INTEKNATIONAL EEFOEM.
By the same Author.
THE OXFORD REFORMERS,
JOHN COLET, ERASMUS, and THOMAS MORE.
Being a History of their Fellow-work.
Second Edition, revised and enlarged. Price 14s.
IOW CAN COMPULSORY EDUCATION BE
MADE TO WORK IN ENGLAND?
Reprinted, with Alterations, from the Fortnightly Review.
Priced.
INTERNATIONAL REFORM.
BV
FREDERIC SEEBOHM.
LONDON :
LONGMANS, GEEEN, AND CO.
1871.
LONDON: PEINTBD BT
WOTTJSWOODB AND CO.. NBW-STBBBT SQUIBB
AND PAELIAMBNT SIBEET
PREFACE.
THIS ESSAY was written during the American
Civil War, and was in part printed at the
time for private circulation only.
I have been induced to publish it at this
juncture, in the hope that a calm statement
of the economic argument in favour of In-
ternational Reform may obtain an impartial
hearing at a time when the public mind is
in some danger of being drawn off the true
scent by the cry for increased armaments
and the abandonment of the principle of
non-intervention.
I have added a Postscript on the relation
of the reform advocated in the Essay to the
policy of non-intervention so earnestly advo-
cated by the late Mr. Cobden.
F. S.
HITCHIN: February 1871.
20178C6
CONTENTS.
PART I.
ON THE TENDENCY OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY TOWARDS
THE INCREASED INTERDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS . Page 1
PART II.
ON THE INADEQUACY OF THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM AND
IN WHAT IT CONSISTS Page 61
PART in.
ON THE NATURE OF THE INTERNATIONAL REFORM REQUIRED BY
THE INCREASING INTERDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS :
1. IN INTERNATIONAL LAW.
2. IN ITS INTERPRETATION.
3. IN ITS ENFORCEMENT. Page 95
POSTSCRIPT ON THE RELATION OF THE REFORM ADVOCATED IN
THIS ESSAY TO THE POLICY OF NON-INTERVENTION URGED BY
THE LATE MR. COBDEN ..... Page 143
B 2
PART I.
ON THE TENDENCY OF MODERN INTERNATIONAL
SOCIETY TOWARDS THE INCREASED
INTERDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS.
CHAPTER I.
*
I. ON THE LAWS OF NATURE REGULATING
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY.
PRACTICAL MEN shrink from having anything to
do with whatever will not work.
Taught by experience, they have learned to re-
cognise the existence of facts so firmly fixed in the
constitution of things by nature, that for want of a
clearer- term we call them laws of nature. And all
thinking men are agreed that nothing which
clashes with these laws does or can work; while
everything which does or will work must do so by
using and obeying the laws of nature, by acting
in concert with them, and in no wise against
them.
This faith of practical men in the laws of nature,
and utter distrust of everything which clashes, or
is supposed to clash, with them, is not confined to
the laws embraced in the physical sciences only.
With increasing knowledge the current of modern
thought has set in with increasing force in favour
of entire and implicit faith in all laws of nature,
including those embraced in political science.
As surely as the engineer knows that, unless he
construct his bridge in accordance with the laws
4 On International Reform.
of mechanical science it will not stand, so surely
does the merchant, in planning a trade transaction,
or the Chancellor of the Exchequer, in framing a
budget, know that the one or the other will succeed
only so far as it is in strict accordance with the
laws of political economy. Monopolies and pro-
tective duties, statutes of wages, and a hundred
other things which were found to clash with these
laws, have one after another been wisely swept
away like cobwebs to the domain of the moles and
bats.
Now, using the term ' laws of nature ' in this
sense strictly, and in no looser one, if it be really
proved that such and such reforms are required to
bring the present international system into har-
mony with the facts and laws of nature in points
in which it now clashes with them, and conse-
quently does not work, it will be seen at once that
these reforms are required by something far more
inexorable than the ' Lex Naturae ' of the Jurists
that, in fact, they are steps in the great march of
civilisation which, the world and the human race
being constituted as they are, must inevitably be
taken, unless we prefer that human progress should
halt on its career.
Interdependence of Nations.
II. THE INTERDEPENDENCE OF NATIONS NOT OPTIONAL
BUT BY LAW OF NATURE.
HAVING, in the previous section, clearly denned
what we mean by laws of nature, the reader's at-
tention is called to the fact that, as it is by law of
nature, and not merely by human contrivance, that
men are led to become socially connected and in-
terdependent, so it is by law of nature, and not
merely by human contrivance, that nations are led
to maintain international intercourse and to become
more or less dependent one on another.
Each country might have been endowed with a
similar climate and soil. The air might have been
made to fill only the valleys as the sea does now.
In a thousand other ways each nation might have
been made self-subsistent, and as effectually barred
out from intercourse with every other as if each
had been a separate world. But the world, as it is,
with its arctic, temperate, and torrid zones, its
varied soils and natural productions, its iron and
coal beds lying in one zone, its cotton growing
only in another the world, as it is, with its na-
tions of different habits and different races, sepa-
rated by difference of language, but not cut off
altogether the one from the other, because both
capacity and inducement have been given, as they
increase in knowledge and skill, more and more to
bridge over the straits between them the world,
6 On International Reform.
as it z's, is so framed as, instead of keeping nations
isolated and separate, to compel them, as they
advance in civilisation, more and more to weave
the web of intercourse to entangle, as it were,
the threads of their national prosperity into an
international skein. Experience has taught us
that if a nation choose to act selfishly and, by corn
laws or anything else, unduly to check interna-
national intercourse and interchange of wealth, it
will thereby inevitably lessen its own selfish share
of the comforts of life. And clearly it is not
merely by human contrivance, or by any human
law, but by law of nature that it is so.
III. ON. THE LAWS BY WHICH THE DEGREE OF INTER-
NATIONAL DEPENDENCE IS DETERMINED.
BUT while all nations are by law of nature made
more or less dependent upon international inter-
course, obviously the degree in which they are de-
pendent differs materially.
Nations may, in this respect, be regarded as
roughly divisible into three groups or classes :
1st. Those thinly peopled, exporting natural
produce, and importing manufactures arid
luxuries.
2nd. Those well peopled, consuming their own
produce, and manufacturing their own
goods.
Interdependence of Nations. 7
3rd. Those densely peopled, exporting manufac-
tures and luxuries, and importing natural
produce.
And these three classes may be said to represent
three stages in a nation's history.
Nations in their youth have almost always passed
through the first or youthful stage ; many have
passed from it into the second, or self-subsistent
stage ; and a few pioneer nations have passed on
through this middle stage into the third, or most
dependent stage.
But it is not a matter of a nation's own choice
altogether in which of these stages it shall perma-
nently remain. This question also is determined,
not merely by national will or the contrivance of
governments, but by certain laws of nature ; under
these laws nations are indeed free to take what
course they may choose, but they cannot rid them-
selves of them. They may act in opposition to
what by those laws is their own true interest, but
whether they do so through ignorance or folly, it
will be at the cost of abridged prosperity and often
of actual suffering.
It is not denied that nations may continue in the
self-subsistent stage for long periods of history
under certain peculiar circumstances. But it is sub-
mitted that a careful review of the facts of modern
history may enable us to point out with something
of certainty what those peculiar circumstances are
under which alone nations can remain for long in
8 On International Reform.
the self-subsistent stage of national life, and to
judge whether those circumstances, as a matter
of fact, do now or are likely in the future to exist.
Thus it may be regarded as a fact established by
political economists, that unless a nation's own
economic condition be such as to keep down its
population within limits proportioned to the limits
of its land, one of two results is certain to follow
sooner or later; either it will have to suffer the
miseries and hardships of over-population, or it will
have to expand itself, and pass on into the third
stage of national existence.
If it is to remain for long in the self-subsistent
stage of national life, the prosperity and comfort
of its people is dependent upon the existence of a
powerful check upon the increase of population.
Now, putting aside the check which a very high
moral condition and standard of comfort in a people
would produce, as a thing which, however much to
be desired and striven after, does not operate in
any but the highest stages of civilisation ; and look-
ing at the facts of the case as they now are and for
some time are likely to be, it appears to be estab-
lished further that in a state of society in which
men as they grow up can most readily marry and
put themselves into a similar position to that of
others around them as when the whole population
are detached from the land and work for weekly
wages population is most likely to increase rapidly,
because there is the least check upon its increase.
Interdependence of Nations. 9
But that in a state of society in which there are
obstacles to early marriage, and men must wait till
they have saved money or inherited the position of
others before they can marry and place themselves
in a similar position to those around them as e. g.
in a state of peasant proprietorship population
will remain most nearly stationary, because there
will be the greatest check upon its increase.
Thus if the peasantry of a nation have emerged
out of feudal serfdom into peasant proprietorship,
and at the same time the proportion of town and
trading population to the country population is
small, you have a nation in which the population
may well remain nearly stationary and the nation
itself remain for a long period in the second or
self-subsistent stage of national existence. While,
should it have chanced that from any cause the
proportion of town to country population is large,
and at the same time the peasantry have not
emerged out of feudal serfdom into peasant pro-
prietorship, but have become detached from the
soil and work at their own free will for weekly
wages, you have a nation probably destined to in-
crease rapidly in population, and which, if new
channels of employment are not opened out as fast
as population increases, will suffer the evils of over-
population in all their force. If new channels of
occupation are opened out as population increases,
such a nation will quickly outgrow the limits of its
land, and its prosperity will become more and more
10 On International Reform.
rapidly dependent upon free international inter-
course. . In fact such a nation will be compelled to
pass through the second stage' into the third or
most dependent one unless there be actual barriers
against international intercourse strong enough to
prevent it.
If there be effectual barriers against international
intercourse, whatever their nature, nations will of
course be forced at all costs to enter and remain
in the self-subsistent state suffering less or more
according as the physical character of their
country, and their own economic condition, favour
a policy of self- subsistence or otherwise.
But inasmuch as these barriers, in the long run,
inflict suffering and are removable, their removal is
only a question of time. When the suffering is
sufficiently keenly felt, nations will rise and break
through them. They are not barriers placed by
law of nature, irrevocably fixed they are green
withes which a Samson rising in his strength may
shake off.
As a matter of fact these barriers are fast melt-
ing away. Commercial treaties and the spread
of Free Trade doctrines are steadily doing their
work.
And the result is that, as years roll on, the ques-
tion of how long the great nations can continue in
the self-subsistent stage of national life of how soon
they will be constrained to follow the steps of the
Interdependence of Nations. 11
pioneer nations into the most dependent stage is
becoming more and more an economic question for
each nation to answer according to its own econo-
mic condition. And the future of nations in this
respect is therefore becoming more and more
dependent upon causes having their root often far
back in the past and less and less within the range
of a nation's present choice or control.
It is believed that the rapid, but not necessarily
on that account superficial, review of the actual
facts of modern economic history contained in
the following chapter, will not only illustrate, so
far as is needful for the present purpose, the cor-
rectness of these general principles, but also
leave no doubt on the mind of the reader as to
what, under existing laws of nature, is the actual
and inevitable tendency of modern international
society.
12
CHAPTER II.
I. INTRODUCTORY.
WHAT is 'the tendency of modern International
Society ? Are civilised nations likely to plod on
as most of them have done for the past five cen-
turies in the self-subsistent state ? Or are they
inevitably drifting towards a condition of greater
and greater dependence on international inter-
course ?
It has been stated that in proportion as the
barriers to free international intercourse give way
before increasing intelligence, the answer to this
question is more and more to be sought rather in
the economic condition of the nations themselves
than in the direct intention and policy of their
rulers.
It is accordingly proposed in this chapter to pass
in review the economic history and condition of
modern nations. And as it may be convenient to
do so in the order of their present dependence on
international commerce, it is proposed to take the
case:
1st. Of those nations which have already
entered the ' most dependent ' stage of
national life.
Interdependence of Nations. 13
2nd. Of those in the ' self-subsistent ' stage ; and
3rd. Of those in the l youthful J stage.
Taking the double test afforded, first, by the
proportion of the annual exports and imports of a
country to the number of its inhabitants; and
secondly, by the proportion of its population to the
extent of its territory, it will not be difficult to
separate them with sufficient accuracy "into three
groups.
Relying on the valuable information contained
in 'Puissance comparee des divers Etats de 1' Europe,
par Maurice Block, Gotha, 1862,' the following
classification may fairly be adopted :
Annual Value of
Imports and Exports
per head of the Population per
Population square Kilograms
| (Holland ... 12.8 ... 107
fl | J Great Britain ... 11.3 ... 93
iff 1 Switzerland ... 10.0 ... 61
|f [Belgium ... 7.3 ... 158
The above nations are dependent most years on
foreign supplies of food.
' France ... 4.2 ... 68
Italy ... ... 95
Zollverein ... 3.4 ... 64 to 74
Denmark ... 3.2 ... 44
Greece ... 2. ... 22
Sweden I Lg ? ??
Norway j
Spain ... 1.4 ... 31
Austria ... 1.4 ... 54
Portugal ... 0.9 ... 39
Russia ... 0.8 ... 12
. Turkey ... ? ... 17
gj, I The United States; Brazil, and the South American
< [_ Republics, British Colonies, &c., &c.
C
14 On International Reform.
Finally, to these three groups or classes may be
added another embracing the more or less un-
civilised nations :
China, Japan, &c.,
which require some consideration, owing to the
intimate connexion growing up between them and
civilised nations.
II. ON THE MOST DEPENDENT NATIONS GENERALLY
THEIR TENACITY OF LIFE.
CONFINING our attention at present to the most
dependent nations, it may be well to make a few
general remarks before passing to the consideration
of the case of each nation in particular.
With respect to these nations, the great point to
be ascertained will be whether their dependence on
international trade is likely to be permanent.
It has often been remarked how precarious a
foundation of permanent prosperity a dependence
on international commerce has, in the course of
history, proved itself to be. And many a lesson
has been read to modern nations on this text.
But it may well be questioned whether, text and
context taken together, such really is the lesson to
be learned from history. So far as I can gather
the thread of its teaching, it is precisely the re-
verse. Tyre, Venice, Genoa, have doubtless left us
Interdependence of Nations. 15
the lesson of their fall. But the discovery of the
passage round the Cape of Good Hope in itself
affords too good a reason for a great decline of
Mediterranean trade to make the case of these
cities a representative one. Setting aside this
exceptional case of the Mediterranean ports, the
great fact to be learned from the commercial history
of the past five centuries I conceive to be the
tenacity of life, if I may so speak, exhibited by
commerce and commercial peoples.
The fact that these very four nations, which now
stand out as the most dependent on foreign com-
merce, were the very four nations of which
(Mediterranean cities excepted) the same could
probably have been said jive hundred years ago, is
itself a telling proof of this. And the fact that
each of these nations retains now, in the nineteenth
century, the distinctive commercial character by
which it was marked in the fourteenth, is a further
and still more telling proof. Thus, in the four-
teenth century, Holland was mainly a commercial
as distinguished from a manufacturing country,
and it is so now. Belgium was mainly a manu-
facturing as distinguished from a commercial coun-
try, and it is so now. Switzerland was the same,
and it is so now. England was marked by the
combination of both commercial and manufacturing
enterprize, and it is so now.
And again, if we take the case of the great
maritime cities of the more self-subsistent coun-
c 2
16 On International Reform.
tries, barring the exceptional cases alluded to, they
certainly have exhibited a striking tenacity of life.
The three surviving Hanse towns Hamburg,
Lubeck, and Bremen were among the very
earliest members of the Hanseatic League. To-
gether with Rostock, Wismar, and Danzic, they
were the chief commercial ports of North Germany
five centuries ago, and they are so still. Marseilles
was the chief commercial port of France, and Bar-
celona of Spain, in the Middle Ages, and they are
so still.
Still further, there are districts in self-subsistent
countries in which manufactures are now carried
on. These are for the most part striking witnesses
to that strange tenacity of life which has enabled
germs of commerce, planted in unfavourable soil,
to retain a struggling vitality through centuries
of adverse circumstances. Take, for instance, the
manufactures of France. The linen and woollen
manufactures of the north, and the silk manu-
factures of the south-east, alike date back to the
fourteenth century, or an earlier period. And
again, those of Spain. Catalonia was the main
manufacturing district of Spam in the fourteenth
century, and, through all vicissitudes, it is so still.
The woollen manufactures of Flanders spread
under cover of the Hanseatic League, alono- the
banks of the Rhine, and the Rhenish provinces are
the great manufacturing district of Germany at the
present moment.
Interdi pendence of Nations. 17
But will the tenacity of life which has so marked
the past history of commercial nations continue?
A very brief review of the causes which led most
nations to adopt a self-subsistent policy, and the
circumstances under which the most dependent
nations in spite of these causes maintained their
dependence on international commerce, will show
clearly that present circumstances are at least far
more favourable to its continuance than those of
the past.
Modern international history may be said to date
from the era when the idea of a ' nation 1 became
connected with the country inhabited by it. While
the great waves of Teutonic emigration were one
after another sweeping over Europe, the nation was
the tribe or people, irrespective of its local home.
The sovereign ruled over the tribe or people and
aimed at universal dominion over all lands they
might choose to overrun and conquer. Their very
laws of tenure were such, it is said, as to compel
those of the invading tribe who devoted themselves
to agriculture, annually to shift about from one
tract of land to another, in order to prevent their
becoming rooted to the soil, and thus unfitted for
their roaming conquering life. The old international
idea of universal sovereignty was essentially a war-
like idea. A chieftain's thirst for dominion was like
the Indian's thirst for new hunting grounds and
endless prey. But the western shores of the known
world once reached and conquered, and a limit put
18 On International Reform.
to the indefinite extension of dominion, the con-
querors themselves were put upon the defensive.
If they would not themselves fall a prey to new
waves of conquest, they must make a home of
their newly conquered hunting ground, and keep it
and till it for themselves. And the need of defence
against foreign foes, not only ended in rooting the
nations to the conquered country; it rooted also
the people to the soil on which they individually
dwelt. As in an age of perennial war and con-
quest the necessities of self-defence drove the nations
to adopt a policy of self-subsistence, so in an age
of feuds and private war the necessities of self-
defence drove every little Feudal knot of society
to become self-subsistent and independent of its
neighbours. So the Feudal system became neces-
sarily identified with the self-subsistent stage of
national life. Each manor became a little self-sub-
sistent state; organised for self-defence and self-
support. And the nation composed of an aggre-
gated mass of these self-subsistent atoms, itself
became a nation organised for self-defence and self-
support. It is obvious then that the Feudal policy
of isolation and self-dependence was not adopted
because such was the bent of the national mind. It
was on the contrary clearly forced upon nations,
as it were, against the grain. The national instinct
of the nomad tribe for fresh fields of conquest had
to give way before the necessities of self-defence.
The national hatred of attachment to the soil and
Interdependence of Nations. 19
agricultural pursuits had to succumb before the
necessities of self-support. And thus the over-
ruling cause why most nations entered the self-
subsistent stage of national life may be said to have
been, the prevalence of international anarchy and
Lynch Law which formed so effectual a barrier to
international intercourse.
The result of this was that the great Feudal
nations, thus driven down as it were by anarchy
and Lynch Law into a self- subsistent state, left
the few cities and districts which devoted them-
selves to commerce, to pursue at all risks, a
practical monopoly of international trade.
A certain amount of trade will be carried on at
all hazards, and at all times. There are some
things with respect to which even the most self-
subsistent nations cannot be self- subsistent.
The chief of these were in the Middle Ages :
1st. Fish, an article which the religious creed
of the tunes made indispensable, even to
the most inland countries.
2nd. Manufactured cloths.
3rd. Foreign luxuries, for which there must
always be a greater or less demand.
In all these particulars the most self- subsistent
nations were, as a matter of fact, not in the main
self- subsistent.
The fishing trade and maritime enterprise in
general of North- Western Europe had, to a great
extent, settled itself on the shores of the German
20 On International Reform.
Ocean and the Baltic. The manufacture of woollen
and other cloths, carried on to some extent in
other countries and districts, had mainly fallen
into the hands of Flemish weavers. And the
trade in Eastern luxuries was very much mono-
polised by the cities of the Mediterranean. Thus
while neighbouring nations were unnaturally set-
tling down under Feudal auspices into the self-
subsistent state, these portions of the European
community were becoming more and more depen-
dent on then: commerce.
How did they maintain this dependence ?
No doubt the very fact of the monopoly they
enjoyed and the large profit they obtained in con-
sequence, enabled them to run war risks and bear
their losses, just as the prodigious profits of a
successful attempt to run a blockade may cover
several failures.
But the main cause of their great success was
their attempt, by no means altogether fruitless, to
curb the anarchy which reigned around them, and
to establish some sort of law and order in its place.
The commercial cities of the Baltic, North Ger-
many, and Holland, attained this end by means of
the Hanseatic League. Under its shelter, Flemish
manufacturing towns attained the highest point of
their prosperity. The Swiss preserved their in-
dependence and commercial prosperity by means
of the Helvetic Confederacy. The commercial
cities of the Mediterranean lessened the evils whicli
Interdependence of Nations. 21
they could not banish from their seas by adopting
as a common code of maritime law the ' Consolato
del Mare. 1
But their monopoly, however well maintained,
was sure to find itself at last between the horns of
a dilemma. For first, the partial failure of these
attempts to preserve international peace and order,
whether on land or on the seas, left commerce still
partially open to the disasters caused by piracy
and war history abundantly testifies to this.
And secondly, the very success of their attempt
the international law and order, more or less main-
tained by their united efforts itself broke the bars
of their monopoly, removed the barriers to com-
merce, and opened the way for other nations to
take their natural share of it.
The history of the most dependent nations, as
will be seen more fully when we come to regard
them separately, as a matter of fact, bears ample
witness to the check and diminution they received
from time to time, mainly from these two causes.
Nothing but the tenacity of life to which we have
alluded could have dragged them through.
Now I suppose it will not be denied that both
these causes of harm and danger are, comparing
past with present, much diminished. For first,
international law and order is respected far more
now than in the palmiest days of the Hanseatic
league. And secondly, while the gradual removal
of the barriers to free trade and intercourse is
22 On International Reform.
cutting away the last shreds of the old monopoly,
the most dependent nations have no longer to fear
but much to gain from its entire surrender.
Hence it is concluded as the result of this enquiry
upon general grounds, that for the future nations
have a better rather than a worse chance of per-
manently maintaining a course of dependence on
international intercourse than they have had in the
past. What then should deprive commerce and
commercial peoples of that tenacity of life which
has marked their history hitherto ? Cotton famines
and the like may cause distress and wounds which
it may take years to cure, and therefore it is beyond
all doubt our duty to prevent if possible their recur-
rence ; but they who chuckle over Lancashire's
disaster, and begin to chant the dirge of her pros-
perity, know little what they talk about ! If the
manufactures of Flanders, Switzerland, France,
Spain, and the Rhine have survived five centuries
of anarchy, shall British manufactures, under far
more advantageous circumstances, now be perma-
nently checked by the disasters of half as many
years ?
III. THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ENGLAND.
IN turning now to the separate consideration of the
economic history and prospects of the ' most depen-
Interdependence of Nations. 23
dent ' nations, it may be pardonable to take first
the case of our own country.
With the establishment of the Feudal system,
England, along with other nations, passed, to a
great extent, into the self-subsistent state.
How did she get out of it ?
There are few pages of international history which,
if we could get at the facts, would be more instruc-
tive, than that which records the partial migration
of the fishing trade and woollen manufacture from
the Dutch to the British shores of the German ocean,
the consequent partial decline of Flemish trade
and manufactures, and the planting on English
soil five centuries ago of the germ of that mari-
time enterprize and manufacturing skill which
is the distinctive mark of the English nation at
this day.
With regard to the fishing trade, something may
be attributed to physical causes. The sea gradually
encroached on the Dutch shore until at length it
converted what was once an inland lake into the
Zuyder Zee, and formed what was once part of the
main land into the island of Walcheren. It
gradually, meanwhile, receded from the English
coast forming Yarmouth sands and port, where a
bay had once washed inland between the two
Roman stations of Burgh and Caister, almost as
far as Norwich. And from whatever cause, in
24 On International Reform.
course of time, Yarmouth port became a great
fishing station, much frequented by Dutch fishing
and trading vessels, and ultimately possessing a
large and rapidly increasing mercantile marine of
its own. It is not perhaps generally known that,
under these circumstances, the population of this
fishing town had risen by the middle of the four-
teenth century to a point which it had not passed
four centuries after.
With regard to the woollen manufacture, the
inundations on the Flemish coast had doubtless
something to do with the migration of Flemish
worsted weavers to those British ports with which
their seamen were most familiar. A more potent
cause,- however, was to be found in the internal
and international anarchy prevailing around them,
notwithstanding the influence of the Hanseatic
league.
This league did not wholly prevent internal dis-
sensions, nor could it prevent nations, who had
nothing to do with it, from going to war, or
exercising belligerent rights.
Flemish manufacturers were greatly dependent
on English wool, as Lancashire manufacturers are
now dependent upon American cotton. Constant
interruption of international intercourse, sometimes
for years together, made this dependence of Flemish
weavers upon the importation of the raw material
from England hazardous in a high degree. When-
ever it was the interest of England to do so,
Interdependence of Nations. 25
whether as a civil or a military measure, the ex-
portation of English wool wa? taxed or prohibited
altogether by the English Parliament. Flemish
weavers were thus liable to suffer from a wool
famine, as our Lancashire weavers are now suffer-
ing from a cotton famine. These facts, together
with the existence of a strong and tolerably settled
government in England, were sufficient to induce
large numbers of Flemings to migrate with their
looms across the German Ocean to the land from
whence much of their supply of wool had hitherto
been drawn. The consequence to England was
that the towns of the Eastern Counties began to
swarm with worsted weavers, and the manufacture
of cloth, by degrees spreading into other districts,
took permanent root on British soil, and became a
recognised source of employment and wealth to
the English town population.
It is not perhaps generally known that the result
of this Flemish immigration and the internal mi-
gration from rural to manufacturing districts which
followed as its natural consequence, was so marked
that the population of the counties in which the
woollen manufacture rooted itself increased with
almost incredible rapidity. I believe it may be
stated with safety that the counties of Suffolk,
Norfolk, and Lincoln, and the East Riding of York-
shire, contained as large or a larger population in
1347 than, after a lapse of five centuries, they did
in 1847.
26 On International Reform. .
And this important and almost forgotten fact
bore other fruits.
The stream of emigration from the rural to the
manufacturing districts naturally bore with it bond
as well as free men. It presented a kind of * under-
ground railroad,' somewhat analogous to that be-
tween slave and free states in America, for the
fugitive serf who could prove residence in a free
town for a year and a day was legally enfranchised,
and beyond the reach of any fugitive slave law.
The weeding out by the dread pestilence of
1348-9 of perhaps two or three millions (out of
five or six millions) of the English people struck
another blow at the already undermined institution.
Leaving the number of British acres unreduced,
but reducing the number of tillers of them perhaps
by one-half, this deadly plague caused great scarcity
of labour. The value of the serf, in other words,
rose in the market, and, luckily for him, his pluck
rose with his sense of power.
The towns had suffered as much or even more
than the country. There was great scarcity of
labour in the towns, and consequently the wages of
labour rose to double or treble their former amounts.
What a premium this on the further immigration
of fugitive serfs ! Landowners invoked the aid of
Parliament. Statutes were passed reciting that
1 a great part of the people had died of the pesti-
lence,' and enacting that serfs and labourers should
work for the same services and wages as if nothing
Interdependence of Nations. 27
had occurred. But what were Acts of Parliament
in such a case ? In their own recitals we read the
history of half a century of constant strikes and
risings of the serfs, maintained as strikes are now
by systematic contributions, of wholesale immigra-
tion of fugitive serfs into the towns by connivance
of the townsmen, and finally of the general rising
in various parts of England, known as Wat Tyler's
rebellion. The result of all this was that serfdom
was once for all turned up by the roots and the
vegetable phase of the serf's history ended for
ever. That portion of the British population
which hitherto had been rooted to the soil now
became, like the free town population, by its
own act, to a great extent detached from the soil,
and dependent upon wages in return for free work
done.
Nor was the freedom of the peasantry a one-
sided bargain. Serfs having claimed the right to
do as they liked with their labour, landlords soon
learned to do what they liked with their land.
The depopulation of the pestilence had permanently
reduced its market value for ordinary agricultural
purposes. There were no longer hands enough,
bond or free, to till the cultivated land of England
as it had been tilled before. And therefore, be-
cause it required fewer hands and paid them better,
landowners began very naturally to turn arable
land by wholesale into sheep walks, and grow wool
instead of corn. Because feeding sheep paid them
28 On International Reform.
better than feeding what villein-tenants still re-
mained rooted to the soil, multitudes of these latter
were from time to time uprooted, and, in modern
phrase, ' ejected ' by the landlords to make room for
sheep. Thus was the emancipation of the serfs, as
it were, completed and sealed by the landlords.
The result of these and other causes was the
most important fact in English economic history,
that the freedom of British serfs did not end
in peasant proprietorship, as in most other Feudal
countries. They carried no part of the land with
them, as the Russian serfs are doing, but became a
free, detached, and, so to speak, loose population, de-
pendent upon whatsoever they could turn their hands
to ; and mainly upon wages for free work done*
The social condition of Britain at the com-
mencement of the Tudor period may be thus
described :
1st. The population was not nearly so large as
it had been 300 years before.
2nd. The number of labourers employed in
agriculture had certainly been greatly
reduced; because a much larger propor-
tion of the land than formerly was in
pasture instead of under the plough.
3rd. Although the towns were themselves but
the shadows of what they had been before
* I have, since the above was written, entered much more
fully into the history of the causes which produced this effect, in
articles contributed to the Fortnightly Review, on ' The Black
Death ' and ' The Land Question.'
Interdependence of Nations. 29
the plague, the proportion of the town or
trading population as compared with the
agricultural population was probably very
much greater than in most countries.
4th. The masses of the population, both in town
and country, were becoming detached from
the soil, hiring out their own labour in the
open market, and dependent upon wages
for free work done.
5th. At the same time there existed in England
the germs of maritime enterprise and manu-
facturing skill.
In these few facts we have the key to the after
history of the British nation.
Had the masses of the British peasantry emerged
out of Feudal serfdom into a condition of peasant
proprietorship, as, through gradual stages of
tenancy-at-will, copyhold tenure, and so forth,
some of them undoubtedly did, had peasant pro-
prietorship become the rule instead of the exception,
the history of the British nation would have
been turned into another groove. A gradually
increasing population, gradually bringing new land
under cultivation, and increasing only as fast as im-
proving agriculture would permit the powerful
check afforded by a system of peasant proprietor-
ship keeping the population within limits propor-
tioned to the limits of the land the land itself, cut
up into narrow patches like the land of France,
producing, under garden cultivation, food enough
D
30 On International Reform.
to feed about as many millions as dwell upon it
now ; but those millions, instead of being pretty
equally divided between town and country, scat-
tered more evenly and densely over the whole land,
no Manchesters, and Birmingham^, and Glas-
gows, with their tall chimneys and crowded nests
of population to break the general monotony such
might have been the present condition of England
had her early history been other than what it was.
But the facts being as they were, the masses of
the people being at the Tudor period, owing to
facts in their past history, detached from the land
and dependent upon daily wages, the proportion
of town to country population being great and in-
creasing, the germ of maritime and commercial en-
terprise being already implanted, the British nation
was doomed as it were, by its social and economic
condition, under the laws of political economy, to
take the course which it did take to increase
rapidly in population, until at length it burst the
narrow limits of its island home.
We see clear symptoms of the commencement of
this rapid increase throughout the Tudor period
symptoms exactly the reverse of those which fol-
lowed the depopulations of the pestilence of 1348-9
a steady fall in wages, and rise in the value
of land.
