberry (R. Villosus) is some- times cultivated near Boston and other large cities, for the sake of its fruit, and richly re- pays the care bestowed upon it. Dr. Harris, in his report to the Massachusetts legislature upon destructive insects, says, that this plant and its near relation, the raspberry, suffer from borers that live in the pith of the stems, a fact which does not appear to be generally known. The beetle is a species oC Saperda, and finishes its transformations towards the end of July, laying its eggs early in August, one by one, on the stems of the blackberry and raspberry, near a leaf or small twig. The grubs proceed ing from these eggs burrow directly mto the pith, which they consume as they proceed, s«. BRAN. that the stem for several inches is completely deprived of its pith, and consequently withers and dies before the end of the summer. In Europe, one of these slender saperdas attack the hazle-nut bush, and another the pear tree in a similar manner. Of cultivated blackberries in the United States, the earliest varieties are, the Early Wilson and Dorchester ; the later are the Lawton, Kittatiny, and Needham's White. There is a double white flowering bramble (Rtibtis nlbo-pleno) which is a beautiful and or- namental varietv. BRAN (Old Fr. hrm; Ital. brenna). The hin skin or husks of corn, particularly wheat, ground and separated from the meal by a sieve or boulter. It is generally laxative ; owing to the mechanical irritation it excites. An infu- sion of it, under the name of bran tea, is fre- quently used as a domestic remedy for coughs and hoarseness. Infusions of bran also re- move scurf and dandriff. Calico-printers em- ploy bran and warm water with great success, to remove colouring matter from those parts of their goods that are not mordanted. Bran is a useful ingredient, when well scalded, and employed occasionally in moderate quantities, in mashes for horses ; but the constant use of it, whether raw or scalded, is prejudicial, as it is apt to weaken the horse's bowels, and there- by expose him to many disorders. It is also highly useful in stall-feeding cattle, and for sheep, when given as a dry food. According to the analysis of M. Saussure, 100 parts of the ashes of the bran of wheat contain {Chem. Rec. Veg.),— Parts. Soluble salts ----- 4415 Earthy phosphates - - - - 46-5 Silica 0-5 Metallic oxides 025 Loss ------- 86 BRAND-GOOSE, or BRENT-GOOSE. A kind of wildfowl, less than a common goose, having its breast and wings of a dark colour. See Goose. BRANK. A provincial name sometimes applied to buckwheat, which see. BRAWN. The flesh of the boar, after being boned, rolled up, or collared, boiled, and pick- led. Brawn is made of the flitches, and some other parts, the oldest boars being chosen for the purpose, it being a rule that the older the boar the more horny the brawn. The method of making it is generally as follows: — The bones being taken out of the flitches, or other parts, the flesh is sprinkled with salt, and laid in a tray, that the blood may drain off;' after which it is salted a little, and rolled up as hard as possible. The length of the collar of brawn should be as much as one side of the boar will bear ; so that, when rolled up, it may be nine or ten inches in diameter. After being thus rolled up, it is boiled in a copper or large kettle, till it is so tender that you may almost run a stiff straw through it ; when it is set by till thoroughly cold, and then put into a pickle composed of water, salt, and wheat-bran, in the proportion of two handfuls of each of the latter to every gallon of water ; which, after be'lng well boiled together, is strained off as clear as possible from the bran, 213 BREAD. and when quite cold, the brawn put into it ( Willkh's Dom. Encycl.) BREACHY, or BREECHY WOOL, is tho short coarse wool of a sheep, such as that which comes from the breech of the animal. BREAD (Sax. bpeoo; Ger. brod). This forms an important and principal article in the food of most civilized nations, and consists of a paste or dough formed of the flour or meal of different sorts of grain, mixed with water, with or without yeast or ferment, and baked. Bread may be divided, in the first instance, into leavened and unleavened bread. When stale dough or yeast is added to the fresh dough of flour and water to make it swell, it is said to be leavened; when nothing of this sort is added, the bread is said to be unleavened. These may again be subdivided into various kinds and qualities. The principal sorts in use are tvhite, wheaten, household, and brown bread, which differ from each other in their degrees of purity. In the first, all the bran is separated from the flour ; in the second, only the coarser parts of it ; and in the third scarcely any at all; so that fine bread is made only of flour ; wheaten bread of flour, with a mixture of fine bran ; and household bread of the whole substance of the grain, without taking out scarcely any either of the coarse bran or the fine flour. We have also manchet or roll-bread, and French bread, which are fine white breads made of the purest flour ; in roll-bread there is sometimes an ad- dition of milk, and in French bread butter is used. There is likewise ginger-bread, maslin- bread, made of wheat and rye, or sometimes of wheat and barley; and other breads made with various substitutes for flour, as oat-bread, rye-bread, pea and bean-bread, &c. The President de Goguet has endeavoured {Origin of Laws, ^-c, vol. i. pp. 95 — 105, Eng. trans.) to trace the successive steps by v/hich it is probable men were led to discover the art of making bread; but nothing positive is known on the subject. It is certain, however, from the statements in the sacred writinj^s, that the use of unleavened bread was common in the days of Abraham (Gen. xviii. 8); and that leavened bread was used in the time of Moses (Exod. xii. 15). The method of grind- ing corn by hand-mills was practised in Egypt and Greece from a very remote epoch ; but for a lengthened period, the Romans had no other method of making flour than by beating roasted corn in mortars. The conquests of the Romans diffused, amongst many other use- ful discoveries, a knowledge of the art of pre- paring bread, as followed in Rome, through the whole south of Europe. The use of yeast in the raising of bread seems, however, from a passage of Pliny (lib. xviii. c. 7), to have been taken advantage of by the Germans and Gauls before it was prac- tised by the Romans ; the latter, like the Greeks, having leavened their bread by intermixing the fresh dough with that which had become stale. The Roman custom seems to have su- perseded that which was previously in use in France and Spain ; for the art of raising bread by an admixture of yeast was not practised in France in modern times till towards the end of the seventeenth century. BREAD. For the formation of bread, a certain degree of fermentation, not unlike vinous fermenta- tion, is requisite, care being taken to avoid the acetous fermentation, which renders the bread sour, and, to most persons, disagreeable. This fermentation is called panary. If dough be left to itself in a moderately warm place (between 80° and 120°), a degree of fermentation comes on, which, however, is sluggish, or, if rapid, is apt to rim into the acetous; so that, to effect that kind of fermentation requisite for the pro- duction of the best bread, a ferment is added, which is either leaven, or dough in an already- fermenting state, which tends to accelerate the process of the mass to which it is added, or yeast, the peculiar matter which collects in the form of scum upon beer in the act of fermenta- tion. See Yeast. Of these ferments, leaven is slow and uncertain in its effects, and gives a sour and often slightly putrid flavour to the bread. Yeast is more effective, and, when clean and good, it rapidly induces panary fer- mentation; but it is often bitter, and sometimes has a peculiarly disagreeable smell and taste. Bread well raised and baked differs from un- fermented bread, not only in being spongy, less compact, lighter, and of a more agreeable taste, but also in being more easily miscible with water, with which it does not form a viscous mass ; and this circumstance is of great im- portance to health. All, then, that is essential to make a loaf of bread, is dough to which a certain quantity of yeast has been added. This mass, or sponge, in the language of the baker, is put into any tionvenient mould or form, or it s merely shaped into one mass; and, after being kept for a short time in rather a warm place, so that fermentation may have begun, it is subjected to the process of baking in a pro- per oven. Carbonic acid is generated, and the viscidity or texture of the dough preventing the immediate escape of that gas from the in- numerable points where it forms, the whole mass is puffed up by it, and a light porous bread is the result. Along with the carbonic acid alcohol is evolved, but the quantity is so insignificant and the spirit so impure as not to be worth notice; thence the attempts which have been made to collect it upon a large scale have entirely failed in an economical point of view. The general process of making household bread is this: — To a peck of meal or flour is to be added about three ounces of salt, half a pint of yeast, and three quarts of water, cold in summer, but warm in winter, and temperate between the two: the whole being then well kneaded in a bowl or trough, and being set by m a proper temperature, rises in about an hour, according to the season. It is then moulded into loaves, and put into the oven to be baked. In placing the dough aside, it is proper to cover it; this is termed setting the sponge, and it under- goes a second kneading before It is baked. For French bread, take half a bushel of fine flour,' ten eggs, a pound and a half of fresh butter (the eggs and butter, however, are very seldom used), and the same quantity of yeast used in making the finest rolls or manchet; and, tempering the whole mass with new milk, Dretty hot, let it lie half an hour to rise ; which BREAD. done, make it into loaves or rolls, and wa-ih these over with an egg beaten with milk, tak ing care that the oven is not too hot. Other flour, besides that of wheat, will, under similar circumstances, undergo panary fer- mentation ; but the result is a heavy, unpala- table, and often indigestible bread; so that the addition of a certain quantity of wheat flour is almost always had recourse to. It is the gluten in wheat which thus peculiarly fits it for the manufacture of bread, chiefly in consequence of the tough and elastic viscidity which it con* fers upon the dough. Wheat flour is composed chiefly of starch and gluten ; the proportion of these and other substances which it contains, according to Vogel, are — Parts. Starch ------- 68-0 Gluten ------- 24-0 Gummy sugar - - - - - 5-0 Vegetable albumen - - - - 1-5 Sir H. Davy states, that wheat sown in au- tumn contains 77 per cent, of starch, and 19 of gluten ; while that sown in spring yields 70 of starch and 24 of gluten. The wheat of the south of Europe contams a larger proportion of gluten than that of the north ; and hence its peculiar fitness for making macaroni and ver- micelli. Oats yielded, according to Davy's analysis, 59 of starch, 6 of gluten, and 2 of saccharine matter; while the same quantity of rye gave only 6*1 parts of starch, and half a part of gluten. Like all other farinaceous substances, bread is very nourishing, oft account of the gluten which it contains ; but if eaten too freely, it is productive of acidity, which deranges the in- testines, and lays the foundation of dyspepsia. Stale bread, in every respect, deserves the pre- ference over that which is newly baked ; and persons troubled with flatulency, cramp of the stomach, or indigestion, should abstain from new bread, and particularly from hot rolls. Bread made from the best flour is necessarily costly, but is more wholesome for those per- sons who are liable to a relaxed state of the bowels. Brown bread, on the contrary, is the cheapest and most desirable for persons whose habit of body is of the contrary nature : but there is an intermediate kind made from flour, in which the finer portion of the bran is retain- ed, called locally " seconds," which is prefer- able to either of the above. (Quar. Jour. Jgr. vol. ix. p. 585.) It is a prevailing idea that j'-east reproduces itself, just as seeds reproduce similar seeds. But chemical investigation has shown that such an opinion is not to be enter- tained. See Yeast. The species of bread in common use in a country depends partly on the taste of the in- habitants, but more on the sort of grain suita- ble for its soil. The superiority of wheat to all other farinaceous plants in the manufacture of bread is so very great, that wherever it is easily and successfully cultivated, wheaten bread is used to the nearly total excltasion of most others. Where, however, the soil or cli- mate is less favourable to its growth, rye. oats, &c., are used in its stead. A very great changjs for the better has, ji this respect, taken place in Great Britain within the last century. It is 219 BREAD. BREAD. mentioned by Harrison, in his Description of England (p. 168), that in the reign of Henry Vni. the gentry had wheat sufficient for their own tables, but that their households and poor neighbours were usually obliged to content themselves with rye, barley, and oats. It ap- pears from the household-book of Sir Edward Coke, that in 1596 rye bread and oatmeal formed a considerable part of the diet of ser- vants, even in great families, in the southern counties. In 1626 barley bread was the usual ordinary food of the great bulk of the people. At the Revolution, the wheat produced in Eng- land and Wales was estimated by Mr. King andDr. Davenant to amount to 1,750,000 quar- ters. (Davena)it's Works, vol. ii. p. 217.) Mr. Charles Smith, the very well informed author of the Trads on the Corn Trade, originally pub- lished in 1758, states that in his time wheat had become much more generally the food of the common people than it had been in 1689 ; but he adds (2d edit. p. 182. Lond. 1766), that, notwithstanding this increase, some very intel- ligent inquirers were of opinion that even then not more than half the people of England fed on wheat. Mr. Smith's own estimate, which is very carefully drawn up, is a little higher ; for, taking the population of England and Wales, in 1760, at 6,000,000, he supposes that 3,750,000 were consumers of wheat, 739,000 of barley, 888,000 of rye, and 623,000 of oat bread. He further supposed that they indivi- dually consumed — ^the first class, 1 qr. of wheat; the second, 1 qr. and 3 bushels of barley; the third, 1 qr. and 1 bushel of rye; and the fourth, 2 qrs. and 7 bushels of oats. About the -mid- dle of last century, hardly any wheat was used in the northern counties of England. In Cum- berland the principal families used only a small quantity about Christmas. The crust of the goose-pie, with which almost every table in the county is then supplied, was, at the period referred to, almost uniformly made of barley meal. (Eden, On the Poor, vol. i. p. 564.) Every one knows how inapplicable these statements are to the condition of the people of England at the present time. Wheaten bread is now almost universally made use of in towns and villages, and almost everywhere in the country. Barley is no longer used; oats are employed for bread only in the northern parts of the island ; and the consumption of rye bread is comparatively inconsiderable. The }»roduce of the wheat crops has been, at the very least, trebled since 1760. And if to this immense increase in the supply of wheat we add the still more extraordinary increase in the supply of butcher's meat (see Cattxe), the fact of a very signal improvement in the condition of the population, in respect of food, will be obvious. When flour is converted into bread, it is found, on weighing it when taken from Ibe oven, that it has increased from S8 to 34 per cent, in weight (3 lbs. of flour make 3 lbs. 10 oz. of dough) ; but when it has been kept thirty-six hours, that which had }{:ained 28 will lose about 4 per cent. There are, however, several circumstances which nfluence the quantity of bread obtained from a given weight of flour, such as the season in which the wheat was grown and the age of the «20 flour: the better the flour is, and the older, within certain limits, the larger is the quantity of the bread produced. According to the assize acts, a sack of flour weighing 280 lbs. is supposed capable of being baked into 80 quartern loaves; one-fifth of the loaf being supposed to consist of water and salt, and four-fifths of flour. But the number of loaves that may be made from a sack of flour depends entirely on its goodness. Good flour requires more water than bad flour. Sometimes 82, 83, and even 86 loaves have been made from a sack of flour, and sometimes hardly 80 : 96 are generally made, at 4 lbs. 6 oz. before going into the oven, by the London bakers. It is well known that home-made bread and bakerh bread are very difierent ; the former is usually sweeter, lighter, and more retentive of moisture, and will keep well for three weeks, especially if a little rye meal is mixed with it ; the latter, if eaten soon after it has cooled, is pleasant and spongy; but if kept more than two or three days, it becomes harsh and unpa- latable, and mouldy. Small quantities of alum are invariably used by the London bakers, with the view of whitening or bleach- ing the bread; for it will be observed, that whatever may be the quality of the flour which is used, home-made bread is always of a com- paratively dingy hue. By some respectable bakers it was formerly in extensive use, and might still be used, with perfect safety ; for in so small a quantity as a quarter of a pound of alum to 1 cwt. of flour, it couid not be in the least degree injurious. According to Mr. Ac- cum (Onthe AduUeration of Food), the requisite quantity of alum for this purpose depends upon the quality of the flour. The mealman, he says, makes different sorts of flour from the same kind of grain. The best flour is chiefly used for biscuits and pastry, and the inferior kinds for bread. In London, no fewer than five kinds of wheaten flour are brought into the market ; they are called fine flour, seconds, middlings, coarse middlings, and twenty- Tpenny. Beans and peas are also, according to the same authority, frequently ground up with London flour. The smallest quantity of alum used is from three to four ounces to the sack of flour of 240 lbs. Alum may easily be de- tected in bread, by pouring boiling water on it, pressing out the water, boiling it away to one- third, allowing it to cool, filtering it through paper, and adding to the clear liquor some solution of muriate of lime (chloride of calcium). If considerable muddiness now appear, it is proof of adulteration, and none other can well be suspected than alum. Another article oc- casionally employed in bread and ginger-bread making is carbonate of ammonia. As it is wholly dissipated by the heat of the oven, none remains in the baked loaf. It renders the bread light, and perhaps neutralizes any acid that may have been formed (exclusive of. car- bonic acid) ; but it is too dear to be much employed. To some kinds of biscuits it gives a peculiar shortness, and a few of the most celebrated manufacturers use it largel)\ Ac- cording to Mr. E. Davy, bread, especially that BREAD. of indifferent flour, is materially improved by the addition of a little carbonate of magnesia, in the proportion of twenty to thirty grains to the pound of flour; it requires to be very in- timately mixed with the flour. Salt, which, in small quantity, is absolutely necessary to the flavour of the bread, is used by fraudulent persons as an adulteration ; for a large portion of it added to dough imparts to it the quality of absorbing and retaining a much greater quantity of water than it otherwise would, thus making the loaf heavier. The taste of such bread is a sufficient index to its bad quality. It is rough in its grain. (Domestic Economy, vol. i.) A long list of other articles which are said to be used in the adulteration of bread might be given, but no advantage could result from such a statement. Making bread at home is an operation very easy of acquirement; and, doubtless, most of our farming friends are fortunate in possess- ing worthy helpmates or experienced servants who provide the families with this daily ne- cessary. To such a practical method of per- forming the art would be deemed needless; but others of our readers, who may not have considered the expediency of this bread, its superior salubrity, its decided economy, and the feasibility of its preparation, may be pleased to meet with its details. We may refer them, therefore, to the Quar. Jmtni. of JIgr. (vol. ix. pp. 289 and 583), a work which is probably in the hands of the greater number of the British farmers; or they may consult with advantage any of the worRs cited at the end of this ar- ticle, for our limits will not permit us to go into the particulars. The writer there states, that the addition of potatoes is wholly unne- cessar}', unless it be the intention of a house- wife that her product shall resemble that of tlie baker in insipidity and whiteness ; both qualities will result from the use of that root, which enters largely into the composition of all bread that is purchased. Notwithstanding the prejudice in favour of the use of potatoes, it has been proved, by careful calculation, that although even a third part of the flour be exchanged for potatoes, so immense is the quantity of water which they contain, that the substitute would cause a loss rather than a gain. Substitute for wheat flour. — Various sub- stances have been used for bread, instead of wheat. In the year 1629-30, when there was a dearth in England, bread was made in London of turnips. And again in 1693, when corn was very dear, a great quantity of turnip bread was made in several parts of the kingdom, but particularly in Essex. The process is, to put the turnips into a kettle over a slow fire, till they become soft ; they are then taken out, squeezed, and drained as dry as possible, and afterwards mashed and mixed with an equal weight of flour, and kneaded with yeast, salt, and a little warm water. A series of interest- ing experiments were made some years ago j by the Board of Agriculture to determine | what were the best substitutes for wheaten j flour in the composition of different kinds of 1 bread. For this purpose, all the sorts of grain, : &c. commonly sold in the markets in London BREAD. were procured, ground into meal, ar d baked in various proportions into bread; such as wheat, rye, rice, barley, buckwheat, maize, oats, peas, beans, and potatoes. Many of these form the principal nourishment of mankind in various countries. Buckwheat, made into thin cakes, is the chief article of food in Bre- tagne and parts of Normandy. Rice nourishes, probably, more human beings in the East than all other articles of food taken together ; and, for its bulk, is supposed to be the most nutri- tious of all the sorts of grain. Maize is a principal article throughout the south of Eu- rope, and is made into bread in Italy and in America. Peas and beans have rarely, it is believed, been used alone as bread; but, it is suspected, they enter largely, though clandes- tinely, into its composition in various districts. To ascertain the respective qualities of all these grains, and to discover their operation on each other, in correcting by means of one the defects of another, would be an inquiry deserving great attention, but it has not yet been experimentally investigated. With al- most all the several kinds of grain enumerated, experiments were made on seventy sorts of bread. But as all these sorts were made at once, by several bakers, in order to be ex- amined at the same time, the execution, it is observed, was by no means such as gave the Board of Agriculture, who instituted the in- quiry, satisfaction. One general result, how- ever, was, that very few, if any, of the loaves then exhibited, were too bad for human food in times of scarcity ; and it may be observed, that though at first a change may prove dis- agreeable, yet the practice of a few days soon reconciles the stomach to almost any species of food, by which, at least in the same country, other intlividuals can be supported. These experiments were followed by others, which I will explain under distinct heads. jiice. — Of all the mixtures, none has made bread equally good with rice, not ground, hut boiled quite soft, and then mixed with wheaten flour. One-third rice and two-thirds wheal make good bread ; but one-fourth rice makes a bread superior to any that can be eaten, better even than all of wheat; and as the gain in baking is more than of wheat alone (since rice contains 85 per cent, of starch), there can be no doubt of its nutritive quality. Rice bread thus formed is sAveetish to the taste, and very agreeable ; but, as the proportion of gluten is considerably less than in wheaten bread, it is less nutritive. Excellent biscuits are formed of the mixture. Potatoes.— The experiments made with this root were similar. It makes a pleasant pala- table bread with wheat in the proportion of one-third, but one-fourth still lighter and better. Specimens of barley and potatoes, and also of oats and the same root, made into bread, were submitted to the Board, which promise well. In some cases the potato was not boiled, but merely grated down into a palp and mixed with wheaten flour, in which mode it made excellent bread. It has been found by other trials, that good bread may be made from equal quantities of flour and potato meal, which has been greatly the pracuce m thosn T 2 22) BREAD. BREAD. countries most remarkable for the plentiful "ulture of the potato. Various experiments have teen made to combine the meal of wheat, barley, oat, bean, and pea flour with vegetable substances, and which have been found to produce very whole- some and nutritive bread. Using the potatoes after boiling, steaming, or baking, and reducing them into a sort of pow- der, seems, however, to be the most ready me- thod of making them into bread. Oats. — It appears, from some experiments made by Dr. Richard Pearson of Birmingham, that oats answer better mixed with potatoes than has been commonly apprehended. He found that three pints (dry measure) of fine oatmeal, three pints of seconds flour, and one quart of potato pulp kneaded into a dough, with a proper quantity of yeast, salt, and milk and water, made a bread of excellent quality. Barley. — Mixed with an equal proportion of wheat, or one-fourth potatoes and three-fourths barley, barley bread is good. The following method of making bread of wheat and barley flour has been strongly recommended. To four bushels of wheat ground to one sort of flour, extracting only a very small quantity of the coarser bran, add 3^ bushels of barley flour. The oven should be hotter than when bread is made of wheat alone ; and the loaves should remain in the oven about two hours or more. The offal of the barley is good food for hogs. This bread appears to be improved J>y being baked in half-gallon loaves. Rye. — In several parts of the kingdom a mixture of rye and wheat is reckoned an ex- cellent species of bread. In Nottinghamshire even opulent farmers consume one-third wheat, one-third rye, and one-third barley ; but their -abourers do not relish it. As rye is well known to be a wholesome and nutritious grain, its consumption cannot be too strongly recom- mended. The astringent quality of rice, mixed with rye, corrects the laxativt quality of the .atter, and makes it equally strong and nourish- ing with the same weight of common wheaten bread. The principal objection to rye is the circumstance of the grain being sometimes ergotted, which renders the bread unwhole- some. Indian Corn. — The flour of maize or Indian corn, by itself, makes a heavy bread. The right mode of manufacturing it is to boil the flour to the consistency of paste, and then, when mixed with wheat flour, it makes a most excellent bread. If used by itself, it is said to have at first a laxative effect, but that dimi- nishes by use, and at any rate can easily be corrected by a mixture either of barley or rice. T* '«! stated, on very respectable authority, as the general opinion of the inhabitants of the United States, but more particularly of the people of Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, and Kentucky, where Indian corn is raised in the largest quantity, and applied to the greatest variety of uses, that rather more nutriment is contained in a bushel of Indian corn than of j wheat. In the four states above-mentioned it j constitutes the almost entire food of the labour- 1 ng class of the people, ari has supplanted the [ use of wheaten bread i 222 1 There are several sorts of Indian corn in j America. The yellow flinty corn is reckoned the sweetest and most nutritive. The white ground corn of the southern states makes the fairest, but considerably the weakest flour. Of this last species there is one variety called the flour-corn, which is scarce, but very valu- able. Buckwheat. — This is not kiln-dried, but dried in the sun, being reaped in October, a month remarkably dry and serene in America. The husk is taken off by what is called running it through the mill-stones. The farinaceous part of the grain is then easily separated from the husk by winnowing; and, being afterwards ground fine, forms an agreeable and nutritive aliment, and may be made into bread with wheat flour or other substances. Beans and peas. — When these are used as bread, in some places the flour is steeped in water to take off the harsh flavour, and after- wards, when mixed with wheat flour, the taste is hardly to be perceived. Specimens of very good bread have been produced, mixed as fol- lows ; — 1 lb. bean flour, 1 lb. potatoes, and 4 lbs. of wheat flour. The flour or meal both of beans and peas, by being boiled, previous to its being mixed with wheaten flour, incorpo- rates more easily with that article, and is pro- bably much more wholesome than it otherwise would be. Bran may in times of scarcity be advan- tageously employed in the making of common household bread ; this is effected by previously boiling the bran in water, and-then adding the whole decoction in the dough ; thus the bran will be sufficiently softened and divested of its dry husky quality, while the nutritive part, which is supposed to contain an essential oil, is duly prepared for food. It is asserted, that the increase in the quantity of bread, by the addition of one-fourth bran, or 14 lbs. 14 oz. of bran to 56 lbs. of flour, is from 34 lbs. to 36 lbs. of bread beyond what is produced by the common mode. Dr. Davison considers that there are many vegetables which would afford wholesome nutriment either by boiling or drying and grinding them, or by both these processes. Amongst these may be reckoned, perhaps, the tops and bark of gooseberry trees, holly, haw- thorn, and gorse. The inner bark of the elm may be converted into a kind of gruel ; and the roots of fern, and probably those of many other plants, such as some of the grasses, and clovers, might yield nourishment, either by boiling, baking, and separating the fibres from the pulp, or by extracting the starch from those which possess an acrid mucilage, such as the white bryony. If, in these days of im- proved chemical knowledge, a quartern loaf of very good bread can be made out of a deal board (see Quart. Rev. No. civ., quoted also in Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. v. p. 626), there is no reason why many of our native herbs and shrubs, which are now comparatively useless, should not, as their various nutritive proper- ties become better known, be turned to consi derable advantage in the production of a greater or less proportion of cheap and whole- some food. There are many other substances BREAD-ROOT. which may be formed, by a proportionate ad- mixture of wheaten flour, into palatable bread, and advantageously employed in the manufac- ture of this indispensable article of human sustenance. (Brande's Did. of Science and Art; M^Culloch^s Com. Diet.; Penny Cyc. vol. v.; WilUrhh Domes. Encyc.) BREAD -ROOT {Psoralea esadenta). A shrubby or herbaceous perennial plant found on the elevated plains of the Missouri. Its roots are eaten both raw and boiled, the latter being the most common way of cooking it adopted by the Indians. By cultivation it is made to produce abundant crops. The taste of the root is rather insipid, its texture being laminated, always tenacious, solid, but liever farinaceous, like the potato. It is somewhat medicmal, operating as a diuretic. Other species of Psoralea are also found on the Missouri and tributaries, among which are the P. canesccns, and P. cuspidata, both of which are described as having large, tuberous, and ramified roots. The last species is known among the Canadian boatmen by the name of ♦' Pomme de Prairie," or meadow potato. The P. lanceolata, or elliptica, grows in great quan- tities together on the sandy banks of the Mis- souri, from the river Platte to the mountains, flowering in July and August. It sends up shoots in every direction through the sand, in which soil it is exclusively met with. The stem is about a foot high and the leaves aro- matic when bruised. The P. Ivpimllus is found from South Carolina to Florida, though no* in abundance. It is a very singular plant, the leaves being so narrow as scarcely to be distinguished from the petiole, and two or three inches long, extremely deciduous when dry. The P. virgata is met with in West Florida. With very few exceptions, says Nuttall, this genus of plants producing esculent roots is indigenous to North America and the Cape of Good Hope. BREAKING (Goth. 6nA:«n; Sax. bpecccen). In rural economy, the bringing of an animal under subjection. The breaking of a colt is commonly, especially for race-horses, com- menced when he is much too young; for this, as for all other breeds of horses, too much caution and gentleness can hardly be used. (Darvill. On Trai.iing). Of dogs, spaniels should begin to be broken in at five or six months old. The water-spaniel, according to old Markham, as soon as "even when you first weane him;" and, according to Blaine (Enryr. of Rural Sports), the education of a pointer or a setter should commence at five or six months. BREAKING UP. A term that is often ap- plied to such lands as are ploughed from leys, or which are cut or pared for the purpose of being burned. BREAST-PLATE. The strap of leather that runs from one side of the saddle to the other over the horse's breast, in order to keep the saddle tight, and hinder it from sliding backwards. BREASTS. Part of the bows of a saddle. BREED (Sax. bpaeT^an). A sort or variety of any kind of live-stock. The breeds of most domestic animals are numerous, and distin- guished by certain invariable mark;, or ap- BREEDING-PONDS. pearances peculiar to each, as in cattle, sheep, horses, and swine. See these different heads. BREEDER. In agriculture, a farmer v'hc* is much employed in breeding and rearing animals of any of the domestic kinds. BREEDING IN AND IN. The breeding from close relations. " This plan," says Pro- fessor Youatt (Cattle, p. 525), ''has many advantages to a certain extent. It may be pursued until the excellent form and quality of the breed are developed and established. It was the source whence sprung the fine cattle and sheep of Bakewell, and the superior cattle of Colling ; but disadvantages attend breeding 'in and in,' and to it must be traced the speedy degeneracy, the absolute disappearance of the new Leicester cattle, and in the hands of many an agriculturist, the impairment of constitution and decreased value of the new Leicester sheep and the short-horned beasts. It has therefore become a kind of principle with the agriculturist to effect some change in his stock every second or third year : and that change is most conveniently effected by introducing a new bull or ram. These should be as nearly as possible of the same sort, coming from a similar pasturage and climate, but possessing no relationship, or at most a very distant one, to the stock to which he is introduced." These remarks apply to all descriptions of live-stock. In cattle, as well as in the human species, de- fects of organization and permanent derange- ments of function obtain, and are handed down when the relationship is close. In Spain the deformed and feeble state of the aristocracy arises from the alliances being confined to the same class ; whilst in England, which can boast the finest aristocracy in the world, the higher classes are improved by constant alli- anc:s being formed with the daughters of inferior classes, where wealth has been accu- mulated. See the heads, Cattlk, Horsk, Shkep, &c. BREEDING-PONDS. Such ponds as are employed for breeding fish. The qualities of a pond, to make it profitable for breeding fish, are very diflerent from those which are suffi- cient for the feeding of them ; inasmuch as some particular ponds serve only for one of these purposes, and others for the other ; and scarcely ever the same pond is found to an- swer for both. In general it is much more rare to find a good breeding-pond than a good feeding one. The indications of a good breed- ing-pond are these, — a considerable quantity of rushes and grass about its sides, with gra- velly shoals, such as horse-ponds usually have. The spawn of fish is prodigiously great in quantity; and where it succeeds, one fish is able to produce some millions. Thus, in one of these breeding-ponds, two or three melters and as many spawners will, in a very little time, stock the whole country. When these ponds are not meant entirely for breeding, but the owner wishes to have the fish grow to some size in them, the method is to thin their numbers ; for they would otherwise starve one another. It may also be necessary to put m other fish that will prey upon the young, and thin them in the quickest manner. Eels and perch are the most useful on this account. .&- BREWING. BREWING. cause they prey not only upon the spawn itself, but upon the young fry from the first hatching to the time they are of a considerable size. Some fish are observed to breed indiffer- ently in all kinds of waters ; of this nature are tlie roach, pike, and perch. The introduction of certain voracious fish, such as the pike or pickarel, into ponds or lakes well stocked with trout, white and yellow perch, &c., has been attended with serious consequences, and even led to the total ex- tinction of some kinds and the diminution of all. The mischief in such cases has perhaps been less owing to the exceeding voracity of the pike or pickarel, than to its habits of thrusting itself into the shallows and retired breeding places of other fish, and there break- ing up the spawn or devouring the small-fry, without allowing them a chance to live or in- crease. The trout contents itself with preying upon such bait as it can catch away from the shallows, leaving the breeding places and spawn of other fish undisturbed. Hence, in lakes where plenty of bait is seen along the shores, trout may be found in abundance and in fine condition. Trout and perch both mul- tiply in the same ponds or lakes, provided no pike or pickarel be present. BREWING. The process of obtaining the saccharine solution from malt, or other mat- ters, and converting this solution into spiritu- ous liquors, ale, porter, or beer. There is little doubt of the antiquity of this art. The Egyp- tians are said to have been the inventors of beer. The early Germans, and our Saxon forefathers, were as fond of beer as the mo- dern citizens of Lubec and Rostock are now, or the English of all ages. It is hardly neces- sary, in this work, to go deeply into the de- scription of a process which most country persons understand so well. The directions may be divided into several heads. 1. The grinding of the malt: in this there is, as in many other parts of brewing, considerable difference of opinion ; some prefer it ground between stones, others crushed by rollers ; some prefer a fine grist, others a coarse one. 2. The mashing is usually performed in a vessel of wood, with a false bottom pierced full of holes ; on this bottom the malt is laid ; the water is then admitted, which, for pale ale, or pale spirits, should be of the temperature of from 170° to 185°, according to the quan- tity mashed ; the heat being increased as the mass diminishes. For porter, not higher than 165°, or lower than 156°. For the second mash, an increased temperature of 15° or 20° will be advisable. For the first mash: for every quarter of malt, a barrel and a half of water may be used, and the grist well mixed with the water. The mash is permitted to rest for some time, and then allowed to run ofi" into an auderback, whence it is pumped into the boiler, where it is raised to the boiling temperature. When the wort is sufficiently drained from the mash-tub, another portion of hot water is added for a second mash. The hops are next added, and the boiling is com- pleted, which in general requires an hour and a half, "or until the wort breaks bright from the hops, when a s?mple is taken from the 224 copper." The wcrt is let off into coolers, either of wood or iron ; where, when sufficient- ly cooled, or else in proper fermenting tuns, the yeast or barm is added. The fermentation speedily begins ; and when it is thought that a sufficient quantity of alcohol is formed, the fermentation is stopped, and the yeast is sepa- rated by running it into smaller vessels, and skimming off the barm ; or else by allowing it to run off from the bung-holes of the casks, which are, for this purpose, kept completely filled. A small portion of salt is commonly added, and, occasionally, especially by the professional brewer, a portion of isinglass or other finings. In all these operations, cleanli- ness is a most essential part, for without this it is impossible to have good beer. The quantity of hops to be added varies with the- quality of the beer. 4 lbs. to the quarter of malt is sufficient for beer for present use, and from this to 28 lbs. have been used for beer for long keeping, as for exporta- tion, &c. The temperature of the fermentation should range between 56° and 62°. Not more than 60° for ale wort, nor more than 62° for porter. Great care should be taken to have good, sound, healthy, and new yeast, — and of this about 2 lbs. per barrel are commonly needed. Good malt and hops, of course, are requisite; but the quality of the water is not of so much consequence as is very often considered to be the case. Some of the best ales i-n England are brewed either with soft or with hard water, and from rivers, or springs, or ponds. From those issuing from the limestones of Notting- hamshire, the chalks of Dorsetshire, the clays of Staffordshire, the gravels and sands of Sur- rey and Middlesex, is made some of the most excellent beer in the United Kingdom. Th quantity of alcohol, upon an average, in br^ ■> stout is about 6'80, in ale 8-88, and in smaL beer from 2 to 3 per cent. (Brandc.) B r came under the excise in the year 164o, ,. ..t the duties were repealed in 1830. The ex- portation of beer from England was in — 1830 1832 1834 .Tuns. 10,212 11,330 10,406 The specific gravity of the wort, when it is placed in the fermenting vessels, varies from 1*060, when it contains 14*25 per cent, of solid matter, to 1*127, when it contains 28-2 per cent. That of small beer varies from 1*015 to 1-040, the first containing about 3-5 per cent, of solid matter, the latter about 9*5 per cent. The chief use of the hops (ground ivy and other herbs were used by our Saxon ancestors for this purpose) is to communicate the peculiar bitter flavour from the oil which is contained I in them ; partly to hide the sweetness of the j saccharine matter, and partly to counteract the tendency which wort has to run into acidity. ' {Thcrrnsonh Chcm. vol. iv. p. 376.) I " Hops," says Dr. Lardner {Domestic Econo- . my, vol. i.), "are by no means the only bitter which may be made use of for preparing and flavouring ales ; others can be much more conveniently procured in certain situations. Mixtures, in various proportions, of worm- BRICKS. BRISTLES. wood, powdered bitter oranges, gentian root, and the rind of Seville oranges, will afford an excellent bitter, perhaps naore wholesome than hops, and, if skilfully combined, to the full as palatable ; in this position the brewers cannot refuse to bear me out." Strasburg beer, which is much prized on the continent, owes much of its excellence to the use of avens (Gcnm urbamon). It has been shown by Mr. Dubrun- fault, that a good beer can be produced from potatoes grated to a pulp, mixed with barley malt. In Ireland, beer is made from parsnips. Cane sugar answers admirably (14 lbs. of cane sugar, dissolved in ten gallons of boiling water, with 1^ lbs. of hops). The beer made in this way is pale coloured, it is true ; but colour may be given readily by scorched treacle, or the raspings of an over-baked loaf. {Quart. Journ. of Jgr. vol. ii. p. 634.) Beer "which would not disgrace a nobleman's table" has also been made from mangel wurzel 150 lbs., and 1 lb. of hops in sixteen gallons of water. (Mechanic's Mag.) It may also be made from the seeds of the Fiorin grass (Do- novon, Domestic Economy), Indian and other corn. {Baxter's Lib. of jJp-ind(ure.) BRICKS are building materials often em- ployed by the farmer for the construction of drains, besides the ordinary purposes, for which they answer very well ; but they are more expensive than draining tiles, which see. By the 17 G. 3, c. 42, under a penalty of 20s., and 10s. per 1000, all bricks made in England for sale shall be 8^ inches long, four inches wide, and 2^ inches thick ; and all pantiles 13^ inches long, 9^ inches wide, and ^ an inch thick. If the farmer wishes to make his own bricks, the London plan is to mix fifty chaldrons of coal ashes, or breeze, with 240 cubic yards of clay, which makes 100,000 bricks; and to burn these, fifteen chaldrons of coarse sifted breeze are required. The soils called brick earths vary much in their composition ; they contain alumina in different proportions. Pot- ters' clay is perhaps the richest in that earth, being composed, according to M. Vauqaelin, {Bull. Phil. XX vi.) of— Parti. Silica (flint) - - - 435 Alumina ... 332 Lime . - - - 35 Oxide of iron - - - 10 Water - - - - 180 Loss . - - - 0-8 1000 BRIDLE. A contrivance made of straps or thongs of leather, and pieces of iron, in order to keep a horse in subjection, and direct him in travelling. The several parts of a bridle are, the bit or snaffle ; the head-stall, or leather from the top of the head to the rings of the bit; the fillet, over the forehead and under the fore-top; the throat-band, which buckles from the head-band under the throat ; the nose-bands, going through the loops at the back of the head-stall, and buckled under the cheeks ; the reins, or long thongs of leather that come from the rings of the bit, and, being cast over the horse's head, the rider holds in his hand. BRIDLE-HAND is the horseman's left 29 'hand: the right being called thu ipear or sword hand ; and that in which the whip is i held. I BRIDON. A sort of snaffle, with a very ! slender mouth-bit, without any branches. They are much used in England. It is sometimes written bridoon. BRILLS. In horsemanship, a vulgar name for the hair growing on the horse's eye-lids. BRIM. A term applied to a sow when she goes to the boar, which is called going to brim. It is sometimes written brimme. BRINING OF GRAIN is the practice of steeping it in pickle, in order to prevent smut or other diseases. The steep is made with common salt and water, of sufficient strength to float an egg; or of sea-water, with salt added to it till it is of the requisite strength. The seed is then put into it, and well stirred about :* he light grains rise to the surface, and are skimmed off; the rest is put upon a sieve to drain, and new-slaked lime sifted upon it: after being carefully mixed, and when a little dried, it is put into the earth. Urine, when kept stale, is used in the same manner ; and, if the seed be sowed directly, with good effect. Brining the seed wheat is commonly believed by the farmers to be a prevention of smut, a disease which has been shown by Sir Joseph Banks to be a parasitical fungus. Recent ex- periments have suggested that it may even be of use, when employed in larger quantities, as a preventive of mildew — the most dreadful of the numerous diseases to which the cul- tivated grasses are exposed. The experiments of the late Rev. E. Cartwright strongly evi- dence, that when salt and water are sprinkled with a brush upon diseased plants, it is actually a complete cure, even in apparently the most desperate cases. The proportion, one pound to a gallon of water, laid on with a plasterer's brush, the operator making his casts as when sowing corn : it is instant death to the fungus, but it also destroys some plants. The time and expense are trifling. It appeared, in the course of some inquiries made by the Board of Agri- culture, that a Cornish farmer, Mr. Sickler, and also the Rev. R. Hoblin, were accustomed to employ refuse salt as a manure, and that their crops were never infected with the rust or blight. The farmer may see most of the authorities collected together on this important fact in Johnson, On Salt, p. 50. If potatoes are im- mersed in a solution of ammoniacal water for four or five days (one ounce of the common liquor ammonice to a pint of water), they will have, according to Mr. Webster, their vegetative power completely checked or de- stroyed, and may be in this way preserved throughout the year, without the least injury to their general qualities— the same effect is produced by immersing them in a strong brine. This merely requires subsequent ablution, and repeated changes of water. {Quart. Journ. of Jgr. vol. vii. p. 438.) BRISTLES (Dut. borstcls: Ger. borsfen). Vbe strong glossy hairs growing upon cne bacK of the wild boar and the hog. Those f:r the use of brushmakers, saddlers, shoemakers, &c., are imported to a very considerable extent from Russia, those of the Ukraine being the BRITTLE HOOF. BROCCOLI. best. At an average of three years ending with 1831, says Mr. M'CulIoch, the entries for home consumption in England amounted to 1,789,801 lbs. annually. They contain a con- siderable quantity of gelatine, which may be separated from them by boiling water. BRITTLE HOOF is an affection of the horse's hoof, very common, especially in sum- mer, in England, from bad stable management. A mixture of one part of oil of tar and two of common fish oil, well rubbed into the crust and the hoof, will restore the natural pliancy and toughness of the horn, and very much contribute to the quickness of its growth. (Youatt, On the Horse, p. 282.) BRIZA MEDIA. See Plate 6, n. Common quaking grass; ladies' tresses: a perennial grass, flowering in May and June. It is dis- tinguished by the panicle of short spikelets, tinged with purplish brown. The spikelets are ovate, on very slender stems, which makes the panicle tremulous. This grass, says Sin- clair, is best fitted for poor soils ; its nutritive powers are considerable, compared with other grasses tenanting a similar soil. It is eaten by horses, cows, and sheep; and for poor sandy and tenacious soils, where improvements in other respects cannot be sufficiently effected, to fit them for the productions of the superior soils, the common quaking grass will be found of value. BRIZE LANDS. A provincial term for lands which have remained long without til- lage. Brize is also a name for the gad-fly, used commonly in the days of Shakspeare and Ben Jonson. (Tr. and Cress.: Poetaster, iii. 1.) BROAD-CAST SOWING. The primitive, rapidly diminishing method of putting grain, turnip, pulse, clover, grasses, &c., into the soil, performed by means of the hand. This mode of sowing seems better adapted to the stony and more stiff kinds of land than that by ma- chines; as in such grounds they are liable to be constantly put out of order, and to deposit the seed unequally. In this way, however, the seeds are scattered over the ground, and not confined in regular rows, as is the case with the drill husbandry, which is in several ways more advantageous to the farmer. This mode of sowing, perhaps from its being that made use of in the infancy of agriculture, has often been called the old method. In this method of sowing, the usual practice, e-specially where the ridges are equal in breadth, and not of too great a width, as five or six yards, is that of dispersing the seed regularly over each land or ridge, in once walking over; the seedsman, by different casts of the hand, sowing one-half in going and the other in re- turning. In doing this, it is the custom of some seedsmen to fill the hand from the basket or hopper which they carry along with them, as they make one step forward, and disperse the seed in the time of performing the next; while others scatter the seed, or make their casts, as they are termed by farmers, in advancing each step. It is evident, therefore, that in accom- plishing this business with regularity and ex- aamess, upon which much of the success of the crop must depend, there is considerable difficulty, and the proper knowledge and habit 226 of which can only be acquired by experrence This, however, by long practice, is done with surprising regularity and precision. The broad-cast system not only requires more seed, but it renders the hoeing, so essential to the most profitable growth of grain, much more difficult. Machines have been invented for distributing the seed broad-cast, which they perform with perfect precision: these are more especially useful for the grass seeds, and are simple and economical ; a plate of one may be seen in Professor Low's Prac. Ag. p. 108, and another in British Hush. vol. ii. p. 14. These, hov/ever, require some attention in their work- ing, to prevent the clogging of the seed. BROAD-WHEELED WAGON. A four- wheeled carriage, in which the parts of the wheels that act upon the road are of considera- ble breadth. By the acts 3 G. 4, c. 126, s. 12, and 4 & 5 W. 4, c. 81, wagons, wains, and other four-wheeled carriages, whether on springs or not, whose wheels have their fellies of not less than four and a half inches at the bottom or soles, are considered to be broad- wheeled. BROCCOLI (Brassica oleracea botrytis). The varieties of this cabbage are now numerous; and are chiefly the fruits of the great attention which has been paid to its cultivation of late years. For an uninterrupted supply, scarce any of these varieties can be dispensed with ; but the purple and Avhite are those most gene- rally cultivated. With respect to their quality, it has been remarked that they have less of the peculiar alkalescent taste, and are more palatable, in proportion as they approach a pale or white colour. {Transact. Hart. Soc Land. vol. i. p. 116.) 1. Purple cape, or autumnal broccoli. 2. Green cape, or autumnal broccoli. 3. Grange's early cauliflower broccoli. 4. Green, close- headed winter broccoli. 5. Early purple broc- coli. 6. Early white broccoli. 7. Dwarf brown close-headed broccoli. 8. Tall, large-headed purple broccoli. 9. Cream-coloured, or Ports- mouth broccoli. 10. Sulphur-coloured broc- coli. 11. Spring white, or cauliflower broccoli. 12. Late dwarf close-headed purple broccoli. 13. Latest green, Siberian, or Spanish broccoli. Broccoli is propagated by seed. As all of the kinds are not generally at command, the following times and varieties are specified as being those employed in general practice, and by which a supply nearly unfailing is accom- plished. A first sowing maybe made under a frame at the close of January, and a second at the end of February, or early in March, on an eastern Avall-border, of the purple cape and early cauliflower varieties, for production at the close of summer and during autumn ; the seedlings from these sowings are respectively fit for pricking out, if that practice is followed, in March and early in April, and for final plant- ing at the close of the latter month and May. In April, another crop of the same varieties may be sown, for pricking out in May and planting in June, to produce at the close of autumn and in early winter. During the mid- dle of May, a fourth and larger crop than any of the preceding, of the early purple and white varieties, to be pricked out in June and planted BROCCOLL 1 1 July ; and, finally, the last open-gronnd crop nay be sown in June, to be pricked out in the succeeding month, and planted in August and fcieptcmber; the plants will follow from the (thers in succession throughout winter and jpring. In a frame, however, they may be sown, like the cauliflower, in the last days of August, to remain until the following March, Id be then planted out for production in early summer. By these repetitions, which, if for a family, should be small, an almost continued s-upply is aflbrded ; but in general, for domes- tic use, especially if the establishment is small, . three sowings of moderate extent will be suf- ficient ; the first in the second week of April, the second in the third week in May, and the third in the middle of August, in a frame. Each variety should be sown separately, and the sowing performed thin ; the beds not more than three or four feet wide, for the convenience of weeding, which must be performed as often as weeds appear, as they are very inimical to •he growth of this vegetable. The seed must lot be buried more than half an inch, and the Deds be netted over to keep away the birds, which, especially in showery weather, are very destructive. The fitness of the plants for prick- ing out is intimated by their having five or six leaves, rather more than an inch in breadth ; they are set four or five inches apart each way, and water given every night until they have taken root. They must have four or five weeks' growth before they are again moved; or not until they have leaves nearly three inches in breadth. When planted out, they must be set on an average two feet asunder each way, in summer a little wider, in winter rather closer. Water to be given at the time of planting, and occasionally afterwards, until they are established ; during the droughts of summer it may be given plentifully with the greatest advantage. They must be hoed be- tween frequently, and the mould drawn up about their stems. To force forward the win- ter standing varieties, it is a successful prac- tice to take them up in November, and after trimming ofi" the outer leaves, to lay them on their sides in a sloping position, in a bank or terrace of light earth, so much space being left between every two plants that their heads do not come in contact. To continue the supply uninterrupted, even in the mid- winter of the severest years, Mr. Maher recommends that when the crop sown about the third week in May has been planted out, the weaker plants which remain should be left eight or ten days to acquire strength, and then planted in pots 'sixieens) filled with very rich compost; to be suaded, and watered until struck. These are to be plunged in the ground at similar distances as the main crops, and about three inches be- low the surface, so as to form a cup for retain- ing water round each; these cups are filled up by the necessary earthings, which must be pressed firmly down, to prevent the wind loos- ening them. A few of the plants generally flower early, and, to guard against the first frosts, must have the leaves broken over them : but on the approach of settled frost in Decem- ber and January, the pots must be taken up and removed into a frame, shed, or any place BROCCOLI. of shelter from the extreme severity of the weather; but to have air v/hen mild. {Tra. Hort. Soc. L. vol. i. p. 118.) To those crops which have to withstand the winter in the open ground, salt is beneficially applied, as it preserves them from being frosted in the neck, and also their roots from being worm-eaten ; which may also be effected, Mr Mackay of Errol House, N. B., informs us, by pouring soap-suds between the rows, which application is also very beneficial to the plants. (Mem. Celled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 275.) To preserve the winter standing crops from destruction by severe weather, it is also a practice, early in November, to take them up, injuring the roots as little as possible, and to lay them in a sloping direction in the soil, with their heads to the north. A modification of this plan, adopted by the distinguished presi- dent of the Horticultural Society, is, however, much preferable, as it obviates the defect of few roots being produced, and consequently diminutive heads. A small trench is made in the first week of September, at the north end of each row, in which the adjoining plant is laid so low, that the centre of its stems at the top is put level with the surface of the ground, the root being scarcely disturbed ; it is then immediately watered, and its roots covered with more mould. Thus every plant is in succession treated ; and by the beginning of November, it is scarcely perceptible that they have been thus treated, though it certainly checks their growth. Before the arrival of snow, a small hillock must be raised round each plant, to support its leaves, and prevent their being broken. {Trans. Hort. Soc. Land. vol. ii. p. 304.) If snow accompanies severe frost, advantage should be taken of it, and the plants be heaped over with it, which will afford them an effectual protection. For the production of seed, such plants of each variety must he selected, in March or April, as most perfectly agree with their pecu- liar characteristics, and are not particularly forward in advancing for seed. As the stems run up, some gardeners recommend the leaves to be taken awav ; but this must be injurious. Mr. Wood of Queensferry, North Britain, is particularly careful that no foliage appears on the surface of the flower ; he always lifts his plants, and plants them in another bed, water- ing abundantly; as this, from his long expe- rience, he finds, prevents their degenerating, or producing proud seed,- and when the head begins to open, he cuts out its centre, and leaves only four or five of the outside shoots for bearing. The sulphur-coloured he always finds the most difficult to obtain seed from. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. ii. p. 266.) As the branches spread, four or six stakes should be placed at equal distances round each plant, and hooped with string, to support them and prevent their breaking. When the pods begin to form, water should be given repeatedly, and occasionally some thrown over the whole plant, which tenis to prevent mildew. Belo^ the pods begin to change colour, those from the extremity of every shoot must be taken away; as these yield seed which _produc_t plants very apt to run to seed without heading 227 BROKEN-KNEES. BROOD MARES. aad by an early removal the others are bene- 1 filed. The branches are to be gathered as soon as the pods upon them ripen. Varieties | must never be planted near each other, or they ^ ■will reciprocally be contaminated. The seed ripens in August or September ; and it is often I recommended to preserve it in the pod until I wanted; but the general practice is to beat it out, and store it as soon as it is perfectly dry. The plants raised in frames are managed ?s directed for cauliflowers in the same situation. (G. IW Jnhnsoiig Kitchen Garden.) BROKEN-KNEES, in horses. The best medical treatment, in slight cases, is to cleanse Ihera from dirt and gravel by a sponge and warm water. In bad cases a veterinary sur- geon is absolutely necessary, who will exa- mine with his probe, and apply bandages, and even, in need, the hot iron. BROKEN -WIND, in horses, is, says Pro- fessor Youatt, the rupture, dilatation, or run- ning together of some of the air cells, — the inspiration by one etfort, and the expiration by two ; and is thus easily distinguishable from thick wind, in which the inspirations and the expirations are equal in amount. In healthy lungs, when the lungs are expanded, the air will rush in easily enough, and one effort of the muscles of expiration is sufficient for the purpose of expelling it; but when these cells have run into each other, the cavity is so irre- gular, and contains so many corners and blind pouches, that it is exceedingly difficult to force It out again, and two efforts are scarcely com- petent fully to effect it. A dry husk-y cough accompanies this disease, of a peculiar sound. Broken wind is usually caused by smart exer- cise on a full belly. We do not, therefore, find broken-winded horses on the race-course ; for, although every exertion of speed is re- quired from them, their food lies in a small compass ; the stomach is not distended, and the lungs have room to play ; and care is taken that their exertion shall be required when the stomach is nearly empty. Carriage and coach horses, from a similar cause, are not often broken -winded. The majority of broken- winded horses come from those for whose use these pages are principally designed; the far- mer's horse is the broken-winded horse, from being fed on bulky food ; and because, after many hours' fasting, the horses are often suf- fered to gorge themselves, and then, with the stomach pressing upon the lungs, and almost impeding ordinary respiration, they are put again to work, and sometimes to that which requires considerable exertion. But the pres- sure of the distended stomach upon the lungs is sufficient to do this, without exertion ; many a horse goes to grass or the straw-yard sound, and returns broken-winded. The cure of a broken-winded horse no one has witnessed, yet much may be done in the way of pallia- tion ; the food should consist of much nutri- ment in \\**.\» coranass; the oats should be increased, and the hay diminished; occasional mashes will be found useful ; water should be given sparingly except at night, and the horse shouvd never be exercised on a full stomach. Canois are excellent food for him. {The Horse : Lib. of Useful Know. p. 195.) 228 BROMUS. The brorae grasses; a genus of which the chief species are as follow ; — Bromus arvensis, taper field brome grass, has a spreading, drooping, compound panicle, with lanceolate, sharp -pointed spikelets. Each spikelet consists of eight imbricated, smooth florets, with two close ribs at each side. Tha leaves are hairy, and the whole plant about three feet high. It is confined to rich pastures and meadows ; while the next two, Bromus mul- tiftorus and Bromus mollis, known by the leaves being soft and downy, abound most on poor or exhausted grass lands : they are all annuals. The farmer considers them to be bad grasses ; the field brome grass, however, affords an early bite in the spring for sheep and lambs ; it does not exhaust the soil ; the roots do not extend to any depth ; its seeds, which it sheds, readily and speedily take root and yield food; and it withstands the frost well: in England it flowers on the second week in August. At the time of flowering, the produce of its grass grown on a sandy loam per acre is 23,821 lbs.; of nutritive matter, 1488 lbs. Bromus diandrus, upright annual orome grass. Bromus erectus, upright perennial brome grass. Bromus irtermis, smooth awnless brome grass. Bromus littoreus, sea-side brome grass. Bromus mollis, soft brome grass. Bromus midtiflorus, many-flowered brome grass (named from the spikelets containing from ten to fifteen florets). Bromus stenlis, barren brome grass. It grows principally under hedges in the shade ; cattle refuse it. Bromus tectorum, nodding-panicled brome grass. These were all examined with much skill by Sinclair, but he had evidently a poor opi- nion of them as field grasses. (Hort. Granu Woh.) There are many other varieties of this family, the respective merits of which are pointed out by Sinclair in his Hort. Gram. Wob. That which is perhaps most interesting to the Ame- rican farmer is the Bromus secalinus, common- ly called cheat, so frequently found growing amons: the wheat or rye crops. BRONCHITIS. A disease in horses. It is, says Professor Youatt, a catarrh extending be- yond the entrance of the lungs. Symptoms, quicker and harder breathing than catarrh, pe- culiar wheezing, coughing up mucus. Treat- ment, moderate bleeding, chest blistering, digitalis. Neglected bronchitis often leads to thick wind. (On the Horse, p. 189.) BROOD MARES. Mares generally com- mence breeding at three or four years of age. Somp commence at two years, which is much too early. A mare will, if only moderately worked, continue to breed till nearly twenty. She is in heat in the early part of the spring ; [averages about eleven months in foal; but 1 this varies considerably; some have been 1 known to foal four or five weeks before this j time, others five or six later. In race-horses, ! the colt's age is calculated the same, whether he is born in January or May. It is desirable I that the mare should go to the horse as earl ' BROOKLIME. as possible. But in ordinary cases May is the best -month ; for then the mare foals at a period when there is an abundance of her natural food. BROOKLIME (Myositis palustris). This herb loves shallow streams and wet ditches, like the water-cress, which it resembles in taste. It flowers and seeds in June, July, and August. Brooklime is known by its thick stalk, roundish leaves, and its spikes of small bright blue flowers. It grows about a foot in height, and it strikes root at the lower joints, and the roots are fibrous. The leaves are broad, oblong, slightly indented, round at their edges, and blunt at the point, to use an Irishism. The flowers stand singly upon short foot-stalks, one over another, forming a sort of loose spike. Brooklime possesses slight medicinal virtues; but it should be used fresh, as it loses its pro- perties when dried. It is often eaten in salads, which is a pleasant mode of administering it ; but its flavour is in any form warm and agreeable. In many parts of the United States, the M. palusiris is called Forget-me-not, Marsh scor- f»ion grass. In French it is the Oreille de souris. n swampy places and spring heads, it remains vigorously green through the winter. It flow- ers from May to September. (Ftor. Cestric) BROOM (the Spartium scoparittm or Cyticus scoparius of botanists). PI. 9, d. An evergreen- branched shrub, native of sandy soils through- out Europe. The broom, with its gay yellow flowers, blooming from April to June, its tough stalks, and flat hairy pods, is well known on all barren and waste grounds, growing abun- dantly in dry gravelly thickets and fields, and is often admitted into shrubberies, for its delicate blooms and curious appearance. It is sown extensively in England as a shelter for game. Its branches, which are tough, are made up into brooms, to which they have given their name. The green stalks and tops of brooms are medicinally employed. They have a bitter nauseous taste, and a peculiar odour when green. The green twigs, when burned, yield a large quantity of carbonate of potash, and several other salts. Broom tops, administered in strong infusion, are emetic and purgative : in smaller doses they are diuretic; and as such have been long employed to excite the action of the kidneys in dropsy ; but its efficacy de- pends on the nature of the dropsy, and its cause. When inflammation is present, broom tops do much harm ; and, therefore, like other remedies, its use should not be intrusted to non-professional persons. It may be useful to know that its action is promoted by dilu- tion. BROOM-GRASS. The Andropogon purpur rescens, A. furcatmn, or forked spike-grass, and the Ji. nutans, or beard-grass, are all known in the Eastern States, where they flower in Au- gust. BROOM-RAPE (Orobanche major). This is a parasitical plant which is found amongst I the red clover ; " meaning, perhaps," says Mr. Main, "a robber of broom, from its being fre- quently found on waste grounds growing on the roots of the common broom, and in fields on the roots of clover." In its first appearance BRYONY. it resembles the roots of asparagus, just as they break through the ground; the stems rise from six to ten inches high, and without proper leaves, having what are called bractes instead. The flowers are ai ranged on the stem like those of a hyacinth, but not so showy, being of a dingy brown colour, succeeded by oblong capsules of seeds. A straggling individual plant is sometimes met with amongst ley- wheat feeding on a clover plant, which has escaped destruction by the plough and harrow at wheat sowing; but it never appears again until the field is sown with clover. From a note by Mr. Rham, quoting Von Aelbrock's Agri- culture of Flanders, p. 283, it would seem that the minute seeds of the broom-rape, which can hardly be observed with the naked eye, exude a glutinous substance, by which they adhere to the seeds of the clover, and wilh which they are in consequence often sown. (Journ. Roy. Eng. Ag. Soc. vol. i. p. 175.) Orobanche is a powerful astringent, and might be advantage- ously used in chronic diarrhosas. BROOM, SPANISH (Spartivm junceum). PI. 9, e. A handsome shrub, with fragrant yellow blossoms, which appear in July; Miller says, that in cool seasons it will keep blowing until September. It loves a sheltered situation. If raised by seed, sow it as soon as it is ripe, in a shady bed of common earth, kept free from weeds. Plant out the seedlings the following autumn. The white Spanish broom {Sportium monogpermum) is more tender; therefore it should be sheltered during the winter. It grows well in shrubberies not exposed to a hot sun. Raised from seed. Phillips recommends the Spanish broom for shrubberies,frora its longconiinuance in bloom, from July to October; and he adds, the common broom (S. scoparium) may as judi- ciously be placed at the foot of towering trees, where it will shine as gay in the gloom as a cypress fire in a forest. (Shrubbery, vol. i. p. 151.) BRYONY, BLACK (Tamus communis, Gr. I^^uet, I grow rapidly). This is a wild native plant, and climbs like the white bryony; but it wreathes its stalk around the bushes, having no tendrils. The stalk also runs fifteen feet in length. The leaves are broad, shaped like a triangle, smooth, polished, and of a black green colour. The flowers and berries re- semble the white bryony. BRYONY, WHITE (Bryonia dioica). This plant, with its tendrils and leaves, somewhat resembles the vine, and clings like it around the trees and bushes in its progress. It grows in many parts of England under hedges and thickets. The leaves are hairy and broad. The flowers small, and of a greenish w^ite colour, blowing from May till August. Tne berries are red, and full of seeds. The root is large, rough, and white, and the stalks from ten to twelve feet in length. The root contains a peculiar bitter principle, whfch has been termed bryonin. The root is poisonous, being both violently emetic and purgative, producing symptoms resembling those of cholera. It is sold by herbalists under the name of Manor uh^ root. Many ignorant persons have been de- stroyed by the employment of bryony root, in diseases in which it is said to be useful iz. ol& U 229 BUCK. BUCK HUNTING. hcrbafs. Decoctions made with one pound of the fresh root are purgatives for cattle. This .5 a powerful medicine, and should be given cautiously in small doses, even to cattle. BUCK. The male of the deer, hare, rab- bit, &c. BUCK-BEAN (Menyanthes trifoliata). This is a beautiful wild flower, and deserving of cultivation. It naturally inhabits turbaries, and marshy places. In a garden it will live for many years, if planted in a pot filled with peat earth mixed with sphagnum or bog moss, and plunged in a pan of water; or better still, if planted out in rich soil, where it can be supplied with water from a pond or tank. It is not only a beautiful, but a valuable gift of Providence, — for it possesses powerful effects as a remedy against the fevers prevalent in marshy districts. (^Gardcner^s CUronule.) Wi- thering, in speaking of this plant, says it is possessed of powerful medicinal properties ; an infusion of the leaves is extremely bitter, and is prescribed in rheumatism and dropsies; it may be used as a substitute for hops in making beer, and is employed as a purgative for calves. It is easily recognised, possessing a very singular appearance. It grows a foot high ; the leaf-stalks rise from the roots, and upon each stalk stand three large oblong leaves, somewhat resembling the garden bean leaves. The stalks themselves are round, thick, and smooth. The flowers are small, white, with a delicate tinge of purple, and hairy inside. They grow together, forming a short, thick spike, and stand upon thick, round, whitish, and naked stalks. The root is long, thick, and of a whitish colour. Buck-bean leaves should be gathered before the flower- stalks appear, and dried. Their powder, taken in tea, or any liquid, is considered excellent for rheumatism and ague. BUCKEYE. Under this name, Michaux describes two species of trees in the United States, viz. the large buckeye or yellow pavia, (JPavia Intea) ; and the Ohio buckeye or Ohio horse-chestnut {Pavia ohioensis). The yellow pavia, or large American buckeye, is first observed on the Alleghany Mountains in Virginia, near the 39th degree of latitude. It becomes more frequent in following the chain towards the southwest, and is most profusely multiplied in the mountainous districts of the Carolinas and Georgia. It abounds, also, upon the rivers that rise beyond the mountains and flow through the western part of Virginia, and the states of Kentucky and Tennessee, to meet the Ohio. It is much less common along the streams which have their sources east of the Alleghanies, and may therefore be considered as a stranger to the Atlantic states, with the exception of a tract thirty or forty miles wide in the Southern States, as it were beneath the shadow of the mountains. It is here called big buckeye, to distinguish it from the Pavia rubra, which does not exceed eight or ten feet is height, and which is called small buckeye. Michaux states, that he had seen no situation ^hich appeared more favourable to the deve- lopement of the big uuckeye, than the declivi- ties of the lofty mountains in North Carolina, *nd particularly of the Great Father Mountain, 231 the Iron Mountain, and the Black Mountain; where the soil is generally loose, deep, and fertile. The coolness and humidity which reign in these elevated regions, appear likewise to be necessary to its utmost expansion ; it here towers to the height of sixty or seventy feet, with a diameter of three or four feet, and is considered a certain proof of the richness of the land. The flowers of this tree are of a light, agreeable yellow, and the numerous bunches, contrasted with the fine dense foliage, lend it a highly ornamental appearance. The fruit is contained in a fleshy, oval capsule, the surface of which, unlike that of the horse-chestnut of Asia and Ohio, is smooth. Each capsule contains two seeds or chestnuts, of unequal size, flat upon one side and convex on the other. They are larger and lighter-coloured than those of the common horse-chestnut, and, like them, are not eatable. Of American trees, the large buckeye is one of the earliest to cast its leaves, which begin to fall near Philadelphia about the 15th of August, and whilst the other horse-chestnuts are still clothed with their finest verdure. Its foliation and flow^ering are also tardy, which is deemed an essential defect in a tree, the greatest merit of which is its beauty. The wood, from its softness and want of durability, cannot be made to subserve any useful pur- pose. In beauty, this species is reckoned in- ferior to that magnificent tree, the Ohio buckeye, or common American horse- chestnut, which is not a native of any of the Atlantic states, where, however, it is a favourite ornamental tree. The ordinary stature of the American horse-chestnut is ten or twelve feet, but it sometimes equals thirty or thirty-five feet in height, and twelve or fifteen inches in diameter. The foliage of this tree appears very early in spring, being very quickly followed by its flowers, which almost cover the tree in white bunches, making a very brilliant appearance. The fruit is of the same colour with that of the foreign horse-chestnut and of the large buckeye, and of about half the size: it is con- tained in fleshy, prickly capsules, and is ripe the beginning of autumn. Horse-chestnuts are said to injure swine and other stock which eat them. The bark of the larger trees is blackish, and endowed with a disagreeable odour and highly acrimonious properties. The wood is white, soft, and wholly useless. The value of the Ohio buckeye or American horse-chestnut consists mainly in the beauty of its abundant, precocious, and beautiful foliage and flowers, qualities which bring it into great request as an ornamental tree. (North Amer. Sylva.) For some notice of the European or Asiatic horse-chestnut, see Chestnut, Hobse. BUCK-HEADING and BUCK-STALLING Provincialisms applied to the cutting hedge- fences off, fence-height BUCKHORN. See Plawtain, Stah op THE Earth. BUCK HUNTING. « In common parlance," says Mr. Blaine, "the hunting of a fallow deer, whether male or female, is said to be BUCKLE-HORNS. BUCKWHEAT. buck hunting." This, according to Mr. Cha- fing, in the reign of James II., was formerly practised after dinner; it was so fashionable, and so generally delighted in at that period, that even the judges on the circuit were accustomed to partake in it. {Scott's Field Sports, p. 435.) BUCKLE-HORNS. A provincial name for short crooked horns turning inward in a hori- zontal manner. BUCKTHORN, COMMON (Rhamnus ca- tharlicvs). A hardy indigenous prickly shrub, common in hedge rows in England; flowering in May, and ripening its fruit in September. The leaves have strong lateral nerves, are ovate, toothed, with linear stipules; the flowers are yellowish-green, and are succeeded by a black berry, which is glossy, and the size of a large pepper-corn, containing three or four seeds, and a violet-red pulp. The bark is glossy and dark-coloured. This shrub likes a sheltered situation, and succeeds in any soil. It is propagated by seed, layers, and grafts. The juice of the unripe berries is a deep green dye, if boiled with a little alum. The juice contains a purgative principle, which enables it to operatp as a powerful cathartic; but its action Is accompanied with much griping and thirst. It was formerly often used as a domes- tic purgative ; but the frequent violence of its action has caused its disuse. The lihamnus or buckthorn genus of plants is very numerous, ten species being found in the United States, chiefly in the warmer parts. The leaves of a species found in China, the Ehamnvs theezaiigf resemble those of the tea- plant, and pass as a substitute for tea among the indigent population of that country. The buckthorn family of plants are all either very small trees or shrubs with the smaller branches often terminating in spines or thorns, qualities which fit them for hedges, for which purpose the common buckthorn (lihamnus catharticus) is a favourite about Boston and other parts of NcAv England, where the English and Virginia thorns Mill not stand the climate. The buck- thorn, on the contrary, will grow in almost any climate and upon every variety of soil. A species of rhamnus, called the broadleaved alateimis, a native of the south of Europe, is an ornamental evergreen, the blossoms of which are greatly frequented by the honey- bee. It is a rapid growing shrub, and useful for thickening screens, clothing walls, &c. The sea or common sallow thorn, the Hip- pophit rhanmoides of Linna2us,is a very important shrub, growing wild on sandy shores, in vari- ous parts of the British coast, where it some- times attains the height of eight or ten feet. Its bark is light brown, the wood white, the small leaves of a sea-green colour, but silvery white below. The leaves appear early in spring; the yellow flowers in June and July; the fine red berries late in autumn. In situations contiguous to the sea-shore, or the banks of rivulets, this shrub eminently deserves to be cultivated, as it is well calcu- lated to bind a sandy soil, and to prevent the water from penetrating through banks and fences. It may be raised from seeds, but more expeditiously by planting layers, or propagat- ing it from the very abundant spreading roots. On account of i>s 'Jiomy points, it afibrds ex- cellent hedges, even on a sandy soil. Although cows refuse the leaves of the sea- buckthorn, yet they are browsed upv n by goats, sheep, and horses. The berries are strongly acid, with an austere vinous flavour : in Lap- land they are pickled and used as spice, but the fishermen of the (Julph of Bothnia prepare from them a rob, which, added to fresh fish, imparts a very grateful flavour. From the leaves of this shrub, M. Suckow obtained an agreeable dark-brown dye for wool and silk, first treated with vitriol of iron (rop' peras): Dambourney succeeded in producinsj a similar colour on cloth that had been pre- viouslv steeped in a solution of bismuth. BUCKWHEAT (Germ, buchweizen). The name of a particular species of grain, of which, for the sake of their seeds, there are two spe- cies cultivated in Europe : — I. The common buckwheat (Polygotmm fngopyrum), PI. 3, g, 2. The Tartarian buckwheat (P. tatm-innn), h; and another in China and Tartary {P. annrgi- natum), i. A new kind of buckwheat, known to the peasants of Germany by the name of Wild Italian buckwheat, they prefer to the com- mon buckwheat, because it is more productive, hardier, and has whiter and more savoury meal. This is described in the Bull, des Srien. Jigr.