UC-NRLF 
 
 B 3 TDS 315 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 UNJVERHTY OF 
 
PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 MANURES. 
 
 FROM THE 
 
 RECENT PUBLICATION OF THE BRITISH SOCIETY FOR 
 THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE ; 
 
 ADDITIONAL NOTES BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 E. S. JONES & C 
 
 S. W. CORNER FOURTH & RACE STS. 
 1851. 
 
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by 
 E. S. JONES & CO, 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, 
 in and for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 FEINTED BY T. K. A P. G. COLUNS, 
 NO. 1 LODGE ALLEY. 
 
UBHARY 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 The British Society for the Diffusion of Useful 
 Knowledge, was established about the year 1825, for 
 the purpose of furnishing a series of books in various 
 branches of science, better adapted to the wants of the 
 public than the old treatises, or the compilations by 
 authors but little acquainted with the subjects which 
 they endeavored to discuss. 
 
 The Society published a series of maps, and various 
 treatises upon Natural Philosophy, History, Mathema- 
 tics, and other subjects. To these treatises the general 
 title of Library of Useful Knowledge was given, and 
 in the course of their publication it was found expedient 
 to issue works of a different character, especially adapted 
 to the agricultural interests, and to this portion of the 
 " Library" the title of '^ The Farmer's Series" was given. 
 Among the works in this department were published 
 Youatt's works on the Horse — Cattle — Sheep — and the 
 Dog; treatises on British Husbandry^ Flemish Hus- 
 handry, and the present treatise on Manures, all of 
 which acquired a wide-spread reputation. 
 
 The subject to which this volume is devoted is an 
 (3) 
 
 umzim 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 important one to farmers and gardeners, as mucli of 
 their success must depend upon their acquaintance with 
 the various fertilizing agents, and the modes and circum- 
 stances of their employment. 
 
 Judicious manuring alone will prevent farms from 
 gradually deteriorating, or wearing out to such an extent 
 as to be unj&t for cultivation. Deterioration <under an 
 improper mode of cropping and manuring, may pro- 
 ceed so slowly that it cannot be detected except by 
 keeping regular farm accounts, and comparing the pro- 
 duce of the same field at distant intervals, and under 
 the same crop. 
 
 In the Report of the Massachusetts Commissioners, 
 in 1851, on the subject of an Agricultural School, the 
 following facts are stated : 
 
 'Already the exhaustive process of perpetual crop- 
 ping has travelled over the once fertile lands of New 
 England, and in its desolating march is wending its way 
 over the fair fields of New York, Ohio, and on to the ^ar 
 West. Under the influence of this system of cultivation, 
 the crops of wheat in these States have receded from 
 an average of twenty-two bushels to fourteen bushels, or 
 less, per acre; and the same remark will apply to other 
 crops, in like ratio of reduction. 
 
 ''From this sad, but common error, Europe is just 
 recovering ; and, under the influence of her agricultural 
 schools, now scattered all over the continent, and of 
 scientific cultivation, her crop of wheat in many parts has 
 advanced from sixteen bushels to an average of over thirty 
 bushels per acre ; and a similar increase has taken place 
 in other crops. Wonders have also been achieved in 
 
PREFACE. 5 
 
 reclaiming waste lands, and in converting those which 
 were harren and worthless, into rich and productive 
 farms. '^ 
 
 These considerations are of the utmost importance to 
 those who wish to improve their land, or to keep it from 
 becoming worse. It is worthy of the attention not only of 
 the proprietor of the soil, but of legislators, and all who 
 wish to transmit an undiminished legacy to their poste- 
 rity, and particularly to the proprietors of small farms, 
 these being more under control, — capable of being better 
 worked, — and having many advantages over such exten- 
 sive tracts as are but half worked and half manured — 
 producing limited crops at great expense. The same 
 remark may be extended to gardens, particularly such 
 as are cultivated for the purpose of raising vegetables 
 for profit. 
 
 Manure comprehends all animal, vegetable, and mine- 
 ral substances, which promote the growth of vegetation j 
 and the number of these is so great, that at first view 
 the reader of a treatise on the subject is likely to be 
 confounded by a first attempt to make a selection from 
 them. But he will soon find the list diminished by the 
 circumstances in which he is placed. The use of fish or 
 sea-weed, for example, is restricted to those who live 
 within reach of them 3 green sand, or green sand marl, 
 (which is a valuable fertilizer on account of its potash, 
 iron, and in some cases, lime,) is mostly confined in its use 
 to those parts of New Jersey, Maryland, Delaware, and 
 Virginia, which produce it ; and those who do not live 
 near large towns cannot readily procure the ofials derived 
 from certain manufactories. When sand cannot be pro- 
 A2 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 cured to improve a hard clay soil, the vicinity of saw- 
 mills will often supply a substitute in saw dust, but as 
 some is rather acid, it should be corrected by composting 
 with the aid of lime, or by not using it until it has been 
 exposed some time to the weather. 
 
 A reference to the abstract of the Contents will give 
 the reader a better idea of the scope of this Treatise, 
 than any account which can be given within the limits 
 of a preface. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 PSEFACE, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 - iv 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Manure, Nature and properties 
 
 - 5 
 
 Distinction of - 
 
 - 6 
 
 Vegetable and Animal 
 
 - 6 
 
 Fossil or Mineral Manures 
 
 - 7 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 
 Manure, Putrescent 
 
 - 9 
 
 Farm yard - - - . 
 
 - 11 
 
 Horse dung - - - 
 
 - 11 
 
 Horned cattle dung 
 
 - 12 
 
 Sheep dung 
 
 - 13 
 
 Swines dung . . - . 
 
 - 14 
 
 Urine - - - - . 
 
 - 15 
 
 Straw - . - - . 
 
 - 16 
 
 Yards and sheds 
 
 - 19 
 
 Preservation of dung 
 
 - 21 
 
 Preparation - - - 
 
 - 24 
 
 Management - - - 
 
 - 30 
 
 Turning dung - - - 
 
 - 34 
 
 Long dung - - - . 
 
 - 35 
 
 Produce of straw and dung 
 
 - 46 
 
 Compost 
 
 - 48 
 
 Application of dung 
 
 - 51 
 
 Spreading of dung 
 
 . 56 
 
Vlll 
 
 Manure, Putrescent 
 Night-soil 
 Liquid 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Manure, Mineral 
 Chalk 
 Lime 
 
 Application of lime 
 Qualities and quantity of lime 
 Lime kilns 
 Compost and lime 
 
 ' CHAPTER V. 
 
 Manure, Mineral - - - 
 
 Marl 
 
 Clayey marl 
 Sandy marl 
 Slaty or stony marl 
 Shelly 
 Earth 
 Application of - 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Manure, Mineral 
 Gypsum 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 Manure, Mineral 
 Ashes 
 Soot 
 Soapers' waste 
 
 CHAPTER Vni. 
 
 Manure, Mineral 
 Paring 
 
 PAGE 
 
 - 62 
 
 - 62 
 
 - 66 
 
 77 
 77 
 79 
 85 
 94 
 102 
 103 
 
 - 105 
 
 - 105 
 
 - 107 
 
 - 107 
 
 - 108 
 
 - 108 
 
 - 108 
 . Ill 
 
 115 
 115 
 
 124 
 124 
 127 
 128 
 
 129 
 129 
 
CO N T E N T S. ix 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Burning - - - - - 129 
 
 Operation of paring - - - - 131 
 
 Operation of burning .... 132 
 
 Effects of paring and burning - - - 135 
 
 Expense of ditto - - . . 135 
 
 Success of ditto .... 137 
 
 Application of ditto ' - - • - 138 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Manure, Mineral ..... 139 
 
 Burnt clay . . - - . I39 
 
 Analysis of same .... 141 
 
 Effects of same - - - - . 142 
 
 Clay kilns - . - . . 144 
 
 Burning earth in heaps .... 147 
 
 Burning earth with lime - - - - 148 
 
 Application of same . - . . 149 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Manure, Mineral - - . - - 150 
 
 Salt - - - - - - 150 
 
 Application of salt .... 152 
 
 Nitre ...... 15Q 
 
 Application of nitre ..... 157 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous . . - - - 153 
 
 Bones ...--. 153 
 
 Effects of bone dust and bones - - - 159 
 
 Composts of bone . - - - 165 
 
 Application of bones - - - - 167 
 
 CHAPTER Xn, 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous - - - ^ - 169 
 
 Green crops - - - - 169 
 
 CHAPTER Xni. 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous ... - - 172 
 
 Oil cake and rape - -- " - - 172 
 
 Malt dust .- -' - - 174 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous 
 Peat moss 
 Composts of same 
 Application of same 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . 176 
 
 - 176 
 
 - 177 
 
 - 180 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous 
 Sea-ware 
 Kelp 
 
 Refuse fish 
 Blubber and train oil 
 
 180 
 181 
 181 
 182 
 183 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Manure, Miscellaneous 
 
 Fellmongers' poake and cuttings 
 
 Tanners' bark 
 
 Woolen rags 
 
 Furriers' clippings 
 
 Sugar scum 
 
 Guano - . . 
 
 1.83 
 
 184 
 185 
 185 
 185 
 186 
 186 
 
 CHAPTER XVn. 
 
 Manure, 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 Clay mud 
 Sand ditto 
 Pond ditto 
 River ditto 
 Sea ditto 
 
 187 
 187 
 187 
 189 
 191 
 191 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Manure, In general 
 Putrescent 
 Mineral 
 Miscellaneous 
 Summary 
 
 192 
 192 
 197 
 199 
 201 
 
A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ON MANURES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ON THE NATURE AND PKOPERTIES OF MANURE. 
 
 Though manuring has been generally practised wherever 
 cultivation has been attended to, its principles are still but 
 vaguely understood, and the best adaptation to various soils of 
 the different articles of which it consists is far from being ac- 
 curately ascertained. Yet, although it be true that chemical 
 research into the component parts of soils and manures has 
 not reached any positive conclusion respecting their effects 
 upon the growth of vegetables, still it is certain that the 
 principles on which they are nourished depend altogether 
 upon chemistry ; and agriculture, in its modern improved 
 state, has led with considerable precision to a knowledge of 
 those laws of vegetation by which we are enabled to ameliorate 
 the land, and to increase the quantity, as well as to improve 
 the quality of its productions. The farmer, who applies a 
 peculiar species of manure, which has been found beneficial 
 to his ground, being himself ignorant of chemistry, only 
 follows the practice of his predecessors or neighbors; but 
 while he sneers at the theorist who would direct his attention 
 to the study of the first principles of his art, both he, and 
 those whom he follows, were probably originally indebted for 
 that practice to the observations of men of science. 
 
 No one who is at all conversant with the subject of manure 
 can be ignorant that, notwithstanding the management of in- 
 telligent husbandmen, a great want of knowledge prevails 
 among the common run of farmers regarding the best modes 
 of its preparation and application. In making this remark, 
 we do not, however, mean to allude to the deficiency of 
 chemical knowledge, which, however valuable, is but little 
 within the scope of the mere farmer ; nor do we intend to 
 
 (5) 
 
6 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 convey instruction by abstruse disquisitions or fine-spun theo- 
 ries, respecting the food of plants, or the manner in which 
 they are nourished ; but we think that a few remarks on the 
 nature and properties of manure may properly precede the 
 practical details of its application to the soil, and will not be 
 unfavorably received even by men whose superior experience 
 does not seem to need such information. 
 
 Distinction of Manures. —Cultivation consists of two dis- 
 tinct objects, of which one comprehends the mechanical labor 
 bestowed upon the soil, and the other is composed of the 
 chemical application of manures, which either directly com- 
 municate the nutriment which they convey to plants, or which 
 assist vegetation by promoting the active powers of the soil, 
 and of those substances with which it may be combined. It 
 is well known that, when plants are continually reaped from 
 off the land, the soil in time becomes exhausted, and then it 
 becomes necessary to restore the waste which has taken place 
 by a supply of matter either affording direct nourishment or 
 stimulating the power of the soil. These substances, being 
 mixed with the ground by the action of the plough, are termed 
 manure. 
 
 All vegetable and animal substances which become decom- 
 posed, or putrid, contain the necessary elements for the repro- 
 duction of the plants which we cultivate, provided they be 
 duly mixed in just proportions with the soil, and that they be 
 reduced to no more than a certain degree of putrefaction, by 
 which they can be applied to the land in a beneficial state as 
 manure. It is for the most part composed of straw which has 
 served as litter to animals, and which, being impregnated witli 
 their dung and urine, and thrown into heaps, is thus suffered 
 to heat, ferment, and rot. The mould produced by the decom- 
 position of vegetables appears, however, to act more slowly, 
 but yet more durably, as the aliment of plants, than that 
 which has been produced by passing through the bodies of 
 animals, which latter not only operates more promptly as 
 i.ourishment, but also acts directly upon the sap, to the mani- 
 fest vigour of their growth. The great object of these ma- 
 nures should be to make them afford as much soluble matter 
 as possible to the roots of the plant, and that in a gradual 
 manner, so that it may be entirely consumed in forming the 
 sap. Those substances which in their nature partake of 
 mucilaginous, gelatinous, or saccharine matter, of oily and 
 extractive fluids, and of solutions of carbonic acid in water, all 
 
ON MANURES. 7 
 
 contain in their unchanged states most of the principles which 
 conduce to the life of plants; but there are few cases in which 
 they can be applied to their production in a pure form, for vege- 
 table manures in general contain a portion of fibrous, woody, and 
 insoluble matter, which must undergo some chemical change 
 before they can be converted to the purposes of vegetation. 
 
 Fossil or mineral manures, though not containing nutritive 
 matter,* yet materially assist in the development of the powers 
 of the soil, and in the decomposition of other substances con- 
 tained in it, which they combine in a manner which enables 
 plants to appropriate the kind of nourishment best adapted to 
 their growth, and thus promotes vegetation. As the soil, how- 
 ever, is of infinite variety, so the nature of these manures re- 
 quires more care and discrimination in their application than 
 those composed of vegetable and animal matter ; for an excess 
 of the latter can only occasion immediate rankness in the 
 present crop, while an undue proportion of the former may for 
 a long lime be productive of very serious injury to the land. 
 
 Tiie action of manure upon the soil is commonly expressed 
 by saying, ' that it fertilizes the land ;' and that is generally 
 deemed sufficiently intelligible to common comprehension; but 
 it is of great importance to both the theory and the practice of 
 agriculture to disthiguish the properties and the mode of appli- 
 cation by which each of these manures is made productive of 
 that eftect ; and it is only by means of an acquaintance with 
 their composition that we can form any safe conclusion regard- 
 ing their respective merits. Besides the distinction already 
 drawn between the vegetable, animal, and mineral substances, 
 manures of the same kind in some cases act difi^erently, — in 
 the one resisting putrefaction, and in the other promoting it. 
 Among the former are several species of salts, formed from the 
 ashes of burnt vegetables, the dung of fowls, that of horses in 
 wjme states of preparation, and quicklime. Among the latter 
 are certain salts found in calcareous earths; liiT^;?, which, after 
 liaving been burnt and allowed to rest during a few months, 
 converts all the putrescible matter contained in the soil into a 
 scrt of mucilage; and horse-litter, which, when in a forward 
 state, becoines a stimulant from the salts contained in it, and 
 thus also promotes putrefaction. It must also be observed, 
 tiiat several of these manures acquire different properties 
 
 * Lime, however, though not considered nutritive, yet forms, in very 
 minute portions, a component part of plants and the bones of anLmals. 
 B 
 
8 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 when combined with other substances, and in other stages of 
 preparation, from those of which tliey were possessed in a 
 simple state. 
 
 The process of fermentation likewise requires extreme care, 
 and is an object very imperfectly understood. It is often con- 
 founded with that ebullition, or hissing- noise, which may be 
 noticed when limestone or other alkaline matter is mixed with 
 vinegar or other acids ; but this effervescence is merely oc- 
 casioned by the escape of fixed air, (carbonic acid gas ) and 
 thoug-h the word 'fermentation' may be retained in compliance 
 with common usage, it has nothing in unison with those opera- 
 tions which are properly termed the vinous, the acetous, and 
 the putrefactive Jfer mentations. 
 
 Of these, the first causes the sweet materials to become 
 spirituous, though the latter quality applies more particularly 
 to the juices of fruits ; the second occasions a sourness, which 
 in liquids produces vinegar; and the third is productive of 
 putrefaction. 
 
 During the process of fermentation, as applied to manure, it 
 heats, after more or less time, according to its contents, and at 
 last it is converted into mucilage and salts. The latter part 
 of this operation is the most important, for it requires great 
 care to ascertain, by mixing the whole mass well together, 
 that every part of it is in the same state of fermentation, lest 
 some parts of it should reach the last stage — which produces 
 salts — before the other portion has become mucilaginous, — an 
 accident which frequently happens when lime is laid among 
 dung without being well mixed throughout the heap, by which 
 much of its benefit is lost, as it acts as a stimulant, and becomes 
 hurtful if not used in a very small proportion. 
 
 The materials of which the first-mentioned of these manures 
 are chiefly composed, are stable-dung and litter, urine, night- 
 soil, and all weeds or other vegetable substances which can 
 be converted into muck, together with the putrid remains of 
 animals and fish — which may be all classed under the common 
 name o'l putrescent manures. 
 
 Then chalk, lime, marl, gypsum, shells, ashes, soapers' waste, 
 and burnt clay, which, being fossil, or of the nature of fossil 
 substances, fall under the denomination of mineral manures. 
 
 And lastly, green crops ploughed down, as well as tlie 
 various articles made use of^ as top-dressings and composts, 
 which may be generally designated as JuisccWu/eous manures. 
 
 These will become the subject of separate chapters ; but it 
 
ON MANURES. 9 
 
 is not proposed to enter into any philosophical discussion re- 
 garding- their powers, the consideration of which will be con- 
 fined to a practical view of their nature and operation. The 
 farmer who has a large portion of them at command will find 
 in their alternate and judicious employment the certain means 
 of increasing the usual products of the soil ; and his success, 
 as a husbandman, will doubtless be in proportion to his intelli- 
 gence, and to the attention bestowed upon its cultivation. 
 The importance to be attached to an acquaintance with the 
 principles of vegetation, and the application of manures, can- 
 not therefore but be sensibly felt by every man who sets a due 
 value either upon his character for ability in his profession, or 
 upon his pecuniary interest ; and, with the intention of facili- 
 tating its study, we add a brief explanation of the common 
 terms employed in this branch of chemistry. Our object, 
 however, being merely to be useful to persons who are 
 strangers to that science, and being aware of the prejudice 
 already existing against it in the minds of those who are un- 
 informed of its value, we have abstained from any thing 
 beyond a slight sketch, or from employing any other than 
 those phrases which may be rendered easily intelligible to 
 persons of the plainest education and understanding. 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 ON PUTRESCENT MANURES. FARM-YARD DUNG. 
 
 Putrescent manures, as we have already seen, consist of 
 all animal and vegetable substances which can be reduced 
 through decomposition, fermentation, and putrefaction, into 
 such a state as will render them fit to assist the melioration 
 of the land, and to forward the purposes of vegetation. When 
 combined, they form a saponaceous, solid mass of great nutri- 
 tive power, well known to farmers under the common term 
 of ' muck ;' which, although a seemingly uncouth expression, 
 conveys an idea distinct from that which is meant by dung. 
 Of these, the most generally usefiil are composed of the ex- 
 crements of animals ; for that which passes through them is 
 not composed alone of tiie residue of their food, but also of cer- 
 tam secretions of other matter in the intestinal canal ; so that 
 
10 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the dung", even of those wliich are supported entirely on veg'e- 
 tables, partakes more of an animal than of a vef^etabie nature. 
 The food on which they are supported, and their state of flesh, 
 also make an essential difference in tlie quality of the manure. 
 If the stomach of an animal be filled with provision which con- 
 tains but little nutriment, and which is composed of fibrous 
 matter which it is difficult to decompose — for instance, straw 
 alone, without grain — this will pass through the intestines in 
 almost the same state as it was eaten. The dung will contain 
 less of that secretion which belongs to animals whose flesh has 
 not been deprived of its nourishing' juices; though even this 
 small quantity serves to give the straw a stimulus to putre- 
 faction. But the excrement of animals which have been sup- 
 ported upon nutritive food — as corn and pulse, or the oleaginous 
 seeds of rape and linseed, though given in the shape of cake — 
 and which are thus maintained in high condition, imbibes much 
 of that property to which we have alluded, which tiiereby 
 yields a more fertilizing manure than that furnished by lean 
 stock. This, indeed, is strikingly exemplified by the difierence 
 observable in that produced by stall-fed cattle, and those kept 
 in the straw yard ; and there can be no doubt that the fatter 
 the animal, the richer will be its dung.* 
 
 It has been thought that the dung of ruminant animals — 
 oxen and sheep — when pastured, is preferable to that of horses, 
 also kept at grass, which is supposed to be owing to the greater 
 quantity of animal juices secreted with their food in tlie act of 
 chewing ; but the fact requires to be established by a more 
 minute and critical analysis of its properties. All animal 
 manure, however, partakes in its fertilizing properties of the 
 richness of the food by which it has been created ; yet expe- 
 rience proves that its immediate powers are in several in- 
 stances widely different. Thus the ordure of a man and that 
 of a dog, though fed upon tlie same food, is so wholly distinct 
 in its effects, that the excrement of the latter is used instead 
 of bark in the process of tanning goat-skins for the production 
 of morocco leather. Pigeon's dung, too, is hotter than that 
 of other fowls, j though both are fed alike ; and it is said that 
 
 *lt is stated in the Norfolk Report, that 10 loads of dun? from cattle fed 
 upon oil-cuke, have been found to answer as well as 16 from beasts fed 
 upon turnips.— p. '120. 
 
 t By an experiment stated in the Agricultural Magazino, it was found that 
 the dung of hens was more etR-ctual than that of ducks ; while that of 
 geese was scarcely perceptible aa manure. 
 
ON MANURES. U 
 
 a celebrated foreign chemist — M. Vauquelin — has not only 
 lately discovered a very remarkable difference between the 
 dung- of cocks and hens, but that there also exists a sensible 
 distinction between that of hens which lay, and of those which 
 do not produce eggs ! However deserving- those researches 
 may be of inquiry, and however important they may hereafter 
 prove, if followed up with regard to the larger animals, it 
 would yet be difficult, and periiaps, under all circumstances, 
 unnecessary, to state the differences of the comparative cha- 
 racter and value of these and various other putrescible bodies — 
 such as fish, spoiled flesh, and many other substances, which, 
 though all, no doubt, useful to vegetation, when they can be 
 procured on such terms as that the farmer finds they can be 
 profitably applied to his purpose, are yet seldom found in such 
 abundance as to require a separate account of the properties 
 of each. We therefore do not deem it necessary to pursue 
 that portion of the subject farther, and shall accordingly pro- 
 ceed to the consideration of that compound of Vegetable and 
 animal substance so well known under the title of 
 
 Farm-yard Manure. — This must ever be ranked in the first 
 class ; and when improved yards have been constructed for the 
 soiling of cattle, and attention has been paid to the quality as 
 well as the increase of their dung, the manure thus produced 
 becomes of inestimable value. No husbandman can carry on 
 his busmess without it, and every one who attends for a 
 moment to the difficulty of procuring a sufficient quantity of 
 dung, as well as of preparing what is got, will acknowledge, 
 that however imperfectly the subject be understood, none is 
 more deserving of serious investigation; yet even the most 
 superficial observer on the common state of culture can hardly 
 fail to remark, that the evident inattention to its management 
 is such as would almost lead to the supposition that it is not 
 worth the pains of the farmer's care. Nothing is more com- 
 mon than to see large heaps of manure' thrown out from the 
 stables and feeding-sheds, and exposed in that state to the 
 weather, without any regard to its being laid up in a regular 
 and careful manner, secured from evaporation, or carefiilly 
 mixed in different proportions according to its various quali- 
 ties; yet these proportions are severally of a very distinct and 
 important nature. 
 
 When horse-dung- is sufficiently moist, and is exposed to 
 the action of the air, it speedily enters into a: state of fer- 
 mentation, which is necessary to mix and assimilate its watery, 
 
12 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 oily and saline parts; but if care be not taken in that process, 
 it exhales so much heat that it soon becomes dried up, its 
 volatile particles are evaporated, and it easily crumbles. If 
 the parts of which it is composed are not also so compactly 
 heaped as to exclude the air, they become likewise unequally 
 decomposed, grow mouldy, and the whole mass is thus deprived 
 of much of its fertilizing power. If, however, the natural moist- 
 ure be retained, or it be regularly and moderately wetted, it 
 acquires almost the consistence of a paste, or that state which 
 is called spit-dung ; and if it be laid upon the land before it 
 is entirely decomposed, its effects upon vegetation are prompt 
 and powerful ; which is partly to be attributed to the heat 
 which is developed anew, when, after being ploughed under 
 the soil, its decomposition is completed. This occasions it to 
 act with singular efficacy upon lands which are cold and 
 clayey, the faults of which it tends greatly to correct, and the 
 soil is much benefited. It also greatly improves land which 
 abounds in vegetable mould, because the ammonia contained 
 in the manure favours its decomposition. 
 
 When completely decomposed, and thus reduced to the con- 
 dition of rotten dung, it is much lessened in quantity, but that 
 residue contains the essential part of its substance, which is 
 highly favourable to vegetation on land of every kind with 
 which it is incorporated. In this state, however, it is often 
 productive of bad efl^ects upon dry, sandy, chalky, or other 
 light and calcareous soils ; for there it stimulates the plants 
 too powerfully at the first period of their growth, so that 
 when the action of the dung has ceased, vegetation becomes 
 languid ; in corn crops great bulk of straw is produced, but the 
 grain is apt to be deficient. It also less durable, because it is 
 consumed by the excess of its own fermentation, and iis powers 
 being thus exhausted, it has but little effect upon the fixture 
 crops en such land. 
 
 The dung of liorntd cattle also soon ferments when it is col- 
 lected into a heap, and is only moistened by its own humidity ; 
 but this process is slower than in the dung of horses, because 
 it is not so much exposed to the same internal heat, in conse- 
 quence of which the evaporation is less, and being ordinarily 
 voided in a very moist state, it does not require to be wetted. 
 Neither is it subject to crumble ; but it rather becomes a mass 
 of unctuous substance, which it retains until its moisture is 
 entirely exhausted, when it assumes the appearance of dried 
 peat, or turf, and, when not well mixed with the earth, it is 
 
ON MANURES. 13 
 
 found in the land in clods sometimes so long as two or Uiree 
 years ai"ter it has been laid on. Its effect upon the soil is 
 slower tiian that of horse-dung : it has been also considered 
 more durable ; but, as we have already observed, this latter 
 effect must in a great measure depend upon the nature of the 
 food by w^hich it has been produced. Whatever may be 
 the degree of fermentation at which it has arrived, it does 
 not seem to occasion any perceptible heat when laid upon 
 the land ; for which reason it is best adapted to dry and warm 
 soils. Thus, upon sands and gravels, which, from their nature 
 are apt to be hot, its cooling qualities counteract that effect, 
 and upon such land it has been found of infinite service ; but 
 upon strong clays, it appears to be nearly inoperative if buried 
 under the ground, and not exposed to contact with the atmo- 
 sphere by repeated ploughings. When used alone, it has, 
 however, been considered, in most instances, as nearly worth* 
 less ;* and the most advantageous mode of employing it is to 
 form it into a compost with the other contents of the farm-yard. 
 It has also been tliought that the dung of milch cows is inferior 
 to that of oxen ; but this can only be attributed to their yield 
 of milk, which probably deprives it of some portion of its rich- 
 ness, and when they are dried off and fattened, there is no 
 perceptible difference. 
 
 Sheep-dung decomposes quickly when it is moist and com- 
 pactly heaped together ; but when dry and dispersed, its de- 
 composition is slow and imperfect. Its effect upon the soil is 
 soon dissipated, and is generally exhausted after a second crop. 
 Much ammonia is disengaged from the excrements, and more 
 especially from the urine of sheep, and this renders their ma- 
 nure particularly valuable upon soils whicli contain insoluble 
 mould. That which is found on the floor of sheep-cotes, when 
 left undisturbed, is of two qualities — that of the upper layer, 
 which is occasionally renewed with fresh litter, being strawy, 
 dry, and not fermented; w^hile, on the contrary, that of the 
 under layer is moist, clammy, and fit for use. When the 
 dung is removed, care should therefore be taken to mix both 
 layers, so that they may be equally decomposed ; and, when 
 
 *An instance is mentioned in the Essex Report of 15 acres having been 
 manured for beans— 6 with horse-dung, and 9 with dung from the cow-yard ; 
 and that the acres produced far more than the 9. — Vol. ii. p. 230. In an 
 experiment, made near Grantham, in Lincolnshire, on a poor dry soil, the 
 manure from a horse-yard, and that from a yard where neat cattle were 
 wintered, were used separately for turnips, and the former was found to 
 have greatly the advantage. 
 
 b2 
 
14 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 thus prepared, the manure should be spread sparingly upon the 
 land, if used for corn crops, or it is apt to make them run to 
 straw: but upon cold, sour soils, this unfermented dung may- 
 be used in large quantities with considerable advantage. 
 
 Swine''s dung is, by many persons, considered as the rich- 
 est of all animal manure, except night-soil ; while others view 
 it as being of a cold description. It is of a soapy nature, is 
 slow of fermentation, and when laid upon very cold soils, it 
 shoiiW be mixed with horse-dung ; for although its stimulating 
 powers upon vegetation are very great, yet of itself it does not 
 heat sufficiently to destroy the seeds of weeds. Mr. Malcolm, 
 indeed, says that 'he has often seen it applied to land consist- 
 ing of a shallow loam upon a fine gravel, and land of a sandy 
 nature, in which soils it has filled the ground with weeds, par- 
 ticularly the May-weed ; and in a hot season a crop of barley 
 has been entirely burnt up.' The loss of the barley-crop may 
 however be partly attributed to the dryness of the season, and 
 the foulness of the land to the want of good culture. Any 
 ill-managed manure may be full of the seeds of weeds, and 
 therefore they may be sown with it. But it is a futile charge 
 against any species of manure to say that it encourages weeds ; 
 for it is evident that, if the land were clean, the same stimulus 
 wliich acts upon them would be applied, in like manner, to the 
 crop of grain intended to be cultivated. We do not hear such 
 complaints from farmers who drill their corn and effectually 
 hoe the intervals. When, therefore, it is considered that vast 
 quantities of weeds are usually cast into the pigsties, many of 
 them bearing seeds fully ripened, it will be evident that caution 
 is requisite to destroy their vegetative powers before this ma- 
 nure is laid upon arable lands. On this account, nothing can 
 be more proper than to form a dunghill by a mixture from the 
 pigsties and the stable. The well-known property of horse- 
 dung to ferment freely Vv-ill completely effect what is required, 
 and the compost will be found most valuable. The worth of 
 manure from the pigsties will however depend m.uch upon the 
 mode in which it is prepared. If the litter be often renewed, 
 and it be kept dry, either by sloping gutters, or by moans of 
 holes bored in the planking of the floor, then tlie straw will 
 retain but a small quantity of the urine, and will be productive 
 of little otber effect than if it were merely rotten. But if it 
 be allowed to become saturated with the urine, by stopping 
 those drains, and care be taken to preserve the litter in a 
 proper state for decomposition, it will ferment rapidly, lose its 
 
ON MANURES. 15 
 
 coldness, and become a very strong- manure. The necessity 
 of cleanliness in the stye is a consideration apart, which 
 belongs more properly to the future subject of the treatment 
 of hogs. 
 
 A full stock of swine effect very great service when per- 
 mitted to run loose in farm-yards where much straw is used ; 
 they highly enrich it by their dung and urine, and mechani- 
 cally promote the decomposition of its woody fibre by the man- 
 ner in which they constantly work among it — breaking it to 
 pieces, and thus rendering it more manageable on arable land, 
 even when in the earliest stage of decomposition. They have, 
 indeed, been strongly recommended by Mr. Blaikie, who 
 advises, in his very judicious essay on farm-yard manure, 
 ' that those industrious and useful animals should be attracted 
 to the yard, because they rout the straw and dung about in 
 search of grains of corn, bits of Swedish turnips, and other 
 food, by which means the manure becomes more intimately 
 mixed, and is proportionally increased in value.' Groat incon- 
 venience has, however, arisen from allowing them to run about 
 the buildings, through the difficulty of preventing them from 
 getting out and damaging crops and fences; wherefore many 
 farmers have adopted the plan of having paled yards, with 
 open sheds, for the sole purpose of keeping their store pigs. 
 
 Urine, although essentially composed of water, yet contains 
 much of the elements of vegetation in a state of solution pecu- 
 liar to itself, and is combined, through the secretion of the 
 vessels, with carbon and saline matter, from which it derives 
 its nutritive properties, as well as with a large portion of 
 ammonia, to which it owes the peculiar smell by which it is 
 distinguished. The various species of urine from different 
 animals differ in their constituents, and the urine of the same 
 animals alters when any material change is made in the nature 
 of the food.* The analysis of its composition has shown it to 
 
 * By experiments made by Mr. Brande on 100 parts of the urine of cows, 
 and by Fourcroy and Vauquelin of tiorses, tlie following proportions were 
 found in each, viz. :— 
 
 cows. HORSES, 
 
 Phosphate of lime 3 Carbonate of lime 11 
 
 Muriates of potassa and ammonia 15 do. of soda 9 
 
 Sulphute of potassa Benzoate of do 24 
 
 Carbonate of potassa and ammonia 4 Muriate of potassa 9 
 
 IFrea 4 Urea 7 
 
 Water 65 Water and mucilage .... 40 
 
 There is, therefore, more alkaline salts in the urine of horses, which con- 
 sequently possesses greater fertilizing powers than that of oxen; and it has 
 
16 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 be most favourable to vegetation when mixed with other excre- 
 ment, and with strav,-, or similar substances, because it occa- 
 i^ions their combination, and contributes to their more perfect 
 decomposition, by which they are converted into the species 
 of manure of which we are treating-; and although we confine 
 that manure to straw, or haulm, and to the dung of horses and 
 oxen, both as that of which it is the most g^enerally composed, 
 and as folding- and nig-ht-soil will be separately considered, it 
 yet includes every other kind of ordure, (a) 
 
 Straw of all kinds, or similar dry veg-etable matter, when 
 used as litter, is well known to form a principal ingredient in 
 the composition of farm-yard manure ; not perhaps so much 
 by the nourishment which it is of itself capable of imparting to 
 the soil, as from the value which it acquires by its absorp- 
 tion of urine, as well as by combining with dung in its differ- 
 ent stages of decomposition, and imparting consistence to the 
 whole mass, which is then carried more regularly through the 
 processes of fermentation and putrefaction, by which it is ren- 
 dered fit for the purpose for which it is wanted. Nothing, in 
 fact, can be better adapted for the mixture than straw ; for it 
 would rot with difficulty and imperfectly but for the dung, 
 vvliich brings an accession of the richest materials to the heap, 
 and there can be no doubt that, when thus combined, it forms 
 the best and the most generally useful of all manures for 
 every kind of land. All the various sorts of straw and haulm 
 answer the purposes of litter, though opinions vary respecting 
 its value for that use ; some contending that rye straw is the 
 best, while others insist, with more apparent reason, that the 
 
 been not inaptly demanded, whether, if these ingredients could be procured 
 cheap, and rendered soluble in water, they might not be so prepared as to 
 bi-'conie valuable for saturating duntr-hills, or for application in its liquid 
 state? — Leicester Report, note, p. 190. Humrfn urine contains a greater 
 variety of constituents than any other species, and differs in comparison 
 according to the state of the body. («) [One hundred parts of the urine of 
 a healthy man are estimated to be equal to 1300 parts of fresh horse-dung, 
 and to 000 parts of fresh cow-d\in<r.] All urine is liable to undersro putre- 
 faction very suddenly ; but that of carnivorous animals more rapidly than 
 that of granivorous animals The pot-ash and pearl-ash of conuuerce are 
 carbonates of putassa of different degrees of purity. — Sir II. Davy, Elem. 
 of Jlgric. Clieiii., p. 2.56. See also the Analysis, by Berzelius, and by TV. 
 Jlenry, J\l. D., F. R. S., Elem. of Exper. Chem.y 10th edit., vol. ii. chap. xiii. 
 Beet. V. 
 
 The white globe turnip not only yields a larger quantity of urine, but its 
 etTrtct as a manure upon any crop is less apparent than that of either the 
 yi'llow Aberdeen or the Swedish. That produced by cut-gras-s is compara- 
 tively weak: but the liquid majiure from the refuse of distilleries, such ;rs 
 grains and dreg, has been found good. — (^iiart. Jour, of Jigric, IS'o. xix. p. 96. 
 
ON MANURES. 17 
 
 straw of wlieat absorbs more moisture, and it is supposed to 
 be equal to three times its weight after it has been saturated 
 with urine. 
 
 It was the system of Bakewell, during a part of his life, to 
 convert the whole of the straw mto food for liis stock, and it 
 was also the opinion of many of his supporters, that this mode 
 of consuming straw would not only tend considerably to 
 increase the number of black cattle, but also to improve the 
 quality of manure; for they argued — 'that straw is not alone 
 thus rendered fit for the support of live-stock, but that, by being- 
 digested and passed through their bodies, it must become a 
 much more highly enriched manure than in the ordinary way 
 of treading and rotting.' Bakewell, however, altered his 
 opinion at a later period of his life, and the doctrine is cer- 
 tainly questionable ; for although it be true that a part of the 
 straw, when eaten, assists the fermentation of the remainder, 
 yet, when partly used as a litter, it at once absorbs the urine, 
 which is, perhaps, of more value, as manure, than straw which 
 has been merely masticated and digested, without being com- 
 bined with richer food ; and it is yet very doubtful whether, 
 if all the straw in the kingdom were to be passed through the 
 intestines of animals, the manure made from their dung would 
 not be thereby reduced both in quality and quantity. The 
 practice differs in various counties : in some parts of Yorkshire, 
 and other places, a farmer commonly makes his cattle eat 
 almost every particle of straw, leaving scarcely any to litter 
 their stalls; while in Norfolk, they convert nearly the whole 
 into muck, and no system is considered more impoverishing to 
 land, than that of applying the stra\v as food instead of tread- 
 ing it into dung. 
 
 The medium course is doubtless the most to be approved 
 when it can be conveniently carried into effect; but there are 
 many farms which either do not produce turnips, or only suffi- 
 cient for their sheep, by which they are eaten off upon the 
 land, and corn or oil-cake being too expensive for store and 
 working stock, they must necessarily be chiefly kept upon 
 straw. It is therefore profusely used for store-cattle in most 
 yards, yet, by having abundance, they pick out the best and 
 leave the refuse for litter ; it is only necessary to supply it 
 fresh, with a moderate quantity of turnips, or any succulent 
 root, to promote the secretion of urine, and the manure thus 
 produced will be found of excellent quality ; but if they be 
 
18 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 wholly fed on straw, although the farmer may have a large 
 dunghill, it will be found to be of comparatively little value. 
 
 It has been tjiought that cattle getting wholly straw, or 
 other dry forage, for both food and litter, may consume nearly 
 three-fifths of it us food, and there would still remain a useful 
 mixture of dung and straw for manure. When they are sup- 
 plied, as young or keeping stock, with turnips to keep them 
 merely in condition, the manure will be in good order when 
 they eat about one-half of the straw, and leave the other half 
 as litter. If, again, they are being fattened on turnips, or fed 
 on distiller's wash, grains, or upon other food, which produces 
 their dung with much urine, they would then require to have 
 at least three-fifths, if not a still larger quantity of straw left 
 for litter. These proportions will, in such instances, be gene- 
 rally found to produce manure of a good description ; but when 
 beasts are fatting upon steamed potatoes and oil-cake, or other 
 provender which occasions costiveness, or does not occasion a 
 tree discharge ,of urine, it may sometimes be necessary to 
 moisten the dung-heap, by which means any quantity of straw 
 may be rotted, and, with a comparatively small proportion of 
 dung, may be converted into manure. Mr. Marshall mentions 
 having tried the effects of moisture in some experiments on 
 his own farm upon heaps of dung which had lain until much 
 of it had become mouldy, one of which he watered, bringing 
 the outward and dry parts into the middle of the pile, and 
 drenching it well with the drainage of the yard ; it was then 
 carefully turned over, breaking every lump and mixing all its 
 parts, then finally wetting the surface, and clapping it smooth 
 and close with the back of the shovel to keep in the heat. It 
 began to work on the second or third day, after which the 
 mouldiness disappeared, and it was converted into compara- 
 tively rich, black, and rotten dung ; and other similar trials 
 were equally successful. The utility of that point of manage- 
 ment is, in fact, unquestionable ; the trouble is not worth 
 mentioning ; but were it greater, and that any thing is to be 
 thereby gained in the quality of the dung, that can form no 
 sufficient excuse for its omission, for, if it be of any value, it 
 cannot be too good, and the experience of kitchen gardeners, 
 who are well known to use great care in the preparation of 
 dung, and to profit accordmgly, should operate as a hint to 
 farmers to use similar means. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the haulm of beans and peas 
 produces more nutritive food than straw. When the former 
 
ON MANURES. 19 
 
 is well broken by thrashing, it also forms a very tolerable 
 litter, for which purpose it is much used in most parts of Eng- 
 land, though in some places it is wholly laid, as if of no further 
 value, in the bottom of the straw-yard, and pea-haulm is more 
 generally employed in cart-stables for racking up the horses, 
 and for sheep, which are very fond of it. In Scotland, how- 
 ever, the haulm of neither is used for litter, unless it has been 
 spoiled by the weather, or has become sticky by the crop 
 having been allowed to stand too long upon the ground before 
 being cut, and it is there, more prudently, kept for the pur- 
 poses of feeding. 
 
 Yards and Sheds. — It may be observed that the former are 
 often so full of large holes as to leave them in many parts 
 saturated with water, or their bottoms are either so porous, or 
 else situated on such declivities as to drain ofl' the entire 
 moisture ; in either of which cases the loss cannot but be very 
 considerable to the farmer, although he may be ignorant of 
 what he is daily losing, because it does not go out of his 
 pocket in the shape of hard cash. Whenever a yard is cir- 
 cumstanced in either of the ways just mentioned, all the 
 inequalities should be levelled, the bottom should be rendered 
 sound and water-tight, and if either any declivity in the yard, 
 or the situation of the buildings, occasions the stock confined 
 in it to give a preference to one part over another, the litter 
 should, in that case, be occasionally removed, in order that it 
 may be equally spread over every part, and the position of the 
 feeding cribs should be altered ; for although our opinion 
 inclines to that form which prefers a gentle slope to the centre 
 of the yard, and the dung should be kept moist, yet it should 
 not be suffered to become drenched with rain. If this be not 
 attended to, the excess of wet will prevent the bottom of the 
 heap from rotting ; and if it be not regularly spread to a nearly 
 equal depth, the fermentation will be carried on imperfectly, 
 which will occasion those parts where it may have been too 
 much raised to contract an excess of heat, from which they 
 become what is termed fire-fanged. This especially applies 
 to stable-dung, which, if allowed to accumulate in heaps with- 
 out being properly mixed, acquires a mouldy smell, and loses 
 so considerable a portion of the best part of its substance, that 
 its diminution in value has been estimated by a very expe- 
 rienced agriculturist at not less than from 50 to 75 per cent. 
 
 Acting upon the principle of preserving dung, and rendering 
 it immediately available, it has been recommended to construct 
 
20 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 cattle-sheds, sufficiently capacious to allow a space rather 
 broader than the platform upon which the beasts lie, but sunk 
 somewhat lower, and to which the dung may be swept up. 
 When thus covered, its decomposition is effected by the aid 
 of its natural humidity, and if left for three or four weeks, its 
 fermentation will be completed. The time at which it is 
 subject to the greatest evaporation of its volatile particles will 
 then be past, and it may be immediately carried upon the land. 
 Its quantity will be certainly less decreased, and its quality 
 better preserved, by being left under the cover of a shed, and 
 there will also he a saving of labour in its removal ; but not 
 alone should the neatness and order of stalls be taken into 
 consideration, but also the cost. Theoretic people, when ad- 
 vocating new schemes in husbandry, rarely give themselves 
 the trouble of calculating any thing Ijeyond their effects upon 
 crops, without due regard to the expense of their cultivation ; 
 and if in this case the additional charges of the erection of tlie 
 building, together with the repairs rendered necessary by the 
 steam arising from the dung, were to be reckoned, they would 
 probably be found to exceed the value of the proposed advan- 
 tages of the plan. While the opinions of practical men on 
 this and other modes of management are so unsettled and dis- 
 cordant, those cannot be deemed imprudent who adopt that 
 side of the question which is the most consistent with economy. 
 We will, however, admit that it would be an improvement if 
 reservoirs for the drainage of yards were so constructed that 
 their contents might be pumped up, and sprinkled over horse- 
 litter, whenever its too great dryness occasions any danger of 
 its becoming fire-fanged ; for, whether in the yard, or carried 
 out to the dung-heap, it should never be allowed to become so 
 dry as to lose the power of fermentation ; and if there should 
 be no portion of it sufficiently moist to allow of the dry part 
 being mixed up with it, so as to prevent that risk, it should be 
 sprinkled regularly when shook up. A watering-pot with a 
 large rose will be found to answer the purpose. 
 
 There can, indeed, be nothing more appropriate to tlie 
 subject than the observation of Sir Humphry Davy, ' that when 
 dung is to be preserved for any time, the site of the dung-hill 
 is of great importance. In order to have it defended from the 
 sun, it should be laid under a shed, or on the north side of a 
 wall. To make a complete dung-hill repository, the floor 
 should be paved with flat stones, a little inclination being 
 made from each side towards the centre : in the centre there 
 
ON MANURES. 21 
 
 should be drains connected with a small well, furnished with 
 a pump, by which any fluid matter may be collected for the 
 use of the land ; for it too often happens that the draining-s of 
 the dung--hill are entirely wasted.' A sheltered spot of ground 
 ought always to be chosen for the site; and although some 
 after-trouble may be saved by depositing it, in the first in- 
 stance, in the field to which it is to be applied, it is yet, in 
 most cases, found more convenient to place it m some secluded 
 situation near the homestead. ' There it is always under the 
 farmer's eye, and a greater quantity can be moved in a shorter 
 time than when its position is more distant. Besides, in wet 
 weather the roads are not only cut up by driving to a distance, 
 but the field on which it is made may be poached and con- 
 siderably injured.' 
 
 Should there be no perfect and permanent site formed for a 
 complete dung-hill repository, accompanied by a well and 
 pump, as above recommended, yet the space intended for the 
 reception of any common dung-heap should be slightly hollowed 
 out, leaving one side rather deeper than the other, and cutting 
 a narrow drain through that side, from which any superfluous 
 moisture may be carried off to a yet lower excavation, where 
 it may be received upon a bed of loose mould, or among 
 articles of slow decay, as cabbage-stalks, the tough haulm of 
 over-ripe beans, or any similar substances. It should also be 
 surrounded with a mound dug out from the hollowed place, to 
 prevent water from running into it, and, if that be prevented, 
 no dangei- need be apprehended from any excess of moisture, 
 except in times of very heavy rain, which, in such seasons, 
 can also be much guarded against by sloping the sides. Were 
 roofs constructed over dung-hills, to protect them from the rays 
 of the sun, as well as from the rain, there can be no doubt that, 
 if roughly put up, at little cost, they would prove advantageous; 
 but the benefit should be always closely estimated, in order that 
 it may not exceed the charge : perhaps a contrivance of the 
 kind might be made with spare branches of trees, and worn- 
 out hurdles, supported by posts formed out of any otherwise 
 useless timber. 
 
 Preservation of dung. — Practice differs in the modes 
 adopted respecting the care of farm-yard dung. Most farm- 
 ers allow it to accumulate for a long time in the yard, add- 
 ing fresh straw regularly to the heap, from an impression that 
 the bottom, if unremoved, will become the richest part, and 
 that its accumulation imparts a certain degree of warmth to 
 
22 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the cattle ; while some recommend ' that it should be cleaned 
 out once a month at least, not only to sweeten the yard, and 
 thereby to increase the health and vigor of the animals, but in 
 order that its contents may be properly mixed in some other 
 place, to induce and bring on a regular fermentation.' Now, 
 on this it may be observed, that the fears which are enter- 
 tained by some persons of the vapour arising from dung which 
 is contained in the open air of the yards becoming prejudicial 
 to the health of the cattle, are proved by experience to be com- 
 pletely visionary. No really bad odour prevails there ; for, 
 although it may be offensive to delicate nostrils, the air is 
 always respirable, and when not confined in close stalls, by 
 which the circulation is prevented, no ill effects are ever 
 known to arise from it. But when the cattle are either fed 
 upon turnips or other green food, the quantity of urine which 
 they discharge drenches such a quantity of straw, that the 
 beasts "cannot be easily kept dry ; or if they be crowded in 
 badly arranged yards, and immersed in the filth proceeding 
 from a scanty covering of straw, and the want of proper drains 
 to carry ofl^ the superfluous moisture, they may then indeed be 
 exposed to injury from the wet, and the dung should be 
 removed, though in almost any case ' once a month' w^ould be 
 found too often. In many instances the yards are never 
 cleared until the cattle are turned out after the close of the 
 winter ; and, unless in a very plentiful season for straw, it is 
 seldom done more frequently, atler they are shut up, than per- 
 haps once more in the early part of the spring : except they 
 be soiled during the summer, in which case it becomes fre- 
 quently necessary. When proper care has been used to pre- 
 vent an excess of rain-water, the manure thus obtained from 
 the bottom layer will doubtless be found of superior quality ; 
 but the w'hole heap ought to be w^ell mixed, in order to render 
 it of equal value. 
 
 An eminent agricultural author, whom we have already 
 quoted, complains that he has not, in any one instance, been able 
 to find any thing like system in the mechanical arrangement 
 of the component parts of farm-yard mixens, wliich he gene- 
 rally found put together as they arise, according to circum- 
 stances, and without any regard to rule. Hence it follows 
 that their real value as manure can never be distinctly known 
 to the farmer, nor can he apply that proportion which a more 
 accurate knowledge of the contents would enable him lo 
 apportion to different kinds of grain, or to the particular soils 
 
ON MANURES. 23 
 
 and seasons in which they can be most advantageously applied. 
 A heap, for instance, composed entirely of dung from stables 
 where horses have been plentifully fed with corn, must be far 
 superior to one produced by cattle in the straw-yard ; yet so 
 little is this very material point adverted to, that nothing- is 
 more common than to hear of ' so many loads per acre' being- 
 laid upon the land, without regard to the ingredients which it 
 contains, though nothing is more certain than that its power 
 over the crops will be in exact proportion to the qualities of 
 the materials of which it is composed. 
 
 This writer advocates the separation of the various species 
 of manure, in order that the properties of each may be dis- 
 tinctly ascertained ; yet another author, of equal experience, 
 says, in treating of Norfolk, ' that the principal error in the 
 common method of manufacturing farm-yard dung, originates 
 in the prevailing custom of keeping the dung arising from dif- 
 ferent descriptions of animals in separate heaps or departments, 
 and applying the same to the land without intermixture, and 
 consequently in an improper state.' He then alludes to the 
 difference arising in the manure from the modes of keeping 
 fatting and store cattle in yards by themselves, ' while horse- 
 dung is also usually thrown out at the stable-doors, and there 
 accumulates in large heaps, which very soon ferment and heat 
 to excess ;' he therefore recommends that litter to be spread 
 over the straw-yard, and the whole of the dung from the dif- 
 ferent yards and the hog-styes to be mixed together.* 
 
 On these opposite opinions we have to remark, that, when 
 either the soil or the intended crop is essentially different, it 
 may be very desirable that the manure to be employed should 
 possess distinct properties, and therefore, in such cases, a por- 
 tion of it should be separately kept, as well as difrerently pre- 
 pared. Thus vv^arm and cold soils require manures of a con- 
 trary nature ; an advanced stage of their fermentation is in 
 some cases less favourable to vegetation than in others ; and, 
 in the instance of potatoes, it is well known that stable-dung 
 is employed with more eiTect alone than when mixed. It 
 may, therefore, be advisable that horse-litter in particular 
 should be separately kept in the yards, not merely for the pur- 
 pose just mentioned, but that, as being of a hotter nature than 
 any convnon dung, it may be mixed with that of other cattle 
 
 * Blaikie on Farm-yard Dung, edit. 1828, pp. 3, 5, 6. See also the Not- 
 tinghamshire Report, p. 168. 
 
 c2 
 
24 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 in such proportions as may be thought best adapted to the pur- 
 poses for which the compost may be required. If no better 
 arrangement can be made, the litter should be placed within 
 some dry ditch, which will answer the purpose of a more 
 regularly constructed pit, where its moisture may be main- 
 tained without too greatly heating it, and without exposing it 
 to the evaporating action of the air. Thus, if care be at the 
 same time taken to prevent it from becoming dry, the fer- 
 mentation will be checked ; and should it be thought expedi- 
 ent to still further retard tliat operation, it may be effected by 
 a mixture of hog's dung, which, though rich, yet being of a 
 colder nature, is less fermentable. By this union the dung 
 becomes decomposed into a soft and pulpy mass, which forms 
 a very powerful manure, and, by a little judicious manage- 
 ment, can be either promptly got ready or be kept back at 
 pleasure. 
 
 Under other circumstances, however, and especially on small 
 farms, where the quantity of materials may not be sufficient to 
 allow of their bemg separated without incurring the risk of 
 loss by the excess of evaporation, or by the want of due fer- 
 mentation, it is found more generally expedient to spread 
 together all the different sorts of the dung of the larger ani- 
 mals in different layers, so that each may be regularly mixed 
 and partake equally of the common properties of all, by which 
 means tlie faults of one species are corrected by another ; the 
 too rapid fermentation of the dung of horses is checked, while 
 that of hogs and horned cattle is accelerated, and thus tiie 
 whole mass acquires the enriching properties of the most fer- 
 tilizing compost. 
 
 Preparation of Manure. — Dung, thus indiscriminately 
 tin-own together, being com])oscd of every species, whether 
 from horses, pigs, or black cattle, bedded with a litter of straw, 
 to which every vegetable substance that can be collected 
 round the houce and ])remises should be added, forms a com- 
 bination of fermentable matter of various kinds, wliich, witli 
 due care, may soon be brought into a fit state of preparation. 
 Instead, however, of laying it in a regular manner, it is too 
 otlen suffered to remain in different heaps, in whatever part 
 of the yard it may have been carried from the barn and stables, 
 in which condition it is left during the winter; and being thus 
 imperfectly fermented, its value is, in all such instances, very 
 materially injured : whereas, if spread as equally as possible 
 over tlic entire yard, the different materials becoming thus 
 
ON MANURES. 25 
 
 well mixed together, their different properties are blended, 
 and a compact mass of manure is produced of equal quality. 
 
 It should, however, be observed, that there is in every farm- 
 yard a proportion of hot and pungent dung-, produced by 
 poultry and pigeons, which should be separately kept for top- 
 dressings, for which purpose it may be found very useful : if 
 scattered over the common heap, it will, however, have the 
 effect of increasing the fermentation, and hastening its decom- 
 position. That of swine, also, when thus mixed, has the same 
 effect ; and it was proved, after repeated trials, when the tem- 
 perature of the air was 40" of Fahrenheit's thermometer, that 
 of common fann-yard dung was about 70" ; a compost of lime, 
 dung and earth, 55°; and a portion of swine and tbwl's dung, 
 85o . Care should also be taken that, if any other substances 
 tlian those commonly employed be added to the heap, they be 
 of such a nature as will render them equally susceptible of de- 
 composition ; if not, a small quantity of quicklime will have 
 that effect ; but it should be applied separately. Lime should 
 also be added to all weeds which have ripened their seeds, as 
 well as to the roots of docks and other noxious plants, which 
 long retain the power of vegetation, and spring up when laid 
 upon the land, unless they are destroyed. The better way, 
 indeed, is to place them in a spot away from the yard, and to 
 mix them mto a compost, as will be hereafter mentioned. 
 
 On what has been said respecting the removal of dung and 
 litter from the farm-yard^ it should also be remarked, that 
 their being retained during a long time in the yard is incon- 
 sistent with the comfort of the cattle and the due preparation 
 of the manure ; for if straw be added in sufficient quantity to 
 keep the former dry, although tlie lower layers of the manure 
 may be in a good state, yet those at the top cannot. Straw, 
 flung out to the yards in considerable portions, becomes, after 
 behig compressed by the trampling of cattle, rather like a 
 well-packed stack tlian a mass of dung in a good preparatory 
 stite. Except where a considerable stock is soiled, the small 
 quantity of urine and dung made by the animals is barely suf- 
 ficient to cause a slight fermentation in the heap, which brings 
 on fire-fanging, after which its original powers can rarely be 
 restored. To prevent that injury, no measure can be so 
 successfully used as a frequent removal of tliis unmade dung, 
 especially if the weather be wet at the time ; for there is in 
 such cases so much straw that has not passed through the 
 entrails of tlie cattle, as renders it almost impossible to do 
 
S6 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 injury by an excess of moisture : if, therefore, its removal bo 
 deferred to any distant period, a proportionately greater length 
 of time mu8t necessarily be devoted to its turning and being 
 got in order for the field. Unless over-year muck be used, if 
 the manure be required for turnips, it will be found necessary 
 to lead it from tlie farm-yard as soon after Christmas as the 
 weather and the state of the roads will admit of it; or, if 
 wanted for beans, that should be done much earlier. No 
 period is more advantageous for this work than a frost ; and if 
 much manure is wanted early, it may be led from the yard a 
 second time in the month of February. It should not be for- 
 gotten that the lighter it is laid upon the heap, the more rapid 
 will be the decomposition ; and that it may be retarded by 
 compactness of form and pressure on the top with a heavy 
 coat of soil. This, however, must depend upon the quantity 
 of litter and of cattle, on the extent of the yards, the state oi" 
 the weather, the condition of the manure, and the intention to 
 which it is to be applied, all varying according to circum- 
 stances, for which no precise rule can be laid down, and 
 wiiich must therefore be left to the judgment of the farmer. 
 Yard-dung, made in winter, if trodden by cattle, will not be 
 found to ferment much. It ought, if possible, to be kept 
 neither too wet nor too dry ; if in the former state, it will 
 injure the stock, without forwarding its own decomposition ; 
 and if in the latter, it will become mouldy, or fire-fanged, and 
 lose its most valuable qualities : in order to prepare it in the 
 best manner, it should therefore be preserved in a mean 
 between tbe two extremes. 
 