A race now fairly set in between the increase of
population and the improvement and extension of
agriculture. So long as more and more land could
Interdependence of Nations. 31
be brought under cultivation, the race might go
on. But while it might last for centuries, it is
clear that it could not last for ever. Population
in the end must outrun agricultural extension, be-
cause the one was necessarily limited while the
other was not.
This point in the nation's history was reached
during the closing decades of the eighteenth cen-
tury. The fact that the importation of corn then
commenced on a large scale afforded an unmistak-
able waymark. The population had trebled since
the Tudor period, and it became evident, that
unless fresh means of subsistence could be found
for the rapidly increasing population, or some
great and effectual check put upon its increase, the
evils and miseries of over-population must be en-
countered in all their force. That indeed would
be an ill day for England when, like an overstocked
rabbit-warren, the only escape from misery and
want, to the remainder, would be the periodic
thinning out of surplus population, by famine,
pestilence, or war! But happily England was
saved from so hard a fate by the ingenuity of
a few of her sons. It is not too much to say
that the discovery of the mode of smelting iron
with coal instead of wood, of the cotton jenny, and
of the steam engine, doubled the resources of the
British nation, and allowed another ten millions to
be added to the population without lessening the
prosperity of the rest.
2
32 On International Reform.
The great revolution brought about by these
discoveries was not accomplished without the
throes and struggles which accompany all great
social revolutions. Transition periods are usually
dark ones. The evil becomes deeper, and is more
keenly felt on the eve of deliverance. The cure
often aggravates the disease for awhile. The pres-
sure of over-population was increased for the
moment by the introduction of steam power and
machinery. Hand-loom weavers waging a hard
warfare against the competition not only of their
fellows, but also of these new agents which were
found to do their work cheaper than poor toiling
hands could, did not witness very clearly to the
nation's coming prosperity !
Population, as it always does, had taken a fresh
spring from the development of new resources.
An increasing demand for labour had increased
both the supply of labourers and the ratio of their
increase : and the result was that the adoption of
that free trade policy which it is the economical
interest of all nations to adopt, had become an
absolute necessity to England. The old medieval
policy, which would have cooped up a crowded popu-
lation within this little sea-girt empire without
giving free scope to its resources, could no longer
stand against the wild and dangerous discontent its
evils stirred up in the hearts of the caged millions.
Chartism with its ' monster meetings,' incendiaiy
fires, incessant strikes and riots, proved too clearly
Interdependence of Nations. 33
that the great pulse of the nation was beating in
feverish excitement against the bars of its prison-
house. The British nation was forced, willingly
or unwillingly, to stretch out as it were its arms to
other nations, and freely to draw from them in one
way or another the needful means wherewith to
maintain the prosperity of a people, whose numbers
had far outgrown the limits of their little island
home and were still rapidly increasing.
Thus from the fourteenth century downwards,
the economic history of England has pursued its
course to a very great extent not only without
regard to the intentions or policy of successive
governments, but directly in their teeth.
It was in the teeth of acts of Plantagenet par-
liaments that the English peasantry became free
workers for wages instead of peasant proprietors.
It was in the teeth of Tudor legislation that the
still further detachment of the people from the soil
was accomplished by the rage for sheep farming.
It was in the teeth of modern corn laws that the
population of England became dependent on
foreign supplies of food. The freedom of the pea-
santry and the freedom of international commerce,
were alike wrung out of reluctant governments.
They bowed to necessity no doubt, but in neither
case did they do so until they saw it was hopeless
to resist.
And what is the result? Why surely this,
34 On International Reform.
that having been thus far carried along by a cur-
rent which is bearing us still further in a course
of dependence on international intercourse a
current, the force of which we cannot withstand,
and the course of which it is impossible greatly to
control we must still further bend our policy
whenever necessary to altered circumstances,
instead of expecting unalterable laws to bend to
our traditional policy.
And what are our altered circumstances ?
Plainly these, we have, under the operation of
the laws of political economy, passed, during the
past half-century, fairly out of the self-subsistent
stage of national life, and irrevocably entered upon
a course of great and increasing dependence on
international trade.
It is not only that a million or two of men,
women, and children have become dependent on
the cotton trade, and that this fact has placed
us in the awkward predicament, that, although
we annually spend upon our army and navy
25,000,000 sterling, the blockade of a few ports
3,000 miles away, which we have no right to break,
inflicts almost as great an injury on us as the
blockaded states. If this were the only instance
of our dependence on international trade, it might
be treated as an exceptional case, and it might be
said with some truth that it would be an unsound
policy to legislate for exceptional cases. But it is
Interdependence of Nations. 35
not so. The silk, on the wages earned in the
manufacture of which some 250,000 of men, women,
and children are directly dependent, is all imported,
like cotton, from abroad. The same may be said
of the hemp, upon which about 80,000 are alike
dependent. No inconsiderable portion of the flax
manufactured in Britain is imported from abroad,
and upon this importation somewhere near 80,000
persons may be said to be dependent. The
stoppage, by blockades or anything else, of the
supply of these articles would be tantamount to
stopping the wages the bread fund of these
hundreds of thousands of honest workmen, just as
the stoppage of the supply of cotton stops the wages
of the cotton weavers.
More than this, the wages of the British manu-
facturing classes are dependent not only upon the
regular importation of the raw material by the
manufacture of which they earn their bread. They
run a double risk. They are also liable to be
stopped or abridged by the stoppage wholly or in
part of our export trade to those countries which
consume the manufactured article. Thus inasmuch
as three-fourths if not four-fifths of the cotton
goods we manufacture are exported to other coun-
tries; therefore, in addition to the whole bread
fund of the million or two dependent upon the
cotton trade being liable to be cut short by inter-
ruption of our trade with cotton -growing countries,
three -fourths at least of that bread fund is also
36 On International Reform.
liable to be cut short by interruption of our trade
with those foreign countries which consume our
cotton goods. The interruption of our export
trade means, in plain English, mills working half-
time or standing altogether. And so in the
w6ollen trade, if half our woollen manufactured
goods are exported, then half the bread fund of
the half million dependent on the manufacture
runs the risk of stoppage or abridgment from the
stoppage or abridgment of our export trade. If a
million are dependent on the iron trade, half their
bread-fund runs the same risk. So of the 100,000
dependent on the earthenware trade; and the
100,000 dependent on the tin trade. And so we
might go on.
With so many millions of citizens (for these
figures add up to millions) whose wages are more
or less dependent upon the maintenance of peace-
ful international intercourse, we can hardly con-
ceive of any war of long duration in any quarter
of the globe which would not by throwing them
out of employment rob thousands of their bread.
Xor is it the occupation and wages alcne of so
many millions of the British people that have be-
come thus dependent upon foreign trade and liable
to be cut off by the quarrels of other nations or
our own.
During the seven years ending 1858 something
like four millions, on the average, of the British
nation were annually fed on foreign corn. The
Interdependence of Nations. 37
fact is clear enough a considerable proportion
every year, and after a bad harvest a very large
proportion of our food, is imported from other
countries, and without that foreign supply millions
of our people must inevitably starve.
Imagine for a moment then what the effect must
have been upon England if the war had been be-
tween America and some other nation who had
blockaded both Northern and Southern ports.
Undoubtedly, in addition to the present cotton
famine we should have had corn at a famine price
too ; and, with corn at a famine price, how would
the rest of England have been able to keep alive
the half million cotton weavers in addition to their
own poor?
And if we have of late imported more and more
of corn from abroad, it seems generally admitted
that we are likely to want still larger supplies in
future.
' The nations of the West ' (observes a writer in
the Quarterly Review} ' have gradually become less
capable of supplying themselves with food. While
thousands of mouths are added daily to the number
to be fed, agriculture, with all its marvellous im-
provements and scientific appliances, is unable to
keep pace with the progress of population. A few
years ago England was able to feed her own people
from the produce of her own fields ; she now buys
grain to the annual value of more than 12,000,000,
and it is probable that before many years have
3 8 On International Reform.
passed England and France together may be under
the necessity of importing corn to the annual value
of 40,000,000.' Again, the same writer speaks of
4 the very probable diminution of cereal cultivation
in England, in consequence of the preference now
given by many farmers to the rearing of stock.'
Owing to the character of her climate he argues
that 4 England is placed relatively under very dis-
advantageous conditions for the production of corn,
while she need fear no rival in the raising of stock ; '
and concludes that 4 a change in the present cha-
racter of our husbandry, by laying down a larger
proportion of land in artificial grasses, pasture,
and green crops seems, therefore, highly probable.'
(Quarterly Review, July 1863.)
There is yet another direction in which the
dependence of England on free international inter-
course has, during the past half-century, evinced
itself.
The tendency of the free trade policy adopted
by England has undoubtedly been to remove those
harsh checks upon the increase of population which
must otherwise have probably periodically thinned
the too crowded ranks of a miserable and ill-condi-
tioned people. The increase of employment result-
ing from a great export trade, and the abundance
of food occasioned by the free importation of corn,
have no doubt acted as a direct stimulus to the
increase of population. Nor has it been an un-
Interdependence of Nations. 39
healthy stimulus by any means ; for there is no
virtue in a restraint for which there is no necessity,
nor can we well find fault Avith an increase for
which there is both demand and a fair provision.
Look at the facts.
The rate of increase during the last decennial
period of the population of the United Kingdom
was only *6 per annum, owing to the actual dimi-
nution of the population of Ireland after the Irish
famine. This may fairly be looked upon as an
exceptional case. The rates of increase in the
home population of England and Wales were :
1831-41 . . 1'4 per cent, per annum.
1841-51 . . 1-3
1851-61 . . 1-2
During the same periods the emigration from
the United Kingdom was as follows :
1831-41 . . 703,000
1841-51 . . 1,684,000
1851-61 . . 2,287,000
Thus during these thirty years the rate of in-
crease has steadily diminished, while emigration
has as steadily increased. During these thirty
years 4,674,000 emigrants had left our shores.
Between 1815 arid 1860 the number of emigrants
was more than 5,000,000.
We can hardly say that the state of society re-
vealed by these figures is other than it ought to
be. Whatever the peculiar advantages of a sta-
tionary state would be under other circumstances,
it would surely be anything but the index of
40 .On International Reform.
prosperity as things are. A condition of society in
which, owing to its prosperity and the elasticity of
its resources, the population is rapidly increasing,
and in which the new generations, instead of hang-
ing heavily on the resources of their parents,
rapidly move off to other lands and rely upon their
own, is surely under existing moral and economical
circumstances a far more healthy one.
Yet these facts, though illustrating as they do
the increased prosperity of our country, illustrate
also very strongly the state of dependence upon
international intercourse into which we have
steadily drifted. What would have happened to
England, we may well ask, had her five million
emigrants and their descendants remained at home ?
Who can tell what a debt of gratitude we owe to
America for affording the outlet she has done
during the past half-century to at least three-fifths
of our surplus population? What should we do
for the future, if anything were to occur which
should close the channels through which during
the past ten years we have been pouring out emi-
grants at the rate of 228,000 per annum?
The importance of this source of relief to the
population of the British Empire will at once be
seen if we compare the annual number of emigrants
with the annual increase in the home population
between 1851 and 1861.
Average number of emigrants per annum from
the United Kingdom . . . 228,000
Interdependence of Nations. 41
Average annual increase in the home population
of the United Kingdom . . 152,000
From this comparison it appears that the rate
of annual increase of the population of the United
Kingdom would have been much more than
doubled had these emigrants remained at home.
So dependent has England become upon an outlet
to other nations for her surplus population !
Now had all this been foreseen and proposed
before it came to pass, as a result to be obtained by
a certain policy 011 the part of the government,
would it not have been firmly opposed? Would
it not have been urgently objected that to allow
the people of these realms to increase so rapidly,
relying upon foreign raw material for their employ-
ment, foreign markets for the disposal of their
manufactures, foreign corn for their food, and an
outlet to foreign lands for one or two hundred
thousand per annum of surplus population, was to
make the prosperity of the British nation dependent
upon the maintenance of everlasting peace with all
the world? Would not cautious statesmen have
foretold that the first war would bring a nation
pursuing such a policy to rack and ruin? Would
not they have denounced it as a ' policy of political
suicide ' ? Yet in fact we have embarked upon a
policy which, to be successful, does require the
maintenance of strict justice, peace, and order
between nations. Under the irresistible guidance
42 On International Jieform.
of economic laws, and in spite of some counter
legislation, we have pursued this policy with
marked success during half a century of all but
unbroken peace ; and now at length when its
results have attained a magnitude which we never
dreamed of, and which bear us on without the
least chance of our being able to reverse our policy
now we find that we have yet to solve the further
problem, how that justice, peace, and order are to be
maintained without resort to those commercial block'
ades and other usages of war which injlict such
grievous injury upon even neutral nations.
IV. THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF HOLLAND.
It will not be needful to dwell long upon the
economic history and condition of Holland. The
facts are too clear to admit of dispute.
The population of Holland is denser than the
British population. Her imports and exports bear
a larger proportion to the population than British
imports and exports do. Her commerce is of far
longer standing than British commerce; and it
may be said with truth to be almost the only
string to her bow. Her agriculture is not capable
of indefinite extension, and she does not possess
that mineral wealth which has fallen to the lot
of other countries ; consequently, Holland more
than any other country is dependent upon foreign
commerce for the prosperity, and even for the very
Interdependence of Nations. 43
subsistence, of her people. Her history presents
the most remarkable instance upon record of
national vitality under great natural reverses, and
is a signal example of that tenacity of life to
which we have alluded as an attribute of com-
mercial peoples.
The Dutch, as a nation, never sank as did most
European nations through Feudal auspices into the
self-subsistent state. In the first ages of modern
history we find them engrossing nearly the whole
sea-fishery of Europe, and largely engaged in
general international trade. Dutch trading cities
were among the first to join the Hanseatic League,
and also among the first to secede from it when
they had grown strong enough to do without its
protection.
In later times, the internal and international
anarchy which ruled everywhere threw the chief
part of the carrying trade of the civilised world into
the hands of Dutch shipowners. During the 17th
century it is estimated that the international trade
of Holland was nearly as great as that of all the
rest of Europe put together. She is said to have
owned nearly half the whole shipping of Europe.
Then came her reverses :
1st. As other nations diverted their energies
from military to commercial enterprise,
her monopoly gave way. She lost the un-
natural advantage which she had hitherto
enjoyed through their neglect.
2nd. Though her enormous commerce enabled
44 On International Reform.
her to push to a successful issue her
long struggle with Spain, yet the heavy
taxation entailed thereby, and by her wars
with England and France, proved more
than her already declining commerce
could easily support.
Holland, in consequence, lost that commercial
ascendancy which she formerly enjoyed. Neither
the French occupation nor the union with Belgium
was conducive to her prosperity, and although a
brighter day appears to have dawned with her
separation from the latter, yet she probably never
will regain the relative international position she
has lost.
Notwithstanding, however, that her past com-
mercial history may have exceeded in brightness
her commercial prospects for the future, the fact
remains that her foreign trade is greater in pro-
portion to her population than the foreign trade
of any other country.
To protect this commerce she expends more
upon her army and navy, in proportion to her
population, than any other countries, except Eng-
land and France, in addition to bearing the burden
of a debt larger in proportion than that of any
other country except England. It is obvious also
that any further decline in her trade, or decrease
in her population, from emigration or otherwise,
would greatly increase the burden of these annual
charges.
Interdependence of Nations. 45
In a word, it is clear that the future welfare of
Holland, to a still greater extent even than that
of England, is dependent on the general main-
tenance for the future of peaceful commercial
intercourse between nations, and the avoidance on
her own part of the expense which any future
wars in her own defence must entail upon her.
V. THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF BELGIUM.
BELGIUM has been noted for her manufactures since
the age of Charlemagne. If Holland affords the
most remarkable instance upon record of tenacity
of life in a commercial people, Belgium affords at
least as remarkable an instance of tenacity of life
in a manufacturing people. For eleven centuries
at least Flemish manufacturing industry has held
its course through all vicissitudes. This in itself is
a remarkable fact. But what makes it doubly
remarkable is the further fact that throughout
these eleven hundred years from the age of
Charlemagne to the present moment the main
branch of the manufacture of Belgium has been
dependent upon the importation of the raw material
from abroad. Flemish weavers imported English
and Spanish wool long before the Normans con-
quered England. At the present moment nearly
all the wool manufactured in Belgium is imported
from other countries.
46 On International Reform.
But although the manufactures of Belgium
have survived for so long a period, like the
commerce of Holland they have suffered loss and
diminution over and over again from inter-
national causes.
That portion of Flemish trade which was con-
nected with the Mediterranean, and the overland
route to India, of course declined with the decline
of Venice and Genoa. This could not be helped.
But, from first to last, the chief enemy of Flemish
prosperity has been the constant unsettlement of
international affairs. We have seen how much
Flemish prosperity owed to the protection of the
Hanseatic League. But we have also seen how
England gained a share of the Flemish woollen
manufacture, chiefly in consequence of those inter-
ruptions of international trade which the Hanseatic
League was powerless to prevent. Her own in-
ternal condition moreover the want of unity
between her independent towns left her an easy
prey to foreign invasion. The death knell of Bel-
gium was all but tolled when she passed under
Spanish rule. Civil misrule and religious perse-
cutions, together with the arbitrary stoppage of
the Scheldt for a century, were causes adequate to
produce the ruinous results which marked the
period of Spanish dominion. If to these causes we
add the fact that, during the century succeeding
her release from the Spanish yoke, Belgium was to
a great extent the battle-field of Europe, we shall
Interdependence of Nations. 47
have mentioned causes sufficient to account for
the decline of her manufacturing industry.
In the meantime the decline of her manufac-
turing industry seems to have thrown her people
upon their agricultural resources. And as, like
their French neighbours, and from somewhat
similar causes, Belgian peasants to a very large
extent became proprietors of the soil, it was a
natural consequence that the population of Belgium
should not increase at a very rapid ratio.
The agricultural population between 1836 and
1855 had hardly increased at all. The figures
were :
1836 . . 3,261,456
1856 . . 3,348,189
The increase in twenty years was 86,733, or *14
per cent, per annum.
But the town population had increased much
more rapidly.
Under the influence of internal and international
peace, the old manufacturing spirit has risen again
into great and increasing activity. The develop-
ment of the great mineral wealth of Belgium has
also added largely to her industrial resources.
Consequently during the period within which the
agricultural population has very much remained
stationary, the town population has steadily in-
creased. The figures were :
1836
1856
2
48 On International Reform.
Shewing an increase of 200,230, or 1 per cent,
per annum.
Thus the proportion of town and country popu-
lation has been of late gradually changing, and as
the town, or rapidly increasing element, has . in-
creased in relative importance, and the rural or
stationary element relatively decreased, as a natural
consequence the rate of increase of the whole popu-
lation has steadily increased also.
The ratio of town to rural population was as
under :
1836 as 31 to 100
1846 as 34 to 100
1856 as 35 to 100
The rate of increase in the total population was
as under :
1836-46 . . '22 per cent, per annum.
1846-56 . . -63
1856-60 (about) -70
The fact would seem to be, therefore, that the
extension of Belgian industrial enterprise, and the
consequent growth of her town population, are
very rapidly removing that check which for a long
period the system of peasant proprietorship im-
posed upon a population already more densely
crowded within their narrow territory than that of
any other European State.
And what is to stop this rapidly increasing in-
crease ? So long as in her mining and manufac-
turing enterprise there is a demand for labour and
Interdependence of Nations. 49
a provision for an increasing population, what can
stop it ?
As we have stated, Belgium was rather a manu-
facturing than a commercial or maritime nation ten
centuries ago, and she is so still. As the King of
the Belgians has himself declared, ' the genius of
his people is for industrial pursuits at home rather
than for a maritime enterprise.'
A nation without either a merchant or military
marine must be peculiarly susceptible of injury
from the quarrels of her neighbours ; and Belgium
is nearly in this position. She possesses no navy ;
and so insignificant is even her merchant marine
that its tonnage, if multiplied tenfold, would not
bear the same proportion to the value of her im-
ports and exports that the tonnage of the British
merchant marine bears to the value of British
imports and exports.
To set against this, it may be said that she has
the advantage of her perpetual neutrality being
guaranteed by the great powers. Undoubtedly
she has ; but her peculiar political position, while
sparing her the large military expenditure of
nations who rely solely on their own power for
their own defence, does not do anything to screen
her from injuries inflicted by the quarrels of other
nations upon neutral commerce.
She has, like England, to complain of 'great
distress in some branches of industry ' which the
50 On International Reform.
American war and tariff ' have destroyed ' (Mr. Sand-
ford to Mr. Seward, May 10th, 1861); and there
can be little doubt that her future welfare is as
much bound up as that of other nations in the
solution of those international problems to which
attention is called in these pages.
VI. THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF SWITZERLAND.
The economic history of Switzerland presents
considerable analogy to that of Belgium.
From the fourteenth century she has been dis-
tinguished, like Belgium, as a manufacturing rather
than as a commercial nation.
In Switzerland, as in Belgium, agriculture has
been carried on side by side with manufactures, by
a hardy and thrifty race of peasant proprietors.
Consequently two forces, so to speak, have been at
work the one tending to check the increase of
population, the other tending to produce it. There
is in fact in Switzerland, as in Belgium, an almost
stationary agricultural population side by side with
a rapidly increasing manufacturing population.
Thus the rate of annual increase in the manufac-
turing Canton of Neufchatel, between 1850 and
1860, was 2 '3, and in that of Geneva 2*9, while
the rate of annual increase in the wholly agricul-
tural Canton of the Orisons was only '09, and in the
Canton of Tessin, where there are special laws
Interdependence of Nations. 51
preventing the sub-division of estates, there was an
actual decrease. If we divide the cantons roughly
into two divisions, classing Appenzell (ex.), St.
Gall, Thurgau, Zurich, Aargau, Basle, Geneva,
and Neufchatel, as manufacturing cantons, and the
remaining cantons as agricultural, the population
and annual increase were as follows :
Manufacturing Cantons.
Population in 1850 964,186
do. 1860 1,041,905
Increase 76,719 or -8 per cent.
Agricultural Cantons.
Population in 1850 1,427,554
1860 1,468,589
Increase 41,035 or '3 per cent.
These figures are sufficient to show how steadily,
as in Belgium, the manufacturing, or increasing
element is gaining ascendancy over the agricultural
or stationary element of Swiss population.
Still further: Switzerland like Belgium pos-
sesses no merchant marine of her own. She is
dependent altogether upon neighbouring nations
for the prosecution of her commerce, and inasmuch
as owing to the peculiar character of her territory,
she possesses very little corn-growing land, and
has consequently to import nearly all the corn
consumed by her people, it is evident to how great
extent her prosperity is bound up with the peaceful
maintenance of international intercourse,, without
needless interruption or risk of. disturbance.
52 On International Reform.
VII. GENERAL RESULT AS TO THE ' MOST DEPENDENT'
NATIONS.
To SUM up the main results of this enquiry into
the economic history and tendency of the most
dependent class of nations :
1st. Their past history exhibits strikingly the
tenacity of life which has characterised
their commerce and manufactures.
2nd. They have had to suffer greatly, owing to
their dependence upon international inter-
course, from its interruption at various
times, although they have outlived these
international storms.
3rd. They are clearly becoming more and more
dependent upon international intercourse,
and consequently liable to suffer more and
more from its interruption in the future.
And, finally, these results appear to be the
inevitable consequence, under the laws of nature,
of facts in the past history of these nations, and
therefore to be beyond their present control. The
Governments of these nations cannot prevent this
growing dependence of their people upon inter-
national intercourse any more than they can stop
the rising tide. The current of international
history will pursue its course in spite of any
legislation of theirs. The web of international
inter-dependence will become more and more
Interdependence of Nations. 53
delicate and intricate. Its separate threads will
become more and more entangled together. The
clumsy machinery of the present international
system will become less and less adequate to
meet the needs arising from these altered circum-
stances.
With whatever tenacity, therefore, our states-
men may cling to the traditions of the Foreign
Office, and seek to maintain the international
system as it is, it does not seem likely that circum-
stances and the Laws of Nature will be made to
bend so as to comport themselves with its harsh
methods and antiquated forms. And if circum-
stances and laws of nature cannot be made to bend
to the international svstem, it is certain that the
tt
International system will have to bend to them.
VIII. THE ' SELF SUBSISTENT ' NATIONS. FRANCE.
IN turning from the ' most dependent ' nations to
consider the economic history and tendency of
those which as yet have not fully emerged out of
the * self-subsistent ' state, it will not be needful
for our purpose that we should enter into a detailed
examination of the case of each nation separatel} T .
But the case of France is so singular and at the
c
same time so important, that it may be well to
devote a separate section to its consideration.
54 On International Reform.
France entered with England into the feudal
and self-subsistent stage of national life. She also
possessed linen, woollen, and silk manufactures of
her own as early as the fourteenth century. The
great plague of 1348 is stated, moreover, to have
reduced by its terrible ravages the larger popula-
tion of France in about the same proportion as it
did the English population a statement which,
having evidence for the fact of the great depo-
pulation in England, we cannot doubt was at least
founded on fact. But the economic results of the
plague do not appear to have been the same in
France as in England. It does not appear to have
had the intimate connexion with the emancipation
of the serfs in France that it had in England. We
read indeed of many charters of enfranchisement
both before and after the plague ; but nothing of
any great emigration of freed or fugitive serfs
from the country into the towns. Probably neither
the prosperity of the towns, nor the extent of the
manufactures, was sufficient to produce such a
result. Those feudal serfs who were enfranchised
by charter generally carried the ownership of the
land with them, as the Russian serfs are now doing,
instead of being detached from the land, as in the
case of the English serfs. The French peasantry
emerged, in fact, out of serfdom into a condition of
peasant proprietorship.
And further, instead of the number of peasant
proprietors lessening century after century as in
Interdependence of Nations. 55
England, successive events have, in the course of
French history, from time to time tended to
increase the number. Thus, while in Tudor
England landlords were ejecting peasants and
yeomen and forming large grazing farms, in France
the lands of the impoverished noblesse were passing
into other hands and undergoing constant subdivi-
sion. And again, the religious persecutions, which
drove the Huguenot silk-weavers out of France to
swell the manufacturing population of England,
not only lessened the proportion of the manu-
facturing population of France, but rooted still
further her rural peasantry to the soil. For it is
well known that they caused a still further sub-
division of the landed estates. And lastly, the
great French Revolution marked another era when
the feudal peasantry of France became possessors
of land. The result has been that in France there
are five or six millions of landed proprietors. Of
these about four millions may be fairly classed as
peasant proprietors, and they are said to own about
one-third of the whole soil of France.
At the same time, the long periods of civil and
foreign war, the religious persecutions and political
revolutions, which have marked her history, together
with the absence of great mineral wealth, have
kept back the town population of France to such
an extent, that while in England the population is
about equally divided between town and country,
in France only one-fifth of the population appear
56 On International Reform.
to reside in towns of more than fifteen hundred
inhabitants.
With four-fifths of the whole population rural,
and the large majority of the rural families living
on their own land in a condition of peasant pro-
prietorship (that condition which of all others im-
poses the most effectual check upon population)
France would appear to have inherited from her
past history precisely that economic condition which
would naturally tend to keep her population
within limits proportioned to the limits of her land,
and to keep the nation itself for a lengthened
period in the self-subsistent stage of national life.
And what is the fact? France has accordingly
until very recently had perhaps the most stationary
population of any civilised nation except Austria
and Portugal. The census of 1856 revealed the
striking fact that during the previous five years
the population had hardly increased at all.
But can even France, with all these economic
causes in her favour, continue permanently in the
self-subsistent stage of national life? It would
appear that she cannot.
The census of 1856, while it revealed that her
total population had hardly increased at all, re-
vealed also that France presented no exception to
the all but universal tendency of modern nations
towards the preponderance of the town or increas-
ing element as compared with the rural or sta-
tionary element in the population. It revealed the
Interdependence of Nations. 57
fact that while the rural population had been
steadily decreasing the town population had been
steadily increasing, chiefly owing to the emigration
from the rural districts to the towns. If this state
of things were to continue a point must be reached
at length where the increasing element must gain
a preponderance over the decreasing element, and
the ratio of increase in the whole population in-
crease with it.
The census of 1861 has indicated pretty clearly
that this point has already been passed. During
the five years succeeding the census of 1851 the
total population was shown to have increased more
than twice and nearly three times as rapidly as it
did during the five years which preceded it.
Should economic laws continue to work unmo-
lested by those frequent political vicissitudes which
give so uncertain an element to French statistics,
there can be little doubt therefore but that the
population of France will increase in the future at
an increasing ratio.
Already the value of her imports and exports
bears a larger proportion to her population than is
the case with the other self-subsistent nations, and
with the exception of Italy her population is more
dense probably than any of theirs.
Already about every other year France does not
yield enough corn to feed her people, and she is
dependent on foreign importations to supply the
deficiency.
58 On International Reform.
Already the wages of some half million of the
French working-classes are said to be dependent
upon the supply of American cotton, and at this
moment they are sharing with us the miseries en-
tailed by the American War.
Already Free trade doctrines are creeping into
France, and commercial treaties are entered into
with other countries, with the express object of
breaking down the barriers which have hitherto
unduly checked her international trade.
Already, in fact, France is embarking, to say the
least of it, on a policy which must end in increased
international dependence, and when once she has
fairly weighed anchor and committed herself to the
current, it is hard to see how she can ever return to
the old feudal self-subsistent policy, which she
has, until recently, so long endeavoured to pursue.
IX. OTHER SELF-SUBSISTENT NATIONS.
WITH regard to other nations belonging to the self-
subsistent class, it will be sufficient for our present
purpose to make one or two general remarks.
1st. For the most part their experience proves
no exception to the general rule that the
town or commercial class in a country is
the increasing one, the agricultural, the
stationary one. And consequently the
tendency, so far as it goes, is towards the
Interdependence of Nations. 59
ascendancy of the commercial element,
even in the case of these nations.
2nd. However long they may continue in the
self-subsistent state, and however far they
may lag behind in the race towards a
greater and greater dependence on inter-
national trade, their condition and interests
in these respects differ not in kind but
only in degree, from those of the ' most
dependent' nations. The peaceful pro-
secution of international trade is of great
and increasing importance even to them,
though it may not be the life and death
question to them which it is to the 'most
dependent' nations: even its temporary
stoppage must injure them, though it may
not inflict so dangerous a wound. And
nations, like men, are in the habit of pro-
viding against less evils as well as against
greater ones. They are careful to pre-
serve and even increase their prosperity as
well as to guard against ruin.
3rd. It may be remarked further, that although
the same international causes may affect
these nations as nations less severely than
the ' more dependent ' nations, yet from
their peculiar geographical and political
position, those of their people who do devote
themselves to commercial pursuits run a far
greater risk of injury and even ruin than
60 On International Reform.
the commercial classes of the most dependent
countries. Wars and even the distant
rumours of wars are often found to para-
lyse their trade ; and this is in many cases
the main reason why these nations are un-
naturally kept still in the self-subsistent
state, when, had they simply been left to
follow their true interests, unchecked by
political and international causes, they
would ere this have passed into the more
dependent stage of national life.
It does not therefore need further arguments to
prove that the future prosperity even of the most
self-subsistent nations is already, to some extent,
and is becoming more and more, bound up with
that of other nations, in the solution of those inter-
national problems to which attention is called in
the following pages.
X. NATIONS IN THE YOUTHFUL STAGE.
NATIONS passing through the * youthful ' stage are
not, as a rule, dependent on international trade for
the necessaries of life. But they are in a great
degree dependent upon peaceful intercourse with
other countries for their supply of luxuries and
emigrants, as well as for the means of realising the
value of that surplus of natural products in which
consists their peculiar wealth.
PAKT II.
ON THE INADEQUACY OF THE PRESENT INTERNATIONAL
SYSTEM AND IN WHAT IT CONSISTS.