^ AprH,'\%Z\. (Quart. Joum. Jgr. vol. iii. p. 368.) Its flower is said to be deeper-coloured, and smaller. Buckwheat is a plant known in almost every part of the world. It has been supposed tc have been first known in Europe after the timft of the Crusades. The French, in fact, call it bU Sarrazin. In China, Japan, and Russia, it forms a very considerable portion of the food of the inhabitants; it is likewise generally eaten in Switzerland and the southern parts of France, and in Flanders it is a considerable branch of husbandry. Gerard speaks of it as cultivated in England about the year 1597, particularly in the counties of Lancashire and Cheshire. It appears, however, to have made small progress in this kingdom, and has re- ceived less attention than it deserves. It thrives well in almost any dry soil, even those of the poorest kinds : and in most of the arable dis- tricts it is sown on the inferior sorts of land ; as, when cultivated on the richer kinds of soil, it is found to run too much to straw. It is well adapted to light sandy lands. The quan- tity of seed sown varies from five to eight pocks per acre. Buckwheat is an annual. It has a strong, cylindrical, reddish, branching stem, about two feet in height, with alternate ivy-shaped leaves ; the flowers, which are white, tinged with red, are in bunches at the end of the branches, and are succeeded by I black angular seeds. Its flowers are very at- tractive to bees. It begins flowering in July, and is generally fit to mow about the beginning I of October. If put together, says Mr. Main, a I little green or damp, it does not much signify; for, although ever so mouldy, the g:rain is never damaged, and the more mouldy it is, the earlier it can be thrashed. It is the easiest of all barn- work for the thrasher. (Quart. Journ. Agr. voL vii. p. 180.) In England, the proper time for sowing 231 BUCKWHEAT. buckwheat is in May, when there is no longer any danger to be apprehended from the frosts ; for so tender is this vegetable at its first ap- pearance, as to be unable at an earlier period to withstand the vernal cold. The slightest frost in their infant state would infallibly cut off the young shoots ; and as, from this circum- stance, it must be sown at a season when dry weather may be expected, the crop, on that account, not unfrequenily fails. The produce, which varies with the seasons (and this is ra- ther an uncertain crop), ranges from two to four quarters per acre. It is commonly grown in England in preserves, as food for pheasants and partridges. It is an excellent food for poultry; pigs thrive upon and are fond of it (it is comnjonly given to them mixed with po- tatoes); and when bruised, it is good food for horses, two bushels being equal, for this pur- pose, it is said, to three of oats (a bushel weighs about forty-six pounds). Cows, when fed with it, yield a large increase of milk. 8heep, when fed upon the plant when in blos- som, stagger and tumble about as if drunk. It is sometimes made into hay, which is nutritive, but tedious to make, and should be consumed before the winter. It is often grown on poor exhausted soils, and ploughed in when in bloom; in this way it increases very materially the fertility of the soil, and is a mode often practised in Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, and in Scotland. Mr. Ballingal has given an account of his experiments with it upon a clay loam recently limed ; from the result of which he warns his brother farmers that it is "needless %o attempt to grow it upon damp soils, or to expect full crops upon lands exhausted by over-cropping." {Trans. High. Soc. vol. ii. p. 125.) In reaping buckwheat, many farmers prefer pulling it, as less likely to shed the seed. The morning, or late in the evening, should be chosen for this purpose, when the dew is upon the plant. M.Vauquelin found 100 parts of its straw to contain 29*5 of carbonate of potash, 3-8 of sulphate of potash, 17-5 carbonate of lime, 13'5 carbonate of magnesia, 16-2 of silica, 10'6 earth of alum, and 9 of water. Vast quantities of this grain, says Mr. Main, are annually imported into England from Hol- land and other northern countries, for the use of the gin-distilleries, who also consume con- siderable quantities of British growth, which, not being kiln-dried, as most of the Dutch grain is found to be, is more valued. The average quantity of buckwheat imported into England is about 10,000 quarters annually. It pavs the 9ame duty as barley. (M'CuUoch^s Com.' Diet.) For illustrations of the varieties of buckwheat, see PI. 3. Buckwheat is extensively cultivated in the United t*tates, the species usually sown being the Polygonum fagopyrum of botanists. The grain affords a favourite article of food. It is generally thought to be a severe crop upon land, and for this reason is seldom sown on highly improved ground. Rough and hilly districts are considered peculiarly favourable to the culture of buckwheat, which is admira- bly adapted to subdue new or wild lands. Be- sides the Climbing Buckwheat {Polygonum 239 BUCKWHEAT. scandtns), found in the Middle States and else where, twining round bushes in moist thickels, &c., eight or ten additional varieties are enu- merated in the United States. {Flora Cesirica.) Buckwheat comes to maturity so quickly, that it is usual to sow it upon the same ground from which wheat or other grain crops have been taken. It flourishes best in a mellow, dry, loose, sandy soil, but even on the poorest land, so that it be not moist, it will produce a tole- rable crop in from three to four months after sowing. When intended for seed, it is best to put in the crop early enough to allow the grain to become perfectly matured before frost. For this purpose June or the first of July is soon enough in the Middle States. In the state of New York, buckwheat is frequently sown in August along with winter wheat, affording a ripe crop in the fall, without injury to the wheat, which grows along with and succeeds it. When sown broad-cast, the usual manner, a bushel of buckwheat is generally put upon the acre. Half the quantity is said to answer when put in with a proper drill machine. When harvested, it is usual to mow it with the scythe, and allow it to remain some lime before it is taken from the field. Being very liable to heat, it is advisable to put it into small stacks of about four to six loads each. Larger stacks, or close housing, would subject it to spoiling. The quantity of produce varies greatly, according to circumstances of soil and season. In the northern part of Pennsylvania and still farther north, it is so often nipped before maturity b)'' autumnal frosts, as to be a precarious crop. From thirty to forty-five bushels per acre may be considered an average yield in a favourable season, but sixty or eighty bushels are not unfrequently produced. Its flowers bloom and fade successively for a long time. It is thought that the crop would be much more productive, if the same uniformity in blowing and ripening existed that is observed with other grains. The buckwheat flour most preferred in the southern cities, where it com- mands a higher price, is that which comes from New Jersey and Pennsylvania. It is common, especially in New Jersey, to grind up with the buckwheat a fifth or sixth part of Indian corn, a peculiar kind of which, being very soft and white, is raised for the purpose. The form in which it is brought to the table is almost universally that of flat cakes, made of batter raised by means of yeast, or, what is still preferable, and requires but a few minutes in the preparation, adding a seidlitz powder to the mixture of flour and water, which causes the batter to rise at once, from the carbonic acid gas disengaged. These cakes are soft and spongy, and absorb a large quantity of butter, which is always put on while they are very warm. Con- sidering the large amount of butter used, they cannot he regarded as economical food, except where butter is very cheap. Persons troubled with feeble digestion should never eat buck- wheat prepared in this way. In Tuscany, buckwheat is mixed with barley, ground, and the flour made into bread, which possesses the property of retaining its moisture much longer I than that of pure wheat; and, though of a i darker colour, it is thought to be equally nou- BUD. BUDDING. rithlng. In Germany, a very palatable grit, :>r coarse-grained meal, is made of it, which serves as an ingredient in pottage, puddings, &c. In Brandenburg, not only ale and beer are brewed from buckwheat mixed with malt, but likewise a very excellent spirit, of a bluish shade, is obtained by distillation, in flavour resembling French brandy. The seeds of buckwheat afford excellent fcod for cattle, and are very fattening to poul- try and hogs, though it is said to make them liable to a scabby eruption. When cut in pro- per season, that is to say, about the time of flowering, when the stems and leaves are suc- culent and tender, it affords an excellent pro- vender for cattle, especially for milch cows, which are very fond of it. Some intelligent farmers have thought it, for the last purpose, superior to timothy hay. One of the purposes to which buckwheat has been applied, — and for which it appears, from the rapidity and exuberance of its growth, peculiarly adapted, — is the ploughing down to add fertility to the land. This can be done when the soil is too far exhausted to produce clover for a similar purpose. '♦ We cannot," says the editor of the Theatre of Agriculture, *♦ too much recommend, alter our old and con- stant practice, the employment of this precious plant as a manure. It is certainly the most economical and convenient the farmer can employ. A small quantity of seed, costing a mere trifle, sows a large surface and gives a great crop. When in flower, first roll, and plough it in, and it is soon converted into ma- nure." This crop is recommended by Mr. Taylor, in the Maine Farmer, as an effectual destroyer of that frequent pest of the field called couch-firass, quivk-sfuns, &c. For this purpose it must be sown as early in the season as iVost will permit, and as soon as it gets into flower, rolled down and turned under with the plough. Another crop is then sown on top of the first, and harrowed in ; and, if the season be not unfavourable, it will ripen and afford a harvest before frost sets in. The fresh blossoms and succuleni stems of buckwheat have been applied in Europe to the purposes of dyeing wool, &c. The infusion, by the addition of preparations of bismuth and tin, produces a beautiful brown colour. From the dried flower-bundles different shades of green are obtained. The Siberian species of buckwheat, in particular, yields a fine yellow, which, upon boiling the wool still longer in the dye, changes into a golden tint, and at length becomes a beautiful yellow. BUD (Fr. bouton). The germ or first fruit of a plant, which is the organized rudiment of a branch or flower. Buds proceed from the extremities of the young shoots, and also along the branches, sometimes single, sometimes two and two, either opposite or alternate, and some- umes collected in greater numbers. In gene- ral, we may distinguish three kinds of buds; ihe leaf-bud, x\\e flower-bud, and ntixed buds which contain both in one covering. The first spe- cies (foliferous buds) contains the rudiments of several leaves, which are variously folded over each other, and surrounded by scales. The second species, or flower-bud (Jloriferout buds), 30 contains the rudiments of one or several flow- ers, folded and covered in a similar manner. The third sort, which is the most common ol" any, produces both flowers and leaves. A leaf-bud is constructed thus : — in its centre it consists of a minute conical portion of soft, succulent cellular tissue (the plumule or rudi- ment of the new twig), and over this are ar- ranged rudimentary leaves, in the form of scales. These scales are closely applied to each other; those on the outside are the largest and thickest, and those in the interior are smaller and more delicate. In cold countries, Ihe external scales are often covered with hair, or a resinous varnish, or some other contri- vance, which enables them to prevent the access of frost to the young and tender centre which they protect, for they are strictly hybernacula; but in warm countries, where such a provision is not required, they are green and smooth, and much less numerous. The cellular centre of a bud is the seat of its vitality; the scales that cover it are the parts towards the dcvelopement of which its vital energies are first directed. {Penny Cyrlupo'din, vol. V. p. 524.) BUD. A term made use of in some districts for a weaned calf of the first year ; probably from the horns then beginning to bud or shoot forth. BUDDING, or grafting by germs, says Mr. Loudon (^Encyc. of Card. p. 2050), consists, in ligneous plants, in taking an eye or bud at- tached to a portion of the bark of different sizes and forms, and generally called a shield, and transporting it to a place in another or a differ- ent ligneous vegetable. In herbaceous vege- tables the same operation may be perft)rmed, but with less success. It may also be per- formed with buds of two or three years' stand- ing, and on trees of considerable size, but not generally so. The object in view in budding is almost always that of grafting, and depends on the same principle, all the difference be- tween a bud and a scion being, that a bud is a shoot or scion in embryo; in other respects, budding is conducted on the same principles as grafting. In every case, the bud and the stock must be botanically related. An apple may be budded on a pear or thorn, but not upon a plum or peach. Common budding is performed from the beginning of July to ike middle of August. It is indispensable that the bud to be inserted should be fully formed, or ripe. After the in- cision of the stock, great care must be taken in raising the bark that the cambium be not scraped or injured. The cambium is that soft portion between the wood and the bark des- tined to give support to the descending fibres of the buds, which fibres subsequently become embedded in it. In budding, therefore, the bark must be very carefully lifted up, and not forced from the wood with a bone or meial blade as is too often done. For propagating choice fruit, the operation of budding possesses several advantages ovef that of grafting. "It is," says Bucl, "more readily performed, with fewer implements, less preparation, and with greater success: it does not injure the stock if unsuccessful, and the operation may be twice or thrice repeated u 2 233 BUDDING. BUDDING. the same year, as the season for its perform- ance is protracted, for some one or other of the varieties, for some three months. Although JuFy and August constitute the ordinary season for budding, the plum and the cherry may often be budded in the latter part of June, and the peach, apricot, and nectarine as late as the middle of September. Youth may readily ac- quire the art, by little practice, under the direc- tions we are about to give ; and we know a young la \y who is an adept in it, and who practises it annually as a pleasant recreation, as well as a useful labour. We have often been treated with delicious peaches produced by the buds which she has inserted. The first consideration is to provide stalks, if this provision has not already been made. Seeds may be collected the coming season in almost every family. Those of stone fruit may be mixed with earth, or deposited in a hole in the garden, and in the autumn buried superficially in the earth, to expose them to the expanding influence of the frost; and in the spring those of the peach and plum that have not burst the shell should be cracked, and the whole sown in a well-prepared seed-bed. The cherries may be sown immediately after they are taken from the fruit, and the apple, pear, and quince either in autumn or spring. All the kinds will generally grow the first sea- son. The same rule applies to plants as to animals : the better condition they are kept in while young, the more profitable they will be- come at maturity. Thus two or three roods of ground will suffice a farmer for a nursery of choice fruit, from which he may replenish his orchard and his garden at pleasure, and readily appropriate to his use every new va- riety which comes under his observation. No one will regret the trifling labour and attention which he has bestowed on a little plantation of this kind, after he has besrun to realize the fruits of it. Ornamental shrubs and trees, to embellish the grounds about his buildings, may be added without cost and with trifling labour. A bud is an organized plant in embryo, with roots, branches, and foliage, and, like a seed, possesses individual vitality capable of deve- lopement and the reproduction of its species. The process of budding is the transferring this embryo plant from its parent tree to another tree, which must at least be of the same genus, if not of the same species. The apricot and nectarine may be, and generally are, budded upon the peach ; the plum and the peach are budded on each other, and the pear and apple may be worked on the wild crab and haw- thorn ; and the former is put on the quince to produce dwarf trees. To render the transfer or budding successful, three things are requi- site : 1. That the bud be in a proper condition to transfer; 2. That the stalk be in condition to receive and nourish it; and, 3. That the transfer be skilfully made. The bud ought to be matured, i. e., of full growth, and yet not so hard and firm as to cause injury in separating it from its parent- The stock must peel freely, as this is necessary for the insertion o( the bud, and indicates the presence of whai is termed the cambium, which is the soft 2U I partiai.y-formed woody matter ui.lerlaying the ! bark, and which ripens into indurated wood. I It is the source of nourishment to the bud, and ' the bond of union between it and the stock. The operator must therefore use caution that he injures neither the bud, the bark, nor the cambium, as these all exercise important offices in effecting the union ; and he must withal take care to apply his ligatures properly. It will be seen, from these remarks, that both the stock and the graft should be in a state of ac- tive growth, and the more vigorous the better, when the budding process is performed. It is also preferable to bud when the weather is cloudy, but not wet. Twigs for budding may be preserved for many days with care. They should be immediately divested of their leaves, but not wholly of their leaf-stalks or petioles, to prevent the exhaustion of moisture, and may then be wrapped in fresh grass, wet cloths, or with their butt ends preserved in moisture. Fig. 2. The only implement necessary is a budding- knife (fig. 2), and the only preparation some bass matting, or the inner bark of the bass- wood or linden. Filaments torn from the husk of Indian corn are also recommended. Professor Thouin enumerates twenty spe- cies or varieties of grafting, most of which are only practised by amateurs and professional gardeners. We shall describe only the com- mon mode, which is in general practice in nurseries. We take it from the Encyclopedia of Gardening. Shield-budding, or T budding, is thus per- formed : Fix on a smooth part of the side of the stock, rather from than towards the sun and of a height depending, as in grafting, on whether dwarf, half, or whole standard trees are desired; then, with the budding-knife, make a horizontal cut across the rind, quite through to the firm wood ; from the middle of this transverse cut make a slit downward, per- pendicularly, an inch or more long, going also quite through to the wood. This done, pro- ceed with all expedition to take off a bud; holding the cutting or scion in one hand, with the thickest end outward, and, with the knife in the other hand, enter it about half an inch or more below a bud, cutting nearly halfway into the wood of the shoot, continuing it with one clear slanting cut about half an inch or more above the bud, so deep as to take a part of the bud along with it, the whole about an . inch and a half long («, fig. 1) ; then directly with the thumb and finger, or point of the knife, clip off the woody part remaining to the bud ; which done, observe whether the eye or germ of the bud remain perfect; if not, and a little hole appears in that part, it is impro- per, or, as gardeners express it, the bud has lost its root, and another must be prepared. This done, placing the back part of the bud or shield between your lips, expeditiously with the flat haft of the knife separate the back of the stock on each side of the perpendicular cut clear to the wood (c), for the admission of the bud, which directly slip down, close between BUFFALO. BUGLE. COMMON. the wood and bark, to the bottom of the slit (d). The next operation is to cut off the top part of the shield (6) even with the horizontal first- made cut, in order to let it completely into its place, and to join exactly the upper edge of the shield with the transverse cut, that the de- scending sap may immediately enter the back of the shield, and protrude granulated matter between it and the wood, so as to effect a living union. The parts are now to be imme- diately bound round with a ligament of fresh bass(e), or other suitable substance, previ- ously soaked in water to render it pliable and abed e Fif. I. tough, beginning a little below the bottom of the perpendicular slit, proceeding upward closely round every part, except just round the eye of the bud, and continue it a little above the horizontal cut, not too tight, but just sufficient to keep the whole close, and exclude the air. sun, and wet. Future Treatment. — In a fortnight, at far- thest, after budding, such as have adhered may be known by their fresh appearance at the eye ; and in three weeks all those which have succeeded well will be firmly united with the stocks, and the parts being somewhat swelled in some species, the band- age must be loosened, and a week or two afterward finally removed. The shield and bud now swell in common with the other parts or the stock, and nothing more requires to be done till spring, when, jnst before the rising of the sap, they are to be headed down close to the bud, by an oblique cut, terminating about an eighth or quarter of an inch above the shield. In some cases, however, as in grafting, a few inches of the stalk is left for the first season, and the young shoot tied to it for protection from the winds." BUFFALO (from the Italian ; Lat. buhalis). A term originally applied to a species of ante- lope ; but afterwards transferred, in the age of Martial, to different species of the ox. In mo- dern zoology, the buffaloes, or the "bubaline group" of the genus Bos, include those species which have the bony core of the horn exca- vated with large cells or sinuses, communicat- ing with the cavity of the nose; the horns are flattened, and bend laterally with a backward direction, and are consequently less applicable for goring than in the bisons or taurine group of oxen. The buffaloes are of large size, but low in proportion to their bulk; they have no hunch on the back, and only a small dewlap on the breast; the hide is generally black, the tail long and slender. The buffaloes occupy the warm and tropical regions of the earth ; they avoid hills, and prefer the coarse vegeta- tion of the forest and swampy regions to those of open plains ; they love to wallow and lie for hours sunk deep in water; they swim well, and cross the broadest rivers without hesita- tion. Their gait is heavy, and they run almost always with the nose horizontal, being princi- pally guided by the sense of smelling. They herd together in small flocks, or live in pairs, but are never strictly gregarious in a wild state. The females bear calves two years fol- lowing, but remain sterile the third ; they pro- pagate at four and a half years old, and discontinue after twelve. " The common buf- falo (says Professor Low) has come to us, be- yond a question, from Eastern Asia. He seems to have been introduced into Italy about the sixth century, and is now an important animal in the rural economy of that country. He is used by the Italians as food and as the beast of labour, and may be said to form the riches of the inhabitants in many parts of the country. He is cultivated, too, in Greece and Hungary. The milk of the female is good, but the flesh is held in less esteem than that of the common ox. The pace of the animal is sluggish ; but from the low manner in which he carries his head, throwing the weight of his great body for- ward when pulling, he is well suited for heavy draught. But this is not a property sufficiently important to cause the introduction of the buf- falo into the agriculture of northern Europe, and he is not likely, therefore, to be carried beyond the countries where he is now reared." Buffalo hunting on elephants is one of the field sports of the East; and this animal is also hunted on foot with avidity by the Caffres at the Cape of Good Hope, as wen to get rid of a dangerous foe as to furnish themselves with food from his flesh and leather from his hide. {Brandt* $ Diet, of Science; Jilaine't Encyc. of Rw ral Sports ; Element » of Practical .Agriculture.) For American Buffalo, see Bison. BUFFALO BERRY TREE {Shepardia mag. noides). Silver-leaved Sheperdia. A very beautiful tree, discovered by Mr. Nuttall in Missouri. The tree is of upright growth and thorny, the leaves small and of a delicate and silvery appearance. The fertile and barren flowers are produced on different trees. The fruit consists of berries about the size and ap- pearance of large currants, of a fine scarlet colour, and very beautiful, enveloping the branches in profuse clusters. It has a rich taste, and is considered valuable for making into tarts and preserves. BUGLE, COMMON (Jjuga reptans). This very pretty wild plant grows in woods, copses, moist pastures, and shady places, flowering in April, May, and June. It is a perennial ; has blue flowers, upright leafy stalks, and glossy leaves, of a deep purplish-green colour, oblong, broad, blunt at the point, and slightly indented round the edges, some growing immediately from the root. The flower-stalks rise eight or ten inches high, of a pale green — often pur- plish — and have two leaves at each joint, which joints are fan apart from each other. The joint leaves are as large as those growing from the root. The scentless flowers are blue and white, sometimes entirely white, growing round the upper part of its stalk, forming a kind of loose spike. The cups remain, when the flower has fallen off, to hold its seed.'; This plant is often denominated sicklewort, anv 236 BUGLE-HORN. herb carpenter. The roots (says Smith) are slightly astringent ; but the herb has little taste or smell, and still less of any healing or vul- nerary property. The M'hite variety abounds in the Isle of Wight ; and a flesh-coloured one has sometimes been observed. In dry mountain- ous situations the plant acquires a consider- able degree of hairiness. The French, who are great herbalists, alhrm, that "with bugle and sanicle, no one needs a surgeon." Besides the common bugle, Smith, in his English Fhra. (vol. iii. p. 65—67), enumerates three other species, the alpine bugle, pyrami- dal bugle, and ground pine or yellow bugle {jSju^a chanitryitys). BUGLE-HORN (from bucula, a heifer). A wind-instrument, much more commonly em- ployed in the sports of the field formerly than at present. It has been, however, in our days, much improved for musical purposes by the introduction of keys. BUGLE -WEED (Virginian lycopus), a creeping perennial found in the Middle States, frequenting swamps and moist woodlands, producing minute white flowers in June and July. It constitutes a prominent article in the materia medica of certain German empirics, in the city of Lancaster, and other parts of Pennsylvania, — who prescribe an infusion as a certain remedy for a "dry liver," an infirmity which, they allege, afilicts a large proportion of those credulous persons who consult them. (See Flor. Ceslrica.) BULB (Lnir bulbus ; Gr. ^cxSoi). A bud usually formed under ground, having very fleshy scales, and capable of separating from its parent plant. Occasionally it is produced upon the stem, as in some lilies. It contains the rudiments of the future plant, and partakes of the character of the bud (which see). In bulbous plants, as the tulip, onion, or lily, what we generally call the root is in fact a bulb or hybernaculum, or winter case, which incloses and secures the embryo or future shoot. At the lower part of this bulb may be observed a fleshy disk, knob, or tubercle, whence proceed a number of fibres or threads. This knob, with the fibres attached to and hanging from it, is, properly speaking, the true root; the upper part being only the cradle or nursery of the future stem, which, being re- placed a certain number of times, the bulb perishes; but not till it has produced at its sides a number of smaller bulbs or cloves for perpetuating the species. In bulbous plants, where the stalk and former leaves of the plant are sunk below, into the bulb, the radicles or small fibres that hang from the bulb are to be considered as the root ; that is, the part which furnishes nourishment to the plant: the several rinds and shells whereof the bulb chiefly con- sists successively peri.sh, and shrink up into so many dry skins, betwixt which, and in their centre, are formed other leaves and shells, and thus the bulb is perpetuated. There are several kinds of bulbs; namely, l.The tunicated bulb (Bullnis tunicaius), formed of thin membranous layers, as, for example, the onion: 2. The scaly bulb (B. squamviostis), formed of fleshy abortiv i leaves, not in layers, as in the lily. The clove *, which are produced between the scales rf 936 BURGLARY. bulbs, are often, as it w^ere, starved, when the bulb throws up a vigorous flowering stem ; thence, in order to propagate bulbs, the flower- ing stem should be destroyed as soon as it appears. BULLACE TREE, WILD (Prwim insitUia), A small tree, chiefly growing in hedges and plantations, with irregularly-spreading round branches, for the most part tipped with a sharp straight thorn. There are several varieties of the black kind, differing in size and flavour, some good even in a fresh state, and of more or less excellence when dressed. (Smith*8 Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 356). BULLEN. A provincial name applied to the hempstalk when the bark is stripped from it. BULRUSH (Scirpus lamstris). A peren- nial found commonly in clear ditches, ponds, and the borders of lakes and rivers; flowers in July and August. {Smithes Flora, vol. i. p. 56.) From this plant the bottoms of chairs, mats, &c. are made. The common bulrushes of the English marshes, which bear masses of brown flowers, are the Typha lalifolia and angustifolia. See Rush. BUNIAS. The oriental bunias (Bunias orientalis, PI. 9, k) is a perennial plant, with leaves, branches, and its general habit of herbage, not unlike the wild chiccory. It is a native of the Levant or eastern shores of the Mediterranean, and has been cultivated by way of experiment in the grass garden at Woburn. It is less prodxictive than chiccory, bears mowing well, and affords the same nu- triment, in proportion to its bulk, as red clover. (Loudon's Ency. of j^gr.) BUR. The rough head of the burdock, «&c. BURDOCK (Jrctmrn). There are two spe- cies, the A. lappa, common burdock or clot- bur, and the A. lardana, woolly-headed bur- dock. This very cumbrous weed is removed the first year of its growth by stubbing, like other things comprehended by farmers under the name of docks, and paid for accordingly to the weeder. It is also very commonly found in waste ground, by waysides, and among rubbish. (Smitlis Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 379.) It grows a yard high, with large leaves of a tri- angular shape, and of a whitish green colour. The stalks are round, solid, and tough. The florets are small and red, and they grow among the prickles of those heads called burs, which stick to the clothes of passers-by. The root is long and thick, brown outside, and whitish within. The plant is a biennial, and flowers in July and August. The root in decoction is a diuretic and sudorific ; but it is of little va- lue, except as a vehicle for more important medicines in some affections of the skin. This is a great remedy among village doctresses, who sometimes apply the bruised leaves to the soles of the feet in hysterics. Either the root or seeds decocted, or infused, are equally use- ful with the leaves. The root of the lesser burdock, or xanthium (Bardana minor), has a bitter and acrid flavour, and is useful in scro- fulous disorders. A decoction of the root should be persevered in for a considerable length of time. BURGLARY. The breaking mto a dwell ing-house in the eight with a felonious intent BURGOT. BURNING. The 7 W. 4, & 1 Vict. c. 86, s. 2, enact, that whosoever shall burglariously break and enter into any dwelling-house, and shall assault with intent to murder any person being therein, or shall stab, cut, wound, beat, or strike any such person, shall be guilty of felony, and being convicted thereof shall suffer death. S. 3 en- acts, that whosoever shall be convicted of the crime of burglary shall be liable, at the dis- cretion of the court, to be transported beyond | the seas for the term of the natural life of such ' offender, or for any term not less than ten years, or to be infprisoned for any term not exceeding three years. S. 4 enacts, that, so far as the same is essential to the offence of burglar)--, the night shall be considered to commence at nine of the clock in the evening of each day, and to conclude at six of the clock in the morning of the next succeeding day. {ArrhboUPs Crim. Lute.) BURGOT. A provincial word applied to yeast. It is sometimes pronounced burgowl. BUR-MARIGOLD (liuhns). This is an herbaceous, mostly annual, genus of plants, flowering in August and September. It is met with very frequently in watery places, and about the sides of ditches and ponds. There are two species, with one or two varieties in each. In the three-Iobed bur-marigold (B. tripartita), the root is tapering with many fibres; stem two or three feet high, erect, solid, smooth, leafy, with opposite axillary branches. Leaves dark green, strongly ser- rated, in three deep segments, sometimes five. Flower, terminal, solitary, of a brownish-yel- low, somewhat drooping, devoid of beauty and of fragrance. Seeds with two or three prickly angles, and as many erect bristles ; likewise prickly with reflexed hooks, by which they stick like burs to any rough surface, and are said sometimes to injure fish by getting into their gills. The herb of this species gives a yellow colour to woollen or linen. The nodding bur- marigold (Jl. reruna) has a root with many stout fibres, herb more erect and taller, with less extended branches than the foregoing species. Leaves undivided, pointed, and less deeply serrated. Flowers drooping, though their stalks are quite straight to the very sum- mit; larger and handsomer than the last. (Smithes Ens;. Flora, vol. iii. p. 398.) Among the species of bidens or bur-mari- gold, found in the United States, are the follow- ing: the chrysanthemum-like bidens, common- ly called beggar-ticks, an annual ; and the bipinnate bidens, popularly called Spanish needles. These and the other American spe- cies of bidens or burweed are noted for mature akenes adhering, by their barbed awns, to the clothing of those who go among them in au- tumn. They are rather troublesome weeds along fence-rows, Ac, and bloom and ripen their seeds late in the season. BURNET, COMMON {PimpineUa saxi- fraga). There are three species of burnet; namely, burnet saxifrage, dwarf burnet, and the greater burnet. The common burnet plant (Plate 9, a) was, a quarter of a century since, much cultivated as a green crop, from its being able to thrive on very poor, thin, and saiidy soils, but it has been gradually super- seded by better grasses. Its growth is rather slow. Cattle prefer it to clover and rye-grass, but sheep do not. (Jnn. of Jgr. vol. i. p. 394.) It is sown in spring-time, the same aj. other grass seeds, and withstands severe weather. It should be fed off when young {Ibid. vol. ii. p. 176) ; and then, says Arthur Young, "it is one of the best grasses for sheep" {Ibid. p. 369), who are at that stage of its growth exceed- ingly fond of it. About 7 lbs. of seed suffice for an acre {Ibid. vol. xvi. p. 355) ; and the produce is six or seven bushels per acre, on moderate land. {Ibid. vol. xx. p. 237.) BURNET, SALAD, SMALL or UPLAND {Poterium sanguisorba, from the Greek mTupKv, a cup, used in cool tankards). The stem, which is angular, smooth, and leafy, rises one to two feet high, furnished with glaucous-green, smooth, pinnated leaves, with sharply cut stipules, in pairs at the base of the footstalk. The flowers are fertile and barren; the latter with crimson stamens resembling elegant silk tassels. {Smith.) It delights in a dry, poor soil, abounding in calcareous matter; any light compartment that has an open exposure, there- fore may be allotted to it, the only beneficial addition that can be applied being bricklayers' rubbish or fragments of chalk. A small bed will be sufticient for the supply of a family. It may be propagated either by seed, or by slips and partings, or offsets of the roots. The seed may be sown towards the close of Febru- ary, in open weather, and thence until the close of May; but the best time is in autumn, as soon as it is ripe ; for if kept until the spring, it will often fail entirely, or lie in the ground until the same season of the following year, without vegetating. It may be inserted in drills, six inches apart, or broadcast; in either mode, thin, and not buried more than half an inch. The plants must be kept thoroughly clear of weeds throughout their growth. When two or three inches high, they may be thinned to six inches apart, and those removed placed in rows at the same distance, in a poor, shady border, water being given occasionally until they have tdken root, after which they will require no further attention until the au- tumn, when they must be removed to their final station, in rows a foot apart. When of established growth, the only attention requisite is to cut down their stems occasionally in summer, to promote the production of young shoots, and in autumn to have the decayed stems and shoots cleared away. If propagated by partings, &c. of the roots, the best time for practising it is in September and October. As it grows freely from seed, this is not usually practised. They are planted at once where they are to remain, and only require occa- sional watering until established. The other parts of their cultivation are as for those raised from seed. For the production of seed, some of the plants must be left ungathered from, and allowed to shoot up early in th«» summer ; they flower in July, and ripen abun dance of seed in the autumn. The leaves taste arid smell like cucumbers, thence the plant is used to flavour salads. {G. W. Juhn^ son's Kitchen Garden.) BURNING. SeeARsox. 237 BURNING OF LIME. BURNING OF LIME. See Lime. BURNS, in live stock, are best treated by a lotion composed of lime-water and linseed-oil, equal parts, applying it frequently ; this allays the inflammation very rapidly. BURNT CLAY. See Abhis. BUR-REED (Sparganium). Smith (Evg. Flora, vol. iv. p. 73) enumerates three species : 1. The branched bur-reed (S. ramosum) ; 2. The unbranched upright bur-reed (S. ntnplex)-, 3 The floating bur-reed (S. natans). They are all creeping-rooted, aquatic, juicy, smooth, up- nght, or floating herbs, and found in pools and ditches, and the margins of ponds and rivers : common : the last named principally in muddy fens, or slow rivers. The bur-reed is a peren- nial, flowering in July and August ; the stems of some of the species attain to the height of three or four feet. The herbage of the branched bur-reed serves for package along with similar coarse grassy plants, and is softer and more pliant than most of them, not cutting the hand by any sharp edges, like carices or ferns. The unripe burs are very astringent. A strong decoction of the burs makes a wash for old ulcers. Dr. Darlington describes an American species of bur-reed, frequent in ditches, sluggish streams, &c., in the Middle States. (Flor. Ces.) BURROW (Teut. bergen, to cover). A pro- vincial word, signifying a heap or hillock, hence stone-burrows, peat-burrows, &c. BUR -WEED (Xanthinm strumarium). The broad-leaved bur-weed is an annual plant, flowering in August and September, found in rich moist ground, or about dunghills in the south of England ; but rare. It is herba- ceous or somewhat shrubby, rather downy, of a coarse habit, root fibrous ; stem solitary, erect, branched, leafy, two feet high, solid; leaves on long stalks, heart-shaped, two or three inches wide ; clusters of four or five fer- tile green flowers, and one or two barren ones, making no show. Old tradition reports that the xanthium is good for scrofulous disorders, as the specific name seems to indicate ; but it is now out of use. The generic appellation alludes to a quality of dyeing yellow, which Dioscorides mentions. (Smillis Eng. Floi-a, vol. iv. p. 136.) The scrofulous xanthium, clot-weed, or cockle-bur is an obnoxious weed, found in the United States about farm-yards, road-sides, &c. It is an annual not much inclined >o spread, and therefore, by a little attention, could ge- nerally be easily got rid oflf. The burs are a great annoyance in the fleeces of sheep. (Flor. Ce$trica.) BUSH (Teut husrh ,- Dan. busk). A thick shrub, or a collection of shrubs or plants, growing close together, so as to form a sort of clump. It is also a provincial word, signify- ing the box of the nave of a wheel. BUSH-DRAINING. A term applied to a kind of draining, which is done by putting in, or filling the drains with bushes. See Dba ik- ing. BUSHEL (Old Fr. bitschel ; low Lat. bussel- Uis). A measure of capacity for dry goods, as grain, fruit, pulse, and many other articles, con- taining 1 pecks, 8 gallons, or 32 quarts, and is 238 BUSH-HARROW. N the eighth of the English quarter. The name seems to be derived from an old English word, buss, signifying a box or vessel. The bushel, by a statute made in the twelfth year of Henry the Seventh, is to contain 2150*42 cubic inches, or 8 gallons of wheat; the gallon of wheat to weigh 8 lbs. troy- weight; the pound, 12 oz. troy-weight; the ounce, 20 sterlings; and the sterling, 32 grains. By 5 Geo. 4, c. 74, the imperial gallon is de- clared the standard measure of capacity, and is directed to be made such as to contain 10 lbs. avoirdupois of distilled water, weighed in air at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit's thermometer, the barometer standing at 30 inches, or to contain 277 cubic inches, and 274 thousandth parts of a cubic inch ; conse- quently, the imperial bushel contains 80 lbs. of distilled water, or 2218-192 cubic inches. By the same act (§ 7), the bushel is declared the standard measure of capacity for coals, culm, lime, fish, potatoes, or fruit, and all other goods or things commonly sold by heaped measure, and is prescribed to contain 2815 cubic inches, to be made round with a plain and even bottom, and being 18^^ inches in the interior diameter by 8 in depth, and 19^ inches from outside to outside ; the goods to be heaped up in the form of cone, to a height above the rim of the measure of at least three- fourths of its depth. Besides the standard orlegal bushel,there are in England several local bushels, of different dimensions in different places. At Abingdon and Andover, a bushel contains 9 gallons : at Appleby and Penrith, a bushel of peas, rye, and wheat, contains 16 gallons ; of barley, big malt, mixed malt, and oats, 20 gallons. A bushel contains, at Carlisle, 24 gallons : at Chester, a bushel of wheat, rye, «fec., contains 32 gallons, and of oats 40; at Dorchester, a bushel of malt and oats contains 10 gallons; at Falmouth, the bushel of stricken coals is 16 gallons; of other things 20, and usually 21 gallons : at Kingston-upon-Thames, the bushel contains 8^ ; at Newbury, 9 ; at Wycomb and Reading, 8|; at Stamford 16 gallons. The contents of the bushel seems to have been gradually increasing?; the Winchester bushel, used in England from the time of Henry VII. to 1826, contained 2150-42 cubic inches. The imperial bushel is therefore to the Win- chester bushel as 2218-192 to 2150-42, or as 1 to -969447. Hence to convert Winchester bushels into imperial, multiply by -969447, To convert prices per Winchester bushel into prices per imperial bushel, multiply by 1-0315157. The heaped bushel was abolished by 4 & 5 Will. 4, c. 49, an act which took effect from the first of January, 1835. (Brande's Diet. Science; Penny Cyclopcedia ; M'CullodCs Com* Die.) BUSH-HARROW. An implement consti- tuted of any sort of bushy branches, inter- woven in a kind of frame, consisting of three or more cross-bars, fixed into two end pieces in such a manner as to be very rough and brushy underneath. To the extremities of the frame before are generally attached two wheels, about twelve inches in diameter, upon which BUSH-HAllROWING. BUTTER. it moves; sometimes, however, wheels are not employed, but the whole rough surface is ap- plied to, and dragged on, the ground. See , Harrow. BUSH-HARROWING. The operation of \ harrowing with an instrument of the kind just , described. It is chiefly necessary on grass- | lands, or such as have been long in pasture, for | the purpose of breaking down and reducing [ the lumps and clods of the earth or manures that may have been applied, and thereby ren- dering them more capable of being washed into the ground, or for removing the worm- casts and mossy matter that may have formed on the surface. BUSH -VETCH (Viria sepinm). A plant of the vetch kind, which may probably be culti- vated to advantage by the farmer, where lu- cerne and other plants of a similar nature cannot be grown. Its root is perennial, fibrous, and branching ; the stalks many, some of them shooting immediately upwards, others creep- ing just TLm\er the surface of the ground, and emerging, some near to, and others at a con- siderable distance from, the parent-stock. The small oval leaves are connected together by a mid-rib, with a tendril at the extremity; the flowers are in shape like those of the common vetch, of a reddish-purple colour; the first that blossom usually come in pairs, afterwards to the number of four at a joint ; the pods are much shorter than those of the common vetch, larger in proportion to their length, and flatter, and are of a black colour when ripe ; the seeds are smaller than those of the cultivated spe- cies, some speckled, others of a clay colour. It yields, from a brown sandy loam, 17,696 lbs. per acre of grass, and of nutritive matter 976 lbs. It flowers in the middle of May, and maintains its place when once in possession of the soil, but appears unfit for clayey soils. The seeds are sown in April or the beginning of May. (Hort. Gram. YVuh. p. 210.) Being a perennial plant, Mr. Swayne deems it to be a proper kind to intermix with grass seeds for laying down lands intended for pasture; and that it is as justly entitled to this epithet as any herbaceous plant whatever, having ob- served a patch of it growing in one particular spot of his orchard for fourteen or fifteen years past. It is not only a perennial, but an evergreen : it shoots the earliest in the spring of any plant eaten by cattle with which he is acquainted ; vegetates late in autumn, and continues green through the winter, though the weather be very severe : add to this, that cat- tle are remarkably fond of it. The chief rea- son that has hitherto prevented its cultivation has been the very great difficulty of procuring good seed in any quantity. The pods, he finds, do not ripen altogether; but as soon almost as they are ripe, they burst with great elasticity, and scatter the seed around; and after the seeds have been procured, scarce one-third part of them will vegetate, owing, as he sup- poses, to an internal defect, occasioned by cer- tain insects making them the nests and food for their young. It seems, also, that a crop of this kind of vetch may be cut three or four times, and in some cases even so early as the beginning of March — a circumstance of much importance to farmers who have a large stoCif of cattle. (Trans. Bath and We$t of England Society, vol. iii.) BUTT. A provincial term applied to such ridges or portions of arable land as run out short at the sides or other parts of fields ; also to a vessel holding 126 gallons of wine, 108 of beer; and to a measure of from 15 to 22 cwts. of currants. To bull, from Dutch boiten, to strike. Butt-land is the place where, in days of archery, the butts for practice were placed. It is also applied provincially to a close- bodied cart: hence a dunj;-butt, or wheel- cart, gurry-butt, or sledge-cart, ox-butt, horse" butt, TU0XAKTHU.M OdORATU.M, DaJEY, WhEY. BUTTER-CUP, butler-flower, or upright meadow crow's foot {Ranunculus bulbosus, Smith). (PI. 10, t.) A common perennial weed, abounding in meadows and pa.stures, and blooming in May. The whole plant is stems of the plants selected. See Cateh- PILtARS. BUTTERNUT (Juglans cathartica vel Cine- rea). A species of walnut growing in the United States, in different parts of which it is known by different names. In the New Eng- land States it generally takes the name of oil- nut; in some of the Middle States it is called white walnut; but from New York to the Caro- linas, and from Pennsylvania to Ohio, the most common name is butternut. The region of this tree is very extensive, as it is found from Upper and even Lower Canada to the Flo- ridas, and from the Atlantic to the Missouri. Even in Vermont and other cold regions its growth is so luxuriant that it attains a circum- ference of eight or ten feet. Michaux mea- sured some in New Jersey nearly opposite New York, growing on the steep and elevated banks of the Hudson, where the soil was cold and unproductive, and found them, five feet from the ground, ten or twelve feet in circum- ference, and fifty feet high, with roots running along the surface of the ground in a serpentine direction, and with little variation in size, to the distance of forty feet. The limbs gene- rally branch off at a small height above the base, and spread themselves widely, which gives the tree a striking appearance. In the spring its vegetation is forward, and its leaves unfold a fortnight earlier than those of the hickory. The black walnut and butter- nut, when young, resemble each other, in their foliage, and in the rapidity of their growth ; but when arrived at maturity, their forms are ' so different as to be distinguishable at first sight. Remarkable peculiarities are also found, on examining their wood, especially when seasoned. The black walnut is heavy, strong, and of a dark-brown colour; while the butter- nut is light, of little strength, and of a reddish extremely acrid, so as often to be employed by i hue. But they possess in common the great country people to raise a blister. Bees are, ' advantage of lasting long, and of being se however, very fond of it; it is eaten by sheep and goats; but horses, cows, and swine refuse it; drying destroys its acrimony. The roots are perennial, and bulbous ; the stem rises a cure from the annoyance of worms. The wood of the butternut is used for the sleepiers and posts of frame houses and barns, for post and rail fences, troughs for cattle, &c. For foot high, and bears its yellow flowers on the { corn-shovels and wooden dishes, it is preferred ends of its branches. j to the red-flowering maples, because it is lighter Dr. Darlington says that some fifteen or and less liable to split; consequently hollow twenty species of ranunculus have been enu- j ware and other articles made of it sell at merated in the United States. (Flor. Cestrica.) , higher prices. In Vermont the wood is used BUTTERFLY. The common English name, for the panels of coaches and chaises, being says Brande (Did. of Science), of an extensive well adapted for this purpose, not only from group of insects, as they appear in their last its lightness, but because it is not liable to and fully developed state, when they constitute split. It receives paint in a superior manner, the most beautiful and elegant examples of its pores being very open, more so than those their class. These insects belong to the order of poplar and bass-wood. Leyidoptern^ and to the section Diurna of La- ; The bark of the butternut possesses medi- treille, or the genus Papilio of Linnaeus. The cinal properties of a cathartic nature which eggs of the butterfly are deposited on such have been highly recommended both by the plants as afford the nutriment most appropriate testimony of the regular faculty and popular to the caterpillars, that are to be excluded practice. An extract prepared from the bark from them ; thus, the common white butterfly is prescribed by American physicians in dose* {Pieris brassicee) and other species, oviposit of from half a drachm to a drachm to aduiis upon cabbages, and hence have been termed In the revolutionary war when supplies of brassicaria; the gaudy peacock butterfly lays foreign medicines were cut off, the extract of ^43 BUTTERWORT. butternut was considered an admirable sub- stitute for jalap. At present it is but little resorted to except in domestic practice in the country, where many of the farmer's wives make a preparation in the spring for the use of themselves and their neighbours. They usually boil the bark entire in water, till the liquid is reduced, by evaporation, to a thick, viscid substance, which is almost black. This is a faulty process; the exterior bark should first be removed, for by continuing the boiling, it soaks up nearly four-fiAhs of the liquid, already charged with rich extractive matter. In the country the bark is sometimes employed for dyeing wool of a dark-brown colour; but the bark of the black walnut is preferable for this purpose. If the trunk of the butternut is pierced in the month which precedes the unfolding of the leaves, a pretty copious discharge ensues of a slightly sugary sap, from which, by evapora- tion, sugar is obtained of a quality inferior to that of the sugar maple. {Michav£s American Sylva.) BUTTERWORT (Pingidnda milgaris). A perennial weed growing in moist soils, as bogs and wet heaths. The viscid exudation of the leaves, which are thick and glutinous, says Smith (Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 29), is reputed to be good for" the sore teats of cows, whence the Yorkshire name of this plant, sanicle. The country people make it into a syrup as a pur- gative, and boil it with their garden herbs in broth as a remedy in colds. An ointment made from butterwort is also used for chapped hands, and to rub upon animals when bitten by an adder or slow-worm. Mr. Nuttall enumerates four species of this plant found in the United States, all of which, he says, grow nearly on a level with the ocean, in moist pine-barrens. {Genera of North Am. Plants.) BUTTONWOOD, or SYCAMORE, the Pla- tanut occidentalis, or western plane tree, of na- turalists. Among trees with deciduous leaves, none in the temperate zones, either on the old or new continent, equals the dimensions of the planes. The species which grows in the West- em World is not less remarkable for its am- plitude and for its magnificent appearance than the plane of Asia, whose majestic form and extraordinary size was so much celebrated by the ancients. In the Atlantic States this tree is commonly known by the name of buttonwood, and some- times, in Virginia, by that of water-beech. On the banks of the Ohio, and in the states of Kentucky and Tennessee, it is most frequently called sycamore, and by some persons plane- tree. The French of Canada and of Upper Louisiana g:v» it the name of cotton tree. The buttonwood is abundant and very vigor- ous along the great rivers of Pennsylvania and of Virginia; though in the more fertile val- leys of the West, its vegetation is perhaps still more luxuriant, especially on the banks of the Ohio and rivers emptying into it. The bottoms watered by these rivers are covered with dark forests, composed of trees of extraordinary size The Foil is very deep, loose, of a brown S44 BUTTONWOOD. colour, and unctuous to the touch, formed ap- parently of the slime deposited in the course of ages by the annual overflowing of the rivers. The fertility derived from this source is in- creased by accumulations of decayed vegetable matter furnished by leaves and the trees them- selves. A degree of fertility is thus attained by the vegetable mould without example in Europe, and which is manifested by prodigies of vegetation. In such situations the button- wood is found to be the largest tree in the United States, although in point of loftiness it is exceeded by the tulip poplar, and still more the white pine. Often, with a trunk of several feet in diameter, the plane tree begins to branch out at the height of sixty or seventy feet, near the summits of surrounding trees ; and often the base divides itself into several trunks equally vigorous and superior in diameter to all other trees in the vicinity. "On a little island in the Ohio, fifteen miles above the mouth of the Muskingum, my father," says Michaux, " measured a buttouAvood which, at five feet from the ground, was forty feet and four inches in circumference, and consequently more than thirteen feet in diameter. Twenty years before, General Washington had mea- sured the same tree, and found it to be of nearly the same size." The same distinguished naturalist mentions another tree which he and his travelling companion had measured, and found, at the height of four feet above the ground, forty-seven feet in circumference This tree, which grew on the right bank of the Ohio, about thirty-six miles from Marietta, still exhibited the appearance of vigorous vegeta- tion, and began to shoot out its limbs twenty- feet above the ground. A buttonwood of equal size is mentioned, as existing in Tennessee. "The extraordinary dimensions of these trees recalls," says Michaux, "the famous plane tree of Lycia, spoken of by Pliny, the trunk of which, hollowed by time, afforded a retreat for the night to the Roman Consul Licinius Mutianus, with eighteen of his followers. The interior of this grotto was represented to be seventy feet in circumference, and the summit of the tree resembled a small forest." The most striking resemblance, in the ma- jesty of their form and in the enormous size of their trunk, thus appears to exist between the only two species of plane that have been discovered. It is difficult to mark any differ- ence in the colour and organization of their wood. The American species is generally thought, in Europe, to possess a richer foliage and to afford a deeper shade than the Asiatic plane. Its leaves are of a beautiful green, alternate, from five to ten inches broad, less deeply lobed, and formed with more open an- gles than those of the plane of the Eastern continent. In some places where this tree is very abundant, it has been a source of alarm to the neighbouring inhabitants, who believe that the fine down from the leaves, floating in the air, produces an irritation of the lungs and predisposes to consumption. There appears to be little if any foundation for such an ap- prehension. According to Michaux's observations, the buttonwood does not venture towards the north- BUXUS. CABBAGE. east, beyond Portland, in the latitude of 40° 3(y ; but farther west, in 73° of longitude, it is found two deijrees farther north, at the extremity of Lake Champlain and at Montreal. Proceed- ing from Boston and the shores of Lake Champlain towards the west and the south- west, the buttonwood is continually met with over a vast tract, comprising the Atlantic and Western States, and extending beyond the Mississippi. The wood of the plane tree speedily decays when exposed to the atmosphere. Hence it is only adajjted for work that is sheltered from the weather, and when thoroughly seasoned, it may be usefully employed in the interior of houses for joists, &c. Though never used in the construction of large vessels, it has been hollowed out into canoes, one of which, former- ly on the river Wabash, made of a single tree, was sixty-five feet long, and carried nine thou- sand pounds. (Mvhaux's Am. Sylva.) BUXUS. The boxwood, of which botanists commonly enumerate three species : 1. The arboresicM, with oval leaves. 2. The angusti- folia, with narrow leaves. 3. The suffruticosa, the species usually employed in the bordering of flower-beds. The first two, when allowed to grow in a natural manner, are deciduous shrubs of fine appearance. All the species are easily cultivated. The wood is extremely hard and capable of being wrought with great neatness by the turner. It is also used by the engravers on wood to cut figures upon. BY HE. A term made use of in some places to signify a cow-house. It is commonly em- ployed in the northern parts of England, and in Scotland; and they are differently denomi- nated, according to the uses to which they are applied : thus, there are feeding-byres, turnip- byres, &c. BYSLINS. A provincial word signifying the first milk of a new-calved cow. CABBAGE (Fr. cabut; probably from cab, old Fr. for head, top, or extremity. Ital. cabuccio ; Dutch, kabuys. "But the form of the cabbage, resembling a head, shows caput to be the ori- ginal." — Todd's Johnson. Lat. brassica ; from irpa.a-tx,>', a garden herb ; or perhaps from brachia, from its numerous sprouts). A biennial genus of plants, of which there are a large number of species and innumerable varieties. Many are extensively cultivated in the vicinity of London ; and several kmds are also grown by the farmer for the purpose of feeding his cattle and sheep. Our field and garden cabbages, with their varieties, have originated from the Brassica oUracea, or culinary cabbage, an indi- genous sort of colewort growing principally on cliffs near the sea-coast. It is found abun- dantly at Dover. (Smitli's English Flora, vol. iii. p. 220.) The cabbage, says Mr. Amos (Comm. to Board of Agriculture, vol. iv. p. 17^), is a most invaluable plant, very productive, accessible at all times, and is an infallible supply for sheep-teeding during the spring months, espe- cially for ewes in lamb. Beasts and sheep are all exceedingly fond of cabbages. It may be of same importance to the farmer to be in- formed that among all the plants of the natural order to which the cabbage belongs, not one perhaps is possessed of any really deleterious property. Among nearly one thousand spe- cies (as Dr. Lindley observes), scattered over the face of the world, all are harmless, and many highly useful. The innumerable varie- ties arise from difference of soil and cultiva- tion ; and as all the cabbage tribe form hybrids, new varieties are continually produced. This is effected by the bees, when different sorts are in flower. Hence, only one variety should be in flower at the same time in any garden or field, when we wish to keep the sort unadulte- rated, particularly if some sorts have expanded leaves, and others close heads. It is thus only that the excellent small miniature cabbage, which grows on the stem of the Brussels sprout, can be kept in perfection. The differ- ent sorts of cabbage most prized for the gar- den are chiefly divided into the close-hearting and th» spreading. Of the first, the York and the savoys are the most common; of the latter, the coleworts and Scotch kale. (Penny Cycle, vol. vi. p. 92.) Of the genus brassica, or cab- bcOge, the species chiefly interesting to the fanner, and the objects of cultivation, are, 1. Common turnip {B. Rapa) ; 2. Wild navew {B. campestris) ', 3. Rape or cole (/?. Napus); i. Early cole {B. prcecox) ', 5. Cabbage (B. ole» rarea). These species may be cultivated nearly in the same manner, but they may produce small fusiform roots when they are cultivated for their leaves, or for their seeds, which yield oils; or they may produce large esculent roots when they are cultivated chieflv for their roots. (Loip's Elem. of Prac. Jgric. p. 290.) The dif- ferent kinds of cabbage in cultivation may, adds Professor Low (p. 307), be arranged in different classes, according to their general a.'^pect and more popular characters : — 1. Those which bear their leaves or stalks without their being formed into a head. Some of these have crisped leaves, and are a class of hardy pot- herbs everywhere familiar in the culture of the garden; others have smoothish leaves, with long branched stems. These comprehend the largest and most productive of all the cabbages, — the Jersey cole, the thousand-headed cab- bage, and others. 2. Those whose leaves are formed into a large head. These comprehend the larger cabbages cultivated in the fields. The savoys of our gardens are allied to this class. 3. Those whose roots become napiform, as the kohl-rabe. 4. Those in which the stem divides, and forms a corymbose head, as in the cauliflower and broccoli. The cabbages of the first class, with crisped leaves, frequently termed greens, are very hardy. They are cultivated pretty extensively in some parts of the north of Europe ; but in others they are chiefly regarded as potherbs, and confined to the garden. The branched kinds with smoothish leaves are the most pro- ductive ; but at the same time they demand a good soil and favourable climate. Their leaves are stripped off as they are required for use ; and as these are constantly supplied by fresh leaves, the plants yield a succession of forage X 2 245 CABBAGE. CABBAGE. fhroughout a great part of the season, and they remain growing for several years. There are different varieties of these larger cabbages, which are mure or less valued in the places where they are cultivated. The thousand-headed cabbage, chou a milk teles, is remarked as possessing a greater number of shootij; the cow cabbage, Cesarian cole or tree cabbage, as growing more to one stem, and producing cream-coloured flowers ; the Jersey cole, as being similar in its growth, and producing yellow flowers. In the Netherlands, and the Channel Islands, where the cultivation of these plants is well understood, they are sown in beds in autumn, and planted out in succession from November till February. About ihe month of April the farmers begin with the first sown, to strip ofl' their under leaves for use. They give them to their cows, hogs, geese, and other stock, cutting them in small pieces, and mixing them with bran and other farinaceous substances. During the summer they continue this process of strip- ping off the leaves, the plant in the meantime rising to the height of several feet. (Gard, Mag. vol. v.) This plant requires a good soil and plentiful manure, and is regarded as a great exhauster of the soil. It perhaps yields a larger proportion of nutriment within the same period than any other forage plant. It may be presumed that it is not well fitted for general cultivation, and in England will only succeed in favourable situations, as the south of England and Ireland, and the beautiful little islands where it is now cultivated. When fed to milch cows, the decayed leaves should be carefully removed, as when eaten they impart an unpleasant taste to the milk. The next class (continues Professor Low) consists of those in which the root becomes napiform. The principal variety is the kohl- rabe or purple turnip cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. catUo-rapa). This plant is cultivated in Germany and the north of Europe. It is valued as a resource for cattle in winter. While it produces a root like a turnip, it at the same lime sends forth stems bearing leaves like a cabbage. It is not only hardy, but keeps better in store than any plant of the cabbage kind. It may be cultivated in the same manner as the Swedish and yellow turnips ; but the expe- riments that have been made with it in this country lead to the inference that it is not equal to those turnips for the purpose of feed- ing. The cabbages of the last-mentioned class, as the cauliflower and the broccoli, are entirely limited to the garden. The kinds of the cab- bage which are best suited for field-crops and the support of cattle, are the York, or large Scotch, the ox-head, the drum-head, the red- veined, and the American, which commonly produce heads of 10 to 20 lbs., and not unfre- quently arrive to upwards of 30 lbs. weight. The above and other names, however, are fre- quently applied where there is no real distinc- tion. The most productive of these are the drum-headed and American ; but the red-veined and Scotch stand the winter best. Thev are all known by their large leaves, which, as the plant advances, collapse and form a dense head. The large field cabbages are those 246 I which are generally considered as the best j suited to farm culture, and are therefore those ! most commonly planted ; but the species known as the sugar-loaf cabbage, and so called from its pointed form, though rarely exceeding from 5 to 7 lbs., may yet be in many cases found more advantageous, for it can be grown on land of more ordinary quality than the other kinds ; it is hardier in constitution, more solid and nutritive, and the inferiority of its weight may be in a great degree made up by the smallness of its size allowing of the plants being set closer together. (Brit. Husb. vol. iu p. 255.) Of the different kinds, therefore, it appears that the large field cabbage, whatever name it may receive, is that which is best suited for common field culture. This plant impoverishes the soil very much. In collect- ing the produce for consumption, the plants (says the late Mr. Sinclair) should be drawa up by the roots, and not merely cut over, as is often practised to the detriment of the soil. The different varieties above enumerated afford about equal quantities of nutritive matter. The nutritive matter of the cabbage is wholly solu- ble in water ; that of the potato only partially so, for a great proportion of the potato consists of starch. According to Mr. Sinclair's experi- ments — Nutr. Matter, grS' 7000 grs. or 1 lb. of the driim-head cab- bage (B. oleracea capitata) contains 430 7000 grs. Early York cabbage {B. oler., var.) 430 7000 grs. Woburn perennial kale (B. oler. fiinhriala perenvis) - - - - 438 7000 grs. Green curled kale(B.oier.wiridis) 440 Purple borecole, or kale (5. oler Woody Fibre, grs. 932 660 laciniata) ------ 448 7000 grs. bulb of turnip-rooted cabbage (B. rapa, var.) - - - - - 400 7000 grs. leaves or tops of ditto - - 252 1120 320 360J And upon an analysis of the respective ave- rage nutritive qualities of each species of root, cabbages were generally found superior to common turnips, in the proportion of 107^ to 80, and inferior to Swedes in that of 107^ to 110. Carrots are more nutritive than cabbages, in the proportion of 187 to 107^. (Hort. Gram. Woh. p. 407, 408.) It is, however, the opinion of an experienced farmer (Mr. Brown of Mar- kle), that the culture of cabbage, taking into consideration the greater consumption of ma- nure, and the superior nature of the requisite soil, does not afford advantages to be compared with the scourge it occasions to the land. {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 258.) It is no uncommon thing to raise single cab- bages that weigh 40 lbs.: calculating the roots upon an acre to average each 20 lbs., and one to be planted on every square yard, the produce would yield 43 tons. Although it frequently averages 30 tons, few crops, except under very favourable circumstances, would reach to that extent. Cabbages are greatly esteemed by those farmers who have land capable of grow- ing them, from their forming a substitute for turnips during frosty weather, and also afford- ing an admirable change of food for cattle, by whom they are much relished ; and they are also found to be very nutritious for stall-feed- ing, or for the dairy, when used with the addi- tion of sound hay. Hogs prefer theni to turnips^ CABBAGE. CABBAGE. and they are excellent for rearing calves and ' toothless crones. An acre of good cabbages ; is therefore considered by many as worth two of turnips, and is certainly equal to one and a half. I Wolnirn perennial kale is a valuable variety ; of the open-growing cabbage, which has been ] recently introduced, and appears far superior | in amount of produce to either the green, pur- ple, or borecole, and requires less manure. It has also this advantage, that it continues highly | productive for many years, without further trouble or expense. Propagated by planting, in beginning of April, cuttings taken from the stems and branches of old plants. The seed is apt to produce spurious plants. For the table it is not inferior to the best kinds of greens or kale ; and for the farm and cottage garden, its highly productive powers and cheapness of culture promise to render this plant highly valuable. Its perennial habit places it out of the reach of the yearly acci- dents of weather, bad seed, and depredations of insects, to which «ll other varieties sown annually are subject. (Trans, Hort. Soc. Land. vol. V. art- 40.) The turnip-rooted or bulb-stalked cabbage {B. oleracea, var.) is distinguished by its irregularly- shaped root, and the swelling of the stalk in upper part, which forms a kind of round fleshy head at the end of the stem on which the leaves are produced. It is a native of Germany, and was lirst introduc'id from thence by Sir Thomas Tyrwhitt, under the name of kohl^abe. (Z>e- candnlle, in Tranr Hort. Soc. vol. v. art. 1.) The produce is nearly the same as that of Swedish turnips, and the soil that suits the one is equally good for the other. Two pounds of the seed will produce a sufficiency of plants for one acre : 64 drs of the bulb of kohl-rabe afford 105 grs. of nutritive matter. (Hort. Gram. Wob. The turnip-rooted cabbage is a hybrid pro- duction between the cabbage and turnip, which both belong to the same genus; and the various kinds which have becomedisseminated through- out Europe are so confused in nomenclature, that it has become difficult to slate their pro- perties with any great degree of precision, or to draw any certain inferences to guide us in their use. (Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 259.) These species of brassica are but little cul- tivated, and at most a very small quantity of each is in request. The bulbs, for which they are cultivated, must have the,ir thick outer skin removed, and in other respects treated as tur- nips in preparing them for use. Of the turnip cabbage, which is so named on account of the round fleshy protuberance that is formed at the upper end of the stem, there are four varieties : 1. White turnip cabbage; 2. Purple turnip cabbage; 3. Fringed turnip cabbage; 4. Dwarf early turnip cabbage. Of the turnip-rooted cabbage, which is dis- tinguished from the above by its root having the protuberance near the origin of the stem, there are two varieties, the white and the red. (Trans. Hort. Sor. Lond. vol. v. p. 18 — 24.) They are propagated by seed, which may be sown broadcast or in drills, at monthly intervals, in small quantities, from the commencement of April until the end of June. The best mode is to sow thin, in drills two feet and a half apart, and allow the plants to remain where sown, the plants being thinned to a similar distance apart ; or, if sown broadcast, to allow them to remain in the seed-bed until of sufficient size to be removed into rows at similar distances for production, rather than, as is the practice of some gardeners, to transplant them, when an inch or two in height, into a shady border, in rows three inches apart each way, to be thence removed as above stated. Water must be given every night after a re moval, until the plants are again established; and afterwards in dry weather occasionally, as may appear necessary. Earth may be drawn up to the stem of the turnip cabbage, as to other species of brassica; but the bulb of the turnip-rooted must not be covered with the mould. For directions to obtain seed, &c., see Broc- coli, TcBxip, &c. (G. W. Johnson.) The red cabbage differs from the common cabbage in nothing but its colour, which is a purplish or brownish red. The varieties are three in number; the large, the dwarf, and the Aber-leen red. It is chiefly used for pickling, and the dwarf red is considered the best sort. Cultivated precisely similar to the white cab- bage. The cabbage is not nearly so exten- sively cultivated in this country as it ought to be. It is not only a valuable food for live stock, rarely misses plant, and is come-at-able in all weathers; but it is exceedingly useful to fill up the spaces on the ridges where the Swedes and common turnips have missed plant. 1000 parts of cabbage contain 73 parts of nutritive matters. (Brit.Husb. vol. ii. ; Bax' ter's J^r. Lib.,- Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob.; Low's El. Agr. ; Com. Board of j3gr., vol. iv. ; Quart. J. Jsr., vol. vii. p. 76.) The cauliflower is considered the easiest to be digested of all the various species of cab- bage. It is not destitute of utility in a medici- nal way; a decoction of red cabbage being supposed capable of relieving acrimonious hu- mours in some disorders of the breast, and also in hoarseness. ( Willich's Dom. Encyc) A cab- bage leaf placed on any fleshy part acts in keeping open a blister; but it should be fre- quently changed, as it speedily becomes cor- rupt. The seed, bruised and boiled, is good in broth. Garden Cabbages. — For the seed-bed the soil should be moist, mouldy, and not rich; but for final production it should be afresh, moderately rich, clayey loam, though very far removed from heavy, as they delight in one that is freo and mouldy. Such crops as have to withstand the winter may have a lighter compartment allotted to them; the savoy, in particular, re- quires this, though it may be as rich as for the other crops, without any detriment: an extreme of richness is, however, for all the crops to bo avoided. The ground is advantageously dug two spades deep, and should be well pulverized by the operation. Stable manure is usually employed in preparing the ground for this genus; but Mr. Wood, of Queensferry, N. B., who has for the greater part of his life paid particular attention to the cultivation of bror- 347 CABBAGE CABBAGE. coli, recommends ihe following compositions in preference for that vegetable, and we are justified in concluding that they would be equally beneficial to all the other species. The manure collected from the public roads, used alone, causes the plants to grow strong, but with small heads. A mixture of road-rakings, sea-weed, and horse-dung is better. A manur- ing of the compartment on which they were intended to be planted with sea-weed in au- tumn, digging it up rough, repealing the appli- cation in spring, and pointing the ground before planting, pri>duced the finest heads he had ever seen; but the compost of all others most suita- ble to them is one composed of the cleanings of old dilches, tree leaves, and dung. (Mem. Caled. Hort. Sor. vol. ii. p. 265.) The situation must in every instance be free and open, though, for the summer crops, it is advanta- geous to have them shaded from the meridian sun. They must never, however, be under the drip of trees, or in confined situations ; for in such they, and especially savoys, are most subject to be infested with caterpillars, and to grow weak and spindling. In planting cab- bage, it should be observed whether the roots of the plants are knotted or clubbed, as such should be rejected, or the excrescence entirely removed. The numerous varieties of the cabbage, adds Mr. G. W. Johnson, may be divided into three classes, as most appropriate for sowing at an equal number of periods of the year. It may be here remarked, that, for family use, but few should be planted of the early varieties, as they soon cabbage, harden, and burst; on the contrary, the large York, and others that are mentioned in the middle class, though not far behind the others in quick cabbaging, never become hard, and continue long in a state fit for the table. For First Crops. — Early dwarf; York;" early dwarf su?ar-loaf; early Battersea; early im- perial ; East Ham. Midsummer Crops. — Large early York ; large sugar-loaf; early Battersea; early imperial: these mentioned again as being valuable for successional crops also. Penton, this is valu- able in late summer, when other varieties are strongly tasted. Antwerp, Russian; to have this in perfection, the seed must be had from abroad, as it soon degenerates in this country. Early London hollow. Musk is excellent at any period, but is apt to perish in frosty weather. For Juiumnj ^c— Large hollow sugar-loaf; large oblong hollow; long-sided hollow, and any of the preceding ; red Dutch for pickling. The cabbage is propagated by seed, the sow- ing of which commences with the year. To- wards the end of Januar>', on a warm border, or under a frame, a small portion of the early and red cabbages may be sown, to come first in succession aAer those which were sown in the August of the preceding year. A sowing may be repeated after intervals of a month during February, and until the close of July ! of the second or larger class, and from May to ' July of the third class of varieties. In August a full and last ciop must be sown of the first class, as well as of the second, both to plant 248 out in October, November, and December, as to remain in the seed-beds for final removal in the February and two succeeding months of the next year: this sowing is best performed during the first or second week of the month ; if sown earlier, they are apt to run in the spring; and if later, will not attain sufficient strength to survive the winter. By these va- rious sowings, which, of course, must be small ones for a private family, a constant supply is aflbrded throughout the year. The seed is inserted broadcast rather thin, and raked in evenly about a quarter of an inch deep. The bed is advantageously shaded with mats, and occasionally watered until the plants are well above ground ; and the waterings may after- wards be beneficially repeated two or three times a week until they are ready for removal, if dry hot weather continues. The seedlings arising from these various sowings, when of about a month's growth, or when they have got four or five leaves an inch or so in breadth, are, by those who are advocates for transplant- ing, pricked out in rows four or five inches asunder each way; they must be shaded and watered until completely established : those of the August sowing that are pricked out are to remain until the next spring, and those which are left in the seed-bed are employed for plant- ing in October and two following months. When of six or eight weeks' growth, they are of sufficient size for planting, which they are to be in rows from one and a half to two and a half feet asunder each way; the smaller early kinds beirig planted the closest. The red cab- bage, the principal plantation of which should be made in March for pickling in September, is benefited by having the distances enlarged to three feet. They must be well watered at the time of removal, and frequently afterwards, until fully established, in proportion as dry weather occurs. They must be frequently hoed to keep under the weeds, as perhaps no plant is more injured by them than the cab- bage ; and as soon as their growth permits it, the earth should be drawn round the stems of the plants. To promote the cabbaging of the plants, when requisite, it is useful to draw the leaves together with a shred of bass-mat, which forwards it about a fortnight. If any plants advance to seed whilst very young, the deficiencies should be immediately filled up. The stems of the summer and autumn crops, if left after the main head has been cut, will produce numerous sprouts during those sea- sons, and continue to do so throughout th winter. For the production of seed in Octo ber, which is the preferable season, and from, thence until the close of February, some of the finest and best cabbage plants must be selected ; or in default of these, though not by any means to be recommended, such of^heir stalks as have the strongest sprouts. They must have the large outer leaves removed, and then be inserted up to their heads, in rows three feet asunder each way. Each variety must be planted as far from any other as pos- sible, as indeed from every other species of brassica; and this precaution applies equally to those which will be subsequently dwelt upon. The red cabbage especially must be CABBAGE. CALAMINT, COMMON. kept distinct. Some plants of the early varie- .ies should be planted in sheltered situations, as in severe winters ihny are apt to run pre- maturely. Frame Seedlings. — The first sowing of the year in a hotbed must be carefully attended to. The heat must never exceed 55°, nor sink more than two or three degrees beneath 50°, which is the most favourable minimum ; other- wise the plants will be weak and tender, or checked and stunted. Air should be admitted freely in the day, and the glasses covered, as necessity requires, at night with matting; the other offices of cultivation are the same as for plants raised in the open ground. Colcicorts — One of the Latin names for cab- bag^s cautis, and from this is derived cale or cole and cole wort. Cole worts now merely signify cabbages cut young, or previously to their hearts becoming firm, the genuine cole- wort or Dorsetshire cale being nearly extinct. The varieties of cabbage principally employed for the raising coleworts are the large York and sugar-loaf, as they afford the sweetest; but the early York and East Ham are also em- ployed, as also occasionally the Battersea, im- perial, Antwerp, and early London hollow. When large coleworts are in request, the great spreading varieties should never be employed. Sowings may be performed during the mid- dle of June and July, to be repeated at the end of the latter month, for transplanting in .