 Throughout most counties the general plan is, after foddering 
 is over, to carry out the dung from the farm-yard, and to place 
 it in large heaps, in drder to occasion a due fermentation, and to 
 render it quite rotten before it is laid upon the land. There 
 are, however, many circumstances which render practice and 
 opinion at variance on this point, in consequence of which 
 a great portion of the manure is carted directly to the fields, 
 and applied to the intended crop, either fresh, or perhaps after 
 being once turned over. The apprehension that dung loses 
 much of its virtue by evaporation is not entirely unknown or 
 imattended to; but people think difiercntly on the subject. 
 Several farmers maintain that ploughing in the manure as 
 soon as it is laid upon the land is unnecessary, if not injurious; 
 because they say that it absorbs the nif'jhtly dews and other 
 substances from the atniy^^plierc, by wiiich its quality is im- 
 
ON MANURES. 27 
 
 proved ; that the rain will wash in the salts, while the sun 
 only exhales the water ; that, when spread upon the surface, 
 the soil also thus becomes gradually impreg^nated with its juices ; 
 and that clay land in particular is rendered mellow and free 
 to plough. Thus with many it is the practice to carry out 
 yard-dung in its long and hot state, and to suffer it to lie both 
 upon arable and grass land for perhaps a month or six weeks 
 after being spread, before it is ploughed m, though it is 
 knowledged to encourage the growth of weeds. Others cover 
 it with a slight coat of mould. On the other hand, although 
 the process of fermentation, by disengaging a quantity of car- 
 bonic acid and ammonia, causes an evaporation, by which the 
 bulk of the manure is much diminished, yet its power is 
 thought to be thus increased. This apparent diminution in 
 bulk has indeed been too much insisted on by the opponents 
 of rotten dung, as proof of its decrease in value ; for, although 
 the size of the heap thus evidently becomes smaller, yet its 
 cubical contents are, by its condensation, increased in weight.* 
 After about six weeks it assumes a saponaceous, greasy ap- 
 pearance, in which soft and sappy state, when neither fresh 
 nor too rotten, but in the medium between those states, it is 
 generally applied to the land by the best farmers. When 
 very rotten, its effect is more immediate and powerful ; but 
 when only moderately rotted, its efiect, though more gradual, 
 is found to be more durable. 
 
 On this subject of evaporation, which has justly engaged so 
 much of the attention of scientific agriculturists, we, how- 
 ever, add the following extracts from the work of Von Thaer, 
 whose practical knowledge cannot be *too highly appreciated. 
 He says, that not only does theory teach us, but during his 
 
 *The weights of putrescent manures will depend much upon the progress 
 of their decomposition at tlie time, as well as the proportion of moisture 
 which, from accident or particular treatment, they may contain. From an 
 experiment on the subject, recorded in the Farmer's Magazine, we learn 
 that the comparative weight of the following substances, was as follows :— 
 
 cwt. qrs. lbs. 
 
 One cubical yard of garden-mould . . 19 3 25 
 
 Ditto of water . . . . : 15 7 
 
 Ditto of a compost of earth, weeds, lime, and dung, that 
 
 had lain nine months, and been turned over 14 5 
 
 Ditto of new dung . . . ... 9 3 18 
 
 Ditto of leaves and sea-weeds . . . 9 7 
 
 Thus, a cubic yard of water is to that of new dung nearly as 3 to 2.— vol. 
 xiv. p. 162. Von Thaer calculates the weiglit of a cubic foot of any strawy 
 farm-yard manure at only about 46 lbs. ; while one which has been partly 
 decomposed will weigh from 56 to upwards of 60 lbs., without being com- 
 pressed. — Principes Raisonncs d' Agriculture, torn. ii. p. 326, 
 
28 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 own experience he has had frequent occasion to observe, that 
 it is hurtful to remove farm-yard manure while it is in a high 
 degree of fermentation ; for according to all appearance, an 
 essential portion of the most active substances of which it is 
 composed are evaporated when exposed to the air while that 
 process is going on. But, before the fermentation has arrived 
 at its height, or after it has passed, the dung does not seem to 
 lose any thing by exposure to the air ; or, at least, nothing but 
 what it regains by some Other means. 
 
 That an evident advantage attends the spreading of fresh 
 strawy dung upon the surface of the soil during the winter, 
 and leaving it there in that state until the spring ploughing 
 (it being, at the same time, well understood that no declivity 
 of the land allows of its being washed away by the rain) — for 
 this method of covering the ground occasions it to absorb the 
 juices of the dung, and thus renders it not only friable to work, 
 but extremely productive : so much so, that the straw has 
 been afterwards raked off" the land at the close of the season, 
 and yet the soil has appeared as much improved, as that in 
 which the whole of the litter had been buried — an effect which 
 is also apparent in meadow ground which has been similarly 
 treated. Not alone has this occurred in many such instances ; 
 but in others, in which both long and short dung have been 
 epread upon land already soM'n with tares and peas, and 
 though left there during vegetation, have produced the most 
 beneficial effect upon the crops, especially when sown late, 
 and applied to ordinary land of a light and warm nature ; but 
 what appears more extraordinary and difHcult to explain — the 
 land which has been thus managed has evinced a decided 
 superiority in the subsequent crops over ground on which even 
 a larger quantity of dung had been regularly ploughed in. 
 
 That, as one proof of this, in the spring of 1808, rape was 
 sown alon^ with clover upon a \K)ov soil, and was afterwards 
 covered with fresh dung: in the autumn of 1809, tlie clover- 
 ley was broken up, and rye was sown ; the crop of which in 
 the following year was distinguished by its superiority over 
 that of an adjoining field whicli had been dunged upon a sum- 
 mer fallow. Indeed, after a number of comparative experi- 
 ments, made by himself as well as by otlier farmers, it appeared 
 to him beyond all question — however incredible it may seem 
 to those who have not also tried its effects — that dung which 
 has already passed the extreme point of fermentation, not only 
 lo^es nothing by being exposed upon the land, even during the 
 
ON MANURES. 29 
 
 summer, but even gains. The evaporation may, indeed, be 
 not so great as it is generally supposed ; for, although it is true, 
 that when the dung is carted out and spread, it then effects 
 the air with a strong musky smell, yet there is no mode of 
 avoiding that ; and even if there were, the vapour which is 
 thus diffused is so tenuous, light, and expansive, that doubts 
 may be entertained whether the quantity of sap which is tlius 
 evaporated can be very considerable, as, after a short period, 
 tlie dung does not exhale any odour. According to the expe- 
 rience of M. Thaer, it does not lose in weight; and he 
 remarks, that, if laid during a few weeks upon a sammer fal- 
 low, a number of young plants of a very vivid green will be 
 seen to spring up, even upon spots which have not come into 
 contact with the dung ; which proves that its fertilizing pro- 
 perties were spread around, even before it had been buried in 
 the soil* 
 
 We have thus entered at large into this discussion, because 
 we consider it important to throw every light upon the subject 
 of which it may be susceptible ; and it besides contains some 
 strong reasons for the application of long dung. 
 
 There are, however, many farmers who persist in the use 
 of over-year muck, or that which has been kept perhaps a 
 twelve-month, or more, until it is completely reduced to a 
 pulp, in which state it is very commonly applied to turnips. 
 It thus loses perhaps half its bulk ; but it is considered pecu- 
 liarly favourable, and even necessary to the growth of that 
 crop, as its power upon vegetation advances it so rapidly as to 
 put it promptly out of the reach of the fly.f When, however, 
 
 * Princypes Raisonnes d'Agriculture, torn. ii. p. 315, $ 600. It is difficult 
 to ascertain the precise degree of evaporation arising from fresh dung; but, 
 by an experiment made by the Rev. St. John Priest, Secretary to the Nor- 
 folk Agricultural Society, in the presence of Mr. Ciirwen, of Workington, it 
 was found that steam was evaporated by a piece of moist ground hekl under 
 a large glass during a quarter of an liour, in the month of October, at the 
 «ate of about \k cwt. per acre. Survey of Buckinghamshire, p. 274. 
 
 This, indeed, appears a large amount within that space of time; but, had 
 tho experiment been longer continued, it would have been much diminished, 
 and would, no doubt, in a short time, have entirely ceased. 
 
 tMr. Youns, indeed, says, 'that Ions stable-muck has been carried out 
 for turnips in March, without any stirring, and that the crops were as good 
 as from short muck, though the growth of the plants was not so quick ; but 
 then 15 loads of the former were laid on instead of 12 of the latter. Long 
 and short dung have also been mixed together, and laid upon strong land, 
 with good effect. It was carted from the yard late in the spring, forming 
 heaps, which in three weeks were turned over, and, within a fortnight 
 more, were laid upon turnips ; but the practice is not common, nor very 
 likely to be generally followed.— Norfolk Report, chap. xi. sect. iii. ; Essex 
 do., pp. 229, 240. 
 
30 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the process is carried too far, and the manure has been fre- 
 quently turned, — until, as said by some farmers, ^ black butter 
 becomes black snuff :^ it has then, indeed, been found so com- 
 pletely deprived of its nutritive sap as to produce no ettect 
 whatever upon the land. On the whole, there is reason to 
 believe, * that there is, in the management of dung, as in all 
 things else, a certain point which constitutes the maximum of 
 profit, beyond which there is nothing but loss. 
 
 The management of farm-yard manure, upon light and 
 heavy soils, should diifer according to the use intended to be 
 made of it ; for it is generally employed in different seasons 
 and applied to different crops. For light land, on which the 
 most common crop in the commencement of a rotation is 
 usually turnips, it requires to be highly fermented ; because, 
 if not incorporated with the ground in that soft and sappy 
 state in which good spit dung ought to be, the plants will not 
 receive such immediate nourishment as will serve to push 
 them into rough leaf before the attacks of the fly. But for 
 clays and other strong soils generally, whether the manure be 
 applied to a fallow under preparation for an autumn sowing of 
 wheat, or in the early part of the spring for beans, as it has a 
 longer time to decompose in the soil, a less degree of putre- 
 faction is necessary than for turnips. Potatoes, also, though 
 grown on light land, may be raised by the use of fresh unfer- 
 mented manure, because they do not require the same nutri- 
 ment as turnips during their early growth, and because they 
 are also supposed to be assisted by the action of long dung in 
 opening the soil. 
 
 When, therefore, a farmer looks chiefly to a prompt return 
 through immediate benefit to the next crop, the manure should 
 he thoroughly rotted to the condition of spit dung ; ' but if his 
 views extend to subsequent crops, or if the soil be of a nature 
 to receive benefit by the fermentation and heat produced by 
 the application of long dung,' then it has been affirmed ' that 
 preference should be given to that in a fresh state, provided 
 it be immediately ploughed in and totally covered.' This, 
 however, although the opinion of the author whom we have 
 just quoted, as well as that of several practical men, should 
 yet be received with a certain degree of caution ; for, besides 
 the objections already stated to manure of this description, 
 there is such difficulty in ploughing in the straw, that much 
 of it is necessarily left upon the surface of the soil, where its 
 virtues are in a great measure lost; or, if buried deep in cold 
 
ON MANURES. 31 
 
 and retentive clays, it becomes locked up in the land, and its 
 fermentation is prevented. In order to bring- it into such a 
 state of decomposition as we have already stated, the informa- 
 tion which we have collected on the subject may be thus con- 
 densed. 
 
 On most farms the yards are commonly cleared towards the 
 middle, or the latter end of April ; though in some this does 
 not prevent the work from going partially forward during the 
 winter, and thus preparing some of the manure in succession ; 
 at whatever period it may, however, be done, the following is 
 the most advisable method of proceeding. 
 
 The most usual mode is to carry out the dung from the 
 yards, either to some waste spot adjacent to the homestead, or 
 into the field to which it is meant to be applied, and there to 
 leave it exposed to the weather, without any other preparation 
 than turning it over, until it be completely rotted, or else until 
 such time as it may be thought requisite to lay it upon the 
 land. The better plan, however, is to lay a bottom for the 
 dungstead, consisting of a bed formed of clay or sand, ditch 
 and road scrapings, marl, or any similar substance, which must 
 be well mixed and pulverized, and then spread to the extent 
 in length and breadth which it is supposed the heap will 
 cover, and from a foot to 18 inches in depth, but raised at the 
 sides and sloped to the centre, so as to absorb the liquor which 
 oozes from the dung during the heating and putrefaction which 
 always take place while it lies in the heap. The yard dung 
 is then carted out, and shot upon the bottom ; one end of which 
 is at first left lower than the other, in order to render the 
 ascent easy to the cattle — a practice, however, as we shall 
 afterwards see, which is not always to be commended. It is 
 then thrown slantingly up until the heap rises to four or five 
 feet above the foundation ; after which, careful farmers raise 
 a coating of the same materials as the bottom, a couple of feet 
 in thickness, which is spread round the heap to its full height : 
 or, when the mixen is raised upon the field in which it is 
 intended to be applied, the soil may be ploughed around the 
 heap, and plastered or faced up against the sides by the back 
 of the spade. The dung is then allowed to duly ferment, 
 which may be seen by its sinking, and easily ascertained by 
 thrusting a few sticks, of the common size of broom-handles, 
 into different parts of the heap, as well as by its steaming and 
 offensive smell, which, however, subsides when it is thoroughly 
 decomposed. Dark-coloured putrid water is also drained from 
 D 
 
32 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the heap, and there can be little doubt that this discharg-e of 
 vapour and Huid will, if permitted, occasion the loss of some 
 portion of the virtues of the manure ; in order to guard against 
 which, a thin coat, of the same kind as the sides, and made as 
 fine as possible, is laid regularly and lig-htly over it, so that its 
 weig-ht may press equally and not heavily — for, if left in 
 lumps, their cumbrous weight would force the dung into holes, 
 and prevent its regular fermentation. 
 
 By this covering of the dung with a due proportion of earth, 
 or of other coating, that loss is, however, in a great measure 
 prevented ; and the bringing of the heap into a state of prepa- 
 ration either sooner or later, as circumstances may require its 
 application to the land, can be effected by the denseness and 
 compression of the covering. The operation therefore requires 
 considerable delicacy; for, if dung, already in an unfermented 
 state, be so closely pressed as to effectually exclude the air, it 
 will be found, perhaps at the distance of several months, in a 
 state very little different from that in which it was put up ; or, 
 when it is thought to be in a perfect state of preparation, it 
 will, upon examination, be discovered to be only decayed, and, 
 instead of abounding in rich mucilaginous substance, to con- 
 sist almost entirely of mere vegetable earth. 
 
 This also leads us to remark on the common practice of 
 driving carts, with their loads, iipon the dunghills ; the con- 
 sequence of which is that, as nearly the same road is followed 
 by each cart in crossing them, it is not possible to draw load 
 after load upon such a heap without compressing tliose parts 
 where the horses tread, and thus, instead of the dung under- 
 going a regular fermentation, which every part necessarily 
 would if it had been thrown loosely on the heap, and of one 
 uniform thickness, it is, in some spots, consolidated into a mass 
 which, iji most instances, greatly retards, and in some entirely 
 prevents, the process ; ' becomes mouldy, from want of air, 
 caloric, and moisture, — acquires a musty, turbid smell, — gene- 
 rates fungi, — and is, in that state, injurious to vegetation.' 
 The system has indeed been defended by some very able men, 
 one of whom insists ' that the dung should be drawn out of tJie 
 yards, and placed upon the bottoms, tliough not in the usual 
 way of throwing it up loosely, to cause fermentation, but, on 
 the contrary, by drawing the carts, with their loads, upon the 
 heaps, for the purpose of compressing tlie dung, and thereby 
 -preventing fermentation;'' and another conceives tliat 'a 
 positive benefit will be gained by this slight compression.' 
 
ON MANURES. 33 
 
 This tliflbrence of opinion may however have arisen from 
 attention not having been paid to tlie different qualities of tlie 
 dung-, as well as to the use intended to be made of it. When 
 the materials removed from the yard consist chiefly of litter in 
 a fresh or rough state, not sufficiently saturated with the urine 
 of cattle, or when the manure is not intended to be immedi- 
 ately applied to the land, no serious damage can ensue from 
 driving the carts — which are usually drawn by one horse — 
 across the heap, when the dung has risen to some height upon 
 the foundation ; but if that operation be performed before some 
 considerable portion of the dung be laid on, the inevitable con- 
 sequence will be that the bottom, which consists of either 
 of earth or of other matter devoid of elasticity, will thus be 
 kneaded into solid and unequal lumps, which will occasion tlie 
 elfect complained of Care should therefore be taken to make 
 the heap so narrow, that, by driving on each side of it, the 
 carts may be backed, and the dung shot upon the pile, which 
 may then be levelled with grapes, or forks, and laid compactly 
 together. Much labour of the teams will thus be saved : if 
 the object be to prevent fermentation, the dung may be regu- 
 larly and closely trodden down by the men employed in 
 spreading and levelling it ; and the quantity of earth to be laid 
 over it may be regulated accordingly. If, on the other hand, 
 the manure be intended for immediate use — then the dung 
 should be thrown lightly together without treading, and the 
 quantity of earth on the sides and top should be reduced ; or, 
 if the dung be of a hot nature, from which too sudden or vio- 
 lent fermentation may be apprehended, a portion of the earth 
 may be intimately blended with it, and it will thus be soon 
 brought into a fit state for application. 
 
 It must not, however, escape observation, that store cattle 
 are often kept in straw-yards apart from other stock ; or else 
 that, when the same yard is used, the stable litter of horses is 
 thrown separately out, and thus produces two very distinct 
 species of dung. Attention should therefore be paid, in clear- 
 ing the yards, to take a few cart loads from each kind alter- 
 nately, so that the whole may be, as nearly as possible, equally 
 mixed, and heat alike. It will thus also be seen if any portion 
 of the dung is too dry, in which case it should be distributed 
 among that which is wet ; and if there be any general defi- 
 ciency of moisture, or if the external parts of the heap become 
 dry during the process of fermentation, they should be tho- 
 roughly wetted. The heaps, too, should be of moderate size, 
 
34 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 by which means they can be turned and got ready at different 
 periods, as occasion may require.* 
 
 These pies — as they are provincially termed when thus 
 crusted over — if ready by the 1st of May, may be reasonably 
 expected to be in a fit condition to be laid on the summer fal- 
 lows by the latter end of July, though the time required for 
 their preparation must be governed by the strength of the 
 dung, the weather, and the exact period of its intended appli- 
 cation. Those formed during the summer months, unless the 
 dung be produced by horses and cattle kept in the yards by 
 soiling on green food, can seldom be collected and got ready 
 for use within the same season ; but when intended for turnips, 
 the manure should be carried out and lightly raised about six 
 weeks or two months before it is wanted, within ten days or a 
 fortnight of which time it should be very carefully turned. 
 
 The operation of turning is also one that requires circum- 
 spection. This is often neglected until the heat of the mixen 
 is quite spent, its fermentation passed, and it is become 
 entirely rotten. To which glaring error is to be added the 
 carelessness employed in that labour by servants, who, in 
 turning it over, usually begin at one end, and throwing layer 
 upon layer as they cut them through, place them again in the 
 same order in which they found them, with this only differ- 
 ence, that the part which was at the top now becomes the bot- 
 tom. Thus it has been justly observed by Mr. JVIalcolm, that 
 ' the benefit which might have accrued to each ingredient by 
 their proper admixture is infallibly lost, because the dung has 
 been prevented from infusing any of its saline particles into 
 the mould, and when laid upon the land, instead of being a 
 body of invaluable manure, they are little better, as such, than 
 as if each ingredient had been immediately drawn from the 
 beds out of which they were originally taken.' All this may, 
 
 * On this subject Mr. Cook is said to have lately expressed himself, at a 
 public dinner in Norfolk, to the follo<ving effect : — 'Having made a platform 
 of marl, 1 placed the inferior muck upjon it; the manure of the fat cattle 
 formed the third coating, and upon that the horse-dung as the fourth, and 
 ill about equal quantities. I then ploughed round it, threw up the earth, 
 and made a kind of coating over the whole to keep in the gas. Just before 
 sowhig, the heap was turned over; and thus, when the muck was in a 
 state of fermentation, it went into tlie drill. Let farmers follow this plan, 
 and give plenty of seed, and they will not find their crops of turnips to fail ; 
 the warmth of the manure would force the turnips out of the way of the fly 
 in less than eight-and-forty hours.' In Dr. Uigby's account of Holkham, 
 it is also stated that, by preparing manure iu this manner, Mr. Coke saves 
 no less than 500Z. per annum in the purchase of rape-cake as top-dress- 
 ings.— 3d edit., p. 56. 
 
ON MANURES. 35 
 
 however, be easily avoided by cautiously observing the proba- 
 ble state of the fermentation of each heap, and by turning" it 
 completely over, either when it requires lightening or pres- 
 sure ; by narrowly watching the process, so that every part 
 may be thoroughly shaken up, the clods and lumps in the bot- 
 tom, top, and sides well broken, the adhesive parts of the dung 
 separated, and moisture added if necessary. When this pro- 
 cess has been attentively performed, it has been recommended 
 by Mr. Blaikie 'to immediately plough several furrows of the 
 natural soil all around the heaps, and with the loose earth 
 ploughed up again, coat the heaps all over : the pies will then 
 take a gentle fermentation ; the earth intermLxcd with and 
 covering the dung will absorb the juices and gases of the dung, 
 and the compost will come out in a fine state of preparation for 
 using on turnip land. From manure of this description, in 
 which all the materials are intimately blended, soaked with 
 putrid water, and decomposed to a degree of mellow consist- 
 ence, different sorts, to suit different soils and crops, cannot 
 indeed be taken ; but perhaps, with the single exception of 
 potatoes, this one sort of farm-dung, managed as above, may 
 be successfully applied to every crop, and to every kind of soil. 
 Long-dung. — Such is the most common practice with the 
 generality of farmers regarding /ermenfet? dung ; but there is 
 another system of management advocated by some eminent 
 chemists, who recommend that it should be used in a fresh 
 state — that is to say, after it has begun to ferment ; for it is 
 well known that dry vegetable and animal matter cannot be 
 properly made to serve as manure until that process has com- 
 menced. On the effects of the fermentation of farm-yard ma- 
 nure, and the length to which the operation should be carried 
 before it be applied to the soil, there exists indeed an extraor- 
 dinary difference of opinion among the written authorities on 
 the subject, and the practice of many eminent farmers is 
 equally at variance. It was long ago asserted, that ' there was 
 good reason to believe, from many facts, that putrefaction 
 was no w-ay necessary to the nutritive power of animal and 
 vegetable matter, but in so far as it diminishes tJieir cohesion, 
 or destroys their texture, and renders them fitter for absorp- 
 tion ; and as there is considerable waste in gases and ammo- 
 niacal and nitrous salt by their putrefaction, it is of importance 
 not to allow'the putrefaction to take place at all where it is not 
 required to break the texture.' In support of that theory, 
 various other authorities were quoted by, the late Secretary to 
 
36 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the Board of Agriculture, in the treatise on manures which 
 gained him the Bedford ian medal of the Bath and West of 
 Eng-land Agricultural Society. Many who previously doubted 
 it have been since persuaded of its superiority by much practi- 
 cal as well as theoretical evidence then brought forward ; to 
 which there has been since added the powerful arguments of 
 Sir Humphry Davy, who thus expresses himself: — 
 
 ' Whoever will refer to the simplest principles of chemistry 
 cannot entertain a doubt on the subject. As soon as dung 
 begins to decompose, it throws off its volatile parts, which are 
 the most valuable and most efficient. Dung which has fer- 
 mented, so as to become a mere soft cohesive mass, has gene- 
 rally lost from one-third to one-half of its most useful con- 
 stituent elements ; and that it may exert its full action upon 
 the plant, and lose none of its nutritive powers, it should 
 evidently be applied much sooner, and long before decomposi- 
 tion has arrived at its ultimate results. 
 
 ' A slight incipient fermentation is undoubtedly of use in 
 the dung-hill, for by means of it a disposition is brought on in 
 the woody fibre to decay and dissolve when it is carried to the 
 land, or ploug-Jied into the soil, and woody fibre is always in 
 great excess in the refuse of the farm. Too great a degree 
 of fermentation is, however, very prejudicial' to the composite 
 manure in tlie dung-hill ; it is better that there should be no 
 fermentation at all before the manure is used than that it 
 should be carried too far ; for the excess of fermentation tends 
 to the destruction and dissipation of the most useful of its 
 parts, and the ultimate results of this process are like those of 
 combustion.' 
 
 The sentiments of this celebrated chemist are certainly 
 entitled to great weight ; but though we admit that the fer- 
 mentation of farm-yard manure hiay be rendered injurious, 
 botli through the waste which occurs in bulk, as well as by 
 the loss of some portion of its nutritive properties, if that 
 process be carried to excess, yet we are inclined to doubt the 
 correctness of that position which says ' that it should be 
 applied long before decomposition has arrived at its ultimate 
 results.' We think also, that some distinction should be 
 drawn between the different kinds and qualities of dung, as 
 well as of the crops to which it is to be applied, and of the 
 season in which it is to be used, before any such un-exception- 
 able rule should be adopted for its preparation. Thus, to 
 recommend the application of fresh manure for a crop of 
 
ON MANURES. 37 
 
 turnips, in like mannner as for another of potatoes,— for heavy 
 clay equally as for a light sandy loam, or to draw no distinction 
 between the time in which it is to be laid upon the land, — • 
 rather affords evidence of theoretic generalization than of 
 sound conclusions, drawn from a multiciplity of well-supported 
 experiments, and established by practical effect.* 
 
 There are perhaps few agricultural subjects on which 
 theory and practice are so much at variance as in the manage- 
 ment and application of putrescent manure. There is hardly 
 a farmer who will not admit that a crop of turnips may be 
 altogether risked if short muck be not employed ; and though 
 some of them are often under the necessity of applying a 
 portion of long-dung, perhaps to the same field on which the 
 former has been laid, yet the very drill on which the two 
 kinds meet may in general be distinctly pointed out, while 
 potatoes, on the contrary, are almost invariably planted on 
 fresh farm-yard manure : though neither of these instances 
 prove either that fresh dung gains any fertilizing power by 
 fermentation, or that short muck loses it ; for these facts apply 
 only to the mechanical action of the manures, and to the 
 natural economy of the plants. It is also generally admitted 
 that long-dung is more suitable to clay lands than to liglit 
 soils, which are rendered too porous by its application ; and, ui 
 like manner, fresh manure is objected to for all spring crops, 
 because it is found to keep the land in too open a state in dry 
 weather, and liable to be burnt up in the summer. 
 
 Sir Humphry, however, adds — ' that the dry straw of wheat, 
 oats, barley, beans and peas, and spoiled hay, or any other 
 similar kind of dry vegetable matter, is, in all cases, useful 
 manure. In general, such substances are made to ferment 
 before they are employed, though it may be doubted whether 
 the practice should be indiscriminately adopted.' 
 
 On which it may be observed that although in anotlier 
 passage he admits ' that a great objection against slightly 
 fermenting dung is, that weeds spring up more luxuriantly 
 where it is applied,' — which forms in itself a strong impedi- 
 ment ; yet that is not the only fault to which it is exposed — 
 for it also occasions foul husbandry. It is scarcely possible in 
 
 * On this it has been observed, that, in the instance of turnips. Sir Hum- 
 phry only meant to say, 'that tlie manure should be applied lovg before de- 
 composition had arrived at its ultimate results ;' but this does not weaken 
 the general force of our remark, which refers to the indiscriminate use of 
 long dung. 
 
38 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 any soil to plough down effectually a large quantity of rank 
 strawy manure; tor even the stubbles, wlien cut high, are 
 found difficult to bury, and more especially on light land this 
 fresh stable-dung slides along the ground before the breast of 
 the plough, and thus clogs the furrow. Tlie harrows also 
 drag up considerable quantities, which not alone impede their 
 action, but a large portion of the manure is thus scattered 
 over the surface of the ground, and uselessly left there to 
 perish ; and litter that had been plouo-hed down fresh has, in 
 numerous instances, been turned up in the following spring 
 without any apparent change. Objections such as these are 
 not easily obviated, but even were they surmounted, the value 
 of the dung in that state of preparation still remains to be 
 considered. 
 
 Of the mysteries of nature in her supply of food to plants 
 we have no certain information, and it is even probable that 
 they will ever elude discovery. Some experiments whicli 
 were made by Sir Humphry Davy, however, favoured tlie 
 opinion ' that soluble matters pass unaltered into the roots of 
 plants f in support of which he says — 'that the great object iii 
 the application of manure should be to make it afford as much 
 soluble matter as possible to the roots of the plants, and that 
 in a slow and gradual manner, so that it may be entirely con- 
 sumed in forming the sap of the organized plant ;' in order to 
 attain which effect, he admits ' that it must undergo chemical 
 changes.'' Now, the materials of which the great bulk of 
 farm-yard manure is composed, consist chiefly of straw or 
 other litter, which, being fibrous, can only be rendered soluble 
 by fermentation : but chemical theorists assert that this process 
 should be perfected at least, if not commenced, underground ; 
 for they msist that, if completed in the dung-hill, it would 
 occasion a great loss of nutritive matter; and it must be 
 admitted that several practical men of considerable judgment 
 have become converts to the same notion. Thus, one of the 
 latter body says — 'that, although half- rotted manure will 
 sooner disappear in the soil, and that the crop sown along 
 with it may often be better than on fresh dung improperly 
 applied, there may be little doubt; but there can be as little 
 that, during the time the latter is visible, it has afibrded the 
 greatest share of nourishment;' and he then asserts, 'that the 
 ravages of fermentation and exhalation are more to be dreaded, 
 and ought to be more guarded against, than any other waste 
 to which a heap of dung is liable.' 
 
ON MANURES. 39 
 
 In contradiction to this, however, another writer upon the 
 same subject thus expresses himself: — ' The object of applying 
 all kinds of manure is to nourish the seed which is sown in the 
 earth ; and we know from observation that its development is 
 much accelerated by the immediate assistance of manure. If 
 manure requires to be in a soluble state before plants derive 
 benefit from it, it is evident, the greater state of solution in 
 which the manure is, the more easily will the plant be enabled 
 to derive benefit from it. This point is finely illustrated by 
 the quicker efficacy of liquid than solid manure in nourishing- 
 the plant, when both are applied in equal strength. Now, if 
 there is no way of making manure soluble but by fermentation, 
 it is also evident a great degree of fermentation will dissolve 
 all the fibrous portions of putrescent manures the more easily. 
 This point is also well illustrated by a fermented dung-hill, the 
 materials of which, if properly commixed, will ferment strongly 
 for a time, and then the fermentation will subside to a low 
 degree, leaving the whole mass in that pulpy, sappy state, than 
 which nothing can give a better idea of a soluble state of a 
 fibrous body. Whether any really nutritive matter is driven 
 off" by fermentation before the mass is brought to that pulpy 
 state, may be doubted ; for the evaporation from such a dung- 
 hill appears to be just the steam of water in a highly elastic 
 state, glimmering like a hot haze in a sunny day, on looking 
 across a ploughed field. But even should some gaseous matter 
 escape during fermentation, this undeniable fact remains un- 
 touched — that this fermented, pulpy, sappy mass of manure 
 will go much farther in maintaining the fertility of land than 
 the same bulk, or weight, of recent farm-yard manure.' 
 
 On the latter point we thmk there can be no rational doubt; 
 for it is very generally allowed that an equal quantity of short 
 muck, or that which has been merely reduced to the state of 
 spit-dung, is more immediately effectual as manure to the pre- 
 sent crop: but the question still remains to be decided — 
 Whether the same amount of substance, if laid upon the land 
 previous to its diminution by the loss of fluid and of gaseous 
 matter, has not a more lasting effect on the improvement of the 
 soil ] It can only be determined by long experience upon dif- 
 ferent soils, seasons, climates, crops, and rotations; and we 
 agree with Mr. Finlayson that, ' in order to make a fair trial, 
 it might not be unworthy of the agriculturist's pains to place, 
 for example, a ton of fresh dung in a favourable situation for 
 fermentation ; to turn it over once or twice ; and when rotted 
 
40 A TRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 down to the bulk, weight, and consistency thoug-ht most expe- 
 dient, or usually allowed, to put it and a ton of fresh dung of 
 the same sort on equal spaces of very poor land, and weigh the 
 produce of the three following crops; by which means the 
 matter would soon be set at rest, and, with the majority of 
 farmers, a greater uniformity observed in the management of 
 this division of their business,' We accordingly extract a com- 
 parative experiment made by an intelligent practical farmer 
 on three kinds of manure, and on a cultivated soil witliout ma- 
 nure — half a rood of ground being allowed for each — as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 Successive Crops and Produce from a single application of the following 
 Quantities, viz : — 
 Fresli stable-dung Eotten dung, Dry Barley-straw No 
 
 in a strawy state. Sioonthsold, buret on the ground, manure. 
 3 tons. 2 tons. 15 cwt. 
 
 PER ACRE. PER ACRE. PER ACRE. PER ACRE. 
 
 1st crop Turnips, 18cwt. 6st. 61b. 16cwt. lst.41b. 8cwt. 3st. 7 lb. 1st. 8 lb. 
 2d crop Barley, 30 bush. 2 pks. 36 bush. 3 pks. 30 bush. 1 pk. 14 bush. 
 
 3pks. 
 3d crop Clover, 20cwt. 21cwt. IScwt. Scwt. 
 
 4th crop, Oats, 38 bush. 40 bush. 18 bush. 32 bush. 
 
 As to the feed after the clover, it was about equal to the 
 expense of getting in each crop respectively, with a small sur- 
 plus on the plot manured with rotten dung. 
 
 To complete this experiment, there should, however, have 
 been a notice added of the proportion of w^eight which fresh 
 stable-dung would lose w^ithin eight months; for three tons 
 would scarcely, at the expiration of that time, amount to more 
 than half that quantity of completely rotted dung; though 
 when farm-yard manure is reduced one-third in weight, the 
 fermentation may be, in most cases, considered as far enough 
 advanced for the general purposes of agriculture. Supposing 
 the original quantities to have been equal, the above experi- 
 ment would be, in every part of the rotation, in favour of rotted 
 dung, with the exception of the inferiority of the turnip-crop, 
 which, in this instance, remarkably contradicts the practice of 
 its application ; though, without more clear information regard- 
 ing the soil, the culture, and the weather, no positive conclu- 
 sion can be drawn from that fact. 
 
 In his remarks upon the formation of dung-heaps, Sir 
 Humphrey justly observes — ' that an immeasurable quantity 
 of substance disposed for conversion into food for plants is suf- 
 fered to escape in the form of drainings and vapour. During 
 the violent fermentation which is necessary for reducing farni- 
 yard manure to the state in which it is called " short-miick^'^ 
 
ON MANURES. 
 
 41 
 
 not only a large quantity of fluid, but likewise of gaseous mat- 
 ter, is lost ; so much so, that the dung is reduced one-halti and 
 from that two-thirds or more, in weight. Now, the principal 
 elastic matter disengaged is carbonic acid, with some ammo- 
 nia; and both these, if attracted by the moisture in a soil, and 
 retained in combination with it, are capable of becoming nutri- 
 ment' Reasoning on which, he says — ' that, within the last 
 seven years, Mr. Coke has entirely given up the system of 
 applying fermented dung ; and he informs me, that his crops 
 - have been as good as ever they were, and that his manure 
 goes nearly twice as far.' He then sums up his arguments 
 with directions for the management of putrescent manure, in 
 the following terms : — 
 
 ' Where farm-yard dung cannot be immediately applied, the 
 destructive fermentation of it should be prevented as much as 
 possible. For this end the dung should be kept dry and un- 
 exposed to the air; for the moisture and contact with the 
 oxygen of the atmosphere tends to excite fermentation. To 
 protect a heap from rain, a covering of compact marl, or of a 
 tenacious clay, should be spread over the surface and sides of it. 
 Watering dung-hills is sometimes recommended for checking 
 fermentation ; but this practice, although it may cool the dung 
 for a short time, is inconsistent with just views*, for moisture is 
 a principal agent in all processes of decomposition: dry fibrous 
 matter will never ferment. Water is as necessary as air to 
 the process, and to supply it to fermenting dung is to supply 
 an agent which will hasten its decay.' 'If a thermometer 
 plunged into the dung does not rise above 100° of Fahrenheit, 
 there is little danger of much aeriform matter flying off; if 
 the temperature is higher, the dung should be immediately 
 spread abroad.' 
 
 There is no ground for contesting the fact that a large 
 quantity of fluid and of gaseous vapour is allowed to escape 
 during the common process of reducing farm-yard manure to 
 the state of short muck ; but the practical inference deduced 
 therefrom can only be proved by experiments on a much 
 broader scale than those which have been yet submitted to 
 the public. 
 
 The separation of a rich fluid substance, drained from a 
 mass of dung, must, doubtless, diminish the fertilizing power 
 of the manure in the proportion in which it has been ex- 
 tracted ; but these drainings can either be preserved in tanks, 
 and afterwards either thrown over the heap or applied to the 
 
42 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 land in their liquid form ; or, should the construction of such 
 reservoirs prove inconvenient, the waste of the liquor rnay be 
 prevented by raising the dung-hill in the manner already 
 stated in our account of the preparation of farm-yard manure. 
 The application of such moisture cannot be considered as a 
 loss; and we have already seen that even that of watering 
 dung-hills is sometimes necessary to prevent them from be- 
 coming fire-fanged. 
 
 The escape of gaseous matter is caused by the heat created 
 by fermentation ; and if we look to the state of a ikrm-yard, we 
 sliall find that the moment the dung is thrown out, trampled 
 upon, and wetted by the cattle, that process is* commenced, 
 although the temperature of the heap should be far below 
 100°. But although the bulk of the manure is thus diminished 
 by the evaporation, yet the effect upon vegetation of the am- 
 monia contained in the vapour has not been conclusively 
 ascertained ; nor is there any proof that animal and vegetable 
 substances, while in a state of fermentation, contribute to its 
 support ; for it appears from numerous experiments, that rank 
 manure, although forcing the early growth of living plants, 
 yet eventually contributes to their premature decay. Practice 
 has long since decided that it is injurious to turnips, to which 
 crop it is more profusely applied than to any other :* it renders 
 corn crops foul; and on light and poor land, which, containing 
 but little nutriment in the soil, requires all that can be fur- 
 nished to it by the manure for the support of the present 
 plants, its effect, though often seen to occasion them to push 
 forth with great apparent vigour, yet frequently leaves them 
 deficient in grain and subject to rust. The potato is, indeed, 
 almost the only plant to which it has been found decidedly 
 friendly; but even that is in many soils known to succeed 
 better with short dung. 
 
 Respecting the effect of unfermented dung on Mr. Cokeys 
 
 * Mr. Walker, of Mellendean, who rents about 2800 acres of arable land, 
 has found by the experience of thirty years, that a small quantify of rotten 
 dung is sufficient for a crop of turnips, and that all the succeeding crops, in 
 the common rotation, are also generally good; but he could never raise a 
 full crop with long fresh dung, which, from its openness, tends to admit 
 drought, instead of affording moisture and nutriment to the roots, while 
 they are young and tender. lie is therefore at considerable expense in car- 
 rying out, turning and re-turning his dung-hills, so as to have the dung in a 
 putrid state when laid upon the land in the month of June. After all, he is 
 every year obliged so to manure a part of his turnip land with fresh dung, 
 and whenever that is laid on, the crop i* invariably much inferior, — Husbandry 
 of Scotland, vol. i. p. 161. 
 
ON MANURES. 
 
 43 
 
 crops, it has been observed, in the treatise to which we have 
 already alluded, that the statement is only entitled to weight 
 upon the construction either that some of the manure made on 
 the farm tliat was expended under the old system is disposable 
 for some other purpose under the new ; or that some expense 
 in fetching manure from distant places, that had used to be 
 iniiurred, is saved. For, if the assertion 'that his crops have 
 been as good as ev5r they w^ere, and go nearly twice as far,' 
 means only that the dung when now expended is nearly twice 
 as much in bulk or weig-ht, and covers the surface of the field 
 more thickly in the same proportion, the benefit is merely 
 illusory, as the crop does not thus appear to be increased; but 
 if the meaning is, 'that twice the surface is manured as etfect- 
 ually with the same quantity of dung' — then, indeed, we 
 should say that the new plan may be fairly considered as 
 entitled to the most serious consideration. 
 
 The same author, indeed, mentions an instance — cited in 
 Dr. Thomson's System of Chemistry — of an experiment, from 
 which it appears that the periods when putrescent manures 
 begin to produce their eflects, and the length of time during 
 which they continue to operate, are proportioned to the degree 
 of putrefaction under which they are applied. Two pieces of 
 the same kind of soil wore manured — the one with a mixture 
 of dung and straw highly putrefied, the other with the same 
 proportions of dung and straw newly mixed, and the straw 
 almost fre.-h. It was then observed that, during the first year, 
 the plants which grew on the putrefied dung produced a much 
 better crop than the other; but the second year, the ground 
 which had been manured wath the fresh dung produced the 
 best crop: the same result took place in the third year, after 
 which both pieces seemed to be equally exhausted. This, 
 however, only showing that the one was productive of the 
 best crop in the first, and the other in the second year, proves 
 nothing more than an equality of final effect upon the land: 
 upon which it cannot escape reflection, that when the state of 
 the soil does not require progressive improvement, the first 
 crop is generally the main consideration with the farmer ; he 
 naturally, therefore, wishes to place it beyond the reach of 
 those contingencies to which it might be exposed by any 
 deficiency of effective manure. A knowledge of chemical 
 principles, indeed, leads to the inference, that dung ought to 
 be used in a recent state ; and it has been thence assumed, 
 'that any disappointment which, in practice, may have at- 
 
44 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 tended tlio adoption of that inference, will be fotmd to have 
 arisen, not from a defect in the theory, but from a want of due 
 observation of circumstances in its application.' But whatever 
 may be found in the writings of scientific agriculturists in 
 favour of unfermented manure, the experience of practical 
 men may, in most cases, excuse a doubt of its expediency.* (a) 
 
 Regarding the application of straw, which the Professor 
 thinks ' should be ploughed into the soil in a fresh state, and 
 that, in order to facilitate its mixture with the earth, it might 
 be chopped small with a machine,' we deem it almost unneces- 
 sary to add any thing more to the observations we have already 
 made, except the record of an experiment made upon dry 
 wheat straw, which was regularly laid in the hollows of drills, 
 and potato-sets placed over it. The straw and sets were then 
 covered with earth, yet very few of the potatoes ever appeared 
 above ground, and these only towards the end of autumn. 
 When the ground was ploughed up, the straw seemed to have 
 undergone no change, nor did it impart any sensible benefit 
 to subsequent crops. Had the same straw, however, been 
 previously subjected to only a moderate degree of fermenta- 
 tion, there can be no doubt that its effects would have been 
 very different; for, in most soils, potatoes thrive in dung 
 which abounds in litter that has been very slightly fermented. 
 
 In fine, although coinciding in the opinion that the decom- 
 position of putrescent manure may be — and is very generally — 
 carried too far, and that its value is materially lessened by an 
 excess of putrefactive fermentation, yet experience proves 
 that, to a certain extent, it is absolutely requisite, though its 
 
 *In the papers selected from the Correspondence of the Bath and West 
 of England Society, there are queries proposed by the Board of Agriciilturo 
 on several subjects connected with cultivation. The answer hy one of their 
 most distinguished members to that regarding manure, is as follows : — 
 
 ' What are the effects of dung and other manures upon the taste, Jiavour, and 
 wholesomeness of vegetahles ?' 
 
 ' If the dung be completely rotten, the effects will be quickness of growth, 
 succulence, crispness, and delicacy of flavour. I strongly suspect that the 
 application of ill-digested manure to land is an evil productive of very great 
 injury. Worms and grubs are multiplied thereby— the most noxious vapours 
 are propagated; and probably, the diseases in our grain crops may originate 
 in tiiis circnmstance. I cannot believe that the delicate tibres of a root, 
 making an efl'ort to penetrate a clod of putrefying dunir, can escape un- 
 injured; and vegetable diseases, I presume, often commence at the root.' — 
 Vol. ix. art. xix. p. 235. 'I have known recent manure check vegetation.' 
 —Ibid. p. 232. 
 
 (a) [The rankness of fresh manure docs not affect Indian corn, or most 
 root crops; but injures wheat and other grains— increasing the liability to 
 blight or mildew.] 
 
ON MANURES. 45 
 
 positive effects upon vegetation are still so doubtful that the 
 degree can only be ascertained by observation. The main 
 agents of the process are water, heat, and air. If a dung-lieap 
 be much wetted, the operation proceeds very slowly; but when 
 only moisture is retained sufficient to condense it, then it pre- 
 sently heats, and the fermentation proceeds so violently that, 
 if not checked, a large portion of its bulk seems to escape by 
 evaporation ; though, if this be only the effect of the condensa- 
 tion of its materials, and if its weight be not also reduced, the 
 residue may perhaps be thus rendered more nutritive. The 
 opposite result may, however, be the fact ; for it may be ob- 
 served that, if a quantity of farm-yard dung be removed from 
 a dung-hill and turned loosely to the air, though it may be 
 cool at first, yet, if moderately wet, it will soon generate 
 heat; it will smoke violently, and emit a very pungent 
 effluvium: from which it may be conjectured, that the nutri- 
 tive properties of the manure would have been better pre- 
 served if it had not been exposed to further fermentation. 
 Care should therefore be taken to preserve those exhalations 
 from being dissipated, and it will be probably found that the 
 object will be sufficiently attained if the vegetative power of 
 seed-weeds be destroyed, and the fibres of the straw be reduced 
 to the state of spit-dung. 
 
 Some fermentation will necessarily be ever going on in 
 the dung-heap; but there is little danger of its being carried 
 too far if the ingredients which it contains be well and pro- 
 perly mixed. If horse-dung alone be employed, it will soon 
 proceed to an excess, occasioned by its own internal heat, that 
 will deprive it of every fertilizing quality; but if mixed with 
 the cooler dung of horned cattle, that risk will be in a great 
 measure avoided. Then, if the dry contents of the covered 
 sheds be also added to the mass of wet litter in the straw-yard, 
 the whole mixture will undoubtedly not ferment beyond the 
 point best suited to render it immediately available. 'In a 
 large dung-hill, of such a mixture, the heat of the active fer- 
 mentation subsides in it long before any of its useful parts are 
 destroyed, and long before even all the water which it contains 
 is evaporated out of it ; for, on examination, the manure will 
 be found to be quite short, and easily lifted with the fork or 
 shovel ; while, at the same time, it will be saturated with the 
 richest black-coloured juices, which appear to be the essential 
 parts of urine deprived of their water.' We, therefore, con- 
 sider it as the opinion of a large majority of the most intelli- 
 
46 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 g-ent farmers, that dung should not be laid upon the land until 
 it has underg-one such a change as may be sufficient to destroy 
 the seeds and insects which it may contain. This, however, 
 cannot be effected except by a putrid fermentation, which, 
 under common farm management, cannot be completed until 
 the heap be decomposed and cool ; for otherwise, the operations 
 of cartage, spreading, and ploughing in the manure, while in 
 a state of heat, would dissipate the gaseous matter, and thus 
 occasion the loss of that in which its nutritive powers are 
 partly supposed to consist. 
 
 Produce of Strmo and Dung. — The quantity of straw 
 grown per acre depends upon such a variety of circumstances 
 touching soil and cultivation, season, and kind of crop, that it 
 is quite impossible to form any precise calculation on the 
 subject. Estimates have however been made of the average 
 weight of different sorts produced by the various species of 
 grain, from which a general idea of their gross amount may 
 be formed. Although it is clear that nothing like accuracy 
 can be expected on that point, yet it is in the power of every 
 farmer to form a tolerably exact notion of the weight of all the 
 straw actually grown upon his own land ; and coupling this 
 wdth the number of his live-stock and the nature of their food, 
 he will probably be able to make out such a rough calculation 
 of the gross quantity of farm -yard manure as may not be far 
 from the truth. Such an account may indeed appear at first 
 sight to be more curious than useful ; but crops depend in a 
 great measure on yard-dung, and their rotation must be regu- 
 lated, on most soils, by its amount ; it is therefore important to 
 ascertain, as nearly as possible, the quantity on which a man 
 who is dependent upon its production alone, without purchased 
 manure, can rely, before he lays his plan for the ensuing year. 
 The following are some of the estimates alluded to: — 
 
 31 cwt. or 3472 lbs. . .. wheat .... 160sf. or 3520 lbs. 
 25 " 2810 . . *. beans and pease 130 " 2660 
 25 " 2800 . . . oats .... 130 " 2860 
 20 " 2240 . . . barley ... 100 " 2200 
 
 Rye, about 3 loads of 36 trusses each, or 3888 lbs. 
 
 The yield of different years varies the proportion which all 
 grain and pulse bear to the straw; but the average of wheat is 
 about 12 bushels to the load, which, according to the practice 
 in most parts of England, consists of 36 trusses of 361bs. each, 
 and weigns llcwt. 2qrs. 81bs. ; but according to the above 
 statement, the whole average of the kingdom is supposed to 
 be about 1} ton per statute acre. 
 
OJN MANURES. 
 
 47 
 
 It has however, been calculated by Dr. Coventry, the Pro- 
 fessor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, that ara- 
 ble land of a medium degree of fertility and management, is 
 capable in ordinary years, of producing, in round numbers, per 
 imperial acre, about 28 bushels of wheat, 36 bushels of barley, 
 and 42 bushels of oats; and that the average quantity of straw 
 yielded by those crops will amount to 21 cwt. He then states 
 that, supposing this dry straw to be moistened and rotted, it 
 would thereby gain an addition to its weight equal to two- 
 thirds, or between three-lburths and two-thirds of its gross 
 weight — thus producing about 3j tons of manure : and admit- 
 ting that'some corn is consumed in the feed of horses, as well 
 as that the refuse of the grain, the chaff and light corn, besides 
 the straw, go ultimately to the dung-heap, ' one cannot reckon 
 the amount of the putrescent manure gained from an acre of 
 such produce at more than 4 tons.' But, judging by the like 
 proportion of moisture of different parcels produced by straw, 
 pulse, hay, or herbage of any sort, ' it is likely tliat a full pro- 
 duce of turnips, potatoes, or cabbages, would furnish even a 
 considerably greater weight,' By an experiment very care- 
 fully made by Mr. Dudgeon, of Prora, in East Lothian, it how- 
 ever appears that dry straw had only increased by absorption 
 from 300 to 719 stone, during a period of seven months ; which 
 is materially at variance with the Doctor's estimate of the 
 addition to its weight. It seems, however, from the statements 
 of several eminent farmers, that 1 ton of straw, when aug- 
 mented in weight by the dung and urine of turnip-fed stock, 
 will, if properly managed, produce about 4 tons of farm-yard 
 manure ;* but others, with more justice we think, are of opinion 
 that such a quantity can only be produced when the common 
 number of cattle on farms in the ordinary course of cultivation 
 are also fed in the usual way — upon hay, clover, and corn, as 
 well as turnips, besides being well littered with straw. Its 
 weight and value will of course be affected by its state of pre- 
 paration, as well as by the nature of the soil and its cultiva- 
 tion. Meadow land which produces If tons of hay per acre 
 has been calculated to give 6 2-5, or rather more than 6 tons 
 of manure per acre, and the fallow crops produce a large 
 
 * Sinclair's Code of Agriculture, 3d edit., pp. 215, 440; Scottish Hus- 
 bandry, 2d edit., vol. i. p. 37'J, and jjassim. A liorwickshire farmer gives a 
 siuL'le cart-load of turnips per day to eight or ten cattle in the straw-yard. 
 He finds that, on an average of three years, from 2i to 3 acres of straw will 
 winter one of those oxen; and in this way each acre of straw will produce 
 about four double cart-loads of rotten dung, of from 30 to 35 cubic feet each. 
 e2 
 
48 , A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 amount; the land, therefore, without assuming: any extraordi- 
 nary degree of fertility or management, should yield, upon an 
 average, at least 4 tons of manure per acre ; to which if be 
 added the extraneous substances which may, with due care, 
 be collected without expense from the roads, the ditches, the 
 ponds, and from refuse of every kind about the house and 
 premises, the acreable amount should be amply sufficient for a 
 full supply of manure once during every course of the four- 
 years' system of husbandry. 
 
 We fear, however, that, looking to the system of cultivation 
 pursued on most farms, the quantity of manure produced falls 
 far short of that amount. JNIuch, indeed, depends upon its 
 judicious management, for a good farmer will accumulate per- 
 haps nearly twice as much dung as his more indolent and 
 inattentive neighbour, and apply it in better condition to th-e 
 land, though their opportunities are, in this respect, the -same. 
 No means should, therefore, be neglected to supply the defi- 
 ciency; in which view, besides the extension of the soiling 
 system, we should strongly recommend that corn crops should 
 be cut as low as possible, so as to increase the bulk of straw. 
 When the stubble is left high and ploughed in, it retards the 
 operation, renders the land foul, and is, on some soils, injurious 
 by rendermg them too open. It is, indeed, in many places 
 mown, and converted into walls for the comfort of the cattle. 
 In Derbyshire a paring plough is used, by which the roots of 
 the corn and weeds are cut, and the stubble and other stuiT is 
 then carried home to be trodden into muck; but the produce 
 does not pay the expense, and it has been found a more econo- 
 mical practice, when it can be carried into effect, to burn the 
 stubble on the ground, by which insects and the seeds of weeds 
 are destroyed. Even when raked up, it has been considered 
 advisable to spread and burn it on the land, as it is thought to 
 have a great effect hi preventing the ravages of the fly on 
 turnips.* 
 
 Compost. — We have already observed upon the expediency 
 of mixing the bottoms and crusts of dung-pies with the other 
 materials of which they are composed when they are turned 
 over; but the quantity may not only be greatly augmented by 
 
 * See the Furveys of Essex, vol. i. p. 325; Ilimtingdonshire, p. 128; 
 Derbyshire, vol. ii., pp. 121, 131, lOO. In a work puhlished about a century 
 ayo, and ascribed to Lord Belhaven, it is asserted that the goodness of the 
 E:ist l.oihiaii crofjs was attributable to the length of their stubbles. 'A 
 t'ood crop of corn makes a {rood stubble ; and a good stubble is the equalest 
 auukiiii: thai can be given.'— The Countryman's Rudiments, p. 23. 
 
ON MANURES. 49 
 
 a larger addition of earth, but, by imbibing the juices of the 
 dung, a compost is thus formed, of excellent quality in its 
 application to most crops, as well as soils, and especially to 
 grass-land. It has indeed been objected to this, that the 
 mixture of earth increases the size of the dung-hill without 
 adding to its virtue, while the expense of carriage is also thus 
 unnecessarily incurred, aud that the more manure is reduced 
 to its essence the better. But, although this may, in some 
 instances, be true, yet experience proves that a compost of 
 this nature becomes converted into a very fertile mould, and 
 in some sorts of unkindly land, small dressings are of little 
 benelit. On such soils, portions of pure rotten dung get fast 
 locked up in large clods, and are rendered useless to that 
 crop; but the increase of bulk, by the addition of earth, admits 
 of a much larger heap being applied, as well as of being more 
 readily united with the ground by the plough, so as to render 
 the tilth more manageable. In many cases, the mixture has 
 been theretbre found essentially useful ; and though the charge 
 of cartage is certainly an object of moment, yet that may be 
 lessened by forming the composts upon the headlands of the 
 fields to which they are to be applied. They may also be put 
 together at any time of the year, which, especially in summer, 
 is of itself an incalculable advantage. The ground should, 
 however, in that case, be previously summer-fallowed, unless 
 it be entirely free from weeds ; or a small quantity of quick- 
 lime may be added to the earth, but it should not be allowed 
 to come into immediate contact with the dung. When, how- 
 ever, the economy of carriage is not thought an object of so 
 much consequence as to confine the raising of the compost to 
 any particular spot, it will be advisable to select earth of the 
 alluvial sort, which is always of a rich, greasy nature, often 
 mixed with marl, and well calculated to invigorate poor soils 
 of a light and open texture: or loam: or, if nothing of the kind 
 is to be had on the farm, then with earth of a quality as oppo- 
 site as possible to that which predominates in the soil on which 
 it is to be laid; and the whole should be well turned, so that 
 it may be suitably fermented. The operation is thus per- 
 formed : — 
 
 A bedding is formed of earth, or of sods with the grass 
 uppermost, upon which a layer of fresh dung is placed — the 
 fresher the better — about a foot in thickness ; upon that ano- 
 ther layer, equally as thick, is laid, — if of sods, doubled, with 
 the grass sides turned back to back, so as to present one 
 
50 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 surface to the dung underneath, and the other to the next 
 uppermost. In this manner the heap is raised to the height 
 of 5 or G feet, when it is entirely covered witli eartJi, but 
 formed narrow, as well as high, in order to expose a large 
 surface to the air. Sometimes lime is added, but, in that case, 
 it !>hould be either placed between two layers of earth ; or, if 
 between the sods, the grass should be reversed, and the lime 
 be deposited between tliem, or between the earth and another 
 layer of any other ingredient not so easily decomposed as the 
 dung. The heap then ferments, and in that state it is left 
 until it be completely cooled to the centre. When the/heat 
 has ejitirely subsided, the compost is to be then turned in such 
 manner as that not only the uppermost part sliall be under- 
 neath, but also that the outward portion be put in the middle, 
 and that the whole be intimately mixed. If any part of the 
 dung be dry, it should be well and equally wetted, — if possible 
 with urine, or with the drainings of tlie farm-yard, — as each 
 layer is removed, and previous to their mixture. The number 
 of turnings must depend upon the state of putrefaction of the 
 dung, as well as tliat of the turf, if sods or other materials 
 have been added. The proportion of dung, orotiier putrescible 
 siibsr'tance, to earth, must be governed by the qualities of both, 
 and by the judgment of the farmer in their selection and use. 
 The following — which has been adopted in Norfolk — will 
 afford a general idea of the mixture of such a compost, when 
 confined to mould and farm-yard dung : — 
 
 Mould for the bottom . . . .160 loads. 
 Dung from the bullnck-yard and stables, 
 
 a load of each alternately ... . 112 loads. 
 