CHAPTER i.
I. RESULTS OF THE PRECEDING ENQUIRY.
THE results of the foregoing enquiry may be
stated thus :
1st. Two nations, Holland and England, fairly
are launched as it were upon a course
of dependence upon other nations, not
only for luxuries, but even for the means
of employment and the supply of food
for their people.
2nd. Other European nations, by reason of the
universally more rapid growth of their
town as compared with their rural popu-
lation, are more or less steadily tending
towards the same goal. Some of them,
especially France and Belgium, are already
approaching the verge of the self-subsistent
state, and are fast preparing to follow
Holland and England into the dependent
stage of national life.
3rd. Young countries, in all quarters of the
globe, are rapidly rising by means of
international intercourse in the scale of
nations, and are dependent, as nations in
this stage always are, upon the .older
* 2
64 On International Reform.
nations rather for luxuries and emigrants
the means of enjoying and increasing
their surplus wealth than for the actual
necessaries of life.
Combining these results into one wide view of
the whole, we find the population of civilised
Christendom rapidly increasing ; we find it spread-
ing over new lands where the raw products of
the earth are more abundant. We find, in con-
sequence, the necessaries of human life tending
to become more abundant and cheaper, and a
larger and larger proportion of the human race
set at liberty, in consequence, for the contri-
vance and manufacture of the luxuries of life.
We find these latter becoming more and more
diffused amongst the masses of the people, and
even wheedling their way into barbarous and half-
civilised countries; and the consequence of this
again is a growing mutual dependence springing
up even between civilised and uncivilised nations.
In a word, we find the system of division and co-
operation of labour forcing its way into inter-
national as well as social society, economising for
the benefit of all nations the labour and wealth
of each the several countries and peoples pro-
ducing what the commonweal of nations most
requires, and what they are best fitted and able to
supply.
Inadequacy of War. 65
II. MODERN MODES OF WARFARE ARE BECOMING
INCREASINGLY INJURIOUS TO NEUTRALS, AND
INCREASINGLY INEFFICIENT IN THE HANDS OF
BELLIGERENTS.
SUCH being the economic history, condition, and
tendencies of international society, it remains
very briefly to point out the chief practical
results which have followed, affecting the ques-
tion immediately under discussion in this Essay.
They are two :
1st. The practice of Modern Warfare is be-
coming more and more injurious to the
interests of nations, and especially of
neutrals.
2nd. It is at the same time becoming less arid
less efficient, as a means of attaining the
ends of international justice, in the hands
of belligerents.
Especially clear are these two facts, if we regard
the question strictly from an English point of view.
England, as a maritime nation, has hitherto
relied chiefly on her naval power. She has used
her naval power in war chiefly in two ways :
1st. By destroying her enemies' ships, both
merchant and others.
2nd. By blockading her enemies' ports.
It has been said again and again by the de-
fendants of the status quo, that in the right of
66 On International Reform.
England to do these two things, her naval power
mainly consists. It is urged that if the first were
taken away, our navy would have nothing to prey
upon ; if the second, it would have nothing to do ;
if both were abolished, our navy would be reduced
very much into a naval fortification a kind of
national body-guard. The Prime Minister (Lord
Palmerston) declared emphatically, in reply to
Mr. Cobden, that to abolish these maritime rights
would be to commit political suicide.
Two centuries ago these rights were far more
effective and far less injurious than they are now.
The right of capturing enemies' ships was at that
time a most effective belligerent right to England,
for while her naval supremacy was all but undis-
puted, the commerce of the world was, to a great
extent, carried on by the commercial ships of other
nations, and in time of war these were an easy
prey. And while it was an effective weapon of
warfare in her own hands, it was not a very
injurious one when used by other nations against
her. For not one-fourth of the commercial ships
on the seas belonged to her more than three -
fourths belonged to other nations.*
But it is not so now. England is said to have
as many merchant ships on the ocean as the rest
of the world put together.
Now that all ships of belligerents are still liable
to capture, while enemies' goods in neutral ships
* McCulloch's ' Commercial Dictionary,' under Amsterdam, 37.
Inadequacy of War. 67
are no longer liable to capture, it is plain that in
case of our going to war higher rates of insurance
would be charged on the cargoes of our ships as
compared with those of neutral ones, and that
this fact alone would in great measure cripple our
shipping interest without a blow being struck.
Our ships would probably either lie idle in our
clocks, be transferred into neutral hands, or pursue
their wonted voyages with less paying cargoes
and under risk of capture. A greater blow to
our shipping interest than this could hardly be
conceived.
And if the right of capturing enemies' ships is
becoming more and more injurious to ourselves,
it is also becoming less and less effective as a
belligerent weapon in our hands as against other
nations.
For if on the outbreak of war our enemies carry
on (as they must do) their commerce in neutral
ships, our navy will have no right to touch their
commerce at all. Of what use then to us will
this suicidal right be ? Its effectiveness as a belli-
gerent weapon is evidently gone. It is surely a
pity that its power of injuring ourselves should
be permitted to remain.
It certainly looks like a suicidal policy to persist
in wearing a double-edged weapon, whose blunted
edge is presented to our enemies and the sharp
edge turned in against ourselves !
And the same may, to a great extent, be said
68 On International Reform.
of the right of blockading an enemy's ports. It
is easy to show that this also as a belligerent
right has become more and more injurious to
neutrals and less and less efficient as a warlike
weapon to belligerents ; and especially so in the
case of England.
It is admitted by both opponents and defenders
of what are called commercial blockades, that all
nations except England are willing, nay anxious,
that commercial blockades should be abolished;
the advocates of their abolition urging the injury
suffered by neutral nations from the practice.
The defenders of commercial blockades retort,
that of course all other nations must delight in
their abolition, because it would be tantamount to
disarming England of the most powerful weapon
whereby she has hitherto maintained her maritime
supremacy.
It is somewhat strange, certainly, that the only
nation anxious to keep up the right of blockading
an enemy's coast should be England, the one
nation (with the exception, perhaps, of Holland)
which of all the nations of the earth would suffer
most seriously from the blockade of the ports of
other countries, and could not possibly survive for
long a blockade of her own !
As was shown in a former chapter, England and
Holland are many times more dependent upon
foreign commerce than any other nation. To
England and Holland alone of all nations would
Inadequacy of War. 69
a strict blockade be absolutely and speedily
ruinous. Other nations Russia, Belgium, Austria,
Prussia, the United States, and perhaps France
have within themselves more of the necessaries
of life than they themselves require, and could,
therefore, endure an endless blockade ; but Eng-
land and Holland cut off from foreign supplies of
food must starve in a year or two, and suffer
grievous privation and misery before even many
months of isolation were over.
Finally, as the dependence of nations on inter-
national commerce increases, the injury inflicted
by commercial blockades must obviously increase
also.
And now as to the growing inefficiency of the
right of blockade as a belligerent weapon. There
are very few countries now which can be blockaded.
The increased railway communication between
nations has opened out many new channels
whereby nations blockaded on their shores may
yet carry on all needful commerce by land and
through other nations' ports.
Again, that certainly is not an effective weapon
which wounds the wielder of it more than the
enemy upon whom the blow is struck. And yet
in many cases the right of blockade must be so in
the hands of England. For were England and the
United States to go to war (which God forbid!)
the blockade of the ports of the United States
would cut off from her the supply of a few luxuries,
70 On International Reform.
while it would cut off from England both corn and
cotton in the midst of the inevitable expenses and
trials of a state of war ! There can be no doubt
that however destructive a weapon the right of
blockade may be in certain cases, yet, against some
nations at least, it is in our hands so inefficient,
that in case of actual war we should be glad enough
to let it lie idle in its scabbard.
It is not proposed here to discuss the different
plans which have been suggested to prevent the
injury to commerce which results from the exer-
cise of these self-destructive belligerent rights.
Suffice it to say that whatever plans have been
proposed agree in attempting partially to disarm
maritime war, and that the only argument of any
weight raised against the principle involved in
them is, that the more you disarm the more you
destroy the efficiency of war ! It is alleged that it
is of no use to destroy the efficiency of war so long
as it is the only mode whereby nations can maintain
their rights.
And here the controversy rests. In the mean-
time we enter into commercial treaties, and become
more and more dependent upon the maintenance
of international peace and justice. We keep up
a kind of see-saw between additional fortifications
on the one hand and reduced military expenditure
on the other hand, as the counsels of one or the
other political party happen to prevail. Twenty-
five millions of hard-earned money slip through
Inadequacy of War. 71
our fingers each passing year to maintain a system
acknowledged to be utterly powerless as a protection
from the evils cast upon us by the quarrels of
others, and becoming less and less effective as a
means of promptly and justly settling our own.
72
CHAPTER II.
I. ON THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN LYNCH LAW
AND POSITIVE LAW.
IN proceeding now to the most important part
of the argument contained in these pages that
part of it in which the gist of the whole of it may
be said to lie it is very needful that it should be
guarded, at the onset, from doubt or confusion
arising from the want of clearly understood
terms.
It will readily be granted that there is a clear
and marked distinction between a condition of
society in which private individuals ' take the law
into their own hands ' and ' do themselves justice]
by resort to what in common language we call
LYNCH LAW,* and a condition in which an efficient
system of POSITIVE LAW is firmly established, by
resort to which individuals obtain justice and
maintain their rights.
Nor can it be denied that there is a distinction
equally clear and marked between a condition of
international society in which nations ' take the
* ' Lynch Law. Punishment inflicted by private individuals
without the forms of law.' (Webster.)
International Lynch Law. 73
law into their own hands ' and ' do themselves
justice ' by resort to what may very fairly be
called International Lynch Law, and a condition
of international society in which the rights of
nations are defined and guarded by a system of
Positive International Law.
The analogy between civil and international
society in this particular, as in others, may not
be perfect throughout ; but in all that constitutes
the essence of Lynch Law on the one hand and
Positive Law on the other hand, the prevalence
of the one or the other, in international no less
than in civil society, is a fact often witnessed and
readily understood.
It is apprehended, e.g., that no one will deny that
the state of early feudal society in which private
wars were carried on by feudal chieftains, was
marked to that extent at least by the prevalence
of Lynch Law.
4 Because (writes Guizot) the system of judicial
guarantees was vicious and powerless; because no
one had faith therein, and cared not to have
recourse to them ; in a word, in default of something
better, men did themselves justice; they protected them-
selves? (History of Civilisation, iii. p. 179.)
That is to say, in default of an adequate legal
judicial system they resorted to Lynch Law to
maintain their rights. And so, I apprehend, it can-
not any more be denied that a state of international
society in which, in default of international positive
74 On International Reform.
law, nations ' did themselves justice ' and protected
themselves, would be a state of international society
marked to that extent at least by the prevalence of
what would be fairly called International Lynch Law.
And the analogy may be pushed one step
further. The prevalence of a common code of
morality or of commonly recognised rules of action
tempering the harshness of private war between
feudal chiefs would not in itself be considered as
changing its radical character. So long as feudal
chieftains continued, under that code of morality,
to do themselves justice and take the law into their
own hands, Lynch Law, it would still be said, pre-
vailed, though to a less licentious extent and under
a somewhat mitigated form.
It was so in fact, for (continues M. Guizot)
4 Private warfare and judicial combat became
established institutions, regulated according to
fixed principles and with more minutely deter-
mined forms even than those of the pacific process.
.... Men at this period had recourse to force :
it was force which was to decide the question, but
they desired to introduce into its judgment as
much regularity, as much equity as it would allow
of (p. 182). And so, in international affairs, the
mere fact that rules of international morality were
commonly recognised by nations, and that war
between nations had become an established in-
stitution, regulated according to fixed principles,
would not change the radical character of Interna-
International Lynch Law. 75
tional Lynch Law. If, having no other method of
redressing their wrongs, nations had direct recourse
to force, taking the law into their own hands and
doing themselves justice, it would be Lynch Law
which still decided international disputes, although
nations might have tried to introduce into its prac-
tice as much regularity, as much equity as it would
allow of.
Hence, though it may be a matter of question
whether the term Lynch Law be an elegant or a
classical term to apply to the practice of nations
or of men ' taking the law into their own hands,'
'doing themselves justice,' and protecting them-
selves, in default of adequate legal and judi-
cial institutions, it must, I think, be admitted that
the term, if it applies to the case of the one, applies
equally to the case of the other. In neither can
the existence of commonly accepted rules of mor-
ality or of humanity tempering some of its harshness
radically change the character of what in its essence
is Lynch Law.
Such being the distinction in principle between
Lynch Law and Positive Law, there remains the
question of fact, how far International Lynch Law
is still prevalent in international society; and how
far it has in fact been supplanted by the institution
of positive international law.
76 On International Reform.
II. THE ATTEMPT OF GKOTIUS AND HIS FOLLOWERS
TO REFORM INTERNATIONAL MORALITY.
IN a former chapter it was pointed out that
modern international history dates from the esta-
blishment of the modern idea of a nation from
the period when the idea of universal dominion
gave place to that of territorial sovereignty, and
nations became attached, as it were, to the countries
inhabited by them.
It will readily be seen that so long as any trace
of the old idea of universal dominion lingered in
the minds of nations or their rulers, international
relations must of necessity have been so inextricably
entangled and confused, the asserted rights of one
nation so utterly inconsistent with the rights of
every other, that anything like an organised inter-
national system was impossible.
While princes laid fanciful claim to one another's
thrones, and formed and broke off alliances simply
when it suited their own selfish schemes, no matter
how many solemn treaties were thereby broken or
how much unjust injury inflicted, Lynch Law
was not only the only law actually in force between
nations, but also the only law possible.
Any adequate examination into the state of in-
ternational affairs during the 16th century the
age immediately preceding that of Grotius would
make it clear at once that European nations had
Inadequacy of the Present System. 77
by no means emerged fully from the transition
period of international history. It would show
that while, on the one hand, their idea of sovereignty
nominally was the modern territorial idea, yet in
practice they aimed at something much more ex-
tended and indefinite than any mere sovereignty
over their own immediate kingdom.
And whatever improvement may have taken
place in the interval, the unbridled extent to which
Lynch Law was carried in the age of Grotius the
founder of the present international system was,
he tells us himself, the evil to correct which he wrote
his treatise De Jure Belli ac Pads. It was one of
the ' weighty reasons ' why he wrote it. ' I observed
(he writes) throughout the Christian world a licen-
tiousness in regard to war which even barbarous
nations ought to be ashamed of: a running to
arms upon very frivolous or rather no occasions,
which being once taken up there remained no
longer any reverence for right either divine or
human, just as if from that time men were autho-
rised and firmly resolved to commit all manner of
crimes without restraint.' (Preliminary Discourse,
De Jur. Bel. ac Pac.)
He clearly saw that it was by law of nature (and
that in the proper sense as we have defined it)
that men were driven to form social relations.
' The Author of nature was pleased (he says) that
every man in particular should be weak of him-
self, and in want of many things necessary for
G
78 On International Reform.
living commodiously to the end that we might
more eagerly affect Society.'
He saw clearly, also, that owing to this inter-
dependence of individuals, no social community
can be preserved, not even a society of Robbers,
without some respect for justice and right. And
he saw, too, that the same principle applied to
the intercourse as well of nations as of men. The
necessity of the practice of justice between citizens
is visible (he said) to all; 'but great States that
seem to have within themselves all things neces-
sary for their defence and well-being, do not (he
continues) seem to some to stand in need of that
virtue.'
But although, as we have pointed out, the
nations were passing through the self-subsistent
stage of national life, yet Grotius could see clearly
enough that, nevertheless, ' there is no State so
strong or well-provided but what may sometimes
stand in need of foreign assistance, either in the
business of commerce or to repel the joint forces of
confederated nations.'
And from this he argued consistently that ' if
there is no community which can be preserved
without some sort of right, as Aristotle proved
by that remarkable instance of robbers, certainly
the society of mankind or of several nations can-
not be without it.'
Starting, then, from the fact that there existed
only to a very partial extent indeed any system of
Inadequacy of the Present System. 79
positive international law, he proceeded, in the
first place, to lay down what, upon that assump-
tion and under those circumstances, nations were
bound in natural justice to do and leave undone
in their intercourse with one another.
' The leading object of Grotius and of his imme-
diate disciples and successors (writes Wheaton) in
the science of which he was the founder seems to
have been 1st, to lay down those rules of justice
which would be binding on men living in a social
state, independently of any positive laws of human
institution, or, as it is commonly expressed, living
together in a state of nature ; and 2nd, to apply
those rules, under the name of Natural Law, to
the mutual relations of separate communities living
in a similar state with respect to each other.'
(Wheaton, I. p. 33.)
Vattel also rested upon this fundamental prin-
ciple the rules of international natural justice and
morality which it was his chief aim to promul-
gate.
' Nations,' he says, ' being composed of men
naturally free and independent, and who, before
the establishment of civil societies, lived together
in a state of nature, nations, or sovereign states,
are to be considered as so many free persons living
together in the state of nature.'
And he thus expresses the object of his book :
' In this treatise it will appear in what manner
States, as such, ought to regulate all their actions.'
G 2
80 On International Reform.
It will be seen, therefore, that those rules and
maxims of natural justice which Grotius and his
followers promulgated as binding upon nations in
foro conscientice were in reality far more a code of
international morality than of international law, in
the commonly received meaning of the term law.
Nor did Grotius or Vattel confuse the system
of morality which it was their chief aim to pro-
mulgate, with what they recognised as a distinct
thing altogether a system of positive law. We
shall see this perfectly clearly when we come to
speak more fully of their views with reference to
the latter.
Nor do even those who still cling to the phrase
international law as applied to what are merely
rules of international morality deny the existence
of the radical distinction between them and the
enactments of positive law.
It does not therefore seem necessary to bring
forward any further authorities in support of an
opinion which, when fairly looked into, can hardly
be disputed.
It will be seen that in the preceding pages I
have purposely given the object and opinions of
Grotius and others in the words of Wheaton, so
that the reader may judge for himself whether I
have unconsciously misrepresented them to suit
the purposes of my argument. It is fair, however,
to say that in the paragraph in which Dr. Philli-
more alludes to this subject, he argues that the
Inadequacy of the Present System. 81
rules of international morality are in a sense inter-
national laws. But if I mistake not, the evident
dislike of the Doctor to the term international
morality, and the reasons why he thinks it of im-
portance to maintain the use of the term ' inter-
national law ' for what he does not deny is merely
moral doctrine, must, in itself, tend to support the
view urged in this chapter.
The modern international system grew up while
the nations were still passing through the self-
subsistent stage of national life, when as yet the
need had not arisen, or was not felt, for a complete
system of positive international law. A thorough
reform of international morality was in their day
the pressing need of international society, and this
reformation was the great work which Grotius and
his successors attempted, and as a matter of fact
have in great measure accomplished.
III. GROTIUS AND HIS FOLLOWERS ADMITTED THE
EXISTENCE AND NECESSITY OF ' POSITIVE '
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
It has been seen that the great work which
Grotius proposed to himself, and so successfully
achieved, was the promulgation of sound rules of
international morality.
But did Grotius mean that international reform
should stop with the attainment of this object?
82 On International Reform.
Was there never to be any positive law between
nations, practically regulating international action,
in accordance with the general principles of inter-
national morality?
Puffendorf seems to have thought that positive
law would be out of place between nations.
Speaking of the rules of international intercourse
observed by tacit consent among civilised nations
the only approach to positive law which existed
in his day he remarks :
' If one engaged in a lawful war shall neglect
them and profess that he will not be bound by
such restraints, provided that what is contrary to
them may be rightly done according to the law
of nature [i.e. natural justice], he is guilty of no
other sin but a sort of unskilfulness in not
adjusting his proceedings to the nice models of
those who reckon war in the number of the liberal
studies, as a gladiator is accused of inexpertness
when he wounds his antagonist otherwise than by
rules of art. Whoever, therefore, wages war in a
just cause may slight these formalities at pleasure,
and govern himself purely by law of nature. . .
Nor have those men any good reason of complaint
who censure this doctrine as a notion by which
the security, the interest, and the safety of nations
are robbed of their surest guards and defence. . .
The observance of the law of nature affords them
a much more sacred support one which whilst
they enjoy they have little need of inferior methods
Inadequacy of the Present System. 83
of protection.' (Puffendorf, bk. II. c. iii. s. 23;
p. 151.)
Puffendorf thus clearly denies not only the
existence, but also the need, of any positive inter-
national laws. The laws of national justice i.e.
of international morality he held to be the only
and sufficient rule of international action. Positive
international laws would be an ' inferior method of
protection.'
But not so Grotius. In an age when there were
hardly any positive laws of nations clearly denned
and in force, he clearly asserted their existence and
the need of their existence. He distinguished,
more or less clearly, between the rules of inter-
national morality (jus naturae} and what he called
laws of nations (jus gentium].
4 Grotius (writes Wheaton) considers the law
of nations as a positive institution, deriving its
authority from the positive consent of all or the
greater part of nations, which he supposes to be
united in a social compact for the purpose.'
And again, ' Grotius states that the jus gentium
acquires its obligatory force from the positive
consent of all nations, or at least of several.'
Thus, then, the laws of international morality
of natural justice which he wrote his book to
define and promulgate T were not in themselves,
in his view, positive ' laws of nations,' unless
or until they were adopted by the express or implied
consent of most civj]i.ed nations. Where rules of
84 On International Reform.
international conduct were thus adopted, he con-
sidered that they became, as between those na-
tions, positive laws, whether they were consistent
or not with the laws of natural justice. In some
instances some nations recognised different posi-
tive laws of this kind from those recognised by
others, and it was evidently his desire, in promul-
gating sound views of natural justice, so to in-
fluence the usages of civilised nations as to make
them comport with his own sound views, and so
in the long run to mould thereby the positive
law of nations which the common usage of nations
creates.
Bynkershoek, rejecting the view of Puffeiidorf,
also held with Grotius that the usage of nations
was the basis of the law of nations.
In a passage quoted by Wheaton, he says that
4 the law of nations is that which is observed in
accordance with the light of reason between na-
tions, if not among all, at least certainly among the
greater part, and those the most civilised.'
And so also Vattel, in speaking of the positive
law of nations, expresses himself thus :
' When a custom or usage is generally esta-
blished, either between all the civilised nations of
the world, or only between those of a certain con-
tinent, as of Europe for example, or between those
who have a more frequent intercourse with one
another ; if that custom is in its own nature indif-
ferent, and much more if it be useful and rea-
Inadequacy of the Present System. 85
sonable, it becomes obligatory on the nations in
question, who are considered as having given their
consent to it, and are bound to observe it towards
each other as long as they have not expressly
declared their resolution of not observing it in
future.' (Vattel, Ixv.)
And he remarks further that the positive laws of
nations i.e. those laws which proceed from the
will of nations are of three kinds : ' the voluntary,
from their presumed consent ; the conventional, from
an express consent ; and the customary, from tacit
consent.'
And he concludes his remarks by laying down
the rule that while nations, in examining what is
their own duty, should consult the laws of natural
justice which are always obligatory in the con-
science, in examining what they may demand of
other nations they should consult the positive law
of nations.
Finally, Wheaton adds his own authority to that
of the earlier jurists in the following words : ' The
international law of Christendom began to be fixed
about the time of Grotius, when the combined
influence of religion, chivalry, the feudal system,
and commercial and literary intercourse had
blended together .the nations of Europe into one
great family. This law does not merely consist of
the principles of natural justice applied to the
conduct of States considered as moral beings. It
may, indeed, have a remote foundation of this
86 On International Reform.
sort, but the immediate visible basis on which the
public law of Europe, and of the American nations
which have sprung from the European stock, has
been erected, are the customs, usages, and conven-
tions observed by that portion of the human race
in their mutual intercourse.' (Wheaton, I. 51.)
We arrive, therefore, at the clear result that in-
ternational jurists, from Grotius to Wheaton, have,
with but few exceptions, made a more or less clear
distinction between the rules of natural justice or of
international morality on the one hand, and posi-
tive international law on the other. The former
they called the law of nature, the latter the law of
nations.
They granted, therefore, in principle the neces-
sity of positive international law, and themselves
aimed at the correction and extension of whatever
of positive international law existed in their own
times.
IV. WHAT POSITIVE INTERNATIONAL LAW EXISTS
IS VERY INADEQUATE, AND INTERNATIONAL
LYNCH LAW STILL PREVAILS.
While thus the greatest international authorities
may be cited in support of the necessity of positive
international law, and its partial existence in their
times as well as in our own, yet we must by no
means jump to the conclusion that because of the
Inadequacy of the Present System. 87
partial existence of positive international law, the
prevalence of international Lynch Law has been
practically put an end to.
It remains to be shown whether it is so fully
established as really to supersede the resort on the
part of nations to Lynch Law, as really to make it
no longer needful for nations ' to take the law into
their own hands and do themselves justice.' And
again it requires consideration whether much of what
is really established usage on the part of nations be
not analogous to those usages by which private
war was in feudal times regulated and its harshness
in some measure tempered, rather than to what
ought to be regarded as really positive law.
In the first place, with some marked exceptions
such as the declaration of the slave trade to be
piracy, and the declaration of Paris of 1856, to both
of which the express positive consent of all nations
bound thereby has been solemnly given, it may
well be questioned whether the rules of inter-
national action be sufficiently clearly defined to
admit of their being regarded as to the full extent
at least positive laws.
In the second place, the absence of any judicial
or authoritative mode of interpreting these con-
suetudinary laws of nations gives them a vagueness
which at once distinguishes them from the un-
written law of civil society. The common law of
England, e.g., is for the most part clearly defined
by judicial precedent, which giving the positive
88 On International Reform.
sanction of the State to the point of law decided,
from time to time supplies almost as fully as would
special enactment the positive element which cha-
racterises the common law of England.
In the third place, however fully they may be
thought by some to possess the characteristics of
positive law, they are analogous to the maxims by
which private war was regulated in feudal times in
this essential particular, that instead of providing
a legal and judicial substitute for Lynch Law, i.e.
for the system of each nation ' doing itself justice
and taking the law into its own hands,' they rather
organise this system and seek to introduce into its
practice ' as much equity as it will admit of.'
Under these laws what is in fact international
private war has become an institution regulated by
fixed principles, just as much as feudal private war
did ages ago, instead of it being superseded by
legal and judicial institutions.
Hence, therefore, the most that can be said of a
large portion of international law whether, strictly
speaking, positive law or not is that, like the old
feudal code of private war, it tends to temper the
harshness of Lynch Law without superseding its
practice.
And lastly, even with regard to the declaration
of Paris itself, so far as there exists no other method
of interpretation but that of each nation judging
for itself what it means, and so far as there exists
no other method of enforcing it but that of each
Inadequacy of the Present System. 89
nation taking the law into its own hands and doing
itself justice by its own military and naval power
so far Lynch Law still in our own times prevails
between nations ; causing cotton famines, destroying
peaceful commerce, and thereby robbing thousands
and hundreds of thousands, and it maybe millions,
of innocent citizens of even neutral nations of the
wages on which they are dependent for their daily
bread !
This is what, I trust, the terrible evils of the pre-
sent war will startle the British public into seeing ;
for look at it as we will, I cannot see a single loop-
hole through which we can escape from the most
unpalatable truth.
The American War will not have been an un-
mixed evil if it open our eyes to the injury which
the pursuit of right by the harsh methods of inter-
national Lynch Law inflicts, and is always likely
to inflict, upon friend and foe alike ; and especially
if at the same time it force us to recognise the
utter inadequacy of those methods, even with all
the refinements of modern warfare, as means of
promptly bringing to a just or an unjust conclusion
an international dispute.
Were the power all on one side, no doubt it
might seem to be otherwise. In such a case, a dis-
pute may be forced to a conclusion at any moment
by the nation whose brute force is superior. The
weaker Power, whether in the right or the wrong,
will yield, though it may be under protest. But
90 On International Reform.
no end of justice is gained. The dispute has not
been finally settled. The embers may smoulder
for awhile, but it is only to break out again, when
further fuel is added, into a far stronger flame.
The inadequacy of the present international
system lies therefore, it is clear, in a far more
radical defect than can be reformed by any mere
alteration of the rules of maritime warfare. It has
been proposed to abolish those usages of war which
are most injurious to neutral nations. The only
strong argument which has been relied on against
this reform rests on the fact that, to disarm war of
its most disastrous and dangerous weapons, would
be to make it a still less efficient means of obtain-
ing redress for international wrongs than it is, and
to render it a pastime which, in the words of Lord
Palmerston, might be ' indulged in for ever without
coming to any result.'
It is, in truth, inadequate enough already, and
its inadequacy lies in the fact that Lynch Law
never is, nor can be, an adequate means for the
attainment of the ends of justice in a complicated
state of international or any other society.
No reformation of the practice of international
Lynch Law can, therefore, solve the international
problem upon the solution of which the common weal
of nations is becoming more and more dependent.
As was remarked at the outset, the problem is a
double one.
The present system of international Lynch Law
is both inadequate as a mode of obtaining inter-
Inadequacy of the Present System. 91
national justice, and also injurious to other
nations.
The international problem requiring solution is
how to provide a more adequate security for inter-
national justice which shall at the same time be
less injurious to the interests of nations.
In short, it may be possible to make the practice
of international Lynch Law either less injurious to
neutral nations or more effective in the hands of
belligerent nations ; but to make it both a harmless
and an effective means of attaining the ends of inter-
national justice is a task transcending human skill.
V. THE INTERNATIONAL REFORM NOW REQUIRED IS
THE SUBSTITUTION OF A LEGAL AND JUDICIAL
SYSTEM FOR INTERNATIONAL LYNCH LAW.
In a previous section the fact was pointed out
that modern international jurists deduced their
international maxims by analogy from the prin-
ciples which would prevail between individuals
in the analogous stage of social society, i.e. in the
absence of organised civil and judicial institutions.
I wish now to press the analogy between social
and international life a little further.
Since the time of Grotius the ages have rolled
on, the shadow on the international dial has ad-
vanced ; the state of international society is no
longer analogous to a state of civil society with_
out civil and judicial institutions, but to one
92 On International Reform.
more advanced. International society has passed
since the age of Grotius into another and more
advanced stage, and it is therefore necessary to
compare with it a corresponding and more advanced
stage of civil society, if we wish to draw the true
present analogy between the two.
It will readily be admitted that a state of society
which is marked by the absence of a civil and
judicial system, or, in other words, by the preva-
lence of Lynch Law between men, is only a very
temporary stage of the life of a civilised nation. -
And what is that point in social history at
which the system of Lynch Law breaks down, and
the necessity for a civil and judicial system to
take its place, becomes obvious and pressing?
Surely it is that in which it is found in practice
that the resort to Lynch Law is not only a very
burdensome and inefficient remedy to the ag-
grieved party, but also hazardous to the lives and
interests of others.
When population is thinly scattered, and men
have little or no communication with any but their
distant next-door neighbours, they may wear their
swords and fight out their quarrels in a summary
manner without much danger to others. But were
two citizens to fight out their quarrel in the
crowded market, to the danger and actual damage
of peaceable passers-by, it would be evident
enough that some more harmless mode of settling
the disputes of citizens than this must be
provided.
Inadequacy of the Present System. 93
We see in our own past history how, as the
towns increased in population, and more and more
citizens became dependent upon the peaceful
prosecution of internal trade, the necessity arose
for the general disarmament of citizens which
has been so completely effected. And we see
in the growth of modern colonies the same ne-
cessity arise, whether it be in the gold diggings
of California, Australia, or British Columbia. The
scum of civilised population collects in a whirlpool
of excitement, Lynch Law for a while prevails.
But this stage of colonial history is of short
duration; with the increased population, a civil
government arises, and the district which before
contained only a handful of independent inhabi-
tants, becomes, by the force of moral gravitation,
a civilised state.