\ugust, September, and October, for a continual sup- ply in September until the close of March. A fourth musi be made the first week in August, for succeeding the others in spring; but, if of sufficient extent, these various plantations may be made fr^^ra the seed-beds of the cab- bage crops made at these several periods, as directed under that head ; as the chief object in growing coleworts is to have a supply of greens sooner than can be obtained from the plaiitations of cabbages if left to form hearts. The observations upon transplanting, and the directions for cultivating cabbages, apply without any modification to coleworts; but the distance at which the plants may be set is much less ; if the rows are a foot apart, and the plants seven or eight inches distant from each other, an abundant space is allowed. As mentioned for cabbages, the heading is greatly forwarded by their leaves being drawn to- gether so as to enclose the centre. They may be cut when the leaves are five or six inches in breadth. The most preferable mode of taking them is to pull up or cut every other one ; these openings are beneficial to the re- maining plants ; and some, especially of the August-raised plants, may be left, if required, for cabbaging. Colewort, or Dorsetshire cale, is now nearly superseded by the new cabbages of modern times. The wild coleworts grow in ditches ard moist places. Savoy — (Brassica oleracea sabauda). — The savoy, which is one of the best and chief of our vegetable supplies during the winter, de- rives its name either from being an introduc- tion from that part of Europe with which it bears a similar name, or, otherwise, is a cor- ruf icn from tlie French savourer. All its 32 varieties may be denominated hardy, being generally rendered more sweet and lender by frost, though not all equally capable of with- standing the rigour of winter. There are three varieties of savoy, — the yellow, the dwarf, and the green : and of each of these there are like- wise two sub-varieties, the round and the oval-headed, the first of which is the most permanent. Each variety has been described by Mr. Morgan, gardener to H. Brown, Esq., of North Mimms. Like the other members of this tribe, it is propagated by seeds ; ihe first sowing to take place at the close of February, the plants of which are ready for pricking out in April, if that practice is adopted, and for final planting at the end of May for use in early autumn ; this to be repeated about the middle of March, the plants to be pricked out in May for planting in June, to supply the table in autumn and early winter; lastly, the main crops must be sown in April and early May, to prick out and plant after similar intervals for production in winter and spring. The seed is sown broadcast thinly, and raked in as men- tioned for other species of brassica. The plants are fit for pricking out when they have four or five leaves about an inch in breadth ; they must be set three or four inches asunder each way, being both here and in the seed-bed kept well cleared of weeds. When finally re- moved, the plants of the first crops should be set out two feet apart each way from one an- other; but the winter standing crops are better at two feel by eighteen inches. Both before and after every removal they should be watered abundantly, if the weather is at all dry; and this application to be continued until the plants are well established. The only after-culture required is the keeping them clear of weeds by frequent broad-hoeing and the eirth drawn iip two or three times about their stems. For the production of seed, such plants must be selected of the several varieties as are most true to their particular character- istics, and as are not the first to run. These, in open weather, from early in November to the close of February, (the earlier, however, the better,) may be taken up with as little injury as possible to the roots, and the large under leaves being removed, planted entirely up to the head in rows two feet and a half each way; each variety as far from the other as possible. They flower in May or June, and ripen their seed in July and August. (G. W. Johnsati's Kitrhen Garden.) CABBAGE CATERPILLAR. This belongs to a genus of butterflies called the potherb pontia (Pontia oleracea). See Catkhpillab. CABBAGE-CUTWORM. See Cctwohm. CABBAGE-LICE. See Aphis. CABBAGE TREE {Chamceops palmetto). See Palmetto. CAG, or KEG. A vessel of the barrel kind, containing four or five gallons. CAIRN (Welsh earn). A heap of stones. CAKE. See Oat Cake and Rape Cake. CALAMINT, COMMON {Thymus cala- tnuitha, Smith). This is a wild plant, growing in England in hedges and dry places, flowering from June till autumn. It is eight or ten inches high; has roundish dark-green leaves, and 240 CALANDRE. CAMELLIA whitish flowers standing in whorls or liitle clusters surrounding the stalks, which are square and very much branched. Calamint should be gathered and dried just as it is com- ing into flower. This herb is grown in almost every garden ; it is strong-scented, and of an agreeable odour. Coles says it preserves meat from taint. Pennyroyal calamint (Mentha pulepum, Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 87) is a medicinal herb, and should be planted in every herbalist's garden. It grows a foot high, with firm stalks, small leaves of a light green colour, and hairy, and small white purplish flowers. The pennyroyal calamint is more erect than its elder sister, and has a stronger but less pleasant smell. It must be dried with care, and given in infusion. It is a popular remedy for hysterics, and in deficiency of the periodical change in females; but the plant and its infusion is rarely ordered by professional men. A water arising from the distillation of the plant, to produce its vola- tile oil, is used as a vehicle for more important drugs ; and the oil dropped on sugar and rub- bed up with water as an oleosaccharum is sometimes employed as a carminative and an antispasmodic, in doses of two to five drops. There is, also, an officinal spirit of pennyroyal, which is used for the same purposes as the oil. This aromatic plant must not be confounded with the common pennyroyal of the United Stales. See Pexnyrotal. CALANDRE. A name given by French writers to an insect of the scarabcpus or beetle tribe, which frequently does great injury in granaries. It has two antennae or horns, form- ed of a great number of round joints, and covered with a soft and short down; from the anterior part of the head there is thrust out a trunk, which is so formed at the end that the creature easily makes way with it through the coat or skin that covers the grain, and gets at the meal or farina on which it feeds; the inside of the grain is also the place where the female deposits her eggs. See Cornweevil. CALCAREOUS MARL. A mineral ferti- lizer, extensively used in many parts of Europe and the United States. See Marl. CALCAREOUS SOILS (from the Latin ealx) are soils which contain carbonate of lime (chalk of limestone) in such a proportion as to give it a determinate character. Calca- reous sand is merely chalk or limestone di- vided into pieces of the size of sand. This variety abounds on the seashore in some parts of the east of England, and is employed in Devonshire and Cornwall to a very large ex- tent as a manure, especially about Padstow Harbour, from which bay many thousand tons are annually carted by the Cornish farmers, which they take free of toll, under a grant from Richard Duke of Cornwall, another of the 46th of Henry III., a. d. 1261. {Joh^ison on Fertilizers, Tp 17) See Chalk; Earths, their Uses to Vegetahon: and Soils. CALF, DISEASES OF (Sax. cealp, caip; Dutch, knlf). See Cattle. The most com- mon diseases of calves are — 1. Navel III. — The best treatment for this da.igerous disease is, 1st, to administer two or three doses (each about a wine-glassful) of 250 castor oil (linseed oil does just as well, and is much cheaper) ; and, 2dly, cordials, which may be made of 2 drachms of caraway-seeds, 2 do. of coriander-seeds, 2 do. powdered gen- tian ; bruise the seeds, and simmer them in beer o- gruel for a quarter of an hour ; give these once or twice a day. 2. Constipation of the Bowels. — For this doses of castor oil (or linseed oil), of 2 or 3 oz., are the best remedy. 3. Diarrhasa, or Scouring. — The farmer may rely on the following mixture. Let him keep it always by him; it will do for all sucking animals : — Prepared chalk Canella bark, powdered Laudanum Water . - - '4 ounces 1 — Ipiii^ Give two or three table-spoonfuls, according to the size of the animal, two or three times a day. A table-spoonful or two of powdered chalk may be given daily or every other day, to calves whilst sucking, mixed in a liitle warm milk. It prevents the milk from turning acid, and thus checks the tendency to diarrhoea or looseness. 4. Hoose, or Catarrh. — Good nursing, bleed- ing, and then a dose of Epsom salts, with half an ounce of ginger in it. {Youatt on Cattle, p. .557.) CALKERS. A name given to the prominent or elevated part of the extremities of the shoes of horses, which are forged thin, and turned downwards for the purpose of preventing their slipping. It is sometimes written calkins or caickins. CALLUNA VULGARIS. The common heath or ling. It abounds in peaty soils. (See Peat Soils.) Its uses are considerable in some districts for litter, and, when young, sheep eat it. It is also shelter for grouse, and food for bees. See Lixo. CALVING OF COWS. The treatment be- fore calving is to keep the cow moderately well, neither too fat nor too lean ; remember that she commonly has the double duty of giving milk and nourishing the foetus; dry her some weeks before calving; let her bowels be kept moderately open ; put her in a warm sheltered place, or house her; rather reduce her food ; do not disturb her when in labour, but be ready to assist her in case of need; let her have warm gruel ; avoid cold drinks. A pint of sound good ale in a little gruel is an excellent cordial drink. CALYCANTHUS FLORIDUS, the sweet- scented shrub, or, as it is also sometimes called, Carolina allspice. See Sweet-scented Shru e. CAM. A provincial term for a mound of made earth. CAMELLIA JAPONICA. A beautiful ever- green greenhouse shrub; but if carefully at- tended to it will blow in the open air. It bears single, double, and semi-double flowers, in Feb- ruary and March ; and they are red, white, blush-coloured, and various other tints. Plant it under a south wall, in good rich garden mould mixed Avith sand ; and shelter it during winter with mats, or keep it in a large pot. It cannot endure the broiling mid-day sun. Propagate by cuttings, layers, and grafts CAMLET. CAMOMILE. and water the plants plentifully when in flower. CAMLET (Fr. camelot : Ital. ciamhelotto ; Span, carnlote ; from the Gr. x*a»xaiT))). A stuff or cloth made of wool, silk, and some- times of hair combined, especially that of goats and camels. The real oriental camlet is made from that of the Angola goat. No camlets are made in Europe of goat's hair alone. France, Holland, Flanders, and Eng- land are the chief places where this manufac- ture is carried on. The best are made in England, and those of Brussels stand next in repute. It has been occasionally written catne- lot and cnmbkt. CAMMAS. A new species of plant found in the valley of the Columbia river. It has a truncated root in the form of an onion, and grows in moist rich land. It is prepared for eating by first roasting, then pounding, after which it is made into loaves like bread. It has a liquorice taste, and is a food of great importance among the Indians. CAMMOCK (Sax). The name of a weed infesting arable, especially chalky soils, gene- rally known by the name of rest-harrow. See Rest-Hauiiow. CAMOMILE, CHAMOMILE, COMMON or SWEET (Jnthemis nobilis. From urfii*, on ac- count of its abundance of flowers, or luxuri- ance of growth. Fr. ramrnniUe: Lat. chamo- milla). A hardy perennial, growing on open gravelly pastures or commons, in England, flowering from June lo September, and well known for its use in medicine. Cattle do net appear to touch any part of this plant. Most of what is brought lo the London market is cultivated about Mitcham, in Surrey. Every part of the plant is intensely bitter, and grate- fully aromatic, especially the flowers, whose stomachic and tonic powers are justly cele- brated. (Eng. Flora, vol. iii. p. 646.) In gar- dens there are two varieties, — the common single and the double-flowering. They require a poor dry soil, otherwise they grow very luxuriant, and become not only less capable of withstanding severe winters, but also less powerful in their medicinal qualities. They will grow in any situation almost, but the more open the better. They are generally propa- gated by parting the roots, and by offsets, which may be planted from the close of Feb- ruary until the end of May; the earlier, how- ever, it is performed the better: this is the most favourable season, but it may be prac- tised in the autumn. They are also raised from seed, the proper time of sowing which is in any of the early spring months ; but as the former mode is so easily practised and with much less trouble, it is generally pursued; though it is advisable after a lapse of several years to raise fresh plants, the old ones often declining in production after such lapse of time. Being shrubby, with extending lateral branches, they should not be planted nearer to each other than eighteen inches, as that also gives an opportunity to employ the hoe. Wa- ter must be given moderately at the time of planting, if dry weather, otherwise it is not at all required. If raised from seed, they require no further cultivation than to be kept free of weeds in the seed-bed; and when three or four inches high, to be thinned to about six inches apart ; after which, they may remain thus until the following spring, then be thinned and remain, or be removed to the above-mentioned distance apart. A very small bed will supply the largest family. In July the flowers are generally in perfection for gathering ; the pe- riod for performing it, however, must be go- verned by the aspect of the flowers themselves, as the best time is when they are just opened. Particular care must be taken to dry them thoroughly before they are stored; otherwise they will not keep. If seed is required, the only attention necessary is to leave some of the first opening flowers ungathered; the seed will ripen early in September, when the plant may be cut, and the seed dried, and rubbed out. (G. IV. Johnsoii's Kitchen Garden.') Camomile flowers, fresh or dried, are tonic. They contain volatile oil, bitter extractive, tannic arid, and piperina, a resinoid which was dis- covered in them by Dr. A. T. Thomson, and which, in conjunction with the volatile oil, ex- plains their power of curing agues. The leaves and flowers dried are also anodyne applied to the bowels outwardly in fomentations. Camo- mile tea if strong promotes vomiting. The flowers of camomile distilled yield a fine blue oil, like that from yarrow, which becomes yel- low by time. It is used for cramps, &c. The double flowers have not the same virtue which the single ones possess. The infusion is a useful stomachic in weakened states of the stomach, and as a general tonic. The strong warm infusion is a useful emetic in low states of the habit, and to promote the action of other emetics. Combined with any astringent, ca- momile is an antiperiodic and cures ague. Smith (Engl. Flor. vol. iii. p. 457) enumerates four other species. The sea camomile (ji. ma- rititnu) ; annual, met with on the sea-coast, but rare; flowers smell like tansy, the leaves like mugwort. Corn camomile (Jl. nrvensis) ; an- nual or biennial, in cultivated fields, as well as waste ground, chiefly on a gravelly soil. The herbage has little or no smell, but the flowers are pleasantly scented. The stinking may- weed, or camomile (J. uiula); an annual, found in the same situatioi. as the last. Every part of the plant is fetid and acrid, blistering the skin when much handled, which Dr. Hooker justly attributes to the minute resinous dots sprinkled over its surface. And the ox-eye camomile (A. tinctoria), found sometimes in stony mountainous places, growing on a bushy stem eighteen inches high. The flowers afford a fine yellow d3'e, for which, LinntEus says, they are much used in Sweden. There are several handsome exotic species nearly akin to this. CAMOMILE, WILD, or FEVER FEW (Matricaria camomilla, PI. 10, w w). Found in cultivated and waste ground, on dunghills, and by roadsides ; very common about London. Root annual, rather large and woody; flower- ing from May till August; stem a foot high; flowers numerous, about the size of the com- mon sweet camomile, and with some portion of the same scent, of which the herbage, though faintly, partakes. The greatest part of the oil 251 CAMPHOR TREE. CANARY-GRASS. 3f caaomile found in the shops is procured from this plant. CAMPHOR TREE (Laurus camphora). Among the vegetable productions of the Old Continent which possess a high degree of in- terest for the United Stales, the camphor tree holds an eminent place. It especially deserves attention from the inhabitants of the Floridas, of the lower part of the Carolinas, and of lower Louisiana. Its multiplication in these climates would be so easy, that after a few years it might be abandoned to nature. The camphor tree belongs to the same fa- mily as the common sassafras of the United States, though in its general character it is most nearly related to the red bay, so com- mon throughout the southern regions just re- ferred to, both being evergreens of similar height, and at a small distance looking so much alike as to be easily mistaken for each other. The camphor tree is a native of China, Ja- pan, and some other parts of the East Indies, where it often attains forty or fifty feet in height, with a proportional diameter. The leaves are two or three inches long, pointed at their ex- tremities, about an inch broad, with long petioles or stems. The young branches are green. The flowers are small and whitish. The leaves, bark, wood, and roots are all strongly impregnated with the odour of camphor. The roots especially yield this substance in great- est quantity. They are cut to pieces, boiled in water in large iron retorts, &c. (See Mi- chaux's Sylva.) Camphor may likewise be obtained from certain plants or herbs of the class of labice, such as lavender and mint, out not in sufficient quantities to form an article of commerce. CANADA ONION. See Onion. CANADA THISTLE (Carduus arvensis). This plant is widely spread in the northern part of the state of New York, and has been introduced into Pennsylvania and many other parts of the Middle States, the seeds having been sometimes mixed in timothy seed, and sometimes entangled in the fleeces of sheep driven from the North. The root of the Ca- nada thistle is perennial, creeping and exceed- ingly tenacious of life, which, with its prolific character, for it springs up from the filaments of the roots as well as from seed, makes it the yilesi pes: in the form of a weed that has ever inva'J*-! American farms. It is a foreigner. The utmost vigilance will be required to pre- vent its spread wherever it may be disco- vered. A great many devices have been resorted to for the eradication and destruction of the Ca- nada thistle. Some aim at the entire removal of the root by means of extirpating machines, contrived to cut off" and harrow up the roots. Others rely upon mowing down the thistles when they are in full bloom, as a most certain method. Not content with simply cutting down, some apply common salt to the stems nr crowns of the roots which makes the de- .itruction more sure. It is an admitted fact that the life of trees and plants, when these are not in the torpid state in which they are en- abled to exist in winter, depends upon a func- v-on performed by their leaves. These are in 252 fact their lungs, deprived of the use of which for a given time, during the season of their growth, trees and plants inevitably die. Low and frequent cutting down in summer about the blooming period, will doubtless destroy plants however tenacious of life they may be, since the roots are as much indebted for life to their leaves or lungs as the leaves are to the roots. Neither can subsist long without the aid of the other important members of the system. The most usual methods, resorted to in England, for the eradication of thistles, couchgrass, and other weeds with creeping and tenacious roots, will be found mentioned under the head of Thistles. A highly inte- resting article upon this subject, originally published in that valuable agricultural periodi- cal. The Genessee Farmer, and republished in BuffiiCs Farm. Reg. vol. ii. p. 29, contains a great deal of information relative to the ex- termination of this pest of our plough fields. CANARY-GRASS, CAT'S TAIL. See Cat's Tail. CANARY-GRASS (Phalaries canariensis— PI. 4, a) is cultivated in a few parts of the south of England, and chiefly in the Isle of Thanet. The plant (says Prof. Low) is easily raised, but it is of little economical importance ; it is a native of the Canary Islands, but is found frequently wild in cultivated and waste ground, and has probably become naturalized. It is an annual, with a stem from a foot to eighteen inches high, and lively green leaves about half an inch in width. In England it flowers from June to August, and ripens its seed from Sep- tember to October The seeds are sown in February, in rows about a foot apart, four or five gaUons per acre. The reaping commences in September. The common yield is from thirty to thirty-four bushels per acre The chaff is superior to that of every ether culmi- nous plant for horse food, and the piraw, though short, is also very nutritive. From Mr. Sin- clair's experiments, it appears, that at the time of flowering, the produce of this grass per acre, from a rich clayey loam, on a tenacious subsoil, was 54,450 lbs. ; which yielded in dry produce 17,696 lbs. 4 oz., nutritive matter 1,876 lbs. 2 oz. The herbage is but little nu- tritive, and the plant cannot be recommended for cultivation, but for the seeds only, which are principally in demand in the neighbour- hood of large towns, as food for small singing- birds, particularly canaries, whence it derives its name. The produce is generally from three to five quarters an acre, and the actual price is from 40s. to 42s. per quarter. The straw or haulm is a most excellent fodder for horses. (Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 399 ; Low's El. Prac. jig. p. 266 ; Brit, Husb. vol. ii. p. 329.) The reed canary-grass (Ph. anmdinacea, Smith's Engl. Flora, vol. i. p. 74) is very com- mon in ditches, pools, and the margins of ri- vers. At the time of flowering, the produce from a black sandy loam incumbent on clay was, — lbs. oz. fJrpen produce per acre - - 27,225 Dry produce ----- 12,251 4 Nutritive matter - - - . 1,701 9 On a ytrong tenacious clay, the produce was, — CANCER IN CATTLE. CANDLE. Green produce per acre Dry produce Nutritive matter Ihf, oc 34,031 17,015 8 2,126 15 From this, it appears to be much more pro- uuclive oil a tenacious clay soil than on a rich sandy loam ; the superior nutritive powers j which this grass possesses recommend it ] therefore to the notice of occupiers of such soils. The foliage cannot be considered coar5 3, when compared with other grasses which afford a produce equal in quantity. Dry straw is a much coarser food than the hay made from this grass, and the objection may 1)6 met by reducing this hay to chaff. The ! iriped reed canary-grass has not yet been found in a wild stale; it is cultivated in gar- dens for the beauty of its striped leaves : — the common wild variety wants this distinguish- ing feature, it grows to a greater height than the striped-leaved variety, does not appear to be eaten by cattle, but birds are fond of the feeeds. It comes into flower about the first and second weeks of Julv, and ripens about the middle of August. (Hnrt. Gram. Wob. p. 359.) CANCER, IN CATTLE (Lat. ; Sax. can- eepe.) A virulent swelling or sore. Cancer of the eye, or a perfect change of its mecha- nism into a fleshy half-decomposed substance, that ulcerates and wastes away, or from which fungous growths spring that can never be checked, is a disease of occasional occurrence in cattle. The remedy should be extirpation of the eye, if it were deemed worth while to attempt it. (Lib. of Use/. Knott'., Cattle, p. 293.) CANDLE (Lat. candela : Sax. canot! • Iial. caiidelle : Fr. chamkUe .• Welsh, cameylt). A taper or cylinder of tallow, wax, or spermaceti, the wick of which is commonly of several threads of cotton spun and twisted together. Candles in England were subject for a length- ened period to an excise duly of 3^4 kind of soil from the borders of swamps to the tops of barren hills, and is very much influ- enced in its size and appearance, by the place in which it happens to grow. The wax myrtle is found bearing fruit at every size, from the height of one foot, to six or eight. In Louisiana, it is said, to grow to twelve feet. The top is much branched, and covered with a grayish bark. Every young part of the wax myrtle has a fragrant, balsamic smell, which it communicates to the fingers when rubbed by them. Dr. J. F. Dana has published, in Silliman's Journal, an account of some experiments made to ascertain the proportion of wax, and of the other parts which compose the entire berry. He found the wax to constitute nearly a third of the whole, or thirty-two per cent ; the kernels 47-00, the black powder 15-00, with about 5-00 of a resino-extractive matter. The myrtle wax is useful for many of the purposes for which bees wax and tallow are employed, particularly for candles. It burns with a clear flame, though less vivid than that of common oil, and emits a considerable fra- grance. It was formenly much in demand as an ingredient in a species of blacking ball, to which it communicated a temporary lustre and power of repelling water. It has occasionally been used in pharmacy in various composi- tions intended for external use, and is mild or stimulating according as it is more or less pure and freed from the colouring matter. In some parts of Europe plantations of this shrub have been raised with a view to the profit to be derived from the wax. In this country, where the shrub abounds, the berries are often neglected, their collection and the separation of the wax being deemed too laborious to compensate the trouble. The bark of the wax myrtle considered medicinally is an acrid stimulant and astringent. (Dr. Bigeloio's Avu Med. Botany.) CANE. A provincial term used to signify a hollow place, where water stands. It also implies a wood of alder, or other aquatic trees, in a moist boggy situation. In the South-western Slates of America there are extensive and almost impenetrable cane- brakes, consisting of a rank growth of a sub- aquatic species of cane or reed (Arumh prag- mites?). These cane-brakes resemble in many respects the jungles of the East Indies. CANINE MADNESS. See HrnnopnoBiA. CANKER, OR ULCER (Lat. awker; Sax. cancene, or cancpe). In the vegetable creation, a disease to which our apple, pear, elm, and other trees are subject. "This disease," says Mr. G. W. .Johnson, "is accompanied by different symptoms, accord ing to the species of the tree which it infects In some of those whose true sap contains a considerable quantity of free acid, as in the genus Pyrus, it is rarely accompanied by any dischai^e. To this dry form of the dis- I ease, it would be well to confine the term I canker, and to give it the scientific name of j Gangrcena sicca, or dry gangrene. In othef i trees, whose sap is characterized by abounding ! in astringent or mucilaginous constituents, it j is usually aU 400 — Turnips - - - - - - 12 15 — Potatoes ---__. 2 16 — Corn 215 6 3 — Labour - - - - - - 665 5 10 3041 17 11 Rent 500 acres, at 40*. . - - lOOO 4041 17 n From which, however, dedrct the value of the following articles, derived from the farm before the period of paying the se- cond half year's rent, viz. Profit on 20 fat cattle, U. each - - £100 Wintering 20 kyloes for 24 weeks, at 2a. 6rf. per week - - _ _ . 30 Sold 30 dininots av i gewmers at 25a. each, and 20 draft ewes at 30s. each 130 Profit on lurnipiny 120 hogs 24 weeks, at ^d. per head per week - - - 36 Sold 14 pigs 14 Produce of 4 cows over what required by family ------ 10 Wool sold 152 472 3569 17 11 At p. 658, of ioTf's Prac. Agr. will be found a catalogue of the various implements of a farm of 500 acres, from a thrashing machine worth 100/. to a grease pot valued at Is. 6d., amount- ing altogether to 474?. 4s. 4d. And this in- cludes hardly a single article that the young farmer can well do without. As a general rule on the chalks of Hampshire, they deem 5/. per acre to be a sufficient capital ; but on some of the rich highly cultivated soils cf Surrey, Kent, and Essex, 10?. per arable acre is not too much. Grazing farms require less in proportion than arable lands. CAPON (Sax. capun; Fr. chapon; l,?iX.cap6). If cocks, when young, are emasculated, it has a prodigious effect upon their condition, and a similar effect may be produced upon young hens by the abstraction of their egg-bags. These operations have been practised upon CAPON. CAPON. poultry from the earliest antiquity, for the pur- pose of improving the flesh. In England, it is chiefly practised in the great poultrj'-breeding counties of Sussex, Essex, and Berks, but is little known anywhere else. There are, in- deed, persons who make a trade of it, and it is best to employ one of those when they can be had; but it is not uncommon for the poultry- farmers' wives and daughters to acquire dex- terity in performing the operation. This, in- deed, seems to be no new thing, for Mascall, in his minute but very quaint directions, uses the feminine gender throughout. "To cut young cockrels," he says, " to make them ca- pons, the time thereof best to cut and carve them is soone after their dam has left them, or when they cry or pule no more after her, as when they begin to crowe and waxe bote to tread the pullets. The common way of cutting or carving is not to be dispraysed, and is most knowne as this waye : they take them in the morning, commonly in the wane of the moone, and laye the cocke in her lappe, upon his back, trussing up his legges by his sides. Then the carver pliickes first awaye the feathers ;*bove the vent, and takes up the upper skin on the point of a needle, and slits it over-thwart an inche long, and then takes up the under thin skinne nexte the guts, and slits that likewise. Then the carver annoyntes her fore finger of her right hande with oyle or butter, and puts it gently to the raines of the cock, on the left side, and with her finger bringes forthe the stone. Then she annoyntes the fore finger of her left hande, and puts it into the stone on the right side of the cocke, and with her finger bringes it forthe. So done, she placeth the guts, and sowes the skinne up again with a threade, and then annoyntes that place with some fresh butter, and lets him go." The art of caponing fowls forms a part of rural economy, and as the mode of operating is very little understood in the United Stales, we propose giving such ample and minute instructions upon the subject, as, with the aid of original drawings, will enable any one to succeed who possesses common dexterity. The chickens intended for capons should be of the largest breed that can be obtained, and in the United States there is not perhaps one better suited in this respect than the celebrated large Buck's county l/reed, well known in the Philadelphia market, where capons made from these fowls have been sold weighing 25 lbs. the pair. As in breeding with a special view to making capons, male chickens alone are required, those eggs should be selected to set under hens which produce males, namely, such as have the sharpest points. The altera- tion of the chicken into a capon will, in about a twelvemonth, nearly double the size of the bird. Persons wishing to become expert in the operation of making capons would do well j: imitate surgeons, who always try their hand upon dead subjects before performing on the liv- ing. It is, however, quite simple, and in France and Italy is often allotted to mere children. The Chinese mode of operating we think preferable not only to the old one described by Mascall, but to any other of which we have ever he ard. Chickens intended for capons may be ope* rated upon at any age, though when between two and three months old is considered much the best time. Old fowls seldom survive the operation. Previous to cutting, the chickens must be kept entirely from food, and even water, for about thirty-six hours, as experi- ments have determined this time to insure the best chance of success by causing the bowels to be empty and lessening the tendency to bleeding. The fowl may be secured either in the Chinese mode, — that is to say, lying on its left side with its wings folded back till they meet, and pressed under the foot of the operator, whose other foot is placed upon the legs ; — or, it may be held by an assistant in a similar position ; or, what adds greatly to the con- venience of the operator, especially in reliev- ing him from the necessity of stooping low, the fowl may be confined by straps, &c. to a table one of which, of a highly ingenious con- struction, has been invented by a Philadelphian, and will be subsequently described and de-i_ linealed. (See Figs. 2 and 3.) The chicken being secured with its left side downwards, wings clasped behind its back, legs extended backwards, the upper one be- ing drawn the furthest back (see fig. 3), the head and neck left perfectly free, the feathers are next to be plucked from fs right side near the hip joint, in a line between that and the shoulder joint; the spa<.e uncovered (a, fig. 3) may be a little over an inch square. Having first drawn the skin of the part back- ward, so that when left to itself after the ope- ration, it will cover the wound in the flesh, make an incision with the bevel-edged knife, (fig. l.a,) between the last two ribs, commenc- ing about an inch from the backbone, and ex- tending obliquely downwards about an inch or inch and a half, just going deep enough to separate the ribs, and taking good care not to wound the intestines. A pair of broad blunt hooks (fig. 1, r, t) attached to a piece of elastic whalebone or ratan (/>) about six inches long are then applied, one hook to each side of the cut, and these being stretched apart by the spring bow, keep the wound open wide enough to give room for the operation. Then care- fully cut open the skin covering the intestines, which last, if not sufficiently drawn up in conse- quence of the previous fasting, may be pushed forwards or towards the breastbone, by means of a flat instrument contrived for the purpose, or, what answers equally well, the handle of a teaspoon. When the testicles are exposed to view, they will be found to be connected with the back and sides by means of a thin skin which passes over them. This tender cover- ing must be seized with the pincers a, n, and torn open with the assistance of the sharp- edged hook h; after this, with the leti hand, introduce the curved spoon under the lower or left testicle (which is generally a little nearer the rump than the right one) : then take th? tube t, and with the right hand pass the loop n, over the small hooked end of the spoon h, run- ning it down under the spoon and included testicle, so as to bring the loop to act upon the pan which fastens the testicle to he bacjr Then by drawing the ends of the hair-loop 259 CAPON. backwards and forwards, and at the same time pushing the lower end of the tube towards the rump of the chicken, the cord or fastening of the testicle is sawn off. The same process is to be followed with the uppermost or right testicle, after which the separated testicles, together with any blood in the bottom of the wound are to be scooped out with the crooked spoon. When performed properly, little or no blood of consequence is observed, neither does the fowl seem to experience any pain, after the first incision, but will eat if food be given to it To enable the operator to produce the sawing movement, the hair or other ligature used may be lied in a knot so as to allow the index or fore finger of the operator's right hand to pass through it. This finger being then turned or rolled repeatedly from side to side, communicates to the loop below the saw- ing motion which contributes to cut off the testicle. The reason for cutting off the lower- most testicle first, is to prevent the blood which may issue, from covering the remaining one, and rendering it difficult to be seen. After this operation which, if skilfully performed, occupies very few minutes, the hooks are to be taken out, the skin drawn over the wound, and this covered with the feathers plucked off at the commencement of the operation. The chicken is then released, and as soon as let go will lake grain or other food eagerly, and in a day or two be restored to its usual health. A person well skilled may operate on fifty chickens without killing more than one or two. In some fowls the fore part of the thigh covers the last two ribs ; in which case care must be taken to draw the fleshy part of the thigh well back, to prevent its being cut, as this might lame the fowl or even cause its death. For ligatures nothing answers so well as that commonly employed by the Chinese, namely, the fibre of the cocoanut husk. This is rough, and makes a loop which saws off and separates the testicle very readily. The next best substance for this purpose is horse-hair. Experiments with fine wire, silk, silk-gut, &c. show that these are all inferior to cocoanut fibrr and horse-hair. Sometimes a portion of the testicle adheres and is left behind, in which case the fowls will not prove capons, as will soon be evident, and may be killed for use as soon as the head be- gins to grow large and get red, and they show a disposition to chase the hens. The real capon will make itself known by the head remainmg small, the comb and gills losing Iheir bright redness and appearing withered; the feathers of the neck and tail will also grow longer. They should be kept to the age of fifteen or eighteen months, which will bring them in the spring and summer, when poultry is scarce and bears a high price. But they should not be killed near moulting time, as all poultry then is very inferior. The opera- tion fails principally in consequence of the bursimg of the skin which encloses the soft matter of the testicle, some of which remains in the bird. Fowls of five or six months are less liable ■o have the testicles burst in the operation than 260 CAPON. younger ones, but they are also more apt to bleed to death than those of from two to four months old. As the large vessel that supplies the entrails with blood passes in the neighbour- hood of the testicles; there is danger that a young beginner may pierce this with the pointed instrument in taking off the skin of the lower testicle, in which case the chicken would die instantly. There are one or two smaller vessels to be avoided, which is very easy, as they are not difficult to be seen. If properly managed, no blood ever appears until a testicle is taken off: so that should any appear before that, the operator will know that he has done something wrong. If a chicken die during the operation by bleeding, it is of course as proper for use as if bled to death by having its throat cut. They very seldom die after the operation unless they have received some internal injury, or the flesh of the thigh has been cut through, from not being drawn back from ofi" the last two ribs, where the incision is made ; all of which acci- dents may be liable to occur with young prac- titioners. Where the testicles are found very large, the silver tube may be too small for the opera- tion; in this case a larger one made of small bamboo or elder, about ^ths of an inch in dia- meter, may be substituted, with a strong cocoa- nut string or ligature. But for chickens of small and medium sizes, the silver tube, with a horse-hair in it, will answer perfectly well. When a chicken has been cut, it is neces- sary, before letting it run, to put a permanent mark upon it; otherwise it would be impossi- ble to distinguish it at first from others not ope- rated on. Cutting off the outside or the inside toe of the left foot, will enable one to distin- guish them at a distance. Another mode is to cut off the comb, then shave off the spurs close to the leg, and stick them upon the bleed ing head, where they will grow and become ornamental in Ihe shape of a pair of horns. This last mode is perhaps the best, but it is not so simple and ready as the first. Which- ever plan is adopted, the fowl should be marked before performing the operation. It is very common, after the operation, and whilst the wound is healing, for the side to puff out with a windy swelling. This may be re- lieved by making a small incision or puncture in the skin, which will let the wind escape. Those fowls make the finest capons which are hatched early in the spring ; as they can be cut before the hot weather comes, W'hich is a great advantage. The operator should not be discouraged with the first difficulties ; for with practice they will disappear; every year's experience will render one more expert, until the cutting of a dozen fowls before breakfast will be a small matter. It may be well to give a warning against becoming dissatisfied with the instruments. A raw hand, when he meets with difficulties, is apt to think the tools are in fault, and sets about to improve them and invent others ; but it may be only himself that lacks skill, which practice alone can give. Those who have devoted much time and attention to the subject say CAPON. CAPON. inat they have found the old Chinese instru- ments, a drawing of which is given in fig. 1, preferable to all others. In addition to these instruments, a regular Chinese set contains a flat kind of spatula something like the upper part of a spoon handle. This is about four inches long and half an inch wide, and slightly curved at each end in opposite directions. It is for the pur pose of pushing the intestines cut of the way an oflice very well performed by the handle of a teaspoon. Fig. 1 represents the instruments used in making capons, according to the Chinese me- thod, reduced only about one-fourth their actual sizes. «, a knife, the edge of which reaemblet that of a chisel with a berei or ■lanting edge, half an inch in the neatest width ; the other end or handle contistf of two forcep blades terminating at a, a, in slender points, and forming spring forceps. The whole length from the cutting eilge to the end of the pliers is ahout six inches. e, c, two broad binnt hooks of silver or other metal, each half an inch in width and one and a half in length. b,a.n elastic bow,si.x inches long, made of whalebone or ralan. about the thickness of a large quill, and split hori- zontally into two pieces. To tlie ends of this bow the broad hooks are attached by strong cords alM)Ul half an inch long. At the end d, the cord embraces only the lower half of the split bow, whilst both pieces are included in the string, at the end e. f, is a small ring which encircles both portions of the bow. When the hooks are first put in and only half the strength of the bow is required to act upon them, this ring is slipped to the end e. But if the whole strength of the bow is needed to force the hooks apart and stretch the wound open, the ring is passed towards the end d. Thus, by means of the split bow and sliding ring, the strain upon the hooks can be increased or slackened at pleasure. * i, u lube of silver or other metal three or four inches long, made square at the upper, and flattened at the lower end A, to the width of three-tenths of an inch; this tube is fur the pur(>o6e of passing the hbre or hair ligature wi, forming the loop n. g, a narrow curv)-d spoon, the slender handle of which tapers off and has a steel point fitted into it, furnished at the e.xtremity with a very small book, *; the inner edge of this hook is sometimes sharpened. Tht operating table contrived in Philadelphia, and before referred to, is represented in the following cut, fig. 2. This table may be about 2^ feet long by 1^ feet wide, and 2^ feet high. At two of its cor- ners it can have a raised moulding about ^ an inch high, extending along the sides six or nine inches, for the purpose of placing the instru- ments at one comer and at the other some of the feathers under a stone, to keep them from being blown away. On one side there is a slit c passing through the table, about l| inch long by ^ an inch wide, running diagonally ; being about three inches from the end and 6^ from the side. Through this slit the padded band or soft list, d, d, for confining the wings, passes below to be attached to the lever e. This lever has a 4 or 5 lb. weight hung to it; and works on a screw or pin, by which it is attached to the leg. When not in use the lever rests on a pin or ledge in the other leg. On being led down, the attached band clasps the wings of the chicken lying on the table, with greater or less force as the weight is drawn to or from the end of the lever. The next thing to be described is the lever, K upcn the table, 261 CAPON. CARAWAY. the object of which is to hold down the legs as I at first, he may be confined alone for a day or these are extended backwards. This lever is two in a dark place^ after whjch il they be put padded beneath, and is furnished with a hinge ' ' ' " at i, which admits of being raised at the end A:; it projects beyond the edge of the table, and has also a 6 lb. weight suspended by the string /, which increases or diminishes the pressure by being moved to or from the table. Through one portion of the hinge an iron scre\y, til, passes beneath the table where the end is se- cured by a nut. This screw or pin allows the lever to move sidewise, whilst the hinge ad- mils of its being raised or let down. A range of holes, about i of an inch wide, are made through the table to receive the pin of the lever, as this has lo be placed nearer to or further from the slit r, according to the size of the chicken. The first hole is about eleven inches from the nearest end; the second, four- teen inches; the third, seventeen inches. The last is adapted to very large cocks or even turkeys. In fig 3, the position of the fowl when se- cured, lying upon its left side upon the table, is represented, d being the wing-band, h the lever placed over the legs, and a the place where the incision is made. The table is a refinement in the art of ca- poning which we believe is altogether new, notwithstanding the thousands of years which have elapsed since the operation has been habitually practised. The difficulty of making a subject, apparently simple, well understood by persons to whom it is entirely new, is, we think, a sufficient apology for the length of the details given. In France and other countries, besides fur- nishing a luxurious food, capons are made useful in taking care of broods of young chickens, ducklings, turkeys, and pheasants, which they are said to do much better than hens, owing to their larger size and thicker coats of feathers. The moment the chickens are hatched they are taken from the hens and given to a capon, who rears them with all the care of a parent, often having a small bell attached to his 'neck, the tinkling of which serves the purpose of keeping the brood about him, fimilar to the clucking and maternal sounds of the mother. Should he show a dis- position to treat the young chickens roughly 262 with him he will be pleased with their com- pany and continue to take care of them. The hen is cooped, and well fed until she regains the flesh and strength lost whilst setting, and then turned out to lay again. In this Avay the poulterer is enabled to raise a large number of chickens from a few hens. The capon generally brings double or treble the price of common poultry. CAPILLARY VESSELS OF VEGETA- BLES. The fine hair-like vessels that assist in the absorption and circulation of the juices of plants. CAPSICUM. (Supposed either from *<«7rT», mordeo, to bite ; or from capsa, a chest.) Cap- sicum annutim. Of this there are five varieties L Long-podded. 2. Heart-shaped. 3. Shcrt- podded. 4. Angular-podded. 5. Round short- podded. Of the Capsicum cerasiforme there are three varieties. 1. Cherry-shaped. 2. Bell- shaped, or Ox-heart. 3. Yellow-podded. The soil best suited for them is a rich, moist, mouldy loam, rather inclining to lightness than tenacity. VV^hen completely ripe, the pods are cut and hung up in the sun, or in a warm room, until completely dry, in which state they are kept until the seed is wanted for sowing. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) The capsicum loses some of its aromatic odour by drying, its taste, both recent and dry, is hot and acrid, depending on a fixed acrid oil, not volatile and distinct from that oil which gives the odour to the fresh pod. Capsicum is used as a condiment in cookery; it is more excitant than pepper; but its eiffects are less permanent. CARAWAY, or CARRAWAY (Fr. and It. carvi; Lat. camm carui). A naturalized bien- nial plant, with a taper root like a parsnip, but much smaller ; stem about two feet high, growing wild in meadows and pastures. This plant is extensively cultivated in several parts of Essex and some other counties, for the sake of its seeds, which are in daily use as a grate- ful and wholesome aromatic, and are largely consumed in confectionary and medicinal pre- parations; but its root was formerly much esteemed when boiled, and it is not easy to account for its falling into disuse. The seeds, which are grayish-brown, and ribbed, are too well known to need description. They should be chosen large, new, of a good colour, not dusty, and of a strong agreeable smell. Cara- way is sometimes sowed with coriander and teasel, and harvested the second year. The produce of this seed has often been very great; even as much as 20 cwt. per acre, which al- ways finds a market in London. On account of their aromatic smell and warm pungent taste, the seeds of caraway may be classed among the first stomachics and carminatives of our climate. To persons afflicted with fla- tulency, and liable to colic, if administered in proper quantities, they generally afford con- siderable relief. Their virtue depends on a volatile oil, which is procured in a separate state, by distillation with water. The water retains some of the oil, and is used as a vehi- cle for other mec icmes. CARBON. Caraway delights in a deep, lich, ticist loam. The ground for this, as well as other deep-rooting plants, is advantageously dug two spades deep. An open situation is most suitable to it; but in extensive orchards, where the trees are far apart, it may be grown with success. It is propagated by seed, which may be sown in March or April, either broad- cast and raked in, or in drills six inches apart ; in either case being performed thin, and buried about half ati inch deep. When well distin- guishable, the plants must be thinned to six inches apart, and carefully hoed. The hoeing must be several times repeated in the early stages of their growth, to extirpate the weeds, which at a later period cannot be conveniently got at. The plants flower in June, and ripen their seed at the close of summer. (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard. ; English Flora, vol. ii. p. 86 ; M'CullocKs Cotn. Diet. ; Willich's Doni. Encyr. ; Brande's Did. Science.) CARBON (Fr. carhone ,■ Lat. carbo). A hitherto undecompounded combustible body, which enters into the composition, in some form or other, of all vegetable substances. In a perfectly pure state, carbon constitutes dia- mond. Carbonaceous substances are usually more or less compounded, containing hydrogen, or sometimes ox)'gen, and azote, along with earthy and metallic matters. Carbon, tolerably pure, abounds in the mineral kingdom ; and, in a combined slate, it forms a main consti- tuent of vegetable and animal bodies. Anthra- cite is a mineral charcoal, differing from common pit-coal in containing no bitumen, and therefore burning without flame or smoke. Coke is the carbonaceous mass which remains after pit-coal has been exposed to ignition for some time out of contact of air; its volatile parts having been dissipated by the heat It is a spongy substance, of an iron-black colour, a somewhat metallic lustre, and does not easily burn unless several pieces are kindled toge- ther. With a good draught, however, it pro- duces a most intense heat. It is readily obtained in the form of charcoal by heating wood (and any kind of wood will answer the purpose) red-hot, covered with sand, in a cru- cible. The covering with sand is adtled to prevent the w«od undergoing combustion by coming in contact with the atmosphere. In this state when reduced to powder, charcoal constitutes an excellent manure for most soils, either when applied by itself, or mixed with decomposing animal and vegetable substances. In such cases it absorbs a considerable volume of the gases which such substances constantly emit. Thus, reckoning the bulk of the char- coal to be 1, it absorbs of Ammoniacal gas ------ 90 Sulphuretted hydrogen - - - - 55 Carbonic acid gas ----- 35 When burnt, charcoal unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and forms, in the state of carbonic acid gas, a very important portion of the gases required by all plants for their healthy vegetation. (See Gases, their Use TO Veretatiox.) Carbon constitutes about 42-47 per cent. In sugar, 41-906 per cent, in gum, 43-55 per cent, in wheat starch, 52-58 per cent, in the wood of the oak, and 51-45 in that - 4619 53-81 - 4014 59 86 - 56 41 43 59 CARBONIC ACID. of the beech ; 46-83 in pure acetic acid or vine- gar, 36-167 in tartaric acid, and 41-369 in the citric. In the state of carbonic acid gas, and in various organic matters, it is found in all cultivated soils, in all waters, and in the atmo- sphere ; and in each situation, as will be more particularly described under the head Gases, it is absorbed by and becomes the food of plants. CARBONATES. A peculiar class of salts formed by the combination of carbonic acid gas with various earths, alkalies, and metallic oxides. The composition of those most com- monly met with by the farmer is as follows : — Acid. Bate. Carbonate of lime, chalk, lime- 8toiu,iLC. - - - - 66 2 33 8 Cnrbonale of magnesia - - 6875 3125 Bicarbonate of potasb - Cnrbonate of soda Carbonate of ammonia CARBONIC ACID GAS. A peculiar gas, the same as that emitted by fermenting beer, or other liquors ; it is inhaled by, and its car- bon is the food of plants. It is composed of carbon 72-73, oxygen 27-27. See Gases, their Use to Veoetatios, It is important to know, that carbonic acid gas is poisonous, if breathed. If, for example, a person descends into a tun where fermented liquor occupies the bottom, and an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas floating over it; as soon as his mouth is immersed in it, he is suffo- cated in the same manner as if his mouth and nostrils were closed. He dies from the defect of atmospheric air in the lungs, and the circu- lation of black blood through the brain. This is the manner also in which death occurs when persons descend into old wells and cel- lars that have been long closed. When the gas is diluted with air, as for instance, when a person dies by burning charcoal in a chafing- dish in a bed-room, he is not suffocated ; but he dies from the sedative influence of the di- luted carbonic acid, which is breathed, on the nervous system. When such accidents hap- pen, persons should not venture to bring out the bodies, until a quantity of pure lime mixed with water to the thickness of milk, has been thrown into the tun, well, or cellar ; or in the event of death from burning charcoal, until a current of air has been sent through the apart- ment. The bodies should be laid on their backs, with the heads moderately elevated; cold water dashed on the chest, and frictions employed over the whole body ; and the aid of a medical practitioner quickly procured. This is the heaviest of all gases, its weight, compared with the common air of the atmosphere, being about one-half greater. This is the reason why it always subsides to the bottom of apartments, wells, sinks. Sec, where it may have been formed, or gained access. Its weight even admits of its being poured from one vessel to another. Hence it was at first called aerial acid. Frona its existing copiously, in a solid state, in lime- stones and the mild alkalis, it was styled jixed air by its proper discoverer. Dr. Black. About one volume of it exists in one thou sand volumes of common atmospheric air which may be made manifest by the crust -, " ^ 263 CARBONIC ACID. CARDOON. cart)onate it occasions upon the surface of lime-water. Carbonic acid gas is found accu- mulated in mnny caverns of volcanic districts, and particularly in the grotto del rani at Pau- silippo, near Puzzuoli ; being disengaged in such circumstances by the action of subterra- nean fire, and, possibly, of certain acids, upon the limestone strata. It often issues from fountains in copious currents, as at Franzens- brunn,nearEger,in Polterbrunnen; near Trier; and Byrreshom. This acid gas occurs also frequently in mines and wells, being called choke damp, from its sufibcating quality. Its presence may, at all times, be detected, by letting down a lighted candle, suspended from a string, into the places suspected of contain- ing this mephitic air. It exists, in consider- able quantities, in the water of every pump- well, and gives it a fresh and pleasant taste. Water, exposed some time to the air, loses these aerial particles, and becomes vapid. Many springs are highly impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and form a sparkling beve- rage; such as the Self crswasser, from Selters, upon the Lahn, in the grand duchy of Nassau ; of which no less than two millions and a half of bottles are sold every year. The amount in Saratoga water is very great. A prodigious quantity of a similar water is also artificially prepared under the name of aerated or soda water. Carbonic acid occurs in nature, combined vith many salifiable bases; as in the carbo- i'.ates of soda, baryta, strontia, magnesia; the oxides of iron, manganese, zinc, copper, lead, &c. From these substances it may be sepa- rated, generally speaking, by strong ignition, or more readily, by the superior affinity of mu- riatic, sulphuric, or nitric acid, for the earth or metallic oxyde. It is formed whenever ve- getable or animal substances are burned with free access of air, from the union of their car- bonaceous principle with atmospheric oxygen. It is also formed in all cases of the spontane- ous decomposition of organic substances, par- ticularly in the process of fermentation ; and constitutes the pungent, noxious, heavy gas thrown off, in vast volumes, from beer vats. See DisTiLLATiox and Fermkntation. Car- bonic acid is also generated in the breathing of animals; from 4 to 5 per cent., in volume, of the inhaled oxygen being converted, at each expiration, into this gas, which contaminates the air of crowded apartments, and renders ventilation essential to health, and even to life; witness the horrible catastrophe of the Black- hole at Calcutta. Carbonic acid gas is destitute of colour, has a sourish, suffocating smell, an acidulous pun- gent taste, imparts to moist, but not dry, litmus paper, a transient reddish tint, and weighs per 100 cubic inches, 46^ grains ; and per cubic foot, 803 i grains ; a little more than 3J oz., avoirdupois. A cubic foot of air weighs about two-thirds of that quantity, or .527 grains. It may be condensed into the liquid state by a pressure of 40 atmospheres, and this liquid may be then solidified by its own sudden j-.pontaneous evaporation. If the air contain more than 15 per cent, in bulk of this gas, it l«*"comes unfit for respiration and combustion, 264 I animal life and candles being speedily eitin guished by it. Before a person ventures into a deep well, or vault containing fermenting materials, he should introduce a lighted candle into the space, and observe how it burns. Carbonic acid being so much denser than common air, may be drawn out of cellars or fermenting tubs, by a pump furnished with a leather hose, which reaches to the bottom. Quicklime, mixed with water, may be used also to purify the air of a sunk apartment, by its affinity for, or power of, absorbing this aerial acid. ( Ure's Diet, of Arts, if c.) CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. A com- pound of carbon and hydrogen gases, of which there are several species ; such as oil gas, coal gas, plcfiant gas, oil of lemons, otto of roses, oil or spirits of turpentine, petroleum, naphtha, naphtha- line, oil of wine, caoutchoucine, and caoutchouc or Indian rtihbcr. {lire's Diet, of Arts, ^c.) CARDINAL, SCARLET {Lobelia cardinalis). An herbaceous hardy plant, a native of Virgi- nia. It blows its scarlet flowers in July, and again in October. It loves bog earth and shade, and the root should be parted every spring. Ripen the flower intended for seed under a glass hung over it, for it rarely ripens in this climate without assistance. This superb wild flower is worth a place in every garden. It continues blooming a long time. Five or six species are known in the United States. CARDOON, or CHARDON (Span, cardo, an artichoke ; Lat. Cynara cardunculus). A kind of wild artichoke, which is principally confined to garden culture, as it has n(:;t yet been employed as an article of food for any sort of live stock. The stalks of the inner leaves, when ren- dered tender by blanching, are used in stews, soups, and salads. A light rich soil is most suitable to this vegetable, dug deep and well pulverized. The situation must be open, and free from trees, for, like the artichoke, it is im- patient of confinement. It is propagated by seed, which may be sown at the close of March ; but, for the main crop, not until the early part of April ; those plants raised from earlier sowings being apt to run at the close of autumn : for a late crop, a sowing may be performed in June. The best practice is to sow in patches of three or four rows, four feet apart each way, to be thinned finally to one in each place, the weakest being removed. The seedlings are nearly a month in appearing If, however, they are raised in a seed-bed, they will be ready for transplanting in about eight or ten weeks from the time of sowing, and must be set at similar distances as are speci- fied above. The plants of the first sewing are generally three weeks before they r^ake their appearance ; those from the later ones, about two. If, after a lapse of these times, they do not appear, it should be ascertained if the seed is decayed, and in that case the sowing may be renewed. The seed must be sown rather thin, and covered with about half an inch ' depth of mould. When about a month old, the seedlings, if too crowded, must be thinned to four inches apart ; and those removed may CAREX. CARRIAGE. be placed out at a similar distance, if there is any deficiency of plants. When of the age sufficient for their removal, they must be taken up carefully, and the long straggling leaves removed. The bed for their reception must be dug well and laid out in trenches as for celery, or a hollow sunk for each plant ; but as they are liable to suffer from excessive wet, the best mode is to plant on the surface, and form the necessary earthing in the form of a tumulus. Water must be applied abundantly at the time of planting as well as subsequently, until they are established; and also in August, if dry weather occurs, regularly every other night, as this is found to prevent their running to seed. The only other necessary point to be attended to is, that they may be kept free from weeds during every stage of their growth. When advanced to about eighteen inches in height, which, according to the time of sow- ing, will be in August, and thence to October, the leaves must be closed together by encir- cling them with a hay-band, and earth placed round each plant, a dry day being selected for performing it. As they continue to grow, fresh bands and earth must be constantly ap- plied, until they are blanched to the height ol' two feet, or about two-thirds of their stems. They will be fit for use in eight or ten weeks after the earthing first commences. Care must be had in earthing them up, to prevent the earth falling in between the leaves, M'hich is liable to induce decay. The surface of the soil should likewise be beaten smooth, to throw orf the rain. In severe weather their tops should be covered with litter, it being re- moved as invariably in mild weather: by this treatment, they may be preserved in a service- able state throughout the winter. For the pro- duction of seed, which in England seldom conies to maturity except in dry seasons, a few plants should be set in a sheltered situation, of the April sowing; of course not earthed up, but allowed the shelter oV mats or litter in frosty weather. In the spring, the ground may be dug round them to destroy weeds, as well as to encourage the growth of the roots. The flowers make their appearance about the be- ginning of July, and the seed is ripe in Sep- tember. (G. VV. Johiison's Kitchen Garden.) CAREX. A vast genus of grasses com- prehending more than two hundred species, nearly all of which are indigenous to America. It includes sedges, and a vast variety of grasses found in salt-water marshes. See Sedoe. CARLICK. A provincial term applied in some places to charlock. CARNATION, or CLOVE PINK (Lat. carries: Dianthus caryophyllus). A beautiful and odoriferous perennial, blowing in July and Au- gust, and cultivated in beds or in pots. The wild D. caryophyllus is the origin of our fine garden carnations. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 287.) There are three distinct varieties ; the flake, the bizarre, and the picotee. The flake has two colours only, with large stripes ; the bizarre h variegated with irregular stripes and spots, of not less than three colours ; and the picotee has a white ground, spotted with every variety of scarlet, red, purple, and pink. '9hry love a light, rich earth mixed with sea- 34 sand, and never bloom very handsomely with- out a proportion of the latter. Carnations are propagated by layers, pipings, and from seed, which produce new sorts. There is an im- mense collection of fine prize carnations, well known to the public, too lengthy to insert here ; but they are easily procured at a reasonatle price. If you raise flowers from seed, sow it in pots of light earth in April ; cover the seed very lightly with mould filtered through the fingers ; shade the seedlings from the sun, and prick them out when each seedling has six leaves. Pot or plant for blowing in autumn. They will not blow well if moved in the spring. Carnations must be sheltered from excessive rains and hard frosts, and they should be placed in warm sunny borders. CARNATION GRASS. In agriculture, a term applied to some grasses, as the hair grass (Jira), probably from their having this kind of colour in their flowers. Any coarse species of carex is so named in the north of England and Scotland. CARO]^ {Ceratorxa caroubier). A tree cul- tivated extensively in the south of Europe, the pods produced by which contain a sweet, eat- able fsecula. The tree attains a medium size, and the flowers, which are of a deep purple colour, are disposed in clusters. The fruit- pcds are a foot long, contain a reddish pulp, of an agreeable sweet taste when dry; and are supposed to be "the husks (xipdriat) that the swine did eat," (Luke xv. 16). They are used as food for man and horse. The carob tree is raised from seeds. CARPET (Bmch, karpet ; Itnl rarj)elta), A covering for floors, &c., manufactured of wool, or other materials, worked with the needle or by the loom. Carpets are generally composed of linen and worsted, but the Kidderminster or Scotch carpets are entirely fabricated of wool. Persian and Turkish carpets are the most es- teemed. In England carpets are 'principally manufactured at Kidderminster, Wilton, Ciren- cester, Worcester, Axminster, &c.; and in Scotland at Kilmarnock. Those made at Ax- minster are believed to be very little, if any thing, inferior to those of Persia and Turkey. (M'CuUoch's Com. Did.: Willich's Bom. Encyc; Brande's Diet, of Science.) CARRIAGE (Fr. cariage). A general name applied to carts, wagons, and other vehicles, employed in conveying passengers, goods, merchandise, &c., from one place to another, and which are usually constructed with two or four wheels. Wheel-carriages first came into use about 1381; they were called ivhirlicotes, and were little bettpr than litters or cots (cotes) placed upon wheeis. Carriage, in irrigation, is a conduit made of timber or brick ; if the latter, an arch is turned over the stream that runs under it, and the sides bricked up ; if the former, which it com- monly is, it is constructed with a bottom and two sides, as wide and as high as the main it lies in. It must be made very strong, close, and well-jointed. Its use is to convey the water in one main over another which runs at right angles with it ; its depth and breadth are of the same dimensions with the mam it be- longs to; its length is in proportion to the Z 265 CARRIAGE DRAIN. breadth of the main it crosses. It is the most expensive conveyance belonging to the irrigat- ing of land. CARRIAGE DRAIN. See Drains. CARROT (Fr. carote). A well-known an- nual or biennial root, common alike to the field and the garden. The wild carrot, from whence all those now commonly cultivated came, is a native of England, found chiefly on chalky hills. The kinds now preferred for field culture are the long red, the Altringham, and the orange. It is a crop which, for the heavier description of soils, is becoming more and more cultivated in this country; for its produce is not only large, but it can be grown on lands not suited to turnip culture; for although the soils best adapted to it are deep sandy loams, yet it can be grown successfully on sands and peats. The carrot delights, how- ever, in a deep soil, and thus land intended for it can hardly be ploughed too deep. It is usual to trench plough or subsoil for it ; and in Hol- land they are even at the pains to deepen with the spade the furrows made by ih^lough. It may be sown, like the turnip, on ridges, by the drill or otherwise, or broadcast. The seed should be of the previous season's growth ; if mixed a fortnight before sowing with two bushels of sand or mould, kept wetted and turned over once or twice, they will grow all the better (Com. to Board of Agr. vol. vii. p. 70 — 299) ; and it keeps the seed from clinging to- gether. {Jour, of Roy. Jgr. Soc. of Eng. p, 40.) The quantity proper to be sown per acre (April is the best period) is two pounds by the drill, and about five when sown broadcast. The plants should be hoed out like turnips, and dug up in October for storing; but they may be left in the ground if preferred, and dug up as they are wanted. They may be stored either in a building covered with straw or haulm, or in pits piled in heaps four feet deep. {Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 287.) The common produce is from 280 to 450 bushels per acre— 9000 lbs. (Com. Board of Agr. vol. vi. p. 141.) It is ad- mirable ftiod for all kinds of stock. {Lmv. Jgr. p. 326.) Either the tops mown oflf green, which is said not to injure the roots {Com. Board of Jjgr.voL V. p. 211), or the roots, for horses, half a bushel a day, sliced in chaff, is admira- ble food. {Youatt on the Horse, p. 358, 392, 213 ; Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 125.) 1000 parts of the carrot contain 98 of nutritive matter. {Davy's Led.) It should be well manured with either farm-yard dung (20 cubic yards per acre) ; or pigeons' dung is excellent {Quar. Jour, of Agr. vol. v. p. 144) ; or a mixture of salt, 6^ bushels, nd soot 6^, trenched in (^imlair; Johnson on Salt, 31, 146 ; Rev. E. Carttimght, Coin. Board of Jlgr. vol. iv. p. 376) ; or sea-weed trenched in fresh as collected from the shore {Quar. Jour, of Agr. vol. vii. p. 268) ; or turf trenched in deep {Com. Board of Agr.\o\. iv. p. 191); or stieet sweepings, mixed with one-third of pigs* dung and 20 hogshead of liquid manure. {Flem. Husb. 40.) The white or Belgian carrot has been recently tried as a field crop with consi- derable success ; Sir C. Burrell having grown -^f this variety in 1840, "on a very indifferent field," 1000 bushels per acre {Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iv. p. 464) ; Lord Ducie, 26 tons 3 cwt. ; 266 CARROT. and from 20 to 32 tons by Mr. Harris ; and in Jersey 38 tons per acre. It is described 'm the Report of the Yoxford Farmers' Club as well adapted for strong or mixed soil lands, as keep- ing well, and as excellent food for horses. {Journ. of Royal Agr. Soc. vol. ii. p. 42.) CARROT, THE GARDEN {Daucus carota; as some imagine from cfaua, though its taste is far from being pungent. Perhaps from Sxav(y on account of the thickness ci' its root). There are a considerable number cf varieties of the carrot, which are divided by horticulturists into two families: those with a regular fusi- form root, which are named long carrots; and those having one that is nearly cylindrical, abruptly terminating, but continuing with a long slender tap-root, which are denominated hor7% carrots. The first are employed for the main crops ; the second, on account of their superior delicate flavour, and are advantage- ously grown for early use. They are likewise commonly recommended for shallow soils. Horn carrots, — early red horn, common early horn, long horn : this last is the best for the summer crop. Long carrots, — white, yellow, long yellow, long red, Chertsey or Surrey, su- perb green-topped or Altringham : the last two are the best for main crops. Carrots should have a warm, light, sandy, fertile soil, dug fuL two spades deep, as they require to be deeper than any other culinary vegetable. With the bottom spit it is a good practice to turn in a little well-decayed manure ; but no general ap- plication of it to the surface should be allowed in the year they are sown. A spot should be allotted them which has been made rich for the growth of crops in the previous year, or else purposely prepared by manuring and trenching in the preceding autumn. The fresh application of manure is liable to cause their growing forked, and to expend themselves in fibres, as well as to be worm-eaten. If, how- ever, the want of manure must be obviated at the time of sowing, it should be used in a highly putrescent state, and but in small quan- tities, finely divided and well mixed with the soil. If the soil is at all binding, it should be well pulverized by digging very small pits at a time, &c. Mr. Smith of Keith Hall, N. B., re- commends pigeons' dung as the best manure for this crop : it not only prevents the maggot, but causes them fo grow finer. He applies it in the same proportion as is usually done of stable manure. {Mem. Caled. Hort. Soc. vol. i. p. 129.) Carrots are propagated by seed. The first sowing for the production of plants to draw whilst young should take place in a mo- derate hotbed during January, and in a warm border at the conclusion of February or early in March. At the close of the last month, or more preferably in the early part of April, the main crop must be inserted; though, to avoid the maggot, it is even recommended not to do so until its close. In May and July the sowing may be repeated for production in autumn ; and lastly, in August, to stand through the winter, and produce in early spring. For sow- ing, a calm day should be taken advantage of; and, previous to commencing, the seeds should be separated by rubbing them between the hands, with the admixture of a little sand CARROT. CARROT. othenrise, by reason of their adhering by the nairs that surround their edges, they are clot- ted together, and cannot be sown regular. The ^urface :>( the bed should likewise be laid smooth ; otherwise, in raking it, the seed will be drawn together in similar heaps. To avoid this, before raking, it may be gently trod in. The seed should be sown thin, and the beds not more than four feet wide, for the conve- nience of after-cultivation. The larger weeds must be continually removed by hand; and when the plants are seven or eight weeks old, or when they have got four leaves two or three inches long, they should be thinned ; those in- tended for drawing young to four or five inches apart, and those to attain their full growth to eight or ten ; at the same time, the ground must be small-hoed, which operation should be re- gularly performed every three or four weeks, until the growth of the plants becomes an ef- fectual hinderance to the growth of the weeds. The crop to stand through the winter should, in frosty weather, be sheltered with a covering of litter, as, if frost occurs with much severity, it often destroys them. The hotbed for the first sowing of the year must be moderate, and earthed about sixteen inches deep ; two or three linings of hot dung, as the heat decreases, will be sufficient to bring them to a state fit for use. These are the first in production, bat are closely followed by those that have withstood the winter. The temperature must never ex- ceed 70°, or fall lower than 66° : if it rises higher, it is a certain cause of weakness ; if lower, it checks the advance of the root. They need not be thinned to more than three inches apart. At the close of October, or early in Novem- ber, as soon as the leaves change colour, the main crop may be dug up, and laid in alternate layers, with sand, in a dry outhouse ; previous to doing which, the tops, and any adhering earth, must be removed. A dry day should always be chosen for taking them up. For the production of seed, it is by much the best practice to leave some where raised. If, however, this is impracticable, some of the finest and most perfect roots should be select- ed, and their tops not cut so close as those for storing; these likewise must be placed in sand until February or March, though some gar- deners recommended October or November, then to be planted out two feet asunder in a stiff loamy soil. Those left where grown, or those planted at the close of autumn, must, during frosts, have the protection of litter ; it being invariably removed, however, during mild weather. As the seed ripens in August, which is known by its turning brown, about the end of August each umbel should be cut ; for if it is waited for until the whole plant de- cays, much of the seed is often lost during stormy weather. It must be thoroughly dried by exposure to the sun and air, before it is rubbed out for storing. For sowing, the seed should always be of the previous year's growth; if it is more than two years old, it will not ve- getate at all. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) The boiled carrot forms a good poultice in foul and cancerous ulcers. Carrots, are much cultivated in many partjr of the United States, where many farmers pre- fer them over every other vegetable for fatten- ing swine, cattle, and even as feed for horses. To fatten swine they should be given boiled^ to store-hogs, raw. The following remarks upon the culture and use of carrots in New England, are extracted from Mr. Col man's Second Report on the Agri- culture of Massachusetts. *»Jno. Merrill, of South Lee, has been a very successful cultivator of carrots. He states the yield on two acres at 600 bushels to the acre; and the cost of cultivation, exclusive of manure and rent of land, at twenty-five dollars per acre ; or a little more than four cents per bushel. For feeding horses, he says, he should prefer one hundred bushels of carrots and one hundred bushels of oats to two hundred bushels of oats. He applied them in a raw state to the feeding of his team horses, and horses in pre- paration for market; and they were kept by them in high health and spirits. Oats followed his carrot crop on the same ground with great success. The experience of J. C. Curwen, Eng., in the use of carrots for horses, corres- ponds with that of Mr. Mu-nll. The authority of Curwen is unquestionAble ; and he was in the habit of employing constantly as many as eighty horses on his farm and in his extensive coal mines. . ** * I cannot omit,' he says, * stating the great profit of carrots. I have found by the experi- ence of the last two years, that where eight pounds of oat-feeding was allowed to draft horses, four pounds might be taken away and supplied by an equal weight of carrots ; and the health, spirit, and ability of the horses to do their work be perfectly as good as with the whole quantity of oats. With the drill hus- bandry and proper attention, very good crops of carrots may be obtained upon soils not generally supposed suitable to their growth.' "He adds in another place. 