UC-NRLF LIBRARY OF THF. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. GIFT OF" BIOLOGY THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH ON ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ALCOHOL, AND NARCOTICS BY CHARLES H. STOWELL, M.D. , t LATE PROFESSOR OF HISTOLOGY AND MICROSCOPY, AND ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OP PHYSIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN. AUTHOR OF "STUDENT'S MANUAL OF HISTOLOGY," "MICROSCOPICAL DIAGNOSIS," "THE STRUCTURE OF TEETH," "A HEALTHY BODY," "A PRIMER OF HEALTH," ETC. LATE EDITOR OF "THE MICROSCOPE" EDITOR OF "THE NATIONAL MEDICAL REVIEW." FULLY ILLUSTRATED WITH ORIGINAL SKETCHES BY THE AUTHOR SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY NEW YORK . . . BOSTON . . . CHICAGO 1899 DSOLOGY LIBRARY T1I7E have examined the schoool text-book entitled "THE ESSENTIALS ^ * or HEALTH," by Doctor Charles H. Stowell. As it faithfully teaches the nature of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics in connection with relative physiology and hygiene, and in language well adapted to grade, we heartily commend and indorse it for Grammar Grade pupils or schools. MARY H. HUNT, National and International Sitpt. Dept. of Scientific Temperance Instruction of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. ALBERT H. PLUMB, D.D., ^ ... ._ Advisory Board DANIEL DORCHESTER, D.D., ! y Hon. WILLIAM E. SHELDON, f TT _ T _, United States of America. Rev. JOSEPH COOK. ) Eh rE Copyright, 1892, 1896, BY SILVER, BCRDETT AND COMPANY. SKntbersttg JOHN WILSON AND SON, CAMBRIDGE. PREFACE. THIS book has been prepared for pupils who have studied the preceding number of this series, A HEALTHY BODY, or a work of like grade. It will meet the require- ments for advanced study in public and private schools, in high schools and academies, and is well adapted to the needs of the general reader. The illustrations are from original pen sketches drawn by the author. In nearly every instance these sketches were made from specimens especially prepared by the author for this series of books. The treatment of the subject of anatomy is sufficient to form the foundation for physiological study ; physi- ology is given with sufficient fullness to elucidate the principal features of the subject, and to enable the pupil to comprehend easily the laws for the preservation of health ; hygiene is dwelt upon with such completeness that the ordinary laws of health need not be ignorantly broken ; while the subjects of alcohol and tobacco are discussed with such care and in such detail as to show that the use of these narcotics by the young may not only diminish their powers and dwarf them physiealJy, t but may even altogether arrest the mental, moral, and 144856 4 PREFACE. physical development. No thoughtful person can study the effects of alcohol and tobacco on the growing body without becoming seriously impressed with the great power for evil which these drugs possess. The evi- dence is already convincing, and is daily accumulating, that the future welfare of our youth, and, therefore, the future welfare of our country, demands that both these poisons be placed beyond the reach of the young. A knowledge of the fundamental principles of an- atomy and physiology, together with a knowledge of those things which are desirable and of those which should be shunned, will do much toward the develop- ment of a noble manhood and womanhood. CHARLES H. STOWELL. WASHINGTON, D. C., July, 1892. THE present edition has been carefully and thoroughly revised, and valuable new matter inserted. The chap- ter on Emergencies has been rewritten and made more complete. An entirely new chapter on The Kestriction and Prevention of Communicable Diseases has been added. C. H. S. WASHINGTON, D. C n June, 1896. CONTENTS. CHAPTER PAGE I. CELLS 11 II. FOODS 17 III. THE NITROGENOUS FOODS 23 IV. THE NON-NITROGENOUS FOODS. COOKING ... 31. V. ALCOHOL 40 Vl. ADDITIONAL FACTS ABOUT ALCOHOL ...... 50 VII. DIGESTION 57 VIII. DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH AND INTESTINE ... 70 IX. ABSORPTION 84 X. THE BLOOD . 93 XI. THE CIRCULATION 103 XII. RESPIRATION 124 XIII. VENTILATION 140 XIV. THE KIDNEYS 151 XV. THE BONES 156 XVI. THE SKELETON 164 XVII. THE MUSCLES 180 XVIII. EXERCISE 191 XIX. THE SKIN ' 202 XX. BATHING. CLOTHING 215 XXL ANIMAL HEAT 224 XXII. THE EJECTS or TOBACCO 233 XXIII. WHAT TOBACCO COSTS: IN BODY; IN MIND; IN MORALS; AND IN MONEY . 240 6 CONTENTS. CHAPTER P AO B XXIV. OPIUM. CHLORAL 250 XXV. THE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . . . 253 XXVI. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM . . . 267 XXVII. THE HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM .... 277 XXVIII. ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 283 XXIX. THE SENSE OF SIGHT 296 XXX. THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL 306 XXXI. THE SENSE OF HEARING 316 XXXII. THE SENSES OF TOUCH; TEMPERATURE; WEIGHT: PRESSURE; COMMON SENSATION; AND PAIN . . 323 XXXIII. ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY AGAINST ALCOHOL AND TO- BACCO 320 XXXIV. EMERGENCIES 343 XXXV. RESTRICTION AND PREVENTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES . . ... 361 INDEX '.....,. 371 INTRODUCTION. THE anatomist teaches that the body is composed of tissues and fluids. A number of tissues are often so united that the part can best perform some special work or function. Such a part is called an organ ; as, the eye is the organ of sight, and the ear, the organ of hearing. Tissues which have a similar structure are grouped to- gether into systems. Thus we have the muscular sys- tem, and the nervous system. Tissues are also grouped according to their functions, each group receiving the name of an apparatus. To illustrate, we have the di- gestive apparatus, and the respiratory apparatus. The histologist teaches that each tissue is composed of most minute parts. These are in the form of fibrils and cells. To study these anatomical elements requires the aid of the highest powers of the microscope. Yet a study of the life history of a single cell often reveals many of the wonderful phenomena of the whole body. The microscope brings man in closest relations with nature, and renders clear many of her mysterious processes. The chemist teaches that the body is composed of a number of chemical elements. ''These include such well- 8 INTRODUCTION. known elements as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitn> gen, together with a number of others. These elements form certain combinations and give rise to certain chemical processes. The chemist also informs us that the arrangement of these elements can be disturbed by certain forces and a new arrangement formed, by which entirely new substances appear. Thus we find that the growing plant can take carbonic acid gas (which is com- posed of carbon and oxygen) and water (which is composed of hydrogen and oxygen), break up the ar- rangement of their elements, and rearrange them so that starch (which is composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) is deposited in the leaves. Starch is ap- parently unlike the two elements from which it is formed; yet it is composed of the same chemical ele- ments, only these are differently arranged and in dif- ferent proportions. The proportions are different because when the growing plant breaks up the car- bonic acid gas it sets the oxygen free, and unites the carbon with the hydrogen and oxygen of the water. By adding more hydrogen and oxygen to the starch, the living plant can change the starch to sugar. The physiologist teaches of the active phenomena pre- sented by living beings. The peculiar action of a par- ticular organ is called its function. It is evident that physiology is best studied by carefully observing living creatures, by the direct observation of nature. From the study of a dead tissue we are unable to infer, by any process of reasoning, what its living actions were. For instance, there is nothing about the structure of a nerve INTRODUCTION. 9 from which we can reason that it conveys a sensation of pain, or a stimulus for the contraction of a muscle. Neither is there anything in the structure of the gastric glands from which we might reason that they secrete a digestive fluid. Physiological properties are not as- certained by anatomical examination. The hygienist teaches a system of principles and rules, based upon a knowledge of anatomy, physiology, and chemistry. These rules have for their main object the preservation of the health ; it may be the health of the individual, or that of an entire community. Hygiene is the practical result obtained from a study of the science of medicine. By a proper observance of its laws, the individual is enabled to accomplish his best work ; while lie is also able to prevent much sickness and to reduce its severity when present. The laws of health should inform us not only con- cerning those things which tend directly to the promo- tion of health, but also concerning those which must be avoided if health is to be maintained. As the evidence is overwhelming that alcohol and tobacco exert a most pernicious influence on the growing body, the effects of these drugs should be carefully and fully set forth, that the individual may be informed of the danger which attends their use. These drugs are specifically named because it is believed that the very wide use they have gained is largely due to ignorance of their nature. What is said of alcohol and tobacco may with propriety be said of several other narcotics, as opium, the use of which is not so prevalent in this country. All these 10 INTRODUCTION. stimulants and narcotics tend to sap the vital forces, weaken the will, and undermine the moral character. The great value of sound health, of the individual and of the community, has given rise to organized effort in the form of Boards of Health in all our large cities, and in most if not all of the States of the Union. These Boards and Sanitary Commissions have done much, not only to arrest the spread of disease but to prevent its appearance. The subject is one of such vital importance that it appeals to intelligence everywhere. It has en- listed the best thought of the wisest men and women for many years. Manifestly, therefore, it is unnecessary to offer any apology for the prominence given to the essentials of health in the pages of this volume. THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH, CHAPTER I. CELLS. General Description. The whole body is composed largely of cells ; while each individual part consists of cells quite characteristic in shape and size. By studying these cells we learn much of the anatomy and physiology of the whole system. Some cells are so minute that very high powers of the microscope are required to see them, while others are nearly large enough to be seen with the unaided eye. In shape, there is the greatest variation. There are spherical, oval, and spindle-shaped cells ; cells with branches extending in various directions ; and still other cells with six equal sides. In color, there are the extremes from the black to the colorless ; and from the brown to the yellowish green. There exists, there- fore, a great variety in the shape, size, and color of cells. Their Structure. Living cells consist of a transparent, jelly-like material, called protoplasm. The microscope shows that there are two parts to a cell : the body, or the 12 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. greater part of the cell ; and the nucleus, or the smaller part in the centre. The nucleus is usually spherical or oval, and, with few exceptions, is found in all cells. In rapidly growing cells two or more nuclei are often found. The nucleus of a cell can be shown very clearly by adding a carefully prepared solution of carmine, and then examining with the microscope. The carmine stains each nucleus bright red, but does not affect the body of the cell. The accompanying colored plate illustrates the results of carmine-staining on a variety of cells : (1) mucous cells, found wherever mucus is secreted ; (2) columnar cells, surrounding the villi of the small intestine ; (3) cells from connective tissue ; (4) ciliated cells from the trachea ; (5) flattened epithelium from the mucous membrane of the mouth ; (6) liver cells ; (7) cells from the surface of the body ; theSe cells have no nuclei ; (8) cells from the salivary glands ; (9) cells lining the cavities of the heart ; (10) pigment cells from the eye. The Life of a Cell, It is probable that the great ma- jority of cells are, comparatively speaking, short-lived. We must remember that the body is constantly and rapidly changing. Each movement of the body, each activity of a part, must cause a wear and waste of tissue ; and this loss must be replaced by new mate- rial within a short time. There are many ways of showing that the body is ever wasting away. If a drop of saliva be placed under the microscope, a vast number of thin cells can be seen. These cells come from the mucous membrane lining the mouth. The motion of the tongue, lips, and cheeks, as PLATE CELLS. 13 in speaking, eating, and drinking, removes vast numbers of these bodies. Then again, the surface of the whole body is covered with cells, many layers deep. The outer cells are easily removed, by the, friction of the clothing, and by the use of the sponge and towel at the daily bath. In this way immense numbers of cells are being constantly destroyed, while new ones are as rapidly being formed beneath the surface to take their places. A more familiar example will illustrate this point. The finger nails are composed of cells so minute that a high power of the microscope is required to see them. Each paring of the nail, therefore, must remove vast numbers of these cells ; and yet, how rapidly even this hard structure grows. Thus we learn that the body is ever changing ; the old, worn-out, and useless material being constantly cast off, and the new as regularly tak- ing its place. Some cells are much longer-lived than others. It is probable that the cells found in such hard tissues as bone and cartilage undergo comparatively slow changes, while the cells in some of the glands change with great rapidity. In fact, the whole life history of a cell in some of the most active glands may be covered by a few hours. Growth and Development. Cells increase both in size and number. After reaching certain dimensions, how- ever, they cease to grow. They may then either maintain that size for the remainder of their life, or they may, by a peculiar process of division, become temporarily smaller. This process is called cell division. When a cell is about to divide, its nucleus becomes constricted in 14 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the center, assuming a dumb-bell shape. This con- striction increases until the nucleus becomes divided into two nuclei. Then the body of the cell under- goes the same , change in form until it has divided FIG. 1. Diagram illustrating the division of cells : (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,) by cell division ; (6, 7, 8, ) by budding. into two cells, with one nucleus for each cell. Another method of division is that where a process, or bud. protrudes from the body of the cell. Soon this sepa- rates from the original cell, and a nucleus is developed within it. Some Cells have Motion. The great majority of the cells in the body are fixed and cannot alter their shape or position. There are some, however, that not only have the power to change their shape, but also to move from place to place. These movements are known as the " amoeboid movements," so named from an animal called the amoeba. The amceba is the lowest form of animal life. It is of jelly-like consistence, and averages from the -^J-g to the 2rVo ^ an mc ^ ^ n diameter. It is found in stagnant water, and in water in which there is decay- ing animal matter. The amoeba is an object of intense interest to all physiologists, because it represents both a single cell and a whole individual. It is remark- able for its constant and rapid changes of form, CELLS. 15 causing it to move about in any direction. The aniceba is an animal, the lowest in the scale ; yet it moves ; FIG. 2. Various forms assumed by an amoeba. These sketches were made from the same amoeba, at intervals of a few seconds. it takes nourishment ; it reproduces its own kind ; and it dies. The Function of Cells. Certain cells are set apart to perform certain work, and they can do no other. These groupings are called glands, tissues, and organs. The cells of the salivary glands can take digested food from the blood, and change it into the tissue of the sal- ivary glands. The cells of muscle can take something from the blood and build from it true muscular tissue. The cells of the skin take the same nourishment from the blood, and make from it the soft covering for the body. Thus, while a person may eat only one kind of food, it is possible for this food to be changed into all the various structures of the body. This is not the work of any one organ ; it is the combined work of the cells of all the organs and tis- sues of the body. Each cell, therefore, can take ma- terial from the blood, and change it into its own structure. But the cell can do even more than this; it can take material from the blood and change it into a substance unlike its own. For instance, a cell in one of the salivary glands can take some material 16 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. brought to it by the blood, and completely change it iiito saliva ; or a cell in one of the glands of the stom- ach can take material from the blood and change it into gastric juice. We learn that each cell in the body has its own work to do, and that this work is constant and rapid. ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO. It must be evident that deficiency of food, or any in- jurious substance brought into contact with the cells, must seriously interfere with the health of the body. Any substance which will contribute to the normal growth and activity of the cells is greatly to be desired, while anything which would impair these should be avoided. We should remember, also, that all young and rapidly growing cells are much more sensitive to foreign substances than are those which are fully devel- oped. ^Alcohol and nicotine, being foreign substances and poisons, retard the healthy action and growth of the cells. QUESTIONS. 1. What is said about the size, shape, and color of cells? 2. Give the structure of cells. 3. Give illustrations proving that the body is ever wasting away. 4. How do cells increase in number ? 5. Give a description of the amoeba. 6. What is the work of the cells ? 7. What can each individual cell do ? 8. How do alcohol and tobacco affect the growth of the cells ? FOODS. 17 CHAPTER II. FOODS. Waste and Repair. We must keep in mind that each activity of the body is followed by a waste of material, and that this change is constant throughout life. As the body is always wasting away, so should it always be undergoing repair. The processes of waste and repair do not always bear the same relation to each other. Early in life the building up greatly exceeds the break- ing down ; more material is supplied than is worn out and removed ; the processes of repair exceed those of waste, and the body grows and develops. Later in life the repair and waste are nearly balanced, and for a number of years the form and weight remain about the same. As old age comes on, the weight diminishes and all the forces of man become less active. The waste now exceeds the repair. From the food we eat, the body must obtain the mate- rials for building its structure and for keeping it in re- pair. It is clear, viewed in this light, that the subject of foods is of the utmost importance. Uses of Foods. The first use of foods, therefore, is to supply material from which the body may be built up and kept in repair. Other uses are, to supply heat for 2 18 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the body ; to give strength ; and to dissolve substances and aid in their distribution. If it is the nature of a substance to injure a healthy organ, or in any way interfere with its action, it cannot be called a food. Classification of Foods. All three of Nature's kingdoms are called upon to furnish articles of food. The princi- pal articles obtained from the mineral kingdom are water and salt ; from the vegetable kingdom, such cereals as wheat, corn, and oats, and a large number of vegeta- bles, such as potatoes and fruits ; from the animal king dom, the various meats, milk, and eggs. For purposes of study, foods are divided into the organic and inorganic. The organic foods are obtained from living substances, or from things which once had life. The inorganic foods are derived from such inor- ganic substances as the air, the earth, and the water. THE INORGANIC FOODS. The two principal inorganic foods are water and salt. These are used by themselves, or are added to the food in cooking. Salt. Salt is found in all the tissues and organs of the body, except the enamel of the teeth. It is esti- mated that there is nearly one quarter of a pound of salt in the entire body. In a small amount, salt is pres- ent in nearly all the organic foods in use, but not in sufficient quantity to meet the demands of the system. That salt is a necessary food is indicated by the natural craving for it, not only in man, but in the lower animals as well. Animals on the prairies, like the buffalo for FOODS. 19 instance, will travel many miles in search of salt ; while the sheep come quickly to the farmer's call, expecting some of this necessary food. These animals, together with others living upon the grasses, do not obtain a suf- ficient supply of salt with their food ; while those ani- mals living principally upon meats receive a proper amount, as it is already in the meat itself. Such animals may even have a repugnance for salted meats. Salt gives a flavor to the food. Food may be very nutritious, yet if it be tasteless it is not eaten readily, and is digested with difficulty. Salt stimulates the ap- petite, excites a flow of the saliva and gastric juice, and thus aids in the whole process of digestion. Water. Water constitutes nearly three fourths of the weight of the entire body. It is universally present in all the tissues and fluids of the body. There are many reasons why water is so important. All the food must be dissolved before the processes of digestion and absorption can be completed. The water in the tissues holds in solution numerous substances, which represent some of the waste materials of the body. Water gives elasticity to the bones, the muscles, the tendons, and the other tissues. Through the blood and tissues it becomes a circulating medium for conveying the foods, which are held in solution, to all parts of the body, and for taking away from the tissues the worn- out and useless ingredients. It is due to the presence of water that each tissue has its special consistency. Water is the most important substance used as food, as it is the one universal solvent. It thus becomes the medium for carrying dissolved materials from place to place, leaving and taking, as nature directs. The crav- 20 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. ing for water is greater than for any other food, and a person will die sooner, if deprived of it, than if de- prived of solid food. A large quantity of water is taken into the system during each day. Some of this is taken purposely, as a drink, while a large amount is taken with the food. To prove the truth of this latter statement, we have only to recall the fact that one half the weight of beef, three fourths the weight of potatoes, and nine tenths the weight of milk, consist of water. A healthy man takes, on an average, about two quarts of water each day. Sources of Water. Rain water most closely resembles distilled, or chemically pure water ; it usually contains a small amount of carbonic acid gas. Spring water contains a considerable amount of mineral substances and carbonic acid gas, the latter giving to spring water its fresh taste. The carbonic acid aids in dissolving the mineral substances as the water permeates the soil. Spring water contains but little oxygen ; therefore vege- table organisms usually flourish in it, while animal life, which requires much oxygen, is poorly represented. Spring water may bubble to the surface of the earth, or some mechanical device, as a pump, may be neces- sary to bring it within reach. The running water of rivers does not contain so much mineral matter as does spring water. When brought to the surface, spring water rapidly gives off its carbonic acid, causing a deposit of some of the mineral sub- stances. Running water absorbs oxygen readily from the air, and being deficient in carbonic acid and rich in oxygen, it affords the necessary conditions for animal life. Drinking water is obtained chiefly from springs, FOODS. 21 and usually some form of a pump is necessary to bring it to the surface. The Purity of Drinking Water, Drinking water should be colorless and without the slightest odor. Chemically pure water, however, is not pleasant to the taste ; it lacks the snap and tartness of spring water. Then, too, the presence of some minerals in solution is useful to the system. Lime is important in the formation of teeth and bone, and when drinking water does not contain lime in excess, then it must be regarded as beneficial, especially so in early life, when the tissues are developing. On the other hand, lead is a very dangerous ingredu ent of water. Water that has stood in lead pipes should never be used for drinking purposes. If it is neces- sary to use lead pipes, then the water should be kept running, or a large quantity drawn off before any is taken for use. There is no reason for supposing, sim- ply because water has no odor and looks clear, that it does not contain in solution substances of a most poi- sonous nature. Organic matter may be present in a state of de- composition. When there is any danger of this, it is much better to boil the water for a long time, and thereby destroy the minute germs. During an epi- demic of typhoid fever it is a wise precaution to drink no water that has not been so treated. When cool, after boiling, a little lime juice may be added to the water to correct the insipid taste, as the boiling drives off the carbonic acid gas. Do not use water that may be near some source of filth, and be sure that the well or spring is located at a safe distance from any decaying organic matter. 22 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. While the system daily demands a large amount of water, yet too much is injurious, especially if taken with the meals. When the body is in a healthy condi- .tion, the demand for water is easily satisfied. Re- member it is best to drink sparingly at mealtime, and more freely between meals. It is very unwise to use ice-cold water at any time, and it is especially bad to take it with a meal. There are other inorganic foods besides water and salt, as the various chemical salts, such as the salts of soda, potassa, and lime. QUESTIONS. 1. What relation do waste and repair bear to each other at dif- ferent periods of life ? 2. Give some of the uses of foods. 3. Name foods derived from each of the kingdoms. 4. How are foods classified? 5. Where is salt found in the body? In what foods? 6. Give some of the uses of salt. 7. What proportion of the body is composed of water ? 8. Why is water so important ? 9. What does rain water contain ? Spring water ? 10. Which form of life flourishes best in spring water ? 11. From what source is drinking water usually obtained ? 12. Is a small amount of lime in drinking water beneficial ? Why ? 13. How can the germs in water be destroyed ? THE NITROGENOUS FOODS. 23 CHAPTER III. THE NITBOG-ENOUS FOODS. THE organic foods, derived from the animal and vegetable kingdoms, are divided into two classes, de- pending upon the presence or absence of nitrogen. They are called, therefore, the nitrogenous and the non-nitrogenous foods. The Nitrogenous Foods. The nitrogenous foods are also called the albuminoids, from their resemblance to albumen. They include such foods as the meats, eggs, and milk. Albumen, as found in the white of eggs, is in nearly a pure state. It forms the chief part of mus- cle, and is found in nearly all the fluids of the body, including the blood and lymph. As the albuminoid substances are so abundant, entering largely into the formation of the animal tissues and fluids, so their absence from food is soon felt. No diet can be nutritious, when long continued, un- less it contains some of these foods. The nitrogenous foods need not necessarily be from the animal king- dom, as the cereal grains contain nitrogen, but in these the relative quantity is much smaller. The nitrogenous foods are capable of sustaining life much longer than 24 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the foods consisting of starch, fat, or sugar. Yet even these foods, when taken alone, are not capable of sup- porting life. Animals that have been fed on such ex- clusive diet become enfeebled, refuse food, and finally die. Their continued use, by man, results in a great dislike for them, showing that other materials are neces- sary to supply all the demands of the system. It follows, therefore, that while the albuminous foods are the first in importance, yet we must not depend upon one kind of food to sustain life. Foods contain- ing starch and oil are as necessary as are the inorganic substances. The body must be supplied with the same variety of ingredients as that found in its tissues. To deprive it of any one of these will slowly but surely bring on disease and death. Milk. The " model food " is the name often given to milk ; no ideal food can surpass it. As it contains all the food elements necessary for the support of the body, it will, therefore, support life longer than any other single article of diet. It contains a large amount of water, nearly nine parts in ten ; a considerable amount of fat, as butter ; a sugar, known as milk sugar ; miner- als ; and albumen. The mineral matter consists largely of lime, so essential to the formation of the bones when they are growing rapidly. The nitrogenous matter consists almost entirely of albumen and caseine. If any acid be added to milk the caseine is thrown down in a coagulated form, and the milk is said to be curdled. The milk curdles spon- taneously if exposed to the air for a few hours and in a warm room. This is because of the development of lactic acid in the milk. The action is the same as if THE NITROGENOUS FOODS. 25 the acid were added intentionally, and the caseine thus coagulated. From this coagulated mass, or curd, cheese is made. The fat of milk consists of vast numbers of minute oil drops. These appear, under the microscope, as small round globules floating in water. OOo w$^ffi$&& v^^OO . FIG. 3. Milk, highly magnified. Milk readily absorbs gases ; therefore special care is required to keep it sweet and pure. It must be kept in a room that is very clean and free from all odors. Milk may be the means of communicating disease, either by the use of impure water with which the milk was adulterated, or by the milk having absorbed injurious gases. Milk should be the principal diet for children, while 26 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. for adults it may be used as a drink with the ordinary meals. Warm milk can take the place of the cup of coffee, while cool milk is a good substitute for ice water. Some people claim they cannot use milk, as it disagrees with the stomach and interferes with the action of the liver. These troubles are easily prevented by using only a moderate amount, and by adding to it a small quantity of lime water. Eggs. Eggs are easily digested and very nutritious. They are the most digestible when soft-boiled in the shell, or when broken into boiling water. The principal differences between the white and the yolk of the egg are these : the white contains no fat, but a considerable quantity of water ; while the yolk contains a consider- able amount of fat, and but little water. Nearly thirty per cent of the yolk consists of this fat, or yellow oil. Meats. The meats used for food are rich in nitroge- nous ingredients, together with fat and mineral matter. Their nutritious properties and pleasant taste make them very desirable as articles of diet. The meats dif- fer in their digestibility, and in their nutritive value. Beef is regarded as the best meat for general use. When tender beef is properly cooked, it is easily digested and very nutritious. Mutton ranks next to beef, although its flavor is not agreeable to all. Yeal is not easily digested, neither is it so nourish- ing as either beef or mutton. Pork is not readily di- gested ; the fibers of the lean meat are too compact, and the fat is likely to be in excess. A large class of peo- ple, however, eat it freely. To those who exercise much, and who have strong digestive powers, pork ap- pears to do no harm. Oysters are very nourishing, are THE NITROGENOUS FOODS. 27 easily digested, arid are very pleasant to those who have acquired a taste for them. Oysters are most easily digested when eaten raw, furnishing in this particular a striking exception to the general rule x for all animal substances. The Cereal Grains. The cereal grains, as wheat, oats, corn, and rice, are most important foods. They consist of nitrogenous material, starch, sugar, salts, and fat. The starch is seen as the white center of the grain, surrounded by a husk. The husk consists of a woody material and is quite indigestible. The nitrogenous por- tion of the grain is situated between the husk and the starchy center. Wheat flour would be much more nu- tritious if only the husk, or bran, were removed, and the layer containing the nitrogenous matter and the gluten, oil, and salts retained with the starch. The flour would not be so white, neither would the bread, but it would be more wholesome. The gluten, or the adhesive, jelly-like quality of the cereals, is very abundant in wheat, forming about twenty per cent of the whole grain. The grains vary in their proportions of nitrogen and starch ; but their value as a food does not depend alone upon the amount they contain of any single nutritive ingredient. There should be such a variety of substances as will form the best combination for the nourishment of the body. Wheat leads all the cereals in nutritive value. It is easily digested and, with the exception of milk, it comes nearest to the standard of a perfect food. It contains but a small proportion of water ; has a large amount of starch; is well supplied with nitrogenous material; con- tains fat; and considerable mineral matter. There is. 28 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. however, a deficiency in the amount of fat it contains ; therefore this must be supplied by putting butter on the bread. The proportion of water is so small that a given bulk of wheat is richer in solids than any other food, Probably the best test there is for a good wheat is the kind of bread it will make. Bread. Bread is often called the staff of life, because it contains so many nutritious elements, being deficient only in fat. Thus it follows that bread and butter make a very complete diet. In making bread the flour is mixed with water until a dough is formed. Then salt and yeast are added. This is set aside in a warm place until fermentation is well established. The nitrogenous ingredients begin to decompose and act as a ferment on the starch, which becomes, in part at least, changed to sugar. The sugar is further decomposed into carbonic acid and alcohol. The carbonic acid forms bubbles; these force their way through the dough, or sponge, making the bread rise. The dough is now placed in an oven hot enough to stop fermentation at once. The alcohol is all driven off by the heat, and much of the water also. The bread is then said to be baked. But yeast is not essential to the making of bread. Unfermented bread is made by mixing with the dough a powder composed of an acid and an alkali, so that after the powder is moistened in the bread the acid and alkali form a new compound, and carbonic acid is set free. In aerated bread the carbonic acid is forced into water, and the flour mixed with ^this water under pres- sure. When the dough is heated the carbonic acid ex- pands and makes the bread spongy. THE NITROGENOUS FOODS. 29 Bread made from unbolted flour is very nourishing, but the presence of the bran makes it difficult to digest, so that it should not be used by persons with weak digestive powers. Hot bread is likely to form a paste in the mouth, and thus its digestion becomes difficult. Oats, Corn, Rice, Oatmeal contains a large amount of nitrogenous material, ranking in this regard nearly or quite equal with wheat. But it contains a considerable amount of woody or fibrous material, which interferes with the digestion of it and lowers its nutritive value. It also lacks adhesive qualities, so that it cannot be made into bread. Yet it is a wholesome food, and to most persons agreeable. Corn contains less nitrogenous material than oats, but it has more starch. Rice consists of ninety per cent of starch with scarcely any nitrogenous material. When taken with some albuminous food, as meat of any kind, it is a valuable article of diet ; it is easily digested and is also very cheap. Peas and beans are very nour- ishing, for they contain a good amount of albumen and starch. They would be valuable as food were it not that they consist of such solid matter that they are not easily digested. When used, .they should be cooked a long time, and be thoroughly masticated. Potatoes consist of from seventy to eighty per cent of water ; the remainder being nearly all starch, together with a small amount of mineral matter, albumen, and salts. Although they consist so largely of water, yet they are the most generally used of all vegetables. They are used extensively because they can be obtained at all seasons of the year, are very cheap, and agree witli most persons. They should never form the exclusive diet; 30 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. but, when used with some fat, as butter or meat-gravy, and salt, together with some food rich in nitrogenous matter, they form a most valuable adjunct to the table. Turnips, cabbage, parsnips, onions, and other vegeta- bles, are added to the list of foods in order to give suit- able variety. Their nutritive value is low, and they are not easily digested. Apples, peaches, pears, and other fruits are valua- ble foods in many ways. They contain a considerable amount of sugar and mineral matter, while their acids give them a characteristic taste. These acids stimulate the appetite and promote the flow of gastric juice, while the great amount of water they contain serves to quench the thirst. Ripe fruits in their season are most bene- ficial ; while overripe and unripe fruits are often the cause of serious trouble. Much of the danger, however, of unripe fruits is removed by cooking. QUESTIONS. 1. How are the foods from the animal and vegetable kingdoms divided ? 2. The nitrogenous foods include what ? 3. Where is albumen found ? 4. What is said about supporting life with one kind of food ? 5. Of what is milk composed? 6. Is beef nutritious and easily digested? Is mutton? Veal? Pork ? Are oysters ? 7. Of what do the cereal grains consist ? 8. Which is the most nutritive of the cereals? 9. In what is it deficient ? How is this supplied ? 10. Why is bread a valuable food ? 11. What cereal ranks next to wheat? 12. What is said about potatoes as a food? THE NON-NITROGENOUS FOODS. 31 CHAPTER IV. THE NON-NITROGENOUS FOODS. COOKING. Fats. The non-nitrogenous foods consist of starch, sugar, and the fats. There is a natural craving in the system for these foods, and they cannot be dispensed with for any great length of time without serious injury to the system. Experiments have proved that some fat must enter into the diet if the bodily health be maintained. This seems to be especially true when the body is growing rapidly. Some individuals do not digest the fat of meats readily, yet they can use butter and milk. Oth- ers are able to digest such fatty foods as bacon or the fat of other meats. Fat has great heat-producing power, therefore it is most used where the climate is cold and severe. It is probable that some of the fat in the body ia derived directly from the fat of the food ; that is, it becomes absorbed and redeposited in the tissues ; but it is equally true that fat may be formed in the body from foods which are without fat. This is proved to be a fact, because the amount of fat, or butter, found in the milk of the cow far exceeds the amount of fat taken as food. 32 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Some persons become very fleshy, while others, with the same diet, remain lean. In many families there re an inherited tendency to accumulate fat in the body. It is probable also that, in some cases at least, mere food is taken than is necessary for the normal uses of the body. A deposit of too much fat is attended with inconvenience and no little danger. Starch. Pure starch is a fine, white powder, consisting of minute granules. When examined under the micro- scope, the granules are seen to vary in size and form, ac- FIG. 4. Wheat starch, or wheat flour, highly magnified. cording to the kind of starch. Thus it becomes possible to tell from what vegetable the starch was obtained by the appearance of the granules. The four illustrations here given show these marked differences. Each starch is magnified the same number of times, or about five hun- dred diameters. The granules are very minute, those of THE NON-NITROGENOUS FOODS. 33 rice starch being not over Q-^QQ of an inch in diameter. A study of the starches is very fascinating work to those who have a microscope. When mixed with water the granules swell and form a paste ; when boiled with ^ large amount of water they expand greatly, and can FIG. 5. Oat starch, highly magnified. iiu longer be seen. The destruction of these granules is a great aid to their digestion. Prolonged cooking changes the starch into a substance called dextrine. This is easily changed by the digestive juices into glu- cose or grape sugar. The brown crust of the bread is the starch of the flour, changed into dextrine by the prolonged exposure to heat. It is more easily digested 3 34 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. than the softer parts of the bread. In order that the starch granules may be completely broken up, all starchy foods should be thoroughly cooked. A too exclusive 9 FIG. 6. Corn starch, highly magnified. FIG. 7. Potato starch, highly magnified. diet of starchy foods is likely to impair the digestive powers ; for the digestive juices are unable to promptly THE NON-NITROGENOUS FOODS. 35 change large quantities of starch into sugar, and the sugar is slowly absorbed if present in too large quan- tities. This gives rise to the formation of gases and acids, and then dyspepsia follows. Sugar, Sugar is closely allied to starch, both in its chemical and physiological relations. In the living plant the sugar and the starch represent the same nu- tritive material, though under different conditions ; the sugar is in the form of a liquid, and the starch is in the form of a solid. There are three principal varieties of sugar, cane sugar, grape sugar, and milk sugar. Cane sugar is that obtained from the juice of the sugar cane. It is the variety in ordinary use. It is also made from the juice of the maple tree, and is called maple sugar. It is the most soluble and the sweetest of the sugars. Grape sugar is found in great abundance in the juice of ripe grapes. It is generally distributed in the sweet juices of many fruits and flowers. This is the reason it is found in honey, although cane sugar is also present. Grape sugar, also called glucose, is found in some of the animal tissues and fluids, as in the liver and the blood. This is the form of sugar which is made in the body by the digestion of starch. The third variety, the sugar of milk, is found only in milk. Its sweet taste is not very marked. While it is true that a considerable quantity of sugar is likely to disturb the stomach, yet it is equally true that a certain amount is very desirable. The natural desire for sweet things is so universal in the young that it can indicate nothing else than a demand of the system for this food. The impure and highly colored 36 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. candies in the store do not represent a definite amount of sweet food. It is better to satisfy the craving by eating ripe fruit. But if candies are desired, let them be made at home, from pure sugar. There is no danger of the teeth being injured by the use of sweet foods, if. they be cleansed each day, as they should be under all circumstances. The Amount and Kind of Food. No rule can be laid down saying positively just how much of each kind of food must be taken; but if the body be in a healthy condition, an amount should be taken sufficient to sat- isfy the appetite. The appetite, however, is not always a safe guide, because by irregular habits, by overeating, and by eating improper articles of food, it becomes vari- able, and is then an unreliable test. If persons would form the habit of eating a regular diet of plain, whole- some food, there would be far less of dyspepsia with its attending disturbances of the nervous system. The quantity of food must vary with the amount and kind of exercise. A good rule is this : Learn what are wholesome foods, how they should be cooked, and that a mixed diet is best ; then decide what and how much to eat. Some persons require only a small amount of food to keep them in good health, while others require much more. Yet sickness is caused by overeating, as well as by eating things which are harmful. Habit and custom have a great deal to do with determining the kind and amount of food. Cooking. Cooking is necessary for some kinds of food, in order that they may be properly digested. It either softens the food or aids in dividing it into small particles. It also brings out distinct and agreeable fla- COOKING. 37 vors, and thus pleases the taste. If the temperature employed in the cooking be too high, the natural flavors will be destroyed, and disagreeable odors will be pro- duced ; while if the temperature be too low, the flavors are not developed. Cooking coagulates the albumen in the foods ; it ren- ders the fatty tissues more fluid ; it changes the starchy foods into a pulpy mass, and it breaks up the harder tissues of the vegetables. Thus the foods are softened, and are more easily masticated. Methods of Cooking, Nearly all the articles of food are cooked before eating, the principal exceptions being oysters and certain ripe fruits. In broiling, roasting, or boiling meat it is desirable to retain in the meat as much of the nutritive properties as possible. This can be done by applying great heat at first, producing a rapid coagulation of the albumen on the surface. This forms a crust, through which the nutritive juices of the meat cannot escape. Afterwards the cooking should proceed with a less degree of .heat, until the meat is cooked to please the taste. When meats are cooked too thoroughly their natural juices are driven off by the prolonged heat, and their albuminous matter is hard and dry. Such meats are masticated with difficulty and digested slowly, while much that is nutritious is lost. The only argument advanced in favor of sucli thorough cooking of meat is that it destroys all parasites ; but there is little if any danger of these in any of the meats, if pork be discarded. Broiling is the best method of cooking meat, while roasting is nearly as good. Vegetables and the coarser 38 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. meats can be made very tender by prolonged boiling, remembering that they should be placed at once into boiling water, when after the first application of heat the temperature should be considerably lowered. Even potatoes would be more nutritious if boiled with at least a portion of their skins on, as the skins would aid in retaining some of the nutritious materials that would otherwise be lost. Frying is about the worst of all the methods of pre- paring meats and other foods for the table. The fat in the meats, or the fat in the frying-pan, penetrates the lean portions and surrounds each particle with a layer of oil. As oil is not digested in the stomach, it follows that the meat with its oily covering must pass out of the stomach before the outer coat of oil can be com- pletely removed. Certain fatty acids are also developed during the frying process which are likely to .prove inju- rious. If food must be fried, the fat should be boiling hot when the articles are put into it, and it should be kept boiling during the entire cooking. Thus by form- ing a hard outer coat at once, the fat is not so likely to penetrate deeply. In making soups it is desirable that all the juices be extracted from the meat, a result just the opposite of the one desired in broiling or roasting. Therefore the meat should be cut into small pieces and placed in cold water at first, and the water gradually allowed to come to a high temperature. In this way no layer of coagu- lated albumen is formed on the outside, and all the juices are gradually brought out by the water. Enough has been said to show that healthy, whole- some cooking depends upon well-known laws of chemis- COOKING. S9 try and physiology. A knowledge of these sciences is necessary to fully understand and master the mysteries of this art. But it is one of the happy circumstances of early life that if there is a healthy body to begin with, it does not become necessary to study the articles of food as they are placed on the table. We eat heartily of the good things provided for us ; enter into all the labors and pleasures of the day with much earnestness ; sleep soundly at night ; awake in the morning with rested body and clear brain ; and begin again a new day. Thus should it be all through life. QUESTIONS. 1 1. What are the non-nitrogenous foods? 2. Are these foods necessary ? 3. What especial power has fat ? 4. The fat of the body is derived from what? 5. Give a description of starch. 6. What is said of the different forms of starch grains? 7. How does cooking affect starch ? 8. What non-nitrogenous food is closely allied to starch? 9. Name the varieties of sugar. 10. Where is cane sugar obtained ? 11. Where is grape sugar found? 12. How does cooking affect the food ? 13. What is desirable in broiling meats? 14. How can this be accomplished ? 15. Why is frying a poor method of cooking meats? 16. How can all the juices be extracted from meat ? 40 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER V. ALCOHOL. THE microscope of modern times reveals to us many wonderful things. It shows the existence of the most minute forms of living objects ; so minute that the high- est powers of the microscope and the greatest skill of the observer are necessary to see them. These forms are so minute that they are often spoken of as u micro- organisms." The germs or spores of these micro- organisms float about in the air in a dry stafe, and are carried with the dust and deposited upon objects every- where. Whenever any dead animal or vegetable substance is left in a moist state in moderately warm air, these minute forms enter it and begin at once to take it to pieces. It has been conclusively proven that no putre- faction or decay ever occurs without the presence of some of these micro-organisms, and that they are the cause of such decay. To illustrate the power which they have, it is only necessary to notice any dead animal or vegetable substance. When left to itself such material gradually changes its appearance, becomes softer, the liquids evaporate, the gases escape, and only a little earthy matter is left. This is all the work of these ALCOHOL. 41 microscopic objects. They have succeeded in completely changing the character of the animal or vegetable substance. Let us experiment something like this : Boil a piece of meat in some water and then strain the mixture, so that only a clear liquid or infusion remains. Now if this clear solution be boiled and placed in a bottle while at the boiling point, and the bottle tightly sealed, the solution will remain clear indefinitely. A similar result is shown in the canning of fruits; the boiling fruit is placed in cans, whicli are at once tightly sealed. Why do not these canned fruits decompose ? Because the heat applied to them destroys all the micro-organisms,, and because no others can gain entrance through the tightly sealed vessels. Suppose, however, that we open the can of fruit or the bottle of meat infusion. In a. few days the liquid will become cloudy, a scum will gather on the surface, and a disagreeable odor will be given off. What is the cause of these changes ? Micro-organisms have entered and decomposition is taking place. It is not necessary to add these minute objects to dead substances in order that they decay. The germs or spores that cause decay, as has been stated, float about in the air, though invisi- ble. In fact they are distributed almost everywhere throughout nature. There are many varieties of these minute organisms, each of whicli takes its food from a different kind of dead substance, and in so doing, causes that substance to decay or go to pieces. Some of these micro-organisms are called " bacteria," from a Greek word signifying staff or rod. They are so named from their resem- 42 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. blance, as seen through a microscope, to minute staves or rods. Other organisms are known as ferments. Still other organisms are called molds. Whenever a dead substance is acted upon by these micro-organisms a change takes place which is called fermentation. During this change the elements which compose the fermenting substance are separated. These elements, thus set free, enter into other combinations, forming new substances. The first substance may be very simple and wholesome; but. after the elements, as carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, have been sep- arated by the process of fermentation, they may unite again in a very different manner, producing a highly poisonous compound. To illustrate this, let us take sugar, which is com- posed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, combined in a certain exact proportion, and dissolve it in the right amount of water, and add some ferment, as yeast. This ferment, which cannot work on dry sugar, causes the union of the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen to break to pieces and new compounds to be formed. Some of the carbon and oxygen unite to form carbonic acid gas which escapes in bubbles ; while the remaining carbon and oxy- gen, and all the hydrogen are left so united that a liquid is formed which is called alcohol. Alcohol, therefore, is a result of one kind of fermentation. There are many kinds of fermentation. For instance, when meat decays, the process is called putrefactive fer- mentation ; it is caused by a certain species of bacteria which do not thrive upon preserves, or other substances not adapted to their growth. The souring of milk is called lactic fermentation ; it is caused by another spe- ALCOHOL. 