As we analyse the present state of international
society, we find what is neither more nor less than
the practice of international Lynch Law still to a
great extent prevailing between nations, closely
resembling in practice, and altogether identical in
principle, with the state of Lynch Law which in a
barbarous stage of society subsisted between indi-
viduals. We find, further, that as Lynch Law
between individuals has always and everywhere
been found to be inimical to private trade, so
is international Lynch Law now found, as the
Hanse Towns found it eight hundred years ago,
to be inimical to international commerce. To
H
94 On International Reform.
carry the . analogy one step further, it is sub-
mitted, that as the growth of commercial enter-
prise, and the consequent complication of in-
dividual rights and relations necessitated the
gradual substitution of civil law and a judicial
system between individuals, so must the growth
of international commerce and the consequent
complication of international rights and relations
eventually necessitate the gradual substitution of
positive international law and an essentially judicial
system between nations.
Analogies cannot, I am perfectly aware, be
pushed too far. It does not follow, in the least,
that the law and the judicial system should be of
the same type in the one case as in the other ; it
does riot follow, in the least, that the change will
be brought about by the same steps or the same
means ; but I trust I shall be able to show that,
being necessary, it is not Utopian to aim at its
gradual accomplishment, and that some tentative
steps have already been taken in the right
direction.
PART III.
ON THE NATURE OF THE INTERNATIONAL REFORM
REQUIRED BY THE INCREASING INTERDEPENDENCE
OF NATIONS :-
I. IN INTERNATIONAL LAW.
II. IN ITS INTEKPKETATION.
III. IN ITS ENFORCEMENT.
H 2
97
CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY THE THREE BRANCHES OF THE
SUBJECT.
IN proceeding now to discuss more fully the
nature of that international reform which, as
shown in the .preceding chapters, in the onward
course of civilisation is imperatively needed, the
subject naturally divides itself into three branches.
1st, with reference to the Law.
2nd, with reference to its interpretation.
3rd, with reference to its enforcement.
It divides itself naturally into these three
branches, because it is an essential difference in
these three particulars which constitutes the real
distinction between the uncivilised state of society
wherein Lynch Law prevails and the more civilised
state of society in which it has been supplanted
by a civil and judicial system.
Thus Grotius quotes Thucydides to show that
a civil power a state is a body which has its
own laws, tribunals, and magistrates.
A state of society wherein Lynch Law prevails
to the full extent is a state of society so un-
organised, so uncivilised, as to possess no laws,
tribunals, and magistrates a state of society in
98 On International Reform.
which each man's own will, whether moral or
depraved, is his only recognised law; his own
judgment, whether sound or biassed, his only
recognised judge; his own arm, whether weak or
powerful, his only weapon of redress.
A civilised state is a society so far organised
as to possess established laws, judicial tribunals
for their interpretation, and magistrates to enforce
them. And the essential distinction between a
system of Lynch Law and a civil and judicial
system lies therefore in the point, whether the
individual or the society declares, interprets, and
enforces the laws whereby social intercourse is
regulated.
99
CHAPTER 11.
International Law.
I. THE NECESSITY FOR A MORE COMPLETE- SYSTEM
OF POSITIVE INTERNATIONAL LAW.
IN mi uncivilised state of society wherein Lynch
Law prevails to the full extent i.e. wherein no
positive civil law exists men take upon themselves
to define what is right and lawful for themselves
according to their own notions, instead of obeying
a uniform code of laws mutually recognised as
equally binding upon all who are members of the
same civil society.
It has further been shown that in principle
the case is not altered by the fact that, owing
to the growth of civilisation, a uniform code of
morality is accepted by each as binding upon his
own conscience. From the fact that each is bound
by his own conscience, it follows as a consequence
that no man can be bound by that of any other
man. Hence each man, when a common code of
morality exists, no less than in its absence, takes
upon himself to define what is right and lawful for
himself instead of obeying a uniform code of laws
100 On International Reform.
mutually recognised as equally binding upon him-
self and his fellow-subjects.
And this analogy holds good of international
society. The fact that, to a large extent, nations
have accepted the Grotian international code of
morality as binding in foro conscientice upon
civilised nations does not, in itself, change the
essential character of international society.
To the extent to which each nation still takes
upon itself to define what is right and lawful to
itself instead of obeying a uniform code of positive
law, mutually recognised by civilised nations as
binding upon themselves and their neighbours, to
that extent International Lynch Law is the only
law in force between nations.
To what extent is this the case ?
With a few marked exceptions, such as the De-
claration of Paris of 1856 and the declaration that
the slave trade shall be piracy, the maxims which
now regulate international relations are, in fact, far
more analogous to rules of morality binding in foro
conscientice than to the enactment of positive law.
To make the very most of it, they have only
partially been converted, under the sanction of long
international usage, into positive law.
It is true that some principles have undoubtedly
become established and generally recognised by
almost invariable usage, but it is no less true that
in other particulars, within certain limits, each
nation holds its own views according to its own
In International Law. 101
supposed interests, and a different view from, its
neighbours when their interests are supposed to
be divergent. There is, in many cases, just as
much difference of opinion and divergence of policy
as there is apparent contrariety of interest.
Now the position advanced is this : That while
the absence of positive law was a tolerable and
necessary evil w r hile nations were passing through
the self-subsistent stage of national life and had
very little mutual intercourse, it is becoming an
intolerable and unnecessary evil now that nations
are, one after another, passing out of the self-
subsistent stage of national life into the most
dependent one ; and now that the adoption of a
free trade policy by one nation after another is
more and more blending the interests of all nations
in one, entangling the threads of their national
prosperity into an international skein.
The position advanced is this : That inevi-
tably, in the present complicated state of inter-
national society, the continued prevalence of Lynch
Law in this particular does not, and in the future
more and more will not and cannot, work ; and
that the international system requires, in order
that it may work, the adoption by civilised nations
of a just and uniform system of positive inter-
national law.
I do not say that necessarily an exhaustive
code must be forthwith framed, to be taken at a
gulp by all civilised nations far from it ; but I do
102 On International Reform.
say that one great and pressing branch of inter-
national reform is, beyond all doubt, the gradual
and persistent substitution, as time rolls on,
of uniform and clearly defined and accepted
positive international laws on one question after
another, for the international maxims of the
jurists.
Nor will this position, I confidently trust, be
disputed. It has been, I think, sufficiently shown
to be strictly in accordance with the spirit and
even the express declarations of Grotius and his
more recent expounders. I will content myself
with adding to their weighty authority the still
more weighty authority of the modern solemn
declaration of all the civilised powers of the world,
without a single exception, to the general principle
involved.
The following is the preamble of the l Declaration
of Paris, respecting maritime law, signed by the
plenipotentiaries of Great Britain, Austria, France,
Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey, assembled
in Congress at Paris, April 16, 1856 ' :
It declares :
' That maritime law in time of war has long
been the subject of deplorable disputes.
' That the uncertainty of the law in such a
matter gives rise to differences of opinion,
which may occasion serious difficulties and
even conflicts.
1 That it is consequently advantageous to
In International Law. 103
establish a uniform doctrine on so important
a point.'
The Declaration which follows this preamble
(now adopted by forty-six civilised Powers) estab-
lishes as between those Powers something like a
uniform code of international law regarding the
rights of neutrals, and is, therefore, a step precisely
in the right direction. The Americans, indeed,
refused to concur in this Declaration, but Mr.
Seward, in his correspondence in reference to its
adoption, paid nevertheless a just tribute to the
Tightness and pureness of its object.
' The Declaration of Paris is the joint act of
forty-six great and enlightened Powers designing
to alleviate the evils of maritime war, and promote
the first interest of humanity, which is peace.'
(Seward, September 7, 1861.)
And Earl Russell stated that ' Her Majesty's
Government, in concurring in this Declaration,
wished to establish a doctrine for all time, with a
view to lessen the horrors of war all over the
globe. The instructions sent out to Lord Lyons
prove' (he said) 'the sincerity of their wish to
give permanence and fixity of principles to this
part of the Law of Nations.' (Russell, August 28,
1861.)
The general principle expressed so forcibly in
the above quotations, and applied by the Declara-
tion of Paris to one portion of international law in
particular, is precisely the principle urged in this
104 On International Reform.
chapter, and it can hardly require further authority
or argument to support it.
II. ARBITRATION NO PROPER SUBSTITUTE OF
INTERNATIONAL LAW.
But inasmuch as the proposal to submit inter-
national disputes to arbitration has sometimes
been represented as a kind of Morison's Pill to
cure all international diseases, it may be well to
point out clearly that arbitration (however good as
a merely temporary and exceptional expedient,
failing international law) is contrary to all sound
political principles as a permanent substitute for
law, and as such it will not work.
In the first place, it should never be forgotten
that the great end of law is not to decide, but to
prevent disputes; that for every dispute which
British civil law, e.g., decides there are thousands
of cases in which disputes are prevented from
arising by its certainty and clearness. But arbi-
tration in itself is powerless to prevent disputes ; it
only extends to the adjustment of disputes which
have already arisen.
Arbitration, therefore, as a system fails in ful-
filling the main end in view.
2ndly. In another, and scarcely less important
particular, arbitration, from its very nature, must
In International Law. 105
fail as a substitute for law. It is under just laws,
well denned, and clearly recognised beforehand,
and under these alone, that the intricate entangle-
ments of interests can safely exist, without which
the advantages of civilised life cannot be realised.
In the absence of such laws men's relations to
one another are necessarily kept more simple, and
men refrain from entering into transactions which
otherwise they would enter into daily without the
least misgiving, and to mutual advantage.
3rdly. Sublime as the theory of simple justice,
dispensed by the untrammeled award of an honest
and upright arbiter may be, in practice it would
afford no guarantee of individual liberty. It
would be open to all the objections which lie
against the principle of legislating for a special
case after its occurrence. It lacks the guarantee of
perfect impartiality which constitutes the very
essence of laws framed for all cases alike, without
any reference either to any particular case which
actually occurs, or to the particular parties to
a dispute. Consequently, no one in his senses
would bind himself beforehand to submit all
questions of dispute in which he may become
involved to the arbitration even of the best of
his friends. It would be to make another man's
conscience, and not his own, the guide of his
actions.
And so, in international affairs, there are cases
where the rights are so plain and the issue so
10G On International Reform.
important that it would be folly to hazard the
result of an arbitration.
Thus Yattel, whilst strongly recommending a
resort to arbitration before an appeal to the sword
in doubtful cases which do not involve essential
points, expressly distinguishes from them cases of
dispute in which the ' essential rights ' or the
' safety of the nation' is involved (Vattel, 278-9),
and he brings forward the instance of the Swiss.
who have had the precaution in their alliances to
' agree beforehand on the manner in which their
disputes were to be submitted to arbitration ' a
* wise precaution which has not a little contributed
to maintain the Helvetic Republic in that flourish-
ing state which secures her liberty and renders
her respectable throughout Europe.' ' And yet
the Swiss] he continues, ' on occasions when their
liberty was menaced refused to submit their dispute
to arbitration: ( Vattel, 278-80.)
Nor is it, moreover, in the least degree likely
that nations will bind themselves to submit their
disputes to arbitration.
The Plenipotentiaries of the great nations of
Europe, assembled in Congress at Paris, though
they had unanimously and without scruple agreed
to bind themselves, without appeal, by four clearly
defined and inexorable laws regarding the rights
of maritime powers in time of war ; with equal un-
animity guarded their recommendation that States
between which misunderstandings should arise.
In International Law. 107
should, before appealing to arms, have recourse to
the good offices of a friendly power, with the decla-
ration that it should not amount to an engagement
to do so.
The Earl of Clarendon proposed the resolution,
as ' calculated to afford to the maintenance of peace
a chance of duration hereafter, without prejudice,
however, to the independence of Governments.'' Count
Walewski supported the resolution, conceiving it
' to be fully in accordance with the tendencies of
our epoch,' while it ' would not in any way fetter
the free action of Governments.''
Count Buol did not hesitate to concur in it,
' though he could not make in the name of his
Court an absolute engagement calculated to limit
the independence of the Austrian Cabinet.'
And the Plenipotentiaries did not hesitate to
give it the ' most extended application,' because
' it could not in any case oppose limits to the
liberty of judgment, of which no power can divest
itself in questions affecting its dignity.'
Such was the jealousy of the great powers of
anything approaching to an engagement to resort
to even so harmless a course as the mediation of a
friendly power (for there was nothing said about
arbitration at this Congress) before resorting to
force.
What, then, would be the jealousy with which
any scheme would be met for referring inter-
national disputes to arbitration?
108 On International Reform.
We may well conclude from the result of the
Congress of Paris of 1856 that the whole range
of international law may probably be reformed
and fixed, by similar declarations to that upon
maritime law, before nations are prepared to bind
themselves to refer their disputes to arbitration.
Hence we conceive that it cannot be too clearly
kept in view, that good as arbitration may be, and
doubtless is, in its proper sphere, as an exceptional
resort failing international law, to rest upon it as
a permanent substitute for law would be to build
upon the sand.
It is not needful here to dwell on the subject of
' arbitration ' in its own proper sphere, and to urge
its more frequent adoption in cases for the settle-
ment of which it is adapted. All that it is need-
ful to point out at this stage of the subject is,
that arbitration cannot rightly be held out as a
permanent substitute for a system of positive and
well-defined law.
, III. THE LIMITS OF INTERNATIONAL LAW
NON-INTERVENTION.
Although a sound system of positive interna-
tional law may be regarded as essential to the
common weal of nations, and as admitting of no
such substitute as arbitration, in the present com-
plex state of international society, it is, on the
In International Law. 109
other hand, important to mark clearly the limits
within which the range of positive law must itself
be confined, and beyond which nations must be
left to act according to their own judgment, without
legal or other interference.
The range of international law, as well as of
individual interference in the affairs of nations, is
strictly limited by the doctrine of non-intervention.
There is, perhaps, no more encouraging fact in
modern international history than the steady ad-
vance which has of late been made by nearly all
political parties towards the adoption of this
doctrine.
There is, indeed, a false doctrine of non-interven-
tion, based upon a selfish policy, which would stand
by and see a weaker power oppressed by a stronger
one without interference, because it is not the
direct interest of the latter at the moment to
interfere.
Without saying that a great power like England
ought to consider it its business to turn knight-
errant and undertake every job of police which wants
doing on the seas, a selfish policy may safely be
denounced as contrary to the laws of natural justice
and international morality, which proclaim the
equal rights of all nations, be they weak or strong.
The true doctrine of non-intervention rests, not
upon the want of direct interest on the part of
other nations, but upon the right of international
liberty on the part of the nation interfered with.
i
110 On International Reform.
It rests upon the fact that no nation or compact
of nations has by nature a right to interfere with
the private aifairs of any other, unless such inter-
ference be strictly needful to secure the common
weal of nations. It is analogous to the law of
civil liberty which denies that any individual or
state has a right to meddle with the personal rights
of the subject, except so far as is needful to secure
the common weal. Were this doctrine of non-in-
tervention clearly denned and thoroughly accepted
by civilised nations, the province of international
law would be wonderfully narrowed and brought
into manageable compass.
But, if this be the true doctrine of non-interven-
tion, it is obvious that the same rules cannot be laid
down as the limit of right intervention on the part
of individual nations on the one hand, and of inter-
national society by its laws on the other.
A distinction must clearly be recognised in inter-
national affairs analogous to that which exists
between the limits of right intervention in the
private affairs of individuals, on the part of indi-
viduals, on the one hand, and of the State on the
other hand.
An individual has no right to trespass on his
neighbour's property, but the State has a right to
make roads and railroads over everyone's property
whenever the common weal really requires it.
And so an organised international society, if it
existed, might probably rightly intervene by its
In International Law. Ill
laws in some cases, when it would be injurious and
wrong for an isolated nation to do so.
And as the right of intervention is extended by
the organisation of a civil or international society,
so also are the corresponding obligations.
It is not always the duty of an individual to
redress a wrong done even to himself. But it is
the duty of a civil society impartially to carry out
its laws. And so also of nations and international
society.
A nation is not bound to act the knight -errant,
or even to enforce all its rightful claims against all
other nations. But international positive law once
clearly established as an international institution,
it will become no less the duty of international than
of civil society impartially and promptly to main-
tain and carry out those laws, as far as the common
weal of nations may require it.
Hence the great importance of keeping all
attempts at international legislation clearly within
the just limits of the true doctrine of non-interven-
tion, so that they may thoroughly enlist the moral
support of the international community.
For a law once enacted, which shall infringe
unduly the lawful liberty of any nation, must shake
the foundations of the whole international fabric.
It must entail one of two alternative evils, and
probably both. To carry it out would be to per-
petrate a legal tyranny. To neglect to put it in
force would be to let down the dignity of the law.
i 2
112 On International Reform.
To attempt to carry it out, and to fail in the attempt,
would be to be gored by both horns of the dilemma,
and thus it would submit the international system
to a double shock.
And yet no one has been able to draw with
logical exactness the practical limits to right in-
tervention on the part of society through its laws,
simple as is the theory of non-intervention ex-
pressed in general terms. Probably the question
no more admits of an universal solution in inter-
national than in civil affairs. At all events, it will
not be expected that such a solution should be
given in this Essay.
I shall content myself, therefore, with having
urged the expediency of erring, if at all, on the side
of non-intervention, rather than running the risk
of shaking the whole international fabric by
attempts at unwise intervention.
IV. THE ACTUAL CONSENT OF NATIONS REQUIRED
TO MAKE INTERNATIONAL LAW BINDING. A
MAJORITY OF NATIONS CANNOT ENACT LAWS
WHICH SHALL BE UNIVERSALLY BINDING.
While it may be impossible to give an universal
solution to the question where in practice to draw
the line of non-intervention, it is not only possible,
but absolutely necessary to put practical guards
In International Law. 113
upon unjust or undue intervention on the part of
society in the affairs of individuals.
The only guard, which in practice has proved it-
self at all a successful one, is that of obtaining, as
nearly as the circumstances of the case will admit,
the consent of individuals to the laws which they
are bound to obey.
But the right of individuals not to be bound by
laws to which they have not given their individual
consent, is one of those rights which men have in
practice always been compelled partially to give
up in civil society.
They do so on the sound principle that all
human association, by law of nature, involves that
each individual so associating shall give up so
much of his individual liberty as is needful to
secure the common end, to attain which the
society is formed.
The art of civil association consists in obtaining
the maximum of common good at the minimum
expense of individual rights, so that there may be
no waste of the latter.
In the case of a nation composed of several
millions of people, each individual cannot possibly
give his own actual consent to every one of the
laws. And hence the exigencies of a civilised
nation require the establishment of a sovereign
power, capable of making and of enforcing its laws
upon all its subjects. And the nearest equivalent
to the actual concurrence of all in the acts of the
sovereign power which political skill has been able
114 On International Reform.
as yet to contrive, is that system of representation
and delegation of rights and duties to a compara-
tively very small number of men, which is as yet
far from perfect either in its theory or practice.
Under the civil institutions of the purest re-
public, as well as of a constitutional monarchy,
individual men necessarily so far give up their
individual rights to the majority of their fellow-
citizens that they become in fact, as well as in
name, subjects obeying a superior power. or govern-
ment, which can and does constantly make laws
affecting their rights without their individual con-
sent to them having been directly obtained or <J\TH
asked for.
In civil society, therefore, even under the best
representative system,
1. The actual consent of each is not obtained to
the laws.
2. The majority impose laws upon themselves
and the minority .also.
Now, let it be observed how far the analogy
between international and civil affairs holds in this
respect, and where it breaks down.
By law of nature nations equally with men are
so constituted that they cannot associate together
for a common good without curtailing to some
extent their own individual liberty, and the art of
international as of civil association consists there-
fore in obtaining the maximum of common good
tit the minimum expense of individual liberty.
In International Law. 115
But the extent to which it is needful to infringe
individual liberty to attain the common good,
must obviously differ greatly under differing cir-
cumstances. And it would indeed be jumping to
a wild conclusion were it assumed that the cir-
cumstances of civil and international society are
the same. They differ in the most material point.
There are, perhaps, not fifty civilised states in the
world, and practically not nearly so many civi-
lised nations, for small states for international
purposes either are confederated into one nation or
follow the leadership of others.
When the most civilised of these states associate
together to establish such common positive laws
as their common weal requires, it is obvious that
the same necessity does not exist, as in the case of
a state composed of millions of subjects, either for
that system of representation and delegation so
essential in the latter, or for the existence of a
concentrated sovereign power without which no
state could exist.
Even in a populous state, each individual is in
theory supposed to have given his consent to the
laws through the machinery of representation and
delegation alluded to. Much more, therefore, in
the case of a few highly civilised nations, so far as
the necessity for such machinery does not exist
so far as the circumstances of international society
admit of the actual consent of each nation being
given to its laws so far the right of the society
116 On International Reform.
to dispense with the actual consent of each nation
must be absent also.
And also as to the other point intimately con-
nected with the question of individual consent to
laws the right of a majority to bind a minority
how far does it exist in international affairs?
The right of a majority in a state to bind a
minority, and the consequent curtailment of the
liberties of the minority, rests chiefly upon the
modern territorial sovereignty of nations, and the
consequent necessity of the law having universal
jurisdiction over all the inhabitants within a certain
geographical area.
This element is wholly absent in international
society. Under present circumstances such a
society would not rest upon a territorial basis at all
it would embrace, probably, the most civilised
nations of the globe, without regard to their
geographical position. And therefore there is no
difficulty, or at least not the same difficulty, in
leaving out dissentient nations, whether a minority
or a majority, from the international society. There
is no necessity, or at least not the same necessity,
for curtailing the rights of dissentient nations so
far as to bind them with positive laws enacted by
a majority of nations against their will.
Hence we arrive at the conclusion that positive
international law is binding as such only on those
nations whose actual assent has been given to its
terms. As regards nations who have not given
In International Law. 117
their actual consent to any positive law, it has no
authority as such whatever.
In support of a conclusion so essential to the
right understanding of the subject hereafter to be
dwelt upon, it may be well to adduce some autho-
rity and precedent.
The first illustration to which I shall refer is the
prohibition of the slave trade.
Piracy has for long, by universal usage among
civilised nations, been considered as contrary to
international law. But, until modern times, the
slave trade was not looked upon as piracy.
Perhaps there never was a case in which so
nearly universal a change of feeling among nations
has taken place as with reference to the slave trade.
If the concerted action of all the greater powers
and most of the lesser ones of Europe and America
could establish a positive international law so as to
make it binding upon all nations, including the
very small minority who had not given their con-
sent to it, the declaration of the slave trade to be
piracy surely must have been the one.
But what is the fact? Although by positive
international law the slave trade has been declared
to be piracy as between all nations who have, by
treaty or their own laws, actually assented thereto,
yet it is still clearly recognised that it is not jure
gentium piracy as regards nations who have riot
thus given their assent.*
* This was clearly stated by Lord Stowell iu the case of the
118 On International Reform.
The only other case to which I shall allude in its
further confirmation is that of the Treaty of Paris
of 1856.
The forty-six civilised nations which alone are
bound by the laws of maritime warfare contained
in that Declaration all gave their individual and
actual consent to its terms.
Their associating for this purpose gave them no
sovereign authority over the rest of the world.
As between themselves they are bound, to the
extent of its terms, by a mutually recognised and
uniform law ; but nations not parties to the
Louis. ' The slave trade had been carried on by all nations,
including Great Britain, until a very recent period, and was still
carried on by Spain and Portugal, and not yet absolutely pro-
hibited by France. It was not, therefore, a criminal traffic by
the consuetudinary law of nations, and every nation, independently
of special compact, retained a legal right to carry it on. No one
nation had a right to force the way to the liberation of Africa by
trampling on the independence of other States.' ( Wheaton, 168.)
The Supreme Court of the United States adopted the same
conclusion :
' No principle of general law was more universally acknow-
ledged than the perfect equality of nations. Russia and Geneva
have equal rights. It results from this equality, that no one can
rightfully impose a rule on another. ... A right, then, which
was vested in all by the consent of all could be divested only by
consent. ... As no nation could prescribe a rule for others, no one
could make a law of nations ; and this traffic remained [legally]
lawful to those whose governments had not forbidden it.'
In 1845 the same principle was again adhered to and con-
firmed in the case of the Felicidade by the majority of the judges,
whose decision Dr. Phillimore cites as showing that, notwith-
standing the numerous treaties and conventions of civilised nations
on the subject, ' the English law does not yet hold slave-trading
to be "jure gentium " PIRACY.' Phil. Int. Law, i. 333-4.
In International Law. 119
Declaration are in no way affected by it they are
acknowledged by the Declaration itself as bound
only by such rules of international morality as
were prevalent before its adoption.
The care with which these points were guarded,
both in the preliminary discussion and in the final
Declaration, will be sufficiently apparent to any one
who may take the trouble to read the protocols of
the conferences.
V. OBJECTIONS ANSWERED.
But, it may be asked, Does not the absence of a
sovereign power to enact international laws, and
the impossibility of their having a universal juris-
diction within a given geographical area, prevent
the existence of any positive international laws at
all ? Are the rules agreed upon by the few con-
senting nations, such as those relating to the slave
trade and maritime rights, to be regarded as really
positive international laws ?
The answer is obvious.
Were our only idea of law confined to that with
which we are familiar in a modern state, it might
possibly be doubtful. And by assuming a defini-
tion of positive Law to fit this peculiar and restricted
idea, no doubt international law may technically be
excluded from the range of ' positive law ' so
defined.
But we are pursuing a practical and not merely a
120 On International Reform.
technical argument, and we have therefore to deal
not with names but with things.
As before hinted, the idea of territorial sove-
reignty, as regards civil law, is of comparatively
modern birth. Positive Law existed before its
adoption, and therefore it cannot be an . essential
of positive, law that it should have exclusive
sovereignty within certain geographical limits.
And in like manner the fact of civil law being a
rule prescribed by a sovereign to a subject power is
clearly only an accident arising out of the multi-
tude of subjects over which ordinary civil law
has force. It has nothing to do with the real
essence of positive law that it should count its
adherents by millions. Law, in its essence, may
prevail as fully over six nations as over sixty
millions of men ; and the question of by what
machinery it is enacted, whether by a system of
representation and delegation, or by actual consent
on the part of all who are bound by it, can have
nothing to do with the question whether it is
positive law or not.
1 apprehend that positive law, established by
unanimous and actual consent of all over whom it
has force, is positive law in its simplest and purest
form, and the most positive law which can exist,
by whatever name it may technically be dis-
tinguished from the more complex forms which
law has assumed, as applied, under the idea of
modern territorial sovereignty, to the internal
regulations of sovereign states.
121
CHAPTER III.
The Interpretation of International Law.
I. THE INTERPRETATION MUST BE JUDICIAL.
WE now enter upon the second branch of the
enquiry, and proceed to examine what inter-
national reform is needful with reference to the
interpretation of international law.
It will readily be admitted that the adoption of
positive international laws by all civilised nations
would by no means in itself suffice to put an end
to the evils involved in the prevalence, to how-
ever small an extent, of international Lynch Law.
Doubtless the existence of clear and simple posi-
tive laws mutually binding upon nations would
(as it does between individuals) do more than
anything else could do to prevent disputes. The
clearer and simpler the law, the rarer must be the
disputes. But yet disputes will arise, however
simple and clear it may be ; and how - are such
disputes to be settled?
In case of any dispute as to what is the law,
how is the law to be interpreted?
The answer to this question involves the
examination of the second great point in which
civil law differs from Lynch Law. In the one case
122 On International Reform.
/
each individual is left to put his own interpreta-
tion even upon such rules and principles of mutual
action as may chance to be generally recognised.
In the other, the interpretation of the law is not
left to the parties in dispute, but a judicial and
authoritative decision of what is the law is pro-
vided, which is binding not only upon the parties
in dispute and in the particular quarrel, but upon
the whole community and in all like cases.
At present each nation is left to put its own
interpretation even upon such portions of the laws
of nations as have already been denned and
adopted as binding international law.
Should any of the nations parties to the Declara-
tion of Paris differ in their interpretation of any
one of its provisions, no international judicial
arrangement exists whereby a decision of what is
the law can be obtained which shall be binding
upon all the nations parties to the Declaration.
Each nation consults its own law-officers and
forms its own opinion as to what is the true inter-
pretation of the law, and acts accordingly. In
other words, it ' takes the interpretation of the
law into its own hands ' it ' does itself justice.'
Consequently in this, as in other particulars, the
usages of what in its essence is international
Lynch Law still survive between nations.
It is submitted, therefore, that the second great
branch of international reform must be the esta-
blishment, not necessarily of any fixed judicial
In the Interpretation of the Law. 123
tribunal, but of some kind of really judicial
international machinery for interpreting interna-
tional law, for giving such an impartial and
authoritative decision of what is the law as it
should be no stain upon a nation's honour either
to sue for or obey.
II. ARBITRATION NO PROPER SUBSTITUTE FOR THE
JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION OF INTERNATIONAL
LAW.
Here, again, we cannot but regret that the public
mind has been partially drawn off from the true
scent by the prominence which has been given in
some quarters to the scheme of arbitration.
What is really required is, not the decision of an
umpire but the decision of a judge not the
decision of arbitrators, one chosen by each of the
disputants, with a special view to the particular
dispute, and therefore liable to some extent to the
suspicion of being more or less partial, but a
decision, given under the authority of the whole
society of nations, deciding what is law without
reference to who may be the disputants ; a deci-
sion which shall be binding upon other nations in
like cases as well as upon the disputants, and
which must, to a large extent, be placed by that
very fact beyond suspicion of favouring either
party. What is required is, as has been already
124 On International Reform.
pointed out, an authoritative judgment which shall
settle the disputed point of law for all time, and for
all nations over whom the law has force ; not
merely a clumsy expedient whereby the single
dispute in hand may be adjusted. What is re-
quired is therefore not a court of arbitration, but
something tantamount in principle to an inter-
national judicial tribunal.
I am glad to be able to quote upon this point
the recently-published opinion of Mr. J. S. Mill in
his ' Considerations on Representative Govern-
ment.' Speaking of the United States, he writes :
1 The tribunals which act as umpires between the
Federal and State Governments naturally also
decide all disputes between two States. . . . The
usual remedies between nations, war and diplomacy,
being precluded by the Federal Union, it is neces-
sary that a judicial remedy should supply their
place. The Supreme Court of the Federation
dispenses international law, and is the first great
example of what is now one of the most prominent
wants of civilised society, a real International Tri-
bunal.' 1 (Representative Government, by J. S. Mill,
1861, pp. 305, 6.)
I have already quoted the authority of "Wheaton
on this subject, and referred the reader to a pas-
sage in his work on International Law a work
which has deservedly been regarded as of great
authority in international affairs declaring his
opinion that it is an ' imperfect ' state of interna-
In the Interpretation of the Law. 125
tional society ' which acknowledges no permanent
authorised judicial expositor of its principles and
rules.' (Wheaton, p. 57.)
I might refer the reader also to a note of Mr.
Chitty, in his English edition of Vattel, for the
expression of similar views.
And I think I am not mistaken when I say,
that the tide of intelligent feeling in this country
has recently turned in favour of the view that a
judicial system for the interpretation of inter-
national law affords the only sound expositor of
it in the settlement of international disputes, and
as such sooner or later will ultimately be adopted
by civilised nations.
It seems to me, also, that while the current of
feeling is stronger than ever in favour of any
peaceable settlement of a dispute rather than
war, and consequently often in favour of arbi-
tration, as the best ready alternative in cases of
urgent present necessity, it cannot be said that
any scheme of general arbitration as a permanent
substitute for a judicial system is any more in
favour than it was.
A plank may be a godsend to the shipwrecked
mariner, but he would not therefore trust himself
to a plank as a permanent means of navigation.
K
126 On International Reform.
III. THE FORMS OF JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION
DISTINGUISHED FROM ITS ESSENCE.