 Mould for the next layer . . 42 
 
 Dung for ditto .48 
 
 Mouid for the top and sides . . 42 
 
 Total 244 + ICO = 404 loads ; 
 
 wliich, afler being turned twice over, produced 300 loads of 
 manure, and was intended for 20 acres. 
 
 Another jtractice prevails among many farmers, which, so 
 far as the production of manure is concerned, has the advan- 
 tage of allowing the compost to imbibe the whole of the urine 
 in the yard, but which is also attended with the inconvenience 
 f)f bedding the cattle in a manner which, without great care 
 in its frequent removal, must expose them to much want of ♦ 
 comfort. It is as follows : — 
 
 Turf,orany other species of earth, is spread over the yard to the 
 depth of upwards of 2 feet, except around the buildings, to the 
 
ON MANURES. 51 
 
 extent of perhaps 6 or 7 feet, which is left as a path. It is 
 then laid over with straw, to which the litter from the stables 
 is also added, and upon this bed the feeding-cribs of the store 
 cattle are placed. In this manner the dung is often allowetl 
 to accumulate durmg the entire winter, or until it rises to 
 such an inconvenient height as to compel its removal ; it is 
 then either piled in the yard, after being mixed and covered 
 over witli earth, and left there until it may be wanted in the 
 autumn, or else carted out to the mixen, and there treated 
 as already stated. 
 
 In using turf, or any kind of grass, in the mixture of a com- 
 post, it will be proper to recollect that, if taken up during most 
 parts of the summer and autumn, it will not only be found 
 generally impregnated with the seeds of weeds, but that grub- 
 worms, wire-worms, and various other insects, usually select 
 dry banks by the road-side, hedge-rows, or dry pasture, in 
 which to deposit their eggs. When turf or earth is carried 
 from such places, and added to the compost without having 
 been previously subjected to the processes of tillage, the 
 greatest care should be taken, either that it be turned up a 
 full twelvemonth before it is applied to the land ; or, as we 
 have already observed, that quicklime be strewed between 
 the sods, in order to guard against every chance of their pro- 
 pagation. 
 
 The Application of Dung to different soils and crops, 
 though matter of wide discretion to the farmer, is yet a subject 
 which admits of a few general directions. Notwithstanding 
 what has been already said respecting the practice of those 
 farmers who allow this manure to lie for a long time upon the 
 surface of the land, we however agree with the opposite 
 opinion — that it should be spread the moment it is taken from 
 the cart, and completely incorporated with the soil; for by 
 tillage it becomes amalgamated with the inert particles of the 
 earth, through which means both that and the dung form one 
 substance in the fittest state of nourishment to promote vege- 
 tation.* It should not, however, be deep buried in the soil at 
 first ; for, though it is the prevailing opinion of many persons, 
 
 * This has been exemplified by the observations of Marshall upon a crop 
 of wheat of 4 quarters the acre obtained from his own farm, after peas, 
 which had been dunped and thoroughly incorporated with the soil ; w hile 
 another field of wheat, sown at the same time, and fresh dun^'ed with fine 
 spit-dung, superior both in quality and quantity, but which had been 
 ploughed in large lumps along with the seed, only produced 2 quarters.— 
 Min. of Agric. 
 
52 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 that, by deep covering-, the dung- is defended from the injurious 
 effect of exhalation — that the roots of plants soon find their 
 way to it — and that it will be raised higher by after-ploug-h- 
 ing^s, — yet there are men of accurate observation who, from 
 longf experience, have found tiiat, if dung be only just covered, 
 the nearer it is to the surface, the greater are its effects in 
 projnoting fertility, for then it lies near the roots of youn^ 
 plants at the time when they need the most cherishhig ali- 
 ment. They also declare, that dung never rises to the surface 
 after it has lain mixed for a se-ason with the soil ; but, on the 
 contrary, tliat, as it dissolves in the earth, the solution descends 
 as low as the soil has been stirred by the plough. 
 
 It is another rule in the application of farm-yard manure, 
 among good farmers, not to use a greater quantity at one time 
 than may be supposed capable of producing a good crop; 
 for, although land can hardly be rendered too rich for the pro- 
 duction of green crops, yet wheat, barley, oats, and rye have 
 often been so much injured by a profuse supply of dung, that 
 they have run almost entirely to straw. We have lately seen 
 wheat, on good and well-tilled land, in tiie possession of an 
 extensive coach-master, which has scarcely yielded two quar- 
 ters the acre, in consequence of the application of stable-dung; 
 and it is well known that a good crop of grain cannot be 
 grown upon a dunghill. It should not, however, be too spar- 
 ingly administered, for if an insufficient quantity be laid on, it 
 may not reimburse the expense; whereas a full supply will 
 probably have the effect of producing an abundant crop. A 
 medium should therefore be observed ; but so much depends 
 upon circumstances, — upon the strength of the manure, the 
 nature of the soil, and the intended crop and culture, — that no 
 precise amount can be stated. Various calculations have 
 indeed been m.ade by different writers upon the subject, but 
 they are generally so vague, that they only estimate the quantity 
 in loads, by which no precise meaning can be defined, for it 
 must depend upon the size of the cart; and even when calcu- 
 lated in cubic yards, the weight will differ according to the 
 state of the manure, though one cubic yard of well-rotted dung 
 may be generally supjwsed to average about 11 cwt. A well- 
 heaped one-horse cart will carry nearly a ton, and those drawn 
 by two horses about li ton; a small wagon is also commonly 
 supposed to contain two cubical yards, each consisting of 27 
 bushels, when estimated by strike-measure, and twice as much 
 if iieaped ; or a proportionate quantity in weight. 
 
ON MANURES. 53 
 
 On strong soils, tarm-yard manure is very commonly applied 
 to a summer-tallow for wheat ; and when that process forms 
 part of the rotation, it is the opinion of most intelligent hus- 
 bandmen that it can at no time he more profitably employed. 
 The season is then so far advanced as to have afforded time for 
 the preparation of the winter dung, which, on clay-land, where 
 g'reen crops are not generally grown, and the practice of sum- 
 mer soiling is not adopted, is otherwise a difficult matter ; but 
 when applied to corn-crops, it should be either already decom- 
 posed, or, if ire'sh, it should be allowed to remain so long in the 
 ground, previous to the seed being sown, as to allow of its fer- 
 mentation being completed ; for it will otherwise occasion the 
 growth of weeds, which, if not eradicated, mn.y ripen before 
 the ensuing harvest, and thus infest tlie land with future foul- 
 ness. When the operation has been well performed, and the 
 ground has been thus completely cleansed, it is then found to 
 be so well divided, that, if minute attention be also paid to the 
 spreading of the dung, it becomes so thoroughly intermixed with 
 the soil as to insure a greater return than if it had been laid 
 on during any -other periods. The practice is also not uncom- 
 mon of laying it upon clover leys preparatory to a crop of 
 wheat, or of spreading it upon green-sward a };ear or two before 
 the land is broken up ; but the advantages of this latter mode 
 have been doubted by some, though many experienced practi- 
 cal farmers highly recommend it. 
 
 On light land, on which the rotation of crops usually com- 
 mences with turnips, it has been found by experience that the 
 dung should be well rotted ; it is therefore generally mixed 
 twice, in order to get it into a fit state; but, as Swedes are 
 commonly put in the ground by the middle of ]\Iay, the manure 
 cannot be properly prepared by that time, unless the yards 
 have been cleared during the winter, and much of that which 
 is thus applied is over-year muck. This, when the crop is 
 drilled, is laid as evenly as possible in the hollows of one-bout 
 ridges, which are afterwards split by a double-mould-board 
 plough, which covers the dung, by turning them over, and the 
 seed is immediately sown above it ; but when sown broadcast, 
 it is regularly laid over the land, generally before the last 
 ploughing, though some farmers give it a second stirring*. 
 When potatoes are planted, the manure used is almost invaria- 
 bly stable-dung, when it can be procured in sufiicicnt quantity, 
 which is laid in a shallow seed furrow, immediately under — or, 
 
54 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 in some cases, over the cuttings ; but care should be taken that 
 it be put so deep in the ground as to be out of the way of the 
 harrows, or, otherwise, their hold of the straw might occasion 
 the sets to be removed from their seed-bed. 
 
 Even when bare fallows become necessary to clean the land, 
 soils of this description are rarely dunged when followed by 
 corn; for they are thereby rendered so open — especially if 
 long dung be used — thaj^ the plants are apt to be thrown out 
 by slight frost in the sprmg, and perish for want of a sufficient 
 hold of the ground. This necessity for the employment of 
 rotten dung not only lessens its bulk, but it must be also borne 
 iu mind that the same quantity of straw is not produced as 
 upon rich clays; and although the deficiency of manure thus 
 created may be partly made up by feeding sheep upon turnips, 
 as well as by a smaller quantity being used than upon strong 
 land, yet the exhaustion of light soils is more rapid ; they there-' 
 fore require more frequent replenishment, and no pains should 
 be spared to increase the amount of dung. 
 
 On grass land in the neighbourhood of London, where the 
 finest meadow-hay in the kingdom is grown, dung of every 
 kind is laid on in all states, both fresh and rotten ; and much 
 town-manure, or street-slop, partly in a liquid state, is thrown 
 over the ground in the same condition as when taken out of 
 the carts and barges. It is a cold, clayey district, lying on the 
 north side of the Thames, in Hertfordshire and Middlesex, and 
 has been brought to its present fertility solely by the aid of an 
 unceasing application of manure; many of the farmers being 
 under covenants in their leases to lay on a thick coat of stable- 
 dung, thoroughly rotten, in every third year: others apply it 
 fresh, — in which state it is said that, 'load for load, it is to the 
 full as good as when rotten,' — and after it has been washed in 
 by the rain, the straw that remains is raked otf and added to 
 the dung-hill. There can perhaps be little doubt that dressing 
 the land with dung in a state of fermentation, when diluted 
 with water, is the surest way oi" imparting nourishment to 
 plants; and in that view, after the hay has been carried off" the 
 land, farmers watch for a change of weather, and, when the 
 barometer indicates an approaching fall of rain, they lay on 
 whatever manure they possess; but, if the season continues 
 settled, the dung remains untouched until about the end of 
 September, at which time it is applied while the ground is 
 sufficiently dry to bear the drawing of loaded carts without 
 
ON MANURES. 55 
 
 injury, and when the heat is so moderate as not to exhale its 
 volatile parts.* 
 
 In all these cases the product is abundant, because the land, 
 though cold, yet grows good grass, and, whatever may be the 
 nature of the manure, sufficient is always laid upon it to secure 
 a crop; but it is only in the vicinity of the metropolis, or in 
 otlier great towr.s, and through means of purchased manure, 
 that such a supply can be obtained as that given to the land in 
 question. 
 
 The use of compost of earth and farm-yard dung has been 
 used as an argument against its employment upon meadow- 
 land, because of the difficulty of its entrance into the soil, and 
 that pure dung has a more immediate effect upon the crop. 
 Upon land such as that just mentioned, the objection is well 
 founded ; but upon soils of a loose texture, the mixture of earth 
 — particularly of clay — with the dung, by increasing the bulk 
 to be laid upon the land, tends to bind it, and thus giving a 
 firm hold to the roots of the grass, the finer sorts, which either 
 have not strength enough to penetrate the ground, or the seeds 
 of which have lain dormant, suddenly spring up, and the sward 
 is thus improved. Of this a striking instance in point has 
 been related by Mr. Dawson of Frogden, who, ' having occa- 
 sion to carry a quantity of very fine black loam from a head- 
 ridge of old in-field land, to give the surface-water a free pas- 
 sage, it was laid upon out-field bent- grass-land adjoining, of 
 which it covered about a quarter of an acre fully an inch thick. 
 No grass-seeds were sown upon this new covering, yet white 
 clover and other fine grasses sprung up, and gradually 
 increased upon it; and the bent, upon which the loam was 
 laid, diminished so speedily, that very little of it remained in 
 the third year thereafter.' It is, however, well known that 
 the effect of dung is proportionately greater upon good tlian 
 upon bad land, and the difference is still more considerable 
 upon that which is under grass than what is arable; for 
 it is observable that the dung of animals has scarcely any 
 effect upon coarse pastures, but it perceptibly improves those 
 which are covered with the finer grasses, and is of more or 
 . J 
 
 * Middlesex Report, 2d edit., pp. 286, 287, 377. In the Leicestershire 
 Report it is also said, 'Dung or compost should be laid on meadow-land 
 immediately after the hay is carried off; for as at that time the ground 13 
 generally the driest of any time of the year, carting on it will not cut the 
 turf: there is the least grass to destroy; it insures good aftermath ; and the 
 winter rains will wash all the manure into the soil, so that it will receive 
 the whole benefit of the dressing. 
 
 F 
 
56 , A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 less value, as herbage of the former or latter description pre- 
 dominates. This improvement is, however, far more sensible 
 when aided by the application of lime, as we shall have occa- 
 sion to notice wlicn we come to treat of that fossil. 
 
 There is, indeed, evidently a mistaken practice throughout 
 most parts of the kingdom with respect to the application of 
 manure. The custom alluded to is that of laying it upon land 
 of an inferior quality, while that of a superior kind is in equal 
 want of improvement ; the better part of many farms being 
 thus in some degree impoverished by attempting to improve, 
 at an evident loss, the poorer parts. Others, indeed, follow 
 the opposite system ; but, when justice is done to the land, 
 every part in rotation should receive the manure arising from 
 its produce. There are, however, some rare instances of ground 
 of so rich a quality, that by laying any manure upon it an injury 
 would be sustained ; but, upon the whole, it is an evident fact 
 that any manure whatever — if not of a nature unsuitable to the 
 soil — will be always attended with a proportionately better 
 return when laid upon good, than upon poor land. 
 
 In tlie spreading of dung upon the land, the common prac- 
 tice is to put it first out of the carts in hillocks, and afterwards 
 to spread it upon the ground. Many farmers, however, take 
 the opportunity of carting out their manure during a frost, and 
 there leaving it in heaps until a thaw. The convenience of 
 this is evident; and perhaps, during that weather, no great 
 damage will happen to the dung, nor can much of its juices 
 be imbibed by the soil : but if thus left, even for a short time, 
 in open weather, the spots upon whicii it is laid get more than 
 their share of the dressing, for the moisture is imbibed by that 
 part under the manure, whilst the upper parts are dried by 
 the action of the air, and lose some portion of their fertilizing 
 power. Its effect is thus unequal; the crop will vegetate 
 more luxuriantly on those spots, and the harvest will not be 
 uniform. There is also tliis inconvenience in thus leaving it 
 upon the soil — that, if the land lies upon a declivity, a consi- 
 derable portion of the manure may be washed out by the rain, 
 and either carried to the lower part of the field, or else lost in 
 the ditches. 
 
 Another mode is for both the carter and the spreader to 
 stand in the cart, and shake the manure out with forks ; but 
 although this has the advantage of a more ready distribution, 
 yet, if the men drop a forkfiil by accident, or do not scatter a 
 lump in the manner intended, they cannot stop^ to divide it, 
 
ON MANURES. 67 
 
 and it must lie where it falls. The repeated stoppage of the 
 horses also occupies much time. Both these modes are there- 
 fore attended with inconvenience. 
 
 When carefully done, the distance to which the dung is 
 to be carried to the field should be ascertained, and such a 
 number of carts employed as will give constant occupation to 
 both the men and cattle: thus, supposing three to be sufficient, 
 then two teams only — of whatever number — are to be worked, 
 one gomg and the other returning, while the third cart is left 
 standing at the dung-hill to be filled, and replaced by the one 
 which has returned empty, the cattle in which are then taken 
 oft' and harnessed to the other, so that no time is lost. It 
 should be spread immediately, and can never be done at any 
 other time so cheaply. It is, indeed, decidedly the most 
 economical method for the carter to spread it from the car- 
 riage ; but as he cannot do this with the minuteness which is 
 requisite to separate it completely and spread it equally over 
 the soil, such a number of women or children, attended by an 
 overseer, should be employed to follow the carts, as will effect 
 this in the most perfect manner. That number will of course 
 be regulated by the condition of the manure, the quantity to 
 be used, and the distance from which it is drawn. The farmer 
 himself, or some trusty person in whom he can confide, should 
 not only determine the number of loads that are to be spread 
 upon each acre, but should careftiUy regulate the distance 
 which each load should cover, by measuring the quantity of 
 land: this, when it is laid on in regular ridges, is very easily 
 ascertained by pacing them, and summing up the length and 
 breadth of the ridges ; and then it is only needful to direct the 
 carter to make each load cover a certain space, — as one load 
 upon one ridge, or three loads upon two ridges, &:c. But if it 
 is determined to lay down the manure in small heaps for the 
 followers to spread entirely, m this case, the distance of each 
 separate heap should be' pa^ed over and marked.* The 
 regularity of the distribution*of manure ought never to be 
 intrusted' to common labourers without superintendence. _ If 
 the carter be employed, unless a boy be given him to drive, 
 tlie necessary degree of equality can hardly be expected. It 
 may also be sometimes advisable to lay a larger quantity upon 
 one part than upon another of the same field, for the soils may 
 
 * A table, stating the number of heaps or bushtls per acre, will be inserted 
 at the close of the volume. 
 
58 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 differ ; or it may lie upon a declivity, in which case it will 
 only be prudent to put more upon the upper part than upon 
 the bottoms; for, even under the most careful distribution, 
 they assuredly will receive an additional portion, which will 
 be swept from the heights. Care is also requisite, in carting- 
 out dung and all manure, to make the drivers keep on the 
 head-land till they come to the end of the land which is ma- 
 nuring, so as to make each ridge bear its exact proportion of 
 damage ; or, for want of such attention, the men, if left to 
 themselves, make roads across from the gate in every direc- 
 tion, to the great injury of the crop. 
 
 Such is the most approved mode in the broadcast manner ; 
 but where the drill husbandry prevails, it is by no means un- 
 usual to lay the dung in the intervals of these small ridges, as 
 practised for turnips throughout Scotland and the north of 
 England. The drills are in this case generally formed at the 
 distance of 27 inches, or thereabouts, from the centre of each ; 
 and by driving the carts along the middle one of the space 
 intended to be manured, the dung is drawn out in such pro- 
 portions as may be judged necessary. If the breadth of three 
 drills be only taken at a time, the dung stands a better chance 
 of being equally laid in them ; for it often happens that, when 
 a greater number are included in one space, the outside drills 
 receive a less quantity than those which intervene. Others, 
 however, thinking that by only taking three drills at a time, 
 the travel of the horses is unnecessarily increased, take five 
 drills into one space; but, in that case, the number of spreaders 
 must be increased, as at least one is requisite to each drill, 
 and unless care be taken in the superintendence, some ine- 
 quality will occur in the distribution. It is, however, obvious 
 that the labour of the teams, as well as the poaching of the 
 land, will be thereby lessened ; and if a sufficient number of 
 spreaders be employed, the work will also be more speedily 
 executed. Women and children, having light grapes, or 
 forks, are strong enough — four are generally Ibund sufficient 
 for what is called 'a head of carts;' and the spreading is 
 adroitly performed even by small boys and girls, after they 
 have been a little time accustomed to the task. 
 
 It is obvious in the plnuffhinq- down of dung that, if it be 
 not turned down accurately, it becomes partly exposed to the 
 atmosphere, instead of being buried in the soil. Skim-coulter 
 ploughs have been used to obviate this inconvenience, but — 
 especially in the case of long-dung — there is great difficulty 
 
ON MANURES. 59 
 
 in preventing- it from choking- the instrument, thus occasioning 
 a great increase of draught to the cattle, as well as of labour 
 to the ploughman, rendering the land foul, and defeating one 
 of the main objects of good husbandry. It is also, by some 
 farmers, thought expedient to bury fresh dung so deep below 
 the soil as to allow it to ferment there without being disturbed 
 by the harrows, or even by the shallow ploughing of successive 
 tillage; but, independently of the objection which has been 
 already raised against that practice, it is notj in any such case, 
 found easy to make clean work. 
 
 Many attempts have been made to correct this fault, and 
 considerable improvement has been effected in the construc- 
 tion of ploughs, particularly by the Scotch, some of whose iron 
 swing ploughs have gone far towards a remedy of the defect. 
 
 As relating to the quantity o'l farm-yard dung necessary 
 for raising a course of crops upon arable land of various soils, 
 and under different systems of cultivation, with the proportion 
 which they are capable of producing ; this it is an object of 
 primary importance to ascertain, as precisely as possible. 
 Assuming some admitted facts as data upon which to ground 
 our opinion of the quantity of putrescent manure which may 
 be generally sufficient for an acre, we nearly agree in the 
 opinion expressed by Doctor Coventry, and collected from many 
 other accounts, that from four to five tons are yearly requisite 
 of that kind commonly prepared, and in its usual state of 
 decomposition, as spit-dung. According to that calculation, it 
 must also be observed that the course of crops is supposed to 
 consist — on light soils, of the alternate plan of corn and green 
 crops, — on clays which do not admit of that system, that the 
 holding contain a proportionate quantity of grass-land ; and 
 that the quantity of manure should be supplied, not in small 
 quantities annually, but in large ones, at intermediate dis- 
 tances of four, five, or six years. Light soils, in the common 
 course of husbandry, rarely require the application of putres- 
 cent manure oftener than once in four years, and in all cases 
 where the clover is allowed to stand during two seasons, it 
 may be deferred without disadvantage for another year. 
 Heavy soils may run six years without it, provided that the 
 land be laid one year in fallow, and that there be sufficient 
 meadow to be reckoned at least as one crop in the course. It 
 being, however, clearly understood, that — whether on light or 
 heavy land — nothing but grain, seeds, and live stock is to be 
 sold off the farm, unless replaced witJi an equal portion of 
 f2 
 
60 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 purchased dung-; that the whole of the green crops, the hauhii 
 of pulbc, and the straw of corn be used in the most economical 
 rniinner; and that some of the live stock be either soiled or 
 fitleued upon oil-cake: which plan, if carefully pursued on 
 ^ood soils, with capital sufficient to secure an abundant work- 
 ing and fdUing stock of cattle, ought, under fair management, 
 to furnish an adequate supply of dung for any of the usual 
 courses of culture. 
 
 Having thus submitted to our readers all that occurs to us 
 of importance on the subject of farm-yard manure, we shall 
 here recapitulate a summary of the chief points which we' 
 deem particularly worthy of their consideration: — 
 
 1. To bottom the farm-yard with any loose refuse that takes 
 the longest time to dissolve; and over that to bed it deep with 
 SI raw, 2. To occasionally remove the cribs of store cattle to 
 different parts of the straw-yard, in order that their dung may 
 be dropped, and their litter trodden equally. 3. To spread the 
 dung of other animals, when thrown into the yards, in equal 
 layers over every part. 4. To remove the dung from the yard 
 at least once, or oftener, during the winter, to the mixen. 
 5. To turn and mix all dung-hills, until the woody or fibrous 
 texture of the matter contained in them, and" the roots and 
 seeds of weeds, be completely decomposed, and until they emit 
 a foul putrid smell; by which time they reach their greatest 
 degree of strength, and arrive at the state of spit-dung. 6, To 
 keep the dung in an equal state of moisture, so as to prevent 
 any portion of the heap from becoming fire-fanged. If the 
 fermentation be too rapid, heavy watering will abate the heat; 
 but it will afterwards revive with increased force, unless the 
 heap be either trodden firmly down or covered with mould to 
 exclude the air. 7. To ferment the dung, if to be laid upon 
 arable land during the autumn, in a much less degree than 
 that to be applied before a spring sowing. 8. To lay a larger 
 quantity on cold and wet lands than on those of a lighter 
 nature; because the former require to be corrected by the 
 warmth of the dung, while on dry, sandy, and gravelly soils, 
 the application of too much dung is apt to burn up the plants. 
 Stiff land will also be loosened by the undecayed fibres of long- 
 dung, which, although its putrefaction will tiius be retarded, 
 and its fertilizing power delayed, will yet ultimately afford 
 nourishment. 9. To form composts with dung, or other animal 
 and vegetable substances, and earth, for application to light 
 soils. 10. To spread the manure upon the land, when carried 
 
ON MANURES. 
 
 61 
 
 to the field, with the least possible delay ; and, if laid upon 
 arable, to turn it immediately into the soil. 11. To preserve 
 the drainage from stables and dung-hills in every possible way; 
 and if not applied in a liquid state, to throw it again upon the 
 mixen.(a) 12. To try experiments, during a series of years, 
 upon the same soils and crops, with equal quantities of dung, 
 laid on fresh, and afterwards rotted ; in order to ascertain the 
 results of their application to the land. The whole quantity 
 to be first weighed, or measured, and then divided. 
 
 The fermentation of farm-yard manure is, in fact, a subject 
 of far greater importance than is generally imagined, for on 
 a due estimation of its value mainly depends the individual 
 success, as well as the national prosperity, of our agriculture. 
 The experiments to which we point cannot therefore fail to 
 come home to the interests of every man ; they may be made 
 without expense, and without any other trouble tiian the mere 
 exercise of common observation and intelligence. Leaving, 
 however, aside the discussion concerning the disputed worth 
 of fresh or fermented — of long or short dung — let the farmer 
 sedulously bend his attention to the accumulation of the utmost 
 quantity that it may be in his power to procure. The manner 
 and the time of using it, in either state, must, however, be 
 governed by circumstances which may not always be within 
 his control; and every judicious husbandman will rather 
 accommodate himself to the exigency of the case, than adhere 
 strictly to his own notions of what he conceives to be the best 
 practice. In fine, whether favouring the one or the other side 
 of the question, let him collect all he can ; apply it carefully 
 to his crops; and then, trusting to events — *let the land and 
 the muck settle it.'' 
 
 (a) If it be not convenient to have stables with tiffht floors and a gutter, 
 straw and charcoal, if kept in a cellar underneath, will be valuable for catch- 
 ing urine and retaining its volatile portions. 
 
(JO A rilACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 PUTRESCENT MANURES CONTINUED. — NIGHT-SOIL — LIQUID 
 MANURE. 
 
 Night-soil is not alone distinguished from the ocjure of all 
 animals by the extreme fetidness of its smell, but is also known 
 to be of a stronger or hotter kind, and probably differs in its 
 own qualities in proportion to the sort of provision from which 
 it is obtained, as there is every reason to suppose that the ex- 
 crement arising out of animal food is of a more active nature 
 than that which is the produce of a vegetable diet. In all 
 those places where the real value of this feculent matter is 
 duly appreciated, and its preparation well understood, the 
 aversion which its use excites is surmounted, and it is there 
 preferred to all other manure. It has indeed been assumed 
 that the excrements of a man, when used for this purpose, can 
 be made to produce a sufficiency of corn and roots for his sup- 
 port; but, although that assertion has been exaggerated, yet 
 were all the nourishment which could be extracted from this 
 species of ordure made available, there can be but little reason 
 to doubt that it would add largely to the production of the 
 land ; for it has been proved, by numerous experiments, to 
 rank far before the dung of any animal. In this country, 
 however, it is very commonly allowed to become decomposed 
 through want of care, and vast quantities are carried off by 
 rivers from the large towns, and lost in the bosom of the 
 ocean — an inattention which has partly arisen from the disgust 
 occasioned by its odour, and partly through a prejudice to 
 which that disgust has given rise. 
 
 This repugnance proceeds from an idea that this manure 
 communicates an unpleasant flavour to plants grown in the 
 land upon which it has been used ; and it has been also thought 
 to have a bad effect upon the soil. Both of these objections 
 are however groundless when due care is applied to its ma- 
 nagement. Instances are indeed said to have occurred, in 
 which horses have refused the hay made from grass which 
 had been manured with night-soil; but, if credit is to be 
 attached to the assertion, it must have been produced by its 
 having been spread in a fresh state, and upon grass of very 
 forward growth. In proof of this is an instance, mentioned in 
 
ON MANURES. 03 
 
 the Norfolk Report, of a field newly laid down to grass, every 
 part of which proved very poor, except two acres on which 
 four wagon-loads of night-soil were spread directly, without 
 being mixed with any other manure. The field was fed ofif, 
 and the effect of the night-soil is said to have been so great, 
 that, ' while the rest of the field never seemed more than half 
 filled with useful plants, this part thickened surprisingly, and 
 grew most luxuriantly ; so much so, that the cattle, neglecting 
 the rest of the field, were perpetually feeding there, until by 
 autumn it was pared down, like a fine green lawn by the side 
 of a dusky, rough, ragged pasture.* In other accounts it is 
 indeed reported as 'the most capital manure, of all other 
 sorts, for pasture, two wagon-loads securing a carpet of herb- 
 age ;'f and no bad effect is perceptible on vegetables, though 
 kitchen-gardeners use it with profusion. It has been also 
 asserted that nice judges of vegetables can distinguish a very 
 unfavourable difference between the flavour of those grown in 
 the vicinity of large towns or in the open country, and this 
 they attribute partly to the use of night-soil ; but it certainly 
 communicates no unpleasant smell to the plants, nor even, 
 after a very few days, to the ground on which it has been laid, 
 for it is soon decomposed, and the effect complained of is 
 doubtless more owing to the rapidity of the growth when 
 forced by an excess of any stimulating manure, which renders 
 them insipid; and were market-gardeners more sparing of the 
 use of all dung, or were they to correct it into a compost by a 
 judicious mixture of lime and earth, or a small portion of 
 
 *The same Survey also mentions the great improvement of a piece of 
 sterile pasture by the application of night-soil mixed up with pond-mud, in 
 the proportion of 7 wagion-loads of the former to 143 one-horse cart-loads 
 of the latter. The soil was first laid upon the mud, the men then cut a 
 trench through the heap, and throwing a small parcel into it, they worked 
 it all to pieces. The compost was afterwards spread over the field at the 
 total expense of 121. ; but at the present price of labour it would probably 
 amount to half as much more. 
 
 t One wagon-load, containing 90 bushels of night-soil, costs in London 
 15s., to which is to be added the charge of carriage to the farms, to which it 
 is mostly conveyed by the Thames, or by canals. Much of it is used in 
 Essex, mixed with five times the quantity of fresh earth, and sometimes 
 together with an equal quantity of the muck and chalk, in which proportion 
 it is commonly used, at the rate of one wagon-load of night-soil ; and the 
 whole charge, including that of spreading, is calculated to be from 21. 13s. to 
 31. 3s. per acre. The common price of stable-dung in London is 2s. to 2g. 6d. 
 per hay-cart load, containing between 70 and bO cubical feet: that of street- 
 slop, called coW manure, is delivered by barges to the distance of about fifteen 
 miles, by the canals, or within reach of one tide by the river, at about 3s. 
 per ton. 
 
G4 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 slaked lime, the evil complained of would, no doubt, be 
 removed,* 
 
 All unpleasantness of odour may indeed be prevented by the 
 mere use of ashes; and were those thrown upon the night-soil, 
 or into privies which liave no communication with sewers, the 
 ashes made in every dwelling-house would so completely 
 absorb the fluid, that a solid heap of manure would be pro- 
 duced, that might afterwards be removed without difficulty or 
 offensiveness. This, besides being common in many parts of 
 the continent, is the regular practice throughout Hull ;t and 
 were it more generally followed in other towns, there can be 
 no doubt that it would be attended with very beneficial effects 
 to the agriculture of their neighbourhood. It is also collected 
 in considerable quantities in Ijondon; and there was, a few 
 years ago, a large manufactory for its preparation, in which it 
 was dried and exposed to the sun by spreading it upon flag- 
 stones gently inclined, to allow it to drain, after which it was 
 broken into pieces, and removed under cover, where it was 
 partially mixed with lime and completely reduced to powder. 
 In this state it was packed into barrels, and exported even to 
 our colonies, where it was used as a top-dressing, but was 
 chiefly employed by market-gardeners, who used to sow it in 
 drills along with their seeds, and, judging by the price at 
 which they bought it, there can be no doubt that they found 
 its use to be singularly advantageous; but the process has 
 been abandoned, for, having been carried on in the heart of 
 th# town, it occasioned complaints of its offensiveness. This, 
 from the inconvenience attending its conveyance, unless by 
 canals, has greatly prevented its use: considerable difficulty 
 has also been found in reconciling farm-servants to working at 
 the preparation of this manure ; but that objection can be 
 easily overcome by'a slight gratuity, and, considering its great 
 value as a dressing, it ought not to be neglected. It is said 
 
 ♦Russell's Treatise on Practical and Chemical Agriculture, p. 205— Der- 
 bysh. Rep. vol. ii. p. 454. It is also contradicted by Count Gyllenborjr, in 
 his very erudite treatise on Chemical Agriculture, in which he mentions an 
 instance of his having regularly watered a vine with putrid urine, but neither 
 the grapes nor the wine contracted any bad taste. — Pilkington's Translation, 
 p. 78. Slaked lirm is, for this purpose, preferable to that which is hot; for 
 the latter, when combined with animal matter, forms u manure which is 
 not soluble in water. 
 
 t See a letter on the subject, detailing the practice, together with remarks 
 on its extension, in the Farmer's Macazine, vol. x.-p. 497. Also the General 
 Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 525 ; and Communications to the Board of Ag- 
 riculture, vol. i. p. 317. 
 
ON MANURES. 65 
 
 that one load in its dry state, will be, in all cases, quite suf- 
 ficient for three acres of drilled wheat.* 
 
 Its operation has been found quicker and more powerful 
 than farm-yard dung ; but not so lasting. Farmers who have 
 used both on adjoining land have observed that the crops are 
 always more exuberant in the first year where the night-soil 
 has been laid, but that little or no difference has been after- 
 wards perceptible, (a) Its effects, when spread alone upon 
 field-crops, and directly ploughed in with a shallow furrow, 
 are indeed so violent, that grain manured with it has been 
 known to run entirely to straw; yet it has been used in that 
 state as a dressing for turnips, and also for spring-wheat, 
 upon the fallow, upon thin and chalky soils, upon which the 
 largest crop and the finest grain was grown upon a very ex- 
 tensive farm, upon which it was laid to the extent of three 
 wagon-loads per acre, though it probably was partly mixed 
 up with the sweepings of streets. It should, however, be in- 
 corporated with other substances ; and as it is very difficult to 
 procure it in any other than a nearly liquid state, it is proper 
 that every means should be taken to secure it. A mixen 
 should therefore be made, consisting of firesh loam, decayed 
 tanners' bark, peat, or any other like substance, to the depth of 
 about two feet, to which the night-soil must be drawn, and then 
 carefully thrown over it with scoops to a moderate thickness; 
 after which another layer should be added of loam, or a com- 
 post of the same substances, and in the same manner, though 
 not quite so deep as before ; then another of night-soil, until 
 the whole has attained the proper height, when it is to be 
 covered with the same materials, to which if a small quantity 
 of quicklime be joined, or mixed with the layers, it will assist 
 the decomposition of the heap, and its nauseous effluvia will 
 be destroyed. To every load of night-soil, about four or five 
 times the same quantity of earth should be added, according 
 to the nature of the soil, and to the degree of excitement in- 
 tended to be applied to the land. It should then be regularly 
 turned and thoroughly mixed, and may be used either for 
 
 *The following has been recommended as the best mode of pulverizing 
 night soil : — ' Spread it on a piece of grass ; let it be well harrowed on a 
 bright day ; then put it under cover, and add a chaldron of lime to 4 loads 
 of muck in that state, and it will become dry.' — Rigby's Framingham, p. 102. 
 
 (a) [Poudrette, prepared from night-soil, is fast superseding the latter, from 
 its portability. It is applied at the rate of about ten bushels to the acre. On 
 Indian corji it has been used with great effect.] 
 
06 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 wheat or barley, in the proportion of one wagon-load of night- 
 soil, containing as much as four horses can tiiirly draw, to the 
 acre; but it should be used more in the manner of a top-dress- 
 ing tlian buried in the soil. It has been laid on in the large 
 proportion of 40 double cart-loads, and has alterwards been 
 known to produce 5^ quarters per acre of spring-wheat, 
 besides an uncommonly luxuriant crop of rye-grass and clover 
 in the ensuing summer.* It is sometimes, also, mixed with 
 the yard-dung for the purpose of exciting fermentation : this, 
 however, is not advisable, for it produces its greatest effect 
 in an unfermented state, and when thus mixed, its power is 
 greatly lessened. 
 
 It is likewise converted into powder for the purpose of ma- 
 nure in Paris, and is also used throughout many parts of the 
 Continent, but chiefly in the Netherlands, where, however, it 
 is more commonly employed exclusively in a liquid state ; of 
 the preparation of which we extract the following account 
 from the intelligent Report by Mr. Radcliff of the Agriculture 
 of Eastern and Western Flanders. 
 
 Liquid Manure. — 'This consists of the urine of cattle, in 
 which rape-cake has been dissolved, and in which the night- 
 soil from the privies of the adjoining towns and villages has 
 also been blended. This is gradually collected in subterra- 
 neous vaults of brick- work, at the verge of the farm next to the 
 main road. Those receptacles are generally 40 feet long by 
 14 feet wide, and 7 or 8 feet deep, and in some cases are 
 contrived with the crown of the arch so much below the sur- 
 face of the ground, as to admit the plough to work over it. 
 An aperture is left in the side, through which the manure is 
 received from the cart by means of a shoot or trough ; and at 
 one end an opening is left to bring it up again by means of a 
 temporary pump, which delivers it into carts or barrels. 
 Another cistern, of double that size, is, however, for the most 
 part, formed under the range of stables, from each stall of which 
 the urine is conducted to a common grating, through which it 
 descends into the vault, from whence it is taken up by the 
 pump ; but in the best regulated there is a partition in the cis- 
 
 * Farmer's Magazine, vol. xiv. p. 161. It will not escape observation thai 
 the amount of this manure wnnld have been better stated if the quantity had 
 been accurately ascertained in bushels ; but that is a trouble which few 
 farniers take, and information can only be given in the same manner in 
 which it is obtained. 
 
ON MANURES. 67 
 
 tern, with a valve to admit the contents of the first space into 
 the second, to be preserved there free from the later acquisi- 
 tion, ag-e adding- considerably to its efficacy. Tlie smallest of 
 tliem will hold 1000 barrels of 38 g-allons each, and in that 
 quantity from two to tour thousand rape-cakes, of 2 lbs. each, 
 will have been dissolved. 
 
 ' This species of manure is indeed relied on beyond any other 
 upon all the light soils throughout Flanders; and even upon 
 strong lands, originally so rich as to preclude the necessity of 
 manure, it is now coming into great esteem, being considered 
 applicable to most crops, and to all the varieties of soil' 
 
 The crop upon which it is, however, chiefly bestowed, is 
 Jiax, in the following manner and proportion. 'The field, 
 after two or three ploughings and harrowings, is backed up in 
 the centre, and ploughed round in but one set, so as to leave 
 it without any furrow. A heavy roller is then drawn across 
 tlie ploughing by three horses, the manure is spread equally 
 over the entire surface, and, when well harrowed in by eight 
 or nine strokes of the harrow, the seed is sown, which is also 
 harrowed in by a light harrow, with wooden pins of less than 
 three inches, and the surface, to conclude the operation, is 
 again carefully rolled, so that nothing can exceed the smooth- 
 ness and cultivated appearance of fields thus accurately pre- 
 pared.' 
 
 The manner in which the manure is applied is in one or the 
 other of the following modes, according to the distance. 
 * Wher« the cart plies, the manure is carried in a great sheet, 
 closed at the corners by running strings, and secured to the 
 four uprights of the cart: two men, standing one on each side, 
 scatter it with hollow shovels upon the ground. Or, where 
 barrels are made use of, each is carried by two men with poles, 
 and set down at equal distances across the field, in the line of 
 the rolling. There are two sets of vessels, which enable the 
 men who deposit the loaded ones to bring back others empty. 
 One man to each vessel, with a scoop, or rather a kind of 
 bowl, with a long handle, spreads the manure so as to cover a 
 certain space; and thus, by preserving the intervals correctly, 
 they can precisely guage the quantity for giving effect to any 
 extent of surface.' It must, however, be admitted that this 
 mode of application is somewhat clumsy, and that it might be 
 improved. For the flax crop they are profuse, for they usually 
 G 
 
68 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 allow at the rate of 2480 gallons, beer measure, to the English 
 acre.* 
 
 It thus appears that the dissolution of the oil-cake and z 
 sufficient time for the thorough putrefaction of the contents of 
 the cistern is the only preparation of this manure ; and it is 
 stated that 21 acres, upon a farm of 200, are most luxuriantly 
 manured for crops of flax and rape with the urine — exclusive 
 of the dung — of forty-four head of cattle.f It must, however, 
 be borne in mind that, although the Flemings have too just 
 a sense of the value of money to lay it out without the prospect 
 of a profitable return, yet the construction of such a building 
 as that described is calculated at about 120/. : in this country 
 it would probably cost considerably more; and, as it cannot be 
 removed, it would not suit the means of every farmer to be at 
 the expense, unless he can obtain the assistance of his land- 
 lord. 
 
 In another account, drawn up in consequence of an investi- 
 gation upon a very extensive Flemish farm, by persons ap- 
 pointed to examine the plan, (which had been objected to by 
 several intelligent practical men,) it was declared, 'that owing 
 to the judicious concavity of the farm-yard, there was as much 
 moisture as was necessary to ferment the straw ; and it is now 
 ascertained that liquid manure is the most efficacious of any, 
 and produces a third more efi^ect than what is spread upon the 
 surface.' Hence, after the dung is fermented, they dilute it 
 in water, and the liquid alone is carried to the field, and scat- 
 tered over it. The earth immediately imbibes the liquid, 
 which soon reaches the roots of the plants, and causes a rapid 
 vegetation ; whereas it is a long time before dung, in a solid 
 state, fertilizes the soil. The straw that remains, after the 
 
 ♦The average product of crops upon a sandy loam, and the quantity of 
 manure for each per English acre, when applied to the land, is tlms stated .— 
 
 Wheat, 22;^ bushels . . . Either dung or compost, 10^ tons. 
 
 Rye, 28| do. .... Farm-yard manure, do. 
 
 Oats, 51 5-6 do. . . . Do. do. 
 
 Fla.x, 6i do. of seed and stem', f 666 cakes of rape, dissolved in 2i80 
 worth 17/. 16s. 9(/. . . | gallons of urine. 
 
 Rape-seed, 32 2-5 do. . . 580 do. dissolved in 3200 gall's, of do. 
 
 ri4 cart-loads of liquid manure and 
 
 Beans, 28|^ do . . . . < the same quantity of stable-dung, 
 (. equal together to 21 tons. 
 
 Potatoes, 8 5-6 tons ■ . Do. do. do. 
 
 — Radcliff 's Report of the Agriculture of Eastern and Western Flanders, 
 pp. 90, 91. 
 
 i .Sir John Sinclair, however, says, in his 'Hints on the Agricultural 
 State of the Netherlands,' that in another farm it required the urine of 68 
 cattle, of various ages, and 32 horses, to manure 40 acres. 
 
OJN MANURES. gg 
 
 dung" is thus washed, is applied as manure for potatoes. This 
 mode has been, indeed, extensively carried on in other parts 
 of the Continent, and its effects are considered as equally- 
 beneficial. There, by some farmers, water is regularly thrown 
 over the dung-hills, the oozings from which are allowed to 
 drain into pits constructed for the purpose, and permitted to 
 ferment before they are laid upon the land ; or, by others, th6 
 whole of the dung and stall-litter is immersed in water, which, 
 after a certain time, is pumped up from the pits, and applied 
 in a liquid form ; in which manner it is contended that this 
 manure is not only more powerful in itself, but the quantity is 
 thus doubled, for the solid contents of the dunghill remain the 
 same. Experiments on an extensive scale have incontestibly 
 proved the efficacy of liquid manures upon sandy or other light 
 soils, to which they impart consistency, and dispose them to 
 retain moisture; nor can there be mucli doubt that in many 
 cases the product of a single crop may be thus more than 
 doubled, by its immediate contact with the plants. 
 
 On heavy land, we however coincide with the opinion of 
 that eminent agriculturist the Baron de Thaer, from whom 
 this account is taken, that it can never replace the solid con- 
 tents of the dunn'-hill; and, although not contestino;' the 
 advantages of which it may be susceptible when applied to 
 those soils and crops to whicli it is peculiarly applicable, we 
 yet doubt the extraordinary degree of power ascribed to it. 
 Before this mode of preparing manure be generally adopted, it 
 should also be well ascertained whether the pains and expense 
 attendant upon it do not overbalance those of our own common 
 management; for although it is possible that, in the former 
 way, a more complete decomposition of the materials may be 
 secured, and that thus new combinations of nutritive matter 
 may be formed, of the precise effects of which we are ignorant, 
 yet, in our usual method of preparation, wlien properly con- 
 ducted, nothing should be lost: tlie liquid drained from the 
 dung should be collected for further use: and it is only upon 
 such a calculation of the charges, as well as experience of the 
 eftects of the manure, that a fair conclusion can be drawn 
 regarding its real value. 
 
 There is, perhaps, no part of the world in which the prepa- 
 ration and the practical application of vegetable and animal 
 manure is so well understood as in China; but owing to its 
 overflowing population, almost the whole of the labour is per- 
 formed by man, by which the number of working animals is so 
 
70 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 much reduced, that nig-ht-soil forms the principal dependence 
 of the farmer. It is extensively employed in a dried state, and 
 is sold, as an article of commerce, throughout the empire, in 
 the fbrm-of cakes, mixed up with one-tiiird of their weight of 
 marl. It is, however, in its liquid state, as urine, that it is 
 chiefly used, in combination with other substances, tiie account 
 of which, as furnished by a gentleman who' was long resident 
 in tlie country, is too curious to be omitted. 
 
 Into a cask or jar is put a collection of putrid animal sub- 
 stances, consisting of flesh, fish, blood, &.C., to which is added 
 a certain quantity of urine, but tlie vessel is not completely 
 filled. A mandarin, or officer of government, then attends, 
 who, upon the vessel being closed, affixes his seal, and in which 
 state it must remain for six months at least. When tliis, or a 
 longer period, has elapsed, the mandarin removes his seal, and 
 grants a certificate as to the quality of the preparation, wJiich 
 is shown by the proprietor, who cries it through tlie streets as 
 a manure for gardens, and it is sold in quantities as small as 
 an English pint. Before using, it is always diluted with four 
 or five times its bulk of water, and it is extensively used for 
 garden-crops, but universally in drills. The writer adds that 
 he was informed by several intelligent Chinese, that human 
 urine, thus prepared, forms a fourth part of all the manure 
 employed in China, and wiiich is never used until it lias 
 reached a high state of putridity. 
 
 That an article considered of so much importance in that 
 country should in this, where agriculture has arrived at such 
 great perfection, be so much neglected, is not easy to be 
 accounted for. The quantity of urine voided daily by an indi- 
 vidual of moderate size lias been shown, by a series of experi- 
 ments, to amount to about half a gallon, which, if due atten- 
 tion was paid to the collection of it, would, according to the 
 Flemisli mode of its application, be a siilhcient manure for 
 half a rood of ground. Urine, when sufficiently diluted with 
 water, forms a food highly conducive to the growth of plants; 
 it is, indeed, thought to contain the essential elements of 
 vegetables in a state of solution ; but its stale of putrefaction 
 requires great attention. Tims, it may be observed that, in the 
 hot months of summer, the pasture where the urine of catth 
 falls becomes marked by a rich dark green when rain falls soof 
 after ; but if the dry weather continues, the developement of 
 the ammoniacal salts, arising from the putrefaction of the 
 urine, tlien occasions it to burn up the grass ; yet, on tlie con- 
 
ON MANURES. 
 
 71 
 
 trary, an excess of moisture deprives it entirely of effect. 
 Thus, the whole of the urine from a dwelling-house having 
 been daily thrown on a piece of pasture during three months 
 of the winter, it was found in the following summer to differ 
 but little from the state of the rest of the field — it having 
 suffered too much dilution from the rain to be capable of putre- 
 faction. But, in the following June, a week's urine being put 
 into ajar, and covered with a slate, where it remained until 
 it had completely undergone that stage, was then mixed with 
 four times its amount of water, and when sprinkled at pro- 
 per times on the same quantity of pasture, it soon occasioned 
 a luxuriant vegetation. It produces similar effects on green 
 vegetable crops — nourishmg them when applied in a diluted 
 state, but scorching them and destroying their tender herbage 
 so effectually when unmixed, as to impede their growth. 
 There is indeed but little doubt that nutritious manure of any 
 kind may be carried to an excess which becomes prejudicial 
 to vegetation, particularly in its early stages. Naismith 
 instances the steeping of three peas for tw«nty-four hours in 
 a teacupful of strong dung-juice, and three in plain water: 
 each three were planted half an inch deep in separate flower- 
 pots filled with garden mould, and the liquid in wl^ch they 
 had been steeped poured into the pots over them. Those 
 which had been steeped in plain water appeared above ground 
 thirty hours before the others. Both advanced, but those in 
 the dung-juice had the most weakly appearance. When the 
 plants were about four inches high, the lower leaves of those 
 fed by the dung-juice fell off; and in about four weeks after, 
 the plants died, though they were daily watered, while those 
 to which the water only had been administered continued 
 healthy. The haulm of a potatoe, too, the growth of which 
 was pretty well advanced, fell off soon after it had been well 
 wetted with urine in an advanced stage of putrefaction, and 
 even the root itself was found reduced to a pulp. It is, in 
 fact, of a scorching quality, and its application to growing 
 crops is not advisable during hot weather, unless mixed with 
 a large proportion of simple water: of course it will not ope- 
 rate in the like manner upon fiillow land, and it may be 
 applied whenever the ground is in a fit. state to absorb it 
 readily, but much of its effect may be lost if it be not laid on 
 at the time of sowing. 
 
 There is probably no species of manure so generally ne- 
 glected, and yet so deserving of attention; for although the 
 
72 A PRACTICAL TREA'l'lSE 
 
 largest portion of what is produced in most farm-yards is there 
 necessarily absorbed by the litter, and consequently profitably 
 applied, yet large quantities are constantly allowed to run 
 to waste. We have no moans of ascertaining the amount 
 of urine that may be voided by different animals in the course 
 of a day, for the diversity of their size and of the kind of food 
 on which they arc supported would deprive such a calculation, 
 upon a broad scale, of any pretension to accuracy. It has, 
 however, been supposed that, if fed upon common white turnips, 
 they yield about two-thirds of the weight — or about a gallon 
 for every 12 lbs.* — besides the water which they drink; and 
 we have seen that the cow which we have mentioned pro- 
 duced, when fed on two-thirds of brewers' grains, only 45 lbs. 
 of dung out of 126 lbs. of food, the greater portion of which 
 was accordingly voided in urine. It must aloo be recollected 
 that the cattle upon the farm to which we have alluded, in 
 Flanders, consisted of only forty-four head, of which eiglit were 
 horses, fed during the greater part of the winter upon dry 
 food, yet they not only converted the entire produce of the 
 straw and stable-dung into well-prepared compost of the usual 
 description, which could not iiave been effected without a large 
 supply of urine; but the savings from the stalls also furnished 
 an additi?5nal quantity of liquid manure of the richest kind, 
 equal to the culture of exhausting crops upon 21 acres of 
 ground. It has been calculated too, in Scotland, that the urine 
 of six cows or horses will enrich a quantity of earth sufficient 
 to top-dress an English acre of grass-land ;f but considering 
 the trouble and the prejudice attending it in this country, it is 
 probable that the best way of preparing it for use is that 
 recommended by a considerable farmer in Peebles-shire, who 
 applies it in the following manner. He has a pit, about 12 
 yards square and 4 feet deep, which he fills with rich earth, 
 or any such matters that may be at hand, and the urine of the 
 cattle which he feeds is conveyed to the pit by a sewer, and 
 spread equally over it. After this compost has received the" 
 greatest portion of the urine, which is about the latter end of 
 April, when it is ready for the spring sowing, it is carefully 
 
 *The weight of pure distilled water is 8 lbs. per gallon : that of urine is 
 heavier, in proportion to its composition. 
 
 t<Jeneral Report of Scotland, vol. ii. p. 526. We cannot, however, avoid 
 noticing the loose manner in which this calculation is supported ; for the 
 quantity of urine produced by six cows, or by the same number of liorses, 
 would be materially different. 
 
ON MANURES. 73 
 
 turned over, when it shows symptoms of complete saturation ; 
 and in this way a large quantity of rich manure is raised, equal 
 to about 280 cart-loads, 40 of which, per Scotch acre, when 
 applied to the ground, he finds equal, if not superior, in its 
 effects to his best dung. The expense of filling the pit only 
 amounts to 6^. 
 
 Throughout a great part of the rich low-lands in Tuscany, 
 the manure is chiefly procured from night-soil, and preserved 
 in large cisterns, in wliich it is steeped for several months in 
 about three times its quantity of water; though some farmers 
 content themselves with a large ditch, which is applied to the 
 same purpose as the cistern. Into this every kind of putres- 
 cent matter is also thrown, and the putrid water thus pro- 
 duced is found to possess qualities of a very fertilizing nature. 
 It is however principally used for garden-ground, which is 
 thus watered every fortnight ; and the plants, but more par- 
 ticularly onions, thus acquire a prodigious size, without being 
 in the least affected by any bad flavour arising from the ma- 
 nure. Neither is its smell, though most offensive for a day or 
 two after it has been laid upon the land, ever known to 
 occasion any prejudicial effect to the health of the peasantry. 
 
 In a paper addressed to the Board of Agriculture by Baron 
 Schulen burgh, one of its honorary members, he states that in 
 Sweden the urine is collected from the farm-offices, and 
 pumped over dung and other substances while in a state of 
 compost. The contents of the privies are likewise regularly 
 collected by scavengers in all the great towns, and carried, in 
 many instances, to the distance of forty miles from Stockholm. 
 It is then diluted with water, and laid chiefly upon meadow-land ; 
 but it is also applied to green crops, and the effects on the soil, 
 though gradually diminishing, are generally considered to last 
 during four years. 
 
 In Switzerland, also, the mistwasser, or manure-water, is 
 sprinkled over the surface of the meadows by means of large 
 casks and perforated water-troughs, immediately after each 
 cutting of the scythe, which makes the grass to spring up 
 again with great vigour in a very short time ; and it is well 
 known that water, rendered fetid by the solution of vegetable 
 or animal substances, is essentially serviceable to ffrass-land, 
 as may be commonly perceived by its effects when thrown 
 upon the fields in the neighbourhood of stagnant ponds, in 
 which flax has been steeped. It is indeed highly probable 
 that manures which are intended to act immediately upon the 
 7 
 
74 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 soil when laid on its surface, will have more effect upon grass- 
 land when applied in a fluid state than in a solid form. It 
 cannot, however, be denied that there are many instances 
 on record in which no such consequences of its application 
 have been remarked. Marsliall relates an experiment con- 
 ducted on his own farm with considerable care, in which the 
 common drainage of the farm-yard — of course including rain- 
 water — was laid upon two separate fields of young tares and 
 clover, grown u\K>n a sandy loam, at the rate of about 2500 
 gallons per acre: the liquor was of middling strength, very 
 high coloured and foul, but not puddly, and it was carried on 
 in wet weather. No perceptible advantage was, however, 
 observable on either those or the ensuing crops; but the 
 weather was not favourable. Some farmers, indeed, think 
 these washings fi-om the farm-yards, though of a brown colour, 
 are yet, in most instances, so diluted with rain, as not to be 
 worth the expense of carriage;* though other accounts of 
 dung-water say, that when permitted to trickle slowly upon 
 the sward of meadow-ground, it renders the grass soft and 
 luxuriant. In an experiment recorded in the Bath Papers, 
 two spots of meadow were equally measured, and watered 
 three times a week during a month together of nearly dry 
 weather — the one with dark-coloured stagnant water from a 
 pond, and the other with clear river- water, — at the end of 
 which time, the first w^as far better than the other. The crop 
 upon that part of the field which had the foul water was 
 strong and succulent, of a deep healthy green, and 18 inches 
 high; while the other, though thick and high, was yellowish, 
 weak, and faint. On being made into hay, and separately 
 kept, the former yielded nearly double the quantity and of 
 
 ♦ It is stated in the Rutland Report by Mr. Parkinson, that the black 
 water thus drained away from manure, has been tried frequently on land, 
 without effect. He himself tried it, by having a dung-hill made with a grip 
 cut round it, wuh a descent to a kind of reservoir at one end of the hill, for 
 this water to drain into, and then had it thrown back on that end, thinkin* 
 thereby to preserve the loss of strength in the manure. But he found that 
 when the manure which came from that side of the dung-hill was laid upon 
 the land, it was weaker than the other; and he therefore conclude*, — 'thit 
 when once this black water departs from the dung, that it is like lilood let 
 out of a vein, never to be applied again for the like purpose it was designed 
 for in its original state,'— t?urv. of Rutlandsh., p. 91. 
 
 This, however, was doubtless occasioned by fresh fermentation being oc- 
 casioned by the dung being thus continually wetted, and thus losing its 
 strenmh by repeated exhalation ; but though it may be properly used as an 
 argument for not thus applying even the drainage from manure, unless it 
 should be in danger of becoming tire-fanged, yet that cannot be a motive for 
 allowing it to run to waste. 
 
ON MANURES. ^ 75 
 
 superior quality to the latter; and the same effect was visible 
 in the following- year,* There needs, indeed, no argument 
 to prove that it must possess some fertilizing properties, but, 
 except it be rich in quality, as well as abundant in quantity, 
 it may be doubtful whether it be a profitable object of team 
 labour. 
 
 Some extensive experiments upon the application of liquid 
 manure — when confined tco urine — have also been recently 
 made in Scotland upon various crops, of which the following 
 is a summary. 
 
 A cistern was constructed in the dung-court sufficiently 
 large to contain the urine of from thirty-five to forty, and 
 sometimes of seventy cows. The supply generally amounted 
 to 360 gallons a week. When intended for use, it was mixed 
 with three or four times the same quantity of pond-wator, and 
 was taken out to the fields in a large butt containing 120 
 gallons, placed on wheels like a cart, to the hinder part of 
 which there was attached a wooden box perforated with holes, 
 through which the liquid ran out upon the ground in tb.e man- 
 ner of a common watermg-cart. 
 