'The profits and advantages of carrots are in my opinion greater than any other crop. This admirable root has, upon repeated and very extensive trials for the last three years, been found to answer most perfectly as a part substitute for oats. Where ten pounds of oats are given per day, four pounds may be taken away; and their place supplied by five pounds of carrots. This has been practised in the feeding of eighty horses for the last three years, with the most complete success, and the health and condition of the horses allowed to be improved by the exchange. An acre of carrots supplies a quan tity of food for working horses equal to sixteen or twenty acres of oats.' " My own experience of the value of carrots, which has not been small, fully confirms these statements. I have obtained at the rate of more than a thousand bushels to the acre ou three quarters of an acre ; but on several acres my crop has usually averaged 600 bushels to the acre. Smith of Middlefield, Hampshire c jun- ty, from three-fourths of an acre obtained 900 bushels. "Charles Knowlton of Ashfield, Franklin 26" CARROT. county this year o\ :ained 90 bushels on twelve rods 01 ground. This was at the rate of 1200 bushels to the acre. *'D. Moore, of Concord, Middlesex county, ^rom six rods of land, obtained this year 66 bushels ; or at the rate of 1493 bushels to the acre. "According to Josiah Quincy's experience in Quincy, Plymouth county, charging labour at one di)llar per day his carrots cost him eleven cents per bushel. David and Stephen Little, in Newbury, Essex county, in 1813, obtained, 901 bushels to the acre, at an expense of $79.50 every expense included, excepting rent of land. This was at a rate less than nine cents to a bushel." Mr. Colman subjoins, in an Appendix, an account of an experiment made in feeding swine, illustrating the value of this vegetable, upon the authority of Arthur Young. "The great objection to the cultivation of carrots lies in the difficulty of keeping them while growing free from weeds. If sown without any preparation, the seed is a long lime in germinating ; and a plentiful crop of weeds is liable to get possession of the land before the carrots make their appearance. There is another difficulty. The carrot seed from its minuteness is liable to be sown too thickly. To obviate in a degree these objec- tions, let the ground be ploughed deeply, well manured, and put in fine tilth ; and let the first__ and perhaps the second crop of weeds be ploughed in. After this let the land be thrown into ridges two feet apart, and the seed sown on top of the ridges either in a single line, or the ridges be made so wide as to receive two rows of carrots, eight inches or one foot apart. In the mean time the seed should be freely mixed with fine sand ; and the sand kept so moist that the seed shall germinate. As soon as it is sprouted it should be sown. This may be so arranged that the sowing shall take place about the first of June. They will then have the start of the weeds. The mixture with sand will prevent their being sown too thickly. After the first thinning and weeding is over, if done with care, the battle may be considered as won. Afterwards let them be cultivated with a plough or cultivator and kept clean. When the lime of digging arrives, the work will be greatly facilitated by passing a plough directly along the side of the carrots; and they are easily thrown out by the hand." CARROT, WILD iDaiims carota, PI. 10, o). This common plant is abundant in pastures, and about hedges, in a gravelly soil. Ii is a biennial plant, flowering in June and July. Its root is small, slender, aromatic, and sweet- ish. It grows two feel high, branched, erect, leafy; the stalks are firm and striated; the leaves are divided into fine and numerous par- titions, of a pale-green colour, being also hairy. The flowers are in large umbels, with large, pinnatifid involucres, and undivided involu- cels, small and white, except the central flower, "vhich is red ; and they are succeeded by rough seeds. This is one of those plants in which we are able to perceive design. The seeds •equire to be protected, to produce which all ;h'i flower-stalks become incurvated, making 268 CART the umbel hollow, or giving it the aspect of a cup or nest. The seed is medicinally used; it is a powerful diuretic. An infusion of the seeds in white wine is very restorative in hys- terical disorders. The wild carrot is found in pastures, road- sides, &c. in Pennsylvania and the Middle States. Although much esteemed in Europe as a food for milch-cows, it is regarded as ra- ther a nuisance by the farmers in the United States, and requires great exertion to destroy and keep under when once introduced into fields. {Flor. Cest.) CARRUCAGE (from caruca, an old name for the plough). In husbandry, denotes the ploughing of ground, either ordinary, as for grain, hemp, flax; or, extraordinary, as for woad, dyer's weed, rapeseed, &c. CARRUSATE. A term that anciently de- noted the quantity of arable land capable of being tilled in one year with one plough. CARRYING. A term used in horsemanship A horse is said to carry low, when, having na- turally an ill-shaped neck, he lowers his head too much. This fault may be remedied by a proper bridle. A horse is said to carry well, when his neck is raised or arched, and he holds his head high and firm, without constraint. Carrying in the vyind, is applied to horses which frequently toss their noses as high as their ears, and do not carry their heads hand- somely. CARSE. A provincial term applied to such lands as lie in the hollows near large rivers or estuaries of the sea, and have a deep rich soil. The carse of Gowrie, in Scotland, yields the heaviest crops of grain north of the Tweed. Such lands are either of the deep clayey loamy kind, or alluvial soils in a state of aration. CART. A vehicle constructed with two oi more wheels, and drawn by one or more horses Half a century since, Lord Robert Seymour advocated the cause of the single-horse cart: he observed, that the advantages of single-horse carts are universally admitted, wherever they have been attentively compared with carriages of any other description. By his own observa- tion he was led to think th^t a horse when he acts singly, will do half as much more work as when he acts in conjunction with another; that is to say, that two horses will, separately, do as much work as three conjunctively ; this arises, he believes, in the first place, from the single horse being so near the load he draws ; and, in the next place, from the point or line of draught being so much below his breast — it being usual to make the wheels of single- horse carts very low. A., horse harnessed sin- gly has nothing but his load to contend with; whereas, when he draws in conjunction with another, he is generally embarrassed by some difference of rate, the "horse behind or before him being quicker or slower than himself; he is likewise frequently inconvenienced by the greater or lesser height of his neighbour: these considerations gave, he conceived, a de- cided advantage to the sort of cart he recom- mended. If any other is wanted, that of the very great ease with which a low cart is filled may be added ; as a man may load it with the help of a long-handled shovel or fork, by means CART- CAST. of his hands only : whereas, in order to fill a i higher cart, not only the man's back, but his | arms and whole person must be exerted. To the use of single horses in draught he has heard no objection, unless it be the supposed necessity of additional drivers created by it: the fact, however, is, that it has no such effect; for horses once in the habit of going singly, will follow each other as uniformly and as steadily as they do when harnessed together ; and accordingly we see, says he, on the most frequented roads in Ireland, men conducting three, four, or five single-horse carts each, without any inconvenience to the passengers : such, likewise, is the case in England, in which lime and coal are generally carried. (^Yming's Ann. of Aer. vol. xxvii. p. 337.) And he might likewise have added, the single-horse carts in some of the northern counties, where one man manages two or three, and sometimes more. The subject of carts has recently engaged the attention of the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Mr. Baker of Gloucestershire, says, in their Joum. vol. i. p. 429, " My land is on a stiff clay ; my carts are on six-inch wheels, and made to hold half the quantity that my neighbours carry in theirs. My land is hilly ; my carts generally go with one horse; but up hill, when loaded, another is put on before, which comes down the hill with the next re- turning cart. Thus, on a level ground, with two carts, and two or perhaps \Vith three horses, I take out the same quantity of dung that my neighbours carry in their carts with never less than three horses, and sometimes with four." And in the Joum. of the Roy. As;r. Soc. of Eng. vol. ii. p. 73, is a very good article by Mr.Han- nam of Burcott, illustrated by engravings of the one-horse cart, and of a new one of his own construction. '*The counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland," he observes, " have uni- versally and immemorially used the one-horse- cart. They have no other carriage for any kind of agricultural produce, and never is the addition of another horse on any occasion seen." The practice, apparently originating in economy, has long since spread into Dum- friesshire ; and, according to Mr. Wilkie of Uddingslon, it is all but universal at the present moment throughout the west of Scotland. "My dung-carts," he adds, "are taken from the improved Cumberland cart, which measures 60 inches long X 47^ inches wide X 17 inches deep = 1 cubic yard = 21 bushels ; and it tilts with a spring key-stick, which adjusts itself as the horse moves forward ; the wheels are about 4 feet 6 inches high, and are set so far apart as to conveniently span two 27-inch ridges ; it weighs 8 cwt." There are a variety of carts peculiar to different counties, most of Tehich are described, and drawings given, in Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 159 ; from the heavy one- horse cart of the vicinity of London, to the light simple Irish or Yarmouth car, as well as the improved car first introduced into Leices- tershire by Bakewell. The carts of Pennsylvania are perhaps un- surpassed in the United States for neatness and strength. Either one, two, or three horses we used, as circumstances may require, and broad or narrow wheels, but the former are preferable for farm work. CARTER. An inferior sort of farm servant, who has the care of driving and foddering the team. He should always be chosen as steady, regular, sober, and trustworthy as possible, and be perfectly gentle and humane in his disposi- tion. It is of great importance to the farmer to have a carter with these qualifications ; for otherwise his horses may be ill-treated, ne- glected, overworked, or overfed, and much fodder wasted. (Brit. Husb. vol. i. p. 170.) Le- onard Mascal, nearly two centuries since, told the carter of his day to " have patience in mo- derate useing of his horses; and at all other times he ought to bear a love alwayes to his cattel, that his cattel may love him, not fearing him too much ; let him never use to beat them with the stock of his whip, but whip them with the lash, and use them to the sound thereof, and vet not often for dulling of them." CARTHAMUS, or SAFFLOWER (Charthu- mus tinctorius), an annual plant cultivatea in Spain, Egypt, and the Levant, for its flower, which is used in dyeing silks, &c., and in making rouge. See Saffrok. CART LODGE. A small outhouse for sheltering carts from the weather. Farmers should be very careful to place their carts, &c. under proper shelter, when out of use, as they will last much longer by this means than if left exposed in the yard to the effects of the weather ; for, as they are thus sometimes wet, and sometimes dry, they soon rot, and become unfit for use. The dust and dirt should also be constantly washed off before they are laid up. There are some excellent observations on the necessity of care in the preservation of agricultural implements by Mr. Crosskill cf Beverley. (Joum. of Roy. Agr. Soe. vol. ii. p. 150.) He advises that the implements should all be placed under the care of one workman on the farm, who should be encouraged to feel a pride in showing his master's implements in fine order. GARY'S CATTLE GAUGE. An instru- ment made in the form and on the principle of a slider rule, for ascertaining the weight of live cattle, which is indicated in stones of 8 lbs. and 14 lbs. (See Brit. Hu»b. vol. ii. foot note at p. 393.) CASINGS. A provincial term, signifying dried cow's dung, which is used in several parts of England for fuel. CASK. A vessel of capaciij, for holding different sorts of liquids, or other matters. See Barrel. CASSAVA. See Tapioca. CAST. A term applied to a swarm or flight of bees (see Bees) ; and to poultry when they lose their feathers or moult. It is also used to denote the changing of the hair and hoofs of horses. Horses cast or shed their hair at least once a year. Every spring they cast the win- ter coat, and gain a summer one; and some- times in the end of autumn they put on iheir winter hair, in case they have been ill-fed, curried, or clothed, or kept in a cold stable. I Occasionally they cast their hoofs : when this ' happens, let them be turned out mto a pas- [ ture. z 2 26«» CASTING. CAT. CASTING. The operation of throwing a horse down, which should be performed with great care on straw. Take a long rope, double it, and cast a knot a yard from the bow ; put the bow about his neck, and the double rope betwixt his fore legs, about his hinder pasterns, and under his fetlocks : when you have done this, slip the ends of the rope underneath the bow of his neck, and draw them quick, and they will overthrow him ; then make the ends fast, and hold down his head. CASTING A COLT. A term which implies a mare's proving abortive. CASTOR OIL. The well known medi- cinal oil obtained from the seeds or beans of the Palma CVins/i, a plant indigenous to the West Indies. The cultivation of the Pal- ma Christi and the manufacture of castor oil is extensively carried on in some parts of the United States, and continues on the increase. A single firm at St. Louis has worked up 18,500 bushels of beans in four months, producing 17,750 gallons of oil, and it is stated that 800 barrels have been sold at $50 the barrel. This oil may be prepared for burning, machinery, soap, &c^ and is also convertible into stearin. It is more soluble in alcohol than lard-oil. CASTRATION. In farriery, a term signify- ing, in regard to animals, the operation of geld- ing in males, and spaying in females. The operation may be performed at any age, but, in general, the earlier the better. For cattle, be- tween two and eight months ; for sheep, before they are twenty-one days old ; in horses, be- tween four and twelve months. CAT (Felis catus, L.). A genus of animals comprising twenty-one species, and belonging to the same class as the lion and the tiger. Though originally a variety of the wild cat, one of the most ferocious brutes, this animai is now domesticated. The former inhabits holloM' trees, especially the oaks of large forests, and in winter retreats to the deserted holes of foxes and badgers. Its skin is an excellent fur, but by no means compensates the damage done by wild cats to game and poultry. The domestic cat, when suffered to retire to thickets, easily returns to a wild stale. Its colour is uncommonly diversified ; but the most beautiful varieties are the ^eddish Spanish cat, and that of Angora, with long silken hair. A tame cat generally attains the ag.t change in June. The moth is familiarly known by the name of the white miller, and is often seen about houses. Its scientific name is Jirtia Vir- ginica, and, as it nearly resembles the insects commonly called ermine-moths in England, we may give to it the name of the Virginia ermine-moth. It is white, with a black point on the middle of the fore-wings, and two black dots on the hind-wings, one on the middle and the other near the posterior angle, much more distinct on the under than on the upper side; there is a row of black dots on the top of the back, another on each side, and between these a longitudinal deep yellow stripe ; the hips and thighs of the fore-legs are also ochre-yellow. It expands from one inch and a half to two inches. Having been much troubled with the voracious yellow bears in the little patch, (I cannot call it a garden,) where a few beans, aiid other vegetables, together ,with some flowers, were cultivated, I required my children to pick off" the caterpillars from day to day and crush them, and taught them not to spare * the pretty white millers,' which they frequently found on the fences, or on the plants, laying, their golden yellow eggs, telling them that, with every female which they should kill, the eggs, from which hundreds of yellow bears would have hatched, would be destroyed. In some parts of France, and in Belgium, the people are required by law to echenilier, or un- caterpillar, their gardens and orchards, and are punished by fine if they neglect the duty. Although we have not yet become so prudent and public spirited as to enact similar regula- tions, we might find it for our advantage to offer a bounty for the destruction of caterpil- ars; and though we should pay for them by the quart, as we do for berries, we should be gainers in the end; while the children, whose idle hours were occupied in the picking of them, would find this a profitable employment." {Harris.) " The salt-marsh caterpillar, an insect by far too well known on our sea-board, and now getting to be common in the interior of the state, whither it has probably been introduced, while under the chrysalis form, with the salt hay annually carried from the coast by our in- land farmers, closely resembles the yellow bear in some of its varieties. The history of this insect," says Dr. Harris, "forms the subject of a communication made by me to the ' Agri- cultural Society of Massachusetts,' in the year 1S23, and printed in the seventh volume of the * Massachusetts Agricultural Repository and Journal,' with figures representing the insect in its different stages. At various times and intervals since the beginning of the present century, and probably before it also, the salt marshes about Boston have been overrun and laid waste by swarms of caterpillars. These appear towards the end of June, and grow rapidly from that lime till the first of August. During this month they come to their full size, and begin to run, as the phrase is, or retreat from the marshes, and disperse through the adjacent uplands, often committing very exten- sive ravages in their progress. Corn-fields, gardens, and even the rank weeds by the way- side atford them temporary nourishment while wandering in search of a place of security from the tide and weather. They conceal themselves in walls, under stones, in hay- slacks and mows, in wood-piles, and in any other places in their way, which will afford them the proper degree of shelter during the winter. Here they make their coarse hairy cocoons, and change to chrysalids, in which form they remain till the following summer, and are transformed to moths in the month of June. In those cases where, from any cause, the caterpillars, when arrived at maturity, have been unable to leave the marshes, they conceal themselves °neath the stubble, and there make their cov nms. Such, for the most part, is the course aud duration of the lives of these insects in Massachusetts ; but in the Middle and Southern States, two broods are brought to perfection annually; and even here some of them run through their course sooner, and produce a second brood of caterpillars in the same season ; for I have obtained the moths between the 15th and 20th of May, and again between the 1st and the 10th of August. Those which were disclosed in May passed the winter in the chrysalis form, while the mv^ths which appeared in August must have been produced from caterpillars that had come to their growth, and gone through all their transformations during the same summer. This, however, in Massachusetts, is not a common occurrence , for by far the greater part of these insects ap- pear at one time, and require a year to com- plete their several changes. The full-grown ca terpillar measures one inch and three-quarters or more in length. It is clothed with long hairs, which are sometimes black and some- times brown on the back and forepart of the 2 A 27- CATERPILLAR. CATERPILLAR. body, and of a lighter brown coloui on the sides. Tlie hairs, like those of the other Arctias, grow in spreading clusters from warts, which are of a yellowish colour in this species. The body, when stripped of the hairs, is yel- low, shaded at the sides with black, and there is a blackish line extending along the top of the back. The breathing-holes are white, and very distinct even through the hairs. These cater- pillars, when feeding on the marshes, are sometimes overtaken by the tide, and when escape becomes impossible, they roll them- selves up in a circular form, as is common with others of the tribe, and abandon them- selves to ilieir fate. The hairs on their bodies seem to have a repelling power, and prevent the M'ater from wetting their skins, so that they float on the surface, and are often carried by the wavee to distant places, where they are thrown on shore, and left ii. w-inrows with the wash of the sea. After a little time most of them recover from their half-drowned condi- tion, and begin their depredations anew. In this way these insects seem to have spread from the places where they first appeared to others at a considerable distance. Although these insects do not seem ever entirely to have disappeared from places where they have once established themselves, they do not prevail every year in the same overwhelming swarms ; but their numbers are increased or lessened at irregular periods, from causes which are not well understood. These caterpillars are pro- duced from eggs, which are laid by the moths on the grass of the marshes about the middle of June, and are hatched in seven or eight days afterwards, and the number of eggs deposited by a single female is, on an average, about eight hundred. The moths themselves vary in colour. In the males, the thorax and upper side of the fore-wings are generally white, the latter spotted with black ; the hind-wings and abdomen, except the tail, deep ochre-yellow, the former with a few black spots near the hind margin, and the abdomen with a row of siK black spots on the top of the back, two rows on the sides, and one on the belly ; the under-side of all the wings and the thighs are deep yellow. It expands from one inch and seven-eighths to two inches and a quarter. The female differs from the male either in having the hind wings white, instead of ochre-yellow, or in having all the wings ashen gray with the usual black spots. It expands two inches and three-eighths or more. Sometimes, though rarely, male moths occur with the fore-wings ash-coloured or dusky. Professor Peck called this moth psnutemtinca, that is, false ermine, and this name was adopted by me in my com- munication to the 'Agricultural Society.'" {Harris.) In order to lessen the ravages of the salt- marsh caterpillars, and to secure a fair crop of hay when these insects abound. Dr. Harris recommends that " the marshes should be mowed early in July, at which time the cater- pillars are small and feeble, and being unable to wander lar, will die before the crop is ga- thered in. In defence of early mowing, it may be said that it is the only way by which the f rass mav be saved in those meadows where •278 ' the caterpillars have multiplied to any extent; and, if the practice is followed generally, and continued during several years in succession, it will do much towards exterminating these destructive insects. By the practice of late mowing, where the caterpillars abound, a great loss in the crop will be sustained, im- mense numbers of caterpillars and grasshop- pers will be left to grow to maturity and disperse upon the uplands, by which means the evil will go on increasing from year to year ; or they will be brought in with the hay to perish in our barns and stacks, where there dead bodies will prove offensive to the cattle, and occasion a waste of fodder. To get rid of 'the old fog' or stubble, which becomes much thicker and longer in consequence of early mowing, the marshes should be burnt over in March. The roots of the grass will not be injured by burning the stubble, on the contrary, they will be fertilized by the ashes ; while great numbers of young grasshoppers, cocoons of caterpillars, and various kinds of destructive insects, with their eggs, concealed in the stubble, will be destroyed by the fire. In the province of New Brunswick, the bene- fit arising from burning the stubble has long been proved; and this practice is getting into favour in New England. " The caterpillars of all the foregoing Arc- tians (or harnessed moths) live almost entirely upon herbaceous plants ; those which follow (with one exception only), devour the leaves of trees. Of the latter, the most common and destructive are the little caterpillars known by the name of fall web-worms, whose large webs, sometimes extending over entire branches with their leaves, may be seen on our native elms, and also on apple and other fruit trees, in the latter part of summer. The eggs, from which these caterpillars proceed, are laid by the parent moth in a cluster upon a leaf near the extremity of a branch ; they are hatched from the last of June till the middle of August, some broods being early and others late, and the young caterpillars immediately begin to provide a shelter for themselves, by covering the upper side of the leaf with a web, which is the result of the united labours of the whole brood. They feed in company beneath this web, devouring only the upper skin and pulpy portion of the leaf, leaving the veins and lower skin of the Jeaf untouched. As they increase in size, they enlarge their web, carrying it over the next lower leaves, all the upper and pulpy parts of which are eaten in the same way, and thus they continue to work down- wards, till finally the web covers a large por- tion of the branch, with its dry, brown, and filmy foliage, reduced to this unseemly condi- tion by these little spoilers. These caterpil- lars, when fully grown, measure rather more than one inch in length ; their bodies are more slender than those of the other Arctians, and are very thinly clothed with hairs of a grayish colour, intermingled with a few which are black. The general colour of the body is greenish yellow dotted with black ; there is a broad blackish stripe along the top of the back, and a bright yellow stripe on each side. The warts, from which the thin bundles ol CATERPILLAR. CATERPILLAR. sprtading, silky hairs proceed, are black on the back, and rust-yellov/ or orange on the sides. The head and feet are black. I have not observed the exact length of time required by these insects to come to maturity ; but to- wards the end of August and during the month of September they leave the trees, disperse, and wander about, eating such plants as hap- pen to lie in their course, till they have found suitable places of shelter and concealment, where they make their thin and almost trans- parent cocoons, composed of a slight web of silk intermingled with a few hairs. They re- main in the cocoons in the chrysalis state through the winter, and are transformed to moths in the months of June and July. These moths are white, and without spots ; the fore- thighs are tawny-yellow, and the feet blackish. Their wings expand from one inch and a quarter to one inch and three-eighths. " During the months of July and August, there may be found on apple trees and rose- bushes, and sometimes on other trees and shrubs, little slender caterpillars of a bright yellow colour, sparingly clothed with long and fine yellow hairs on the sides of the body, and having four short and thick brush-like yellow- ish tufts on the back, that is on the fourth and three following rings, two long black plumes or pencils extending forwards from the first ring, and a single plume on the top of the eleventh ring. The head, and the two little retractile warts on the ninth and tenth rings are coral red ; there is a narrow black or browntsh stripe along the top of the back, and a wider dusky stripe on each side of the body. These pretty caterpillars do not ordinarily herd to- ether, but sometimes our apple trees are ;h infested by them, as was the case in the iner of 1828. When they have done eat- in*;, they spin their cocoons on the leaves, or on the branches or tnmks of the trees, or on fences in the vicinity. The chrysalis is not only beset with little hairs or down, but has three oval clusters of branny scales on the back. In about eleven days after the change to the chrj'salis is effected, the last transforma- tion follows, and the insects come forth in the adult state, the females wingless, and the males with large ashen-gray wings, crossed by wavy darker bands on the upper pair, on which, moreover, is a small black spot near the tip, and a minute white crescent near the outer hind angle. The body of the male is small and slender, with a row of little tufts along the back, and the wings expand one inch and three-eighths. The females are of a lighter gray colour than the males, their bodies are very thick, and of an oblong oval shape, and, though seemingly wingless, upon close examination two little scales, or stinted wing- lets, can be discovered on each shoulder. These females lay their eggs upon the top of their cocoons, and cover them with a large quantity of frothy matter, which on drying be- comes white and brittle. Different broods of these insects appear at various times in the course of the summer, but the greater number come to maturity and lay their eggs in the lat- ter part of August, and the beginning of Sep- the following summer. The name of this moth is Orgy in* lemostigma, the white- marked Orgyia or tussock-moth. It is to the eggs of this insect that the late Mr. B. H. Ives,. of Sa- lem, alludes, in an article on * insects which infest trees and plants,* published in Hovey's 'Gardener's Magazine.' Mr. Ives states, that on passing through an apple orchard in Feb- ruary, he 'perceived nearly all the trees speckled with occasional dead leaves, adher- ing so firmly to the branches as to require considerable force to dislodge them. Each leaf covered a small patch of from one to two hundred eggs, united together, as well as to the leaf, by a gummy and silken fibre, peculiar to the moth.' In March, he 'visited the same orchard, and, as an experiment, cleared three trees, from which he took twenty-one bunches of eggs. The remainder of the trees he left untouched until the tenth of May, when he found the caterpillars were hatched from the e^^, and had commenced their slow but £ure ravages. He watched them from time to time, until many branches had been spoiled of their leaves, and in the autumn were en- tirely destitute of fruit ; while the three trees, which had been stripped of the eggs, were flush with foliage, each limb without exception ripening its fruit.' These pertinent remarks point out the nature and extent of the evil, and suggest the proper remedy to be used againsc the ravages of these insects." In the New England States there is found a tussock or vaporer moth, seemingly the same as the Orgyia ovfujua, the antique or rusty va« porer-moth of Europe, from whence, possibly its eggs may have been brought with imported fniit trees, for a description of which, and other tussock moths, see Dr. Harris's treatise, and also Mr. Abbott's work on the insects of Georgia. Also communications by Miss Dix to Silliman's Journal, vol. xix. p. 62. "To this group of hairy caterpillars belong those which swarm in the unpruned nurseries and neglected orchards of the slovenly and im- provident husbandman, and hang their many- coated webs upon the wild cherry trees that .ire suffered to spring up unchecked by the way-side, and encroach upon the borders of our pastures and fields. The eggs from which they are hatched are placed around the ends of the branches, forming a wide kind of ring or bracelet, consisting of three or four hundred eggs, in the form of short cylinders, standing on their ends close together, and covered with a thick coal of brownish water-proof varnish. The caterpillars come forth with the unfolding of the leaves of the apple and cherry tree, dur- ing the latter part of April or the beginning of May. The first signs of their activity appear in the formation of a little angular web or tent, somewhat resembling a spider's web, stretched between the forks of the branches a little bo- ♦ This name is derived from a word which signifies to stretch out the hands, and it is applied to this itind of moth on account of its resting with the 'ore-lefrs ex- tended. The Germans call these moths streckfilssifft Spinnrr, the French pattes itendues, and the English va- porer-moths, the latter probably because the males are seen flying about ostentatiously, or vaporing, by dav tember ; and these eggs are not hatched till I when most other moths keep concealed. 2 79 CATERPILLAR, CATERPILLAR. low the cluster of eggs. Under the shelter of these tents, in making which they all work to- gether, the caterpillars remain concealed at all limes when not engaged in eating. In crawl- ing from twig to twig and from leaf to leaf, they spin from their mouths a slender silken thread, which is a clue to conduct them back to their tents ; and as they go forth and return in files, one alter another, their pathways in time become well carpeted with silk, which serves to render their footing secure during their frequent and periodical journeys in va- rious directions to and from their common habitation. As they increase in age and size they enlarge their tent, surrounding it from time to time with new layers or webs, till at length it acquires a diameter of eight or ten inches. They come out together at certain stated hours to eat, and all retire at once when their regular meals are finished; during bad weather, however, they fast, and do not venture from their shelter. These caterpillars are of a kind called lackeys in England, and livrecs in France, from the party-coloured livery in which they appear. When fully grown they measure about two inches in length. Their heads are black ; extending along the top of the back from one end to the other is a whitish line, on each side of which, on a yellow ground, are numerous short and fine crinkled black lines, that lower down become mingled together, and form a broad longitudinal black stripe, or rather a row of long black spots, one on each ring, in the middle of each of which is a small blue spot; below this is a narrow wavy yellow line, and lower still the sides are variegated with fine intermingled black and yellow lines, which are lost at last in the general dusky colour of the under side of the body; on the top of the eleventh ring is a small blackish and hairy wart, and the whole body is very sparingly clothed with short and soft hairs, rather thicker and longer upon the sides than elsewhere. The foregoing description will serve to show that these insects are not the same as either the Neustria or the camp lackey caterpillars of Europe, for which they have been mistaken. From the first to the middle of June they begin to leave the trees upon which they have hither- to lived in company, separate from each other, wander about a while, and finally get into some crevice or other place of shelter and make their cocoons. These are of a regular long oval form, composed of a thin and very loosely woven web of silk, the meshes of which are filled with a thin paste, that on drying is changed to a yellow powder, like flour of sul- phur in appearance. Some of the caterpillars, either from weakness or some other cause, do not leave their nests with the rest of the swarm, but make their cocoons there, and when the webs are opened these cocoons may be seen intermixed with a mass of blackish grains, like gunpowder, excreted by the caterpillars during their stay. From fourteen to seventeen days after the insect has made its cocoon and chan?ed to a chrysalis, it bursts its chrysalis skin, /orces its way through the wet and soft- ened end of it.N cocoon, and appears in the winged or mii.er form. Many of them, how- ever, are unable *o finish their transformations 28^) by reason of weakness, especially those re. maining in the webs. Most of these will be found to have been preyed upon by little mag- gots living upon the fat within their bodies, and finally changing to small four-winged ich- neumon wasps, which in due time pierce a hole in the cocoons of their victims, and escape into the air. "The moth of our American lackey-cater- pillar is of a rusty or reddish brown colour, more or less mingled with gray on the middle and base of the fore-wings, which, besides, are crossed by two oblique, straight, dirty white lines. It expands from one inch and a quarter to one inch and a half or a little more. "The moths appear in great numbers in July, flying about and often entering houses by night. At this time they lay their eggs, selecting the wild cherry in preference to all other trees for this purpose, and next to these apple trees, the extensive introduction and great increase of which in this country afford an abundant and tempting supply of food to the caterpillars in the place of the native cherry trees that for- merly, it would seem, sufficed for their nourish- ment. These insects, because they are the most common and most abundant in all parts of our country, and have obtained such noto- riety that in common language they are almost exclusively known among us by the name of the caterpillars, are the worst enemies of the or- chard. Where proper attention has not been paid to the destruction of them, they prevail tc such an extent as almost entirely to strip the apple and cherry trees of their foliage, by their attacks continued during the seven weeks of their life in the caterpillar form. The trees, in those orchards and gardens where they have been suffered to breed for a succession of years^ become prematurely old in consequence of the efic)rts they are obliged to make to repair, at an unseasonable time, the loss of their foliage, and are rendered unfruitful, and consequently un- profitable. But this is not all; these perni- cious insects spread in every direction from the trees of the careless and indolent to those of their more careful and industrious neigh- bours, whose labours are thereby greatly in- creased, and have to be followed up year after year without any prospect of permanent relief. " Many methods and receipts for the destruc- tion of these insects have been published and recommended, but have failed to exterminate them, and indeed have done but little to lessen their numbers. Mr. Lowel has justly said that ' the great difficulty is the neglect to do any thing, till after the caterpillars have covered the trees with their nests. Then the labours of the sluggard commence, and one tree, let his receipt be ever so perfect and powerful, will cost him as much time and labour as ten trees would have required three weeks sooner.* The means to be employed may be stated under three heads. The first is, the collection and destruction of the eggs. These should be sought for in the winter and early part of the spring, when there are no leaves on the trees. They are easily discovered at this time, and may be removed with the thumb-nail and fore- finger. Nurseries and the lower limbs of large trees may thus be entirely cleared of eggs dur CATERPILLAR. CAT'S-TAIL. ing a few visits made at the proper season. If a liberal bounty for the collection of the eggs were to be oflered, and continued for the space of ten years, these destructive caterpil- lars would be nearly exterminated at the end of that time. Under the second head are to be mentioned the most approved plans for destroy- ing the caterpillars after they are hatched, and have begun to make their nests or tents. It is well known that the caterpillars come out to feed' twice during the day time, namely, in the fore- noon and afternoon, and that they rarely leave their nests before nine in the morning, and re- turn to them again at noon. During the early part of the season, while the nests are small, and the caterpillars young and tender, and at those hours when the insects are gathered toge- ther within their common habitation, they may be effectually destroyed by crushing them by hand in the nests. A brush, somewhat like a bottle-brush, fixed to a long handle, as recommended by the late Colonel Pickering, or, for the want thereof, a dried mullein head and its stalk fastened to a pole, will be useful to re- move the nests, with the caterpillars contained therein, from those branches which are too high to be reached by hand. Instead of the brush, we may use, with nearly equal success, a small mop or sponge, dipped as often as ne- cessary into a pailful of refuse soap-suds, ley, strong white-wash, or cheap oil. The mop •hould be thrust into the nest and turned round a little, so as to wel the caterpillars with the liquid, which will kill everyone that it touches. These means, to be effectual, should be em- ployed during the proper hours, that is, early in the morning, at mid-day, or at night, and as soon in the spring as the caterpillars begin to make their nests ; and they should be repeated as often, at least, as once a week, till the insects leave the trees. Early attention and perseve- rance in the use of these remedies will, in time, save the farmer hundreds of dollars, and abundance of mortification and disappoint- ment, besides rewarding him with the grateful sight of the verdant foliage, snowy blossoms, and rich fruits of his orchard in their proper seasons. Under the third head, I beg leave to urge the people of this commonwealth to de- clare war against these caterpillars, a war of extermination, to be waged annually during the month of May and the beginning of June. Let every able-bodied citizen, who is the owner 6f an apple or cherry tree, cultivated or wild, within our border, appear on duty, and open the campaign on the first washing-day in May, armed and equipped with brush and pail, as above directed, and give battle to the common enemy; and let every housewife be careful to reserve for use a plentiful supply of ammuni- tion, strong waste soap-suds, after every week- ly wash, till the liveried host shall have de- camped from their quarters, and retreated for the season. If every man is prompt to his duty, I venture to predict that the enemy will be completely conquered in less time than it will take to exterminate the Indians in Florida. "Another caterpillar, whose habits are simi- lar to those of the preceding, is now and then met with, in Massachusetts, upon oak and wal- nut trees, and more rarely still upon apple trees. 36 According to Mr. Abbot, ' it is sometimes so plentiful in Virginia as to strip the oak-trees bare.' It may be called CUsiocampa sylvalka, the tent-caterpillar of the forest. With us it comes to its full size from the tenth to the twentieth of June, and then measures about two inches in length." (Han-is.) Those who wish to become more intimately acquainted with the natural history of the cater- pillar tribe against which such incessant war is waged both in country and town, wherever a tree or a plant is found, will meet with abun- dant information in Dr. Harris's Treatise upon Insects destructive to vegetation. Some others of the caterpillar tribe will be found noticed under the several heads of Case- bearers, or Basket-worms, Curuaijt-bush BoRKU,CuTWOUMCATKRPILLAn,LEAF-ROLLEns, Applethek axd Nursery Caterpillars, Oak Axn Walnut Caterpillars, Hop-vine and Grape-vine Caterpillars, Locust Treb and other caterpillars infesting hickory and elm trees,&c.,TuRPENTiNE Moth, infesting the fir and pine, caterpillars living upon reeds, flags, and other aquntic plants, Sv\svroHyis, Loopers, or Geometers, among which are the insects commonly called canker worms; Grease-moth Caterpillars, iScc. CATKIN. A name given to such amenta- ceous flowers as consist of a great number of chaffy scales and flowers, dispersed along a slender thread-like axis or rachis, hanging downward, in the form of a rope or cat's taiL It is the male flower of the trees which pro- duce them, as the birch, beech, pine, fir, poplar, walnut, hazel, &c. They drop as soon as the pollen is shed. CATMINT, or NEP (Nepeta catnria, Smith, vol. iii. p. 70). This is a common plant, grow- ing in borders of fields and in moist places, flowering in June and July. It grows a yard high, with broad whitish leaves, and white flowers, not unlike mint. The plant has a strong and rather unsavoury smell. It is easi- ly recognised by its hoary, square, and erect stalks; its leaves slightly indented on the edges, of a whitish-green on their outside, and almost perfect white underneath; and its flowers growing in spiked clusters around the stalk at certain distances. Cats are exceedingly fond of rolling upon this plant, and they chew it eagerly. This has obtained for it the familiar name of catmint. CAT'S-FOOT. A term sometimes provin- cially applied to groundrivy. CAT'S-MILK. A common name for the plant wartwort, which see. CAT'S-TAIL, or TIMOTHY GRASS (Phleum pratciise, PI. 5, k). This grass flou- rishes best in moist deep loams. Perennial, native of Britain. At the time of flowering, in the end of June, Sinclair found the produce per acre was, from a clayey loam, 40,837 lbs.; of nutritive matter 1595 lbs. This is a great American grass, and is called timothy from Mr. Timothy Hanson, who first introduced its seeds into Maryland. Seeds ripe in July. It pro- duces an abundance of early feed, but its pro- duct of aftermath is poor. See Grasses. Timothy is undoubtedly one of the most valuable grasses known to American farmers 2 A 2 ^81 CATTLE. CATTLE. Mixed in the field with red clover, it affords excellent hay. The seed is usually sown in the autumn, among and immediately after wheat, and rye, though it succeeds very well when sown in the spring at the same time clover is sown. The clover dies out after the second year, leaving the ground in possession of the timothy, which requires a good soil and Is considered an exhausting crop to land. The smaller Meadmo Cat*s4ail {Phlexim minus). Indigenous lo England, on tenacious soils. ^The rulhous-joiiited Cat's-tnil Grass (Phlevm nodosum). Perennial; native of Britain, but rare ; found on a clayey soil at Woburn. Flow- ers in beginning of July. Seeds ripe at the end of the same month. Purple^talked Cat's-tail Grass (Phleum boeh meri). Indigenous and perennial ; grows best on a sandy loam. Flowers in July. In the New England States timothy, or P. pratense, is called herd's grass, a name applied in the Middle States exclusively to the Jgrostis vulgaris or red-top, a kind of grass so very un- popular among Pennsylvania farmers, that in selecting clover and other grass seeds, they reject all samples containing herd's grass. CATTLE. Under this head I propose to include the ox tribe, Bovida, of the class Mam- malia, having teats or mamrtKB: these are of the order Ruminantia, or ruminating, or cud-chew- ing animals. Of this tribe there are eight spe- cies : — 1. Bos urns or Anroch, the ancient bison ; 2. B. bison, the bison, or American buffalo; 3. B. moschohis, or musk ox; 4. B. frontalis, or gayal ; .•>. B. grunniens, or grunting ox; 6. B. caffer, or buffalo of southern Africa; 7. B. bu- bulus, or common buffalo ; 8. B. taurus, or com- mon domestic ox. That the ox has been do- mesticated, and in the service of man from a very remote period, is quite certain. We learn from Gen. (iv. 20.) that cattle were kept by the early descendants of Adam. Preserved by Noah from the flood waters, the original breed of our present oxen must have been in the neighbourhood of Mount Ararat ; and from ♦.hence, dispersing over the face of the globe, altering by climate, by food, and by cultivation, originated the various breeds of modern ages. That the value of the ox tribe has been in all ages and climates highly appreciated, we have abundant evidence. The natives of Egypt, India, and of Hindostan seem alike to have placed the cow amongst their deities; and, judging by her usefulness to all classes, no animal could perhaps have been selected whose value to mankind is greater. Of the old race of British cattle, some remains of which are yet to be found in Chillingham Park, in North- umberland, in a state of tolerable purity, and in one or two other places in Great Britain, improved by judicious or accidental crossings, came most of our modern breeds. George CuUey, in his valuable work on cattle, de- scribes these aboriginals as being of a creamy white, with black muzzles, white horns with black tips bending upwards. The cows weigh- ing from twenty-five to thirty-five stone. They nide for a week or ten days their calves, in some sequestered place ; and these, when tbe7 are disturbed, put their heads to the ground, and lie close like a hare. Their wildness pre- 982 vents the introduction of them into any situ- ation not surrounded by stone walls : and the mode in which they were went to be killed by the keepers was by a rifle ball. See also two excellent papers by Dr. Knox on the wild ox of Scotland (Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. ix. p. 367) ; and on the ox tribe, in connection with the white cattle of the Hamilton and Chilling- ham breeds, by the Rev. Dr. Patrick {Ibid, \. 514). In nearly all parts of the earth cattle are employed for their labour, for their milk, and for food. In southern Africa they are as much the associates of the Caffres as the horse is of the Arab. They share his toils, and assist him in tending his herds ; they are even trained to battle, in which they become fierce and cou- rageous. In central Africa the proudest ebony beauties are to be seen on their backs. They have drawn the plough in all ages ; in Spain they still trample out the corn ; in India raise the water from the deepest wells to irrigate the thirsty soils of Bengal. When CoGsar invaded England they constituted the chief riches of its inhabitants {CcRsar, lib. v. c. 10); and ihey yet form no inconsiderable item in the estimate of that country's abounding riches. Accord- ing to the Cotimate of Mr. Youatt, to whom in this and other articles on live stock I am so much indebted {On Cattle, p. 9), it would seem that 1,600,000 head of cattle are consigned to the butcher every year in the United King- dom, and the value of the entire national stock of all kinds of cattle, sheep, and pigs, he is of opinion, amounts to nearly 120,000,000/. ster ling. An excellent paper on the origin and natural history of the domestic ox and its allied species, by Professor Wilson {Quart. Jotirn. of Agr. vol. ii. p. 177), may be consulted with advantage by those who wish for more infor- mation on this head. The breeds of cattle in England are remark- able for their numerous varieties, caused by the almost endless crossings of one breed with another, often producing varieties of the most mongrel description, and which are rather dif- ficult to describe. I will in this place touch upon the principal varieties ; and in these we should, in looking for the chief points of excel- lence, regard, as Mr. Youatt well observes, "wide and deep girth about the heart and lungs ; and not only about these, but above the whole of the ribs must we have both depth and roundness ; the hooped as well as the deep barrel is essential. The beast should also be ribbed home ; there should be little space be- tween the ribs and the hips. This is indispen- sable in the fattening ox, but a largeness and drooping of the belly is excusable in the cow. It leaves room for the udder, and if it is also accompanied by swelling milk-veins, it gene- rally indicates her value in the dairy. This roundness and depth of the barrel, however, is most advantageous in proportion as it is found behind the point of the elbow, more than be- tween the shoulders and legs; or low down between the legs, than upwards towards the withers ; for it diminishes the heaviness before, and the comparative bulk of the coarser parts of the animal, which is always a very greal consideration. CATTLE. CATTLE. "The loins should be wide, for these are the prime parts ; they should seem to extend far along the back ; and although the belly should not hang down, the flanks should be round and deep, the hips large, without being ragged, round rather than wide, and present, when handled, plenty of muscle and fat; the thighs full and long, and, when viewed from behind, close together; the legs short, for there is al- most an inseparable connection between length of leg and lightness of carcass, and shortness of leg and propensity to fatten. The bones of the legs and of the frame generally should be small, but not too small ; small enough for the well-known accompaniment, a propensity to fatten ; small enough to please the consumer, but not so small as to indicate delicacy of con- stitution and liability to disease. Finally, the hide, the most important thing of all, should be thin, but not so thin as to indicate that the ani- mal can endure no hardships, movable, mellow, but not loo loose, and particularly well covered with fine and soft hair." On the points by which live stock are judged, some very excellent papers have .appeared in the Edin. Quart. Journ. of Ji^., by Mr. James Dickson, cattle-dealer of Edinburgh. He very truly observes (vol. v. p. 159), that, " were an ox of fine symmetry and high condition placed before a person not a judge of live stock, his opinion of its excellences would be derived from a very limited view, and consequently from only a few of its qualities. He might observe and admire the beautiful outline of its figure, for that would strike the most casual observer. He might be pleased with the tint of its colour^ the plumpness of its body, and the smoothness and glossiness of its skin. He might be even delighted with the gentle and complacent expression of its countenance ; — all these properties he might judge of by the eye alone. On touching the animal with the hand, he could feel the softness of its body, occasioned by the fatness of the flesh. But no man not a judge could rightly criticise the pro- perties of an ox farther. He could not possibly discover without tuition those properties which had chiefly conduced to produce the high con- dition in which he saw the ox. He would hardly believe that a judge can ascertain merely by the eye, from its general aspect, whether the ox were in good or bad health; from the colour of its skin, whether it were of a pure or cross breed; from the expression of its countenance, whether it were a quiet feeder ; and from the nature of its flesh, whether it had arrived at maturity. The discoveries made by the hand of a judge might even stagger his belief. He could scarcely conceive that the hand can feel a hidden property. The touch, which of all tests is the most surely indicative of fine qua- lity of flesh and of disposition to fatten, can find whether that flesh is of the most valuable kind; and it can foretell the probable abundance of fat in the interior of the carcass. In short, a judge alone can discriminate between the relative values of the different points, or appre- i ciate the aggregate value of all the points of ! an ox. These 'points' are the parts of an ox | by which it is judged." The first point to be ! ascertained in examining an ox, is the purity ' of its breed, whatever that breed may be; fof that will give the degree of the disposition to fatten of the individuals of that breed. The purity of the breed may be ascertained from several marks : the colour or colours of the skin of a pure breed of cattle, whatever those colours are, are always definite. The colour of the bald skin on the nose and round the eyes, in a pure breed, is always definite, and without spots. This last is an essential point. When horns exist, they should be smooth, small, ta* pering, and sharp-pointed, long or short, ac- cording to the breed, and of a white colour throughout in some breeds, and tipped with black in others. The shape of the horn is a less essential point than the colour. Applying these remarks on the different breeds in Scot- land, as illustrations of the point which we have been considering, we have the definite colours of white and red in the short-horns. The colour is either entirely white or entirely red, or the one or the other predominates in their mixture. The skin on the nose and around the eyes is uniformly of a rich cream colour. The Ayrshire breed, in its purity, is also distinguished by the red and white colour of the skin, but always mixed, and the mixture consists of spots of greater or smaller size not blended together. The colour of the skin on the nose and around the eye is not definite, but generally black or cream-coloured. In other points, these two celt braied breeds differ from one another more th in in the characters which I have just describe (. In the West Highland, Angus, and Galloway breeds, the colour of the skin of the nose and around the eyes is indica- tive of the pure blood of black-coloured cattle, bat a cream-coloured nose may frequently b» observed amongst the other colours of skin The characters above given will certainly apply to the purity of the blood in the short- horn and Ayrshire breeds, if not to the Wes' Highlanders. "The second point to be ascertained in an ox is the form of its carcass. It is found that th» nearer the section of the carcass of a fat ox, taken longitudinally vertical, transversely ver- tical, and horizontally, approaches to the figure of a parallelogram, the greater quantity of flesh will it carry within the same measurement. That the carcass may fill up the parallelogram as well as its rounded form is capable of filling up a right-angled figure, it should possess the following configuration : — The back should be straight from the top of the shoulder to the tail. The tail should fall perpendicularly from the line of the back. The buttocks and twist should be well filled out. The brisket should project to a line dropped from the middle of the neck. The belly should be straight longitudinally, and round laterally, and filled at the flank.: '^he ribs should be round, and should project Ho- rizontally, and at right angles to the back. The hooks should be wide and flat ; anr^ he rump, from the tail to the hooks, should a so be filled and well filled. The quarter from the itch-bone to the hook shouid be long. The lorn bones should be long, broad, and flat, and well filled; but the space betwixt the hooks and the short ribs should be rather short and well arched over, with a thickness of beef lietwcen 283 CATTLE. the hooks. A long hollow from the hooks to the short ribs indicates a weak constitution and an indifferent thriver. From the loin to the shoulder-blade should be nearly of one breadth, and from thence it should taper a little to the front of the shoulder. The neck-vein should be well filled forward to complete the line from the neck to the brisket. The covering on the shoulder-blade should be as full out as the but- locks. The middle ribs should be well filled, to complete the line from the shoulders to the buttocks along the projection of the outside of \he ribs ; these constitute all the points which are essential to &fat ox. ** The first of the poirUa in judging of a lean ox, is the nature of the bone. A round thick bone indicates both a slow feeder and an in- ferior description of flesh. A flat bone, when seen on a side view, and narrow when viewed either from behind or before the animal, indi- cates the opposite properties of a round bone. The whole bones in the carcass should bear a small proportion in bulk and weight to the flesh, the bones being only required as a sup- port to the flesh. The texture of the bone should be small-grained and hard. The bones of the head should be fine and clean, and only covered with skin and muscle, and not with lumps of fat and flesh, which always give a heavy-headed, dull appearance to an ox. The fore-arm and hock should also be clean and full of muscle, to endure travelling. Large joints indicate bad feeders. The neck of an ox should be, contrary to that of the sheep, small from the back of the head to the middle of the neck. A full, clear, and prominent eye is another point to be considered, because it is a nice indication of good breeding. It is al- ways attendant on fine bone: the expression of the eye is an excellent index of many pro- perties in the ox. A dull, heavy eye clearly indicates a slow feeder. A rolling eye, show- ing much white, is expressive of a restless capricious disposition, which is incompatible with quiet feeding. A calm, complacent ex- pression of eye and face is strongly indicative of a sweet and patient disposition, and of course kindly feeling. The eye is frequently a faithful index of the state of health. A cheer- ful clear eye accompanies good health : a con- stantly dull one proves the probable existence of some internal lingering disease; the dull- ness of eye, however, arising from internal disease is quite different in character from a natural or constitutional phlegmatic dullness. **The state of the skin is the next point to be ascertained; the skin affords what is techni- cally and emphatically called the tourh — a cri- terion second to none in judging of the feeding properties of an ox. The touch may be good or bad, fine or harsh, or, as it is often termed, hard or mellow. A thick, firm skin, which is generally covered with a thick-set, hard, short hair, always touches hard, and indicates a bad feeaer. A thin, meager, papery skin, covered with thin, silky hair, being the opposite of the one just described, does not, however, afllbrd a good touch. Such skin is indicative of weak- ness of constitution, though of good feeding properties. A perfect touch will be found with 9 thick, loose skin, floating, as it were, on 284 CATTLE. a layer of soft fat, yielding to the least press- ure, and springing back to the finger lik^ a piece of soft, thick, chamois leather, and cover- ed with thick, glossy, soft hair. It is not un- like a bed of fine soft moss, and hence such a skin is not unfrequently styled 'mossy.' A knowledge of touch can only be acquired by long practice ; but after having acquired it, it is of itself a sufficient means of judging of the feeding quality of an ox, because, when present, the properties of symmetrical form, fine bone, sweet disposition, and purity of blood are the general accompaniments. These are the es- sential points in judging lean cattle, but there are other and important considerations in form- ing a thorough judgment of the ox. The head should be small, and set on the neck as if easi- ly carried by the animal; this shows the ani- mal to advantage in the market. The face long from the eyes to the point of the nose. The skull broad across the eyes, contracted a little above them, but tapering considerably below them to the nose. The muzzle fine and small; the nostrils capacious ; the ears large, a little erect, and transpareht; the neck short and light. A droop of tfie neck from the top of the shoul- der to the head indicates a weakness of consti- tution, arising frequently from breeding too near akin. The legs below the knees should be rather short than long, and clean made; stand where they apparently bear the weight of the body most easily, and wide asunder. The tail rather thick than otherwise, as that indicates a strong spine, and a good weigher. It should be provided with a large tuft of long hair. The position of the flesh is important : that part called the spare rib in Edinl^rgh, and the fore and middle ribs in London, the loins and the rump, or hook-bone, are of the finest qua- lity, and are generally used for roasts and steaks ; consequently the ox which carries the largest quantity of beef on these points is the most valuable. Flesh of fine quality is actu- ally of a finer texture than coarse flesh. The other desirable objects in a fat ox are a full twist, lining the division between the hams called * the closing' with a thick layer of fat, a thick flank, and a full neck bend; these generally indicate internal tallow. The last points generally covered with fat are the point of the shoulder-joint and the top of the shoulder : if these parts are, therefore, felt to be well covered, the other and better parts of the animal may be considered ripe. It is pro- per, in judging of the weight of a fat ox, to view his gait while walking towards you, which will, if the ox has been well fed, be ac- companied with a heavy rolling tread on the ground. In this way a. judge can at once come very near to its weight." (Quart. Journ. of jigr. vol. V. p. 167.) At the end of this paper will be found an account of the mode of ascertain- ing the weight of stock by admeasurement. When we survey the frame of a short horn ox, adds Mr. Dickson {Ibid. vol. vi. p. 267), we have a straight, level back from behind the horns to the top of the tail, full buttocks, and a projecting brisket; we have, in short, the rectangular figure, as represented in a side view by fig. 1. We have also the level loin across the hook bones, and the level top of the CATTLE. €ATTLE. shoulder across the ox, and perpendicu- lar lines down the hind and fore-legs on both sides, these constituting the square form when the ox is viewed before and behind, as represented in figures 2 and 3 ; and we have straight parallel lines from the sides of the shoulders, along the outmost points of the ribs, to the sides of the hind quar- ters ; and we have these lines connect- ed at their ends by others of shorter and equal length, across the end of the rump and the top of the shoulder, thus constituting the rectangular form of the ox when viewed from above down upon the back, as represented by fig. 4 ; the form of the short ox and heifer, in per- fect accordance with the diagrams of the rule. Farther, I should be inclined to assert, though I have not directed my attention sufficiently to the fact to be able to prove the assertion from ex- amples, that the carcass of a full fed, symmetrical, short-horn ox, included within the rectangle, is in length dou- ble its depth, and in depth equal to its breadth ; hence figures 2 and 3 are squares, and figures 1 and 4 each two similar squares, placed in juxtaposi- tion. The form of the short-horn breed is perfect according to this rule. The cow goes with calf about forty weeks, and is often capable of breed- ing when only a year old ; but she should not be allowed to do so until she is above two years old. Whe the calves are intended for veal, Janu ary, February, and March are the best months for calving. On the question of breeding live stock in general, and upon the difficult question of the cora- paraiive influence of the male and fe- male parents in impressing their off- spring, a theme propounded by the Highland Society, there are some excellent papers by Mr. Boswell, Mr. Christian, and Mr. Mill (High. Soc. Trans, vol. i. p. 17), by the Rev. Henry Ber- ry (Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. i.), and by Mr. Knight (Trans. Roy. Soc. 1809), in which they all seem to uphold the superior influence of the male ; and on the selection of the male animal in breeding there is a paper by Lord Spencer (Jaiirn. Roy. Agr. Soc. vol. i. p. 22); another on the gestation of cows (Ilrid. 165); and on the means of calculating the number of calves which will probably be produced by a herd of cows, by the same noble lord (Ibid. vol. ii. p. 112); and on the detection of pregnancy in the horse and cow by Professor Youatt (Ibid. p. 170) ; on a method of obtaining a greater num- ber of one sex at the option of the owner in the breeding of livestock (Qiwrt. Jonrn. of .^gr. vol. i. p. 63); on the rearing of calves, in which the writer recommends that skimmed milk should have a piece of red-hot iron plunged into it, not only to warm it, but to give an astringent qua- lity (Com. Board of Agr. vol. iv. p. 382); on the mode of fattening them in Strathaven there is an account by Mr. Alton in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. p. 249 ; and of the mode of fattening them near London by Mr. Main (Ibid. vol. v. p. 608). X"-^- " Every cow is made to suckle her own calf three times a day for the first three or four days, and afterwards twice a day, and, in need, her bag is emptied by another calf. If a calf goes on thriving and well, it will be what is esteemed in England prime veal in about ten weeks, and weigh from 17 to 20 stones of 8 lbs. each." The North Devon.— OC this breed the bull should have yellow horns, placed neither too low nor too high, nor be too thick, but grow- ing gradually less towards the points ; the e)''e clear, prominent, and bright; the forehe;id small, flat, and indented ; the muzzle fine ; the cheek small ; the nose of a clear yellow, the nostril high and open ; the neck thick, and the hair about the head curled. The head of the ox is smaller, otherwise he does not differ ma- terially from the shape of the bull; his action is free, and he is quicker in his movements than any of our oxen; but his legs are appa- rently placed too much under his chest for speed, yet he possesses this property in an eminent degree; his legs are straight; the fore- arm is large and strong; the bones of the leg, especially below the knee, very small ; the tail is set on high, on a level with the back, rarely much elevated, never depressed, is long and 285 CATTLE. CATTLE. taper, with a bunch of hair at the end; the skin is very elastic, mellow, and rather thin ; some have smooth hair, which should be fine and glossy; some curly, and these are rather the most hardy and fatten the best; red is the most favourite colour; many, however, are brown, and others are approaching to chest- nut. Those of a yellow colour are reported to be subject to the sieat (diarrhoea.) The draw- ing, Plate 12, fig. 3, is taken from Low's spier - did work upon British animals. It represents a young Devon bull, two years and nine months old, of a deep red colour. The Devon cow is much smaller than the bull; she has a full, round, clear eye, the countenance cheerful, the muzzle orange or yellow, the jliws free from thickness, and the throat from dewlap. On all soils, except the very heavy, the Devon ox is very superior at the plough, for its quickness of action, docility, good temper, stoutness, and honesty. It is always worked in yokes. Four Devon oxen are considered equal in their work to three horses : they are commonly worked from two years old until they are four, five, or six, and then in ten or twelve months, on grass and hay, they are fit for market; neither corn, cake, nor turnips are needed for them during the first winter. They fatten faster and with less food than most others ; their flesh is ex- cellent. Some comparative experiments be- tween the Devon and other cattle were made by the Duke of Bedford, of which the following table gives the result : they were fed from No- vember 16, 1797, until December 10, 1798. CoDSUDied Firrt Weight. Gained. Cake. Turnip*. Hay. cwt. qn. Iba Ita. lb». lbs. I.Hereford - 17 1 24 3 — 2700 487 9. - 18 1 41 5 423 2712 432 3. Devon 14 1 7 45 4 438 2668 295 4. — 14 2 4 64 442 20.56 442 5. Sussex 16 2 45 4 432 2655 392 6. I^icester - 15 2 14 40 2 434 2652 400 There is much difference of opinion with re- gard to the fitness of Devon cows for the dairy, it being pretty generally asserted that their acknowledged grazing qualities render them unfit for the dairy, that their milk is rich, but deficient in quantity ; but there are many very superior judges who prefer them even for the dairy. Of the calves, those which are dropped about Michaelmas time are preferred to those which are calved in January or Feb- ruary. They allow the calf to suck three times a day for a week ; then new warm milk is given it for three weeks longer ; then it has warm scalded milk mixed with a small portion of finely divided linseed cake, and its meals are gradually lessened, and at four months old it is entiiely weaned. (Youatt On Cattle, p. 7—25.) The Hereford. — The oxen of Herefordshire are much larger than the Devon, and of a darker red, some are dark yellow, and a few brindled ; they generally have white faces, bellies, and throats. They have thicker hides than those of Devonshire, and they are more hardy, and sh'irter in the carcase and leg ; are S86 higher, heavier, and broader in the chine* have more fat, and are rounder and wider across the hips ; the thigh is more muscular, the shoulders larger. (Jlnd. p. 31.) Marshall long since described them pretty correctly as follows : — " The countenance pleasant, cheer- ful, open; the forehead broad; eye full and lively; horns bright, taper, and spreading; head small ; chap lean ; neck long and taper- ing ; chest deep ; bosom broad, and projecting forward ; shoulder-bone thin, flat, no way pro- tuberant in bone, but full and mellow in flesh ; chest full ; loin broad ; hips standing wide, and level with the spine ; quarters long and wide at the neck ; rump even with the general level of the back, not drooping nor standing high and sharp above the quarters ; tail slen- der, and neatly haired; barrel round and roomy, the carcase throughout deep and well spread ; ribs broad, standing close and flat on the outer surface, forming a smooth even bar- rel, the hindmost large and of full length; round bone small, snug, not prominent ; thigh clean, and regularly tapering; legs upright and short ; bone below the knee and hough, small; feet of middle size; cod and twist round and full ; flank large ; flesh everywhere mellow, soft, yielding pleasantly to the touch, especially on the chine, the shoulder, and the ribs ; hide mellow, supple, of a middle thick- ness, and loose ; coat neatly haired, bright, and silky ; colour of a middle red with a bald face, characteristic of the true Herefordshire breed." "They fatten," says Mr. Youatt, "to a much greater weight than the Devons, and run from fifty to seventy score ; a tolerable cow will average from thirty-five to fifty score ; a cow belonging to the Duke of Bedford weighed more than seventy ; an ox of Mr. Westcar's exceeded one hundred and ten score. The Hereford ox fattens speedily at an early age. They are not now much used for husbandry, although their form adapts them for the hea- vier work, and they have all the honesty and docility of the Devon ox, and greater strength, if not his activity. " The Hereford cows are worse milkers than those of Dev^on, but then they will grow fat where a Devon would starve. The beef is sometimes objected to from the largeness of the bone, and the coarseness of some of the inferior pieces, but the best sorts are generally excellent. Mr. Youatt gives an account of an experiment in feeding, made in the winter of 1828-9, between the Herefords, and the im- proved short-horns, which, although by no means decisive of the merits of either breed, yet is worthy of notice by the grazier. "Three Herefords and three short-horns were put together into a straw yard, December 2d, 1827, and each had, in the open yard, a bushel of turnips per day, besides straw, until May 2, 1828 ; they then were weighed, and sent to grass : — No. cwb. qr». Ibii 1. Short-horn 9 2 2. — 8 2 3. — 9 When taken from grass, November i, they weighed — No. cwts. qr*. Ibfc 1. Hereford 2. — 3. — 8 3 7 3 7 CATTLE. CATTLE. No. cvctf. qrs. lb». 1. Herviford II 3 S — 10 2 8. — 10 3 No. cwti. qn. Ibii 1. Short-horn 12 3 14 2. - 12 2 3. — 12 3 From this lime till the 25th March, 1829, they consumed — Swedish Turnips. Hiiy. The llerefonls - The Short-horns - 46.655 - 59,430 5,065 6,779 They then weighed — No. cwts. qrs. lbs- No. cwts. qn. lbs. 1. Hereford 13 14 2. — 12 3. - 12 1. Short-horn 14 2. - 14 3. — 14 2 1 14 2 14 making a difference in favour of the short- horns of 3 cwts. 3 qrs. 14 lbs. ; but then they lonsumed more turnips by 12,775 lbs., and j more hay by 1,714 lbs. When they were sold j at Smithfield on the 30th of March, the short- horns realized 97/., and the Herefords 96/." { {On Cuttle, p. 34.) The Sussex. — One of the best descriptions, says Mr. Youatt, that we have of the Sussex ox is given by that excellent agriculturist, Mr. Ellman. He speaks of the Sussex ox as hav- ing a small and well-turned head; and so it has, compared with many other breeds, and even with the Hereford, but evidently coarser than that of the Devon, the horns pushing for- wards a little, and then turning upwards, thin, tapering, and long, not so as to confound the breed with the Iwtg-horns, and yet in some cases a little approaching to them. The eye is full, large, and mild in the ox, but with some degree of unquietness in the cow. The tliroat clean ; and the neck, compared with either the long or short-homs, long and thin, ye' evidently coarser than that of the Devon. The shoulder is the principal defect. There is more wideness and roundness on the with- ers ; it is a straighter line from the summit of the withers towards the back ; there is no pro- jecting point of the shoulder when the animal is looked at from behind, but the whole of the fore-quarter is thickly covered with flesh, giving too much weight to the coarser and less profit- able parts ; but then the fore-legs are wider apart, straighter, and more perpendicular than in the Devon, and are placed more under the body than seeming to be attached to the sides. The lore-arm is large and muscular; the legs, though coarser than those of the Devon, are small and fine downwards, particularly below the fetlock. The barrel is round and deep. In the back, no rising spinal processes are to be seen, but rather a central depression ; and the line of the back, if broken, is only done so by a lump of fat rising between the hips ; the belly and flank are capacious ; there is room before for the heart and lungs, and there is room behind in the capacious belly for the full exercise of its functions ; yet the beast is well ribbed home ; the space between the last rib ami the hip-bone is often very small, and there is no hanging heaviness of the belly or flank. The loins of the Sussex ox are wide ; the hip- bone does not rise high, nor is it ragged ex- ternally ; but it is large and spread out, and the space between the hips is well filled up. The tail fine, and thin, is set on lower than in the Devon, yet the rump is nearly as straight. The hind-quarters are cleanly made, and if the thighs appear to be straight without, there is plenty of fulness within. The Sussex ox has all the activity of the Devon, and the strength of the Hereford, the propensity to fatten, and the beautiful fine-grained flesh c f both. It pos- sesses as many of tlie good qualities of both as can be combined in one frame. By crossing them with the Herefords, a heavier animal, but not fattening so profitably, or working so kindly, is produced. When the Sussex has been crossed with the Devon, a lighter breed has resulted, but not gaining in activity, while it is materially deteriorated in its grazing pro- perties. The colour of the Sussex ox is a deep chestnut-red, or blood bay. The black, or black and white, generally indicate some strain in the breed, as a cross from the Welsh. The hide of the true Sussex ox is soft and mel- low, the coat short and sleek. The Sussex ox does much of the farming labour of the Weald of Sussex. From ten to twelve of tliese are usually kept on a farm of 150 to 200 acres These are fed with grass and straw till they begin to work, and then they have cut hay mixed with straw. There are, however, two breeds : the coarser Sussex is always slow ; the lighter, or true Sussex is as light and fast as most cart-horses ; of their speed proof was given by a Sussex ox which ran four miles against time, over the Lewes race-course, in sixteen minutes. Many farmers, if they have ten oxen at work, sell five or six every year, and break in an equal number to succeed them ; the beasts will thus be broken in at three years old, and fatted at five or six. They are commonly taken from work when spring seed-time is over, and turned into the meadows, and thus prepared for winter stail- feeding. These are gradually accustomed to being constantly tied up. Some farmers, Mr. Ellman amongst the rest, are of opinion that there is a saving of one-fourth the food by stall-feeding, but many other farmers maintain that the cattle fatten faster when only confined to the yard. They average at Smithfield about one hundred and twenty stones ; but they occasionally attain to much greater weights ; one of Mr. EUman's weighed two hundred and Ibitrteen stones. The Sussex cow is not a favourite with the generality of farmers. She does not answer for the dairy, fi)r her milk, although of very good quality, is far inferior in quantity to either the Holderness or the Suffolk cow. They are, moreover, what their countenance indicates, of an unquiet temper, and are com- monly restless and dissatisfied, especially if not bred on the farm on which they are kept. They are, therefore, chiefly kept as breeders ; are generally in fair condition, even while milking; and no cows, except the Devon or Hereford, will thrive so fast after being dried ; they fatten even faster than the ox. Nearly all the calves are reared, adds Mr. Youatt —the males for work, and the females for breeding or early fattening. By the best breeders, the bull is changed every two years. (On Cattlct p. 40.) The Hereford and Sussex cattle have so many points in common that in Loudon's Encyrlopcedia of Agriculture, both breeds arti illustrated by one figure. 287 CATTLE. CATTLE. The Welch. — The cattle ofWales are princi- pally of the middle-horns, and stunted id their growth from the poverty of their pastures. Of these there are several varieties. The Pem- brokeshire are chiefly black, with white horns; are shorter legged than most other Welch cat- tle ; are larger than those of Montgomery, and have round and deep carcasses ; have a lively look and good eyes ; though short and rough, not thick; have not large bones, and possess, perhaps, as much as possible, the opposite qualities of being very fair milkers, with a pro- pensity to fatten. The meat is equal to the Scotch. They will thrive, says Mr. Youatt, where others starve, and they rapidly outstrip most others when they have plenty of good pasture. The Pembroke cow has been called the poor man's cow. The Pembroke ox is a speedy and an honest worker, and when taken from hard work fattens speedily. Many are brought 10 London, and rarely disappoint the butcher. The Glamorganshire breed were patronised by George III., and were held in great estima- tion. They were, however, allowed to Gogene- rate during the period of the late war, and have not since, in spite of the exertions of Mr. David of Radyr, been entirely restored. The counties of Carmarthen, Cardigan, Brecon, and espe- cially Radnor, also produce many excellent black cattle, which have been materially im- proved of late by the introduction of other breeds, especially by crossing with the Here- fords. Of North Wales, the cattle are rather more approaching to the long-horns than those of the south. In the counties of Anglesea, Car- narvon, and Merioneth, the chief attention of the farmer is directed to the rearing of stock. In Denbigh, Flint, and Montgomery, the dairy is chiefly regarded. The cattle of Anglesea, says Mr. Youatt, are small and black, with moderate bone, deep chest, rather heavy shoulders, enormous dewlap, round barrel, high and spreading haunches, flat face, horns long, almost invariably turning upwards; the hair coarse; the hide mellow; hardy, easy to rear, and well disposed to fatten when transplanted to better pastures than those of their native island. Attempts have been made, with little success, to improve the breed by crossing them with others ; but it is difficult to find any other sufficiently hardy to withstand the climate and the privations of Mona. Many yearlings are brought from the island, and very few are kept in the island after they are three years old. They were formerly not castrated till they were a year old ; this gave them a peculiar bull-like appearance. This operation, however, is now practised earlier. There is still with them, however, adds Mr. Youatt, a striking contrast with the mild intelligence of the Devon and the quiet submission of the Hereford. The Anglesea cows are not kept for the dairy to a greater extent than for home consumption. The cheese is negligently made, and, in con- sequence, poor and worthless. The cattle of the other Welch counties, bred amongst the rocks of Carnarvon, and the hills of Merioneth, Montgomery, and Denbigh, have little distin- guishing features from other Welch cattle. They are small, hardy, and rapidly fatten, when 2S8 transferred to richer pastures. The beef they produce is excellent. (Ibid. p. 58.) The Scotch. — Of this valuable and improving race of cattle there are several varieties, all of which are thus classed by Mr. Youatt, and are to be considered as belonging to the middle- horns. Of these the chief varieties are, 1. The West Highlanders, which, whether we regard those found in the Hebrides or in the county of Argyle, seem to retain most of the aboriginal character. They have remained unchanged, or improved only by selection, for many generations, or, indeed, from the earliest accounts that we possess of Scottish cattle. 