43 cies of bacteria, which changes the sugar of the milk to lactic acid. The decay of fruits is also caused by micro-organisms, many of which we are familiar with in the form of molds. The microscope shows that these molds are minute plants, the spores or germs of which are float- ing everywhere in the air. The spores of other micro-organisms called ferments float in the air, and fall upon the surface of fruits. With them are also the spores of ferments, which are also plants. But between the sweet juices of the fruits, and the ferments there is a sound and complete membrane which we call the skin. While the juice remains in the fruits, the ferments can do no harm. They are harmless if taken as we eat the fruit; but when the juices are pressed from the fruits, these ferments, lodged on the surface, are washed into the liquid. If this mixture be allowed to remain in a moderately warm atmosphere, the spores of the ferments soon begin to grow and multiply with great rapidity. We know that ripe fruits contain more or less sugar dissolved in the water or juice of the fruit. As we have already seen, the ferments begin at once to take oxygen from the sugar, causing the sugar to break to pieces, and to form two new substances, carbonic acid gas which escapes in bubbles, and alcohol which remains. Alcohol is the product of this process of fermentation. Although sugar and water are such harmless foods, yet by the action of the minute ferments, a narcotic poison is obtained from them. Alcohol is called a narcotic poison because of its power to deaden or paralyze the brain and nerves. Like opium, tobacco, and other nar- 44 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. cotics, its chief danger lies in its power to set up a continual and ever-increasing demand for itself. It is more dangerous, therefore, than some other poisons, which, taken in quantities too small to cause death, may pass off without doing appreciable injury. From what has been said, it is evident that alcohol is not a natural part of fruits or grains. With these facts in mind it is easy to understand why beer, wine, and cider are poisonous liquors, although obtained from whole- some fruits and grains. For we must remember that it is a law pervading nature that fermentation entirely changes the character of the substance it works upon. It is another illustration of this law that the fruit juices which have undergone alcoholic fermentation will, if left to themselves in warm air, be entered by another kind of ferment which changes the alcohol to acetic acid. This change, which is called acetous fermentation, is the one that turns cider to vinegar. Cider. The juice of apples when first pressed from the fruit, consists simply of water, more or less sugar, and a small amount of acid. Thus, in ordinary cider- making, the proper conditions are present for alcoholic fermentation to take place. These conditions are : water, sugar, warm air, and the ever present ferment germs which float in the air, and those which were washed from the surface of the fruit while it was being ground and pressed. Thus it follows that within a few hours after the juice has been pressed from the apples the process of fermentation is well under way. When obtained from the mill all fresh cider is ordi- narily more or less contaminated with the fermented juices which remained in the mill or vats from the pre- ALCOHOL. 45 vious grinding. It is therefore difficult to obtain cider, even directly from the mill, which does not contain more or less alcohol. Certainly there is no sharp line between sweet and sour cider. If cider does not contain alcohol it is harmless ; if it does, it is injurious. As nearly all so-called "sweet cider" may contain more or less alcohol, arid as alcohol even in small quan- tities has the power to create an appetite for more, and as the delicate tissues of the human system are easily im- pressed, the testimony of science is strongly against the use of cider in any quantity. It is certainly true that the continuous drinking of old cider makes the person irrita- ble, blunts the finer sensibilities, and weakens the will. Wine. When the juice is pressed from the grape, the currant, or the elderberry, the ferments on the surfaces of these fruits are carried into the juice and there begin to change the sugar of the juice as in the case of cider. If a small amount of sugar be added to the juice there is then so much more material on hand to be converted into alcohol. For this reason it is true that homemade wines often contain more alcohol than the wines of com- merce. Homemade wines may be " pure " as to their freedom from adulteration by drugs, yet the one great poison, alcohol, is present ; and for this reason they are pernicious. Wine is the earliest known and most extensively used of the alcoholic liquors. Its occasional or moderate use is never safe, although it has been so considered by those who were ignorant of the power a little wine has to create an appetite for more. No one can tell how soon such an appetite may be formed, nor how soon it may become an uncontrollable craving, to gratify which is to 46 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. invite destruction. Ignorance of these facts, or a mis- taken confidence in this beverage, has not prevented the evil results that follow its use. The notion is quite prevalent in many sections of the country that a greater abundance of " light wines " would prevent the use of stronger liquors, and thus diminish intemperance. But the steady growth 01 intemperance, with its attendant evils of immorality, insanity, and other nervous diseases, in wine-growing countries, where light wines are cheap, plentiful, and universally used, proves the fallacy of this idea. A recent alcoholic commission, appointed by the French Minister of Finance, reported that alcoholism threatens the people of France with rapid degenera- tion ; that it is one of the most serious dangers of the times. Not only men but women and children are affected. Mental diseases hitherto unknown have be- come common. Dr. J. G. Holland, after spending some time in Swit- zerland, gave the following testimony as to the effects of light wines there : "We have been told in America, and I fully believed it, that if a people could be supplied with cheap wine, they would not get drunk, that the natural desire for some sort of a stimulant would be gratified in a way that would not only be harmless to morals, but conducive to health. I am thoroughly undeceived. The people drink their cheap wine here to drunkenness. A boozier set than hang around the multitudinous cafes here it would be hard to find in any American city. " The steady old white-wine topers come into blossom. If you can image a cauliflower of the color of the ordinary ALCOHOL. 47 rad cabbage you can achieve a very adequate conception of faces that are not uncommon in all this wine-growing region. So this question is settled in my mind. Cheap wine is not the cure for intemperance. The people here are just as intemperate as they are in America, and what is more, there is no public sentiment that checks intemper- ance in the least. The wine is fed freely to children, and by all classes is regarded as a perfectly legitimate drink. " I firmly believe that the wines of Switzerland are of no use, except to keep out whiskey, and that the advan- tages of wine over whiskey are not very obvious. It is the testimony of the best people of Switzerland those who have the highest good of the people at heart that the increased growth of the grape has been steadily and correspondingly attended by the increase of drunkenness. They lament the planting of a new vineyard as we at home regret the opening of a new grog-shop. They expect no good of it to anybody. They know and deeply feel that the whole wine-growing enterprise is charged with degradation for their country." Beer. Although beer is made from grain which con- sists principally of starch, this starcli is readily changed to sugar in the process of growing and sprouting. It k only necessary to dissolve out the sugar from grains which have sprouted in order to have a sweet liquid ; and this will produce alcohol if the right kind of ferments are added. Therefore, to this sweet liquid, yeast, which is an alcoholic ferment, is added. The ferments, or yeast, begin at once to work upon the sugar, taking oxygen from it and leaving carbonic acid gas and alco- hol. The former bubbles up through the liquid an lar r nx '> T ' ton S ue ' the feathered ar- rows represent the passage for air ; the plain arrows, the passage for food. mirror is introduced as shown in Fig. 39. Light is reflected from a large mirror to the one in the back part of the throat. This mirror reflects the light down the larynx so that it becomes brilliantly illuminated. A picture of the larynx is thus formed in the mirror, to which the observer directs his eye. 128 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The Epiglottis. The entrance to the larynx is pro- tected by a valve, or lid, called the epiglottis. During respiration the epiglottis is directed upward, so that the larynx is open ; but during the act of swallowing, the epiglottis shuts tightly down over the larynx, pre- venting the entrance of any solid or liquid. Occasion- ally, however, a particle of food " goes the wrong way " and slips into the larynx, when a violent cough is neces- sary for its removal. Fig. 39 gives a correct representa- tion of the parts under discussion. Fig. 40 is a diagram, illustrating more clearly the location and function of the epiglottis. The Trachea. The trachea, commonly known as the windpipe, consists of a number of rings of cartilage. These rings are not quite complete at the back of the trachea ; however, the tube is completed by a thin mem- brane. The rings are placed one over the other, sepa- rated only by a narrow membrane. They keep the trachea from collapsing ; thus always insuring a free passage for the air. The tube is lined, its whole length, with a mucous membrane. About opposite the upper part of the sternum, the trachea divides into two branches, called the bronchi, one branch going to each lung. The Bronchi and the Air Cells. After entering the lungs, the bronchi divide again and again, until they are very minute in size. They are everywhere lined with a mucous membrane. A study of Fig. 41 will make these facts more simple. At 1, is the epiglottis, standing guard over the entrance to the air passages below ; at 2, is the larynx, or voice box ; at 3, is the trachea with its rings of cartilage; at 4, is the right RESPIRATION. 129 lung, so drawn that the bronchial tubes can be seen within it. After these have become very small, from their re- peated divisions, they terminate in a collection of minute *- 7 iG. 41. The respiratory apparatus : (1) the epiglottis ; (2) the larynx ; (3) the trachea ; (4) the right lung ; (5) the left lung. sacs, called air cells. The walls of these air cells are very thin and highly elastic. They can be distended by slight force, and when the force is removed, they can at once resume their former size. Fig. 42 shows a terminal 130 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. bronchial tube with its air cells. If we bear in mind that these air cells have elastic walls, it is easy to imagine how they could be inflated, like so many rubber sacs, by forcing air into the tube, at 1. This is practically about what occurs during an ordinary respiration. The inner surface of these air cells is exposed to the air which enters the lungs. The amount of surface thus exposed is very great, being estimated to be at least fourteen hundred square feet. Surrounding the walls of the air cells is a dense network of capillary blood vessels. Thus the blood itself is separated from the air only by an extremely It is here, in the air cells, that the changes occur which transform the dark venous blood into the bright arterial blood. The Pleura. The pleura is a double membrane, cov- ering the inside of the thoracic cavity and the lungs. One membrane is closely fastened to the inner walls of the chest, while the other covers the surface of the lungs. The space between these membranes is called the pleural cavity. The pleura secretes a fluid, so that its two surfaces may move against each other easily and without friction, as they do in ordinary breathing. An inflammation of this membrane is called pleurisy ; it is extremely painful, because each time a breath is taken the lungs expand, causing the inflamed membrane cov- FIG. 42. (1) the end of a small bronchial tube ; (2) air cells ; (3) some of the air cells cut open, showing free passage to them from the bronchial tubes. thin membrane. RESPIRATION. 131 ering the lungs to move against another inflamed mem- brane lining the walls of the chest. The Lungs. The two lungs are situated in the tho- racic cavity, one in either side of the chest. Owing to the amount of elastic tissue in the air cells, the lungs have great elasticity. When removed from the body they appear completely collapsed ; still they float in water on account of the air yet remaining in the air cells. When in this collapsed condition, if a tube be placed in the trachea the lungs may be inflated by blowing into the tube or by forcing air in with a pair of bellows. After the inflation, it is only necessary to remove the tube or allow the air to escape through it, when the lungs will immediately collapse again. Thus it is easily proved that if some force be applied to send air into the lungs, the elastic tissue in the air cell swill stretch like rubber; and that as soon as the force is removed the elastic tis- sue will return to its former condition. Why Air enters the Lungs. The mechanism of res- piration is not unlike that of a pair of bellows. When the handles are raised the inside of the bellows is made larger, and the air rushes in to fill the extra space. The chest is a tight box, with only one opening, and that at the top, the larynx. If this box be suddenly enlarged the air will rush in through the opening ; this is called inspiration. When the box ceases to enlarge* no more air enters. Immediately all the parts that were under a tension to enlarge the box return to their for- mer condition. Thus the box is made smaller and the air rushes out of the opening at the top ; this is called expiration. From this we conclude that air enters the lungs because the chest is made larger ; and that it leaves 132 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the lungs because the chest is made smaller. Before discussing this subject more in detail, it will be well to fix in the mind the shape of the thoracic cavity, its con- tents, and the relation of certain organs to each other. FIG. 43. The position of the lungs, and their relation to certain organs ; (1) the trachea ; (2) the clavicle ; (3) the ribs ; (4) the lungs; (5) a dark curved line, showing the position of the heart ; (6) the diaphragm, extend' ijg in a curved direction from one figure to the other; (7) the liver; (8) the stomach ; (9) the sternum. A reference to Fig. 43 will illustrate these points. The lungs rise above the collar bone, 2, to form the apex of the chest : below, they rest upon the curved diaphragm, 6, which divides the thoracic from the abdominal cavity. RESPIRATION. 133 The relative position of the heart is shown by the curved line, 5. Pressing up against the under surface of the diaphragm, on the right side is the liver, 7, while on the left side is the stomach, 8. By glancing at this figure it is easily understood that if the lower ribs be brought tightly together from any cause, as by tight lacing, the stomach and liver will be forced up against the diaphragm. As a result of this it would be ex- tremely difficult for the dia- phragm to become straighter or lower, or, as illustrated in the figure, for the line 6 to become shorter. The application of this fact will be seen later. Inspiration. The chest is en- larged first, by the raising of the ribs. By the contraction of cer- ty is enlarged during inspira- tain muscles the ribs are moved tion : 8 c ' s P inal column ' s T ' upward and outward ; this enlarges the chest anteriorly and laterally. That the chest is enlarged between the sternum and the spinal column is readily seen by referring to Fig. 44. S C represents the spinal column, and S, the sternum. After expiration, when the chest is at rest, it is noticed that the ends of the ribs attached to the ster- num, S, are much lower than the ends attached to the spinal column ; this fact is also illustrated in Figs. 29 and 43. Now in Fig. 44 it is evident that if the ribs, R, are raised by any force, they will carry the sternum with them to the point S T. It is also evident that the FIG. 44. A diagram illus- trating how the thoracic cavi- RI, and DM, illustrate the position of the sternum, ribs, and diaphragm, during inspi- ration ; s, R, and D, their position during expiration. 134 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. distance between S C and S T is much greater than that between S C and S. Therefore we conclude that rais- ing the ribs increases the size of the chest from front to back. Because the ribs are curved, the chest is enlarged from side to side when they are raised. Second, the chest is enlarged by the contraction of the diaphragm. Attention has already been called to this thin muscle. When it relaxes it is in the form of a vaulted partition, with its rounded portion rising into the cavity of the chest, as represented in Fig. 43, and at D, Fig. 44. When the diaphragm contracts, it shortens, assuming more nearly a straight line, as in D M, Fig. 44 ; thus the convexity becomes greatly diminished. The contraction of the diaphragm, therefore, makes it descend toward the abdomen ; this must enlarge the thoracic cavity from above downwards. Thus we con- clude that in ordinary, quiet breathing we do not draw the air into the lungs ; the air rushes in, without aid, to fill the chest, which is made larger by the elevation of the ribs and the contraction, or lowering, of the diaphragm. Expiration. Ordinary expiration occurs without the aid of muscles. By the relaxation of the muscles of the chest, the ribs fall back to their natural places. The relaxation of the diaphragm causes it to protrude again into the chest, aided by the pressure of the ab- dominal organs from beneath pushing up against it. The distended elastic tissue of the air cells now seeks to return to its natural condition, thus diminishing the size of the air cells, and, consequently the size of the whole lungs ; the thoracic walls keep in contact with the dimin- ishing lungs, and thus the air rushes out of the larynx. RESPIRATION. Respiration. Respiration is the function by which oxygen is introduced into the body, and carbonic acid removed from it. Ordinary breathing is involuntary. We breathe when we are not thinking of it, and breathe as regularly when asleep as when awake. But respiration is also volun- tary, for it is possible to breathe more slowly or more rapidly than usual, for a short time. By taking advan- tage of this fact the respiratory muscles can be greatly strengthened. Like other muscles they can be devel- oped and strengthened by exercise. Singing and speak- ing call for a full exercise of these muscles, and when properly employed they are very beneficial. The imitations of crying, laughing, and the like are voluntary respiratory movements, principally spasmodic contractions of the diaphragm. Even these movements may be involuntary ; the spasmodic action of the dia- phragm may go beyond control, so that it is impossible to cease laughing or crying. Number of Respirations. The number of respirations should be about one to every four beats of the pulse. As the average pulse of the male adult is about 70, so the number of respirations should be about 18. But this is influenced by many conditions ; as, the size of the lungs, the condition of the air, exercise, singing, speak- ing, and many other circumstances. The number can- not, however, be lowered for any considerable length of time ; the demands of the system for more oxygen, and for an escape of the carbonic acid are so great that it is impossible to resist them. Sounds of the Chest. When the air rushes in and out of the lungs, peculiar sounds are produced. These are 136 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. easily changed by unhealthy conditions of the lung tissue ; the air may not enter a portion of the lungs ; it may enter a cavity ; or it may pass over a membrane either too dry or too moist. Any such departures from health cause a change in the normal sounds. A careful study of these sounds enables the physician to determine the healthy or unhealthy condition of the lungs. By their aid, he can understand the nature of the disease, and how far it has progressed. The Inspired Air. Each inspiration brings about twenty cubic inches, or two thirds of a pint of air into the lungs. This air only extends down the lungs a short distance, probably not much below the larger bronchial tubes. If the air should remain here it would be of little use. But the law of the diffusion of gases is such that the gases the oxygen and the carbonic acid which are in the bronchial tubes and the air cells freely and rapidly intermingle. The inspired air brings oxygen to the red corpuscles of the blood. The Expired Air. If the expired air be collected and examined, it will be found to differ from the inspired air in the following particulars : 1. It has lost oxygen. The expired air contains nearly five per cent less oxygen than the atmospheric air. 2. It has gained carbonic acid. The expired air contains nearly a hundred times more carbonic acid than the atmospheric air. This gas represents one of the waste products of the body, and must be removed. 3. It has absorbed water. The expired air is saturated with watery vapor. This is easily shown by breathing on a mirror, or on any polished surface. 4. It contains organic matter. The amount is usually very slight, and not easily detected. If it be in excess RESPIRATION. 137 / it imparts a perceptible odor to the breath, which may be both offensive and poisonous. Even with the ordi- nary amount, its presence is easily detected if a number of persons be confined in a small room where there is poor ventilation. Under such circumstances the odor becomes very offensive, remaining in the room for hours after it is vacated by the people. 5. The expired air is usually warmer. To be more exact, it is generally about the temperature of the body, being unaffected by the variable temperature of the inspired air. The Lungs as Excretory Organs. An excretion consists of waste products that are useless or injurious to the body, and must be separated, or thrown off, from it. Cer- tain organs are known as the excretory organs, because of the work they accomplish in this line. Viewed in this light, the lungs must be regarded as excretory organs, as they are constantly throwing off from the body car- bonic acid and other impurities. ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, AND THE LUNGS. Alcohol. Persons who are in the habit of using alco- holic beverages seem to be especially liable to colds, and to bronchial affections. Probably one explanation of this is that often the circulation in such persons is poor, and the heart's action affected. As a result, there is a slight, but constant congestion of the lungs ; that is, too much blood is in the lung tissue. In some cases, late hours and bad habits of life increase the effects just noted. It is certainly true that an inflamed condition of the throat and larynx is generally found in those addicted 138 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. to strong drink, while attacks of bronchitis are not infrequent. Another fact stands very prominent. It is this : the probability of recovery from an attack of pneumonia is immensely less in the intemperate than in the temperate. We believe the great majority of physicians, everywhere, will testify to the truth of this statement. It is generally recognized that the contin- ued use of strong drink undermines the power of the body to resist disease, and in no disease is it more marked than in the one already mentioned. Tobacco. Tobacco especially affects the upper air pas- sages. The irritating qualities of the smoke keep the throat congested, so that smokers suffer from a special variety of catarrh, known as the " smoker's sore throat." The larynx is often in sympathy with the throat affection, and there is a dry, hacking cough. QUESTIONS. j. Give three important functions of the nose. 2. 'State why these are so important. 3. Why is breathing through the mouth injurious ? 4. What is within the larynx? 5. Where. is the epiglottis? What is its use ? 6. Describe the trachea. 7. Describe the air cells. What changes occur in blood here ? 8. State some facts about the pleura. 9. How would you prove that the lungs have great elasticity ? 10. Give the mechanism of respiration. 11. How is the chest enlarged in inspiration? 12. What is respiration ? Is it voluntary ? 13. How many respirations per minute? 14. How does the expired air differ from the inspired? 15. Give some of the ill effects of alcohol and tobacco. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 139 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1. The Respiratory Apparatus. Procure the lungs of a eheep at the market. Wash in water, and wipe carefully. Call attention to the trachea, the bronchi, and the lungs. 2. Inflation of the Lungs. Insert a tube of any kind into the trachea. Tie the trachea tightly about it. Breathe into the tube and so force air into the lungs, thus making them expand as in inspiration. Remove the mouth and the lungs will collapse, as in expiration. A pair of bel- lows is the best for inflating the lungs. 3. Lung Tissue will Float. Cut off a small piece of the lung tissue and throw it into water ; it will float, showing that air still remains in the air cells. Press the pieces in the hands to force out the air ; still it will not sink. 4. The Trachea is always Open. Cut the trachea trans- versely. Try to compress it, and thus illustrate how the rings of cartilage keep it open so that it cannot collapse. Notice that the rings of cartilage are incomplete behind ; and that a membrane completes them. 5. The Bronchi. Cut away the lung tissue which is near the lower end of the trachea. First notice how the trachea divides into two bronchi, before entering the lungs ; then notice how these divide into the bronchial tubes. 6. The Larynx. By previous arrangement at the market, a complete larynx may be procured. This will show the epiglottis, the vocal cords, and the hard cartilaginous walls. 7. Respiratory Acts. Have the pupils illustrate inspira- tion, expiration, and a complete respiration. 8. Respiration, Voluntary and Involuntary. Show that respiration is voluntary by fast, then slow breathing ; this soon becomes tiresome. 9. Watery Vapor. Breathe on any polished surface, and notice the condensed vapor. 140 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XIII. VENTILATION. Amount of Air Inhaled. In the preceding chapter it was stated that about twenty cubic inches of air are inhaled at each inspiration. Based on this statement, and mak- ing due allowances for muscular exertion by which breathing is increased in frequency, it is safe to say each person uses at least three hundred and fifty cubic feet of air, daily, in respiration. Oxygen supports Life. After breathing the air once it still contains considerable oxygen ; after breathing this same air over and over again the amount is so reduced that the animal dies from suffocation. In the case of man, if the amount of oxygen in the air be reduced one half, breathing continues with great difficulty. A certain amount of oxygen in the air is necessary to support human life ; while a much less amount of oxygen is required to support life in some of the lower animals. It requires more oxygen for the burning of a candle than it does to support life, for a short time. Advantage is often taken of this fact to test the safety of entering a well, a vault, or an underground passage. A lighted candle is lowered into the cavity ; if a sufficient amount of oxygen be present, the candle will continue to burn ; if not, it will be immediately extinguished. If the can- VENTILATION. 141 die continues to burn it will be safe for the man to enter the enclosure, for the reason that more than enough oxygen is present to support human life. Carbonic Acid is a Poison. Each respiration not only takes oxygen from the air, but it also gives to it a quan- tity of carbonic acid and other deleterious ingredients. Hence it is injurious to breathe the same air, even for the second time. If the air be poor in oxygen, it will contain a large amount of carbonic acid. As this gas is heavier than the air, it will fall when confined in a small space and left undisturbed. The air which is the least capable of supporting life is then found at the low- est level. For this reason the air at the bottom of the well is much more poisonous than the air nearer the top. An animal placed in a closed space will absorb from the air a certain amount of the oxygen, and will give off carbonic acid. Soon the surrounding atmosphere will be so saturated with carbonic acid that no more of it will pass from the body ; this is according to certain laws respecting the diffusion of gases; therefore the carbonic acid is retained in the blood of the animal, causing its speedy death. This carbonic acid poisoning may occur while there is yet enough oxygen remaining in the air to support life. From what has been said, we conclude that oxygen is necessary to life, and that an insufficient amount of it in the air will cause death. We also conclude that if the carbonic acid be not removed, it may accumulate in the air sufficiently to cause death. The air we breathe, therefore, should have a certain amount of oxygen, and should not have an excess of carbonic acid. 142 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. A person is warned when needing more oxygen and less carbonic acid, unless as the result of some acci- dent. Headaches, restlessness,' heaviness, and drowsi- ness result from a deficiency of oxygen and a surplus of carbonic acid. Unless the system is freely supplied with the former and readily disposes of the latter, the vital forces become lowered and the whole body predis- posed to disease. An Abundance of Air Necessary. The above facts are given especially that we may appreciate the necessity for an abundance of fresh air. It does not necessarily follow that the person must be either out of doors or in a very large room; but it does follow that, under all circumstances, an abundant supply of fresh air should be continuously within reach of the body. Pure Air. The fact that the air is cold, and feels fresh to the face, is not proof that it is pure ; currents of air may be loaded with poisons. Pure air contains the proper proportion of oxygen, and is free from poison- ous gases and disease germs. Out-door air is not neces- sarily pure, as some sewer gas or decaying animal matter may be near. Yet, as a rule, owing to the law of the diffusion of gases, out-door air is the purest. An abun- dance of pure air is what is demanded. It is not always possible to tell when the air is pure ; for the best ordinary test we have is the sense of smell. Upon entering a room, if the air seems " close " it is suf- ficient proof that better ventilation is needed. After re- maining in a close room the nose becomes accustomed to the odor and the closeness is not noticed, so the ques- tion of ventilation should be attended to as soon as the room is entered. VENTILATION. 143 A Deficiency of Air Dangerous. Many cases are on record where persons have been poisoned by repeatedly breathing the same air. This is not likely to occur in our houses, because there are so many crevices about the windows and doors that enough fresh air enters. But in the holds or cabins of ships, and in the deep cells of prisons, some terrible results have occurred. Many writers have referred to the " black hole of Cal- cutta " as an illustration of this fact. In a small room with only two narrow windows, there were confined one hundred and forty-six prisoners ; these persons were obliged to breathe the same air over and over again, for the windows were altogether too small to allow a sufficient amount of fresh air to enter. In eight hours one hundred and twenty-three of the prisoners were dead, while those whose lives were spared endured great suffering. Many rooms, built to accommodate large numbers at a time, have an insufficient supply of fresh air, as, for in- stance, schoolrooms, lecture-halls, and churches. While such a deficiency may not be enough to cause death, yet the effect on the body is marked and harmful. Drowsi- ness, with a dull, heavy headache, often results from a stay in such a poorly ventilated room. The listless and sleepy appearance of many a scholar is simply the result of im- pure air, rather than of a dull mind. " Break open the window ! " shouted a noted divine, in the midst of his discourse, as he saw many in his congregation asleep. He knew that the most brilliant speaker could not over- come the drowsy effects of impure air. If it becomes necessary to spend a considerable time each day in a poorly ventilated or overcrowded room the 144 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. whole body is soon affected. Living in poorly ventilated rooms enfeebles tbe whole body ; the appetite fails, the red corpuscles are reduced in number, the skin becomes colorless, and the whole system shows that it is suffer- ing from too little oxygen and from too much carbon k acid. Colds and coughs are frequent ; and the system has only slight power to resist disease of any kind. The whole condition is one of " oxygen starvation " and carbonic acid poisoning. The Proper Amount of Air. It has been stated that an abundance of pure air is necessary. It is better to say that an over-abundance is necessary, so that if any error be committed it may be on the safe side. The supply of fresh air required for a room depends largely on the number of persons in the room ; for it is evident that a hundred persons will require a hundred times as much air as one person. Then, too, the presence of fires in the room must be considered. The burning gas consumes much oxygen and gives off carbonic acid. For this reason a crowded hall, on a cold winter's evening, with heavy fires and lighted gas, requires much more ventilation than when a small company is assembled on a warm summer's day. As it would cause discomfort to raise the windows and open the doors during the winter time, it follows that some system of ventilation is absolutely necessary for all places where persons are likely to assemble. Heating and Ventilation. How to obtain an unfailing supply of fresh, out-door air in our rooms is the con- stant study of those who plan homes and public build- ings. Years ago this subject received no attention whatever. This was partly due to the fact that the VENTILATION. 145 method of heating the houses was far different from that used at the present day. The open fireplaces made a constant change of air, while the cracks about the doors and windows furnished avenues through which the fresh air entered the rooms. A furnace gives good ventilation, because as the warm air enters the room from the registers the cold air escapes through ventilators in the wall near the floor ; thus a constant current of air is established. Great care should be exercised to see that the cold air-flue of the furnace receives its supply from clean surroundings. If the out-door air, entering the flue is near decaying animal or vegetable matter, or an imperfect sewer, then the impure air might be conveyed into the building, producing severe and perhaps fatal sickness. If the rooms be heated by a furnace, the air should be moistened by having it pass over a dish of water. A fail- ure to do this results in the necessity of breathing very dry air, which is decidedly injurious. The open grates of modern days are good ventilators. An ordinary stove is a means of ventilation, for as the draught passes through it and up the chimney, fresh air comes in through the opening of doors and the crevices of the windows to take its place. Attention should always be given to the ventilation of the sleeping rooms. One third of our entire lives is spent in these rooms, yet how often do we neglect to make them either cheerful or healthful. Unless the builders of the house have provided some method of ventilation, the air may be changed by raising the lower sash of one window and lowering the upper sash of another. A better method, however, is to admit the 10 146 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. air into the room through wire gauze, used as window screens. There are a number of ventilators for sale in the market which allow a free passage of air and yet effectually prevent draughts. If the lower window sash be raised about six inches and a board be placed under it, completely filling the space between it and the window casing, there will be established some ventilation between the sashes where they meet but where they no longer fit tightly. This is a fairly good method for the winter, but hardly suffi- cient for the more quiet air of .summer. The teacher generally gives personal attention to the ventilation of the schoolroom, and the proper authorities should insist that some method be devised in order that the change of air may be constant and abundant. This does not mean ventilation at noon and recess only ; it means that the change should be continuous and uninterrupted, for anything short of this fails to answer the purpose. Improper Ventilation. Ventilation is improper if it causes sudden changes in the temperature of the air. After the hearty plays of recess when the skin is moist with perspiration, the pupils should not sit down in a cool room. This is too often the cause of colds and coughs. The schoolroom should be of an even temper- ature all through the day ; therefore there must be a constant and uninterrupted change in the air. Ventila- tion is improper if it produces a current of air ; if a draught of air be allowed to strike the back of the neck, or any sensitive part of the body, it is very likely to cause a cold. These currents of air should be carefully avoided, especially when the body is resting from active exercise. VENTILATION. 147 Night Air. Some persons seriously object to opening the windows of their sleeping rooms at night, for fear of "the deadly night air." Yet all the lower animals breathe it, from the delicate and tender young to the strong and aged. Soldiers and hunters breathe it as they sleep beneath their tents, and in the open air, while many invalids have been restored to health by living out of doors both day and night. Fear cold draughts, but do not fear the night air. Florence Nightingale said : " The choice is between pure air without and impure air within ; most people prefer the latter, an unaccountable choice. An open window most nights in the year can hurt no one. In great cities the night air is the best and purest in the twenty-four hours. I could better understand, in towns, shutting the windows during the day than during the night." Ventilate the Cellar. The cellars of houses and other buildings are often great reservoirs of foul air. The cel- lars of dwellings frequently have stored in them quantities of vegetable matter which give off injurious gases as they decompose. As the room is usually dark, the decaying organic matter is unseen, and hence it remains until the escaping gases penetrate the rooms above, and endanger the lives of their inhabitants. Cellars should be well ventilated, kept scrupulously clean, and so built, if pos- sible, that the sunlight can enter them. Drainage. The escape of gas from defective plumb- ing of houses, and from improperly constructed drains and sewers, is the cause of much sickness. Gas may escape from a sewer which is near or under the house, and enter the rooms without being detected. The risk is even greater when the pipes or drains become obstructed., 148 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. thus preventing the full flow of their contents. No one should occupy a house, no matter how well it may he provided " with all modern improvements," until he is satisfied that the plumbing is in good condition, and that the sewers and drains are properly constructed. Deodorizers. One odor may cover another without destroying it. A free use of cologne may cover the odor of a poorly ventilated room, hut it will neither remove the carbonic acid and organic matter, nor will it bring more oxygen. Coffee and sugar are often burned in a room to destroy some poisonous or disa- greeable odor. They do not destroy, however ; they sim- ply cover one odor with another which is more powerful. Any substance that will replace or cover the odor of another, and yet not destroy it, is called a deodorizer. Disinfectants. There are substances which actually destroy odors ; these are true disinfectants. Bad odors in the atmosphere often depend upon the presence of impurities dangerous to health and life ; these must be removed, as far as possible, by free ventilation and by the use of destroying agents. Many chemicals possess the power of purifying the air from germs, and from the products of decaying animal and vegetable matter. Dis- infectants are used to purify sewers, cess pools, sinks, and to destroy the germs of scarlet fever, diphtheria, and small-pox. They are also largely used by Boards of Health and by physicians, to destroy d4sease germs. A disinfectant may be perfectly odorless itself, and yet have the power of destroying the most offensive odors. The chlorides and sulphates of the metallic salts are powerful disinfectants. Preparations of the chlorides are on the market which are reliable and convenient VENTILATION. 149 The sulphate of iron (copperas), dissolved in water in the proportion of four ounces to the gallon, is a useful disinfectant for cleansing gutters, drains, sewers, etc. Absorbents. Absorbents are used to take up the gases from decomposing materials. Lime and charcoal are the most frequently used for this purpose. White- washing a room renders the air sweeter and purer be- cause it absorbs certain gases in the atmosphere. Contagion. Some of the most poisonous substances are entirely free from odor. This is the case with the germs which are believed to cause a number of diseases. Scientists are not agreed as to the germ theory of disease, but it seems altogether probable that a number of diseases, such as diphtheria, scarlet fever, measles, and small-pox are caused by minute germs. In some way the germs gain an entrance into the body where they develop and cause disease. If a well person approaches one thus ill and comes in contact with these germs, and if the body of the well person be in just such a condition that these germs can there thrive and develop, then the exposed party will, in due time, be ill with the same disease. These germs may lie dormant for years until their surroundings are suitable for their development. A grain of wheat may be kept for years and show no signs of life ; but when at last it is surrounded with warmth and moisture it begins to revive and to give evidences of life. Soon a sprout appears, when, if food and sunlight be added, it will bear fruit. Thus disease germs may remain in a room for a long time, clinging to the paper, the carpet, or the walls. Months, or even years afterwards, some inhabitant of 150 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the room may fall a victim to scarlet fever or small- pox. Then it is remembered that not since the illness of the last patient has the room been occupied, and never has it been thoroughly disinfected. Germs may not only lie dormant in this way, but they may be carried long distances in the clothing, or in the hair. From the above outline, only too brief for such an important subject, some valuable conclusions may be drawn. Persons suffering from such contagious diseases as scarlet fever or diphtheria should be kept in a well ventilated room, which none but the physician and nurse should enter ; the nurse should leave the room only for exercise, and then she should have a second room in which she could change her clothing, and make free use of the best disinfectants. These ideas are now thor- oughly understood by all competent physicians, who can be relied upon to see them carried out in detail. QUESTIONS. 1. Give the amount of air inhaled with each inspiration. 2. What is said about the necessity of oxygen ? 3. What do you learn about carbonic acid ? 4. Pure air should contain what ? And be free from what ? 5. Give some of the bad effects from a deficiency of air. 6. The supply of fresh air required for a room depends upon what conditions or circumstances? 7. Give some of the methods mentioned for ventilation. 8. When is ventilation improper ? 9. What is a deodorizer V 10. What is a disinfectant? Name one. 11. Name some absorbents. THE KIDNEYS. 151 CHAPTER XIV. THE KIDNEYS. General Description. The kidneys are two in number, one on either side of the spinal column. Each kidney is about four inches in length, two inches in breadth, and about an inch in thickness, and from four and one half to six ounces in weight. The upper border of the kid- ney is about on a level with the eleventh rib. A kidney resembles a bean in shape. It is com- pletely covered with a thin membrane, called the capsule. The convex bor- der of either kidney is placed toward the side of the body, while the con- cave border is next the spinal column. Each kid- ney is supplied with blood by an artery which arises from the aorta. This vessel enters the kidney as shown FIG. 45. A kidney : A, an artery ; v, a vein ; D, the duct that carries away the materials filtered from the Mood. 152 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. at A, Fig. 45. After the arterial blood has circulated through the kidney it is returned through a vein at V. This vein empties into the large vein which lies by the side of the aorta. Minute Structure. On making a section through the long di- ameter of a kidney, a s represented i n Fig. 46, it appears to consist of two different substances. The outer part, near the convex border, looks red and gran- ular. Farther in, are seen a number of little eminences, illustrated at 5. Fig. 46. Fine lines ex- tend fan-shaped, toward the convex border. They re- FIG. 46. A section through a kidney : present a Collection (1, 2, 3, 4), collections of tubes, or canals; of Canals (5), papillae on which the tubes open ; (6), , , . , below the end of the dotted line is a blood The most interest- vessel ; others are seen above this ; (7), the ing portion of the dilated beginning of the duct, (8), which kidney is found ill that part near the convex border, to the left of Fig. 46. Here active changes are constantly taking place. In this portion there are seen, with the microscope, vast numbers of small, round, THE KIDNEYS. red bodies, which are but the beginnings of long, narrow tubes. Two of these red bodies are illustrated in Fig. 47. Each body consists of coils of capillary blocd ves- sels, surrounded by a mem- brane. While the blood is circulating through these bodies, certain substances, principally water, are taken from the blood. These substances are car- ried away through the mi- nute canals until they empty into a large duct, shown at 7 and 8, Fig. 46. This duct carries the secretion directly to a reservoir, designed especially for its reception. Thus we find that the kidneys are purely excretory organs, taking from the blood materials which would rapidly prove poisonous if allowed to remain in the body. Urea. The most important ingredient taken from the blood by the kidneys is called urea. It represents the worn-out, or used up, nitrogenous tissues of the body. A greater part of the nitrogen which enters the body with the foods is removed from it by the kidneys in the form of urea. If, for any reason, the kidneys fail to take the urea from the blood, the most serious results follow. Symptoms of blood poisoning soon ap- pear, and convulsions and even death speedily follow ; unless the difficulty be promptly relieved. FIG. 47. One of the tubes of the kidney, magnified. 154 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. If some of the tubes be affected, as in Bright' s dis- ease, then the kidneys do not completely remove the waste products from the blood, and prolonged sickness results. At last, the accumulation of urea in the system is sufficient to produce poisoning and death. Danger from Colds. Disease of the kidneys is often caused by exposure to cold, especially if the body be moist with perspiration at the time. If the function of the skin be suddenly checked by the action of cold, the blood leaves the surface and goes to internal organs, as the kidneys, causing congestion ; the excretory work the skin was performing is thus suddenly thrown on the kidneys, making them do double duty. As a result they become inflamed and unable to properly perform their work. ALCOHOL, AND THE KIDNEYS. Alcohol is recognized as one of the most frequent causes of kidney disease, and especially of that form known as Bright's disease. When much alcohol is used, a certain proportion of it passes out of the body unchanged, through the kidneys. The alcohol comes in contact with the delicate cells lining the tubes, and so alters them that they are unfitted to do their work. If the use of the alcohol be continued the cells grad- ually diminish in size, the round bodies become smaller, and the tubes and canals likewise are reduced. The connective tissue, which is used only to hold the tubes and canals together, grows thicker and thicker, until the whole organ becomes largely composed of it. THE KIDNEYS. 155 At last many of the tubes become so useless that the urea is not taken from the blood, and death occurs. To produce these changes in the structure of the kidney it is not necessary that the drink be strong with alcohol. Many such cases are directly caused by the use of ale and beer. It is absolutely necessary that all poisonous materials be removed from the body as nature intended. We may deprive ourselves of food and keep nourishment from en- tering the body for days at a time. We may, in this way, check the action of those organs directly concerned in the secretion of the digestive juices, as the stomach and the pancreas. But we cannot check, even for the shortest time, the action of those organs employed in the removal of the worn-out and poisonous materials of the body, without seriously endangering the health and even the life. In view of these facts, it does not seem possible that any one who is familiar with them would try the experi- ment of taking alcoholic beverages into the body ; espe- cially so when science so clearly points to their direct effect on such important organs as the kidneys. It is an experiment that has cost many thousands of lives. QUESTIONS. 'i. Give a general description of the kidneys. 2. What is the most important ingredient taken from the blood by the kidneys ? 3. What does the urea represent? 4. Explain how exposure to cold affects the kidneys. 5. Give some of the effects of alcohol on the kidneys. 156 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XV. THE BONES. General Description. There are two hundred and four distinct bones in the body. This does not include the teeth, the patella or knee-pan, and a few other bony structures occasionally present. The bones vary greatly in form ; some are long and stout, as the femur ; others are short and small, as the bones of the hand and foot. Some are flat, as many of the bones of the skull, while others are so irregular that it would be very difficult to describe them. On closely examining one of the larger bones r eminences and depressions are seen. The emi- nences afford places for the attachment of muscles and tendons, while the depressions afford passages for blood vessels, nerves, and tendons. A FIG. 48. A bone with the periosteum partly peeled off. The Periosteum. A thin membrane called the perios- teum, surrounds each bone. It is composed of two lay- ers, an outer layer of firm tissue, which is simply for THE BOSTES. 157 support and protection, and an inner layer of cells. This inner layer is essential to the life of the bone, and its cells are even capable of forming new bone. In cases where it is necessary to re- move a portion of a bone, the surgeon avails himself of this fact. He simply peels back the membrane, removes the injured bone, and thus leaves the periosteum to make new bone. The periosteum is well supplied with blood vessels, some of which pass directly into the bone through mi- nute openings on the surface. Many of these openings can be seen on any bone from which the periosteum has been removed. Compact and Cancellous Tis- sue. If one of the long bones of any animal be sawed lengthwise, it will be found to be hollow, except at the ends. The hard, thick wall, midway between the ends of the bone, is called the com- pact tissue; while the spongy, honey-combed bone, forms tte shalt - occupying the center of the ends of the bone is called FIG. 49. Longitudinal section of the femur. The spongy, or cancellous bone shows at the ends ; while the compact, hollow bone L58 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the cancellous tissue. The smaller bones and the flat bones are not hollow ; they have an outer layer of com- pact bone, within which is the spongy bone, or cancel- lated tissue. FIG. 50. Transverse section of the femur. The section to the left is from the shaft ; to the right is from the head or upper portion of the femur. The Marrow. The large central cavity of the long bones, and all the spaces in the spongy bone, are filled with a yellowish or reddish substance, called marrow. It consists principally of fat cells and marrow cells. These marrow cells doubtless give rise to some of the red corpuscles of the blood. There are other sources of origin for these corpuscles, but it is well established that some of them originate in this way. Microscopic Structure. If a longitudinal piece of bone be ground very thin, and then examined with a micro- scope, a number of canals will be seen parallel to the long axis of the bone. These canals unite with each other, as shown in Fig. 51, by short branches extending across nearly at right angles. A cross section of bone shows that these canals are circular of oval in shape, as THE BONES. 159 illustrated in Fig. 52. These are the Haversian canals, so called after their discoverer, Cloptin Havers. In the living bone all these canals are filled with blood vessels, while the frequent communication of the canals permits the blood to flow to all parts of the bone. But the most FIG. 51. Longitudinal section of bone, showing the Haversian canals, magnified. interesting fact connected with the structure of bone is that living cells are always present in them. The Bone Cells. Between the Haversian canals there are oblong spaces, called lacunae, signifying a hole or a lake. Extending from the lacuna in every direction, are minute canals, called canaliculi. In these irregular- shaped spaces are the bone cells. In Fig. 53 is a longi- tudinal section of bone showing these holes, with their many-branched canals extending from them. Fig. 52 is not so highly magnified, but it represents the vast number of these lacunas, with their canals leading from them. The lacunas are very small, yet the canaliculi are much smaller, being not over ziro~5~b ^ an mc ^ ^ n diameter. Yet in all these there is living matter, 160 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the bone cells. These cells are nucleated, and are of the same shape as are the spaces in which they rest. Therefore the idea that bone is dead tissue, not subject to change, must be abandoned. Bone is a living tissue, filled with blood vessels, nerves, and cells, which are as much endowed with life as are the cells of other parts of the body. A framework of fibers extends throughout the whole bone, holding all the parts in place. FIG. 52. Transverse section of bone, not as highly magnified as Fig. 53. Four Haversian canals (a) show, surrounded by lacunae and canaliculi. Animal and Mineral Matter. The parts just described - the blood vessels, bone cells, marrow, nerves, and the framework of fibers constitute the animal matter of bone. But the body must have a strong support, some kind of a framework to which muscles can be attached, and in which the most delicate organs can be protected. We find, therefore, that some mineral substance is added THE BONES. 