That judicial machinery for interpreting inter-
national law will, if the growth of civilisation be
not unduly checked, ultimately be provided, there
can be no manner of doubt, but that at first,
or even eventually, all the forms of a civil tribunal
will be found applicable to international affairs, is
quite another thing; and it is therefore important
clearly to distinguish, as we tried to do with re-
spect to the Law itself, between the form and the
essence of a JUDICIAL mode of interpretation.
The essence of a judicial decision consists, as
already hinted, in its being issued under the joint
authority of the whole community over whom the
law has force, and therefore being binding upon all
upon whom the law is binding, whether they be
parties to the particular dispute or not.
In the case of an ordinary judicial tribunal in a
State, the power to give a universally binding
decision is delegated to a judge, and in him is
concentrated, as it were, the judicial authority of
the State.
Individuals have no direct voice either in the
appointment of the judge or in the judicial deci-
sion. They delegate to the Government the power
to appoint a judge, and the Government delegates
to the judge the power to interpret the law. Thus
In the Interpretation of the Law. 127
it is by a double delegation that a judicial deci-
sion is obtained which is universally binding upon
the community.
But the end attained through the form of this
double delegation is in its essence what would be
attained if all could individually have given their
consent to the judicial decision, and have bound
themselves to abide by its terms.
Whether, and to what extent, there is the room
or the need amongst the comparatively few civi-
lised nations for the early adoption of that system
of delegation of rights and duties which becomes
an absolute necessity when a nation, composed of
millions of citizens, has to act as one organised
civil society ; or whether, and to what extent at
first, nations may be able to attain the required
end by united and concerted action, it is not needful
here to determine ; for questions like these have
mostly to wait for that gradual practical solution
which so often converts the seemingly impossible
into the fait accompli.
Nevertheless, in the meantime, it may be well
earnestly to point to the fact that we have seen of
late, in the concerted and united action of nations,
an approach in an isolated instance to the result
we wish to see universally attained.
In the recent affair of the Trent, we have seen
symptoms of an approach towards the practical
attainment of a judicial decision of an inter-
national dispute. The opinion of all the Great
K 2
128 On International Reform.
Powers of Europe, however informally yet so
promptly given, in a tone so earnest that it proved
how all nations felt alike concerned in the main-
tenance of international law, was an approach in
many respects to something like the verdict of a
jury or the solemn judicial decision of judges,
delivered one by one from the bench of a great
international Court of Appeal. And the prompt
submission to this unanimous judgment of civilised
nations, on the part of America, more resembled
a dignified obedience to a recognised judicial
authority than a giving up of the point in dis-
pute to an armed opponent.
I may be allowed, perhaps, also to point out
another approach towards the attainment of a
judicial mode of interpretation.
I allude to the reference of questions arising
under special treaties to what are called ' mixed
courts,' i.e. courts composed of judges appointed by
both parties to a treaty instead of only by one.
The mixed courts established under the recent
treaty with the United States relating to the slave
trade may be taken as an instance. This is one
step at least out of the usages of Lynch Law
towards a judicial system. The nations jointly
undertake the interpretation of the law agreed
upon between them, instead of each taking it into
its own hands and doing itself or its own subjects
justice.
In the Interpretation of the Law. 129
IV. JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION LIMITED TO EXIST-
ING POSITIVE LAW.
The question may perhaps be asked, with refer-
ence to the present American war, How could a
judicial tribunal, if such had existed, have decided
the dispute between the Federal and Confederate
States ?
The answer is that a judicial tribunal, having no
legislative power, cannot possibly do more than
interpret already existing and recognised law. If,
as at the present moment, there be no recognised
international law deciding the rights involved in a
great rebellion or revolution like this, a judicial
tribunal, if such had existed, would have had no
jurisdiction in the case whatever. But the fact
that cases may occur over which, even though a
judicial tribunal should exist, it would have no
jurisdiction, does not arise from any defect in
the judicial theory itself. The defect lies in the
absence of positive international laws universally
recognised : the very defect which we have already
pointed out as a relic of Lynch Law.
But while some uniform principles of inter-
national law are already formally recognised by
forty -six at least of the civilised powers we allude
of course to the Declaration of Paris regarding the
rights of neutrals there exists as yet no organised
130 On International Reform.
judicial machinery for interpreting the laws so
recognised. And what is here urged is, that this
is a defect in the international system which ought
to be supplied.
The moment there is as much as a fragment of
established law requiring interpretation, the pos-
sibility and the need of a judicial interpretation
arises. Were the forty-six nations, parties to the
Declaration of Paris, to provide by treaty a judicial
mode of interpreting its terms, there would then
be the germ of a judicial system, co-extensive with
the germ of a uniform code of law; and the
jurisdiction of the one would then naturally expand
with the area covered by the other.
When forty-six civilised powers again met to
make further declarations of what, as between
themselves, should be considered as binding in-
ternational law in other particulars, they would
naturally refer the interpretation of the new
claims to the same judicial decision; and thus little
by little, as one point after another of international ,
law was established by mutual treaty, so little
by little would the judicial system also cover a
larger and larger area. The number of cases of
dispute arising beyond jurisdiction would grow
gradually more and more rare, until at length, in
the course of civilisation, the international legal
and judicial system would as fairly and completely
meet and amicably settle the bulk of international
disputes, as do already Civil Law and Civil Courts
of Justice the private disputes of citizens.
131
CHAPTER IV.
The Enforcement of International Law.
I. THE ULTIMATE SANCTION OF INTERNATIONAL
LAW IS PHYSICAL FORCE.
A SYSTEM of civil law is imperfect, and must fall
to the ground, unless it be supported by adequate
sanctions; unless it be backed by a sufficient
power to secure obedience to it.
It is a great mistake to suppose that the es-
tablishment of civil law puts an end to the regime
of physical force.
The ultimate appeal of civil laws, as also of
Lynch Law, is to physical force. The change
from Lynch Law to civil law is a change in the
possession of the sword; from being worn by the
angry disputants, it becomes worn by the law.
In a state of Lynch Law each individual wears
his own sword and thereby settles his own dispute,
whether in the right or in the wrong. By the
establishment of civil law, each individual is
bound to keep the peace; he resigns to the State
the right and the duty of enforcing the law.
Instead of attempting to enforce it himself, he
calls upon the concentrated power of the State
to enforce it in his behalf.
132 On International Reform.
Now a very little consideration will show that in
the present practice of nations, so far as it relates
to this particular also, Lynch Law prevails.
The breach of international law, in by far the
majority of instances, is at this moment a casus belli
to the injured nation only. It is left to the injured
nation to enforce the law, or allow the breach of it
to pass unpunished. The injured nation has no
recognised right to call upon any other to aid it
in enforcing the law. In fact, precisely as under
Lynch Law each individual wears his own sword
and settles thereby his own dispute, whether in the
right or hi the wrong, so at this moment each
nation maintains its own army, and therewith
settles its own disputes, whether in the right or in
the wrong.
How is it possible to deny that the interests of
civilisation forbid the continuance of Lynch Law
in this respect just as fully and clearly as they
forbid its continuance between individuals ? Lynch
Law leads to the same results between nations as
between individuals. It means might instead of
right in the one case just as much as in the other.
In both cases it clearly does not work for the sword
to remain in the hands of the disputants. If at all
defensible, such a state of things is defensible only
as a temporary expedient until something like
judicial machinery be established. When a system
of judicial law has been established in the place of
Lynch Law, the interests of advancing civilisation,
In the Enforcement of the Law. 133
in the name alike of the laws of nature and of
Christianity, will surely demand that the sword
should be under the direction and control, not of
the disputing powers, but of the law which is to
settle their dispute.
The onus of enforcing the law should rest, not
upon the injured nation only, but upon the com-
munity of nations.
II. HOW INTERNATIONAL FORCE OUGHT TO BE
APPLIED.
If physical force be the ultimate sanction of
international law, how is that sanction to be
applied ?
Again we are met by the obvious suggestion
that it does not at all follow that because, in a state
composed of millions of citizens, a system of
delegation and concentration of power into a police
force is an absolute necessity, the same system of
delegation and concentration is needful to attain a
similar end in the case of a score or two of civilised
nations.
There may not in the latter case be either the
room or the need for it.
The essence of a civil power may more readily
be attained by united and concerted action be-
tween nations. The essence of the thing lies in
its being the recognised duty of all the nations
134 On International Reform.
severally to submit to the law, and in its being the
recognised duty of all the nations jointly to enforce
it upon any delinquent.
If forty-six civilised powers are to unite, as they
have done and we hope they may do again and
again, and bind themselves to observe a uniform
code of law, and if they go further, as eventually
we trust they may do, and bind themselves
mutually to adhere to a judicial interpretation of
that law in case of any dispute as to its terms, can
they, after that, allow a nation party to such a
solemn and binding arrangement to break that
law and refuse to obey that judicial decision
with impunity? Can they any longer leave the
enforcement of such a treaty upon, it may be,
a stronger power, to the weaker power who may
happen to be the one directly injured by the
crime ?
Are not at this moment all the nations parties
to the Declaration of Paris injured by the breach
of it by any one of them? Have not all of them
the right to combine to enforce that law which
any delinquent nation has bound itself by solemn
treaty with them strictly to observe? Is not, in
fact, the breach of that Declaration by any nation
a cams belli to all the forty -five other nations as a
community, in spite of assertions in some quarters
to the contrary?
And if it be so, and if the number of such
Declarations comes in the future to be multiplied,
will not nations be compelled, for very convenience,
In the Enforcement of the Law. 135
to organise some plan of enforcing their provisions
less injurious to themselves and their commerce,
and less wasteful of human life, than present modes
of warfare ?
While, however, the creation, whether by com-
bination or delegation, of an international force
O v
for the enforcement of international law may
seem as needful as that of a civil power for the
enforcement of civil law, yet it must in fairness
be admitted that all the evils of war would not
be averted at once by its creation. The manage-
ment of an international police force, however
constituted, would doubtless be liable to precisely
the same dangers and difficulties to which a civil
police force is liable in times of riot and rebellion.
Human blood would occasionally still be shed and
human passions roused, and the international
system would be liable to revolutions and tempo-
rary subversion, such as civil powers have had
again and again to contend with. There is no
royal road to perfection in international any more
than in civil affairs. Yet still at the same time,
fully admitting the difficulties, there are three
points in which the analogy of the history of civil
law appears to warrant the belief that they would
not in the long run prove insurmountable.
The first point is, that as in the case of civil law
the concentration of the physical force in the
hands of the civil power has in most nations
gradually led to the general disarmament of indi-
viduals, so, in the case of international law, the
136 On International Reform.
knowledge on the part of nations that the law
would be backed by the combined forces of all
nations against any delinquent, would lead to a
gradually increasing reliance on the protection of in-
ternational law, and a gradually decreasing reliance
merely on their own military establishments.
These latter would gradually become less and
less needed, and, ceasing to be a necessity, they
would soon cease to be maintained on their present
gigantic scale ; a mutual reduction in armaments
would become obvious and natural, and at the
same time reasonable ; and possibly in the course
of time mutual disarmament might even result.
The second point is, that as in the history of
civil law it has been found in practice to be the
case, so in the history of international law there is
every reason to expect that as civilisation advances
the number of cases in which nations would refuse
to obey a judicial decision, to obey which they had
bound themselves by solemn treaty, and in which the
last resort of physical force really would have to
be resorted to, would become more and more rare.
The third point is, that in the few cases which
might arise in which resort was necessary to
physical force to enforce international law, it
would come to be applied, as to a large extent it
has come to be applied in the case of civil law,
more and more wisely and justly as civilisation
advances, until ultimately it might be applied,
when needful, in a way which would be felt to in-
volve no waste of human blood or human rights.
137
CHAPTER V.
SUMMARY OF THE FOREGOING ARGUMENT.
IT now remains to sum up the practical conclusions
arrived at in the foregoing pages.
1. The interdependence of nations, and their
association in international society, was shown to
be the result, not merely of human contrivance,
but of certain laws of nature.
2. The answer to the question, how far any
nation can remain in a self-subsistent state, or how
far it must become dependent upon international
intercourse, was shown to rest, not merely upon
the intention of its rulers, but mainly upon its own
economic condition, inherited from its past history.
3. The economic history and condition of the na-
tions most dependent upon international commerce
was carefully reviewed, and the conclusion arrived
at that their dependence on foreign trade was
likely, not only to continue, but also to increase.
4. The tendency of those nations not yet
belonging to the most dependent class was shown
to be inevitably towards a greater and greater
dependence on international trade.
5. The case of young nations, and partially
civilised nations,, was also alluded to, and it was
138 On International Reform.
remarked that, although international intercourse be
not so much a necessity to them as to older nations,
it is necessary to the enjoyment of their peculiar
wealth ; while the dependence of the older nations
upon them is increasing every year.
6. The result of this gradually increasing inter-
dependence of civilised nations was shown to be
twofold :
1st. Modern modes of warfare are becoming
more and more injurious to neutrals.
2nd. They are at the same ^time becoming less
and less effective in the hands of belli-
gerents.
7. The reform of these modes of warfare, so as
to make them less injurious to neutrals, was shown
to be inevitable. But at the same time their
reform was shown to involve their becoming even
still less effective than they are.
8. Hence the conclusion was arrived at, that a
more radical reform was needful than that of the
mere modes of warfare.
9. The radical defect in the international system
was traced to the subsistence of what is, in fact, the
regime of international Lynch Law in a state of
international society, to meet the needs of which
it is wholly inadequate.
10. In accordance with the authority of the
great international jurists, the only radical cure
for this radical defect was shown to be the sub-
stitution of a system of positive international law.
Conclusion. 139
11. Any system of positive law was shown to
involve three points
1. Its enactment.
2. Its interpretation.
3. Its enforcement.
And it was shown that the essential distinction
between positive law and Lynch Law consisted in
the enactment, interpretation, and enforcement of
the law being the joint act of the community of
nations, rather than being left for each individual
nation to do it for itself.
12. The enactment of positive international laws
was shown to require the actual consent of all
nations to be bound by them. And the Declara-
tion of Paris was alluded to as in its preamble
asserting the necessity for positive international
laws, and as in itself a practical precedent of the
mode of enacting them.
13. It was shown, with reference to the inter-
pretation of international law, that it must be
judicial i.e. that it must be given under the joint
authority of all parties to the law. From this it
was shown to result that such judicial interpreta-
tion must be strictly confined to what may have
been already constituted positive international law;
while that, with reference to such positive law
already enacted, as e.g. the Declaration of Paris,
the parties to its enactment are even now in
reality committed to its joint or judicial interpre-
tation in some way or other, though no machinery
140 On International Reform.
has been yet organised for carrying out the object
in practice.
14. With reference to the enforcement of posi-
tive international law, it was shown that, after its
enactment by the joint act of several nations, it
ought to be jointly enforced, and that, although no
joint method of enforcing it has been organised, if
one nation, party to the Declaration of Paris, e.g.,
were to refuse compliance with its provisions, the
remaining parties to it stand committed to its joint
enforcement in some way or other.
And now in conclusion, in thus looking at these
international problems as one whole tracing back
through the links of cause and effect the onward
course of civilisation, marking how, under the laws
of political economy, one thing has led to another,
how the past has led to the present and the pre-
sent is leading to an inevitable future, who can
fail to be impressed with the irresistibility of the
current which seems to be bearing us onward ?
If the laws which are fixed in the constitution of
things, and which regulate the civil and political
relations of mankind, be as irreversible by man as
are the laws of physical science ; if human will,
whether of kings or parliaments, be as powerless
to reverse the laws of political economy as the law
of gravitation ; and if, under the operation of
those laws, the onward course of civilisation has
compelled nations, and especially England, to adopt
Conclusion. 141
the commercial policy to which they are so fully
committed, if such a policy is really inconsistent
with the continuance of Lynch: Law between nations,
and requires as its corollary the substitution of a
legal and judicial system, then, so far from such
a result appearing Utopian, it must, in view of
the irresistible march of civilisation, eventually
certainly come. Its accomplishment can only be a
question of time.
What, then, is the practical duty of statesmen ?
It must be this :
It behoves the statesmen of civilised nations,
and especially of England, in all their attempts to
rectify international relations, not only to keep
steadily in view the ultimate attainment of a legal
and judicial substitute for International Lynch
Law, but also by every means in their power to
make tentative approaches towards it. They can-
not undo the economic history of the past. They
cannot reverse the tendency to the increasing
interdependence of nations which is the result of
their present economic condition. They cannot
bend the inexorable laws of nature to make them
fit an international system which belongs to the
past. Their business is to reform the International
system, and to make it meet the needs of ad-
vancing international civilisation.
143
POSTSCRIPT
ON THE RELATION OF THE REFORM ADVOCATED IN THE FORE-
GOING ESSAY TO THE LATE MR. COBDEN' S POLICY OF NON-
INTERVENTION.
IT may be well to add a few words to point out
the relation which the policy advocated in the
foregoing Essay bears to that policy of non-inter-
vention which was advocated with so much force
by the late Mr. Cobden.
I believe that, the two policies are not antago-
nistic, but that each is, in fact, strictly speaking,
the complement of the' other.
No one urged more strongly than did Mr.
Cobden the fact that we are rapidly passing into
a stage of civilisation in which the well-being of
the people of all nations requires that the great
economic principle of division and co-operation of
labour should be fully applied, not within the
limits of each nation only, but also to the whole
world. So far as regards the interchange of pro-
ducts and manufactures, he held that there should
be no international barriers. This is what he
meant by ' free trade.'
Mr. Cobden went further, and laid down the
144 Postscript.
principle that a policy of free trade, if consistently
carried out, involves the freedom of commerce from
the risks of war. And he urged that the rights of
belligerent nations under international law should
be curtailed, so as to secure that commerce should
be as far as possible unmolested by their exercise.
(Mr. Cobden's Speeches, II. p. 299.)
He urged that the scope of the rules of inter-
national law laid down by the Treaty of Paris of
1856 should be so widened as to secure this
object.
Nor did Mr. Cobden shrink from the conse-
quence, that any breach of such a law by a
nation would necessitate the intervention of the
community of nations in its support. On the
contrary, he relied upon the fact that a nation
breaking the law would be bringing down upon
itself the united power of the whole community
of nations, as giving so serious a sanction to inter-
national law that in practice it would not be likely
to be broken :
We have this guarantee, that the international rules I am
now advocating will be respected : they are not contemplated
to be merely an article in a treaty between any two powers,
but to be fundamental laws regulating the intercourse of na-
tions, and having the assent of the majority of, if not all,
the maritime powers in the world. . . The nation which
has been a party to a general system of International Law
becomes an outlaw to all nations if it breaks its engage-
ment towards any one. , . I don't rely on the honour of
the individual nation . . . for observing the law : I rely
upon its being her interest to keep it, because if she were
at war with us, and were to break the law, she would not
Postscript. 145
break it as against us alone, but as against the whole world.
(CoU&n's Speeches, II. p. 300.)
The reform advocated in this Essay is, therefore,
a reform which, in measure at least, Mr. Cobden
himself recognised as necessary, and as in full har-
mony with his policy of non-intervention.
On the other hand, the policy of non-intervention
is the necessary complement of the policy here
advocated. As stated in this Essay, the principle
of non-intervention rests upon the right of each
nation not to be interfered with in its own free
action, except so far as is needful to secure the
common weal of nations. In so far, therefore, as
the common weal of nations is placed, by the
adoption of a system of positive International Law,
under the protection of the community of nations,
a limit is at once put to the right and necessity of
individual intervention, and the excuse for it taken
away.
To take a -practical case : Had the war between
France and Germany arisen out of a direct breach
by one of the two nations of some point of inter-
national law clearly settled by some such treaty
as the Treaty of Paris of 1856, the nations, parties
to such treaty, would, according to the principles
urged in this essay, have been placed under the
direct obligation jointly to intervene in some way
or other to prevent the breach of International
Law. There would be then no such excuse for
individual intervention as there might be were the
146 Postscript.
clearly recognised International Law, which was
broken, not clearly recognised to be under the joint
protection of the community of nations.
There was indeed, in the case which has occur-
red, no solid ground, according to the principles
urged in this essay, for the joint intervention of
other nations. And why ? Because there was
no clearly defined and recognised International
Law existing, the breach of which was the cause
of the war.
Much less was there any solid ground for indi-
vidual intervention. Under existing International
Law the war between France and Germany was
merely a private quarrel between two nations ;
and, therefore, for England to have interfered by
armed intervention, would have been intervention
without legal warrant in the private affairs of two
nations, and so would have been clearlv a breach
*
of the principle of non-intervention laid down in
this essay. It would have been, in fact, a rash
assumption by England in Europe of the position
assumed by Judge Lynch in Virginia, when he
took the law into his own hands and set the repre-
sentative example of Lynch Law.
Such a policy would not have been, in my
opinion, a wise policy for England to have pur-
sued. There seems to me to be nobler work for
her to do among the nations than this would have
been.
Let England throw the weight of her influence
Postscript. 147
into the work of simplifying and obtaining the
consent of the civilised nations to just international
laws. Let her at the same time pursue strictly
the policy of non-intervention in the affairs of other
nations so earnestly urged by Mr. Cobden. Let
her acquire, by firm and consistent adherence to
these principles, the confidence of other nations in
her absolute international integrity. Let her at
the same tune set an example of earnest deter-
mination to grapple with her own internal evils, to
raise the character of her people, and to secure to
them the full inheritance of freedom. Thus to set
an example of a free nation desiring and respecting
the freedom of other nations, will do more to ex-
tend the influence of England than any policy of
intervention or international knight-errantry could
possibly do.
F. S.
1871.
LONDON: PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., HHW-STKICET SIJTAHE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
39 PATEBNOSTEB Row, E.G.
LONDON: January 1871.
GENERAL LIST OF WORKS
PUBLISHED BY
Messrs, LOMMAIS, GREEtf, READER, and DYER.
ABTS, MANUFACTURES, &c 12
ASTRONOMY, METEOBOLOGY. POPULAB
GEOGRAPHY, &C 7
BIOGRAPHICAL WORKS 3
CHEMISTRY, MEDICINE, SURGERY, and
the ALLIED SCIENCES 9
COMMEBCE, NAVIGATION, and MERCAN-
TILE AFFAIRS 19
CEITICISM, PHILOLOGY, &c 4
FINE ARTS and ILLUSTRATED EDITIONS 11
HISTOBY, POLITICS, and nisTOBicAL
MEMOIBS 1
INDEX 2124
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS and POPULAR
METAPHYSICS 6
NATURAL HISTOBY & POPULAB SCIENCE 8
PEBIODICAL PUBLICATIONS 20
POETBY and THE DRAMA 18
KELIGIOUS and MOEAL WORKS 14
RUBAL SPORTS, &c 19
TBAVELS, VOYAGES, &c 16
WOBKS of FICTION 17
WORKS of UTILITY and GENERAL
INFORMATION .. 20-
History, Politics, Historical Memoirs, fyc.
The History of England from
the fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the
Spanish Armada. By JAMES ANTHONY
FROUDE, M.A.
CABINET EDITION, 12 vols. cr. 8vo. 3 12s.
LIBRARY EDITION, 12 vols. 8vo. 8 18s.
The History of England from
the Accession of James II. By Lord
MACAULAY.
LIBRARY EDITION, 5 vols. 8vo. 4.
CABINET EDITION, 8 vols. post 8vo. 48s.
PEOPLE'S EDITION, 4 vols. crown 8vo. 16s.
Lord Macaulay's Works. Com-
plete and uniform Library Edition. Edited
by his Sister, Lady TREVELYAN. 8 vols.
8vo. with Portrait, price 5 5s. cloth, or
8 8s. bound in tree-calf by Riviere.
An Essay on the History of the
English Government and Constitution, from
the Reign of Henry VII. to the Present
Time. By JOHN EARL RUSSELL. Fourth
Edition, revised. Crown 8vo. 6s.
Selections from Speeches of Earl
Russell, 1817 to 1841, and from Despatches,
1859 to 1865 ; with Introductions. 2 vols.
8vo. 28s.
Varieties of Vice-Regal Life. By
Major-General Sir WILLIAM DENISON,
K.C.B. late Governor-General of the Austra-
lian Colonies, and Governor of Madras.
With Two Maps. 2 vols. 8vo. 28s.
On Parliamentary Government
in England : its Origin, Development, and
Practical Operation. By ALPHEUS TODD,
Librarian of the Legislative Assembly of
Canada. 2 vols. 8vo. price 1 17s.
The Constitutional History of
England since the Accession of George III.
17601860. By Sir THOMAS ERSKINE
MAY, K.C.B. Second Edit. 2 vols. 8vo. 33*.
A Historical Account of the K"eu-
tr,ality of Great Britain during the Ameri-
can Civil War. By MONTAGUE BERNARD,
M.A. Royal 8vo. price 16s.
The History of England, from the
Earliest Times to the Year 1866. By C. D.
YOXGE, Regius Professor of Modern History
in the Queen's University, Belfast. New
Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
A History Of Wales, derived from
Authentic Sources. By JANE WILLIAMS,
Ysgafell, Author of a Memoir of the Rev.
Thomas Price, and Editor of his Literary
Remains. 8vo. 14s.
A
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Lectures on the History of Eng-
land, from the Earliest Times to the Death
of King Edward II. By WILLIAM LONG-
MAN. With Maps and Illustrations. 8vo. 15s.
The History of the Life and Times
of Edward the Third. By WILLIAM
LONGMAN. With 9 Maps, 8 Plates, and
16 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 28*.
History of Civilization in England
and France, Spain and Scotland. By
HENRY THOMAS BUCKLE. New Edition
of the entire work, with a complete INDEX.
3 vols. crown 8vo. 24*.
Realities of Irish Life. By W.
STEUART TRENCH, Land Agent in Ireland
to the Marquess of Lansdowne, the Mar-
quess of Bath, and Lord Digby. Fifth
Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.
The Student's Manual of the
History of Ireland. By M. F. CUSACK,
Authoress of the ' Illustrated History of
Ireland, from the Earliest Period to the
Tear of Catholic Emancipation.' Crown
8vo. price 6s.
A Student's Manual of the His-
tory of India, from the Earliest Period to
the Present. By Colonel MEADOWS TAY-
LOR, M.R.A.S. M.R.I.A. Crown 8vo. with
Maps, 7s. Gd.
The History of India, from the
Earliest Period to the close of Lord Dal-
housie's Administration. By JOHN CLARK
MARSHMAN. 3 vols. crown 8vo. 22s. Gd.
Indian Polity : a View of the System
of Administration in India. By Lieut.-Col.
GEORGE CHESNEY. Second Edition, re-
vised, with Map. 8vo. 21s.
Home Politics : being a Consideration
of the Causes of the Growth of Trade in
relation to Labour, Pauperism, and Emi-
gration. By DANIEL GRANT. 8vo. 7s.
Democracy in America. By ALEXIS
DE TOCQUEVILLE. Translated by HENRY
REEVE. 2 vols. 8vo. 21s.
Waterloo Lectures : a Study of the
Campaign of 1815. By Colonel CHARLES
C. CHESNEY, R.E. late Professor of Military
Art and History in the Staff College. Second
Edition. 8vo. with Map, 10s. Gd.
The Military Resources of Prus-
sia and France, and Recent Changes in the
Art of War. By Lieut.-Col. CHESNEY,
R.E. and HENRY REEVE, D.C.L. Crown
8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Overthrow of the Germanic
Confederation by Prussia in 1866. By Sir
A. MALET, Bart. K.B.C. late H.B.M. Envoy
and Minister at Frankfort. With 5 Maps.
8vo. 18s.
The Oxford Reformers John Colet,
Erasmus, and Thomas More ; being a His-
tory of their Fellow- Work. By FREDERIC
SEEBOHM. Second Edition. 8vo. 14s.
History of the Reformation in
Europe in the Time of Calvin. By J. H.
MERLE D'AUBIGNE, D.D. VOLS. I. and
II. 8vo. 28s. VOL. III. 12s. VOL. IV. price
16s. and VOL. V. price ICs.
Chapters from French History;
St. Louis, Joan of Arc, Henri IV. with
Sketches of the Intermediate Periods. By
J. II. GURNET, M.A. New Edition. Fcp.
8vo. 6s. Gd.
The History of Greece. By C. THIBL-
WALL, D.D. Lord Bishop of St. David's.
8 vols. fcp. 28s.
The Tale of the Great Persian
War, from the Histories of Herodotus. By
GEORGE W. Cox, M.A. late Scholar of
Trin. Coll. Oxon. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
Greek History from Themistocles
to Alexander, in a Series of Lives from
Plutarch. Revised and arranged by A. H.
CLOUGH. Fcp. with 44 Woodcuts, 6s.
Critical History of the Lan-
guage and Literature of Ancient Greece.
By WILLIAM MURE, of Caldwell. 5 vols.
8vo. 3 9s.
History of the Literature of
Ancient Greece. By Professor K. 0. MOLLER.
Translated by LEWIS and DONALDSON.
3 vols. 8vo. 21s.
The History of Rome. By WILHELM
IHNE. Translated and revised by the
Author. VOLS. I. and II. 8vo. [Just ready.
History of the City of Rome from
its Foundation to the Sixteenth Century of
the Christian Era. By THOMAS H. DYER,
LL.D. 8vo. with 2 Maps, 15*.
History of the Romans under
the Empire. By Very Rev. CHARLES
MERIVALE, D.C.L. Dean of Ely. 8 vols. post
8vo. price 48s.
The Pall of the Roman Re-
public ; a Short History of the Last Cen-
tury of the Commonwealth. By the same
Author. 12mo. 7*. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Historical and Chronological
Encyclopaedia ; comprising Chronological
Notices of all the Great Events of Universal
History, including Treaties, Alliances,
Wars, Battles, &c. ; Incidents in the Lives
of Eminent Men, Scientific and Geogra-
phical Discoveries, Mechanical Inventions,
and Social, Domestic, and Economical Im-
provements. By the late B. B. WOODWARD,
B.A. and W. L. R. CATES. 1 vol. 8vo.
[//i the press.
History of European Morals from
Augustus to Charlemagne. By W. E. H.
LECKY, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo.' price 28s.
History of the Rise and Influence of
the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe. By
the same Author. Cabinet Edition (the
Fourth). 2 vols. crown 8 vo. price 16*.
God in History ; or, the Progress of
Man's Faith in the Moral Order of the
World. By the late Baron BUNSEN. Trans-
lated from the German by SUSANNA WINK-
WORTH ; with a Preface by Dean STANLEY
3 vols. 8vo. 42s.
Socrates and the Socratic Schools.
Translated from the German of Dr. E. ZEL-
LER, with the Author's approval, by the
Rev. OSWALD J. REICHEL, B.C.L. and M.A.
Crown 8vo. 8s. Gd.
The Stoics, Epicureans, and
Sceptics. Translated from the German of
Dr. E. ZELLER, with the Author's approval,
by OSWALD J. REICHEL, B.C.L. and M.A.
Crown 8vo. 14s.
The History of Philosophy, from
Thales to Comte. By GEORGE HENRY
LEWES. Third Edition, rewritten and en-
larged. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s.
The Mythology of the Aryan
Nations. By GEORGE W. Cox, M.A. late
Scholar of Trinity College, Oxford. 2 vols.
8vo. price 28s.
The English Reformation. By
F. C. MASSINGBERD, M.A. Chancellor of
Lincoln. 4th Edition, revised. Fcp. 7s. 6cL
Maunder's Historical Treasury ;
comprising a General Introductory Outline
of Universal History, and a Series of Sepa-
rate Histories. Fcp. 6s.
Critical and Historical Essays
contributed to the Edinburgh Review by
the Right Hon. Lord MACAULAY :
CABINET EDITION, 4 vols. 24s.
LIBRARY EDITION, 3 vols. 8vo. 36s.
PEOPLE'S EDITION, 2 vols. crown 8vo. 8s.