2. The North Highlanders are a smaller, coarser, and in every way inferior race, and owe the greater part of what is valuable about them to crosses from the western breed. 3. The northeastern cattle were derived from, and bear a strong resemblance to the West Highlander, but are of considerably larger size. 4. The Fife breed are almost as valuable for the dairy as for the grazier, and yield to few in activity and docility. 5. The Ayrshire breed are second to none as milkers ; many of the varied mingled breeds of the Lowlands are valuable. 6. The Galloways, which, scarcely a century ago were middle-horned, and with difficulty distinguished from the West Highlanders, are now a polled breed, increased in size, with more striking resemblance to their kindred the Devons ; with all their aptitude to fatten, and with a hardness of constitution which those of Devon never possessed. The West Highlanders, or kyloes, as they are called (supposed to be from a corruption of a Gaelic word pronounced kael, signifying Highlands), are bred in great abundance in, and exported from, the Hebrides. The true bull of this breed is described by Mr. M'Neil of Islay as black ; the head not large, the ears thin, the muzzle fine, and rather turned up; broad in the face; eyes prominent; counte- nance calm and placid : the horns should taper to a point, neither drooping too much nor rising too high, of a waxy colour, widely set at the root; the neck fine, particularly where it joins the head, and rising with a gentle curve from the shoulder ; the breast wide, and pro- jecting well before the legs; the shoulders broad at the top, and the chine so full as to leave but little hollow behind them ; thp girth behind the shoulder deep ; the back straight, wide, and flat ; the ribs broad, the space be- tween them and the ribs small; the belly not sinking low in the middle, yet, in the whole, not forming the round and barrel-like carcass which some have described ; the thigh tapering to the hock-joint; the bones larger in propor- tion to the size than in the breeds of the south- ern districts ; the tail set on a level with the back; the legs short and straight; the whole carcass covered with a long thick coat of hair, and plenty of hair also about the face and horns, and that hair not curly. They are hardy, easily fed ; the proportion of their offal is not greater than in the most approved larger breeds ; they lay their fat and ilesh equally on CATTLE. CATTLE. the best parts, and when fat, the beef is fine in the grain, and so well mixed or marbled that it commands a superior price in everv/ market. About 30,000 of these are annuall^ent from the Hebrides to the main land. (On Cattle, p. 67.) In the Hebrides, the dairy is* only attended to so far as to serve the family with milk, butter, and cheese. The milk of the Western High- land cow is small in quantity, but excellent in quality; she does not yield, however, more than one-third of that of the Ayrshire. The oxen of the Hebrides are never worked. (Ibid. p. 71.) The Argyleshire breed are larger than those of the Hebrides, and are bred according to what the soil and the food will best support. The Highlander, however (says the gentleman whom I have in this article quoted so often), •*must be reared for the grazier alone; every attention to increase his weight, in order to make him capable of agricultural labour, every effort to qualify him for the dairy, will not only lessen his hardiness of constitution and propensity to fatten, but will fail in ren- dering him valuable for the purpose at which the farmer aims. The character of the High- lander must still be, that he will pay better for his^quantity of food than any other breed, and will fatten where any other breed will scarcely live." (Ihid. p. 79.) Of the North Highland cattle, those of the Shetland islands are the smallest; dwarfish, ill-shaped, and covered with hair ; they some- limes are not more than 35 or'40 lbs. to the quarter. When they are taken to the north of Scotland, they thrive and fatten on very poor food with great rapidity; but when brought further to the south, the change is too great for them ; they languish and sicken. The Shet- land calf suffers privations from her birth ; it is, in fact, killed often as soon as it is born. It is never allowed to suck its mother, but, if reared, is fed at first with milk, and afterwards with blond, a wretched kind of buttermilk; and when it grows up it has nothing to subsist upon but moss, heath, and sea-weed. The cows are housed at night, and, in the absence of straw, are littered with heath and the du5t of peat. Their milk, which is exceedingly rich, is very small in quantity. In the northerly counties of Scotland, there is nothing very peculiar in the breed of their cattle. The introduction of sheep, and of bet- ter modes of cultivating the soil, have gone far to diminish the stocks of poor, ill-fed, and worse managed breeding herds of this once desolate extremity of the island. These im- provements, however, were long opposed by the husbandmen and the tenders of cattle as bold innovations, which were, at all events, to b« opposed. Mobs, therefore, collected ; the sheep >»ere driven away ; fences destroyed; the new farmers intimidated : the laws alone sup- ported these national improvements to a suc- cessful issue. The county of Aberdeen breeds more cattle than any other in Scotland. Its stock has been estimated at 112,000, and its annual sale of both fat and lean cattle is equal to more than 20,000. These vary in character with the soil and elevation: amongst the hills, they arc 37 chiefly of the Highland breed ; in the plains, a better description has been produced, by breed- ing from these by bulls from Fifeshire. The horns of these, says Mr. Youatt, do not taper so finely, nor stand so much upwards, as in the West Highlanders ; and they are also whiter; the hair is shorter and thinner; the ribs cannot be said to be flat, but tfie chest is deeper in proportion to the circumference, and the buttocks and thighs are likewise thinner. The colour is usually black, but sometimes brindled ; they are heavier in carcass ; they give a larger quantity of milk, but they do not attain maturity so early as the West High- landers, nor is their flesh quite so beautifully marbled ; yet, at a proper age, they fatten as readily as the others, not only on good pasture, but on that which is somewhat inferior. They are rarely used for husbandry work, or, at most, for only one year. They are sent to grass at four years old for six months, after which they will weigh from 5 to 6 cwt. " The breed," adds Mr. Youatt, "has progressively improved, and this by judicious selections from the native slock: it has increased in size, and become nearly double its weight, without losing its propensity to fatten, and without growing above its keep." There is also in this great agricul- tural county an excellent breed of poll cattle; they are not so handsome, yet larger than the horned cattle; the quality of their meat is also said not to be so good. The calves are reared in Aberdeenshire much in the ordinary way. They are commonly fed with milk warm trom the cow, and they are even sometimes reared partly on oil-cakes. In Fifeshire the breed of cattle are of a very superior description. "They are generally," says Dr. Thompson, "of a black colour; the horns small and white, generally pretty erect, or, at least, turned up at the points, and bend- ing rather forward ; the bone small in propor- tion to the carcass ; the limbs clean but short, and the skin soft; wide between the extreme points of the hock-bones ; the ribs narrow and wide set, having a greater curvature than in other kinds, which gives the body a thick round form; they fatten quickly, and fill up well at all the choice points ; are hardy, fleet, and tra- vel well ; are docile, and excellent for work." Whatever may be the explanation of the fact, it is certain that, at the present day, the Fife- shire breed of cattle is peculiarly her own. That they were centuries since improved by a cross with the then small cattle of England, is pretty certain ; but whether English cattle formed part of the dowry of Margaret, the daughter of Henry VII. of England, when she married .Tames IV. of Scotland, or whether English cattle were sent as a present to Scot- land by James U. of England, is almost mere matter of conjecture ; but, be that as it may, " the Fifeshire farmers," says Mr. Youatt, in his valuable work on cattle, "are convinced that their cattle cannot be further improved as a whole by any foreign cross, and they con- fine themselves to a judicious selection from their own." The pure Durhams have been established in some parts of Fife, but not al- ways without difficulty. Ayrshire has a peculiarly fine breed of dairr ^ 2B 289 CATTLE. CATTLE. cattle, which is thus described by Mr. Aiton, in his excellent treatise (p. 26) on the dairy breed of cows : — " The most approved shapes in the dairy breed are, small head, rather long, and narrow at the muzzle ; eye small, but smart and lively; the horns small, clear, crooked, and their roots at considerable distance from each other ; neck long and slender, tapering towards the head, with no loose skin below; shoulders thin ; fore-»iuarters light ; hind-quarters large : back straight, broad behind ; the joints rather loose and open ; carcass deep, and pelvis ca- pacious and wide over the hips, with round fleshy buttocks; tail long and small; legs small and short, with firm joints ; udder capa- cious, broad, and square, stretching forward, and neither fleshy, low hung, nor loose ; the milk-veins are large and prominent; teats short, all pointing outwards, and at considerable dis- tance from each other, skin thin and loose ; hair soft and woolly ; the head, bones, horns, and all parts of least value, small ; and the general figure compact and well proportioned. See PI. 12, fig. 2. (Youatt, On Cattle,^. 127.) ** The qualities of a cow," adds Mr. Aiton in another place, " are of great importance. Tameness and docility of temper greatly en- hance the value of a milch cow. Some degree of hardiness, a sound constitution, health, and a moderate degree of spirits, are qualities to be ■wished for in a dairy cow, and what those of Ayrshire generally possess. The most valua- ble qualities which a dairy cow can possess are that she yields much milk, and that of an oily, butyraceous and caseous nature ; and that after she has yielded very large quantities of, milk for several years, she shall be as valuable for beef as any other breed of cows known ; her fat shall be much more mixed through the whole flesh, and she shall fatten faster than any other." And again, " the best Scotch dairy cows yield 1000 gallons of milk in one year; and in general, from 3 J to 4 gallons of their milk will yield 1^ lbs. of butter, and about 27^ gallons will produce 1^ stone imperial of full milk cheese." Lanarkshire is noted for its calves, whose real is highly esteemed in the markets of Glas- gow and Edinburgh. These, according to Mr. Aiton (Survey of Ayrshire, j). ^4:1), are fed on milk from a dish, not suckled. This is often given to them sparingly at first, to improve Uieir appetite and relish for their food ; but it is gradually increased till the calf has a full supply. Other farmers allow them as much as they please from the first. For the first week or two a calf consumes about half a good cow's milk ; at a month old the whole of a cow*s milk ; and at two months old the greater part of that of two cows. Those which are reared for slock have commonly the first drawn milk ; those which are fattening, the last drawn from two or three cows. When the calves are costive, they have a little bacon or mutton broth given them ; if they purge, a little rennet in their milk cures the complaint. They are used to have, also, a lump of chalk in their cribs The Galloway polled cattle are a peculiarly fin° and valuable breed. They are described hy Mr. Youatt, on the authority of the author 29u of the Survey of Gallovoay, as straight and broad in the back, and nearly level from the head to the tail — round in the ribs, and also between the shoulders and the ribs, and the ribs and the loins — broad in the loins, without any large pro- jecting hook-bones — long in the quarters and deep in the chest, but not broad in the ribs, and twist. There is much less space between the hook or hip-bones and the ribs than in most other breeds. They are short in the leg and moderately fine in the shank-bone. The happy medium seems to be preserved in the leg, se- curing hardihood and a disposition to fatten With the same cleanness and shortness of shank, there is no breed so large and muscular above the knee, while there is more room for the deep, broad, and capacious chest. They are clean, not fine and slender, but well propor- tioned in the neck and chaps ; a thin and deli- cate neck would not correspond with the broad shoulders, deep chest, and close, compact form of the breed. The neck of the Galloway bull is thick even to a fault. The Galloway has a loose, mellow skin, of medium thickness, with long, soft, silky hair. The skin, which is thin- ner than the Leicester, is not so fine as the improved Durham : it handles soft and kindly. Their colour is commonly black, but there are several varieties ; the dark-coloured are pre- ferred, from their being considered to indicate hardness of constitution. 30,000 of these are estimated to be sent yearly out of Gallowaj to the south. (Youatt, On Cattle, p. 158.) The Galloway breeders prefer allowing the calves to suck the cow; they consider they thrive ma^ terially better than those fed from the pail, and that fewer die of stomach complaints. An- other valuable breed of polled cows is bred in Angus, which much resemble in appearance those of Galloway ; they are, however, rather larger and longer in the leg, flatter sided, and with thinner shoulders. In Norfolk and Suffolk a polled breed of cows prevails, which are almost all descended from the Galloway cattle, " whose general form," says Mr. Youatt (p. 172), "they retain, with some of, but not all their excellences; they have been enlarged, but not improved, by a better climate and soil. They are commonly of a red or black colour, with a peculiar golden circle around the eye. They are taller than the Galloways, but thinner in the chine, flatter in the ribs, and longer in the legs ; rather better milkers ; of greater weight when fattened ; though not fattening so kindly, and the meat is not quite equal in quality." The Suff'olk dun cow, which is also of Gal- loway descent, is celebrated as a milker, and, there is little doubt, is not inferior to any other breed in the quantity of milk which she yields; this is from six to eight gallons per day. The butter produced, however, is not in proportion to the milk. It is calculated that a Suffolk cow produces annually about 1^ cwt. of butter. The Suffolk duns derive the last part of their name from their usual pale yellow colour. Many, however, are red, or red and white. They are invariably without horns, and small in size, seldom weighing over 700 lbs. when fat- tened. The male and female are nearly of the same height, and seldom exceed 4^ to 4^ feet CATTLE. CATTLE. They are rather rough about th^ head^with large ears. Their bodies are long and legs short, hip-bones high, and generally deficient in the points of the finer brieds. Still many of the cows fatten well, and produce beef of superior quality. In proportion to their size, the Suffolk dun cows yield a great abundance of milk ; and as a dairy stock, there are very few breeds that are preferable. Irish Cattle.— 0( the Irish cattle there are two breeds, the middle and the long-horns. The middle-horns are the original breed, and tenant the forests and most mountainous dis- tricts. "They are," says Mr. Youatt, " small, light, active, and wild; the head commonly small ; the horns short but fine, rather upright, and frequently, after projecting forward, turn- ing backward; somewhat deficient in hind- quarters ; high-boned, and wide over the hips, yet the bone not commonly heavy ; the hair coarse and long, black or brindled, with white faces. Some are finer in the bone and in the neck, with a good eye and sharp muzzle, and great activity ; are hardy, live upon very scanty fare, and fatten with great rapidity when re- moved to a better soil : they are good milkers. The Kerry cows are excellent in this respect. These last, however, are wild and remarkable leapers. They live, however, upon very little food, and have often been denominated the poor man's cow." The other breed is of a larger size. It has much of the blood of the old Lancashire or Craven breed, or true long-horn. Their horns first turn outwards, then curve, and turn in- wards. Of each of these kinds, an immense number of both lean and fat stock are annually exported to England ; in 1825 it amounted to 63,524. The lon^-horns. — The long-homs of England came originally from Craven in Yorkshire, and derived their name from a length of horn, •which often extended to an unbecoming degree. Bakewell, Culley, and other great breeders im- proved upon, and have long since destroyed, the chief traces of the old, long-bodied, coarse, large boned breed. It is needless, therefore, to follow this breed through the various counties in which it once predominated, for it has long been rapidly disappearing, and has almost everywhere given place to better kinds. The improved breed of Leicestershire, is said to have been formed by Webster of Cau- ley, near Coventry, in Warwickshire. Bake- well, of Dishley, in Leicestershire, afterwards got the lead as a breeder, by selecting from Cauley's stock ; and the slocks of several other eminent breeders have been traced to the same source. The Lancashire breed of long-homed cattle may be distinguished from other cattle by the thickness and firm texture of their hides, the length and closeness of their hair, the large size of their hoofs, and their coarse, leathery, thick necks. They are likewise deeper in their fore quarters, and lighter in their hind quarters than most other breedj; narrower in their shape, less in point of weight than the short- horns, though better weighers in proportion to their size ; and though they give considerably .ASS milk, it is said to yield more cream in pro- portion to its quantity. They are more varied in colour than any other breeds ; but, whatever the colour may be, they have in general a white streak along their back, which the breed- ers term finchcd, and mostly a white spot on the inside of the hough. {Culley, p. 53.) "In a ge- neral view," says Loudon, " this race, notwith- standing the singular eflbrts that have been made towards its improvement, remains with little alteration ; for, except in Leicestershire, none of the subvarielies (which differ a little in almost every one of those counties where the long-homs prevail) have undergone any radical change or any obvious improvement." (Loudon^s Encyc. of jlgr. p. 1015.) The short-horns. — Of this noble breed of cattle, which seems to be annually increasing in fa- vour with the dairyman and the grazier, we are mainly indebted to the description of the late Rev. Henry Berry. Durham and York- shire have for ages been celebrated for a breed of these possessing extraordinary value as milkers, "in which quality," says Mr. Youatt, "taken as a breed, they have never been equalled. The cattle so distinguished were always, as now, very different from the im- proved race. They were generally of large size, thin skinned, sleek haired, bad handlers, rather delicate in constitution, coarse in the ofTal, and strikingly defective in the substance of girth in the fore-quarters. As milkers they were most excellent, but when put to fatten, as the foregoing description will indicate, were found slow feeders, producing an inferior quality of meat, not marbled or mixed as to fat and lean ; the latter sometimes of a very dark hue. Such, too, are the unimproved short-horas of the present day." About the year 1750, in the valley of the Tees, commenced that spirit of improvement in the breeders of the old short-horns, which has ended in the improved modern breed. These efforts, begun by Sir William Quintin, and carried on by Mr. Milbank of Barming- ham, were nearly completed by Mr. Charles Colling. The success of this gentleman was, from the first, considerable. He produced, by judicious selections and crossings, the cele- brated bull Hubback, from whom are descend- ed the best short-horns of our day. Of this breed was the celebrated Durham ox, which was long shown in a travelling van at country fairs, and which, when slaughtered in April, 1807, at eleven years of age, weighed 187 stone ; and the Spottiswoode ox, probably the largest ever exhibited. In June, 1802, he measured — height of shoulder, 6 feet 10 inches; girth behind the shoulder, 10 feet 2 inches ; breadth across the hooks, 3 feet 1 inch ; com- puted weight, 320 stones of 14 lbs. (Quart. Journ. ofj^gr. vol. vi. p. 271.) Besides Mr. Colling, his brother Mr. Rciert Colling, Mr. Charge, and Mr. Mason were hardly second to him in skill and success as breeders of the short-horns. With the pure improved short-horns, crossed with a red polled Galloway cow, was produced a variety of this breed, which was long named " the alloy," but for which at Mr. C. Ceilings'? sale, October 11,1810, some most extraordinary prices were obtained : thus a cow called CATTLE. CATTLE. Lady, 14 years old, sold for Countess, her daughter, 9 years Laura, ditto 4 years Major, her son, 3 years George, ditto, a calf Guinea*. 206 400 210 200 130 In short, at this sale, forty-eight lots produced 7115/. 17s., Comet, a six year old bull, selling for 1000 guineas. (See Collixg, Robert and Charles.) The colours of the improved short-horns ar^ red or white, or a mixture of both ; " no pure im- proved short-horns" adds Mr. Youatt, " are found of any other colour but those above named." That the matured short-horns are an admirable grazier's breed of cattle is undoubt- ed: they are not, however, to be disregarded as milkers; but they are inferior, from their fattening qualities, to many others as workers. "In its points" says Mr. James Dickson (Quart. Journ. of Jgr. vol. vi. p. 269), for quan- tity and well laid on beef, the short-horn ox is quite full in every valuable part; such as along the back, including the fore-ribs, the sirloin and rump, in the runners, flanks, but- tocks, and twist, and in the neck and brisket as inferior parts. In regard to quality of beef, the fat bears a due and even preponderating pro- portion to the lean, the fibres of which are fine and well mixed, and even marbled with fat, and abundantly juicy. The fine, thin, clear bone of the legs and head, with the soft mellow touch of the skin, and the benign aspect of the eye, indicate, in a remarkable degree, the dispo- sition to fatten ; while the uniform colours ot the skin, red or white, or both, commixed in various degrees, bare, cream-coloured skin on the nose and around the eyes, and fine, taper- ing, white, or light-coloured horns mark dis- tinctly the purity of the blood; these points apply equally to the bull, the cow, and the heifer. The external appearance of the short- horned breed," adds Mr. Dickson, " is irresist- ably attractive. The exquisitely symmetrical form of the body in every position, bedecked with a skin of the richest hues of red, and the richest white approaching to cream, or both colours, so arranged or commixed as to form a beautiful fleck or delicate roan, and possessed of the mellowest touch ; supported on clean small limbs, showing, like those of the race- horse and the greyhound, the union of strength with fineness ; and ornamented with a small, lengthy, tapering head, neatly set on a broad, firm, deep neck, and furnished with a small muzzle, wide nostrils, prominent, 'mildly beam- ing' eyes, thin, large biney ears set near the crown of the head and protected in front with semicircularly bent, white, or brownish co- loured, short (hence the name), smooth pointed horns ; all these parts combine to form a sym- metrical harmony, which has never been sur- passed in beauty and sweetness by any other species of the domesticated ox." An excellent paper by Mr. Dickson on cross- ing the short-horns with other cattle, may be consulted with advantage by the breeder in the Ediii. Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. vii. p. 495, and on crossing in general, Ibid, p. 247. In the first plate a representation is given of short-homed cows ; in Plate 12, fig. 1, is a drawing of a short-horned bull, which may re- 292 present the breeds variously termed, Dutch, Holderness, Teeswater, Yorkshire, Durham, Northumberland, &c. The Teeswater breed, a variety of short-horns established on the banks of the Tees, at the head of the vale of York, is at present in the highest estimation, and is alleged to be the true Yorkshire short- horned breed. Bulls and cows from this stock, purchased at most extraordinary prices, are spread over all the north of England and the border counties of Scotland. The bone, head, and neck of these cattle are fine ; the hide is very thin ; the chine full ; the line broad ; the carcass throughout large and well fashioned ; and the flesh and fattening quality equal, or perhaps superior, to those of any other large breed. The short-horns give a greater quan- tity of milk than any other cattle; a cow usually yielded 24 quarts of milk per day, making 3 firkins of butter during the grass season. (Culley, p. 48.) The Yorkshire cow. — With Mr. Youatt's ac- count of the Yorkshire cow (and this article is, in fact, hardly any thing else but an abridg- ment of his excellent work "On Cattle" in the Library of Useful Knowledge) we shall conclude. The Yorkshire cow is that generally found in the great dairies in the vicinity of London, and in these the character of the Holderness and the Durham unite. "A milch cow good for the pail as long as she is wanted, and then quickly got into marketable condition, should have a long and rather small head; a large-headed cow will seldom fatten or yield much milk. The eye should be bright, yet with a peculiar placidness and quietness of expression; the chaps thin, and the horns small. The neck may be thin towards the head ; but it must soon begin to thicken, and especially when it approaches the shoulder. The dewlap should be small ; the breast, if not so wide as in some that have an unusual disposition to fatten, yet should be very far from being narrow, and it should project before the legs ; the chine to a certain degree fleshy, and even inclining to fulness; the girth behind the shoulder should be deeper than is usually found in the short- horn ; the ribs should be spread out wide, so as to give as globu.ar a form as possible to the carcass, and each should project farther than the preceding one, to the very loins. She should be well formed across the hips, and on the rump, and with greater length there than the milker generally possesses, or if a little too short not heavy. If she stands a little long on the legs, it must not be too long. The thighs somewhat thin, with a slight tendency to crook- edness or being sickle-hammed behind; the tail thick at the upper part, but tapering below; and she should have a mellow hide, and but little coarse hair. Common consent has given to her large milk-veins. A large milk-tein certainly indicates a strongly developed vas- cular system, one favourable to secretion gene- rally, and to that of the milk amongst the rest. The udder should rather incline to be large in proportion to the size of the animal, but not too large ; its skin thin and free from lumps in every part of it ; the teats of a moderate size. The quantity of milk given by some of these cows is very great ; it is by no means uncom Plate /^. ^v^; ^: j^:.' ;-v' highly esteemed, and have been frequently called the "American Devons." The most valuable working oxen are chiefly of this breed, which also contributes so largely to the best displays of beef found in the mar- kets of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. The prevailing colour of the New England cattle is a deep red. Sometimes, however, they are dark-brown, or brindle, or nearly black. Their horns are moderately long, smooth, and slender. The oxen are remarka- ble for their docility, strength, quickness, and powers of endurance. The cows are fair milk- ers, and both kinds are hardy and fatten readil)'-. By means of this fine domestic stock, and the importations still so extensively made of selec- tions from the short-horned, and other of the finest European breeds, the cattle, not only of New ^Ingland, but of other sections, are rapidly improving, especially in the Middle and West- ern States. The graziers of Kentucky and other parts of the West have heretofore generally shown the greatest preference to the short-horned breed, which, with various crosses, is now per- haps the predominant stock of the country. Since Durhams have become so common, the extravagantly high prices they once brought are no longer maintained; and, indeed, the farmers now not only think of changing the breed, but have actually commenced doing so. They have been led to this chiefly for the rea- son, that the short-horned cattle, which take on fat so readily when well fed, and become so heavy, are unable to retain their fat and flesh on being driven some 1000 or 1200 miles to the Eastern markets, where they generally arrive in such a meager condition as to bring only the price of lean stock. The Western graziers, therefore, wish to adopt some breed which will be able to carry their beef along with them. The English Herefords havebeen sought after, and as much as $500 paid for an imported cow. Captain Barclay, % crentleman owning a large estate in Scotland, called Ury, and who has recently made a tour through the United States, says that he thinks our Western farm- ers will find themselves mistaken in this selec- tion from the British breeds, and that they would derive more advantage by importing Angus or Aberdeenshire Doddies, which are kindred breeds of well-formed, moderate-sized, 294 active animals ; or, perhaps still better, thi small and peculiarly symmetrical West High- land cow ; and to cross them with a short-horn or Durham bull. The West Highlander, he says, possesses all the points of a good feeder; and being hardy, and active as a deer, would suffer little from being driven even 1000 miles. In its native glens it may feed to 20 or 25 stones, Amsterdam ;* but the heifers, on being trans- planted to a rich and sheltered pasture, attain to nearly double that weight. This he says he has demonstrated by introducing a herd of forty West Highland heifers on his farm at Ury, where they were crossed with short-horned bulls, and the experiment, on repeated trials, has been attended with great success ; for while the mothers, by removal to better pasture, have greatly increased in size, the cross has produced strong and handsome animals, kindly feeders, rising to a great weight, and bringing high prices. It is a great desideratum for the gra- ziers of Kentucky and other parts of the West, where pastures of the richest kind abound, could they find some active breed which would be able to perform the long journeys to the Eastern markets, and carry their beef with them. A very general impression now exists in the United States in favour of breeding a cross from the best short-horned bulls with the finest native cows. Mr. Colman, in his Reports upon the agricul- tural interests of Massachusetts, recently made to the legislature of that state, has collected a fund of valuable information in relation to American •neat cattle, showing their distin- guishing characteristics for dairy and other purposes, together with the improvements made and still making by the introduction of select cattle from Europe, and the results of feeding in various ways. Several books and periodi- cals published in the United States, and devoted to agriculture, are rich in details relating to American and European neat stock. But, instead of culling from these, we prefer draw- ing upon Mr. Colman's Report to the Legisla- ture of Massachusetts, as we regard it a high source of authentic information, and calculated to be the more highly useful from the exactness of the details. We regret that our limits will not admit of some particular notice of nume- rous mammoth beasts which have been raised and fattened in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and elsewhere. Particular accounts of these, with the modes of management and feeding, are duly recorded in more or less of the periodicals. Stall'fed animals. — It appears that the stall- feeders in Massachusetts usually select cattle brought from Vermont, New Hampshire, and New York, choosing such as are small-boned, neat, and thrifty. Rather than keep these on hand a long time, they generally find it most advantageous to "turn them soon," and after thus disposing of their fat stock early in the season, many purchase an additional supply pretty far advanced for the market, and finish these so as to be ready to send them oflf in the spring. In the hilly districts, where Indian * The Amsterdam stone is only about 10 lbs. of Eng- lish troy weight. CATTLE. CATTLE. corn IS not raised to any considerable extent, the cattle are generally fed upon hay and potatoes, whilst in the river valleys Indian meal is generally and most advantageously substituted for potatoes. When potatoes are chiefly depended upon in stall-feeding, a bushel of these well washed, are usually given in a day to each head, at two or more times, along with as much good hay as the animal can consume, but no water is allowed. Many farmers think that a yoke of oxen put up in good condition, may be well fatted or finished off for market with one hundred bushels of po- tatoes, in addition to the hay they will con- sume. Cattle fed upon potatoes will, it is said, m general prove as well, that is, have as much callow, as those fed in any way, and the beef of such cattle is thought by many to have a peculiar juiciness or sweetness. In driving to market, however, the cattle fed upon pota- toes will fall away more than those fed upon hay and com ; and when they come into mar- ket by no means appear as well. Several farmerji are in the practice of boiling or steaming the potatoes which they give to their cattle, and profess to find a great advantage in it. The experiments which have come within my own knowledge have not yet satisfied me that the advantages are a compensation for the labour and expense incurred by such operation. "The articles usually employed in fattening cattle are hay and Indian meal, or com and rye meal mixed, or pease and oats, or oats and corn ground together. Besides this, many farmers are in the practice of giving their 8tall-fed cattle occasionally certain quantities of potatoes. An excellent farmer, of fifty years experience in the fatting of cattle, is of opinion that potatoes are good feed for fatting cattle in the fall and spring, when the weather is warm ; but that they do no good in cold weather unless they are cooked. I rely much upon his judgment and experience. The value of potatoes is differently estimated by different individuals; some considering five bushels, others rating four bushels, as equivalent to one bushel of corn. '* In the feeding of cattle for market a great deal of practicn! skill is required, and constant obsen'ation of their condition, otherwise they may be surfeited and their appetite destroyed ; or their digestive powers be overtasked and the feed fail of its object. "A farmer in Charlemont, of large experience in the fatting of stock, considers the common English or flat turnip of little value for fatten- ing stock. The cattle fed upon them appear healthy and in fine condition, but yield very little tallow. A pair of cattle fatted by him and much admired by the butchers, which weighed eighteen hundred pounds when dressed, had only thirty pounds tallow each. " I presume the experiment has never been fairly tried, of the value of tumips for fattening stock. This is likely to have been only a soli- tary instance ; besides this, we want to know in the case, how many turnips were given ; under what circumstances they were given ; and with what other feed accompanied. *^The Fame farmer is of opinion, that oil-meal for fattening cattle is of great value. He is quite content to pay twenty to twenty-three dollars per ton, the current price for it in his town. A farmer in Conway concurs in this opinion ; and believes that for a beneficial change a farmer can well afford to buy oil- meal with corn at bushel for bushel. The price here rises sometimes to thirty dollars per ton. The weight of oil-meal is abou., forty- five pounds to the bushel." In England and Scotland, turnips are freely given to growing and fattening cattle, though more sparingly to milch cows, in consequence of the flavour they impart to milk and butter.* Mr. Colman furnishes the results of expe- rience gained by many persons who have been long in the practice of stall-feeding. A few of these we shall notice. "A. R. has twenty head of cattle in the stall They are of good size and calculated to aver age over eleven hundred pounds each, whei dressed in Brighton. "He has tried a variety and a mixture of feed, such as oats, broom-corn seed, &c., but he pre fers Indian meal to every other feed. He dis approves of excessive feeding; and thinks it i great error to give too much. He deems four quarts with hay ordinarily enough ; and te!» quarts a day sufficient for any animal. He feeds twice a day with great regularity. Hi^ present cattle have never received over eigh quarts per day each ; and at first putting up i much less quantity. He deems it best to re duce their feed of provender a few days befort starting for market. He buys his cattle foi feeding in the fall ; and his present stock averaged in the cost seventy-five dollars pel pair. "S. W. is of opinion that one bushel of com one year old for feeding any kind of stock, is equal to one bushel and one peck of new corn, or com before it becomes perfectly sound and dry. " T. C. has in stall, 27th February, five pairs of oxen, which were purchased in Brighton, ia June last. When purchased, they were thin in flesh and were immediately put into good pasture. The cost was as follows : Two pairs cost 60 dollars per yoke - 120 00 One pair cost 46 50 " " - - 46 50 .. 47 00 •• " - - 47 00 " 45 00 " " - - 45 00 ** These cattle were put into a good pasture until the 20th of November, when they were brought to the stall. From that time until the 20th December, they were fed with hay only. From that time until the first of January, they received six quarts of provender each, daily. From the first of January, they received each * Turnips, though used extensively as an auxiliar> in feeding cattle and other stock in Europe, and especially in Great Britain, do not seem to answer so well in the United Slates, unless perhaps it may be in some portions of New England. The general complaint against them in the Middle States, is that they do not appear to pos- sess sufficient nourishing and fattening qualities. Hence the sugar beet, ruta baga, niangel-wurtzel, and carrot are greatly preferred, all of which roots may be given with verv great advantage to stock, as auxiliaries. Testimonials of their value when thus employed are numerous and conclusive. For information relative to the feeding of cattle on turnips, see Stephens's "B0ek of the Farm." 295 CATTLE. CATTLE a week, and a dry day always selected to perform it in. In very severe weather the winter standing crops should be covered with straw or other litter, care being taken always to remove it in mild days. On the arrival of frost a quantity may be taken up and buried in sand under shelter. As celery will not continue in perfection except in winter more than three or four weeks after bleaching, it is advisable for family use only to make small plantations of the early crops at a time. To raise seed, some plants must be left where CELERY. CHAFF-ENGINES. grown ; or in February or March some may be carefully taken up, and, after the outside leaves are cut off and all laterals removed, planted in a moist soil a foot apart. Those which are most solid and of a middling size are to be se- lected. When they branch for seed they must be each attached to a stake, to preserve them from being broken by the violence of winds. The flower appears in June, and when the seed is swelling in July, if dry weather occurs, they should be watered every other night. In Au- gust the seed will be ripe, and when perfectly dry, may be rubbed out and stored. A variety of celery with a roundish root (^pium rapure- um), is sometimes cultivated in gardens. (G. W. Johnson's Kitch. Gard. ; Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 575 ; WilUch's Dom. Encyc.) CELERY, WILD, or SMALLAGE PARS- LEY {Jlpium graveolens). This is a biennial, found in ditches and marshy ground, especially towards the sea; root tap-shaped, herb smooth and shining. Flowers numerous, small, green- ish white. The seeds and whole plant in its native ditches are acrid and dangerous, with a peculiar strong taste and smell ; but by culture it becomes the mild and grateful garden cele- ry, for which and its name we are indebted to the Italians, and which has now supplanted our native Alexanders {Stuyrnium olusatrum). {Snnth's Eng. Fhra, vol. ii. p. 75.) CELL (Lat. cella). In botany, the hollow part of a capsule in which the seeds are lodged, and also the part of the anthers which contains the pollen. CELLS. The small divisions in honey- combs, which have been observed to be al- ways regular hexagons. They also denote the hollow places between the partitions in the pods, husks, and other seed-vessels of plants. CELL. The vegetable cell, the simplest element of growth and development, consists of a closed vessel like an eg^, and is composed of an outer solid membrane which contains a fluid, and matter floating in the fluid, or at- tached to the sides. At first the enclosing membrane is very delicate, and is called a utricle; if this remains closed throughout its life, it is called "a cell;" if the sides of sev- eral adjoining cells disappear, and the series is arranged into a tube, it becomes "a vessel." Cells are the base of all vegetation. The red snow-plant, and the yeast-plant, are single cells. The snow-plant, so graphically de- scribed by Kane and other Arctic explorers, is one cell, with little particles floating within. These particles become cells themselves, in time, and the outer coat bursting, lets them escape to commence an individual existence themselves. Cells vary in form in diflferent plants, and even in the same plant they, by overcrowding here and loosening there, get distorted in shape. In the stems of water- lilies some of the cells are star-shaped, while in the wood of trees they are long and pipe- like. The diameter of cells averages from 1 -1200th of an inch up to l-250th; but the common puff-ball of our pastures, when bro- ken, spirts out a fine brown powder, each particle of which is a cell, or sj)hore, as it is termed, of infinitesimal diameter. The membranous wall of cells is of different toughness. In the sea-weed, it is very soft; in ash, hickory, and mahogany, very bard; and in vegetable ivory, harder still. Cell membrane never dissolves in water, but swells. It is called "cellulose," and is composed of oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen, chemically written thus : C. 12 ; 0. 10 ; H, 10. The spaces between the cells of a plant are filled vari- ously: — sometimes with air ; in the common red cedar, with minute grains of red aromatic rosin ; in sumach, with a thick milky sap ; and in other plants, with gums. The contents also of cells vary. The growing cells of some plants, as asparagus, are more nutritious, be- cause they contain some nitrogen, which goes toward making muscle in the animal body. CERATE (derived from rera, wax.) Cerates are ointments of rather stiff consistence; sim- ple cerate is made by melting together sweet oil and beeswax, or hog's lard and beeswax, or all three together. The oil or lard employed should always be fresh, as nothing irritates or prevents the healing of wounds more than rancid applications. CERES. The Roman Pagan goddess of corn and harvests; the Isis of the Egyptians. The festivals to her honour were denominated, at Rome, the Cerealia or Cerealion, hence the term Cerealian grass; and Sicily, long cele- brated for its corn, was supposed to be her favourite retreat. CEREAL, relating to com or grain. Cereal plants are the various kinds of grain. Cereal gras.ses are all those raised to supply bread- stufls, such as wheat, rye, Indian corn, &c. CERINE. A substance which forms from seventy to eighty per cent, of beeswax. It may be obtained by digesting wax, for some time, in spirits of wine, at a boiling tempera- ture, after which the cerine is decanted with the liquor, from which it is cleared by evapo- ration. It is white, analogous to wax, and melts at 134° Fahrenheit. CHACK. A term used in horsemanship when a horse beats upon the hand, and does not hold his head steady, but tosses up his nose, and shakes it all of a sudden, to avoid the sub- jection of the bridle. In order to fix and secure his head, it is only necessary to put under his nose-band a small flat ligature of iron, bent archwise, which serves as a martingale. CHAFF (Sax.ceap; Dutch, A:a/). The husks of corn which are separated by thrashing and winnowing. It likewise implies hay, straw, &c. cut small, for the purpose of being given to horses and other cattle. CHAFF-ENGINES. That chaff has been employed as provender for live-stock from a very early period, we have abundant evidence. Cato (lib. 54) recommends it for oxen ; and two centuries since, Hartlib recommended its use, mixed with cut oats and peas. The mode of preparing, the chaff, however, from hay and straw by the knife, was a later improvement, and the first machines were rude and incom- plete. We are not aware (says Mr. J. A. Ransome of Ipswich, to whom I am indebted for this and other valuable articles on the implements of agriculture) of any attempt to improve npta the plan of pressing the hay in a trough, and 307 CHAFF-ENGINES. CHAFF-ENGINES. by hand bringing it by small portions to the front edge, where it was severed by a long knife attached to the end of a lever, till in 1794-5 the Rev. J. Cooke of Holborn, London, and W. Naylor of Langstock, respectively ob- tained patents for machines for expediting the process. In the year 1797 we find Robert Salmon, of Woburn, whose inventive talent and practical experience added many and various original ideas and improvements to the then limited knowledge of agricultural mechanics, con- structed a chaff-engine, which, although cum- brous in its appearance, was effective in its operation, and furnished the original idea, which was subsequently improved upon; first, by Rowntree, and afterwards by Thos. Pass- more of Doncaster; the latter of whom, in 1804, patented the machine known as the Don- caster engine, upon the plan of which, for many years, most of the engines in the mid- land and eastern counties were made ; and even at the present time, few of the machines in general use are found more effective. A reward of thirty guineas was conferred on Salmon by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. for this improved machine. Passmore's machine was a simplification and improvement on Salmon's straw-cutter. In 1800 and 1801, W. Lester of Paddington patented a straw-cutter, which, with some alte- rations, is much used at the present day, and is known as the " Lester engine." It is a very simple machine, having but one knife, placed on a fly-wheel; the fly-wheel turns on a cranked spindle, which communicates motion to a rat- chet-wheel fixed at the end of one of the feed- ing-rollers by means of a small hook or catch, which is capable of being so adjusted as to lift one, two, three, or four teeth at each revolution, and by this is regulated the length of the straw projected in front of the face-plate, and which is severed by the knife. On the roller was fixed a revolving cloth or endless web, which passed over another roller at the hinder end of the box ; a heavy block was used to compress the straw. In the more modern engines the roUing-cloth is entirely dispensed with, as the purpose for which it was intended is effected by the introduction of an upper feeding-roller, to which motion is communicated by a pair of cog-wheels, one of which is attached to the lower feeding-roller before described; the heavy block is substituted by a pressing-piece, which receives its motion from the cranked spindle, alternately presses down the straw previous to the cut, and rises afterwards to allow the straw free passage. The improved machine is made of different sizes, and the larger are frequently used with horse-power. This is the best modern chaff-engine ; it will adjust and vary the work to the following Jengths of cut;— -i inch, ^ inch, and | inch. At i inch It will cut from Butheli or fodder per hour. 18 to 20 40 to 50 50 to 60 Another chaff-cutter is made on the same ©rinciple, but a size smaller, which 308 Busheli of foddtr per hour. at i inch will cut from 10 to 12 i — 30 to 40 I — 40 to 50 A still smaller engine can also be had, cut- ting ^ inch lengths only, suited to gentlemen's stables and small establishments, made entirely of metal, and adapted for hot climates. This will cut from 15 to 20 bushels of fodder per hour. Passing by several, which in the course of the next fifteen years were introduced, but which, however ingenious, were too compli- cated and cumbrous for general use, in 1818 we find a simple invention was patented by Thomas Heppenstall, of Doncaster. It con- sisted in the application of a worm to turn two wheels, which in their revolution meet each other. These wheels are attached to two feed- ing-rollers, which convey the straAV forwards to the knives. Two of these knives are placed on a fly-wheel, which is fixed upon the same spindle as the worm. This is the simplest form of chaff-engine, and, with a slight altera- tion, substituting wheels with the cogs on the face instead of on the outer edge, is the com- mon form for the small engines now in use. Two patents have also, within the last year or two, been taken out for considerable im- provements on this machine, one by Lord Ducie in connection with Messrs. Clyburn and Budding, two engineers residing at Uley. The only remaining machine we have to bring before the notice of our readers, is one for which a patent was obtained a few months ago by Mr. Charles May, engineer of Ipswich, a partner in the house of Ransome. We saw this among the machines exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Society's meeting at Cambridge, where it appeared to perform its work admira- bly. It is intended to be used by horse-power, and is so contrived that cog-wheels of different diameters may be placed on the spindle to which motion is first communicated; these, working in different movable wheels upon an- other spindle, will regulate the speed of the feeding-rollers, so as to vary the length of the chaff to be cut, from three-eighths of an inch to three inches. Its capabilities are estimated to cut 8 cwt. of straw per hour in half-inch lengths. A chaff-cutter is indispensable on a large farm establishment. This implement, as has been shown, is either constructed with a good deal of expensive machinery, or of very simple mechanism ; it may be made up at the cost of only 1/. or IZ. 6s. Patent straw-cutters in great variety are to be found in the United States. They are per- haps in most general use in the Eastern States, for which reason we extract the opinions of their respective merits held by an Eastern au- thority of high repute, Mr. T. G. Fessenden, editor of that valuable periodical, the New Eng- land Farmer. In his very instructive little volume, " The Complete Farmer," Mr. Fessen- den makes the following remarks : — "There is not only much saving and gain in cutting fodder when hay is low, but the animal is kept in better health, more particularly old CHAFF ENGINES. CHAFF-ENGINES. horses, and such as may have been injured in their wind. "It is a fact that horses will live and continue serviceable much longer when fed on cut fod- der. The machine invented and manufactured by Willis, known as ' Willis's Improved Straw and Hay-Cutter,' is the most durable and best operating machine that has come to our know- ledge ; and, what is worthy of notice, they re- quire but one person to work them, which is not the case with many other machines ; in this re- spect there is a great saving in cutting feed, and likewise the fodder may be cut of any length required: the knives, being placed in front of the machine, can be at all times examined and put in good order. The feeding-rollers are so constructed, that while the machine is in the act of cutting, the rollers cease to feed, which renders the cutting operation very easy. When properly constructed, this ma- chine works free and easy, and is not liable to gel out of order. It will cut from thirty-five to forty bushels per hour. Price thirty-five dollars. **Eastmati'8 Straiv-Cutter, with improved side- gearing and cylindrical knives. This machine is well calculated for large and extensive esta- blishments. Price, fifty to sixty dollars. " The Common Dutch Hand Cutting-Machine is one of those implements in common use, and known to every practical farmer; and is con- sidered as good a machine for a small esta- blishment as any in use. It will cut from ten to twenty bushels per hour. ^^Saj)'orii's Improved and Common StrauyCutter with side-gearing. Well approved, and is in very general use. " Green's Patent StrauyCutter, one of the most approved machines now in use for cutting fod- der : very simple in its construction, and not liable to get out of order; does the work with great ease and despatch." « Green's Patent Straw, Hay, and Stalk-Cutter*' says another excellent authority, " is very sim- ple in its construction, and being made and put together very strong, is not liable to get out of order. By the application of a mecha- nical principle not before applied to any imple- ment for this purpose, the machine will cut easily two bushels per minute, requiring only the strength of a boy to work it. The knives require less sharpening than those of any other straw-cutter, owing to the peculiar manner in which they cut." The Albany Cultivator states, on the author- ity of an intelligent and worthy farmer, that two active men will, with this machine, by the application of manual power alone, cut Jive tons of hay per day! The machine called No. 2, which cuts three-fourths of an now sold for thirty-three dollars. The saving efiected by the use of straw-cut- ters often amounts to 50 per cent. The profits and advantages accruing from cutting proven- der, especially when this happens to be a high price, is strikingly demonstrated by the follow- ing statement. Mr. Benjamin Hale's account of the savings made by the use of Straw-Cutters, employed to ciU hay and straw as fodder for horses. Mr. Hale is proprietor of a line of stages running between Newburyport and Boston. He says. The whole amount of hay purchased from April 1 to Oct. 1, 1816 (six months), and used at the stage Tons. cwt. grs. Ibt. stable, was 32 4 10 At twenty-five dollars per ton (the lowest price at which hay was purchased in 1816,) fSOO 00 From Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1817, whole amount of hay and straw purchased for and consumed by the same number of horses, viz. T. ewt. qrs. lbs. Cost. Straw 16 13 3 10 *I60 23 Hay 13 14 1 00 350 00 «510 23 Deduct on hand April 1, 1817, by esti- mation, four tons more than there was Oct. 1, 1816, at twenty-five dollars per ton, 100 ^410 23 Saving by the use of the straw-cut- ter, four months out of the last six months, or the ditference in ex- pense in feeding witii cut fodder and that which is uncut #389 77 Whole amount of hay used for the horses of the Salem stage, twenty- five in number, from April 1 to Oct. T. cwt. qrs. lbs. 1, 1816, viz. 22 At thirty dollars per ton (the lowest price in Salem), #660 00 Whole amount consumed by the same number of horses from Oct. 1, 1816, to April 1, 1817, T. cwt. qrs. lbs. Cost. Straw 15 13 #187 80 Hay 2 15 81 00 Saving in using chopped fodder five months, Total saving in using the slraw-cut- ter nine motiihs, viz. at Newbury- port four months At Salem five months #391 20 389 77 391 20 Total, #789 97 The members of the board of trustees of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, to whom the above account was communicated by Mr. Hale, were informed by thjit gentleman that he used no more grain from Oct., 1816, to April, 1817, than was used from April, 1816, to Oct., 1816. At a late exhibition of the Philadelphia Agri- cultural Society, a premium was awarded for a new chafi" or straw-cutter, invented by Mr. C. T. Botts, editor of the "Southern Planter," published at Richmond, Va. The improve- ment upon other machines for a similar pur- pose consists chiefly in shortening the knives, which are not wider than a common carpen- ter's plane-iron, and like them can be easily ground and set. It is a self-feeder, the operator having nothing else to do but turn the crank. The inventor remarks, that many straw-cutters at present in use are sufficiently effective whilst in order, but from the difficulty of bringing them within the power of common manage- ment, they have generally been abandoned for the imperfect cutters made by the common blacksmiths of the country. The inventor therefore applied himself to the construction of an implement which, if less rapid in execu- tion, would be more durable, and within the control of the simplest capacity. These are the strongest testimonials in favour of the ex- cellence of Mr. Botts's straw-cutter, the cost of which varies from $25 for the smallest to $30 for the largest size. An extensive farmer residing near Phila- »)9 CHALDRON. delphia, who enjoys a high reputation for his | agricultural management, and especially for j his success in feeding cattle, has returned to the common old cutting-knife and box, so long used by the German farmers in Pennsylvania, an improvement of which is certainly a very eflBcient implement. He says that he has ex- pended much money for what were pronounced the best patent straw-cutters, and finds it to his advantage to lay them aside and return to the old and simple machine, which costs but five or six dollars. He had not seen the machine invented by Mr. Botts. CHALDRON. An English measure, contain- ing 36 bushels, or 12 sacks of 3 bushels each. CHALK (Sax. cealc; We\sh, cakk; Celtic, cal or kill). The carbonate of lime, or lime united with carbonic acid. See Lime. Car- bonate of lime exists abundantly in various parts of the earth's surface in the state of chalk, limestone, and marble ; and in smaller masses, as the arragonite, &c., of which be- tween one and two hundred varieties (all car- bonate of lime) are known to mineralogists. For the purposes of agriculture they may be all classed under one head. Common chalk has a dull white colour, is soft, adhesive when applied to the tongue, stains the fingers, and thence is in common use for marking. In Eu- ropean agriculture chalk is perhaps the most extensively employed of the limestone species ; it varies slightly in composition, containing usually some silica (flint), alumina (clay), and some red oxide of iron, and the remainder car- bonate of lime, 100 parts of which contain, Carbonic acid Lime Parts 45 55 100 parts of common limestone are com- posed, according to MM. Thenard and Biot, of Carbonate of lime Water - Silica Alumina Oxide of iron Part*. - 9505 1-63 112 - 1- •75 100 These carbonates, when burnt, form lime, for the heat drives off the carbonic acid. By exposure to the air the lime absorbs carbonic acid gas, and again becomes converted into carbonate of lime. A knowledge of these facts is of considerable value to the farmer even on the score of carriage, independent of the greater value of lime as a manure ; for in some cases the object of the needless weight of water and carbonic acid in chalk is very material, as will be readily seen by the following analysis of the chalk of Kent, which is the variety largely em- nloyed in the county of Essex, although it has vO be brought by sea nearly 70 miles, and then often carted several miles. I found by careful experiment 100 parts of chalk from Kent, in the state in which it was carted on the land in De- cember, contained, besides some oxide of iron and silica, — Water - Carbonic acid Lime 24- 342 41-8 100 310 CHALK. So that, when the farmer carts 41 tons of fresh lime, he conveys as much real manure to his soil as if he carried 100 tons of chalk. This must be assuredly a question of the highest importance to those farmers who have to carry the earth a considerable distance, especially if they can procure lime at a reasonable rate ; which, in the large quantities required, for agri- cultural purposes, must in most situations be the case. Carbonate of lime is found in almost all vegetables ; it is an essential food of plants. The cultivator will see, by the results of the experiments which I shall give under the head Lime, that the quantity of carbonate of lime contained in the cultivated grasses is very con- siderable, and still more so in trees ; and that, as might be expected, the proportion increases with the quantity of this substance found in the soil. To the planter this fact offers an unan- swerable reason in favour of the addition of chalk, marl, or limestone to all poor soils in- tended for plantations, in the manner long suc- cessfully practised on the black heathy sands of Norfolk by Mr. Withers of Holt, and which he has shown to be equally advantageous to trees, whether planted for ornamental or profit- able purposes. There is no fact more necessary to be un- derstood by the agriculturist, than that no land can be productive which does not contain a fair proportion of carbonate of lime. It is, perhaps, even in excess much less prejudicial to any cultivated soil than either silica or alu- mina. But, on the other hand, no soil can be productive if it contain more than nineteen parts in twenty of chalk. The earth of the fine sandy hop gardens near Tonbridge, in Kent, contain about five per cent, of chalk. The good turnip soils near Holkham, in Norfolk, are seven-eighths sand and the remaining eighth is composed of Parts. Carbonate of lime or chalk - - - 63 Silica (flint) ------ 15 Alumina (clay) ----- 11 Oxide of iron ------ 3 Vegetable and saline matter - - - 5 Water 3 100 The soil at Sheffield Place, in Sussex, which is so admirably adapted for the growth of the oak, contains three per cent, of chalk. The fine wheat soils of West Drayton, in Middle- sex, contain more than ten per cent. That of Bagshot Heath contains less than one per cent. The richest soils on the banks of the Parret, in Somersetshire, contain more than seventy per cent. Those of the valley of Evesham about six per cent. A specimen of a good soil from Tiviotdale, examined by Davy, was composed of five-sixths sand and the remainder of the following substances (Lectures, 202) ; — Farts. Clay 41 Silica (flint) ------ 42 Chalk 4 Oxide of iron ------ 5 Vegetable, animal, and saline matter . - 8 A soil yielding excellent pasture, from the j banks of the Wiltshire Avon, near Salisbury yielded the same chemist one-eleventh of iti CHALK. weight of siliceous sand. The remainder was composed of Psrts. Chalk 63 Silica (flint) 14 VecretaMe, animal, and iialine matter - - 14 Aliiiniiia (clay) ------ 7 Oxide of iron ------ 2 Many soils also contain a small proportion of carbonate of magnesia ; but it very rarely amounts to a sufficient quantity to be worth estimating in the mode of analysis I shall pre- sently give. It is difficult to say in what form the carbo- nate of lime enters the system of plants, as it is an insoluble compoifnd : unless we can sup- pose that it attracts an excess of carbonic acid from the air, becoming a bicarbonate, in which state it is soluble in water. But whatever may the cause of its being taken up by plants, its influence on soils is undoubted. The mode of applying chalk as a manure. In the county of Essex, where chalking is prac- tised to a very large extent, the chalk is brought in sailing barges from the Kentish shore of the Thames, at an expense of about two shillings per ton, and afterwards carted for some miles into the country. It is applied in quantities which vary from ten to thirty tons per acre, according to the description of the soil; the poor light soils requiring a larger addition of chalk than the richer lands. It is usually applied without any preparation ; the larger lumps of chalk are not even broken, and the chalk being once ploughed in, the action of the frost, the plough, and the harrow, in time sufficiently pulverizes it. It is often mixed in smaller proportions with common farm-yard manure, ditch scrapings, pond mud, &c., and suffered to remain some time before it is carried into the field. An equally excel- lent plan is followejl by some of the best Essex farmers, who spread quantities of chalk over head lands, banks, &c., which require lower- ing, and then fallow those portions of land, ploughing them often, and letting the chalked earth remain as long as possible, incorporating before they carry and spread the mixed chalk and earth on to the field ; by this means the effects of a few loads of chalk are diffused over a field. It is a plan admirably adapted for those situations where chalk is very expen- sive. The good effects of chalk are more perma- nent than immediate ; for, although a good dressing with chalk will remain in the soil for from ten to twenty years, yet, on some soils, 07ie or even hro years will elapse before the far- mer perceives a decided improvement. There is hardly any manure that answers better for grass than chalk, especially on light, sandy soils. If, however, the soil already contains an abundance of chalk, its addition to that land cannot constitute a manure. The culti- vator can easily form a rough estimate of the quantity of chalk in a soil, by taking a quantity of it from three inches beneath the surface, well drying it in an oven, and adding to, say 400 grains, 800 grains of muriatic acid ; the mixture, which weighs 1200 grains, will, if it contains chalk, effervesce ; and the carbonic acid of the chalk being expelled, will, of CHARCOAL. course, lessen the weight of the mixture. When the effervescence has entirely ceased, weigh the mass ; every 4i^ grains deficient the experimenter may consider to indicate the pre- sence of 10 grains of chalk in the soil. The agriculturist will then be able to judge, by comparing the quantity of chalk existing in the examined soils with that in other lands, the analyses of which I have given, whether his land requires the addition of chalk. In the United Slates chalk is nowhere found, and the lime applied to agricultural purposes, except it be in the form of gypsum or plaster of Paris, is obtained from burning limestone, marble, shells, either recent or fossil — and lastly from bones and calcareous deposits called marl. (C. W. Johnson's work On Fertilizers, p. 256 ; Brit. Farm. Mag. vol. iii. p. 129.) CHAMPIGNONS (^garinis orrades). A species of mushroom, growing wild in Eng- land, having a much higher flavour than the common mushroom, but tough and leathery and consequently very indigestible. They are chiefly used for making catsup, or in the form of powder to flavour sauces, &c., for all which purposes they are admirable. CHAR. A species of lake trout found in Windermere; in length never exceeding fif- teen or sixteen inches spotted like a trout, with very few bones. {Walton, p. 173.) It is also found in Loch Tay, in Scotland. CHARBON. The little black spot or mark remaining after the large spot in the cavity of the comer tooth of a horse is gone. • CH.\RCOAL (From chark, to burn, and was formerly written rharke real). The remaining portion of wood after it has been heated to red- ness for some time, which dissipates all the hydrogen and oxygen of which, with carbon, it is composed. (See Carbox.) Charcoal- burning is a regular trade, followed in some of the woody districts by persons who do hardly any thing else. For making gunpowder-charcoal, the lighter woods, such as the willow, dogwood, and alder answer best ; and in their carbonization care should be taken to let the vapours freely escape, especially towards the end of the ope- ration, for when they are re-absorbed, they greatly impair the combustibility of the char- coal. By the common process of the forests, about 18 per cent, of the weight of the wood is ob- tained ; by the process of Foucauld about 24 percent are obtained,with20of crude pyrolig- neous acid of 10 degrees Baum6. The charcoal of some woods contains silica, and is therefore useful for polishing metals. Being a bad conductor of heat, charcoal is em- ployed sometimes in powder to encase small furnaces and steam-pipes. It is not affected by water ; and hence the extremities of char- red stakes driven into moist grounds are not liable to decomposition. In like manner casks when charred inside preserve water much better than common casks, because they fur- nish no soluble matter for fermentation or for food to animalcules. Lowitz discovered that wood charcoal re- moves offensive smells from animal and vegetable substances, and counteracts their CHARCOAL. CHARCOAI-. possi were taken, and they produced as under: — Lignum Vitte afforded 260 of charcoal of a grayish co- lour, resembling coke. 25-4 tinged with brown, spongy and porous. 24-5 velvet black, compact, very hard. 23-2 glossy black, compact, firm. 22-6 black, close, very firm. 20 6 dull black, close, firm. 19 9 dull black, loose and bulky. 19-9 dull black, spongy, firm. 19-7 fine black, bulky, moderately firm. 19-5 fine black, moderately firm. 19-2 shining black, bulky, very soft. 18-4 velvet black, bulky, loose, and soft. 17 9 shining black, spongy, firm. 17-4 velvet black, bulky, firm. 16-4 tinged with brown, mode- rately firm. Messrs. Allen and Pepys, from 100 parts of the following woods, obtained the quantities of charcoal as under : — Mahogany Laburnum Chestnut Oak Walnut - Holly Ueech Sycamors Elm Norway Pine - Sallow or willow Ash Birch Scotisb Pine - Ammoniacal gas Muriatic acid gas Sulphurous acid Sulpliureted hydrogen Nitrous oxyde' Carbonic acid gas putrefaction. He found the odour of succinic Each portion of charcoal was heated afresh to and benzoic acids, of bugs, of empyreumatic a red heat, and allowed to cool iinder inercuiy, oils, of infusions of valerian, essence of wormwood, spirits distilled from bad grain, and sulphureous substances were all absorb- able by freshly calcined charcoal properly applied. A very ingenious filter has been constructed for purifying water, by passing it through strata of charcoal of different fineness. When charcoal is burned, one-third of the heat is discharged by radiation, and two-thirds by conduction. The following table of the quantity of char- coal yielded by difierenl woods was published by Mr. Mushet, as the result of experiments carefully made upon the small scale. He says, the woods before being charred were tho- roughly dried, and pieces of each kind were selected as nearly alike in every respect as iible. One hundred parts of each sort Beech 15-00 Oak - _ - 17-40 Mahoganv 15-75 Fir - . - 1817 Lignum Vitie - 17-25 Box - - - 20-25 It is observable that the quantities obtained by Messrs. Allen and Pepys are in general less % than those given by Mr. Mushet, which may be owing to Mr. Mushet not having applied sufficient heat, or operated long enough, to dis- sipate the aqueous matter of the gaseous pro- ducts. To those persons who buy charcoal by weight, it is important to purchase it as soon after it is made as possible, as it quickly ab- sorbs a considerable portion of water from the atmosphere. Different woods, however, diflfer in this respect. Messrs. Allen and Pepys found, that by a week's exposure to the air, the charcoal of Lignum Vitc gained - Fir - - - - Box . - - - Beech - - - Oak 9-6 per cent. 130 ditto. 14 ditto. 16-3 ditto. 16-5 ditto. Mahogany 180 ditto. The following is a tabular view of the vo- lame** of the dilTerent gases which were ab- sorbed in the course of twenty-four hours, by one volume of charcoal, in the experiments of M.Theodore de Saus^ ire, which were conduct- «*d in a wav likely to roduce correct results. 812* When taken from the mercury, it was instantly plunged into the vessel of gas: Bicarbureted hydrogen 3500 Carbonic oxyde - 942 Oxygen gas - - 925 Nitrogen - - - 7.50 Carbureted hydrogen 5-00 Hydrogen gas - - 1'75 {lire's Diet, of Jrts.) In England charcoal is prepared in two dif- ferent ways. In one, billets of wood are formed into a heap, which is covered with turf, and a few small openings only left for the admission of the air requisite to maintain it in a state of low combustion after it is lighted. When the whole heap is on fire, the holes are stopped ; and, after the mass has cooled, the residue is charcoal. In the other mode the wood is distilled in iron cylinders, in which case the products are pyroligneous acids, and empy- reumatic oil; and what remains in the retort is charcoal. The quantity of the distilled pro- ducts, as well as of the charcoal, depends on the kind of wood employed. 