 No. 1. — When applied, in October, to grass which had 
 been closely cropped by sheep,| the aftergrowth was not much 
 increased, but the sward maintained a fresh green appearance 
 during the winter, and it could be cut a month earlier than 
 
 * In pursuance of this experiment, the pond was drained and lined with 
 clay, to prevent the water from oozing through it; drains were then laid 
 into it from the stables, and into it were also emptied the contents of 
 the privy and the offal from the kitchen, by which means the water 
 became very putrid. A water cart was then made, with a trough behind 
 full of holes, and the meadow-land was watered with twenty carts-full, 
 laid on either in the beginning of May, or after the cutting of the crop 
 in July ; the effect of which was superior, on both crop and rowen, to any 
 other kind of manure. 
 
 Although the lining of the pond with clay was a good precaution, it might, 
 however, be dispensed with; for, on draining the pond, the earth at the 
 bottom would be found saturated with the drainage, and being scraped up, 
 would make excellent manure. 
 
 tThe account from which this was extracted says 'that the quantity 
 allowed was 20,000 gallons per imperial acre : but on calcuiatin",' the urine at 
 360 gallons per week, and presuming it to have been mixed with four times 
 the same quantity of water, — as there stated,— the whole amount furnished 
 during the year would only be 93,600 gallons ; yet the extent of ground thus 
 manured ainounted, — in the year 1828. to 40 imperial acres; in 1S30, to 46 
 imperial acres; in 1S31, to 50 imperial acres; and in 1»32, to 80 imperial 
 acres— of which the one half was watered again alter the first crop of clover 
 was cut in 1631 and 1832: there must therefore be an error in the quantity 
 of urine. See the Quarterly Journal of Agriculture, No. xii. p. 9a — 97. 
 
76 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 that which had not been so treated. Even in March it afforded 
 a full bite ; but should the grass be wanted for pasture, and 
 not for cutting, the manure should not be applied later than 
 December, as, when deferred until February, the cattle are 
 rather shy in eating it. No. 2.— The effect when applied to 
 clover-lea, to be broken up for oats, was very perceptible ; the 
 increase of crop being about one-third. No. 3. — For wheat it 
 answers well on a light soil ; but on stiff or clay land it does 
 no good. If laid on when the land is wet, it is also of no per- 
 ceptible benefit to the wheat; but if applied under more 
 favourable circumstances, that crop would probably be increased 
 Glx)ut one-fourth. No. 4. — To barley its application was 
 found injurious ; for, although the bulk of the crop was great, 
 yet the strav/ was so soft and weak that it lodged. No. 5. — 
 Potatoes grew to a large size, but they were watery and quite 
 unfit for the table ; though the application of a little dung 
 along with the urine improved their quality. No. 6. — On 
 turnijis it was not found half so efficient as fermented dung. 
 
 It appears that this species of liquid manure applies best to 
 grass ; a doctrine which is corroborated by the experience of 
 Mr. Harley, the proprietor of the celebrated dairy near Glas- 
 gow, who says, — 'that the advantages of irrigating grass-lands 
 with cows' urine almost exceeds belief: last season some small 
 fields were cut six times, averaging fifteen inches in length 
 at each cutting, and the sward very thick.' It was also found 
 to succeed best after a shower, or when the ground was moist; 
 but if laid on during sultry weather, it was advantageous to 
 mix it with one-third of w'ater; and although that was not 
 thought necessary in spring or autumn, yet, judging from the 
 quantity used, it may be presumed to have been rather pro- 
 fusely added. We learn, indeed, from Sir Humphrey Davy, 
 that, 'during the putrefaction of urine, the greatest part of the 
 toluble matter, contained in it is dissipated.' He therefore 
 recommends tliat 'it should be consumed as fresh as possible, 
 but if not mixed with solid compost, it should be diluted with 
 water, as, when undiluted, it contains too m.uch animal matter 
 to form a proper fluid nutriment for absorption by the roots of 
 plants.' This theory, it wall however be recollected, contra- 
 dicts both the Flemish and the Chinese practice, which favours 
 a protracted degree of fermentation ; but he admits that 'putrid 
 urine abounds in ammoniacal salts; and, though less active 
 than fresh urine, that it is a very powerful manure.' It can- 
 
ON MANURES. 77 
 
 not, indeed, be doubted that, in whatever state it may be found 
 the most effectual, it is at least well worthy of attention, and 
 we recommend it strongly to the consideration of all experi- 
 mental farmers. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES. CHALK — LIME. 
 
 The manures which we term alkaline and calcareous, con- 
 sist chiefly of those substances which combine with acids, 
 though generally with the loss of their distinctive characters, 
 and out of which lime may be extracted by the process of 
 burning. The extent of their utility is only ascertained by 
 practice, which does not speak a uniform language in every 
 place, for scarcely a farmer is to be found who is acquainted 
 with the exact effect of their properties upon soils ; from which 
 it may be readily imagined that many will form erroneous 
 opinions, arising out of the local circumstances of their own 
 farms. Their chief advantage, in a natural state, seems, how- 
 ever, to be rather mechanical and alterative, than nutritive. 
 They form a useful component part of the earth; and, in cer- 
 tain proportions, they are found to be essential to the fertility 
 of most soils, or 'perhaps necessary even to their proper tex- 
 ture, as an ingredient in the organs of plants.' The primitive 
 constituents of which they are formed are composed of chalk, 
 of limestone, or of the shells of fish — and on being submitted 
 to the action of fire, lime is produced. 
 
 [Chalk — Is a pure calcareous earth, having the same pro- 
 perties as limestone ; but as it occurs in deposite to no extent 
 in this country, we have omitted any beyond this casual men- 
 tion of it.] 
 
 Limestone. — If employed without being burned, its effects 
 upon the land are very slow : it acts upon the soil during many 
 years as a mild calcareous earth, but its duration and effects 
 are proportioned to its purity, as the less alloy which it con- 
 tains, the stronger will it be, and the operation of changing it 
 into lime is of no further use than as a mode of rendering it 
 more promptly effective. As a gradual improver of the soil, 
 it may even be rendered more useful than quicklime. 
 7* 
 
78 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 Fish- Shells. — The shells of fish, when burnt, produce the 
 purest species of lime, but they are more commonly employed 
 in a pounded state, in which they may be so advantag-eously 
 used, that oyster-shells, when crusiied and drilled upon 27-inch 
 ridg-es, at the rate of 40 bushels per acre, produced as fine a 
 crop of turnips as another field of the same land, manured, for 
 the sake of the experiment, at Mr. Coke's, at Holkham, with 
 farm-dung- at the rate of 8 tons per acre ; nor was there any 
 apparent difference in the succeeding crops of barley and clo- 
 ver. The powder has also been tried at the same farm, for 
 wheat, in competition with rape-dust — both powder and dust 
 at the rate of 4 cwt. per acre, each drilled on a light gravelly 
 loam, in both spring and autumn. The crop was not, in either 
 case, measured, but there was no perceptible difference in 
 either. The field was afterwards sown with turnips, and the 
 produce proved a good crop. Yet, notwithstanding the result 
 of these experiments, no fair conclusion- can be drawn from 
 them regarding their respective effects, as manure, in that 
 sense in which it is understood to mean nutriment; for, 
 although lime may excite the powers of other nutritive matter 
 in the soil, and thus promote vegetation, it possesses no sub- 
 stance, within it-self, which can impart nourishment. 
 
 In some places these shells are found in large beds almost 
 entire, and they may be then either ground by passing them 
 through the oil-cake crusher, or broken into pieces by repeatedly 
 drawing a heavy stone or iron roller over them when spread 
 upon a floor of flags or clinkers. There is, however, a more 
 economical mode of attaining the same object, which is by 
 merely making them the lower tier of a dung-hill, or by 
 spreading them at the bottom of the farm-yard, in which the 
 drainage of the urine will decompose them, and in that state 
 the manure will possess all the advantage of a compost with 
 lime. They may also be used whole on stiff land or clay, on 
 which they act mechanically, opening and loosening the clods, 
 and by that means making way for the roots to penetrate their 
 fibres. To such land they will be found very serviceable, and 
 as they moulder gradually, every year a little, until they are 
 quite spent, they wear down slowly, and their effects, when 
 laid on in sufficient quantity, are long perceptible; but they 
 sliould not be applied to sandy ground. 
 
 On many parts of our coast, shell-sand also forms a valuable 
 species of manure, for the shells which are deposited at the 
 bottom of the sea become there in time decomposed, and the 
 
ON MANURES. 79 
 
 sand which is within reach of the tide, being- thrown upon the 
 sliore in storms, is, in some places, carted oft", and laid upon the 
 land with considerable advantage, though in other parts the 
 practice seems utterly unknown. Being finely attenuated, it 
 blends intimately with the soil, and thus produces very sensi- 
 ble effects in the correction of cold clays and cohesive loams, 
 on which it is usually laid to the amount of about twenty tons 
 per acre. Its chief value will, however, be proportioned to the 
 quantity of calcareous matter, or of shells, which it contains, and 
 this is in some places found to be so large as nearly to equal 
 the common properties of lime. 
 
 It is also found in strata, imbedded in sand-cliffs, at the 
 height sometimes of 40 or 50 feet above the level of the sea, 
 in which places it is generally denominated crag, and was, no 
 doubt, deposited in former ages, ere the water had receded 
 from the shore. 
 
 Lime — Is applied to a great variety of uses : it is employed 
 in medicine as an antacid ; mortar is composed of it, when 
 combined with sand ; and it serves as a manure, which is the 
 only view in which we now have to regard it. When used 
 for the purposes of agriculture, it is formed by exposing the 
 substances we have mentioned to a certain degree of heat in 
 the furnace, or kiln, of the lime-burner. When this has been 
 continued for a sufficient length of time, their weight becomes 
 considerably diminished, though they retain their former shape 
 and bulk ; and either limestone or chalk, when thus reduced, 
 is in most places known by the name either of lime-shells, or 
 shell-lime, or simply shells. In this state it is called quick- 
 lime: the materials of which it is thus composed possess hardly 
 any active property, but when burned, it then becomes caustic 
 to the tongue, and effects the speedy decomposition of most 
 vegetable and animal bodies. When applied in this form — 
 either in the way of compost, or spread over the soil by itself — 
 it is so far from affording nutriment to any thing that may be 
 there growing, that, were its efffects to be long continued, it 
 would consume it. But if water be thrown upon it, a great 
 degree of heat is in a short time generated ; the burnt shells 
 begin to crack and burst asunder, and the mass gradually 
 crumbles down, or falls, as it is more commonly said, into a 
 fine powder, which becomes white, of whatever colour it may 
 have been before it was calcined. Or when it has been 
 exposed for a short time to the influence of the atmosphere, it 
 is also found to lose this caustic power, and it is thus recon- 
 H 
 
80 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 verted into a substance of the same mild nature as that from 
 which it was obtained — in all its properties exactly resembling 
 chalk.* 
 
 This operation is called slacking, or slaking; and lime, 
 when deprived of its scorching quality, is termed slaked-lime, 
 or, in the language of chemists, effete. Instead of watering it 
 in heaps, the practice which generally prevails is to lay the 
 shells upon a fallow, in small hillocks of about a bushel and a 
 half each, either thrown up around the circumference of each 
 heap, or covered up immediately with some fresh soil made 
 very fine, which, when laid on moderately thick, should be 
 clapped close down with the back of the spade, so as to exclude 
 the admission of either air or rain. In this state it may remain 
 for a few days, care being taken during that time to keep every 
 part of the heaps tight and sound, when it will be found that 
 the moisture of the earth will have completely slaked it. 
 Although it may be thought that this covering of the lime is 
 unnecessary, it yet has this use — that without it tlie rain would 
 form crusts over the heaps, which would not only prevent the 
 moisture from penetrating regularly through them, but would 
 also hinder them from being pulverized without considerable 
 difficQlty. It will then be fit for use, and when spread over 
 the field it should be immediately ploughed in with a shallow 
 furrow, and well stirred with the harrows in every direction. 
 Upon an 18-feet ridge these heaps will be the same distance, 
 or 6 yards asunder, from centre to centre, if about 200 bushels 
 be laid on per acre; and so on when other quantities are 
 applied. Instead of slaking the lime in this manner, it has 
 however been recommended 'to lay it down in a long heap, or 
 mound, on one side of the field on which it is to be applied. 
 Two labourers are then employed to turn the mound, and a 
 third waters it. When the whole has been thus gone over, it 
 is allowed to lie for four or five days, after uhich it is again 
 turned, and if any part of the lime should be found to be still 
 unslaked, more water is added.' 
 
 From this it will be perceived, that one chief cause which 
 renders the burning of lime necessary, arises fi'om the extreme 
 difficulty of obtaining the powder without the process of 
 grinding ; but by being thus more finely divided, it can also be 
 more evenly diffused over the soil, with which, therefore, it 
 
 *\Vhen moistened with sea-water, lime yields more alkali (soda) than 
 when treated with common water ; and is said to have been used in some 
 cases with more benefit as manure. 
 
ON MANURES. 81 
 
 becomes more evenly mixed, and more prompt in its effects 
 upon the land; and when laid upon it in its hot state, it not 
 only occasions the destruction of weeds, but powerfully stimu- 
 lates the action of manure. An idea, indeed, generally pre- 
 vails, in consequence of burning being the mode usually 
 resorted to in the employment of lime, that calcination is 
 necessary to render it lit for use as manure, but this, as we 
 have already remarked, is a mere mistake. 
 
 One very strong reason for applying it instantly is, that, if 
 spread immediately after being turned, and while yet in a 
 powdery and caustic state, a smaller quantity may sutRce to 
 cover the whole surface of the ground, and to come into con- 
 tact with more minute particles of the soil; whereas, if suf- 
 fered to lie for any length of time exposed to the atmosphere, 
 it imbibes so much moisture, that it runs into clods, and can 
 never again be so equally divided into small parts, wherefore 
 a much larger quantity is required to produce the same imme- 
 diate effect. It is in this state, also, that it acts the most 
 powerfully upon all organic matter which may be already 
 lying undecomposed within the soil — insects, the fibres and 
 roots of obnoxious plants, and the seeds of weeds, which it dis- 
 solves and transforms into mould. It is also more efficacious 
 than effete lime in its influence upon what is called sour land, 
 though simple chalk, if applied in large quantities, will correct 
 the evil. Neither is it improbable that, during its process of 
 slaking, the heat which it generates by the absorption of mois- 
 ture causes it to swell in a manner which the tenacity of the 
 soil cannot resist: thus producing fermentation, it not only 
 eventually makes the land mellow, but renders matter which 
 was comparatively inert, nutritive, and is probably more bene- 
 ficial to land containing much woody fibre, or animal fibrous 
 matter, than any calcareous substance in its natural state.* 
 If, therefore, quicklime really possesses superior qualities as a 
 manure, it seems only fair to infer that, the greater the strength 
 and vigor of such properties, the more assuredly will they 
 effect its purpose when in that state, than after it has been 
 rendered effete. 
 
 * In its first effect, burnt lime decomposes animal matter, and seems to 
 accelerate its progress to a capacity of affording nutriment to vegetables : 
 gradually, however, the lime is neutralized by carbonic acid, and converted 
 into a substance analogous to chalk : but in this case it more perfectly 
 mixes with the other ingredients of the soil, and is more pervadingly dif- 
 fused, more finely divided, than mere chalk artificially applied.— Sir Hum- 
 phry Davy, Elem. of Agric. Chem., lect. vii. 
 
82 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 Considerable judg-ment is however requisite in this mode of 
 its application ; for, althoug-h it promotes putrefaction, and con- 
 verts the pulp, or saponaceous substance, of vegetable matter 
 into the food of plants, yet, if too great a portion of lime be 
 added, it may have a contrary effect; and it always destroys, 
 to a certain extent, the efficacy of animal manures, either by 
 combining with certain of their elements, or by giving to them 
 some new arrangement. It is necessary to the reduction of 
 carrion, or for qualifying the noxious effluvia of night-soil ; but 
 is so injurious when mixed with any common dung, that it 
 tends to render the extractive matter insoluble : thus, if a suf- 
 ficent quantity of quicklime be added to a heap of stable-dung 
 in a state of fermentation, it will set it on fire, and the whole 
 will be consumed. It should never, therefore, be mixed with 
 farm-yard manure, unless a small quantity be found absolutely 
 necessary for the prompt destruction of seed-weeds, or the de- 
 composition of roots; but when laid upon the land during the 
 same season, the dung should be ploughed down alone, and 
 the lime afterwards harrowed in with the seed-furrow. It 
 may, indeed, be observed, that the dung dropped from horses 
 in their work about kilns is usually so completely destroyed 
 by the lime which falls from the carts in filling, that it is 
 generally found useless to apply it to the land. It also con- 
 sumes the growing herbage; but, if prudently used, it does 
 not appear to reach the roots, as a fresh verdure soon after 
 arises, and seeds which had previously lain dormant in the soil 
 are brought into action.* 
 
 By neutralizing the acids combined with the mould, this 
 manure qualifies the vegetable and other soluble substances 
 also present in it, and occasions the whole to be converted, by 
 the influence of the atmosphere and of water, into nutriment 
 for plants; but in poor soils, having less vegetable matter to . 
 convert into mucilage, it acts so powerfully as not only to ex- 
 haust such land by its final effects, but to be prejudicial to the 
 
 *A circumstance has been related of mild and quicklime having been 
 separately laid upon land, with the follovving effect :— the spot upon which the 
 former was laid was soon covered with white clover, but on that on which the 
 latter was left, no vegetation w'hatever took place for a considerable time, 
 when it at length produced couch-grass, which is accounted for by the hot 
 lime having retained its causticity so long as to have entirely destroyed the 
 seeds of the clover, which are generally ditfused in calcareous soils, and 
 consequently flourish through the application of mild lime; while those of 
 the couch were either more difficult to eradicate, or wefe spread from the 
 adjoining land.— Sinclair's Code of Agric, 3d edit., note p. 235. 
 
ON MANURES. 83 
 
 immediate crops.* We have, indeed, the opinion of a very 
 experienced farmer, who is also well versed in chemistry, 
 * that, should much rain immediately succeed the ploughing, 
 and any considerable portion of sand be either in the lime or 
 in the soil, it is almost a moral certainty that such soil will be 
 in a worse state than it was before the lime was put on, 
 because, the moisture being retained by the lime and the soil, 
 and the tenacity of the sub-stratum not suffering the super- 
 abundance to pass quickly away, it causes the whole to run 
 together, and form a compact and impervious bottom, which 
 before, however, might have been pervious in a slow degree. 
 That this must be the case is evident from this consideration, 
 that quicklime, mixed with a certain portion of sand, and duly 
 moistened, contracts and forms a substance which we call 
 mortar, or cement ; in proportion, therefore, as the quality of 
 these materials is more or less perfect, so does the substance 
 become more or less compact, hard, solid, and impervious: 
 such must be the condition of the soil ; and it is but reasonable 
 to suppose that a great part of the seed sown upon it must 
 perish.' 
 
 It may indeed be alleged that the caustic action of quick- 
 lime can never be exerted to any great extent, as it attracts 
 fixed air too strongly not to become immediately slaked; but 
 its effects are found to be powerful even in that short period, 
 provided that it be promptly and intimately mixed with the 
 soil ; for though the land should contain an aljundance of vege- 
 table matter, yet if it has been injudiciously cropped, or in- 
 sufficiently manured, the lime will only add to its infertility. 
 
 As the dust of quicklime is prejudicial to health, care should 
 be taken by those who spread it over the land to work upon 
 the windward side. Precaution should also be used, when it 
 is ploughed in immediately after being spread, to do so when 
 the soil is quite dry, as well also as to prevent the horses from 
 passing through any wet places when going to field; for 
 though the powder of dry lime, when in a caustic state, does 
 not take any apparent effect on the skin, and the hands of a 
 person who has wrought in it are not in the least injured, yet 
 
 * 'All the experiments yet made render it probable that the food of plants, 
 as it is taken up from the soil, is imbibed by the extremities of the roots only ; 
 hence, as the extremities of the roots contain no visible opening, we may 
 conclude that the food which they imbibe must be in a state of solution at 
 first ; and, in fact, the carbonaceous matter in all active manures is in such a 
 state of combination as to be soluble in water whenever a beneficial effect is 
 obtained.'— L)r. Thomas Thomson's Chemistry, 3d edit., vol. V. p. 376. 
 n-Z 
 
84 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 it very soon corrodes the hair and flesh if it has access to 
 water, and horses have been thus irrecoverably lamed. When 
 Linliarnessed, they should, therefore, be kept dry until tho- 
 roughly brushed over, so as to completely remove the dust 
 wliich may adhere to their coats, and more particularly to 
 their feet and legs. They may thus work without any 
 danger; but, in case of accident happening to either men or 
 horses through being scalded by the lime, the part affected 
 should be inunediately washed, either with vinegar or with 
 very sour milk, by which its irritation will be prevented. 
 After the lime has been slaked, it will become effete in about 
 a week, and will then be as little corrosive as any common 
 kind of earth, so that the horses may work among it with 
 entire safety: but if it has been suffered to run into clods 
 ue/ore it was spread, these, if not broken into small pieces, will 
 be longer in absorbing a sufficient portion of air, and therefore 
 will remain longer in an acrid state, so that the ploughing 
 will be better deferred for another week, or even longer. 
 
 When quicklime has been deprived of its causticity, it is 
 called by chemists carbonate of lime, and in that mild state 
 it does not act upon animal or vegetable matter with the same 
 violence as quicklirne, but instead of dissipating any portion 
 of the substance which may be contained in the soil, it facili- 
 tates its reduction into that state by which it the most effectu- 
 ally assists vegetation. Neither has it the same tendency to 
 combine, as it were into a mortar, with the sand of poor clay. 
 
 Lime, however, whether quick or slaked, when used by 
 itself, without any addition of earth, is not possessed of any 
 vegetative quality: thus, 'seeds planted in a ffower-pot filled 
 with powdered carbonate of lime, regularly watered, vegetated 
 feebly, made little progress, and died witbout coming to per- 
 fection; but when partly filled with garden-mould, and car- 
 bonate of lime 1 3 inch thick over it, the plants put down 
 tlieir radicles straight through the lime, without ramifying or 
 stretching sideways, till they arrived at the mould. Even in 
 a mixture where lime was only one-fifth, the plants were poor 
 and sickly, and made no progress ; and when quick, it, with 
 the aid of water, suddenly destroys all vegetable substances.' 
 It may even be hurtful to vegetation when laid in too large 
 a quantity upon very light and warm soils, for, by quicken- 
 ing evaporation, it dries the land too much, by which means 
 plants are deprived of the moisture necesvsary to their suste- 
 nance; therefore it is that calcareous earths are frequently 
 
^ ON MANURES. 85 
 
 known by farmers as 'burning soils;' and, by its injudicioije 
 use or repetition, without the aid of animal or vegetable 
 manure to supply the nourishment of which they have been 
 deprived by crops, the growth of which has been thus forced, 
 land, though of superior quality, may at length become ex- 
 hausted. Thus experience teaclies that lime, when applied 
 to land, has different effects upon some soils than it has upon 
 others : on many there is a rapid and permanent improvement, 
 on others there is less benefit, and on some it is said rather to 
 retard than to promote vegetation. This is, no doubt, chiefly 
 influenced by various unascertained properties in the soil, and 
 partly also by differences in the qualities of the lime itself, 
 arising from its mixture with other earths. 
 
 Whether it possesses any further properties, through the 
 stimulating effects of light and heat upon the vegetable fibre, 
 has been conjectured, but has not been supported by any 
 positive fact, and seems to be contradicted by the slow effect 
 of effete lime in its operation upon the soil. It is, however, 
 worthy of remark, that calcareous earth is found in the ashes 
 of all vegetables ; that it is present in a larger proportion in 
 wheat, clover, and some other plants whose growth is espe- 
 cially promoted by the use of calcareous manures, and many 
 are said not to ripen in ground in which it is entirely wanting. 
 We may therefore conclude that it is of the highest importance 
 in the process of vegetation, and that an accurate investigation 
 of its mode of action, by enabling us to judge with more cer- 
 tainty of its powers, would greatly tend to the improvement 
 of agriculture. It is indeed much to be regretted that the 
 subject has not been more fully investigated, and that some 
 more definite judgment has not been framed regarding tJie 
 properties of lime, the effects of which in its application to the 
 soil are exposed to the most contradictory results. Much 
 money has thus been uselessly expended and labour thrown 
 away, which, under better information, might have been 
 saved ; and without scientific analysis of the component parts 
 both of soils and of lime, we remain much in the dark regard- 
 ing their effects on vegetation; but judging from the faint 
 lights with which we have been furnished, we shall still en- 
 deavour, by comparing science with practice, to obtain such 
 instruction as may guide us to an economical and useful appli- 
 cation of this manure to field culture. 
 
 Application of Lime. — Those purposes appear to be — first, 
 to render whatever substances may be lodged in the soil, or 
 
86 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 matter which forms part of it, and which may be injurious to 
 vegetation, either harmless or useful; and thus to prepare the 
 soil for the reception and nourishment of seeds and plants: and 
 secondly, to facilitate the decomposition of putrescible matter, so 
 as to furnish food to vegetables during their growth. It has been 
 proved by careful experiment, that the application of lime is tfie 
 only known alterative which, upon poor, weak, and weeping 
 clays, has power to heal the soil. With the assistance of 
 water, it suddenly decomposes all animal and vegetable 
 bodies, and when thus spread upon neglected ground covered 
 with heath and moss, the old turf is decomposed, and a sapo- 
 naceous matter is formed, which sinks into the soil and covers 
 it with sweet herbage. We also know that 'it imparts a 
 certain degree of vigour to some peculiar plants, — as, for 
 instance, sainfoin, the roots of which penetrate far into tlie 
 interstices of chalk, and grcJw luxuriantly, though only covered 
 by a slight coat of inferior soil.* 
 
 It is, however, an error, — though entertained by many 
 farmers, — to suppose that lime in any state comprises fer- 
 tilizing properties within itself: and that, without operating 
 upon the soil, or upon the substances which it contains, it is 
 an enriching manure. It does not possess any fertilizing 
 principle in its own composition : it is merely a calcareous 
 earth combined with fixed air, and holding a medium between 
 sand and clay, which, in some measure, remedies the deficien- 
 cies of both. But though, when alone, unfavourable to the 
 growth of plants, yet experience shows that it is an ingredient 
 in soils which, whether naturally form in »• a component part 
 of their substance, or judiciously mixed with them by the hus- 
 bandman, adds greatly to their fertility, for it has the power 
 of attracting much both from the earth and from the air, which 
 occasions the decomposition of plants; and thus converting 
 them into nutriment, it gives power as to vegetation which, 
 without its operation, would otherwise lie dormant. It also 
 appears to act with great force upon that substance which, 
 being already converted by tlie decomposition of plants into a 
 species of earth, we call mould.\ 
 
 The other causes with which we are acquainted regarding 
 
 * See Naismith's Elements of Ajrrif nlture, p .?34. Timer, Principes Rai- 
 sonnesd'A};rriculture,2iKle edit., tome ii. p. 3S7 ; and Anderson's Essajs, No. 
 vi.. Aphorism iv., in uiiicli it is stated, that calcareous matters act as power- 
 fully \ipon land that is naturally poor, as upon land that is more richly impreg- 
 nated with those substances which tend to produce a luxuriant vegetation. 
 
 t Respecting the formation of mould, see the chapter on soils. 
 
ON MANURES. g7 
 
 the operation of lime as a manure would lead to a chemical 
 discussion, which could only prove uninteresting- to the gene- 
 rality of our readers; we shall therefore confine ourselves to 
 the following observations : — There can be doubt that it is a 
 most powerful stimulant when applied to deep loams and 
 heavy clays, which contain mould of a nature so sour as to 
 appear to unfit them for the purposes of vegetation ; or to land 
 which has been previously either more or less manured with 
 animal or vegetable substances, without any addition of lime 
 or other calcareous matter, in which case it often produces 
 effects far more fertilizing than the application of dung, for its 
 active powers render every particle of the putrescent manure 
 useful ; but if the latter be not afterwards repeated at no great 
 distance of time, the soil will, in the course of a few years, 
 become considerably exhausted. In all arable land, however 
 impoverished it may be, either by nature or bad management, 
 there yet always exists some portion of mould, and, on this, a 
 first dressing of lime occasions a sensible unprovement of the 
 soil, which soon becomes apparent in the increased product of 
 the crops. A second dressing will also be attended with some 
 apparently good effect ; but unless that, and every succeeding- 
 repetition, be accompanied with ample additions of farm-yard 
 manure, or other putrescent matter, to supply the loss thus 
 occasioned by the exhaustion of the vegetative power, every 
 future crop will be diminished. The land is then necessarily 
 thrown out of cultivation, and left for a series of years to re- 
 cover itself under pasture, which, in the course of time, may 
 be effected according- to its former condition : but in the in- 
 terim it is rendered nearly fruitless. It is thus that many 
 thousands of acres in every part of the kingdom have been 
 run to a state of almost total infertility ; and it is even said, 
 that the too great use of lime, though apparently judiciously 
 employed by some of the first farmers in the Lothians, has 
 been lately found very detrimental to their crops. 
 
 Marsh lands, however, which have been drained, will 
 generally support a rotated and abundant application of lime, 
 because they usually contain a large proportion of matter upon 
 Avhich the stimulating powers of lime are peculiarly adapted 
 to act; and it will be found much better suited to the purpose 
 than dung. On all rich, deep, dry, and loamy soils it may 
 also be applied with effect; for although they contain within 
 themselves the component parts of the best soils, yet they are 
 frequently found to be sluggish and inert; and dung-, whether 
 
88 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 through imperfect fermentation or owing to the want of cal- 
 careous matter, often remains dormant in the land until roused 
 by moderate quantities of quicklime, which, if applied at distant 
 periods, will efi'ectually operate to bring it into activity. It 
 should, however, be turned into the ground some weeks before 
 the dung, in order that it may become thoroughly slaked by 
 mixture with the soil, or otherwise it would have the effect of 
 abstracting some of its nutriment. Such soils, after the appli- 
 cation of lime, produce much heavier crops with a much smaller 
 proportion of dung than if no lime had been used, because the 
 operation of the latter, acting upon the dung, renders every 
 portion of it useful. 
 
 Clay land shows an evident disposition to combine with 
 lime, and it bears the repetition of this species of amelioration 
 better than lighter soils. When applied to heavy tillage land, 
 either for the purpose of reducing its cohesive properties, or 
 of supplying an additional quantity of calcareous matter, small 
 dressings of lime will have but little effect; and if sand or calca- 
 reous earths are to be employed, it is recommended, by a prac- 
 tical farmer of known experience, as more economical to apply 
 them separately than as a compost. It powerfully assists all 
 adhesive soils; and v/hen laid hot from the kiln upon deep 
 clay, it has been known to occasion a very large increase in 
 the former crops. It has also been often observed, in fallow- 
 ing clayey soils, ' that, in wet weather, when a dose of lime 
 lias been just given, the land continues more friable, and is 
 less apt to bind up on the recurrence of drought, than where 
 it has been neglected. The grain growing on the well-limed 
 ground preserves its healthy appearance in wet seasons, while 
 that growing on land that has not been limed is yellow and 
 sickly.' 
 
 Upon sandy soils, which seldom abound much in vegetable 
 matter, Ihne has a mechanical operation, which, by combining 
 with the finer particles of the soil, gives consistence to the 
 stnple of the land, and, attracting the moisture from the atmo- 
 sphere, it imparts it so gradually as to^ less liable to be hurt 
 by drought in those parching seaso^ by which crops are 
 injured. It is therefore said to be cooling to hot land ; but if 
 it be not also mixed with some portion of clay, with whicli it 
 may combine, it then is apt to unite itself with the sand, with 
 which it composes a kind of mortar, the effect of which has 
 been already described, and which cannot be dissolved without 
 much difficulty, and the plough often brings hard lumps to the 
 
ON MANURES. 89 
 
 surface of the soil which cannot be easily broken. Thus, when 
 such land has been frequently limed, nothing can restore it 
 but the abundant and reiterated application of putrescent 
 manure; the demonstration of which is perceptible throughout 
 many parts of England, where, from possessing a chalky soil 
 without strength to maintain a sufficiency of live stock to 
 furnish dung, the land has in many places been worn out 
 through the inconsiderate use of lime. 
 
 On the exhaustion of land by the application of lime there 
 is, however, much difference of opinion. It is indeed evident 
 that the continuation of cropping, without an addition of nutri- 
 tive manure, will ultimately exhaust the best soils; but though 
 their natural fertility be thus aided, it yet cannot depend en- 
 tirely on that support. This must be apparent if we reflect 
 that land, v/ithout any addition of animal or vegetable sub- 
 stance, will still produce crops: for pure sand, clay, and chalk, 
 tliough each in themselves separately barren, yet, when mixed 
 together, exert chemical influences upon each other, which, 
 by the attraction of the air, the dews, and the rain, the force 
 of the sun, and the generative powers of growing vegetables, 
 effect the production of corn and fruit. It is therefore clear 
 that the land alone is capable of vegetation; but every day's 
 experience proves, that the amount of its products, its fertility, 
 in short, depends in a great degree upon the decomposition of 
 the substances which have been previously converted into 
 vegetable mould, or which are added to it by manure. Any 
 thing whatever may be called manure which, when applied 
 to the soil, either rectifies its mechanical effects, corrects any 
 bad quality, and either stimulates it to yield, or stores it with 
 nutriment. Thus, if lime be laid upon pure sand, although 
 the latter would be rendered more tenacious, and would there- 
 by become, more favourable to the germination of vegetables, 
 yet seeds could find no nourishment from either the lime or 
 the sand, and putrescent manure would still be necessary to 
 produce a crop. But if the soil consist of. clay and sand, con- 
 tainino- animal or veg€||able matter in a torpid state of decay, 
 then lime would be preferable to dung. The state of the soil 
 should therefore be minutely inquired into before lime is em- 
 ployed, and it should be only used to give effect to the inert 
 substances with which it may be combined. 
 
 By the analysis of soils, we find that all productive earth 
 contains a certain portion of lime; and although we learn 
 from experience that its stimulative powers upon the roots of 
 
90 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 plants are very groat, yet we are but imperfectly acquainted 
 with the extent or the exact manner in which its influence is 
 broug-ht into action, and ' we are in a great measure ignorant 
 of the actual changes that are produced upon the earth after 
 this manure has been applied.' It would, however, seem, that 
 where it exhausts, it is only by hastening the putrefaction of 
 the animal and vegetable matter in the soil, and by that 
 means applying a larger portion of those substances in a given 
 time than could be otherwise afforded to the growth of plants. 
 It is thus known to produce more luxuriant crops, and it will 
 also consequently enable the farmer to continue his land in 
 tillage, during a certain time, with more effect than if no 
 calcareous manure had been laid on; but, although it may not 
 tend to the deterioration of the original staple of the soil, it 
 can hardly be doubted that it nmst be thus more promptly 
 deprived of its fertility than if the exhaustion of that vegetable 
 mould with wliich it had been supplied by nutritive manure 
 were occasioned by a more gradual process of decomposition. 
 
 That this is the only way in which effete lime can exhaust 
 land, seems probable from the large quantities of neutralized 
 calcareous earth which are often applied without any bad 
 effect in the form of chalk, shells, limestone-gravel, and the 
 whole tribe of marls. A larger quantity of these is often er 
 laid on in one year than would be used of lime in half a 
 century, were the land in tillage to be managed according to 
 the custom of some countries; yet it is not generally impove- 
 rished, and, in many cases, it is permanently improved. This, 
 however, is probably occasioned by its combination with other 
 substances, which either counteract its exhausting powers or 
 supply the waste of nutritive matter. It must, however, be 
 admitted, that this is not apparent in regard to chalk, which 
 is commonly applied in large quantities without any bad 
 effects ; and there are many instances of soils more naturally 
 fertile than perhaps any others that are known, and which 
 seem to consist almost wholly of calcareous earth; but were 
 their properties critically analyzed, itjij^still possible that they 
 might be found essentially different fi^i those which they are 
 commonly supposed to possess. 
 
 A very eminent writer on agriculture, when treating of 
 stimulant manures, which are generally supposed to be only 
 of use when applied to rich soils, and when applied to poor 
 land would produce hardly any, or even hurtful effects, says, 
 in contradiction to that theory, — that 'he is firmly convinced, 
 
OJN MANURES. 91 
 
 from repeated observations, that lime and other calcareous 
 manures produce a much greater proportional improvement 
 upon poor soils than on such as are richer: and that lime 
 alone upon a poor soil will, in many cases, produce a much 
 oreator and more lastmg' degree of fertility than dung alone.' 
 That, hosvever, does not throw any doubt on the assertion, 
 that it acts with as great proportionate power upon land that 
 is naturally poor, as upon that which is more fully impreg- 
 nated with those substances wdiich tend to promote a luxuriant 
 vegetation; but we believe that the experience of farmers will 
 prove that its application to poor land, and especially to that 
 which has been previously limed, if it does not eventually 
 tend to its complete exhaustion, will at least never be found to 
 repay the expense. 
 
 The employment of lime seems to be of the greatest service 
 in the breaking up of fresh and coarse land, on which it acts 
 more powerfully than on soil which has been long in cultiva- 
 tion, and indeed the most striking, improvements have been 
 effected by its means on moorlands and mountain; but it 
 should be given for the first time abundantly. Such is the 
 usual effect of lime upon arable : upon grass-land it is laid in 
 smaller quantities ; and in this top-dressing, perhaps the pre- 
 ferable mode is to apply it in a compost with earth ; except 
 when the soil consists of clay. When thus spread upon the 
 surface, its action upon the sward is productive of the most 
 palpable improvement, and continues perceptible during a 
 long period. No other manure will create so rapid a change; 
 for it is such an excellent corrector of acidity, that it tends to 
 produce the sweetest herbage where only the most unpalatable 
 pasture was formerly to be found. This, indeed, is so appa- 
 rent, that if a handful of lime be thrown upon a tuft of rank, 
 Four grass, which has in former years been invariably refused 
 by cattle, they will aft^rw^ards eat it close down. Now, ani- 
 mal dung, when dropped upon coarse benty sward, produces 
 little or no improvement until limed ; it then, however, not 
 only augments the crops, but the finer grasses contmue in 
 possession of the soil, tnd the land is thus doubly benefited; 
 for the dung dropped by the stock on which it is pastured, is 
 both increased iii quantity, and improved in quality,* Farmers 
 
 *Tn Derbyshire the farmers hitve found that, by spreading lime in con- 
 siderable qiiamities upon the surface of their heathy moors, after a few- 
 times the heath disappears, and the whole surface becomes covered wrth a 
 fine pile of grass, consisting of white clover and the other valuable sorts of 
 pasture-grasses. 
 
92 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 should never consider lime as the food or nourishment of 
 plants, but as an alterative of the soil; never to be used but 
 when nature requires it, either to dissolve noxious combina- 
 tions, and to form new ones ; to bind loose soils, or to diminish 
 excessive cohesion; and to reduce the inactive vegetable libre 
 into a fertile mould. For such purposes there is not, perhaps, 
 a more valuable article in the whole catalogue of agricultural 
 remedies; but some farmers, who do not reflect upon the 
 subject, when they perceive that lime has once excited the 
 dormant powers of the soil into action, and that good crops 
 succeed for a few years, are apt to draw from thence very 
 false conclusions, and continue liming and tilling without the 
 assistance of putrescent manure, until their land at length is 
 rendered incapable of the production of corn. It has indeed 
 been pertinently observed by a good judge of such matters, 
 'that there is an analogy between the treatment suitable to 
 the animal and vegetable creation. When medicines have 
 removed the cause of their application, they are discontinued, 
 and the patient, rendered weaker by the application, requires 
 some invigorating aliment: in like manner, some time after 
 an effectual liming, the soluble carbon of the rotten dung, or 
 some such restorative, should be applied to the soil to replenish 
 it with what it may have been robbed of by the action of the 
 lime.' 
 
 In fine, lime should always precede putrescent manures when 
 breaking up old leys for cultivation, for, if the land contains 
 acids, or noxious matter that is poisonous to plants, they will 
 be decomposed and rendered fit for vegetation; and hence the 
 superiority of lime to dung on new lands. But calcareous and 
 putrescent manures operate very differently : ' tlie former being 
 more stimulant and corrective, help the farmer to an abundant 
 crop at the expense of the soil alone; while the latter furnish 
 the land at once with fertilizing fluids, and will insure a good 
 crop on a place perfectly barren before, and after the applica- 
 tion of lime.' 
 
 Much uncertainty prevails among farmers regarding the 
 state of lime: some contending that it should only be applied 
 when hot and powdered, and that when it has been slaked, its 
 effect is comparatively trifling; others maintain the contrary. 
 But these disputants consist chiefly of men whose experience 
 has either been confined to one kind of soil, or who have only 
 used it under particular circumstances, and as they only con- 
 demn the system of others because their own has turned out 
 
ON MANURES. 93 
 
 successful, or the reverse, it is not improbable that, iii the view 
 they take of the subject, each may be in the right. It will 
 therefore probably be found, that in all cases where the land 
 is constitutionally disposed to receive benefit from a calcareous 
 dressing-, that is to say, when it has not been previously limed, 
 or when it has been long laid down and refreshed by grass, or 
 enriched by the application of dung, it is of little importance 
 whether the operation take place when the lime is quick or 
 effete. Upon waste lands, however, its causticity has an 
 evident and necessary effect; for the undecayed vegetables, 
 which abound in all soils in a state of nature, should be 
 speedily decomposed, and it should therefore be spread hot 
 from the kiln. In point of economy, too, there can be no 
 doubt but that it is most thriftily used when laid upon the 
 land in the latter state : for the labour is less ; and a smaller 
 quantity will serve the immediate purpose. It is, however, 
 obvious that the choice of circumstances and season is not 
 always in the farmer's power; and that necessity often obliges 
 him to lay it on when completely effete. It has been said, 
 indeed, upon high authority, that caustic lime exhausts the 
 land ; but repeated trials have shown that its ultimate effects 
 are equally beneficial in the one state or the other, though 
 there is a more immediate advantage in the employment of 
 quicklime by the destruction of weeds. A common method 
 is to leave it spread during some months upon clover or sain- 
 foin, not intended to be broken up until the following year, — a 
 plan which is advisable with regard to marl, which partakes 
 of some of the qualities of lime, -and is the better if allowed to 
 remain during a season exposed to the atmosphere; but the 
 stimulating properties of quicklime will be thereby lost, as it 
 will be converted into mere chalk. Opinions are also much 
 divided respecting its effects when laid upon pasture land 
 which is intended to be kept in grass. There is indeed no 
 question that, in either state, if applied in moderate quantities 
 to a dry soil, or to land that has been completely drained, such 
 a top-dressing will have the most beneficial effect upon the 
 herbage ; but it must be admitted, that when laid on quick, it 
 requires more circumspection in its application, and should not 
 be employed in the same quantity as when effete. 
 
 We learn, from the General Report of Scotland, that there, 
 'in the best cultivated counties, lime is now most generally 
 laid on finely pulverized land, while under a fallow, or imme- 
 diately after being sown with turnips. In the latter case, the 
 
94 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 lime is uniformly mild : in the former, quicklime, as pernicious 
 (in a certain extent) to vegetation, may be beneficial in de- 
 stroying- weeds; and some experiments have been recorded, 
 showing it to have a very powerfijl effect upon the fiy, to 
 which we shall find future occasion to advert. Sometimes 
 mild lime is applied in the spring to land, and harrowed in 
 with grass-seeds, instead of being covered w^ith the plough ; 
 and under this management a minute quantity has produced a 
 striking and permanent improvement in some of the hill-pas- 
 tures of the south-eastern counties. Its effects are yet per- 
 spicuous, atler the lapse of nearly half a century. In some 
 places lime is spread on grass-land a year or more before it is 
 brought under the plough, by which the pasture in the first 
 instance, and the cultivated crops subsequently, are found to 
 be greatly benefited. But in whatever manner this powerfi.il 
 stimulant is applied, the soil should never be afterwards ex- 
 hausted by a succession of gram-bearing crops — a justly 
 exploded practice, which has reduced some naturally fertile 
 tracts to a state of almost irremediable sterility.' 
 
 To point out the precise effects of lime, and the proper 
 quantity to be applied, to the extent to which it has been 
 already ascertained, would greatly exceed the limits of this 
 publication; and w^ere it possible to define its powers upon 
 every gradation of soil, a series of experiments would be re- 
 quired which would occupy the labour of a long life. Its 
 qualities, too, differ materially in various places, from the 
 greater or less quantities of extraneous substances with which 
 it is combined. It is very rarely that any farmer can obtain 
 a choice of lime, and when only one species can be procured, 
 he must be content with it; but he may, nevertheless, be 
 benefited by the following observations: — 
 
 Qualities and Quantity of Lime. — Pure limestone, or 
 chalk, when fully calcined, is reduced to a fine impalpable 
 powder, that feels soft within the fingers, without the smallest 
 tendency to grittiness: but such lime as contains sand is 
 neither so sofl nor fine, but feels more or less gritty in propor- 
 tion as the sand is coarser or finer, and more or less in propor- 
 tion. Commonly, the whitest lime is the best; when perfectly 
 calcined, it is generally of a bright white, without any shade 
 of colour, and if clouded, it is thought to proceed from a 
 mixture of other matter; but the colour is not an infallible 
 criterion, for dark-coloured lime has, in some few instances, 
 been found stronger than that which was perfectly white. The 
 
ON MANURES. 95 
 
 purer and the stronger the lime is, the lighter also it will be 
 found when weighed. Hence it follows, that the best lime 
 for the farmer's use is that which is the softest to the touch, 
 the whitest, and the lightest. 
 
 The other simple tests for ascertaining its quality, which 
 will be found sufficient to decide upon the comparative value 
 of any two kinds of lime, and may be relied upon as suffi- 
 ciently accurate for the common purposes of tlie farmer, are 
 as follows: — If the limestone loses much of its weight in cal- 
 cination, and the lime-shells are extremely light; — if the 
 shells require a very large proportion of water to slake them 
 fully; — if it is long before they begin to fall; — if tiie limestone 
 is not apt to run (or to become vitrified) in the operation of 
 burning; — if it falls entirely when it gets a sufficient quantity 
 of water, after it has been properly calcined; — if it swells very 
 nmch in slaking, and if the lime is light, fine to the touch, and 
 of a pure white — he may be satisfied that it is extremely 
 good, and he may use it in preference to other lime that is 
 inferior to it' in any of these respects. The presence of lime 
 may also be discovered by its effervescence, or ebullition, on 
 being exposed to common vinegar. 
 
 When quicklime, too, is completely sifted through a fine 
 hair-cloth, that is the strongest which leaves upon the cloth 
 specifically the smallest of earthy or sandy particles; and that, 
 also, of which the smallest quantity, when spread upon the 
 same space of ground in soils of equal quality, will the soonest 
 burn up the surface of the grass. We may also add, upon the 
 authority of Sir Humphry Davy, that lime, when slaked with 
 sea-water, has been used in some cases with considerably more 
 benefit than when wetted in the common manner. 
 
 The benefit which might be derived from the union of a 
 slight portion of chemical skill with agricultural knowledge 
 is perhaps incalculable. The present state of education among 
 the generality of farmers is not such, however, as to enable 
 them to reap much advantage from scientific experiments, and 
 even chemists rarely have opportunities of applying their art 
 to practical purposes of this kind. It may, however, prove 
 useful to some to ofler a ^ew brief directions for the analysis 
 of lime, which we extract from the recent work of Dr. Henry: 
 
 'To determine the purity of lime, let a given wei?lit be dissolved in di- 
 luted muriatic acid. Let a little excess of acid be added, that no portion may 
 reniHin undissolved, owing to the deficiency of the solvent. Dilate with dis- 
 tilled water ; let the insoluble part, if any, suttside, and the clear liquor be 
 decanted. Wash the sediment with further portions of water, and pour it 
 I 2 
 
96 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 upon a filter, previously weighed. Dry the filter, and ascertain its increase 
 of weij^'ht, which will indicate how much insoluble matter the quantity of 
 lime submitted to experiment contained. It is easy to judge by the exter- 
 nal quulhies of the insoluble portion, whether argillaceous earth abounds in 
 its composition.' 
 
 The presence o^ magnesia in limestone has been considered 
 pernicious to vegetation when burnt into lime. It had been 
 long- known to farmers in the neighbourhood of Doncaster, and 
 other parts of Yorkshire, Derby, and Nottingham, that lime 
 made from a peculiar species of limestone injured their crops; 
 and that made from the Breedon limestone, in Leicestershire, 
 which there goes under the denomination of ' hot lime,' is so 
 powerful, that it is there seldom used in larger quantities than 
 from 25 to 30 bushels an acre, unless the land be very rich. 
 A series of experiments were made upon the former by Mr. 
 Tennant, who discovered that it contained magnesia, and on 
 mixing some calcined pure magnesia with earth, in which he 
 sowed different kinds of seeds, he found that they either died 
 or vegetated very imperfectly; he therefore came to the con- 
 clusion that its effects were prejudicial. This is thought to 
 have been occasioned by its retaining its caustic quality longer 
 than pure lime ; and that, if used to excess, it has a poisonous 
 effect on vegetables, though, 'on poor soils,' it has been said 
 * neither to receive water so rapidly, nor to part with it so 
 freely, as lime; and in this respect it seems to hold an inter- 
 mediate property between lime and clay.' Experiments have 
 also been made by Sir Humphry Davy and other chemists, 
 from which it may be collected that, although, when calcined, 
 as lime, it may become pernicious to land, if laid on in too 
 large quantities, yet that, in its mild state, it is a useful con- 
 stituent of soils. One of the most fertile parts of Cornwall, in 
 the neighbourhood of the Lizard, is a di.^^trict in which the land 
 abounds in magnesian earth. It is, indeed, one of the mildest 
 absorbents with which we are acquainted, and upon ground 
 which is infested with sorrel, its application is an immediate 
 remedy. Magnesian limestone is usually of a pale yellow or 
 brown colour, and is found in many parts of England, as well 
 as Ireland ; it effervesces when plunged in acid, though it only 
 dissolves slowly. 
 
 Its analysis requires a process too tedious to be here stated, 
 but its existence in lime, in a pure state, may be ascertained 
 by the following test: — 
 
 Having taken out all the mineral oxide, next pour into the fluid a solution 
 of neutralized carbonate of potassa, continuing to do so until it will effer- 
 
ON MANURES. 97 
 
 vesce no longer, and till both the taste and smell of the mixture indicate an 
 excess of alkaline salt. The precipitate that falls down is carbonate of 
 lime : it must be collected on the filter, and dried at a heat below that of 
 redness. 
 
 The remaining fluid must be then boiled for a quarter of an hour, when 
 the magnesia, if any exist, will be throw n down combined with carbonic acid . 
 
 The quantity of lime to be applied to the land must of 
 course be apportioned to the quality of the former, as well as 
 to the nature and the condition of the soil which considera- 
 tions must also be in a great degree governed by the expense. 
 There is perhaps no country where it has been used to such 
 an extent as in the improved parts of Scotland, where it is 
 often carried to the distance of twenty to thirty miles, after 
 having been imported from distant points of the coast, and even 
 from Ireland ; and although it has been laid on at prices vary- 
 ing in proportion to its strength, and the charge of burning, 
 from 6s. to 18s. per chaldron of 36 bushels, besides the cost of 
 carriage, and in quantities according to the nature of the soil, 
 yet the improvement has, in most places of its first application, 
 borne out the charge.* In Ireland, Chief Baron Foster has 
 gone so far as 300 barrels, with manifest good effect. It is in 
 that country, indeed, not uncommonly applied at the rate of 
 400 bushels per imperial acre ; and immense crops of potatoes 
 have been raised by its being laid upon strong old leys, broken 
 up in July or August, and allowed to remain in that state until 
 ploughed again in the spring. It has been laid on some of the 
 moors in Derbyshire to the amount of 1500 bushels. Dr. An- 
 derson says that 'he has himself had experience of it in all 
 proportions, from 100 to above 700 bushels to the acre, upon a 
 great variety of soils ; and that he always found its effect in 
 promoting the fertility of the soil to have been in proportion to 
 the quantity employed, other circumstances being alike ; yet 
 an instance is mentioned, in the Nottingham Report, of twenty 
 chaldrons, or 720 bushels, having been laid upon an acre of 
 cold clay soil, without any benefit whatever. Experiments 
 have also been tried of its application on heavy land, extremely 
 
 *In Scotland it appears that 192 bushels of lime-shells per Scotch acre 
 (equal to 153 per imperial acre) have been applied with success on light sofl 
 land. From 240 to 360 are however generally esteemed proper for different 
 degrees of clay. From thai quantity up to 6(J0 bushels have been laid with 
 good effect on strong land, both arable and under grass ; but it seems gene- 
 rally asrreed, that from 300 to 4^0 bushels are quite sufficient for the greater 
 part of the most fertile districts in that country ; and light soils, whii h 
 require less in the first instance, are said to have been greatly benefited by 
 a frequent repetition, 
 
 9 
 
98 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 retentive of moisture, to the extent of 300, 450, and 550 
 bushels, which, after eight successive years, showed no per- 
 ceptible difference arising- from the quantity laid on, and simi- 
 lar instances are too numerous to require mention ; but these 
 failures may, not improbably, have been occasioned by the im- 
 perfect state of the drainage. Lime has, however, been on so 
 many occasions used at random, without inquiry being made 
 or attention paid to the state of the land, — whether it has been 
 over-cropped and worn out, or has been left under pasture and 
 enriched by dung, — that, without regard to these particulars, 
 jnuch money has been uselessly expended, and many attempts 
 at improvement have been rendered unsuccessful. A system 
 also prevails in the cultivation of many estates in various parts 
 of the kingdom, under which the tenants are bound by their 
 leases to fallow the land at fixed periods, and to dress the 
 fallows with a certain quantity of lime ; which being thus 
 repeated when the condition of the ground does not always 
 require it, it necessarily follows that no beneficial result can 
 be attained. 
 
 Such, indeed, is the variety of soils and circumstances, that 
 no general rule can be devised for fixing the quantity of lime 
 that may be properly laid upon an acre of land. The various 
 accounts from the different county surveys, and other sources 
 of information, state that from 80 to 180 bushels have been 
 laid upon light soils with very palpable benefit, and that from 
 240 to 320 and even 400 bushels have been successfully applied 
 to clays and strong grass land. It has, indeed, been found, 
 that in maiden soils its use is so essential, on its first applica- 
 tion, as to impart a permanent degree of fertility which could 
 not be obtained by any other species of manure. In some 
 parts of Scotland, which have been only of late years brought 
 under an improved course of culture, and to which lime had 
 not been previously applied, it was observed that the richest 
 animal dung had but a weak effect upon the crops of grain. 
 Peas, barley, and wheat, at first assumed the most promising 
 appearance, but when the peas were in bloom, and the corn 
 putting forth the ear, it was found that they had dwindled 
 away in nearly fruitless abortion, — which, indeed, so far as the 
 peas are concerned, ought not to excite surprise, tor it is well 
 known that they will not tiirive in any soil wliich is not cal- 
 careous; yet the same ground, after getting a slight dressing 
 of lime, brought any kind of crop, that was adapted to the 
 
ON MANURES. 99 
 
 land and properly tilled, to full maturity.* Experience, 
 indeed, proves that a certain portion of lime is necessary to 
 bring all soils into a due state of fertility ; but when they are 
 once saturated with lime, or have got a suificient quantity, 
 whatever more is added only occasions useless expense. Many 
 farmers have also learned, to their cost, that land which has 
 received a complete liming should be either rested from severe 
 cropping, or, after some short time, laid down to pasture. 
 This, however, being not always convenient, the alternate 
 system of husbandry should be adopted, even with the addition 
 of a second year under clover, if the laiid be poor, and the 
 green crops expended on the ground ; and in no case should 
 the soil be deprived of the usual dressings of dung. 
 
 In whatever quantity it may be employed, it is indispensable 
 that every particle of lime bo intimately blended with the soil; 
 for if that condition be not complied with, its power upon the 
 land will be so tar lost as that ©iteration may have been 
 ineffectually performed. Although specifically lighter than 
 any soil, it is, however, very conunonly left in small lumps, 
 which then fall into the bottom of the open furrow when the 
 land is ploughed, and there remaining below the staple of the 
 land, it naturally becomes useless for the purposes of the far- 
 mer : the operation, therefore, demands the piost minute atten- 
 tion. When the lime, which may have been spread upon the 
 ground, has been either already ploughed under, or only har- 
 rowed in, or both, it should be again harrowed and afterwards 
 ploughed in. This must, however, be done as superficially as 
 possible, in order to avoid burying the lime : and perhaps the 
 best implement for that purpose is a scarifier, or one of the 
 many scufflers now in use, as they mix the lime with the soil 
 more etfectually than can be done by the plough. The land 
 must then be again harrowed and ploughed ; but still not to a 
 2:reat depth ; and in this manner it should get at least three 
 ploughings and harrowings, if the soil be light, and four, or 
 even five, according to the condition of the land, if it should 
 be heavy : but, we repeat, that in no case should the lime be 
 sufiered to sink deep into the ground. We have, indeed, cm 
 
 * It has been stated, in the General Report of Scotland, that soils of tolera- 
 ble (luality, in Laminerinuir, only produce middling crops of oats and rye, 
 and that the richest dun<; does not enable them to bring any other grain to 
 maturity ; yet the same soils, after being limed well, under proper culture, 
 ripen every species of corn. The same efllct is stated to have occTirred on 
 the Mendip hills, in Somersetshire, in Hereford, and Derbyshire, and vari- 
 ous other counties. 
 
100 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 this, the evidence of Mr. Dawson, of Frogden, which, after the 
 experience of upwards of half a century, is too well known and 
 too highly appreciated to admit of doubt, that in every instance, 
 uj)on his own land, in which lime was only harrowed in, when 
 laid up for pasture, the ground not only continued, for upwards 
 of thirty years, to produce the fine g'rasses, but, when ploughed 
 down, those parts of the soil which were not sufficiently mixed 
 with lime, thoug-h sown with clover, became gradually covered 
 with bent; and he also adds his testimony, that, when properly 
 mixed with lime, the effects of dung are not only greater, but 
 much more permanent, whether under tillage or pasture. It 
 should, however, be observed, that the depth of the ploughing 
 may also be made to depend, in a great degree, upon the 
 quantity of lime that is used as well as upon the state of the 
 soil ; for not only is a less portion of calcareous manure requi- 
 site upon sands than upon clays, bat as it sooner sinks into the 
 former than into the latter, and the object is to keep a suffi- 
 cient quantity mixed with the surface, it cannot, in that case, 
 be ploughed with too shallow a furrow. 
 