STUDENT'S EDITION, crown 8vo. 6s.
History of the Early Church,
from the First Preaching of the Gospel to
the Council of Nicsea, A.D. 325. By the
Author of ' Amy Herbert' New Edition.
Fcp. 4s. Gd.
Sketch of the History of the
Church of England to the Revolution of
1688. By the Right Rev. T. V. SHORT,
D.D. Lord Bishop of St. Asaph. Eighth
Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
History of the Christian Church,
from the Ascension of Christ to the Conver-
sion of Constantine. By E. BURTON, D.D
late Regius Prof, of Divinity in the Uni-
versity of Oxford. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
Biographical Works.
The Life of Isambard Kingdom
Brunei, Civil Engineer. By ISAMBARD
BRUNEL, B.C.L. of Lincoln's Inn, Chan-
cellor of the Diocese of Ely. With Por-
trait, Plates, and Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s.
The Life and Letters of the Rev.
Sydney Smith. Edited by his Daughter.
Lady HOLLAND, and Mrs. AUSTIN. New
Edition, complete in One Volume. Crown
8vo. price 6s.
A Memoir of G. E. L. Cotton,
D.D. late Lord Bishop of Calcutta ; with
Selections from his Journals and Letters.
Edited by Mrs. COTTON. With Portrait.
8vo. [Just ready.
Some Memorials of R. D. Hamp-
den, Bishop of Hereford. Edited by his
Daughter, HENRIETTA HAMPDEN. With
Portrait. 8vo. [ Just ready.
The Life and Travels of George
Whitefield, M.A. of Pembroke College,
Oxford, Chaplain to the Countess of Hun-
tingdon. By J. P. GLEDSTONE. Post 8vo.
'Just ready.
Memoir of Pope Sixtus the Fifth.
By Baron HUBNER. Translated from the
Original in French, with the Author's
sanction, by HUBERT E. H. JERNINGHAM.
2 vols. 8vo. [In the press.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
The Life and Letters of Faraday.
By Dr. BENCE JONES, Secretary of the
Royal Institution. Second Edition, with
Portrait and Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 28s.
Faraday as a Discoverer. BY JOHN
TYNDALL, LL.D. F.R.S. Professor of Natu-
ral Philosophy in the Royal Institution.
New and Cheaper Edition, with Two Por-
traits. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
Lives of the Lord Chancellors
and Keepers of the Great Seal of Ireland,
from the Earliest Times to the Reign of
Queen Victoria. By J. R. O'FLANAGAIC,
M.R.I.A. Barrister. 2 vols. 8vo. BGs.
Dictionary of General Biography;
containing Concise Memoirs and Notices of
the most Eminent Persons of all Countries,
from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time.
Edited by WILLIAM L. R. CATES. 8vo.
price 21s.
Memoirs of Baron Bunsen, drawn
chiefly from Family Papers by his Widow,
FRANCES Baroness BUNSEN. Second Edi-
tion, abridged; with 2 Portraits and 4
Woodcuts. 2 vols. post 8vo. 21s.
The Letters of the Bight Hon.
Sir George Cornewall Lewis to various
Friends. Edited by his Brother, the Rev.
Canon Sir G. F. LEWIS, Bart. 8vo. with
Portrait, 14*.
Life of the Duke of Wellington.
By the Rev. G. R. GLEIG, M.A. Popular
Edition, carefully revised ; with copious
Additions. Crown 8vo. with Portrait, 5s.
Father Mathew: a Biography.
By JOHN FRANCIS MAGUIRE, M.P. Popular
Edition, with Portrait. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
History of my Religious Opinions.
By J. H. NEWMAN, D.D. Being the Sub-
stance of Apologia pro Vita Sufi. Post 8vo.
price 6s.
Letters and Life of Francis
Bacon, including all his Occasional Works.
Collected and edited, with a Commentarv,
by J. SFEDDING. VOLS. I. & II. 8vo. 24s.
VOLS. III. & IV. 24. VOL. V. 12s.
Felix Mendelssohn's Letters from
Italy and Switzerland, and Letters from
1833 to 1847, translated by Lady WALLACE.
With Portrait. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 5s. each.
Memoirs of Sir Henry Havelock,
K.C.B. By JOHN CLARK MARSHMAN.
People's Edition, with Portrait. Crown 8vo.
price 3s. Gd.
Essays in Ecclesiastical Biogra-
phy. By the Right Hon. Sir J. STEPHEN,
LL.D. Cabinet Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Earls of Granard : a Memoir of
the Noble Family of Forbes. Written by
Admiral the Hon. JOHN FORBES, and Edited
by GEORGE ARTHUR HASTINGS, present
Earl of Granard, K.P. 8vo. 10s.
Vicissitudes of Families. By Sir
J. BERNARD BURKE, C.B. Ulster King of
Arms. New Edition, remodelled and en-
larged. 2 vols. crown 8vo. 21s.
Lives of the Tudor Princesses,
including Lady Jane Grey and her Sisters.
By AGNES STRICKLAND. Post 8vo. with
Portrait, &c. 12s. Gd.
Lives of the Queens of England.
By AGNES STRICKLAND. Library Edition,
newly revised ; with Portraits of every
Queen, Autographs, and Vignettes. 8 vols.
post 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.
Maunder's Biographical Trea-
sury. Thirteenth Edition, reconstructed and
partly re-written, with above 1,000 additional
Memoirs, by W. L. R. CATES. Fcp. 6s.
Criticism, Philosophy, Polity, fyc.
The Subjection of Women. By
JOHN STUART MILL. New Edition. Post
8vo. 5s.
On Representative Government.
By JOHN STUART MILL. Third Edition.
8vo. 9s. crown 8vo. 2s.
On Liberty. By the same Author. Fourth
Edition. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd. Crown 8vo.
Is. 4d.
Principles of Political Economy. By the
same. Sixth Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s. or
in 1 vol. crown 8vo. 5s.
Utilitarianism. By the same. 3d Edit. 8vo. 5*.
Dissertations and Discussions. By the
same Author. Second Edition. 3 vols. 8vo.
36s.
Examination of Sir W. Hamilton's
Philosophy, and of the principal Philoso-
phical Questions discussed in his Writings.
By the same. Third Edition. 8vo. 16s.
Inaugural Address delivered to the
University of St. Andrews. By JOHN-
STUART MILL. 8vo. 5s. Crown 8vo. Is.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Analysis of the Phenomena of
the Human Mind. By JAMES MILL. A
New Edition, with Notes, Illustrative and
Critical, by ALEXANDER BAIN, ANDREW
FINDLATER, and GEORGE GROTE. Edited,
with additional Notes, by JOHN STUART
MILL. 2 rols. 8vo. price 28s.
The Elements of Political Eco-
nomy. By HENRY DUNNING MACLEOD,
M.A. Barrister-at-Law. 8vo. 16*.
A Dictionary of Political Economy ;
Biographical, Bibliographical, Historical,
and Practical. By the earns Author. VOL.
I. royal 8vo. 30s.
Lord Bacon's Works, collected
and edited by R. L. ELLIS, M.A. J. SPED-
DING, M.A. and D. D. HEATH. New
and Cheaper Edition. 7 vols. 8vo. price
3 13s. Gd.
A System of Logic, Ratiocinative
and Inductive. By JOHN STUART MILL.
Seventh Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 25s.
Analysis of Mr. Mill's System of
Logic. By W. STEBBING, M.A. New
Edition. 12mo. 3s. Gd.
The Institutes of Justinian ; with
English Introduction, Translation, and
Notes. By T. C. SANDARS, M.A. Barrister-
at-Law. New Edition. 8vo. 15s.
The Ethics of Aristotle ; with Essays
and Notes. By Sir A. GRANT, Bart. M.A.
LL.D. Second Edition, revised and com-
pleted. 2 vols. 8vo. price 28s.
The Nicomachean Ethics of Aris-
totle. Newly translated into English. By
R. WILLIAMS, B.A. Fellow and late Lec-
turer Merton College, Oxford. 8vo. 12s.
Bacon's Essays, with Annotations.
By R. WHATELY, D.D. late Archbishop of
Dublin. Sixth Edition. 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Elements Of Logic. By R. WHATELY,
D.D. late Archbishop of Dublin. New
Edition. 8vo. 10s. Gd. crown 8vo. 4s. Gd.
Elements of Rhetoric. By the same
Author. New Edition. 8vo. 10s. 6d. Crown
8vo. 4s. Gd.
English. Synonymes. ByE. JANE WHATELY.
Edited by Archbishop WHATELY. 5th
Edition. Fcp. 3s.
An Outline of the Necessary
Laws of Thought : a Treatise on Pure and
Applied Logic. By the Most Rev. W.
THOMSON, D.D. Archbishop of York. Ninth
Thousand. Crown 8vo. 5s. Gd.
The Election of Representatives,
Parliamentary and Municipal ; a Treatise.
By THOMAS HARE, Barrister-at-Law. Third
Edition, with Additions. Crown 8vo. 6s.
Speeches of the Right Hon. Lord
MACAULAY, corrected by Himself. People's
Edition, crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
Lord Macaulay's Spo3ch.es on
Parliamentary Reform in 1831 and 1832.
16mo. price ONE SHILLING.
Walker's Pronouncing Diction-
ary of the English Language. Thoroughly
revised Editions, by B. H. SMART. 8vo.
12s. 16mo. 6s.
A Dictionary of the English
Language. By R. G. LATHAM, M.A. M.D.
F.R.S. Founded on the Dictionary of Dr. S.
JOHNSON, as edited by the Rev. H. J. TODD,
with numerous Emendations and Additions.
4 vols. 4to. price 7.
Thesaurus of English Words and
Phrases, classified and arranged so as to
facilitate the expression of Ideas, and assist
in Literary Composition. By P. M. ROGET,
M.D. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd.
The Debater ; a Series of Complete
Debates, Outlinesof Debates, and Questions
for Discussion. By F. ROWTON. Fcp. 6s.
Lectures on the Science of Lan-
guage, delivered at the Roj'al Institution.
By MAX MULLER, M.A. &c. Foreign
Member of the French Institute. 2 vols.
8vo. price 30s.
Chapters on Language. By F. W.
FARRAR, M.A. F.R.S. late Fellow ofTrin.
ColL Cambridge. Crown 8vo. 8s. Gd.
A Book about Words. By G. F.
GRAHAM. Fcp. 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Southey's Doctor, complete in One
Volume, edited by the Rev. J. W. WARTER,
B.D. Square crown 8vo. 12s. Gd.
Historical and Critical Commen-
tary on the Old Testament; with a New
Translation. By M. M. KALISCH, Ph.D.
Vol. I. Genesis, 8vo. 18s. or adapted for the
General Reader, 12s. Vol. II. Exodus, 15s.
or adapted for the General Reader, 12s.
Vol III. Leviticus, Part I. 15s. or adapted
for the General Reader, 8s.
A Hebrew Grammar, with Exercises.
By the same. Part I. Outlines with Exer-
cises, 8vo. 12s. Gd. KEY, 5s. Part II. Ex-
ceptional Forms and Constructions, 12s. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Manual of English Literature,
Historical and Critical : with a Chapter on
English Metres. By THOMAS ARNOLD, M.A.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
A Latin-English Dictionary. By
J. T. WHITE, D.D. of Corpus Christ! Col-
lege, and J. E. RIDDLE, M.A. of St. Edmund
Hall, Oxford. Third Edition, revised. 2
vols. 4to. pp. 2,128, price 42*.
White's College Latin-English Diction-
ary (Intermediate Size), abridged from the
Parent Work for the use of University
Students. Medium 8vo. pp. 1,048, price 18s.
"White's Junior Student's Complete
Latin-English and English -Latin Dictionary.
Revised Edition. Square 12mo. pp. 1,058,
price 12s.
.. , /"ENGLISH-LATIN. 5s. Gd.
Separately 7s . 6d .
An English-Greek Lexicon, con-
taming all the Greek Words used by Writers
of good authority. By C. D. YONGE, B.A.
New Edition. 4to. 21s.
Mr. Yonge's New Lexicon, En-
glish and Greek, abridged from his larger
work (as above). Square 12mo. 8s. Gd.
The Mastery of Languages; or,
the Art of Speaking Foreign Tongues
Idiomatically. By THOMAS PRENDERGAST,
late of the Civil Service at Madras. Second
Edition. 8vo. 6s.
A Greek-English Lexicon. Com-
piled by H. G. LIDDELL, D.D. Dean of
Christ Church, and R. SCOTT, D.D. Dean
of Rochester. Sixth Edition. Crown 4to.
price 36s.
A Lexicon, Greek and English,
abridged for Schools from LIDDELL and
SCOTT'S Greek-English Lexicon. Twelfth
Edition. Square 12mo. 7s. Gd.
A Practical Dictionary of the
French and English Languages. By Pro-
fessor LEON COXTAXSEAU, many years
French Examiner for Military and Civil
Appointments, &c. New Edition, carefully
revised. Post 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Contanseau's Pocket Dictionary,
French and English, abridged from the
Practical Dictionary, by the Author. New
Edition. 18mo. price 3s. Gd.
A Sanskrit-English Dictionary.
The Sanskrit words printed both in the
original Devanagari and in Roman letters ;
with References to the Best Editions of
Sanskrit Authors, and with Etymologies
and comparisons of Cognate Words chiefly
in Greek, Latin, Gothic, and Anglo-Saxon.
Compiled by T. BENFEY. 8vo. 52s. Gd.
New Practical Dictionary of the
German Language; German-English, and
English-German. By the Rev. W. L.
BLACKLEY, M.A. and Dr. CARL MARTIN
FRIEDLANDER. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Staff College Essays. By Lieutenant
EVELYN BARINO, Royal Artillery. 8vo.
with Two Maps, 8s. Gd.
Miscellaneous Works and Popular Metaphysics.
The Essays and Contributions of
A. K. H. B. Author of ' The Recreations of
a Country Parson.' Uniform Editions :
Recreations of a Country Parson.
FIRST and SECOND SERIES, 3s. Gd. each.
The Commonplace Philosopher In
Town and Country. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd,
Leisure Hours in Town ; Essays Consola-
tory,^Esthetical, Moral, Social, and Domestic.
Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
The Autumn Holidays of a Country
Parson. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
The Graver Thoughts of a Country
Parson. FIRST and SECOND SERIES, crown
8vo. 3s. Gd. each.
Critical Essays of a Country Parson,
selected from Essays contributed to Fraser j s
Magazine. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Sunday Afternoons at the Parish
Church of a Scottish University City.
Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Lessons of Middle Age, with some
Account of various Cities and Men.
Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Counsel and Comfort Spoken from a
City Pulpit. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Changed Aspects of Unchanged
Truths ; Memorials of St. Andrews Sundays.
Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Present-Day Thoughts; Memorials of
St. Andrews Sundays. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Short Studies on Great Subjects.
By JAMES ANTHONY FROUDE, M.A. late
Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. Third
Edition. 8vo. 12s.
Lord Macaulay's Miscellaneous
Writings :
LIBRARY EDITION, 2 vols. 8vo. Portrait, 21s.
PEOPLE'S EDITION, 1 vol. crown 8vo. 4s. Gd.
The Rev. Sydney Smith's Mis-
cellaneous Works; including his Contribu-
tions to the Edinburgh Review. 1 vol.
crown 8vo. 6s.
The "Wit and Wisdom of the Rev.
SY'DNEY SMITH : a Selection of the most
memorable Passages in his Writings and
Conversation. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
The Silver Store. Collected from
Mediaeval Christian and Jewish Mines. By
the Eev. S. BARING-GOULD, M.A. Crown
8vo. 3s. Gd.
Traces of History in the Names
of Places ; with a Vocabulary of the Roots
out of which Names of Places in England
and Wales are formed. By FLAVELL
EDMUNDS. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Eclipse of Faith ; or, a Visit to a
Religious Sceptic. By HENRY' ROGERS.
Twelfth Edition. Fcp. 5s.
Defence of the Eclipse of Faith, by its
Author. Third Edition. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
Selections from the Correspondence
of R. E. H. Greyson. By the same Author.
Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Families of Speech, Four Lectures
delivered at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain. By the Rev. F. W. FARRAR,
M.A. F.R.S. Post 8vo. -with 2 Maps, 5s. Gd.
Chips from a G-erman Workshop ;
being Essays on the Science of Religion,
and on Mythology. Traditions, and Customs.
By MAX MCLLER, M.A. &c. Foreign
Member of the French Institute. 3 vols.
8vo. 2.
Word Gossip ; a Series of Familiar
Essays on Words and their Peculiarities.
By the Rev. W. L. BLACKLEY, M.A. Fcp.
8vo. 5s.
An Introduction to Mental Phi-
losophy, on the Inductive Method. By
J. D. MORELL, M.A. LL.D. 8vo. 12s.
Elements of Psychology, containing the
Analysis of the Intellectual Powers. By
the same Author. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Secret of Hegel: being the
Hegelian System in Origin, Principle, Form,
and Matter. By JAMES HUTCHISON STIR-
LING. 2 vols. 8vo. 28s.
Sir "William Hamilton ; being the Philo-
sophy of Perception : an Analysis. By the
same Author. 8vo. 5s.
The Senses and the Intellect.
By ALEXANDER BAIN, LL.D. Prof, of Logic
in the Univ. of Aberdeen. Third Edition.
8vo. 15s.
The Emotions and the "Will, by the
same Author. Second Edition. 8vo. 15s.
On the Study of Character, including
an Estimate of Phrenology. By the same
Author. 8vo. 9s.
Mental and Moral Science : a
Compendium of Psychology and Ethics.
By the same Author. Second Edition.
Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Strong and Free; or, First Steps
towards Social Science. By the Author of
'My Life and What shall I do with it?'
8vo. 10s. Gd.
The Philosophy of Necessity; or,
Natural Law as applicable to Mental, Moral,
and Social Science. By CHARLES BRAY.
Second Edition. 8vo. 9s.
The Education of the Feelings and
Affections. By the same Author. Third
Edition. 8vo. 3s. Gd.
On Force, its Mental and Moral Corre-
lates. By the same Author. 8vo. 5s.
Time and Space; a Metaphysical
Essay. By SHADWORTH H. HODGSON.
(This work covers the whole ground of
Speculative Philosophy.) 8vo. price 16s.
The Theory of Practice ; an Ethical In-
quiry. By the same Author. (This work,
in conjunction with the foregoing, completes
a system of Philosophy.) 2 vols. 8vo.
price 24s.
A Treatise on Human Nature;
being an Attempt to Introduce the Expe-
rimental Method of Reasoning into Moral
Subjects. By DAVID HUME. Edited, with
Notes, &c. by T. H. GREEN, Fellow, and
T. H. GROSE, late Scholar, of Balliol Col-
lege, Oxford. [In the press.
Essays Moral, Political, and Li-
terary. By DAVID HUME. By the same
Editors. [/ the press.
%* The above will form a new edition of
DAVID HUME'S Philosophical Works, com-
plete in Four Volumes, but to be had in Two
separate Sections as announced.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Astronomy, Meteorology, Popular Geography,
Outlines of Astronomy. By Sir
J. F. W. HERSCHEL, Bart. M.A. New
Edition, revised ; with Plates and Woodcuts.
8vo. 18*.
Other Worlds than Ours ; the
Plurality of Worlds Studied under the
Light of Recent Scientific Researches. By
R. A. PROCTOR, B.A. F.R.A.S. Second
Edition, revised and enlarged ; with 14
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.
The Sun ; Ruler, Light, Fire, and
Life of the Planetary System. By the same
Author. With 10 Plates (7 coloured) and
107 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. price 14*.
Saturn and its System. By the same
Author. 8vo. with 14 Plates, 14s.
The Handbook of the Stars. By the same
Author. Square fcp. 8vo. with 3 Maps,
price 5s.
Celestial Objects for Common
Telescopes. By T. W. WEBB, M.A. F.R.A.S.
Second Edition, revised and enlarged, with
Map of the Moon and Woodcuts. 16mo.
price 7s. 6d.
Navigation and Nautical As-
tronomy (Practical, Theoretical, Scientific)
for the use of Students and Practical Men.
By J. MERRIFIELD, F.R.A.S. and H.
EVERS. 8vo. 14s.
A General Dictionary of Geo-
graphy, Descriptive, Physical, Statistical,
and Historical j forming a complete
Gazetteer of the World. By A. KEITH
JOHNSTON, F.R.S.E. New Edition. 8vo.
price 31*. Bd.
M'Culloch's Dictionary, Geogra-
phical, Statistical, and Historical, of the
various Countries, Places, and principal
Natural Objects in the World. Revised
Edition, with the Statistical Information
throughout brought up to the latest returns
By FREDERICK MARTIN. 4 vols. 8vo. with
coloured Maps, 4 4s.
A Manual of Geography, Physical,
Industrial, and Political. By W. HUGHES,
F.R.G.S. Prof, of Geog. in King's Coll. and in
Queen's Coll. Lond. With 6 Maps. Fcp.7s.6<f.
The States of the River Plate:
their Industries and Commerce, Sheep
Farming, Sheep Breeding, Cattle Feeding,
and Meat Preserving ; the Employment of
Capital, Land and Stock and their Values,
Labour and its Remuneration. By WILFRID
LATHAM, Buenos Ayres. Second Edition.
8vo. 12s.
Maunder's Treasury of Geogra-
phy, Physical, Historical, Descriptive, and
Political. Edited by W. HUGHES, F.R.G.S.
With 7 Maps and 16 Plates. Fcp. 6s.
Natural History and Popular Science.
Ganot's Elementary Treatise on
Physics, Experimental and Applied, for the
use of Colleges and Schools. Translated and
Edited with the Author's sanction by
E. ATKINSON, Ph.D. F.C.S. New Edition,
reyised and enlarged ; with a Coloured Plate
and 620 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 15s.
The Elements of Physics or
Natural Philosophy. By NEIL AKXOTT,
M.D. F.R.S. Physician-Extraordinary to
the Queen. Sixth Edition, re-written and
completed. 2 Parts, 8vo. 21s.
The Forces of the Universe. By
GEORGE BERWICK, M.D. Post 8vo. 5s.
Dove's Law Of Storms, considered in
connexion with the ordinary Movements of
the Atmosphere. Translated by R. H.
SCOTT, M.A. T.C.D. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
Sound : a Course of Eight Lectures de-
livered at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain. By Professor JOHN TTNDALL,
LL.D. F.R.S. New Edition, with Portrait
and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 9s.
Heat a Mode of Motion. By Pro-
fessor JOHN TTNDALL, LL.D. F.R.S. Fourth
Edition. Crown 8vo. with Woodcuts,
price 10*. 6c
Researches on Diamagnetism
and Magne-Crystallic Action ; including
the Question of Diamagnetic Polarity. By
Professor TYNDALL. With 6 Plates and
many Woodcuts. 8vo. 14s.
Notes of a Course of Nine Lec-
tures on Light, delivered at the Royal
Institution, A.D. 1869. By Professor TVN-
DALL. Crown 8vo. Is. sewed, or Is. 6d.
cloth.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AXD CO.
Notes of a Course of Seven Lec-
tures on Electrical Phenomena and Theories,
delivered at the Royal Institution, A.D. 1870.
By Professor TYNDALL. Crown 8vo. Is.
sewed, or 1*. 6d. cloth.
Professor Tyndall's Essays on
the Use and Limit of the Imagination in
Science. Being the Second Edition, with
Additions, of a Discourse on the Scientific
Use of the Imagination. 8vo. 3s.
Light : its Influence on Life and Health.
By FORBES WINSLOW, M.D. D.C.L. Oxon.
(Hon.) Fcp. 8vo. 6s.
A Treatise on Electricity, in
Theory and Practice. By A. DE LA RIVE,
Prof, in the Academy of Geneva. Trans-
lated by C. V. WALKER, F.E.S. 3 vols.
8vo. with Woodcuts, 3 13s.
The Correlation of Physical
Forces. By W. R. GROVE, Q.C. V.P.R.S.
Fifth Edition, revised, and Augmented by a
Discourse on Continuity. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
The Discourse, separately, price 2s. 6d.
The Beginning : its When and its !
How. By MUNGO PONTON, F.R.S.E. Post
8vo. with very numerous Illustrations.
Manual of Geology. ByS. HAUGHTON,
M.D. F.R.S. Fellow of Trin. Coll. and Prof,
of Geol. in the Univ. of Dublin. Second
Edition, with 66 Woodcuts. Fcp. 7s. Gd.
Van Der Hoeven's Handbook of
ZOOLOGY. Translated from the Second
Dutch Edition by the Rev. W. CLARK,
M.D. F.R.S. 2 vols. 8vo. with 24 Plates of
Figures, 60s.
Professor Owen's Lectures on
the Comparative Anatomy and Physiology
of the Invertebrate Animals. Second
Edition, with 235 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21.
The Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology of the Vertebrate Animals. By
RICHARD OWEN, F.R.S. D.C.L. With
1,472 Woodcuts. 3 vols. 8vo. 3 13s. 6d.
The Origin of Civilisation and
the Primitive Condition of Man ; Mental
and Social Condition of Savages. By Sir
JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart. M.P. F.R.S. Second
Edition, revised, with 25 Woodcuts. 8vo.
price 16*.
The Primitive Inhabitants of
Scandinavia. Containing a Description of
the Implements, Dwellings, Tombs, and
Mode of Living of the Savages in the North
of Europe during the Stone Age. By SVEN
NILSSON. 8vo. Plates and Woodcuts, 18s.
Homes without Hands : a Descrip-
tion of the Habitations of Animals, classed
according to their Principle of Construction.
By Rev. J. G. WOOD, M.A. F.L.S. With
about 140 Vignettes on Wood. 8vo. 21s.
Bible Animal S ; being a Description of
Every Living Creature mentioned in the
Scriptures, from the Ape to {he Coral. By
the Rev. J. G. WOOD, M.A. F.L.S. With
about 100 Vignettes on Wood. 8vo. 21s.
The Harmonies of Nature and
Unity of Creation. By Dr. G. HART WIG.
8vo. with numerous Illustrations, 18s.
The Sea and its Living "Wonders. By
the same Author. Third Edition, enlarged.
8vo. with many Illustrations, 21s.
The Tropical "World. By the same Author.
With 8 Chronioxylographs and 172 Wood-
cuts. 8vo. 21s.
The Polar "World : a Popular Description of
Man and Nature in the Arctic and Antarctic
Regions of the Globe. By the same Author.
With 8 Chromoxylographs, 3 Maps, and 85
Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s.
A Familiar History of Birds.
By E. STANLEY, D.D. late Lord Bishop of
Norwich. Fcp. with Woodcuts, 3s. Gd.
Kirby and Spence's Introduction
to Entomology, or Elements of the Natural
History of Insects. Crown 8vo. 5s.
Maunder's Treasury of Natural
History, or Popular Dictionary of Zoology.
Revised and corrected by T. S. COBBOLD,
M.D. Fcp. with 900 Woodcuts, 6s.
The Elements of Botany for
Families and Schools. Tenth Edition, re-
vised by THOMAS MOORE, F.L.S. Fcp.
with 154 Woodcuts, 2s. Qd.
The Treasury of Botany, or
Popular Dictionary of the Vegetable King-
dom ; with which is incorporated a Glos-
sary of Botanical Terms. Edited by
J. LINDLEY, F.R.S. and T. MOORE, F.L.S.
assisted by eminent Contributors. Pp.
1,274, with 274 Woodcuts and 20 Steel
Plates. Two PARTS, fcp. 8vo. 12s.
The British Flora ; comprising the
Phsenogamous or Flowering Plants and the
Ferns. By Sir W. J. HOOKER, K.H. and
G. A. WALKER-ARNOTT, LL.D. 12mo.
with 12 Plates, 14s.
The Rose Amateur's Guide. By
THOMAS RIVERS. New Edition. Fcp. 4s.
London's Encyclopaedia of Plants ;
comprising the Specific Character, Descrip-
tion, Culture, History, &c. of all the Plants
found in Great Britain. With upwards of
12,000 Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s.
10
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Maunder's Scientific and Lite-
rary Treasury ; a Popular Encyclopaedia of
Science, Literature, and Art. New Edition,
thoroughly revised and in great part re-
written, with above 1,000 new articles, by
J. Y. JOHNSON, Corr. M.Z.S. Fcp. 6.
A Dictionary of Science, Litera-
ture, and Art. Fourth Edition, re-edited
by the late W. T. BRAXDE (the Author)
and GEORGE VV. Cox, M.A. 3 vols. medium
8vo. price 63s. cloth.
Chemistry, Medicine, Surgery, and the Allied Sciences.
A Dictionary of Chemistry and
the Allied Branches of other Sciences. By
HENRY WATTS, F.C.S. assisted by eminent
Scientific and Practical Chemists. 5 vols.
medium 8vo. price 7 3s.
Elements of Chemistry, Theore-
tical and Practical. By WILLIAM A.
MILLER, M.D. LL.D. Professor of Chemis-
try, King's College, London. Fourth Edi-
tion. 3 vols. 8vo. 3.
PART I. CHEMICAL PHYSICS, 15s.
PART II. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 21s.
PART III. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, 24s.
A Manual of Chemistry, De-
scriptive and Theoretical. By WILLIAM
ODLING, M.B. F.R.S. PART I. 8vo. 9s.
PART II. nearly ready.
A Course of Practical Chemistry,
for the use of Medical Students. By
W. ODLING, M.B. F.R.S. New Edition, with
70 new Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Outlines of Chemistry; or, Brief
Notes of Chemical Facts. By the same
Author. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Lectures on Animal Chemistry Delivered
at the Royal College of Physicians in 1865.
By the same Author. Crown 8vo. 4s. Gd.
Lectures on the Chemical Changes of
Carbon, delivered at the Royal Institution
of Great Britain. By the same Author.
Crown 8vo. 4s. Gd.
Chemical Notes for the Lecture
Room. By THOMAS WOOD, F.C.S. 2 vols.
crown 8vo. I. on Heat, &c. price 3s. 6d.
II. on the Metals, price 5s.
A Treatise on Medical Elec-
tricity, Theoretical and Practical ; and its
Use in the Treatment of Paralysis, Neu-
ralgia, and other Diseases. By JULIUS
ALTHAUS, M.D. &c. Second Edition, re-
vised and partly re-written ; with Plate and
62 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. price 15s.
The Diagnosis, Pathology, and
Treatment of Diseases of Women ; including
the Diagnosis of Pregnancy. By GRAILY
HEWITT, M.D. &c. President of the Obste-
trical Society of London. Second Edition,
enlarged; with 116 Woodcuts. 8vo. 24*.
Lectures on the Diseases of In-
fancy and Childhood. By CHARLKS W Ear,
M.D. &c. Fifth Edition. 8vo. 16s.
On the Surgical Treatment of
Children's Diseases. By T. HOL:MI:S, M.A.
&c. late Surgeon to the Hospital for Sick
Children. Second Edition, with 9 Plates
and 112 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21s.
A System of Surgery, Theoretical
and Practical, in Treatises by Various
Authors. Edited by T. HOLMES, M.A. &c.
Surgeon and Lecturer on Surgery at St.
George's Hospital, and Surgeon-in-Chief to
the Metropolitan Police. Second Edition,
thoroughly revised, with numerous Illus-
trations. 5 vols. 8vo. 5 5s.
Lectures on the Principles and
Practice of Physic. By Sir THOMAS WAT-
SON, Bart. M.D. Physician-in-Ordinary to
the Queen. New Edition in the press.
Lectures on Surgical Pathology.
By JAMES PAGET, F.R.S. Third Edition,
revised and re edited by the Author and
Professor W. TURNER, M.B. 8vo. with 131
Woodcuts, 21s.
Cooper's Dictionary of Practical
Surgery and Encyclopedia of Surgical
Science. New Edition, brought down to
the present time. By S. A. LANE, Surgeon to
St. Mary's Hospital, &c. assisted by various
Eminent Surgeons. VOL. II. 8vo. com-
pleting the work. [Early in 1871.
