i volcanoes of the Kula basin in 
 
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 8S3H
 
 THE GIFT OF 
 
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 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA 
 BASIN IN LYDIA 
 
 3Inawgut:al J^f 
 
 FOR THE ATTAINMENT OF THE 
 
 DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 AT THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG 
 
 PRESENTED BY 
 
 HENRY STEPHENS WASHINGTON 
 
 OF 
 
 NAVESINK, N. J., U. S. A. 
 July 26, 1893 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER 
 1894
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA 
 BASIN IN LYDIA 
 
 Inaugural 
 
 FOR THE ATTAINMENT OP THE 
 
 DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF LEIPZIG 
 
 PRESENTED BY f 
 
 HENRY STEPHENS WASHINGTON 
 
 OF 
 
 NAVESINK, N. J., U. S. A. 
 July 26, 1893 
 
 NEW YORK 
 ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER 
 
 1894
 
 Geol,,,,, 
 Library 
 
 I 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Ix the course of the writer's studies at the "University of Leipzig 
 during the winter semester of 1891-92, the volcanic district in Asia 
 Minor known to the ancients under the name of the Katakekau- 
 mene in Lydia was spoken of by Prof. Dr. Zirkel as promising a 
 good field for petrographical work, and it was decided to visit 
 it in the spring. Accordingly, after a two months' stay in Greece, 
 the writer was able, in April, to pass over "into Asia Minor, where 
 nearly two weeks were spent in visiting, with friends, sites of archaeo- 
 logical interest. Unfortunately, an important matter unexpectedly 
 called the writer away, leaving only eight days for an examination 
 of the region named above. The shortness of the time is re- 
 gretted, but it is hoped to visit the place again in the spring of 
 1894, when a map will be drawn, and as complete an exploration 
 of the whole region as possible be made. In the meanwhile this 
 paper will give a short preliminary sketch of part of the district, 
 and the results of a petrographical examination of the rocks 
 collected, undertaken in the Mineralogical Institute of the Univer- 
 sity of Leipzig, under the guidance of Geheimrath Prof. Dr. 
 Zirkel, to whom the writer desires to return his warmest thanks 
 and to express his sense of the great obligations he is under for 
 the constant and invaluable aid and advice and the never-failing 
 kindness shown him. 
 
 550894
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN 
 IN LYDIA. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION. 
 
 THE chief town of the district,* and the one that the writer 
 made his headquarters, is Kula,f the seat of a large carpet industry 
 a place with 12,000 inhabitants, of whom 8500 are Turks, and the 
 rest Greeks. It is situated in 38 33' N. Lat. and 28 42' E. Long., 
 in the eastern part of the vilayet (province) of Aidin, or what was 
 anciently called Lydia, some 125 kilometres E. by N. of Smyrna, in 
 a straight line. It is reached by travelling by rail to Ala Shehir 
 (ancient Philadelphia), a trip of 169 kil. (6^ hours), where one 
 spends the night. From Ala Shehir one drives over a good road 
 across the Konfirja Mountains, and reaches Kula in about 5 hours. 
 As the only regular accommodation for travellers is a very dirty, 
 noisy, and public khan, one must either bring letters to some of the 
 inhabitants, or trust to someone's hospitality for a lodging. The 
 writer was most kindly received and courteously treated by a Greek 
 named Haji Moise, who several times acted as guide to various 
 places of interest, and to whom the writer wishes to return his 
 thanks. It may be remarked that a knowledge of modern Greek or 
 
 * As some Turkish topographical words will be used in the course of this 
 and other papers, the following short vocabulary will be found of use : 
 Bunndr = Spring. Chai = River. Dag = Mountain. Ool Lake. Hissdr = 
 Castle. Kale Fortress. Koi= Village. Koprii = Bridge. Shehir = City. 
 Sit = Water, Brook. TasJi = Rock. Tepe = Hill. 
 