100 parts of dried oak yields, of Partfc Pyroligneous acid ----- 43" Carbonate of potassa - - - - 45 Empyreumatic oil - - - - - 906 Charcoal 26-2 The charcoal thus procured is lighter than common charcoal. Charcoal should be black, sonorous, brittle, and retain the texture of the wood. It has a powerful attraction for water, gases, and odorous and colouring principles. It is a powerful antiseptic, and well adapted for preserving animal substances from putre- faction. In fine powder it is much used as a tooth-powder, for which purpose, however, it is exceptionable, since, being insoluble, it gets between the teeth and gums and thus leads to their separation and much mischief. Ivory, or bone black, is animal charcoal, prepared in the same manner as the second kind of vegetable charcoal. It has a remarka- ble property of abstracting colour from many vegetable solutions, on which account it is much used by sugar refiners. " Plants," says Liebig, " thrive in powdered charcoal, and may be brought to blossom and bear fruit, if exposed to the influence of the rain and the atmosphere; the charcoal may be previously heated to redness. Charcoal is the most unchangeable substance known; it may be kept for centuries without change, and is therefore not subject to decomposition. The only substances which it can yield to plants are some salts which it contains, amongst which is silicate of potash. It is known, however, to possess the power of condensing gases within its pores, and parti- cularly carbonic acid. And it is by virtue of this power that the roots of plants are supplied in charcoal exactly as in humus, with an at- mosphere of carbonic acid ani air, which is renewed as quickly as it is abstracted, " In charcoal powder, which had been used for this purpose by Lukas for several years, Buchner found a brown substance soluble in alkalies. This substance was evidently duo CHARD. CHEESE. ^ the secretions from the roots of the plants which grew in it. " A plant placed in a closed vessel in which the air, and therefore the carbonic acid, cannot be renewed, dies exactly as it would do in the vacuum of an air-pump, or in an atmosphere of nitrogen or carbonic acid, even though its roots be fixed in the richest mould. " Plants do not, however, attain maturity, under ordinary circumstances, in charcoal powder, when they are moistened with pure distilled water instead of rain or river water. Rain water must, therefore, contain within it one of the essentials of vegetable life ; and it will be shown, that this is the presence of a compound containing nitrogen, the exclusion of which entirely deprives humus and char- coal of their influence upon vegetation." (i»c- 6tg'« Orgnnic Chemistry.) "Dr. Webster, editor of the American edi- tion of Liebig's Organic Chemistry, observes : * A few years since, I had an opportunity of ob- serving a striking instance of the effect of car- bonic acid upon vegetation in the volcanic island of St. Michael (Azores). The gas is- sued from a fissure in the base of a hill of tra- chyte and luffa from which a level field of .some acres extended. This field, at the time of my visit, was in part covered with Indian com. The corn at the distance of ten or fif- teen yards from the fissure, was nearly full grown, and of the usual height, but the height regularly diminished until within five or six feet of the hill, where it attained but a few inches. This effect was owing to the great specific gravity of the carbonic acid, and its spreading upon the ground, but as the distance increased, and it became more and more min- gled with atmospheric air, it had produced less and less effect." CHARD. See Beet. CHARLOCK (Sax. cepi.ce ). PI. 10 g. A troublesome weed, which abounds in most ara- ble soils, and is very ditficult to expel. In Eng- land it is frequently called chndlorb, catlork; cor- lock, corn-knlc, and white-rape. There are four dif- erent species of planLs,says Sinclair, confounded under the name of charlock, viz. Sinapis arven- gis, or common wild mustard ; yellow blossom, in May ; annual. S. nigra, black, or Durham mustard ; blossom, pale yellow, in June ; an- nual. Raphamts raphanistrntn, wild radish ; straw-yellow blossom, in June and July; an- nual. Bra&sica napus, wild navew (this last is the least common) ; yellow blossom, in May ; biennial. The seeds derived from the hard pods of the variety of the yellow-flowered charlock, called wild mustard, are collected in England and sold under the name of Durham Mustard. They furnish by expression an excellent oil, which it has been thought might be rendered profitable. In Germany 30 lbs. of pure lamp- oil has been obtained from 100 lbs. of seed. Charlock has been introduced from Europe, and has become quite extensively naturalized in several parts of the United States. Being an annual plant it is very difiicult to get rid of, and when once in possession of a spot will long bid defiance to all attempts made for its total extirpation. It infests clayey grounds, 40 such as are particularly well adapted to the* culture of wheat and other most valuabl<» grains. Its seeds contain a preservative oil, which, with their great firmness enables them to remain sound under ground for an almost unlimited period. Those only which are brought by tillage within a certain distance of the surface, sprout and grow, whilst the deeper covered remain for the production of another crop when brought up by the plough sufli- ciently near the surface. The only practicable mode of eradicating this and other pests of an- nual growth, is to prevent the plants from coming to $eed, by cutting down when in blossom. The greatest care should be taken to inspect seed- grain before sowing, and see that no seeds of charlock or other troublesome weeds are in the samples. The leaves, flowers, long, round and irregular seed-pods and odour of the root are very similar to those of the common radish. Farm stock generally are fond of the plant, and especially sheep, which, when it is possible to turn upon the field sufficiently early, will keep it from growing up to seed. In Ireland and the northern parts of Europe, as well as in some parts of America, j'oung charlock is boiled for greens in the same man- ner as cabbage-sprouts, &c. The flowers are much frequented by bees. ( Weeds of JliiricuU tare, p. 45; Smithes Flora, vol. iii. p. 321-6.) CHARRING OF POSTS. The reducing that part of the surface of posts which is to be put into the ground to the state of charcoal. This method is highly useful where the parts are to be placed in wet situations, or to stand between wet and dry. This was a practice common to the ancients. CHEAT AND CHESS. See Dauxel. CHEDDER CHEESE. A kind of cheese so named from its being made at Chedder, a vil- lage near the Mendip-hills in Somersetshire, famous for its pastures. The richness and fine flavour of Chedder cheese is supposed to be derived chiefly from a species of Agrostis upon which the cows feed. CHEESE (Lat. caseus; Sax. cere). A well- known kind of food, prepared from milk by coagulation, and separated from the serum or whey, by means of pressure, after which it is dried for use. See Butter. Cheese has been made from a very ancient period ; it is men- tioned by Job, and also by Homer. According to Sirabo, our British ancestors did not under- stand how to make cheese, a deficiency with which their descendants cannot new well be charged. Good cheese, says Dr. Thomson, melts at a moderate heat ; but bad cheese, when heated, dries, curls, and exhibits all the phenomena of burning horn. From this it is evident that good cheese contains aquantity of the peculiar oil of cream; hence its flavour and smell. Proust found in cheese a peculiar acid, which he called the caseic. (System of Chevu vol. iv. p. 499.) The best season for making cheese is during those months when the cows can be fed on the pastures ; that is, from the beginning of May- till towards the end of September, or, in favour able seasons, the middle of October. In Eng land, on many of the large dairy farms, in se 2 D 313 CHEESE CHEESE. reral districts, cheese is frequently made ' throughout the year ; but that made during the winter months is considerably inferior in qua- lity, and much longer in becoming til for sale, or for use, than that which is made within the periods which have been just mentioned. In Gloucestershire, the season of making thin cheese is from April to November; but the principal one for making thick is during the months of May, June, and the beginning of July. If made late in the summer, the cheese does not acquire a sufficient degree of firmness to be marketable in the ensuing spring. The milking in Cheshire, during the summer season is at six o'clock, both morning and evening ; and in winter, at daylight in the morning, and immediately before dark in the evening. But in other districts, as Wilts, Suf folk, &c., the people are frequently employed in milking by four o'clock in the morning in summer ; and the business in a dairy of forty or fifty cows is nearly completed before the usual period at which it commences in Che- shire. The colounng of cheese has been so long common in the cheese districts, that it is pro- bable that cheese of the best quality would be in a great measure unsaleable if it did not pos- sess the requisite colour. The degree of colour is regulated chiefly by the name under which it is intended the cheese should be sold, as Glou- cester, Cheshire, &c. The objectof the introduc- tion of this practice was no doubt to convey an idea of richness which the cheese did not really possess. This is the more evident, as it is universally allowed that the poorest cheese always requires the greatest quantity of dye to bring it to the proper degree of colour. The material which is employed for this purpose is the Spanish annotta. (See Axnotta.) The weight of a guinea and a half of it is consi- dered in Cheshire sufficient for a cheese of 60 lbs.; and in Gloucestershire an ounce is the common allowance to 1 cwt. In regard to the rennet, it maybe observed, that milk may be coagulated, or curdled, by the application of any sort of acid; but the substance which is most commonly used is the maws or stomachs of young calves prepared for the purpose. These are most generally de- nominated rennets ; but they are also often pro- vincially called veils, and in Scotland yearnings. See Renxet. In Cheshire, after the rennet is added to the milk, and as soon as the curd is firm enough to discharge its whey, the dairy woman plunges her hands to the bottom of the vessel, and, ■with a wooden dish, stirs the curd and whey; .hen lets go the dish, and by her hand agitates the whole, carefully breaking every part of the curd; and, at intervals, stirring it hard to the bottom with the dish, so that no curd remains unbroken larger than a hazel-nut. This is done to prevent what is called slip-curd, or lumps of curd, which, by retaining the whey, do not press uniformly with the other curd, but in a few days, if ii happens to be situated • towards the rind of the cheese, turns livid and jelly-like, and soon becomes faulty and rotten. In a few minutes the curd subsides. The dairy-woman then takes her dish, and lades off 314 the whey into a milk-lead to stand for cream, to be churned for whey-butter. This is a prac- tice peculiar to the cheese counties. In Nor- folk the whey, even from new milk, passes from the cheese-vessels immediately to the hog- tub. Having laded off all the whey she can, she spreads a straining cloth, and strains the whey through it, returning the curd retained in the cloth into the cheese-tub. When she has got all the whey she can by pressing the curd with her hand and the lading-dish, she takes a knife and cuts it into square pieces of a"bout two or three inches. This lets out more of the whey, and makes the curd more handy to be taken up in order to be broken into the vats. Having made choice of a vat or vats pro- portioned to the quantity of curd, so that the cheese when fully pressed shall exactly fill the vat, she spreads a cheese-cloth loosely over the mouth of the vat, into which she rebreaks the curd, carefully squeezing every part of it in her hands ; and having filled the vat heaped up, and rounded above its top, she folds over it the cloth and places it in the press, on the construction and power of which much de- pends. When the vat is properly placed in the press, the ordinary degree of pressure is applied, which is more or less, according to the sizes of the cheeses usually made. At all large dairies, there are two or three presses, all va- rying in respect to weight or pressure. There are various kinds of cheese-presses ; one made entirely of iron by the Shotts Foundry Company is described in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 52. As soon as the vat is placed in the press, and the weight applied, skewers are thrust in through the holes in the side of the vat; this is done repeatedly during the first day when the vat is in the press. From the time the vat is first placed in the press till it is" again taken out does not, in ordinary cases, exceed two or three hours. When taken out, the cheese is put into a vessel with hot whey, with a view of hardening its coat or skin, where it stands for an hour or two ; it is then removed, wiped dry, and after having remain- ed some time to cool, is covered with a clean cloth ; and the vat being wiped dry, and the cheese replaced, it is again put into the press. In the evening, supposing the cheese to have been made in the morning, which is the usual time, it is again taken out of the vat ; and an- other dry cloth being applied, it is turned and replaced ; what was formerly the upper becom- ing now the under side. In this manner it is taken out, wrapped in clean cloths, and turned in the vat twice a day for two days, when it is finally removed. The salting is the next operation. The cheese, on being for the last time taken out of the vat, is carried to the salting-house, and placed in the vat in a tub filled to a consider- able depth with brine, in Avhich it stands for several days, being regularly turned once at least every day. The vat is. then removed from the brine-tub; and the cheese being taken out, is placed on the salting-bench, where it stands for eight or ten days, salt being carefully rub- bed over the whole every day during the period. When the cheese is of a large size, it is com- CHEESE. CHEESE. monly surrounded with a wooden hoop or fillet of cloth to prevent renting. Alter it is sup- posed to be sufficiently salted, it is washed in ■warm water or whey, and when well dried with a cloth, is placed on what is called the drying- bench, where it remains a like period before it is removed to the keeping-house or cheese- chamber. The last part of the business is the manage- ment in the cheese-room. In Gloucestershire the young cheeses are turned every day, or every two or three days, according to the state of the weather, or the fancy or judgment of the dairy- woman. If the air be cold and dry, the win- dows and door are kept shut as much as may be ; if close and moist, as much fresh air as possible is admitted. Having remained about ten days in the dairy (more or less, according to the space of time between the washings), the cheeses are cleaned ; that is, washed and scraped. The produce of a dairy of cows, where the milk is converted into cheese, is very various- ly stated by different writers. In some districts 2^ cwts. from each cow, whether a good or a bad milker, if at all in milk, is considered a good return. In others, the average runs as high as 3 cwt. ; and in the county of Wilts in particular, from 3^ to 4 cwts. is the usual quantity. From accurate calculations made by Mr. Marshall, and these several times re- peated, he found that in Gloucestershire about 16 gallons of milk were requisite fur making little more than 11 lbs. of two-meal cheese, and that one gallon of new milk produced a pound of curd. It is the general opinion of dairy fanners that the produce from two and a half to three and a half acres is necessar)' to main- tain a cow all the year round. Taking, there- fore, the medium of the three averages of cheese above mentioned (amounting to 355 lbs. from each cow), the quantity of cheese by the acre is 1 18 lbs. Every calculation of this kind must, however, be extremely vague and un- certain. See Dairt. In the making of Parmesan cheese, we are informed by Mr. Price, in the Papers of the Bath and W. Engl. Society (vol. vii.), that the method is "to put, at ten o'clock in the morning, five brents and a half of milk, each brent about forty-eight quarts, into a large copper, which turns on a crane over a slow wood fire, made about two feet below the surface of the ground; the milk is stirred from time to time, and about eleven o'clock, when just lukewarm, or con- si Icrably under a blood-heat, a ball of rennet, ng as a large walnut, is squeezed through a. cluth into the milk, which is kept stirred. By the help of the crane the copper is turned from over the fire, and left till a few minutes past twelve; at which time the rennet has sufficiently operated. It is now stirred up, and left for a short time. Part of the whey is then taken out, and the copper again turned over a fire sufficiently brisk to give a strongish heat, but below that of boiling. A quarter of an ounce of saffron is now put into the milk to give it a little colour ; and it is well stirred from time to time. The dairy-man frequently feels the curd. When the small, and, as it were, granulated parts, feel rather firm, which is in about an hour and a half, the copper is taken from the fire, and the curd left to fall to the bottom. Part of the whey is taken out, and the curd brought up in a coarse cloth, hanging together in a tough state. It is then put into a hoop, and about a half hundred weight laid upon it for about an hour; after which the cloth is taken off, and the cheese placed on a shelf in the same hoop. At the end of two, or from that to three days, it is sprinkled all over with salt; the same is repeated every second day for about forty or forty-five days, after which no further attention is required. While salt- ing, they generally place two cheeses one upon another ; in which state they are said to take the salt better than singly. The country be- tween Cremona and Lodi, says Mr. Evans, comprises the richest part of the Milanese. The irrigation, too, is brought to the highest degree of perfection ; the grass is cut four times a year as fodder for the cows, from whose milk is made the well-known Parmesan cheese. The cows, which are kept in the stall nearly all the year round, are fed during summer on two of ihese crops of grass or clover, which are cut green; and in the winter on the other two, which are hayed. The milk of at least fifty cows is required for the manufacture of one Parmesan cheese. Hence, as one farm rarely affords pasture for such a number, it is usual for the farmers or metayers of a district to club together. (Quart. Joum. of Agr. vol. v. p. 622.) Cream cheese is made In various places ; but that which is generally known by the name of Stilton is made in Leicestershire, in the follow- ing manner, according to the Agriculttiral Re- port of that county : — The night's cream is put into the morning's new milk with the rennet; but when the curd is come it is not broken, as is done with other cheeses, but is taken out with a soildish altogether, and placed in a sieve to drain gradually ; and, as it drains, it is pressed, till it becomes firm and dry ; being then placed in a wooden hoop, and afterwards kept dry on boards, it is turned frequently, with cloth binders round it, which are tightened as occasion requires. Cream cheese of good quality is likewise made, in some districts, by adding the cream of one meal's milk to the milk which is immediately taken from the cow. This, after being made and pressed gently two or three times, and carefully turned for a day or two, is fit for use. • Since the late reduction of duties in England upon provisions introduced from abroad, cheese has been among the articles extensively ship- ped from the United States to that country, where the complaint against American cheese is, that it is generally insufficiently pressed, a fault which gives it, when cut, a porous or honeycomb appearance. Its flavour is also rendered unpleasant by the too free use o/ rennet. The removal of these defects would very much enhance the value of American cheese both at home and abroad. Neverthe' less, cheese of excellent qualities as to richness flavour, and other requisites, is made in the • northern portions of the Middle and Western States and throughout Nev England. Sej Dairt. 316 CHEESE. CHEESE. Pine Apple Cheese.— E. Perkins, of Herkimer county, New York, a fine dairy district, gives the following description of the mode of mak- ing those cheeses moulded in the pine-apple form. These weigh from 7 to 8 lbs., and are chiefly made in the small dairy establishments. The cheese-making process, until fit for the press, is pretty much like that usually pursued in making common cheeses. Some add a little more salt. The pressing is performed in wooden blocks, griped together, and, after this process, the cheeses are suspended in nets, till so har- dened as to stand on a trencher made for the purpose, where they remam till fit for market. This kind of cheese is chiefly made under contract. If the purchaser finds the pressers, nets, and trenchers, the price is from 7 to 7^ cents per lb. When the maker finds every thing he gets about 8 or 9 cents per lb. In the preparation of pine-apple cheese, more al- lowance is made for shrinkage than in the manufacture of common cheese. {Farmer^ s Instructor.) AU new cheeses require to be M^ell dried to fit them for the market, and when taken out of the moulds must be laid upon a shelf and turned every day for some time. This opera- tion was formerly done by hand, which proved very laborious. But contrivances have been invented by which the work can now be done very quickly and without the least exertion of strength. Some of these will be found men- tioned under the head Datky. After the cheeses have passed through the different processes, and the drying is com- pleted, they are to be deposited in the cheese or store-room. This should be dry and airy, and the hard and soft cheeses ought not to be kept in the same room. In some of the best dairy districts in the United States, it is thought best not to darken the cheese rooms, or attempt to keep out the flies, but in hot, sultry weather, the doors and windows are opened to admit the air freely. Cool dry air blowing directly upon the cheeses, is apt to crack them. These cracks are to be filled up with pepper, either black or cayenne. To mature cheese fast, the room should be kept warm in the fall and spring. We learn from the Transactions of the High- land Agricultural Society in Scotland, that the flavour of an old cheese may be communicated to a new one of whatever species, by the in- sertion of some portions of the old into the new cheese. Small pieces are to be extracted with a sample-scoop from each cheese, and those taken from the old are to be inserted into the new, and those from the new put into the old. After this interchange, the new one, if kept well excluded from the air, will, in a few weeks, become thoroughly impregnated with the mould, and have a flavour hardly to be distinguished from the old one. The cheese selected must be drj', and the blue mould sliould be free from any portion of a more de- cayed appearance. A great variety of cheeses are made in Switzerland, the most celebrated of which are (he Schabzie^er, (or sap-sago as we commonly call it.) and the Gruyere. Of the quantity of cheeses exported from Switzerland, we have me no information that can be relied upon ; hu» It is computed that 30,000 cwt. of Gruyere cheese alone, fit for exportation, is annually made; and thart, from the middle of July to October, 300 horses, weekly, are employed in transport- ing Swiss cheese over Mount Grias. (For. Rev. and Cont. Misc.) " The Schabzieger cheese is made by the moun- taineers of the canton of Glarus alone; and, in its greatest perfection, in the valley of Kloeru It is readily distinguished by its marbled ap- pearance and aromatic flavour, both produced by the bruised leaves of the melilot. The dairy is built near a stream of water; the ves- sels containing the milk are placed on gravel or stone in the dairy, and the water conducted into it in such a manner as to reach their brim. The milk is exposed to the tempera- ture of about six degrees of Reaumur (forty-six degrees of Fahrenheit), for five or six days, and in that time the cream is completely formed. After this it is drained off, the case- ous particles are separated, by the addition of some sour milk, and not by rennet. The curd thus obtained is pressed strongly in bags, on which stones are laid; when sufliciently pressed and dried, it is ground to powder in autumn, sailed, and mixed with either the pressed flowers, powdered and sifted, or the seeds of the melilot trefoil (Melilotus offidndlisy PI. 10, / ). The practice of mixing the flowers or the seeds of plants with cheese was com- mon among the Romans, who used those of the thyme for that purpose. The entire sepa- ration of the cream or unctuous portion of the milk is indispensable in the manufacture of Schabzieger. The unprepared curd never sells for more than three halfpence a pound; whereas, prepared as Schabzieger, it sells for sixpence or seven-pence. {For. Rev. and Cont Misc.) " The Gruyere cheese of Switzerland is so named after a valley, where the best of that kind is made. Its merit depends chiefly on the herb- age of the mountain pastures, and partly on the custom of mixing the flowers of bruised seeds of MeUlotus offidndlis with the curd, before it is pressed. The mountain pastures are rented at so much per cow's feed from the 15th of May to the 18th of October; and the cows are hired from the peasants, at so much, for the same period. On the precise day both land and cows return to their owners. It is estimated that 15,000 cows are so grazed, and 30,000 cwt. of cheese made fit for exportation, besides what is reserved for home use. " Ewe-milk cheese of Suritzerhmd. One measure of ewe's milk is added to three measures of cow's milk ; little rennet is used, and no acid. The best Swiss cheese of this kind is made by the Bergamese sheep-masters, on Mount Splu- gen." (For. Rev. and Cont. Misc.) Sage Cheese, an humble imitation of the Swiss green cheese much relished in some parts of the United States. " To make this cheese, take the tops of young red sage, and having pressed the juice from them by beating in a mortar, do the same with the leaves of spinach, and then mix the two juices together. After put- ting the rennet to the milk, pour in some of this juice, regulating the quantity by the degree of CHEESE CLOTHS. CHEESE-PRESS. colour and taste it is intended to give the cheese. As the curd appears, break it gently, and in an equal manner, then emptying it into the cheese vat, let it be a little pressed, in order to make it eat mellow. Having stood for about seven hours, salt and turn it daily for four or five weeks, then it will be fit for the table. The spinach besides improving the flavour, and correcting the bitterness of the sage, will give it a much more pleasing colour than can be obtained from sage alone." Cream Cheese. — Excellent cream cheeses are supplied to the Philadelphia market by the Leighbouring Pennsylvania farmers. They are round, generally from six to ten inches in diameter, and about one inch thick. The mode of preparing cream cheese is as follows. Ex- pose cream to the air and it will be found to grow thick gradually, so that in three or four days the vessel containing it may be turned upside down without loss. In eight or ten days more, its surface will become coated over with a kind of mucus and a woolly moss or byssi. After this, it no longerretains the flavour of cream, but of a very fat cheese. This rich dainty differs from butter in containing both curd, and scrum or whey, together with the oily matter; whereas in butter the oil is ob- tained separate from the whey and curd or cheesy matter. Another mode of making cream cheese is the follcfu'ing, given by the late Judge Cooper, whose endorsement makes it worthy of the highest credit. "Take of the top or surface cream that has been collected for three or four days in the creara-croak so as to be slightly acid, one pint: on each of two common plates lay a dry napkin four-doubled : put half a pint of cream on each napkin. Next day have ready another plate covered with a folded wet napkin, turn the two cheeses one on lop of the other upon the wet napkin, cover them over with the ends of this wet napkin, and change it every day for a week till the cheese is ripe. It must not be done in a cellar or damp place, but in a room, otherwise it will mould." In Lincolnshire, England, as well as in the neighbourhoods of Bath and York, rich and excellent cream cheeses are made. These, like all such kind of soft and rich cheeses, are used when but a few days old, to be eaten with radishes, salad, &c. For the mode of preparing the celebrated Stilton cream cheese see p. 315. There are papers, by Mr. P. Miller, "On making cheese resembling that of Gloucester and Wiltshire" (Trans. High. Soc. vol. iii. p. 228); and "In Imitation of Double Glouces- ter," by Mr. Bell (Ibid. vol. i. p. 155); and " On communicating the Flavour of old to new Cheese by Inoculation," by Mr. Robinson (Ibid. p. 232). "On making Cheese from Potatoes in Thuringia." {Farmer's Mag. vol. viii. p. 14^.) CHEESE CLOTHS are large towels to put inside the chessel or vat, while the cheese is pressing. They are of home manufacture, and should be of strong and open texture : every time they are used for this purpose, they should be wrung out of boiling water, and dried in the sun, or before the fire. I CHEESE COLOURING. See Anno rr^. CHEESE-FLY and MAGGOT (Piophila co- sei). The small white larvae found in old I and putrescent cheese, produce a small twcr ! winged fly, about two lines in length, which has a greenish-black, smooth, and shining j body. It is fully described in the Quart. Jmnu I of Jgr. vol. xii. p. 125. Dr. Harris describes the cheese-maggots found in Massachusetts as the young of a fly (Piophila casei) not more than three-twentieths of an inch long, of a shining black colour, with the middle and hinder legs mostly yellowish, and the wings tranapsrent like glass. See his Report, &c. CHEESE-KNIFE. A large sort of knife, or spatula, made use of in dairies for the pur- pose of cutting or breaking down the curd whilst in the cheese-tub. CHEESE-LEP. The bag in which dairy- women keep the rennet for making cheese. CHEESE-MITES. This is the Jcarus siro, an almost microscopic apterous insect, fur- nished with eight legs, on the four first of which, between two claws, is a vesicle with a long neck, to which the insect can give every kind of inflexion. "When it sets its foot down, it inlarges and inflates ; and when it lifts it up, it contracts it, so that the vesicle almost entirely disappears." (De Geer, quoted by Kirby, vol. xxxiv. p. 331.) It is not pos- sible to say how thi^ insect gets into cheeses. The brown powder, so valued by epicures, in which the mites live, is their excrement. CHEESE-PRESS. A press employed in cheese dairies, to force the whey from the cunl when in the cheese vat. Cheese presses are of different forms. The most simple and primitive press is merely a long beam, one end of which is placed in a hole of the wall, and frequently it is fixed to a bolt, or in the trunk of a tree. The sinker forms the fulcrum, a weight consisting of two or three undressed stones being placed on the other end of the lever. A second kind is formed by a large square stone, suspended by a screw be- tween the side posts of a timber frame. The chessel is placed underneath it, and the stone is lowered upon the sinkej by turning the screw to the left hand. The cneese vat is re- moved at pleasure by turning the screw to the right hand, which elevates the stone. To pre- serve the screw, a small block of timber is placed underneath the stone during the period that cheese-making is suspended. Another kind of press consists of a timber frame formed of two perpendicular side posts and a cross top with a parallel beam, which is suspended from the top by two screws. The cheese vat is placed upon the beam, which is lifted up when the screws are turned to the right hand; and the sinker of the chessel or vat being pressed against the cross top, squeezes or stanes the cheese. When the chessel re- quires to be removed, the screws are turned to the left hand. But more complicated presses, and therefore in many instances more convenient, can be adopted. The most complete, effective, and approved press consists of a frame of cast iron with a perpendicular piston, flat below to cover 2d 2 317 CHEESE RENNET. CHEMISTRY. She sinker of the chessel. The piston is raised cr depressed by a small pinion attached to a ratchet wheel and malleable iron lever, three feet in length. The lever is grooved in seve- ral places on the upper side to hold the ring of the weight for increasing or diminishing the power, in proportion to its distance from the ratchet wheel. The weight of this press is about two stone, cost II. 4s. pressure 20 tons. (Martin Doyle's Prad. Husb. ; Prof. Lowe's £/-7W. ofJgr.) See Daiht. CHEESE RENNET, or YELLOW BED- STRAW (^Galium verum), is a perennial plant, common in waste places and the borders of fields, flowering in July and August. The stem, which is woody and much branclied, rises eighteen inches, and sends off, in the same plane, narrow, deep green, deflexed leaves, rough with minute points, each tipped with a hair. The flowers are golden yellow, in dense tufted panicles, and smell strongly of honey in the evening and before rain. The flowers of this weed were formerly used in Cheshire for curdling milk. (Paxtoii's Bot. Diet.; Sviith's Eng. Flor. vol. i. p. 208.) ^ CHELIDONIUM. From chekdon, a swallow; it being said to flower at the arrival and wither at the departure of the swallows. See Celait- BINE. CHELONE (Chelone barbata. From cheIo7ic, a tortoise ; to the back of which the helmet of che flowers is fancifully compared). Known in Pennsylvania and other Middle States by the names of Shell-flower, and Snake-head. This plant is a native of North America, and a hardy perennial ; blowing beautiful red flowers in July and August. It loves shade and mois- ture, and grows three feet high. The white chelone is hardy, and likes any soil. The downy chelone blows a flower which is yellow inside, and light purple outside. It is propa- gated by seed, and by separating the roots in autumn. It belongs to a hardy herbaceous genus, that ought to have a place in every col- lection : the species succeed well in a mixture of peat and loam. (Paxtoji's Bot. Did.) CHEMISTRY. The importance of this science to the agriculturist no intelligent mo- dern farmer will doubt. Its triumphs in the cause of the cultivator have been far too many for him to hesitate in acknowledging the obli- gation. I have, in this work, under the heads Earths, Axaltsis oj Soils, Gases, Wateh, Salts, Orga:«ic CHEMisTnT,&c., endeavoured, to the best of my power, to illustrate some of the many chemical facts on which the success- ful practice of agriculture depends; and to these I must refer the farmer. Most of the substances belonging to our globe, says Davy, (Chem. Philosophy, p. 1), are constantly under- going alterations in sensible qualities, and one variety of matter becomes^ as it were, trans- muted into another. Such changes, whether natural or artificial, whether slowly or rapidly performed, are called chemical ; thus, the gra- dual and almost imperceptible decay of the leaves and branches of a fallen tree exposed to the atmosphere, and the rapid combustion of wood in our fires, are both chemical operations. The object of chem.cal philosophy is to ascer- tain the causes of all phenomena of this kind, 318 and to discover the laws by which they are governed. The ends of this branch of know- ledge are the applications of natural substances to new uses, for increasing the comforts and enjoyments of man ; and the demonstration of the order, harmony, and intelligent design of the system of the earth. The foundations of chemical philosophy are observation, experi- ment, and analogy. By observation, facts are distinctly and minutely impressed on the mind. By analogy, similar facts are collected. By experiment, new facts are discovered; and, in the progression of knowledge, observation, guided by analogy, leads to experiment ; and analogy, confirmed by experiment, becomes scientific truth. To give an instance, — who- ever will consider with attention the slender green vegetable filaments (^Confei-va nvularis) which in the summer exist in almost all streams, lakes, or pools, under the diff'erent circumstances of shade and sunshine, will dis- cover globules of air upon the filaments ex- posed under water to the sun, but no air on the filaments that are shaded. He will find that the efiect is owing to the presence of light. This is an observation; but it gives no informa- tion respecting the nature of the air. Let a wine-glass filled with water be inverted over the conferva thus acted upon by the light. The air-bubbles, as they rise, will collect in the upper part of the glass ; and, when the glass is filled with air, it may be closed with the hand, placed in its usual position, and an inflamed taper introduced into it: the taper will burn with more brilliancy than in the atmosphere. This is an experiment. If the phenomena are reasoned upon, and the question is put, whether all vegetables of this kind, in fresh or in salt water, do not produce such air under like cir- cumstances, the inquirer is guided by analogy; and, when this is determined to be the case by new trials, a general scientific truth is esta- blished, — that all confervas in the sunshine produce a species of air (oxygen gas) which supports flame in a superior degree ; a fact which has been shown to be the case by vari- ous minute investigations. By such researches the chemist ascertains the composition and uses of the various other gases, and also of the earths, metals, and salts, ol which the materials of the earth we inhabit are composed; delightful inquiries, which will well repay the cultivator in more ways than one for the labour he may bestow upon them. They will speedily teach him that nothing in this world of ours is ever lost or destroyed ; that the decaying materials of his most noisome ma- nures speedily again make their appearance in new forms, and in salubrious and fragrant plants ; that the expired breath of himself and his live-stock is the inhaled food of all vegeta- tion ; and that vegetables purify the very air which animals have vitiated. And again, the correct rotation of crops, the use of permanent or earthy additions to the soil, (which see), the fattening of live-stock, the origin of disea-^-es, are a few only of the facts connected with the cultivation of the soil which the chemist's operations illustrate. "The nature of soils" (as it is remarked by Mr. G. W. Johnson), "of manures, of the food and functions of plants, CHEMISTRY. woTilf! all be unknown but from the analyses which chemists have made." We know that every plant has a particular temperature in which it tlirives best, a particular modification of food, a particular degree of moisture, a par- ticular intensity of light ; and those particulari- ties vary at different periods of their growth. It is certain that plants are subject, like all other organized bodies, to various influences. Acids are injurious to some, alkalies to others; the excess of some of their constituents, and the deficiency of others, insure disease to the plants to which such irregularities occur. Dis- ease is accompanied by decay more or less extensive and rapid; and if these cannot be checked by salutary applications and treat- ment, death ultimately ensues. Now, if it was possible for any science or sciences to teach the cultivator of plants how to provide for them all the favourable contingencies, all the appropriate necessaries above alluded to, and to protect them from all those which are noxious to them, the art of cultivation would be far advanced to perfection. Such sciences are botany and chemistry. It is not asserted that they can, at present, do all that is desired of them, — all of which they are capable ; but they can do much. As evidence of what can be effected by a combination pf chemical and practical knowledge in the cultivation of the soil, we may quote the example of Lavoisier. He cultivated 240 acres in La Vendee, actuated by the beneficent desire of demonstrating to his countrymen the importance of sustaining the art of cultivation on scientific principles. In nine years his produce was doubled, and his crops afforded one-third more than those of or- dinary cultivators. It is unnecessar}' to dwell upon the importance of such improvements. Science can never supersede the use of the dunghill, the plough, the spade, and the hoe; but it can be one of their best guides, — it can be a pilot even to the most experienced. (Bax- ter's Lib, of Jlp-,; Gard. Mae. vols. iii. and iv. ; Davy's Chem. Phil. : Leibig's Organic Chemistry.) So many important facts bearing upon agri- cultural subjects have been discovered of late years through chemical experiments and re- searches, as to render it imperative upon every well-instructed farmer to make himself ac- quainted with them. It has long been known to common observers, that certain crops will grow in some situations and not in others, and that after having flourished in a place for a considerable period, crops will decline in quality and quantity, and finally cease to com- pensate for the expenses of seed and tillage. That certain kinds of manure are most benefi- cial to some soils and plants, whilst another produces the best effects upon others. But the causes operating in the production of such effects have not been understood, and hence, great waste of means and labour have resulted in experiments often useless, for want of that chemical knowledge through which the precise defects of the soil could be detected and the deficiencies directly supplied. Agricultural chemistry points out the re- «pective elements entering into the formation of plants, and even those required at each stage of ihc'r growth from germination to the perfec- CHERRY TREE. tion of the seed or fruit. It shows which of I these elements are absorbed from the gases of I the atmosphere, and what saline and other materials are furnished by the soil. The seed itself, like the egg, contains the first supply of j nourishment for the roots of the infant germ I of the plant. To assist its first growth before I it rises above ground, the humus of the soil ■ supplies carbonic acid, and the looser the soil j the more of this essential food for the young I plant can be retained. When it rises above the surface, and its stems and leaves are fully I developed, its main, and, according to Liebig ' and others, — its entire dependence for nourish- ! ment, is upon the atmosphere. Chemistry points out the different gases which plants ab- sorb from the atmosphere or the soil in the progress of their growth. It also shows that plants have other constituents, such as potash, soda, lime, magnesia, &c., without which, in due quantities, they cannot come to perfection. The proportions of these, though often very minute, are all important. The chemical pro- cesses described for analyzing soils, will show what elements for the growth of plants are present and what are wanting. Knowing this, the object of the skilful farmer will be to sup- ply the deficiencies, in a way the most accept- able to plants. Some crops may be repeated on the same soil more frequently than others, be- cause some consume more of the alkalies than others. One hundred parts of the stalks of wheat yield 15-5 parts of ashes. The same quantity of barley, 8-54 parts ; and of oats, only 4-42 parts Thus, as the demands of each of these plant." for the alkaline elements of their growth it different, one may be raised on ground which has ceased to prodnce the others; and this is what is daily witnessed, — land, refusing to yield wheat, and yet affording good crops of barley and oats ; — and when ceasing to yield compensating crops of wheat and barley, sliU affording excellent crops of oats, the proportion of alkali required by which is so comparatively small compared with the dc-mands of the wheat-crop. How readily, *hea, may a good soil for oats be rendered productive in wheat by the simple addition of so«ne alkaline dress- ing, all the other requisites of fertility having been before present. Cliemistry teaches that the salts and other organic constituents re- moved from soils ir the crops, is returned in the dung of animuls fed upon such crops. It teaches the precisr, proportions of these, and explains the wclKknovvn facts, — that the ex- crements of some animals, such as man, are more fertiliziuj^ than those of others ; that those of men living upon animal food are stronger than those of men confined to vegetable food. All these matters may be found explained under the different heads of Aniynal Manures^ Ammnniay Nitrogen, &c. Men of science en- gaged in these useful subjects of investigation, are every day unfolding new and important facts, and what at one time was regarded as inscrutable mystery becomes so well under stood as to be comprehended by a child. CHERRY TREE {Prtmus Cerasus). It de- rives its name from Cerasus, a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by Lucullus, about half a century before the Christian era. 319 CHERRY, WILD. CHERRY-IAUREL. It soon after spread into most parts of Europe, and is supposed to have been carried to Bri- tain about a century after it came to Rome. The cherry is pretty generally cultivated throughout the kingdom, as an agreeable summer fruit. The varieties are very nume- rous. The Horticultural Society's Catalogue embraces 246 ; but the following list is recom- mended by Ma we, as containing the best varie- ties for general cultivation, the whole being arranged in the order in which they ripen in England: — June: Early May, May Duke, Knight's Early Black, and Late Duke. July : Archduke, Black Tartarian, White Tartarian, Black Eagle, Kentish, Bigarreau, Holmon's Duke, Elton, Herefordshire Heart, Bleeding Heart, Carnation, and Waterloo, jlugiist : Har- rison's Heart, Black Heart, Waterloo, Cou- ronne, Lukeward, Black Geen, Small Black, Small Red Wild, White Swiss, Lundie Geen, Transparent Geen, Cluster, Yellow Spanish. September: Florence, Amber Heart, Flemish Heart, Red Heart, White Heart. October: Morello or Milan. For small gardens, either as wall trees, espaliers, or standards, the fol- lowing varieties are recommended : — The May Duke, Morello, Archduke, Black Heart, White Heart, Bigarreau, Harrison's Heart, and Ken- tish Cherries. Miller considers the common Red or Kentish, the Duke, and the Lukeward as the best trees for an orchard; they are plen- tiful bearers. This tree prefers a light dry sandy loam, with a free exposure. The wood of the cherry trep is close, takes a fine polish, and is not liable to split. It is used in the manufacture of chairs, musical instruments &c., and stained to imitate mahogany. The following varieties have been tried and fa- vourably reported upon by good authorifies in Pennsylvania. In the Heart and Bigarreau class — Kjirly Purple Guigne, Knight's Early Bl.ick, Black E;igle, Downton, Ohio Beauty, Bigarreau De Mezel, Kirtland's Mary, Down- er's Late, Elkhorn, and Yellow Spanish. Coe's Transparent, Champagne, Belle d'Orleans, Elton, Napoleon, and Governor Wood, are of superior quality and productiveness. Among Morello's arc t!ie Reine llortcnse, Carnation, ftnd Large English. True Kentish, and Late Kentish. Rumsey's Moiello is a large fruit, and late and protracted bearer. CHERRY, WILD. Several kinds of wild cherry are found in the United States, and Mi- chaux describes the following species. Red Cherry Tree (Ccrasus boreulis). Red cherry. Small cherry; common only in the Northern States, (including the highlands in the northern parts of Pennsylvania), in Canada, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia. The tree at- tains a height of twenty.five or thirty feet, with a diameter of five or six inches. Flowers are collected in small white bunches, and the fruit, which is of a bright red colour, considerable size, and intensely acid taste, ripens in the month of July. The wood is fine grained and of a redish hue, but its inferior size limits its use in the mechanical arts. This species of cherry tree offers the same remarkable pecu- liarity with the canoe birch of reproducing itself, as it were, spontaneously in cleared grounds, and in such forests as have been 32U burnt, which is observable in spots where fire has been kindled by travellers. Of all the na- tive species'of North America, Michaux thinks the red cherry tree bears the greatest analogy to the cultivated cherry tree of Europe, ajid hence the most proper for receiving grafts, though it has been found difficult to make the grafts succeed. Wild Cherry (Cerasus Virginiana). This is one of the largest productions of the American forests. Its wood is of an excellent quality and elegant appearance, and is usefully em- ployed in the arts. In Maine, where the winter is long and intense, it hardly exceeds thirty or forty feet in height, and eight to twelve inches in diameter; in the southern and mari- time parts of the Carolinas and of Georgia, where the soil is arid and sandy, it is rarely seen, and even when found on the banks of rivers its growth is stinted. A milder climate and more fertile soil favour its growth, and it abounds in Virginia, Pennsylvania, and all the Atlantic States, and also in Western New York, and Illinois, uniting with the overcup white oak, black walnut, honey locust, red elm, and coffee tree of the forests covering the fertile regions of the West. On the banks of the Ohio Michaux measured trees twelve to sixteen feet in circumference, and from eighty to one hun- dred feet in height, with undivided trunks of uniform size to the height of twenty-five or thirty feet. The flowers of the wild cherry are white and collected in spikes. The fruit is about the size of a pea and nearly black, at maturity, soon after which, notwithstanding its abundance and bitterness, it is devoured by birds. It is employed either alone or mixed with cultivated cherries, — generally the morillos or mazzards — in making a domestic cordial called cherry bounce, which consists of an infusion of the cherries in rum or brandy with a certain quan- tity of sugar. It is a faint imitation of the Kirschenvasser of the Germans, and Murasquin of the Venetians, both of which liqueurs or cor- dials are prepared by distillation, from wild cherries found in the north and south of Europe. The wood of this tree is highly valuable, being compact, fine-grained and brilliant, and not liable to warp when perfectly seasoned- When chosen near the ramification of the trunk it rivals mahogany in the beauty of its curls. The bark of the wild cherry tree in- fused in cold water and drank to the extent o.f half a pint or a pint a day is a popular and useful tonic. Wild Orange Tree (Cerasus Caroliniano.). This beautiful species of cherry tree is found in the Bahama Islands, to which, with the islands on. the coast of the Carolinas, Georgia, and Flo- rida it appears to be nearly confined. The fruit is small, oval, and nearly black, tho greenish pulp which covers the soft stone not being eatable. The wild orange, as it is there called, is one of the most beautiful productions of the Southern States on the sea-board, where it is a favourite ornamental and shade tree. The flowers are more frequented by bees thaa those of any other southern tree. CHERRY TREE BORER. See Borkbs. CHERRY-LAUREL (.Cerasus lauro-cerasm). CHERRY TREE WEEVIL. CHESTNUT. This shrub is an exotic, although it is new naturalized to this climate, and was brought to Europe from Trebisonde, in 1576. It is an evergreen, with smooth bark, and short-stalked, oblong, lanceolate, remotely serrated, coriace- ous, shining leaves, with two or four glands at their base. The flower is white, with round spreading petals, and the fruit a small, black drupe or cherry. The leaves of the cherry- laurel have long been employed both in medi- cine and in confectionary, on account of the agreeable odour and flavour of the bitter almond which they possess. They lose their odour after they are dried, but retain their flavour. CHERRY TREE WEEVIL. See Plum Tbkk Wkevil and Curculio. CHERVIL, GARDEN (Chcerophyllum sati- vum). This herb grows in gardens, and sometimes wild in waste ground ; perhaps the outcast of gardens. The flowers are white, and bitter-tasted; the seeds are smooth, fur- rowed, and large ; altogether the plant resem- bles parsley, only the leaves are paler and more divided. The roots are given in decoc- tion. Chervil is slightly diuretic ; the cutters of simples distil a water from its leaves, which they consider excellent in colics. It is much nsed in France for salads ; and is mentioned as a potherb by Gerarde. The parsley-leaved chervil (Scandix cerifolhim) and fern-leaved chervil (S. odorata), are still cultivated by the Dutch for soups, salads, &c.; but in this coun- try they are not often found in the kitchen gar- den. Seed may be said to be the only means of propagation, and the only sowing of this that can be depended upon must be performed in early autumn, immediately after it is ripe ; for if kept until the following spring, it will seldom germinate ; or if this first grade of vegetation takes place, the seedlings are gene- rally weak, and die away during the hot weather. The seed may be sown in drills eight inches apart, or broadcast ; in either mode being only just covered. The plants are to be thin- ned to eight inches asunder, and to remain where they are raised. The only after-culti- vation required by them is the keeping them clear of weeds. CHESSEL. The mould or vat in which the cheese is formed. It is made of thick staves, generally of white or American oak, bound with two strong iron hoops to withstand the necessary pressure. The chessel is perforated with many small holes in the bottom and sides to let the whey drain out of the curd. CHEST. The breast; or that part of an animal's body which contains the heart and the lungs. CHEST-FOUNDER. In farriery, a disease incident to horses, which proceeds from in- flammation about the chest and ribs. CHESTNUT, or CHESNUT (Fagtis-casta- nea). The species cultivated in England are the common or sweet chestnut, of which there are two kinds, the Spanish (Cas. vescu) and the American (Ca^. Americana) ; — and the horse chestnut, which belongs to a distinct genus. The true chestnut tree flourishes on poor gra- velly or sandy soils, and will thrive in any but 41 moist or marshy situations. It has been much questioned whether the chestnut is indigenous or exotic. It was at one time very common iii England, and a great many chestnuts ha7« been planted within the last thirty years. It is long-lived, grows to an immense size, and is very ornamental. The wood is hard and com- pact; when young, it is tough and flexible; but when old it is brittle and often shaky. When divested of its sap wood, this timber will stand in situations exposed to wet and dry longer than oak ; and for gate-posts it ranks in durability next after the acacia, the yew, and probably it lasts longer than the larch. The nuts form an article for our dessert In some parts of the continent they are frequently used as a substitute for bread, and form a large pro- portion of the food of the inhabitants. In Eng- land, during the three years ending^with 1831, the entries of foreign chestnuts for home con- sumption averaged 20,948 bushels a year, and they pay a duty of 2s. per bushel. The fruit is used either boiled, roasted, or in a raw state. Phillips informs us that iu the south of France, in Italy, and Savoy, they are made into puddings, cakes, and bread. And "chestnuts stewed with cream make a much admired dish ; they make excellent soup ; and stewed and served with salt fish they are much admired." We are also further informed that there is now at Fortsworth, in Gloucestershire, a great chestnut tree, fifty-two feet round, which in 1150 was so remarkable that it was called The gieat chestnut of Fortncorth. And Marsham states that this tree is 1100 years old. Lastly, the timber of this tree is almost incor- ruptible, and more durable than oak. Its dura- bility is commensurate with the long life of the tree. Corsica, it is said, exports annually of this fruit to the amount of 100,000 crowns. The American chestnut difiers very little from that of Europe. The fruit is smaller, but equally good. Its growth is very rapid. The bark for tanning is superior to oak. The chestnut is raised from the seeds, planted in autumn ; the second year, they are transplanted, and fine varieties are extended by grafting. A sandy or gravelly loam, with a dry subsoil, best suits them. The Spanish or Portuguese chestnut suc- ceeds well in the United States, and produces fruit in about seven years from the seed. Its growth is more rapid than that of the native kind. The fruit is more than four times lai*ger, and brings a much higher price in the market. It may be budded on the common chestnut, but is apt to overgrow the stock. The large Spa- nish chestnut deserves to be extensively propa- gated. Michaux, in his Noi-th American Sylvay vol iii., gives the following directions for the cul- ture of the chestnut : " After the ground has been carefully loos ened with the plough and harrow, lines are drawn six feet apart, in which holes abctt. a foot in depth and diameter are formed, at the distances of four feet. A chestnut is placed in each corner of the hole, and covered with about three inches of earth. As the soil has been thoroughly subdued, the nuts will spring and strike root with facility. Early in the second 321 CHESTNUT, HOUSE. CHICK PEA. year, three of the young plants are removed from each hole, and only the most thriving is left. 'J'he third or fourth year, when the branches begin to interfere with each other, every second tree is suppressed. To insure its success, the plantation should be begun in March or April, with nuts that have been kept in the cellar during the winter, in sand or ve- getable mould, and that have already began to germinate." Mr. Hopkins of Cayuga county, made some experiments in planting chestnuts. In his first attempt, he kept the nuts till the setting in of winter, or December, when he planted them four feet apart every way, and not one of them grew. The next year he procured a quantity of nuts as soon as gathered, planted them im- mediately, and covered them superficially with leaves andlight earth, at the same distance as before. Most of them came up and grew well. There can be no doubt, where the ground is so situated as to be free from the attacks of squirrels, mice, &c., that immediate planting after the nuts are gathered is the best mode, otherwise the plan of Michaux may be pre- ferred. The best soil is a clay loam. (Tred- golcTs Prinap. of Carpentry ; M'Cullock's Com. Did. ; WilUch's Darn. Ency. ; Phillip's Hist, of Fruits, p. 84.) CHESTNUT, HORSE {JEsculus hippocasta- nwni). This ornamental tree, now so common throughout Europe, is a native of Asia. The first plant is said to have been brought into Europe by the celebrated botanist Clusius in a Sortmanteau. It is too well known to require escription. The wood is soft and of little value. The fruit contains much nutritive mat- ter, but it is combined with a nauseous bitter extractive, which renders it unfit for the food of man ; but horses, kine, goats, and sheep are fond of it. The bark of the tree contains an astringent, bitter principle, which operates as a tonic. It has cured agues, and some au- thors affirm that it might be a substitute for the Peruvian bark ; but trials and experience have not justified their opinion. Given in a decoction, made with an ounce of the bark to a pint of water, it may be advantageously taken, to strengthen the habit weakened by previous disease. See Buckeye. CHEVIOT SHEEP. See Sheep. CHEWING-BALL. In farriery, the name of a medicine in the form of balls adapted to restore lost appetite in horses. CHEWING THE CUD. The operation of leisurely re-chewing or masticating the food in ruminating animals, as the cow, sheep, &c. : by this means the food is more effectually broken down, and mixed with the saliva. If a ruminant animal ceases to chew the cud, im- mediate illness may be expected, as the diges- tive organs cannot act without this natural prccess. See an excellent article " On Rumi- nation, or Chewing the Cud," in the Quart. Journ. of Jgr., Y>. 3i4. Rumination, in certain graminiverous animals, has plainly for one object a renewed and repeated introduction of dxygen, for a more minute mechanical division of the food only shortens the time required for solution. (Liibig's .Animal Chemistry.) CHICCORY, or SUCCORY {Cichorium inty- 323 bus). An English perennial weed, the wild endive, common on the borders of corn-fields and poor gravelly soils ; extensively cultivated in Belgium, Holland, and Germany. The cul- tivated variety was much brought into notice by the late Arthur Young, as a forage plant. He brought the seed from France in 1788, and grew it extensively on his own farm ; and re- ports {Annuls of Agr. xxxix.), "The quantity of seed required to sow one acre is 13 lbs. The root runs deep into the ground, and is white, fleshy, and yields a milky juice. On the Continent, the dried root is roasted and used instead of coffee, and it is now allowed by the excise to be mixed with coffee. The root contains a strong bitter, which may be extracted by infusion ; it is also used in the brewing of beer to save hops." Mr. Gorrie (Quart. Journ. of Jgr. N. S. vol. iv. p. 206) says, "No plant cultivated in this country will bring the cow-feeder nearly an equal return with the chiccory." It should be added, how- ever, that the leaves give a bad taste to the milk of the cows which eat them. (Lrit. Hush. vol. iii. art. " Flem. Husb." p. 42.) And Von Thiier, in his Principles of Agriculture (2d ed. vol. iv. p. 322), asserts that it is extremely dif- ficult to eradicate from the land, and has been found to materially impoverish the soil. Wild succory, or chiccory is becoming ex- tensively naturalized in many parts of the United States. The species called Endive^ (C. endiva), especially the variety called Crispa with very narrow and ragged leaves, is much cultivated in the vicinity of Philadelphia as an early salad. There are no native species of chiccory in the United States. (Flor. Cest.) When cultivated for soiling or feeding horses and cattle in the farm-yard, for which purpose it is admirably adapted, its rapid and luxuriant growth admits of its being cut three or four times a year. When the roots are used as a substitute for coffee, they should be first cleaned, then put into an oven after the bread has been taken out, and allowed to remain until cool. Should once baking be not sufficient, the process is to be repeated, after which, mix with one-half of coffee. The fresh root of chiccory, when sliced and pressed, yields a juice which is slightly tonic ; and has been used in chronic affections of the stomach, connected with torpid liver. See Endive. (Sinclair's Hort. Gram. Wob. p. 412 ; M'Culloch's Com. Did.; Willich's Dom.Encyc.; Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 303.) CHICK, or CHICKEN. See Poultry. CHICK PEA (Cicer arietinum). PI. 7, L A plant too delicate for field culture in Eng- land ; but in the south of France it is grown for the same purpose as vetches in England. The seeds are used in Germany and some other parts of Europe as a substitute for coffee, and the plant is sometimes called the coffee-pea. It is called by the Spaniards, who cultivate it largely, Garbama. It is likewise a great fa- vourite with the French, who call it Poischiche. It grows well in several of the Middle States, where it might doubtless be made a valuable crop, as it maintains a high price in European markets. CHICKWEED. CHINCAPIN. In every part of America and the West In- [ dian islands settled by Spaniards, they have always made the culture of the garbanza a ! primary object, and it is somewhat singular , that it has not become better known and ap- preciated in the United States, in most parts of which it grows well. Trials made with it in the vicinitv of Dover, Delaware, have proved very successful. The Spanish pea or garbanza, is perhaps the most delicious vegetable of its class ever placed upon the table, possessing, when served up in the manner of green peasi the flavour of these, mixed with that of gree . corn, or, as others think, something between the marrow fat pea and Lima bean. They do not yield so abundantly as the common pea, but both in a green and dry state are much su- perior in flavour and richness. A meal made of the dried garbanzas is much used in Paris and other parts of Europe for thickening soup, which it renders extremely fine. In Provence and other parts of southern Europe, the chick pea is a great favourite when roasted or parched, lilce ground or pea nuts, and hawked about the streets. In Paris, the dried garbanzas retail for about twenty-four cents per pound. They grow best in a rich sandy loam, and may be cultivated in rows, much after the manner of the common pea. Not being a trailing vine, they require no sticking, the plants growing only about eighteen or twenty inches high, and branching out so as very much to resemble a small locust tree or bunch of rue. The pods are very short and round, containing only two, three, or four peas each, somewhat larger than common pulse. Being very tender, they will not, perhaps, bear to be planted at the same lime with common peas. In Spain, where the i hick pea is very abundant and in general use, iwo kinds are distinguished by the names of garbanzos and garbanzas, the last being the largest, most delicate, and tender. Those raised in Spain are considered superior to such as are the product of the south of France. The pellicle which covers them seems to be almost entirely removed by the process of cooking. After being dried they require soaking in cold water during the night previous to the day they are used. They do not seem to be the prey of any insect, and will keep sound and sweet for years. It is the gram of India. (^Pax- toiC$ Bot. Did.; Law's Jgr. p. 286.) CHICKWEED. A low, creeping weed, of which there are several varieties. The com- mon chickweed, or stitch-wort (Stellaria media), has an annual, small, tapering root ; flowering from March to December. Small birds and poultry eat the seeds, and whole herb; whence its name. Swine are extremely fond of it ; and it is eaten by cows and horses ; but is not re- lished by sheep, and is refused by goats. The herb may be boiled for the table like spinach : it is reported to be nutritive. This foreigner is extensively naturalized in the United States. It is a hardy little plant, and when the winters are mild in the Middle States, may be found in flower in every month of the year. (Flor. Ces- triea.) The field chickweed (Cerastium arvense) is a perennial, from four inches to a foot in length, found in fields and on banks and hil- locks, on a gravelly or chalky soil. In this order there are seven other species of mouse- ear chickweed, viz., two kinds of broad-leaved (C vulgatum and C. latifolium) ; the narrow- leaved (C. viscossum) ; the little mouse-ear (C semi-dec andum) ; the four-cleft (C. tetraiidum) ; the alpine (C. alpimivi) ; and the water (C. aqtuiticum). These call for no observation. The berry-bearing sort, which grows with smooth erect stalks, and the stamens longer than the petals, is the wild lychnis, or white behen, and is a very rambling weed, natural to .lost parts of England, frequently called spat- iling-poppy. Its roots are perennial, and strike so deep into the earth that they are not easily destroyed by the plough ; for which reason, bunches of this plant are too common a'.nong corn, in land which has not been perfectly well tilled. Summer-fallowing, and carefully har- rowing out the roots, which should then be burnt, is the best and most effectual remedy. The common chickweed grows in almost every situation, in damp or even boggy woods, and on the driest gravel-walks in gardens. In its wild state, this plant frequently exceeds half a yard in height; and varies so much from the garden chickweed, that if a person were acquainted only with the latter, he would with difficulty recognise it in the woods. Its small white flowers, and pale green leaves spreading in all directions, sufficiently point it out to our notice. It may be considered as a natural barometer; for if the flowers are closed, it is a certain sign of rain, while, during dry weather, they are regularly open from nine o'clock in the morning till noon. The plant boiled in vinegar and salt is said to cleanse breakings- •ut or eruptions of the hands and legs. {Smith** Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 301 ; Sinclair's Weeds, p. 52; WillicKs Dwn. Ennfc.) CHILIAN CLOVER. This plant, which is called Spanish clover, and in South America, Alfalfa, is identical with luzerne. Two com- munications upon the subject, by a person who had spent some time in Chili, may be found in the 14th volume of the American Farmer, pages 108 and 153. CHINCAPIN, or CHINQUEPIN {Castanea pumila). The limits of this American tree, which bears a very small kind of round and pointed chestnut, is bounded northward by the river Delaware, on which it is found to the distance of nearly 100 miles from Cape May. It is very common in Delaware and Maryland, still more so in the lower part of Virginia and other southern and Southwestern States both east and west of the Mississippi. It abounds most where the common chestnut is wanting. Though in its northern limits, this dwarf chestnut seldom rises higher than from six to ten feet ; much further south it often grows to the height of thirty or forty feet, with a diame- ter of twelve or fifteen inches. The leaves, flower, and fruit-bur, resemble those of the common chestnut in miniature, being about half the size. The wood of the chincapin is finer-grained, more compact, heavier, and even more durable than that of the chestnut, and is admirably adapted for fence-posts, lasting in the ground more than forty years. But the tree rarely attains a size adapting it to such a useful purpose in agriculture. 923 CHINCH BUG. CHIVES. A species of the chincapin (Casianea alni- folia), remarkable for its dwarf growth, is found in the Carolinas and Floridas. Mr. Nuttall, who met with it in the vicinity of Charleston, S. C, says it grows in small patches in sandy pine barrens, has creeping roots, and seldom exceeds a foot in height. The nut is larger than that of the other species of chincapins. (See NuttaWs Supplement to Michaux.) CHINCH BUG. A name, which, from some resemblance to the bed-bug, especially in the disgusting smell, has been popularly applied to an insect often of late years occasioning wide-spread destruction in the wheat, Indian corn, and other grain j&elds of the South and Southwestern States. Not being able to find any scientific description of this insect and its habits, we shall of course be compelled to cull the best information we can collect from the most intelligent correspondents of agricultural periodicals, &c. In the 7th volume of Rutfin's Farmer's Re- gister, there are several communications rela- tive to the chinch bug, some of which draw a most deplorable picture of its ravages in the old counties of Virginia, where the)'- not only often destroy the corn, wheat, and other grain- crops, but lay waste the pastures. They are described as small and black, with white wings ; in their form, close and compact, and about the size of a bed-bug. They creep on the ground, seldom using their wings, and ap- pear to be hardy. Whatever crop they get into, the}' generally stick about the plants near the ground, although they may sometimes be seen scattered all over stalks of Indian corn, the blades, and even down into the bud. When they attack wheat, oats, &c,, they cluster around the stalk in incredible numbers, and seem to suck out its substance, so that it soon withers and falls to the ground. When they take to the Indian corn, the stalk and leaves sometimes become perfectly black with them, for two feet from the ground, leaving not a spot of green to be seen, except about five or six inches of the tips of the blades, the bugs hanging to the lower portions like bees when swarming. " We are," says one of Dr. Ruffin's corres- pondents, " harvesting our wheat crop, in which they got rather too late to destroy it en- tirely, but on many farms have seriously in- jured it, many places in the fields being quite destroyed. On following after the scythes, you may see millions of the bugs, of all sizes and colours, red, black, and gray, running in the greatest consternation in every possible direc- tion, seeking shelter under the sheaves of wheat, and bunches of grass, which may hap- pen to be near. But all those on the borders of the field, and indeed on every part of it, very oon quit the dry and hard stubble for the more lender and juicy corn or oats, whichsoever may be nearest at hand ; and now commences their havoc and dreadful devastation. We see tne healthy, dark-green, luxuriant oat, which a few days before looked so beautiful and rich, turn pale, wither and die, almost at their very touch. It would seem exaggeration and almost incredible r.o state how very prolific this de- roniing insect is, their increase being so pro- 324 digiously great as to appear to be the work of magic. " In one day and night they had been known to advance fifteen or twenty yards deep in a field, destroying as they proceed. Unless some kind dispensation of Providence delivers us from this ruthless enemy to the farming in- terest, it is impossible to say to what extent their ravages will, and may extend, in the course of a year or two. To us farmers, who are dependent on the productions of the earth, for our every thing, it is truly awful. And if their increase in future is commensurate with the past, it must be but a short time before this section of countrj-- will be laid waste by this dreadful depredator, and its inhabitants re- duced to want and misery. Every attempt hitherto made to arrest their progress, or de- stroy them, has proved abortive. Some have attempted to drive them from their corn by pouring boiling water over them ; a remedy, for the corn, as bad as the disease. Others try to stop their ingress to the corn-fields by digging ditches around the fields ; but with nc avail, as they are furnished with wings in a short time after they are hatched, and of course can easily fly over the ditches. Would it not be advisable always to sow clover, or some other tender grass, with all small grain, to in- duce the bug to remain in the field after the grain is taken away long enough to enable the corn crop to get size and age, so as not to be seriously injured by them? I have observed that the older the plant, the much less liable it is to be either injured or attacked." (Faimer's Register.) Among the remedies proposed against this destructive insect, are the following: — Burn- ing up the leaves and rubbish of any woods in the vicinity of grain fields, so as to kill the in- sects in their winter retreats ; also the stalks of corn, &c., where they are often found. It is said that they are natives of the forest, and that where these are occasionally burnt they never become troublesome. Digging ditches so as to intercept the progress of the bugs, fill- ing the excavations with straw in which the insects generally halt a little while, during which time the straw is to be burnt so as to carry destruction to the enemy. This opera- tion is to be repeated during the day. Burning them up, corn and all, has been attended with advantage in preventing further destruction, and also put an end to the further multiplica- tion of the swarm. CHINESE SUGAR-CANE of the North orn Provinces. This member of the Sorghura family from Asia, with its confrere the Afri- can Imphde, have been introduced into the U. S. since 1857. As yet they have disap- pointed the hopes of the many who expected them to supply sugar in abundance in exten- sive extra-tropical regions. The plants flour- ish throughout the Southern and Middle States, producing abundance of seed, but as yet the rich saccharine juice yielded by them so freely : has only partially been made to furnish crys- ! talline or true cane-sugar. It furnishes a cheap, agreeable, and healthy syrup for the table, and the seed and fodder add greatly to the value of the crop. All animals are eagei CHLORIDE OF LIME. CHOCOLATE. after the green cane. See Treatise on Sorgo and Imnhde, by H. S. Alcott. Also the annual Reports of the Agricultural Bureau, especially the volume for 1857. CHLSLY LAND. A kind of soil between sandy and clayey, with a large admixture of small pebbles or gravel. CHIVES, or GIVES (Allium schxnopramm), a garden-plant allied to the leek and onion, growing in tufts The long filamentary leaves are cut close to the ground for eating, &c. CHLORINE. One of the elements found al- ways in vegetable substances, among the inor- ganic or mineral constituents derived from the soil. It is a kind of gas of a greenish colour, with a peculiarly strong odour, and so much heavier than common air, that, like carbonic acid gas, it may be poured from one vessel into another. A taper will burn in it, giving a fee- ble reddish light, which soon goes out. It exists in all fertile soils, not separate, but combined with soda, in the familiar form of common salt, every 10 lbs. of which contains about 6 lbs. of chlorine gas. CHLORIDE OF SODIUM: Muriate of Soday or Common Salt. This mineral production, so necessary to the wants of mankind, is universally distributed over the globe, either in solution, as in sea water and mineral springs, or in beds and solid rocks, forming mountains, from which it is procured in masses by blasting and regular mining operations. Most animals have an in- stinctive taste for this salt, and all fertile soils contain it, so that to the growth and well-being of both animals and vegetables, salt is indis- pensable. For its uses as a fertilizer, see Salt. CHLORIDE OF SODA. A well known pow- erful disinfectant or destroyer of offensive smells, discovered and brought into use by a French chemist, who prepared from it a solution sold extensively under the name of Labarraque's DisiNFECTivK Solution. It is employed by sprinkling in sick rooms, pri/ies, &c. Like the chloritie of lime, it possesses the extraordinary property of preventing or arresting animal and vegetable putrefaction, and of destroying those effluvia which are not only offensive to the smell but injurious to the health of men and other animals. To preserve animal bodies from pu- trefaction, or correct their offensive odours, the solution of chloride of soda may be applied by sprinkling or covering them with wet cloths. The chloride of soda^ in which chlorine gas is com- bined with the alkali soda, must not be con- founded with chloride of sodium^ in which the same gas is united with the metallic base sodium, to form common salt. CHLORIDE OF LIME. Commonly known as Bleaching Salt, or Bleaching Powder, is a dry grayish-white powder, possessing a hot pe- netrating taste, and, when pure, soluble in water. It is used by putting a few tablespoonsful of the salt in a plate or shallow earthen vessel, and pouring on, from time to time, a little oil of vit- riol or vinegar, which brings out the chlorine gas, that corrects offensive smells and deleterious airs in houses, privies, stables, &c. It has been proposed as a fertilizer. Davy reports that he steeped some radish seeds for twelve hours in a solution of chlorine, some in nitric acid, some in very dilute oil of vitriol, some in a weak solution of green vitriol, and some in common water. " The seeds in so- lutions of chlorine and ox-sulphate of iron threw out the germ in two days, those in nitric acid in three days, in sulphuric acid in five, and those in water in five. But in every case of premature germination, though the plume was very vigorous for a short time, yet it be- came at the end of a fortnight weak and sickly, and at that period less vigorous in its growth than the sprouts which had been naturally de- veloped, so that there can be scarcely any useful application of these experiments. Too rapid growth and premature decay seem in- variably connected in organized structures, and it is only by following the slow operations of natural causes that we are capable of making improvements." {^gr- Chem. p. 217.) Chloride of lime is prepared in large quan- tities for the service of the bleachers in most of the manufacturing districts. It is composed, according to the analysis of Dr. Marcet, of Part*. Chlorine Lime - 63 23 36-77 100 Dr. Ingenhouz, in a paper published by the Board of Agriculture in 1816, remarks, in al- luding to some experiments he had tried at Hertford in company with the Baron Dimsdale with various salts, — "Be it sufficient to say here, that of all the neutral salts we tried, the glauber salt did seem to be one of the best in promoting vegetation ; and the steeping the seeds in water, impregnated with oxygenated marine salt (which is now employed in bleach- ing linen in an expeditious way), had a par- ticularly beneficial etfect in producing vigorous and early plants. We were somewhat as- tonished that those seeds, viz. of wheat, rye, barley, and oats, which had been steeped in the above mentioned oxygenated muriatic liquid, even during forty-eight hours, did thrive admirably well; whereas, the same seeds steeped during so long a time, in some of the other medicated liquids, were much hurt, or had lost their vegetative power. The same oxygenated liquid poured upon the ground had also a beneficial effect." These experiments of Ingenhouz were made, it appears, in 1795. See Salts, their uses to vegetation. Leibig regards chloride of lime as a fertilizing salt, its virtues being similar to that of plaster of Paris, both of which, he says, fix the ammonia which is brought into the soil in rain water, which ammonia is indispensable for the nou- rishment of plants. A few table-spoonfuls of chloride of lime or bleaching salts, sprinkled occasionally in privies and other places where it may be required, corrects offensive odours. (But. Farm. Mag. vol. ii. p. 258 ; " On Ferti^ lizers," p. 366.) CHOCOLATE is an alimentary preparation of very ancient use in Mexico, from which country it was introduced into Europe by the Spaniards in the year 1520, and by them long kept a secret from the rest of the world. Lin- naeus was so fond of it, that he gave the spe- cific name, theohroma, food of the gods, to the cacao tree which produced it. The cacao- beans lie in a fruit somewhat like a cucumber, about five inches long and three and a halt 2E 325 CHOCOLATE. CHRYSALIS. thick, which contains from 20 to 30 beans, ar- ranged in five regular rows with ^ partitions between, and which are surrounded with a rose-coloured spongy substance, like that of water-melons. There are fruits, however, so large as to contain from 40 to 50 beans. Those grown in the West India islands, Berbice and Demarara, are much smaller, and have only from 6 to 15; their developement being less perfect than in South America. After the ma- turation of the fruit, when their green colour has changed to a dark-yellow, they are plucked, opened, tneir beans cleared of the marrowy substance, and spread out to dry in the air. Like almonds, they are covered with a thin skin or husk. In the West Indies they are imme- diately jfticked up for the market when they are dried ; but in the Caraccas they are subjected to a species of slight fermentation, by putting them into tubs or chests, covering them with boards or stones, and turning them over every morning, to equalize the operation. They emit a good deal of moisture, lose the natural bit- terness and acrimony of their taste by this process, as well as some of their weight. In- stead of wooden tubs, pits or trenches dug in the ground are sometimes had recourse to for curing the beads ; an operation called earthing (teyrer). They are lastly exposed to the sun, and dried. The latter kind are reckoned the best ; being larger, rougher, of a darker brown colour, and, when roasted, throw off their husk readily, and split into several irregular frag- ments ; they have an agreeable, mild, bitterish taste, without acrimony. The Guinea and West India sorts are smaller, flatter, smoother- skinned, lighter-coloured, more sharp and bitter to the taste. They answer best for the extraction of the butter of cacao, but afford a less aromatic and agreeable chocolate. Ac- cording to Lampadius, the kernels of the West India cacao beans contain, in 100 parts, besides water, 53-1 of fat or oil, 16*7 of an albuminous brown matter, which contains all the aroma of the bean, 10*91 of starch, 7| of gum or muci- lage, 0-9 of lignine, and 2-01 of a reddish dye- stuff somewhat akin to the pigment of cochi- neal. The husks form twelve per cent, of the weight of the beans ; they contain no fat, but, besides lignine, or woody fibre, which consti- tutes half their weight, they yield a light-brown mucilaginous extract by boiling in water. The fatty matter is of the consistence of tallow, white, of a mild, agreeable taste, called butter of cacao, and not apt to turn rancid by keeping. It melts only at 122° Fahr., and should, there- fore, make tolerable candles. It is soluble in boiling alcohol, but precipitates in the cold. It is obtained by exposing the beans to strong pressure iu canvass bags, after they have been steamed or soaked in boiling water for some time. From five to six ounces of butter may be thus obtained from a pound of cacao. It has a reddish tinge wnen first expressed, but it becomes white by boiling with water. "The beans, being freed from all spoiled and mouldy portions, are to be gently roasted over a tire in an iron cylinder, with holes in its ends for allowing the vapors to escape; the apparatus being similar to a coffee-roaster. When the aroma begins to be well developed, 326 the roasting is known to be finished; and th« beans must be turned out, cooled, and freed by fanning and sifting from their husks. The kernels are then to be converted into a paste, by trituration in a mortar heated to 130° Fah. The chocolate paste has usually in France a little vanilla incorporated with it, and a con- siderable quantity of sugar, which varies from one-third of its weight to equal parts. For a pound and a half of cacao, one pod of vanilla is sufficient. Chocolate paste improves in its flavour by keeping, and should therefore be made in large quantities at a time. But the roasted beans soon lose their aroma, if exposed to the air. " Chocolate is flavoured with cinnamon and cloves, in several countries, instead of the more expensive vanilla. In roasting the beans, the heat should be at first very slow, to give time to the humidity to escape; a quick fire hardens the surface, and injures the process. In putting the paste into the tin plate, or other moulds, it must be well shaken down, to in- sure its filling up all the cavities, and giving the sharp and polished impression so much admired by connoisseurs. Chocolate is some- times adulterated with starch ; in which case it will form a pasty consistenced mass when treated with boiling water. The harder the slab upon which the beans are triturated, the better; and hence porphyry is far preferable to marble. The grinding rollers of the mill should be made of iron, and kept very clean." (C/Ve's Diet. ofJrts, &c.) A substance called theobromin has been re- cently obtained from chocolate by a European chemist. It contains thirty-five per cent, of nitrogen, a larger proportion than that con- tained in caffeine. CHOKE-DAMP, a common term applied to a kind of foul air, often met with in wells, pits, mines, &c. It consists of carbonic acid gass, with or without a mixture of nitrogen. It is a source of great danger to persons descending into wells and pits. See Cahbonic acid Gass. CHOLIC, or COLIC. See HonsEs, Cattle, Sheep, Diseases of. CHOPPER, HAY. See Chaff-engixes. A new and very efficient straw-cutter under the title of the " Canadian Straw and Hay-chop- per," is figured and described in the Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 336. One person driving the machine can, it is said, cut with ease 5 cwt. of hay or straw in an hour. CHOUGH, or RED LEGGED CROW (Fregilus gracidus). The plumage of this Bri- tish bird is uniformly black, glossed with blue; beak, legs, and toes, vermilion red; claws, black. CHRONIC COUGH. In horses, this is a frequent consequence of chest diseases. In a few instances this seems to be connected with worms ; and if the coat is unthrifty, the flanks tucked up, and there is mucus around the anus, it will be proper to put the connexion between the worms and the cough to the test ; other- wise a sedative medicine may suffice to allay the irritation. (Clater's Far. p. 123.) CHRYSALIS. Many worms or larvae, after they have attained their full growth, leave off eating entirely and remain at rest in a death- like sleep. This is called the pupa state, from CHURN. CIDER. a fancied resemblance to the manner in which the Roman children were trussed in bandages. The pupsB from caterpillars are most common- ly called chrysalicls and anrelia. Grubs, after their transformation, are often called nymphs. Having passed through its change, the insect merges from its chrysalis, or pupa, perforates the shell and silken envelope, and makes its appearance in a winged form, which is its last or perfect state. ' In every species there may be distinguished two sides; the one of which is the back, and the other the belly of the animal. On the an- terior part of the latter there may always be observed certain little elevations running in ridges : the other side, or the back, in most of the chrysalises, is smooth, and of a rounded figure : but some have ridges on the anterior part and sides of this part, usually terminating in a point and making an angular appearance. From this difference is drawn the first general distinction of these bodies, by which they are divided into two classes ; the round and the angular. The first, French naturalists call feve!> ; the chrysalis of the silk-worm being of this description, and so named. This division is extremely convenient to classification, the phalana or moths being almost universally pro- duced by the rounded chrysalises, and the pnpi- lios, day-flies, from the angular. Among the latter, are some whose colours are as worthy of observation as the forms of others. Many of them appear superbly clothed in gold. These species obtained the names of chrysalis and aurelia; derived, the one from a Greek, the other from a Latin word, signifying gold.'* (^Dameiftir Ency.") CHURN (cepnan; Goi\\. kerna; Dutch, Jterwew. Our old authors wrote it cheme, and kern is yet a local word, and generally used north of the Tweed). A vessel in which cream is coagu- lated by long and violent agitation. There are many different kinds of churns, but those most generally used are the upright or Dutch plunge churn and the barrel-churn. In large dairies churns are frequently turned by means of a horse; this is particularly the case in Flan- ders, where churns are used which will make forty or fifty pounds of butter at a time. In the large dairi?? of Cheshire they are now often driven by small high pressure steam-engines. On such farms as have thrashing-mills, churns might be very conveniently attached to and wrought by them. An improved butter-churn by Mr. C. Harley of Fenchurch-street, and an- other by Mr. W. Bowler, to which the Society for the Improvement of the Arts, &c., awarded a prize of thirty guineas, are described in Wil- lirh's Domestic Encyc. Chums should admit the air; and hence it has been argued that the common churn, which allows this most con- veniently, is, after all, the best. CIBOULE, or WELSH ONION. See Oxioy. CICADA. See Grasshopper and Locusts. CIDER, or CYDER (Fr. cidre ; Ger. zidcr : Ital. cidro: Russ. sidor ; Span, sidra). A sharp and vinous beverage made by fermenting the juice of apples. Cider, or the fermented juice of the apple, constitutes the principal vinous beverage of the citizens of New England, of the Mid lie Sial^'s, and of the o4der states of the West. Good cider is deemed a pleasant, wholesome liquor, during the heats of summer ; and Mr. Knight has as- serted, and also eminent medical men, that strong, astringent ciders have been found to produce nearly tne • ame effect in cases of pu- trid fever as Port wine. The unfermented juice of the apple consists of water and a peculiar acid called the malic arid, combined with the saccharine principle Where a just proportion of the latter is want- ing, the liquor will be poor and watery, with- out body, very difficult to preserve and manage. In the process of fermentation, the saccharine principle is in part converted to alcohol. Where the proportion of the saccharine prin- ciple is wanting, the deficiency must be sup- plied, either by the addition of a saccharine substance before fermentation, or by the addi- tion of alcohol after fermentation; for every one must know that all good wine or cider contains it, elaborated by fermentation, either in the cask or in the reservoirs at the distillery. The best and the cheapest kind is the neutral spirit — a highly rectified and tasteless spirit, obtained from New England rum. Some, how« ever, object to any addition of either sugar or alcohol to supply deficiencies, forgetful that these substances are the very elements of which all wine, cider, and vinous liquors are composed. The strength of the cider depends on the specific gravity of the juice on expression : this may be easily ascertained by weighing, or by the hydrometer. According to the experiments of Major Ad- lura, of Georgetown, District of Columbia, it appeared that when two pounds of sugar were dissolved in a gallon of rain water, the bulk occupied by 1000 grains of rain water weighed 1087 grains. From this it would appear that the juice produced by the best known apple contains about two pounds of sugar in a gal Ion. Mr. Marshall has asserted that a gentle- man, Mr. Bellamy, of Herefordshire, England, has by skill "produced cider from an apple called Hagloe Crab, which, for richness, fla- vour, and price on the spot, exceeds, perhaps, every other liquor which nature or art has pro- duced. He has been offered sixty guineas for a hogshead of 110 gallons of this liquor." Newark, in New Jersey, is reputed one of the most famous places in America for its cider. The cider apple most celebrated there is the Harrison apple, a native fniit; and cider made from this fruit, when fined and fit for bottling, frequently brings $10 per barrel, according to Mr. Coxe. This and the Hughs' Virginia Crab are the two most celebrated cider apples of America. Old trees, growing in dry soils, pro- duce, it is said, the best cider. A good cider apple is saccharine and astringent. To make good cider, the first requisite is suitable fruit ; it is equally necessary that the fruit should be not merely mellow, but thorough- ly mature, rotten apples being excluded; and ripe, if possible, at the suitable period, or about the first of November, or from the first to th« middle, after the excessive heat of the season Q27 CIDER. CIDER. 