On Chronic Bronchitis, especially
as connected with Gout, Emphysema, and
Diseases of the Heart. By E. HEADLAM
GREENHOW, M.D. F.R.C.P. &c. 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Climate of the South of
France as Suited to Invalids ; with Notices
of Mediterranean and other Winter Sta-
tions. By C. T. WILLIAMS, M.A. M.D.
Oxon. Assistant-Physician to the Hospital
for Consumption at Brompton. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo. 6s.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
11
Pulmonary Consumption ; its
Nature, Treatment, and Duration exem-
plified by an Analysis of One Thousand
Cases selected from upwards of Twenty
Thousand. By C. J. B. WILLIAMS, M.D.
F.R.S. Consulting Physician to the Hos-
pital for Consumption at Brompton ; and
C. T. WILLIAMS, M.A. M.D. Oxon.
[Nearly ready.
Clinical Lectures on Diseases of
the Liver, Jaundice, and Abdominal Dropsy.
By C. MCRCHISON, M.D. Physician and
Lecturer on the Practice of Medicine,
Middlesex Hospital. Post 8vo. with 25
Woodcuts, 10s. 66?.
Anatomy, Descriptive and Sur-
gical. By HENRY GRAY, F.R.S. With
about 410 Woodcuts from Dissections. Fifth
Edition, by T. HOLMES, M.A.Cantab. With
a New Introduction by the Editor. Royal
8vo. 28*.
Clinical Notes on Diseases of
the Larynx, investigated and treated with
the assistance of the Laryngoscope. By
W. MARCET, M.D. F.R,S. Crown 8vo.
with 5 Lithographs, 6s.
The House I Live in ; or, Popular
Illustrations of the Structure and Functions
of the Human Body. Edited by T. G. GIRTIN.
New Edition, with 25 Woodcuts. 16ino.
price 2s. Gd.
Outlines of Physiology, Human
and Comparative. By JOHN MARSHALL,
F.R.C.S. Professor of Surgery in University
College, London, and Surgeon to the Uni-
versity College Hospital. 2 vols. crown 8vo.
with 122 Woodcuts, 32s.
Physiological Anatomy and Phy-
siology of Man. By the late R. B. TODD,
M.D. F.R.S. and W. BOWXAN, F.R.S. of
King's College. With numerous Illustra-
tions. VOL. II. 8vo. 25s.
VOL. I. New Edition by Dr. LIONEL S.
BEALE, F.R.S. in course of publication ;
PART I. with 8 Plates, 7s. Gd.
Copland's Dictionary of Practical
Medicine, abridged from the larger work,
and throughout brought down to the pre-
sent state of Medical Science. 8vo. 36s.
A Manual of Materia Medica
and Therapeutics, abridged from Dr.
PEREIRA'S Elements by F. J. FARRE, M.D.
assisted by R. BENTLEY, M.R.C.S. and by
R. WARINGTON, F.R.S. 1 vol. 8vo. with
90 Woodcuts, 21s.
Thomson's Conspectus of the
British Pharmacopoeia. Twenty-fifth Edi-
tion, corrected by E. LLOYD BIRKETT, M.D.
18mo. 6s.
Essays on Physiological Subjects.
By GILBERT W. CHILD, M.A. F.L.S. F.C.S.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo. with Wood-
cuts, 7s. Gd.
The Fine Arts, and Illustrated Editions.
In Fairyland ; Pictures from the Elf-
World. By RICHARD DOYLE. With a
Poem by W. ALLINGHAM. With Sixteen
Plates, containing Thirty-six Designs
printed in Colours. Folio, 31s. Gd.
Life of John Gibson, R.A.
Sculptor. Edited by Lady EASTLAKE.
8vo. 10s. Gd.
Materials for a History of Oil
Painting. By Sir CHARLES LOCKE EAST-
LAKE, sometime President of the Royal
Academy. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s.
Albert Durer, his Life and
Works ; including Autobiographical Papers
and Complete Catalogues. By WILLIAM
B. SCOTT. With Six Etchings by the
Author and other Illustrations. 8vo. 16s.
Half-Hour Lectures on the His-
tory and Practice of the Fine and Orna-
mental Arts. By. W. B. SCOTT. Second
Edition. Crown 8vo. with 50 Woodcut
Illustrations, 8s. 6d.
The Lord's Prayer Illustrated
by F. R. PICKERSGILL, R.A. and HENRY
ALFORD, D.D. Dean of Canterbury. Imp.
4to. 21s.
The Chorale Book for England:
the Hymns Translated by Miss C. WINK-
WORTH ; the Tunes arranged by Prof. W.
S. BENNETT and OTTO GOLDSCHMIDT.
Fcp. 4to. 12s. Gd.
Six Lectures on Harmony. De-
livered at the Royal Institution of Great
Britain. By G. A. MACFARREN. 8vo. 10s. 6ef.
Lyra Germanica, the Christian Year.
Translated by CATHERINE WINKWORTH;
with 125 Illustrations on Wood drawn by
J. LEIGHTON, F.S.A. Quarto, 21s.
Lyra Germanica. the Christian Life.
Translated by CATHERINE WINKWORTH;
with about 200 Woodcut Illustrations by
J. LEIGHTON, F.S.A. and other Artists.
Quarto, 21s.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AXD CO.
The New Testament, illustrated with
Wood Engravings after the Early Masters,
chiefly of the Italian School. Crown 4to.
63. doth, gilt top ; or 5 5s. morocco.
The Life of Man Symbolised by
the Months of the Year in their Seasons
and Phases. Text selected by RICHARD
PIOOT. 25 Illustrations on Wood from
Original Designs by JOHN LEIGHTON,
F.S.A. Quarto, 42s.
Cats' and Fax-lie's Moral Em-
blems ; with Aphorisms, Adages, and Pro-
verbs of all Nations : comprising 121 Illus-
trations on Wood by J. LEIGHTON, F.S.A.
with an appropriate Text by R. PIGOT.
Imperial 8vo. 31s. Gd.
Shakspear o ' s Midsummer Night's
Dream, illustrated with 24 Silhouettes or
Shadow Pictures by P. KONEWKA, engraved
on Wood by A. VOGEL. Folio, 31s. Gd.
Sacred and Legendary Art. By
Mrs. JAMESON. 6 vols. square crown 8vo.
price 5 15s. Gd.
Legends of the Saints and Martyrs.
Fifth Edition, with 19 Etchings and 187
Woodcuts. 2 vols. price 31s. Gd.
Legends of the Monastic Orders. Third
Edition, with 11 Etchings and 88 Woodcuts.
1 vol. price 21s.
Legends of the Madonna. Third Edition,
with 27 Etchings and 165 Woodcuts. 1
vol. price 21*.
The History of Our Lord, with that of His
Types and Precursors. Completed by Lady
EASTLAKE. Revised Edition, with 13
Etchings and 281 Woodcuts. 2 vola.
price 42s.
The Useful Arts, Manufactures, fyc.
Gwilt's Encyclopaedia of Archi-
tecture, with above 1,600 Woodcuts. Fifth
Edition, with Alterations and considerable
Additions, by WYATT PAPWOBTH. 8vo.
52s. Gd.
A Manual of Architecture : being
a Concise History and Explanation of the
principal Styles of European Architecture,
Ancient, Mediaeval, and Renaissance ; with
their Chief Variations and a Glossary of
Technical Terms. By THOMAS MITCHELL.
With 150 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Italian Sculptors : being a History of
Sculpture in Northern, Southern, and East-
ern Italy. By C. C. PERKINS. With 30
Etchings and 13 Wood Engravings. Im-
perial 8vo. 42s.
Tuscan Sculptors, their Lives,
Works, and Times. By the same Author.
With 45 Etchings and 28 Woodcuts from
Original Drawings and Photographs. 2
vols. imperial 8vo. 63s.
Hints on Household Taste in
Furniture, Upholstery, and other Details.
By CHARLES L. EASTLAKE, Architect.
Second Edition, with about 90 Illustrations.
Square crown 8vo. 18s.
The Engineer's Handbook ; ex-
plaining the principles which should guide
the young Engineer in the Construction of
Machinery. ByC. S. LOWNDES. Post8vo.5s.
Lathes and Turning, Simple, Me-
chanical, and Ornamental. By W. HENRY
NORTHOOTT. With about 240 Illustrations
on Steel and Wood. 8vo. 18s.
Principles of Mechanism, designed
for the use of Students in the Universities,
and for Engineering Students generally.
By R. WILLIS, M.A. F.R.S. &c. Jacksonian
Professor in the Univ. of Cambridge. Second
Edition, enlarged ; with 374 Woodcuts.
8vo. 18s.
Handbook of Practical Tele-
graphy, published with the sanction of the
Chairman and Directors of the Electric
and International Telegraph Company, and
adopted by ths Department of Telegraphs
for India. " By R. S. CULLEY. Third Edi-
tion. 8vo. 12s. Gd.
Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manu-
factures, and Mines. Sixth Edition, re-
written and greatly enlarged by ROBERT
HUNT, F.R.S. assisted by numerous Con-
tributors. With 2,000 Woodcuts. 3 vols.
medium 8vo. 4 14s. Gd.
Treatise on Mills and Millwork.
By Sir W. FAIRBAIRN, Bart. With 18
Plates and 322 Woodcuts. 2 vols. 8vo. 32s.
Useful Information for Engineers. By
the same Author. FIRST, SECOND, and
THIRD SERIES, with many Plates and
Woodcuts. 3 vols. crown 8vo. 10s. Gd. each.
The Application of Cast and "Wrought
Iron to Building Purposes. By the same
Author. Fourth Edition, with 6 Plates and
118 Woodcuts. 8vo. 16s.
Iron Ship Building, its History
and Progress, as comprised in a Series of
Experimental Researches. By W. FAIR-
BAIRN, Bart. F.R.S. With 4 Plates and
130 Woodcuts, 8vo. 18s.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
13
Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineer-
ing, Historical, Theoretical, and Practical.
By E. CREST, C.E. With above 3,000
Woodcuts. 8vo. 42*.
A Treatise on the Steam Engine,
in its various Applications to Mines, Mills,
Steam Navigation, Railways, and Agri-
culture. By J. BOURNE, C.E. New Edition;
with Portrait, 37 Plates, and 546 Woodcuts.
4to. 42s.
Catechism of the Steam Engine,
in its various Applications to Mines, Mills,
Steam Navigation, Railways, and Agricul-
ture. By JOHN BOURNE, C.E. New Edi-
tion, with 89 Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s.
Becent Improvements in the
Steam-Engine. By JOHN BOURNE, C.E.
being a SUPPLEMENT to his ' Catechism of
the Steam-Engine.' New Edition, in-
cluding many New Examples, with 124
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. 6s.
Bourne's Examples of Modern
Steam, Air, and Gas Engines of the most
Approved Types, as employed for Pumping,
for Driving Machinery, for Locomotion,
and for Agriculture, minutely and prac-
tically described. In course of publication,
to be completed in Twenty-four Parts, price
2s. Gd. each, forming One Volume, with
about 50 Plates and 400 Woodcuts.
A Treatise on the Screw Pro-
peller, Screw Vessels, and Screw Engines,
as adapted for purposes of Peace and War.
By JOHN BOURNE, C.E. Third Edition,
with 54 Plates and 287 Woodcuts. Quarto,
63s.
Handbook of the Steam Engine.
By JOHN BOURNE, C.E. forming a KEY to
the Author's Catechism of the Steam Engine.
With 67 Woodcuts. Fcp. 9s.
A History of the Machine-
Wroaght Hosiery and Lace Manufactures.
By WILLIAM FELKIN, F.L.S. F.S.S. With
several Illustrations. Roval 8vo. 21s.
Mitchell's Manual of Practical
Assaying. Third Edition for the most part
re- written, with all the recent Discoveries
incorporated. By W. CROOKES, F.R.S.
With 188 Woodcuts. 8vo. 28*.
Reimann's Handbook of Aniline
and its Derivatives; a Treatise on the
Manufacture of Aniline and* \niline Colours.
Revised and edited by WILLIAM CROOKES,
F.R.S. 8vo. with 5 Woodcuts. 10s. Gd.
On the Manufacture of Beet-
Root Sugar in England and Ireland. By
WILLIAM CROOKES, F.R.S. With 11 Wood-
cuts. 8vo. 8s. Gd.
Practical Treatisa on Metallurgy,
adapted from the last German Edition of
Professor KERL'S Metallurgy by W.
CROOKES, F.R.S. &c. and E. ROHRIG,
Ph.D. M.E. 3 vols. 8vo. with 625 Wood-
cuts, price 4 19s.
The Art of Perfumery ; the History
and Theory of Odours, and the Methods of
Extracting the Aromas of Plants. By Dr.
PIESSE, F.C.S. Third Edition, witE 53
Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic,
for Juveniles during the Holidays. By the
same Author. With 38 Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s.
London's Encyclopaedia of Agri-
culture: comprising the Laying-out, Im-
provement, and Management of Landed
Property, and the Cultivation and Economy
of the Productions of Agriculture. With
1,100 Woodcuts. 8vo. 21*.
London's Encyclopaedia of Gardening :
comprising the Theory and Practice of
Horticulture, Floriculture, Arboriculture,
and Landscape Gardening. With 1,000
Woodcuts. 8vo. 21*.
Bayldon's Art of Valuing Bents
and Tillages, and Claims of Tenants upon
Quitting Farms, both at Michaelmas and
Lady-Day. Eighth Edition, revised by
J. C. MORTON. 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Religious and Moral Works.
An Exposition of the 39 Articles,
Historical and Doctrinal. By E. HAROLD
BROWNE, D.D. Lord Bishop of Ely. Eighth
Edition. 8vo. IGs.
Examination-Questions on Bishop
Browne's Exposition of the Articles. By
the Rev. J. GORLE, M.A. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
The Life and Epistles of St.
Paul. By the Rev. W. J. CONYBEARE,
M.A. and the Very Rev. J. S. HOWSON,
D.D. Dean of Chester.
LIBRARY EDITION, with all the Original
Illustrations, Maps, Landscapes on Steel,
Woodcuts, &c. 2 vols. 4to. 48s.
INTERMEDIATE EDITION, with a Selection
of Maps, Plates, and Woodcuts. 2 vols.
square crown 8vo. 31s. Gd.
STUDENT'S EDITION, revised and con-
densed, with 46 Illustrations and Maps. 1
vol. crown 8vo. 9s.
11
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
The Voyage and Shipwreck of
St. Paul ; with Dissertations on the Ships
and Navigation of the Ancients. By JAMES
SMITH, F.R.S. Crown 8vo. Charts, 10s. Gil.
Evidence of the Truth of the
Christian Religion derived from the Literal
Fulfilment of Prophecy. By ALEXANDER
KEITH, D.D. 37th Edition, with numerous
Places, in square 8vo. 12s. 6rf.; also the
39th Edition, in post 8vo. with 5 Plates, 6s.
The History and Destiny of the World
and of the Church, according to Scripture.
By the same Author. Square 8vo. with 40
Illustrations, 10s.
The History and Literature of
the Israelites, according to the Old Testa-
ment and the Apocrypha. By C. DE
ROTHSCHILD and A. DE ROTHSCHILD.
With 2 Maps. 2 vols. post 8vo. price 12s. 6d.
VOL. I. The Historical Books, 7s. 6d.
VOL. II. The Prophetic and Poetical Writings,
price 5s.
Ewald's History of Israel to the
Death of Moses. Translated from the Ger-
man. Edited, with a Preface and an Ap-
pendix, by RUSSELL MARTINEAU, M.A.
Second Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. 24s.
History of the Karaite Jews. By
WILLIAM HARRIS RULE, D.D. Post 8vo.
price 7s. 6d.
The Life of Margaret Mary
Hallahan, better known in the reli-
gious world by the name of Mother Mar-
garet. By her RELIGIOUS CHILDREN.
Second Edition. 8vo. with Portrait, 10s.
The See of Borne in the Middle
Ages. By the Rev. OSWALD J. REICHEL,
B.C.L. and M.A. 8vo. 18s.
The Evidence for the Papacy
as derived from the Holy Scriptures and
from Primitive Antiquity. By the Hon.
COLIN LINDSAY. 8vo. 12s. 6d.
The Pontificate of Pius the Ninth ;
being the Third Edition, enlarged and
continued, of ' Rome and its Ruler.' By
J. F. MAOUIRE, M.P. Post 8vo. Portrait,
price 12s. 6d.
Ignatius Loyola and the Early
Jesuits. By STEWART ROSE. New Edition,
in the press.
An Introduction to the Study of
the New Testament, Critical, Exegetical,
and Theological. By the Rev. S. DAVIDSON,
D.D. LL.D. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s.
A Critical and Grammatical Com-
mentary on St. Paul's Epistles. By C. J.
ELLICOTT, D.D. Lord Bishop of Gloucester
and Bristol. 8vo.
Galatians, Fourth Edition, 8s. M.
Ephesians, Fourth Edition, 8s. 6d.
Pastoral Epistles, Fourth Edition, 10*. 6d.
Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon,
Third Edition, 10s. 6d.
Thessalonians, Third Edition, 7*. 6d.
Historical Lectures on the Life of
Our Lord Jesus Christ : being the Hulsean
Lectures for 1859. By C. J. ELLICOTT, D.D.
Lord Bishop of Gloucester and Bristol.
Fifth Edition. 8vo. 12s.
The Greek Testament; with Notes,
Grammatical and Exegetical. By the Rev.
W. WEBSTER, M.A. and the Rev. W. F.
WILKINSON, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 2 4s.
Home's Introduction to the Cri-
tical Study and Knowledge of the Holy
Scriptures. Twelfth Edition ; with 4 Maps
and 22 Woodcuts and Facsimiles. 4 vols.
8vo. 42s.
Compendious Introduction to the
Study of the Bible. Edited by the Rev.
JOHN AYRE, M.A. With Maps, &c. Post
8vo. 6s.
The Treasury of Bible Know-
ledge; being a Dictionary of the Books,
Persons, Places, Events, and other Matters
of which mention is made in Holy Scrip-
ture. By Rev. J. AYRE, M.A. With
Maps, 15 Plates, and numerous Woodcuts.
Fcp. 6s.
Every-day Scripture Difficulties
explained and illustrated. By J. E. PHKS-
COTT, M.A. VOL. I. Matthew and Mark ;
VOL. II. Luke and John. 2 vols. 8vo. price
9s. each.
The Pentateuch and Book of
Joshua Critically Examined. By the Right
Rev. J. W. COLENSO, D.D. Lord Bishop of
Natal. Crown 8vo. price 6*-.
The Four Cardinal Virtues (Forti-
tude, Justice, Prudence, Temperance) in
relation to the Public and Private Life of
Catholics : Six Sermons for the Day. With
Preface, Appendices, &c. By the Rev.
ORBY SHIPLEY, M.A. Crown 8vo. with
Frontispiece, 7. Gd.
The Formation of Christendom.
By T. W. ALLIES. PARTS I. and II. 8vo.
price 12s. each.
Four Discourses of Chrysostom,
chiefly on the parable of the Rich Man and
Lazarus. Translated by F. ALLEX, B.A.
Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOXGMAXS AND CO.
15
Christendom's Divisions ; a Philo-
sophical Sketch of the Divisions of the
Christian Family in East and West. By
EDMUND S. FFOULKES. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Christendom's Divisions, PART II.
Greeks and Latins. By the same Author.
Post STO. 15s.
The Hidden Wisdom of Christ
and the Key of Knowledge ; or, History of
the Apocrypha. By ERNEST DE BUNSEN.
2 vols. 8vo. 28s.
The Keys of St. Peter ; or, the House of
Rechab, connected with the History of
Symbolism and Idolatry. By the same
Author. 8vo. 14s.
The Power of the Soul over the
Body. By GEO. MOORE, M.D. M.R.C.P.L.
&c. Sixth Edition. Crown 8vo. 8s. Gd.
The Types of Genesis briefly con-
sidered as Revealing the Development of
Human Nature. By ANDREW JUKES.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Second Death and the Restitution
of All Things, with some Preliminary Re-
marks on the Nature and Inspiration of
Holy Scripture. By the same Author.
Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 3s. Gd.
Thoughts for the Age. BY ELIZABETH
M. SEWELL, Author of ' Amy Herbert.'
New Edition. Fcp. 8vo. price 5s.
Passing Thoughts on Religion. By the
same Author. Fcp. 5s.
Self-examination before Confirmation.
By the same Author. 32mo. Is. Gd.
Thoughts for the Holy "Week, for Young
Persons. By the same Author. New
Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 2s.
Readings for a Month Preparatory to
Confirmation from Writers of the Early and
English Church. By the same. Fcp. 4s.
Headings for Every Day in Lent, com-
piled from the Writings of Bishop JEREMY
TAYLOR. By the same Author. Fcp. 5s.
Preparation for the Holy Communion;
the Devotions chiefly from the works of
JEREMY TAYLOR. By the same. 32mo. 3s.
Principles of Education drawn from
Nature and Revelation, and Applied to
Female Education in the Upper Classes.
By the same Author. 2 vols. fcp. 12s. Gd.
Bishop Jeremy Taylor's Entire
Works : with Life by BISHOP HEBER.
Revised and corrected by the Rev. C. P.
EDEN. 10 vols. 5 5a.
England and Christendom. By
ARCHBISHOP MANNING, D.D. Post 8vo.
price 10s. Gd. .
The Wife's Manual ; or, Prayers,
Thoughts, and Songs on Several Occasions
of a Matron's Life. By the Rev. W. CAL-
VERT, M.A. Crown 8vo. 10s. Gd.
Singers and Songs of the Church :
being Biographical Sketches of the Hymn-
Writers in all the principal Collections;
with Notes on their Psalms and Hymns.
By JOSIAH MILLER, M.A. Second Edition,
enlarged. Post 8vo. 10s. Gd.
' Spiritual Songs ' for the Sundays
and Holidays throughout the Year. By
J. S. B. MONSELL, LL.D. Vicar of Egham
and Rural Dean. Fourth Edition, Sixth
Thousand. Fcp. price 4s. Gd.
The Beatitudes. By the same Author.
Third Edition, revised. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
His Presence not his Memory, 1855.
By the same Author, in memory of his SON.
Sixth Edition. 16mo. Is.
Lyra Germanica, translated from the
German by Miss C. WINKWORTH. FIRST
SERIES, the Christian Year, Hymns for the
Sundays and Chief Festivals of the Church ;
SECOND SERIES, the Christian Life. Fcp.
8vo. price 3s. Gd. each SERIES.
Lyra Eucharistica ; Hymns and
Verses on the Holy Communion, Ancient
and Modern : with other Poems. Edited by
the Rev. ORBY SHIPLEY, M.A. Second
Edition. Fcp. 5s. \
Shipley's Lyra Messianica. Fcp. 5s.
Shipley's Lyra Mystica. Fcp. 5*.
Endeavours after the Christian
Life : Discourses. By JAMES MARTTNEAU.
Fourth Edition, carefully revised. Post 8vo.
7s. Gd.
Invocation of Saints and Angels ;
for the use of Members of the English Church.
Edited by the Rev. ORBY SHIPLEY, M.A.
24mo. 3s. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Travels, Voyages, fyc.
The Playground of Europe. By
LESLIE STEPHEN, late President of the
Alpine Club. Post 8vo. with Frontispiece.
[Just ready.
Westward by Rail : the New Route
to the East. By W. F. RAE. Post 8vo.
with Map, price 10s. 6d.
Travels in the Central Caucasus
and Bashan, including Visits to Ararat and
Tabreez and Ascents of Kazbek and Elbruz.
By DOUGLAS W. FUESIIFIELD. Square
crown 8vo. with Maps, &c., 18s.
Cadore or Titian's Country. B y
JOSIAH GILBERT, one of the Authors of the
'Dolomite Mountains.' With Map, Fac-
simile, and 40 Illustrations. Imp.8vo. 31s. Gd.
Zigzagging amongst Dolomites ;
with more than 300 Illustrations by the
Author. By the Author of ' How we Spent
the Summer.' Oblong 4to. price 15s.
The Dolomite Mountains. Excur-
sions through Tyrol, Carinthia, Carniola,
and Friuli. By J. GILBERT and G. C.
CHURCHILL, F.R.G.S. With numerous
Illustrations. Square crown 8vo. 21s.
Pilgrimages in the Pyrenees and
Landes. By DENYS SHYNE LAWLOR.
Crown 8vo. with Frontispiece and Vignette,
price 15s.
How we Spent the Summer; or,
a Voyage en Zigzag in Switzerland and
Tyrol with some Members of the ALPINE
CLUB. Third Edition, re-drawn. In oblong
4to. with about 300 Illustrations, 15s.
Pictures in Tyrol and Elsewhere.
from a Family Sketch-Book. By the
same Author. Second Edition. 4to. with
many Illust rations, 21s.
Beaten Tracks; or, Pen and Pencil
Sketches in Italy. By the same Author.
With 42 Plates of Sketches. 8vo. 16*.
The Alpine Club Map of the Chain
of Mont Blanc, from an actual Survey in
18631864. By A. ADAMS - REILLY,
F.R.G.S. M.A.C. In Chromolithography on
extra stout drawing paper 28in. x 17in.
price 10*. or mounted on canvas in a folding
case, 12s. Gd.
England to Delhi; a Narrative of
Indian Travel. By JOHN MATHESON,
.Glasgow. With Map and 82 Woodcut
Illustrations. 4to. 3ls. 6d.
History of Discovery in our
Australasian Colonies, Australia, Tasmania,
and New Zealand, from the Earliest Date to
the Present Day. By WILLIAM HOWITT.
2 vols. 8vo. with 3 Maps, 20s.
The Capital of the Tycoon; a
Narrative of a 3 Years' Residence in Japan.
By Sir RUTHERFORD ALCOCK, K.C.B.
2 vols. 8vo. with numerous Illustrations, 42s.
Guide to the Pyrenees, for the use
of Mountaineers. By CHARLES PACKE.
Second Edition, with Maps, &c. and Appen-
dix. Crown 8vo. 7s. Gd.
The Alpine Guide. By JOHN BALL,
M.R.I.A. late President of the Alpine Club.
Post 8vo. with Maps and other Illustrations.
Guide to the Eastern Alps, price 10*. 6d.
Guide to the "Western Alps, including
Mont Blanc, Monte Rosa, Zennatt, &c.
price 6s. Gd.
Guide to the Central Alps, including
all the Oberland District, price 7s. Gd.
Introduction on Alpine Travelling in
general, and on the Geology of the Alps,
price Is. Either of the Three Volumes or
Parts of the Alpine Guide may be had with
this INTRODUCTION prefixed, price Is. extra.
Roma Sotterranea; or, an Account
of the Roman Catacombs, especially of the
Cemetery of San Callisto. Compiled from
the Works of Commendatore G.B. DE Rossi,
by the Rev. J. S. NORTHCOTE, D.D. and the
Rev. W. B. BROWNLOW. With Plans and
numerous other Illustrations. 8vo. 31s. Gd.
Memorials of London and Lon-
don Life in the 13th, 14th, and 15th Cen-
turies ; being a Series of Extracts, Local,
Social, and Political, from the Archives
of the City of London, A.D. 1276-1419.
Selected, translated, and edited by H. T.
RILEY, M.A. Royal 8vo. 21s.
Commentaries on the History,
Constitution, and Chartered Franchises of
the City of London. By GEORGE NORTON,
formerly one of the Common Pleaders of the
City of London. Third Edition. 8vo. 14s.
The Northern Heights of Lon-
don ; or, Historical Associations of Hamp-
stead, Highgate, Muswell Hill, Hornsey,
and Islington. By WILLIAM HOWITT.
With about 40 Woodcuts. Square crown
8vo. 21.
The Rural Life of England.
By the same Author. With Woodcuts by
Bewick and Williams. Medium, 8vo. 12s. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Visits to Remarkable Places:
Old Halls, Battle-Fields, and Scenes illus-
trative of striking Passages in English
History and Poetry. By the same Author.
2 vols. square crown 8vo. with Wood En-
gravings, 25s.
Narrative of the Euphrates Ex-
pedition carried on by Order of the British
Government during the years 1835, 1836,
and 1837. By General F. R. CHESNEY,
F.R.S. With 2 Maps, 45 Plates, and 16
Woodcuts. 8vo. 24s.
Works of Fiction.
Lothair. By the Eight Hon. B. DISRAELI,
Cabinet Edition (the Eighth), complete in
One Volume, with a Portrait of the Author,
and a new General Preface. Crown 8vo.
price 6s. By, the same Author, Cabinet
Editions, revised, uniform with the above :
ALROY ; IXION ; the
INFERNAL MAR-
RIAGE ; and Po-
PANILLA. Price 6s.
YOUNG DUKE and
COUNT ALARCOS,
6s.
VIVIAN GREY, 6s.
CONINGSBY, 6s.
SYBIL, 6s.
TANCRED, 6s.
VENETIA, 6s.
HENRIETTATEMPLE,
6s.
CONTARINI FLEMING
and RISE OF Is-
KANUER, 6s.
The Modern Novelist's Library.
Each Work, in crown 8vo. complete in a
Single Volume :
MELVILLE'S GLADIATORS, 2s. boards ; 2s. Gd.
cloth.
GOOD FOR NOTHING, 2s. boards ;
2s. Gd. cloth.
HOLM BY HOUSE, 2s. boards ;
2s. 6d. cloth.
INTERPRETER, 2s. boards ; 2s. Gd.
cloth.
QUEEN'S MARIES, 2s. boards ;
2s. Gd. cloth.
TROLLOPE'S WARDEN, Is. Gd. boards; 2*.
cloth.
BARCHESTER TOWERS, 2s. boards;
2s. Gd. cloth.
BRAMLEY-MOORE'S Six SISTERS OF THE
VALLEYS, 2s. boards; 2s. Gd. cloth.
Stories and Tales by the Author
of ' Amy Herbert,' uniform Edition :
AMY HERBERT, 2s. Gd. \ KATHARINE ASHTON,
GERTRUDE, 2s. Gd. 3*. Gd.
EARL'S DAUGHTER, MARGARET PERCI-
2s. Gd. I NAL, 5s.
EXPERIENCE OF LIFE, LANETON PARSON-
2s. Gd. AGE, 4s. Gd.
CLEVE HALL, 3s. Gd. URSULA, 4s. Gd.
IVORS, 3s. Gd.
A Glimpse of the "World. Fcp. 7s. 6d.
Journal of a Home Life. Post 8vo. 9s. &d.
After Life ; a Sequel to the 'Journal of a Home
Life.' Post 8vo. 10s. Gd.
A Visit to my Discontented Cou-
sin. Reprinted, with some Additions, from
Prater's Magazine. Crown 8vo. price 7s. Gd.
lerne ; a Tale. By W. STEUABT TKENCH,
Author of ' Realities of Irish Life.' 2 vols
post 8vo. [Just ready.
Three Weddings. By the Author of
' Dorothy,' &c. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.
The Giant ; a Witch's Story for English
Boys. Edited by ELIZABETH M. SEWELL,
Author of 'Amy Herbert,' &c. Fcp. 8vo.
price 5s.
Uncle Peter's Fairy Tale for the XlXth
Century. By the same Author and Editor.
Fcp. 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Vikram and the Vampire; or,
Tales of Hindu Devilry. Adapted by
RICHARD F. BURTON, F.R.G.S. &c. With
33 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 9s.
Becker's Gallus ; or, Roman Scenes of
the Time of Augustus. Post 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Becker's Charicles : Illustrative of
Private Life of the Ancient Greeks. Post
8vo. 7s. Gd.
Tales of Ancient Greece. By GEORGE
W. Cox, M.A. late Scholar of Trin. Coll.
Oxford. Being a collective Edition of the
Author's Classical Series and Tales, com-
plete in One Volume. Crown 8vo. 6s. 6d.