 The plural is formed by adding the syllable lar 01 far, according as the 
 vowel of the word is strong or weak. The accent of Turkish words falls as 
 a rule on the last syllable. 
 
 f The name Kula (also written Koulah) is derived from the Turkish Kiile = 
 a tower. The Byzantine fortress of Opsikion stood on this site. Cf. Ramsay. 
 Hist. Geog. As. Miu. p. 123. 
 
 5
 
 6 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KTJL.A BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 Turkish is almost indispensable, though one can get along with a 
 dragoman. 
 
 Ancient History. The extant historical notices of the region 
 are extremely scanty, being confined practically to three writers. 
 Strabo (born ca. 54 B.C.), in his famous geography, is the first to 
 mention it. He speaks as follows :* " After these (Mysia and 
 Philadelphia) is the country called Katakekaumene (Burnt 
 Country), 500 stadia f in length and 400 in breadth, which belongs 
 to either Mysia or Maeonia, for it is ascribed to both; . . . entirely 
 bare of vegetation, except for the vine which produces the 
 Katakekaumene wine, which is not inferior to any other of the 
 famous wines.! The appearance of the plains is ashy, and of the 
 mountainous part stony and black, as if from a conflagration. 
 Some represent this as having happened from thunderbolts and 
 lightning strokes, and do not hesitate to make it the scene of the 
 fable of Typhon. . . . But it is unreasonable to suppose that 
 so large a district wassail at once consumed, by lightning and 
 thunderbolts ; it is more natural to think that the effect was 
 produced by fire generated in the soil, the source of which is now 
 exhausted. And three pits are shown, which they call blow-holes 
 ((f>v<ra(i), distant 40 stadia from each other. Kough hills lie over 
 these, which have probably been heaped together from the glowing 
 masses blown up. ... " 
 
 Vitruvius (de Archit. n. 6), in speaking of cements and 
 mortar, says that this region and JEtna are the two whence is 
 obtained suitable pumice, or volcanic ashes, for mixing with lime. 
 He quotes the presence of hot springs as evidence of their volcanic 
 origin. 
 
 From Metaphrastes,|| a ^ Q Byzantine writer, we learn that the 
 district was called Decapolis, and he speaks of it as having been 
 burned with fire. 
 
 * Strabo, xm, 4, 11. 
 
 t The Stadion was about one eighth of an English mile. As Hamilton says, 
 Strabo has evidently overrated the extent of the district, its real length being 
 about 18 miles, and its breadth 7 or 8. 
 
 $ Pliny (N. H. xiv. 75) mentions this wine. 
 
 The modern Turks recognize the igneous origin of these lava beds in their 
 name for them, Janyk Tosh = Burnt Rock. 
 
 JActn, Pionii, in Acta Sanctorum, Febr. 1, p. 43. "Vos Decapolini, 
 Lydise regionem, igne combustam, videtis." Cf. Ramsay, op. cit. pp 123, 132, 
 432.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 7 
 
 None of these writers speak of volcanic eruptions as taking 
 place in their day, though Strabo evidently thinks that such 
 eruptions have produced the three principal volcanoes. He speaks 
 in another place of Philadelphia as being "full of earthquakes," 
 so much so that walls were overthrown, great damage done, and 
 few of the inhabitants lived in the city. We may, however, take 
 it for granted that there has been no eruption in historical times, 
 though the history of Asia Minor is so imperfect that the record 
 of such an occurrence may not have come down to us. With the 
 exception of a few hot springs, to be mentioned later, there are 
 no indications of volcanic action going on at present, and I could 
 hear of no traditions to the effect of an eruption having been seen 
 by the present inhabitants or their ancestors. 
 