 This renders a clear and well-wrought -fallow absolutely 
 necessary ; but in this manner, if the lime be laid in the full 
 quantity upon the proper soil, and if the fi.iture cultivation and 
 manuring with putrescent matter be in all respects carefully 
 conducted, it will produce the expected effect upon the land, 
 the amelioration of which will last for a long series of years. 
 This mode of application is approved by the most enlightened 
 farmers; yet there are many who affirm that grass-land forms 
 the best bed for the reception of lime. When grass-land is 
 broken up, it is, however, very generally full of weeds, which 
 nothing but a complete summer fallow can thoroughly con- 
 quer ; but if the land be clean, and the lime can be got for- 
 ward in time, the application may in many cases prove suc- 
 cessful. 
 
 Tiie application of lime to grass-land one or two years before 
 it is broken up, as inculcated by several writers upon hus- 
 bandry, is neither necessary to the soil, nor reconcilable with 
 economy: as, in case of any declivity in the ground, much of 
 tiie lime is washed off the surface by the rains, and lost before 
 the land can be ploughed. 
 
 On the best consideration which we can apply to this im- 
 portant subject, we should say — Let the farmer, as a primary 
 ground for determination, well weigh the nature and the condi- 
 tion of liis land, as well as the amount of the cost, previous to the 
 
ON MANURES. 1£)1 
 
 application of a dressing- of lime. If it is to be broken up from 
 grass which lias lain long in pasture, and without having been 
 previously limed, and that he can afford the expense, let him 
 lay on a round quantity at once ; for if it be intended as a 
 permanent alterative — a corrective and amendment of the pro- 
 perties of the soil, — it should get a full dose, and any thing- 
 sJjort of that will be found little better than money thrown 
 away. But if it is to be applied to ground that has been under 
 tillage, and upon which lime lias been previously laid, it can 
 tlien only be used with advantage after a series of years 
 have elapsed, and in small quantities ; upon land also which 
 has been kept under a proper rotation of husbandry, and has 
 been regularly manured with stable-dung, bones, rape-dust, 
 or other nutritious substances, upon which it may exert itself, 
 as it will merely give increased effect to the riches which 
 may have been thus added to the soil by superior manage- 
 ment. In such cases, however, it may be usefully employed 
 after every second or third dunging ; for v^'hether it be owing 
 to an imperfect fermentation, or to whatever cause, it is 
 certain that a portion of all the dung which is laid upon 
 ground remains nearly in a dormant state until forced into 
 activity by the application of some alkaline or calcareous 
 'matter. 
 
 On all land it decomposes nutritive matter, which may be 
 supposed to lie otherwise in an inert or apparently insoluble 
 state: it is advantageous on sands, because, so long as it 
 remains well mixed with the soil, it attracts moisture from the 
 air, which prevents them from burning; and if applied to 
 clays, or other deep soils on which no calcareous manure has 
 been previously laid, it renders them less cohesive, and more 
 easily penetrable by vegetable fibres. On calcareous soils it 
 necessarily has but little effect, because it there already forms 
 a part of the matter of which they are composed ; but when 
 laid on grass-land as a top-dressing, it has greatly improved 
 every species of soil, and has promoted the growth of the finer 
 grasses; thus adding to the luxuriance of the herbage, and 
 augmenting the productive powers of the soil when afterwards 
 ploughed for grain.* As lime, however, — notwithstanding 
 
 * Calcareous soils have also been found to possess the advantage of guard- 
 ing the sheep which graze upon them from the rot ; and there can be no 
 doubt that the application of lime, if accompanied by proper drainage, will 
 materially assist in producing' properties of corresponding efficacy. It is 
 likewise known to be a great preventive, when laid upon pasture-land, of 
 that destructive disease, the foot-rot. 
 
 9* 
 
102 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the fact wliich has just been recorded regarding the similarity 
 of its effects, — whether mild or quick — yet differs materially 
 in its strength, inquiry should always be made on that point 
 previous to its application. The following general rules may 
 be taken as a summary of what has been already stated. 
 
 1st. Before the application of lime, the land should be 
 thoroughly drained and laid dry. 2dly. It may be carried 
 on whenever the teams are the most at leisure; but summer 
 is the best season, and it never should be laid upon the land 
 unless in dry weather. 3dly. It should be laid on-while in 
 a powdery state — the drier the better — and kept as near the 
 surface as possible, as then best adapted to mix intimately 
 with the soil. 4thly. It may be applied either quick or effete; 
 but if in the former state, it will have more effect in the 
 cleansing of the land, and a less quantity will serve the 
 immediate purpose. It should, however, be carted upon the 
 land as soon as possible, and spread directly before the 
 plough, letting that follow so quickly, as that the body of 
 the lime shall be slaked in the soil; and it must be cau- 
 tiously applied to light soils. 5thly. As it has a tendency 
 to sink into the ground, and it is important to preserve it 
 near the surface, it should be ploughed with a shallow 
 furrow. 6thly, When found, after a few years, in lumps, 
 and much below the surface of the land, it should be 
 ploughed up and repeatly harrowed, so as to insure its. inter- 
 mixture. Tthly. Clays and strong loams require a full dose; 
 but for sands and other light soils, chalk, or a much less quan- 
 tity of lime, will serve — each in proportion to the strength of 
 the lime and of the land. 8thly, If the land be not supplied 
 with the same quantity of putrescent manure that is usually 
 laid upon other soils, the crops will suffer; and if it be not 
 then laid down to grass for a long series of years, it will be 
 worn out and exhausted. («) 
 
 Lime-kilns. — Lime may be burnt without building a kiln, 
 as follows: The site on which this substitute for a regular 
 kiln is to be formed, should be circular — say five or six yards 
 in diameter: the soil should be dug up from off the subsoil; 
 and then the operation of burning is to be performed in the fol- 
 
 (n) [The ordinary trap rocK, wliich abounds in parts of this country, if re- 
 duced to powder, is a valuable manure, used as a top-dressing for crass. It 
 shovild be applied in the proportion of one ton per acre, with about ten tons 
 of (lunfi. If applied in the state of very fine powder, it is supposed that live 
 cwt. per acre would be sufficient. Of this last statement we give no opinion. 
 The experiment is worthy of trial ] 
 
ON MANURES. 103 
 
 lowing manner: — In the bottom of the pit lay a large quantity 
 of furze, heath, or ling, upon which place about two feet in 
 thickness of the parings, in the centre of which begin to form 
 a funnel, or flue, of furze, encircled by peats, and around this 
 lay about 6 or 8 inches deep of limestone, broken in small 
 pieces. Then carry the flue up a couple of feet higher than 
 the limestone, adding afterwards another layer of furze and 
 parings about one foot deep, and then limestone, layer after 
 layer of each, but still continuing the funnel; observing, how- 
 ever, that the circumference of each layer is to be lessened, 
 until the wdiole assumes the form of a cone, or sugar-loaf, with 
 the flue for its apex, or point. When this is done, brushwood, 
 furze, heath, or any combustible matter, must be piled around, 
 with peats to keep all together; and if the soil contain clay, 
 clods may be added. Then set fire to the furze at the top or 
 point of the flue, and the whole heap will burn down to the 
 bottom with such effect, that within twenty-four hours the 
 limestone will be completely calcined. If clay be added, it 
 will also become sufficiently hardened to be easily reduced to 
 pow^der, in which state, as we shall hereafter see, it may be 
 converted to valuable manure; and the ashes may also be used 
 as a dressing. This method of burning lime has also the fur- 
 ther advantage, that these pits may be dug on every part of 
 the land where it may be wanted, as they may be filled up 
 with the soil previously taken out of them; or if it be also an 
 object to burn clay, the operation can be performed at the same 
 time, and a great portion of the expense may thus be saved. 
 
 Compost. — Independently of the mixture of lime with the 
 soil in the manner already stated, great advantage may also 
 be gained by making a compost of lime and earth, which has 
 been found to possess more fertilizing properties than when it 
 has been laid naked upon the land ; and a far less quantity is 
 found to answer the purpose. The great objection raised by 
 most farmers is the heavy expense of labour, and also cartage, 
 which is, in many situations, so great as to prevent the opera- 
 tion. It should, however, be observed that the compost is, in 
 many cases, chiefly composed of the scourings of ditches, and 
 of pond-mud, in which instances the charge of labour mu?t 
 necessarily be incurred, and a great portion of the cost is thus 
 saved. Another mode of reducing the expense is also to 
 plough up the headlands of fields in which the compost is 
 intended to be laid. This is effected by ploughing the land 
 as deeply as it will admit; and if the subsoil be not of such a 
 
104 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 quality as to occasion sterility, this mixture of fresh earth 
 along- with the surface-soil and lime will prove highly advan- 
 tageous. Virgin earth, indeed, if not in itself a manure, 
 readily unites with lime, and richer composts are thus made 
 tlian with earth taken from the surface : the expense, too, is 
 less, for a smaller quantity of lime can be made to answer the 
 purpose. The lime should then be laid on in the state of shells, 
 before it is slaked, and ploughed well in, to insure its complete 
 combination ; the loose earth which escapes from the side 
 furrows should then be shovelled up and thrown over the heap, 
 after which a fermentation takes place within a very short 
 time, if the weather be damp and warm, and the compost 
 should be immediately laid upon the land, in quantity accord- 
 ing to the quality of the soil to which it is to be applied. 
 From 40 to 50 double cart-loads have been found a full dose 
 to ordinary land, of which only one-seventii part of the com- 
 post was quicklime, which was considered equal in force to 
 one-third of that which had been slaked. Nothing, however, 
 can be more uncertain than the quantity of lime required, for 
 it depends both upon the quality of the lime and of the earth 
 with which it is to be mixed, as well as the state of the 
 weather; but, from trials which have been frequently made, 
 it would seem that two bushels of lime-shells will be sufficient 
 for a cubic yard of earth of average quality ; and 64 cubical 
 yards of the compost — when properly prepared and applied to 
 the soil — may be deemed a moderate dose for an acre of land; 
 indeed, 40 have been considered a good dressing for light 
 land, though more might unquestionably be, in most cases, 
 laid on with better effect.* A dressing of this kind has been 
 frequently found more effectual than one of farm-yard dung. 
 
 We cannot close this chapter without also adverting to the 
 very just opinion generally entertained, that ^ soils ought to 
 be crossed ;' or, in other words, that composts, of which clay is 
 the basis, should be administered to light soils ; and the reverse. 
 The expense is, however, in most cases, so enormous, in con- 
 sequence of the vast quantity which must be laid on to produce 
 any sensible effect, as seldom to leave any profitable result. 
 
 * 'If 80 cubic yards are considered to be a pood medium dressins; for a 
 Scotch, or 64 for an English acre, 160 bushels of lime-shells will be sufficient. 
 Now, the length of a head-ridpe opposite to four ridges of 18 feet is 72 feet, 
 and its breadth 18 feet. If this space be ploughed 10 inches deep, it will 
 produce 40 cubic j-ards of earth at each end of the ridges; while the whole 
 work may be executed by horse-labour.' 
 
ON MANURES. IO5 
 
 When the earth which is required to be added is to be found 
 in the subsoil, then, indeed, if it be not at too great a depth, it 
 may perhaps be dug, at those seasons in which labour is cheap, 
 at a moderate expense ; but those instances are rare, and the 
 charge of cartage from a distance must prevent it from being 
 undertaken by any man, although the owner of the land, who 
 is not possessed of large disposable capital, or by any tenant 
 who cannot secure the return of the outlay within the currency 
 of his lease. Composts, however, may be very advantageously 
 formed in the manner we have stated — by a mixture of lime 
 with the earth on which it is to be laid. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. MARL. 
 
 Marl is a compound calcareous earth found in most parts 
 of the world, and has been extensively used throughout this 
 kingdom, where it is supposed to have been known to hus- 
 bandmen at a very early period of our history. There are, 
 indeed, leases on record, granted in the reigns of Edward I. 
 and II., which compel the tenants to make use of it; but, 
 though still employed, it has been in a great degree super- 
 seded by the more recent introduction of lime, of the pro- 
 perties of which it in some measure partakes. The term 
 denoting it was formerly used in a very vague sense, for it is 
 a substance consisting of various materials, and it has conse- 
 quently happened, that what has been supposed to apply to 
 one species, did not hold good when affirmed of another. 
 Although principally deemed valuable on account of the calca- 
 reous matter which it usually contains, still its composition 
 differs so essentially, that its influence as manure is but im- 
 perfectly understood ; yet theoretic writings abound in gene- 
 ral directions for its use, which are frequently found not to ' 
 answer in practice, for their rules are drawn either from state- 
 ments which have been made of the effect of its application on 
 particular soils, or from analysis of its qualities, which, as 
 these vary in innumerable instances, frequently lead farmers 
 astray. Its real value can, therefore, be only ascertained 
 
106 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 through the practical experience of those who have either 
 actually tried its efficacy, or who have witnessed it in their 
 own neighbourhood. 
 
 This ignorance of the distinguishing properties of marl has 
 necessarily led to many mistakes in its application, which 
 have occasioned the variety of opinions that are entertained 
 regarding its use. In most places where it was anciently 
 employed, and where its fertilizing influence was discovered 
 to be eminently great, it was thought by many farmers that it 
 could be made to supersede the use of dung; they, therefore, 
 in many instances, sold their hay and straw, and although, 
 notwithstanding this reduction of the quantity of putrescent 
 manure, they still for a time obtained large crops, yet, eventu- 
 ' ally, the chemical eflfects of the marl exhausted the land. No 
 second marling could operate upon it until it had been reno- 
 vated by repeated applications of dung ; and thus has arisen 
 the old saying, cited by Barnaby Googe, who wrote so long ago 
 as the middle of the sixteenth century, that 'lime and marl 
 are good for the father^ but had for the son.'' In this man- 
 ner, also, some valuable discoveries in agriculture have fallen 
 into disuse through their mistaken application, when governed 
 by local circumstances which were ill understood ; but wher- 
 ever marl of a kind adapted to the soil has been applied, and 
 that a judicious system of culture has been pursued, without 
 either over-cropping, or neglecting the use of putrescent ma- 
 nure, the proverb is so far from being well founded, that the 
 contrary may be safely affirmed. 
 
 The common definition of marl given us by the best writers 
 on fossils, is, — that it is composed of clay, sand, and lime, very 
 intimately, but unequally mixed, slightly coherent, not ductile, 
 but stiflf, or viscid, when moist; most easily diffiisible in, and 
 disunited by, water, or even by exposure to the air, and by it 
 reduced to a soft, loose, incohesive mass — for the most part 
 competed of nothing more than calcareous earth — in which its 
 chief value consists — combined with a little mineral oil, clay, 
 and sometimes with ochre, or iron. It is also generally con- 
 sidered as a characteristic of marl, that it effervesces with 
 acids, though to that various exceptions have been discovered ; 
 from which it has been supposed that, wlien deprived of that 
 test, it contains no calcareous matter, yet it is found to pro- 
 duce ameliorating effects upon the soil.* Notwithstanding 
 
 ♦A bluish marl much used in some parts of Ireland, and long celebrated 
 
ON MANURES. 107 
 
 this summary description, its appearance is, however, as 
 varied as its properties, being of colour nearly pure white, to 
 the darkest shades of brown and red, interveined with blue 
 and yellow. It also exists in different kinds of land, is seldom 
 found as a stratum of much length, but generally in detached 
 masses at various depths, sometimes in wide and dense per- 
 pendicular layers, at others in streaks, running in lines pa- 
 rallel with the horizon, or again intersecting each other at 
 right angles, usually resting on sand or gravel, and is classed, 
 according to its qualities, into the following distinct species: 
 
 1. Clayey marl, which improves sandy land, and seems to act 
 as clay in changing the nature of the soil. In land consisting 
 of a mixture of sand and loam, or of sand and gravel, then, the 
 application of this marl has been found peculiarly advanta- 
 geous: and on all poor and thin sandy soils there is this 
 further advantage in its use — that, from the large proportion 
 of clay which it usually contains, it adds to their bulk and 
 firmness, and thus has a tendency to bring them to that 
 medium state which is the most favourable to the purposes of 
 vegetation. It is more soft and unctuous than clay; indeed, 
 upon slightly cutting it, it becomes so flexible, that it may 
 be kneaded like dough, or paste, though, when the moisture 
 evaporates, it falls into pieces: it therefore blends easily with 
 the soil, and partaking more largely of calcareous matter, 
 its effects, though slow, are in all the latter cases more 
 fertilizing. 
 
 2. Sandy marl, which is far more frequent in Ireland than 
 in any part of England, and is commonly found in pits of lime- 
 stone-gravel, whence it is in that country usually called lime- 
 stone-sand. It is seldom clammy or unctuous, like the clay 
 marl, nor does it adhere to the tongue, but crumbles between 
 the fingers, and feels gritty; when exposed to the air and 
 moisture, it slowly chips and moulders; and it partakes of 
 some extraneous mixtures. Its colour is sometimes like that 
 of lead, or brown, approaching to black, and at others blue. 
 As implied by its name, it contains an excess of sand over that 
 of clay ; for, upon analyzing it, the proportion of the former 
 has, in most cases, been found to be from 60 to 80 per cent. ; 
 and it does not effervesce with acids so quickly as the calca- 
 reous marls. It possesses but a small degree of tenacity, and 
 
 as a manure, makes no ebullition with acids ; neither do several of the red 
 marls; yet many of Ihem are known to be productive of great improvement 
 to land. 
 
 J2 
 
108 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 it has proved an excellent manure for clayey soils, mellowing 
 their stiffness, and rendering them easier to work. 
 
 3. Sldhj or slony marl, to which class, also, properly be- 
 longs that which is called rotten limestone, is chietiy applied 
 to iieavy land. Its operation is slow, but very lasting; land, 
 forty years after it has been laid on, having been found to bear 
 a closer and a better crop of grass than that which had been 
 recently applied. 
 
 4. Shelly marl, which is evidently produced by the remains 
 of testaceous fish, which, dying in their shells, become, in 
 process of time, converted into calcareous earth, and their 
 bodies, when decomposed, furnish a kind of mould composed 
 of animal substance, which is no doubt analogous to the effect 
 of dung. It is, therefore, highly fertilizing when judiciously 
 applied to soils of every kind, which are either in themselves 
 dry, or which have been properly drained. 
 
 Such are the most common denominations by which marl is 
 usually distinguished, though it is susceptible of many sub- 
 divisions by those who affect to treat the subject scientifically. 
 
 It is, however, more frequently classed under the sole cha- 
 racters of siliceous, argillaceous or calcareous, according as 
 sand, clay, or lime predominates in its composition ; but for all 
 practical purposes, it may be sufficient to divide it into earth- 
 marl and sliell-marl. 
 
 Earth-Marl. — The former, though in substance, as we have 
 already seen, sometimes principally formed of sand, is yet, in most 
 cases, chiefly composed of clay, and of the carbonate of lime, 
 intimately combined, but mixed in very different proportions, 
 by which its properties are necessarily varied. It acts as 
 manure physically, or substantially, through the effect of the 
 clay in rendering soils tenacious; and chemically, by the 
 operation of lime in the manner which has been explained in 
 treating of that fossil. 
 
 Although it is very generally thought that extreme accuracy 
 in philosophical experiments is useless in the practice of agri- 
 culture, yet it is particularly necessary to ascertain the precise 
 difference between these modes of action; for, of course, either 
 one or the other prevails, according to the greater or the less 
 quantity of clay of which tjie marl is composed. Thus, to 
 produce the first-named, or physical eftect, a much larger 
 amount must be laid upon the land than when the second is 
 the object; for clay can only be advantageously employed in 
 that view upon soils that are too light, and consequently tho 
 
ON MANURES. " 109 
 
 marl must be laid in proportionate abundance, or it will not 
 improve tiie condition of the ground; whilst a clayey soil 
 would, on the contrary, lose some of its good qualities by the 
 addition of marl, after the eflects of the lime were exhausted. 
 The intimate combination of these two substances in the com- 
 position of marl, atlbrds it, however, this advantage — that it 
 divides, and falls to powder, with greater ease than can be 
 effected by any artificial mixture, and therefore unites more 
 readily with the soil. 
 
 On the other hand, if the calcareous matter in the marl be 
 combined with sand instead of clay, or that there are, as in 
 many instances, veins of calcareous sand intermixed, then it 
 suits a clayey soil. The proportion in which these substances 
 are combined is, however, so different, that they often vary in 
 the* same vein, and it is generally found that the bottom part is 
 more calcareous than the top. From 15 to 40 per cent, is not 
 unfrcquently the proportion of Calcareous matter found in clay; 
 that of a sandy nature generally contains a larger proportion.* 
 
 The stone marl of hilly countries is frequently still more 
 abundant in calcareous substance; but it also, in many other 
 places, contains such large quantities of extraneous matter, 
 that it may be properly considered as belonging to the earthy 
 species, and has, in some instances, been laid upon the land to 
 the extent of 400 to 600 single horse cart-loads per acre, 
 which heavy labour renders the use of lime more economical, 
 although carrried from a greater distance, except in cases 
 where the chief object is to loosen very stiff clays, on which it 
 acts with considerable effect. 
 
 SheU-7narL — Shell-marl is usually of a bluish colour, soft to 
 the touch, and somewhat resembling potters' earth ; but when 
 exposed to the air, it crumbles and tails into a pow^der, nearly 
 in the same manner as lime does in slaking. 
 
 The nature of this marl is very different from that of earth 
 
 * Argillaceous marl usually contains from 68 to 80 per cent, of clay, and 
 from 32 to 20 per cent, of calcareous matter : but it has been found composed 
 of 70 per cent, of calcareous, and S to 10 of sand, with clear signs of some iron. 
 Siliceous marl very often contains above 75 per cent, of sand, consequently 
 chalk and sand are the predominant ingredients. — Kirwan on Manures, 
 p. 13. 
 
 The analysis made by Von Thaer, of a quantity dug out out of pits at Ol- 
 d^iibur;;, in Germany, showed it to contain in 100 parts — 
 
 Of tine sand 36 
 
 Clay of a soapy kind 44 
 
 Mould • . 5 
 
 Carbonate of lime 14 
 
 Gypsum 1 
 
110 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 or stone ; for it contains both stimulant and fertilizing" proper- 
 ties which do not belong to the former, and from its effects 
 upon the soil it has been classed among animal manures, 
 tiiough it more properly resembles a compost formed of earth 
 and lime, with animal and vegetable substances, for whicii 
 reason it is justly considered preferable to the otJiers. It 
 exists at the bottom of most lakes; and under bogs and morasses, 
 or otlicr pieces of stagnant water which have been drained, 
 and might, no doubt, be found in every place where water has 
 originally rested : though, as it is usually under other layers 
 of earth or peat, its depth below the surface is often too great 
 to admit of its being searched for with advantage. Every 
 farmer should, therefore, carefully examine the sides and bot- 
 toms of his ditches and ponds, for, by doing so, he may often 
 find appearances of marl in places where it was not suspected, 
 and large beds of the most valuable sort have been in that 
 manner discovered, which might have remained unnoticed for 
 years. 
 
 It is chiefly composed of those myriads of small shell-fish 
 which, with other fry and insects, usually procreate wherever 
 there are pools of water, and the remains of which have, in tlie 
 course of past ages, been deposited along with sand and decayed 
 vegetables, or other matter swept from eminences, or by the 
 decomposition of aquatic plants. This process of alluvion has, 
 in the lapse of time, produced those masses of shell-marl w hich 
 display the most striking effects when employed as manure ; 
 for the shells, when decomposed, are converted into lime of 
 such purity, that some moss-marl, examined by Dr. Coventry, 
 was found to contain 84 per cent, of pure chalk — which is 
 more than is generally possessed by the purest lime — and the 
 mould formed of the other substances must be very rich.* It 
 
 * By other experiments made by Sir G. Mackenzie, it appeared that some 
 shell-marl was composed of 
 
 Lime 41 25 
 
 Carbonic acid 32 
 
 Silex 14 
 
 Aritil 4 y in 100 parts, (a) 
 
 Oxide of iron .... 2 5 i 
 
 Inflammable matter ... 2 
 
 Loss 4 70 J 
 
 (a) [The green sand of New Jersey is remarkable for its fertilizinsr pro- 
 perties. It goes under the name of marl; but it is differently constituted 
 from the marl spoken of in this work. Its power depends upon its plms- 
 phates. Its etTects in reclaimin-!; worn-out sandj- lands arc well known in 
 New Jersey, where its value is appreciated. In fact, it is sometimes too 
 much, appreciated; beuic relied upon to the exi hision of other manures, and 
 applied to all sorts of land, and for all kinds of crops.] 
 
ON MANURES. HI 
 
 may, therefore, be converted into quicklime, by burning-, or it 
 may be used in its natural state, but then it is not so minutely 
 divisible, nor so soluble in water, and is, of course, more tardy 
 in its operation ; its effects, however, continue longer, and it is 
 apparent that, as it contains more calcareous matter than the 
 common qualities of lime, it may be used in smaller quantities. 
 When spread upon grass, or clover, it is found to promote the 
 growth of tbe herbage, for it partakes of the nature of pounded 
 limestone, and possessing none of the caustic properties of 
 quicklime, it may be used without hazard as a top-dressing. 
 It also occasions heavy tillage crops; and if the land be not 
 over-cropped before it is returned to pasture, the turf is found 
 to be closer, more plentiful, and sweeter than before ; but on 
 cold damp soils, which have been heavily worked, the crops 
 of grain have proved later, and the corn lighter, than on land 
 which has been limed. 
 
 Application of marl. — Many farmers either lay marl upon 
 land sown with tares, thus making a bastard fallow ; or they 
 apply it to grass land, or to a clover ley, to be broken up in 
 the following year. The latter is certainly the preferable, as 
 well as the most general practice, for it not alone produces an 
 abundance of good pasture, but it affords time for the season to 
 operate in bringing the marl into a fit state for future tillage 
 crops, which cannot be done in the common course of cropping, 
 because it becomes buried by the plough before it is properly 
 mixed with the soil, especially if turned in deep the first earth. 
 It should, therefore, be allowed sufficient time to sink and eat 
 itself into the surface before it is ploughed up. This, how- 
 ever, is by some persons carried to an absurd length, as they 
 occasionally spread a coat of marl upon the green sward, and 
 leave it there unploughed for many years, in which case the 
 grass receives considerable detriment, for the marl then sinks 
 downwards in a body, without incorporating with the soil ; 
 though, when it has lain a long time in this state, the subse- 
 quent crops of corn have been found to be enormous. If laid 
 upon grass, it may be carried out during all periods of the 
 year in which the crop is not in a forward state of growth ; but 
 if applied to arable land intended for immediate cultivation, 
 the months of June and July, or soon afler the autumn seed- 
 time, are considered the best for its application. If laid on 
 a short tim.e previous to winter, its eftect is also generally 
 prompt, because, except it be of a very tenacious kind, the 
 action of the cold and rain commonly divide it in time to be 
 
112 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 thoroiif^hly amalgfamated with the soil by the tillage of a sum- 
 mer tallow. If, however, it be only applied during the spring- 
 months, this cannot be so properly carried into execution, for 
 it requires the winter's rain and frost to crumble it, and it con- 
 sequently has but little power upon the year's crop. A com- 
 plete summer fallow is, undoubtedly, the best mode of bringing 
 it into perfect operation : but not only is the expense often 
 objected to, but there is also a strong prejudice entertained by 
 many persons against fallowing — into which it is not our pre- 
 sent object to inquire, although we necessarily shall have occa- 
 sion to notice it hereafter. 
 
 It is almost superfluous to add, that, in whatever manner it 
 be applied, it must be equally spread over the land ; and if 
 there should be any large lumps remaining, these should be 
 broken with mallets, or clotting-beetles, in the same manner 
 as chalk, before it is ploughed in. This, however, is not usually 
 done until the marl has partaken of both one summer's sun and 
 one winter's frost ; and should the previous season have proved 
 unfavourable to the reduction of the marl to small particles, the 
 process, in some cases, costs so much, that, when laid upon grass 
 or clover, it is often found more advisable to leave the ground 
 unbroken during another year. Then, when well crumbled, 
 dry weather should be chosen for rolling and harrowing it — a 
 first time with heavy rollers and drags, and a second after it 
 has been exposed to rain, and has been again dried : in short, 
 until it has been rendered as small as possible; after which it 
 should be lightly ploughed in, again harrowed, and receive 
 from two to four ploughings, according to the condition of the 
 soil. The intermixture of the marl with the earth cannot, in 
 fact, be too complete ; for whatever proportion remains uncom- 
 bined with the soil, will not alone fail of producing tiie intended 
 etlect, but will have one of an opposite and prejudicial tendency. 
 
 The quantity of marl wiiich it may be prudent to apply to 
 the land depends entirely on the nature of the soil, and the 
 properties of the marl : the more calcareous is the latter, the 
 greater is the effect which it will produce, as a stimulant; and 
 shell-marl possesses, besides, the additional power of nourish- 
 ing tiie soil by the vegetable and animal mould with which it 
 is combined. This species was formerly profusely used on 
 every sort of ground, but at present the average amount 
 applied to land of the medium kind is from 30 to 40, or, if it 
 be very light, only 25 cart-loads, of 16 cubic feet per acre. 
 Land ol"the latter quality may, indeed, be readily over-marled; 
 
ON MANURES. H3 
 
 as by repeated marlings, in large quantities, the surface nf 
 poor ground may be rendered so loose that, in some cases, it 
 has not aflbrded a sufficient hold to the roots of corn and grass. 
 Double the quantity may, however, be laid upon strong cohe- 
 sive soils, for it is not so easy to give them too large a dose; 
 but if cold, wet, or moorish, great circumspection is requisite 
 in the application of this marl, for if the land be not previously 
 well drained, it will only increase its tenacity. 
 
 The earthy marls, if much mixed with clay, are only fit for 
 light soils; and, if applied to them, the quantity must be in- 
 creased in proportion to the deficiency of calcareous matter. 
 When of good quality, containing about 20 to 25 per cent, of 
 calcareous or chalky substance, they are commonly laid upon 
 such land to the thickness of an inch; which will require 135 
 cubic yards, or about 200 single horse cart-loads per acre.* 
 Sandy marl, though generally more calcareous, yet being dug 
 up with less labour, is often used upon clays with greater 
 freedom ; and we have already seen the great extent to which 
 stony marl is sometimes applied.f In many parts, however, 
 where the effects of marl have been extensively experienced, 
 these quantities have been diminished one-half, with nearly, if not 
 entirely, the same immediate effect upon the crops, though its 
 power has been less durable, and has in most cases altogether 
 ceased at the end of at most a dozen years; but then, it admits 
 of the following advantages — a farmer may be able to afford 
 half the expense, when the whole amount may be beyond his 
 means; or, at the same time, he can marl double the extent 
 of land, and he can reap all the probable benefit within the 
 term of a moderate lease. Nor is this all ; for, supposing him 
 to have the freehold — it has been found, that when large 
 quantities of marl have been laid upon the land, though its 
 effects last longer, yet, unless cultivation be carried on with 
 great intelligence and care, these are at length worn out, 
 and by severe cropping to repay tlie expense, large tracts of 
 marled land have been much exhausted. In such cases, too, a 
 second application has been attended with very little benefit; 
 whereas, when it has been laid on in moderate quantites, a 
 
 *Clay marl is not uncommonly laid upon light soils to the extent of two 
 roods, each containing 64 cubic yards ; but on heavy land, half that quantity 
 per acre is considered a good covering. 
 
 1 Throughout many parts of Scotland it is applied at the rate of 200 to 300 
 small cart-loads per Scotch acre, — equal to 160 to 240 per imperial acre. It 
 it is there commonly applied to grass land, and allowed to remain one or 
 more winters on the surface, until completely reduced by the frost. 
 
114 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 second and further applications have been successful; the 
 reason of which evidently is, that, in the first instance, the 
 fertility of the mould was either exhausted by the chemical 
 effect of the marl, or, that, the soil being- of a heavy kind, and 
 the marl containing- too great a proportion of clay, tiiis addition 
 became injurious; while, in the second, dung had been applied 
 in aid of the marl, or, its earthy properties being- of a nature 
 opposed to those of the soil, assisted in its amelioration. The 
 latter of which suppositions is, indeed, supported by the fact, 
 that wlien a second application of clay-marl has failed, lime 
 has been laid upon the same land with sensibly good efl'ects. 
 
 It has also been observed, in those places where marl is 
 applied to the land in small quantities at stated distances of 
 time, and where a sufficiency of dung is likewise used, that 
 when weeds of any peculiar species push forward with extra- 
 ordinary vigour, marl, if accompanied by a clean fallow, not 
 only de'stroys them, but produces better corn than when dung 
 has been laid on alone, though also upon a fallow, and instead 
 of marl ; which has been thought to be accounted for by the 
 exuberance of the weeds proving that the soil is already abun- 
 dantly furnished with nutritive matter for the promotion of 
 vegetation, but that it is more appropriate to the production 
 of the weed with which the ground is covered, than to cereal 
 crops: whence it has been inferred, that the chemical action 
 of the marl probably changes the nature of the mould. 
 
 The durability of the effects of marl necessarily depends 
 upon its power over the soil. A very large dose of argilla- 
 ceous, or clayey marl, ameliorates sandy soils to such a sensi- 
 ble degree by the consistence which it affords to the land, 
 that, if proper attention be paid to its complete combination 
 with the surface, and to the prevention by careful culture of 
 its sinking to the subsoil, as well as to the employment of pu- 
 trescent manure, the improvement thus effected will be found 
 permanent. When laid on in smaller quantities, its effect 
 and duration will, on those light soils, of course, be proportion- 
 ate; but on clays, as its chief power consists in the calcareous 
 matter which it contains, its greatest effect is apparent when 
 the land is brought into the second course of tillage, after 
 which it gradually begins to decline, and afler six or eight 
 crops have been grown, it usually ceases to operate. 
 
ON MANURES. 115 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. GYPSUM. 
 
 Gypsum, otherwise sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris, 
 as it is commonly termed, consists of pure calcareous earth, or 
 lime, 30 parts or 33; sulphuric acid, 32 parts or 43; crystal- 
 lized water, 38 parts or 24. It requires from 450 to 500 
 times its own weight of \vater to dissolve it; though reducible 
 to powder in the tire, it is almost as difficult of fusion as lime- 
 stone, and it loses about 20 per cent, by calcination. When 
 pure, it does not efiervesce with acids; it is insipid in taste, 
 and free from smell; but there are other sorts which vary in 
 purity, and hence the analyses of many chemists differ in their 
 accounts of its properties. There is, however, a simple mode 
 of trying its quality, which is common in America, and con- 
 sists in putting a quantity of it pulverized into a dry pot over 
 the fire ; and when heated, it gives out a sulphurous smell. If 
 the ebullition, or bubbling, which then takes place, is con- 
 siderable, the plaster is good ; but if not, it is considered indif- 
 ferent ; and if it remains motionless, like sand, it is thought to 
 be hardly worth any thing. Another test of its goodness is 
 obtained by putting the powder alone into an iron pot over the 
 fire, and when it bubbles, like boiling water, it will admit of a 
 straw being thrust to the bottom without resistance. 
 
 Application, (a) — When applied in its raw state, gypsum 
 is prepared for use hj first pounding it with sledge-hammers 
 into very small pieces, and then either grinding it in a mill, 
 or passing it under the crushers of oil-cake, by which about 20 
 to 25 bushels per ton are produced, according to its state of 
 purity. By the latter process, however, it is not sufficiently 
 pulverized, which is essential to its utility ; for if this be not 
 completely effected, not only will a larger quantity be required, 
 but even that will not, in some cases, be found so effectual as 
 the powder. When employed as manure, it is seldom burned, 
 and if used either in its natural state, or in proportionate 
 quantity if calcined, no perceptible difference can be disco- 
 vered, unless heavy rain should fall soon after it has been 
 spread, which gathers it into lumps, like paste, and hardens it ; 
 
 (a) [It is now generally considered that it is best to apply gypaum in con- 
 nection with animal or organic manures.] 
 K 
 
116 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 but, if this be g-uarded against, the only sensible effect of cal- 
 cination is to deprive it of its aqueous particles, and thus to 
 reduce its weight ; for the sulphuric acid which it contains 
 cannot be expelled by the most violent heat of the furnace. 
 The only object to be gained by burning it is, therefore, to 
 bring it into as fine a powder as possible, w^hich, when it has 
 been submitted to the fire, is comparatively easy : lying also 
 in a less compass, the carriage is besides cheaper. When 
 sold in that state by the London dealers, it however costs about 
 45, 6^. per bushel ; though, when merely ground, without 
 having" been burned, but brought to the condition of coarse 
 meal, which answers all its purpose as manure, it may be pro- 
 cured at 25. : we shall therefore confine our observations to its 
 application when raw. 
 
 The soils to which it is the most congenial are the light, 
 dry, sandy, gravelly, and chalky : to heavy loams, strong clays, 
 and to wet land, it seems to yield no benefit, unless the former 
 happens to have been well limed. It was long thought that 
 g"ypsum, being itself calcareous, could not be applied with any 
 advantage to soils which were impregnated with similar mat- 
 ter ; and as the analysis of its properties shovv^s that it contains 
 both alkali and sulphuric acid, which are known to become 
 neutralized when combined in just proportions, it was also, 
 therefore, generally imagined that its eflects upon vegetation 
 would, in certain cases, be scarcely perceptible. These con- 
 clusions have, however, led to much misapprehension in its 
 use as a manure ; for, in the first case, experience has proved 
 it to be beneficial when laid upon limestone soils, or upon land 
 which has been saturated wnth chalk or lime ; and, in the 
 second, although alkalies and acids, when acting solely upon 
 each other, are rendered neutral, yet, when the resulting com- 
 pound is applied as a dressing to land, its effect has in many 
 instances been found eminently useful. The causes which 
 have produced these effects are, however, far too obscure, in 
 the present state of chemical knowledge as applied to the 
 nature of soils, to allow of more than mere conjecture ; and 
 would lead to a discussion which could prove interesting to 
 only a very limited number of our readers. 
 
 Upon exhausted land, or upon soils containing little vegeta- 
 tive mould, or deprived of putrescent manure, it will prove 
 powerless ; but it succeeds well after an application of dung, 
 or of green crops ploughed down. It produces, also, more 
 effect in dry, th^n when laid on in wet weather. A watery 
 
ON MANURES. 117 
 
 temperature, at least, arrests its effects, and seems even to 
 suppress them altog-ether if the gypsum has been calcined : 
 but it should be observed, that this only occurs if rain falls 
 soon after its application ; for if it happens previously, its mois- 
 ture upon the plants will be found useful. This employment 
 of the gypsum, either during the prevalence of rain, or imme- 
 diately before it has fallen, has given rise to many mistakes, 
 which have occasioned much of the prejudice which is enter- 
 tained against its use. Tims, in the Sussex Report it has 
 been stated that equal quantities of French and English gyp- 
 sum were laid, on the 14th of June, on six different fields of a 
 sandy loam, sown with beans, peas, potatoes, and barley, besides 
 natural grass, at the rate of 8 bushels to the acre. On the day 
 it was strew^ed it was showery, and on the 15th it rained from 
 10 in the morning till the evening ; yet neither in that, nor in 
 the following year, could any greater appearance of luxuriance 
 be perceived than on the surrounding ground. The experi- 
 ment was also repeated in March and the middle of April upon 
 some patches of red clover, wheat, and spring tares, with simi- 
 lar effect : on both occasions it rained heavily. Thus, not only, 
 as we- shall perceive, has it been applied to some crops to 
 which it is useless, but in seasons which were inappropriate, 
 and it has been washed off those plants, on the stems of which 
 had it been allowed to remain, it no doubt w^ould have been 
 attended with good effect. 
 
 The crops to which it is the most appropriate are the arti- 
 ficial grasses and leguminous plants, though it has been also 
 known to materially improve the sward of moss-bound pasture. 
 It never appears to produce better effects than when it has 
 been laid on red clover, already so far grown as that the leaves 
 nearly cover the soil ; for there seems no doubt that it acts 
 with the greatest force when it adheres to them, and that the 
 longer it remains upon them the better. It should, therefore, 
 be used as a top-dressing, and applied in the latter end of April, 
 or the beginning of May. Besides the effect attributed to its 
 application to the leaves, it has not been found so advantageous 
 wdien laid on during the cold months of winter, while plants 
 are in a torpid state; though many people spread it in autumn 
 upon the young clover of the first year, and others, after the 
 first cut, which has thus been often known to produce a larger 
 crop than the former. Perhaps, however, these plans might 
 be beneficially combined were the quantity of gypsum divided; 
 one portion to be used as an early sprinkling when the first 
 
118 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 crop begins to appear, and the second as soon after it has been 
 mown as the new leaves spring up. If, however, the plants 
 of either clover, sainfoin, or lucerne, should stand very thick 
 upon the land, and if the soil be sufficiently fertile to push 
 those first crops vigorously forward, in that case the gypsum 
 would probably be productive of such an excess of vegetation, 
 as might occasion them to become so rank as to rot upon tlie 
 lower parts of the stem, and its application should be deferred 
 until after the second cutting. 
 
 In order to spread it, with the intention of covering the 
 leaves, a calm day should be chosen; and it should be spread 
 by hand, or rather through a sieve, either early in a morning 
 in which the dew has fallen heavily, or late at night, or after 
 a gentle shower, that thus the moisture may occasion it to 
 stick to them. It should be avoided either on a w'indy day, or 
 when the weather threatens rain ; and the powder should be 
 ground fine. The usual quantity varies from four to six 
 bushels; if completely reduced, and of strong quality, per- 
 haps the former will, on good soils, bo found sufficient if laid 
 on at once ; or, if at two periods of the year, with a small 
 increase each time upon half that amount. If coarsely ground, 
 it will not be found effectual in lis application to the leaves ; 
 and if used either in drills, or as a common top-dressing, at 
 least the full quantity just mentioned must then be applied. 
 
 As lucerne and sainfoin are the only artificial grasses gene- 
 rally cultivated, wiiich remain for a number of years upon 
 soils adapted to their growth, it has, however, been found, in 
 many instances, that by forcing a heavy crop in the first year, 
 by the use of six bushels per acre, and repeating that quantity 
 in the third or fourth, the plants have shortly afterwards be- 
 come so exhausted as to admit of no alternative but the plough. 
 It, therefore, merits consideration, how far the obtaining an 
 increase of those crops, by such means, within a short period, 
 is more advantageous, than by the application of only two or 
 three bushels per acre, and at\erwards repeating the same 
 quantity at a future stage, to leave them longer in the ground; 
 but it is a point which depends in a great measure upon the 
 local circumstances of the land, or the particular resources of 
 the farmer, and must be left entirely to his own judgment. 
 
 With respect to the permanency of gypsum as a manure 
 for artificial grasses, it has been stated, in those cases in which 
 its beneficial effects have been proved, that sainfoin dressed 
 with it did not materially decline until the fourth crop, and 
 
ON MANURES. 119 
 
 on sowing- five bushels more per acre, it recovered, and became 
 as productive as before, yielding-, on a thin soil, about a load 
 and a half; whilst another patch, dressed partly with soot, 
 became so weak as to be scarcely worth mowing. Its dura- 
 bility, when applied to lucerne, has been found to produce 
 very fine crops during five years ; when the natural grasses 
 appearing to gain ground, five bushels more per acre were 
 again laid on, which forced such a smothering crop, that the 
 grass could no longer make head until after the third cutting, 
 when it afforded, with the last shoot of the lucerne, a very fine 
 crop of rowen. Although much difference is observable in the 
 results of the various experiments which have been recorded 
 respecting the effects of gypsum on artificial grasses, yet there 
 are none with which we are acquainted, in which its application 
 has not been successful when applied as a top-dressing to the 
 plants, conducted with due precaution, and not deranged by 
 violent rain, or other accidents arising from the weather. In 
 this we are borne out by the testimony of Dr. Fothergill, of 
 Philadelphia, as well as by that of several eminent American 
 farmers, mentioned by Mr. Parkinson, and supported by the 
 more recent treatises on the subject, written by Mr. Russell, 
 and Professor V. Thaer. We, therefore, do not hesitate to re- 
 commend it as an effectual means of promoting their growth, 
 and more especially that of red clover, provided the soil 
 be at the same time tolerably covered with plants ; though, in 
 confining that opinion to top-dressings applied to the leaves, 
 as being the most decidedly effectual mode, yet, as there are 
 numberless instances of its success when drilled along with 
 the seed, we do not mean to preclude its being laid upon the 
 land at the time of sowing. 
 
 The trials which have been hitherto made of its application 
 to corn crops seem to prove that it does not operate directly 
 on grain ; but they are unanimous in showing that the stub- 
 ble of a clover-ley which has been manured with gypsum, 
 when afterwards ploughed up, produces a far better crop — 
 especially of wheat — than when it had been omitted. There 
 is, however, strong reason to suppose that this should be rather % 
 ascribed to the luxuriance of the clover — no matter in what 
 way that may have been occasioned — than to the direct appli- 
 cation of the gypsum; for it is well known that crops of wheat, 
 and indeed of most grain, always succeed in proportion to the 
 growth of the previous clover, which is not improl)a.bly occa- 
 sioned by its keeping the ground moist, and preventing- its 
 bl2 
 
120 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 exhalation by the sun. We have, indeed, heard some recent 
 instances of its having been used as a top-dressing to wheat in 
 the spring — in some cases with great success, and in others 
 without any apparent effect; but this may perhaps be not un- 
 justly attributed to its having fallen, in the former case, upon 
 the shoots when they had been moistened by the dew, which 
 thus enabled them to retain the powder, and in the latter, by 
 its having been either washed off by rain, or dispelled by the 
 winds. 
 
 Its direct effect upon crops of pulse has not been sufficiently 
 ascertained to enable us to speak of it with precision. Peas, 
 indeed, have been known to succeed wonderfully after sainfoin 
 which had been previously manured with gypsum, but they 
 generally flourish in chalky soil, in which sainfoin is also com- 
 monly sown. It has, however, been remarked that both peas 
 and beans frequently become hard in boiling, which has been 
 attributed to the temperature of peculiar seasons, and, above 
 all, to rain, which has impeded the usual course of harvest; 
 this, however, has been found to be a mistake, for it has been 
 shown that this defect is due either to the soil being naturally 
 impregnated with gypsum, or to its having been laid upon the 
 land as manure. As an instance both of its effect and of the 
 prejudice which many people entertain against it as a manure, 
 an anecdote has been related of a gentleman who, having re- 
 commended its use, ordered his servant to spread a small quan- 
 tity of it secretly upon an adjoining piece of sainfoin, belonging 
 to an old farmer who vehemently decried it. The crop proved 
 surprisingly abundant on that spot to which the gypsum had 
 been applied; but upon discovering its occasion, the old man, 
 instead of profiting by the circumstance, grew peevish, and 
 wondered why his neighbour should have taken the liberty of 
 spreading tiiis new-fangled manure over his sainfoin, which, 
 for aught he knew, might do more harm than good. The 
 laugh, however, going against him, he determined to get rid 
 of it by breaking up the sainfoin and sowing peas; wlion, 
 beliold ! they also rose in judgment against him so evidently 
 on the gypsumed part, that he was constrained, though re- 
 luctantly, to acknowledge that ' it seemed good stuff:' yet he 
 was never afterwards known to lay a bushel of it upon his 
 farm. 
 
 Of its power, when applied to bulbous roots, the accounts 
 are equally deficient; except, indeed, that Mr. Parkinson has 
 furnished different statements of its application, on his own 
 
ON MANURES. 121 
 
 farm in America, to turnips both sown along with them in the 
 drills, and spread over the plants when they got into rough 
 leaf; in each of which the superiority of the crops on those 
 portions of the land on which the gypsum had been laid, was 
 so evident in quantity, that in some patches spread with it in 
 squares, in order to mark any difference that might arise, 'the 
 ground was checkered like a floor of black and white marble, 
 and the quality was so much more sweet and juicy, that none 
 in Baltimore market sold for so much or so readily.' He 
 however admits, in another of his works, that a small quantity 
 of compost dung was laid on along with the gypsum, but 
 ' where no compost was applied, the gypsum by itself was of 
 no avail;' and in some other trials made in this country, when 
 laid upon alternate lands of oats and turnips, it has produced 
 no visible effect. In his other experiments on potatoes and 
 onions, as also on carrots and cabbages, and on various crops 
 of white corn, no perceptible difference could be observed in 
 the application of gypsum; except that, in one instance, 'the 
 plastered rows of potatoes were rather worse than the others ;' 
 and that 'on old land newly ploughed up, but not pared and 
 burnt, the gypsum was found to act as a corrector of the soil, 
 and thus to give more grain and less straw.' Mr. Parkinson, 
 indeed, attributes its chief powers to consist in its quickly 
 cementing, and thus preventing the heat of the sun from 
 exhaling the moisture or nutritious quality of the manure ; by 
 which means the plant, being kept moist at the root, conse- 
 quently grows well, and quickly gets a shade from its own 
 sprouts. This would, however, tend to prove that its applica- 
 tion would be serviceable to all crops in dry weather: an 
 opinion which is not borne out by what has been already stated 
 of its effects. 
 
 Such are the chief p>oints regarding its practical application 
 to which some objections have been made. 1st. As tending 
 to render the land stiff" under the plough. 2d. As exhausting 
 the soil by forcing vegetation. 3d. As being confined in its 
 effects to particular crops, and becoming, perhaps, prejudicial 
 when those are followed by others of a different nature. To 
 which it may be answered : — 
 
 1. That the increased tenacity of the soil can only be occa- 
 sioned either by some extraordinary excess in the application 
 of the gypsum, or by its being laid upon heavy clay, to which 
 it is unsuitable ; but, if applied to light porous land, unreten- 
 tive of moisture, the firmness of the texture tlius imparted 
 
122 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 « 
 
 would become a real advantage. 2. That this stimulative 
 property is common to every substance that merits the name 
 of manure. That, although gypsum may not be possessed of 
 any nutritive quality in itselti yet, if the land be properly 
 dunged, or otherwise supplied with a sufficiency of other pu- 
 trescent manure, or of nutritive compost, to support the 
 increased powers of vegetation, — and which, in common pru- 
 dence, should never be neglected, — the soil will not, if dis- 
 creetly managed, suffer any diminution of its accustomed fer- 
 tility, but will be improved by the large addition made, 
 through the greater luxuriance of the green crops, to the size 
 of the dunghill. 3. That its beneficial effects being confined 
 to some peculiar species of crops, is no real disadvantage; for, 
 when applied to those of a different kind, it has not, in any 
 known instance, been found prejudicial. Its powers appear, 
 indeed, to apply more to tiie specific crop on which it is spread, 
 than to the state of the soil ; and when it has been laid in vari- 
 ous quantities — from two bushels to two-and-thirty^on crops 
 to which it is inappropriate, it has been found in all cases 
 wholly ineftectual. 
 
 It has been assigned by Sir Humphry Davy, in the theory 
 by which the operation of gypsum is governed, as a general 
 standard for its application, that it is the most beneficial to 
 those plants which always aftbrd it on analysis : thus, the ashes 
 of lucerne, sainfoin, rye-grass, and clover, contain considera- 
 ble proportions of gypsum ; but only a very minute quantity is 
 to be found in crops of corn, pulse, or turnips. It is, therefore, 
 essential to the vegetation of the former ; and land which has. 
 grown tired of clover, may be restored by being dressed with 
 it, or with peat ashes, some species of which hold a large por- 
 tion of gypsum. But when the soil already contains a suffi- 
 cient quantity of this substance for the support of the cultiva- 
 ted grasses, he considers that its application to tliem, or even 
 to the natural pasture, cannot be advantageous; for plants only 
 require a certain portion of manure, and an excess may be 
 detrimental. The reason why its application to soils is not 
 always efficacious is, probably because it is furnished by the com- 
 mon course of culture to most well-cultivated land in sufficient 
 quantities for the use of the grasses, and perhaps to an excess 
 beyond what other crops require for their growth ; for although 
 this may not be apparent to the farmer, it is contained in sta- 
 ble dung, and in the dung of all cattle fed on pasture. A 
 
ON MANURES. 123 
 
 certain portion of it may also be discovered, upon analysis, in 
 the natural composition of most soils. 
 
 It has been said, by Kirwan, to accelerate putrefaction in a 
 higher degree than any other known substance; but this has 
 been shown by some experiments of Sir Humphry Davy to 
 be incorrect, and it, therefore, cannot be supposed to afford 
 any direct nourishment to plants, either by the corruption of 
 animal remains, or the decomposition of manure. It has been 
 very generally supposed that, as sulphuric acid has a great 
 attraction for water, gypsum acts by its power of attracting 
 moisture from the atmosphere ; thus cooling the air in sum- 
 mer, and being more efficacious to dry, sandy soils, than wet 
 clays. It has even been confidently stated, that the dew has 
 been known to stand two hours later in the morning upon 
 plants which had gypsum spread upon them than upon others 
 on which there was none. This, however, has been also con- 
 tradicted by Sir Humphry Davy, who considers the argument 
 in its favour to be comparatively insignificant; far, when 
 combined with water, it retains that fluid too powerfully to 
 yield it to the roots of plants, and its adhesive attraction for 
 moisture is inconsiderable : yet, though thus opposed by sci- 
 entific reasoning, the experience of farmers inclines to the 
 support of the opinion already stated. It is even thought by 
 many people that, when sprinkled over the leaves of plants in 
 a damp state, the paste which it thus forms upon them must 
 prove destructive to the propagation of many insects, and 
 would probably prevent the fly in turnips ; but that supposition 
 has not been confirmed by experience. It has been likewise 
 asserted, that its fertilizing powers are destroyed by the 
 effects of sea air, and much of its failure in many parts of - 
 England has been attempted to be accounted for upon that 
 principle ; but this is in direct opposition to the trials already 
 mentioned to have been made in Kent, and it has been found 
 to answer in Norfolk when applied to land within two miles 
 of the Northern Ocean. 
 
 The American farmers lay it upon land newly reclaimed 
 from the forest : it may, however, be doubted whether gypsum 
 contains any inherent property by which it can improve the 
 soil, unless through the means of its fertilizing powers upon 
 the peculiar crops to which it is appropriate, and there is 
 reason to believe that, even upon these, its effects will be com- 
 paratively trifling if ploughed in. There cannot, however, be 
 any question respecting its expediency when applied as a top- 
 
124 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 dressing to artificial grasses at that period of the spring when 
 the plants throw out their first leaves, if spread in portions of 
 not less tlian four hushels of the finest powder, so equally 
 sprinkled that every leaf should get some, and in weather that 
 is perfectly serene and close. We have aflbrded the suhject 
 more attentive consideration than some persons may suppose 
 it to merit, for it cannot be denied that, in consequence of the 
 disappointment which it has occasioned to many who have 
 tried it without l)eing aware of its peculiar nature, the use of 
 jwypsum throughout England has been very generally discon- 
 tinued; but on a careful review of the very contradictory 
 opinions entertained regarding its effects, we are persuaded 
 tiiat no dispassionate and intelligent farmer can entertain any 
 doubt of its being rendered a source of very important benefit, 
 when used with due discrimination of its powers, and judg- 
 ment in the mode of its application. We therefore strenu- 
 ously recommend it to experiments upon a modoj-ate scale ; for 
 even should it not be found in the immediate neighbourhood, 
 the cost and carriage are so trifling that a sufficient trial can 
 be made for a few shillings ; and we should say that no man 
 who grows a single acre of clover should fail to satisfy him- 
 self regarding its real properties. If successful, it may become 
 the means of material improvement upon light loams, and poor 
 chalky soils, which require amelioration through the manure 
 afforded by green crops, as well as to land which, though in 
 better heart, may have lost the power of repeating the pro- 
 duction of clover so often as it might be found profitable. No 
 one can justly assert that it is not worth the trial ; and, even 
 if unattended with good effect, it can do no harm. ' 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. ASHES — SOOT — SOAPERs' 
 
 WASTE. 
 
 Ashes of every description, including leached ashes, though 
 not all falling strictly under the character of fossil substances, 
 and, indeed, being partly derived from the vegetable kingdom, 
 yet, partaking in a great degree of the same calcareous nature as 
 
ON MANURBe. 125 
 
 those of which we have already treated, may also be allowed 
 to rank tog-ether under the general denomination of mineral 
 manures. Those of coal, wood, and turf, when used for do- 
 mestic purposes, are, in almost all country places, mixed up 
 by the consumers with the dung-hill, and, unless they form an 
 unusual proportion of the heap, occasion but little sensible dif- 
 ference in the properties of the manure; but, when applied 
 alone, as top-dresshigs upon grass, they both strengthen the 
 herbage, improve its quality, and encourage the growth of 
 white clover; they are also generally used for many other 
 crops, both of corn and artificial grasses, but chiefly upon 
 clays and heavy tenacious loams. 
 
 The ashes of coals, and cinders, have, indeed, the very 
 perceptible effect of loosening as well as stimulating those 
 soils, and when they can be procured in sufficiently large 
 quantities, in the neighbourhood of great towns and manufac- 
 tories, they are also ploughed in with great advantage, to the 
 extent of 50 or 60 bushels, or even more of the latter, per acre. 
 