Cabinet Edition of Novels and
Tales by G. J. WHYTE MELVILLE :
THE GLADIATORS, OS.'HOLMBY HOUSE, 5s.
DIG BY GRAND, 5s. GOOD FOR NOTHING, 6s.
KATE COVENTRY, 5s.iQuEEN's MARIES, 6s.
GENERAL BOUNCE, 5s. THE INTERPRETER, 5s.
Our Children's Story. By One of
their Gossips. By the Author of ' Voyage
en Zigzag,' &c. Small 4to. with Sixty
Illustrations by the Author, price 10s. Gd.
Wonderful Stories from Norway,
Sweden, and Iceland. Adapted and arranged
by JULIA GODDARD. With an Introductory
Essay by the Rev. G. W. Cox, M.A. and
Six Illustrations. Square post 8vo. 6s.
c
18
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Poetry and The Drama.
Thomas Moore's Poetical Works,
the only Editions containing the Author's
last Copyright Additions :
Shamrock Edition, price 3s. Gd.
Ruby Edition, with Portrait, Gs.
Cabinet Edition, 10 vols. fcp. 8vo. 35s.
People's Edition, Portrait, &c. 10s. Gd.
Library Edition, Portrait & Vignette, 14s.
Moore's Lalla Rookh, Tenniel's Edi-
tion, with 68 Wood Engravings from
Original Drawings and other Illustrations.
Fcp. 4to. 21s.
Moore's Irish Melodies, Maclise's
Edition, with 161 Steel Plates from Original
Drawings. Super-royal 8vo. 31s. Gd.
Miniature Edition of Moore's Irish
Melodies, with Maclise's Illustrations (as
above), reduced in Lithograph y. Imp.
16mo. 10s. Gd.
Southey's Poetical Works, with
the Author's last Corrections and copyright
Additions. Library Edition. Medium 8vo.
with Portrait and Vignette, 14s.
Lays of Ancient Home ; with Ivry
and the Armada. By the Right Hon. LORD
MACAULAY. 16mo. 4s. Gd.
Lord Macaulay's Lays of Ancient
Rome. With 90 Illustrations on Wood,
Original and from the Antique, from
Drawings by G. SCHARF. Fcp. 4to. 21s.
Miniature Edition of Lord Macaulay's
Lays of Ancient Rome, with Scharfs
Illustrations (as above) reduced in Litho-
graphy. Imp. 16mo. 10s. 6d.
Goldsmith's Poetical Works, Illus-
trated with Wood Engravings from Designs
by Members of the ETCHING CLUB. Imp.
16mo. 7s. Gd.
Poems of Bygone Years. Edited
fcy the Author of 'Amy Herbert. Fcp.
8vo. 5s.
Poems, Descriptive and Lyrical.
By THOMAS Cox. New Edition. Fcp.
8vo. price 5s.
' Shew moral propriety, mental culture, and no
Blight acquaintance with the technicalities of song.'
ATHEN^UK.
Madrigals, Songs, and Sonnets.
By JOHN ARTHUR BLAIKIE and EDMUND
WILLIAM GOSSE. Fcp. 8vo. price 5s.
Poems. By JEAX INGELOW. Fifteenth
Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.
Poems by Jean Ingelow. With
nearly 100 Illustrations by Eminent
Artists, engraved on Wood by DAL/IEL
Brothers. Fcp. 4to. 21s.
Mopsa the Fairy. By JEAN INGELOW.
With Eight Illustrations engraved on Wood.
Fcp. 8vo. 6s.
A Story of Doom, and other Poems.
By JEAN INGELOW. Third Edition. Fcp.
price 5s.
Qlaphyra, and other Poems. By
FRANCIS REYNOLDS, Author of 'Alice
Rushton.' 16mo. 5s.
Bowdler's Family Shakspeare,
cheaper Genuine Edition, complete in 1 vol
large type, with 36 Woodcut Illustrations,
price 14s. or in 6 pocket vols. 3s. Gd. each.
Arundines Cami. Collegit atque edidit
H. DRURY, M.A. Editio Sexta, curavit H.
J. HODGSON, M.A. Crown 8vo. price 7s. Gd.
Horatii Opera, Pocket Edition, with
carefully corrected Text, Marginal Refer-
ences, and Introduction. Edited by the Rev.
J. E. YONGE, M.A. Square 18mo. 4s. Gd.
Horatii Opera, Library Edition, with
Copious English Notes, Marginal References
and Various Readings. Edited by the Rev.
J. E. YONGE, M.A: 8vo. 21s.
The .ZEneid Of Virgil Translated into
English Verse. By JOHN CONINGTON, M.A.
Corpus Professor of Latin in the University
of Oxford. New Edition. Crown 8vo. 9s.
The Story of Sir Richard Whit-
tington, Thrice Lord Mayor of London, A.D.
1397, 1406-7, and 1419. Written in Verse
and Illustrated by E. CARR. With Eleven
Plates. Royal 4to. 21s.
Hunting Songs and Miscella-
neous Verses. By R. E. EGERTON WAR-
BURTON. Second Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 5s.
Works by Edward Yardley :
FANTASTIC STORIES, fcp. 3s. Gd.
MELUSINE AND OTHER POEMS, fcp. 5s.
HORACE'S ODES TRANSLATED INTO ENG-
LISH VERSE, crown 8vo. 6s.
SUPPLEMENTARY STORIES AND POEMS,
fcp. 3s. Gd.
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
Rural Sports, fyc.
Encyclopaedia of Rural Sports ;
a Complete Account, Historical, Practical,
and Descriptive, of Hunting, Shooting,
Fishing, Racing, &c. By D. P. ELAINE.
With above 600 Woodcuts (20 from Designs
by JOHN LEECH). 8vo. 21s.
The Dead Shot, or Sportsman's Com-
plete Guide ; a Treatise on the Use of the
Gun, Dog-breaking, Pigeon-shooting, &c.
By MARKSMAN. Fcp. with Plates, 5s.
A Book on Angling: being a Com-
plete Treatise on the Art of Angling in
every branch, including full Illustrated
Lists of Salmon Flies. By FRANCIS FRANCIS.
Second Edition, with Portrait and 15 other
Plates, plain and coloured. Post 8vo. los.
Wilcocks's Sea-Fisherman: com-
prising the Chief Methods of Hook and Line
Fishing in the British and other Seas, a
glance at Nets, and remarks on Boats and
Boating. Second Edition, enlarged, with
80 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 12s. 6d.
The Ply -Fisher's Entomology.
By ALFRED RONALDS. With coloured
Representations of the Natural and Artifi-
cial Insect. Sixth Edition, with 20 coloured
Plates. 8vo. Us.
The Book of the Roach. By GRE-
VILLE FENNELL, of ' The Field.' Fcp. 8vo.
price 2s. 6d.
Elaine's Veterinary Art : a Treatise
on the Anatomy, Physiology, and Curative
Treatment of the Diseases of the Horse,
Neat Cattle, and Sheep. Seventh Edition,
revised and enlarged by C. STEEL. 8vo.
with Plates and Woodcuts, 18s.
Horses and Stables. By Colonel
F. FITZWYGRAM, XV. the King's Hussars.
Pp. 624; with 24: Plates of Illustrations,
containing very numerous Figures en-
graved on Wood. 8vo. 15s
Youatt on the Horse. Revised and
enlarged by W. WATSON, M.R.C.Y.S. 8vo.
with numerous Woodcuts, 12s. 6d.
Youatt on the Dog. (By the same Author.)
8vo. with numerous Woodcuts, 6s.
The Horse's Foot, and how to keep
it Sound. By W. MILES, Esq. Ninth Edi-
tion, with Illustrations. Imp. 8vo. 12s. 6d.
A Plain Treatise on Horse-shoeing. By
the same Author. Sixth Edition, post 8vo.
with Illustrations, 2s. 6d.
Stables and Stable Fittings. By the same.
Imp. 8vo. with 13 Plates, 15s.
Remarks on Horses' Teeth, addressed to
Purchasers. By the same. Post 8vo. Is. Gd.
Robbins's Cavalry Catechism ; or,
Instructions on Cavalry Exercise and Field
Movements, Brigade Movements, Out-post
Duty, Cavalry supporting Artillery, Artil-
lery attached to Cavalry. 12mo. 5s.
The Dog in Health and Disease.
By STONEHENGE. With 70 Wood En-
gravings. New Edition. Square crown
8vo. 10s. Gd.
The Greyhound. By the same Author.
Revised Edition, with 24 Portraits of Grey-
hounds. Square crown 8vo. 10s. 6d.
The Ox, his Diseases and their Treat-
ment ; with an Essay on Parturition in the
Cow. By J. R. DOBSON, M.R.C.V.S. Crown
8vo. with Illustrations, 7s. Gd.
Commerce, Navigation, and Mercantile Affairs.
The Elements of Banking. By
HENRY DUNNING MACLEOD, M.A. of Tri-
nity College, Cambridge, and of the Inner
Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Post 8vo.
[Nearly ready.
The Law of Nations Considered
as Independent Political Communities. By
Sir TRAVERS Twiss, D.C.L. 2 vols. 8vo.
30s. or separately, PART I. Peace, 12s.
PART ll. War, 18s.
The Theory and Practice of
Banking. By HENRY DUNNING MACLEOD,
M.A. Barrister-at-Law. Second Edition,
entirely remodelled. 2 vols. 8vo. 30s.
M'Culloch's Dictionary, Prac-
tical, Theoretical, and Historical, of Com-
merce and Commercial Navigation. New
Edition, revised throughout and corrected
to the Present Time ; with a Biographical
Notice of the Author. Edited by H. G.
REID, Secretary to Mr. M'Culloch for many
years. 8vo. price 63s. cloth.
20
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED P.V LONGMANS AXD CO.
Works of Utility and General Information.
Modern Cookery for Private
Families, reduced to a System of Easy
Practice in a Series of carefully-tested Re-
ceipts. By ELIZA ACTOX. Newly revised
and enlarged; with 8 Plates, Figures, and
150 Woodcuts. Fcp. 6s.
A Practical Treatise on Brewing ;
with Formulae for Public Brewers, and In-
structions for Private Families. By W.
BLACK. Fifth Edition. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
Chess Openings . By F. W. LONGMAN,
Balliol College, Oxford. Fcp. 8vo. 2s. Gd.
The Cabinet Lawyer; a Popular
Digest of the Laws of England, Civil,
Criminal, and Constitutional. 25th Edition ;
with Supplements of the Acts of the Par-
liamentary Session of 1870. Fcp. 10s. Gd.
The Philosophy of Health ; or, an
Exposition of the Physiological and Sanitary
Conditions conducive to Human Longevity
and Happiness. By SOUTHWOOD SMITH,
M.D. Eleventh Edition, revised and en-
larged; with 113 Woodcuts. 8vo. 7s. Gd.
Maunder's Treasury of Know-
ledge and Library of Reference : comprising
an English Dictionary and Grammar, Uni-
versal Gazetteer, Classical Dictionary,
Chronology, Law Dictionary, Synopsis of
the Peerage, Useful Tables, &c. Fcp. 6s.
Hints to Mothers on the Manage-
ment of their Health during the Period of
Pregnancy and in the Lying-in Room. By
T. BULL, M.D. Fcp. 5s.
The Maternal Management of
Children in Health and Disease. By THOMAS
BULL, M.D. Fcp. 5s.
How to Nurse Sick Children;
containing Directions which may be found
of service to all who have charge of the
Young. By CHARLES WEST, M.D. Second
Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 1*. Gd.
Notes on Hospitals. By FLORENCE
NIGHTINGALE. Third Edition, enlarged ;
with 13 Plans. Post 4to. 18s.
Pewtner's Comprehensive Speci-
fier; a Guide to the Practical Specification
of every kind of Building-Artificer's Work :
with Forms of Building Conditions and
Agreements, an Appendix, Foot-Notes, and
Index. Edited by W. YOUNG, Architect.
Crown 8vo. 6s.
Tidd Pratt's Law relating to
Benefit Building Societies; with Practical
Observations on the Act and all the Cases
decided thereon, also a Form of Rules and
Forms of Mortgages. Fcp. 3s. Gd.
Collieries and Colliers : a Handbook
of the Law and Leading Cases relating
thereto. By J. C. FOWLER, of the Inner
Temple, Barrister, Stipendiary Magistrate.
Second Edition. Fcp. 8vo. 7s. Gd.
WUlich'S Popular Tables for As-
certaining the Value of Lifehold, Leasehold,
and Church Property, Renewal Fines, &c. ;
the Public Funds ; Annual Average Price
and Interest on Consolsf rom 1731 to 1867 ;
Chemical, Geographical, Astronomical,
Trigonometrical Tables, &c. Post 8vo. 10s.
Coulthart's Decimal Interest
Tables at Twenty-four Different Rates not
exceeding Five per Cent. Calculated for the
use of Bankers. To which are added Com-
mission Tables at One-eighth and One-
fourth per Cent. 8vo. 15s.
Periodical Publications.
The Edinburgh Review, or Cri-
tical Journal, published Quarterly in Janu-
nry, April, July, and October. 8vo. price
6s. each Number.
Notes on Books : An Analysis of the
Works published during each Quarter by
Messrs. LONGMANS & Co. The object is to
enable Bookbuyers to obtain such informa-
tion regarding the various works as is
usually afforded by tables of contents and
explanatory prefaces. 4to. Quarterly.
Gratis.
Fraser's Magazine. Edited by JAMES
ANTHONY FROUDE, M.A. New Series,
published on the 1st of each Month. 8vo.
price 2s. Gd. each Number.
The Alpine Journal : A Record of
Mountain Adventure and Scientific Obser-
vation. By Members of the Alpine Club.
Edited by LESLIE STEPHEN. Published
Quarterly. May 31, Aug. 31, Nov. 30, Feb.
28. 8vo. price Is. Gd. each No.
INDEX.
ACTON'S Modern Cookery 20
ALCOCK'S Residence iu Japan 16
ALLIES on Formation of Christendom 14
ALLEN'S Discourses of Chrysostom 14
Alpine Guide (The) 16
Journal 2C
ALTHAUS on Medical Electricity 10
ARNOLD'S Manual of English Literature . . 6
ARNOTT'S Elements of Physics 8
Arundines Cami 18
Autumn Holidays of a Country Parson .... 6
ATRE'S Treasury of Bible Knowledge 14
BACON'S Essays by WHATELT 5
Life and Letters, by SFEDDING . . 4
Works 5
BAIN'S Mental and Moral Science 7
on the Emotions and Will 7
on the Senses and Intellect 7
on the Study of Character 7
BALL'S Guide to the Central Alps 16
Guide to the Western Alps 16
Guide to the Eastern Alps 16
BAKING'S Staff College Essays 6
BATLDON'S Rents and Tillages 13
Beaten Tracks 16
BECKER'S Chwicles and Gallits 17
BENFET'S Sanskrit-English Dictionary 6
BERNARD on British Neutrality i
BERWICK'S Forces of the Universe 8
BLACK'S Treatise on Brewing 20
BLACKLET'S Word-Gossip 7
German-English Dictionary . . 6
BLACKIE and GOSSE'S Poems 18
BLAINE'S Rural Sports 19
Veterinary Art 19
BOURNE on Screw Propeller 13
's Catechism of the Steam Engine . . 13
Examples of Modern Engines . . 13
Handbook of Steam Engine 13
Treatise on the Steam Engine 13
Improvements in the same 13
BOWDLER'S Family SHAKSPEARE 18
BRAMLET-MOORE'S Six Sisters of the Valley 17
BRANDE'S Dictionary of Science, Literature,
and Art 10
BEAT'S (C.) Education of the Feelings .... 7
. Philosophy of Necessity 7
On Force 7
BROWNE'S Exposition of the 39 Articles .... 13
BBUNEL'S Life of BRUNEL 3
BUCKLE'S History of Civilisation 2
BULL'S Hints to Mothers 20
Maternal Management of Children . . 20
BUNSEN'S God in History 3
Memoirs
BUNSEN (E. De) on Apocrypha 15
's Keys of St. Peter 15
BURKE'S Vicissitudes of Families 4
BURTON'S Christian church 3
Vikram and the Vampire 17
Cabinet Lawyer 20
CALVERI'S Wife's Manual 15
CARR'S Sir R. WHITTINGTON is
CATES'S Biographical Dictionary 4
CATS and FARLIE'S Moral Emblems 12
Changed Aspects of Unchanged Truths 6
CHESNET'S Euphrates Expedition 17
Indian Polity 2
Waterloo Campaign 2
CHESNET'S and REEVE'S Military Essays . . 2
CHILD'S Physiological Essays n
Chorale Book for England n
CLOUGH'S Lives from Plutarch 2
COLENSO (Bishop) on Pentateuch and Book
of Joshua., n
Commonplace Philosopher in Town aud
Country g
CONINGTON'S Translation of Virgil's ^neid 18
CONTANSEAU'S Two French Dictionaries . . 6
CONTBEARE and HOWSON'S Life and Epistles
ofSt.Paul 13
COOPER'S Surgical Dictionary 10
COPLAND'S Dictionary of Practical Medicine 11
COTTON'S (Bishop) Life 3
COULTHART'S Decimal Interest Tables .... 20
Counsel and Comfort from a City Pulpit . . 6
Cox's (G. W.) Aryan Mythology 3
Tale of the Great Persian War 2
Tales of Ancient Greece 17
Cox's (T.) Poems is
CREST'S Encyclopaedia of Civil Engineering 13
Critical Essays of a Country Parson 6
CROOKES on Beet-Root Sugar 13
GULLET'S Handbook of Telegraphy 12
CUSACK'S Student's History of Ireland 2
D'AUBIGNE'S History of the Reformation in
the time of CALVIN 2
DAVIDSON 's Introduction to New Testament 14
Dead Shot (The), by MARKSMAN 19
DE LA RIVE'S Treatise on Electricity 8
DENISON'S Vice-Regal Life i
DE TOCQUEVILLE'S Democracy in America . 2
DISRAELI'S Lothair 17
Novels and Tales 17
DOBSON on the Ox 19
DOVE'S Law of Storms g
DOTLE'S Fairyland n
DTER'S City of Rome 2
22
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
EASTLAKE'S Hints on Household Taste .... 12
History of Oil Painting 11
Life of Gibson 11
Edinburgh Review 20
EDMUNDS'S Names of Places 7
Elements of Botany 9
ELXICOII'S Commentary on Ephesiaus 14
Lectures on Life of Christ .... 14
Commentary on Galatians .... 14
Pastoral Epist. 14
Philippians.&c. 14
Thcssalonians 14
EWAXD'S History of Israel 14
FAIBBAIBN'S Application of Cast and
Wrought Iron to Building 12
Information for Engineers .... 12
Treatise on Mills and Millwork 12
Iron Shipbuilding 12
FABADAY'S Life and Letters 4
FAEBAB'S Chapters on Language 5
Families of Speech 7
FELKIN on Hosiery & Lace Manufactures. . 13
FENNEL'S Book of the Eoach 19
FFOULKES'S Christendom's Divisions 15
FITZWYQEAM on Horses and Stables 19
FOEBES'S Earls of Granard 4
FOWLEE'S Collieries and Colliers 20
FBANCIS'S Fishing Book 19
FEASEB'S Magazine 20
FBESHFIELD'S Travels in the Caucasus .... 16
FBOUDE'S History of England 1
Short Studies 7
GANOT'S Elementary Physics 8
GiANT(The) 17
GILBEET'S Cadore 16
' and CHUBCHILL'S Dolomites 16
GIBTIN'S House I Live In 11
GLEDSTONE'S Life of WHITEFIELD 3
GODDABD'S Wonderful Stories 17
GOLDSMITH'S Poems, Illustrated 18
GOULD'S Silver Store 7
GBAHAM'S Book About Words 5
GRANT'S Ethics of Aristotle 5
Home Politics 2
Graver Thoughts of a Country Parson 6
Gray's Anatomy 11
GBEEITHOW on Bronchitis 10
GEOVE on Correlation of Physical Forces . . 9
GUBNET'S Chapters of French History .... 2
GWILT'S Encyclopedia of Architecture .... 12
HAMPDEN'S (Bishop) Memorials 3
Hare on Election of Representatives 6
HABTWIG'S Harmonies of Nature 9
Polar World 9
Sea and its Living Wonders .... 9
Tropical World 9
HAUGHTON'S Manual of Geology 9
HEBSCHEL'S Outlines of Astronomy 8
HEWITT on the Diseases of Women 10
HODGSON'S Time and Space 7
Theory of Practice 7
HOLMES'S Surgical Treatment of Children. . 10
HOLMES'S System of Surgery 10
HOOKEB and WALKEB-AENOTT'S British
Flora 9
HOBNE'S Introduction to the Scriptures . . 14
Compendium of the Scriptures . . 14
How we Spent the Summer 16
Ho WITT'S Australian Discovery 16
Northern Heights of London 16
Rural Life of England 16
Visits to Remarkable Places .... 17
HUBNEB'S Pope Sixtus S
HUGHES'S Manual of Geography 8
HUME'S Essays 7
Treatise on H umau Nature 7
IHNE'S History of Rome 2
INGELOVT'S Poems 18
Story of Doom 18
Mopsa 18
JAMESON'S Legends of Saints and Martyrs . .
Legends of the- Madonna
I. 1
12
Legends of the Monastic Orders 12
Legends of the Saviour 12
JOHNSTON'S Geographical Dictionary 8
JUKES on Second Death 15
on Types of Genesis 15
KALISCH'S Commentary on the Bible 6
Hebrew Grammar 6
KEITH on Destiny of the World 14
Fulfilment of Prophecy 14
KEEL'S Metallurgy, by CEOOKES and
ROHBIG 13
KIBBT and SPENCE'S Entomology 9
LATHAM'S Euglisli Dictionary 5
River Plate 8
LAWLOB'S Pilgrimages in the Pyrenees 16
LECKY'S History of European Morals 3
Rationalism 3
Leisure Hours in Town 6
Lessons of Middle Age 6
LE WES'S Biographical History of Philosophy 3
LEWIS'S Letters 4
LiDDELLand SCOTT'S Greek-Eng'ish Lexicon 6
Abridged ditto 6
Life of Man Symbolised 12
Margaret M. Hallahan 14
LINDLET and MOOEE'S Treasury of Botany 9
LINDSAY'S Evidence for the Papacy 14
LONGMAN'S Edward the Third 2
Lectures on History of England 2
Chess Openings 20
Lord's Prayer Illustrated 11
LOUDON'S Encyclopaedia of Agriculture .... 13
Gardening 18
Plants 9
LOWNDES'S Engineer's Handbook 12
LUBBOCK'S Origin'of Civilisation 9
Lyra Eucharistica 15
Germanica 11, 15
Messianica 15
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LOXGMANS AXD CO.
23
Lyra Mystica '. 15
MACAUJ,AT'S (Lord) Essays 3
History of England . . 1
Lays of Ancient Rome 18
Miscellaneous "Writings 7
Speeches 5
Works 1
MACFAEEEN'S Lectures on Harmony 11
MACLEOD'S Elements of Political Economy 5
Dictionary of Political Economy 5
Elements of Banking 19
Theory and Practice of Banking 19
McCuLLOCH's Dictionary of Commerce .... 19
Geographical Dictionary .... 8
MAGUIBE'S Life of Father Mathew 4
Pius IX 11
MALET'S Overthrow of Germanic Confede-
ration 2
MANNING'S England and Christendom .... 15
MABCET on the Larynx 11
MARSHALL'S Physiology 11
MABSHJIAN'S History of India 2
Life of Havelock 4
MABTINEAU'S Endeavours after the Chris-
tian Life 15
MASSINGBEED'S History of the Reformation 3
MATHESON'S England to Delhi 16
MAUNDEB'S Biographical Treasury 4
Geographical Treasury 8
Historical Treasury 3
Scientific and Literary Treasury 1
Treasury of Knowledge 20
Treasury of Natural History . . 9
MAT'S Constitutional History of England. . 1
MELVILLE'S Digby Grand 17
General Bounce 17
Gladiators 17
Good for Nothing 17
Holmby House 17
Interpreter 17
Kate Coventry 17
Queen's Maries 17
MENDELSSOHN'S Letters 4
MEEIVALE'S Fall of the Roman Republic . . 2
Romans under the Empire 2
MEEEIFIELD and EVEES'S Navigation .... 8
MILES on Horse's Foot and Horse Shoeing . 19
on Horses' Teeth and Stables 19
MILL ( J.) on the Mind 5
MILL (J. S.) on Liberty 4
Subjection of "Women 4
on Representative Government 4
on Utilitarianism 4
's Dissertations and Discussions 4
Political Economy 4
MILL'S System of Logic 5
Hamilton's Philosophy 4
Inaugural Address at St. Andrew's . 4
MILLEE'S Elements of Chemistry 10
Hymn "Writers 15
MITCHELL'S Manual of Architecture 12
Manual of Assaying 13
MONSELL'S Beatitudes 15
His Presence not his Memory . . 15
' Spiritual Songs ' 15
51 GORE'S Irish Melodies 18
LallaRookh 18
Journal and Correspondence .... 3
Poetical Works 18
(Dr. G.) Power of the Soul over
the Body 15
MOEELL'S Elements of Psychology 7
MOEELL'S Mental Philosophy 7
MULLEB'S (Max) Chips from a German
Workshop 7
Lectures on the Science of Lan-
guage 5
(K. O.) Literature of Ancient
Greece a
MUECHISON on Liver Complaints 11
MUBE'S Language and Literature of Greece 2
New Testament Illustrated with Wood En-
gravings from the Old Masters 12
NEWMAN'S History of his Religious Opinions 4
NIGHTINGALE'S Notes on Hospitals 20
NILSSON'S Scandinavia 9
NOETHCOTE'S Sanctuary of the Madonna . . 14
NOETHCOTT on Lathes and Turning 12
NOETON'S City of London 16
Notes on Books 20
ODLING'S Animal Chemistry 10
Course of Practical Chemistry . . 10
Manual of Chemistry 10
Lectures on Carbon 10
Outlines of Chemistry 10
O'FLANAGAN'S Irish Chancellors 4
Our Children's Story 17
OWEN'S Comparative Anatomy and Physio-
logy of Vertebrate Animals 9
Lectures on the Invertebrata 9
PACKE'S Guide to the Pyrenees 16
PAGET'S Lectures on Surgical Pathology . . 10
PEEEIEA'S Manual of Materia Medica 11
PEEKINS'S Italian and Tuscan Sculptors . . 12
PEWTNEE'S Comprehensive Specifier 20
Pictures in Tyrol 16
PIESSE'S Art of Perfumery 13
Chemical, Natural, and Physical Magic 13
PONTON'S Beginning 9
PEATT'S Law of Building Societies 20
PEENDEEGAST'S Mastery of Languages .... 6
PEESCOTT'S Scripture Difficulties 14
Present-Day Thoughts, by A. K. H. B 6
PEOCTOE'S Handbook of the Stars 8
Saturn 8
Other Worlds than Ours 8
Sun 8
RAE'S Westward by Rail 16
Recreations of a Country Parson 6
REICHEL'S See of Rome 14
REILLT'S Map of Mont Blanc 16
REIMANN on Aniline Dyes 13
REYNOLDS'S Glaphyra 18
RILET'S Memorials of London 16
RrvEBS's Rose Amateur's Guide 9
ROBBINS'S Cavalry Catechism 19
ROGEES'S Correspondence of Greyson 7
Eclipse of Faith .7
Defence of Faith 7
ROGET'S Thesaurus of English Words and
Phrases 5
Korna Sotterranea 16
'J!
NEW WORKS PUBLISHED BY LONGMANS AND CO.
RONALDS'S Fly-Fisher's Entomology 19
ROSE'S Loyola 14
ROTHSCHILD'S Israelites 14
ROWTON'S Debater 5
RULE'S Karaite Jews 14
RUSSELL on Government and Constitution 1
's (Earl) Speeches and Despatches 1
SANDARS'S Justinian's Institutes 5
SCOTT'S Lectures on the Fine Arts 11
Albert Durer 11
SEEBOHM'S Oxford Reformers of 1498 2
SEWELL'S After Life 17
Glimpse of the World 17
History of the Early Church .... 3
Journal of a Home Life 17
Passing Thoughts on Religion . . 15
Poems r-f Bygone Years 18
Preparation for Communion .... 15
Principles of Education 15
Readings for Confirmation 15
Readings for Lent 15
Examination for Confirmation . . 15
Stories and Tales .. 17
Thoughts for the Age 15
Thoughts for the Holy Week .... 15
SHAKSPEARE'S Midsummer Night's Dream,
illustrated with Silhouettes 12
SHIPLEY'S Four Cardinal Virtues 14
Invocation of Saints 15
SHORT'S Church History 3
Smart's WALKER'S English Dictionaries . . 5
SMITH'S (SOUTHTVOOD) Philosophy of Health 20
(J.) Paul's Voyage and Shipwreck 14
(SYDNEY) Lire and Letters 3
Miscellaneous Works . . 7
Wit and Wisdom 7
SOUTHEY'S Doctor 5
Poetical Works 18
STANLEY'S History of British Birds 9
STEBBING'S Analysis of MILL'S Logic 5
STEPHEN'S Ecclesiastical Biography 4
Playground of Europe 16
STIRLING'S Secret of Hegel 7
Sir, WILLIAM HAMILTON 7
STONEIIENGE on the Dog 19
on the Greyhound 19
STRICKLAND'S Tudor Princesses 4
Queens of England 4
Strong and Free 7
Sunday Afternoons at the Parish Church of
a Scottish University City 6
TAYLOR'S History of India 2
(Jeremy) Works, edited by EDEN 15
THIRLW ALL'S History of Greece 2
THOMSON'S Conspectus 11
Laws of Thought 5
Three Weddings 17
TODD (A.) on Parliamentary Government . . 1
and BOWMAN'S Anatomy and Phy-
siology of Man 11
TRENCH'S lerne 17
Realities of Irish Life 2
TROLLOPE'S Barchcster Towers 17
Warden 17
Twiss's Law of Nations 19
TYNDALL'S Diamaguetism 8
Faraday as a Discoverer 4
Lectures on Electricity 9
Lectures on Light 8
Lectures on Sound
Heat a Mode of Motion^ 8
Essays on the Imagination in
Science
Uncle PETER'S Fairy Tale 18
URE'S Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and
Mines 12
VAN DER HOEVEN'S Handbook of Zoology. . 9
Visit to my Discontented Cousin 17
WARBURTON'S Hunting Songs 18
WATSON'S Principles and Practice of Physic 10
WATTS'S Dictionary of Chemistry 10
WEBB'S Objects for Common Telescopes 8
WEBSTER & WILKINSON'S Greek Testament 14
WELLINGTON'S Life, by GLEIG 4
WEST on Children's Diseases 10
on Nursing Children 20
WHATELY'S English Synonymes 5
Logic 5
Rhetoric 5
WHITE and RIDDLE'S Latin Dictionaries . - C
WILCOCKS'S Sea Fisherman 19
WILLIAMS'S Aristotle's Ethics 5
History of Wales 1
WILLIAMS on Climate of South of France. . 10
Consumption , 11
WILLICH'S Popular Tables 20
WILLIS'S Principles of Mechanism 12
WINSLOW on Light 8
WOOD'S (J. G.) Bible Animals 9
Homes without Hands
(T.) Chemical Notes 10
WOODWARD and CATER'S Encyclopedia . . 3
YARD LEY'S Poetical Works 18
YONGE'S History of England 1
English-Greek Lexicons 6
Two Editions of Horace 18
You ATT on the Dog 19
on the Horse 19
ZELLER'S Socrates 3
Stoics, Epicureans, and Sceptics. . 3
Zigzagging amongst Dolomites 16
8POTT1SWOODE ASD CO., FRIZTIKKS, SEW-8TRBKT SQUARE, LOXDOJi.