19 past, and while sufficient warmth yet re- mains to enable the fermentation lo progress slowly, as it ought. The fruit should be gathered by hand, or shaken from the tree in dry weather, when it is at perfect maturity; and the ground should be covered with coarse cloths or Russia mats beneath, to prevent bruising, and consequent rottenness, before the grinding commences. Unripe fruit should be laid in large masses, grotected from dews and rain, to stveat and urry on its maturity, when the suitable time for making approaches. The earlier fruits should be laid in thin layers on stagings, to preserve them to the suitable period for mak- ing, protected alike from rain and dews, and where they may be benefited by currents of cool, dry air. Each variety should be kept separate, that those ripening at the same period may be ground together. In grinding, the most perfect machinery should be used to reduce the whole fruit, skin, and seeds to a fine pulp. This should, if pos- sible, be performed in cool weather. The late Joseph Cooper, of New Jersey, has observed emphatically, that " the loiiger a cheese lies after being ground, hefoi'e pressing, the better for the cider, provided it escapes fermentation until the pressing is completed ," and he further observes, " that a sour apple, after being bruised on one side, becomes rich and sweet after it has changed to a brown colour, while it yet re- tains its acid tasie on the opposite side." When the pomace united to the juice is thus suffered for a time to remain, it undergoes a chemical change ; the saccharine principle is developed ; it will be found rich and sweet ; sugar is in this case produced by the prolonged union of the bruised pulp and juice, which could never have been formed in that quantity had they been sooner separated. Mr. Jonathan Rice, of Marlborough, who made the premium cider so much admired at Concord, Massachusetts, appears so sensible of the important effects of mature or fully ripe fruit, that, provided this is the case, he is willing even to forego the disadvantage of having a portion of them quite rotten. Let me observe, that this rottenness must be the effect, in part, of bruises by improper modes of gathering, or by improper mixtures of ripe and unripe fruit. He always chooses cool weather for the operation of grinding ; and, in- stead of suffering the pomace to remain but twenty-four or forty-eight hours at most before pressing, as others have directed, he suffers it to remain from a toeek to ten days, provided the weather will admit, stirring the mass daily till it is put to the press. See his communication in vol. vii. p. 123, N. E. Farmer. The first fermentation in cider is termed the vinous ; in this the sugar is decomposed, and loses its sweetness, and is converted into alco- hol ; if the fermentation goes on too rapidly, the cider is injured ; a portion of alcohol passes off with the carbonic acid. The design of frequent rackings is princi- pally to restrain the fermentation ; but it seems lo be generally acknowledged that it weakens !he liquor. It is not generally practised, al- .^28 though the finest cider is often produced by this mode. Various other modes are adopted with the view of restraining fermentation, one of which is the following. After a few gallons of cider are poured into the hogshead into which the cider is to be placed when racked off, a rag six inches long, previously dipped in melted brim- stone, is attached by a wire to a very long, tapering bung; on the match being lighted the bung is loosely inserted; after this is con- sumed, the cask is rolled or tumbled till the liquor has imbibed the gas, and then filled with the liquid. This checks the fermentation- Yet the French writers assure us that the effect of much sulphuring must necessarily render such liquors unwholesome. Black oxide of manganese has a similar effect ; the crude oxide is rendered friable by being repeatedly heated red hot, and as often suddenly cooled by immersion in cold water. When finely pulverised, it is exposed for a while to the atmosphere, till it has imbibed again the oxygen which had been expelled by fire. An ounce of powder is deemed sufficient for a barrel. If the cider is desired to be very sweet, it must be added before fermentation, otherwise not till afterwards. Mr. Knight, from his long experience and observation in a coun- try (Herefordshire, England) famous for its cider, has lately, in a letter to the Hon. John Lowell, stated that the acetous fermentation generally takes place during the progress of the vinous, and that the liquor from the com- mencement is imbibing oxygen at its surface. He highly recommends that new charcoal, in a finely pulverized state, be added to the liquor as it comes from the press, in the proportion of eight pounds to the hogshead, to be intimately incorporated; "this makes the liquor at first as black as ink, but it finally becomes remark- ably fine." Dr. Darwin has recommended that the liquor, as soon as the pulp has risen, should be placed in a cool situation, in casks of remarkable strength, and the liquor closely confined from the beginning. The experiment has been tried with good success ; the fermentation goes on slowly, and an excellent cider is generally the result. A handful of well-powdered clay to a barrel is said to check the fermentation. This is stated by Dr. Mease. And with the view of preventing ihe escape of the carbonic acid, and to prevent the liquid from imbibing oxygen from the atmosphere, a pint of olive oil has been recommended to each hogshead. The excellent cider exhibited by Mr. Rice was pre- pared by adding two gallons of New England rum to each barrel when first made. In Feb- ruary or March it was racked off in clear wea- ther, and two quarts more of New England rum added to each barrel. Cider well ferment- ed may be frozen down to any requisite degree of strength. In freezing, the watery parts are separated and freeze first, and the stronger parts are drawn off from the centre. — I finish by adding the following general rules ; they will answer for all general purposes ; they are the conclusions from what is previously stated; 1. Gather the fruit according to the foregoing CIDER. CINQUE-FOIL. rules; let it be thoroughly ripe when ground, which should be about the middle of Novem- ber. 3. Let the pomace remain from two to four days, according to the state of the wea- ther, stirring it every day till it is put to the press. 3. If the liquor is deficient in the sac- charine principle, the defect may be remedied in the beginning by the addition of saccharine substances or alcohol. 4. Let the liquor be immediately placed in a cool cellar, in remark- ahlg strong, tight, sweet casks; after the pulp has all overflown, confine the liquor down by driv- ing the bung hard and by sealing; a vent must be left, and the spile carefully drawn at times, but only when absolutely necessary to prevent the cask from bursting. The charcoal, as re- commended by Mr. Knight, deserves trial. Fresh and sweet pomace directly from the press, and boiled or steamed and mixed with a small portion of meal, is a valuable article of food, or for fattening horses, cattle, and swine. Sour casks are purified by pouring in a small quantity of hot water, and adding un- slacked lime ; bung up the cask, and continue shaking it till the lime is slacked. Soda and chloride of lime are good for purifying. When casks are emptied to be laid by, let them be thoroughly rinsed with water and drained, then pour into each a pint of cheap alcohol, shake the cask and bung it tight, and it will remain sweet for years. Musty casks should be con- demned to other uses. Cider should not be bottled till perfectly fine, otherwise it may burst the bottles. The bottles should be strong, and filled to the bottom of the neck. After standing aa hour, they should be corked with velvet corks. The lower end of the cork is held for an instant in hot water, and it is then instantly after driven down with a mallet. The bottles must be either sealed or laid on their sides in boxes, or in the bottom of a cellar, and covered with layers of sand. Most of the above information relative to cider-making is derived frorii the American Or- chardist, by W. Kenrick, of Boston, Massachu- setts, whose list of apple and other nursery- trees comprehends almost every kind desirable for any purpose. The reader will find verj explicit instruc- tions for the manufacture of cider in the Penny Cyclop, vol. vii p. 161; in the Lib. of Useful Know.; Brit. Htu,'>. vol. ii. p. 364; Lotv's Prad. Jgr. p. 379 ; Croker, On the Art of Making and Managing Cyder; in the Quart. Journ. of Agr. vol. viii. p. 332, by Mr. Towers ; and in Bax- ter's Agr. Lib. p. 135, by Andrew Crosse, Esq., of Somerset The following instructions for making cider are by a Devonshire lady. Gather the fruit when ripe ; let it remain in a heap till the apples begin to get damp, then grind them in a mill (similar to a malt mill); lake the pulp and put it into a large press like a cheese-press, only on a much larger scale place a layer of reed in the bottom of the vat and a layer of pulp alternately until the vat is full. The vat is square, and the ends of the reed must be allowed to turn over every layer of pulp, so as to keep it from being pressed out at the sides : the laye?? of pulp must be five or r^ix inches thick. When you have 42 finished making your cheese, press it as hard as you caji, and let it remain three or four hours; then cut down the corners of it, and lay them on the top with reed as before ; then press it again, and allow it to remain for an- I other three or four hours. Repeat this process I as long as necessary, or until the cheese is I quite dry. It takes seven bags of apples for i one hogshead of cider, and the vat ought to be j large enough to make from three to four hogs- heads at a time. The best sort of apple to make mild cider is the hard bitter-sweet. Any sort of sour apple will do to make the harsh cider. The liquor must be strained through a fine sieve into a large vessel, and allowed to ferment for three or four days, taking off the scum as it rises; then rack it, and put it into casks stopped down quite close. Before the cider is put into the cask, a match made of new linen and attached to a wire is lighted and put into the cask, and the bung is put in to keep the wire from falling into it. After a few minutes the match is removed, and the cider poured into the cask while yet full of the smoke. A person would require three or four years' experience before he would be. qualified to superintend the making of sweet or made cider. Much depends on the year, or rather on the ripening of the apples ; it should be the second, not the first falling; and the "green bitter-sweet" and the " pocket apple" are the best for making it. After pounding, isinglass and brimstone are used to sweeten and fine it, and many other ingredients. (A. M. K.) The sweet cider, above described, is distinct from the other two kinds of cider (the harsh and mild). Cider, according to Brande, con- tains about 9-87 parts per cent, of alcohol. It is a wholesome beverage for those who use. much bodily exercise. {WdliclCs Dom. Ency.; M'Ciilloch's Com. Diet.) CLNQUE-FOIL, COMMON CREEPING, or FIVE FINGERED GRASS {Potentilla rep- tans). This creeping plant is common about waysides, and in meadows and pastures in England, where it is a perennial, flowering in June. Its stalks are round, smooth, and red, lying upon the ground, and taking root at the joints. The leaves stand five in number on each foot-stalk, long and narrow in form, and indented at the edges. The flowers are large, of a bright yellow colour, standing upon long foot-stalks. The root is long and large, cover- ed with a brown rind. Smith (Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 423) describes this and ten oiher species of cinque-foil, all belonging to the same genu^. The root is the medicinal part, and once wr.s an ofiicinal plant; but is now tliscarded : dig it up in April, take oflf the outer bark or rind, and dry it. The powdered bark of the root is astringent. There are a dozen or more species of ci.ique^ foil in the United States, among which is that usually called the barren strawberry (Poten- tilla Pennsylvanica). It is a small, perennial, creeping plant, very frequent on road-sides, fence-rows, and banks, having thick, branch ing, fibrous roots. The petals of the flowers are bright-yellow, the first flowers often ap- pearing when the stems are very short, but others appear afterwards on runners, which 2 E 2 32'» CINQUE-FOIL CLIMATE. runners resemble those of the strawberry. This common kind of cinque-foil in the Middle and Northern States is frequent in worn-out and neglected fields, and, where abundant, indi- cates thriftless farming. The Latin name of the genus is derived from potcns, powerful; in reference to the supposed medical virtues of the cinque-foil family. Another species, commonly called five-fingers (Potentilla sim- plex), is also a very common, yellow floM'er'^d perennial, along the borders of woods, &c. CINQUE-FOIL, PURPLE MARSH (Coma- rium palusire). A perennial, found in spongy, muddy bogs and ditches. Root, creeping ex- tensively, with many long fibres. Stems, round, reddish, a foot or more in height. Flowers, several, without scent, but handsome, an inch broad, all over of a dark purplish blood colour, as well as the fruit. They appear in June. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 433.) CITRIC ACIDS. Acids contained in le- mons and some other kinds of fruit. See Acids, Vegetabik. CLARY, or SAGE (Salvia). Smith (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 34) describes two kinds, the meadow clary (S.pratetisis), and wild English clary (S. verbennca). The first is very uncom- mon, but sometimes met with in dry meadows and about hedges ; grows three feet high, erect; not very aromatic ; leaves, dark-green ; flowers, large and handsome, of a fine purplish blue. The second species is more common on gra- velly or chalky soils, a foot or eighteen inches high; leaves, grayish-green; flowers, small, violet-blue. Seeds, black, smooth ; blows from June to October. This plant is of great vir- tue, and is kept in gardens on account of its excellent flavour. The whole herb is medi- cinal, and is equally good, freshly gathered, or dried. It is cordial and astringent in its quality. CLASPERS. The threads or tendrils of creeping plants. CLASS, an appellation used to denote the mosi general divisions of which any thing is susceptible. Thus in the Linnsean system of natural history, the animal kingdom is divided into six great classes, of mammalia, or ani- mals which suckle their young; aves, or birds; pieces, or fishes ; insccta, or insects ; vermes, or worms. In botany, the term class implies the primary division of plants into large groups, each of ■which is to be subdivided by a regular down- ward progression, into orders, genera, and spe- cies, with occasional intermediate subdivisions, constituting varieties, &c., all being subordi- nate to the division which stands immediately above them. Each class is divided into orders, each order into genera, each genus into species, and each genus and species sometimes into sitbgetiera or stibspecies. The term family is sometimes used instead of genus, and objects are often arranged in families, which again are distinguished into varieties. CLAY. A well known constituent of soils, adding to them compactness and tenacity. Under the head of Artalyds, p. 91, is a table showing a classification of soils, from which it appears, that as a general rule, those exhibiting the highest per-centage of clay, are esteemed 330 the most valuable. Although what is tonimonly called clay, constitutes from 14 to 81 per cent, of soils, its basis, alumina, or pure clay, exists only in the pi-oportion of from 72-lOOths of 1 per cent, in light sandy soils, to ,'5-25 per cent, in heavier lands. Where it exists, as it often does in sub-soils, in the proportion of 9 or 10 per cent, good draining-tiles and building bricks may- be made of it. The clay from which the best building bricks in Baltimore are made, contains 19| per cent, of alumina. (See Bricks.) Clays have various colours, owing to admix- ture with different substances. Yellow and red clays are silicates of alumina with small propor- tions of peroxide (or rust) of iron, united with lime, magnesia, sometimes potash, and very rarely soda. Strange to say — in what are commonly called on the Eastern shore of Maryland, and elsewhere in the United States, '■^ pipe clay or white oak soils," very little pure clay exists, seldom over 3-75 per cent., in the upper stratum, and some- times only about 1 per cent. According to Dr. Higgins's analysis, 90 per cent, of this soil con- sists of sand so fine as to lose its grittiness, whilst the pure clay constitutes only about 2 or 2| per cent. These white oak soils commonly rest on a bed of white or mottled clay, which should never be turned up in ploughing. They can ge- nerally be rendered very productive by perfect draining, with the addition of lime, ashes, or guano. Such land is very unprofitable, unless kept dry hy 7nimerou.; Dan. kaald). See Ca- tarrh, and Diseases of Cattle, Horses, &c. COLE, or COLESEED (Celt, cat//,- Welsh, caxcl ; Lat. Brassica napus). A variety of the cabbage genus, much cultivated in the east of England; it is sown from the middle of July to the end of August, either for autumn sheep- feed, or for seed (which is very rich in oil) for the following summer. The ashes of the burnt straw of coleseed are excellent dressing for clover. (Brit. Husb. vol. ii. p. 312.) See Colza and Rape. COLEWORT. See Cabbage. COLIN, THE VIRGINIAN PARTRIDGE (Ortyx Virginiana). This bird has been intro- duced into England from the United States, and is a species of partridge. It lives on the borders of woods, among brushwood, or on the thick grassy plains. (YcrrelVs Brit. Birds, vol. ii. p. 448.) COLLAR (Span, collar ; Lat. collare). That COLLING. part of the harness of a horse or other animal that goes round his neck and rests on the shoulders. For horses, they are mostly made of canvass, &c. stuffed with hair, tow, or straw, and covered with leather. COLLE Y, or COLLY. A kind of dog much prized by the Scotish drovers. See Doo, Shep- herd's. COLLEY SHEEP. A name for sheep that have black faces and legs. The wool of these sheep is generally very harsh, having hairs mixed with it. COLLING, ROBERT and CHARLES. Two celebrated farmers of the county of Durham, who, by their skill, enterprise, and public spirit, not only secured for themselves the plaudits of after generations of farmers, but did honour to their country by the improvement which they effected in the Durham breed of short-horns, perhaps the most celebrated of all our modern breeds of cattle. It is not in my power to give any details with regard to their private history; their public efforts is all in which my readers will feel interested. The following account of the sale of their stock, and the enormous amount which it produced, will afford a much better view of their success as breeders than any eulogium of mine. Charles Colling, of Ketton, near Darlington, made a very ample fortune. The prices he obtained for his stock could hardly indeed have failed to have produced such a result : thus at his sale of improved short-horns, Oct. 11, 1810, the following were some of the prices obtain ed: — Cow«. Jkge. Guineu. Cherry - . n - - . 83 Peeress - - 5 - - - 170 CounteM - - 9 - - . 400 C«lina - - 5 - - - 200 Lady - - 14 - - - 206 Lilly - - 3 - - - 410 Bulli. Guinni. Comet - - 6 - - - lOOO Major - - 9 - - - 200 Petrarch - - 2 - - - 365 Alfred - - 1 - . - HO Duke - - 1 - - - 105 Bull calves ander one year old. Guineai. Young Favourite ----- 140 Geerse -------130 Sir Dimple ------ 90 Cecil ------- 170 Heifen. A^ Guinea*. PhoBbe - - 3 - - - 105 Young Duchess - 2 - - - 183 Young Countess - 2 - - . 206 Lucy - - - 2 - - - 132 Charlotte - - 1 - - - 1.32 Heifer raWet noder one year old. Guinea*. Lucilla -------106 Calista ------- 50 White Rose ------ 75 Altogether it appears that — L. *. 17 cows sold for - - - - 2802 9 11 bulls " - - . - 2361 y 7 bull calves " - - - - 687 15 7 heifers " - . - - 942 18 5 heifer calves - - - - 321 6 47 lots 7115 17 Robert Ceiling's stock was sold at Barmpton, near Darlington, September 29, 1818, when it produced for — 047 COLT. COLZA. Guineas. 84 COWS -..--- 4141 17 heifers ------ 1287 6 bulls 1343 4 bull calves ----- 713 61 head of cattle ----- 7484 One 2 year old cow sold for - - - 331 One 4 " " . - - 300 One 5 " *• - - . 370 One 1 " bull calf - - - 270 One 4 " bull - . - - 621 {Y&uatt on Cattle, p. 231—233.) Charles Colling, after his retirement from business, resided at Croft, in the North Riding of Yorkshire, where he died January 16, 1836, aged 85. Robert Colling died in his 70th year, at Barmpton, near Darlington, March 7, 1820. COLT (Sax. coir). A term applied to young horses. See Hohsks. COLT-EVIL. In farriery, a distemper to which young horses are subject, consisting of a swelling in the sheath. COLTS-FOOT, COMMON. (Tussilago far-, fara). PI. 10, I. This is an herb of peculiar growth, very common in England on chalky or marly soil, in moist situations. It is mostly found in fields that are over-cropped or ex- hausted, and often severely exercises the pa- tience of the farmer. It may be eradicated by ploughing up the soil, carrying the plant away when rooted out, and laying the fields down to grass. The flowers rise in spring on stalks six or eight inches high, round, large, and yel- low, like the dandelion ; their stalks being thick, fleshy, scaly, and red coloured. Each stalk supports one flower. When the flowers have decayed, then the leaves appear on erect furrowed footstalks, broad and cordate, lobed and toothed, resembling the form of a horse's foot, whence the name. They are green above, and white and downy underneath. The leaves are used medicinally, and they dry well. A decoction of the leaves and roots, or a syrup of the juice, is useful in coughs, whence the generic name. The ancients inhaled the smoke for the relief of coughs. There are two species of the colts-foot, butter- bur, or Tussilago genus in the United States. See NuttalPs Genera. The plant known in Pennsylvania and some other Middle States by the name of colts-foot is not of the same genus, but an Asartmu See Gixger, Wild. COLZA. Though comparatively but little cultivated in England, and hardly known in the United States, colza is an article of im- mense importance in French and Flemish hus- bandry. It belongs to the cabbage family, and is cultivated for its oily seed, which are crushed and pressed for their oil, similar to flax-seed. The oil is used to burn in lamps, and for a great variety of useful purposes. The cake left after pressing the seeds, like that of rape, is an article regularly in the markets of Eng- land, France, Germany, &c., being purchased by farmers, who use it, either alone or mixed with other substances, as food for cattle, or to make into manure for various crops. In France, Germany, and the Netherlands, the cake is very often thrown into their urine-cis- ms, where it soon becomes a very valuable ma- S48 terial for manure. The haulm, or stems, after the seeds are thrashed ofi', is frequently burned for the ashes, which are considered of treble the value of other ashesi employed as manure. Two species of colza are cultivated in France ; the one a biennial, sown in summer or autumn, standing out all winter, and matur- ing its growth and seed the following summer. This is called winter colza, and is the Brassica campestris of botanists. The other species, or rather variety, is a spring crop, maturing its seeds the same year, and is the Brassica arven- sis of naturalists. Neither of these must be confounded with rape, which the French term navette, and which is the Brassica napus, being the species most cultivated for similar purposes in England. Whether the winter colza will resist the intense cold of the winters in the more northern states may be doubtful ; but should it not, the spring colza (B. a7-vensis) will doubtless succeed in any part of the United States not favourable to the winter species. As the plant may become of consequence to the American agriculturist, we subjoin, from Dom- basle's Farmer's Calendar, a description of the French modes of managing the colza crops. It is generally considered indispensable that the ground on which colza is sown should be rich, light, new, well manured, and prepared by much working. " Nevertheless," says Dom- basle, "many years' experience has taught me that, by pursuing a good system of culture, very satisfactory crops may be procured from light and gravelly soils. The plant is not afraid of a slightly clayey soil, which, in fact, is the one best adapted to it, provided this be very light in its texture. It is indispensable that the ground, of whatever nature its soil may be, shall be perfectly well drained during the winter, as frosts are fatal to colza in soils which retain water." There are three methods of sowing colza : — 1. Broad-cast; 2. In rows or drills; 3. In beds for transplantation. The last method can onl be pursued where labour — and especially f male labour — is extremely cheap. The sowin in rows is done by the use of drills, the lines being placed about eighteen inches apart. This method admits of hand-hoeing, and even the j use of the cultivator, to destroy weeds or loosen the soil. When sown broad-cast, about 14 lbs. of seed are required for one hectare (equal to about 2^ acres). Much less is re- quired where sown by drills, when the seeds are dropped about an inch apart in the direc- tion of the rows. The sowing broad-cast or in rows generally takes place from the middle of July to the middle of August. When the plants are picked from beds to be planted out, this is done in September or early in October, so that they may have time before winter to form I good roots. They are placed in holes dibbled I by means of a planter with points from 9 to 12 inches apart, and so formed that a man makes I two rows at a time, whilst a second person \ puts the plants in the holes, pressing the earth well around them with his feet. Sometimes rows are run with the plough, and two or three women are employed after each plough, in dis- tributing plants along the open furrow, which is covered up by the plough in returning, COLZA. COLZA. When this is skilfully performed, the planta- tion may be effected with great regularity. In soils of moderate fertility, the plants need not ,be more than 9 inches apart in every direction. When the ground is very rich, they may stand about 12 inches apart; and when planted with the plough, every other furrow is left vacant, and the plants placed 9 or 10 inches apart. In moderately fertile soils, the product of the colza is generally equal to, and sometimes a little greater than that of wheat. Thus, in soils which produce 20 bushels of wheat to the acre, 20 or 25 bushels of colza are obtained, and the product of rape has been nearly equal. But in more fertile soils the colza, when it has been well managed, far surpasses the product of wheat on the same soil, it being not unusual to obtain 28 or 30 bushels to the acre, on ground that will not yield more than 18 or 20 bushels of wheat. Sometimes, by very careful cultivation, and on ground of a very deep soil, especially when this is newly broken up, as much as 40 bushels of colza can be got from an acre, a larger product than could be expect- ed from tape. The chaff of colza and rape form very good loud for woolly animals during winter. When given to homed cattle, it should be in the form of slop, made by mixing it in boiling water. Sheep eat the straw or stems very freely, when well kept and not too coarse. When planted in rows, a hoeing or harrow- ing, by means of the cultivator, is generally given in the month of March. About the be- ginning of July, and sometimes even at the end of June, the navette, or rape, and winter colza arrive at maturity, the rape almost always 8 or 10 days the earliest. As the seeds of these plants shatter oflf very easily, it is necessary that, in harvesting, they should be cut before they become completely ripe. The most pro- per time is when the seed-pods begin to turn yellow and become transparent, and when the seeds are of a dark-brown, though still tender. Though the grains of all the pods may yet be green, the greatest number will ripen in the stack or mow. Sometimes, when the crop has become very ripe, to prevent the loss of the seed, it should only be cut in the evening or morning, whilst it is covered with dew, or dur- ing a bright moonlight night. Twenty-four hours after reaping, or sometimes immediately after, if the plants are quite ripe, the colza is put into cocks, the sheaves being carried to an elevated part of the field, and placed in cocks, the height of which must be double that of the stock of colza. In laying them down, the first sheaves are placed on the outside, and the next towards the centre. The cock gradually dimi- nishes in diameter, till raised to the height of five or six feet. When the cock is two or three feet high, the stalks or stems have an inclina- tion on the outside downwards. This increases successively to the top, which is thus made to form a perfect cone. To keep out the rain, the top may be tied with a band of straw, willow twig, or branch of any other pliant wood. The cocks remain in this state until all the grains are matured. This generally requires from 8 to 12 days. If carefully put up, the cocks will be sufficiently- protected against bad weather, except in case of powerful and continued rains, which would occasion still more damage to the crop in any other situation. The colza may also be put into large stacks, like those of wheat and other grain, very soon after it has been cut, and remain in this situation for a month or two. This is, in fact, the safest way of keeping the colza. But this method is more expensive than that of cockir?g, as it requires to be wagoned to the stack. The fermentation which always takes place in the cocks is very favourable to the grain, giving it a fine colour, and contributing qualities which are very de- sirable. The grain will only be injured, if it is heaped up whilst it is yet green or wet- When the crop is small, it may be taken at once into a barn and thrashed off. In its trans- portation the seed is very apt to be shaken off, on which account it is necessary to carry them to the wagons in cloths, and the wagon itself should be lined with some coarse and cheap stuff. Large crops of colza or rape are generally thrashed in the field by the feet of horses, the place being covered with strong hempen cloth, stretched upon a spot from which all stones, &c., are carefully removed. If the colza has been put up in cocks, we carry the whole cock in a linen cloth eight feet square, which four men suspend to two long poles of light wood, eleven feet in length, attached to the two sides of the '-nen. After spreading the cloth along the side if the cock, two other poles, of the same length as those described, are passed under the cock, which is thus raised up altoge- ther and placed upon the cloth, to be carried to the thrashing-floor. When this is sufficiently filled with colza, spread evenly about two feet in thickness, and first beaten down by the feet of the workman who arranges it, three unshod horses are put upon the floor, or three two-year- old colts. These are trotted circularly around a man who occupies the centre, and who holds them by a rein. After they have been round several times, the colza is turned with hay- forks, and the horses brought on again. In this way the thrashing is done very quickly. If a very large crop, two thrashing-floors should be made, so that when one bed is preparing, another maybe thrashing and emptying. After being thrashed, the seeds may be housed, either in the chaff or partially screened through rid- dles. When put into granaries, the colza should be spread in small beds, and turned frequently for some time, being subject to heating, by which much of their value is lost. It should only be completely cleaned when perfectly dry, or when it is desirable to sell, as it keeps so much better whon mixed with more or less chaff. It is scarcely necessary to ob- serve that colza may be thrashed by means of the common thrashing machines used for grain. Spring Colza. — In clayey and new soils, the spring colza is generally more productive than the rape, yet it is always a very uncertain crop, like those of all oily grains which Hr« sown in the spring. It is one of the most pro- fitable plants that can be grown in the soils of newly-drained ponds and meadows. Some persons, however, have obtained abundant crops from ground atlapted to the growth of 2 G 349 COLTS-FOOT. CORD-WOOD. wheat, but this has been in particularly favour- able seasons. The spring colza should not be sown as late as the rape, as its growth is much slower. "In one very favourable year," says Dombasle, "when I had sown colza on the 2d of June, it did not arrive at maturity soon enough to admit of being harvested." After the soil ^as been well prepared by two or three ploughings, the seed may be sown broad-cast, at the rate of 7 or 8 lbs. per acre on very light ground, covering it with the har- row. Some sow the colza in drills eighteen inches apart, and till between the rows with a horse-hoe. But, in general, cultivation, which is so beneficial to winter colza and rape, pro- duces but a poor effect on a crop which occu- pies the soil so short a time. COMFREY, COMMON (Symphytum offici- nale). This wild plant grows by the sides of ditches and in moist places to a height of three feet. The leaves arie a deep green colour, pointed, long, and rough to the touch. The stalk is green, thick, and upright, and winged at the bases of the leaves. The flowers are sometimes white, and often reddish in colour. The root is thick, black externally, and white within. It is full of a slimy juice when crushed or broken. The root is the part used medici- nally. It contains much mucilage, and may be used as a demulcent. Conserve of corafrey is the best way of preserving it through the year. The tuberous-rooted comfrey (S. tubero- mm) is an herb of much humbler stature than the last-named root; knobbed and branched; externally whitish ; flowers fewer, drooping, yellowish-white, linged with green. (Smith's Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 263.) The prickly com- frey (S. aspa-mnum) is a hardy perennial of gigantic growth, introduced from Caucasus as an ornamental plant, in 1811, by Messrs. Lod- diges, of Hackney. (See Curtis's Bot. Mag. No. 929.) The attention of the agriculturist has recently been directed to the cultivation of comfrey as green food for cattle, by Mr. Grant, of Lewisham, who speaks highly of its merits. (Baxter's Jgr. Lib.) COMPOSITION FOR TREES. See Cak- K.EII. COMPOST (Fr.; Lat. compositum). That sort of manure which is formed by the union or mixture of one or more different ingredients with dung, or oiher similar matter. An excel- lent essay, by Mr. James Dixon, on making compost heaps from liquids and other sub- stances, written on the evidence of many years' experience, was awarded a premium of 10/. in July, 1839, by the Royal Agr. Soc. of England, and is published in their Quart. Journ. vol. i. p. 135. See also Fahm-tard Manuue. CONDITION (Fr. and Lat.). In horseman- ship, a term supposed to imply a horse's being in a state of strength and power, so much above the purpose he is destined to, that he displays it in his figure and appearance: this, according to Taplin, signifies "fine in coat, firm in flesh, high in spirits, and fresh upon his legs." CONIFEROUS PLANTS AND TREES. Such plants and trees as bear cones; as the fir, pme, cedar, &c. CONSERVATORY (Lar ). > i^iazed struc 360 ture, in which exotic trees and shrubs are grown in a bed or floor of soil. It is distin- guished from an orangery by its having a glazed roof, while that of the latter is opaque, and from a green-house by the plants being set in the fine soil, instead of in pots placed on shelves. The largest conservatory in the world at the present time (close of 1841), is that erected in Chatsworth, in Derbyshire, for palms and other tropical plants, which covers above an acre of ground, and is sixty feet high. (Brande's Did. of Science and Art.) CONTRACTION OF THE HOOF. In far- riery, is a distorted state of the horny substance of the hoof in cattle, producing all the mis- chiefs of unnatural and irregular pressure on the soft parts contained in it, and consequently a degree of lameness which can only be cured by removing the cause. Contraction of the hoof rarely happens, however, except to those animals whose hoofs, for the convenience of labour, are shod. CONVERTIBLE HUSBANDRY, or mixed husbandry, a term implying frequent change in the same field from tillage crops to grass, and from grass back to tillage crops ; an alterna- tion of wheat, rye, &c., with root and grass crops. COOP, or COUP (IceX.kuppa; Hvxi. kuype). A provincial name for a tumbrel or cart, en- closed with boards to carry dung, sand, grains, &c. It is also a pen or enclosure where lambs, &c., are shut up to be fed or fattened; and a kind of cage in which poultry are enclosed for the same purpose. COPPICE, or COPSE (supposed from the Fr. couper ; or Nor. copper, to cut off). Low woods cut at stated times for poles, fuel, &c. A place overrun with brushwood. Its wood is called coppice-wood. CORDGRASS (Spartina striata. From ^ar- tine, a rope made of broom). A genus of pe- rennial maritime grasses found in muddy salt marshes on the sea coast, of which this is the only native variety. They are very easy of culture, and increased by divisions and seeds. Roots, creeping, with strong fibres ; whole plant, hard, tough, and rigid; stems ten to tw-enty inches high, several together ; leaves, numerous, striated, of a dull green colour and smooth. (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 135 ; Paxton^s Bot. Diet.) Spartina jiincea. — According to the experi- ments of Sinclair, this grass is very late in the production of foliage, and inferior in nutritive qualities to most other kinds of grass. It, how- ever, yields well as a single crop, the produce from a rich, silicious, sandy soil; at the time of flowering, being 33,350 lbs., which afforded of nutritive matter 1433 lbs. It has been tried for the purpose of forming into flax ; and Sin- clair tells us, the results were favourable, inas- much as the clear fibre was equal in strength and softness to that of flax, but it was deficient in length. The only advantage that appears would result from this plant affording flax is, that it could be produced on a soil unfit for the growth of flax or the production of corn. It flowers the second week in August, and the seed is ripe by the middle of September. (HorU Gram. Wob, p. 373.) Three or four species of CORD-WOOD. CORN, BROOM-. Spartina are found in the United States, chiefl}' confined to the salt water districts along the sea coast. CORD-WOOD. Small pieces of wood bro- ken up for fuel. It also signifies lop-wood, roots, &c., cut up and set in cords ; so deno- minated from Its being formerly measured with a cord. A statute cord of wood should be eight feet long, four feet high, and four feet broad. COREOPSIS, EAR-LEAVED, (^Coreopsis aii- riculata). A hardy perennial, a native of North America. It grows three or four feet high, and its yellow flowers bloom in August. The Co- reopsis ddphinifulia is also a native of North America, growing about eighteen inches high, with yellow flowers. Blooms from July to October. Divide the roots, and plant it in open situations. CORIANDER, (Coriandrum sativum. From ncgic, a bug; the fresh leaves, when bruised, emitting an odour very similar to that of this vermin). Coriander thrives best in a mode- rately rich but sandy loam: excessive moisture is equally inimical to it as the want of a regu- lar supply. It must have an open and rather sheltered situation. It is propagated by seed, which, if it is required early, must be sown during February, in a warm border or mode- rale hotbed, in either situation with the protec- tion of a frame. This may be repeated at the close of March. Afterwards small crops may be successionally inserted every month in an open bed or border until September, in which month, and October, if required for winter's supply, final crops must be sown under a frame, as in February. The summer sowings should always be of small extent, as the plants at that season are very apt to run. The sowings are generally performed in drills eight inches apart, and half an inch deep ; the plants to remain where sown. The only cultivation required is to thin ihcm to four inches' distance and to have them kept clear of weeds throughout their growth. For Ihe production of seed, some plants of the early spring sowings must be left ungathered from, at about eight inches apart each way; they will perfect their seed in early autumn, being in flower during June. (G. W. Johnson's Kitchen Garden.) CORK OAK (Qitercus suber). The tree pro- ducing the thick, light, and soft bark, out of which corks are made, is a species of oak found in the southern parts of Europe, in Spain, France, and Italy. Both public and private interest, says Michaux, requires the in- habitants of the southern coast of the United States, and especially of the neighbouring islands, to introduce and rear the cork oak, in places unfit for the culture of cotton. It should also, he thinks, be introduced into West Ten- nessee, and with the more reason as the vine is there cultivated successfully. It will grow wherever the live oak is found. In size this oak seldom grows higher than forty feet, with a diameter of three feet. Its leaves are evergreen, but the greater part of them fall and are renewed in the spring. The aoorns are large and oval, of a sweetish taste, and eagerly devoured by swine. The wood is hard, compact and heavy, but not so durable as that of some other kinds of oak. The bark be- gins to be taken ofi" at the age of twenty-five years, the first grow th being of little value. If is not, however, till the tree is forty-five or fifty years old, that the bark possesses all the quali- ties requisite for good corks, and from that pe- riod it is collected every eight or ten years. The length of time which thus elapses between planting and reaping compensation renders it very improbable that the cork oak will ever be extensively introduced by individual enter- prise, into those parts of the United States where it would thrive. Nothing short of go- vernment patronage could effect the object re- commended b)' Michaux. The consumption of corks is exceedingly great; in France alone it amounts annually to 125 or 150,000,000. CORN. A term which in Europe is applied alike to wheat, barley, and the other small grains, whilst in the United States it is used almost exclusively to designate Indian corn or maize. See Maize. CORN BINDWEED. See Bixdwekd. CORN, BROOM-. The following account of the broom-corn, its culture and uses, is the substance of a communication made by Mr. William Allen of Northampton, Massachusetts, to Mr. H. L. Ellsworth, Commissioner of Pa- tents. Of the genus torghum (broom-grass) there are four or five species. Sorghum sarcharatum is the broom-corn, abundantly cultivated in this country, both fur the seed and for its large panicles, which are made into the brooms. The whole plant is saccharine. Attempts have been made in France to extract sugar from it, but Willi little success. The other species are the following: Sorg» hum dora (or holcus dora), common Indian millet, a native of the East Indies, but culti- vated in the south of Europe; S. Incolor, or two- coloured Indian millet; S. cujfroruvi, caflTres Indian millet, and iS. nigruniy coal-black Indian millet. Of the sorghum sarcharatum (or holms saccha- ratus), broom-corn there are several varieties raised in Hampshire county, Massachusetts, in the valley of the Connecticut river, princi pally in the broad meadows of Northampton, Hadley, and Hatfield. The pine Ir^e kind in regarded as the poorest kind, or the least advan tageous for cultivation ; yet, as it is the earliest (being three weeks earlier than the large kind), in a short season, when its seed will ripen, while the seeds of the other kind fail to ripen, this may prove the most profitable crop. The North river crop is ordinarily the best crop; it is ten days earlier than the large kind, and 1 yields about 720 lbs. of the brush per acre- [ the brush meaning the dried panicles, cleaned of the seed, with eight or twelve inches of the J stalk. The New Jersey, or large kind, yields I a thousand or eleven hundred pounds of brush I per acre. The stalks and seed are large. In good seasons, this is the most profitable crop. But in the present season (1842), owing to an early frost (about September 23), much of the seed of this kind will fail to ripen. There is also the shirley, or black brush. Soil rich, alluvial lands are best adapted for the broom- 351 CORN, BROOM-. CORN, BROOM-. com, more especially if warmly situated, pro- tected by hills, and well manured. Method of planting. — The broom-corn is planted in rows, about 2^ or 3 feet apart, so that a horse may pass between them with a plough, or cultivator, or harrow. The hills in each row are from 18 inches to 2 feet apart, or farther, according to the quality of the soil. The quantity of seed to be planted is estimated very differently by different farmers — some say that half a peck is enough per acre, while others plant half a bushel, and some a bushel, in or- der to make it sure that the land shall be well stocked. The rule with some is to cast a tea- spoonful, or 30 or 40 seeds, in a hill ; the ma- nure at the time of planting should be put into the hill, and old manure or compost is preferred, as being most free from worms. CuVivation. — The broom-corn should be ploughed and hoed three times — the last time when about three feet high, though some hoe it when it is six feet high, and when they are concealed by it as they are toiling in the field. The number of stalks in a hill should be from seven to ten. If there are only five or six stalks, they will be larger and coarser ; if there are about eight, the brush will be finer and more valuable. In the first hoeing, the supernume- rary stalks should be pulled up. Harvesting. — As the frost kills the seed, the broom-corn is harvested at the commencement of the first frost. The long stalks are bent down at 2 or 2^ feet from the ground ; and by laying those of two rows across each other obliquely, a kind of table is made by every two rows, with a passage between each table, for the convenience of harvesting. After drying for a few days, the brush is cut, leaving of the stalks from 6 to 12 inches. The longer it is cut, of course, the more it will weigh ; and, if the purchaser does not object, the benefit will accrue to the farmer. However, the dry stalk weighs but little ; if its weight is excessive, the purchaser sometimes requires a deduction from the weight. As it is cut, it is spread on the tables, still farther to dry. As it is carried into the barn, some bind it in sheaves; and this is a great convenience for the further ope- ration of extracting the seed. Others throw the brush into the cart or wagon, unbound. Scraping. — The process of extracting the seed is called " scraping the brush." Two iron horizontal scrapers are prepared — one movable, to be elevated a little, so that a handful of brush may be introduced between them. The upper scraper is then pressed down with "one hand, and the brush drawn through with the other, the seed being scraped off. This is the old method. A newly invented scraper is su- perseding the old one. It is an upright instrument, of elastic wood or steel, inserted in a bench of a convenient height for the operator. The form is as follows : a is a piece of wood or steel, immovable ; b and c are pieces which are elastic, movable to Ihe right and left at the top, but 352 fastened to the central piece below. The de gree of elasticity may be regulated by wedges in the planks d and / — wedges in .the hole through which the pieces pass. Aquantity of brush is taken in the hand, and brought down upon the top of this instrument As it is forced down, and drawn towards the body, it separates the elastic sticks from the cen- tral piece, but their elasticity presses sufiicient- ly on the brush, so that the seed is scraped ofil The advantage of this scraper is, that both hands may be applied to the brush, instead of only one hand, as in the other kind, and the elastic power of nature is substituted for the pressure of one of the hands. The instru- ment also seems to double the scraping surface. The instrument was invented at Hartford. I have been told it has not been patented. The following plan may therefore be useful The operator stands at the end A. The lower plank may rest on the barn floor, or have short legs. The upper oblique has a hole, through which the scraper passes, and down which the seed may fall. Each side of the instrument, a wedge may be inserted, to regulate its elasticity, or by some other con- trivance this object may be secured. In scrap- ing, the panicles must first be laid evenly together, and the stalks taken in the hand. If this is not done in the field, and bundles not formed, then must it be done with considerable labour at the time of scraping in the barn. Product. — A common crop is 700 to 800 lbs. per acre. There have been raised 1000 and 1100 lbs. per acre, with 80 to 100 bushels of seed. The large kind grows eleven feet high. Value of the crop. — About the year 1836 or 1837, the brush sold for 12^ cents a pound; and one farmer in Northampton sold his crop standing, unharvested, at $100 per acre. Since then, the price has been decreasing. This year it has been 4 and 5 cents. At 6 cents, the farmer, for 800 lbs., gets §48 an acre, besides 60 or 70 bushels of seed, worth a third of a dollar a bushel — so that he receives $70 or up- wards from an acre. Good farmers regard the seed alone as equal to a crop of oats from the same land. Some land owners have rented their land for broom- corn, at $25 per acre, they putting on five or six loads of manure. One farmer, who, a few years ago, cultivated 50 acres in broom-corn, must have had an al- most unequalled income for a New England farmer. Quantity. — In Northampton, probably 200 acres are raised ; in Hatfield, 300 ; in Hadley, 400; in other towns, Whateley, Deerfield, Greenfield, Easthampton, Southampton, South- Hadley, Springfield, and Longmeadow, perhaps 300 or 400 acres more ; in all, in the valley of CORN CALE. CORN LAWS. the Connecticut, 1200 or 1300 acres ; the pro- ! duct, in brush and seed, worth $1,000,000. I Manufacture of brooms. — Individuals tie up } brooms with wire or twine. The expense is greater for materials and labour when wire is used. The turned broom handles cost, as delivered, onlv one dollar a hundred— one cent each. The expense of other materials and labour in making a broom is 6 cents, or on the whole about 7 cents. In a good broom a pound and a half of brush is employed, which at the present price of 5 cents, would be 7^ cents, so that a broom made with wire costs now about 14^ cents. A ma- nufacturer recently went to Boston, and could get an offer of only 12 cents, or $12 per hun- dred, for his brooms ; at which rate he could not afford to sell them and chose to retain them. Brooms are made with brush weighing J of a pound, 1 pound, H pound, and 1^ pound. The brush is whitened by the manufacturer. It is placed in a large tight box, and bleached by the fumes of sulphur; but this process is said to weaken the brush. Who would think of whiten- ing broom brush, for beauty 1 Thus it is that fashion descends into the vale of life, and to the humblest of concerns. Why should not the housemaid wield a beautiful broom, with white brush and variously interlaced wire, and po- lished and variously coloured handle 1 MisccUanemis. — A few remarks will be added, some of which were omitted in their proper places. If the stalks are cut before the seed is ripe, they are better, stronger, more durable, than if cut after the seed is ripe. In this case, the farmer would lose the value of the seed. He of course will not submit to this loss, un- less it is made up to him by the increased price of the brush. The seed is used for feeding horses, cattle, and swine. It is ground and mixed with In- dian meal, and is regarded as excellent food — it weighs forty pounds a bushel. Mr. Shipman of Hadley is the greatest ma- nufacturer of brooms in the valley of the Con- necticut. If he employs, on an average, ten hands, and each hand makes 25 brooms per day, the number made in a vear would be 78,000. It is said he has made'lOO.OOO. The brush, when it is put in the barn, should be placed on a scaffold, so as to be exposed to a circulation of the air, that it may dry and not mould. For all the purposes of use, a broom made with twine is equal to one made with wire ; and a man can make several more of them in a day. Mr. Shipman uses 300 or 400 lbs. of large twine, at 20 to 30 cents a pound, and 2,000 lbs. of small twine, at 31 cents. Perhaps he ma- nufactures only ^ part of the brooms manu- factured in Hadley. At the price of 20 cents, the price of brooms a few years ago, the broom manufacture of Hadley would thus amount to $160,000. It is probable that the extended cultivation of the broom-corn will reduce the profits on this product to the average profits of good farming. CORN CALE. A provincial name for char- ock. CORN-CROWFOOT {Ranwiculu» arverms). 45 A weed very common among corn. Root fibrous. It has an upright stalk ; the leaves ar© of a pale, shining green, and cut into long, nar- row, acute segments. The lemon-coloured flowers are much smaller and paler than those of the crowfoot which is found in pasture- grounds, and the seed-vessels are very remark- able, being covered all over with prickles. It is very acrid and dangerous to cattle, though they are said to eat it greedily. M. Brugnon, who has given a particular account of its quali- ties, relates, that three ounces of the juice killed a dog in four minutes. (Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 53.) See Crowfoot. CORN-CUTTING MACHINES. Machines for cutting wheat and other grains by horse power, of which none have hitherto been pro- duced in England whose merits have insured their adoption by the farmer. Of the several English patents obtained, that called Smith's Reaping Machine, is perhaps the most approved. For a minute description of this, with drawings, see Encyc. Britannica, vol. 2, part 1. JSov Mow- lya ANn Reapixo Machine. CORNEL TREE. See Dogwood. CORNET. In farriery, a name sometimes given to the instrument used in venesection, called a fleam. CORN, INDIAN. See Maize. CORN LAWS. The regulation of the sup- ply, and consequently, the value of corn in different countries in Europe, has been an ob- ject of legislation from a very remote period ; a public interference, varying, however, in de- gree, from that of protective taxation, to that which was intended to be prohibitory. Of the first kind are the modern English corn laws; of the last are the present local regulations of Paris, by which bread is sold always at the same price, both in bountiful seasons or in those of scarcity. It would occupy too much space to follow these, generally necessary in- terferences with the sale of corn, which have occurred from the days of the Athenians (who depended upon Thrace for their daily bread), or from the popular broils about bread, which were long a source of disorder to Rome, even in its splendour. In England, there are traces of a corn law nearly six centuries since. By the statute Judicium Pillorie, 51 Hen. 3 (1266), it is directed that the municipal authorities of certain towns should inquire of the price of corn. By the 34 Ed. 3, c. 20 (1360), the ex- portation of corn was prohibited; but in 1436, by the 15 H. 6, c. 2, it was allowed. In 1463, however, by the 3 Ed. 4, c. 2, the necessity (which was declared in the preamble) arose of preventing "the labourers and occupiers of land from being grievously endamaged by bringing com out of other lands when com of the growing of this realm is at a low price." It then declares that wheat shall not be import- ed, unless wheat be sold at the place of import for 6s. 8d. per quarter. In 1532, by the 25 H, 8, c. 2, it was enacted that the exportation of corn should cease, and the price be regulated by the lords of the council, the preamble of the bill very sensibly remarking, that "dearth, scarcity, good and cheap and plenty of, &c., victuals necessary for man's sustenance hap- peneth, riseth, and chanceth of so many and 2a 2 353 CORN LAWS. CORN LAWS. •livers occasions, that it is very hard and diffi- cult to put any certain prices to any buch things." In 1534 (1 P. & M. c. 5), corn was again allowed to be exported when the price of wheat did not exceed 6s. 8d. per quarter. This standard was increased to 10s. by the 5 Eliz. c. 5 (1563) ; and in 1571 (13 Eliz. c. 13), the exportation was directed to be regulated from average prices by the lords of the council. In 1807, the bounty upon the exportation of grain finally ceased. According to the English Corn Law Act, existing in 1842, corn inspectors are appointed in 287 towns, to transmit returns to the Board of Trade, who compute the average weekly price of each description of grain, and the ag- gregate average price for the previous six weeks, and transmit a certified copy to the collectors of customs at the different out-ports. The aggregate average regulates the duty on importation according to the following scale; — If imported from any Foreign Country. Wheat. — Whenever the average price of wheat, made up and published in the manner required by law, shall be for every quarter Under 51s. the duty shall be for every quarter 51s. and under 52s. - - - - , 52s. 65s. 56s. 57s. 58s. 59s. 60s. 61s. 64s. 65s. 66s. 69s. 70s. 71s. 72s. 55s. 56s. 57s. 68s. 59s. 60s. 6is. 62s. 6.?s. 64s. 65s. 66s. 69s. 70s. 71s. — 73s. 73s. and upwards £ 8. 1 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 6 4 3 2 1 Barley. — Whenever the average price of barley, made up and published in the manner required by law, shall be for every quarter Under 26s. the duty shall be for every quarter 26s. and under 27s. ----- 27s. — 30s. — 31s. — 32.?. — 83s. — 34s. — 35s. — 36s. — 30«. 31s. 32s. 33s. 34s. 35s. 36s. 37s. 37s. and upwards Jb S. II 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 OWs.— Whenever the average price of oats, made up and pubUahed in the manner required by law, shall be for every quarter £ Under 19s. the duty shall be for every quarter 19«. and under 20«. - . . - _ o »». — 93s. S3«. — 24«. - - - - . 84s. — 25*. »5». — a6« S6». — 27*. - - - - _ 27s. and upwards - - - . . o Rye, Pease, and Beans.— Whenever the average price of rye, or of pease, or of beans, made up and published in the manner required by law, shall be for every qua r- Qndcr 30s. the duty shall be for every quarter 30s. and under 33s. - . - - . S3s. — 34s. 34s. — 36s. 35s. — 36s. 36s. — 37s. 37s. — 38s. - - - - . 38s. — 39s. 39s. — 40s. 40s. — 41s. 41s. — 42s. - - - - . 42s. and upwards - - - . . 354 £ s. i. 11 6 10 6 9 Wheat Meal and Flour.— For every barrel, being 196 lb., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on 38^ gal- lons of wheal. Oatmeal.— For every quantity of 18H lbs., a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter of oats. Maize or Indian Corn, Buckwheat, Bear or Bigg.— For every quarter, a duty equal in amount to the duty payable on a quarter of barley. See Wheat. An Account showing the total Quantities of Wheat and Wheat Flour imported from Foreign Cow%^ tries and from British Colonies. Quantities entered for Home ! Corisuiiiplion in the United Kinr- dom from the passing of llie Act 9 Geo. 4. c. eo, (15th July, 1828k to the 5th January, 1841. Foreign. Wh'eat. Wheat Flour. L. f. d. '0 10 per quarter - 3,907,'981 cwts. 1,276.731 2 8 — - 2,788,277 835,406 - 1,994,102 518,897 10 8 — - 783,280 238,592 - 648,348 466,4.32 16 8 — - 298,677 213,707 18 8 — - 76,200 44,788 10 8 •— - 377,667 96,538 1 118 — - 107,005 5,861 m 12 8 — - 13,664 5,940 ^ 13 8 — - 138,775 66,5.30 - 37,329 2,070 V 16 8 — - 27,153 1,555 ■S, 16 8 — - 4,724 654 '^ 17 8 — - 1,882 690 c 18 8 — - 134,276 1,.377 19 8 — - 61,649 101 1^ 1 10 8 — - 13,955 756 - 1,496 87 ■— 1 12 8 — - 432 63 1 13 8 — 1 14 8 — 1 15 8 - ': 908 385 154 511 164 24 ' broad, smallest at their base, and growing broader as they advance to the end. The root is tapering and fibrous. {Smith's Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 450.) See Ox-Ete D.vist. CORN MOTH {Tinea granella). Among the insects most injurious in their attacks on grain, when laid up in magazines, is the larva of this small moth (the mottled woollen moth of Ha- worth), the caterpillar of which is also called in England the white corn worm. The perfect moth measures, from the head to the tips of the wings, six or seven lines. The insect appears in that country as a moth in May, June, and July. It frequents granaries and other build- ings where grain is stored, sits at rest in the day-time, and only flies about at night. It is in the summer months, from May to August, and sometimes in September, that the larvae devour the different sorts of grain ; and they attack rye, oats, and barley, with the same zest as wheat. From September to May the larva is sought for in vain in the corn-heaps ; it has retired into the cracks and fissures of the floor and walls, and moreover has concealed itself in its cocoon. It does not reappear till April or May and then in a very different form ; namely, as a moth, which flutters about the heaps of store- corn, and deposits upon them the invisible germ of future destruction. After a few days 355 CORN MOTH. CORN MOTH. have elapsed, small whitish worm maggots, or more properly speaking larvee, p -oceed from the eggs, and immediately penetrate into the grain, carefully closing up the opening with tlieir white roundish excrement, which they glue together by a fine web. "The European grain-moth {Tinea granella), in its perfected state, is," says Dr. Harris, " a winged insect, between three and four-tenths of an inch long from the head to the tip of its wings, and expands six-tenths of an inch. It has a whitish tuft on its forehead ; its long and narrow wings cover its back like a sloping roof, are a little turned up behind, and are edged with a wide fringe. Its fore-wings are glossy like satin, and are marbled with white or gray, light brown, and d^k brown or blackish spots, and there is always one dark square spot near the middle of the outer edge. Its hind wings are blackish. Some of these winged moths appear in May, others in July and August, at which times they lay their eggs ; for there are two broods of them in the course of the year. The young from the first laid eggs come to their growth and finish their transformations in six weeks or two months ; the others live through the winter, and turn to winged moths in the following spring. The young moth-worms do not burrow into the grain, as has been asserted by some writers, who seem to have confounded them with the Angoumois grain-worms ; but, as soon as they are hatched, they begin to gnaw the grain and cover themselves with the fragments, which they line with a silken web. As they increase in size they fasten together several grains with their webs, so as to make a larger cavity, wherein they live. After a while, becoming uneasy, in their confined habitations, they come out, and wander over the grain, spinning their threads as they go, till they have found a suitable place wherein to make their cocoons. Thus, wheat, rye, barley, and oats, all of which they attack, will be found full of lumps of grains cemented together by these corn-worms, as they are sometimes called ; and when they are very numerous, the whole surface of the grain in the bin will be covered with a thick crust of webs and of adhering grains. These destructive corn- worms are really soft and naked caterpillars, of a cylindrical shape, tapering a little at each end, and are provided with sixteen legs, the first three pairs of which are conical and jointed, and the others fleshy and wart-like. When fully grown, they mea- sure four or five-tenths of " an inch in length, and are of a light ochre or buff colour, with a reddish head. When about six weeks old they leave the grain, and get into cracks, or around the sides of corn-bins, and each one then makes itself a little oval pod or cocoon, about as large as a grain of wheat. The insects of the first brood, as before said, come out of their co- coons, in the winged form, in July and August, and lay their eggs for another brood: the others remain unchanged in th ir cocoons, through the winter, and take the chrysalis form va March or April following. Three weeks afterwards, the shining brown chrysalis forces i-iself part way '^nt of the cocoon, by the help 356 of some little sharp points on its tail, and b irsts open at the other end, so as to allow the moth therein confined to come forth. " The foregoing account will probably enable the readers of this essay to determine whether these destructive insects are found in our own country. From various statements, deficient however in exactness, that have appeared in some of our agricultural journals, I am led to think that this corn-moth,or an insect exactly like it in its habits, prevails in all parts of the coun- try, and that it has generally been mistaken for the grain-weevil, which it far surpasses in its de- vastations. Many years ago I remember to have seen oats and shelled corn (maize) af- fected in the way above described, and have observed seed-corn, hanging* in the ears, to have been attacked by insects of this kind, the empty chrysalids of which remained sticking between the kernels ; but, for some time past, no opportunity for further investigation has offered itself. " There is another grain-moth, which, at va- rious times, has been found to be more destruc- tive in granaries, in some provinces of France, than the preceding kind. It is the Angoumois moth (Anacampsis? cerealella). The winged moths of this group have only two visible feelers, and these are generally long, slender and curved over their heads. Their narrow wings most often overlap each other, and cover their backs horizontally when shut. The Angoumois grain moth probably belongs to the modern genus Anacampsis, a word derived from the Greek, and signifying recurved, in allusion to the direction of the feelers of the moths. In the year 1769, Colonel Landon Carter, of Sa- bine Hall, Virginia, communicated to the Ame- rican Philosophical Society at Philadelphia, some interesting ' observations concerning the fly-weevil that destroys wheat.' These were printed in the first volume of the 'Transactions' of the Society, and were followed by some re- marks on the subject by 'the Committee of Husbandry.' It is highly probable that this fly-weevil is no other than the destructive An- goumois grain-moth ; for Colonel Carter's ac- count of it, though deficient in some particu- lars, agrees essentially with what has been published respecting the European insect. Mr. E. C. Herrick has recently sent to me, from New Haven, Connecticut, some wheat, that has been eaten by moths precisely in the same way as grain is attacked by the Angoumois grain- moth; and a gentleman to whom this moth- eaten wheat was shown, informed me that he had seen grain thus affected in Maine. Unfor- tunately the insects contained in this wheat were dead when received, having perished in the chrysalis state ; had they lived to finish their transformations, I have good reason to think that they would have proved to be identi- cal with the Angoumois moths. The following particulars respecting the latter are chiefly gathered from Reaumur's ' Memoires,' and from a work by Duhamel du Monceau and Tillet, who were commissioned by the Academy of Sciences of Paris, in the year 1760, to inquire into the nature of the insect, on account of its ravages in Angoumois, a part of France wher CORN MOTH. CORN SALAD. it had long been known, and had multiplied to an alarming extent. The Angoumois moth, or Anacarnpsis cerealella, in its perfected state, is a four winged insect, about three-eighths of an inch long, when its wings are shut. It has a pair of tapering curved feelers, turned over its head. Its upper wings are narrow, of a light brown colour, without spots, and have the lustre of satin ; they cover the body horizon- tally above, but droop a little at the sides. The lower wings and the rest of the body are ash- coloured. This moth lays its eggs, which vary in number from sixty to ninety, in clus- ters, on the ears of wheat, rye, and barley, most often while these plants are growing in the field, and the ears are young and tender; some- times also on s'tored grain in the autumn. Hence it appears that they breed twice a year; the insects from the eggs laid in the early part of summer, coming to perfection and providing for another brood of moth-worms in the autumn. The little worm-like caterpillars, as soon as they are hatched, disperse, and each one se- lects a single grain, into which it burrows im- mediately at the most fender part, and remains concealed therein after the grain is harvested. It devours the mealy substance within the hull; and this destruction goes on so secretly, that it can only be detected by the softness of the grain or the loss of its weight. When fully grown this caterpillar is not more than one- fifth of an inch long. It is of a white colour, with a brownish head; and it has six small jointed legs, and ten extremely small wart-like propkegs. Duhamel has represented it as having two little horns just behind the head, and two short bristles at the end of its tapering body. Having eaten out the heart of the grain, which is just enough for all its wants, it spins a silken web or curtain to divide the hollow, lengthwise, into two unequal parts, the smaller containing the rejected fragments of its food, and the larger cavity serving instead of a co- coon, wherein the insect undergoes its trans- formations. Before taming to a chrysalis it gnaws a small hole nearly or quite through the hull, and sometimes also through the chaffy covering of the grain, through which it can make its escape easily when it becomes a winged moth. The insects of the first, or sum- mer brood, come to maturity in about three weeks, remain but a short time in the chrysalis state, and turn to winged moths in the autumn, and at this time may be found, in the evening, in great numbers, laying their eggs on the grain stored in barns and granaries. The moth-worms of the second brood remain in the grain through the winter, and do not change to winged insects till the following summer, when they come out, fly into the fields in the night, and lay their eggs on the young ears of the growing grain. When damaged grain is sown, it comes up very thin ; the infected kernels never sprout, but the insects lodged in them remain alive, finish their transformations in the field, and in due time come out of the ground in the winged form. "It has been proved by experience that the ravages of the two kinds of grain-moths, whose history j^as been now f^iven. can be effectually checked by drying the damaged gram in an oven or kiln ; and that a heat of one hundred and sixty-seven degrees, by Fahrenheit's ther* mometer, continued during twelve hours, will kill the insects in all their forms. Indeed, the heat may be reduced to one hundred and four degrees, with the same effect, but th« grain must then be exposed to it for the space of two days. The other means, that have been em- ployed for the preservation of grain from these destructive moths, it is unnecessary to de- scribe ; they are probably well known to most of our farmers and millers, and are rarely so effectual as the process above mentioned." {Harriia Idealise on Insects.) From these considerations, the means which the agriculturist must employ to secure his grain from so dangerous an enemy, are clearly deducible. First of all, the lofts, before the corn is placed in them, must be carefully ex- amined, and the cocoons, if any are discover- ed, got rid of. Sprinkling the floor with » mixture of strong white wine vinegar and salt, before laying up the corn, is strongly to be re- commended. Sweeping the floor and walls thoroughly should not be neglected ; and the dust should be removed immediately, in order that the larva? may not find their way back into the corn-heaps. Common salt will also purify the infested grain. One of the surest remedies appears to be a free ventilation, by means of an artificial degree of cold, as the larvre can only live in a temperature of 55° to 60° of Fahr. Bats and spiders are the principal natural ene- mies of the corn-moth, and some small birds also feed on them. See GnAi!« Wkevil. (Trea' tite on Insects, ifc, by J. and M. Loudon.) CORN POPPY (Pnpaver rhfn>s). PI. 10, 8. Indifferently called red-poppy, corn rose, cop- rose, head-wark, red-weed, red-mailkes, ey aie composed, must vary with the locality. 