 Those of wood, which forms the chief firing in the interior 
 of this country, are also largely employed by many farmers, 
 who contract with the cottagers for all the ashes they make; 
 drawing home for them in return their faggots. The manure 
 thus procured, being a powerful alkali, has a very considerable 
 effect in correcting any acidity that may exist in the soil, but 
 is, in almost every instance, employed without any distinction 
 respecting the sort of timber from which it is obtained, though, 
 as the trees contain very different qualities, they necessarily 
 yield ashes corresponding, to a certain extent at least, with 
 their original character ; and were they classed, and farmers 
 made acquainted with their relative properties, they vvould be 
 much better able to judge of the due proportion of ashes which 
 it might be expedient to apply to the ground.* 
 
 The ashes of burnt straw have also been found beneficial 
 
 * It is a well-ascertained fact, that the closer the texture of the wood, and 
 the harder and heavier it is, the greater portion of vegetable alkali it will be 
 found to contain. Thus, trees maybe ranged, according to the value of their 
 ashes, as follows :— Oak, ash, sweet chestnut, beech, pear, crab, broom, elm, 
 maple, the pine and fir tribes, birch, alder, sycamore, poplar, hazel, elder, 
 and willow. It therefore necessarily follows, that where the kind of timber 
 which has been consumed can be ascertained, the proportion of ashes to be 
 applied per acre ought to vary accordingly; for if six loads of the best and 
 purest ashes from oak be sufficient, ten or twelve may not be more than 
 equivalent to them when produced from hazel, alder, or willow ; and by the 
 same rule, if ten or twelve loads of oak-ashes were to be sown, because it 
 may have been the custom to use that quantity of hazel, &c., the eflect 
 might be found, in a dry season, to burn up the crop 
 
126 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 by many intelligent practical farmers, from some of who^e 
 experiments we select the following instances. Advantage 
 was taken of a fine day to fire the stubble of an out-field soon 
 after harvest, the precaution having been previously taken of 
 sweeping round the boundary to prevent injury to the hedges. 
 Tlie operation was easily performed, by simply applying a 
 lio-ht to windward, and it completely destroyed every weed 
 that grew, leaving the surface completely covered with ashes; 
 and the following crop, which was wheat, produced full five 
 quarters per acre. This excited further experiment, the result 
 of which was that in a following season, the stubble having 
 been partly ploughed in according to the common practice, and 
 partly burned, and the land sown with wheat, the crop produced 
 eight bushels per acre more on that portion which had been 
 burned, than on that which had been ploughed in. The same 
 experiment was repeated, on different occasions, with similar 
 results; and a following crop of oats having been laid down 
 with seeds, the clover was found perfectly healthy, while that 
 portion on which the burning of the stubble had been omitted, 
 was choked with weeds. It must, however, be recollected, 
 that, if intended to have a decided effect, the stubble must be 
 lefl of a considerable length, which will occasion a material 
 deficiency of farm-yard manure; though the advantages will 
 be gained of saving the cost of moving the stubbs, the seeds 
 of weeds and insects will be considerably destroyed, and the 
 land will be left unimpeded for the operation of the plough. 
 
 On the wolds of Lincolnshire, the practice of not only burning 
 the stubble, but even the straw of thrashed grain, has been 
 carried, in many cases, to the extent of four to six loads per 
 acre ; and, as it is described in the Report of the County, has 
 been attended, in all those instances, with very decidedly good 
 effect. It is even said to have been found superior, in some 
 comparative trials, to yard-dung, in the respective rate of five 
 tons of straw to ten of manure! Although placing implicit 
 faith in the results thus stated, we cannot, however, but feel 
 strong doubts of the expediency of the practice ; for we should 
 hesitate to recommend any measure that tended to reduce the 
 quantity of farm-yard manure — the application of which is 
 always certain and always durable, whilst the most decided 
 advocates for the burning of straw are compelled to admit 
 that its effects are but transitory. Some intelligent farmers, 
 indeed, consider the benefit to arise more from the effect of 
 the fire in the destruction of weeds and insects than from the 
 
ON MANURES. 127 
 
 small quantity of ashes that are produced, and its chief value 
 , must be supposed to consist in the superior degree of clean- 
 ness which it imparts to the land. 
 
 Soot. — The soot produced by different species of fuel is 
 subject to the same difference in quality as those substances 
 from which it is derived. The soot accurately collected from 
 fires burnt in the house is generally good, while that com- 
 monly sold by the chimney-sweepers is in general mixed with 
 dust and other trash, which lessens its power. 
 
 Soot is usually sown upon wheat if it be weak, or if the 
 yellow cast which it sometimes assumes in the spring shows 
 it to be sickly; in which cases it will improve the colour and 
 .' trength of the plant, which will then tiller out and cover the 
 ground with a great number of new shoots. Upon barley it is 
 sometimes sown with the crop, and at other times a fortnight 
 after ; but it should never be deferred later, and if possible, 
 should be spread in April. It is also occasionly applied as a 
 top-dressing to clover and other artificial grasses, though it 
 seems better suited to rye-grass than to any other species, for, 
 when both that and clover have been sown together, and that 
 the field has been dressed with soot, the former has become so 
 rank as to completely overtop the latter. One of its most 
 common uses among farmers is, however, for turnips, either 
 sown along with the seed, or more usually, immediately after 
 the plants appear, as it is so acrid and bitter as to become 
 injurious or disgusting to insects, and has therefore been found 
 very etficacious in preventing the ravages of the fly, as well 
 as that of the wire- worm. The best time to sow it is on the 
 evening of a cloudy but calm day, when there is an appearance 
 of rain, for if the weather be hot and dry, its volatile parts are 
 dispelled, and it becomes of no service to the crop. 
 
 Some farmers recommend its being mixed with an equal 
 quantity of quicklime, and double that quantity (of those two 
 combined) of fresh loam ; the soot and loam to be regularly 
 amalgamated by passing the latter through an upright screen, 
 as practised by bricklayers, by which means the lumps will be 
 either kept back, or broken and passed through it; and after 
 remaining in this state during almost a fortnight, the lime 
 should then be added by turning the heap and mixing all 
 together; after which it will, in a few weeks more, become fit 
 for use. The materials thus enumerated are all good, and 
 doubtless will prove serviceable to those soils to which they 
 are adapted ; but we are not sufficiently acquainted with the 
 L 
 
128 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 experiments which have been made upon this species of com- 
 post to speak of its effects with any degree of certainty; and 
 we doubt whether the most beneficial mode of applying the 
 soot will not be still found to consist in spreading it in a dry 
 state, without any preparation as a top-dressing. As an apj)!!- 
 cation in that mode, to such crops as we have mentioned, it 
 will be found useful, when used in moderation, upon soils of 
 every kind; but if intended to be applied as an improvement 
 to the land, it will be of very little benefit after the first year. 
 
 Soapers^ icaste. (a) — The use of the ashes produced by the 
 manufacture of soap — the refuse of which is termed soapers' 
 waste — has been much recommended as manure ; and it has 
 been supposed that its efficacy depends on the proportion of 
 saline matter which ii contains : this, however, is very minute, 
 and depends upon the sort of alkali employed by the soap- 
 boiler, two kinds of which are chiefly used — namely, kelp and 
 barilla — which are much more effective than that which is the 
 refuse of common pot-ash. [In this country, soap-boilers use 
 ordinary wood-ashes to a great extent. Their waste is, in our 
 opinion, of little value — certainly none to our farmers in the 
 interior. Leached ashes do not act so favourably on heavy 
 clay soils as on those of a lighter and more sandy character. 
 We have seen 120 bushels an acre used with better effect 
 than nearly twice the quantity on the same kind of soil] 
 
 If applied in large quantities to the land, there can be no 
 doubt that soapers' waste will be found to be a useful and 
 lasting manure ; it destroys slugs and vermin of every de- 
 scription ; has been found to increase the product of hay by a 
 ton an acre ; and by some farmers the effect of a wagon load 
 of the ashes is considered equal to that of five loads of rotten 
 dung. This we, however, conceive to be exaggerated, if they 
 are applied separately ; but, if laid on together, we have wit- 
 nessed some recent instances which lead us to conclude, that 
 one load of ashes, combined with five of dung, would fully 
 equal ten loads of farm-yard manure in immediate effect, 
 besides producing more permaner^t improvement. 
 
 (a) [Soap, as a manure, is beginning to aUract attention. A series of 
 experiments, not as yet conclusive, are being instituted by one of our best 
 practical farmers. So far, the results are surprising. Soapsuds, soot, and 
 filth in general, are all valuable for manure. Yet about American farms 
 they are generally wasted, instead of being placed in the dung-yard.] 
 
ON MANURES. 129 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. PARING AND BURNING. 
 
 Paring and burning the ground, both for the purpose of get- 
 ting nd of the rank vegetation with which land is sometimes 
 covered, and of procuring the ashes as manure, is a practice 
 of such ancient date, as to have been known to the Romans, 
 and has been immemorially used by our ancestors. It is, 
 indeed, supposed to have been introduced through the inter- 
 course of the Italians with our southern coasts, and to have 
 been first imparted to the inhabitants of the counties of Devon 
 and Cornwall, whence it acquired the name of denshiring. 
 It has since been very extensively practised in various parts 
 of the kingdom, as well as throughout the continent; yet 
 there is, perhaps, no portion of our husbandry, the merits of 
 which have given rise to such wide difference of opinion. It 
 is, however, of the highest importance to farmers that the 
 principles upon which it Tests should be clearly understood; 
 for, on soils to which it is applicable, and on farms on which it 
 can be carried into effect, it has been found, when managed 
 with judgment, to be not alone an effectual, but a cheap mode 
 of bringing land that has either lain waste or overgrown with 
 root-weeds and other rubbish into a good state of cultivation : 
 it is, therefore, deserving of their special attention. It must 
 also be observed, that although this mode of preparing earth 
 as manure is very commonly confounded with that of burning 
 clay, yet they differ in this — that, in reducing the soil to 
 ashes, it is supposed that much of its fertilizing properties 
 must be dissipated, and all kinds of earth are thus burned; but, 
 when burnt by the process of slow combustion, it is presumed 
 that the clay — to which the operation is confined — retains a 
 larger portion of its vegetative power, and also has a greater 
 mechanical effect upon the land. We shall, therefore, con- 
 sider them separately. 
 
 Paring implements. — There are various modes of perform- 
 ing this operation, by which the green-sward or turf, is cut in 
 thin slices from the surface of the land. 
 
 Although performed by manual labour, yet such is the 
 toughness of the sward in marshy ground, that horses are 
 often employed ; and in the fens of Cambridgeshire and the 
 neighbouring counties, there is a plough much in use, that 
 
130 A PRACTICAL. TREATISE 
 
 was formerly brought from Holland. This Dutch paring 
 plough is worked by a pair, and sometimes even by four 
 horses: it was originally constructed with only one handle, 
 from the hinder part of which projects a kind of crutch, hori- 
 zontally disposed, and upon this the holder bears with his left 
 hand, walking upright. From the same handle another crutch 
 projects at right angles with the former, but much lower 
 down ; and this the holder uses occasionally with his right 
 hand, for the purpose either of assisting to keep the plough 
 steady, or to turn it at the land's end: latterly, however, it 
 has been commonly made with stilts, in the common form 
 Instead of a foot, or wheel, to support the beam of the plough, 
 they use what they call 'a scaife,' which is a circular plate ot 
 iron turning constantly round, the edges of which are steeled, 
 and, together with the edge of the share, are kept very sharp 
 by means of a file, which the ploughman carries with him for 
 that purpose, for the share goes so near the surface, that it 
 meets with many strong roots and much -coarse grass, which 
 require keen instruments to cut them. The wheel coulter is 
 found better adapted for ploughing among the rough sedge of 
 those marshes than the sword one, and an appendage, called 
 'a boy,' is likewise sometimes added to lap in the rushes, 
 which it does effectually. 
 
 In some parts of Berkshire they also have a broad share, — 
 though now seldom used, — the frame-work of which rests upon 
 a pair of large wheels, commonly the old fore-wheels of a 
 wagon, one man driving, and lifting the share at the head- 
 lands, while another rides upon the frame, between the stilts. 
 It is drawn by four horses, and being four feet long in the 
 share, though it pares or hoes the ground commonly to the 
 depth of full three inches, it yet goes over a large extent of 
 land. 
 
 The last implement to mention, and, perhaps, in many situa- 
 tions the best for the purpose, is the common plough ; for, 
 by using it, the business proceeds with greater despatch, and 
 is attended with less expense for the cutting part, though 
 more for burning: but then there is the great advantage of 
 having much of the soil, which is not burned, pulverized and 
 prepared for the ensuing crops, which is an advantage not 
 attainable in the other method. 
 
 The operation of paring with the common plough is, how- 
 ever, much facilitated by the addition of a share, of two feet in 
 width, stripped of its mould-board. It is fixed by two st-andard 
 
ON MANURES. 131 
 
 irons to the beam of any plough, before the coulter; in light 
 soils it saves much labour in the cutting of pea, tare, bean, and 
 otlier stubbles, at about two inches below the surface ; and not 
 turning any furrow, it leaves the weeds and roots all cut 
 through, fit for being immediately harrowed out, raked into 
 heaps, and burnt. The shim, or skim, has also been affixed 
 as an additional coulter, in a peculiar form, to a plough much 
 used in Oxfordshire, where it is found to answer the double 
 purpose of both paring and ploughing. The tool is placed as 
 a fore-coulter, and acts upon the sod, which it turns up from 
 either side without effort. 
 
 Operation of Paring. — In ploughing turf, for it can hardly 
 be called paring, when intended for burning, there are various 
 modes adopted. Some plough it one way, and then cross- 
 plough it, endeavouring thereby to cut it up in square cakes, 
 and others, with a broad stripping share, cut the sod thin, and 
 turn the whole over, with the grass downwards ; this is done 
 early in winter, and, after lying some time, the land is either 
 cross-ploughed or worked with the tormentors, then harrowed, 
 and such proportion burnt as the farmer may deem expedient: 
 some burn a large portion of the earth, and others little beside 
 the roots and weeds. A second method is, not to strip the 
 leys clear, but to leave a narrow strip of ground whole, on 
 which the furrow-slice is turned; which is provincially called 
 in different places, either by the names of 'furrow and comb,' 
 'turning to rot,' 'ribbing,' 'raftering,' or 'baulking.' The 
 third, which is common in Cornwall, when there is not time 
 to permit the sod to rot, and is there called ' veiling,' is per- 
 formed nearly in the same manner as the former, excepting 
 that, instead of being turned over, the furrow-slice is cut with 
 its turf upwards: this is drawn out with small crooks by 
 women and boys, or harrowed, then raked together in heaps, 
 and burned. 
 
 Another plan, recommended by Mr. Boys, is, when the 
 weather is set in dry in the spring, to plough the sod as thin 
 as possible (unless it be a very old piece of turf, full of woody 
 roots, which may, in such case, be broken up a tolerable 
 depth) in baulks; that is, to turn the turf the contrary way to 
 the common ploughing, with the turnwrest-plongh, laying the 
 land in narrow ridges, about 18 inches in width: when a piece 
 of land is thus gone over, it should be harrowed slightly down, 
 and immediately ploughed in the same manner crossways, at 
 right angles, finishing the whole by splitting, or clearing with 
 t2 
 
132 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the plough, these last made ridges down the middle. By har- 
 rowing the land thus prepared afterwards with a coarse harrow 
 once over, the turf will he nearly all brought to the surface, 
 and, after a tew dry days, be in a good state for burning, at 
 which time every possible expedition should be used to get it 
 in heaps for firing. 
 
 Whatever may be the implements chosen for performing 
 the operation of paring, it is rarely carried into effect to the 
 depth of more than from one to about two, or, at the most, 
 three mches. The judgment requisite in this stage of the 
 process consists chiefly in determining the proper thickness of 
 the sods. If they be pared too thick, they are difficult to 
 burn ; if too thin, the sward is not effectually destroyed, and 
 the produce of the ashes is too small. A rough spongy surface 
 ought to be pared thicker than one which is firm and bare of 
 grass; and a light, shallow soil should be pared thinner than 
 one which is deeper and more tenacious. Should the soil be 
 clay of any description, the paring should rarely exceed an 
 inch deep, but on peaty and sandy soils it may be carried 
 deeper, especially if the land be rooty and fibrous ; but if the 
 soil be shallow, it cannot be cut too thin. No specific direc- 
 tions can, however, be given regarding the thickness of the 
 sod, for it must be clear that, on the coarse ground to which 
 the process is best suited, the main object to be held in view 
 is to cut so deep as to reach the roots of the weeds ; though 
 some farmers carry it so far as to turn up a large portion of 
 the earth, which plan more properly belongs to that of burning 
 clay, which will be treated of in the following chapter. The 
 best time commences about the opening of spring, the sharp 
 winds of which season materially forward the process of dry- 
 ing; but the exact period must of course depend upon weather, 
 situation, and circumstances which suit the convenience of the 
 farmer, and it may be executed at any period of the year from 
 the course of February until the close of October. 
 
 Operation of Burning. — The inocess of burning is a 
 critical operation; for if the heaps be made too large, or if 
 allowed to remain too long unspread, they get hold of the 
 land, and if not carefully watched and extinguished in time, 
 the fire takes such an effect upon the land that its force is apt 
 to char the ground upon which tliey are made, by which 
 means those spots are converted into brick, and thus great 
 trouble and expense are occasioned, for not only is the action 
 of the plough thereby impeded, but great unsightly holes are 
 
ON MANURES. I33 
 
 formed in the earth, called 'pitting,' which become retentive 
 of wet and injure cultivation; great care should therefore be 
 taken, to guard against such accidents, by which much injury 
 has been in many places done to the soil. 
 
 When the turf is dry enough to burn, it is often placed in 
 large heaps, amounting from four to twenty cart-loads each, or 
 even more, carried up with an opening, like a chimney, in the 
 middle, and fired by means of faggots of furze, or any other 
 fuel that happens to be most convenient. More or less firing 
 is required in proportion to the kindliness of the soil for burn- 
 ing, of which an experienced workman can easily judge: some 
 sorts are easily fired by a few red-hot ashes being thrown upon 
 the heap and instantly covered with a piece of turf; \\hile 
 others require a faggot or two of wood, and no small degree 
 of discretion in disposing it properly. The best method of 
 placing the turf is to lay it as close as possible, in order to 
 keep out any draught of air through the heap, as otherwise 
 the force of the fire is apt to escape outwardly, and a partial 
 burning only effected. The fire should also be applied to the 
 sheltered side of the heaps ; but if the sods lie close, and the 
 fire is kept in by stopping any places where it breaks through, 
 and covering the whole with fine mould and ashes, after the 
 fire is thoroughly alight, it never fails to burn well : even if 
 heavy showers fall, the great mass of burning matter will 
 convert almost any quantity of rain into vapour. 
 
 Such is the Kentish practice; and this smothering process 
 is recommended by most of the'writers on manure, because 
 the vegetable matter of which these ashes are chiefly formed 
 is supposed to be thereby converted into a carbonaceous sub- 
 stance of a more fertilizing nature than when burned by a 
 quick fire. In the East Riding of Yorkshire, where paring 
 and burning has been very extensively and successfully prac- 
 tised, it is usual to pare the sods as thin as possible, and, so 
 soon as they are moderately dry, to collect thern partially into 
 heaps, four or five yards distant from each other, terming them 
 into a half-cone. In this state fire is applied to each heap, but 
 it is prevented from breaking out into a flame by smothering 
 it up with the remainder of the sods. As much burning is 
 considered to be very injurious to the success of the operation, 
 the best cultivators open out these heaps, when half burned, 
 with a shovel, and spread ^\'hat is then converted into ashes 
 equally over the land. The heaps well on fire, fresh sods ar ) 
 'aid from time to time, until the whole are expended ; the 
 
134 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 outsides, which remain unburnt, are then ag-ain heaped tip 
 whilst sufficiently on fire to be consumed. Thus all the soda 
 are burned equally, but as lig'htly as they can be to be reduced 
 to ashes. 
 
 In some instances circular heaps have been formed over 
 laro-e roots to the extent of 54. feet by 20, and found com- 
 pletely successful. The manner of forming these clamps was 
 thus: — a quantity of large roots was laid upon the ground, and 
 inclosed by a wall of sods three or four feet high, and at the 
 bottom of each side wall were six openings, about twenty 
 inches square, in which faggots were laid, so as to connect 
 with the roots. When the inclosure was filled with sods, and 
 the clamp raised to the height of eight feet, twelve fires were 
 all kindled at the same time, and, in less than forty-eight hours, 
 the whole mass, containing 400 cart-loads, was entirely burnt 
 through to the top; by wiiich mode of burning it has been 
 computed that the ashes cost no more than threepence per 
 cart-load of sixteen bushels. 
 
 The most common method, indeed, is to form the heaps 
 about a yard in diameter, like small hay-cocks, a few yards 
 apart, the sods set edgeways, with a bough of furze at the 
 bottom, covered with some of the driest turf, keeping the sods 
 on the inside as hollow as may be, but laying them fiat and 
 close on the outside to keep in the heat. The heaps made in 
 this manner are kindled usually with a link made of tow 
 dipped in tar, and wound round a small stake, the lighter 
 running along the rows from heap to heap, and lighting them. 
 Some skill is requisite in their formation, for, if the heaps be 
 made too large at first, their own weight crushes them down, 
 and destroys the necessary openness of the inner side, while, 
 if too small, the fire, not being sufficiently confined, flies out- 
 ward, and spends itself prematurely ; yet, if the sods in the 
 small heaps are damp, the force of the fires is so soon ex- 
 tinguished, that heaps of four and five cart-loads have been 
 found insufficient; and to this want of precaution in the pre- 
 paration of the ashes has been partly attributed the defects 
 which some persons have assigned to the practice itself Yet 
 the weather is sometimes so unfavourable that means must 
 necessarily be taken for increasing the heat of the fires, for 
 which purpose a very simple apparatus has been contrived in 
 Scotland. It is put together with merely a few small old iron 
 hoops, the halves of which are placed so close together as to 
 prevent the sods from falling through, and riveted to iron rods 
 
ON MANURES. jgg 
 
 which lie leng-thwise upon the ground : thus forming- a sort of 
 portable furnace, about four feet long, so light that a boy can 
 carry it; and when turf is laid upon it, an opening is left 
 through the hoops, which increases the current of the air. 
 
 When the land is much covered with heath and furze, the 
 operation of paring, wiiich turns the sod upside down, keeps 
 the turf raised so tar above the ground that, in fine weather, 
 it readily dries sufficiently, and is fi-equently burnt in that 
 state. This is a saving of trouble and expense ; the ashes are 
 also thereby spread more equably, and the fire operates over 
 the entire surface of the soil, which, if anything is to be 
 attributed to the effect of heat, may be benefited by this mode 
 of application. Thus, in a course of experiments made upon 
 a farm in the West Riding of Yorkshire, the sward was burnt 
 all over the surface in the state in which it was left when 
 pared ; when, without any further culture, or seed, a sponta- 
 neous plant of luxuriant grass sprang up, and afterwards con- 
 tinued permanent, upon black peat-earth, which formerly pro- 
 duced nothing but heath and ling-. Similar experiments have 
 been since tried with equal success, by only adding the seeds 
 of white clover, trefoil, rye-grass, rib-grass, nonsuch, or any 
 of the other grasses commonly intended to produce pasture, 
 and merely harrowing them in without any ploughing". 
 
 The improvement of the bogs by the operation cf paring 
 and burning in Ireland, is thus described by Mr. Curwen: 
 'Round a space from six to ten feet in diameter, a trench of a 
 foot deep, and of the same width, is dug, the soil from which 
 is laid on the adjoining surface of equal breadth. Beyond this 
 another circle of sods is taken out, and laid to dry in the same 
 manner; and thus the work proceeds, until the quantity dug, 
 with that which is left undisturbed for a floor, is as much as 
 can be properly burnt on the space in the centre. As soon as 
 the sods are sufficiently dry some are gathered together, the 
 heap is set on fire, and additions are made of wet and dry 
 sods from time to time, so as to keep a regular, moderate, and 
 smothered fire, in proportion to the attention paid to which 
 particulars the husbandman is rewarded by the quantity of 
 potatoes he will procure.' 
 
 Effects of paring and burning. — The quantity of ashes 
 thus made necessarily depends upon the nature of the veg'eta- 
 ble matter which lies upon the surface of the soil, as well a3 
 that of the earth, and the depth from which it is extracted. 
 When the object is merely to burn whatever is growing upon 
 
136 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the land, without mingling- it with the earth, the ground is 
 then well harrowed after it has been pared, and the loose stuff 
 being raked up and burned, generally produces only from >M) 
 to 50 bushels, which can hardly be considered in any other 
 light than as a cleansing to the soil ; except that, when much 
 nnxed with brushwood, their roots render the ashes of stronger 
 quality. But it is seldom confined within such bounds ; and, 
 when performed in a workmanlike manner, upon rough 
 ground of medium quality, to the depth of about two inches, 
 the operation has been known to produce from forty to fifty 
 cart-loads of 40 bushels each, or from 2000 to 2-100 bushels 
 per acre. 
 
 The expense of paring and burning has been variously 
 calculated, and depends upon so many different circumstances, 
 that it is impossible to form a precise estimate for any other 
 than a particular case ; for not only must the soil on which 
 the operation is to be performed be considered, but also the 
 kind of instruments and the skill of the workmen employed, 
 the season, and the rate of wages, which generally bear a pro- 
 portion to that of horse-labour. 
 
 Except on fen lands, the practice of paring and burning is 
 mostly confined to poor districts, consisting of chalky downs, 
 and wastes covered with heath and fern, or any rough land 
 whatever, which is intended to be brought immediately into 
 cultivation ; the advantages attending which are thus described 
 by Mr. Boys in the treatise to which we have already alluded. 
 
 When old downs, heaths, or sheep-walks of a calcareous 
 basis of soil, are pared and burned early in the summer, and 
 the land twice ploughed, however poor the soil may be, it 
 becomes a fine tilth for turnips ; the production ot a full crop 
 of which upon such lands, where they have never before been 
 seen, and where they could hardly by any other means be 
 obtained, is of such great benefit both to the farmer and to the 
 soil, that it would be needless to say any more in recommenda- 
 tion of the process, were it not necessary for the information 
 of those who are not acurately acquainted with the advantage 
 to be derived from turnips in poor countries. 
 
 We have the authority of Mr. George Sinclair, for saying 
 that "all the advantages here spoken of he has ever witnessed 
 to follow the processes of paring and burning, however poor 
 and rough; but the like texture (thin and poor) of soil con- 
 taining very little, if any, calcareous matter, that is, wild lime, 
 
ON MANURES. 137- 
 
 or chalk, had not the like benefit — on the contrary, appeared 
 injured by the effects of the burning." 
 
 The success of paring and burning may, indeed, be justly 
 said to depend entirely on the nature of the land. Wherever 
 the soil is already too light, — as in the case of most downs, — . 
 burning tends to make it lighter, and is then evidently wrong; 
 but on clays and heavy loams, its effects' can hardly tail to i}e 
 beneficial. In the particular instance of burning land intended 
 to be returned again to pasture, it is, however, indispensable 
 to observe whether the practice has been proved, in that part 
 of the country, to be favourable to the future production of 
 natural grasses; for, on some soils, it is so — on others it is not. 
 
 Old worn-out sainfoin, and foul couchy leys of every de- 
 scription, may thus be speedily, economically, and thoroughly 
 cleansed at far less trouble and expense than by any other 
 method ; and it is the only effectual mode of bringing fen land 
 under immediate cultivation with any prospect of success. On 
 sainfoin leys and chalky downs, the best course is to com- 
 mence with turnips, fed off and repeated, so as to put the land 
 in good heart before taking a crop of barley, with seeds to 
 stand two years; for on those very light soils two green crops 
 should always be taken for one of corn, and, after the lapse of 
 a few years, the land should be again laid down with sainfoin ; 
 but care should then be taken not, to let it become covered 
 with a coarse sward of natural pasture, which may occasion 
 the necessity of repeating the operation. 
 
 Cold, clayey land, covered with a coarse sward, may be 
 pared deeper; but the operation will be found useless, if it be 
 not thoroughly drained and laid dry. It is then very com- 
 monly sown with oats; for turnips, even if the land be suffi- 
 ciently light to admit of their growth, are, on such soils, found 
 to be uncertain as a first crop, and the oats are generally very 
 productive. The more judicious farmers, however, lime the 
 land immediately after the ashes are spread, and intermix both 
 minutely with the soil, by ploughing it three times, and har- 
 rowing it sufficiently between each ploughing. But in this 
 case it is necessary to plough with a very shallow furrow, as, 
 if buried deep, the effect is in a great measure lost. They 
 then sow cole as a first crop, and afterwards farm the land in 
 such rotations as the nature of the ground will permit: but 
 whatever may be the course pursued, the whole of the green 
 crops should be eaten off upon the ground ; or if the stock be 
 soiled, the entire of the manure thus made, together with that 
 
138 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 arising- from the straw of the corn crops, should be invariably 
 applied to the land. 
 
 Apjdicatioii. — It is obvious that in all cases the operation 
 of paring" and burning" must destroy a certain portion of vegeta- 
 ble substance, and it therefore can only be really useful where 
 an excess of this matter exists in the soil in a dormant state ; 
 for the accumulation of rank herbage and woody fibre, with 
 which some land is overrun, can only be slowly reduced to a 
 state of mould when left to the process of natural decomposi- 
 tion ; nor is it easily brought into a fit state for the immediate 
 purposes of cultivation, even by the application of lime. 
 Burning- has also the eflect of rendering clayey land more 
 friable in its texture, and consequently not alone better for 
 tillage, but also less retentive of water; for it has been ascer- 
 tained, that when clay has been burnt, its tendency to absorb 
 moisture from the atmosphere has been reduced in the propor- 
 tion of 7 to 2*. Thus the process, if judiciously conducted, 
 may change a soil which was tenacious, wet, and cold, into 
 one partaking of the opposite qualities, and therefore better 
 adapted to vegetation. The soils to which it is prejudicial are 
 tliose consisting principally of sand and flint, consequently, 
 containing little vegetable matter; for it destroys that which 
 is already in too small a proportion to secure the productive- 
 ness of the land. But pafing alone, without burning, may be 
 safely practised on such soils, when they contain root weeds, 
 and coarse herbage of difficult decomposition ; provided the 
 surface be then harrowed, so as to separate it from the earth, 
 and mixed with quick-hme, together with the scourings of the 
 neighbouring ponds and ditches, or clay, if it can be conveni- 
 ently procured, to form a compost. 
 
 The following may be assumed as a summary of the best 
 practice: — Istly. To drain the land perfectly, and to lay it 
 dry, before commencing the operation. 2dly. To regulate the 
 depth of the paring by the nature of the turf, and the thick- 
 ness of the mat of coarse sward. 3dly. To burn the turf 
 slowly, but completely, so as to reduce the whole to ashes ; 
 yet carefully to guard against allowing the fire to take such 
 hold of the ground under the heaps, as to harden it into pits. 
 4thly. To spread the ashes upon a shallow ploughing, and as 
 fresh as possible — even hot ; as they operate more powerfully 
 in a caustic state than afterwards. 5thly. To mix lime in a 
 
 ♦Sir H. Davy, Elem. of Agric. Chem., 4to. p. 21. 
 
ON MANURES. X39 
 
 moderate proportion with the ashes, if the land be clayey; as 
 in this species of soil, the deficiency of calcareous matter 
 renders it essential to the purposes of vegetation, and the two 
 manures assist each other. 6thly. To sow the seeds as 
 promptly as may be convenient after the ashes have been 
 spread and ploughed in. 7thly. To commence the cultivation 
 (if the time of the year and other circumstances will permit) 
 w^ith turnips or cole; but if oats or barley be taken as a first 
 crop, to follow it with two successive green crops; and never 
 to sow wheat until the land be brought into a fine tilth, and 
 perfectly clean. Sthly. To apply the whole of the manure pro- 
 duced by the crops to the ground, and to manage it, generally, 
 in the usual course of regularly-cultivated arable land. 
 
 If these rules be strictly adhered to, there can be no doubt 
 that paring and burning will be found advantageous on all 
 soils of the kind we have described as adapted for the opera- 
 tion ; but, although neither coinciding in the odium which has 
 been cast upon it by some writers, nor in the praises with 
 which it has been loaded by others, and only viewing it as a 
 means of clearing ground which is encumbered with dormant 
 matter, and thus stimulating the inert powers of vegetation, 
 we by no means recommend it to repetition ; for, if the land be 
 properly managed, it can never afterwards become so foul as 
 to require the surface to be pared. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. BURNT CLAY. 
 
 The burning of clay, for manure, is an invention which has 
 been attributed to the Earl of Halifax, and is supposed not to 
 have been adopted in England until about the year 1730 ; but 
 it was known in this country at a far more distant period, and 
 has been mentioned m some very old tracts on agriculture, in 
 one of which, published more than a century ago, under the 
 title of ' The Practical Farmer, or the Hertfordshire Husband- 
 man,' the method of preparing and applying it to the land is 
 described in a manner which diifers but little from the present 
 practice. In ' The Country Gentleman's Companion,' printed 
 M 
 
140 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 in London, in the year 1732, there are also two engravings 
 of kilns for burning clay, with several letters from various 
 persons, statino- that the plaii had succeeded in many places 
 in both England and Scotland ; and that, in experiments made 
 in the latter country, it had been found preferable to either 
 lime or dung, but too expensive. In the North of Ireland it 
 has also been carried on time out of mind, and in the vicinity 
 of the bogs, where fuel is accessible, the manure which it 
 affords is cheap and inexhaustible, and the power of cropping 
 is thus extended beyond what could otherwise be practicable. 
 An essay has been written by Mr, Burrougiis, describing its 
 good effects in very warm terms: many other treatises have 
 likewise been published upon the subject ; and the gold medal 
 of the Society of Arts was, not many years since, awarded to 
 Dr. Cartvvright for his experiments. 
 
 The practice, however, fell into considerable disuse, until it 
 was revived, in the year 1815, by some letters in the 'Farmer's 
 Magazine,' and, still more recently, by the account given by 
 General Beatson of the process, and its consequences, on his 
 farm in Sussex, in which he describes the efficacy of calcined 
 clay, when compared with either lime, dung, wood-ashes, or 
 peat and dung, as equal, and in some instances superior, to 
 any of those manures. This has been followed by two other 
 publications, — one at York, and the other at Ipswich, — each 
 nearly supporting the same principle by arguments drawn 
 from practical proofs ; and it seems to have been, in many 
 cases, sanctioned by the experience of extensive farmers. 
 
 Mr. Burroughs, after detailing the diflerence in the chemi- 
 cal qualities of burned earth, says that 'lime being established 
 as a valuable application to many soils, it would be no easy 
 matter to persuade those who have not tried the former as a 
 substitute, that it possesses more fertilizing properties; but, 
 then, experience, by which all must be governed, has con- 
 vinced me that burned earth is by far more valuable, on many 
 soils, than lime. I have tried it on strong clays, on light 
 soils, and on moory soils, on all of which it produced good 
 crops of potatoes and turnips, and afterwards corn ; and in one 
 instan'ce in particular, where lime had been ineffectually 
 applied, a dressing of burned clay made the land yield most 
 abundantly. Lime only stimulates and pulverizes the soil, 
 whereas burned earth not only possesses those properties, but 
 contains within itself enriching and vegetative qualities.' 
 
 He then adds, that ' burned earth may be depended upon as 
 
ON MANURES. 141 
 
 a manure fit to produce abundant turnip crops, of every de- 
 scription, on a variety of soils; even the Swedes, so difficult to 
 g-rovv on light land, will prove a more luxuriant crop with this 
 manure than with farm-yard dung-, and are less liable to be 
 cut off by the fly. It may be supposed by some that any crop 
 sown on this manure would be precarious in dry seasons, not 
 containing, as they may conceive, any enriching quality or 
 properties to preserve moisture : but this is by no means the 
 case, for it will be found that an application of burned earth 
 makes the land on which it is applied more capable of absorb- 
 ing moisture from the atmosphere; and, by minutely dividing 
 the soil, the roots of plants can search more freely for nourish- 
 ment. I have often observed that farm-yard dung, unless very 
 well prepared, does not, in excessive dry seasons, supply suffi- 
 cient moisture to the roots of plants; and that, during such 
 seasons, crops sown on ashes, or burned earth, have uniformly 
 thriven, while those in dunged land have gradually declined,' 
 
 General Beatson's farm — which consists of 300 acres, 120 
 of which are arable — was managed for some years previous to 
 his death under an entirely novel system of culture. The plan 
 on which it had been previously conducted was so unprofitable, 
 that he had determined on abandoning the farm altogether, 
 when his attention w^as attracted to a small inclosure, where 
 he had four burnt clay experiments, around which was a space 
 unmanured, and beyond it all the rest of the field manured 
 with rotten dung at the rate of forty loads per acre, the whole 
 carefully scarified, harrowed, and drilled, exactly in the same 
 manner. Those clay experiments not only maintained a very 
 striking superiority during the growth of three successive 
 crops — the first being a mixture of tares and oats, and the 
 second and third wheat ; but where also perfectly clean, whilst 
 the dunged part was absolutely choked with weeds : they had 
 eacii respectively at the rate of ten, twenty, thirty, and forty 
 cart-loads of the ashes per acre. This gave rise to his subse- 
 quent practice, which, according to his account, he continued 
 with complete success for upwards of six years, during which 
 time the entire of his arable land was manured with the ashes 
 cf burnt clay, his farm dung being solely applied to his hop- 
 grounds, and a few acres of potatoes. 
 
 Analysis. — The term ' burned eartW may be understood as 
 implying any species of soil capable of being dried up by 
 excessive heat. Moory and light sandy soils, being deficient 
 in tenacity, cannot, however, be so applied with advantage; 
 
142 A PRAC riCAL TREATISE 
 
 but clay, of all sorts, and strong loams, are well adapted to the 
 purpose. It has, however, been observed by Mr, Burroughs, 
 'that this mode of preparmg earth, as a manure, is upon a 
 principle very different from that of reducing it to aslies; and 
 thougi) the effect produced on the land to which it is applied 
 may be apparently the same, yet the torrified' (dried by fire, 
 or scorched) 'substance, is by far more permanent. The 
 chemical difference in their preparation is this : — In reducing 
 tlie soil to ashes, much of its fertilizing properties are dissi- 
 pated, and its vegetable matter destroyed; but, when only 
 torrified, those properties are preserved, and its vegetable mat- 
 ter only reduced to a state more valuable as the food of plants.' 
 
 'There are two sorts of burned earth, — 1st, that which is 
 obtained from the surface, of which we have already treated; 
 and, 2ndly, that which is dug from the sub-soil.' 'Sub-soil, 
 calculated for this purpose, may be said to be of two kinds, viz., 
 adhesive clay, and calcareous earth: the former seldom pos- 
 sessing any fertilizing properties in its natural state; but the 
 latter is, even in that state, generally a valuable substance. 
 As alteratives to the soil, tliey may be good applications, if 
 appropriately applied, and may produce fertility accordingly; 
 but by putthig them through a process of torrefaction, how- 
 ever naturally deficient in fertilizing properties, they can be 
 converted into valuable manures,' 
 
 Mr. Naismith also says, 'that when cohesive earth has 
 undergone this operation, and is afterwards reduced to powder, 
 all its tendency to coherence is lost, and its particles lie com- 
 pact, without uniting. It seems to have the perfect consist- 
 ence of a fertile soil; for corn springs quickly, and tillers 
 abundantly on it; and if a little dung-juice be given from time 
 to titne, it will grow luxuriantly to maturity. It has also a 
 strong tendency to promote fertility when applied to other 
 soils ; and even a very slight torrefaction of the soil has a 
 great effect. 
 
 Effects of burnt clay. — From this we should be led to con- 
 clude that a very material difference would be found to exist 
 in earth thus merely dried; for there can be no doubt that its 
 properties must depend upon the quantity of vegetative matter 
 which it contains. But it is difficult to draw the line between 
 this process of torrefaction and that which consists in burning 
 the earth to ashes: for if the clay be merely dried, the next 
 rains will reduce it back to its former state, by which the soil 
 cannot be benefited ; and if the fire be advanced to a degree 
 
ON MANURES. I43 
 
 much stronger, it will probably have the effect of consuming 
 the earth to ashes, in the qualities of which no perceptible 
 difference will be found. In the latter state, indeed, we are 
 strongly of opinion that its effects are purely mechanical — 
 acting upon heavy soils me^ly by correcting their tenacity, 
 and rendering them less stubborn ; but this will doubtless con- 
 tribute greatly to their fertility, though it cannot be considered - 
 as a nutritive manure. 
 
 The stress which has been laid upon the supposed value of 
 some kinds of burned clay, in consequence of the calcareous 
 matter contained in the subsoil, is probably overrated ; for it is 
 seldom found, in soils of that description, in such abundance 
 as to be of much service as a manure to other lands. We 
 learn, indeed, from an experiment of General Beatson, that 
 when even the surface soil has been burned, no difference was 
 found between the effects of that, although containing vegeta- 
 tive matter in the sward, and the ashes of common clay; 
 though the quantity applied was perhaps too small to warrant 
 any positive conclusion. We, therefore, think that the ideas 
 which have been entertained of the effects of this manure, 
 are rather too sanguine; and we are decidedly of opinion that 
 the expectations of those of its advocates who imagine that 
 'burnt clay will supersede the dung-cart' will be disappointed. 
 It appears, indeed, from a more recent essay by Mr, Bur- 
 roughs, on the cultivation of white crops, that he has not been 
 so well satisfied of its good effects as to persist in its use 
 instead of farm-yard manure; for although we there find him 
 recommending the use of the latter, he yet makes no allusion 
 to burned clay. In Scotland, also, where the burning of clay 
 was a few years ago very extensively practised, we learn that 
 it has since fallen into considerable disuse. There can, how- 
 ever, be no doubt that clay ashes may be beneficially used ; but 
 it does not appear from past experience that they can preclude 
 the use of lime on soils not formerly dressed with it. 
 
 We make no apology for the length of these extracts, for 
 the subject is of great importance, and although we entertain 
 doubts of the accuracy of the inferences drawn from the experi- 
 ments by some writers, yet that should not prevent any farmer 
 who possesses the means, of satisfying himself by similar trials, 
 from ascertaining their effect by actual practice. It is true, 
 that the nature of some soils does not admit of it; in others, 
 the land is in many cases so valuable, that almost every inch 
 of it is in profitable use; and as it requires about 150 square 
 ivi 2 
 
144 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 yards of surface, 6 inches deep, for a single acre, or a pit of 
 proportionate size, if dug from the subsoil, many persons will 
 naturally grudge the sacrifice, though banks and headlands — 
 something, in short, in the shape of waste — may be found on 
 every farm. Every one who has the opportunity should give 
 it a fair trial ; and if tlie result should prove its efficacy, it 
 may then, indeed, be considered 'as opening a new field to the 
 prosperity of agriculture.' The following are the most approved 
 methods of preparation, when pits are dug from the subsoil; 
 but if the earth be taken from the surface, then those direc- 
 tions will be applicable which have been already given in the 
 previous chapter, under the head of 'Paring and Burning.' 
 
 Clay-kilns. — There are two modes of burning clay com- 
 monly employed, one by kilns partly constructed of masonry, 
 and the other of sods; in both of which the earth is piled upon 
 them, instead of being placed under cover, as in a lime-kiln. 
 
 The kiln of the former kind, described by Mr. Burroughs, 
 should be built in a pit excavated out of the ground which is 
 to be burned, and consists of an arch about 4 or 5 feet long, 3 
 wide, and 2 high, made with brick; the front close like an 
 oven, and the inside fitted to receive a strong fire of coals. 
 On the top of the arch six or eight holes are left, the size of a 
 small brick, to admit the heat passing out, which is to commu- 
 nicate to the earth laid on. When the fire is sufficiently 
 strong, the door of the kiln is to be well stopped, and the 
 earth thrown on in some degree pulverized, about six or eight 
 inches thick, so as to cover the top of the kiln, and every 
 direction round it to which the heat might communicate. In 
 this manner it is to be dressed alternately with culm and 
 earth, which are to be laid on according to the heat of the 
 fire, which is on no account to be allowed to burn too strong. 
 
 After the kiln is once lighted, it will burn several hundred 
 bushels of earth without any additional fire inside ; and the 
 same kiln will answer for a length of time to renew the pro- 
 cess when necessary. 
 
 Kilns constructed of masonry, although the most permanent, 
 have, however, been objected to, both because of the outlay in 
 their erection, and the inconvenience often experienced in 
 procuring workmen to build them. There is aUo this IVu-thcr 
 disadvantage, — that although when once built tliere is an end 
 of the expense, and with proper care they may be employed 
 for years, yet, if placed at any considerable distance from the 
 land to be manured, the cost of carriage will probably exceed 
 
ON MANURES. I45 
 
 that of burning-. They are, therefore, usually formed in the 
 very field on which tlie clay is to be laid, and out of which it 
 is dug; in which case they may be made entirely with sods, 
 or mud and straw, in the following" manner : — 
 
 On a headland or waste piece of ground, off which sotls can 
 be procured with sward sufficiently tough to build a wall, 
 erect an oblong or a circular inclosure, about eiglit or ten feet 
 in diameter, and two feet thick, but not higher than three or 
 four feet On a level with the surface of the ground, cut 
 flues, opening through the opposite sides of the wall, so that 
 they may all meet in the centre of the kiln; make them also 
 about five or six inches deep and four wide, and let them be 
 covered wilh sods on the top, so as to keep them free of 
 clay and rubbish, and the mouths well open to the air. Then, 
 in the centre of the kiln, place brushwood, turf, or any com- 
 bustible, with some blocks of wood to strengthen the fire, and, 
 when all is well kindled, throw on some culm — if you have 
 any — and then clay, and so on, adding clay to the heap as the 
 fire may be found sufficiently strong to take the dressing; 
 always observing to keep the heat of the kiln as even and as 
 moderate as possible, — ^just of sufficient strength to expel the 
 moisture from the layers of clay as they are laid on. Much 
 care should also be taken not to cover the fire too soon after 
 being lighted, as that might extinguish it totally, and therefore 
 the clods first put on should be of the largest description, that 
 spaces may thus be left for the free admission of the heat. 
 The smoke must be prevented from escaping; but the progress 
 of the fire, as it ascends, may be ascertained by occasionally 
 thrusting a finger here and there through the surface; to 
 which, if it has approached very near, more matter must be 
 added. 
 
 The walls, when made of sods, should be beat close with the 
 spade, in order to prevent them from drawing air, by which the 
 burning of the clay would be much retarded; the kiln may 
 then be immediately lighted; but if made with mud and straw, 
 they should be permitted to dry before the fire is kindled. 
 They should not, at first, be built higher than three to four 
 feet, nor the inclosure be wider than ten, because the earth can 
 then be flung easily over every part; the fuel will also be thus 
 more easily placed, and the firing more conveniently managed. 
 As it is not necessary that much neatness should be observed 
 in the construction, a kiln of this size may be erected, under 
 proper directions, by five or six men in the course of a day. 
 
146 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 When the inside of the kiln, however, begins to be filled up 
 with clay, then the wall must be raised as high as may allow 
 the earth to be thrown on without much additional labour; 
 and care should be taken, during the burning, to keep the 
 wall fifteen or eighteen inches higher than the top of the clay, 
 in order to prevent the wind from acting on the surface of the 
 fire. As soon as the fire is strongly kindled, the mouths of all 
 the flues, except the one to windward, should be stopped, and 
 even that will only be of use at tiie commencement of the 
 process; for, if the fire burns with tolerable keenness, the sods 
 of which the flues are composed will soon be reduced to ashes. 
 Some people, therefore, dispense with the use of flues alto- 
 gether; but the trouble of making them is very slight, and the 
 want of them often occasions difficulty in the management of 
 the fire. 
 
 The kiln may be increased to any size, by raising a new wall 
 round tiie former when that one has been burned through; and 
 in this manner kilns have been made so large as to contain 
 more than 100 loads of ashes: but, as these walls cannot be 
 equally pulverized, they should be broken down, and blended 
 with the contents of the kiln, as that is burning out. No 
 precise period can be fixed for the time which the operation 
 will occupy, as much will necessarily depend upon the quantity 
 of matter, the nature of the fuel, its management, and the state 
 of the weather; most accounts, therefore, affirm, that it can be 
 well accomplished — that is to say, both sufiiciently burned, and 
 afterwards cooled, in a few days; some, in a fortniglit; others, 
 in a month; but Mr. Burroughs says, that it requires about six 
 weeks, and that it will not then be in good order for the land 
 until after two months longer, for it will take considerable 
 time to reduce it to powder. When the kilns are burnt out, 
 the ashes are still paler than the original clay, and are gene- 
 rally in a powdery stiite, or are easily rendered so by a slight 
 stroke of the shovel, either when filling the cart, or when they 
 are spreading upon the ground: this, indeed, should never be 
 neglected if there be any appearance of lumps, for if the earth 
 be not completely pulverized, it will have little other effect 
 upon the land than may be expected from bits of brick. The 
 expense of burning clay in the kiln here described is stated to 
 bp, in Ireland, from 'StI. to 4f/. an Irish load, or about 40s. or 
 50.V. the Irish acre, — ecpial to about 32s. Imperial measure ; 
 but, with the usual inaccuracy observable in all accounts of 
 manure per load, we are lefl to guess at its contents. 
 
ON MANURES. I47 
 
 The chief art in burning- is, to keep out the air, and keep 
 in the smoke ; which can only be accomplished by having the 
 walls made quite close, and taking care to have the tops 
 always lightly covered with clay. If the smoke should appear 
 coming out in spots here and there, cover those places with 
 sods immediately; for by thus half burning or charring the 
 earth, it is supposed that any vegetable matter which it con- 
 tains will be preserved, and that the staple of the land will not 
 suffer. In short the kilns must be carefully attended to, both 
 day and night, until the operation is completed. No rule 
 can be laid down for the size of the clods, but those first laid 
 on will burn more readily if dug up and dried a day or two 
 before: if they be properly managed, that, however, is not 
 absolutely necessary, and if once the kiln is fairly set a-going, 
 no further fuel of any kind is required; for the clay, though 
 wet, will continue to burn, unless extinguished by careless- 
 ness, as even the changes of the weather, except in very bad 
 seasons, have very little effect upon it. It may, however, be 
 proper to caution those who are not acquainted with tlie pro- 
 cess, from opening any part of the kiln in order to ascertain 
 its progress; for although, from its outward appearance, they 
 may imagine the fire to be extinguished, it yet may be burning 
 fiercely in the interior; and if the air be admitted, the mam 
 force of the fire will draw to that hole, where it will blaze 
 out, and thus the work will certainly be retarded, if not en- 
 tirely stopped. Although the process is very simple, when 
 well understood, yet, like every thing else, it requires some 
 experience, and mistakes are continually made by workmen 
 who, not being already acquainted with the practice, are apt 
 to burn the clay into lumps. It is, indeed, difficult to describe 
 the operation with sufficient accuracy to enable those who 
 have never seen it done to burn properly. 
 
 Burning in heaps. — Another common mode of burning- 
 earth, is to dig up the surface of banks and headlands, or old 
 borders, and, when dry, to cart it to a heap. The practice 
 then is, to lay a foundation of earth, some inches thick, then 
 haulm, straw, dry weeds, and a few bushes, whins, or any thing 
 of the kind, upon which the pile is raised in the form of a cone, 
 and enclosed with a wall of turf in the manner already de- 
 scribed. When fuel is scarce, an experienced burner will 
 light a small heap, and increase it to almost any extent, by 
 pulling down part of the wall, drawing out a portion of the 
 fire, and addmg fresh earth. They are not uncommonly car- 
 
148 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ried to 12 yards in diameter, and in that case generally con- 
 tain about 100 loads of ashes, at 3G bushels to tiie load. 
 
 A nearly similar method is also much practised in Suffolk, 
 where the earth is burned in mounds, and it is called clod- 
 fmrning. The clods are raked together in small heaps of 
 from lour to eight bushels, at a rod distance, and burnt by 
 placing tliem ujxm a small quantity of haulm, or straw; but 
 this should be done very expeditiously, on the fire being pro- 
 perly kindled, as otherwise it would be exhausted before a 
 sufficient quantity was heated ; for which reason it is proper to 
 light them early in the day, that they may be well covered 
 before sunset. This, however, differs from paring and burn- 
 ing, as it is not requisite that any weeds, or roots of weeds, 
 should exist in the soil, for the real earth alone burns or chars 
 sufficiently; and as the smaller the heap, the less is the earth 
 calcined, it is thought by some that the better is the manure. 
 The idea is, however, probably erroneous; for these small 
 heaps are so quickly burned, that what is on fire at noon, may 
 be completed before night : if despatch be an object, that may 
 be attained by employing a greater number of hands, whereas 
 large piles cannot be effectually prepared without more con- 
 stant attention and delay ; but, like the process of kiln-burning, 
 this operation also requires some experience to carry on the 
 work expeditiously, and to burn close. 
 
 Although the method of burning in heaps has the merit of 
 simplicity, yet the plan is objectionable, because this method 
 of managing the fire subjects it in many instances, to be either 
 extinguished, or to burn with such increased force as to con- 
 vert any portion of the earth which consists of clay, into mere 
 brick; besides occupying increased time and labour, and occa- 
 sioning an additional charge for cartage. It does not produce 
 guch good ashes as when the earth is calcined in a close kiln: 
 neither has the same quantity of fuel equal power; for, by the 
 erection of walls, the heat is effectually retained, and w-ill 
 continue for a long period after the fire has been extinguished; 
 whereas, in these round heaps, the air having full power over 
 every part of the surface, the internal heat is sooner checked, 
 and the smothering process — which is considered essential to 
 the value of the manure — cannot be so perfectly accom- 
 plished. Besides, as the walls are ultimately converted into 
 ashes, their cost only amounts to the trifling additional charge 
 of the labour of their erection. 
 
 Burning with lime, is also a plan w hich has been adopted 
 
/ 
 
 ON MANURES. 149 
 
 with much apparent advantage by Mr. Curvven, both when 
 applied to the surface soil, and to clay taken from the under 
 stratum. The method is as follows : — 
 
 'Mounds of 7 yards in length, by Sh in breadth, are kindled 
 with 72 bushels of lime; first, a layer of dry sods, or parings, 
 on which a quantity of lime is spread, mixing sods with it, — 
 for he doubts whether clay can be properly converted into 
 ashes without a mixture of surface soil, as it is in that case 
 either calcined, or not sufficiently burned. Then a covering 
 of eight inches thick of sods, on which the other half of the 
 lime is spread, and covered a foot thick ; the height of the 
 mound being about a yard.' 
 
 'In twenty-four hours it will take fire. The lime should be 
 taken immediately from the kiln; but it is better to allow it to 
 ignite itself, than to efiect it by the operation of slaking by 
 water. When the fire is fairly kindled, fresh sods should be 
 applied; and it is recommended to obtain a sufficient body of 
 ashes from the sods befoi^ any clay is put upon the mounds. 
 The fire naturally rises to the top; it takes less time, and does 
 more work to draw down the ashes from the top, and not to 
 sufl^er it to rise above six feet.' 
 
 Mr. Curwen also says, ' That the former practice of burning 
 in kilns was more expensive, did much less work, and in many 
 instances calcined the ashes, and rendered them of no value.' 
 On which it may be observed, that, with regard to the expense, 
 the difference in labour in favour of the practice of burning 
 with lime cannot be very material, for it only consists in the 
 charge of raising the walls, with a little more attention to the 
 fire, and will not amount to so much as the cost of the lime. 
 
 Application. — The chief point to be observed in the appli- 
 cation of these ashes is — that they be thoroughly pulverised, 
 or at least brought into a state as nearly resembling powder 
 as may be found practicable ; and this cannot be effected 
 unless the heat be so confined as to prevent it from spreading 
 to a ffame, for in that case the clay will be assuredly burned 
 to bricks, and to this mistake many failures in experiments 
 have been attributed. The term ^ashes'' may, indeed, in this 
 sense, be deemed somewhat misapplied ; but we know not any 
 other that will more clearly convey our meaning, though our 
 readers will doubtless comprehend, that the process is to stop 
 short of that state of hardness whicii is produced by the brick- 
 kiln. In effecting this, care should be taken not to burn clay 
 that has been much sun-dried, for if put on the kiln in that 
 
150 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 state, it will produce lumps, which will not be easily broken, 
 even by a mallet. 
 
 The best time for beginning the operation is when the 
 weather sets in fair, in sprinir; but the land should also be well 
 cleaned, and brought into lino tiltli, in order to allow of the 
 soil being- intimately blended with the ashes. When laid 
 upon arable land, they should therefore be brought, as nearly 
 as possible, into a state of powder, if intended for corn ; but 
 when applied to green crops, they may be used somewhat 
 coarser. 
 
 Regarding the species of earth to be burned — strong clay 
 is the best tor the purpose, for its adhesive properties being 
 destroyed by the process, it will become good manure for land 
 of the same sort, and will be found advantageous to ground of 
 almost any description; but when light soils are burned, (a 
 practice, however, which we have shown to be in general dis- 
 advantageous,) the ashes are not calculated to apply to similar 
 land, but should be laid upon strong clays or tenacious loam. 
 
 The quantity of Ashes to be applied to the land rnay be 
 varied according to its quality. Viewing its effect as chiefly 
 mechanical, the more adhesive the soil, the greater will be 
 the amount required: for, as strong clays are apt to run to- 
 gether after heavy rains, and to retain the water upon the 
 surface instead of allowing it to penetrate to the pan below, 
 the larger the quantity of matter which may have the effect 
 of rendering them {)orous, the better; and its application to 
 such ground hardly admits of any limit. In no case will it be 
 found prejudicial; and, from what may be gathered from the 
 foregoing experiments, as well as from the information of other 
 practical men, we think that it should never be laid on any 
 land in a less quantity than 800 bushels per acre. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 MINERAL MANURES CONTINUED. SALT NITRE. 
 
 Salt of various qualities is produced in several countries, 
 and known according to the different sources from which it is 
 obtained — whether from the waters of the sea, from salt- 
 
ON MANURES. 151 
 
 springs, or from mines. It cannot, therefore, be strictly called 
 a mineral, unless when found in the state of rock-salt ; yet, 
 partaking of the nature of that fossil, and not having liere to 
 consider its effects in any other light than as a manure, we 
 deem it unnecessary to enter upon any discussion of its pe- 
 culiar properties when manufactured, and shall, therefore, 
 confine our observations to its effects upon the soil. 
 