161 to the soft and yielding animal matter ; this makes the whole tissue hard and unyielding. By remembering that fire will destroy animal matter and that acids will dissolve mineral matter, some inter- esting results may be obtained. For instance, if a fresh FIG. 53. Longitudinal section of bone, highly magnified, the two Haversian canals are a number of lacunae and canaliculi. Between bone be placed in the fire, and subjected to heat for a considerable time, all the animal matter can be burned out. The shape of the bone will not be changed ; it will only become lighter and whiter. After such treatment it can be easily broken and pounded into a fine powder. The mineral matter consists largely of lime. This is easily removed by soaking the bone in a weak acid for a few hours. The shape of the bone will not be changed ; it will only lose its hardness, and become easily bent in any direction. All the blood vessels and the bone cells still remain in the bone. 162 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. From these experiments we easily draw the conclu- sion that, if the bones do not contain the proper amount of mineral matter, they will bend, and will be unable to keep their shape, and properly support the tissues around them. If there is a deficiency in the amount of animal matter, the bones will be too brittle, and liable to break if any extra strain be brought upon them; Nature very wisely provides that in early life there should be an excess of the animal matter in bone. If this were not so the tumbles and falls which are the common lot of all children at play, would result in many serious injuries. But the bones of youth have such a spring to them that children are not likely to suffer often from their fracture. In old age the opposite condition exists, and there is an excess of mineral matter. The bones are very brittle, and are much more easily broken ; a slight fall often being sufficient to fracture a large bone. The Reproduction of Bone. It has already been stated that bone is a living tissue. Because of this, it is capa- ble of being reproduced if only some of the original cells be left undisturbed. If the end of a young bone be re- moved it may again be reproduced so that a fairly good joint will be formed. Pieces of bone that have been broken, or sawed off will again unite with the original bone. We have already mentioned that if a portion of bone be removed and the periosteum left, new bone will soon take its place. The periosteum, even when trans- planted to another part of the body, will give rise to new bone. If a large bone be fractured, the periosteum soon deposits a substance on the broken ends. This is ut first soft, and of jelly-like consistence ; later it be- THE BONES. 163 comes more solid and resembles cartilage ; and still later thin layers of bone appear, reuniting the broken ends. Strength of Bone. Bone has about three times the resisting power of ash wood. Experiments have proven that a cubic inch of bone will support a weight of 5000 pounds. A Good Form. To have a fine, erect figure is certainly desirable. But this cannot be secured it' certain laws of nature be persistently broken. The body must not be distorted by improper dress, or by wrong methods of walking or sitting. The figure is easily made crooked by repeatedly yielding to a feeling of languor, or by sit- ting in a cramped and unnatural position. In standing it is better to rest the weight on both feet. The habit of resting the weight on one and the same foot is sure to make the hip bones grow out of shape ; it will also bend the spine, and make it incline toward one side. In walking, the whole body should be erect, with the shoulders well thrown back. QUESTIONS. 1. Give a general description of the bones. 2. What is the periosteum ? 3 Where is compact bone found? Where cancellous ? 4. Where is the marrow found ? Of what is it composed? 5. Describe the bone cells. 6. What constitutes the animal matter of bone? 7. How does fire affect bone ? 8. How can the mineral matter be removed ? 9. What conclusion can be drawn from these experiments? 10. During what period of life do the bones contain an excess eft animnl matter? When an excess of mineral matter? 11. How is bone reproduced? 164 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XVI. THE SKELETON. Object of the Skeleton. All the higher animals are provided with a skeleton. This is used either as a sup- port, or framework, for the organs and tissues of the body, or as a protection from injury. In some of the lower animals the skeleton is entirely on the outside. The oyster is completely inclosed in its hard shell, and is thus well protected against the attacks of enemies. The lobster has an exterior skeleton also, but the parts are so arranged that there is considerable freedom of motion. The turtle not only has an interior skeleton, but also a large plate, or exterior skeleton of hard ma- terial. This animal can withdraw his head beneath the outer skeleton, and thus the whole body is protected from violence. The animals which have exterior skeletons do not have such freedom of motion as is required by the higher animals. Therefore, in man, beasts, birds, fishes, and some other animals, the skeleton is entirely within the body. It gives to the body a solid framework, to which can be attached ligaments for holding the joints together, and muscles for moving the various parts. It also makes a more or less complete covering, or pro- tection, to many important organs. As a protection, THE SKELETON. 165 the bones of the skull furnish a perfect covering to the delicate texture of the brain ; they nearly surround the eye ; while the most delicate parts of the ear are deeply imbedded in bony tissue. The ribs, spinal column, and sternum make a nearly complete covering for the heart and lungs. Bones of the Skull The skull is composed of twenty- two bones, which are usually divided into the bones of the cranium, and the bones of the face. The bones of the cranium are eight in number, and they are so ar- ranged that they form a solid and strong covering for the brain. At the base of the brain is a large opening through which passes the spinal cord and large blood vessels. The bones of the face are fourteen in number ; they protect the organs of the special senses of sight, smell, and taste, and they also provide for the recep- tion of the teeth. The skull rests upon the first vertebra and upon a tooth-like projection, or pivot, of the second. It nods, or moves forward and backward, upon the first vertebra, which remains stationary. It moves from side to side by the motion of the first vertebra upon the second. During this motion the skull and the first vertebra move together, the vertebra swinging around the pivot, which extends upward from the vertebra below it. A glance at Figs. 53, 54, and 55 will aid in making this clear. The Spinal Column. The spinal column consists of twenty-four small bones, resembling those illustrated at Figs. 56 and 57, and two irregular bones, at the lower end of the column. The two irregular bones, at an early period of life, are composed of nine 166 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. separate pieces, each representing a vertebra. Later, five of these unite to form one bone, and four to form another. These two compound bones form the back of the pelvic cavity. A reference to Fig. 54 shows that the spinal column is not straight, but forms a series of curves. In the neck, and in the abdomen, the convexity of the curves is forward, while in the chest, and in the pel- vis, it is backward. These curves give additional elasticity to the column, and with the aid of the elastic cartilages give great protection to the brain from sudden jars. Each bone in the spinal column is called a vertebra, from a Latin word signifying to turn, as a joint. Thus a translation or definition of the word would be, " a joint of the spinal col- umn." Each vertebra has within it a large opening, through which passes the spinal cord. The vertebras are held together by ligaments, and are so placed, one directly over the other, that the central openings form a con- tinuous canal extending the entire length of the spinal column. This is called the spinal canal ; it furnishes a FIG. 54. The spinal column. The right side of the figure is toward the back of the Lody. THE SKELETON. 167 firm protection to the spinal cord. Between the ver- tebrae are discs, or cushions, of elastic cartilage. This cartilage resembles rubber in its elasticity. Its great use can be appreciated when it is stated that the combined thickness of all these cushions is over six inches. They greatly diminish the shock and jar that comes to the body from jumping and running. Nearly all the vertebrae resemble those shown in Figs. 56 and 57. Fig. 56 illustrates a vertebra of the neck, as viewed from FIG. 55. Two vertebrae, with the elastic cushion of cartilage between above. The long process, them C, is the one that is so easily felt at the back of the neck. The darkly shaded oval portion at the top of the figure, immediately in front of the opening for the spinal cord, is the place of attachment of the elastic cartilage. Fig. 57 represents a vertebra lower down the spinal column, and viewed from the side. A represents the front of the vertebra, and the place where the cartilage is attached. The long process, B, extends backward and downward, forming a part of the ridge which may be felt extending down the center of the back. The " atlas " is so named because it supports the globe of the head. It stands at the top of the spinal column, and differs in shape from the other vertebrae 168 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. It has no cushion of cartilage to separate it from the bones above or below it, neither has it any long process. There are two places on the atlas, however, which are of interest ; they are illustrated at 3, Fig. 58. On these surfaces the base of the skull rests and moves. It has a large opening in its cen ter, which is divided into two parts by a strong FIG. 56. The upper surface of one of the vertebrae of the neck : A is an opening in each side for a blood vessel ; B is the point on which the bone above it rests ; c is the long process that forms a part of the ridge which extends from the back of the spinal column. opening, 1, passes a bony pivot, projecting up from the bone djrectly beneath. The " axis " is so named because it forms the pivot upon which the head turns from side to side. Its most peculiar feature is the strong bony projection, resembling ligament, illustrated in Fig. 58 by a dotted line. Through the back and larger opening, 2, the spinal cord passes ; while through the smaller a tooth, which rises -v Y * f perpendicularly Irom One of the vertebrae viewed f rom the side : A, represents the body of its upper and front the vertebra ; B, the process. part. When the atlas and the axis are in position THE SKELETON. 169 they correspond with Fig. 60. A study of these last three illustrations will make it clear how the head turns from side to side with the atlas, while the axis is stationary, both the head and the atlas rotating on the pivot of the axis. They also show how the head can bend forward and back- ward, while the atlas re- mains fixed and immov- FIG. 58. The atlas, or the first vertebra, viewed from above : (1) the process of the axis ; (2) the opening for the spinal cord ; (3) the places on which the skull rests. The dotted line represents a ligament which holds the process, (1), in place. of- the body. The ribs are so curved that each makes an elastic arch of bone. Behind, the ribs are attached to the spinal column. Tn front, the first seven are at- tached to the sternum, by means of cartilages. The next three are fastened to each other by cartilages; while the last two have no FIG. 59. The axis, or the sec- attachment in front, hence ond vertebra, viewed from the t h ey are Called the floating ribs. The Thoracic Cavity. The thoracic cavity is inclosed by the spinal column behind ? the ste.rnum in front, the ribs able upon the axis. It is one of the most curious and wonderful mechan- isms of the body. The Ribs. There are twelve ribs on each side side : (1) the process on which the atlas turns seen also at 1, (Figs. 58, and 60) ; (2) the place on which the atlas rests. 170 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. on the sides, and the diaphragm below. The spaces be- tween the ribs are filled in with muscular tissue, so that surrounding the thoracic cavity there is a complete wall, formed partly of bone and partly of muscle. All that part FIG. 60. The atlas and axis in position, front view : (1) the tooth- like process of the axis, showing above the atlas ; (2) the axis ; (3) the atlas. of Fig. 43 which is above the diaphragm, 6, represents the thorax, or chest, with its contents in place. In this cavity are the lungs, heart, and large blood vessels. T*he Upper Extremities. There are five large bones and several small ones that belong to the upper ex- tremity. The clavicle, or collar bone, extends from the front of the shoulder to the top of the sternum ; it keeps the shoulder. joint outward and backward. The scapula, or shoulder blade, forms the back part of the shoulder, and is between the shoulder joint and the spine ; at its upper and outer part is a cavity, or socket, for the re- ception of the head of the humerus. The humerus, or arm bone, extends from the shoulder to the elbow. Its head is round, forming a ball for the ball-and-socket joint at the shoulder ; the lower end is flattened and grooved, to make the hinge joint of the elbow. The radius and ulna are the two bones of the forearm. THE SKELETON. 171 The ulna forms the hinge joint at the elbow with the humerus, while the radius forms the upper part of the wrist joint. The radius and ulna are placed side by side, and are so arranged that the radius can move FIG. 61. Front view of the sternum and parts attached to it ; (A, B, c) the three portions of the sternum ; (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) the cartilages which unite the first seven ribs directly to the sternum ; (8, 9, 10) the cartilages which unite the eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs indirectly to the sternum. To the right of the Fig. only the cartilages are shown ; to the left, the ends of the ribs are shown also. partly around the ulna, giving the hand the power of rotation, or turning. The radius is on the side of the arm corresponding with the thumb. The remain- ing bones of the upper extremity form the hand, and by their arrangement allow a great variety of move- ments. 172 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The Pelvis. The pelvis is inclosed, on the back, by the two lower bones of the spinal column ; on the sides, by the large hip bones ; and in front, by the pubic bones. The curved shape of the upper edge of the hip bones gives a strong support for the abdominal organs. The sides furnish a means of attachment for the lower extremities, while the back gives attachment to the spinal column. The Lower Extremities, The bones of the lower extremity are much like those of the upper. The femur, or thigh bone, is the longest, largest, and strongest bone in the body. Its head is ball shaped to form the ball-and- socket joint with the bones of the pelvis. Near the head is a rough- ened mass of bone, to which mus- cles are attached. The lower end of the bone is flattened, to form, with the tibia, the hinge joint of the knee. The tibia and fibula are the two bones which form the leg. They are placed side by side, but are not movable as are the bones of the forearm. The front of the tibia forms the sharp ridge felt in the front of the leg, while the fibula forms the out- I FIG. 62. The femur. THE SKELETON. 173 side of the leg. The patella, or knee pan, protects the knee in front. Bones of the Foot. The bones of the foot are so united that they form an arch, of which only the front and the back touch the ground. This arch is useful in protecting the body from severe shocks, as in the act of running or jumping; for it is evi- dent that when the FlG> 63> side view of the bones of weight of the body is the foot, naturally arranged in the form thrown upon the arch, of an arch - its center is pressed downward, thus acting as a spriner. The Joints, Whenever bones form a joint they are covered with a layer of highly polished cartilage. This gives some slight elasticity, and also reduces the friction. Covering the cartilage is a very thin membrane which is constantly secreting, or pouring out, a watery fluid, called the synovial fluid, or joint water. It serves the same purpose as does oil to the wheels and joints of machinery. The Ligaments. The bones are held to- gether at the joints by bands of tissue, called ligaments. These are very dense and strong, and capable of withstanding Fig. 64. A longitudinal section through a joint, showing a layer of cartilage over the end of each bone : (1) the ends of the bones ; (2) the layers of cartilage. 174 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. great strain without injury. Fig. 65 shows how firml) and completely the shoulder joint is covered with these ligaments. Fig. 66 illustrates how the head of the fe- mur is buried in the socket prepared for it ; while Fig. 67 illustrates the hip joint after the outer ligaments have been removed, and the bone pulled partly out of its socket. A strong liga- ment still remains, holding the head of the femur to the center of the socket. Sometimes the liga- ments are unduly stretched, or slightly torn, as when the wrist or ankle is sprained. Such an injury usually causes great pain, and recovery is slow. The ligaments may be so broken or torn that the bones slip out of their proper places. The bone is then said to be " out of joint," or dislocated. In a few healthy persons the ligaments are very loose, so that, by the action of the muscles alone, some of the joints can be dislocated at will. Such persons are said to have loose joints. Varieties of Joints. Joints may be either movable, im- FIG. 65. Front view of the bones of the shoulder : (1) the clavicle ; (2) a process which extends from the back of the scapula, and which can be felt as a prominence on the back of the shoulder ; (3) the scapula ; (4) the humerus. The joint is enclosed by ligaments. THE SKELETON. 175 perfect, or immov- able. The movable joints vary exceed- ingly in the degree of their mobility. The opposing bony sur- faces move upon one another, and the ex- tent of the motion is only limited by the structure of that The imperfect joints are such as are found in the spinal FIG. 66. A section through the hip joint, illus- trating the head of the femur resting in a socket, and thus forming a ball-and-socket joint. FIG. 67. The hip joint, opened. All the ligaments have been removed except the one which holds the head of the femur to the bottom of the socket. 176 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. column. There is some slight motion between the ver- tebrae, due to the elasticity of the thick plates of car- tilage. It is the same motion that can be made after cementing a thick plate of rubber be- tween two blocks of wood. The elasticity of the rubber would allow a certain free- dom of motion and yet the parts would not move upon one another. Examples of the immovable joints are seen in the union of the bones of the skull. The edges of the bones are so fitted FIG. 68. The upper surface of the . . , ., .. skull, showing the sutures, or imroova- lntO 6ach ther that ble joints. - they form an unyield- ing joint, or suture. The Ball-and-Socket Joint. In the ball-and-socket joint, the head of one bone, which is more or less round like a ball, plays in the socket, or depression, of another bone. The bone with the round head can move in any direction, only the extent of its motion will depend upon the shape of the socket. If the socket be deep and small, as in the hip, the motion will be limited, but if the socket be shallow and broad, as in the shoulder, then the motion will be free in every direction. Hinge Joints. The movements of the hinge joints are compared to those of a door. The elbow is the host THE SKELETON. 177 example of a hinge joint. The movement is limited, for while the arm can be bent forward and then straight- FIG. 69. The scapula and humerus in proper position to form the ball- and-socket joint of the shoulder. ened, yet it cannot be bent backward. The knee is another example of this joint. FIG. 70. A section through the elbow joint : H, the humerus ; u, the ulna ; p, the process, which prevents the arm from moving back of a cer- tain line. Pivot Joints. The rotary motions of the head, by which the skull and the atlas turn upon the pivot of the axis, furnish an illustration of a pivot joint. 12 178 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1. The Marrow of Bone. Cut a *trans verse section of a fresh bone ; the bone in a round steak answers well. The oily matter, within the bone, is the marrow. 2. The Periosteum. Cut down on any fresh bone and peel off the membrane surrounding it. This is the periosteum. 3. The Mineral Matter. Burn a bone in the stove. The heat soon destroys the animal matter, leaving only the mineral. A burned bone is easily broken and pulverized with a hammer. 4. The Animal Matter. Place one of the long bones of a small animal, as the rib of a chicken, in a weak acid solution, nitric acid, one part ; water, four or five parts. In a few days pour off the acid, and place in water to wash out any remaining acid. If the bone has been in the acid long enough it can be bent and even tied in a knot. The acid has removed the mineral matter ; the animal substance remains. 5. Spongy Bone. Saw any old dry bone lengthwise; especially the ends of any of the long bones. Notice the fine, honey-combed, spongy bone in the ends of the bones ; while the body of the bone, between the ends, is hollow. 6. Entrance of Blood Vessels. Minute openings can be seen on the surface of any dried bone, as picked up in the field. Through these openings the blood vessels entered the bone, dividing again and again until small enough to enter the narrowest Haversian canal. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 179 7. Ligaments. Any joint can be procured at the market and the outer layer of tissue removed. Still the joint is out of sight, covered with the hard, tough ligaments. 8. Synovial Fluid. If the joint be from a recently killed animal, when the knife cuts through the ligaments, a few drops of a watery substance escape. This is the lubricating synovial fluid. 9. Joints. With a saw divide the joint longitudinally, as represented in Figs. 66 and 70. Notice the working of the joint, the smooth articulating surfaces, and the great strength of the ligaments. 10. Cartilage at the Joints. In the last preparation, notice the cartilage covering the ends of the bones. Sepa- rate the joint completely and cut the cartilage with a knife. Notice the depth of the layer, and its shining, highly pol- ished character. 11. Cartilage between the Vertebrae. Procure two ad- joining vertebrae and cut them likewise. Examine the intervening cartilage. It appears elastic when pressed. It does not cut easily with a knife. This is not the same kind of cartilage as found at the joints. 12. Connective Tissue. When examining any piece of fresh meat, especially the outer part, soon after the skin is removed, a whitish tissue is seen. This can be pulled and stretched easily, with a pair of forceps. It is the tissue which holds, or connects the skin to the muscles and tissues beneath it. Connective tissue holds many of the tissues together and unites one kind of tissue with another. It is seen between the muscles, surrounding blood vessels, and forming the tendons to muscles. It is very generally dis- tributed throughout the body! 180 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XVII. THE MUSCLES. General Description. The great bulk of the body, ex- ternal to the skeleton, is composed of muscles. The muscles give the general outline to the body and make nearly one half its total weight. Nearly all the muscles are arranged in pairs, so that the two sides of the body are almost alike. Some of the muscles are very small, as the minute muscles of the middle ear, while others reach from the hip to the knee. They are of a deep red color in the majority of animals, forming the lean meat or flesh. In many of the fishes, and in some of the birds the muscles are white, or of a light yellow color. Two Kinds of Muscle. The muscles are, in respect to their function, divided into two classes; the voluntary, and the involuntary. The voluntary muscles are so- called because their movements are under the control of the will. Such muscles can be used whenever we wish or will to use them, as the muscles of the face or the arm. Others cannot be controlled in this way ; they do their work independent of any action of the will, hence they are called involuntary. The muscles of the stom- ach and the heart are of this variety. The heart beats, the stomach contracts, and we are powerless to stop their action. As a rule, all those movements in the THE MUSCLES. 181 body most essential to life are not under the control of the will. Yet many of the involuntary muscles can be controlled, although for a short time only. An illus- tration of this is found in ordinary breathing. We breathe a certain number of times a minute and are entirely unconscious of it ; still by an effort of the will, we can breathe faster, slower, or deeper. Even the voluntary muscles can be made to con- tract by a sharp blow, or by some fright. While voluntary muscles, therefore, are con- trolled by the will, they are not in variably so controlled. Nearly all the voluntary mus- cles are attached to bone at each end ; while the mvolun- FlG . 7L Voluntary muscle, tary are not attached to the with its blood vessels -. (i) the skeleton, but are found in the muscle fibe . rs * ( 2 ) the blood ves- walls of hollow organs, as the stomach and intestines, and in the walls of the arteries. The Uses of Muscle. The muscles are primarily the organs of motion. They act as a protection to the blood vessels and nerves ; they inclose the large tho- racic and abdominal cavities ; they serve as cushions to diminish the force of falls and blows ; they fill up irregularities, and thus add to the symmetry of the whole body. Structure of Voluntary Muscle. Tf a piece of lean meat, 182 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. which is voluntary muscle, be boiled, it will appear as if ready to fall apart into little bundles of tissue. These bundles may be easily divided into still smaller ones, by separating them carefully with needles. In this way minute threads of tissue are ob- tained. If one of these be ex- amined with a microscope it will be found to consist of many smaller threads, called muscular fibers. In Fig. 71, four of these fibers are seen side by side, with their ac- companying blood vessels. In this figure and also in Fig. 72, fine lines are noticed running directly across each fiber. Because of these markings this variety of muscle has been called striated muscle. On examining any piece of lean meat the bundles are seen as strings of red flesh, with white connective tis- FIG. 72. A muscular fiber, showing the nuclei, magnified. Fio. 73. The capillary blood vessels of muscle, magnified. The draw- ing is made from the same specimen as Fig. 71, only the muscular fibers are not shown. THE MUSCLES. 183 sue between them. Boiling the meat dissolves this con- nective tissue to a certain extent, so that the bundles of fibers more readily fall apart. Structure of Involuntary Muscle, Involuntary mus- cle is quite simple in its structure. In consists of a number of spindle-shaped cells, held together by a cement. This cement sub- stance is found throughout the body. It is of the na- ture of glue, or cement, and it firmly holds many of the cells of the body together. Fig. 74, represents some in- voluntary muscle which has been treated with dilute acid. The acid has dissolved the cement, and the cells are seen well separated from each other. These cells are very minute, and a high power of the microscope is required to see them. The Tendons. The voluntary muscles are sometimes attached directly to the skin and to other soft tissues; but the great majority are connected to the bones by firm, white cords. These white, shining cords are called tendons. The tendons have no power of them- selves to contract. They simply serve the purpose of cords, connecting the working part, of the muscle with the part which it has to move. The parts acted upon rnay be removed a considerable distance from the body of the muscle ; thus, the ends of the fingers are moved by the muscles of the forearm. The tendons serve FIG. 74. The cells of involuntary muscle, magnified. 184 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. /mother purpose : owing to their compact nature they occupy much less room than do the muscles, and thus the size of the wrist and ankle is much reduced. Were it not for this fact these joints would be covered with thick muscle, and it would be quite impossible to have the necessary freedom of motion. The tendons can be easily felt at the wrist, while the one attached to the thumb is easily seen on the back of the hand. The largest tendon in the body connects certain muscles on the back of the leg with the heel. Its attachment is shown at T, in Fig. 63. It is called the " tendo Achilles," from the Grecian fiction that it was at this point that Achilles received his death vround, as there was no other portion of his body that could be wounded. Fig. 75 illustrates the muscles of the forearm, and their tendons. The tendons are held tightly down at the wrist by firm bands of tissue. Some of the tendons extend to the very ends of the fingers, so that when the muscles of the forearm contract, they move the most dis- tant parts of the hand. The ten- dons are inclosed in sheaths, through which they easily glide. Muscular Contraction. By placing the fingers of one hand upon the fleshy part of the other hand at the base of the thumb (the ball of the thumb), the tissue will feel soft and comparatively FIG. 75. The muscles of the arm, ending in the white tendons at the wrist. THE MUSCLES. 185 thin. This tissue consists of voluntary muscle and can be made to contract by an effort of the will. With the fingers still in the position indicated, place the thumb on the end of the little finger ; the muscle now feels thick and hard. From this we conclude that when a muscle contracts it becomes thicker and harder. We know a muscle shortens when it contracts, because it moves the parts to which it is attached. FIG. 76. A, a muscle relaxed, before it contracts : B, the same muscle, contracted ; it is shorter and thicker. A slight study of Figs. 77 and 78 will illustrate the principle upon which all voluntary muscles act. K the muscles on the front of the arm should shorten, the hand would be raised ; while if the opposing mus- cles, on the back of the arm, should shorten, the hand would be drawn down again. If the muscles on the front of the leg should shorten, the toes would be raised ; while the opposing muscles would raise the heel. Thus we learn that when a muscle contracts it becomes thicker, harder, and shorter ; and that all the movements of the body are caused by such contractions. In the case of the involuntary muscles, the individual spindle-shaped cells contract. If the cells be arranged in a circular manner, as around the arteries, then their contraction will diminish the size of the vessel. For the same reason, if the muscular cells that form the walls of 186 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the stomach contract, they will diminish the size of the cavity, and will force out its contents. But a muscle cannot remain in a state of contrac- tion for any great length of time. It soon tires and is Diagrams illustrating the action of muscles. Flo. 77. Muscles of the arm : s, the shoulder ; E, the elbow ; H, the hand ; ra, muscles. FIG. 78. Muscles of the leg. obliged to relax. After a short rest, however, it is again ready for work. All muscles must have rest or thev will soon wear out. We learned on page 110 that even the most active of muscles, the heart, has a brief period of rest between its beats. Strength of Muscles. The labor expended by the heart each day, as given on page 110, is an illustration of the strength of this muscle. It is again illustrated, page 117, by its power to send the blood on its complete round of the circulation. Muscles can be developed, as in athletes, until hundreds of pounds can be lifted with ease. THE MUSCLES. 187 Harmony in Muscular Action. The muscles which bend, or flex, the joints are called the flexors; while those whicli bring the bent parts back again, are called the extensors. Examples of the former are those muscles on the front of the arm which bend the forearm ; while examples of the latter are those on the back of the arm which pull the bent arm straight again. From this description it is evident that opposing mus- cles must not act at the same time ; for if the flexors and extensors should equally contract, and pull upon the parts to which they are attached, there would be no motion whatever. To give free motion to a part, the opposing muscles must be finely adjusted to each other. In cases of spasms, or convulsions, the muscles do not act in harmony, and the body becomes stiff and rigid. The delicacy of the adjustment of muscular action is well illustrated in the muscles of the face. Often the expressions of the face tell more than do uttered words. An unconscious contraction of a muscle, be it ever so slight, may convey, to the close observer, pain or pleas- ure. A slight contraction of a muscle lifts the brow, and a smile covers the face ; while a change in another mus- cle is followed with a picture of suffering and pain. As a general rule, each muscle has a distinct motion to per- form. It is also true that any one motion is usually brought about by the combined action of several mus- cles. The infinite variety of tones that can be produced by the human voice is due to the position and tension of the vocal cords, and these are controlled by muscular action. The Control of the Muscles. All the muscles are under the control of the nervous system. The nerves serve as 188 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. a connecting medium between the brain and the spinal cord, and the distant muscles. The nerve force is sent i'rom the brain, or spinal cord, down the nerve fibers to the distant muscles stimulating them to contract. If this connection be broken, there will be no muscular action. It is possible, however, to make a muscle con- tract under such a condition, by applying the proper kind of force from without. Electricity might make a muscle contract when it had no connection with the brain or spinal cord. It is even possible to make a muscle contract, after it has been removed from the body, by striking it a sharp blow or by applying the electric current. But no force originating within the nerve centers can reach the muscles, unless the nerves leading to them be intact. Growth of Muscles. Muscles develop and grow under the general law of cells, as given on page 13. The involuntary muscle cells, Fig. 74, divide by cell division, and each cell then increases in size until it reaches certain dimensions. The voluntary muscle fibres, Fig. 72, begin as minute oval or circular cells, which gradually develop into a complete fibre with its characteristic markings. Standing. The ordinary act of standing, like so many simple acts, is a result of the most varied and compli- cated conditions. Many opposite, or antagonistic, sets of muscles contract and thus keep the joints rigid. The flexors and extensors must equally contract ; for if one set should contract with more power than the other, the body would surely fall. The young child finds great difficulty in standing alone. QUESTIONS. 189 QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER XVI. 1. What purposes are served by the skeleton ? Compare. 2. How many bones of the skull ? How divided ? 3. Describe one of the vertebrae. 4. Where is the atlas ? What passes through its openings ? 5. Where is the axis? Its peculiar feature? 6. How many ribs are there? How attached to the sternum V 7. Describe the bones of the upper extremity. 8. Describe those of the lower extremity. 9. Of what use is the arch of the foot ? 10. How are the joints kept moist? 11. Of what use are ligaments ? Injuries to them cause what? 12. Name the varieties of joints. Illustrate. 13. Where can each variety be found ? QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER XVII. 1. Give a general description of the muscles. 2. Name the varieties of muscle. Why so called? 3. Give examples of each variety. 4. Give some of the uses of muscle. 5. Of what is voluntary muscle composed? 6. Describe the structure of involuntary muscle. 7. Where are tendons found ? 8. Of what use are they ? 9. How illustrate the contraction of muscles of the thumb? 10. This experiment shows what ? 1 1. Why is it tiresome to stand long in one position ? 12. How do we know a muscle shortens when it contracts? 13. Do all muscles require rest? Why? 14. What muscles are flexors ? Extensors? Give examples. 15. The muscles are controlled by what? 16. What relation do the muscles bear to the nerves ? 190 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. 1. Voluntary Muscle. Any lean meat represents volun tary muscle. Notice the bundles of fibers, and the white connective tissue extending around and through the muscle. 2. Tendon. A tendon is easily procured at the market, Notice how hard and unyielding it is. The muscles on the leg of a fowl show the tendons well. 3. Action of Voluntary Muscle. To illustrate the action of voluntary muscle, attached to bone, follow the directions on page 185, under the heading of "muscular contraction.'' For voluntary muscle not attached to bone, have the pupil pronounce the letter U ; the voluntary muscle forming the fleshy part of the lips contracts. Follow this with the pronunciation of the letter Y, and the former muscles will relax. 4. Involuntary Muscle. The heart furnishes the best illustration of an involuntary muscle. 5. Muscular Fibers. Boiled corned beef shows the mus- cle, as if ready to separate into small bundles. Needles will tear the bundles into finer ones, while the microscope will show the smallest bundles composed of minute fibers. 6. Expression. A variety of experiments can be made to illustrate the fact that the various expressions of the face, as fear, courage, grief, joy, pleasure, displeasure, etc., are caused by the contraction of muscles. EXERCISE. 191 CHAPTER XVIII. EXERCISE. The Necessity of Exercise. The blacksmith always has large arms, and the arm he uses the most will be the larger. This has been brought about by long and con- stant exercise of the muscles. It is only an instance showing that the exercise of a muscle makes it larger, harder, and stronger. If, for any reason, a person should be unable to use the arm for a few months, it would gradually become smaller and smaller ; and if left unused long enough the muscles would nearly all dis- appear. This is illustrated in the following case : The arm of a young man had become completely paralyzed as a result of an injury, and so could not be used. All forms of medical treatment failed to restore any power of contraction to the muscles. In three years after the injury the person died of some acute trouble. A care- ful examination was made to find the muscles of the paralyzed arm. They had nearly all disappeared, but the small portions that remained were examined with the microscope. In place of the regular muscular fibers there were fibers nearly turned to fat, as repre- sented in Fig. 79. Disuse of the fibers had caused them to undergo a fatty degeneration. From this and other facts, we conclude that exercise of the muscles 192 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. is absolutely necessary to keep them healthy and strong. But no one admires a man who is all muscle, and who has no brain ; so we conclude that it is unwise to develop one par- ticular part of the body and to neglect some other portion. The endeavor should be to develop all parts equally well. A proper amount of exercise is one of the essential conditions for the accom- plishment of this end. Many a young and enthusiastic scholar has been so carried away with his desire for mental advance- ment that every hour spent in other labor, or in rest, was regarded as so much time wasted. He failed to remember that the sound mind must be in a sound body to bring forth its highest and best results. It is to this class of devoted workers that we earnestly appeal. To all such we say, it is of vital importance that at least one or two hours of each day be spent in outdoor exercise. Exercise should be taken out of FIG. 79. Two muscu- lar fibers undergoing a fatty change, magnified. The fiber to the left has a number of fat globules gathered near the nuclei. The changes in the fiber to the right are more ad- vanced : the transverse lines have nearly disap- peared ; the nuclei are scarcely visible ; and the whole muscle substance is nearly all changed to fat. General Exercise, doors as much as is possible, since pure air is of the greatest importance. No matter how cold the air may be outside, no one need fear taking cold if the body be kept in active exercise while exposed, and if rest be taken in the warm house. EXERCISE. 193 General exercise should not be too violent ; over-ex- ercise is nearly as bad as no exercise. Any exercise is too violent which leaves the body " all tired out." Such exercise unfits the body for regular work, and may prove injurious to the nervous system. Healthful exercise should bring a restful feeling, a desire for work, and refreshing sleep. Work and Rest. Each time a muscle contracts there is a waste of some of its substance. During the active work of a muscle, the waste far exceeds the repair. The worn-out material accumulates faster than it can be carried away, and the body experiences a sense of fatigue. If exercise be continued until the body is greatly fatigued, and if such exercise be frequently repeated, the muscles will gradually \vaste away as though they were not used at all. If a muscle be made to work, it must have its periods of rest. The heart never appears to be tired. It beats on, year after year, with an astonishing regularity. But it would soon wear out did it not have a period of com- plete rest between its beats. In order that the muscles may be kept in a healthy condition there should be proper exercise followed by repose. The Amount of Exercise. If exercise be so important for the general health, what is to be considered a proper amount? This varies within wide limits, according to the health and habits of the individual. If the organs and tissues of the body are poorly nourished, so that even slight exercise gives great fatigue, then the ex- ercise should be very short, and followed by long rest. But the fatigue following the exercise of those in deli- cate health will grow less and less if the exercise be 13 194 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. steadily continued; always remembering to rest as soon as one begins to feel tired. On the other hand, a healthy body will exercise until all the muscles are thoroughly tired ; and yet, after a night of sound sleep will awake feeling all the better for the work. Walking. The gentlest form of active exercise is walk- ing. It throws into action nearly all the larger muscles of the body, except those of the arms. The advantage of this form of exercise, over gymnastics, is that it takes the person out of doors. Here the varied scenery has its exhilarating effect on the nervous system, and purer air is inhaled. To derive the full benefit of walking, it should be undertaken with a feeling of freedom and pleasure. The Bicycle. One advantage in using the bicycle is that the mind is refreshed by the changing scenery and the whole body is brought into active service. It is a con- venient and economical conveyance, and its proper use forms one of the most valuable exercises. But the rider should sit in a correct position, and not bend low down over the forward wheel. Other Forms of Exercise. Rowing is a very healthful ex- ercise, and tends to develop many parts of the body. It is likely to prove injurious when long continued at a time, and when the muscles are used too violently. Horseback riding is an excellent exercise. It brings into play nearly all the muscles, while the fresh air and changing scenery impart a healthy tone to the entire nervous system. Out-door exercise is always to be preferred to that taken indoors. How to find plenty of exercise in the open air does not trouble the farmer's boy, who has to get up early in the morning, do his part of the chores, and then walk a long way to school. EXERCISE. 195 3ut he is the boy who eats heartily, sleeps well, and is not easily fatigued. He is laying the sure foundation for a healthy body. While it is true that any work which brings the muscles into play develops and strengthens them, yet it is equally true that " all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." Therefore we enter a plea in favor of the ball and the racket for summer ; and the sled, the skates, and the snowballs for winter. Benefits of Exercise. The muscles are not the only parts benefited by exercise ; the general health of the entire body is greatly promoted. Were this not true, but little would be said about muscular exercise ; for simply to become physically strong should not be our highest ambition. " The pen is mightier than the sword." The mind of man is more to be admired than his muscular strength. It is because a healthy body is such a great aid to a vigorous mind, that an abundance of exercise is so persistently urged. A proper amount of exercise increases the healthy action of the heart, and makes the blood flow more freely through the organs and tissues. It brings more air into the lungs, increases the appetite, and aids digestion. From this it logically follows that bodily exercise tends to give more activity to the mind, and to strengthen the mental powers. As the mind grows and expands it ought, under proper guidance, to bring forth all that is highest and best in man. Knowing these things, it is astonishing to us how any person can delib- erately take into his system such poisons as alcohol and nicotine. He who indulges in these poisons is running the fearful risk of undermining not only the health of his body, but also the strength of his mental and moral nature. 196 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. When and How to Exercise. Vigorous exercise should never be taken either just before or just after a meal. A better time for exercise is when the stomach has about completed its work of digestion. A short walk before breakfast may give an appetite for the morning meal ; but no very active work should be done until after food has been taken. A sudden increase in the amount of exercise is to be avoided. Excessive running, heavy lifting, and prolonged violent exercise of any kind are liable to be very injurious to those who have not been gradually brought up to such tests of strength. Run- ning a race, or violently rowing a boat, by those who are unaccustomed to active exercise, might result in great harm. Exercise should be taken regularly, and then gradually increased. Never should attempts be made to far excel all former efforts. Let the body be grad- ually trained to withstand the severest tests ; then the heart and lungs will not suffer from over-exertion. Physiognomy. Physiognomy is the art of discovering the ruling temper, or other qualities of the mind, by the external signs of the countenance. There seems to be some relation between the expressions of the counte- nance, and the qualities of the mind. Is there any physiological explanation of this relation ? It has been stated that the expressions of the face are caused by muscular contractions, and we already know that a mus cle is strengthened by exercise ; therefore those muscles which are used the most constantly will be the strongest. The explanation of the constant expression of the face is based on these facts. If the muscles that are used when we laugh are made to contract a great deal, and those used when we frown are exercised but little, then EXERCISE. 197 the former will become the stronger, while the latter will remain weak and undeveloped. This may become so marked that when a person is not thinking of laugh- ing, the muscles still exert an influence, and there will remain a slight expression of laughter on the face. Such persons are said to wear a pleasant smile and a cheerful face. But suppose grief or pain has caused a person to cry a great deal ; then there is left on the countenance an expression of pain or sadness. If one is in the habit of being cross and sullen, it will show in the expression of the face. Thus, we conclude, the expression which is most con- stantly on the face is likely to become the permanent one. This is the reason why the face often tells so much of the true character. It is within the power of every person to conquer an irritable temper, and transform it into one of kindness and patience. This is not done sim- ply by changing the expression on the face, but rather by filling the mind with true and noble thoughts ; by cul- tivating those sentiments which are kind and charitable ; and by promptly checking the uprisings of a quick tem- per. The expression is but the index of the force behind, a slight indication of the ruling thoughts and feelings. ALCOHOL AND MUSCLE. Perhaps no question connected with the study of alcohol is of more importance than the relation it bears to muscular activity. The man who is laboring hard, using his muscles many hours a day, wants to know if there is not something he can take which will tone up 198 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. his tired muscles, and make them stronger. He desires to do more work and to do it more easily and more quickly. Many a laboring man thinks he cannot begin his day's work without a morning " tonic ; " in the mid- dle of the day he must have more, in order to go through the afternoon ; while at night, more must be taken to drive away the tired feelings of the day. Is there an extra amount of work to be done ? Then he resorts at once to some form of alcohol to carry him through the double labor. The question is, Does alcohol increase muscular strength? The correct answer to this must be based upon carefully conducted scientific experiments, and confirmed by the widest observation among men. If alcohol does not increase the strength, why is it that so many declare it has this power ? The workman in the shop says : " After taking a glass of beer, whiskey, or brandy I feel stronger and better able to work." Two questions must be considered as relating to this state- ment. JFirst, is he actually made stronger, and second, are his feelings a true guide ? We must admit that if alcohol will do no harm to any part of the body, and will impart strength to the muscles, it is greatly to be desired. To prove the correctness or incorrectness of the statement just quoted, it is necessary to study the effects of alcohol elsewhere. We cannot accept what he alone says, for he is already under the influence of the drug, and as we shall see later is therefore unable to decide impartially. As a result of the most carefully conducted experi- ments, it is proved, beyond a doubt, that both small and large doses of alcohol reduce the power of the muscles. EXERCISE. 199 Experiments have been made on soldiers who were given a fixed amount of work to accomplish. On certain days they were given some form of alcoholic drink, and on those days they were unable to work either so long or so well. Benjamin Franklin, when a poor printer boy, in London, was called the " American aquatic," because he drank only water, while his associates always drank beer. To prove to them that his "loaf of bread and pint of cold water" had more strength in them than their pint of beer, he carried a large form of type in each hand, up and down stairs, while his fellows could carry but one. Experiments on individual men, and on companies of men, and extensive observation among men, prove, be- yond doubt, that when the system is under the influence of alcohol, the muscles cannot exert their full power. The man who takes alcohol to increase his strength robs himself of muscular power. This may be a pleasant or an unpleasant fact ; nevertheless, it is one which science teaches and observation confirms. Four words contain the sum and substance of the whole matter: Alcohol weakens the muscles. But why rely upon our statements alone for proof ? If we should make the statement that you could not possibly eat enough fruit or rich food of any kind to do you harm, you would reply that you know better. Your observation among your acquaintances is such that you could tell us of numerous instances where persons were made ill by over-eating fruit or indigesti- ble food. Therefore, we say, look about you ; and draw your conclusions from your own observation. Did you ever see an intoxicated man ? We hope not ; 200 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. but if you have, that one sad observation will make you decide the whole question. The manner of walking, the bent form, and the thick tongue, show the weakening of the muscles. For most positive and unmistakable proof, wait for the still further effect, when the whole body staggers, and, at last, falls to the ground. What is the result of this observation? Is this unfortunate man now stronger or weaker ? Remember that the change from the full strength of a muscle, free from alcohol, to the weak muscle of the in- toxicated man is one gradual and steady decline. Now, if the facts above stated have been carefully observed and considered, the conclusion is irresistible that one glass of an alcoholic beverage weakens the strength ; that two glasses diminish the strength still more ; that three bring it still lower ; and that with continued repeti- tions it must be seriously impaired or entirely overcome. Finding that alcohol does not increase the muscular strength, we have the other question to answer : Why is it, then, so many people declare that alcoholic drinks make them feel stronger ? We cannot deny their testimony ; yet how can we reconcile it with what we know to be the truth ? The whole trouble is just here ; alcohol is a narcotic, be- numbing or diminishing the sensibility of the brain and nerves. The nerves should report to the brain the condition of the muscles; but when the tired man takes an alcoholic liquor these reporters, the nerves, and their great center, the brain, are deadened and un- able to give or receive an accurate report, the inability varying in proportion to the amount of alcohol taken. This may be so marked that the person becomes quite EXEKCISE. 201 gay and light-hearted ; the feeling of weariness or de- pression is gone because the nerves are deadened by alcohol. But it is only the feeling that is gone. Let the man test his strength and he can lift no more, indeed not so much, and when the deadening effect of the nar- cotic has passed off he will feel all the more exhausted. It will be a great day for America when all people under- stand the weakening power of alcohol. We believe there are many thousands of men using strong drink, who would stop it at once, if they only knew its power to lower their ability to earn a livelihood. We live in a country where the hardest and the best labor will surely win. Do you wish to get to the top ? You will need all your powers, mental and physical. Alcohol will be as an immense ball and chain fastened to your ankle while you run to win the race. We must remember another physiological fact: to grow fleshy is not to grow strong. In athletic sports, notice how the men who are to run in a foot race or to row in a boat race, always train and diet for weeks in order to get rid of their surplus fat, and to develop their muscles. Fleshy people, as a rule, are neither so healthy nor so strong as those who have less fat and more hard muscle. An excessive amount of fat is one of the causes of the " fatty heart" so common among beer-drinkers. Much fat causes a disturbance in the action of the liver, and is a hindrance to the proper action of the muscles. Therefore, it is nothing in favor of beer that it makes some persons fleshy. Beer never increases muscular strength. 