 Modern Descriptions. The chief modern writers who have de- 
 scribed the region from a geological point of view are W. J. Hamil- 
 ton,* H. E. Strickland.f P. de Tchihatcheff,J and C. Texier. The 
 two former in 1836, and the first alone in 1837, travelled across the 
 region and described it. The third, some years later, also visited 
 it, but chiefly confines himself to quoting the other two and con- 
 firming their observations. Texier's account is also based chiefly 
 on Hamilton's work, and partially on a personal visit to the Kula 
 Basin. The western portion he describes by hearsay. It is read- 
 able but short, and, as he was not a geologist, at fault in some 
 particulars. As the two earlier writers give a very good idea of the 
 plan and structure of the region, we cannot do better than make a 
 few quotations from their joint paper: 
 
 "The tertiary deposits in this basin of the Katakekaumene 
 consist of horizontal beds of white limestone passing downwards (in 
 the northern part of the basin) into volcanic tufa. The limestones 
 have b.een deeply denuded by the Hermus (Gediz Cha'i) and its 
 tributaries, and now form a series of lofty plateaux. . . . 
 
 " The Catacecaumene is described . . . as a tertiary lacustrine 
 basin, surrounded by hills of schistose rocks. It is drained by 
 
 * Hamilton, Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia. London, 
 1842. I. 136-140 and n. 130-150. 
 
 f Hamilton and Strickland, On the Geology of the Western Part of Asia 
 Minor. Trans. Geol. Soc., 3d Ser., vi. 81. 
 
 $ Tchihatcheff, Asie Mineure. Pt. IV. Geologic. Paris, 1867. i. 7. 
 211 ff. 
 
 Texier, Asie Mineure. Paris, 1882. pp. 272-275.
 
 8 THE VOLCANOES OF TUB KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 the Hermus, which escapes at Adala through a narrow gorge in the 
 schistose formation, the closing of which to a sufficient height 
 would again convert the upper country into a lake. Numerous 
 volcanic eruptions have taken place among the older rocks, which 
 formed the southern margin of the basin; and streams of lava, 
 flowing from these foci, have overspread the lacustrine deposits. 
 
 " The outbursts of volcanic matter appear to be referable to 
 three great periods. How long may have been their duration, or 
 how long the interval of repose between each, is buried in the tomb 
 of time. All that we can now assert is that long intervals must 
 have passed between each eruption ; and that the latest eruption 
 occurred antecedently to the commencement of traditional or au- 
 thentic history. 
 
 ' ' The oldest series of eruptions took place at a time when the 
 bed of the lake presented a nearly level and unbroken surface, and 
 before the first commencement of the excavation of the present 
 valleys ; for the basaltic rocks of that period invariably form the 
 capping of the vast horizontal plateaux of tertiary lacustrine lime- 
 stone. . . . The eruptions of the second period were subsequent 
 to the drainage of the lake, and to the excavation of deep valleys 
 in the lacustrine deposits. Those of the third period are still more 
 recent, and are distinguished by their entire identity of character 
 with volcanoes now in action." 
 
 As I did not visit any of the first-period basalt sheets, and have 
 no specimens, we will here omit their description. To continue the 
 quotation : 
 
 "To the second period of volcanic action we refer the numer- 
 ous conical hills of scoriae and ashes which cover the schistose 
 ridges on the south of the lacustrine formation. The range of 
 mica schist and marble, which runs from east to west on the south 
 of Koola, sends off three nearly parallel ridges towards the north, 
 and may therefore be compared to the letter E. The volcanic cones 
 of the second period are scattered along this principal ridge and its 
 three lateral branches,* and many streams of lava may be traced 
 flowing from them, and descending the valleys of denudation in the 
 lacustrine formation towards the Hermus. 
 
 * There are, as seen on the map, a number of exceptions to this rule, where 
 second-period cones have been formed in the basin between the schistose 
 ridges.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA 9 
 
 " The volcanic products of this period are distinguished by the 
 smoothness of their outlines, and by the vegetation which clothes 
 their surfaces. The cones of scoriae are all low and flat, rising at 
 an angle of about 20 ; their craters have either disappeared, or are 
 marked only by small central depressions, and all their asperities 
 seem to have been smoothed down by time. The scoriae which 
 form them are sufficiently decomposed to admit of cultivation, and 
 they are almost invariably covered with vineyards, producing the 
 Catacecaumene wine, celebrated from the time of Strabo to the 
 present day. The streams of lava which have flowed from them are 
 level on the surface and covered with turf. 
 