358 Mr. Gillespie has given one for a cottage with a roof without wood, which he asserts could be built in Scotland for 30Z. {Com. Board of jigr, vol. iv. p. 469.) There is also an essay by Mr. Smith, on cottages for the labouring classes, which may be consulted with advantage {Trans. High. Soc. vol. iv. p. 205), and on cot- tage windows (Quart. Journ. of jjgr. p. 116), and also on cottage premiums, and on the cot- tages built on the estate of Lord Roseberry. {Trans. High. Soc. vol. vi. p. 527.) By the erection of small, comfortable cot- tages on poor waste lands, and the allotment to each of a few acres of land, a field is opened for the rapid recovery by the spade of barren lands, and the profitable employment of the landowner's capital, too little understood. By merely deepening and mixing the soil, the cot- tager can bring into cultivation lands, which seem to defy all the powers of even the subsoil plough. The following information relative to the best modes of building cheap cottages is from a report made to Congress by Henry L. Ells- worth, see pp. 55 — 57. "After selecting a suitable spot of ground, as near the place of building as practicable, let a circle of ten feet or more be described. Let the loam be removed, and the clay dug up one foot thick, or, if clay is not found on the spot, let it be carted in to that depth. Any ordinary clay will answer. Tread this clay over with cattle, and add some straw cut six or eight inches long. After the clay is well tempered with working it with the cattle, the material is duly prepared for the making of brick. A mould is then formed of plank, of the size of the brici de- sired. In England, they are usually made eighteen inches long, one foot wide, and nine inches thick. I have found the more conve- nient size to be one foot long, seven inches wide, and live inches thick. The mould should have a bottom. The clay is then placed in the moulds in the same manner that brick moulds are ordinarily filled. A wire or piece of iron hoop will answer very well for striking off the top. One man will mould about as fast as an- other can carry away, two moulds being used by him. The bricks are placed upon the level ground, where they are suflered to dry two days, turning them up edgewise the second day, and then packed up in a pile, protected from the rain, and left to dry ten or twelve days, during which time the foundation of the building can be prepared. If a cellar is desired, this must be formed of stone or brick, one foot above the surface of the ground. For cheap buildmgs on the prairie, wood sills, twelve or fourteen inches wide, may be laid on piles or stones. This will form a good superstructure. Where lime and small stones abound, grout made of those materials (lime and stones) will answer very well. " In all cases, however, before commencing the walls for the first story, it is very desirable, as well in this case as in walls of brick, to lay a single course of slate; this will intercept the dampness so often rising in the walls of brick houses. The wall is laid by placing the brick lengthwise, thus making the wall one fgot thick. COTTAGES. COTTAGES. Ordinan' clay, such as is used for clay mortar, will sufHce, though a weak mortar of sand and lime, when these articles are cheap, is recom- mended as affording a more adhesive material for the p' aster. The wall may safely be car- ried up one story, or twc or three stories ; the division walls may be seven inches, just the width of the brick. The door and window frames being inserted as the wall proceeds, the building is soon raised. The roof may be shingles or thatch. In either case, it should pro- ject over the sides of the house, and also over the two ends, at least tico feet, to guard the walls from rcr/i- cal rains. The exterior wall is plastered with good lime mortar, and then with a second coat pebble-dashed. The inside is plastered without dashing. The floor may be laid with oak boards, slit, five or six inches wide, and laid down without jointing or planing, if they are rubbed over with a rough stone after the rooms are finished. Doors of a cheap and neat ap- pearance may be made by taking two single boards of the length or width of the doors ; placing these vertically, they will fill the space. Put a wide batten on the bottom and a narrow one on the top, with strips on the side, and a strip in the middle. This door will be a batten door, but presenting two long panels on one side and a smooth surface on the other. If a porch or verandah is wanted, it may be roofed with boards laid with light joints and covered with a thick paper dipped in tar, and then add- ing a good coat, after sprinkling it with sand from a sand-box or other dish with small holes. "Houses built in this way are dr\', warm in winter, and cool in summer, and furnish no re- treat for vermin. Such houses can be made by common labourers, if a little carpenter's work is excepted, in a very short time, with a small outlay for materials, exclusive of floors, win- dows, doors, and roof. " The question will naturally arise, will the wall stand against the rain and frost 1 I answer, they have stood well in Europe, and the Hon. Mr. Poinsett remarked to me that he had seen them in South America, after having been erect- ed three hundred years. Whoever has noticed the rapid absorption of water by a brick that has been burned, will not wonder why brick walls are damp. The burning makes the brick po- rous, while the unburnt brick is less absorbent; but it is not proposed to present the unburnt brick to the weather. Whoever has erected a building with merchantable brick will at once perceive the large number of soft and yellow brick, partially burned, that it contains — brick that would soon yield to the mouldering influ- ence of frost and storms. Such brick are, however, placed within, beyond the reach of rain, and always kept dry. A good cabin is made by a single room twenty feet square. A better one is eighteen feet wide and twenty-four feet long, cutting off eight feet on one end for two small rooms, eight by nine each. " How easily could a settler erect such a cabin an the Western prairie, where clay is usually found about fifteen inches below the surface, and where stone and lime are often both very cheap. The article of brick for chimneys is found to be quite an item of expense in wood- houses. Id these mud houses no brick are needed, except for the top of the chimneys, the oven, and casing of the fireplace — though this last might be well dispensed with. A ceraem, to put around the chimneys, or to fill any other crack, is easily made by a mixture of one part of sand, two of ashes, and three of clay. This soon hardens, and will resist the weather. A little lard or oil may be added, to make the composition still harder. " Such a cottage will be as cheap as a leg cabin, less expensive than pine buildings, and durable for centuries. I have tried the experi- ment in this city by erecting a building eighteen by fifty-foiir feet, two stories high, adopting the different suggestions now made. Although many doubted the success of the undertaking, all now admit it has been very successful, and presents a convenient and comfortable build- ing, that appears well to public view, and oii^rs a residence combining as many advantages uS a stone, briek, or wood house presents. I will add what Loudon says in his. most excellent work, the Encyclopedia of Agriculture, pp. 74 and 75 : "* The great art in building an economual cottage is to employ the kind of materials and labour which are cheapest in the given locality. In almost every part of the world the cheapest article of which the walls can be made will be found to be the earth on which the cottage stands, and to make good walls from the earth is the principal art of the rustic or primitive builder. Soils, with reference to building, may be divided into two cla.sses : clays, loams, and all such soils as can neither be called gravels nor sands, and sands and gravels. The former, whether they are stiff or free, rich or poor, mixed with stones, or free from stones, may be formed into walls in one of these modes, viz., in the pis6 manner, by lumps moulded in boxes, and by compressed blocks. Sandy and gravelly soils may be always made into excel- lent walls, by forming a frame of boards, leav- ing a space between the boards of the intended thickness of the wall, and filling this with gravel mixed with lime mortar, or, if this cannot be got, with mortar made of clay and straw. " ' In all cases, when walls, either of this class or the former, are built, the foundations should be of stone or brick, and they should be carried up at least a foot above the upper sur- face of the platform. " * We shall here commence by giving one of the simplest modes of construction, from a work of a very excellent and highly estimable individual, Mr. Denson, of Waterbeach, Cam- bridgeshire, the author of the Peasant's Voice, who built his own cottage in the manner de scribed below : " 'Mode of building the mud walls of cottages in Cambridgeshire. — After a labourer has dug a sufficient quantity of clay for his purpose, he works it up with" straw ; he is then provided with a frame eighteen inches in length, six deep, and from nine to twelve inches in diame- ter. In this frame he forms his lumps, in the same manner that a brickmaker forms his bricks ; they are then packed up to dry by ihe weather ; that done, they are fit for the use, a« a substitute for br icks. On laying the founda 359 COTTAGE-CHEESE. COW-BANE, SPOTTED. tion of a cottage, a few layers of brick are ne- cessary, to prevent the lumps from contracting a damp from the earth. The fireplace is lined and the oven is built with bricks. I have known cottagers, where they could get the grant of a piece of ground to build on for them- selves, erect a cottage of this description at a cost from £15 to £30. I examined one that was nearly completed, of a superior order: it contained two good lower rooms and a cham- ber, and was neatly thatched with straw. It is a warm, firm, and comfortable building, far su- perior to the one I live in ; and my opinion is, '.hat it will last for centuries. The himps are laid with mortar, they are then plastered, and on the outside once roughcast, which is done by throwing a mixture of water, lime, and small stones, against the walls, before the plaster is dry, which gives them a very hand- some appearance. The cottage I examined, cost £33, and took nearly one thousand lumps to complete it. A labourer will make that number in two days. The roofs of cottages of this description are precisely the same as when built with bricks or with a wooden frame. Cow-house sheds, garden walls, and partition fence, are formed with the same materials ; but in all cases the tops are covered with straw, which the thatchers perform in a very neat manner.' " {Demon's Peasant's Voice, p. 31.) COTTAGE-CHEESE. See Whet Butter. COTTON-GRASS (Eriophorum. Ital. co- tone; Fr. colon). A perennial native genus of grasses, comprising seven species, which have no particular merit to warrant their recom- mendation for the purpose of the agriculturist ; their productive and nutritive powers being very inferior. Sinclair gives us the result of his experiments on two sorts, the common long- leaved cotton-grass (E. angustifolmm), and the hare's-tail, or sheathed cotton-grass (JS. vagi- natum.) COTTON PLANT. See Gossypium. COTTON TREE (Populus argentea). See Poplar. COTTON-WOOD (Populus Canadensis). See Poplar. COTTON, WILD (Jsclepias Syriaca), popu- larly called silk^weed and swalloivwort. An Ame- rican plant growing in low grounds and on road-sides, to the height of three or four feet. {Flora Crstrica.) COTYLEDON. The seed leaf. See Botany. COUCH, or CREEPING WHEAT GRASS (Tritiatm repens, PI. 10, i.) Named from the French coucher, to lie down. Sometimes called dog-grass and knot-grass. Until of late years, when botanical science has afibrded us better information, it was generally supposed that all couch or twitch was the roots of one spe- cies of grass. But many persons observed that some of these roots, on wet soils, were black and much smaller, and they had locally ob- tained the name of black Ivntch. This, on soils where it prevails, is much worse than the other, because it is wiry and small, and not so easily discharged from the soil ; it is also more brittle, and by harrowing breaks short. This is the Jgrostis repens. There are two other grasses which have strong creeping roots, and are in- differently c^ed coucli: these are the creep- 360 mg-rooled soft grass (Holcus mollis), and the smooth-stalked meadow grass (Poa prutensis). There is but one way of destroying couch, and that is by ploughing up the soil and pulverizing it. {Sinclair's Weeds, p. 27.) See Agrostis Re- pens. Couch or quitch grass, or creeping triti- cum, is a troublesome perennial, fortunately but little known in the United States. Dr. Darling- ton has only been able to find it in one place, the Weston school farm, in Chester county, Pennsylvania. (See Flora Cestrica.) COUGH (Goth, kueff, a catarrh ; kof, suffo- cation ; Dutch, kuch). in farriery, a convulsive motion of the lungs, being an effort of natur^. to throw up some offending matter from the air tubes. This is best treated, in mild cases, by cold bran mashes with linseed. But coughs arise from so many different causes that it is impossible to prescribe any general remedy. COULTER OF A PLOUGH. See Plouoh. COUNTER. In horsemanship, the breast of a horse, or that part of his fore-hand which lies between the shoulders and under the neck. COUPLES. A term applied to ewes and lambs. Couple is also a chain or tie that holds dogs together. COUPLINGS, or CUPLINGS. Thongs of untanned leather, or other material, which are used to connect the handle or handstaff and swiple of a flail. COVER, or COVERT (Fr. cmivrir). A term applied to a place sheltered, not open or ex- posed. In sportsman's phrase, the cover is the chosen resort of the fox for kennelling; and such as lie high and dry are seldom without one or more, particularly if the underwood be thick and plenty. Artificial covers are often formed of broom and gorse, intermixed. {Flaine's Rural Sports, p. 452.) COVEY (Fr. couvce, from the Lat cubo). Provincially applied to a cover of furze, &c., for game. It is also applied to an old bird with her young ones, but is generally used to designate a number of partridges or other game. COW (Sax. cu; Dutch, koe ; Pers. gow). See Cattle. C0W-3ANE, WATER, or WATER HEM^ LOCK {Cicuta virosa). A perennial, fetid, poi- sonous aquatic herb, found in ditches, and about the margins of rivers, not very common. Root tuberous, hollow. Stems two or three feet high, hollow, leafy, branched, furrowed. Leaves bright green, tapering at each end, from one to two inches long. Umbels large, bearing purplish flowers ; fruit roundish, smooth. This is a fatal plant to cattle, if they happen to meet with it before it rises out of the water, in which state only they will eat the voung leaves. {Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 62). COW-BANE, SPOTTED {Cicuta maculata). Water hemlock, a perennial root frequently found in low grounds and the margins of streams in Pennsylvania and other Middle States. The mature fruit of this plant is highly aromatic, — the odour something be- tween that of aniseed and the kernels of the black walnut. Thereof is an active poison ; and numerous lives have been lost, for want COW-CLAGS. CRAB TREE. of sufTicient botanical knowledge to distinguish the plant from the oxmorhiza or sweet cicely. The herb is also destructive to cattle, when eaten by them. There is one other species in the United States. {Flor. Cestric.) COW-CLAGS. A provincial name for the clotted lumps of dirt that hang to the buttocks of cattle and other animals. COW-HERD. A person whose office it is to attend upon the herds of cows in places where tliev run in common fields. COW-HOUSE. See Cattle Shed. COWISH. A new species of plant, called biscuit-root, found growing on dry land in the valley of the Columbia river. Its size is about that of a walnut, though sometimes larger. Its | taMe resembles that of the sweet potato, and it is prepared for food by the same process as the camnias, in which stale it forms a tolerable sul s'itute for bread. CMW-KEEPING. The business of keeping cows ! )r the advantage of the milk, by dispos- ing of it in large towns. The principal cow- keepers of the British metropolis have their establishments in the suburbs, where they are connected with pasture fields, in which their animals are turned out a portion of every day throughout the year, when practicable. The cows are fed in the house with grains, mangel- wurzel, hay, tares, &c., and as the animals get air and exercise, the milk may be considered wholesome. But there are other cow-keepers in the metropolis, who confine their cows in back houses, and even dark cellars, and while they feed them with rich food, give them no exercise ; hence, the milk of such cows can- not be considered wholesome. {Harleian Dairy System ; Brit. Husb.) See Cattle. COW PARSNIP, or HOG WEED (Hera- cleum spfioiKlylium). A biennial pasture weed, which in England is found in hedges, the bor- ders of fields, and rather moist meadows, ver}' common. Root tap-shaped, whitish, aromatic, sweetish, and rather mucilaginous. Stem four to six feet high, erect, branched, leafy, fur- rowed, and hollow. The leaves proceed from a large membrane or sheath. The flowers, which grow in large umbels, are either white or reddish ; the fruit is abundant, and light brown. The whole plant is wholesome and nourishing food for cattle, and is gathered in Sussex for fattening hogs, hence its name of hog-weed. It is also frequently known by the name of wild parsnip, meadow parsnip, and madrep. (Sinclair's Weeds, p. 65 ; Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 102.) The only ascertained species of this genus found in the United States is the Heracieum la- natam, or woolly cow parsnip, a perennial root, the stem of which sometimes grows six or eight feet high. It is frequent in low grounds in Pennsylvania. See Flor. Cest. COW PEA. A kind of pea much culti- vated in the Southern States as a field crop, and substitute for clover. See Peas. COW-POX. In farriery, is a disease afiect- ing the teats of cows. This disease appears in the form of small bluish vesicles surrounded by inflammation, elevated at the edge and de- pressed in the centre, and containing a limpid fluid. By the use of the virus of this disease, 46 has originated the present excellent system of vaccination. COWSLIP, AMERICAN (DodecatheoA Meadia). A hardy perennial from South Ame- rica, loving shade and moisture. It blows in April and May. Propagated by seed and off- sets. Sow the seed in pots in autumn. Plant out the following autumn. COWSLIP, THE COMMON, or PAIGLE (Primula veris). A native English perennial weed, growing in mealows and pastures, chiefly on a clay or chalky soil. It produces sweet-scented yellow flowers, which appear in April, and are used for making cowslip wine or balsamic tea. Its roots have a fine odour, similar to "that of anise, and give additional strength to ale or beer, when immersed in the cask. The leaves and flowers are excellent food for silk-worms, and are eaten eagerly by cattle. The leaves are also used as a pot- herb, and in salads. The flowers, leaves, and roots are all medi- cinal portions of the cowslip, and are made into tea, wine, and conserve. It is anodyne in its quality, and the ancient writers upon herbs speak highly of its eflects; but their opinions have lost their value by time. (Eng. Flora, vol. i. p. 271 ; WilUdCs Dom. Exeyc.) COWSLIP OF JERUSALEM, or LUNG- WORT PULMONARIA (Pulmonaria officii nalis). This plant is perennial and flowers in May. It grows eight or ten inches high, with long, broad, hairy leaves, of a deep green, spotted on the upper side with white spots. The stalks are slender and hairy, with small leaves upon them. The flowers are reddish in the bud but blue when blown, small, grow- ing in clusters at the top of its stalk. The root is fibrous. The leaves have been used medicinally, from the idea that they resemble the lungs, and therefore must be useful in dis- ease of those organs. They are inert, and consequently useless. Several species of lungwort are found indigenous to the United States. COW-TIE. A provincial term applied to a short thick hair rope,^with a wooden nut at on€ end and an eye in the other, being used for tying the hind legs of the cows while milking. COW-WHEAT (Melampynmi pratense), PI. 7, q. A plant cultivated in Flanders for feeding stock. There are some species of this plant found in the United States. One has been called by botanists .American melainpynim. This is found in dry, hilly woodlands, and on mica-slate hills, where it flowers in June and July. A narro\v- leaved variety is abuuuant m the pines of New Jersey. (Flora Cestnca.) CRAB TREE, or WILD APPLE TREE (Pxjrus malus). There are in England several varieties among the wild crab.;, some of which are of excellent flavour when baked with plenty of sugar, oven surpassing cultivated apples. (Eng. Flora, vol. ii. p. 362.) Crab apples and sloes are the only fruits naturally belonging to the soil, and both are medicinal. The e\ pressed juice of any of them, called verjuice, kept by good housewives in the country, being excellent as an astringent gargle in sore throat.s 2H 361 CRAB APPLE. CRANBERRY. and in thrush and ulceration of the mouth and gums. It is sometimes mixed with beer-yeast, and applied outwardly, in inflammations, bad legs, burns, sprains, and scalds ; but cold water and rest are better. CRAB APPLE (Mains coronaria). This species of wild apple tree is found in North America, and at the time Michaux wrote his Syha Americana, he says its nature had not been modified by cultivation. The wild apple tree of Europe, in a long series of years, has yielded a great number of species and varie- ties of fruit, which, in France alone, amount to nearly three hundred. Except the district of Maine, the state of Vermont, and the upper part of New Hampshire, the crab apple is found, on both sides of the mountains, through- out the United States: but it appears to be most multiplied in the Middle States, and espe- cially in the back parts of Pennsylvania and of Virginia. It abounds, above all, in the Glades, which is the name given to a tract 15 or 18 miles wide, on the summit of the Alle- ghanies, along the road from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. The ordinary height of the crab apple tree is 15 or 18 feet, with a diameter of 5 or 6 inches ; but it is sometimes found 25 or 30 feet high, and 12 or 15 inches in diameter. The two stocks which I found by measurement to be of this size, stood in a field which had long been under cultivation, and this circumstance may have contributed to their extraordinary growth. They were insulated trees that in ap- pearance exactly resembled the common apple tree. I have universally remarked that the crab apple grows most favourably in cool and moist places, and on fertile soils. The leaves of this tree are oval, smooth on the upper surface, and, when fully developed, very distinctly toothed: some of them are im- perfectly three-lobed. While young, they have a bitter and slightly aromatic taste, which leads to the belief that, with the addition of sugar, they would make an agreeable tea. Like the common apple tree, this species blooms very early in the spring. Its flowers are white mingled with rose colour, and are collected in corymbs ; they produce a beautiful effect, and diff'use a delicious odour, by which, m the glades where the tree is abundant, the air is perfumed to a great distance. The apples, which are suspended by short peduncles, are small, green, intensely acid, and very odorife- rous. Some farmers make cider of them, which is said to be excellent: they make very fine sweet-meats also, by the addition of a large quantity of sugar. No attempts have been made in the United States to improve the fruit of the crab apple tree, nor any experiments of uniting it, by grafting, with the species imported from Eu- rope. These species succeed so perfectly, and furnish such excellent new varieties, that much time would be spent upon the crab apple, with- out bringing it to as high a state of improve- ment. Perhaps it might be cultivated with ad- vantage for cider; but, aside from its utility in this way, it must be regarded only as a tree highly agreeable for the beauty of its flowers and for the sweetness of its perfume. 302 CRAB-GRASS (Elmsine Indica). Dog's-tail grass. Wire grass. The grass described under these several names in the Flora Cestricoy makes a fine carpeting in yards, lanes, and foot-paths, flowering in the Middle States in August. Cattle and hogs are very fond of it, and it is recommended as making excellent hay. Another species of grass which in some places goes under the name of Crab-grass, is the Dlgitaiia snngninalis, or Finger-grass (see plate 7, /). This is a very troublesome an- nual in gardens and cultivated grounds, being very difficult to keep in subjection in the latter part of summer. (Flor. Cestrica.) CRACKS IN HEELS OF HORSES. In farriery, little clefts which are said to be sometimes constitutional, but more frequently owing to the want of cleanliness and proper attention. CRADLE. A frame consisting of long fin- gers arranged above a scythe, for the purpose of receiving the grain when harvesting. The scythe and cradle is comparatively a modern invention, by the aid of which a hand can cut five or six times as much grain as could be harvested in the same time with a sickle. CRANBERRY (Vaccinium oxycoccm). See Whortleberry. The species of Cranberry most commonly found in the United States is the Oxyroccus ma- crocarpvs. It is an indigenous, low trailing vine, growing wild in bogs and meadows, bear- ing a beautiful red berry of an exceedingly sour, though agreeable taste, much used in do- mestic economy for tarts and sweet-meats. The cranberry, says Mr. Kenrick, of Boston, is a plant of easy culture ; and with but little expense, not a doubt exists that meadows which are now barren wastes, or yield nothing bu«" coarse herbage, might be concerted into pro fitable cranberry fields. According to Loudon. Sir Joseph Banks, who obtained this plant from America, raised, in 1831, on a square of 18 feet each way, 3^ Winchester bushels, which is at the rate of 460 bushels to the acre. Any meadow will answer. Captain Henry Hall, of Barnstable, has cultivated the cranberry 20 years. They grow well on sandy bogs after draining; if the bogs are covered with brush, it is removed, but it is not neces- sary to remove the rushes, as the strong roots of the cranberry soon overpower them. It would be well if, previous to planting, the land could be ploughed; but Capt. Hall usually spreads on beach sand, and digs holes four feet asunder each way, the same distance as for corn; the holes are, however, deeper. Into these holes, sods of cranberry roots are planted, and in the space of three years the whole ground is covered. The planting is usually performed in autumn. Mr. F. A. Hayden, of Lincoln, Mass., is stated to have gathered from his farm, in 1830, 400 bushels of cranberries, which brought him, in Boston market, $400. An acre of cranberries in full bearing will produce over 200 bushels; and the fruit gene- rally sells in the markets of Boston for $1'50 per bushel, and much higher than in former years. Although a moist soil is best suited to the plant, yet, with a suitable mixture of bog CRANE'S BILL. CRESS, INDIAN. earth, or mud, it will flourish, producing abun- dant crops, even in any dry soil. There is said to be a variety of cranberry in Russia of a superior size. Cranberries abound in vast quantities in the moist prairies in Michicjan and some of the Western States. By means of a newly invented rake, very simple in its construction and not expensive, 40 bushels may be gathered by one man in a day; and a cargo of 1500 bushels has been sent to one of the Atlantic States, from the northern part of Indiana, in a flat- boat, at one time. The price which this pro- duct often commands in the markets of the cities along the Atlantic varies from $1 50 even up to $2 50 or $3 50 per bushel. They can be gathered at the west at an expense of not more than 50 cents per bushel. The duty on them in England is not more than 2 cents per gallon by direct trade. The cranberry tree, or shrub, commonly called the Highbush Cranberry (Viburnum oxy- coccutn), is also indigenous to North America, and among other places in: which it is found, are some of the western counties of New York. The blossoms are white, disposed in cymes, forming a flat surface from a common centre, and very beautiful. Its fruit is a berry about the size of the common cranberry, of a bright red colour, and very austere taste. They are valuable for pies, laris, preserves, Sec. The tree is propagated by seeds, layers, and suckers. (Kenrick^s Am. Or chard ist.) It may, with great ease, be transferred from its native forest to the yard or garden, flourish- ing in every kind of soil, whether wet, dry, sand, or clay. The shrub so much resembles the snow-ball as to be distinguished from it with difficulty. The fruit is but little if any inferior in flavour to that of the swamp cran- berry, from which it diifers in having a small pit or stone. For some purposes it is even preferable to the common cranberry. It grows in clusters which will remain on the bush all winter. In the valley of the Columbia river, a new species of bush-cranberry has been discovered, called Pamhina. CRANE'S BILL {Geranium). A genus of plants comprising a large number of species, of which, according to Smith (Eng. Flor. vol. ii. p. 221), only thirteen are indigenous. The blue meadow crane's bill {G. pratcnse) is found in rich, rather moist pastures, and thickets, es- pecially in the hilly parts of England. It is a perennial, flowering in June and July ; flowers, of a fine blue, often irregularly striped or i blotched with white, sometimes entirely white. The species of crane's bill called Herb Robert (G. Robertianumy) possesses most medicinal virtues, and is found under hedges and in un- cultivated places, flowering all through the summer. The stalks, and indeed the whole | plant, is often quite red, as are the flowers, and the fruit is long and slender, resembling a crane's bill, after which it is named. The leaves are large, divided into many parts, and ' stand in pairs at every joint of their long-footed stalks. It is a very powerful astringent, and ! may be given in any form, decocted fresh, or ! powdered when dry. Several indig'^nous spe- cies are found in the United States. CRAP. A local name in some places for darnel, and in others for buckwheat. CRAPULA. See Hovex. CREAM. A thick, unctuous, yellowish co* loured substance which collects on the surface of milk, when this is allowed to stand some time at rest. See Butter. CREAM GAUGE, or GLASS. A graduated glass tube to ascertain the produce of creani. In a tube containing ten inches' depth of milk, every tenth of an inch will of course indicate one per cent, of cream. It may be used for many purposes, such as to ascertain the state of the animal's health, regular and quiet feed- ing, &c. (Quart. Jirurn. Jgr. vol. ii. p. 245.) CREAM-SLICE. A sort of wooden knife, twelve or fourteen inches in length. CREOSOTE. A term derived from Greek words signifying "flesh preserver." It is the most important of the five new chemical pro- ducts obtained from wood-tar, by Dr. Reichen- bach. The other four, are Pamfflne, Evpione, PU camar,SindPittacal, none of which have, as yot, been applied to any use in the arts. Creosote may be prepared either from tar or from crude pyroligneous acid. Its flesh-preserving quality is rendered of little use, from the difficulty of removing the rank flavour which it imparts. CRESS. See AMEnirAX Chess. CRESS, BITTER WINTER (Barbarea vuf- garis). See Wivter Cress. CRESS, INDIAN, or MAJOR NASTURTI- UM (Troptrohim majtis, diminutive of trop^um, a trophy; and T. minvg). The major nasturti- um being the most productive, as well of flow- ers and leaves as of fruit, is the one that is usually cultivated in the kitchen garden; the fruit being used in pickling, and the flowers and leaves in salads and for garnishing. They will flourish in almost any soil, but the one in which they are most productive, is a light fresh loam. In a strong rich soil, the plants are luxuriant, but they afford fewer berries, and those of inferior flavour. They like an open situation. Sow from the beginning of March to the middle of May ; the earlier, however, the better. The seed may be inserted in a drill, two inches deep, along its bottom, in a single row, with a space of two or three inches be- tween every two, or they may be dibbled in at a similar distance and depth. The minor is likewise often sown in patches. The major should be inserted beneath a vacant paling, wall, or hedge, to which its stems may be trained, or in an open compartment with sticks inserted on each side. The runners at first require a little attention to enable them to climb, but they soon are capable of doing so unassist- ed. The minor either may trail along the ground, or be supported with short sticks. If water is not afforded during dry weather, they \vill not shoot so vigorously or be so produc- tive. They flower from June until the close of October. The fruit for pickling must b^s gathered when of full size, and whilst green and fleshy, during August. For the production of seed, some plants should be left ungathered as the first produced are not only the finest 363 CRESS. CRICKET. general, but are often the only ones that ripen. They should be gathered as they ripen, which they do from the close of August to the begin- ning of October. They must on no account be stored until perfectly dry and hard. The finest and soundest seed of the previous year's production should alone be sown ; if it is older, the plants are seldom vigorous. (G. W. John- soil's Kitchen Garden). CRESS, WALL, or ROCK CRESS {Arabis). A genus of plants of very different habit from the last, of which the species are numerous, and chiefly natives of the northern hemisphere. There are six species described by Smith {Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 209), but the wall cress {Ara- bis thaliana) is preferred. All the species have a pungent flavour. The plants are adapt- ed for ornamenting rock work, and are propa- gated from seeds or cuttings. The wild sorts are found frequent on old walls, stony banks or rocks, dry sandy ground, and cottage roofs. CRESS, WATER {Nasturtium). There are several native species of water cress, which may be included in the following summary. Creeping yellow cress, annual yellow cress, amphibious yellow cress, or great water radish, and common water cress. They are branching herbs, almost invariably smooth, throwing out numerQus radicles, and either altogether aqua- tic or at least growing in wet ground. (Eng. Flor. vol. iii. p. 191 — 5). Water cress {N. officinale) was seldom admitted as an object of cultivation, and then never to any extent, until Mr. Bradbury, of West Hyde, Herts, un- dertook its cultivation for the London market. Mr. Bradbury considers that there are three varieties, — the green-leaved, which is easiest cultivated ; small brown-leaved, which is the hardiest ; and the large brown-leaved, which is the best, having most leaf in proportion to the stalk, and is the only one that can well be culti- vated in deep waters. {Trans. Hart. Soc. Land. vol. iv. p. 538.) The plants thrive best in a moderately swift stream, about an inch and a half deep, over a gravelly or chalky bottom, and the nearer its source the better: when there is choice, such situations, therefore, should be exclusively planted. If mud is the natural bottom, it should be removed, and gravel sub- stituted. The plants are to be set in rows, which is most conducive to their health and good flavour, inasmuch as that they are regu- larly exposed to the current of water, of which, if there is not a constant stream, they never thrive. In shallow water, as above mentioned, the rows may be made only eighteen inches apart, but in deeper currents from five to seven feet are sometimes necessary. The beds must be cleared and re-planted twice a year, for in the mud and weeds which quickly collect, the plants not only will not grow freely, but it is diflicult to separate them in gathering; it is likewise rendered imperative by the heads be- coming small from frequent cutting. The times for planting and renewal are in succes- sional insertions during May and June, the plants from which will come into production in August ; and again from September to No- vember, those in the last month being ready in ihe spnng. In renewing the plantations, the bed of the stream, commencing towards its 364 head, being cleared of mud and rubbish, from the mass of plants taken out the younge'^t and best rooted must be selected. These are re- turned into the stream, and retained in their proper order, by a stone placed on each. After the plants have been cut about three times, they begin to stock, and then the oftener they are cut the better. In summer they must be cut very close. The situation being favoui able, they will yield a supply once in a week. In winter the water should be kept four or five inches deep ; this is easily effected, by leaving the plants with larger heads, which impedes the current. The shoots ought always to be cut off; breaking greatly injures the plants. (Trans. Hort. Lond. Soc. vol. iv. p. 537 — 42.) CRIB. In England sometimes applied to a rack for hay or straw for cattle, and sometimes to a manger for corn or chaff; also to a small enclosure in a cow-house or shed for calves or sheep. In the United States it is commonly used to designate the building or apartment in which Indian corn is stored in the ear. CRIB-BITING. A vice to which some horses are subject; consisting in their catch- ing hold of the manger, and it is said sucking in the air. It generally proceeds from a de- ranged state of the stomach, but it is sometimes brought on by uneasiness occasioned by dis- eases of the teeth, or by roughness in the per- son who currycombs them. (Brande.) There are several straps or muzzles in use to prevent crib-biting, one of the beat being that invented by Mr. Stewart. (Blaine's Encyc. p. 318, 319.) CRICK. In farriery, is w^en a horse can- not turn his neck any way, and when thus af- fected he cannot take his meat from the ground without great pain. CRICKET. The common or hearth cricket (Gryllina). This insect in England frequents kitchens and bakers' ovens, on account of the warmth of those places. An easy method of destroying them is to place phials half full of beer or any other liquid near their holes, and they will crawl into them, and can then be easily taken. A hedgehog soon clears a kitchen. There are, as yet, no house-crickets in the United States, where the species inhabiting gardens and fields enter dwellings only by ac- cident. The American crickets belong to a group of insects (AchetadcE) which naturalists have placed in the same class as the grasshop- pers and locusts. They are distinguished by having wing-covers horizontal, and furnished with a narrow, deflexed outer border; antennae long and tapering ; feet with not more than three joints, and two tapering downy bristles at the end of the bod}^ between which, in most of the females, is a long spear-pointed piercer. "There may be sometimes seen," says Dr. Harris, "in moist and soft ground, particularly around ponds, little ridges or hills of loose, fresh earth, smaller than those which are formed by moles. They cover little burrows, that usually terminate beneath a stone or clod of turf. These burrows are made and inhabit- ed by mole-crickets, which are among the most extraordinary of the cricket kind. The com- mon mole-cricket of this country is, when fully grown, about one inch and a quarter in length, of a light bay or fawn colour, and covered with CRICKET. CRICKET. a very short and velvet-like down. The wing- covers are not half the length of the abdomen, and the wings are also short, their tips, when folded, extending only about one-eighth of an inch beyond the wing-cafers. The fore-legs are admirably adapted for digging, being very short, broad, and strong; and the shanks, which are excessively broad, flat, and three-sided, have the lower side divided by deep notches into four finger-like projections, that give to this part very much the appearance and the power of the hand of a mole. From this simi- larity in structure, and from its burrowing habits, the insect receives its scientific name of Gryllotalpa, derived from Gryllus, the ancient name of the cricket, and Talpa, a mole ; and our common species has the additional name of brcvipennis, or short-winged, to distinguish it from the European species, which has much longer wings. Mole-crickets avoid the light of day, and are active chiefly during the night. They live on the tender roots of plants, and in Europe, where they infest moist gardens and meadows, they often do great injury by burrow- ing under the turf, and cutting off" the roots of the grass, and by undermining and destroying, in this way, sometimes whole beds of cabbages, beans, and flowers. In the West Indies, ex- tensive ravages have been committed in the plantations of the sugar-cane by another spe- cies, Gryllotalpa didactyhi, which has only two finger-like projections on the shin. The mole- cricket of Europe lays from two to three hun- dred eggs, and the young do not come to matu- rity till the third year; circumstances both contributing greatly to increase the ravages of these insects. It is observed that, in proportion as cultivation is extended, destructive insects multiply, and their depredations become more serious. We may, therefore, in process of time, find mole-crickets in this country quite as much a pest as they are in Europe, although their depredations have hitherto been limited to so small an extent as not to have attracted much notice. Should it hereafter become ne- cessary to employ means for checking them, poisoning might be tried, such as placing, in the vicinity of their burrows, grated carrots or potatoes mixed with arsenic. It is well known that swine will eat almost all kinds of insects, and that they are very sagacious in rooting them out of the ground. They might, therefore, be employed with advantage to destroy these and other noxious insects, if other means should fail. "Crickets are, in great measure, nocturnal and solitary insects, concealing themselves by day, and coming from their retreats to seek- their food and their mates by night. There are some species, however, which differ greatly from the others in their social habits. These are not unfrequently seen during the day-time in great numbers, in paths and by the road-side; but the other kinds rarely expose themselves to the light of day, and their music is heard only at night. With crickets, as with grass- hoppers, locusts, and harvest-flies, the males only are musical ; for the females are not pro- vided with the instruments from which the sounds emitted by these different insects are produced. In the male cricket these make a part of the wing-covers, the horizontal and overlapping portion of which, near the thorax is convex, and marked with large, strong, and irregularly curved veins. When the cricket shrills (we cannot say sings, for he has no vocal organs), he raises the wing-covers a little, and shutfles them together lengthwise, so that the projecting veins of one are made to grate against those of the other. The English name cricket, and the French cri-cri, are evidently derived from the creaking sounds of these in- sects. Mr. White, of Selborne, says that * the shrilling of the field-cricket, though sharp and stridulous, yet marvellously delights some hear- ers, filling their minds with a train of summer ideas of everything that is rural, verdurous, and joyous ;' sentiments in which few persons, if any, in America will participate ; for with us the creaking of crickets does not begin till summer is gone, and the continued and mono- tonous sounds, which they keep up luring the whole night, so long as autumn lasts, are both wearisome and sad. Where crickets abound, they do great injury to vegetation, eating the most tender parts of plants, and even devour- ing fruits and roots, whenever they can get them. Melons, squashes, and even potatoes are often eaten by them, and the quantity of grass that they destroy must be great, from the immense numbers of these insects which are sometimes seen in our meadows and fields. They may be poisoned in the same way as mole-crickets. Crickets are not entirely con- fined to a vegetable diet ; they devour other insects whenever they meet with and can over- power them. They deposit their eggs, which are numerous, in the ground, making holes for their reception with their long, spear-pointed piercers. The eggs are taid in the autumn, and do not appear to be hatched till the ensu- ing summer. The old insects, for the most part, die on the approach of cold weather ; but a few survive the winter, by sheltering them- selves under stones, or in holes secure from the access of water. " The scientific name of the genus that in- cludes the cricket is jiclieta, and our common species is the Acheta nbbrcviata, so named from the shortness of its wings, which do not extend beyond the wing-covers. It is about three- quarters of an inch in length, of a black co- lour, with a brownish tinge at the base of the wing-covers, and a pale line on each side above the deflexed border. The pale line is most dis- tinct in the female, and is oftentimes entirely wanting in the male. "AN have another species with very short or ab*> roost among the reeds at night, it retires, toward evening, from the shores which alFord it a subsistence, and perches in the neighbouring woods. Its notes, probably va- rious, are at times hoarse and guttural, at others weaker and higher. They pass most part of their time near rivers, hovering over the stream to catch up dead and perhaps living fish, or other animal matters which float with- in their reach ; at these they dive with con- siderable celerity, and seizing them in their claws, convey them to an adjoining tree, and devour the fruits of their predatory industry at leisure. They also snatch up water lizard.* in the same manner, and feed upon small crabs « at limes they are seen even contending with the gulls for their prey. It is amusing to see with what steady watchfulness they hover over the water in searchof their precarious food, having, in fact, all the traits of the gull ; but they subsist more on accidental supplies than by any re- gular system of fishing. On land they have sometimes all the familiarity of the magpie, hopping upon the backs of cattle, in whose company they, no doubt, occasionally meet with a supply of insects when other sources fail. They are also regular in their attendance on the fishermen in New Jersey, for the pur- pose of gleaning up the refuse of the fish. They are less shy and suspicious than the common crow, and, showing no inclination for plundering the corn-fields, are rather friends than enemies to the farmer. They appear near Philadelphia, from the middle of March to the beginning of June, during the season of the shad and herring fishery. They breed in New Jersey in tall trees, hav- ing nests and eggs very similar to those ot^ the preceding species, and rear a brood of four .r five young, with whom they are seen in com pany in the month of July. This species bears some resemblance to the rook in general appearance, and by the bare space near the bill, but it is smaller, longer tailed, and wholly different in its habits and mode of living. The Hooded Crow {Corvus comix) resembles 367 CROW-FOOT. CUCUMBER. the carri'^n crow in appearance ; but is only a constant resident of the northern parts of Eng- land and the western islands of Scotland; it is more destructive to the farmers' lambs, &c. I than the carrion crow. Its colour is black. I Length, twenty inches. {YarreWs Brit. Birds, ' vol. ii. p. 79—83.) .CROW-FOOT, or Crane's Bill. The spe- cies usually known by this name in England, is the Ranunculus acris of botanists. This, with all its varieties, are poisonous. The comnon medicinal crow-foot is the medicinal plant, which, however, is only used externally, the application of the recent leaves or root pro- ducing a blister. The most poisonous variety is that called spear-wood. The plant known in the United States by the name of crow-foot, or spotted crane's-bill, is the spotted geranium (Geranium maculalum), a perennial tuberous root, found along fence-rows, in meadows, woodlands, &c., flowering in May and June. The root is astringent and has been found use- ful in diarrhoea, haemorrhages, «&c. See Fhra Ccstrica. CROW NET. A net made of doflble thread or fine packthread, principally used for catch- ing wildfowl in the winter season ; but which may also be employed on newly sown corn- fields for catching pigeons, crows, and other birds ; and, even in stubble-fields, if the stubble conceals the net from the birds. CROWN IMPERIAL (Fritillaria imperia- lis). Native of Persia, with a large, scaly, bulbous, or orange-coloured, disagreeably smelling root. Blows pendent red flowers in April and May. There are three varieties, the red-flowered, the red striped-flowered with striped leaves, and the yellow-flowered; that blowing a yellow flower is the handsomest. Propagate by offsets every third year, taking up the bulbs in July for that purpose. It loves a sandy loam, and is averse to manure or wet. See Feiitillaht. CRUCIFORM-PLANTS (CrncifcrcB), a class comprehending such garden vegetables as the cabbage, cauliflower, broccoli, sea-kale, turnip, radish, mustard, and in fact almost every culi- uary article, except spinach. The class de- rives its name from the flowers having four petals or flower-leaves, disposed in the form of a cross, as exemplified in the wall-flower. It is remarked by botanists, that not a single species included in this group is poisonous. Even that great pest among weeds, charlock, or wild radish, which belongs to the cruciform class, affords when young most excellent and wholesome greens. CRUPPER. A term applied to the rump of *a horse ; also to a roll of leather put under a horse's tail, and drawn up by a strap to the buckle behind the saddle. CRUSHERS FOR GRAIN, are evidently coming fast into use; the saving of food, by giving the grain in a broken state, being cer- tainly very considerable. It is a practice at least as old as the days of Samuel Hartlib, who mentions it with approbation in his " Le- gacie." Machines for cracking and crushing Indian corn by hand for feed, are quite com- mon in the United States. CUCKOO PINT. SeeAuunc. 36S CUCKOO SPIT. Applied to a kind of froUiy substance frequently found on plants, containing insects. See Froghopfkus. CUCUMBER (Cucumis sativus. From joxwcc or a-tKvo(. Varro says, "Cucumeres dicunlur a curvore, ut curvirnere dicti"). The following are the chief varieties: — 1. Early short green prickly; 2. early long green prickly ; 3. most long green prickly; 4. early green cluster; 5. white Dutch prickly ; 6. long smooth green Turkey; 7. large smooth green Roman; 8. Flanegan's; 9. Russian; 10. white Turkey; 11. Nepal; 12. fluted (from China); 13. the snake. The early short prickly is atout four inches long, and is often preferred for the first crop, as being a very plentiful bearer, quick in coming into production, and the hardiest of all the va- rieties. The early long prickly is about seven inches long; it is a hardy, abundantly bearing variety, but not quick in coming into produc- tion. It is generally grown for main crops. The longest prickly is about nine or ten inches in length ; it is a hardy, good bearer. There is a white sub-var-iety. The early green cluster is a very early bearer. Its fruit is about six inches long. It is chiefly characterized by its fruit growing in clusters. The whole plant grows compact, and is well suited for hand- glass crops. The while Dutch prickly is about six inches long; it has an agreeable flavour, though differing from most of the others. It comes quickly into bearing. The other varieties are slow in coming into production, and are chiefly remarkable for their great size. The Nepal often weighs twelve pounds, being occasionally eight inches in dia- meter and seventeen in length. It is a native of Calcutta. The snake cucumber is very small in diameter, but attains the length, it is said, of several feet. A fresh loam, rather inclining to lightness than tenacity, as the top-spit of a pasture, is perhaps as fine a soil as can be employed for the cucumber. It will succeed in any open soil of the garden for the hand-glass and natu- ral ground crops. The out-door culture of cucumbers practised throughout the United States is so familiarly known as to require no particular description. In the neighbourhood of large cities the large demand for cucumbers causes these to be in- cluded among the articles of field-culture, and this is done to great profit by the Long Island and New Jersey truck farmers, for the supply of the New York and Philadelphia markets. It is a great object to get the produce into market as early as possible, as only a few days advan- tage makes a great diflference in the value of this, in common with most other articles sup- plied by gardeners, fruiterers, and truckmen. Thomas G. Bergen, an intelligent and experi- enced gardener on Long Island, communicated to the editor of the Cultivator the following ac- count of his method of raising cucumbers, to- gether with his estimate of the produce and profits of the crop. " Cucumbers will grow on any good soil, but to have them early we require a rich sandy one, of a dark colour; yellow and light-coloured ones being later. The field, if possible, re UUCUMBER. CUCUMBER. ^aii-es to be protected from the r'o»-»th ?p Qorth- j west winds, and be situated near the oay or river, where there is always less danp' r from late frosts. The south winds, \rith us, m May and June, retard vegetation more than ai.y other, in consequence of their being chilly aid cool, which qualities they receive from the ocean. "Ground intended for cucumbers we prefer ploughing in August or the beginning of Sep- tember of the preceding year, and sowing with rye ; the pasture which this produces pays for the labour, and among its advantages are, the prevention of weeds going to seed and troubling us in the spring ; the soil not blowing about in winter, especially on the knolls ; neither is it so liable to blow when ploughed in the spring, in consequence of the roots of the plants, and the sustenance afforded to the crop by the de- cay of the rye. Previous to ploughing for the crop, th«re should be spread about seven two- horse loads of street or horse manure to the acre ; but if the soil is poor, more will be ne- cessary, and the ploughing should take place immediately after the spreading. The ground is then harrowed over two or three times until it is mellow, furrowed shallow, with a plough, into hills four and a half feet asunder, manured with half a shovelful in a hill, which is flat- tened down with a hoe and covered about an inch thick with fine soil. Short hog manure, carted out of the pen the preceding fall, and cut over early in the spring once or twice, and made fine, is preferred for the hills; but this not being generally sufficiently abundant, we procure the manure of cows which have been fed on distillers' slops, mixed with that of horses, so as to make it sufliciently firm to handle with a fork, from New York in the fall, which we mix with the hog manure. The ma- nure should be cool, for fermentation in the hills is injurious to the plants. "The sooner the seed is planted after plough- ing the better; the time of planting depends upon the forwardness of the season, and it is generally commenced when single apricot blos- soms are open, but some seasons earlier. About a week is occupied in putting in the first seed, and nearly the same period in planting over the first and second times. The casualties to which the seeds and plants are subject induces us to continue putting in seed almost everyday for this space of time, so as to make certain work. It sometimes happens, when the wea- ther has been unfavourable, that everj' hill in some fields is planted over the third, and even .id. p. 158.) The rent of this farm of 1200 acres in 1786 was 800/.; in 1812 it was 3200/. Matthew Culley died in 1805, in the 73d year of his age, and George in 1814, aged 79, both in Glendale. The Culleys were the warm friends and cor- respondents of the celebrated Bakewell, of Dishley, from whose flock they introduced the breed of Leicester sheep, which is still a pre- vailing kind in Northumberland; and this breed is still preserved in a state of purity by the pre- sent owner of Denton, Mr. Matthew Culley, to whom I am indebted for several of the facts of this memoir. The attention which they paid to the improvement of their breed of live-stock was unremitting, and with a success which was equal to their labours They had the public ••^irit, too, not to conceal the improvements which they effected; they published one or tw« valuable works, and were not unfrequently con tributors to the agricultural periodicals of the day. Thus in the Ann. of Agr. vol. xiv. p. 180j there is a letter from Mr. George Culley in praise of the Dishley breed of sheep ; and at p. 470, on the wool, sheep, and corn of Nortn- umberland ; again on sheep, in vol. xvii. p. 347, and vol. xix. p. 147 ; on turnips, vol. xx. p. 167, In 1786, George Culley published a useful practical little book (Observations on Live Stock), which was reprinted in 1795. Arthur Young describes its author (Ann. of Agr. vol. xxiii. p. 519), as "a man of the most extensive prac- tice, and the deepest knowledge of his art." He also published, in conjunction with Mr. Bailey, the agricultural reports of Northumber- land, Cumberland, and Westmoreland, 1797 — 1805. CULM. Among botanists, signifies straw or haulm ; defined by Linnaeus to be the proper stem of grasses, scitamineous plants, and the like, which elevates the leaves, flower, and fruit. This sort of stem is tubular or hollow, and has frequently knots or joints, distributed at certain distances through its whole length. CULMIFEROUS PLANTS. Such as pro- duce culms, or have a smooth jointed stalk, and their seeds enveloped in chafly husks, grass-like. Culmiferous crops include wheat, barley, oats, rye, Indian corn, tobacco, cotton, &c., all of which have stems mostly jointed. They are all regarded as robbers and exhausters of the soil, some in a far greater degree than others. If cut green, or when in blossom, they are far less so than when allowed to mature their seeds. CULTIVATOR. A name given to imple- ments of the horse-hoc kind, invented for stir- ring the earth. The implements called culti- vators are very extensively used in the United Slates, being found particularly serviceable in running between the rows of Indian corn, su- gar beets, and other root crops planted in drills or rows. They stir up and loosen the earth, and at the same time keep it free from weeds and grass. Their operation is somewhat be- tween those of the plough and the harrow, and as they do not penetrate very deep, they leave below the manure and vegetable matter of the sod turned under by the plough, and at the same time do no injury to the roots of the plants under culture, unless these are too far ad- vanced in their growth. The cultivator should generally be run through a crop twice at a dress- ing, and if the soil be stiff or grassy, it may be passed oftener or renewed at short intervals. The implements most preferred in the United States bear a strong resemblance to the horse- hoes of Europe. They are made with teeth of different forms, best adapted to the various pur- poses, of skimming the surface and destroying weeds, or for doing this and also breaking up and pulverizing the earth. The best kind of cultivators are those which are constructed so as to admit of being made wide or narrow, according to the width of the rows. They per- form so much of the labour for which the hoe and the plough were once resorted to, as to have greatly lessened the expenses of tillage in th«i 2 1 373 CULTOR. CURCULIO. Indian com crop, to say nothing of their great j importance in the culture of root crops. Among implements of this kind in high repute in the | United States, is Bement's Improved Culliva- | lor and Horse-hoe, which not only admits of being widened and contracted at pleasure, but is so constructed as to be easily adapted to soils of diflferrn' textureti, being furnished with teeth or vhares of various forms, suited to the nature of the soil to be operated on. An excellent cultivator, not protected by patent, is in general use among the Pennsylvania far- mers near Philadelphia, where it can be pro- cured at the agricultural implement stores for about $5. See Grubber and Scarifier. CULTOR or COULTER. The strong sharp- ened bar of iron that is fixed in ploughs, for the purpose of cutting open the earth before the share. See Plough. CUMIN SEED. The seed or fruit of the Cuminum cyminum, which is imported from Sicily and Malta. It has been occasionally grown in England, but as it does not produce its seeds until the second year, and requires a rich, and consequently high-rented soil, the double rent adds heavily to its culture. {Brit. Hv^b. vol. ii. p. 328.) Cumin is a plant of lit- tle beauty, and in a garden merely requires to be sown in any open border to succeed. CURCULIO {CurcidionidcB). A name applied by naturalists to designate a family of beetles, distinguished from other insects of the same tribe by their shortness and thickness, and from each other by the length and direction of their snouts. The corn-weevil, so destructive to grain in the stack and garners, belongs to this family, together with the larvas or maggots found so often in chestnuts, acorns, hickory- nuts, and filberts ; as well as unripe plums, apricots, peaches, and cherries. The destruction of fruit occasioned annually by these species which bore into fruits and oc- casion them to fall from the tree before ripen- ing, is so great as to make it a matter of great impoi:^nce to acquire the most accurate know- ledge in regard to the appearance and habits of these insects, as the only means by which their efiects can be counteracted. Often in gardens and orchards, trees loaded with young plums lose the whole of their fruit from the depredations of grubs, which have been ascer- tained by naturalists to be the larvoB or young of a small beetle of the weevil tribe, called the Nenuphar, or plum-weevil, and still more com- monly in the United States, the curculio. Dr. Harris states that he has found the beetles in Massachusetts as early as the 30th of March, and as late as the 10th of June, and at various intermediate times, according to the advanced or retarded state of vegetation in the early part of the season. He has frequently caught them flying in the middle of the day. "They are from three-twentieths to one-fifth of an inch long, exclusive of the curved snout, which ib rather longer than the thorax, and is bent under the breast, between the forelegs, when at rest. Their colour is a dark brown, variegated with spots of white, ochre-yellow, and black. The thorax is uneven ; the wing- r-overt have several short ridges upon them, tho«!e on the middle of the back forming two 374 considerable humps, of a black colour, behind which there is a wide band of ochre-yellow and white. Each of the thighs has two little teeth on the under side. They begin to sting the plums as soon as the fruit is set, and, as some say, continue their operations till the first of August. After making a suitable puncture with their snouts, they lay one egg in each plum thus stung, and go over the fruit on the tree in this way till their store is exhausted ; so that where these beetles abound, not a plum will escape being punctured. The irritation arising from these punctures, and from the gnawings of the grubs after they are hatched, causes the young fruit to become gummy, diseased, and finally to drop before it is ripe. Meanwhile the grub comes to its growth, and, immediately after the fruit falls, burrows into the ground. This may occur at various times between the middle of June and of August; and, in the space of a little more than three weeks afterwards, the insect completes its transforma- tions, and comes out of the ground in the beetle form. The history of the insect thus far, is the result of Dr. Harris's own observations ; the remainder rests on the testimony of other per- sons. " In an account of the plum-weevil, by Dr. James Tilton of Wilmington, Delaware, pub- lished in Mease's 'Domestic Encyclopedia,' under the article Fruit., and since republished in the * Georgical Papers for 1809,' of the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, and in other works, it is stated, that peaches, necta- rines, apples, pears, quinces, and cherries, are also attacked by this insect, and that it remains in the earth in the form of a grub, during the winter, reajy to' be matured as a beetle, as the spring advances. These statements," says Dr. Harris, " I have not yet been able to confirm. It seems, however, to have been fully ascer- tained by Professor Peck, Mr. Say, and others, in whose accuracy full confidence may be placed, that this same weevil attacks all our common stone-fruits, such as plums, peaches, nectarines, apricots, and cherries ; Dr. Burnett has recently assured me that he has seen this beetle puncturing apples ; and it is not at all improbable that the transformations of some of the grubs may be retarded till the winter is passed, analogous cases being of frequent oc- currence. Those that are sometimes found in apples must not be mistaken for the more com- mon apple- worms, which are not the larvjB of a weevil. The Rev. F. V. Melsheimer remarks in his Catalogue, that this insect lives under the bark of the peach tree. Professor Peck raised the same beetle from a grub found in the warty excrescence of a cherry tree, and from this circumstance named it Rhynchanus cerasi, the cherry-weevil. The plum, still more than the cherry tree, is subject to a disease of the small limbs, which shows itself in the form of large irregular warts, of a black colour, as if charred. Grubs, apparently the same as those that are found in plums, have often been de- tected in these warts, which are now generally supposed to be produced by the punctures of the beetles, and the residence of the grubs. Professor Peck says that ' the seat of the dis- ease is in the bark. The sap is diverted from CURCULIO. CURCULIO. ils regular course, and is absorbed entirely by the bark, which is very much increased in thickness ; the cuticle bursts, the swelling be- comes irregular, and is formed into black lumps, with a cracked, uneven, granulated sur- face. The wood, besides being deprived of its nutriment, is very much compressed, and the branch above the tumour perishes.' The grubs found by Professor Peck in the tumours of the cherry-tree, went into the ground on the sixth of July, and on the thirtieth of the same month, or twenty-four days from their leaving the bark, the perfect insects began to rise, and were soon ready to deposit their eggs in healthy branches. (See Professor Peck's account of Insects which affect Oak and Cherry trees, with a plate ; in the "Massachusetts' Agricultural Re- pository and Journal, vol. v. p. 312.) (Harris.) In order to account for the occurrence of these insects both in the fruit and in the branches of the trees, Dr. Harris ventures the following explanation, although it rests only upon conjecture. The final transformation of the grubs, living in the fruit, appears to take place at various times during the latter part of summer and the beginning of autumn, when tlie weevil, finding no young fruit, is probably obliged to lay its eggs in the small branches. The larvae or grubs from these eggs live in the branches during the winter, and are not per- fected till near the last of the following June. Should the fall of the fruit occur late in the autumn, the developeraent of the beetles will be retarded till the next spring; and this I suppose to be the origin of the brood which stings the fruit. These suggestions seem to receive some confirmation from the known habits of the cop- per-coloured plum-weevils of Europe, which, ** in default of plums, make use of the soft spring shoots of the plum and apricot trees." (Kollur's Treatise, p. 238.) " It has bten noticed, that trees situated in lanes and extensive yards, where numerous cattle are confined, generally escape the attacks of the curculio. This is supposed to be in part owing to the ground being trodden so hard as to render it difficult for the worm to enter the earth, and to the annoyance and fright to which this timid insect is subjected, by the cattle rub- bing acrainst thf» trees. The insects, according to Dr. Tilton, in such cases of fright, roll them- selves into a little ball, and fall to the ground, where they become liable either to be trodden to death, or devoured by the farm-yard poultry as a delicious morsel. Poultry of all species have been recommended as very useful, from the multitudes of insects they devour, they being particularly fond of the beetle trit-*. "A case is mentioned by Dr. Tilton (see Dom. Encyc), of Colonel T. Forest, of German- town, who, having a fine plum tree near his pump, tied a rope from the tree to his pump handle, so that the tree was gently agitated every lime there was occasion to pump water. The consequence was, that the fruit on this tree was preserved in the greatest perfection. " Hogs are stated to be extremely useful in orchards, by devouring at once the fallen fruit and the insect which it contains. And provided the hogs are sufficiently numerous to devour every fallen fruit, they will shortly exterminate the insects from the orchard in which they ar« permitted to roam. '^Paving the ground is said to be a most effect- ual mode of preserving fruit from the attacks of the curculio. By preventing its descent into the earth, it finds no winter habitation. The ground should first be well manured, and the whole surface well paved with the common stones which so often encumber the fields. The trees, in this case, may be set very close. The excess of rain being carried oflT by the pave- ment, and their luxuriance being thus re- strained, such trees must not only produce great crops, but from the effect of the sun on the naked pavement, the fruit must be of the finest quality. "Another and ingenious mode of destroying the curculio has lately been devised by Dr. Joel Burnet, of Southboro', Massachusetts, and in the single instance only, in which he has tried the experiment, it has proved com- pletely successful. There stood in his garden a young plum tree of the prince's imperial gage, which was filled with blossoms every year, but bore no fruit. Early in spring, a hen, with an early brood of chickens, was placed in a coop beneath the tree. Thus were all the curculiones destroyed in the interval, soon after they arose from the earth, and before they had recovered strength sufficient to take to their wings or ascend the tree. This plum tree, in that year, bore, in consequence, a very large crop of fruit. He observed that the curculio often ascended by aid of its wings." {Kenrick*$ American Orchardist.) The wings of the curculio, plum, or cherry- weevil are so small as to assist it in climbing, but not to enable it to fly to a distance. This explains the reason why trees standing so near each other as almost to interlace their branches will some escape, whilst others lose a!l their fruit. Col. Forest's remedy may be partially applied by shaking the trees suddenly and briskly so as to produce a jar that will extend among the branches. This may be done morning and evening, and as much oftener as convenient, during the time when the weevils or beetles are engaged in stinging the fruit. Those which fall may be gathered in a sheet and thrown into the fire. All the fallen wormy plums should be immediately gathered and given to hogs, or, when this is not convenient, boiled or steamed, so as to kill the enclosed grubs. Diseased ex- crescences should be cutout and burned every year before the last of June. The moose-plum tree (Prunus Jmericana), Dr. Harris says, seems to escape the attacks of insects, since no warts are found upon it, even when growing in the immediate vicinity of diseased foreign trees. It would, therefore, he thinks, afford the best stocks for budding or engrafting upon. It can easily be raised from the stone, and grows rapidly, but does not attain a great size. This might secure the body of the tree, but it is evi- dent that the branches, being of different wood, must be exposed to the attacks of the weevii. See Mat Beetles, p. 173. (The 18th vol. of the "Neio England i^arwer" contains a pape** upon this insect, by Dr. Burnett, which may be read with advantage.) 3r vURU CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. CXnCD. The cjagulum of milk from which cheese is made. See Cheese. "When milk sours, free acetic acid is formed, and by its action the coagulation of the caseous part of the milk takes place ; rennet causes the same efl'ect in milk which is not sour, which probably depends on the gastric fluid in the rennet. Curd is a white, insipid, inodorous substance, insoluble in water, but soluble in alkalies. By alcohol it is converted into a Kobstance like spermaceti, which gives out a very fetid odour. When dry curd procured from sour milk is well washed, and then mixed with its own bulk of alcohol, and the soluble matter filtered and separated from the insoluble, and thickened by gentle evaporation, it becomes viscid, and forms an excellent cement for glass and china. CURING BEEF and PORK. See Salting. A report of the committee for the premium oflered for curing beef and pork, appears in the TrauB. //i^/». Soc. vol. v. p. 56. CURR.\NT. The fruit of two species of Ribcs, viz., R. rttlmim, which furnishes the common red and white currants, and R. ni- grum, which produces the black currant. There are five or six species of this indige- nous plant. The rock currant (i?. peirmim), the acid mountain currant (R. sjncatum), and the tasteless mountain currant (i?. alpinwn), all grow wild in woods in the north of Eng- land ; and the common red and black currants are also found wild in many parts of the coun- try, but their fruit is insipid. The pale currant is a variety between the red and white. The white, black, and red currant ripen their berries very early in July, in which month currant jelly should be made. All the currants may, by being matted, be preserved till the middle of winter, and on north walls and shaded situations sometimes hang, and are good till the end of November. They will thrive on almost any soil ; but their fruit is more savoury when produced in a dry and open ground. They are very easily propa- gated by planting slips or cuttings at any time from September to March. After standing about two years, they will be fit to be removed to those places where they are intended to remain. The currant, one of the most wholesome and grateful of fruits, has medicinal properties. Red currants are very cooling in fevers. They quench thirst, and create appetite. supposed to be derived from the Saxon cusce ate, from aisc, chaste, in allusion to the conju- gal fidelity of this bird. CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. With regard to the usual relation of landlord and tenant in England, these vary considerably. But in cases where there is a written agreement, no inquiry can be made as to the custom of the county {Liebenrood v. Vines, 1 Men 15) ; and when an express stipulation is made, the cus tom of the county is excluded entirely. (Ro berts V. Parker, 1 C. & M. 808.) The follow ing epitome of usages in a few counties, chiefly abridged from the work of Kennedy and Grainger on the Tenancy of Land, must, of course, be regarded as having only a very general application. Bedford. — The tenant commonly enters, in this county, at Michaelmas, some at Lady-day. Leases seven years. Rents paid half-yearly. Tenant generally restricted from breaking up pastures, or selling hay and straw, quitting at Michaelmas, is at liberty to plough and sow wheat, if at Lady-day; then may sow spring- grain till day of quitting ; but in either case has the option to do it himself or let his successor do it. When the outgoer sows, they are va- lued to the incomer so as to include all labour; has barn allowed him, but cannot carry away straw. Incomer takes all dung found on pre- mises free of charge ; but pays for grass-seeds, and that of the labour, and for fallow-plough- ing, or spring-ploughing, which his predeces- sor, quitting at Lad)^-day, had not time to sow; but with respect to any fallow, either for wheat or turnips, when the outgoer takes the crop, there is no demand made upon the incoming tenant. Berks. — Farms commonly lease for 7 or 14 years from Michaelmas, entering to plough fallows at Lady-day: from which time the incomer has part of the house allowed him, and room for one team ; the outgoer retains the rest of the premises till May-day or Mid- summer. The rents are commonly paid half- yearly, and in general there is no restraint upon the tenant's cultivation, except that he covenants to leave a stated number of acres for fallow. Usually he has power of selling hay and wheat straw, although in other por- tions of the county only to exchange it for dung. Wheat straw he must leave to his suc- cessor as well as the hay. Incomer has to pay for clover or other grass-seeds, the seed, at a feeding-out When the fruit is not to be had fresh, red currant jelly, j and labour, and hay-crop, mixed in water, is equally refreshing. Black i price. currants are useful in sorethroats. (,Brande'$\ Carmarthen. — Farms were here formeily let Diet. ; Phillip's Fruits : Willich's Dom. Encyc. ; ; upon leases for three lives ; but terms of 14 years are now more common. The entry is made upon both house and land at Michael- mas. The tenant is under no restriction, cul- Eng. Flor^ vol. i. p. 330.) In the United .States nearly twenty native varieties of the Currant family have been designated. \ black currant, and also a red variety growing on a trailing vine, are found in the northern counties of Pennsylvania. The most approved kinds for garden culture are the Cherry Red, Red Dutch, Versaillaise, and White Grape. CURRANT-BUSH BORER. Aninser'ca- tivates as he pleases, and sells hay, straw, and dung. Cheshire. — Farms let upon leases, but many only by the year, and this is a much more common practice than formerly. Tenant takes from Candlemas, but only gets posses- sion of the house at May-day. The tenant is lerpiUar belongmg to the genus ^geria. See commonly restrained from having more than l^ATEKPiLtARs. a given proportion of land, usually one-third, CUSHAT. A local name for the nng-dove, under plough. This portion, however, he may 376 Ct'STOMS OF COUNTIES. CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. till in his own way ; sometimes may dispose of his hay and straw, sometimes not. Outgoer ceases to work on the farm at Candlemas ; but cuts the wheat crop at har\^est; if the wheat was after a fallow he takes two-thirds of the crop, otherwise only one-half, and he houses his own portion. He is commonly not paid for grass-seeds, but where the custom va- ries, he cuts the clover or grass, and takes half the hay ; the incomer taking the remain- der, and paying the rent: he has no valuation to pay of any kind. The dung he does not pay for. Cornwall. — Leases generally from 14 to 21 years. The outgoing tenant leaves the dung for the incoming tenant. A tenant is bound not t3 exceed two white crops without manure, using one hundred and one bushels of lime per acre for the first crop. When the land is sown with grass-seeds it must remain down for three years, and, except in water meadows, he can only cut his grass once in the season, unless he dresses it with manure. He may sell hay, but the straw of wheat only ; he is obliged also to feed a cer- tain number of acres of grass, and whatever manure he makes must be left by the outgoing tenant free of charge. Cumberland. — Tenants enter at Lady-day into the farm, but not into the house till May-day. Leases commonly for three, seven, or nine years. The tenant commonly bound to plough the land in such proportions that a certain part may remain in grass for three years. Is prohibited from having two white crops in succession, and must leave as much land sown with grass-seeds as he found on the farm. Cannot sell hay or straw, and must ap- ply not less than sixty bushels of lime per acre for his wheat or turnips after a fallow. The outgoer retains possession of the house and premises for cattle till May-day. Is paid for whatever crops he leaves which he him- self paid for when he took the farm. Leaves all the straw and manure for the incomer's benefit. Derby. — Tenants chiefly yearly tenants fVom Lady-day. The land almost entirely pastu- rage. The tenant is usually restricted from breaking these up without permission, even if he lays down arable land in lieu of it He cannot sell either hay or straw. The outgoing tenant is not paid for either manure or straw; he always sows the wheat, but is not paid for any fallows or ploughings which may have been done at his expense to promote the growth of it; he receives, however, two-thirds of the wheat if a fallow crop, or one-half if a brush crop, and for the seed crops he is allowed for seed and labour. Devon. — In the west, entry at Michaelmas ; in the east at Lady-day, with privilege of entry on the land at Midsummer to prepare for wheat. The tenant usually restrained from taking more than two white crops for a fallow, or sowing two wheat crops successively, with- out a fallow or green crop between them. Must use a certain quantity of lime per acre for his barley or wheat crop, and leave the same quantity of land for wheat at the expira- tion of his lease that he found on taking pos- 48 session. He has the liberty of selling ha> and wheat straw, and at the end of his lease the hay also. A Lady-day holder receives from his successor the value of the wheat upon the ground, and the young clovers or other grass seeds by valuation. A Michael- mas tenant can only receive the value of the seeds ; but in either case he freely leaves all the dung for his successor. Essex. — The farmer in Essex commonly holds by leases of 7 or 14 years ; entry at Michaelmas both of house and land. He usually covenants to farm on the four-shift system, dressing and fallowing after every third crop, and never to take two white crops in succession : on pasture land, however, he is commonly unrestrained. He may carry also hay or straw, but for every load of either he is bound to bring back a load of dung, and near London two loads are required for every load of straw, and one for every load of hay. The outgoing tenant sows the Michaelmas crop, and is paid by valuation for one year's improvement, which includes the labour, the seed, and the manure he has laid out upon the ground from the preceding Michaelmas He is allowed for the seeds, for ploughing, harrow- ing, and rolling, which a summer fallow has undergone, for the manure laid on, and for the carting of it, and for all the unspread dung, or other manure on the farm. The outgoer has the use of the barns for his crop. The in- comer claims the straw and chaff on condition of his thrashing the com, and carrj-ing it to market. The incomer has the Michaelmas crops, the hay, turnips, and young seeds valued to him, with all the seed, labour, and manure bestowed upon them. HertforH. — Leases 7 or 14 years from I ady- day. Mode of cultivation varies ; sometimes two crops and a fallow, in others, the four- course system. The tenant may sell hay and wheat straw, but no other straw. The out- going tenant takes an offgoing crop of both spring and Michaelmas crops, and pays for the ground they stand upon till harvest. He must use, however, the last year's straw upon the premises, and he leaves all the dung for the incoming tenant. Kent. — Much of the land of Kent, as in other counties, is held by the year, but a larger por- tion is rented under leases of 7 to 14 years ; the tenant entering at Michaelmas. The farmer is usually restrained from sell- ing hay or straw; or, if he is allowed to dispose of them, it is on condition of his bringing on to the farm a certain quantity of dung. He is usually not much restricted in his mode < f cultivation. He is commonly prevented fro.n having more than two white crops to a fallow The outgoing tenant thrashes his last crop, and sells the straw to the incomer; and if he is obliged to feed the hay upon the premises, this is commonly valued also at a feeding oat price. He is paid also for the labour bestowed upon the summer fallows, which he has the privilege of sowing up to the time of his quit ting the farm ; he is also paid for the seed ami labour both for the turnips and the grasses for the whole of the manure, and labour of carting and spreading the manure of the las 2 I 2 377 CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. CUSTOMS OF COUNTIES. year, and for half of the preceding. These, with the hop-poles, make the payments required of an incoming tenant rather heavy. Leicester is chiefly farmed by yearly tenants, who enter at Lady-day, and occasionally at Michaelmas. They are not allowed to break up their pastures or sell either hay or straw. Sometimes they engage to lay an annual amount of lime on the land. The outgoing tenant is paid for all clear fal- lows, for which he is allowed three ploughings; but if he has taken a green crop, he is allowed nothing. For his wheat crop — if it has been sown on a clear fallow, for instance — he is allowed for seed and labour, and for the plough- ings, but otherwise only for seed and labour. He is allowed for his seed crop, labour, and seed; but nothing for a turnip fallow, either fed or pulled: if he leaves at Michaelmas, however, he is allowed for his turnips one year's rent. The incomer cannot enter to plough without permission till Lady-day. Lincoln. — Farms commonly held by lease of from 7 to 14 years from Lady-day. The tenant is usually restrained from selling either hay or straw, or from taking more than two white crops to a fallow. These restric- tions, however, do not apply to the fen land. The outgoing tenant has commonly the right of sowing spring-grain until Lady-day, and of taking an oif-going crop, both of wheat and other corn, all of which, however, he must thrash on the premises. But a very common way is for the outgoer to be paid for, all his crops, the value of seed and labour, and also for the manure. The crops are valued at har- vest-time, and the price is set according to the average of three market-days, taken once a month, between harvest-time and the ensuing Ladv-day. No'folk. — Farmers hold chiefly by leases of 7 or .4 years, some for 21, and they enter at Michaelmas. They generally covenant to farm on the four-course system, are often restrained from sowing above a certain number of tares and oats. This crop being considered to be much more impoverishing to the land than barley, he is not allowed to sell either hay or straw. The outgoing tenant either thrashes his harvest himself, or he agrees with his suc- cessor, who carries out the grjiin and keeps the straw and chaff; the incomer pays for the growing crops on the ground, but not for the labour; thus, if the turnip crop fails, he re- ceives nothing for the labour. The incomer sows the wheat crop, but he cannot enter the farm before Michaelmas-day; to do this without leave, he has to pay for the hay on the farm ; but he takes the dung free. Nottingham is cultivated chiefly by yearly Vnants, who enter at Lady-day. They are commonly not allowed to sell either hay or straw, not to take more than three crops to a fallow, and never two white ones in succes- sion. When the incomer enters at Michael- mas, the outgoer is paid by valuation, either upon wheat or turnips, for all the seed and labour he has bestowed upon that crop, and for all the p.oughing he has done before the time he quits; for all artificial manure, such as bones, &c., if fcr the first crop, then the full 378 tillage ; if the second, only half a tillage, and so on ; but for dung in or on the land he is j allowed nothing ; but if he enters at Lady-day, ; then he is paid for both, for seed and for labour. Salop. — Farms are generally held by yearly tenants, who enter at Lady-day ; but on to the meadow land, in some places, at Candlemas, that he may water or manure. He is restrained from selling hay or straw, but not to any parti- cular mode of cultivation. When he quits, he is allowed for any lime he may have brought on to the land within the last two years ; the whole value for that of the last year, half the value for that of the preceding: he receives two-thirds of the value of the wheat crop, the value of the seed crops, but nothing for either fallows or dung. He cannot plough for fallows or spring crops without the authority of the incomer, who cannot enter himself to plough without leave before Lady-day. Somerset. — Farmers have usually leases of 8 or 12 years from Lady-day, the outgoer retain- ing the wheat crop, thrashing it on the premi- ses, and leaving the straw, chaff, and dung for the incomer; and for this purpose he commonly holds on till the Midsummer twelvemonth after he quits possession. A tenant cannot sell either hay or straw, or take more than two white crops and a green one without a fallow. He is restrained from breaking up pastures, and he very commonly consents to spend an- nually a certain sum in lime or some other kind of manure. The incoming tenant sows the spring corn, but he cannot enter before Lady-day without leave from the outgoer. Stafford. — The farmers in this county usually hold from year to year. The tenant is com- monly restrained fVom selling either hay or straw, and there are very few restrictions of any kind as to the mode of cultivation. The outgoing tenant is usually paid for all the dung he leaves upon the farm, and for all clear sum- mer fallows, but nothing for bastard fallows, even if the seeds or turnips are fed off. For all the wheat on a clean fallow, sown previous- ly to his notice to quit, he receives two-thirds of the crop ; if a brush crop, only one-half; but for all he sows after notice, only the value of the seed and labour. The incomer cannot enter to plough before Lady-day: he pays for both the dung and straw left on the farm. Westmoreland. — Leases in this county aie commonly granted for 7, 9, 11, or 21 years from Lady-day. The house, and one field, however, is usually retained till May-day : he has the privilege, however, of going upon the land at old Candlemas to plough for his fallow and spring crop. The tenant is commonly restricted from having more than two white crops before he sows the land with seed, and that between the j two white crops he is to have either a green I one or a fallow. He is to manure his meadow ground once in three years, and leave the farm in the same working plight as he found it. The outgoer retains the house and one field till May-day, paying rent and taxes, however, for what he thus holds ; with this exception, he is bound to free the land by the 6th of April. In the south of this county, the outgoer receives for the wheat crop on the ground, two-thirds il CUT. CUT-WORM. fallowed for, and one-half after a bastard fal- low. He pays for this, however, no rent after the 6th of April. He may plough for barley and take half the crop, but not for any other spring crop. Yorkshire. — In this great county, the customs vary with the Riding. In the W. R. the entry is Old Candlemas, or New Year's day. In the N. R. it is Lady-day : may go on to the land at Candlemas, and into the house at May-day. In the E. R. the entry is at Lady-day. In all three Ridings a yearly tenancy is the most common. In the N. R. the outgoing tenant sows his wheat, and has an ofTgoing crop, which he may either thrash himself, or sell to his suc- cessor or to a stranger; but he cannot carry away straw, but has barn and yard room to consume it on the premises until the following May-day twelvemonth. The outgoer, however, cannot in the last year of his tenancy sow more than one-third of his arable land ; but that third he may sow at whatever time and in whatever way he may think proper ; for all the ground that he sows he pays a corn standage, that is, rent, till har- vest time ; if he sows more than his propor- tion, the incomer takes the crop, and the mea- surement is very nicely calculated. The in- comer enters at Candlemas to plough for his spring crop and fallows : he takes the young seeds. In the upper part of the West Riding, the customs between the incomer and outgoer are the same as in the north ; but below Aber- ford the customs are quite different, being, as the people say, " good ones to come out with, but bad ones to enter upon." For there the outgoer sows the wheat crop, which the in- comer is obliged to pay for, together with the grass-seeds, and tc pay for the tillage and half tillage of those crops and on the turnips, and for all the manure laid upon the lands, or about the premises; the incomer who enters at Can- dlemas has two and a half year's manure, and one and a half year's tillage to pay for. In the East Riding, the outgoer sows the wheat crop and the spring corn, until Lady-