202 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XIX. THE SKIN. General Description. The skin forms a strong, close- fitting garment, protecting the delicate and sensitive parts beneath. The skin is not fastened tightly to the tissues ; it is held by delicate bands of tissue, which are of a loose or open nature. This allows the skin to be raised and gathered in folds. It also permits free move- ments of the skin over the joints and muscles. In some parts of the body, as the soles of the feet, and the palms of the hands, it acts as an elastic pad. It affords pro- tection against external injuries, both from those of a mechanical nature, and from the action of chemicals or poisonous agents. .In the case of a medium-sized man, the skin is equal to sixteen square feet of surface. Adipose Tissue. The connective tissue beneath the skin usually contains more or less adipose, or fatty tissue. In thin persons there may be very little fat, and the outlines of the tendons and muscles, and even the shape of the bones may show through the skin. In fleshy persons the fat may be in great abundance, pushing out the skin, and causing the wrinkles and out- lines of the parts beneath to disappear. In the average healthy body there is always some fat in the tissues beneath the skin. In old age the fat is likely to disap- THE SKIN. 203 FIG. 80. pear, causing the skin to form in folds or wrinkles. The fatty tissue is of use as an aid in retaining the heat of the body, thus taking the place of so much extra clothing. The fat is formed directly from the connective tissue. This tissue is composed of fibers and cells. Many of the cells are of the shape represented in Fig. 80. When the body is accumulating fat, small fatty or oily particles appear in these cells. Later these minute glob- ules of fat increase in size and number until they run to- gether as two drops of oil unite making one drop. Still later the entire cell becomes filled with the fat, giving the appearance of one large spherical body, holding a large fat globule. The con- nective tissue-cells thus become greatly distended and thereby increased in FIG. 81. Fat cells, magnified : size ' When the fat in the to the right are five connective tis- body is being reduced by sue-cells partly filled with fat. disease or starvation, it gradually disappears from the cells. The Epidermis. The skin is composed of two layers, the epidermis and the dermis. The epidermis, which is also called the cuticle, or false skin, forms the outer Cells from connective tissue, mag- nified. 204 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. layer. It is composed entirely of cells, the outer ones being very hard and dry. The cells are arranged many layers deep; through them pass the ducts of the, sweat glands, the oil glands, and the hair shafts. Fig. 82 shows FIG. 82. A section of the epidermis, magnified : A, the layer of cells nearest the dermis ; D, the layer nearest the surface of the body. the microscopical structure of the epidermis. The outer cells at D have no nuclei, are very hard and dry, and are being constantly removed as mentioned below. The epi- dermis has neither blood vessels nor nerves ; it is, there- fore, bloodless and without feeling. For these reasons it is possible to remove nearly all the epidermis by gently scraping the skin with a knife without causing pain or the flow of blood. But as soon as the true skin, the dermis, is reached, the scraping brings both pain and blood. The epidermis is removed entire from the dermis by a blister. An ordinary blister on the hand shows a thin membrane, raised from the parts beneath, and separated from them by a watery fluid. Such a membrane may be cut without pain or blood ; for it is the epidermis of the skin. After the thin membrane is removed, if the THE SKIN. ^05 red surface beneath it be touched it will be found highly sensitive and easily made to bleed. Epidermis Rapidly Changing. The epidermis is a good illustration of the wear and waste of the body. The outer cells are constantly falling off in vast numbers ; immense numbers are removed daily by the friction of the clothing, and by the work of the sponge and towel at the bath. This great loss is being steadily made up by the formation of new cells in the deeper parts ; these come to the surface as the ones over them disappear. If all of the epidermis were removed at once the parts left would be very red and tender; but in the case of the blister, a few cells of the epidermis are left cling- ing to the true skin ; these rapidly multiply until within a few days a complete new epidermis is formed. After some fevers, as during the "peeling" of scarlet fever, large masses of cells are removed together. The Coloring of the Skin. The color of the skin de- pends largely upon the character of the deepest cells of the epidermis, as at A, Fig. 82. In very light skins these cells are colorless, in darker skins the cells have a slight amount of dark coloring matter in them ; while in the darkest skins, the coloring matter is very abun- dant. A destruction of these deep cells causes the epidermis to appear perfectly white, as it does in certain diseases. The white skin of the Albinos is due to the absence of any coloring matter in these cells. A free supply of blood to the skin gives it a red or pink color ; while any interference with the action of the liver may give a jaundiced, or yellow color to the skin. Uses of Epidermis. The outer layer of cells of the epidermis, as seen at D, Fig. 82, consists of closely 206 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. packed, hard cells which make a very complete and almost impenetrable covering. Therefore, the epidermis is a protection against the absorption of poisons. The physician understands this ; for if he wishes to intro- duce medicine into the system by the skin, he first scrapes off the epidermis, or removes it with a blister, and then sprinkles on the drug. In vaccinating, it is necessary to remove the epidermis, in order that the virus may come in contact with the absorbent vessels beneath. The surgeon is not harmed while operating on dis- eased portions of the body, because the epidermis pre- vents the absorption of any decaying matter ; but a few cases are on record where the skin on .the surgeon's hand was accidentally cut or broken while operating, thus allowing diseased matter to be absorbed, producing blood poisoning and even death. Immersing the whole hand in poisonous matter might possibly do no harm, provided the epidermis were in a perfect condition every- where ; but the slightest prick of the finest needle might then be the cause of death. The epidermis also pro- tects the parts beneath from the sudden changes of heat and cold. The Tactile Bodies. The tactile bodies give the sense of touch. They are situated in the dermis, or true skin ; they reach to the epidermis but do not penetrate it. Wherever the sense of touch is the most delicate, there are found the largest number of tactile bodies. Over one hundred of these bodies have been counted in a space -g^ of an inch square. They are very small, averaging no larger than 3-^ of an inch in length. Thus the mi- croscope shows that while it is true that the epidermis THE SKIN. 207 has neither blood vessels nor nerves, yet just beneath it are nerves 'especially arranged for the sense of touch. These tactile bodies are illustrated at 4, Fig. 83. The dermis is also well supplied with blood vessels. FIG. 83. A section of the human skin, magnified : (1) the epidermis , (2) the duct of a sweat gland ; (3) a sweat gland ; (4) the ending of a nerve, for the sense of touch ; (5) coils of minute bloodvessels ; (6) a haii follicle, in which is a hair ; (7) a muscle, which can move the hair follicle. The Sweat Glands. The sweat glands are found in the deep parts of the dermis, or in the tissue immediately beneath the dermis. In Figs. 83 and 84 these glands are represented as minute tubes arranged in circular coils. That part of the tube which is not coiled, but which extends from the gland to the surface of the skin, 208 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. is called the duct : the duct pursues a spiral course, ai represented in Fig. 84, and opens on the surface with a funnel-shaped dilatation. If the ridges which ap- pear so plainly on the ends of the fingers and palms of the hands, be exam- ined with a small magni- fying glass, it is possible to see the minute depres- sions in the center of them ; these represent the openings of the sweat glands. The view ob- tained will resemble that given in Fig. 85. The openings are quite close together, in some places averaging as many as 3000 to the square inch. From the surface of the skin to the coiled glands is about one fourth of an inch. It is estimated that there are over three millions of these glands in the entire skin. The Perspiration. The perspiration is a colorless fluid, secreted in the coils of the sweat glands. It is of very simple composition, over 99.5 per cent of it being water. Some inorganic substances, as sodic chloride, common salt, give it a salty taste; while some organic ingre- dients, as the fatty acids, impart to it an odor. The perspiration is a continuous secretion. When it is FIG. 84. A portion of Fig. 83. The section was prepared especially to show the sweat glands and their ducts : (1) ducts of the sweat glands ; (2) the hair shaft. THE SKIN. 209 small in amount, the water is evaporated from the skin at once, therefore its presence on the skin is not no- ticed; this is called the insensible perspiration. As soon as the secretion is increased, it does not all evaporate, but gathers as drops of sweat on the surface ; this is called the sensible perspiration. Many conditions cause the amount of perspiration to vary. In some individuals the whole amount per day is very small ; while in others it FIG. 85. The surface of the skin, slightly magnified, showing the openings of the sweat glands. is very large. It is a fair average for the year through to say that from two to four pounds are secreted each day. There is a marked difference in the perspiration of the lower animals ; the horse perspires freely ; the ox to a slight extent only ; and the dog but little, if any. The panting of the dog after exercising allows much water to be given off from the body through the lungs ; 14 210 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. and in this way the object of regulating the temperature of the body is gained, as will be described later. Controlled by Nerves. The activity of the sweat glands is under the control of certain nerves. While it is true that dilatation of the blood vessels is usually associated with profuse perspiration, yet it is possible to arouse these glands into activity even after the supply of blood has been cut off. For instance, in cases of great fear, when the skin is extremely pale, and its blood vessels nearly empty, the face may be covered with great drops of perspiration. Conditions Affecting Perspiration. An increase in the temperature of the surrounding air will cause an in- creased secretion of the perspiration. Individuals who work in furnaces, or in places of very high temperature, often perspire as much in an hour as the average person will in a day. Those who perspire freely ought to drink a large amount of water to supply the loss, or the sys- tem will soon become exhausted. An extra amount of water 'in the system, as there is after a free use of warm drinks, will increase the secretion. Muscular activity is known by all to do the same. Certain drugs excite very copious perspiration, while other drugs diminish it. The secretion is lessened by cold ; in fact, it may be suddenly arrested by this means. "The liability to perspire varies greatly in different in- dividuals, and in the same individual at different times. Any departure from health may cause it to vary from the hot, dry skin of fever, to the profuse night-sweats of consumption. There is a direct relation existing between the kidneys and the skin. In summer when the skin is active the secretion of the kidneys is much lessened, while THE SKIN. 211 in winter when the skin is less active the work of the kidneys is increased. Object of the Perspiration. The chief object of the perspiration is to regulate the temperature of the body, although it removes a slight amount of worn-out material. It is well known that when a liquid evaporates it pro- duces cold. So the evaporation of a number of pounds of water each day from the surface of the body during the warm days of summer, causes a considerable lower- ing of the temperature. Exercise during the summer would be quite impossible were it not for this fact. The exercise causes rapid oxidation of the tissues, and this produces heat ; and added to this is the heated at- mosphere. Were not some way provided of cooling the body, it would soon be in a raging fever. But the more exercise, and the higher the thermometer, so much more profuse is the perspiration, while its rapid evaporation causes the body to remain at about a fixed degree of heat. Checking the Perspiration, Sudden cooling of the skin checks its action, throws additional work on other parts of the body, and often causes disease. One of the most frequent causes of a cold is the sudden checking of the perspiration. After exercising, or whenever the body is perspiring freely, there should be great care in re- gard to draughts of air. The body should be gradually cooled, with some light clothing thrown over the shoulders, while resting. Sudden checking of the per- spiration is positively injurious and may easily lead to fatal results. The Hair. A hair consists of the root and the shaft. The former is situated in the skin, and the tatter pro- jects from it The hair may be easily removed from its 212 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. sac or follicle, without damage. At the lower end of each hair is a small eminence, or papilla, which is well supplied with blood. The root of the hair rests on this papilla and grows therefrom. The cells of the papilla multiply and grow, pushing those already formed up- wards toward the surface. A hair therefore, grows en- tirely from the root, from this minute papilla, if a hair be removed, another begins to grow at once from the papilla, and in time will appear on the surface. A destruction of the papilla is necessary to prevent the hair from growing. ' The hair shaft is not hol- low, although its center is composed of cells more loosely arranged than those forming the exterior. Hair is very elastic ; with proper care it can be made to stretch nearly one third its FioT86. Human hair, FIG. 87. A hair entire length before break- magnified, from the cat. ing. It is also very strong, a single hair being capable of suspending a body weighing from three to five pounds. A glance at Figs. 86 and 87 shows that the micro- scope reveals a great difference between the hairs of the lower animals and those of man. In certain cases the difference is very marked, as here shown, while in others it is not so marked. These facts have been used for the detection of fraud, and other crimes. THE SKIN. 213 Muscle of the Hair. In Fig. 83 it is noticed that the hair is placed obliquely in the skin. Fastened to the FIG. 88. A human hair in its sheath, or follicle, magnified : H, the hair shaft ; M, the muscle ; G, the oil gland. lower part of this hair sac and extending obliquely up- 214 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. wards and to the left is a muscle. This muscle is better shown at M, in Fig. 88. The muscle is thus arranged at an acute angle, so that when it contracts, it pulls on the base of the hair sac, causing it to stand more nearly erect. In this way the hair is made literally " to stand on end." A contraction of this muscle produces the condition known as " goose skin." The Sebaceous Glands. The sebaceous or oil glands are situated by the side of the hair sacs into which they open by a duct, as illustrated in Fig. 88 at G. These glands secrete an oily substance which is spread around the hair making it smooth and glossy. Some of the secretion extends over the skin making it soft and thus preventing it from becoming hard and dry. Often the ducts to. these glands become stopped up, and the secre- tion distends the glands. This afterwards becomes dark colored, disfiguring the skin. By referring to Fig. 88, it will be noticed that a seba- ceous gland is situated between the hair sac and the muscle', M. By the contraction of this muscle the hair is drawn toward its upper attachment ajid the gland thereby compressed, thus aiding in forcing out its contents. The Nails. The nails grow from behind forward, thus being constantly pushed outward. They are composed of minute cells, similar to those found in the deeper parts of the epidermis, only they are firmer and harder. The nails protect the ends of the fingers and toes ; and they give aid to the fingers in picking up small objects. If a nail be removed by an accident, a new one will take its place in a few weeks, providing the root is not injured. BATHING. - CLOTHING. 215 CHAPTER XX. BATHING-. CLOTHING-. Necessity of Bathing. We know that an immense num- ber of sweat glands are constantly pouring their secre- tion on the surface of the skin ; that vast numbers of oil glands are depositing an oily substance on the surface also ; and that the cells of the epidermis are constantly loosening and falling off in great numbers. It is only necessary to recall these facts, in order to understand fully the necessity of frequent bathing. The glands of the skin have a certain work to do ; how can they prop- erly perform this if their ducts be closed by an accumu- lation of such material on the surface ? If these glands cannot perform their full duty, then other glands or organs must do it for them, or sickness will follow. We conclude, therefore, that neglect of the skin means more work for the lungs and kidneys, especially for the latter. Always considered Important. The nations of antiquity had much to say about the bath, both as a luxury and as a means of preserving the health. The public baths of Rome were among the most interesting of her works of grandeur and beauty. Most beautiful works of art have been recovered from their ruins, all speaking of the splendid preparations made for this luxury. The cost of 216 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. a bath in one of these elegant quarters was almost noth- ing, so that all people could enjoy its benefits. After bathing, the skin was usually anointed with perfumed oil ; and this was followed by light exercise for a short time. In those days nearly every one could swim ; and to be unable to swim was about as great a disgrace as to be unable to read. When to Bathe. Probably immediately after rising in the morning is the best time to bathe. The body is rested, reaction is easy, and the circulation is at its best. The ideal bath is a brief, daily use of cold water, im- mediately after rising, followed with a brisk use of the towel. One should never bathe when greatly fatigued, nor use a cold bath if feeling chilly. Neither should a bath be taken immediately before or immediately after a hearty meal. It should not be taken soon after a meal, because the rubbing brings the blood to the surface, and therefore must take some of the blood away from the stomach, where it is needed. Great caution should be used in bathing when the body is over-heated, and when it is perspiring freely ; because if the water should be too cool, or if the rubbing should fail to produce a complete reaction, then a severe cold or something more serious might result. Both too cold and too hot water are alike injurious. The Cold Bath a Tonic. A healthy person should re- gard the bath as something more than a cleansing pro- cess. It should be a tonic of the most invigorating character. The first effect of the cold is to drive the blood from the skin ; but soon reaction takes place, and the blood returns with renewed force, filling the capil- laries of the skin, and imparting a healthy glow to the BATHING. CLOTHING. 217 entire surface. Just at this time the bathing should cease. The brisk. use of the towel heightens the flow of blood, and the whole body becomes enveloped with a pleasant sense of comfort and warmth. To remain longer in the bath would be to send the blood from the surface for the second time, from which reaction might not occur, causing a sensation of chilliness and fatigue. The brisk work of the rubbing causes the exercise of many muscles, and the whole body is thereby aroused to activity. The cold bath is injurious to those who do not have a quick reaction from its use. The skin should be left red and warm, and the whole system ought to be in- vigorated. If not, and the opposite be true, then the cold bath is injurious rather than helpful. If the bath be short at first, if the water be cool, if it be continued daily, if the towel be used briskly, and if only a por- tion of the body be bathed at a time, then it must be of benefit. Soon the water can be used colder and the time of the bath extended. With these precautions in mind, it is safe to assert that there are very few young people, in fair health, who would not be greatly benefited by the daily use of the cold bath. A quick sponge bath with cold water, followed by thorough rubbing, is the best method to illustrate the advantages and safety of the cold bath. Salt Water Bathing. Many persons who visit the sea- shore plunge into the cold water at once, and remain there for a number of minutes. If they have been accus- tomed to the cold bath at home, there can be no more healthful exercise. The beating of the surf against the skin is an invigorating tonic in itself, while the muscles 218 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. of the whole body are brought into action in withstand- ing the force of the waves. The change of scenery and the freedom from care aid in imparting new life to the seaside resorter. If he be unaccustomed to the cold bath, however, and suddenly spends from twenty to thirty minutes in the sea, he must expect undesirable effects to follow. A vast amount of sickness is caused in this way, all of which might be prevented. Forms of Baths. A Turkish bath is one in which the bather is placed successively in rooms of higher temper- ature ; then rubbed ; and, at last, douched with cold water. For a Russian bath, the person is placed in a room in which steam is escaping from a steam-pipe ; this is followed by brisk friction of the body. A shower bath is when the water strikes the body in a number of streams. A cold bath is when the temperature of the water is from 60 to 75 F. ; a tepid bath from 85 to 95 F. ; a warm bath, from 90 to 104 ; a hot bath, from 104 to 110. It is a great mistake to suppose that one needs to take an alcoholic drink of any kind after bathing, to prevent taking cold. The notion, however, is a preva- lent one, especially as regards sea-bathing. An occasional warm bath, with the use of pure soap, is necessary. But a daily warm bath, in the bathing- tub, lowers the tone of the system and diminishes its power to withstand disease. How to Bathe. There is always a temptation to have the bathing-tub filled with tepid water, and then remain in it a long time. But this method deprives the bath of its tonic properties. A bath of this description once a week may be desirable, but is most undesirable for daily BATHING. ULOTHING. 219 use. The better method is to use the hands, or mittens made from crash toweling; quickly cover a portion of the body with cool or cold water ; rub this portion dry ; and thus proceed until the bath is completed. The whole bath should not exceed five minutes. The Value of the Bath. The value of the bath will depend largely on the completeness of the reaction fol- lowing its use. As stated before, the skin s^ Duld be warm and the whole system refreshed. But if the skin be cold, and the body feel chilly and fatigued ; or if the bath be followed by headache and general lassitude, then the practice should be discontinued, and a physi- cian consulted to discover where the error rests. The bath is of great value to those who are already well and strong; it is to such that its use is so freely recom- mended. It is of great value in keeping the various organs and tissues of the body in a healthy condition, and it is therefore a good preventive of disease. The aged and the feeble need special advice for their particu- lar cases ; and the bath should be used by them only under the advice of a physician. A Good Complexion. Bathing is essential if one de- sires a good complexion. The skin must be active and do its part of the work. Frequent bathing of the face with pure water is especially desirable. Soaps are not necessary for the face, while their use often causes roughness of the skin. Cosmetics almost invariably con- tain substances which are injurious to the skin. Their continued use often seriously affects the general health. The Clothing. One object of the clothing is to prevent too great loss of heat from the body. The surround- ing atmosphere is nearly always cooler than the body, 220 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. therefore there is a tendency for the body to lose heat, The clothing corrects this tendency in a large measure. Food produces the heat and the clothing prevents its escape ; for this reason it is true that poorly fed persons need more clothing in winter than those who are well fed. Animals require less food, and are able to do more work, if they are kept warm during the cold weather. Protection from the cold economizes the fuel of the body, which is the food. Adaptation of Clothing. Our clothing should be suita- ble to the season, and to the time of day. To escape the effects of sudden changes of temperature, the garments worn next the skin should be made of a material which is a poor conductor of heat. Any change from thick to thinner garments should be made in the early part of the day, as the evenings are usually cooler and the body is more fatigued. More clothing is necessary at night because the temperature is colder than during the day, and the body is not engaged in any exercise. A person who is exposed to the direct rays of the sun, should con- sider carefully the color of the clothing. White is the best protection, then, in order, gray, yellow, pink, blue, and black. The Materials of Clothing. With the above facts in mind, it is natural that furs should be extensively used during the cold weather. Next to fur, wool is the most suitable and hygienic material for winter cloth- ing. All woolen garments are poor conductors of heat, and are therefore valuable for winter use. Woolen garments are a wonderful protection against the cold in winter, and during the sudden changes in summer, they should be worn next to the skin the entire year. BATHING. CLOTHING. 221 The thick and heavy material can be used during the winter, and the thinnest and lightest during the sum- mer. If woolen garments irritate the skin, then silk may be used, as approaching the nearest to wool. These simple precautions in dress will prevent an im- mense amount of illness. The sudden changes in tem- perature and exposure to draughts would not so often be followed by colds, chills, sore throats, and lung troubles, if the body were constantly surrounded by a non-conducting medium, as wool or silk. Linen is a good conductor of heat ; therefore, it should not be used next to the body. Cotton is much to be preferred to linen, and it is much better for bed-clothing. The outer garments can be regulated according to the seasons and the conditions of the air, but under all circumstances keep the surface of the skin well protected with either wool or silk. The Weight of Clothing. A heavy covering of cotton, or linen, is not so warm as a lighter covering of wool or silk. The weight of clothing has no definite proportion to its warmth. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so is wool ; hence, it follows, that the light, loose cloud worn by ladies as a covering to the head is based upon scientific principles. The air in the meshes of the wool, and the wool itself, give little chance for the heat to escape. Therefore in choosing clothing, the nature of the ma- terial should be considered more than its weight, its value as a non-conductor of heat being in the order here given : wool, silk, cotton, and linen. Clothing should Fit well. It is not conducive to the general appearance to have ill-fitting clothing; yet it does not follow that tight clothing adds to the appear- 222 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. ance. To the physiologist, the constricted waist and the pinched foot represent ill-fitting clothing decidedly more than does the loosest hanging garment. Tight belts and corsets are accountable for a long series of complaints. Constricting the waist compresses the liver and stomach and interferes with the movements of the diaphragm ; this often causes headache, dyspepsia, shortness of breath, and a multitude of aches and pains. Clothing can and should be made to fit well, and yet it need not interfere with the action of any organ, or with the natural movements of any part. Clothing should be Changed. Wet feet are the cause of many a sore throat and severe cold ; and for most persons, it is a great risk to allow them to remain damp. They should be dried and rubbed thoroughly as soon as possible, in order to fully restore the circulation. If one be caught in a storm so that the clothing becomes damp or wet, it should be changed at the first opportunity. Brisk exercise in the mean time will keep the body from becoming chilled. But if chilly sensations and hot flashes are already creeping over the body, probably a severe cold is coming on. . . To Cure a Cold, A cold is generally produced, as just indicated, by some exposure, so that the skin is inactive and the internal organs congested. The mucous mem- brane of the nose, throat, larynx, bronchi, and the lungs are, one or all, most likely to be affected. During the summer the congestion of the internal organs often causes a disturbance of the digestive organs. It is essential, therefore, to cure a cold at the beginning; this can often be done by very simple remedies. The object to be accomplished is to restore activity and BATHING. CLOTHING. 223 warmth to the skin. This can be brought about by giv- ing hot drinks, and by adding extra clothing. Drink slowly a bowlful of hot lemonade, or hot ginger-tea, while the feet are in a hot bath, and while an extra blanket is thrown over the body. Soon the body will perspire freely, and the whole system feel warm from the artificial heat. Have the bed-clothing thoroughly warmed before getting into bed, and then keep well under cover. Remain in this condition until the body is thoroughly covered with perspiration, when we can be assured the skin has resumed its activity. Have the body rubbed dry, and gradually remove the extra cloth- ing, in order that the temperature may be slowly low- ered. If such simple treatment were more frequently and more quickly carried out, a vast amount of illness would be prevented. QUESTIONS. 1 . Give some reasons why frequent bathing is necessary. 2. When is the best time to bathe ? 3. Give some cautions about bathing. 4. Describe the first effect and the reaction of a cold bath. 5. Wnen is a cold bath injurious ? 6. Give some directions about sea bathing. 7. What is said about the warm bath ? 8. The value of a bath depends upon what ? 9. Why is the bath a good preventive of disease ? 10. What is one object of the clothing? Explain. 11. How does nature regulate the clothing of the lower animals ? 12. What material is a poor conductor of heat? 13. Is heavy clothing necessarily the warmest? 14. Give directions for curing a cold. 224 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XXI. ANIMAL HEAT. Sources of Animal Heat It has already been stated that the heat of the body is derived from the food, and from the oxygen obtained during respiration. By the union of these, oxidation occurs, and heat is produced. It appears from this statement that there must exist a relation between the amount of oxygen consumed and the amount of heat produced in the body : thus, if an animal consumes little oxygen it will have a low tem- perature ; if much oxygen, then a higher temperature. Another source of heat is from certain physical pro- cesses' of the body, as the work of the heart, the general circulation, and the active exercise of the body. The chief source of heat is found in the muscular system. The muscles form a large proportion of the whole frame, and they are very active during many hours of the day. The greater their activity, the more rapidly will the tissue be exhausted, and new tissue take its place. These changes require the oxidation of much food, and thereby much heat is developed. Next to the muscles are the secreting glands. Most rapid changes occur in these glands when they are active, all of which produce heat. The liver is the most important gland in producing heat. The changes taking place in ANIMAL HEAT. 225 the liver cells are very active and continuous. The warmest blood in the body is found just as it leaves the liver, on its way to the heart, being much warmer here than when it enters the liver. But heat is generated in every organ and tissue in the body ; as each activity contributes to an elevation of the temperature. Cold-Blooded and Warm-Blooded Animals. Cold-blooded animals are those whose temperature is generally about the same as that of the air or water surrounding them'. They consume little oxygen, and therefore a small amount of heat is developed. Frogs, reptiles, and fishes have a low temperature, which varies at times between wide limits. When the tempefature of their surround- ings is increased they consume more oxygen, and thus develop more heat ; while if the temperature be lowered the amount of oxygen consumed is diminished, and the animal heat reduced. During the winter the frog buries himself in the cold sand at the bottom of the water, where he receives enough oxygen through the pores of the skin to sustain life. But during the warmer weather of summer he comes to the surface to fill his lungs with air ; this is necessary in order to meet the demands of the more rapid changes in the tissues of his body. During the winter his home is under the water, but during the sum- mer he would be drowned if he remained in water, as the more rapid oxidations require more oxygen than can be supplied through the medium of the skin. Warm-blooded animals are those whose temperature is generally above that of the surrounding air. They maintain a remarkably uniform temperature throughout the heat of summer and the cold of winter. A person 15 226 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. may ride a long distance in the cold air, or work hard in an over-heated room, yet the temperature of his body will remain almost at a fixed point. Temperature of the Body. The thermometer shows that different parts of the body vary in temperature. In those parts where rapid changes are taking place, and where oxidation is most marked, the temperature is much higher than the average for the body. The blood is constantly passing from one tissue to another, carrying warmth from the tissues where heat is being developed to other tissues where it is being lost ; thus the blood tends to equalize the temperature of all parts of the body. The temperature is ascertained by placing the bulb of a thermometer under the person's tongue. The loss and production of heat are so evenly balanced that the temperature of the healthy adult body varies little from 98J P. This is maintained with only slight variation throughout life. So accurately is this ad- justed during health that a variation of more than a single degree denotes some disturbance in the system ; a fall of two degrees below the normal temperature is considered a serious matter ; while a severe cold may cause it to rise two degrees above normal. A tempera- ture above 103 denotes a high fever ; of 105 a severe attack ; above 105 is most alarming ; while recovery after the thermometer has recorded 110 is very rare. The normal temperature of 98|- F. is subject to some variations within narrow limits. There are quite regu- lar variations in the course of every twenty-four hours. The temperature continues to rise during the day until it reaches the highest point from five to eight in the even- ing ; then it continues to fall during the night until from ANIMAL HEAT. 227 two to six in the morning, when it is at the lowest. About the middle of the forenoon, or about three hours after the morning meal, the thermometer should record 98| F. The difference between the lowest and high- est points reached during the day probably does not exceed one degree. The Regulation of Heat. The question now arises, how is the excess of heat above 98^ removed from the body ? The body would soon become very much warmer were not some means provided for regulating the heat. It is estimated an adult body produces, in one hour, enough heat to raise the temperature three degrees. If no heat were given off, in thirty-six hours it would reach the boiling point ; hence the distribution and removal o^ the excess of heat becomes an important matter. The two principal tissues which regulate the tempera- ture are the lungs and the skin. It has been stated that the expired air is warmer than the inspired air. There- fore considerable heat is required to produce this warmth, which is carried out of the body with each expiration. The evaporation of the water of the expired air the watery vapor also produces cold ; indeed the loss of heat is in definite proportion to the amount of air taken into the lungs in a given time. The rapid breathing of a dog after running, and the extra flow of water from his mouth are illustrations of these facts. But the work of the skin is far more important, being five times as great as that of the lungs, in this particular. It must be evident that the more freely the blood passes through the skin, thus coming under the influence of the cooler surroundings of the body, so much the greater will be the loss of heat. The evaporation of 228 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the perspiration results also in a great loss of heat to the body. This regulation of the heat is well illustrated by study- ing the changes which take place during some active ex- ercise. Muscular contraction gives rise to heat ; hence exercise must increase the bodily temperature. But the thermometer shows no such change ; what then becomes of the heat thus produced ? The exercise causes rapid breathing, and hence more loss of heat through the lungs ; while more blood is sent to the skip., where its temperature is lowered. The exercise also causes the skin to perspire freely, and the evaporation of the water from the surface of the body results in a great loss of heat. Thus we find that the extra amount of heat caused by muscular exertion is completely lost by the increased action of the lungs and skin ; and as a result, the temperature of the body remains at a fixed point. Effects of Lowering the Temperature. The body is warmed by heat generated within itself. To lower its temperature, it is only necessary to abstract the heat faster than it can be produced. The first effect of this is pain in the more exposed parts. The face and ex- tremities u ache with the cold." This soon passes away and the skin becomes quite insensible. The testimony of individuals who have been rescued from freezing, even after they were insensible from the cold, is that a disposition to sleep overtakes them soon after the pain has left the skin ; the muscles become inactive ; breath- ing is slow and difficult ; and the whole nervous system becomes sluggish. Finally, the desire to sleep becomes irresistible, and in a short time death ensues. When rescued from a freezing condition, it is found that res- ANIMAL HEAT. 229 piration is hardly perceptible, the heart's action ex- tremely weak, and all the functions of the body nearly suspended. The above condition is very similar to a normal physiological process among the so-called hibernating animals. These animals go to sleep at the approach of winter, and do not waken until the coming of spring. When found, buried in their nests, or deep un- derground, they are quite insensible and immovable. Their respiration is hardly discernible, and their bodily temperature is much reduced. The oxidation of tissue is very slight, and the animal appears to live by using up its own flesh, entering upon sleep well supplied witfc fatty tissue and awakening in the spring very poor. Effects of Raising the Temperature. When the animal heat is raised a number of degrees, as in fevers, the effects are quite the reverse of those produced by cold. In fevers, the pulse and the respiration are increased in frequency, and instead of a feeling of comfort and sleep, there is often much distress and wakefulness. Increased temperature appears to hasten the normal changes tak- ing place in the tissues ; oxidation is more rapid ; the tissues are more quickly exhausted, and the vitality is lowered. Winter and Summer. The moderate cold of winter im- parts a feeling of vigor and stimulates the whole system. The cool air excites a desire to run, and to exercise the whole body ; this activity adds to the amount of heat necessary to resist the cold. Without exercise, the in- ternal heat must be preserved by additional clothing, or the depressing effects of cold will be experienced. Cold weather brings a good appetite ; the extra amount of 230 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH, food is so much more fuel, contributing to the mainte- nance of the animal heat ; thus we learn that a healthy body always demands more food during the winter than during tfye summer. Muscular activity, extra clothing,* and more food enable the body to resist the cold and still maintain its average temperature. During the heat of summer less food is required and more liquids are used, the perspiration is increased, and the clothing is lighter, all of which tend to diminish the supply of heat and increase the means for its escape. The Effects of Alcohol on the Temperature. There is a general belief among a large class of people that alcohol warms the body ; so they naturally conclude that it is one of the best remedies to take before beginning a long ;'ourney in the cold. If alcohol is able to raise the tem- perature of the body, it might often prove a most desir- able agent. But has it this power ? To fully answer the question it is necessary to understand both the primary and secondary effects of this poison. Under- standing these, the reader will be able to draw his own conclusions. One of the first effects of alcohol is to paralyze the nerves which terminate in the walls of the small blood vessels, and which control their size. As a result, the vessels distend and the whole system of capillaries be- comes filled with an extra supply of blood. The minute blood vessels of the skin become distended with this ex- tra supply. Now it must be remembered that the blood from the interior of the body is much warmer than that near the surface ; therefore when an extra amount of warm blood flows to tke surface, it makes the skin feel much warmer. As the outside of the body feels warmer, ANIMAL HEAT. 231 a person is led to believe that the warmth extends throughout the whole system. This is physiological, and just what we should expect. But we know that the blood is cooled in passing through the skin, therefore, if more than the usual amount of blood be sent to the sur- face, then an unusual amount of heat will be given off. As a result of this extra loss of heat, the blood returns to the interior of the body much lowered in temperature, and cooling all the tissues with which it comes in contact. The period during which the skin feels warmer is very brief, while the period of cold following it is of much longer duration. During the second period there is a rapid fall in the temperature. This is physiological also, and just what should be expected. In some of the lower animals the decline may be very great, reaching as many as five degrees in birds, and three degrees in dogs. In man the decline is often as great as two de- grees, in some cases even more. This period of decrease may pass off in a few hours, if the amount of alcohol taken be small ; but if the poisoning be sufficient to cause prolonged sleep, several days may be required to bring the temperature up again to its normal degree. From these facts it appears that the brief period of apparent increase of heat is followed by a longer one during which the temperature of the body is actually re- duced. In this condition the body is less able to resist the cold, and so becomes especially liable to influenza, bronchitis, pneumonia, and allied affections; while re- covery from their attacks will be more tedious and doubtful. In other words the resisting power of the body against all invading diseases is greatly weakened by the use of alcoholic beverages. 232 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. There is an abundance of testimony from men who have been exposed to extreme cold, to show that alcohol increases the suffering and danger of such exposure. Explorers in Arctic regions and travelers in cold coun- tries are perfectly agreed on this question. Their testi- mony is all to the effect that the use of alcohol in cold countries is extremely hazardous. The same principle applies to exposure to unusual cold in more temperate climates, and shows the fallacy of drinking alcoholic liquors to " warm one up " or to aid in keeping warm on a cold day. They only make exposure to cold more dangerous. The men who never use alcohol bear such exposures much better and do their work more easily than those who take it. QUESTIONS. 1. Give some of the sources of animal heat. 2. Where is found the warmest blood in the body? 3. Which are the cold-blooded animals? Name some. 4. Which are the warm-blooded animals? 5. In what parts of the body is the temperature the highest? 6. How does the blood tend to equalize the temperature? 7. What is the temperature of the healthy adult body ? 8. How much heat does the body produce in one hour? In thirty-six hours ? 9. What two tissues principally regulate the temperature? 10. Explain the part performed by the lungs 11. How does the skin regulate the temperature? 12- Give some of the effects of lowering the temperature. 13. This is similar to what normal process? 14. Describe the effects from raising the temperature ? 15. What is one of the first effects of alcohol on the blood vessels? 16. What is the result of this first effect? 17. Does alcohol aid in resisting cold? THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 233 CHAPTER XXII. THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. WE believe that the desire among boys to be men and to do manly things is so great that if they knew the dwarfing and stunting effects of tobacco, they would never indulge in its use. For this purpose, therefore, we are anxious that the exact truth be clearly stated. Our objections to the smoking of cigarettes, or to- bacco in any form, are as follows : 1. It Lessens the Natural Appetite for Food and In- jures Digestion. We have already discussed the growth of cells, and the important part they play in all the processes of life. These rapidly changing cells must be fed ; but if the appetite be poor and digestion bad, then surely cellular action must be greatly affected. Such proves to be the case, for the early use of tobacco often checks the growth of the body, so that it never reaches the height and full development it would have reached, had it not been so poisoned. 2. It Seriously Affects the Nervous System. This is shown by its effects on the heart. The unsteady and rapid beat leads to dizziness and rush of blood to the head. The sleep is disturbed with distressing dreams, and the morning finds the body unrefreshed. The brain is checked in its development, and is unable at all times to do its best work. The testimony of many eminent 234 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. medical men, together with the statements of public men of wide observation, show unquestionably that Tobacco impaifs the Mental Powers. Could a more serious charge be brought against it ? The evidence is strong and unanswerable. Its moderate use by the young weakens the ability to think, while its immoderate use may eventually destroy the mind. 3. It Leads to the Opium Habit. It is a startling fact that some of the brands of cigarettes have opium mixed with them. The amount is small, the tobacco may be only moistened with some weak juice of the poppy ; but the active principle of the opium is there, and it will surely perform its poisonous work. It is to be feared that if our young men continue the use of cigarettes we shall soon see, as a legitimate result, a large number of adults addicted to the opium habit. 4. It Creates a Craving for Strong Drink. This is an- other legitimate result of smoking. It is a result which could have been foretold simply by physiological reason- ing. That smoking leads to drinking is no longer a theory, for the wisest observers have testified that such is the case. There are both primary and secondary reasons why -this result follows. It follows as the pri- mary effect of tobacco on the mouth, throat, and stomach ; the mouth and throat are dry, and there is a peculiar sinking sensation at the stomach ; these often tempt the smoker to drink. It is also to be noted that the majority of those who use alcoholic drinks also use tobacco ; therefore when a person accepts an invitation to smoke he is more likely to be thrown into company with those who drink. The secondary reason is that as tobacco weakens THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 235 the mental faculties and lowers the moral tone, so it makes the temptation to drink more difficult to resist. Smokers yield more readily to an invitation to drink. They accept the " treat " to a cigar or a cigarette ; and later the acceptance of a " treat " to strong drink be- comes much easier. Tobacco manufacturers have lately declared that since the more stringent temperance laws of Canada have been enforced, there has been a vast re- duction in the amount of tobacco consumed. 5. Cigarette Papers often contain Arsenic. The effects of such a drug on a healthy organism cannot be other- wise than injurious. 6. It is a Filthy and Offensive Habit The laws of ordinary politeness are violated daily by those who use tobacco in any form. A noted French lady, when once asked if it would be offensive to her to have gentlemen smoke in her presence, curtly replied, " No gentleman ever smokes in my presence." The man who smokes becomes completely saturated with the strong odor. His clothing, his living room, and even his breath are charged with it. It is astonishing to see how the smoke of tobacco will nearly strangle the young lady as she sits beside her friend in the carriage, or as she walks by his side in the street, and yet she quietly submits to the impolite treatment. Travel where you will, on the road, in the railway car, on the sidewalk, in the street cars, in halls, everywhere, you can see the traces of this filthy and offensive habit. 7. It is Expensive. The purchasing of tobacco requires money which might be otherwise spent for personal com- forts and pleasures, or for public and benevolent enter- prises. The trouble is that the young man does not 236 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. realize what it is to spend five or ten cents each day. Such small sums, placed at compound interest, grow into large figures by the time old age is reached. It would be far better to invest these savings in books, newspapers, lectures, concerts, or traveling. 8. It is Unlawful. The statesmen of our country are so fully impressed with the fact that the coming genera- tion is likely to be weak in body and mind unless the use of tobacco by the young be checked, that at this time in twenty-nine States there are stringent laws for- bidding the furnishing of cigarettes or tobacco in any form to minors under certain ages. There are also at this time in thirty-five States and in all the territories, laws requiring instruction to be given to all .pupils in the public schools on the nature and effects of tobacco, as well as of alcoholic drinks and other narcotics. In New York and Connecticut, it is not only un- lawful to furnish tobacco to persons under sixteen years of age, but it is also unlawful for such persons to smoke or use tobacco in any public place. In Massachusetts and Indiana, a person can be fined for advising or persuading any one under sixteen years of age to smoke or chew tobacco. In the District of Col- umbia, 257 physicians, 524 officers and teachers of the public schools, all the trustees of the public schools, and 86 pastors of churches, petitioned the 51st Congress for the passage of a bill prohibiting the selling, giving, or furnishing tobacco in any form to persons under six- teen years of age. Individuals can now walk the streets of the Capital of the nation and not see a single news- boy or other young lad with a cigarette in his mouth. The simple fact that the representative men of a whole THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 237 nation, in Congress assembled, should pass such a bill, shows in itself that a grave danger was discerned, and that the time had come for the remedy to be applied. 