 ''The volcanic cones of both the second and third periods have 
 been poured forth since the excavation of the valleys in the lacus- 
 trine formation ; but their diversity, in point of age, is marked no 
 less by their order of superposition than by the great difference in 
 their state of preservation. The cones of the third period have all 
 the features of volcanoes now in action. They rise at an angle of 
 30 or 32, and the ashes and scoriae which compose them are so 
 loose as to render the ascent laborious. A few straggling shrubs 
 and plants are the only vegetation they produce ; and the lava 
 which lias flowed from them is as rugged and barren as the latest 
 product of zEtna or Vesuvius. 
 
 " The volcanoes of this third period are only three in number,* 
 and are nearly equal in size. They stand in a nearly straight line 
 from W. by N. to E. by S., and at a distance of about six miles 
 from each other. It is remarkable that each of them rises in the 
 centre of one of the small alluvial plains which alternate with the 
 three schistose ridges before described, therein differing from the 
 cones of the second period, all of which stand upon, or near, those 
 ridges." 
 
 The above general description will give the reader a tolerably 
 clear idea of the whole district. The shortness of my stay pre- 
 vented me from doing more than studying partially the eastern- 
 most, or Kula, basin, with one trip to beyond the Gediz Chai on 
 the north, and another to Griilde on the northwest. Other hin- 
 drances were the difficult nature of the ground, want of a map, 
 and the great heat. , Some time was also spent in archaeological 
 investigations. 
 
 * The cone of Kara Tepe must be added to this number, and there are 
 
 perhaps others farther west.
 
 10 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 Tlie Kula Basin. A more particular description of the Kula 
 Basin may now be given, for which the accompanying sketch map 
 has been drawn.* Cf. Plate I. 
 
 The geological structure of this basin is seen in the section (Fig. 
 1) which runs from Hammamlar to the Konurja Mts. From this 
 it will be seen that the mountain range to the south of Kula, and 
 the rocks underlying the basin itself, are hornblende-schist and 
 mica-schist. The former forms the lower strata and constitutes 
 the greater part of the Konurja Mts. At Azi Koi the strata are 
 almost horizontal, but farther up the southern slope of the ridge 
 ,. (about an hour below the top of the pass) they dip 30 towards the 
 N.W. Near Kula we find mica-schist overlying this in almost 
 horizontal strata, with here and there veins of marble, f This 
 marble is often very white, and can be quarried in large masses, 
 
 ^-HORNBLENDE SCH1STES3-M1CA SCHIST O-UMESTONE^-PPfR.BWALTE]3'*'PtRBASALT i=S'PER.BA5ALT 
 FIG. 1. 
 
 supplying the material for the buildings of the ancient towns of 
 the district, and whose remains we now meet with in some 
 quantity. 
 
 What the age of these crystalline schists is it is, at present, al- 
 most impossible to say. Hamilton and Strickland think they are 
 pre-cretaceous, and "provisionally " refer them " to the primary or 
 transition epoch." Tchihatcheff J also " provisionally " places 
 the mica-schists and allied rocks of Asia Minor in the Devonian or 
 Carboniferous Period. From their geographical proximity and 
 similarity of characteristics, it is possible that they belong to the 
 same age as the great schistose formations of Greece. This, how- 
 ever, is uncertain and we must leave the queston an open one. 
 
 * Hamilton and Strickland (loc. cit.) give a map of the whole district with 
 some sections, which, however, does not seem to be very accurate. The pres- 
 ent map, also, does not pretend to any great accuracy. It has been compiled 
 partly from Hamilton's map and partly from my own notes. Lack of time 
 did not allow of my making a survey. 
 
 fCf. Tchihutcheff, op. cit. p. 544. 
 