 It has been represented as operating as a manure upon 
 arable land by its tendency to promote putrefaction, as well as 
 by stimulating the powers of vegetation, through its absorption 
 of moisture from the atmosphere; as being destructive of weeds 
 and insects, and a preventive of rust; as improving tbe herb- 
 age of grass-land, destroying the moss, and rendering fodder 
 palatable which would be otherwise refused by cattle ; and as 
 acting as a condiment conducive to the health of all animals. 
 It has been successfully applied ^o some soils under peculiar 
 circumstances; yet, except in cases where its use has been 
 rather governed by local facilities than by any conviction 
 of its real value, farmers do not • appear to have generally 
 availed themselves of its advantages as a manure, though it 
 is gradually creeping into use for live stock. It is, indeed, 
 admitted on all hands to be noxious to the whole tribe of slugs, 
 and worms of that description, though we have yet no proof 
 which can be relied on of its preventing the ravages of the fly 
 on turnips; its effects in correcting the faults of sour pasturage 
 and spoiled fodder seem also to rest upon grounds which can 
 hardly be doubted.* There are also proofs of its power in 
 checking the rust in corn ; for although that disease has been 
 generally attributed to the varying changes of the atmosphere, 
 yet it was stated in the evidence of Dr. Paris before the Salt 
 Committee, that it was the practice of many farmers in Corn- 
 wall to spread about 30 bushels of salt, the refuse of the pilchard 
 fishery, weighing 56 lbs. each, per statute acre upon their 
 land, a fortnight previous to the sowing of turnips; and they 
 all agreed that they never had any rust on the following crop 
 of wheat where this was adopted, though before they were 
 greatly affected by it. In the course of a very minute inquiry 
 
 * Salt destroys vermin by making them void the contents of their bodies ; 
 such evacuations being too powerful for them to withstand. — Lord Dundon- 
 ald on Chemical Aerie, p. 138. .See an experiment in proof of this, in the 
 .Farmer's Magazine, vol. xviii. p. 440, in which it is stated that grubs, full 
 of food, when placed in fresh earth in which some young roots of grass were 
 transplanted after being very slightly pickled with common salt, were in 24 
 hours reduced to mere skins, and two out of three dead. 
 N 
 
152 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 into the causes of rust, undertaken some years ago in this 
 country, and afterwards continued at different periods on the 
 Continent, it also appeared, that it was never experienced in 
 the in)inediate vicinity of the sea, unless when the ground was 
 greatly over-manured ; and that when sea-ooze or sand was 
 employed as manure, it was prevented. This, however, does 
 not apply to the practice of steeping seed-wheat, which can 
 only have the effect of purifying it, but cannot, it is presumed, 
 prevent the grain from afterwards receiving infection from the 
 air, and which, indeed, applies rather to S7nut, than to rust or 
 mildew. Its influence in forwarding the putrefaction of ma- 
 nure depends upon the quantity in which it is employed;* and 
 although its property of absorbing moisture from the atmo- 
 sphere, and retaining it in the o-round, constitutes, perhaps, its 
 chief value, when applied to light soils and in dry summers, 
 yet, on heavy land and in wet seasons, its power seems to 
 have little eiiect: it has therefore fallen into disrepute with 
 many persons who have tried it without due attention to these 
 circumstances. It is, indeed, evident, that the extravagant 
 expectations entertained of it by some, and the disappointment 
 experienced by others, have been occasioned by the contingent 
 nature of its character, which, depending not alone upon the 
 amount in which it is used, but also on the quality of tlie soil 
 and on the state of the weather, must render it occasionally 
 ineffectual. That it contributes to the health of animals is a 
 fact now universally granted; though its specific virtues, 
 when administered in different quantities to stock of various 
 species, age, and condition, have not yet been sufficiently 
 ascertained, nor have we now to consider of its employment 
 for that purpose. We therefore neither accord in all that has 
 been assumed in its favour, nor yet in its disproval. 
 
 Apjdicatioii of Salt. — Nothing decisive has been ascertained 
 regarding either the quantity or season in which salt should be 
 laid upon the land. It appears, however, that its effects are 
 most visible and satisfactory when applied to hot, dry soils, 
 and in very warm summers; but on cold, wet land, and in 
 
 *If used in large quantities, it is antiseptic; but if moderately mixed up 
 witli composts, it lias been found to promote tlie putrefaction of the vegetable 
 and animal suljstances whicli tliey contain. The quantity has, indeed, been 
 stated as high as a ton to the acre : but this is either foul salt, which has 
 been used in the fisheries, or the refuse of brine which has been manufac- 
 tured, and which cannot be estimated at more than one-half, or perhaps 
 one-third, of the weight of pure salt. — Sir II. Davy, Elem. of Agric. Chem., 
 4to p. 29J: Cheshire Report, p. 237. 
 
ON MANURES. i;53 
 
 rainy seasons, or under a humid climate, its powers seem to 
 become neutralized, and of little value. We are of opinion 
 that, on arable land, it will be found more advisable to 
 lay it on before sowing, than either with the seeds, or after- 
 wards as a top-dressing. If applied, for instance to a clover 
 ley, either a iew weeks before seed-time, or immediately after 
 the first crop is off, it would effectually banish the slug-; and it 
 has been justly observed, that, if all stubbles (not laid down 
 with seeds) were to receive a slight dressing of salt before 
 winter, it would not only tend to keep the land free from the 
 slug, but probably also otherwise benefit the soil. 
 
 In preparing the land under the fallow-process, it has been 
 recommended to spread from 30 to 40 bushels per acre for the 
 purpose of destroying the roots and insects in the soil, and 
 breaking all the tough and adhesive clods which are found to 
 be so troublesome in working the ground. This should be 
 done in autumn, some time before the first ploughing; as the 
 salt being thoroughly incorporated with the soil during the 
 spring and summer following, its strength will be so materially 
 reduced by the time when the seed is sown, that instead of 
 injuring, it has been found to promote vegetation. With 
 regard to the destruction of insects, that object can, however, 
 be attained with half the quantity: and we must again caution 
 our readers against the indiscriminate recommendation given 
 of the use of salt, without distinguishing whether it is foul 
 or pure: on the application of 40 bushels of the latter, vege- 
 tation ceases. 
 
 When applied in composts, it is said to have been found 
 more eflectual than lime. It has been tried in Cheshire on 
 barley and seeds, and greatly exceeded the most sanguine ex- 
 pectations that had been formed of it. A quantity of refuse 
 salt having been also mixed up with earth, and another portion 
 of the same earth with lime, the vegetation of that part of the 
 field upon which the salt was laid was by far the healthiest 
 and the most vigorous. In Ayrshire it has been mixed with 
 32 bushels of lime-shells, and either spread singly or made up 
 into a compost v/ith 40 cart-loads of peat-moss, and has thus 
 been found peculiarly favourable to the growth of wheat and 
 beans. In those parts of the coasts of Cornwall where the 
 pilchard fisheries occasion considerable quantities of salt to be 
 condemned, it is also much used as a preparation for turnips 
 in composts mixed up with sea-sand, and spoiled fish, dung, 
 and rotten slaty earth, in various proportions, to which from 
 
154 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 40 to 60 bushels of lime are commonly added. The quantity 
 of this kind of compost commonly applied to an acre, is usually 
 about a ton of the fish and salt, — more or less as the fish pre- 
 vails, and in that country it lias been long considered as a most 
 valuable and lasting manure, though probably its etfects may 
 be at least equally due to the oil and refuse fish, as to the salt 
 with which it is combined. It may also be advantageously 
 mixed with stable-dung alone. 
 
 On meadow ground, Mr. Hollinshead advises the farmer 'to 
 sow six bushels of salt per acre, immediately after the hay is 
 got in; which will not only assist vegetation, and cover the 
 face of the ground with grass, but will induce the cattle to eat 
 up the eddish.' For pasture land, he however recommends 
 the application of foul salt at the rate of 16 bushels per acre ; 
 or, which he seems to prefer, to apply it in the same quantity, 
 mixing with every 16 bushels of the salt 20 loads of earth, 
 turning it two or three tmies, to incorporate it, and laying it 
 on in the autumn. 
 
 In frosty weather, it has excited the surprise of many per- 
 sons that, when the land was quite white through heavy hoar- 
 frost, ground which had been top-dressed with salt remamed 
 perfectly green, and apparently Iree from its effects. It is, 
 indeed, known to chemists to be an enemy to congelation; but 
 we have, as yet, no practical knowledge of its effects, in that 
 view, upon vegetation, nor are we aware that its application 
 would tend to preserve crops from the consequences of frost. 
 
 The quantity of pure salt recommended to be applied to 
 land as manure is from 4 to 16 bushels per acre, beyond 
 which it has been generally found to become injurious to crops 
 when sown with the seed; but, if laid in tlie autumn upon land 
 intended for a clean summer fallow, from 30 to 40 bushels may 
 be spread, according to the condition and nature of the soil. 
 In the directions ibr its use given in the recent treatises of 
 Mr, Cuthbert Johnson, from 5 to 20 bushels are assumed as 
 the limits of its application to different crops; and although 
 we think that, in most cases, the latter quantity would be 
 found too large, and that, in all, the rules for its adoption 
 savour too much of theory, yet as, with due discretion, in 
 many instances tiiey may serve as guides for its employment, 
 we here transcribe tiiem witii very slight alteration : with this 
 observation, that they only apply to the first year's manuring; 
 though it has been stated by Air. Hollinshead and others, that 
 
ON MANURES. - 155 
 
 an annual application of a much less quantity will always 
 keep the land in a state of the greatest fertility : — 
 
 For wheat and rye, 10 to 20 bushels per acre, put on after 
 the seed has been harrowed in; the earlier the better, but may 
 be done until March. 
 
 For barley, oats, peas, and beans, 5 to 16 bushels per acre. 
 For these crops it has however been found beneficial, in the 
 west of England, to lay it on after the seed has been harrowed 
 in ; but in counties less humid, it would be more advantageous 
 to spread it in January or February. 
 
 For turnips, and most green crops, 5 to 16 bushels per acre, 
 put on about a month before seed-time ; or in January or Feb- 
 ruary, as the salt will then meet the insects in their weakest 
 state. Mr. G. Sinclair, however, says — that, for the destruc- 
 tion of slugs, salt should be used in not less quantities than 10 
 or 15 bushels per acre, applied to the surface of the land. 
 
 For potatoes, 10 to 20 bushels per acre in January or Feb- 
 ruary, if no other manure be used ; but if a light dressing of 
 dung be intended at the time of planting, then half the salt to 
 be spread after the plants have been covered in. 
 
 For hops, 15 to 20 bushels per acre, in November or De- 
 cember. 
 
 For grass-land, 10 to 15 bushels per acre in the autumn, 
 and, if possible, not later than November; but may be put on, 
 without injury, until February. If applied to the extent of 
 40 to .50 bushels, the old turf will be completely destroyed, 
 but has been generally succeeded by a new sward of sweeter 
 herbage. 
 
 In Dacre's 'Testimonies,' it is said, that although the fer- 
 tilizing qualities of salt, when used by itself as a manure, are 
 very great, it yet requires discretion to guard against putting 
 on too much: a few bushels to an acre are sufficient. If any 
 large quantity be put on, it will by its pungency and strength 
 destroy vegetation for a time ; but afterwards, when the salt 
 has been well dissolved in the soil, the land becomes very 
 rich. That when mixed with dung and other manure, it is 
 highly efficacious: but the safest way of using it is, to sprinkle 
 it occasionally over the dung in the cattle-yards, that it may 
 amalgamate with it and ferment. 
 
 The effects, as ascertained by the result of its use upon the 
 Continent, are described by that eminent agriculturist. Von 
 Thaer, to be nearly similar to those we have stated. When 
 applied in large quantities, vegetation seems completely 
 
156 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 stopped; but when the salt has been washed in by the ram, 
 and partly decomposed by the mould, it adds to its force during 
 several followino- years. On rich land, when spread in small 
 quantities, it produces very sensibly favourable effects, though 
 of short duration; but if laid upon a poor soil, in an equal 
 quantity, it has been found wholly inefiectual. 
 
 Nitre, or saltpetre, as it is more commonly called, though 
 of more powerful effect than common salt, is yet so rarely 
 employed as manure, and must necessarily be so limited in its 
 use for that purpose by the scantiness of the supply, that we 
 should hardly have adverted to it, except as matter of se- 
 condary interest to a few speculative farmers, had not our 
 attention been called to it by some papers which lately ap- 
 peared in the 'Quarterly Journal of Agriculture.' From 
 these we learn, that it has for some years past been used in 
 parts of Hertfordshire, and appears to be rather on the in- 
 crease ; that good crops have been produced by it, where crops 
 never Were good before; that it has been chiefly applied to 
 wheat, barley, oats, and grass in the early part of spring, sown 
 over the crops in the proportion of 1 to 1+ cwt. per acre; and 
 that the common price is about 25s. per cwt. 
 
 As to the soil, which is the mast benefited by its application, 
 there is, as usual, much disagreement ; but it is generally re- 
 garded as favourable to chalky land, and the accounts all con- 
 cur in representing its effects upon grasses in general, but 
 particularly on clover, as being very striking. It is also 
 generally said to succeed best if sown in damp weather; that 
 it should be pounded till it will run through a wheat-sieve, 
 and may be sown by itself, but it is not uncommonly mixed up 
 with ashes. It is, however, of various qualities, which differ 
 exceedingly in strength, and make a proportionate diflerence 
 in its eflects upon the land, by inattention to which errors may 
 be occasioned in its application. From its analysis, as made 
 by Sir H, Davy, it appears that wheat contains more nitre than 
 any other protluct of a farm, and it was therefore expected to 
 be peculiarly favourable to the growth of that grain :* tlie fact, 
 however, se^ms at variance with this theory; for, altliough it 
 has generally occasioned an increase of straw', the yield of 
 
 * It is known by chemists as nitrate of potass ; and, according to this 
 analysis, consists of one proportion of azote, six of oxygen, and one ofpot;is- 
 sum. Sir Humphry Davy says, that it may possibly furnish azote to form 
 albumen or glutten, in those plants that contain it. 
 
ON MANURES. 157 
 
 grain has not been improved, and the crops have, in many 
 instances, been found unusually subject to mildew. 
 
 Application. — In answer to some information, requested of 
 Lord Dacre, who has applied it to his land, his Lordship says, 
 that he considers it may be advantageously used as a top- 
 dressing to present crops, in March or April, at the rate of 1^ 
 cwt. per acre; but that it appears to be most profitable to Lent 
 corn and grasses, — both permanent and artificial. Its efiect 
 upon meadow land is great; but, inasmuch as it presses upon 
 the stronger grasses, it may, and probably does, smother the 
 dwarf herbage. His Lordship doubts its having strength to 
 bring wheat to full maturity, though its effect upon the straw 
 is immediate and great. No mildew has attended it; but it 
 produces a rank and dark appearance in the stalk. 
 
 Mr. Curling, of Offley Holes, says it succeeds equally well 
 on all soils, on any sort of corn, or natural or artificial grasses; 
 that it causes an equal increase of both straw and grain, and 
 is far superior to any other light manure. He has not, how- 
 ever, observed any effect on the succeeding crop; in which he 
 is corroborated by other accounts. Generally, it has been 
 found most beneficial to grass-land ; it is destructive to wire- 
 worms,* slugs, and other insects, and it is recommended to be 
 sown after the crop is well up, intimately and carefully mixed 
 with ashes, at the rate of li cwt. to a small cart-load, for one 
 acre of land. 
 
 Regarding the quality, it seems the goodness is measured 
 by the angle at which light is refracted in passing through it; 
 an angle of 5° is called par, and the variations in value are 
 ^ made diminishing or increasing — not the price, but the quan- 
 tity; for as the quality is better as the angle is less, an allow- 
 ance in weight is made accordingly. The inferior sort con- 
 tains common salt. It is tested at Apothecaries' Hall, and the 
 quality marked upon the bags, so that any one who takes 
 the trouble of attending the quarterly sales of the East India 
 Company can at once ascertain its value; but deceptions are 
 constantly practised by the dealers, and as the trade will, 
 perliaps at least at the outset, be less carefully regulated 
 under the new system than formerly, it is not improbable that 
 these frauds will be increased. 
 
 * There is a reiiiarknble instanre mentioned by Mr. Cralih, of Temple 
 Dinsley, on whose land a field of barley was much infested with the. wire- 
 worm, but on top-dressing it with saltpetre, in the month of May, they all 
 died after the first shower of rain. 
 
158 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES (CONTINUED.) — BONES. 
 
 Bones, althoug-h of comparatively late introduction as ma- 
 nure, have yet occupied so much of farming attention within 
 these few years, that we have no hesitation in placing- them at 
 the head of those miscellaneous substances which are usually 
 employed for that purpose. They have indeed been used in 
 some parts of England for a long time, and have been ex- 
 tensively imported from the Continent into the town of Hull, 
 where several machines have been erected either for grinding 
 them into }X)wder, or bruising them into small pieces; which 
 modes of application have been found so advantageous, that 
 they have, within the last twenty years, excited general at- 
 tention, and are now in almost universal use as the principal 
 manure for raising turnip crops on the calcareous soils in 
 Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. It is upon this description of 
 land that they are the most decidedly valuable, and the testi- 
 mony of some farmers of experience proves that to mix them 
 with a portion of vegetable or coal ashes is a profitable appli- 
 cation for the production of turnips; as, by this method, the 
 vegetation of the seed is quickened, and the young plant, 
 getting rapidly into rough leaf thus escapes the fly. 
 
 Long before the great advantage which may be derived 
 fi'om ground or well-crushed bones was generally known, 
 many persons were aware of their fertilizing properties. To 
 render them available, however, the wasteful and injurious 
 process of reducing them into ashes by fire was then com- 
 monly resorted to; by which, indeed, a certain degree of 
 benefit was imparted to land upon which sulphate of lime or 
 gypsum will have effect, but could not be so effectual, in point 
 of nourishment, as bone in an uncalcined state, because the 
 oil and other nutritive matter which it contains is thus dissi- 
 pated. In other instances, they were either reduced by lime, 
 or laid at the bottom of the farm-yard, and decomposed by the 
 effect of urine, and in some cases were partially broken by the 
 hammer. In these modes, however, great quantities were 
 wasted, which is now prevented by the improved method of 
 })reparing them by machinery; it is therefore useless to enter 
 further into the details of practice which has "become obsolete. 
 
 When reduced to powder, the bones are ground, being 
 
ON MANURES. I59 
 
 divested by the process of boiling-, not only of every particle 
 of flesh, but also of a material portion of oil which is also ex- 
 tracted ; and it is only in that state that they can be brought 
 to the condition of fine powder. In this state it is only rea- 
 sonable to suppose that they cannot be so beneficial to the land 
 as when fresh and unboiled; yet we find, by the report of the 
 Doncaster Association "on bone manure," — to which we shall 
 presently refer, — that they have been found more effectual 
 after having- passed through the manufactories. When not 
 ground completely into powder; they are, however, broken in 
 the machines, by cast-iron rollers, formed with deeply indented 
 rims, by which they are first partially bruised, and then falling- 
 down upon other sets of rollers, each with the teeth more 
 closely fixed, they are in this manner reduced to various sizes, 
 from one inch to half an inch in thickness, and a considerable 
 quantity of coarse dust is also procured by the process. These 
 bones are usually sold under the respective designations of 
 inch, three-quarters inch, half-inch, or dust; but the greatest 
 demand is for those of the half-inch size, which contain all the 
 dust which has been formed in crushing them. The "dust" 
 is collected in great measure by riddling the inch and three- 
 quarter inch bones. 
 
 When the bones are not boiled, each pair of rollers is fur- 
 nished with a set of malleable iron scrapers attached below, 
 in order to clear the teeth of any animal matter which may 
 adhere to them, and thus the oily substance contained in the 
 bones is saved. As bone mills have been now very generally 
 erected, there are few parts of the country where the manure 
 cannot be procured in a prepared state; but when the bones 
 are only to be had raw, and it is an object with the farmer to 
 reduce them to a small size, they can be easily broken to 
 pieces by his own labourers. [The value of bones being so 
 generally admitted, we cut out a number of experiments which 
 only tended to make assurance doubly sure.] 
 , Effects of Bone-Dust and Bones. — Bone-dust is the fittest 
 state in which to lay it upon grass, for it will not only take 
 more immediate effect upon the crop, but if laid in pieces, it 
 would interrupt the progress of the scythe. It should, how- 
 ever, be recollected, that fine powder can only be obtained 
 from spent bone which has undergone the process of manufac- 
 ture. It is therefore spread, as a top-dressing, by hand ; but it 
 is also very commonly laid in the drills for turnips, tor which 
 purpose many ingenious machines have been contrived for 
 
IGO A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 sowing it along with the seed. It is, however, much to be 
 regretted that these implements cannot be constructed with 
 more simplicity, for their cost is so considerable, that unless a 
 man has a very large quantity of land to drill, their purchase 
 would be imprudent, and the hire is generally unreasonably 
 expensive. 
 
 Regarding the quantity of dust, the powdered bones are 
 dearer than those which are merely broken small, and al- 
 though said to more forcing to the first crop, on account of 
 their being, when in the state of powder, more intimately 
 blended with the soil, and more directly applied to the seed, 
 yet they are not found so durable as when they are laid on in 
 pieces; but it is also true that, in the former case, they are not 
 laid on so largely, for the amount depends entirely on the size 
 of the bones. They have been applied, in the rough state, to 
 the extent of 100 bushels per acre; but the average quantity, 
 of all sizes, is stated, in the Doncaster Report, to be 39 
 bushels. When the smaller bones are distinguished from the 
 larger, they, however, seldom appear to exceed 30 bushels per 
 acre, and in many cases do not arrive at 20 : perhaps it may 
 be assumed, as the most general practice, that half-inch bones 
 are employed at the rate of from 25 to 30, and dust at 20 
 bushels per acre ; but a distinction should be also drawn be- 
 tween the quantity of those which are applied after being 
 manufactured, and those which are laid on in a raw state. 
 
 The size of the pieces to which the bones should be broken 
 is also an object of some importance, as the smaller they are 
 the more prompt will be their effect: on which the following 
 observation has been made by one of the correspondents of the 
 Doncaster Association : — "That if he meant to till for early- 
 profit, and if he wished to keep his land in good heart, he 
 would use half-inch bones; and, in breaking these, he should 
 prefer some remaining considerably larger:" the reason 
 assigned for which is, — "that by using bones of a large size, 
 with dust in them, there must be sufficient of the small par- 
 ticles of the dust to set the turnip-crop forward, and sufficient 
 of tiie large particles of the bone left to maintain the land in 
 good condition for the last crop." 
 
 Respectiuir their durability, it has been affirmed, that the 
 effect will not be increased if they be laid on to great amount; 
 for the same produce has been obtained from the comparative 
 application of 50 and 100 bushels; and an experiment has 
 been tried by varying the quantity on different ridges of a 
 
ON MANURES. Id 
 
 large extent of ground under turnips, at the rate of 28, 40, 
 and larger quantities alternately, without creating any visible 
 difference in the crop. This, however, may be perfectly cor- 
 rect, so far as regards one or two crops, for it has been found 
 that, when used in large quantities, they have rendered the 
 land extraordinarily productive during a great length of time, 
 of which we find the following instances in the Doncaster 
 Report: — 
 
 1. On a field, part of which was boned forty years ago, the 
 crops were, on that part, during fifteen or sixteen succeeding 
 years, visibly better than the remainder, although the land 
 was all of the same quality, and the part not boned was ma- 
 nured with farm-yard dung. 
 
 2. In another case, about three acres of light sandy land 
 were dressed, in 1814, with 150 bushels of bones per acre; since 
 which time the land is said to have never forgotten it, but is 
 nearly as good again as the other part, farmed precisely in 
 the same way, with the exception of the one application of 
 bones.* 
 
 We learn, also, from experiments at Kew, that although 
 they yield a certain supply of nourishment to plants the mo- 
 ment they are capable of receiving it, yet that is done so 
 gradually as to furnish only a regular and moderate supply: 
 reasoning upon which, it is to be presumed, that as a large 
 quantity does not produce the efl:ect of forcing a crop in pro- 
 portion to the amount supplied, neither can it be so soon ex- 
 hausted by the gradual consumption of the smaller quantity. 
 This application may therefore be perfectly consistent with 
 good husbandry, if applied to any amount, however large; 
 though, as regards the farmer's purse, the expenditure of the 
 outlay is a different question. The extent of their fertilizing 
 quality is greater upon grass-land, under cattle, than upon 
 arable. Valuers estimate the allowance to a quitting tenant, 
 by supposing the effect of bones upon tillage and meadow- 
 
 * About sixty years ago, a farmer is also said to have obtained a forty- 
 year's lease of a tract of poor land, in a higli situation near Rochdale, in 
 Lancashire, on which, after fencing and draining it, he erected a bone-mill, 
 and began manuring the ground at the rate of 100 to 130 bushels of bones 
 and dust per acre. The consequence of which was, that in a few years he 
 let off more land than paid the rent of the whole, and retained a large farm 
 in his own hand. The Correspondent of the Quarterly Journal of Agricul- 
 ture, from whom these details are taken, says, ''that one acre woultf sum- 
 mer a cow of large size, and that some fields were cropped with oats ten or 
 fifteen years in succession ; yet that it is surprising to see the herbage which 
 the land still produces, both as to quantity and quality, near one haK being 
 white and marl clover.— N. S., vol. iii. p. 715. 
 
162 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 ground to be exhausted within four years; but on grass-land 
 depastured it is considered to last during- eight. 
 
 Experience seems to be in favour of laying the manure in 
 di'ills, especially when applied to turnips, although the su- 
 periority of the broadcast practice is maintained by some very 
 intelligent farmers, who hold — that the turnip plant receives 
 its support principally from the fibres which it throws out 
 sideways, to a much greater length than people will believe, 
 and derives more nourishment from them than the tap-root; 
 and that the bones being dispersed, the fibres are more likely 
 to meet with them than when they are accumulated round a 
 tap-root; and that method must be the best which occasions 
 the greater quantity of nourishment to be conveyed to the 
 body of the turnip. In drilling the bones, there is also a diffi- 
 culty found in the after-ploughing, of mixing them with the 
 soil: and although this may be in some measure obviated by 
 cross-ploughing the ridges, yet that portion of the land ou 
 which the manure is thus laid receives more than an equal 
 degree of benefit. A third mode is however acted upon by 
 others, who sow them broadcast, and gather them into ridges 
 with a mould-plough. 
 
 The time for laying them upon the land, when applied to 
 grass, whether natural or artificial, is generally recommended 
 to be early in the spring; but if upon meadow, the growth of 
 which has been fed off", then the moment the cattle are re- 
 moved. Experience, however, varies upon this point; because 
 it has been found materially to depend upon the season and 
 the state of the land, which, if wet, will be more benefited by 
 delaying the operation until the weather becomes warm and 
 the ground dry. 
 
 When applied in the drills of arable land, they are of course 
 deposited along with the seed; but when spread broadcast, 
 then they are not uncommonly either harrowed in immediately 
 previous to the sowing, or with the last ploughing; though, 
 when used in a fresh state without having been subjected to 
 the process of maufacture, they should always be laid in suf- 
 ficiently long before the sowing, to allow them time to fer- 
 ment, or they will not take immediate effect upon the rising' 
 crop.* 
 
 The soils to which they are best adapted are those of a 
 light and warm nature; for on wet and cold grounds they 
 
 *Doncaster Report, p. 16. 
 
ON MANURES. 163 
 
 have rarely been found to produce any sensible benefit. Their 
 power of contributing- to lighten strong land, by their mechani- 
 cal action upon the soil, and thus rendering it less adhesive, has 
 indeed been vaunted, and, if laid on to a very large amount, 
 there can be no doubt that the bones, in pieces, would have 
 some such effect; but the smallness of the quantity in which 
 they are usually applied renders their force for that purpose 
 quite insignificant. 
 
 On heavy loams and clays, the accounts of their operation 
 have been almost invariably unfavourable ; and it may be laid 
 down as a necessary qualification in a soil fit for the applica- 
 tion of bones, that it should be dry. This, indeed, has been 
 contradicted by experiments stated in the Doncaster Report, 
 upon what is described as a wet sand soil, with an irony- 
 coloured subsoil, upon which two quarters per acre were 
 drilled, and produced an excellent crop, when manure had 
 been previously tried without effect. This, however, having 
 occurred in the years 1826 and 1827, which were unusually 
 dry, may serve to explain the fact, without affecting the prin- 
 ciple that bone manure is nof generally beneficial to clay 
 lands. 
 
 The same Report states, that ^'■upon very thin sandy land, 
 the value of bone manure is not to be estimated; it is not only 
 found to benefit the particular crop to which it is applied, but 
 extends through the whole course of crops; and even in the 
 succeeding courses, its effects are visible in the improved 
 quality of the land, and the efficiency of a smaller quantity 
 than would at first have insured a crop. Upon much of the 
 high land about Babworth, which is a light^ sandy soil, the 
 crops under ordinary farm management were comparatively 
 jnproductive; but since the introduction of bones, after having 
 been dressed for several fallows with sixty or seventy bushels 
 per acre, they have not only become productive, but so much 
 improved in quality as to return an equal crop with a much 
 lighter dressing of manure or bones throughout the next 
 course." 
 
 " On the dry limestones near Doncaster, the same favour- 
 able results have been obtained ; and no failures, beyond those 
 attributable to peculiarity of season, are noticed." 
 
 On tiie wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, it also ap- 
 pears, by the testimony of several extensive farmers, that 
 "before bones were generally used with turnip-seed, many 
 thousand acres were annually sown for that crop without any 
 
164 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 manure whatever, from the impossibility of getting fold-ma- 
 nure for more than one-third or fourth of tiieir fallows. The 
 turnips upon such unmanured land were consequently very 
 indiflerent; and the benefit of sheep feeding upon their tops — 
 for of bottoms they seldom had any — was very trifling. Since 
 the use of bones, has however, become general, the turnip 
 crop lias been, in many instances, ten-fold, and in few less 
 than four or five-fold its former bulk. All the succeeding 
 crops of grain and seeds have been amazingly increased, and, 
 upon the four or five-shift system, there is no doubt the land 
 will go on progressively improving, requiring a less quantity 
 of bones annually, from its increased fertility and power." 
 
 On light loams, the returns to the Doncaster Committee 
 give bones a preference to farm-yard dung. And we learn 
 that, upon the calcareous soil of the Yorkshire Wolds, heavy 
 crops of turnips have been raised from 16 bushels per acre of 
 bones, while in the same field, and under similar circum- 
 stances, but manured from the farm-yard at the rate of from 8 
 to 10 tons per acre, the turnips have been of the most inferior 
 description. 
 
 On peat soils, if previously drained and laid dry, their ad- 
 vantages are reported to be so striking, that from fifteen to 
 twenty bushels of dust per acre, drilled, have been also found 
 to very far surpass the ordinary dressing of srable-dung, and 
 even of lime and pigeons' dung. 
 
 On gravels, the reports are meagre and contradictory, 
 though perhaps reconcilable in principle, as it has been justly 
 observed, that "a gravelly soil may embrace every variety of 
 texture and qu^^lity, from the light dry sand to the water- 
 logged yellow clay — preserving in each the necessary admix- 
 ture of stones and grit." To wet gravel, their application has 
 been found decidedly unfavourable. 
 
 [It is much more economical to treat bones with acid than 
 without. It has been found that burned bones are better than 
 those not burned — and that there is an advantage in using 
 boiled bones rather than fresh. Of the acids, sulphuric is 
 better than muriatic; because it is cheaper, has greater spe- 
 cific gravity and contains less water. In a dry season, how- 
 ever, we should give the preference to the muriatic acid, since 
 the chloride of lime formed, if not rather more fertilizing and 
 soluble than the sulphate of lime, has greater attraction for 
 moisture. The smaller the fragment of bones submitted the 
 better, as they will be more readily acted upon and require a 
 
ON MANURES, 165 
 
 much less proportion of acid and water. The proportion must 
 be determined by the specific gravity. We take that, ranging 
 from 18.45 to 18.50. Four bushels of bone-dust will weigh 
 about 180 lbs. ; often less, rarely more. This contains carbo- 
 nate of lime, 121 lbs. About 10 lbs. of sulphuric acid is neces- 
 sary to convert this to gypsum. The quantity of phosphate of 
 lime, in the four bushels of bone-dust is about 106 lbs. To 
 change this into about half gypsum and half super-phosphate 
 of lime, will require about 33 lbs. of acid. Thus to 180 lbs. of 
 bone-dust not less than 43 lbs. of acid will be required. About 
 11 lbs. of water should be used. This raises the heat and thus 
 facilitates the solution. The water should be applied first, 
 with a watering pot, so as to completely moisten the bone- 
 dust. The bones becoming partially saturated, the acid, from 
 its great affinity for it, " rushes as it were, into the pores of 
 the bones in search of it," and thus the bones are more readily 
 acted upon. The best vessel for the purpose of mixture is an 
 old sugar hogshead, with its hole stopped up by plaster of 
 Paris. Great care should be taken in handling the acid, as it 
 is a dangerous substance — and carelessness may produce fear- 
 ful accidents. When no other manure is applied to a turnip 
 field — the above proportions — four bushels of bone-dust should 
 be applied — but the acid had better then be increased to 60 lbs. 
 to the four bushels. It will richly pay, however, to apply it 
 in the following proportions : — twenty bushels of ashes, a small 
 proportion of night-soil and four bushels of bone-dust treated 
 with 60 lbs. of acid and 15 lbs. of water. For turnips, espe- 
 cially Swedes, it is the most valuable and economical top- 
 dressing which can be used. In truth, it is the only manure 
 which can be relied on for Swedish turnips. This matter may 
 be regarded as conclusively settled. A very convenient way of 
 applying this manure, is in a liquid state, by means of a water 
 cart. Or, it may be mixed with the ashes, in the proportion 
 before mentioned and applied with a drill.] 
 
 Composts. — The fermentation of bone naturally leads to the 
 consideration of the subject of forming a compost of hones with 
 earth and other substances, by a mixture with which they soon 
 become decayed and pulverized — a practice which is stated in 
 the Doncaster Report to have been recommended by several very 
 intelligent farmers, thirteen of whom, solely from the results of 
 their own experience, describe its eflects as superior to those of 
 bones used singly. With some of these, it is the practice to 
 mix 50 bushels of bones with 5 loads of burnt clay, or good 
 
166 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 earth per acre ; b)' which dressing, the crops between fallow 
 and fallow, excepting clover, appear to have been increased 
 one fifth in value. Others use 40 bushels of bones, broken 
 from two to three inches, in a compost with 5 loads -of farm- 
 yard manure, and a sufficient quantity of earth, the effect of 
 which has been felt on the wheat crop at the end of the four- 
 course system. Many also mix up dung, soot, rape-dust, and 
 the ashes from weeds and house fires, with the bones, by which 
 great heat and consequent fermentation is occasioned. 
 
 The most general practice, however, is to form the compost 
 entirely of bones and yard muck, mixed, in various propor- 
 tions, with 
 
 From 50 bushels of bones to 4 or 5 of dung. 
 20 do. 4 do. 
 
 12 do. 8 do. 
 
 This, if the heap be well covered, will no doubt decompose 
 the bones very rapidly; and one person states, "that he has 
 used as much as 35 hushels of bone-dust, per acre, without 
 manure, in the same field where he laid six loads of fold ma- 
 nure, and ten bushels of bone-dust; but the turnips on the 
 part manured with bone-dust alone were not so good as 
 those on the part manured with the compost and the succeed- 
 ing crops were still worse in comparison." 
 
 As the great amount of bones now actually consumed as 
 manure, besides the quantities applied to other purposes, may 
 reasonably excite an apprehension that the still increasing 
 demand will soon exceed the supply and consequently raise 
 the price, a correspondent of the "Quarterly Journal of Agri- 
 culture," has suggested the following economical method of 
 employing them, which he has used for the last two years, 
 and by which he states that he has obtained heavy crops of 
 turnips. 
 
 He forms a compost, as the manure for one imperial acre, 
 of 8 bushels of coarse bone-dust, with not less than double that 
 quantity of coal-ashes, which may be generally procured for 
 about 5s. per ton. The ashes should be carefully collected in 
 dry weather and placed under cover, in order that they may 
 be kept free from moisture ; or, if that be difficult, they mny 
 be strewed with a dusting of quicklime : after which they are 
 to be riddled as small as the dust itself, for otherwise, if sown 
 with a drilling-machine, they will not pass easily through the 
 hopper. The bones are then mixed with the ashes; the mass 
 
ON MANURES. 167 
 
 ferments, and evolves a considerable degree of heat, when 
 they soon become fit for use. 
 
 Turnips raised with this compost, he affirms to have always 
 possessed the same characters of a close crop, firm root, and 
 hardiness to resist the rig-ours of winter, that turnips raised 
 with bone-dust alone evince; in proof of which, lie has sold 
 them for 11. per acre to be eaten off by sheep. He, however, 
 supposes that it is the bone-dust alone which secures to the 
 crop whatever nourishment may be imparted to it at the 
 future stages of its growth, in which he is doubtless correct ; 
 but in imagining that he has thus discovered a more economi- 
 cal mode of their application in their effect upon succeeding 
 crops, we imagine that his further experience will show him 
 that he has been deceived; for although the fermentation of 
 the bones, occasioned by the application of the ashes, may in- 
 crease their power upon the actual crop, it will be propor- 
 tionably diminished in those which follow, and we think that 
 the instances which we have already stated must convince 
 practical men that the durability of their influence upon the 
 Boil depends on the quantity in which they are applied. 
 
 Application. — Independently of the decided fertilizing pro- 
 perties of bones, when applied to dry and light soils, they have 
 the great advantage of being procurable at a small expense 
 of carriage, which diminishes the labour of teams to a great 
 extent; for one wagon-load of 100 bushels, broken small, will 
 in most cases be found equal to 40 cart-loads of yard manure. 
 They are also capable of being preserved during a long time, 
 when kept dry, without incurring damage, and thus may be 
 stored up during the winter season, when farm business is not 
 pressing ; added to which, they leave the land freer from 
 weeds than when it is manured with dung. This and their 
 suitableness to the drill husbandry, renders them peculiarly 
 adapted to the cultivation of turnips — to which, indeed, they 
 have been the most universally applied ; and we need not 
 remind our readers, that on the success of tliat crop generally 
 depends those of the whole succeeding course. The instances 
 are also numerous, upon all soils, of turnips being destroyed 
 by the fly when sown in drills, having had the manure placed 
 directly under them ; when turnips sown in the same field, 
 and on the same day, with bone dust, have entirely escaped 
 their ravages. Their value to the holders of light soils, in 
 thus enabling them to procure the certain means of improving 
 the returns from their land, by this increase of their quantity 
 o3 
 
168 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 of nutritive matter, may therefore be considered inappreciable. 
 It has been stated as the comparative result of some experi- 
 ments, that bone-dust acts in the cultivation of grain, as com- 
 pared to the best stable manure, in the following proportions : 
 namely, 
 
 In respect to the quality of the corn, as 7 to 5. 
 
 In respect to the quantity, as 5 to 4. 
 
 In respect to tlie durability of its effects on the soil, as 3 to 2. 
 
 We cannot indeed agree altogether in this estimate of its 
 powers, but it requires no further arguments to press its appli- 
 cation upon the attention of every farmer, who is in possession 
 of ground to which it is suitable. We shall, therefore, only 
 add the following summary of the rules for its application, as 
 recommended by the members of the Doncaster Agricultural 
 Association, from which it appears — 
 
 That on dry sands, limestone, chalk, light loams, and peat, 
 bones are a very highly valuable manure. 
 
 That they may be applied to grass with great good effect. 
 
 That on arable lands, they may be laid on fallow for turnips, 
 or used for any of the subsequent crops. 
 
 That the best method of using them, when broadcast, is 
 previously to mix them up in a compost with earth, dung, or 
 other manures, and let them lie to ferment. 
 
 That if used alone, they may be either drilled with the seed, 
 or sown broadcast. 
 
 That bones which have undergone the process of fermenta- 
 tion are decidedly superior (in their immediate effects) to tliose 
 which have not done so. 
 
 That the quantity should be about 20 bushels of dust, or 40 
 bushels of large, increasing the quantity if the land be im- 
 poverished: and also, according to our opinion, if the bones 
 have been already manufactured. 
 
 That upon clays and heavy loams, it does not yet appear 
 that bones will answer. 
 
 On this latter observation, however, a farmer near Nantwich, 
 in Cheshire, remarks, that he occupies a farm in the township 
 of Pickmore, the soil of which is a clay loam, scarcely twelve 
 inches deep, the sub-soil a gray sand, mixed with coarse clay : 
 which the farmers call rammel — on a bed of good clay marl. 
 Two years ago, he covered the field with bone-manure; pre- 
 vious to which the grass was so sour, as not to be worth ten 
 shillings per acre ; but it is now full of most excellent herbage, 
 consisting of white clover and trefoil; to which he adds, that 
 
ON MANURES. 169 
 
 "in another of his fields, with a clay soil, a small portion of it 
 was manured, thirty-two years ago, by a former tenant, with 
 bones; and that, although it had been twenty yearsjn tillage, 
 yet that part still shows a superiority over the rest.'' 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. GREEN CROPS. 
 
 Green Manures consist in fall crops of succulent plants,— 
 such as buck-wheat, rape, tares, and many others, — which are 
 ploughed into the land, and have been applied in many in- 
 stances with very singular advantage, more especially on cal- 
 careous, gravelly, and sandy soils, the fertility of which has 
 been thus greatly improved. The practice dates as far back 
 as the time of the ancient Romans, and is still continued 
 throughout Italy, even in places where the dung of animals 
 can be procured in abundance. The climate of that country 
 is, however, more favourable than ours to the system, for the 
 corn harvests are so much earlier, that they are oif the ground 
 in time for succeeding green crops to arrive at full maturity; 
 and it is there thought that nothing tends more to the improve- 
 ment of the land than ploughing them down.* It has indeed 
 been held by many intelligent men who support an opposite 
 opinion, that the land which produces these crops will be 
 deprived of their vegetative properties in proportion to their 
 luxuriancy ; and, therefore, that, by returning the crop into 
 the same land, its fertility can only be increased in the same 
 degree as it was reduced by their reduction. This theory, 
 however, can only be supported upon the principle that plants 
 are fed more by the soil than by the atmosphere; whereas it 
 
 *In Tuscany, the plant which is chiefly sown for this purpose is the white 
 lupin, a leguminous annual plant, well known in our gardens, which grows 
 in sandy and loamy soil, to the height of two or three feet, with a stem of 
 equal strength with the bean, and bearing somewhat similar blossoms and 
 pods ; but tiie produce is so bitter that it is unfit for the nourishujent of either 
 man or beast,. until prepared by some manufacturing process. It arrives to 
 a considerable size in the month of October, when it is ploughed into the 
 soil ; and very extraordinary fertilizing properties are attributed to its effects, 
 which are ascribed to the great quantity of glutten which it is known to 
 contain. 
 
170 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 has hee\i shown, by many curious experiments, that the air 
 and water are the chief sources of vegetation; and it is a 
 fact, that poor land, without manure, wiiich by the fortuitous 
 chances of the weather has produced tolerable green crops, 
 has been found more fertile after their production than before. 
 
 When ploughed into the land, they however often remain 
 for several months before they decay, for their decomposition 
 goes on slowly beneath the soil, and they are therefore fre- 
 quently more beneficial to the second than to the first crop. 
 To turn them in effectually, they should be first heavily 
 rolled, and then followed by a trench plough, for the operation 
 cannot be completely performed with a common plough; and, 
 if not entirely buried, their points stick out between the fur- 
 rows, by which they are partly prevented from fermenting, 
 and a portion of their value as manure is thereby lost. 
 
 The time of the year when they should be ploughed in, 
 must, of course, depend upon the nature of the crop, which 
 should always be buried before it arrives at perfect maturity, 
 or otherwise it will rob the land of that nutriment with which 
 it is intended to supply it. Most farmers take the first growth 
 of tares and clover, which, if fed ofl' early, is an economical 
 plan; but if mowed, it is only doing the business by halves, for 
 the land is thereby not only deprived of the dung of the cattle, 
 but the operation is then too long delayed, for the work should 
 be done in the heat of the summer, or, at the latest, early in 
 the autumn, while the sun lias the power to forward the fer- 
 mentation. The effect, indeed, will greatly depend upon the 
 season, for the process of fermentation is only slight when 
 checked by the want of free communication v>-ith the air; and 
 if the weather be cold, the power of the manure will be in a 
 great measure lost; but if the season be moderately moist, and 
 very warm, the fermentation will be much promoted, and the 
 crop will be converted, by putrefaction, into a mass of nutritive 
 mucilage. Nothing short, however, of an abundant crop will 
 liave that immediate effect, as a large mass decomposes much 
 more speedily than a small one; and, if very scanty, the latter 
 perhaps may not putrefy at all, or its decomposition will be so 
 very gradual that the land will be very little perceptibly the 
 better; but if such a quantity be turned under the earth as will 
 excite the force of fermentation, there can be no doubt but that 
 it will then be greatly as well as promptly benefited. Sir 
 Humphry Davy, indeed, says, "that this gradual decomposition 
 affords a supply of vegetable mould for several years;" but 
 
ON MANURES. 171 
 
 although as a chemist, h*e may be right, yet every farmer must 
 know that, with such materials to work upon as cannot ma- 
 terially enrich the staple of the soil, his object should be to 
 obtain such immediate effect as will enable him to put the 
 land into a state for growing one good crop, which, by its 
 means of producing manure, will probably lead to others. If 
 the question whether it be most profitable to appropriate green 
 crops as the food of cattle, or as manure, be put aside, and 
 that the sole object is the improvement of the land by the 
 latter process, then there can be little doubt that the crop 
 should be ploughed down as soon as it is in bloom, for the land 
 will thus have its full benefit, besides the partial advantage of 
 a bastard fallow; to which, however, there is this difficulty 
 opposed: that the ground cannot be again ploughed until it 
 receives the seed furrow, and therefore cannot be cleared 
 except by the operation of horse-shoeing, or scarifying, which; 
 if the soil be foul, we need not say will prove ineffectual. 
 
 The crops which are most generally applied to this purpose 
 are — buck-wheat, winter tares, the second year of clover, and 
 rape; which last, from its oily nature has been found very 
 effective. There is, however, a plant which, although but 
 seldom sown in this country, is very commonly grown through- 
 out Flanders, for the pasturage of cows, and is there sown, 
 like brush-turnips, immediately after a crop of wheat, yet in a 
 couple of months afterwards affords a large quantity of succu- 
 lent food. Several trials of it have also been made with the 
 happiest results in many parts of Germany, of its effects as a 
 green manure; for it not only possesses the advantage of 
 putrefying with great rapidity when ploughed in, but also 
 that of producing a crop by being merely harrowed across the 
 stubble, and the costs a mere trifle; it is called spurry. 
 
 Upon arable land which, from any circumstance, is deprived 
 of the benefit of a due application of farm-yard dung, or other 
 putrescent manure, there can be little doubt that green crops 
 of quick growth, abundant foliage, and easy decomposition, 
 may be turned into the land with considerable advantage; but 
 we cannot accord in the opinion that they will be found an 
 effectual mode of improving exhausted soils, for on such land 
 they grow too feebly to produce much effect. The ground, to 
 be benefited by their application, should be capable of bringing 
 them forth, if not luxuriantly, at least with such abundance as 
 to furnish complete shade during their growth, and sufficient 
 vegetative matter to occasion a rapid fermentation when 
 
172 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 buried : we therefore conceive that this species of manure is 
 more appropriate for the preservation of good soils in a state 
 of fertility, than to the improvement of those which are im- 
 poverished. This probahly will in a great measure account 
 for the comparative rarity of the practice on extensive farms 
 containing tracts of poor land, the cultivation of which is 
 chiefly dependent upon the fold; while, on those of a richer 
 description, it may be fairly questioned whether the dung 
 made from a large green crop, when fed off, or soiled, may 
 not be equally beneticial in its effects upon the soil as if 
 ploughed down, besides the superior profit thus gained by its 
 support of the stock. 
 
 CHAPTER Xni. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. OIL CAKE — RAPE — 
 
 AND MALT DUST. 
 
 OiL-CAKE, though a term generally applied to the pressed 
 seed of flax, as well as that of rape, is, however, essentially 
 different, for the linseed-cake is rarely applied to any other 
 purpose than that of feeding cattle, while rape-cake is used 
 solely as manure. When received from the oil-mills, where 
 the seed is crushed, the cakes of rape are commonly abont 
 4 lbs. weight, and contain a small portion of oil, from which 
 their fertilizing quality is chiefly derived; the remainder con- 
 sisting of husk and bran. Those of linseed are of a richer and 
 more nutritive substance, and consequently bear a much higher 
 price. There is, therefore, not only a material difference in 
 their value, and the uses to which they are applied, but also 
 in their quality; for some mills are constructed with such 
 power, as to leave little else than the husk of the seed, and in 
 some cases foreign oil-cake has been re-crushed in the mills 
 of this country, by which their value is very much decreased. 
 They are in this state very hard, and there is such considerable 
 difficulty in breaking them, that, when not reduced by a re- 
 gular crushing machine, they must be pounded with heavy 
 iron hammers or mallets; though some farmers attach a stone 
 to their thrashing-mill for the purpose of grinding it to dust. 
 
ON MANURES. I73 
 
 If laid for some time upon a damp clay floor, from which they 
 attract moisture, this operation will, however, be rendered 
 easier, though it should not be carried too far, or it will injure 
 the manure; and a man can in this manner break about4cwt. 
 in the day into pieces small enough to be passed through such 
 a sieve as those used in cleansing oats; but a mill with one 
 horse will crush five tons within the same time. The opera- 
 tion for the crushing of both linseed and rape-cake is the same, 
 and the former has, in many instances, been also employed as 
 manure; but although more effective when thus applied than 
 the latter, we yet strongly doubt the expediency of making 
 such use of any thing which is fit for food. One load of the 
 dung of beasts fed with linseed-cake is thought worth nearly 
 two of any other; and will enrich the land nearly as much as 
 if the cake was laid on in its original state. The cheapest 
 mode of its employment will, consequently, be always found 
 to consist in feeding bullocks or sheep, as the linseed-cake can 
 be both profitably used as food, and will afterwards be nearly 
 as powerful a manure. Our observations, therefore, attach 
 solely to rape-dust. 
 
 When sown broadcast, it matters little whether the cakes 
 be rendered into dust, or merely pounded into small pieces; 
 but as that mode of spreading them, though more convenient, 
 requires a larger quantity than when laid in drills, besides 
 being less immediately effective to the crop, the practice has 
 now almost universally given way to that of drilling, which is 
 thus performed : — 
 
 When laid in drills with the seed, it is generally ground 
 fine by means of a stone revolving on its edge, as in a bark- 
 mill, and in this mode it is usually applied when intended for 
 turnips; but for wheat it is not uncommon to drill it between 
 the rows in March or April, as, when sown along with the 
 seed, it is apt to render the crop winter-proud. In Norfolk, 
 Mr. Coke is said to have improved upon this plan, drilling one 
 half the usual quantity with the seed, and the other half 
 between the rows in the spring, from an idea that the plants 
 are more likely to be then benefited by this additional stimulus. 
 In spreading the dust for turnips, the common drill-barrow 
 might be supposed to answer very well; but a layer of soil 
 should intervene between the seed and the manure, tor if 
 applied directly to the seed, it will be injured by the fermenta- 
 tion which always takes place in rape-cake when laid in the 
 land. Some drills are, however so constructed as to cover 
 
174 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 the dust slightly with mould before the seed is deposited. For 
 wheat, that precaution is not necessary, for the same danger 
 is not to be apprehended from fermentation. 
 
 The crops to which it is the most generally applied are 
 turnips and wheat; but, when used for the former, it is pre- 
 carious in its effects, from requiring moisture either in the 
 soil, or from the weather, to render it operative, for it will 
 remains inactive until aided by the natural coldness of the 
 land or by rain. For the same reason it is seldom used for 
 barley when any other manure can be obtained, because, if 
 sown late in the spring, the weather is then usually dry, and 
 if the season continue hot, the manure will not be of the least 
 advantage to that crop: though, as its powers will not be ex- 
 hausted, it is probable that it may benefit that which follows; 
 that, however, we need not observe, is not the immediate 
 object of the farmer. 
 
 The quantity usually employed varies among different 
 farmers, some applying a ton to three acres, others four, and 
 many to six, according to the condition of the land, and the 
 goodness of the cake. At the former rate, it is said to have 
 been found equal to 12 loads of dung per acre, and that with 
 5 cwt. per acre its effects extend to two crops; but that is 
 more generally limited to the crop to which it is applied, and 
 does not benefit the subsequent ones. Mr. Curwen used 5 
 cwt. per acre, mixed with two tons of dung, as a manure for 
 turnips, and found the crop admirable. Fitly bushels of dust 
 make a ton; and the last price at Mark-lane was five guineas. 
 
 The soils to which it is the most applicable are considered 
 to be clays, and other moist lands ; but it is generally thought 
 to be occasionally serviceable to any description of soil. It is 
 likewise said to succeed well in wet seasons, but is found 
 injurious in very dry weather. 
 
 Malt-dust is the refuse which falls from the malt in the 
 process of drying, and is extensively used as a top-dressing, in 
 those counties where the general production of barley occasions 
 the establishment of large malting concerns. It is also in some 
 places employed in the feeding of milch cows and pigs. It 
 varies, however, very considerably in its effects as manure, 
 both in proportion to the quality of the barley, and to the de- 
 gree of heat employed in the operation of malting; for when 
 the grain is equally good, the pale malt, which undergoes a 
 regular and uniform heat in the kiln, though considered more 
 lasting in its effects, is not so stimulant as that which is high- 
 
ON MANURES. 175 
 
 dried. The browner the dust, tlierefore the more active it is 
 found to be in its immediate application — provided the barley 
 from which it is made be of equal goodness. Farmers are, 
 therefore, not unfrequently deceived m their expectations of 
 its powers, from the want of proper attention to these circum- 
 stances, for the quantity to be' applied to the land should be 
 regulated accordingly. 
 
 It has been used with considerable success upon stiff loams, 
 and even on sandy and chalky loams, and other calcareous 
 hungry soils; but upon cold, stiff land we should recommend 
 the application of the brown dust, as the most likely to be ef- 
 fectual to the crop in the ground. The accounts given of its 
 influence upon the succeeding crops are by no means favour- 
 able, though in Walker's report of Hertfordshire, it is said that 
 "these top-dressings not only supply the want of previous ma- 
 nure, but also, when crops are sickly and backward in the 
 spring, occasioned either by bad seed-times, frosts, or other 
 causes, are attended with wonderful success, and enable the 
 crops to vegetate quickly, and cover and protect the soil on 
 which they grow from the droughts of summer." He states, 
 indeed, that the farmers of that country are chiefly indebted to 
 its effects for their never-failing crops: and that, therefore, 
 they continue to enlarge upon the practice, though attended 
 with considerable expense. To which Mr. Malcolm adds, 
 "that he has seen an untoward season so injure the young 
 barleys as to nearly annihilate the crop, which had been pre- 
 viously dusted, but which was aflerwards entirely recovered 
 by a repetition of the malt-dust ; which shows, that although 
 from some ungenial circumstances the first manuring had not 
 been attended with all the success which might have been 
 expected, yet it clearly proves that we should not be afraid of 
 a second application, which is often attended with more than 
 ordinary success." He, however, advises to be laid on in the 
 following quantities: — 
 
 If top-dressed, for wheat, from 36 to 40 bushels. 
 
 If drilled with the crop, for barley and turnips 30 to 34 " 
 
 according to the strength of the soil. Mr. Young says gene- 
 rally from 40 to 60 bushels; and states that it greatly improves 
 cold grass land: notwithstanding which high authority, we re- 
 commend them to weigh the cost against the probable increase 
 of produce, before they apply it. For wheat, it should be laid 
 on some time in March, just before the usual change of the 
 weather, and should be harrowed in with light harrows. For 
 P 
 
176 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 barley and turnips, it is usual to sow it in with the last har- 
 rowing- of the seed, and then to finish by rolling-. The com- 
 mon price at most malt-kilns is from five to six shillings per 
 quarter. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. PEAT MOSS. 
 
 Peat-moss, which is universally considered as an inert mass 
 of half-corrupted vegetable matter, has been long applied to 
 land in different ways, and, when burned, has been already 
 treated of in the chapter on Ashes, When reduced to that 
 state, it is of course rendered light by combustion, and con- 
 sequently so portable as to be easily conveyed to any part of 
 the kingdom; but it is only in the immediate neighbourhood 
 of bogs that it can be used in its natural state, for, even when 
 dried by exposure to the air, its bulk is too great to admit of 
 its being carried to any great distance, unless at such expense 
 as would render its application as manure unprofitable. 
 
 It has been extensively used in its natural state in both 
 Scotland and Ireland, in various parts of which there are 
 large bogs, as well as in some parts of this country: it is, how- 
 however, very sluggish in becoming reduced, and requires two 
 or three years, with repeated turnings and exposure to the 
 atmosphere, to bring it to anything like the condition of vege- 
 tative mould ; but being of a cold nature, it is found, by a heavy 
 dressing, to cause considerable improvement in hot, gravelly, 
 and sandy soils. When brought to the decayed condition of 
 bog-mould, or rich earth, it has also been found highly useful 
 in opening stitf clay land, arid has been largely used for that 
 purpose in Ireland; but on mellow friable soils, it is stated to 
 possess too little substance to be of much utility, and it is said 
 that it inclines grass-land to the production of moss. It is 
 likewise impregnated with noxious roots and seeds of aquatic 
 grasses, which when laid on in its raw state, fill the land with 
 those nuisances ; and some farmers who have thus applied it, 
 have occasioned such injury to their grass-land, that it has not 
 recovered for several years: though a small quantity of quick- 
 
ON MANURES. 177 
 
 lime sprinkled sparing-ly over the surface, after the peat is 
 spread, has been known to correct its bad effects. 
 
 During many years it has been the practice of farmers re- 
 siding- in the vicinity of fens, to bed their cattle upon dried 
 peat, as they find that the dung and urine occasion it to fer- 
 ment and become decomposed. This is so common in Ireland, 
 that every peasant who has a few acres of ground, bottoms his 
 dung-stead with stuff drawn from the bogs, that he may thus 
 preserve the seep or gooding, as he terms it, of his stable- 
 manure. They also mix the peat with dung in various pro- 
 portions — sometimes one-third of the latter, at other times one- 
 half; and in the latter case have in most instances found that 
 the mixture has produced an equal crop with a similar quantity 
 of stable-dung. In countries where peat-moss cannot be readily 
 obtained, a proportion of moory soil may be substituted ; but it 
 is not advisable that either of these should form the principal 
 part of the compost heap, for neither of them contains fer- 
 tilizing properties of sufficient power to act in any other way 
 than as alteratives, until effectually decomposed by being 
 judiciously blended with stimulating substances. The diffi- 
 culty of effecting this decomposition led to frequent disappoint- 
 ment in the application of the manure, and consequently to 
 much difference of opinion regarding its value, until ffie late 
 Lord Meadowbank happily overcame the objections to its use, 
 by a scientific investigation of its properties, and directions for 
 its preparation in composts with dung, of which the following 
 is a summary. 
 