9. It Lowers Scholarship. The minister of Public Instruction of Paris has forbidden the use of tobacco by students of the public schools. Tobacco is prohibited in the military and naval schools of the United States Government. Notice the following testimonies, which could be mul- tiplied many times : - " In our thirty years experience in teaching more than fifty thousand young people we have found the effects of this narcotic to be premature age, shattered nerves, men- tal weakness, stunted growth, and general physical and moral degeneracy ; and therefore we now decline to re- ceive into our institution any who use this noxious weed." Such is the statement of Henry C. and Sara A. Spen- cer, principal and vice-principal of the Spencerian Busi- ness College. Dr. Willard Parker says, " Tobacco is ruinous in our schools and colleges, dwarfing body and mind." The President of the Baltimore Academy of Medicine says, " The effects of tobacco on school-boys are so marked as not to be open for discussion." In an examination for admission to the Free College of New York, seventy-one per cent of the girls who applied were passed, but only forty-eight per cent of the boys. The report attributes the smaller per cent of the latter to the stupefying effects of tobacco. A graduating class in Yale College was divided into four parts according to scholarship, the best scholars in the first division, and the poorest in the fourth. In 238 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the first division twenty-five per cent used tobacco ; in the second, forty-eight per cent ; in the third, seventy per cent ; and in the fourth, eighty-five per cent. Dr. J. W. Seaver, of Yale College, has made some in- teresting observations on this subject. He says no young man can use tobacco without injuring himself seriously. Of the junior students who received the highest appoint- ments, ninety-five per cent did not use tobacco ; of those who received the next highest appointments, eighty-seven and one half per cent did not use it ; while of all who received appointments of some kind, eighty-four and three-tenths per cent did not use tobacco. The per cent of non-users among those who received no honors what- ever was much less. In other words, the highest honors of a class are almost exclusively carried off by those who do not use tobacco ; while those who remain lowest in scholarship are almost invariably addicted to the habit. This is in accord with the testimony of a large number of teachers of wide experience, who positively assert that the pupils who use tobacco are not found at or near the head of the class. Tobacco and scholarship are no friends. They cannot go together. The President of Union College says, " The use of this poisonous narcotic, next to intoxicating liquor, is more destructive to the health of our youth than any other agent." The Emperor Louis Napoleon, in 1862, issued an edict forbidding the use of tobacco in all the national institutions, because he was satisfied from investigation in the schools and colleges that the average standing in both scholarship and character was lower among those who used tobacco than among those who did not. THE EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 239 10. It Lowers the Moral Tone. This is most marked in the deceit practised by boys in their efforts to conceal the fact of their using tobacco from their parents. They will positively deny its use, and resort to all manner of deception to account for the unmistakable odor. Boys who would not be guilty of telling a falsehood on other matters soon find it easy to lie about this habit. They hide their cigarettes ; they go away from home to smoke them ; and in all their manners show that they are in a bad business. What result can follow such falsifying and deception other than a lowering of the moral tone ? The ten charges thus brought against tobacco are of such a character that there is but one conclusion to the matter. It is this : The use of tobacco greatly endan- gers and impedes health, happiness, and prosperity. QUESTIONS. 1. How does tobacco affect the appetite and digestion ? 2. How does it affect the heart? The mental powers? 3. Is there danger it may lead to the opium habit ? Why? 4. Give a primary reason why smoking leads to drinking. 5. Give a secondary reason why this is true. 6. What poison is sometimes found in cigarette papers? 7. Are politeness and neatness aided by the tobacco habit? 8. Is it an expensive habit? 9. What is said about its being unlawful ? 10. Is tobacco an aid to scholarship? 11. What proof have we that it affects the morals? 240 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XXIII. WHAT TOBACCO COSTS: IN BODY; IN MIND; IN MORALS; AND IN MONEY. What it Costs the Body. It is not natural for man to smoke. There is not an animal in a state of nature that uses tobacco in any form, unless exceptions are made in favor of the tobacco-worm, living ,on the green leaves of the plant, and a species of wild goat found in Africa. That it is not natural for man is evident from the shock to the system which follows its first use, resulting in nausea, vomiting, and great depression. Upon experiencing these symptoms the first Napoleon exclaimed, " Oh, the swine ! my stomach turns ! " Man is the only animal using this vegetable. How different, in this respect, is tobacco from other vegetables. If we eat half of a potato, apple, carrot, beet, or any other vegetable, raw or cooked, and then throw away the other half, how eager are many of the lower animals for it ! If the horse and dog do not care for it, then hosts of ants and flies claim it as their own. But not so with the half-smoked cigar, carelessly thrown to the ground. The horse, dog, ants, flies, even all forms of animal life below man shun it, and there it remains where thrown, until the street-sweeper or the storms have removed it. Man alone appears to care for it. Tobacco is a disease- WHAT TOBACCO COSTS. 241 producing instead of a disease-curing plant. In the preceding chapters attention has been called to the ill effect of this drug on the growing body. It has been shown that its effects on the appetite and digestion result in checking the growth and in producing a poorly developed organism. Chronic sore throat, with its accompanying deafness, are often a part of the smok- er's complaints. The palpitation of the heart, the trem- bling of the hands, and the excessive nervousness all testify that tobacco is used at an immense waste of vital energy. But let us listen to the teachings of some of our emi- nent writers on this subject. Below are given a few ex- tracts, a number of which were taken from the writings of " Mcta Lander," Mrs. Margaret Woods Lawrence, of Baltimore, entitled " The Tobacco Problem." The gifted author has collected a vast amount of material bearing on this important subject. The quotations represent the convictions of men of high standing and acknowledged ability. Dr. Ferguson : " I believe that no one who smokes tobacco before the bodily powers are developed ever makes a strong vigorous man." Many leading physicians of Philadelphia: " Cigarette smoking is one of the vilest and most destructive evils that ever befell the youth of any country ; its direct tendency is to a deterioration of the race/' Prof. H. H. Seerley : " Boys that begin the habit at an early age are stunted physically, and never arrive at normal bodily development." Horace Greeley : " Show me a drunkard that does not use tobacco, and I will show you a white blackbird." 16 242 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Medical Director U. S. Navy : " The future health and usefulness of the lads in our naval schools require the absolute interdiction of tobacco in any form." Dr. Copland, F. R. S. : " Tobacco creates a thirst, to re- move which alcoholic stimulants are often resorted to." Dr. Cowan : " The exceptions are very rare when a user of tobacco in any of its forms is not ultimately led to use alcoholic liquors." Gladstone " detests smoking." Haeckel : " I have never smoked." Ruskin u abhors the practice of smoking." Charles Reade : " I have seen many people the worse for it, and never saw anybody perceptibly the better for it." Dr. Willard Parker : " Tobacco is doing more harm in the world than rum. It is destroying our race." Medical Examiner U. S. Navy : " One out of every one hundred applicants for enlistment is rejected be- cause of irritable heart, arising from tobacco poisoning." Dr. Bowditch : " A man with a tobacco heart is as badly off as a drunkard." The famous marksman, Carver : " I have never tasted intoxicating drinks, nor do I use tobacco in any form." The winner of the international boat race, Han- Ian : " The best physical performances can only be secured through absolute abstinence from alcohol and tobacco." Supt. of N. Y. Insane Asylum : " Tobacco has done more to cause insanity than spirituous liquors." Supt. Insane Asylum at Worcester, Mass. : " That tobacco produces insanity, I am fully convinced." In four insane asylums there were 294 cases of " in- sanity from the use of alcohol." Of these 294, it was WHAT TOBACCO COSTS. 243 ascertained that 206 were led to intemperance by the use of tobacco. The German Government has ordered the police to forbid boys under sixteen years of age smoking in the streets, because of its evil effects on mind and body. These facts are sufficient to warrant us in stating that tobacco costs the body its best development and its per- fect health. What it Costs the Mind. Reference has already been made, in the preceding chapter, to the effects of tobacco on the general scholarship. Some further testimony on this point may serve to more forcibly present the truth. In Paris " it is shown that smokers have proved themselves, in the various competitive examinations, far inferior to others." Dr. Constan, of Paris, concludes a long article as fol- lows : " The influence of tobacco clogs all the intellectual faculties, and especially the memory ; and the injury is greater in proportion to the youth of the individual." Ex-Senator Doolittle : " I believe that the mental force, the power of labor and endurance of our pro- fession, is decreased at least twenty-five per cent by the use of tobacco." Professor Lizars, of Edinburgh : " It is painful to contemplate how many promising youths must be en- feebled in their minds and bodies, before they arrive at manhood, by the use of tobacco." With these facts before us, it is safe to assert that tobacco costs the mind its highest development and its most brilliant achievements. What it Costs the Morals. The use of tobacco is an illustration of the most supreme selfishness. One per- 244 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. son only enjoys it, and even that enjoyment is usually at the expense of those about him. The breath, the clothing, the air around the smoker, all are saturated with the tobacco-poison. The fact that generous and kind men will continue in such a purely selfish practice is simply an illustration of the truth that the drug has so affected their sense of propriety as to render them unaware of their true position. If men must smoke they should confine their operations to their own private quarters, where as few as possible must suffer, rather than be continually puffing their cigars in the faces of enduring women and inoffensive children. Upon entering depots, halls, and other public places, we are often greeted with the sign, u No Smoking." It seems to be absolutely necessary to give stern commands to men not to smoke in these places where women and children gather. Yet why do we not see commands like these ? " Do not crowd the children." " Do not thrust the sick out into the cold." In other words, were it not for the effects of tobacco on the moral sense, blunting its keener qualities, there would be no need of asking men not to smoke in any place where the rights of others to the free, pure air are universal. We positively declare that a man has no more right to put tobacco smoke into the air which we are about to take into our system, than he has to put some disagreeable drug into the water which we are just about to drink. Pure air is one of our inherited gifts, and he who wil- fully poisons it, or makes it disagreeable for his fellow beings, is guilty of no small breach of common civility. On the morals of the youth, tobacco has a most marked effect. It is probable that the indifference of WHAT TOBACCO COSTS. 245 the adult smoker is largely due to the early use of the cigar or cigarette, as during the early years of life all the faculties are so much more easily affected. Deceit seems to be a boon companion of the boy and his ciga- rette. To have the morals of our young men reach their highest attainments, the cigarette should be ban- ished from our midst. What do some of our writers and public men say on this subject? Jackson Jarves says, " Whatever the benefit or harm the use of tobacco may do the consumer's body, its com- mon tendency is to render the mind indifferent to the well-being of his neighbors." Dr. Parker : " Tobacco demoralizes. It makes a man careless about his hair ; he lets his nails go unclean his clothes are soiled, and he is generally untidy." Professor Stuart, of Andover : " It creates a nervous irritability, and thus operates on the temper and moral character of men." Professor Mead, of Oberlin : u The tobacco habit tends to deaden the sense of honor ; and none are more likely to practise deception unscrupulously than those who use the weed." The President of Wisconsin State University : "There are few spectacles giving a more disgraceful impression of our civilization than that of a lad sporting a cigar or cigarette, in imitation of the bad habits of those older in years than himself." Superintendent of the Reform School, at Westboro', Mass. : " All boys sent here have been the users of tobacco." Chancellor Sims, of Syracuse University : " The to- bacco-habit is deteriorating to the one indulging in it." 246 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH, Dr. Harris : " There is not another article of luxury that so secretly and yet so surely saps all the founda- tions of manliness and virtue." From these statements we can but draw the con- clusion that he who indulges in tobacco runs the risk of having the highest and best attributes of his nature brought under its benumbing power." What it Costs in Money. The financial view of the tobacco problem merits careful attention, not only be- cause the money expended for the cigars or cigarettes might be better used in the purchase of books, but also because habits of thrift and economy formed in the young make no small part of a man's future success. Such habits do more than make a saving of money ; they teach that time itself is precious, and that rapidly passing hours can never be recalled. The normal phys- iological man is economical of his money, his time, his mental powers, and of all his endowment. He is temperate in all things. He should have immense re- serve-forces which he draws upon only at times of great peril and need. Later in school life our readers may find themselves hard at work over some of the great questions of polit- ical economy. In fact, even now they are aware there is much unrest in the land over the question of capital and labor. A small number of people are becoming richer and richer, and controlling great interests and. thousands of men, while a large number of people work very hard, year after year, and yet do not enjoy the ordinary comforts of life, to say nothing of owning a home of their own. Often it is true that sickness and misfortune keep the most economical persons from WHAT TOBACCO COSTS. 247 laying aside any part of their hard-earned wages. But we desire to show, not only that the use of tobacco injures the consumer, but also that the money thus wasted might bring many additional comforts to him and to his friends, thus contributing much toward the general prosperity of the country. True patriotism, therefore, demands that boys should not use tobacco. A few lines will show how expensive is the tobacco- habit, and how important a part it plays in preventing many of our hard-working people from enjoying more of the comforts and pleasures of life. The secret of the trouble lies in the fact that we fail to realize how soon cents makes dimes, and dimes make dollars. Remember that, even at the rate of six per cent compound interest, money will double itself in twelve years, while if the rate be ten per cent, money will double in seven years. This doubling of money, without any apparent effort on our part, is one of the surprising things of finance. Let us illustrate this principle. Suppose a boy should begin the use of tobacco at ten years of age, and suppose he purchases only one cent's worth of tobacco each day, until he is forty years of age ; now had he received seven per cent compound interest for the money thus expended, how much would his tobacco bill represent? $350. Neither boys nor .men, though, stop at a cent's worth of tobacco a day. Suppose he used only five cents a day for his tobacco during all these years, still this, at the above rate of in- terest, would amount to over $1700 ; surely a good pres- ent to receive on your fortieth birthday ! But suppose the young man is now twenty-five years of age and just 248 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. starting out in business for himself. He buys five or six good cigars each day and they cost him fifty cents. This amount regularly placed at seven per cent compound in- terest for thirty years would make his tobacco bill repre- sent over $17,000. A man spends a dollar a day for tobacco. How much would his tobacco bill represent in only ten years, at seven per cent compound interest ? over $5,000. In twenty years ? over $16,000. We have a very interesting letter on this subject, from Luther Prescott Hubbard of New York. Mr. Hubbard has been Secretary of the New England Society for nearly forty years, and for nearly sixty years has been the financial agent of the American Seamen's Friend Society. His connection with literary and financial enterprises entitles his statements to great weight. Mr. Hubbard began to chew tobacco at the age of twelve, and a few years later commenced smoking. He says his tobacco cost him, on the average, thirty-seven and a half cents each day. We will let him tell the rest in his own language which he kindly allows us to use : i( I now deposited the money I had been so long squan- dering for tobacco in the Seamen's Bank for Savings. I will tell the boys what I did with it, that they may see how un- wise and inexpedient it is to commence the expensive, de- moralizing habit of smoking or chewing tobacco. " We had long lived in the city, but the annual visits of the children to their grandfather's made them long for a home among the green fields. I found a very pleasant place for sale. There were over two acres of land, with abundant shade and fruit trees, a good garden, a fine view of Long Island Sound, near the academy, churches and schools, and a convenient distance from New York. The WHAT TOBACCO COSTS. 249 cigar money was drawn upon to purchase the place, and it is mine. " My smoking was moderate compared with that of many, costing me only thirty-seven and a half cents a day, equal to $136.50 per annum, which, at seven per cent interest for fifty-nine years, amounts to the small fortune of $103,626.32. This has afforded means for the education of my children, with an appropriate allowance for benevolent objects. " Great as this saving has been, it is not to be compared with improved health, a clear head and steady hand, at the age of over eighty-three years, and entire freedom from de- sire for tobacco in any form." There are other practical questions that should make every intelligent schoolboy appreciate the money part of this evil. If a boy saves fifteen cents each day while going through his four years' course in the high school, how much money will he have ? Suppose this money had been invested in books, and suppose that he 'had purchased twenty-five volumes of the most recent works at an average price of two dollars each, and fifty vol- umes at one dollar each ; in addition to these how many volumes of the standard works of such writers as Scott and Dickens, Gibbon and Macaulay could he purchase at thirty-five cents each ? "A good sized library," you will say, when you figure the result. Too choice a collection to be burned up at the rate of fifteen cents a day. Only one verdict can be given on this subject. It is that, after the most careful examination of the whole tobacco question, not a single fact can be brought for- ward in its favor. 250 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XXIV. OPIUM. CHLORAL. The Opium Habit. In this country the opium habit is usually formed as a result of taking the drug for the re- lief of pain. If the pain returns, another dose is taken. Sometimes the disease is of such a character that the pain continues for many weeks, necessitating the con- tinued use of the opium. After a time, however, the original disease may entirely disappear, yet. the sufferer finds he must continue the opium, or endure great agony of body and mind. Knowing how easily the opium habit is contracted, the careful physician does not prescribe it for those conditions where its use is likely to be necessary for some weeks. He substitutes less powerful narcotics, and allows his patients to suffer some pain, rather than run the fearful risk of producing such a terrible habit. Effects of Opium. Opium is a powerful drug. Even a single dose prescribed by a physician for the relief of some severe and sudden pain is often followed by unde- sirable effects. But when repeatedly taken for a long time, the body becomes thin, and the skin grows sallow and parchment-like. The opium eater suffers from loss of appetite and improper action of all the organs of the body. There is a marked lowering of the will-power, and loss of memory. The person will not hesitate to deceive and lie about the habit. He loses all sense of truth, and appears to forget there is any difference be- OPIUM. CHLORAL. 251 tween right and wrong. When unable to obtain the drug, the victim suffers the most excruciating physical and mental torments. Preparation of Opium, or Patent Medicines. It is a well- known fact that nearly all physicians are opposed to so-called patent medicines. The chief reason for this is that, as they are ignorant of the composition of the medicine they are unable to pass judgment upon its merits and demerits. When a person is ill the physi- cian prescribes those drugs which will have certain desired effects in that particular case. It may be an acute cold, and the very next patient he visits may also be suffering from the same affection ; yet entirely dif- ferent drugs may be prescribed in the second case. But a patent medicine makes it necessary that persons of different constitutions, living in various climates, at all seasons of the year, and in varying degrees of health, or in a word, that all classes and conditions of people everywhere must take the one unvarying mixture. No one man can intelligently prescribe a single mixture which will be applicable to thousands of cases ; it is as impossible as it is unscientific. A large number of the popular u soothing syrups " of the present day contain opium. These syrups are freely given to children to produce sleep, or to correct some dis- turbance of the digestive organs. They are directly re- sponsible for many deaths. Nothing of the kind should ever be given. Let all such cases be referred to a phy- sician. Is it not more probable that your own local physi- cian should know better what is needed in case you are ill than a man, uneducated in medicine, living thousands of miles away ? The " tonics," " bitters " and " soothing 252 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. syrups " of the market are too likely to contain either alcohol or opium to make them safe remedies. Chloral. A few years ago this drug was extensively prescribed by medical men because it was capable of producing sleep, relieving pain, and appeared to be free from danger. Of late it is not used so exten- sively, yet there is danger that it may be taken re- peatedly as a substitute for opium. The habit is easily acquired and as difficult to break as that of taking opium. Cocaine. Chloroform. When a solution of cocaine is applied to any absorbing surface it produces local in- sensibility of the part. When chloroform is inhaled the whole body becomes insensible. The fornler is used as a local, and the latter as a general, anaesthetic. They are powerful and dangerous drugs, a small amount of either being sufficient to cause death. Tea. Coffee. The active, growing body finds in these substances nothing which it needs. Tea and coffee are especially bad for those who have nervous temperaments, and those who lead indolent lives. They interfere with digestion, and often produce biliousness and wakef ulness. The student can accomplish more and better work with- out these drinks than with them. Cocoa and Chocolate. Cocoa is made by grinding cocoa- beans to a fine powder. These beans are the fruit or seeds of the cocoa-plant, or chocolate-tree. Chocolate is made by adding sugar, spices, and some flavoring substance to the powdered cocoa. Although not so injurious as either tea or coffee, yet when the cocoa is rich in oil it is not easily digested. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 253 CHAPTER XXV. THE ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Two Systems. The nervous system of man and all vertebrate animals may be divided into two secondary systems ; each having its own particular set of nerves and nerve centers. These are called the cerebro-spinal system, and the sympathetic, or ganglionic, system. The Cerebro-Spinal System. The cerebro-spinal system Js composed of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves which originate from them. The brain and the spinal cord are the great nerve centers of the body. They are connected with the nerves of the special senses, and with the nerves of common sensation ; they convey to the mind the sensations of taste, touch, sight, smell, and hearing, as well as the sensations of pain, hunger, thirst, etc. The mind, in turn, is capable of expressing itself through them. Through the cerebro-spinal system the commands of the mind are conveyed to various parts of the body ; thus, we " will " to move a muscle ; in- stantly a force is sent along the nerves of this system to the proper muscle, and it promptly obeys. The Sympathetic System. The sympathetic, or gan- glionic, system consists of a number of ganglia and nerve fibers. The ganglia are collections of nerve cells. They may be very small, composed of only a few cells, and 254 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. visible only with the microscope ; or there may be such a collection of nerve cells that the ganglia have consid- erable size. The sympathetic system consists of two rows of these ganglia, one row on either side of the spinal column. It consist also of nerves which pro- ceed from the ganglia to the organs in the thoracic, the ab- dominal, and the pelvic cavities. The sympathetic nerves do not go to the skin, neither are they connected with the special senses, nor are they under the control of the will. This system presides over the involuntary processes of the body ; as the circulation, the digestion, the respiration, the absorption, the nutrition, and the involuntary muscles. It also controls the secretions of glands, and has much to do with the amount of blood distributed to the various organs and tissues. The ganglia are connected with each other by small nerve fibers, while other minute fibers connect the ganglia with the cerebro-spinal system. Thus one organ is made to act in u sympathy " with another, so that if one part suffers in any way another suffers with it. FIG. 89. Diagram of the cerebro-spinal system : c, cer- ebrum ; cl, cerebellum ; s, spinal column ; N, nerves for the upper and lower limbs ; n, nerves going to the mus- cles and the skin. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 255 Nerve Tissue. There are two kinds of nerve tissue ; one is composed of nerve fibers, and the other of nerve cells. The presence of numbers of the nerve cells gives a gray color to the tissue, while the nerve fibers appear white. Hence an accumulation of nerve cells is called the gray substance, and a collection of nerve fibers is called the white substance. The nerve cells represent the centers of activity from which the orders are issued. The nerve fibers are simply the conductors, conveying the messages from place to place. The gray substance therefore, represents the seat, or origin, of the mysteri- ous forces of the nervous system ; while the white substance represents only so many fibers for the trans- mission of the forces. FIG. 90. Various forms of nerve cells, highly magnified. The Nerve Cells. A collection of nerve cells always makes a nerve center. The greatest collection of cells is found in the gray matter of the brain, the next in the spinal cord, and the next in the ganglia of the sympa- 256 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. thetic system. Nerve cells generate nerve force. They also receive it from other cells and give it out again. They are therefore generators and transmitters of nerve force. The cells vary exceedingly in size and shape. Some are of a circular form, as at the upper left corner of Fig. 90. Others have a long process extending from them, as shown in the cell to the right of the last. This one process represents the beginning of a nerve fiber, so that nerve force originating in the cell can be con- veyed from it through this fiber to some distant organ or tissue. Other cells have many processes, one of which conveys nerve force to the distant parts. The Nerve Fibers. The nerve fibers convey the nerve force from one part of the body to another. If an im- pression is made on the ends of some of the fibers they will convey it to the nerve cells at their origin : thus if the skin be touched, an impression is made on the ends of nerve fibers which is instantly conveyed to the spinal cord, and then to the brain, where a sensation is pro- duced corresponding to that on the skin. No change occurs in the nerve fiber during the passage of this nerve force, so far as we know, any more than a change is produced in a wire by sending over it a telegraphic message. We know that if the wire be cut the mes- sage will be interrupted ; so if a nerve fiber be cut in any part of its course all communication is at once shut off. Two Kinds of Nerve Fibers. The nerve fibers of the cerebro-spinal system are peculiar in this respect ; they can convey a message only in one direction. A mes- sage may be sent in either direction over a telephone THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 257 or over a telegraph wire ; two wires are not necessary ; but with the nerve fibers, two complete sets are re- quired. One set conveys sensation from the outer parts toward the nerve centers ; while the other set conveys impressions from the nerve centers oirtward to the muscles. The first set is composed of nerve fibers called sensory fibers, because they convey sensations to the spinal cord and brain : the other set consists of fibers called motory fibers, because they convey the stimulus of motion from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles. So far as is known there is no difference in the structure of these fibers, and as a rule they are side by side throughout the body. A nerve, as seen in the body, and as mentioned in the books, consists of a large number of these nerve fibers held together by a delicate connective tissue. Each nerve fiber extends the whole length of the nerve, from its beginning in the brain or spinal cord to its termination. The Brain. The brain is well protected in the cranial cavity. It is surrounded by three distinct membranes, of which the middle one is capable of secreting a fluid. The membranes protect the brain from friction against the bony walls, while the watery secretion gives it some freedom of motion. The brain is well supplied with blood vessels, large arteries entering the base of the skull with the spinal cord. The weight of the brain depends partly upon the size of the individual, and partly upon his intellectual capa- city. The average weight of the brain of an adult male is a trifle over three pounds, 49 J or 49| ounces. The brain of Cuvier, the naturalist, weighed over 64 ounces, 17 258 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. and the brain of Daniel Webster weighed 63J ounces. The brains of idiots are very light, weighing from 27 ounces to as low as 8 ounces. FIG. 91. Side view of the whole human brain: (1) cerebrum ; (2) cere- bellum ; (3) medulla. While it is true that many noted men had large brains, it is also true that some equally as noted had small brains. Yet it can be safely asserted that, as a general rule, the larger the brain the greater the capacity for intellectual power ; but to this statement there are some striking exceptions. It appears that there is something besides quantity necessary for the highest mental capa- bilities. This may be called quality, or. some peculiarity of the brain material whereby it renders its possessor capable of great intellectual attainment. The brain is divided into the cerebrum, the cerebel- lum, and the medulla oblongata. The Cerebrum. The cerebrum is the brain proper. It THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 259 is the part above the ears, and is familiarly known as the great brain. It is believed that the cerebrum is the organ of the mind ; that it is here we think, know, and reason. The cerebrum is divided into two parts by a FIG. 92. The human brain, viewed from above : only the cerebrum ia seen, with its deep fissure nearly dividing it. natural fissure which passes from the front backward. At the bottom of the fissure the two parts are united Dy a band of nervous tissue, as shown at 3 in Fig. 93. From this it would at first appear that we have two 260 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. brains corresponding to the right and left sides of the body ; but doubtless the band of union between them not only connects the structure of the two but also in some way unites their functions. Figs. 91, 92, and 93 show that the surface of the brain is not smooth in FIG. 93. One half of the brain, the inner surface: (1) the cere- brum ; (2) the cerebellum ; (3) the band of tissue that unites the two sides of the brain ; (4) the medulla ; (5) the spinal cord. man, but is thrown into a number of ridges or convo- lutions. The number of convolutions and the depth to which they reach vary in the different animals. In some, the surface is perfectly smooth, as in the pigeon and frog ; in others, the convolutions are shallow and few in num- ber ; but in man, they are many and very deep. As a rule, THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 261 the more intelligent the animal so much the more numer- ous and so much the deeper will be the convolutions of the cerebrum. The reason for this is readily under- stood when the structure of the brain is made clear. Gray and White Matter of the Cerebrum. The gray matter is on the outside of the brain : the white mat- ter is within, forming the center of the brain. The white matter is raised in slight folds on its surface to form the center of the convolutions ; but the bulk of the convolutions is formed by the gray matter. It has been stated that the gray matter consists principally of nerve cells, and that these cells are the active agents in originating, FIG. 94. (1) the brain of a pigeon ; (2) the brain of a frog, both viewed from above. There are no convolu- tions on the cerebrum, H. FIG. 95. A diagram illustrating that the convolutions of the brair< give more surface for the gray matter. receiving, and sending forth orders. The cells com- mand and the fibers obey; the cells originate, and the fibers carry the messages. If the cells are specially con- cerned in originating and commanding, it is evident that a large amount of the gray matter is most desirable. 262 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The convolutions provide for this extra amount of gray matter. This is made clear by the accompanying dia- gram. Suppose the surface of the brain be smooth, and Covered with a layer of gray matter, then the line from A to B wtDuld represent the extent of the surface. But suppose the layer of gray matter be thrown into folds, or convolutions, then the amount of surface would be represented by the line 1 to 2. It is at once clear that the line 1 2 is much longer than the line A B. In other words, the convolutions greatly increase the amount of gray matter. It follows, therefore, that the deeper the convolutions and the greater their number, so much the more will the gray matter be in excess. This anatomical fact probably explains, why some smaller .brains are more intellectual than others which exceed them in size. In the former cases it is probable that the convolutions are deeper and more numerous than they are in the latter ; thus actually giving more gray matter in the smaller brain. The 'Cerebellum. This part of the brain is situated be- neath the back part of the cerebrum, and is often called the lesser brain. It consists of gray and white matter arranged in the form of parallel ridges and furrows run- ning over its surface, as represented in Fig. 91. The Medulla Oblongata. The medulla, as it is gen- erally called, is situated at the upper end of the spinal cord, between the cord and the brain. It represents an enlargement of the upper part of the spinal cord, as illus- trated at 4, Fig. 93. It is well protected in the thick bones at the base of the skull. The functions of the medulla are so necessary to life that it must be regarded as the most vital portion of the entire body, yet it is only about one and one fourth inches in length. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 263 The Spinal Cord, The spinal cord, as illustrated in Fig. 89, represents the elongated part of the cerebro- spinal system. It is about eighteen inches in length, one half an inch in thick- ness, and is nearly circular in shape. It is surrounded by three membranes which are continuations of those surrounding the brain, and is well protected in the spi- nal canal of the vertebral column. It begins at the medulla, and terminates at the lower end of the spinal column in a number of fine threads, as illustrated in Fig. 89. It is, like the brain, divided into halves by deep fissures. One fis- sure extends down the an- terior, and the other down the posterior median lines, nearly dividing the cord into two parts. Fig. 96 F f 96 ; Cross sections of the r ' spinal cords of different animals, illustrates these fiSSUreS ; repres ented as twice the natural One, the anterior, showing size: (1) horse; (2) ox; (3) man; more clearly than the (4) hog; (5) squirrel. other. An open central canal is also seen. From the sides of the spinal cord there are given off thirty-one nerves, known as the spinal nerves. White and Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord. The gray matter of the cord is in the center. It is so arranged 264 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. that when the cord is cut transversely it slightly re- sembles the letter H. The darkly shaded portions in Fig. 96 illustrate this fact, and it is also shown in Fig. FIG. 97. A cross section of the spinal cord, magnified. 97. In the upper, or anterior points of the letter H, in Fig 97, are seen some irregular-shaped, darkly shaded bodies ; these are the large nerve cells, a representation of which is given in Fig. 90. Outside the central gray matter is the white matter, which is composed of fibers. The fibers extend up and down the cord, so that a transverse section of the cord, as seen in Fig. 97, shows the fibers to be circular and white, with a dot or dark spot in the center. This dark spot represents a cross section of that part of a nerve fiber which transmits the nerve force ; the white sub- stance around it is for insulation and protection. These fibers finally enter the brain and are distributed to all parts of it, being at last connected with the nerve cells. The Spinal Nerves. Each one of the spinal nerves orig- inates in the spinal cord by two roots. One root, the an- THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 265 terior, originates from the anterior part of the gray matter, as illustrated at 1, Fig. 98. The other origi- nates from the posterior part, as shown at 2. Both these roots unite to form one nerve, at 3. On the posterior Fia. 98. A diagram illustrating the origin of the spinal nerves from the spinal cord- (3) is a spinal nerve; (1) and (2) are the roots, which originate from the gray matter of the cord ; G, a collection of nerve cells ; (1) the motory root, (2) the sensory root. root is a ganglion, G, or a collection of nerve cells. The nerve fibers, at 3, continue together as a spinal nerve until they reach the distant parts of the body, when they separate again. Those fibers which origi= nated from the anterior part, known as motory fibers, terminate in muscles ; while those from the posterior part, known as sensory fibers, terminate in the siun. QUESTIONS. 1. Name the two nervous systems. 2. What composes the cerebro-spinal system? 3. What composes the sympathetic system ? What are gan< 266 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. 4. What does the sympathetic system preside over and control? 5. Give the two kinds of nerve tissue. 6. How do they differ in color ? 7. What do the nerve cells represent ? The nerve fibers ? 8. What makes a nerve center ? 9. What do nerve cells generate, receive, and impart? 10. How many varieties of nerve fibers ? 11. Describe the function of the sensory fibers. The motor}/ fibers. 12. What is a nerve? 13. How many membranes surround the brain. 14. Of what use are they? 15. Give the average weight of the brain of an adult. 16. Does a small brain necessarily indicate low intelligence? 1 7. Give a general rule about this. Any exceptions ? 18. Into how many parts is the brain divided? 19. What is the name of the brain proper? 20. What is the function of the cerebrum ? 21. How is the cerebrum divided? Is it completely divided? 22. Is the surface of the human brain smooth? 23. Do the convolutions vary in depth? 24. Do all animals have these convolutions ? Name some that do not. 25. ' Is the gray or white matter on the surface of the brain? 26. What composes the bulk of the convolutions ? 27. How do the convolutions affect the amount of gray matter? 28. Where is the cerebellum ? Of what does it consist? 29. Where is the medulla ? How large is it ? 30. Give a general description of the spinal cord. 31. Where is its gray matter? Its arrangement resembles what i 32. How do the spinal nerves originate? 33. Which are the motory fibers ? Which the sensory? THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 267 CHAPTER XXVI. THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The Nerve Current. The peculiar force carried by the nerves from one part of the body to another is called the nerve current, or nerve force ; it travels along the nerve at the rate of over one hundred feet a second. It is not known what this force is, although we do know what conditions favor it, and what check it. If the end of the finger be touched, almost instantly the sen- sation reaches the brain and is made known to the mind. But the nature of the force which conveys this sensa- tion along the nerves from the finger to the spinal cord, and then up the cord to the brain, is, as we have said, entirely unknown. The nerve current is set in operation by a stimulus. Suppose there is a desire to move the hand : in this case the stimulus is an act of the will, which excites the nerve current, so that it almost instantly passes down the nerve fibers to the muscles of the arm. When the nerve cur- rent reaches a muscle, the current itself acts as a stimu- lus, rousing the muscle to action. If we pinch the skin the stimulus is a mechanical one ; the sensation is car> ried to the nerve centers, over the sensory fibers. The pupil of the eye becomes smaller when a bright light is brought near the face : in this case, light is the stiimi- 268 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. lus which at last causes the muscle of the iris to con- tract. A sharp scream will cause a person standing near to jump; here fright is the stimulus. Thus we conclude that nerve currents, mechanical agents, light, and the emotions, may each act as a stimulus. Function of the Cerebrum. The cerebrum is the seat of the intelligence. It is here that we think, feel, and will. It is not known how the mind is connected with the brain. It is impossible to explain how it is that our intelligence depends upon the tissue of the brain. We simply know the fact that in some way the existence of our mind depends upon a normal brain. This has been proved in many ways. An injury to the head, resulting in a portion of the skull being fractured and pressed upon the brain, has been followed by loss of conscious- ness ; and the person has remained in a deep sleep until the surgeon has raised the depressed bone, when con- sciousness has returned. Sickness has also proven it ; an inflammation of the membranes of the brain, affecting its surface, causes de- lirium and otherwise disturbs the mind. Medicines which affect the flow of blood to the brain also inter- fere with the reasoning faculties. Persons born with extremely small brains have no intelligence. After re- moving the cerebrum all voluntary acts are abolished. Thus injuries, disease, drugs, size, and experiments all show that a healthy condition of the cerebrum is ne- cessary for the existence of intelligence and the power to will and to command. Two Brains. As stated in the preceding chapter, the cerebrum is nearly divided into two complete parts. This fact has led some physiologists to declare that THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 269 there are two brains, and that they act independently of each other. It is nearer the truth, probably, to say that so far as the mind is concerned, the sides of the cere- brum should be considered as one whole organ, but that each side controls the sensation and motion of the oppo- site side of the body. Mind and Body. In some mysterious way, these two are so connected that what affects the one affects the other also. Therefore a healthy mind and a diseased brain cannot go together. As the same blood nourishes the brain that nourishes the other parts of the body, so the former cannot be in its best state unless the latter be in a healthy condition. From this it follows that if we would attain the fullest intellectual development, attention must be given to the laws of health, and their teachings strictly obeyed. Function of the Cerebellum. Injuries to the cerebellum do not necessarily interfere with either the will or the con- sciousness, but with the movements of the body. From this it would appear that the cerebellum is especially concerned in maintaining a harmony of action of the vol- untary muscles. Without the controlling power of the cerebellum, the muscles would act as irregularly as they do in one who is intoxicated. By its ac f ion we are able to keep an exact position ; and at all times can have the muscles act in harmony and with regularity. Functions of the Medulla. This part of the nervous system is one of great interest. It is most essential to life, and it controls many of the most important func- tions. In the medulla are many " centers," or small collections of nerve cells, which control certain func- tions. When these centers are stimulated in any way. 270 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. they put into action the functions they control ; as for example, there is a " sneezing center." If some irritant be inhaled into the nose the ends of the nerve fibers are irritated, and an impression is conveyed to the sneezing center ; from this center goes forth a nerve current to certain muscles, which contract and cause the expulsive act of sneezing. Besides the sneezing center there are many others, among which are : the coughing center ; the center for the secretion of the saliva ; the vomiting center ; the swallowing center ; and the center for the closure of the eyelids. One of the most important centers is known as the respiratory center. It is a fact that a small collection of cells in the medulla controls absolutely all the movements of respiration. This small center has greater power than the will itself ; for we may " will " not to breathe, and we can make the attempt to hold the breath, but soon we can do so no longer. Notwith- standing our greatest efforts, we again begin to breathe ; for the center in the medulla is stronger than the will. We may be capable of increasing or diminishing the number of respirations per minute for a short time ; even cease breathing for a brief period ; but soon the respiratory center exerts its power, and respiration is continued with wonderful regularity. Other important centers affect the movements of the heart. One center continuously holds the heart in check, causing it to beat with great regularity. An- other center appears to have an opposite effect at times, being capable of accelerating the action of the heart. - No less important is the vaso-motor center. This controls the nerves which go to all the arterial system. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 271 It is a small collection of cells, yet it is capable of caus- ing the contraction, or relaxation, of the walls of an} 7 of the arteries. It will be remembered that in the walls of the arteries is a layer of involuntary muscle, arranged in a circular manner around the A^essels ; if the muscle contracts, the vessel will be narrowed ; while if it re- laxes, the vessel will be enlarged. The vaso-motor center presides over the action of the muscular walls of the arteries : the normal condition of this center is one which keeps the arterial walls in a moderate state of contraction at all times. The center is said to keep up the " tone " of the arteries, whereby their walls are held firmly in hand. When the function of this center is checked, it releases its hold on the arterial walls and they relax, thus enlarging the size of the vessel. If the blood vessels are thus made larger, more blood will flow through them, and the parts will be a deeper red in color. This is usually temporary, but it may become permanent. Blushing is a temporary checking of the power of the. vaso-motor nerves of the face ; they cease to act, thus allowing the muscles in the smaller arteries of the skin to relax ; this results in a temporary enlargement of the blooci vessels, so that more blood flows to the part. The vaso-motor nerves may become paralyzed, so that the blood vessels are permanently enlarged ; this is the condition of the red nose of the confirmed inebriate. The vaso-motor center may act in an opposite man- ner to that described, it may act with more than nor- mal power. The smaller arteries then have their mus- cular walls contracted with more vigor, so that the amount of blood in a part may be greatly reduced. 272 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Cold stimulates the vaso-motor center, so that if the hand be placed in cold water it soon becomes pale from loss of blood. Fright often causes the face to become pale, owing to the vigorous action of this center. This power of the vaso-inotor center is most essential to the preservation of health, and even of life itself. Let us illustrate its daily action : the cold weather of winter stimulates the center so that it acts with in- creased power; this contracts the arteries of the skin, so that the flow of blood through it is greatly dimin- ished. Therefore the loss of animal heat is diminished, as we have already learned. But during the summer the vaso-motor nerves relax their hold on the smaller bloodvessels of the skin; the blood flows more freely through it, and the loss of heat is thereby increased. From all this we conclude that the vaso-motor center is capable of controlling the supply of blood to any part of the body. By increasing its normal function the arteries of any part are made smaller and the supply of blood correspondingly less ; while by diminishing its normal work the arteries are made larger and the sup- ply of blood increased. It has certainly been proven that the medulla is a most important, as well as most delicate part of the nervous system. The Spinal Cord and Reflex Action. The spinal cord is the conducting medium between the nerve fibers of the lower part of the body, and the 'brain. A second function of the cord is a reflex one. It is a great reflex center ; its action in this respect is al- most continuous. There are many familiar illustrations of this action in every-day life ; tickling the foot of a person who is asleep causes the foot to be quickly THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 273 withdrawn ; this is purely a reflex act. The impression produced on the nerves of the foot is conveyed along the sensory fibers to the spinal cord, and from the cord it is " reflected " outward along a motory nerve to the muscles of the limb. The sensation produced by the tickling entered the cord through the posterior root of a spinal nerve, and immediately left it through the anterior root; this involved no interference of the brain. To make a reflex act, three things are necessary : an unbroken sensory nerve, for connecting the point touched and the nerve centre ; a healthy nerve centre ; and an unbroken motory nerve, between the nerve centre and the muscles to be stimulated. Reflex action is partly, but not altogether, under the control of the will. To illustrate : if we inhale an irritating powder, like pepper, through the nose, we may be able to postpone the sneez- ing for a short time, but finally we are obliged to sneeze, and no power of the will can prevent it. Course of Nerve Current in Reflex Action. A glance at Fig. 98 will make clear the course of the nerve current in a reflex act. At the right, 3, is one of the spinal nerves. This large nerve consists of many fibers which proceed together until they reach some distant part, as the arm. Some of the fibers terminate in the skin, and others in the muscles. If the skin on the arm be touched the stimulus will be conveyed toward the spinal cord and will finally enter it through the sensory root, at 2. The nerve current then goes directly through the gray mat- ter to the anterior or motory root, at 1 ; it then passes down the motory fibers, which are alone at 1, but which are soon side by side with the sensory fibers in the spinal nerve, at 3. After continuing the length of the 18 274 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. motory fibers the current finally stimulates some of the muscles of the arm and they respond by a vigor- ous contraction. Thus it is seen that the sensory and motory fibers are separated into distinct bundles at their beginning, and they are also separated at their termination, the former in the skin and the latter in the muscles ; but they were together in one bundle through all the distance between. A reference to Fig. 99 may aid in making the subject more clear. The nerve current travels in the direction of the arrow- heads. Importance of Reflex Action. The daily work of the body is carried on largely as a result of reflex action. The flow of saliva produced by mastication is a result of reflex action ; and we could not check the flow if we desired. The flow of the gastric juice, from the stimulus of food in FIG: 99. A diagram illus- the stomach, is purely a re- trating reflex action : s, the skin, gult Q f reflex act j on< R eS pi- M, a muscle. If the skin, s, be touched the nerve current travels ratl n 1S a r fleX act, due to in the direction of the arrows certain stimuli applied to the until it stimulates the muscle, M, respiratory center in the me- to contract dulla> The nervous sys t em is constantly performing a vast amount of labor of which we are unconscious, and which we are unable to alter, except possibly to a limited degree in a few instances. Acquired Reflex Action. Many acts which are at first voluntary, and which are performed only by a strong effort of the will, finally become so natural and easy that they are performed unconsciously ; these may be THE NEIUOUS SYSTEM. 275 called acquired reflex acts. Walking was a very diffi^ cult process at first, and could only be accomplished with considerable effort. The number of muscles brought into play in running and jumping is very great; yet they all relax and contract at just the proper time, without the least aid from the will. When the beginner plays the piano, he not only looks at the music, but also at the keys, that only the right ones may be touched ; but after a time the sight of a par- ticular note calls forth such a movement of the hand that just the proper key is touched ; the performer looks at the music, and the hands take care of themselves. The first trials at skating are not highly successful ; all the power of the will has to be exercised to keep the balance and to move in the desired direction ; but soon the movements become easier and the exercise becomes a pleasure and a rest. Habit. A habit is an action acquired by frequent repetition. It is a law in physiology that each time a nerve cell acts in a particular way, it gains a power that makes the second act more easily performed. In this way a habit is formed : it may be the habit of walk- ing, skating, or playing the piano ; it matters not what the acts are, provided the nerve centers become accus- tomed to their repetition. At first, it was difficult to say the alphabet correctly, but now that we are in the habit of saying it, we can repeat it correctly more easily than incorrectly. It took an effort of the will at first to say it correctly, while now it requires much more will power to say it incorrectly; in other words, it takes a direct effort of the will to break the habit of saying it correctly. 