 Composts. — The peat of which the compost is to be partly 
 formed should be thrown out of the pit some weeks, or even 
 months, previously, in order to deprive it of its redundant 
 moisture. By this means it is rendered the lighter and less 
 compact when made up with fresh dung for fermentation ; and 
 accordingly, less dung is required for the purpose than if the 
 preparation be m.ade with peat recently dug from the pit. It 
 should be taken to a dry spot, convenient to the field which is 
 to be manured, and placed in a row of the length intended for 
 the midden. When ready to be made up into compost, half 
 the quantity of dung must be carted out, and laid in a parallel 
 row at such a distance as wull allow the workmen to throw 
 the rows together by the spade : the compost may thus be laid 
 in the centre, and will form the area of the future heap, which 
 is to be thus formed. 
 
 Let the workmen make a layer or bottom of peat about six 
 
178 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 inches deep, and extending further than the base of tho pro- 
 posed midden, which is to be thrown up in alternate layers — 
 first, ten inches of dung over the peat, then peat six inches, 
 dung- four inches — thus diminishing each layer of dung until 
 the heap rises to a height not exceeding between three and 
 four feet, when the whole should be covered — lop, ends, and 
 sides — with the remains of the peat; the whole to be put 
 loosely together, and made quite smooth. 
 
 In mild weather, 7 cart-loads of common farm-yard dung, 
 tolerably fresh made, is sufficient for 21 cart-loads of peat- 
 moss; but in cold weather, a larger proportion of dung is 
 desirable. The dung to be used should either have been 
 recently made, or kept fresh by the compression of cattle or 
 carts passing over it; and as some sorts of dung, even when 
 fresh, are much more advanced in decomposition than others, 
 it is necessary to attend to this, for a much less proportion 
 of dung that is less advanced will serve the purpose. 
 
 After the compost is made up, it gets into a general heat, 
 sooner or later, according to the weather and the condition of 
 the dung: in summer, in ten days, or sooner; in winter, not 
 perhaps for so many weeks, if the cold is severe. It always, 
 however, has been found to come on at last; and in summer it 
 sometimes rises so high as to be mischievous by becoming fire- 
 fanged. Sticks should therefore be kept thrust into different 
 parts, as by drawing them out occasionally the progress of the 
 fermentation may be ascertained ; and if so rapid as to approach 
 to blood-heat, it should be either watered or turned over, and 
 a little moss be added. The heat subsides after a time, and 
 with variety proportioned to the season and the perfection of 
 the compost; but when cooled, it may be allowed to remain 
 untouched till within about three weeks of being wanted: it 
 should be then turned over, upside down, and outside in, and 
 all the lumps broken; after which, it comes into a second heat, 
 but soon cools, and may be taken out for use. In this state the 
 whole appears a black mass, like garden mould, and, it is said, 
 may be used weight for weight, like farm-yard manure, with 
 which it will fully stand a comparison throughout a course of 
 cropping.* Sixteen single-horse cart-loads per acre are, indeed, 
 
 * To every 28 cart-loads of compost, when made up, it is also recommended 
 to add one cart-load of ashes ; or, if these cannot be had, half the quantity 
 of tiiiely powdered slaked lime may be used; but these additions are not 
 essential to the general success of the compost, though they will tend to 
 quicken the process. 
 
ON MANURES. 17g 
 
 Bald to have produced comparatively as good a crop as 12 of 
 farm-yard dung.* 
 
 By this plan one ton of dung will ferment three tons of 
 peat; and wherever moss is only two or three miles distant 
 from the farm, this mode of raising manure can be conlidently 
 recommended as a great acquisition. His Lordship also tried 
 various experiments on the mixture of animal matter — such as 
 refuse fish, whale-blubber, and the scourings of the shambles — • 
 with peat, without the addition of any other substance, and 
 found that, in the course of about nine months, a compost 
 formed of one ton of animal substance and 10 or 12 tons of 
 peat, produced a compost of superior power to that^composed 
 with dung. He, however, states, that peat prepared with lime 
 alone is not capable of being decomposed when collected in a 
 heap, and has consequently not been found to answer as a 
 good manure; which opinion he supports upon chemical prin- 
 ciples, which we need not now discuss, as experience proves 
 that he is mistaken; for not only does peat, when compounded 
 with a small quantity of lime, obviously undergo the putrid 
 fermentation, but it is well known to many farmers that such 
 composts form excellent dressings, particularly for grass-lands. 
 In corroboration of which, there is an experiment recorded by 
 the Manchester Agricultural Society, stating, that a compost 
 of 119 tons of peat-moss and lime having been laid upon five 
 acres of a poor sandy soil, and harrowed in with oats, an 
 equal quantity of the same compost was laid upon five acres 
 of thin, poor clayey soil, and harrowed in with the seed, 
 which was likewise oats. The crop upon the sandy field was 
 uncommonly heavy; that on the clay land, though inferior, 
 was, however, very abundant, considering the state of the soil 
 previously to the application of the compost. f To this it may 
 be added, that lime will operate in composts when used upon 
 land which has been previously exhausted by the application 
 
 *Gen.Rep. of Scotland, vol. ii. n. p. 550. In Holland's Survey of Cheshire, 
 it is also mentioned, that three tons of compost, made from moss and dung, 
 having been spread on part of a meadow, and three tons of rotten dung 
 upon an equal portion of the same field, it was found that, although the 
 grass on that part which was covered with dung only, came up as soon, and 
 upon the whole grew rather higher than that on the other part, yet the 
 latter was of a darker green, and yielded nearly an eighth more when it 
 came to be cut. 
 
 t In Malcolm's Survey of Surrey, it is, however stated, that in one in- 
 stance, on a small piece of fallow sown with wheat, the application of a 
 compost of peat and lime only was manifestly pernicious. — Vol. ii. p. 198. 
 The proportions of which it is composed are not stated. 
 p2 
 
180 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 of lime and marl, although it may have failed to act when 
 used by itself; but it is only upon the varieties of deep argil- 
 laceous soils that it can be used with advantage. It is, indeed, 
 generally supposed that the power of the compost will be in- 
 creased if animal or vegetable matter be added; but the mix- 
 ture of quick-lime and dung can never be ad visible, for the 
 lime will render some of the most valuable parts of the dung 
 insoluble. 
 
 Application. — The practice most usually followed in pre- 
 paring the compost is to trench and throw the moss up into 
 ridges, at the most convenient time after the autumn sowing, 
 that it may be dried and pulverized by the winter's frost; and 
 towards the latter end of February to turn it over and lay it 
 flat, when it will be found considerably lighter than when it 
 was first dug up. It is then mixed with the dung, and the 
 process of composition already stated is carried through until 
 it is ready to be laid upon tlie land. When made up in Janu- 
 ary, such composts are generally in good order for the spring 
 crops; but this may not happen in a long frost. In summer, 
 they are ready in eight or ten weeks; but if there should 
 exist any necessity for hastening the process, that can be ef- 
 fected by a slio'ht addition of ashes, rubbish from old buildings, 
 or of lime slaked with foul water, and applied to the dung 
 while the compost is being made up. 
 
 Doubts have arisen respecting the proper season of laying 
 on this manure — some insisting that it should be applied to 
 spring crops — others, that it should be ploughed in for wheat 
 in the autumn; but we believe that its effect upon the land will, 
 in the long run, be found in either case equal. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. SEA-WARE — KELP — 
 
 REFUSE FISH BLUBBER AND TRAIN-OIL. 
 
 These manures being chiefly confined to the use of farmers 
 resident in the vicinity of our coasts, necessarily do not engage 
 much of the attention of thote who dwell in the interior of the 
 country; but they are of considerable importance wherever 
 
ON MANURES. 181 
 
 they can be procured with facility, and therefore deserve a 
 place in any general account of the husbandry of the United 
 Kingdom. 
 
 Sea-ware, or tangle, in many of those districts, forms an 
 article of constant application, and when used with judgment, 
 never fails to add to the fertility of the land. On some parts 
 of the coast immense quantities are thrown up by the tide, 
 when aided by favourable gales of wind; and in those situa- 
 tions where experience teaches its value, it is seized on witii 
 great avidity as a sure means of increasing the crops to which 
 it can be applied ; while, in other places, either from the igno- 
 rance of the farmer, or in some cases from the want of means 
 and hands to assist in securing it, it is either wholly neglected, 
 or applied to other purposes than those of manure. Thus, in 
 the Orkneys, the Western Islands of Scotland, and on the 
 coasts of Ireland, it is almost solely employed in the manufac- 
 ture of kelp, and is even used in a dried state as fodder for 
 cattle. In the Isle of Thanet, when a large quantity is driven 
 ashore after a gale of wind, the farmers set all hands to work to 
 get as much as possible while the tide serves, lest the current 
 should carry it away; and even if it happen in the night, they 
 work at it till stopped by the flow of the sea. It is carted 
 through sloping passages cut in the clitf, and some farmers 
 will thus procure as much as 200 or 300 loads in one tide, for 
 it sometimes comes in quantities that amount to many thou- 
 sands, and is perhaps all swept away by the next ebb. Those 
 who live at a distance, therefore, hire small spots of ground on 
 which" to lay it, and carry it away at a more convenient oppor- 
 tunity. The principal mode in which it is there used, is by 
 mixing it in layers among the farm-yard dung ; and it is of 
 great use in helping to rot the litter carried out of the yard in 
 summer. 
 
 Sea-ware, although valuable as a manure, is yet only 
 transient in its eflects, which do not last more than the crop; 
 nor can it be applied with any advantage, either to clay soils 
 or in very wet weather. To light land of any description it 
 is, however, well adapted; and it is very beneficially applied 
 to summer fallows. When spread on grass-land, it is also 
 found to improve the herbage, but it should be spread evenly, 
 and rather thinly. On arable, there is no certain rule for the 
 quantity which may be laid on, for it may be employed to 
 almost any moderate amount without injury. 
 
 Kelp is made from burnt sea- ware; but since the admission 
 
182 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 of foreigii barilla, the manufacture has nearly ceased through- 
 out the United Kingdom, and it lias become a matter of great 
 importance to a very numerous class of poor and industrious 
 persons, formerly employed in its production, to discover any 
 useful purpose to which it can be applied. It requires about 
 '30 tons of the weed in its wet state to produce one ton of 
 kelp, and it is said to resemble peat-ashes in its effects. 
 
 Kelp when intended for use as manure is pounded into a 
 powder, and applied in the same manner as the ashes; but its 
 causticity affects the hands of the workmen, and when spread 
 as a top-dressing, it is therefore prudent to mix it with an 
 equal quantity of fine sand, which both prevents that injury 
 and facilitates its equal distribution. In this way it has been 
 already employed with considerable advantage. 
 
 Refuse Fish. — Large shoals of herrings, pilchards, and other 
 sea-fish, periodically frequent many parts of the coasts of Great 
 Britain, which, being salted, leave great quantities of refuse, 
 which are used as manure.* Sprats, and other small fry, are 
 also employed for the same purpose; and in the fens of Lin- 
 colnshire and Cambridgeshire, the small fish called stickle- 
 backs abound in such swarms, that they are frequently pur- 
 chased by farmers at a very trifling cost, and either formed 
 into composts with earth, or laid upon the land without further 
 preparation. One barrel of such offal is mixed in about 4 or 
 5 cart-loads of earth, sweepings of ditches, or sand ; and after 
 being well incorporated, the compost is usually applied at the 
 rate of about 20 cart-loads per acre, more or less, according to 
 the quantity of oil contained in the garbage. 
 
 The effect of a compost when thus prepared have been 
 known to last for a considerable time, and when laid as a top- 
 dressing upon grass-land, has produced very large crops; but 
 when applied in that manner in its natural state, it is often 
 prejudicial to the first crops; and not very beneficial to those 
 which follow.f It should, therefore, in every case, be either 
 made into a compost, and completely decomposed; or, if 
 
 *In Scotland, it is calculated that 14 barrels of herrings yield one barrel 
 refuse: pilchards something less, but containing rather more oily matter ; 
 and there are, besides, large quantities wholly spoiled. To which may be 
 added, the entrails of the cod and ling, which are caught and salted "to a 
 vast amount in the north. 
 
 t The manure produced in the fishing villages from the oily and fishy sub- 
 stances, though admitted to be favourable to bear (barley) and green crops, 
 yet when much used, is said to render the soil unfit for the production of 
 oats: "Hence that soil is called poisoned." — Sinclair's Statistical Account 
 of Scotland, vol. vii p. 201. 
 
ON MANURES. 183 
 
 ploughed into the land without that preparation, it should 
 be mixed with a small quantity of quick-lime or strong 
 ashes, for all oily substances are hurtful to vegetation until 
 they are dissolved. We hear, indeed, of a crop of wheat 
 having been rendered so rank in straw by the application 
 of herrings in a raw state, that it was entirely laid before 
 harvest; and sprats are said to produce great effects for 
 one year upon the hop-grounds in the neighbourhood of the 
 Medvvay ; but we have no information regarding the state of 
 the soil, nor the time of the year, when the former were 
 ploughed into the ground, nor whether the latter had not also 
 been laid upon the land toget -er with some alkaline manure. 
 
 Oil. — As all writers on the application of train-oil and 
 blubber, as manure, agree in their opinion that it should be 
 made into a compost, with a large portion of earth,* and the 
 experience of practical men in this country has proved its 
 correctness, we do not think it necessary to enlarge on the 
 subject, further than to remark, that in some parts of the con- 
 tinent, oil has been found highly fertilizing when applieu to 
 the land in its liquid state, diluted with a sufficient quantity 
 of water, and spread moderatelv over the surface. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. FELLMONGERS' POAKE 
 
 AND CUTTINGS TANNERS' BARK WOOLEN RAGS AND 
 
 furriers' CLIPPINGS SUGAR SCUM. 
 
 In consequence of the improvements in husbandry, attempts, 
 which in former times were little thought of, were very gene- 
 rally made to increase the natural powers of the soil by the 
 application of every refuse vegetable and animal substance 
 that could be converted into manure. Among these are some 
 of those which form the subject of the present chapter ; but 
 being only procurable in the neighborhood of towns, and con- 
 
 *Dr. Hunter advises, in his Geological Essays, a compost formed of 12 lbs. 
 of American potash dissolved in four gallons of water, mixed vk'ith 20 bushels 
 of dry mold and 14 gallons of train-oil. 
 
184 A PKACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 Eequently not at the disposition of all husbandmen, we shall 
 only touch upon them slightly. 
 
 Fellmongers' poake, which is the waste arising- from the 
 preparation of skins, is compounded in various proportions of 
 lime, oil, and hair, and is of such a caustic and lieating nature, 
 that it is rarely used in any other state than that of a compost 
 with earthy substances, and sometimes, when it is thought 
 expedient to increase the powers of farm manure, also with 
 stable-dung. To form this, whatever materials are intended 
 for the compost should be mixed together in a heap, sur- 
 rounded with maiden earth, and covered, when it begins to 
 ferment, with soil made fine and sloped so as to throw off the 
 rain. When the fermentation has nearly subsided, it should 
 then be turned over, and if some fresh litter be mixed with it, 
 the midden will again immediately heat; after which, it may 
 be again turned in three weeks or a month, and in about six 
 weeks more, it will be fit for use. 
 
 In this state, it is well calculated for cold and tenacious 
 soils, as well as for loams of every description, and when laid 
 on at the rate of 12 to 16 tons per acre, according to the 
 strength of the land, it has been known to produce heavy 
 crops for four or five years successively. It has also been 
 applied, in its unprepared state, as a top-dressing to sour 
 coarse meadow, with very good effect; and after having lain 
 three or four months on the field, and having been frequently 
 moved about with the brush harrow, it has then been raked 
 up, and laid upon the dungheap. There can, however, be 
 little doubt that much of its valuable properties must have 
 been thus exhausted by the atmosphere; which, if it had been 
 made up in the first instance into a compost, would have been 
 preserved. 
 
 The clippings, are the parings and scrapings of the skins, 
 which, although generally used in the manufacture of glue, 
 have been in many instances used as manure. When ploughed 
 in upon a summer fallow for wheat, these clippings have been 
 found highly serviceable to deep loamy land, and t» strong 
 soils which are not too wet, for they not only produce a full 
 clean grain, with a bright strong straw, but the bulk of tlie 
 crop is also greatly increased. Care should however be taken 
 to cover them well with the soil ; for, if left near the surflice, 
 the putrid effluvia, which they soon emit, attract the crows in 
 Bwarms, ^nd great quantities are thus scratched out of the 
 
ON MANURES. 185 
 
 ground. From 30 to 40 bushels is the quantity usually 
 applied to an acre. 
 
 Tanners' Bark. — The refuse of the tanneries consists partly 
 of the same substances as fellmongers' poake; but when the 
 bark is used alone, it is chiefly employed in gardens, as a 
 covering for the beds of pineries, and in that state has been 
 found quite ineffectual as manure. It has, however, in some 
 instances, been made up as a compost with lime, chalk, earth, 
 and dung, and laid upon strong land with considerable advan- 
 tage. It might, indeed, be supposed that the w^hole value of 
 the mixture consisted in the latter article; but, according to a 
 long account of a series of experiments made by Mr. Malcolm, 
 and recorded in his Compendium of Modern Husbandry, the 
 bark would appear, by the comparative trials, to have had 
 much good effect in the composition. When mixed with lime, 
 great care is however requisite to prevent it from catching fire 
 during its fermentation, for which purpose it should be so com- 
 pletely covered with earth as wholly to exclude the air. It 
 will, in some cases, particularly if much mixed with earth, 
 take three or four months to ferment; when it should be 
 turned over at least once; which further fermentation and 
 cooling will probably require a couple of months longer before 
 it can be in a fit state to be laid upon the land. As in many 
 cases it is such an incumbrance to the tanners, that they are 
 glad to get it taken off their premises without charge, it may 
 be worth the while of farmers in their neighbourhood to try its 
 effects. 
 
 Woollen Rags and Furriers' Clippings. — Rags are some- 
 times used in considerable quantities upon light chalks and 
 gravelly soils, to which their retention of wet renders them 
 particularly applicable, and they continue to act so long as 
 they remain unrotted in the ground. They require to be cut 
 into pieces, and are sometimes spread upon clover-leys and 
 ploughed in for wheat when sown upon one ploughing. Their 
 chief use is, however, to lay them in hop grounds, for as they 
 act in the nature of a sponge, they preserve the plantations 
 in a constant state of moisture in the dry seasons, when in 
 land which has been manured with dung the hops have failed; 
 but in rainy seasons they, on the contrary, have been known 
 to do injury by creating mould. The usual method of thus 
 applying them is, to open the hills and place the rags round 
 the roots, a little below the surface, and immediately to cover 
 them with mould : a ton of rags being the usual quantity to an 
 
186 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 acre. They are also frequently employed as top-dressing's foi 
 clover-leys, and are sometimes ploughed into the land before 
 winter, when intended for turnips; for, if applied at the time 
 of sowing-, they will not work tor that crop. If used for other 
 crops, they should be spread before the last ploughing, and 
 laid well into the soil, or otherwise they are apt to be raked 
 out by the harrrows. We have also heard of their being 
 steeped in a reservoir of urine, kept in the farm-yard, and 
 applied to barley and clover with very good effect. 
 
 Sugar-Bakers' Scum is the skimmings of the sugar during 
 the operation of refining, m which process it is boiled with a 
 portion of bullock's blood and lime-water. The albumen con- 
 tained in the blood coagulates on the application of heat, and 
 rises to the top of the pan, carrying with it the impurities 
 contained in the solution which is thus clarified, and the dregs 
 are used as manure. This refuse is of a very caustic nature, 
 and is therefore not well adapted to light soils ; nor, indeed, 
 has it been found to answer upon arable land of any descrip- 
 tion ; but it has very considerably enriched meadows of cold 
 retentive clay, and is therefore used to some extent in the 
 vicinity of the great seaports which trade with the West 
 Indies, 
 
 The mode of applying it is to break the lumps, and to spread it 
 evenly and thinly, if laid on in its raw state ; but a better method 
 is to mix two or three cart-loads of road sand with one of scum, 
 and to apply the mixture, without waiting for its fermentation, 
 at the rate of about 30 loads per acre; a few more or less, ac- 
 cording to the state of the land. It may be had at most sugar- 
 bakers at about four to five shillings the cart-load, containing 
 at least a ton. 
 
 [Guano, owing its fertilizing properties to its uncombined 
 ammonia, is coming much into use. The best system for 
 using it, is to spread and plough it in. About 500 lbs, to the 
 acre is a proper paying proportion. For Indian corn, it is un- 
 surpassed. For turnips, after bruising and powdering it, apply 
 it by hand in the drills. Care must be taken that it does not 
 come in contact with the seed. The guano should be applied, 
 and after the falling of the earth in the drill covers it, the seed 
 are planted. The proportion for turnips, you may apply about 
 450 lbs. to the acre. It is valuable as a top-dressuig to green 
 or growing plants, especially to grass. But bone-dust treated 
 with acid, as before-described, is a preferable manure for 
 turnips, especially Swedes.] 
 
ON MANURES. 187 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS MANURES CONTINUED. CLAY SAND — POND, 
 
 RIVER, AND SEA MUD. 
 
 Clay. — Such frequent allusion has been already made to 
 the expediency of mixing together diflerent soils of a marked 
 character, as a means of ameliorating their distinct qualities, 
 that it is unnecessary to repeat that recommendation, when- 
 ever it can be carried into eliect with moderate expense. 
 This advantage is in no case more fully evinced than by lay- 
 ing clay upon sand lands, whether they be of the red, rich, or 
 more valuable descriptions, or those of an inferior quality 
 which usually contain a portion of moor and white sand. On 
 the former, about 50 tons per acre will effect a vast improve- 
 ment ; but the latter are seldom brought into a fertile state 
 with less than treble that quantity. The most eligible period 
 to apply it is in the autumn or early part of the winter, when 
 the land is in grass, and intended to be broken up for a crop 
 of corn; or otherwise at the same period when intended for 
 fallow. The frost, rain, and drying winds will then cause the 
 lumps of clay, however large, to open, and by repeated slight 
 harrowing, to divide and intimately cover the surface before 
 the land is ploughed, — a circumstance of little trouble if 
 attended to at the proper season, though, if not so reduced 
 before the land is ploughed, large pieces of clay will be 
 found to have been preserved from the atmospheric influence, 
 and consequently unbroken and unprofitable many years after- 
 wards. It is more profitable to repeat the operation afler aa 
 interval of a few years, rather than to lay on an immense 
 quantity at once, as by this means the clay gets more tho- 
 roughly incorporated with the sand; and it will be obvious 
 that the first ploughing ought not to be to the full deptb, lest 
 the clay be lost. It is, however, scarcely practicable to lay 
 clay, in its natural state, upon sand, both because of the 
 great labour of digging, and afterwards preparing it with the 
 requisite degree of care for mixture. If not rendered so fine 
 as to be perfectly incorporated with the sand, its tendency to 
 sink through light land gradually brings it to the bottom, and 
 renders it afterwards useless, if not injurious, by forming a 
 retentive subsoil. 
 
 Sand is, however, not exposed to the same objections, for 
 
188 ' A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 it is dug with less labour, and does not require any furthei 
 trouble in its preparation. Its application as an alterative for 
 stiff clay land is of the greatest advantage; for its intermix- 
 ture with the soil — which is effected by various means — has a 
 tendency to lighten the land, and to bring it to that loamy 
 state which is the most favourable to the purposes of vegeta- 
 tion. In this respect its action is the counterpart to that of 
 marl, as applied to light sandy ground ; for in both cases it is 
 the interest of the farmer to bring his land into that state 
 which is the most likely to be productive. Marl, by stiffening 
 it, produces this effect in the one instance; and sand, by 
 loosening it, in the other. 
 
 Until about half a century ago, this plan was very little 
 known as an improvement to the soil, when a spirited agri- 
 culturist in Cheshire began to use considerable quantities; 
 sometimes mixing it wath dung, and sometin)es laying it raw 
 on his grass-lands. The success which mvariably attended 
 these experiments, at length induced several farmers in his 
 neighbourhood to follow his example, and the practice has 
 since been very generally adopted in many of the principal 
 dairy-farms in the middle of the county: deep beds of sand 
 being there frequently met with under the clay, which pre- 
 dominates as the superficial stratum of the soil. The mode 
 of employing it is thus described by a landowner who has 
 employed it extensively with the greatest advantage: — 
 
 ' When there is a piece of strong clay-land in tillage, and 
 the farmer has an opportunity of covering it over with sand, 
 about twice as thick as in a common set of manure, the soil 
 will be pulverized and opened by this means — will give 
 better crops when in tillage, and when laid down will produce 
 a finer herbage, less liable to be parched in dry, or trod down 
 in wet seasons. It is excellent management in the farmer, 
 before he ties up his cattle for winter, to lay a coat of sand, 
 at least a foot in thickness, where he intends to throw his 
 dung out of the cow-houses. The dung should be repeatedly 
 levelled on the sand, and a second coat of the latter laid on 
 towards the end of February ; upon which should be put the 
 remainder of the dung procured before the cattle go to grass. 
 As soon after this time as possible, the compost should be 
 either turned and well mixed where it lies, or filled into the 
 dung-carts, and taken away to some situation near the land on 
 which it is intended to U5« it. Here it should be laid in a 
 heap of at least two yards in thickness; and after remainino* 
 
ON MANURES. ' 189 
 
 two or three months in this state, it is in excellent condition 
 for putting- on the land. 
 
 This, however, only alludes to its employment as a com- 
 post; but if laid in its natural state, either as a top-dressing 
 upon meadow of a stiff nature, or slig-htly ploughed in upon 
 heavy arable land, it will be found to eftect a permanent im- 
 provement in the soil. It must, in the latter case, however, 
 be laid on in very large quantities; perhaps not less than two 
 to three hundred cart-loads or cubic yards.* This, of course, 
 cannot be accomplished with prudence, unless the sand lies 
 either under the clay, or in the immediate vicinity of the 
 farm ; and even in that case, the expense of cartage, if calcu- 
 lated at its cost in money, would appear too serious to admit 
 of much chance of profitable remuneration. Many circum- 
 stances are, however, continually occurring on every farm to 
 prevent the constant occupation of teams: on those days they 
 may be invariably employed in the cartage of the sand, with- 
 out any charge except that of day-labourers to dig; and if it 
 cannot be immediately spread upon the land, it may be laid 
 up on the headlands of the field to which it is intended to be 
 applied. 
 
 Mud. — The mud from ponds, when they are cleaned out, 
 has always been an object of attention to farmers, so far as 
 regards its collection; but it must be presumed that its dif- 
 ferent properties, and consequently the most judicious mode 
 of its application to the land, are either but little understood, 
 or neglected: for some cart it directly upon the ground, and 
 plough it in either for turnips, or for corn-crops; others spread 
 it upon old leys; and many lay it out in thin heaps to dry, 
 after which they mix it with lime, chalk or dung. Upon this 
 it has been remarked by an eminent agriculturist, "that in 
 reasoning with the farmers upon the cause or principle by 
 which they are guided in those diflferent proceedings, the 
 reply is generally, ' that it has been their practice to do so — 
 that it has answered very well — and that they know of no 
 better mode of treating it.' From which we are necessarily 
 led to conclude, that upon the same, or nearly the same sort 
 
 *It has been laid on a large extent of drained moss, in Dumfriesshire, at 
 the rate of a single-horse cart-load to every square yard of surface, though 
 the land was in such a soft state that the sand could only be carted by horses 
 with wooden clogs or pattens on their hind feet. The expense must, there- 
 fore, have been enormous ; yet the improvement in the land seems to have 
 reimbursed the proprietor.— See Dr. Singer's Survey, p. 309. 
 
190 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 of soil, these different practices cannot be right. It therefore 
 becomes necessary to consider what is the usual composition 
 of the sediment of ponds, — tlien to point out, as correctly as 
 we are able, the best way of preparinfr it for use — the soils to 
 which it should be. applied — and the crops which ought to 
 succeed such application. "(") 
 
 Upon this it may be observed, that ponds, being usually 
 placed at the lower part of the fields, receive after every hard 
 rain a part of the soil, as well as of the substances with which 
 they have been manured. If the ponds be large and deep, 
 they may also acquire much decayed vegetable matter, arising 
 from the aquatic plants with which such pools usually abound ; 
 and if near to the yards at which cattle are commonly watered, 
 they must likewise receive a portion of their dung: such mud 
 is therefore, particularly applicable to light soils, both as con- 
 taining nutritive matter, and ad4ing to the staple and con- 
 sistency of tlie land. If, on the contrary, the ponds contain 
 springs, the sediment taken from them will be found unfit for 
 vegetation, for it contains more sand than vegetable matter, 
 and it hardens upon exposure to the sun; it may, however, be 
 useful in killing the rushes and coarse weeds upon low sour 
 meadows, but prejudicial if applied to uplands. It is therefore 
 evident that the mud must partake of the nature of the various 
 ingredients of which it is composed ; and therefo' e every 
 farmer should take these circumstances into consideration 
 before he applies it to his ground. 
 
 The most common time of mudding ponds is during the 
 summer months, when it is usual to let the slime lie near the 
 edge of the pond until the water is drained from it. A spot 
 is then marked, either upon a headland of the field upon which 
 it is to be laid, or as near to it as possible, of a size to raise a 
 compost with alternate layers of either lime or dung. If dung 
 can be had, the best mode of preparing this manure is to lay a 
 foundation of mud, of about a foot or a foot and a half in depth, 
 of an oblong form, and not more than eight feet in width 
 upon which the freshest yard dung is laid to about double that 
 depth; then a thin layer of mud; after which, alternate layers 
 of mud and dung, until the heap be raised to about five or six 
 feet in height — keeping the sides and ends square, and coating 
 the whole with mud. It should then be left to ferment; after 
 
 (a) [Pond mud should lay out one winter in low heaps. In the spring 
 make up into compost.] 
 
ON MANURES. igj 
 
 which it must be again turned, at least twice, at different 
 periods. 
 
 If quicklime be used, and there remains any moisture in 
 the pond scourings, it will be sufficiently fallen for turning- in 
 a few days, — but if the compost be made with farm-yard dung, 
 it may require to remain for six or eight weeks to ferment 
 and decompose before it is in a proper state for turning. To 
 derive the greatest advantage from composts, it is necessary to 
 mix them thoroughly, which can only be effected by repeated 
 and careful turnings. To form them, in the first instance, 
 with both quicklime and manure is injudicious: the former 
 ought never to be brought into contact with the latter — 
 though manures may be advantageously incorporated witban 
 old compost, in which a little lime has been used. 
 
 These composts may be applied at the rate of 16 to 20 cubical 
 yards for strong loams, and upon light loams in a rather smaller 
 proportion. Pond mud is however not unfrequently used, in an 
 unprepared state, upon grass-lands; but the accounts given of 
 its effects are so different, and the experiments are so inaccu- 
 rately stated, that we might mislead our readers were we to 
 detail them. Were attention paid to the properties of the 
 mud, and to the quality of the soil on which it is to be laid — in 
 the manner already alluded to — there can, however, be little 
 doubt that errors in its application might be avoided. It 
 appears the better mode to apply it in the latter end of 
 autumn, or the early part of winter, and to bush-harrow it 
 well after it has been hardened by the frost. 
 
 River 7nud in creeks, or banks, from which it can be col- 
 lected, answers the same description, and is also extensively 
 employed in some districts in the operation of warping. 
 
 kea mud or sleech, has also been used in some places in 
 very large quantities, and has been found of so very enriching 
 a nature, that it was thought worth while to carry it in barges 
 up the river Mersey, to the estates of the late Duke of Bridge- 
 water, at Worsley, in Lancashire. It abounds at the mouths of 
 many of the friths and rivers which run into the sea; and one 
 gentleman, who has used it for upwards of half a century in 
 Cheshire, asserts that no other manure is equal to it either for 
 corn or grass. It is there, however, always laid upon grass, 
 and ploughed in without any addition in the following spring. 
 If the ensuing March be dry, and there has been much fro*t 
 in the winter, a heavy pair of harrows will prepare it for the 
 plough; otherwise, it must be chopped with spades. The 
 a 2 
 
192 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 land is then generally sown with oats, followed by barley or 
 potatoes, and the third year by wheat. The fourth year the 
 land is laid down either with oats or barley, clover and grasses, 
 and the crops are said to be very great. It is also found that 
 its effects remain longer on the land than marl; and although 
 that which is over-marled is spoiled for grass, yet that never 
 happens to sea mud. In many parts of Scotland it has also 
 been found to answer very well for the improvement of moss ; 
 upon which, after it has been well drained, the sleech is laid, 
 to the amount of 100 single-horse cart-loads per acre. To 
 this, however, we must add, that the repetition of it in large 
 quantities fails of its former effects. In Sussex it has been 
 used to the extent of 1200 to 1300 bushels per acre; but on 
 those farms where it has been too frequently used, and which 
 are thus said to have been "over-dosed," it is no longer found 
 to be of any service, (a) 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 MANURES IN GENERAL. PUTRESCENT, MINERAL, AND 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS. 
 
 It is notorious that a great number of farmers are either 
 ignorant of the most judicious mode of application, or negligent 
 of the means of increase and preservation. The latter remark 
 applies more especially to farm-yard manure, which no one can 
 ride over any part of the country without seeing wasted — dung 
 carted out of the yards and thrown up by the side of some lane 
 without any foundation or further care, until, perhaps, after 
 having become mouldy and fire-fanged, it is at length turned 
 over, while the best part of its juices have been allowed to run 
 into the ditches, or to stagnate around the heaps; thus, neither 
 assisting the proper fermentation of the dung, nor mixing the 
 heap at such regular periods as to ensure its being all of one 
 quality.* 
 
 (a) [The Albany Cultivator — good authority — says in regard to muck. — 
 "Mix it with unleached ashes, at tlie rate of from one to three bushels pel 
 cart-load. Let it lie in a heap a month, if practicable, before used."] 
 
 *On this, however, the following remark has been inserted in the Report 
 
ON MANURES. 198 
 
 We have already stated our opinion so clearly on the subject 
 of fermentation, in our view of putrescent manures, that it may 
 be thought hardly necessary to add any thing to the discussion 
 of the point in dispute; yet as many farmers have been in- 
 fluenced by the reasoning of chemists, who possess no practical 
 knowledge of agriculture, in favour of the invariable applica- 
 tion of long dung — though opposed by experience — and as it 
 is extremely important that the question should be set at rest, 
 we request serious attention to the following extracts from an 
 able article which has appeared in the Quarterly Journal of 
 Agriculture since the publication of what we had written.* 
 
 It was promulgated as the opinion of Sir Humphry Davy, 
 in 1809, and it has till lately obtained the confidence of most 
 chemists, that ^As soon as dung begins to decompose, it 
 throws off its volatile parts, which are the most valuable and 
 most efficient. Dung which has fermented, so as to become 
 a mere soft cohesive mass, has generally lost from one-third 
 to one one-half of its most useful constituent elements; and 
 that it may exert its full action upon the plant, and lose none 
 of its nutritive powers, it should evidently be applied much 
 sooner, and long before decomposition has arrived at its 
 ultimate result.^ Experience has nevertheless, acted in direct 
 opposition to this opinion. Manure has been continually ap- 
 plied in 'a soft cohesive mass,' and it has continued to raise 
 large crops ; whereas, had it been applied ' long before decom- 
 position had arrived at its ultimate result,' that result would 
 probably have been a loss of crop, manure, and labour. 
 
 'It is certainly an erroneous assumption to say the first 
 stage of fermentation in dung must necessarily throw off its 
 most valuable parts. Every dunghill of fresh dung throws off 
 
 of the Committee of the Doncaster Agricultural Association upon bone ma- 
 nure — 'The general mode of managing fold manure is erroneous, both as to 
 the expense incurred and loss from evaporation. To prevent both, upon 
 carrying it out to the field, it should be forked up to a considerable height, 
 and the whole covered with the soil nearest to the heap; a long heap, like 
 a potato heap, is therefore best; as it accumulates, taking care always to 
 cover the whole of the day's loading, excepting the end to which the next 
 day's work is to be added. The confinement of the steam, which is always 
 observed upon a fresh-made heap of manure, effectually secures the de- 
 composition of the whole; which will cut out like a jelly, without tke usual 
 process of turnim^ over and over.' 
 
 * No. xxiii. pp. 617 to 624. The discoveries alluded to relate to a substance 
 which chemists call Humin, which is said to exist in all soils, and to be formed 
 of carbon and hydrogen. The Htimic acid is composed of humin and oxygen, 
 and its properties enable it tocombine with lime, potass, ammonia, and many 
 BUbstances found in soils and manures, and renders them easy to be dissolved 
 in water, which could not be done in their seoarate state. 
 
194 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 a gaseous exhalation a very short time after it is put together; 
 and the quantity thus thrown off is regulated by the state of 
 the atmosphere. But this exhalation does not consist of the 
 valuable gases; it is a mere evaporation of the water contained 
 in the dung. The same hot haze may be seen flickering over 
 a fallow field in a sunny day in summer. Nobody could with 
 truth assert, that this haze arises from the disengagement of 
 the gases in the dung which had previously been inserted into 
 the soil, when it is clearly nothing more than the evaporation 
 of the moisture in the soil. To say, therefore, the first stage 
 of decomposition in a dunghill throws off^ "the most valuable 
 and the most efficient" parts of the dung, is just to say the 
 vapour of water is the most valuable part of dung. 
 
 *It is true, were the fermentation continued after all the 
 water in the dung was evaporated, a considerable increase of 
 temperature would ensue; and when the texture of the fibrous 
 portions of the manure began to decompose, there would be an 
 evolution of valuable gases. Direct experiment has proved 
 the escape of gases from a heap of dung which has been long 
 fermenting. But what harm accrues to the dung as a manure 
 from the escape of these gases'? None whatever. We are 
 told these gases constitute the food of plants, and if they are 
 permitted to be dissipated by decomposition, the quantity of 
 nourishment in the heap of manure will of course be so much 
 diminished ; that if the bulk of the dungheap be diminished 
 one-half or one-third by excessive fermentation, the quantity 
 of nourishment to the crops will be diminished in a greater 
 ratio. These cautions have long been whispered in the ears 
 of practical men, but they have listened to the advice w4th a 
 provoking indifl^erence. Like ducklings w^hen they first take 
 the water, they have continued to disregard every remon- 
 strance of their foster brethren against injurious practices, 
 raising and devouring their food, and enjoying themselves 
 with the greatest complacency in their vocation. It is true, 
 and we must admit it, that some of the gases constitute the 
 food of plants, but it does not follow that plants would receive 
 them as food directly as they are disengaged from a ferment- 
 ing and heated mass ; nay, it is probable they would rather 
 reject the food that would injure them. But as plants are not 
 endowed with locomotive powers, they cannot avoid the food 
 which is directly presented to them; they will therefore be 
 obliged to partake of it even in an injurious state, and in thus 
 taking it they die. Accordingly, we invariably fiind that 
 
ON MANURES. 195 
 
 plants suffer from the contact of fermenting dung; and it is 
 this well-known fact, more than from any other circumstance, 
 which deters farmers from applying dung in an unprepared 
 state. It is sometimes applied to the soil, it is true, in an un- 
 prepared state, but long betbre the crop is brought into contact 
 with it, and after it has undergone fermentation in tlie soil. 
 Though this application of dung is recommended by men of 
 science, it is performed from the very opposite principle which 
 they recommend. They recommend it because the gases 
 arising while the dung is fermenting are absorbed by the soil, 
 and are thence given out for the use of plants; on the other 
 hand, farmers perform it, because the fermentation will have 
 ceased before the crop is inserted into the ground. Which of 
 these is the more rational reason] The practical one, un- 
 doubtedly; for it is surely impossible that the slight covering 
 of earth upon the dung can prevent the escape of the elastic 
 gases, however it may retard fermentation. 
 
 ' Moreover, practice finds that fresh dung is injurious to 
 vegetation, and recent discoveries now inform us that this 
 arises from the acridity of the ammonia, which is always 
 present in unfermented dung. Fermentation drives off the 
 acrid ammonia. Fresh dung is found to injure plants by 
 burning them, which is a very appropriate term to describe 
 the action of ammonia. In like manner, stale liquid manure 
 is not so good a top-dressing to grass as fresh, or when it is 
 largely mixed with water; because science now informs us, 
 that ammonia becomes concentrated in stale liquid manure, 
 and is therefore in an injurious state for plants; and that it is 
 necessary, to mix liquid manures largely with water, in order 
 to dilute the ammonia, and allow the proper action of the 
 humic acid, which exists in large quantity in them. Again, 
 it is not an uncommon practice to cover a dunghill with earth 
 in hot weather; and this is now explained, not as it hitherto 
 has been — " that the earth absorbs and prevents the escape of 
 the carbonic acid gas" — but that a violent fermentation in the 
 dung is checked by the earth, partly excluding the atmospheric 
 air and rain water, the oxygen in either of which is indispen- 
 sable to continue the process, it being this oxygen which forms 
 the carbonic acid gas by uniting with the carbon of the dung. 
 The necessity of checking a violent fermentation in a dunghill 
 which contains a large portion of horse-dung, is to prevent it 
 being what is technically called ''fyrefangit,'" — a state in 
 which dung is nearly useless. 
 
196 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 *We thus see that science now agrees with that practice 
 'which has been pursued for years with unexampled success. 
 It is consolatory to practitioners to think that their experience, 
 though unknowingly to them, has guided them to succcsfs on 
 really scientific principles. This agreement of experience 
 and science should teach every one that science and expe- 
 rience, and not science alone, ought to be made the tests to 
 try the accuracy of opinions; but unfortunately for the credit 
 of sciences, the test of accuracy hitherto, in the application of 
 putrescent manures, has not been submitted to practice.' 
 
 We now not only beg to impress upon every farmer the 
 absolute necessity of guarding against the waste of any por- 
 tion of the farm dung, but also to take care that nothing in 
 the shape of refuse animal or vegetable substance be suflered 
 to be thrown away by his servants. Let a bed of sand, or any 
 earth except clay, be laid in some spot adjacent to the offices, 
 and upon it let every particle of offal collected from the pre- 
 mises be regularly thrown; to which add the sweepings of 
 the roads and lanes about the house, grass, turf, or rubbish dug 
 out of drains and ditches; every thing, in short, which, by de- 
 composition, can be converted into manure, and all of which 
 may be got together with very little trouble. Let the whole 
 of this be every now and then covered with the earth, between 
 two layers of which a small quantity of quicklime may be 
 placed, or sprinkled upon any vegetable substance, sucli as 
 leaves, tough haulm, fern, or any thing which cannot be easily 
 dissolved, and thus formed into a compost. Care must how- 
 ever be taken that the vegetative powers of the roots and 
 plants be completely destroyed before the compost is spread 
 upon the land, for if unskilfully prepared, they will shoot up 
 in the course of the ensuing season, and overrun the land with 
 weeds. Composts thus formed, whatever may be the ingre- 
 dients which they contain, will ever be found a most valuable 
 species of manure. The whole substance becomes one uniform 
 mass of nutritive matter, which may be either mixed with the 
 soil, or applied as a top-dressing, and, with proper attention, 
 may be got ready for application at any period of the year. 
 There are numberless receipts scattered throughout the wri- 
 tings of v^irious theorists, in which the quantity and the 
 quality of each ingredient in these various mixtures are as 
 accurately stated as if they were the medical prescriptions of 
 physicians; but these are mere quackeries which do not merit 
 the attention of practical men. 
 
ON MANURES. 197 
 
 Weeds, also, by the sides of fences, should never be per- 
 mitted to perfect their seeds, but should be invariably cut 
 while in a state of succulence, and added to the heap; and if 
 those turned up by the process of horse-hoeing were also 
 raked otf, instead of being suffered to wither on the land, or 
 to spring up again with the next shower of rain, it is incon- 
 ceivable what a large quantity of valuable manure might thus 
 be raised by the occasional employment of children, and of 
 labourers, who may otherwise be idling away their time. It 
 would also contribute in a great degree to that neatness which 
 forms a distinguished feature in careful cultivation, and would 
 insure a habit of attention on the part of servants, and a con- 
 sequent portion of prosperity which can rarely be enjoyed by 
 a slovenly farmer. 
 
 Were the practice of soiling more generally attended to, it 
 would also very materially aid the increase of the dung-heap, 
 without which no profit can be gained from arable land. But 
 a very small portion of the soil under the plough is, in this 
 country, capable of bearing crops, unless it be recruited by 
 putrescent manure about once in four years, or that it be 
 either suffered to lie for a more than usual length of time 
 under the cultivated grasses and fed oft' with cattle, or sup- 
 ported by the fold. To obtain the requisite quantity of farm- 
 yard manure has, however, baffled the best exertions of many 
 industrious farmers, except in the immediate vicinity of large 
 towns. There, indeed, the object is often obtained through 
 the means of purchased dung, the expense of which has been 
 generally amply repaid by the growth of proportionably in- 
 creased crops; but anyone who is dependent upon the produce 
 of his own farm, without the assistance of extraneous manure, 
 for the support of the fertility of the soil, should endeavour to 
 cultivate those crops which are best calculated to afford a 
 large return of food for the maintenance of cattle. When the 
 land is of such a nature as not to admit the growth of green 
 crops, hay and oil cake should be 'resorted to for that purpose. 
 
 In other cases, lime, chalk, marl, and various other mineral 
 substances, have been resorted to as auxiliaries; but the effect 
 of some of these tending more to stimulate vegetation than to 
 enrich the wasted powers of the soil, it has frequently hap- 
 pened that ground which at one time had been greatly bene- 
 fited by their application, has afterwards been injured when 
 repeated under the erroneous notion that its powers might be 
 restored bv the same operation. Land thus forced, has in many 
 
198 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 cases been so much impoverished as to render it incapable of 
 producinsc any thing but a poor pasture, and to require a great 
 length of time to pass away before it can be restored to its 
 original condition. It should, indeed, be observed, that the 
 application of fossil manures requires more judgment and con- 
 sideration than any other; for vegetable and animal manures 
 contain the fertilizing property within themselves, and however 
 injudiciously applied, cannot fail to impart ultimate benefit to 
 the land, if not to the immediate crop; but the power of fossils 
 consists in their action upon the constitution of the soil, and if 
 this be improperly directed, the greatest mischief may ensue. 
 
 None of these has, perhaps, produced more injury in some 
 cases, or greater benefit in others, than lime — of which very 
 striking instances may be found in those parts of the country 
 where it is either very abundant or scarce. In the former it 
 has been not uncommonly laid upon the land without the aid 
 of putrescent manure, until the soil has become w^orthless; 
 while in the latter, as its scarcity renders it expensive, it has 
 only been moderately used by farmers of judgment and capital, 
 and the effects, after a number of years, are still apparent in 
 the improvement of the soil. While writing this, we have 
 under our eye a farm of 400 acres of strong clay, which has 
 not been limed within the memory of man. The tenant, who 
 is conscious of the advantages which might be derived from 
 the use of lime — as demonstrated in the condition of adjoining 
 land of the same quality — is yet prevented by circumstances 
 from its employment; and thus, not only are his own profits, 
 but the value of the soil to the landlord also, equally reduced. 
 
 On the subject of burnt clay, we have recently had an 
 opportunity of making some inquiries in the neighbourhood of 
 the late General Beatson's farm, in Sussex; and we have 
 learned, that although several practical farmers in that part 
 of the country adopted his plan, yet very few of them have 
 found it to answer their expectations. One of them, who has 
 followed it extensively, confirms us in the opinion which we 
 have already stated, that much depends upon the mode in 
 which the operation of burning is performed; for if the clay 
 be calcined to the consistence of brick, it yields nothing in the 
 shape of that soft ash which is proper for manure; and if not 
 sufficiently burned, it Will return to its original condition. In 
 the former state it may, however, act in some degree as an 
 alterative of the soil; and in the latter, it will at least afford 
 gome nutriment to the crop to which it is actually applied. It 
 
ON MANURES. I99 
 
 therefore does not appear, from past experience, that it can 
 ever be made to supersede the use of lime on land which has 
 not been formerly dressed with the latter; but in such cases, 
 or in parts of the country where lime cannot be procured, it 
 may yet be employed to a certain extent with advantage. 
 
 As to paring and burning, there can be no doubt that the 
 earth, if combined with fibrous roots and other vegetable 
 matter, will answer the purpose of manure when burned ; yet 
 shallow soils are thus frequently more injured by the abstrac- 
 tion of too large a portion of the surface, than improved by 
 the temporary addition of the manure. We have lately seen 
 down-land, which was broken up during the war, and has 
 been now during several years returned to pasture, yet still 
 bears nothing like the sward of a fine sheep-walk on the 
 poorest chalks, and probably will require half a century to 
 bring it back to its former condition. We therefore cannot 
 but again caution all farmers and owners of land against 
 bringing such soils under the plough.* 
 
 With regard to gypsum and salt we have nothing to add, 
 except to repeat our recommendation of experiments on their 
 effects. Though quite aware of the common sentiment — 'that 
 gentlemen may use their superfluous cash for this purpose, but 
 farmers have uses enough for their money in the regular 
 routine of their business, and fe\N are so overburdened with 
 capital as to afford the risk of its diminution by uncertain 
 speculation' — yet we entreat them to reflect, that experiments 
 may be tried with those two articles upon a single acre ; that 
 the expense, if unsuccessful, can only occasion the loss of a 
 few shillings; but if they succeed, may be productive of in- 
 calculable advantage. 
 
 Neither respecting the various miscellaneous substances 
 which we have enumerated have we any further observation 
 to make upon their respective properties. The fluid or dis- 
 solved parts of animal matter require some preparatory process 
 to fit them for manure, the great object being to blend them 
 with the soil in a proper state of minute division; for when 
 they have been applied in a rank or unreduced state, bad 
 
 * A treatise has been just published by Professor Rennie, on Parin» and 
 Burnin-g, in which he attributes whatever value it may have to the eflfects 
 of the fire, considering it 'in the light of an instantaneous fallow.' Were 
 this principle to be relied upon, it" would follow that paring and burning 
 might, within a few years afterwards, be advantageously repeated; whereas 
 experience proves that, with whatever benefit the operation may be attended 
 in the first instance, a repetition of it is always found to impoverish the soil. 
 R 
 
200 A PRACTICAL TREATISE 
 
 effects have followed. Train-oil, blubber, and similar refuse, 
 should therefore be made into composts with a large body of 
 earth.* Rape and malt dust, requiring no mixture, are very 
 commonly laid upon the land as top-dressings — the difference 
 between which and manure ploughed into the ground, is, that 
 the former are applied chiefly with a view to the sole benefit 
 of the immediate crop, without regard to the further improve- 
 ment of the soil ; though there can be no doubt that if the 
 crop be increased, the soil will also feel their good effects. In 
 this manner soot is also almost invariably used ; but its fer- 
 tilizing properties are solely referable to the ammonia con- 
 tained in it, which is an active stimulant of vegetation. The 
 practice of laying it upon land which has been limed, or of 
 mixing it, as sometimes done, in composts with lime, is tliere- 
 fore injudicious. 
 
 It has long been a disputed question, whether all plants 
 extract the same nutritive juices from the soil, and convert 
 them into the kind of sap adapted to their peculiar qualities, or 
 whether each is nourished by a different substance. It would 
 at first appear improbable that plants differing from each other 
 in form, smell, taste, and properties as food, should be produced 
 by the same matter; yet, when we reflect that different plants 
 deprive each other of nourishment, by extending their roots 
 into the same soil in which various kinds are planted, we can- 
 not but conclude that their first nutriment must be of the same 
 nature, though the sap probably acquires different properties 
 in its progress towards perfection. This, however, is one of 
 the secrets of vegetation with which we are unacquainted; 
 but as we also see that some soils are better adapted than 
 others for the growth of particular kinds of grain and vege- 
 tables, and that those crops to which they appear the most 
 favourable yet become deteriorated if repeated, even though 
 regularly dressed with one species of manure, it seems evident 
 that there must be some advantage in the change of manures, 
 as well as in the system of cropping tillage land. This will 
 be gained by every farmer who has at his command manures 
 of an unusual kind, and who understands their use, for he 
 may then adopt many plans of cropping which are out of the 
 power of others not similarly situated, and vary his rotations 
 
 ♦'Tallow and oils received in a crude state by the roots may clog the 
 pores of the plant, repel the aqueous fluid, and obstruct the free communi- 
 cation of the leaves with the atmosphere.'— Davy on Agr. Chemistry. 
 
ON MANURES. 201 
 
 according to circumstances of the moment, or to his own con- 
 venience. 
 
 We have already touched upon the properties of alkaline 
 manures, so far as they have been tested by experience: the 
 solution of the effects of acids upon the soil must be still left 
 to future experiments, for those already made by chemists, in 
 many instances, present different results. Whatever may be 
 the food of plants — whether gases, oils, salts, or acids — the 
 farmer, however, need not puzzle himself about their chemical 
 qualities, for he may either satisfy himself from the experience 
 of others, or by small trials of his own, whether the effects of 
 any particular species produce fertility or not. Farm-yard 
 manure has been justly called 'the farmer's magic wand;' and 
 the oftener that wand is waved, the more will it contribute to 
 his prosperity. He sees that wherever it has been judiciously 
 used, it causes abundant crops, and that wherever it has been 
 withheld, sterility seizes upon the soil: his chief efforts should 
 therefore be directed to its increase. 
 
 Although the time and manner of applying every description 
 of manures depend so much upon the nature of the soil and 
 season, as well as of the crops to be sown, that no precise 
 rules can be laid down for their employment, yet the following 
 general hints may be found useful. 
 
 SXJMMARY. 
 
 When manures of any kind are to be used as top-dressings 
 for grass, the best season for that purpose is as early as prac- 
 ticable in the month of February, as the vernal showers will 
 then wash them into the soil. If for arable land, at the same 
 time as the sowing of the seed, or immediately afler; but if 
 for wheat, when vegetation is about to acquire force in the 
 spring. 
 
 If dung be applied to a wheat crop, it should be ploughed in 
 during the course of a summer fallow; if compost, at the last 
 ploughing before the seed furrow ; but composts of lime and 
 earth only may be laid upon the land during any period of 
 the year. 
 
 The land should be laid dry ; and the manure should be 
 equally and speedily spread over every part of it, in proportion 
 to the nature of the soil; but if ploughed in, though it should 
 be well mixed with the ground, it should not be too deeply 
 buried. 
 
202 A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MANURES. 
 
 The stronger and the colder soils are, the more manure 
 they require; and, as such land is generally applied to the 
 production of crops which do not speedily attain their full 
 growth, the application of dung which has not been com- 
 pletely decomposed by the putrefactive process may be there 
 admitted; for although the progress of vegetation may not be 
 so rapidly forwarded, yet the manure will at length decay, and 
 afford a more gradual degree of nutriment to the present, and 
 greater support to the land for the production of future crops. 
 On adhesive land, long manure from the farm-yard also acting 
 mechanically, by keeping the soil open, is not so binding as 
 short dung; but on dry, sandy, hot soils, the dung should, on 
 the contrary, be perfectly decomposed, or rotten ; and manure 
 of any description should, on such land, be only laid on in 
 moderate quantities at one time. One general observation 
 may be made regarding all dissertations on manure, which 
 is — that as there will be different gradations both of soils and 
 the substance of which manures are composed, we can never 
 speak but in general terms of their application. 
 
 The following table will explain how many heaps of ma- 
 nure — each containing an equal quantity of any given amount 
 — are required to dress any field, per acre, at certain regular 
 distances: so that, by calculating the solid contents of the 
 manure in cubical yards, each containing 27 bushels, and 
 dividing it by the number of heaps, the exact quantity to be 
 laid on in each heap may be correctly ascertained : — 
 
 No. of heaps, at 5 yards distance . . 193 per acre, 
 
 5i " ... 160 " 
 
 '* 6 " . . 134 " 
 
 " 6i « ... 114 " 
 
 •' 7 " . . 98 " 
 
 " 7i " ... 86 " 
 
 " 8 " . . 75 '* 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 In mixing compost, peat or charcoal should be used. They 
 are both powerful absorbents, taking- up large quantities of am- 
 moniacal gas, and thus preventing the evil efiects of too high 
 a fermentation. 
 
 Charcoal has been used at the rate of fifty bushels an acre, 
 and has produced an enormous crop. It can be advantageously 
 used at the rate of one hundred bushels to the acre, and should 
 be well pulverized. 
 
 The use of charcoal is, firstly, to supply carbon to plants, in 
 the carbonic acid absorbed fi-om the atmosphere ; and secondly, 
 to condense ammoniacal gas in its pores — which gas is easily 
 appropriated by plants to their use, when the ground is moist. 
 
 The value of decayed leaves and leaf soil to be found in our 
 woods is immense. It is a capital nutriment for wheat in com- 
 bination with other matters. How much of it is used 1 
 
 The following compost is recommended by the American 
 Farmer for an acre of wheat. Take forty bushels of leaf 
 mould (from the woods,) five bushels of ashes, leached or un- 
 leached, five bushels of bone dust, one bushel of plaster. In- 
 corporate the whole by shovelling over, and then moisten the 
 heap thoroughly by thirty gallons of human urine. Then 
 shovel it over again. Practically, we know nothing of its 
 value in proportion to its cost. Theoretically, it is worthy, and 
 should be valuable. 
 
 A general rule in the application of manures is to try the 
 proportions recommended in the book, with such increase or 
 reduction, as your knowledge of your soil dictates. If you are 
 unaware of the chemical constituents of your soil, apply in the 
 proportions recommended. The second season you can in- 
 crease, if you like, and compare the result, 
 
 B 2 C203) 
 
204 APPENDIX. 
 
 Goal ashes ploughed into a stiff soil lighten it considerably, 
 and improve it in other ways. 
 
 The little runs and creeks running through various farm? 
 afford a source of manure, in the mud and decayed vegetable 
 matter which abounds in them. Our farmers neglect this. 
 
 The application of manure to the seed produces the most 
 extraordinary effect. Last year we soaked a gill of Indian 
 corn for a few hours in as much ammonia and water as would 
 cover them. We then planted them in half-light soil without 
 manure — planting the same amount of seed, without the pre- 
 paration, alongside of them. The contrast between the two, 
 in the appearance of the plants was decidedly in favor of the 
 soaked seeds, while the crop was nearly double. We intend 
 to try the experiment, which is of foreign origin, on a larger 
 scale. We do not recommend it as yet. It may be of doubt- 
 ful utility. 
 
 Yard-manures are highly valuable for peat-lands. 
 
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