276 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. This clearly proves two things : first, by the frequent repetition of an act we soon become quite unconscious of it ; and second, it requires a direct effort of the will to break the habit. F.vom this it follows that the nerve centers will have a strong tendency to do whatever they have been in the habit of doing. Thus there is sound reasoning in the statement that one kind act makes the way easier for another to follow. One duty performed makes another more easy ; each pure thought invites another of its kind. Each temptation conquered makes us more sure of future victory. In youth, before the nerve centers have formed their life habits, it is comparatively easy for us to lay the foundation of future usefulness. Such, at least, is the teaching of physiology. Life is a hard battle at its best, and if we would make it a grand success we need all the help we can get from every possible source, Physiology teaches us that by the repetition of what may seem trifling deeds, we can, while still young, form the habit of breaking the laws of health ; it teaches us what the result of such actions will be ; and it also teaches us that no person can avoid these results without avoiding their causes. On the other hand, we learn from this stern teacher that it is easy, while yet young, to form the habit of right living, so that we may build up both body and soul for future usefulness and happiness. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 277 CHAPTER XXVII. THE HYGIENE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Necessity of a Healthy Nervous System. We have learned that all the functions of the body are dependent upon the activity of the nerve centers : these must be in the best condition, or the parts under their control will suffer. The nervous system is so closely related to the other parts of the body that an injury of any kind to the one is sure to affect the other. Heredity, One of the things necessary for a vigorous nervous system is its inheritance. The old saying that " blood will tell " is as true to-day as when it was first uttered. We not only inherit the forms and the feat- ures of our parents, but also, to a certain degree, their dispositions, their powers of endurance, their likes and dislikes, and even their moral characters. The laws of heredity are very strong, and, in the long run, they are true. A child has a wonderful, almost inestimable gift, if endowed by birth with a sound and strong nerv- ous system free from physical and moral ills. Such a child has a start in the world far in advance of others less highly favored, while his efforts to lead an upright life are much more easily crowned with success. The less favored child, who inherits a nervous system shattered and weakened by the vicious habits of his 278 THE ESSENTIALS OF P1EALTH. ancestors, enters life at a disadvantage, while he has a constant fight with himself to conquer a natural ten- dency to do evil. When at last his better nature rules, and he completely masters himself, he comes off a glorious conqueror. A Healthy Body. Even with a vigorous nervous system and a strong moral nature transmitted to us, all our bright prospects may be easily blasted by neglecting to obey some of the well-known laws of health. To develop the nervous system requires proper food, pure air, and plenty of mental and physical exercise. Physical pain is not conducive to the best brain work ; a tired body will not stimulate the brain to action ; hence we con- clude again that a healthy body is necessary for the high- est and best development of the whole nervous system. Exercise of the Mind. As muscular exercise is essen- tial to the full development of the muscles, so mental exercise is necessary if the best efforts of the brain are desired. This exercise must be regular, persistent, and properly suited to the age and health of the person. It is impossible for the boy to jump so far at the first trial as he will after weeks of practice ; neither can he perform so severe mental work at first as he will after months of constant study. If the muscles have not been previously trained, one hard effort at lifting or running may cause severe pain and soreness in them. So an extra effort of the mind for one unaccustomed to study may cause headache and even severe mental disorders. The evils of over-study and of crowding too many studies into each school year are being more fully understood and corrected, while more attention is being given to a better understanding THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 279 of the laws of health. The modern teacher knows that a pupil with a healthy body is much more likely to have a vigorous mind ; and that the proper care of both should go hand in hand. Mental labor ought not to cease with the school life ; the school is to discipline and train the mind so that the powers of observation and reasoning may continue throughout life to the best possible advantage. " Work " is the word that contains the secret of a healthy body arid a well-balanced mind, regular, systematic, persis- tent work, both for the body and the mind. Pleasures are more enjoyable, and amusements are more profitable, if they be but the short vacations in our daily duties. A life of idleness and pleasure-seeking is not the normal condition of any human being. Rest. The mind, as well as the body, would soon fail if it were obliged to work too hard or too long. Rest is absolutely necessary for all parts of the body. Many individuals seem to think that rest means to fold the hands and remain in perfect idleness ; as a rule this is the poorest method of obtaining rest. If we have been exercising the mind until we are tired from study, noth- ing will restore the mental vigor better than some gentle out-door sport, as a brisk walk. The exercise brings a good supply of fresh blood to the brain, and thus aids in giving new life to its tissue. The headaches of school children often cease before they have reached their homes at the close of day. Amusements, excursions, and a change in the character of the work, all tend to repair the waste of nervous energy, and are far better than idleness. Complete rest and quiet are not conducive to health unless 280 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. for particular reasons they have been ordered by a physician. Worry. Above all things do not worry. Study hard, play hard, enter with enthusiasm into all the duties and pleasures of school life, but do not worry. Worry means waste waste of nervous force, of thought, of memory; and it is a sure road to the impairment of the highest functions of the brain. While it is true that some students do not have anxiety enough for their work, yet it is equally true, especially in the higher grades, that many attempt to accomplish altogether too much. Sleep. One of the great restorers of both mind and body is sleep. All animals having a well-developed ner- vous system take rest in sleep. Drowsiness and weari- ness warn us that sleep is necessary. These warnings may be unheeded for a time, but sooner or later we have to yield to the imperative demand. Some persons require more sleep than others, but the adult needs, on the average, from seven to nine hours. It is said that Napoleon required but three or four hours' sleep each day, and that he would pass days with very little rest of any kind. Frederick the Great required but little sleep, not over five hours a day. These are marked exceptions, though it is a fact that nearly all our great men who are obliged to do an immense amount of brain work sleep well and long : they know the value of a good night's rest, and are alarmed when they are unable to procure sleep. They know that during their busy days the waste is greater than the repair, and that during the quiet rest of the night the cells are busy repairing the waste, and appropriating new material for the labor of another day. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 281 Insomnia. Continued wakefulness often becomes a very serious affection, and many men have lost their health by the inability to sleep. If persistent, it is a dangerous trouble and should be remedied at once, if possible. To promote Sleep. There .are many popular ways of promoting sleep, nearly all of which make a bad matter worse. Out-door exercise during the day, light suppers, quiet evenings, and warm feet will greatly promote sleep. " Keep the head cool and the feet warm." But sleep will often refuse to come if the tired brain is filled with cares, griefs, and anxieties. Students need Much Sleep. Students often make a great mistake in trying to change the laws of nature, and in studying until late into the night, and then in sleeping away the morning hours. It is only necessary to remember that at night the brain is tired, and .an extra effort is necessary to make an impression upon it ; while in the morning it is fresh and sensitive and easily impressed ; the morning is the time for study. Earnest application in the early part of the day, concentrating the mind with all the power of the will, and laying aside everything else but the work in hand, these will soon prove that the mornings were made for study, the even- ings for relaxation, and the nights for sleep. QUESTIONS. 1. What do you understand by the "nerve current?" 2. How fast does it travel ? 3. What sets the nerve current in operation ? Illustrate this. 4. How has it been proved that the cerebrum is the seat of the intelligence ? 5. Do injuries to the cerebellum necessarily destroy consciousness ? 282 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. 6. What is the especial function of the cerebellum ? 7. What is said of the medulla in its relation to life ? 8. Name some of the centers in the medulla. 9. What controls the movements of respiration ? Illustrate this. 10. What centers affect the movements 'of the heart? 11. W T hat center controls the nerves which are in the walls of the arteries ? 12. What is the normal condition of this vaso-motor center? 13. When the function of this center is checked, what occurs? 14. Give the physiology of blushing. 15. When the vaso-motor center acts with more power than the normal, what occurs ? 16. What is this center capable of doing? 17. The spinal cord is a connecting medium between what? 18. Give another function of the cord. How illustrated ? 19. What three things are necessary for a reflex act? 20. Is reflex action ever under the control of the will? How illustrated ? 21. Describe the course of the nerve current in a reflex act. 22. Give some illustrations showing the importance of reflex action. 23. Are reflex acts ever acquired ? Give illustrations. 24. , Give a definition of a habit. 25. Give some illustrations showing that by frequent repetition of an act we may become unconscious of it. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 283 CHAPTER XXVIII. ALCOHOL AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. AFTER the habit of indulgence in alcoholic drinks has been fully established it has such a mastery over the whole system that statements or warnings of any kind have little effect. But it is doubfless true that if all young men knew the effect of alcohol on the nervous system, before they began to use it, few, if any, would ever try the experiment of taking the first glass ; while it is certainly as true that no right-minded young woman, possessed of a like knowledge, would ever think of offering a glass to a friend. It is because of the ignorance of the terrible power hidden in strong drink that young men ever begin the use of alcohol as a beverage. " One glass certainly can- not do me any harm," is the oft repeated statement. The student of physiology knows full well, though, that even the one glass, repeated now and then, has the power to make such changes in the tissues and organs of the body, and to produce such a marked effect on the nerve centers that breaking away from it will be very difficult. And some day it will be discovered, when too late to re- treat, that a habit has become fastened with wonderful tenacity. There are two classes of persons who begin the use of 284 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. alcoholic beverages : those who honestly think there may be some healing virtue in their power,, and therefore take some form of alcohol as a tonic ; and those who do so for no particular reason, only because they are asked. The persons of the first class are deceived by the pri- mary narcotic effects of the alcohol, which by deadening the nerves makes them feel better for a time, and so the doses are repeated until the habit is formed. Many physicians have erred in prescribing some form of alcohol as a regular medicine, under the mistaken impression that it is a food and tonic. All at once the patient discovers he has a most unnatural desire for his medicine, and is powerless to give it up. To such as believe that there is virtue in alcohol as a tonic, and that its use will be of benefit to them in restoring health, we can only say : Never prescribe it for yourself any more than you would prescribe opium or strychnine, or any other poison. The wise physician of to-day, who is abreast with the modern investigations concerning this drug, knows how little virtue there is in the various forms of alcoholic beverages as a real aid in combating disease. Doubt- less a great deal of alcohol used as medicine-comes from the self -prescribing of those who take it because they like it. A better understanding of its physiological action has made it necessary to regard alcohol as a dangerous poison. Some of the most competent medical men in this country have openly declared that for many years they have never ordered a single dose of alcohol in any form, and that there are better and safer remedies which can be given in its place. To the second class belong those who are beginning THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 285 the use of alcohol because some one offers to treat them and they do not wish to refuse. To these, and also to all who have not ventured thus far, we would say : Study carefully the following effects of alcohol on the nervous system, and then calmly decide whether the path is not altogether too treacherous and dangerous to enter upon. The most striking thing about alcohol is that it has a special affinity for nervous tissue. By " affinity " is understood the attraction which takes place between the alcohol and the tissues of the body. When alcohol is taken into the body it affects all the living tissues, but it affects them in different degrees ; it has some affinity, or attraction, for muscles, some for the blood, some for the liver, and so on ; but of all the tissues in the body it has the strongest affinity for those of the nervous sys- tem. Thus, if after death from the effects of alcohol, the tissues are separately analyzed by the chemist, more alcohol will be found in the brain and spinal cord than in any other tissue. The brain is the throne of the intellect, and yet it is attacked the most severely of any of the tissues. Where man is strongest, there does alcohol make its most powerful attempt to overthrow him. Many a simple drug can do great damage in time by persistently at- tacking one of the less important tissues. Many diseases affect the less important organs and tissues at first, and it is only after years of annoyance that the general health becomes undermined. But alcohol strikes at once with its full power at that which is highest and most important to man. In the preceding chapter it is taught that the nervous 286 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. system controls all the functions of the body ; anything which affects the governing body must affect the parts governed. So we find alcohol affecting with the greatest severity that which is the most central and vital. Its affinity for nervous tissue is so great that it has been found in the fluid normally present in the brain, and it has even been distilled from the brains of those who have died after using large quantities of it. When alcohol is taken into the body in the form of some kind of drink, it is absorbed into the circulation and is carried to all the tissues of the body, more going to the nervous tissue than to any other. Its effect on this tissue is that which must follow from the adminis- tration of any powerful narcotic. Alcohol paralyzes nerve tissue. A standard medical work on the action of the various drugs on the human system, classifies alcohol with " those remedies which diminish or suspend the functions of the cerebrum after a preliminary stage of excitement." Webster says that paralysis is the com- plete or partial abolition of function. Therefore we are correct in stating that alcohol paralyzes nerve tissue; for it completely or partially abolishes the functions of the nervous system. A standard writer on materia medica says that the effects of alcohol are expended chiefly on the nervous system ; this fact alone is enough to condemn its use in any form as a beverage. But it makes itself appear to good advantage before those who do not know its full effects, because of its power to first excite the brain. We understand the cause of this excitement when we know that alcohol paralyzes, and so checks the action of the vaso-iiiotor center, causing the latter to release its THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 287 hold over the muscular walls of the small arteries. As a result the vessels expand and more blood flows through them, and following this enlargement of these smaller blood vessels the distant pressure is removed and the heart beats faster. The more rapid flow of blood arid the enlarged blood vessels bring an extra supply of blood to the brain and thereby it becomes greatly ex- cited. The flushed face is the result of the same changes ; the walls of the smaller arteries are relaxed and the vessels become filled with blood, thus causing the skin to appear red. In the light of these facts we must regard the flushed face and the excitement of the brain as symptoms of a temporary paralysis of the nerves which control the circulation of the blood in the smaller arteries. Following the brief period of excitement produced by alcohol, other effects appear. The spinal cord becomes involved, as shown by the irregular action of the parts under its more immediate control. It is unable to fully perform all reflex acts, and the will has to come to its aid. Thus the act of walking becomes uncertain, and it requires the aid of the will to order the movements of the proper muscles. The loss of some of the power of the spinal cord is also shown in the trembling of the lips and the uncertain and indistinct speech. A little later the cord loses much of its force as a nerve center, and its control over the muscles is slight ; then the mus- cles of the lower limbs become weak and the gait is staggering. All this means a temporary paralysis of the nerve centers. The centers in the medulla soon become affected, and vomiting is likely to occur ; this may prove beneficial by throwing off the poison, but 288 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. usually the alcohol has been all absorbed from the stomach before vomiting takes place. When the stage of excitement, or increased action of the brain cells, is at its height, the cerebrum acts in a still more excited manner ; the nerve cells become over- excited, and the animal nature of man assumes control ; the reason is overpowered and man is brought to a level with the lower animals. The muscles are no longer un- der control, and the whole system seems to be ruled by some strange outside power. The stage of excitement is soon over, and gradually the entire brain loses its power ; the voluntary muscles no longer act ; all sensa- tion is lost ; and the body becomes nothing more than a wonderful piece of disordered mechanism. " The functions of the cerebrum are suspended." Yet the centers in the medulla are still active, for the heart continues to beat and the respiratory muscles con- tinue to act. These two centers would soon become paralyzed also, and the heart and lungs would cease to do their work, were it not that by reason of unconscious- ness the person takes no more alcohol. Herein lies the explanation why alcoholic drinks do not cause more sud- den deaths ; the brain loses its power before the heart ceases to beat. In other words, the poison affects the cerebrum before it does the medulla. The man becomes unconscious before he has taken enough to check the action of all the centers in the medulla. If alcohol affected the nerves which keep the heart in motion before it did the consciousness, it would cause a vast number of sudden deaths. But it may be urged that this is an over-drawn picture ; that it is an illustra- tion of drinking to complete intoxication, and that even THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 289 those addicted to the use of alcohol do not favor such excesses. We must, therefore, study the effects of mod- erate and frequently repeated doses of alcohol on the nervous system. \Ve must fully understand that alcohol has an im- mediate and direct effect on nerve tissue. By direct effect is understood the effect produced by actual con- tact of the alcohol with the nerve tissues : for some of the alcohol taken into the system comes in direct con- tact with the brain, producing most marked changes in the structure of that organ. This statement has been proven by experiments, by chemical analysis, and by microscopical examinations, sustained by the reports of eminent men. The structure of the brain is also changed, indirectly, by the poorer quality of the blood, by the impaired circulation, and by the diminished ac- tivity of the organs of excretion ; thus the supply of blood is less, the blood itself is poorer in quality, and the channels for the removal of the waste and worn- out materials are not sufficiently active. As a result of both the direct and indirect effects of alcohol the following marked changes are produced. An eminent medical authority says that after the continued use of alcohol " the nerve cells of the gray matter are more or less fatty and shrunken." As a result of this shrinkage he says, " The whole cerebrum becomes smaller, and the space thus made becomes filled with a watery fluid." It is impossible to place too much emphasis on this statement. This was written to physi- cians and medical students as a statement of the facts concerning the action of one of the many drugs used in the practice of medicine. 19 290 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. What is the teaching of this high authority ? That the continued use of alcohol actually lessens the size of the brain ; reduces the capacity of man to think ; changes the mysterious and wonderful nerve cells so that they are smaller and partly changed to fat. Space once occu- pied by brain tissue becomes filled with water. Thus, in this cool and logical way, are we brought face to face with the astounding anatomical' fact, that alcohol has the power to " steal away the brains." " The evidences of these changes in the brain and cord," the same au- thority says, " are seen in the impaired mental power, the muscular trembling, and the shambling gait of the drunkard." It would seem to any logical mind that nothing more need be said to prove the baneful effects of strong drink. The knowledge of the system already acquired from a study of the preceding chapters, must be sufficient to show how surely alcohol will do its work, and also how severe that work will be. But testimony accumulates on every hand. Dr. Wil- liam A. Hammond, the eminent specialist on nervous dis- eases, made a careful study of the effects of alcohol on the nervous system. If it had any special virtue he was desirous of employing it in his practice. By numerous experiments he proved its powerful poisoning effects. He says : " Mankind would be better mentally, morally, and physically, if the use of alcohol were altogether abolished." Delirium Tremens. This is one of the horrible effects of alcoholic poisoning. It may follow the sudden use of a large quantity of alcohol, even from a single intoxi- cation, although it is usually the result of the free and THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 291 long continued use of alcoholic drinks. There is no telling at what time it may attack its victim ; it may be when he first begins his career, or after years of continued drinking ; it may come to those physically strong, or to the very weakest. It is one of the most horrible effects of alcohol, transforming man into the wildest and fiercest of animals. There is inability to retain food and all the voluntary muscles are in a tremor ; the patient is either unable to procure sleep at all, or there are brief periods of sleep, interrupted by the most terrifying dreams ; he is being constantly pursued by horrible insects and reptiles, while he is unable to escape from them, or to destroy them. Re- covery may take place after days of intense agony, or death may bring relief at any moment. THE EFFECT ON THE MIND. From the preceding statements it logically follows that the use of alcohol diminishes the will power. Men who are proud of their dress and speech, and who pride themselves on their proper decorum, become foolish and silly when slightly intoxicated, and are easily provoked to do rash things. A small boy can so provoke a slightly intoxicated man by imitating him that the man appears to lose all control of himself. Even a small amount of strong drink is sufficient to make some people more easily annoyed and disturbed than when perfectly free from the effects of alcohol. Thus we reason that the man who indulges in strong drink, but not to the extent of intoxication, does not have full control of his mental and moral powers. He is more easily provoked and 292 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. more readily yields to temptation. Man needs all the will power he can command, to successfully meet the many trials and battles of life. To take strong drink is to weaken his mental power, and by so much to di- minish his chances of success in any of the useful activi- ties of life. To the conclusions of logic and the positive statements of medical authority as to the undermining and weaken- ing of the mind by alcohol, there may be added the tes- timony gathered from the records of courts and prisons. Statistics show that a large percentage of the various crimes are committed while the persons are under the influence of liquor. Alcohol blunts all the finer sensi- bilities, and destroys the love for justice and fair play. The mind is trampled upon and the lower animal nature rules the body. As a result, deeds are committed which would never be considered for a moment if the higher nature were in command ; or, in other words, if the king were, on his throne. Other diseases of the nervous system result from the use of alcoholic beverages. The statistics of the insane asylums show that insanity is one of these results. What can be more terrible than to see a promising career end in the loss of reason, and to find that strange and wild fancies occupy its place ? In France, during the last war with Prussia, it was found that over one- half of all the cases of insanity were occasioned by the use of alcohol. In the lunatic asylum at Dublin, " nearly one half of the cases were known to be caused by the use of alcohol alone." In America the proportion is not so great, yet it is surprisingly large. It is safe to assert that of one hundred insane persons, twenty are so afflicted THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 293 as a direct result of the use of alcohol, and thirty-five more as an indirect result, making in all fifty-five of each one hundred insane persons so afflicted on account of the use of alcohol in some form. Still another effect is seen in the weak nervous sys- tems transmitted by drinking parents to their children. Some form of nervous disease is very generally inherited from parents addicted to strong drink ; this transmission makes their children less able to withstand the various diseases of childhood. The number of children who die from weak constitutions, inherited from intemperate parents, is very large indeed. With stronger constitu- tions they would be able to survive many of the ailments incident to childhood, but they appear to have no power to resist disease. One of the prominent causes of infant mortality in our large cities, if the truth were only told, would be inherited alcoholic poisoning. The children of intemperate parents are likely to grow up weak in body and mind. Some go to the idiot asy- lums, some to the jails and prisons, while some go to the retreats for the insane. Others, however, manfully fight the battle ; though tempted as none others are tempted, they conquer ; though naturally weak, they de- velop strength ; and though they inherit a love for strong drink, they persistently fight for its overthrow. No battlefield has records of victories more noble. When these triumphs are gained, the tide of evil is turned back forever ; a fine mental organism and great will power, the constituents of greatness, are gained ; and the person who inherited weakness is now a source of strength to all who are associated with him. 294 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. OPIUM. Opium is a most powerful drug, and is classed with alcohol in its power, first, to excite, and then suspend the functions of the cerebrum. Its effects are more pronounced than those of tobacco, and are fully as severe as those of alcohol. In this country the opium habit is generally formed as a result of the use of opium to relieve pain. The individual has usually been a great sufferer and the physicians have been obliged to prescribe some form of opium to give relief. From these prescrip- tions for relief from pain the patient has sometimes been left with a strong desire for more opium, -and by repeat- edly yielding to the desire the habit has been formed. The effects of opium on the nervous system are most pronounced ; it causes a partial paralysis of the lower limbs, giving a stooping or creeping appearance ; it so interferes with all the functions of the body that the nerve centers suffer greatly from the want of nourish- ment. Opium has a wonderful power to blunt the moral sensibility ; the opium-eater will do anything to obtain the drug ; the mind soon becomes enveloped in a cloud, and he goes about in a dazed stupor. All interest in business and friends is lost, and the one dominant idea is how to procure more of the drug ; to do this he will almost invariably deceive in every possible way. If he is unable to get his accustomed dose he suffers the most terrible pains both in mind and body. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 295 QUESTIONS. % 1. What knowledge would probably keep young men from begin- ning the use of alcohol ? 2. What two classes of persons begin the use of alcoholic beverages ? 3. How are those of the first class deceived ? 4. How must we regard alcohol ? 5. What do some competent medical men declare ? 6. What advice is given to the second class of young men? 7. What is the most striking thing about alcohol ? 8. What do you understand by affinity ? 9. What tissue is attacked most severely by alcohol ? 10. How does alcohol affect nervous tissue ? 11. With what remedies is alcohol classed? 12. Give a definition of paralysis. 13. Where are the effects of alcohol chiefly expended ? 14. How does it make itself appear to good advantage? 15. What is the result of checking the action of the vase-motor center ? 16. What effect does the extra supply of blood have on the brain? 17. What follows the brief period of excitement produced by alcohol ? 18. What do the trembling lips and the uncertain speech show? 19. When the stage of excitement is at its height, how does the cerebrum act? 20. How is the reason affected? 21. Describe the condition after the stage of excitement is over. 22. Why do not alcoholic drinks cause a greater number of sudden deaths? 23. When taken into the system, does alcohol ever come in direct contact with the brain ? 24. How does alcohol affect the brain? 25. How does it affect the will power? 26. What do the statistics of insane asylums show? 296 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XXIX. THE SENSE OF SIGHT. Protection for the Eyes. The eyes are well protected in deep sockets of bone, called the orbits. Externally they are protected by the eyebrows, the eyelids with their glands, and the lachrymal glands. The nose is also a valuable protection to the eyes. The eyebrows pro- ject over the eyes and are covered with a thick growth of hair. The hair is directed obliquely outwards, so that the perspiration from the forehead is carried to the side of the face, instead of Fig. lOO. The muscles of the right running directly down eyeball. The outer bony walls of the or- into the eves. w * h * ve been ' eraoved ; n (1) the . m ^ which turns the eyeball upward; (2) The eyelids are thin downward . (3 ) outward ; a con-espond- CUrtainS placed direct- ing muscle on the inner side moves the ly in front of the eye- eyeball inward ; (4, 5) muscles which rotate the eyeball ; (6) a pulley, through balls. In the centre which the tendon of the muscle (5) moves. of each eyelid is a thin plate of cartilage, on the outside of which is a thin muscle covered with skin. The inside of the lids is lined with a delicate membrane, called the conjunctiva. THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 297 On the edges of the lids is a row of delicate hairs, called eyelashes. They protect the eyes from insects and par- ticles of foreign matter; for the moment any foreign bodies come in contact with the lashes the lids close, thus preventing the objects from touching the eyeball. The eyelids keep the heat and cold from the more deli- cate parts of the eye, and they also keep out an excess of light. Their most important function is to cleanse the eyes and to keep them moist. Their rapid and fre- quent movements thoroughly remove any particles of dust from the front of the eyeball, while at the same time they moisten the surface. This is the object of winking, which is usually a reflex act, although it may be made voluntary. The Oil Glands. Oil glands are situated at right angles to the free edges of the lids, and on their in- ner side. They can be seen on the inner surface of the eyelids through the mucous membrane, look- ing like strings of minute pearls. They extend near- ly across the entire width of the lids, on the edges of which they open and pour out their oily secretion. This keeps the lids from adhering to each other, and holds back the tears so that they do not run over the edges and down upon the face. The Lachrymal Gland. The lachrymal gland is an almond-shaped body situated in the outer and upper FIG. 101. The eyelids of the right eye, viewed from the inside : (1) the lachrymal gland ; (2) the oil glands in the eyelids. 298 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. part of each orbit, between the eyeball and the bone. From this gland there extend about seven ducts or canals, which open on the inner surface of the upper eyelid near its outer part. The openings are ar- ranged in a row, as represented at 2, Fig. 102, thus distributing the secretion over the surface of the con- junctiva. The Tears. The watery secretion from the lachrymal glands is known as The lachrymal fluid. The secretion is a con- stant one, although we are unconscious of its presence until there is an excessive flow ; the fluid is evenly dis- tributed by the movements of the eyelids. An excessive amount of this secretion is called the tears. They are easily excited by irritants placed to the eye or nose ; by laughing and crying ; and by various mental emotions. Some of the secretion is evaporated from the eyeball, but the greater part of it escapes from the eye through regular channels provided for it. The secretion flows toward the inner angle of the eye where it enters two openings, one in either lid. This opening is easily seen on the lower lid as a black point in the center of a little eminence near the inner corner of the eye. The black FIG. 102. Front view of the right eye, showing the location of the lachrymal gland and the nasal duct: (1) the lachrymal gland ; (2) the ducts that carry the secre- tion from the gland to the free surface of the eyeball ; (3) the duct for the passage of the secretion to the nose. THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 299 points are the beginnings of two ducts which pass in- ward toward the nose, as seen at 3, Fig. 102. The Eyeball. The eyeball is securely protected from injury and yet it has a most extensive range of sight. It is a round body with the exception that its front part protrudes more than the other parts. From the front to the back it is about an inch in length. The eyeball has three membranes or coats surround- ing it. The outer coat consists of two parts ; the poster- ior part, which is very thick and hard, is seen coming toward the front of the eye where it is called " the white of the eye." Because it is so very toagh and hard, it is called the sclerotic ; the anterior part of this outer coat is transparent and is called the cornea. Through this transparent cornea the light passes into the interior of the eye. The middle coat of the eye is called the choroid ; it is filled with dark pigment which makes it look quite black. The choroid joins a membrane in front, called the iris, in the center of which is an opening, called the pupil. In the iris are the cells, containing a color- ing matter, which give the characteristic color to the eye. The size of the pupil can be changed by the ac- tion of certain muscles : the muscles are involuntary so that they only contract and relax as a result of some influence outside of the will. A bright light will make the muscles of the iris contract so that the pupil be- comes much smaller, and thus but little light reaches the interior of the eye. If the light be very faint, other muscles of the iris contract, enlarging the pupil, and thus allowing more light to enter. The third, or inner coat of the eye is called the retina. 300 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The miscroscope shows that it has a most complicated structure, and that it is directly connected with the fibers of the optic nerve, which go directly to the brain. When light reaches the interior of the eye, it FIG. 103. ' A section through the eyeball : Ca, the cornea, or the trans- parent membrane which forms the front of the eye ; s, the sclerotic ; c, the choroid ; K, the retina ; o, the optic nerve ; B, the blind spot ; i, the iris ; L, the lens ; AH, the aqueous humor ; VH, the vitreous humor. produces a peculiar impression on the retina ; which impression is then conveyed along the optic nerve to the brain ; the brain transforms the impression made upon it into the sensation of vision, and we declare we are able to see. When any object is viewed the exact image of it is produced on the retina. If the optic nerve be cut the image will still be formed, but no sensation of THE SENSE OF SIGHT. 301 light will reach the brain. Therefore, as it is the photog rapher who sees and not his camera, so it is the brain which sees and not the eye, for the eye is simply the camera. Functions of Parts. The eyeballs may be likened to a room, with a single window in front. Just back of the window hangs a dark curtain with a round opening in it. All light entering the room must come through the window, pass through the opening in the curtain, and strike the opposite wall. The transparent cornea is the window ; the iris is the dark curtain for regulating the amount of light ; and the pupil is the central opening. The choroid is black to prevent the reflection of light within the eye, and to absorb any light which may pass through the retina. The sclerotic is hard and firm, for a protection to the eye and for the attachment of muscles. The Blind Spot. All parts of the retina are not equally sensitive to light. One spot on it, where the optic nerve FIG. 104. A diagram for illustrating the existence of the blind spot. enters (see Fig. 103, B), is entirely insensible to light. This is called the blind spot : it does not interfere with vision because it is impossible for the light from an object to fall on the blind spot of both eyes at once. If certain rays fall on the blind spot of one eye, they will fal* on 302 THE ESSENTIALS 01 HEALTH. a different part of the retina of the other eye. But if one eye be closed there is always some portion of the ob- ject before us which is invisible. This is easily proved by looking at a sharply denned object after the following manner : . Close the left eye and look steadily at the small white circle to the left of Fig. 104 : it is possible now to see the large white circle even when the eye is fixed on the smaller one. Hold the book vertically on a level with the eyes at a convenient distance. Now move the book slowly backward and forward. Soon a distance will be found where the large circle entirely disappears, only to reappear again as the book is moved nearer or farther from the eye. This is because the light from the large circle, when it entered the eye at a certain angle, fell on the retina just where the optic nerve enters. Color-Blindness. Color-blindness may be total or par- tial. When total, all objects appear gray. These cases are very rare. The usual cases of color-blindness are those where the persons cannot distinguish between red and green. This is a serious defect especially if occur- ring in engineers who depend upon the green and red light signals at depots, railroad yards, etc. Short-Sightedness. Long-Sightedness. In a normal eye an image of all objects seen distinctly is formed on the retina. If the eye is too deep, if its diameter from be- fore, backward, is too great, then the image is formed in front of the retina and appears blurred. If the object be held very near the eye however, the image is formed on the retina and vision is distinct. As the field of distinct vision is thus limited to near objects, the defect is called near or short sightedness. It is remedied by wearing THE SENSE OF SIGHT. concave glasses. In long-sightedness, either the eye is not deep enough, or the lens may not be of the proper curve. This is quite a common defect after 40 or 50 years of age. It is remedied by wearing convex glasses. Care of the Eyes. The eyes may look bright and clear, yet if their use in reading is followed by pain in the head, it is probable that there is some defect in vision. A clear and steady light is most desirable ; a dim light makes it necessary to put forth an effort to see, while a strong light is equally injurious. Looking at a brilliant light, as the sun, is positively injurious. The light should come from over the shoulder, so that it may fall on the page of the book without coming directly into the face. Squinting, or looking cross-eyed, or rolling the eyes about, as is often done by children in sport, is a dangerous thing to do, as some of the muscles of the eyeball may be severely strained by so doing. The upright position is the natural and proper one for reading. Reading while lying down, especially in bed, is a very unwise practice. The book should be held from twelve to sixteen inches from the face when reading. Those who cannot see ordinary type, unless the book is nearer than ten inches, should consult an oculist and ascertain if it would not be best to wear glasses. Never rub the eyes, for any reason, especially if some particle of dirt has fallen into them ; have all such objects carefully removed at once by some com- petent person. Whenever the eyes are inflamed, consult a physician. 304 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. ALCOHOL AND THE EYES. The bleared eyes of the hard drinker only too clearly show the effects of this poison on the delicate tissues of the eye. The blood vessels of the conjunctiva, entirely invisible in health, become distended to their utmost with blood, giving the eyes a most undesirable appearance. Here the cause is the same as has been previously de- scribed. The vaso-motor center, in the medulla, is so affected that the vaso-motor nerves release their control over the smaller arteries ; the muscular walls relax ; and the vessels become engorged with blood. If they remain in this condition too long they will not return to their former size, even if no more alcohol be taken. But if the habit be discontinued early, it is possible under proper medical treatment to restore the parts to health. Inflammation of the eyes is only one of the many serious effects of alcohol on the various organs and tissues of the body. In a recent treatise on diseases of the eye this statement occurs: "It is a well-estab- lished fact that long continued and frequent indulgence in small quantities of spirits is very deleterious to the eyesight. The persistent morning nausea, muscular tremors, sleeplessness, and dull headaches that plague the chronic drinker, are likely to be associated with degeneration of the optic nerve tissues." A very noted oculist examined the eyes of one thou- sand persons who were known to be addicted to the use of strong drink. IJe reported that of these one thousand cases, three hundred had eye affections of some kind. In one hundred and eighty cases the affections were of a severe nature. He gave it as his opinion that alcohol the cause of the disease in each of these eases. THE SENSE OF SIGHT. TOBACCO AND THE EYES. The edges of a smoker's eyelids are often inflamed as a result of contact with the irritating smoke. Often the smoker experiences sharp pains in the eyeballs, with slight failure of vision. The most serious results to the eyes sometimes follow the use of tobacco ; one of these is known as " smokers' blindness." The most careful examinations of the eye fail to discover any change in its structure, yet gradually the vision becomes less and less until complete blindness results. We have the testimony of a number of eminent oculists to the effect that persistent smoking by the young causes frequent and severe affections of the eyes. QUESTIONS. 1. How are the eyes protected? 2. Describe the eyelids. 3. What membrane lines them ? 4. Of what use are the eyelids? 5. What is the object of the oil glands? 6. Where are the lachrymal glands? 7. What outlet is provided for the lachrymal fluid? 8. How many membranes surround the eyeball? 9. Name the posterior part of the outer membrane. The an terior part. 10. Where is the choroid ? The iris? The pupil? 11. W T hat is the inner coat of the eye called? 12. With what is the retina connected? 13. Why is the choroid black? Why is the sclerotic hard? 14. Where is the blind spot of the eye? 15. Look at Fig. 104, as suggested on page 302. 20 306 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTEE XXX. THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. The Tongue. The sense of taste is located in the tongue, the back part of the roof of the mouth, and. to a slight extent, in the sides of the throat. The mucous membrane of the tongue, however, is more especially the seat of this sense. The tongue is com- posed of voluntary muscle, covered with mucous mem- brane. In health, it is moist and of a light-red coior. Any marked change from this condition is an indication of some departure from health. Thus the appearance of the tongue often gives aid to the physician in ascer- taining the source and character of the disease. Papillae of the Tongue. The mucous membrane of the tongue is covered with a great number of papillae. In these papillae are found blood vessels, nerves, glands, and " taste buds." There are three varieties of papillae on the surface of the tongue. The largest papillae can be seen by the unaided eye ; they are far back at the base of the tongue, arranged in the form of the letter V, with the point of the V toward the back. There are eight or ten of these, each consisting of a central pa- pilla surrounded by a wall. The second variety can also be seen with the unaided eye, scattered freely over the surface of the tongue. These papillae are easily THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. 307 recognized by their deep-red color, and because they are larger than the third variety. They are most abundant at the tip of the tongue, where they present a club-shaped FIG. 105. The tongue, showing the varieties of papillae. appearance. The third variety is the most numerous of all. The papilla? are minute in size and are evenly dis- tributed over the surface of the tongue. They are of a whitish color, owing to their thick epithelial covering. 308 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. \rt In some of the papillae are found loops, or coils, of minute blood vessels ; in others there is the ending of a nerve fiber, giving the sense of touch to the tongue ; while in the other papillae are minute bodies, especially for the sense of taste. The Taste Buds. The taste buds are found in the large papillae at the base of the tongue ; and a few are also distributed to other papillae. They are collections of cells arranged in the form of buds, hence called taste buds. Each bud is not over 3^-0 of an inch in length. The loca- tion of these bodies, in the edges of the papillae, is illustrated in Fig. 106. It is seen that they are situated in the folds between the papillae, rather than on the upper free surface. Fig. 107 shows some of these bodies more highly magnified. Some of the cells compos- ing each bud are directly connected with a nerve fiber so that whenever anything comes in contact with these cells an impression of its "taste" is conveyed down the cells and along the nerve fibers to the brain. FIG. 106. A section through two papillae of the tongue, showing the taste buds, at A, magnified. FIG. 107. Three of the taste buds of Fig. 106, highly magnified. THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. 309 The Sense of Taste. There are four different qualities of taste. We have the sensations of sweet, bitter, acid, and saline. In order that any of these may be appre- ciated, the substance must be dissolved. Dry sugar placed on a perfectly dry tongue produces no sensation of sweetness. Some of it must be dissolved before any effect is produced on the cells of the taste buds. The saliva aids in this, although there are mucous and se- rous glands in the tongue which secrete a watery fluid. The movements of the tongue promote the flow of these secretions, and thus aid in dissolving the substances and in distributing them over a greater surface. The sense of taste can be greatly improved by practice, while it is materially aided by the sense of smell. Confusion of Taste and Smell. The senses of smell and taste are often confused. Many times we believe we taste a substance when it is only the odor which is perceived. It is stated that neither vanilla nor garlic has any taste ; it is their odor alone which is noticed. The odor of a drug is often more disagreeable than its taste ; for this reason many medicines are best taken after first closing the nose and thus shutting off the odor. A severe cold is said to affect the sense of taste ; this is because the lining membrane of the nose is inflamed, and we are unable to distinguish odors. In man the sense of taste is more highly developed than that of smell, while in some of the lower animals, as the dog, the sense of smell is the more acute. Taste Easily Changed. The taste of many substances which were at first very pleasant may become disagree- able because of too frequent use, or of unpleasant asso- ciations ; many articles of food are distasteful when 310 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. first used, but after a time they are greatly desirecL Many persons have had to make repeated trials before becoming fond of oysters, tomatoes, or olives ; they began by using a small amount and then gradually educated their sense of taste, until a fondness for them was ac- quired. Habit has much to do with this ; we like and dislike those things which we are in the habit of seeing other members of the family like and dislike. Disease often perverts the taste, so that persons will drink vine- gar, and eat chalk and plaster. Impressions of Taste Remain. If a very sweet or a very bitter substance be placed in the mouth and then removed from it, the taste is retained for some ,time. Therefore, if one substance be tasted and then quickly followed by others of different tastes the impressions will be confused. If the taste of the first was well marked it may impart its qualities to those following. Therefore, to take a medi- cine which has a disagreeable odor and taste, first take into the mouth some strongly flavored substance ; hold the nose, to shut out the odor, and then swallow the dose. In this manner, for reasons already given, there will be little recognition of the drug. Young persons often form the habit of eating cloves and other spices : this is very harmful, not only because it is likely to in- jure the sense of taste, but also because it seriously dis- turbs the action of the stomach. Tobacco and Taste. Tobacco blunts the sense of taste. This is exactly what we should expect, for the papillae of the tongue become saturated with the tobacco flavor, and the taste buds are impaired by their contact with the poisonous properties of the nicotine. The taste of to- bacco is continuously in the mouth, and in order to THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. 311 taste other substances, they must be highly spiced ; this leads to disorders of the stomach as already described. The Nose. The sense of smell is located in the nose. The two open- ings which lead into the nose are called the nostrils. They are sur rounded by a number of fine hairs, which aid in keeping foreign bodies from entering the nasal cavities. The framework of the nose con- FlG> 108 . Transverse sists of bone and cartilage. A thin section of the framework wall, called the septum, divides the interior into two cavities ; these are irregular in shape and extend from the nostrils, in front, to the upper part of the pharynx, behind. of the nose : (1) the nasal cavities. On the outside of each cavity are the curved turbinated bones ; (2) the bones forming the roof of the mouth and the floor of the nasal cavities. The black represents the bone, the lighter shade represents the mucous membrane covering the bone. The inside of each, or the side toward the median line, is smooth, because the septum it- self is smooth ; but the outside is most irregu- lar, owing to the pres- ence of three curved or scroll-like bones, called the turbinated bones. These are well shown, as viewed from the side, in Fig. 109. Lining each nasal FIG. 109. The outside of the left nasal cavity, showing the three turbinated bone. 312 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. cavity is a mucous membrane, which is especially thick over the turbinated bones. The Olfactory Nerve. The nerve of smell is called the olfactory nerve. It arises from the lower and front part of the brain, and passes down through minute openings in the skull just beneath it. Its line fibers are distrib- uted to the upper half of the mucous lining of the nose; therefore only this part of the nasal cavity has the sense of smell. The lower half is endowed with ordinary sensibility so that, when irritated in any way, it causes the reflex act of sneezing. The Sense of Smell. We know little about the action of odorous bodies ; we cannot see an odor, neither can it be meas- ured. Musk has been placed in an open dish in FIG. 110. The right nasal cavity, a room f or many mon ths, showing the termination of the olfac- during which time it was tory nerve : T, the turbinated bones, as represented in Fig. 109; o, the Constantly giving off a olfactory bulb, lying beneath the front powerful odor, yet its part of the cerebrum, c ; B, the bony we j g ] lt was no t diminished floor on which rests the cerebrum. during the entire time. We simply know that certain substances give off a gas- eous or vaporous material ; that this material pervades the surrounding atmosphere ; and that it is often in- haled with the inspired air. We know further, that it may produce a peculiar effect on the olfactory nerve, giving us the sense of smell. THE SENSES OF TASTE AND SMELL. 313 Conditions Affecting this Sense. In order to appre- ciate the odor of a substance, it must be brought to the olfactory nerve in a gaseous or vaporous condition. Solid or liquid bodies, in the nose, do not produce any sense of smell. This is easily proved by filling the nose with rose water ; after so doing, no odor of the rose is perceived. The continued influence of an odor blunts the acute- ness of smell. This is illustrated in every-day life. Upon first entering a room we may notice the odor of escaping gas, while in a short time we become uncon- scious of its presence ; we notice that a room is " close " only when we first enter it. In all such cases the first impressions should be the guide. Some persons are ex- tremely susceptible to odors of all kinds ; they not only detect the least pleasant or unpleasant odors, but they are often made ill by them. In some people the inhala- tion of certain powders excites violent inflammation of the nasal passages. The sense of smell may be greatly developed. It is related of a certain boy named James Mitchell, who was born deaf, dumb, and blind, that he could accurately identify many objects, simply by the sense of smell. Repeated and short contacts of an odor with the nasal mucous membrane favor the development of the sen- sation. It appears that the odor impresses the olfac- tory nerve at the first moment of contact. Therefore repeated sniffings, or rapid inspirations through the nose, give a more exact impression of the odor. If sub- stances of different odors be placed near the nostrils, they will not be confused, but first one odor and then the other will be perceived. 314 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Use of Sense of Smell. The sense of smell is of use in many ways : it aids in the choice of foods, for, as a rule, food which has a tainted odor is unfit for use ; and it aids in the detection of impurities in the air. It is placed at the very entrance of the air into the body to give warning of approaching danger. It is true that this sense does not warn us of the poisonous agents in the air which cause the contagious diseases, yet it does give notice of offensive vapors which are dangerous to inhale. Vapors which are irritating to the nose would be much more so to the more delicate tissues of the lungs. It is safe to say that in the majority of cases, disagreeable odors mean dangerous odors. Often Highly Developed. In some of the lower ani- mals the sense of smell is developed to a marvelous degree. The capabilities of the dog are none the less wonderful because so commonly observed. Nearly every one can tell some wonderful stories of this animal, whe're the power to detect obscure odors is concerned. We all know how he will return home after having been taken away long distances ; how he will follow many feet behind his master through crowded streets and into crowded halls ; how he will recognize clothing ; and how he will follow the trail of the fox for many miles. Other animals, as the lion, can tell of the ap- proach of man, or if any prey be near ; while the deer can detect " in the air " the approach of an enemy when a great distance away. Catarrh. Catarrh is usually the result of repeated in- flammation of the mucous membrane of the nose. As a result the tissues are swollen and thickened, so that it is very difficult to breath through the nose. This makes it THE SENSE OF TASTE AND SMELL. 315 necessary to breathe through the mouth, which is a great source of throat trouble. Catarrh also results from de- formed bones of the nose. The septum is bent over to one side, nearly or completely closing that nasal cavity. This may necessitate breathing through the mouth. The great majority of cases of catarrh can be cured by proper treatment. QUESTIONS. 1. Give a general description of the tongue. 2. How many varieties of papillae on it? 3. What are found in these papillas? 4. Where are the taste buds found? What are they? 5. What varieties or qualities in the sensation of taste? 6. Why cannot dry substances be tasted? 7. What fluids aid in dissolving the substances to be tasted? 8. Illustrate how the sensations of taste and smell are often confused. 9. Do impressions of taste remain ? Illustrate. 10. How does tobacco affect the taste? 11. Where are the turbinated bones ? 1 2. What is the name of the nerve of smell ? 13. What part of the nasal cavity is endowed with the sense of smell ? 14. Is much known about the action of odorous bodies? 15. State some of the things known. 16. Give some of the conditions affecting the sense of smell. 17. How is this sense useful to us? 18. Give some illustrations showing how highly it may be de- veloped. 316 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. CHAPTER XXXI. THE SENSE OF HEARING-. The Organ of Hearing. The organ of hearing consists of three parts: the external ear; the middle ear; and the internal ear. The vibrations of the air are collected by the external ear, received by the middle ear, and transmitted through its bones to the inner ear. The inner ear contains the termination of the nerve of hear- ing, or the auditory nerve. The External Ear. The external ear consists of a framework of cartilage which is loosely attached to the bones of the head and to the auditory canal. The ear can be slightly moved by the action of certain muscles, al- though in man this is barely perceptible. In the lower animals the movements are very extensive. The ear is quickly changed from one position to another to better catch the sound coming from any quarter. In these animals the ears aid greatly in giving expression. The auditory canal is about an inch or an inch and a quarter in length, and extends from the external open- ing to the middle ear. Near the orifice are a number of fine hairs, and farther in are the openings of glands which secrete the earwax. Both the hairs and wax are for the protection of the ear, keeping out small insects, dust, and other foreign bodies. THE SENSE OF HEARING. 317 The Middle Ear. The middle ear, or tympanum, is an irregular shaped cavity about one half an inch in length, and one fourth an inch from side to side. It is called " the drum of the ear," because it contains air and has a thin membrane over one part of it which is easily affected by wave sounds. The middle ear, or the drum, is sepa- rated from the auditory canal by a thin membrane. T FIG. 111. The ear : c, the auditory canal, that leads to the middle ear ; M, the middle ear, or drum. The tympanic membrane is the curved white line to the left of the letter M; i, the inner ear; N, the auditory nerve going to the brain ; T, the Eustachian tube, leading from the middle ear to the upper part of the pharynx. called the tympanic membrane ; this is often called the " drum," but incorrectly so, as it is only the thin mem- brane over the head of the drum ; it is elastic, and so thin that it is nearly transparent. A study of Fig. Ill will aid in locating the parts already mentioned. The external ear with the auditory canal, C, is very evident. The middle ear, M, is separated from the outer ear, by a curved white line which represents the tympanic 318 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. membrane. Directly above the letter M, are three mi- nute bones described below ; the one at the left resembles a hammer ; the middle one, an anvil ; and the one at the right, a stirrup. A tube extends from the middle ear to the throat. At the right of the middle ear is the inner ear, at I ; it is most complicated in its structure, and is separated from the middle ear by a thin membrane against which the stirrup bone rests. The tympanic membrane is often diseased from in- flammation of the middle ear. Not infrequently it has minute openings through it, while sometimes it is nearly all destroyed. It is the function of the tympanic mem- brane to catch the sounds entering the external ear. As they strike the membrane, they cause it to vibrate, and these excite a corresponding vibration in the parts beyond. Bones of the Middle Ear. In the middle ear are three bones, so minute that all together they weigh but a few grains. Yet they give attachment to minute muscles, have movable joints, and perform most important work. They very much re- semble three well known articles; hence they are called the malleus, or ham- mer ; the incus, or anvil ; and the stapes, or stirrup. The tympanic membrane is attached to the handle of the hammer ; the hammer, to the anvil ; and the anvil, to FIG. 112. The three bones of the middle ear : H, the hammer, or malleus; A, the an- vil, or incus; s, the stirrup, or stapes. THE SENSE OF HEARING. 319 the stirrup ; thus a chain of bones is established from the tympanic membrane across the cavity of the middle ear. The outer end of this bony chain is attached to a membrane, and so is the inner end. Beneath the inner membrane, just opposite the stirrup, in the inner ear, is FIG. 113. The middle and inner ears, from a different view and. on a larger scale than Fig. 111. A, the auditory canal of the outer ear; T, the tympanic membrane; Mm, the middle ear; E, the Eustachian tube; I i, the inner ear, surrounded by bone; s, the stapes; I, the incus ; M, the malleus. a fluid. Therefore the vibrations of the air at last'come to affect this fluid in the inner ear. A reference to Fig. 113 will make this clear ; the sound enters the external ear and passes down the auditory canal, A, and strikes against the tympanic membrane, T, throwing it into vibrations ; these vibrations are communicated to the handle of the hammer, M ; thence to the anvil, I ; thence to the stirrup, S ; and thence to the membrane to which the stirrup is attached. As this membrane vi- brates it throws a fluid beyond it into corresponding vibrations ; and these so affect the endings of the audi- tory nerve that we have at last the sensation of hearing. 320 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The Eustachian Tube. The middle ear is not a closed cavity. It communicates with the pharynx by means of a passage, called the Eustachian tube. The tube and the middle ear are lined with a mucous membrane, and the former opens into the upper part and on the side of the pharynx directly behind the opening of the lower part of each nasal cavity. The object of this tube is to keep the air in the middle ear of the same density as that outside the ear. In the healthy ear, therefore, the air in the external ear and that in the middle ear are of the same density, with only a thin vi- brating membrane between. The Eustachian tube is ordinarily closed, opening only during the act of swallowing, and thus allowing the passage of air to the middle ear. It is often closed, as a result of chronic catarrhal affections, so that it does not open for the passage of air through it ; this condi- tion is one of the causes of deafness; but it is often possible to relieve such cases by the use of instruments with which air may be forced through the tube into the middle ear. The Internal Ear. The internal ear is the most essen- tial part of the organ of hearing, for it contains the terminal fibers of the auditory nerve. Its parts are deeply seated in the bones of the skull and are most intricate and complicated in structure. The Sense of Equilibrium. A certain portion of the inner ^ar consists of three bony tubes, called the semi- circular canal. When these canals are injured in the lower animals it is found that the animal rolls its head from side to side, up and down, while all its movements are irregular. It appears to be unable to direct its THE SENSE OF HEARING. 321 movements ; for a bird thus injured will experience great difficulty in walking to the food placed near, and in pick- ing it up. The animal sees well and appears to hear well, but it reels and falls, acting as if it were dizzy. From these observations and from some made on man, it is believed that the semi-circular canals contain nerves which enable the body to maintain its proper poise, or balance, a condition just opposite that of being dizzy. It is probable that this function residing in the middle ear is connected with the similar function of the cerebellum. Care of the Ears. One of the most common causes of injury to the ears is the introduction of pins, or other hard substances, into the auditory canal for removing the earwax. The ordinary washing and wiping with a towel is sufficient to insure perfect cleanliness, while the constant introduction of hard substances is likely to set up an irritation which may eventually impair the hearing. Currents of cold air blowing into the ears may do great harm by chilling the sensitive tympanic membrane. The contact of cold water with this mem- brane often causes the earache, or acute inflammation of the middle ear ; for this reason it is always better to place pieces of cotton in the ears before diving, or bathing in the surf. Foreign bodies in the ear are not always easily re- moved. Insects are best removed by having warm sweet oil gently poured into the auditory canal ; this will either drive, the insect out or kill it; probably both. Physi- cians should always be consulted for the removal of other foreign bodies. The firing of a cannon has caused deafness to those standing near. Boxing the ears is 21 322 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. especially dangerous ; the sudden forcing the air into the ear may rupture the tympanic membrane and seriously impair the hearing. The value of acute hearing to the child cannot be over- estimated ; it bears a more important relation to the intellectual development than the eye itself. This is proved by the fact that children born blind often ex- hibit remarkable faculties of the mind ; while generally the mental deficiencies of those born without hearing are very marked. The hearing can be greatly developed by training. The acute ear of the uneducated Indian will detect the approach of moving bodies long before the untrained ear is made aware of their approach ; and the skilled musician can detect the most delicate variation from the proper sound of a note. QUESTIONS. 4. Name the parts composing the organ of hearing. 2. Describe the auditory canal. 3. Why is the middle ear called the drum of the ear? 4. Where is the tympanic membrane located? 5. Give the names of the bones of the middle ear. 6. Describe the effects produced by sound entering the ex. ternal ear. 7. What is the object of the Eustachian tube? 8. Its closure often causes what ? 9. Where is the internal ear situated? 10. What is the function of the semicircular canals? THE SENSE OF TOUCH. 323 CHAPTER XXXIT. THE SENSES OF TOUCH : TEMPERATURE : WEIGHT: PRESSURE: COMMON SEN- SATION: AND PAIN. The Sense of Touch. A reference to the chapter on the skin will recall the fact that in some of the papillae of the skin are nerve fibers ; in Fig. 92, at 4, is such a nerve termination. These papillae are called the touch corpuscles, as they are especially concerned in the sense of touch. It must be remembered, as shown in Fig. 92, that there is only a thin layer of cells between these corpuscles and the surface of the skin ; therefore it is readily understood that any impression made on the outer surface of the skin is almost in direct contact with one of these touch corpuscles. The touch corpuscles are very numerous on the palms of the hands and palmar surfaces of the fingers, while they are the least numerous on the back. The sense of touch seems most acute on the tip of the tongue. It is the least complicated of any of the senses and is the one first developed in the child. It is in constant use, bring- ing us into the closest relations with external objects. By its use, we learn the size, figure, solidity, and smooth- ness, as well as many other qualities of bodies. The sense of touch is capable of being highly devel- oped, especially if great reliance has to be placed upon 324 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. it ; it is developed to the greatest degree in the blind. They soon learn to read by passing the fingers over raised letters ; to recognize persons by feeling their faces ; to distinguish plants by touching them ; and to become expert musicians. The blind sculptor Gonelli is said to have modeled beautifully, relying on the sense of touch alone. This sense is very accurate, and less liable to deceive than the other senses. The eye and ear often convey to us vague and many times wrong impressions ; but the touch at once corrects these and gives us the true condi- tion. This is well illustrated in cases where persons who were born blind have had their sight restored by some surgical operation. They could not tell a globe from a round card, nor a cube from a square, nor a disk from a circle ; but as soon as the hands were placed on these oodies the errors were immediately discovered. Degrees of Acuteness of Touch. Those parts are most sensitive to touch which have the greatest number of touch corpuscles. The degrees of delicacy are measured by means of a pair of compasses with blunted points. The two points are touched at the same moment to the skin, while the eyes are closed; they are gradually brought nearer together until both points are felt as one, when their distance apart is noted. The same experiment can be performed, though less accurately, with pins. Two pins are held with their points at least an inch apart, and then pressed lightly against the skin on the back of the wrist of another person. Repeat the experiment, bringing the points nearer together each time. Soon the person will declare that he feels but one point instead of two. The distance between the THE SENSES OF WEIGHT AND PRESSURE. 325 points will give the degree of acuteness of touch for that part of the body. In this way it has been proved that the shortest distance at which the two points of a compass can be distinguished as double is as follows : on the tip of the tongue ^ of an inch ; on the inside of the tips of the fingers J of an inch ; on the palm of the hand about J of an inch ; on the cheek about f of an inch ; and on the back over 2 inches. Touch in the Lower Animals. All forms of animal life appear to have this sense developed to a greater or less degree. In the cat there are special organs endowed with unusual sensitiveness ; these are called the whiskers. The long hair of the cat and other animals renders the general surface of the skin little adapted for the sense of touch ; hence, they have been provided with a few long hairs, called feelers, which are in close connection with nerve fibers in the skin. The touch is extreme!;; sensitive in the trunk of the elephant; while many small insects have special organs, or feelers, for this sense. The Sense of Temperature. The temperature sense makes us acquainted with all the variations in the temperature of the skin. The skin has a proper tem- perature of its own and when this is maintained we are unconscious of either heat or cold ; but if any part of the skin rises above its proper temperature we feel warm, and if it falls below it we feel cold. When a body is applied to the skin which takes heat from it a sensation of cold is produced ; while if a body imparts heat, warmth is experienced. The sense of temperature appears to be principally in the skin, the mouth, the throat, and at the entrance of the nose. The apprecia- 326 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. tion of temperature varies for the different parts of the body, as for instance, hot applications which would be intolerable on the face can be borne when applied to the scalp. The sensations of heat and cold are sometimes strangely confused. If the hand be dipped in very cold water, and then dipped again in water a number of degrees warmer, there is first a feeling of warmth and then of cold; if one finger be dipped in warm water, the feeling of warmth will not be nearly so great as it would if the whole hand were immersed ; if two equal weights be lifted in the hands, one warm and the other cold, the latter will be declared to be heavier. The Sense of Weight. This is also known as the muscular sense. It informs us of the amount of mus- cular contraction necessary to lift a body ; while it de- pends partly on the sense of pressure and partly on common sensibility. It is, therefore, about midway be- tween a special sense and the common sensation of the body. By placing weights in each hand and then rais- ing and lowering the hands, one becomes conscious of a certain amount of resistance. The muscular exertion required to lift the body gives us the sense of weight ; and by practice it is possible to distinguish very slight differences in the weights of bodies, even of those as light as coins. The Sense of Pressure. The sense of pressure enables us to judge of the amount of weight or pressure, on different parts of the skin. To illustrate this, the hand, or the part being tested, must rest on the table, or must be supported in some way. The various parts of the body differ exceedingly as to the amount of weight re- PAIN. 327 quired to make itself felt: the most acute portion is the forehead ; next, the temples ; then the back of the head ; and lastly, the forearm. Common Sensation. The term " common sensation " refers to all parts of the body, which have sensitive nerves that are capable of causing pleasant or unpleasant sensations. These cannot be compared to the special senses already described ; in fact, they are difficult to describe at all. We have many of these common sen- sations, each one of a character peculiarly its own ; thus we speak of the sensations of hunger, of thirst, of pain, of fright, of fatigue, of illness, and of health. Pain. If any of the nerves of sensation be disturbed it produces a sensation called pain. If a sensitive nerve be cut in any part of its course it produces pain which is always referred to the place where the nerve ends, rather than to the point injured. Thus, touching the ulnar nerve, the u crazy bone " at the elbow, causes a pain in the little finger and part of the adjoining finger ; these are the parts in which the nerve terminates. After amputation of limbs, it often occurs that one of the severed nerves gives rise to pain ; in this case the afflicted person says he feels the pain in the ampu- tated fingers or toes. It is not known what causes the varieties of pain ; for some are sharp and cutting, while others are dull and throbbing. Dreadful as it is, still pain is a valuable bodyguard. It tells of the approach of danger, and points to disease when it is present. It may be stated that any so-called stimulus will cause pain if applied beyond the normal limit and to an excessive degree. Light is the stimulus for vision ; yet strong light, as the glare of the sun, is 328 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. at once painful. Sounds falling on the ear may awake the most pleasant memories ; yet loud and long con- tinued sounds soon become positively painful. The ordinary contraction of a muscle is free from pain ; yet the rapid and violent muscular contractions in spasms are intensely painful. The nerves of sensation are the great protectors of the body. Without them and their accompanying pain we should cut, burn, bruise, and otherwise disfigure the body in many ways as we go about our daily work. Pain keeps us from pursuing many harmful courses, and thus aids greatly in protecting the body. It is an. unaccountable fact that some persons suffer more pain than .others who have the same diseases or injuries ; so it follows that the severity of the suffering does not al- ways indicate a corresponding intensity of the disease or injury. Animals appear to suffer pain, especially those ani- mals which are most noted for their intelligence, as the dog arid the horse. The finer bred the animal, so much the more susceptible is it to pain. The thoroughbred and blooded horse appears to suffer great pain, while the ordinary work-horse may be perfectly indifferent. But those creatures low in the scale of animal life do not ex- hibit evidence that they suffer much pain. ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 329 CHAPTER XXXIII. ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY AGAINST ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO. From the Medical Profession. In Canada the medical profession is awake to the growing evils of intemper- ance. In the city of Montreal, twenty-five professors in medical colleges, and over seventy physicians of the city, united in the following declaration against alcohol : , u We, the undersigned members of the medical profession in Montreal, are of opinion " 1. That a large proportion of human misery, poverty, dis- ease, and crime is produced by the use of alcoholic liquors as a beverage. " 2. That total abstinence from intoxicating liquor,], whether fermented or distilled, is consistent with, and conducive to, the highest degree of physical and mental health and vigor. " 3. That abstinence from intoxicating liquors would greatly promote the health, morality, and happiness of the people." In the cities of New York and Brooklyn, many of the most prominent and influential members of the medical profession unhesitatingly declare against the use of alco- holic beverages. Notice the strong language in the fol- lowing declaration : 330 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. "1. In view of the alarming prevalence and ill effects of in- temperance, with which none are so familiar as members of the medical profession, and which have called forth from emi- nent English physicians the voice of warning to the people of Great Britain concerning the use of alcoholic beverages, we, the undersigned members of the medical profession of New York and vicinity, unite in the declaration that we believe alcohol should be classed with other powerful drugs ; that when prescribed medicinally it should be with conscientious caution and a sense of grave responsibility. " 2. We are of opinion that the use of alcoholic liquor as a beverage is productive of a large amount of physical disease ; that it entails diseased appetites upon offspring ; and that it is the cause of a large percentage of the crime and pauperism of our cities and country. "3. "We would welcome any judicious and effective legislation, State and national, which should seek to confine the traffic in alcohol to the legitimate purposes of medical and other sciences, art, and mechanism." This paper was signed by over one hundred of the leading physicians of New York and Brooklyn. Among the names we find many that are familiar to the medical profession of the whole world, and some that are known wherever the subject of public health is discussed. A large number of the signers is composed of men who have taught five years in medical colleges, practised in large hospitals, and been actively engaged as members of Boards of Charity and Public Health Associations. As teachers they have become acquainted with the scientific side of the question, and as practitioners they have be- come familiar with the practical results of the use of strong drink. No men are better qualified to judge of the evils of strong drink than those of the medical pro- ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 331 fession, and the declarations of these men is against the use of alcoholic liquors as a beverage. Alcohol is a Poison. Dr. E. W. Lambert, the medical director of the Equitable Life Insurance Company, writes to a prominent member of the United States Senate as follows : " To speak chemically, alcohol is a concentrated hydrocarbon, and needs a great deal of physical labor to dispose of it in the animal economy. I have noticed that men who are given to the daily use of alcohol degenerate faster than those who ab- stain from its use. They are more liable not only to chronic degenerations (such as fatty livers, fatty kidneys, and the like), but they are also more liable to be attacked by acute diseases ; and acute diseases are much more likely to prove fatal to the users of alcohol than to those who do not use it. "Take for illustration a young friend of mine, who com- menced the use of alcohol about the age of twenty-one years. He died after two days' illness. When I came to examine his body after his death, I found that all his internal organs be- longed to a man of the age of seventy years, and not to a man of forty, the age at which he died. I have noticed that steady users of alcohol are very much more apt to die between the ages of forty and fifty years of some acute disease than those who do not use it as a beverage. "I have said nothing as yet concerning the danger which every one undergoes who uses alcohol regularly. ... If he once gets the appetite, there is nothing on the earth, or above it, or under it, that he will not do in order to gratify this mor- bid appetite. He will lie or steal, or see his family go to ruin with perfect equanimity, provided he can satisfy this inordinate craving for alcohol." Dr. Dods, of England, said before a committee of the House of Commons : 332 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. " Writers on Medical Jurisprudence rank alcohol among narcotico-acrid poisons, of which small quantities, if repeated, always prove more or less injurious, and agree that the mor- bid appearances seen after death occasioned by ardent spirits exactly agrees with those that result from poisoning caused by any other substance of the same class." Medical men are familiar with the physiologies of the renowned Dr. W. B. Carpenter, of London. His works on mental physiology have made him rank high as a philosopher; while his exhaustive treatises on micros- copy illustrate how closely he observes even the minutest things. Dr. Carpenter concludes his observations on the subject of alcohol as follows : "The introduction of alcohol into healthy blood can do nothing but mischief ; no one who is familiar with the action of poisons upon the living animal body, and has made the nature of that action a special study, has the smallest hesitation in saying that alcohol is a poison ." Alcohol is of no Use. Dr. William Pepper, of the University of Pennsylvania, is another author of great prominence. His exhaustive work on the Practice of Medicine has made for him an enduring name as a profound scholar and keen observer. He testifies as follows : " One of the worst features of the action of alcohol in a large majority of young persons is that, though taken in small amount, and even in the form of light wines or beer, its first agreeable effect is followed by a feeling of lassitude and depres- sion, readily mistaken for debility, and suggesting a repetition of the stimulant. But these unpleasant feelings are the direct result of the presence in the blood and tissues of poisonous mat- ters, coining from the imperfect digestion of the alcohol, or of ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 333 food with whose complete assimilation the dose of alcohol has interfered. The habitual use of alcoholic beverages by healthy persons is highly injurious, and involves the risk of develop- ing serious disease. I am, indeed, satisfied that all persons in good health are better without alcohol, in any form or in any amount, as a beverage." From the hundreds of opinions of individual medical men we select the following as illustrating the fact that scholarship and experience alike condemn the use of strong drink. Dr. N. S. Davis, of Chicago, takes the most advanced ground, going so far as to state that alcohol is not even desirable as a medicine. Dr. Davis is not only most skilled in his profession, but is also a man of great general learning. He has been honored with the highest gifts in the power of the profession to bestow upon him, while his opinion is acknowledged by all to be of the greatest weight. To what does this emi- nent scholar testify ? 'I have been constantly engaged in the practice of medi- cine a little more than fifty years, embracing both private and public hospital practice, and have demonstrated by the last forty years of actual experience that no form of alcoholic drink, either fermented or distilled, is necessary or desirable for internal use in either health or in any of the varied forms of disease ; but that health can be better preserved and disease be more successfully treated without any use of such drinks. And while it is true that during the last thirty years I have not prescribed for internal use the aggregate amount of one quart of any kind of fermented or distilled drinks, either in private or hospital practice, yet I have continued to have abun- dant opportunities for observing the effects of these agents as given by others with whom I have been in council ; and simple 334 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. truth compels me to say that I have never yet seen a case in which the use of alcoholic drinks either increased the force of the heart's action or strengthened the patient beyond the first thirty minutes after it was swallowed." Alcohol Shortens Life, The President of the Conneo ticut Mutual Life Insurance Company bas given the following testimony : "Among the persons selected with care for physical sound- ness and sobriety, and who are, as a rule, respectable and useful members of society, the death-rate is more profoundly affected by the use of intoxicating drinks than from any other one cause, apart from hereditary. "I protest against the notion so prevalent and so industri- ously urged that beer is harmless, and a desirable substitute for the more concentrated liquors. Its use is an evil only less than the use of whiskey, if less on the whole, and its effect is only longer delayed ; its incidents not so repulsive, but de- structive in the end. In one of our largest cities, containing a great population of beer drinkers, I had occasion to note the deaths among a large group of persons whose habits, in their own eyes and in those of their friends and physicians, were temperate, but they were habitual users of beer. When the observation began they were, upon the average, something under middle age, and they were, of course, selected lives. For two or three years there was nothing very remarkable to be noted among this group. Presently death began to strike it ; and. until it had dwindled to a fraction of its original pro- portions, the mortality in it was astounding in extent, and still more remarkable in the manifest identity of cause and mode. There was no mistaking it; the history was almost invari- able, robust, apparent health, full muscles, a fair outside, increasing weight, florid faces ; then a touch of cold, or a sniff of malaria, and instantly some acute disease, with almost in- ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 335 variably typhoid symptoms, was in violent action, and ten days or less ended it. It was as if the system had been kept fair outside, while within it was eaten to a shell ; and at the first touch of disease there was utter collapse, every fiber was poisoned and weak. And this, in its main features, varying, of course, in degree, has been my observation of beer drinking everywhere. It is peculiarly deceptive at first ; it is thoroughly destructive at the last." Henry Ward Beecher said : " Every year I live increases my conviction that the use of intoxicating drinks is a greater destroying force to life and vir- tue than all other physical evils combined." Alcohol causes Pauperism. We little realize the great amount of pauperism that exists in our own country. Even to a less degree do we realize that this great burden of society is so largely caused by strong drink We have some positive testimony on this point. The chairman of the Board of Health of the State of Massa- chusetts sent out the following two inquiries to the town and city authorities of the State : " 1. What proportion of the inmates of your almshouses are there in consequence of the deleterious use of intoxicat- ing liquors? " 2. What proportion of the children are there in conse- quence of the drunkenness of parents ? He received two hundred and eighty-two replies. Among these is the following from the superintendent of Deer Island almshouse and hospital : " I would an swer the above by saying, To the best of my knowledge, ninety per cent, to both questions." 336 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The authorities of the city of Springfield reported: " We have fed 8,052 tramps. Seldom found one not reduced to that condition by intemperance." In the county of Suffolk, mainly the city of Boston, eighty per cent of the pauperism was caused by intem- perance. Yet we must remember that the excellency of the government, and the superiority of the schools of Massachusetts, should make pauperism more rare than in less favored States. But even here the conclusion is forced upon us that a very large per cent of all cases of pauperism is attributable to the vice of intemperance. Alcohol causes Crime. The United States Commissioner of Education says that " from eighty to ninety per cent of our criminals connect their course of crime with in- temperance." The Board of Public Charities of Pennsylvania said : " The most prolific source of disease, poverty, and crime is intemperance." ,The Citizens' Association of Pennsylvania states that " it will not be doubted that two thirds of the pauperism and crime are justly attributed to intemperance." The inspectors of Massachusetts State Prison testified that in 1868 " about four fifths of the number committed the crimes for which they were sentenced, either directly ;>r indirectly, by the use of intoxicating drinks." Judge Noah Davis, Ex-Chief Justice of New York, says that " ninety per cent of the criminal business of the courts is caused by the liquor traffic." The Hon. A. G. Fairbanks, of Manchester, N. H., tes- tifies that he is familiar with over one thousand cases of persons confined in jail for various offences, and he gives it as his opinion that, "directly and indirectly, it ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 337 is safe to say that seventy-five per cent of all crimes can be traced to the use of alcohol as a beverage." The Hon. William J. Mullen, of Pennsylvania, says: " Of the half million persons who had been committed to the county prison of Philadelphia during the last twenty years, there had been about five hundred for murder; seven hundred for attempts to murder; over forty thousand for as- sault and battery, and over two hundred thousand for drunken ness. In nearly every case of murder or attempt to murder the parties were intoxicated." An evidence of the bad effects of alcoholic liquors may be seen in the fact that there have been thirty-four murders within the city of Philadelphia during one year, each one of which was traceable to intemperance, and one hundred and twenty-one assaults for murder pro- ceeding from the same cause. Of over thirty-eight thou- sand arrests in Philadelphia within one year, seventy-five per cent were caused by intemperance. Of 18,305 per- sons committed to prison within the year, more than two thirds were the consequence of intemperance. Judge Allison says : " In our criminal courts we can trace four fifths of the crimes that are committed to the influence of rum. There is not one case in twenty where a man is tried for his life in which rum is not the direct or indirect cause of the murder." Alcohol causes Wrong Expenditure of Money. In speak- ing of the large amount of money expended by the people of England year by year for intoxicating drinks, Cardinal Maiming said : " Can there be a more complete waste ? Expend it in the drainage of England and the culture of the land, and there 338 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. would be bread for the hungry mouths of the people ; in the manufacture of cloth, and there would be no man and no child without a coat on his back ; in the building of houses fit for human habitation, and there would not be a working man and his family without a roof over his head. Nay, I will go fur- ther. It is not only a waste, it has a harvest. It is a great sowing broadcast ; and what springs from the furrows ? Deaths, mortality in every form, disease of every kind, crime of every die, madness of every intensity, misery beyond the imagination to conceive." Alcohol neutralizes Educational Agencies. The New York " Tribune," in an editorial, thus speaks of the liquor traffic : " It is impossible to examine any subject connected with the progress, the civilization, the physical well-being, the religious condition of the masses, without encountering this monstrous evil. It lies at the center of all political and social mischief, it paralyzes energies in every direction ; it neutralizes educa- tional agencies ; it silences the voice of religion ; it baffles penal reform ; it obstructs political reform. . . . There is needed something of that sacred fire which kindled into inextinguish- able heat the zeal of the abolitionists, and which compelled the abandonment of human slavery, to rouse the national indigna- tion and abhorrence against this very much greater evil." Alcohol is opposed to Good Order. In giving a history of the army of the Potomac, the writer says : "I had occasion to observe a remarkable difference in the appearance of the different regiments. In some cases I have found their men dirty, their camp disorderly, and their whole appearance shabby ; in others, everything neat and tidy, or- derly, and well-disposed. On inquiry, I have found that the difference was owing in great degree to the course the com" ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 339 manding officers have pursued in relation to the use of intoxi- cating drinks. Where, as in a great many instances, the colonel has enacted a 'prohibitory law/ and forbidden the admission of liquor into the camp, I find everything in the best condition, the best health, the best order. I was much gratified to find that a great many officers and soldiers abstained entirely, not because they were compelled, but because they chose to do &o. No small number of officers in high command are teetota- lers. The result of my observations in regard to temperance in this great army at Washington is, that the common-sense of both officers and men is strongly in favor of prohibition ; and wherever it has been enforced with fidelity and vigilance, it has been in the highest degree beneficial." The Conclusion of the Whole Matter. For many years it was the privilege of the author to be associated with the eminent Dr. Alonzo B. Palmer, who for so many years was dean of the medical department of the University oi Michigan. Dr. Palmer was like Dr. Davis, in that he was a man of wide observation and scholarly attain- ments. Shortly before his death he wrote as follows : "If chloroform is a narcotic, alcohol is a narcotic; if chlo- roform is an anaesthetic, alcohol is an ansesthetic; if one is essentially a depressing agent, so is the other. Their strong resemblance no one can question. The chief difference is, that the alcoholic narcosis is longer continued, and its secondary Affects are more severe. " There is a connection, often marked, in the use of the dif- ferent narcotics. The alcohol habit tends to produce the opium habit, and the reverse ; one may be substituted for the other, and the two are often indulged together. The same principle, to a greater or less extent, applies to the widespread tobacco habit, and to the less prevalent chloroform, chloral, and hash- eesh habits. The indulgence in any one begets a tendency to 340 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. indulge in others. The habitual use of any of them produces a constitutional narcotic state, different from the normal. " We thought, and we may sometimes still think, it makes us witty. We know from observation it makes men silly. " We thought it brightened the intellect and might make men wiser. We find that in the long run, at least, it dulls the intellect and makes men foolish. " Wine has been called the ' milk of age,' and we thought it supported advanced life. We know that the aged live longer and retain their powers better without its use. "As a medicine, or prophylactic measure, we thought it protected against epidemic diseases. We now know it invites attacks. " We thought it prevented and even cured -consumption. We know it is the most frequent cause of at least one form of that disease, fibroid phthisis. " We thought, moderately used, it was good for many things. Those who have given most careful attention to the subject be- lieve it is good for very few things. "/The demonstrations of modern science have shown the truth of the ancient saying of the Wise Man . " Wine is a mocker, strong drink is raging, and whosoever is deceived thereby is not wise." Cigarette Smoking often does Infinite Harm, We clip the following from one of the leading medical journals of the world, the London " Lancet." " Scarcely less injurious, in a subtle and generally un- recognized way, than the habit of taking alcoholic drinks between meals, is the growing practice of smoking cigarettes incessantly. The truth is that, perhaps owing to the way the tobacco leaf is shredded, coupled with the fact that it is brought into more direct relation with the mouth and air-passages than when it is smoked in a pipe or cigar, ADDITIONAL TESTIMONY. 341 the effects produced on the nervous system by a free con- sumption of cigarettes are more marked and characteristic than those recognizable after recourse to other modes of smoking. A pulse-tracing, made after the subject has smoked a dozen cigarettes, will, as a rule, be flatter and more indicative of de- pression than one taken after the smoking of cigars. It is no uncommon practice for young men who smoke cigarettes habi- tually to consume from eight to twelve in an hour, and to keep this up for four or five hours daily. The total quantity of tobacco used may not seem large; but, beyond question, the volume of smoke to which the breath-organs of the smoker are exposed, and the characteristics of that smoke as regards the proportion of nicotine introduced into the system, combine to place the organism very fully under the influence of the to- bacco. A considerable number of cases have been brought under our notice during the last few months in which youths and young men who have not yet completed the full term of physical development have had their health seriously impaired by the practice of almost incessantly smoking cigarettes. It is well that the facts should be known, as the impression evidently prevails that any number of these little ' whiffs ' must needs be perfectly innocuous, whereas they often do infinite harm." Tobacco affects Scholarship. Some careful observations have been made in many of our public schools and col- leges concerning the effects of tobacco on scholarship. The following is taken from a recent number of a col- lege publication : " Statistics as to the effects of tobacco-smoking upon students have been collected at Amherst and Yale colleges. The non- smokers at Amherst are of greater weight than the smokers ; they are superior in chest-girth to the smokers, and their lung- capacity is higher. The non-smokers are more athletic than the smokers, and more successful in athletic sports. The non- 342 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. smokers at Amherst, as at Yale, have also an advantage )ver the smokers in mental power and in scholarship. The facts recently collected in American colleges concerning the physio- logical and physical effects of the tobacco-smoking habit are instructive to the young men who go to college, and also to those who do not." A recent writer in a prominent medical journal says he has been studying the results of the tobacco habit for over a year. He carefully observed its effects on ninety- eight persons, aged from eighteen to twenty-eight. Of these, ninety were affected with impairment of the senses of taste, smell, and hearing; eighty-two had periodic headaches traceable to this habit; fifty per cent had irregular action of the heart; eighty-nine had some trouble with the stomach ; twenty-two were badly af- fected ; eight 'could not always retain their food ; after smoking during the day, fifty -two were troubled with vertigo ; over ffty per cent complained of forgetfulness, a decline in the former powers of the memory. The writer says these 'effects are u traceable to the use of tobacco," because, when the use of tobacco had been abandoned for a time, these defects seemed to remedy themselves, unless the habit was of too long standing. He also says that he knows hardly a single healthy cigarette-smoker, under eighteen years of age. These smokers are flabby, irresolute, and cannot stand hard study or play. They take to drinking stimulants, to counteract these effects, early in life, by comparison. The editor of the " Journal of Inebriety " says tobacco has such a powerful effect on the nervous system that " it is not at all strange it may finally bring on some form of insanity." EMERGENCIES. 343 CHAPTER XXXIV. EMERGENCIES. A KNOWLEDGE of anatomy and physiology, applied in times of emergency, may often save a life. In cases of emergency it is necessary to act promptly and properly. The first great requisite is presence of mind. Strong self-control is required to maintain a quiet and com- posed bearing when all the surroundings indicate haste and excitement. One can work rapidly, with quick movements, and yet give no impression of unnecessary speed or agitation. It is not the office of the student to take the place of the physician or surgeon. But he should be able to do two things : give intelligent tem- porary assistance, and send for a doctor immediately. In all cases see that the person has an abundance of fresh air. If a crowd collects, speak as one having authority and order it back. As a general rule, all sick or injured persons should be placed on their backs with the lower extremities extended and the arms by the side. If there is nausea and vomiting, the head should be turned to. one side, in order that the vomited matter may be thrown from the mouth and not fall back into the windpipe and cause choking. There is a popular notion that the first thing an injured person needs is a stimulant. To act upon this 344 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. idea is both incorrect and dangerous. If the person is thirsty, water is the best liquid which can be supplied. If he is bleeding, stimulants will only increase the trouble. If he is faint, lowering the head even below the level of the body will restore consciousness. Some of the most eminent surgeons declare that no emer- gency can arise which calls for the administration of an alcoholic stimulant. Apoplexy. Apoplexy is due to the rupture of a blood- vessel in the brain. The escaped blood presses upon the brain and causes unconsciousness. The person generally falls suddenly and is unconscious at once. The breathing is slow and heavy, the face is usually flushed, and the eyes are insensible to the touch. Usually there is paralysis of one side of the body, which may be shown by one of the hands being cold and lifeless while the other is normal. Send for a physi- cian promptly, as the disease is a very dangerous one. Slightly raise the person's head and apply cold cloths to it. Keep the body and extremities warm by the appli- cation of dry heat. The administration of alcoholic stimulants would only hasten a fatal termination. Apoplexy and Drunkenness. It is often difficult to dis- tinguish between apoplexy and drunkenness. Among the differences may be mentioned the following: In drunkenness the person can generally be aroused, vomit- ing is quite common, and there is a strong odor of liquor on the breath, although this might -be present in a case of apoplexy if the person had taken some alcoholic stimulant shortly before the attack. Artificial Respiration. All cases of smothering, whether from breathing injurious gases or from drowning, call EMERGENCIES. 345 for the same treatment, as the supply of oxygen to the lungs has been cut off. Breathing is restored by imi- tating nature in expanding and contracting the chest FIG. 114. Artificial respiration by Sylvester method. Inspiration. walls. One method of artificial respiration is known as Sylvester's. This is performed as follows : Place the person on the back with a roll of clothing under the FIG. 115. Artificial respiration by Sylvester method. Expiration. shoulders. Kneel at the head of the person and grasp his arms at the elbows. Draw them slowly over the head and hold them there long enough to count four deliberately. This raises the chest-walls and allows the 346 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. air to rush into the enlarged thoracic cavity. Then push the arms down again, firmly but gently against the chest, partly crossing them and holding them in that position the same length of time as noted above. This movement diminishes the size of the thorax and forces out the air. The case should not be abandoned until the artificial respiration has been tried for an hour or an hour and a half. The tongue generally falls back into the throat, and prevents the passage of air into the lungs. To remedy this, have an assistant grasp the tongue with a dry handkerchief, and draw it out of the mouth. If alone, draw the tongue out of the mouth and thrust a pin through it about a half inch from the tip. The pin will rest against the teeth and prevent the tongue from slipping back. Bleeding. In all cases of bleeding it should be re- membered that if the edges of the wound can be brought together and held there, and a firm compress be bound upon it, the hemorrhage will often be checked. A com- press can be readily made by folding a cloth a number of times, although any hard substance may be used as a substitute when necessary. It may be bound over the wound with a handkerchief, necktie, shoe-string, or any- thing else which can serve the purpose of a bandage. Remember that bleeding is checked by elevating the wounded part above the level of the heart. If a large vessel be injured it may be necessary to apply pressure quickly with the thumb or finger, and to maintain it until the arrival of a surgeon. If the wound is a slight one, pressure upon it with the finger for a few moments will probably be sufficient to check the bleeding per- manently. As all bleeding ceases because a clot is EMERGENCIES. 347 formed, care should be used not to wash this clot away. Whenever there is evidence that bleeding is taking place, an effort should be made to reach the bleeding part at once. It is only in this way that the wound can be properly treated. When the bleeding is controlled, if the wound is slight and the services of a physician are not necessary, make the part as clean as possible. Better not wash it at all than to use unclean water. Water which has been boiled and then cooled is the best. If there is slight oozing of blood, the water should be either cold or hot. After allowing clean water to flow over the wound for some time, the edges should be carefully drawn together and held there by means of strips of adhesive plaster, care being taken not to cover the wound entirely with the plaster. Place a light bandage over the part} and do not disturb it for two or three days at least unless it is painful. This refers particularly to the cuts which children, boys especially, are so often receiving. When- ever there is considerable bleeding, or if the wound is large, or if it is on the face where there is danger of a scar being left, a physician should be called promptly. Bleeding from an Artery. Bleeding from an artery is recognized by the flow of the blood, which is in spurts or jets, while the blood itself is of a bright scarlet color. Have the person lie down, while the attendant lifts or holds up the wounded part if possible. From the Lower Extremity. When there is bleeding from the foot or the leg, have the person lie down on his back while an attendant holds up the wounded limb, as illustrated in Fig. 116. If the injury is in the foot, and the bleeding continues, apply a bandage, beginning to 348 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. wind it at the toes, and continuing past the wound. If the bleeding is from the leg, place a compress over the femoral artery, and put a bandage around the limb, and over the compress, as illustrated in Fig. 117. Place a stick under the bandage, and twist it until the flow of blood ceases, or the bandage is very tight. This bandage should not be left on long for fear of producing injury, but it may be necessary until the surgeon arrives. FIG. 117. FIG. 116. FIG. 116. Elevation of limb to control bleeding in the foot or leg. FIG. 117. The inner surface of the right thigh, showing compress applied over the femoral artery. From the Upper Extremity. When there is bleeding from the hand or the forearm, the arm should be raised above the head, as shown in Fig. 118. If the bleeding still continues, pressure should be made over the brachial artery at the point indicated by the short line in Fig. "118. Sometimes it is useful to place a ball or compress in the arm-pit, and bind the arm down to the side, as shown in Fig. 119. From the Lungs. When the bleeding is from the lungs, the person should lie down with the head and shoulders EMERGENCIES, 349 elevated. Until the physician arrives, the person may be given finely chopped ice to eat, or he may drink a half glass of cold water in which a teaspoonful of salt has been dissolved. From the Nose. Bleeding from the nose is the most common and the least dangerous of all hemorrhages. It is generally sufficient to apply cold water to the fore- FIG. 118. FIG. 119. FIG. 118. Elevation of the right arm to control bleeding in the hand or forearm. FIG. 119. Pressure upon the large vessels in the arm-pit by a compress. head and over the nose, or back of the neck, and to remain quiet for a short time in the sitting posture. If this does not bring relief, then compress the nostrils for a few moments ; if the blood clots in the nose, allow the clots to remain for a few hours. Placing the hands arid feet in water as hot as can be borne will often imme- diately stop a severe nose-bleed. If the bleeding still continues, a physician should be called. He may find it necessary to plug the nostrils with gauze or with cotton, 350 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. From the Stomach. When the person vomits blood and there is no evidence that the blood has been swal- lowed from a nose-bleed, he should lie down, with the head and shoulders slightly raised. Small pieces of ice may be given and cold cloths placed over the stomach until the physician arrives. From a Tooth. Bleeding after the extraction of a tooth is sometimes profuse ; but, as a rule, it is easily controlled by employing pressure over the wounded gums or by packing the cavity with cotton or gauze. A small pad may be placed over the bleeding surface and the jaws closed firmly upon it. The pad should be so thick that when the mouth is closed there will be firm pressure over the bleeding point. Bleeding from a Vein. If the blood flows from a vein it will have a dark purple color. The flow will be steady and not in spurts as from an artery. If possible, the wounded part should be elevated above the level of the heart. A compress and a firm bandage should be placed directly over the wound, until the surgeon arrives. Bruises. Bruises are commonly called black-and-blue spots, " black-eyes," etc. If the bruise be slight, wet cloths in cold water and place over the parts. If severe, hot water and hot poultices are better. A popular and useful treatment for a black eye is to bind upon it a mass of raw lean beef. Often bruises are fatal, even when there is no break in the skin. The internal injury may be sufficient to rupture the liver and seriously dam- age other internal organs, and yet the external injury to the skin be slight. These severe bruises demand the prompt attention of a surgeon. Burns. If the burned part is covered with clothing, EMERGENCIES. 351 exercise great care in removing it not to pull off any of the skin. If the clothing adheres allow it to remain, cutting away all unattached portions. If there are blis- ters, open them with a new and perfectly clean needle, and gently press out the water. If the burn is slight, cover the parts with cloths which are wet with water in which has been dissolved as much baking soda as the water will take up, and saturate the cloths frequently with the soda mixture. If the burn is more severe, satu- rate the cloths with a mixture composed of equal parts of sweet oil and lime-water. If these are not at hand, an application of cream or a thick covering of dry flour will give relief. The principal thing to keep in mind is to cover the burned part as quickly as possible with something that will protect it from the air. Therefore, whatever dressing is used, the injured part should be well covered with thick layers of cotton or other light material. If a person's clothing is on fire he should lie down quickly and roll over and over on the floor. Under no circumstances should he remain in the upright position, as the flames tend to rise, surround the face, and thus possibly cause great disfigurement or fatal choking. If a coat, rug, or blanket is at hand, this may be quickly thrown about the body before rolling upon the floor. If another person is present, he should throw the wrap over the burning parts. If the person does not quickly lie down he should be forcibly thrown down, as the danger is immensely increased by standing or running. In approaching a person whose clothing is burning, it is wise to hold a rug, blanket, or coat before the body as a protection. 352 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Sunburn is the same as any other burn, only it is of slight degree. The treatment consists in applying the soda solution or in covering the parts with unsalted butter, or vaseline. Fainting. The principal thing to remember in cases of fainting is that there is not enough blood in the brain. Therefore, those things should be done which will pro- mote a flow of blood to the head. Place the person on his back and keep the head low, certainly as low as the body ; do not raise his head until consciousness has re- turned. If a person does not regain consciousness in a few moments a physician should be summoned, for the case may be very serious. Never give alcohol or any alcoholic stimulant. Dashing a small amount of cold water in the face, or holding an open bottle of ammonia near (not close to) the nose, may give aid. When a per- son is about to faint in a public hall or other place where it would be difficult to lie down and at the same time receive an abundance of fresh air, the faintness may be removed by leaning the body well forward with the head between the knees, remaining in this position for a few moments. Convulsions. Small children and babies occasionally have convulsions or fits because of some irritation in the alimentary canal and also from other causes. As soon as the convulsion occurs the child should be placed in water as hot as can be borne, with as little delay as possible. The hot bath will usually stop the convulsion at once. The child should remain in the bath for seve- ral minutes, when it should be thoroughly dried, warmly covered, and placed in bed. If another convulsion oc- curs the same treatment should be repeated. In all EMERGENCIES. 353 cases a physician should be summoned as the convulsion may not be from a simple cause. Fractures. When it is known or feared that a bone is broken, place the person in a comfortable position until the surgeon comes. It is better to wait a few hours for his arrival rather than to handle the parts in order to learn what the matter is. If however it is necessary to move the person at once, make an artificial support for the fractured bones. Place the parts in as natural a position as possible and put around the limb an even and thin layer of cotton, or wool, or other soft material. Place over this a number of pieces of lath, or strips of pasteboard, or any hard substance which will give firm support. The length and width of these splints must be regulated by the size and location of the bone injured. Bind the splints to the limb with anything which -can be used as a band- age. In fracture of the leg the in- jured limb may be placed on a pillow, the Sides of the Fm 12Q An ordinary pillow tied around a pillow brought up fractured leg. around it, and strips of cloth passed around the pillow, pressing it firmly against the leg, as shown in Fig. 120. It should be possible to move the person without causing any severe pain. Dislocations. If there is reason to believe that a joint has been dislocated, the injured parts should be kept perfectly quiet until the surgeon arrives. Do not handle the joint, but if it is painful apply moist heat. 23 354 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Foreign Bodies in the Eye. To remove foreign bodies from the eye, close the eye and allow the tears to ac- cumulate. When the eye is opened, the extra flow of tears will often wash out the foreign substance. If it is thought to be beneath the lower lid, take hold of the lower eyelashes and pull the lid down while the patient looks up. In this way the inner surface of the lower lid is exposed, and the particle can be gently removed with the corner of a handkerchief. If it is beneath the upper lid its removal is generally more difficult. By grasping the upper eyelashes the lid may be pulled down over the under one, and the body may thus be removed. If this fails, the upper lid may be turned and its inner surface examined. To do this have the person look down, then with some small article, as a match, press upon the middle of the lid at the same time grasping the upper eyelashes and turning the lid up and over the match. If a foreign body is on the exposed surface it can be easily seen and removed. Often the particle is embedded in the substance of the eyeball itself. A surgeon should then be called upon to remove it. It is unwise to rub the eye when any foreign body is in it, as this may imbed the particle more deeply in the tissues. After the re- moval of a foreign body a sensation as if it were present often remains for several hours. Foreign Bodies in the Ear. When an insect is in the ear it will often leave if a bright light be placed a few inches from the opening. If this fails the ear may be gently syringed with warm water, or a few drops of warm sweet oil may be poured in. If the foreign body is anything which might swell, as a bean, no water should be used, but its removal be left for a surgeon. EMERGENCIES. 355 If the particles are small they may fall out by turning the head on the side with the affected ear down, espe- cially if the head be shaken. Foreign Bodies in the Nose. To remove such bodies, try closing the clear side of the nose and blowing forcibly through the other. If this fails, sneezing can be excited by tickling the nose with a feather, or by inhaling a little snuff. As no danger need be feared at once, more active measures should be postponed until a physician can. be consulted. Foreign Bodies in the Throat. The expulsion of foreign bodies from the throat can be aided by lifting the child by the feet, slapping him sharply on the back, and even jerking him up and down two or three times. If the body has passed into the windpipe there is great danger, and a surgeon must be summoned at once. This condi- tion will be indicated by short, spasmodic coughing, and the dusky appearance of the face. Freezing. In treating frostbite an effort should be made to restore the frozen parts by rubbing with cold water or snow until the white color disappears. If heat be applied at first there is danger that the flow of blood to the injured tissues will be too great, and, as a result, inflammation and death of the parts will take place. If the whole body has been exposed to cold until there is danger that it has been injured, the person should not be brought near a fire until the whole body has been rubbed thoroughly with snow or cloths wet in cold water. He should then be placed in a cool room which can be grad- ually heated. Hot drinks, as hot coffee, can be admin- istered but under no circumstances should alcoholic stimulants be given. The after treatment of freezing is much the same as that given for burns. 356 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. Chilblains are usually caused by bringing cold feet too quickly near the fire, Persons who are subject to chilblains should warm their feet by stamping or rubbing rather than by placing them near a fire. Hysterics. Sometimes after excessive laughing or cry- ing, a person may have what resembles a severe convul- sion. Hysterics require no treatment. Often a dash of cold water in the face will quickly restore the person. Dry Heat. Dry heat is applied by means of the ordi- nary hot-water bag of India rubber. Other methods are as useful but not so convenient. Bottles may be filled with hot water, or bags filled with salt or bran and then thoroughly heated, or heated bricks, or hot flatirons, may be used after they have been covered with some cloth. Moist Heat. Hot applications are very useful in many affections. A convenient way of applying them is by placing a piece of flannel in the centre of a towel and dipping the centre of the towel with the flannel into hot water. By twisting the ends of the towel in opposite direction the excess of water is removed from the flan- nel. It can then be applied to the affected part with the heat and moisture retained and without exposing the hands of the attendant to the hot water. Mustard Plaster. As a relief from pain, the mustard plaster is in common use. It is prepared by mixing an equal quantity of ground mustard and flour and making these into a paste, by adding some water, or, what is better, the white of an egg. This paste is spread upon a cloth and laid over the affected part. If the skin is very sensitive some thin material may be placed between the plaster and the body. The plaster should not EMERGENCIES. 357 remain on long enough to blister, but simply to redden the skin. Emetics. An emetic is a substance which produces vomiting. A tablespoonful of powdered mustard in a glassful of warm water is an excellent emetic. It can be repeated every ten minutes until vomiting occurs. If mustard is not at hand, try the same quantity of com mon salt. After taking these remedies the vomiting may be hastened by thrusting the finger in the mouth until it touches the back of the throat, or a feather may be used in place of the finger. Poisons. The following acids are irritating poisons and require the same treatment : muriatic, nitric (aqua fortis), oxalic, sulphuric (vitriol). Immediately give three or four teaspoonfuls of baking soda, magnesia, chalk, or saleratus dissolved in a glass of water. If necessary, remove some of the plastering from the wall, crush it, and give the same amount mixed with water. Follow this witli some soothing drink, as flaxseed tea. Emetics are not necessary and might do harm. The object is to check further action of the acids by giving their antidotes, the alkalies. For carbolic acid or creasote, do not give an emetic, but administer the white of several eggs. Give quan- tities of milk or water having flour mixed with it. For ammonia, solutions of potash or soda, or any alkaline as lye, give vinegar or lemon juice. Follow this with cream or melted butter. Emetics are not indicated. For nitrate of silver, lunar caustic, give a quantity of salt and water. No emetic. For corrosive sublimate and other preparations oi 358 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. mercury do not give an emetic, but order the free use of milk and the white of eggs. For preparations of copper, as verdigris, blue vitriol, and for poisoning from eating food which has been cooked in copper vessels, give the white of eggs or flour and water. No emetic. For copperas or green vitriol give ordinary baking soda dissolved in water, in a proportion of a teaspoonf ul to a cup of water. Follow this with raw eggs and milk. For arsenic, Fowler's solution, paris green, or Rough on Rats, cause repeated vomiting. Procure from the nearest druggist some freshly made hydrated sesqui- oxide of iron and give freely. FIG. 121. FIG. 122. FIG. 121. Virginia creeper. FIG. 122. Poison-ivy, sometimes mistaken for the Virginia creeper. The Poison-ivy leaf has three leaflets, and the Virginia creeper five. For opium, morphine, laudanum, paregoric, soothing syrups, and mixtures of all kinds which produce sleep, cause repeated vomiting. Give very strong coffee, with- EMERGENCIES. 359 out sugar or milk, freely. Keep the patient awake until the physician arrives, by walking, whipping, or any other exercise. For poisonous berries or poisonous weeds, cause vom- iting and give strong hot coffee. Poison-ivy, poison "oak, and poison sumac cause a painful rash even if they but lightly touch the skin. In fact, it is not necessary that there be actual contact, as a near approach to these plants is often all that is necessary to become poisoned by them. Bathe the skin frequently with a strong solution of soda. Covering the skin with vaseline is also useful. Shock. Shock is a condition of great depression of the nervous system. It usually follows severe accidents, operations, or strong mental emotions. The person is weak and faint, the skin is cold, the pulse is weak or absent, and the whole condition resembles approaching death. The person should be placed on his back with the head low. Dry heat should be applied to the cold body and extremities. Never give alcoholic liquors of any kind. Stunning. After a blow or fall a person may be be- wildered as a result of the shaking of his brain. Keep the head cool with cloths wet in cold water and have the person remain as quiet as possible. The administra- tion of alcoholic liquors might cause congestion of the brain and they should never be given. Sprains. Sprains are often of a serious nature. They are accompanied with great pain and swelling at the joint. Permanent lameness has often followed severe sprains. The joint should be placed in the position which is the most comfortable, and moist heat applied. 360 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. The temperature of the applications should be gradually increased, until it is as hot as can be endured. After continuing the hot applications for an hour the joint may be wrapped in wet bandages and kept in an ele- vated position. In a day or two after the injury begin to move the joint gently, rubbing it with some liniment. Stings. Often the stinger of wasps, bees, etc., remains in the wound. This should be removed by the fingers, or by small forceps. Apply spirits of ammonia, or a strong solution of soda to the wound. Boys have often found that binding on ordinary mud gives relief. Sunstroke. Persons affected with sunstroke should be removed to a cool place and the excessive heat o the body reduced as quickly as possible. Bags of cracked ice should be placed upon or around the head which should be slightly raised. The body may be bathed in cold water, or placed for a few minutes in a bath tub filled with cold water. A method highly recommended is to remove all the clothing and pour cold water over the entire body. The vessel containing the water, as an ordinary watering pot, should be held three or four feet above the body and the water poured first upon the head, then on the chest and abdomen, and lastly on the extremities. Persons are sometimes affected by the heat in a peculiar manner. Instead of having a flushed face, hot skin, and every evidence of extreme heat, as would be the case when the above treatment was in- dicated, the face may be pale, the pulse weak, and the skin cool. Such cases are often rapidly fatal. In these cases the treatment consists in applying warmth ex- ternally and in giving warm drinks internally. KESTRICTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 361 CHAPTER XXXV. THE RESTRICTION AND PREVENTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. The Prevalence of Germs. When we look into the air of a well lighted room it appears to be entirely free from dust. But when only a ray of sunlight enters the room it is quickly seen that the atmosphere is filled with floating particles. It is a useful lesson to note care- fully the countless numbers of these particles and to watch them floating about in the air in every direction. This dust is composed of particles large enough to be seen with the unaided eye. If these larger particles can thus easily float about, it is easy to understand how much smaller ones can be thoroughly distributed. Germs are independent living bodies, so minute that the highest powers of the microscope are necessary for their detection. In fact, many forms are so minute and transparent that it is necessary to add some coloring agent to make them visible. Germs exist everywhere. They are in the atmospheric dust, in the water we drink, and upon all solid bodies. They are not only on the surface of the human body, but within it as well. Although there are many species, germs may be divided into two general classes : those which are harmless, and 362 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. those which are capable of causing trouble, more or less serious. Germs may be destroyed by chemical agents, which are known as disinfectants, and by the application of heat. Raising the temperature to the boiling point practically destroys all forms of germ life. Germs cause Disease. A few diseases are known to be caused by germs. There are other diseases which are believed to have the same cause, although the proof is not yet complete. When we know that a disease is caused by a germ, it is reasonable that every effort should be made to destroy that germ, and thus to save those in health from coming in contact with it. Modes of Spreading. The so-called " contagious " diseases are generally spread by means of the dust which exists in the atmosphere at all times. The nose is especially constructed to filter the dust from the air. The nostrils are guarded by minute hairs which are kept moist by the exhaled breath. The nasal cavities are constantly moist also. To these moist sur- faces the dust clings as the air passes over them. When we remember that the nose has such power to filter dust from the air, the importance of a proper care of the handkerchief is made very clear. Severe colds often pass from one member of a family to another because of improper attention to the handkerchief. If the secretions from the nose are allowed to dry upon the handkerchief, they are easily set free to form a part of the ever present dust in the air. Whenever a person has a hard cold, the handkerchiefs should be frequently changed and the soiled ones either placed immediately in bofling water, or temporarily in a paper bag, which RESTRICTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 363 should be burned when the handkerchiefs are removed. Hard colds are debilitating and every means to prevent them should be taken. Attention to a few hygienic rules may prevent the spread of a hard cold through the household. This care of the handkerchief also becomes a most important matter whenever the person has any communicable disease. Another source of danger is from the dust which rises from the floors, or articles of furniture, upon which expectorated matter has been deposited. The almost universal habit among men of expectorating upon the sidewalks, on the floors of street cars, etc., is most pernicious. The dust which comes from the clothing, or from the rooms, of persons who have some communicable disease is also a source of danger. There is some danger from the handling of books, pencils, etc., which have been used by persons who had a communicable disease. For this reason each pupil should be provided with his own pencil and paper, books and drinking-cup. When books are furnished to pupils it is wise to require each pupil to cover his books with a good manilla paper, which can be removed and burned at the close of the year, or as soon as the pupil is through with the books. Impure drinking water is the cause of the spread of typhoid fever. The water may appear very clear and sparkling and yet contain the germs of this disease. Protection of the Body. -The body is well protected from the action of these germs of disease. Otherwise it would be difficult to understand how any of us escape being ill all the time. 364 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. As stated on page 200, the epidermis protects the body from poisonous matter. Were it not for this fact the surgeon could not safely perform much of his work. A slight cut or prick of the finger through this outer layer of cells may be sufficient to allow the entrance of some virulent form of germ life, producing blood poison- ing and even death. The mucous membranes which line the respiratory and alimentary tracts also protect the body. While this protection may not be complete, even when these mem- branes are in a healthy condition, it is true that any break or ulceration in their surface greatly favors the entrance of the germs. Another source of protection resides within the body itself. This is called the " resistive power " of the body. Some authorities claim that this power resides in the white corpuscles of the blood because these bodies have the power to destroy a limited number of germs. From this it is seen that if the throat were in a per- fectly healthy condition, the danger of contracting diphtheria would not be so great. If the lungs were in a normal state, there would not be the same danger from consumption. If the alimentary canal were healthy the danger from typhoid fever would not be so marked. And,. last of all, if the whole body were in a strong and robust state it would have greater power of resisting disease. It is true that strong children and equally strong adults do have contagious diseases and die from them ; yet it cannot be disputed that they have a better chance of escape than those who are in poor health. Why some Escape. Many persons are exposed to these communicable diseases who do not have them. For RESTRICTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 365 instance, two brothers may occupy the same sleeping room and may be together constantly during the day ; yet one may have consumption and the other not. Again, all the family may drink water in which are the germs of typhoid fever, and yet only one member of the family have the disease. In a general way, this is explained as follows : To produce a contagious or com- municable disease it is not alone necessary that the germs of the disease be present ; there must also be " a suitable soil " in which these germs can grow. In other words, after the germs have found entrance into the body, certain conditions are necessary for their growth and development. Communicable Diseases. The most dangerous commu- nicable diseases, in the order of their importance, are consumption, pneumonia, diphtheria, typhoid fever, scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, and small-pox. Influenza, or la grippe, should be added to this list, at times when it becomes epidemic. Some years ago there were only a few deaths from this disease ; but of late years, when it has been epidemic, the death rate has been very high. The Michigan State Board of Health reported few deaths from influenza up to the year 1889. But in 1890, 1891, and 1892 the deaths reported from it average 1000 a year. Consumption. Consumption is now known to be due to a germ, called the tubercle bacillus. The sputum, or expectorated matter, of consumptive persons is filled with these germs. When the sputum dries it is easily powdered and set free, floating through the air forming a part of the atmospheric dust. This dust is inhaled by others and, if the right conditions are present, the 366 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. germs find a suitable soil to grow and produce the disease. A careful examination of expectorated matter, by one skilled in the use of the microscope, will decide the question of the presence of these germs. In this way it is possible to determine the presence of consumption in its very first stages. Persons who have consumption should exercise the utmost care not to allow any of the expectorated matter to become dry and enter the air as dust. Small pieces of cloth should be carried, and when these have been used they should be burned at the first opportunity. If a cup, or cuspidor is used, it should be kept partly filled with water and should be frequently emptied. After emptying, it should be thoroughly washed with boiling water. In a word, every effort should be used to destroy all expectorated matter as soon as possible, and under no circumstances should it be allowed to become dry. Pneumonia. There are good reasons for believing that pneumonia is a disease caused by a germ. As this germ exists in the sputum of the person who has the disease, all expectorated matter should be promptly destroyed. Since pneumonia exists for only a short time, generally a few days, it is easy to carry out these instructions. Influenza. When this disease becomes an epidemic it is a very severe affection, and large numbers die from it. Often the patient does not fully recover from an attack for many months, and in many cases complete recovery never occurs. The disease is believed to be due to a germ which is inhaled with the air. Persons who have it should be isolated, placed in a room away from other members of the family except those engaged KESTRICTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 36? in nursing. All discharges from the nose and throat should be promptly destroyed. Diphtheria. The germs of diphtheria are very active, and the most stringent measures are necessary to re- strict and prevent the disease. All discharges from the nose, mouth and throat should be destroyed at once, as they probably contain immense numbers of these virulent germs. The person should be placed in a well lighted room, in which there is little furniture, and no one should be allowed to enter it but the physician and nurse. If there is diphtheria in the neighborhood, village, or city in which the person lives, all cases of sore throat should be regarded with suspicion until the physician is able to give a positive answer. This is simply a wise precaution, because a case which is apparently only a simple one may prove to be a serious form of diphtheria. We must remember that if the germs of diphtheria are in the throat, the matter from these parts, when it becomes dry on handkerchiefs, floors, etc., will be inhaled by others. Hence the importance of completely destroying all matter discharged from the nose, mouth, and throat of those who have the disease. Typhoid Fever. Typhoid fever is generally spread by means of drinking water. At least the germs of this disease must reach the lower part of the alimentary canal before they can produce serious trouble. Drink- ing water that contains these germs has usually been polluted with leakage from sewers or out-houses. Ordi- nary niters will not remove the germs from the water. There are germ filters, however, which accomplish thia in a satisfactory manner. Water can also be freed from these germs by boiling. As this is easily done, and as 368 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. the water does not taste badly when cooled after boiling, it is advisable to use only water that has been boiled, if there is any question about its purity. Scarlet Fever. Although it is not positively proven, yet it is generally believed that scarlet fever is caused by a germ. The person who is ill with this disease should be isolated, and all discharges from the nose, mouth and throat should be immediately destroyed. Later, when the body is " peeling," special care is neces- sary in order to destroy the minute scales and prevent them as much as possible from becoming a part of the dust of the atmosphere, and thus a possible source of contagion to others. Measles. The same can be said of the cause of measles, a disease which is easily spread among children. Isolation and disinfection are the two words to keep in mind in preventing and restricting the disease. Whooping Cough. As this is a communicable disease, care should be taken that the child who has it does not mingle with other children, and thus expose them to it. Small-pox. Small-pox is spread by means of the par- ticles which come from the surface of the body. As vaccination is such a protection, no one shoufd omit its employment. It is best to be vaccinated at least once every five years, for one vaccination does not protect for life. Whenever small-pox is prevalent, a person should be revaccinated without regard to the length of time since the last vaccination. Isolation. Isolation does not mean that the person who is ill must be placed alone in a room and neglected. It does mean, however, that every precaution consistent RESTRICTION OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES. 369 with the best interests of the patient should be employed in order that no one shall come near the person except the nurse and physician. If the disease be scarlet fever or measles, the attendant may be one who has suffered in the same way and who would now probably be unlikely to contract the disease. In the case of diphtheria, adults are not so likely to acquire the disease as children. The fact that a person has one of these communicable dis- eases in a very mild way, does not lessen the necessity of isolation. When the attendant leaves the sick room, the outer clothing should be changed, and the hands, face, and hair thoroughly washed. If there are a number of children in the house, and one of them is taken ill with diphtheria or scarlet fever, the well children should not be allowed to attend school, or in any way to mingle with other children until all danger of their conveying the disease is over. Disinfection. A disinfectant is an agent that destroys disease-germs. The simplest and one of the best dis- infectants is heat. Boiling for half an hour is sufficient to destroy germ-life. All cups, spoons, and vessels of every description used about the sick-room should be placed in water before they leave the room, and then should be boiled as already described. All clothing, and bedding which would not be injured thereby, should be treated to the boiling also. There are some chemical agents which have marked disinfectant properties. Some of these have already been mentioned on page 148. Corrosive sublimate, the bichloride of mercury, is a most powerful disinfectant. For disinfecting clothing a solution can be made of the strength of fifteen grains to a gallon of water. It is, 24 370 THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. however, an extremely fatal poison, and the physician had best be consulted before it is used. Chloride of lime is a useful disinfectant. A solution of four ounces of lime dissolved in a gallon of water can be used to disinfect the vessels in which are received the discharges from typhoid fever patients. To Disinfect the Sick Room. After the removal of the sick person from the room, everything should be thor- oughly disinfected. If the bedding, garments, and fur- niture are not too valuable they had better be burned. All other garments and bed furnishings, if not injured thereby, should be boiled for at least half an hour. Spread all other clothing and bedding- loosely over the chairs. With pieces of cloth or cotton, tightly close every opening about the room so far as it is possible. In order to prevent any danger from fire, take an ordi- nary wash-tub and place in it water to the depth of a couple of inches. Set a shallow iron pan, or a low iron kettle upon a couple of bricks in the centre of the water. For a room ten feet square use three pounds of sulphur. Break the sulphur into small pieces and moisten them slightly with alcohol. Put the sulphur in the iron dish and set it on fire, using care not to breathe the strong fumes which will immediately arise. Promptly leave the room and close the door tightly. After twenty-four hours throw open the doors and windows and allow the gas to escape. Wash all the wood-work with soap and water, and, if possible, have the room newly papered and painted. It is wise to allow the contents of the room to be exposed to the outdoor air for a day or two if the weather will permit. INDEX. ABSORBENTS, 149, Absorption, 84. review of, 90. Adipose tissue, 202. Air, abundance of, 142. amount inhaled, 140. deficiency of, 143. expired, 136. inspired, 136. proper amount, 144. pure, 144. Air cells. 128. Albumen, 23. Albuminoids, 23. Albuminous foods, where digested, 72. Alcohol, 40. a poison, 43, 52, 284, 331. abolishes sensation, 288. affinity for nervous tissue, 285. appetite, 50. appetite inherited, 51. causes crime, 53, 336. insanity, 292. poverty, 54, 335. ulcers," 80. wrong use of money, 337. chief danger of, 44. deception of, 340. destructive, 56. effects on blood, 102. blood-vessels, 80. cells, 16. cerebrum, 288, 289. education, 338. eyes, 304. heart, 118. kidnevs, 154. effects on life, 53, 334. liver, 81. lungs, 137. mind. 291. muscle, 197. nervous tissue, 283, 286. spinal cord, 287. Alcohol, effects on stomach, 79. temperature, 230. inherited effects, 293. insanity from, 52. not a food, 55. not necessary, 332. opposed to good order, 338. testimony against, 329. Alimentary canal, 59. Animal heat, 224. Animals, cold, warm blooded, 225 Apoplexy, 91), 344. and drunkenness, 344. Apples, 30. Arteries, 112. names of, 116, 117. Artificial respiration, 344. Atlas, 167. Axis, 168. BACTERIA, 41. Baths, forms of, 218. value of, 219. Bathe, when, how, 216, 218. Bathing, importance of, 215. salt water, 217. Beer, 47. food-value, 48. home-made, 49. Bicycle, 194. Bile, 76. Bleeding, 346. from artery, 347. lower extremity, 347. lungs, 348. nose, 349. stomach, 350. tooth, 350. upper extremity, 348. vein, 350. Blind spot, 301. Blood, 93, 372 INDEX. Blood, and alcohol, 102. arterial, 96, 98. clotting, 98. composition, 94. fibrin, 99. venous, 96, 98. Blood corpuscles, 94. function, 96. haemoglobin, 97. oval, 100. size, 96. Blushing, 271. Bone, cancellous tissue, 157. cells, 159. compact tissue, 157. composition, 161. description, 156. marrow, 158. microscopic structure, 158. reproduction, 162. strength of, 163. Bones of the chest, 170. foot, 173. lower extremities, 172. nose, 311. pelvis, 172. skull, 165. spinal column, 165. upper extremities, 170. Brain, 257. Brains, two, 268. Brandy, 48. Bread,' 28. where digested, 72. Bronchi, 128. Bruises, 350. Burns, 350. _ CANE sugar, 35. Canning fruits, 41. Capillaries, 114. Carbonic acid, 97, 141. Casein, 73. Catarrh, 3] 4. Cellar, ventilate. 147. Cells, 11. development, 13. function, 15. growth, 13. life, 12. motion, 14. structure, 11. Cement of teeth, 64, Cereal grains, 27. Cerebellum, 262. function, 269. Cerebro-spinal system, 253. Cerebrum, 258. convolutions, 260. function, 268. structure, 261. Change of voice, 127. Chest, sounds, 135. Chilblains, 356. Chloral, 252. Chloroform, 252. Chocolate, 252. Chyle, 89. Chyme, 73. Cider, 44. Cigarette smoking, 340. Cigarettes, 233. and arsenic, 235. Circulation, 103. aids to, 117. force of, 117. general, 115. rapidity, 115. through heart, 107. Circulatory apparatus, 103. Clavicle, 170. Clothing, 219. adaptation of, 220. materials, 220. on fire, 351. weight, 221. Coagulation, 98. Cocaine, 252. Coffee, 38, 252. Cold, cure, 222. results, 154. Color blindness, 302. Complexion, 219. Conjunctiva, 296. Connective tissue cells, 203. Consumption, 365. Contagion, 149. Contagious diseases, 362. Convulsions, 352. Cooking, 36. Corn starch, 34. Coughing center, 270. DELIRIUM tremens, 290. Dentine, of teeth, 65. Deodorizers, 148. Digestion, 57. effects of opium, 83. tea, coffee, 83. tobacco, 82. how affected, 73. object, 57. table for, 75. IXDEX. 373 Digestive apparatus, 58. fluids, 57. Diphtheria, 367. Disinfectants, 148. Disinfection, 369. sick room, 370. Dislocations, 353. Distillation, 48. Dyspepsia, 74. EAR, bones, 318. drum, 317. external, 316. foreign bodies in, 354. inner, 320. middle, 317. Ears, care, 321. Eggs, 26. Emetics, 357. Enamel, of teeth, 64. Epidermis, 203. uses, 205. Epiglottis, 128. Equilibrium, sense, 320. Eustachian tube, 320. Exercise, 191. amount, 193. benefits, 195. forms, 194. when, 196. Expression, 197. Expiration, 134. Eyes, care, 303. effects of alcohol, 304. tobacco, 305. foreign bodies in, 354. oil glands, 297. protection, 296. Eyeballs, 299. function of parts, 301. membranes, 299. Eyebrows, 296. Eyelashes, 297. Eyelids, 296. FAINTING, 352. Fat, 203. Fatty foods, where digested, 73. Femur, 172. Fermentation, 42. Fibula, 172. Fire, to extinguish, 351. Fish hook, to remove, 355. Foods, 17. amount, 36. classification, 18. Foods, inorganic, 18. nitrogenous, 23. non-nitrogenous, 23, 31. uses, 17. varieties, 36. Foot, arch of, 173. Form, good, 163. Fractures, 353. Freezing, 355. Frost bite, 355. Fruits, 30. GALL bladder, 76. Gastric catarrh, 79 Gastric juice, 72. Germs, 361. Glottis, 126. Glucose. 35. Grains, 27. Grape sugar, 35. HABIT, 275. Hair, 211. muscle, 213. Hair-sac, 213. Hairs, different animals, 212. Healthy body, 278. Hearing, 31 G. value, 322. Heart, 103. auricles, 104. beer-drinker's, 119. cavities, 104. contractions, 106. course of blood through, 107 effects of alcohol, 118. tobacco, 121. fatty, 119. force of, 117. position, 103. pulsations, 109. sounds, 111. work and rest, 110. Heat, drv, 356. moist, 356. Heating, 144. Heredity, 277. Horseback riding, 194. Humerus, 170. Hysterics, 356. INFLUENZA, 366. Insanity, from alcohol, 52, 292. Insomnia, 281. 374 INDEX. Inspiration, 133. Intestine, absorption from, 87. large, 60. small, 60. structure, 85. Intestinal juice, 77. Isolation, 368. JAUNDICE, 76. Joints, 173. varieties, 174-177. KIDNEYS, 151. diseases, from cold, 154. effects of alcohol, 154. excretory organs, 153. structure, 152. LACHRYMAL,, fluid, 298. glands, 297. Lacteals, 88. of intestine, 85. Laryngoscope, 127. Larynx, 125. Ligaments, 173. Lime, 21. Liver, 76. drunkard's, 81. Liver sugar, 77. Long-sightedness, 302. Lungs, 131. effects of alcohol, 137. tobacco, 137. excretory organs, 137. why air enters, 131. Lymph, 88. corpuscles, 89. Lymphatic glands, 88. Lymphatics, 88. of intestine, 85. MAPLE sugar, 35. Marrow, of bone, 158. Mastication, 60. Measles, 368. Meats, 26. Medulla oblongata, 262. centers in, 269. function, 269. Mental labor, 278. Micro organisms, 40. Milk, 24. sugar of, 35. where digested, 72. Mind, affected by alcohol, 291. and body, 269. exercise, 278. Molds, 43. Mouth breathing, 125. Mumps, 66. Muscles, 180. contraction, 184. control, 187. growth of, 188. harmonious action, 187. involuntary, 183. strength of, 186. uses, 181. varieties, 180. voluntary, 181. work and rest, 186. Mustard plaster, 356. NAILS, 214. Nasal cavities, 124. duct, 298. ' Nerve, a, 257. cells, 255. current, 267. fibers, 256. tissue, 255. Nervous systems, health for, 277 two, 253. Nicotine, 16, 82, 121. Night air, 147. Nose, 311. foreign bodies in, 355. Nosebleed, 349. OAT starch, 33. Oats, 29. (Esophagus, 59. Olfactory nerve, 312. Opium, effects, 250. digestion, 83. nervous system, 294. habit, 250. preparations, 251. Optic nerve, 300. Oxygen, 97. supports life, 140. Oysters, 27. PAIN, 327. Pancreas, 77. Pancreatic juice, 77. Parotid glands,66. Patella, 173. Patent medicines, 251. INDEX. Pelvis, bones of, 172. Pericardium, 103. Periosteum, 156. Perspiration, 208. affected, 210. checking, 211. controlled, 210. object, 211. Pharynx, 59, 68. Physiognomy, 196. Plasma, of blood, 94. Pleura, 130. Pneumonia, 366. Poison, 52, 357. Portal vein, 87. Potash, 22. Potato starch, 34. Potatoes, 29. Poverty, from alcohol, 54, 335. Pressure, sense, 326. Ptyalin, 67. Pulsations, of heart, 109. Pulse, 111. Pvloric opening, 70. Pylorus, 71. RADIUS, 171. Reflex action, 272. acquired, 274 importance, 274. nerve current, 273. Respiration, 135. artificial, 344. Respiratory center, 270. Rest, 279. Ribs, 169. Rice, 29. Rowing, 194. SALIVA, 66. cells, 66. uses, 67. Salivary glands, 66. Salt, 18. Scapula, 170. Scarlet fever, 368. Sebaceous glands, 214. Sensation, common, 327. Sewer gas, 147. Shock, 359. Short-sightedness, 302. Skeleton, object, 164. Skin, 202. checking action, 211. coloring, 205. Skull, 165. Sleep, 280. needed much, 281. to promote. 281. Small-pox, 368. Smell, 312. affected, 313. developed highly, 313, 314, uses, 314. Sneezing center, 270. Soda, 22. Soups, 38. Spinal column, 165. cord, 263. nerves, 264. Sprains, 359. Standing, 188. Starch, 27, 32. Starch grains, 32. Stings, of insects, 360. Stomach, 59, 70. digestion, 72. effects of alcohol, 79. glands, 76. movements, 73. Strength, and alcohol, 198. Stunning, 359. Sugar, 35. Sun stroke, 360. Swallowing, 69. Sweat glands, 207. Sylvester's method, 345. Sympathetic system, 255 Svnovial fluid, 173. TACTILE bodies, 206. Taste, 309. and tobacco, 310. buds, 308. sense, 309. smell, 309. Tea, 83, 252. Tears, 298. Teeth, 61. arrangement, 62, 63. care for, 65. decay of, 66. development, 62. fish, horse, serpent, 61. growth, 62. shape, 63. structure, 63. two sets, 62. varieties, 63. Temperature, and alcohol, 230, bodily, 226. lowering, 228. raising, 229. 376 INDEX. Temperature, regulation, 227. sense, 325. Tendons, 183. Thoracic cavity, 169. duct, 89. Throat, foreign bodies in, 355. Tibia, 172. Tobacco, 233. effects on appetite, 233. digestion, 82. eyes, 305. heart, 121. lungs, 138. morals, 239. nervous system, 233. scholarship, 237. taste, 310. expensive habit, 235. filthy habit, 235. opium habit, 234. strong drink, 234. unlawful, 236. what it costs, in money, 246. the body, 240. the mind, 243. Tongue, 306. Touch, 323. corpuscles, 323. in lower animals, 325. sense, 323. Trachea, 128. Transfusion, 93. Tympanic membrane, 317 Typhoid fever, 367. ULNA, 170, Urea, 153. VASO-MOTOR centre, 270. Vegetables, where digested, 73. Veins, 114, 117. Venous blood, 96. Ventilation, proper, 144. improper, 146. Ventricles, capacity, 107. of heart, 105. strength, 109. Vertebrce, 166. Villi, of intestine, 85. Vocal cords, 126. WALKING, 194. Water, 19. purity, 21. source, 20. Weight, sense, 326. Wheat flour, 27. starch, 32. Whiskey, 48. Whooping-cough, 368. Wine. 45. Winking, 297. Work and rest, 193 Wounds, 346. YEAST, 42. THE HEALTH SERIES OF SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGIES, EMBRACING primer of 5ot), ant. essentials of BY CHARLES H. STOWELL, M.D., Formerly Professor of Histology and Microscopy in the University of Michigan, Editor and Publisher of " The National Medical Review" Washington, D.C. f\ S a teacher of recognized ability, a physician of highest 1^1 standing, an original investigator along physiological f lines, and a popular writer on medical subjects, Dr. Stowell was pre-eminently fitted to prepare a series of scientific, popular, and teachable Physiologies. He has an excellent literary style, an interesting way of presenting his subject, and a clear conception of the best method of adapting the facts to be taught to the age and growing intelligence of the pupils for whom his work was intended. His statements, made from the standpoint of the scientist, challenging contradiction, are presented in an easy, popular style that enables the pupil to grasp the facts before interest is lost in an effort to understand the terms. He knows how to arouse and to hold attention, a rare quality in a writer on any subject. Indeed, the diction of Dr. StowelFs different books is so carefully chosen, with refer- ence to the vocabulary familiar to children at different stages, that this series has been successfully used in many progressive schools as Supplementary Readers. Three Remarkable Text-Books. The aim throughout the HEALTH SERIES OF SCHOOL PHYSI- OLOGIES is, as the titles of the books indicate, instruction in the Science of Health. The marked favor with which this series has been received is due in large measure to the con- sistent and logical manner in which the author has constantly kept before pupils his principal subject, the health of the body. Dr. Stowell, in his Health Series, has shown that the most approved normal methods may be as successfully carried out in the elementary treatment of this as of any other science. A Primer of Health . . . For Primary Classes, with special reference to the Effects of Alcoholic Drinks and Tobacco upon the Human System. By Charles H. Stowell, M.D. Fully illustrated with original sketches by the author. Intro= ductory price, 30 cents. Beginning with the growing child hardly beyond its kindergarten training, the author arouses in " A Primer of Health " an interest which amounts almost to a fascination. While not ignoring the few facts of anatomy that can be readily understood even in this grade, the attention is directed to the beauty, the use, and the care of the body, and in doing this the same methods are used that would be employed in observing a beautiful building, picture, or flower. In scope, it presents elementary facts only, a large proportion of which relate to the preservation of health, special attention being given to food, exercise, and cleanliness, with chapters on the more noticeable effects of alcohol and narcotics. The book is divided into short chapters properly paragraphed, each of which is followed by a series of carefully prepared questions on the subject-matter. TESTIMONIALS. P. S. Gallagher, Superintendent County Schools, Benson, Minn.: Dr. Stoweil's "A Primer of Health" I have examined, and am very much pleased with the outline used by the author for primary work. William A. Mowry, Late Member of the Boston School Board: The " Primer of Health " covers the ground most difficult for a text-book upon this subject. The author has evidently succeeded unusually well in presenting the several subjects considered in such a manner that the facts and statements are both easily comprehended and made interesting to young minds. Mrs. O. H. Stilson, County Superintendent, Grand Rapids, Minn,: I am making use of Sto well's " A Primer of Health " in my primary grade, and my little folks are delighted with it. A. M. Sperry, County Sriperintendent, Mantorville, Minn.: I have read through very carefully your Stowell's "A Primer of Health" with a view to determining its fitness for a place on our list of free text-books. I am impressed with its simplicity and directness of style and earnestness of purpose ; while in fearlessness of statement upon the vital subjects of alcohol and tobacco it stands first among the many I have read upon the same subjects. A Healthy Body . . . A Text=Book on Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene, Alcohol, and Narcotics. For use in Intermediate and Grammar Grades in Public and Private Schools. By Charles H. Stowell, M. D. Fully illustrated with original sketches by the author. Introductory price, 50 cents. In this second book of The Health Series the subject broadens and deepens. Many of the facts which had interested the child in the preceding book are enlarged upon, and more complicated phases of the general subject are taken up. Like the Primer, " A Healthy Body " presents the fundamental facts of anatomy and physiology, though in greater detail. Special attention is given to the laws of health, and to the effects of alcohol and narcotics. In the preparation of this work the controlling motive has been the belief that the study of the human body, together with the effects of alcohol upon it, will do much to make the coming generation wise, temperate, and moral. In plan, the book is arranged in chapters with paragraphs set out in full-face side heads, making it easy for reference and convenient for the assignment of lessons. The chapters are followed by appropriate ques- tions on the subject-matter. The work contains a full index. TESTIMONIALS. Prof. S. M. Inglis, Southern Illinois Normal University, Carbondale, III.: I regard "A Healthy Body," by Stowell, as one of the best books I have ever examined for our common schools. It is clear, concise, and replete with all that is needed in our intermediate and grammar grades. It is thoroughly practical, and complies with the law requiring instruction in our common schools in regard to the use of alcoholic stimulants and their effects on the human body. M. T. Prichard, Master of Everett School, Boston, Mass.: We are using Stowell's "A Healthy Body" in some of our classes, and find it to be in every way a satisfactory book. The author appeals directly to the experience of the student, and treats the subject-matter in a lucid and comprehensible manner. The Essentials of Health . . . A Text=Book on Anatomy, Physiology, Hygiene, Alcohol, and Narcotics. For use in Advanced Grades in Public and Private Schools. By Charles H. Stowell, M.D. Illustrated with original sketches by the author. Introductory price, 84 cents. "The Essentials of Health" meets the requirements of advanced grammar grades in schools, public and private, of high schools, and of academies. This book affords a still more complete treatment of anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, beginning with "Cells" and ending with "Emergencies^" or "What to do before the Doctor Comes." The foundation of physiological study is securely and intelligently laid ; physiology is so clearly treated that the laws of health may be easily comprehended ; hygiene is so comprehensively discussed that ignorance of its laws is inexcusable ; while the effects of alcohol and narcotics on the grow- ing body are presented with moderation yet with convincing force. TESTIMONIALS. James Henry Smith, Professor of Natural Science, Baldwin University, Berea, Ohio : " The Essentials of Health " is written in an easy, pleasing style. The statements are accurate. The illustrations are numerous. They will be a great aid to students. Be- ing a successful teacher, Dr. Stowell knows how to write for students ; being a successful practitioner, he is able to give sound hygienic advice. C. L. Hunt, Superintendent of Schools, Clinton, Mass. : I regard Stowell's Series of Physiologies as the best yet known to me, in all the points needful in a text-book on that subject tc be placed in the hands of children. X A Handbook of Simple Experiments in Physiology . . . For the use of Teachers. By Charles H. Stowell, M.D. Original illustrations. Introductory price, 36 cents. This " Handbook," while especially adapted to illustrate the teachings of the "Health Series of School Physiologies," can also be advantageously employed with other text-books. The experiments can be readily performed by teachers who have had" no laboratory training and must work without apparatus. The directions are so clear and specific as to render the book also an admirable working guide for pupils' use, where there is opportunity for them to do simple laboratory work. The " Handbook" also contains three valuable chapters on the microscope and physiological experiments to be performed with it. Attention is invited to the Health Series Microscope, a very superior instrument, especially designed for school use. With it are furnished twelve high-grade specimens, showing the different parts of the human body. The Microscope, with full outfit, packed in a handsome case, will be supplied to schools only at $32.00 net. Catalogues and circulars descriptive of all our Educational Publications mailed free on application. Correspondence respectfully solicited. SILVER, BURDETT & COMPANY, Publishers, Boston. New York. Chicago. TTY OF CALIFORNIA LIB! LB 600DU ,