 \ Op. cit. p. 476.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 11 
 
 The limestone through which the basalt of the first period 
 poured is called tertiary by Hamilton and Strickland, and there 
 seems no reason for doubting the correctness of this opinion, 
 though no fossils were found in it. That the third and second 
 periods of eruption were post-tertiary there is no doubt whatever, 
 to judge from their fresh state of preservation. While the form of 
 the second-period cones is somewhat degraded, yet the outlines of 
 many of them are still sharp and their craters very distinct, while 
 the third-period cones have apparently suffered hardly at all from 
 atmospheric action. Hamilton and Strickland seem inclined to ac- 
 count for the more denuded state of the second-period cones by 
 supposing them to have been formed by a subaqueous eruption. 
 But they themselves admit the difficulties of this view, and it 
 seems hardly worth while to dwell upon it. The limits and aims 
 of the present paper do not admit of further remarks on the general 
 geology of the region, and we can now turn to the volcanic cones 
 and their lava streams. 
 
 Second-Period Cones. The second - period cones of the Kula 
 Basin are as follows : Southeast of Kula Devlit (the principal third- 
 period volcano of the basin), and joined to it by a ridge of lava, is 
 the large, breached, crater cone of Piresik Devlit,* about 150 m. 
 high, with its open side to the southwest, from which has flowed a 
 lava stream, now covered by the Kula Devlit outpours. This pre- 
 sents all the characteristics of second-period cones mentioned by 
 Hamilton. The outer slope is at an angle of 20-34, and the inner 
 slopes of the crater are planted in vines. To the southeast stretch 
 a line of three small cones, Yele Tepeler (Hills of the Horse's 
 Mane), and to the northeast are also two small cones spoken of 
 later. About three kilometres to the east is Gol Dag (Lake 
 Mountain), a large unbreached crater cone, and beyond this 
 another second-period cone. Two and a half kilometres to the 
 north-northwest of Kula Devlit rises the cone of Boz Tepe (Ice 
 Hill), breached on the south, and sending a stream of lava around 
 itself to the north. Some other second-period cones are shown in 
 the map, but the only remaining one of present interest is Ai 
 Tepesi (Moon Hill), situated on the schistose ridge running north 
 and south, northwest of Kula and south of Guide. This volcano 
 has sent a stream of lava about three kilometres to the southeast, 
 
 * Shown in Plate II, 1, to the right of Kula Devlit.
 
 12 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 its end being near a spring of cold, clear water, on the road to 
 Menne. 
 
 TJiird-Period Cones. But the chief feature of the landscape and 
 main point of interest of the Kula Basin is the volcano (cf. PI. II, 
 Fig. 1) called Kula Devlit * by the Turks and Kai'meni Devlit by the 
 Greeks. f This cone has a height of 165 metres above the plain below, 
 or 885 J above sea-level. Its sides slope at an angle of 30 30.' The 
 ascent, owing to the lapilli and scoriae with which it is covered, is 
 very fatiguing, but the summit once gained we get a splendid and 
 striking view over the whole of the Kula Basin. To the north our 
 range is bounded by the Demirji Dag, with glimpses of the Gediz 
 Cha'i flowing from the northeast, to the east the hills that shut out 
 the view of Ushak, on the south the Kouurja Dag, which we 
 crossed coming from Ala Shehir, and to the west a low ridge 
 studded with second-period cones, and with Kara Devlit showing 
 beyond it. At our feet lies a field of black lava stretching to the 
 Gediz on the north, with.the second-period cones already described, 
 and beyond its borders the green cultivated fields of the alluvial 
 deposits, forming a striking and wonderful contrast to the barren 
 blackness of the lava, and which I can only compare for sharpness 
 of contrast with the view of the Nile Valley from the cliff at 
 Assiut, or the top of the Great Pyramid. Immediately to the 
 south lies the picturesque town of Kula, its white houses and nu- 
 merous minarets forming a very pretty picture against the black and 
 green background. To the northwest we get a glimpse of the vil- 
 lage of Giilde/and to the east lies Koros Koi. For picturesqueness 
 indeed some of the views about the Kula Basin surpass those that 
 I have seen in similar regions, the oriental features adding a char- 
 acter which is lacking elsewhere. The cone itself is almost bare of 
 vegetation, except for a few wild oats, a little grass, and some small 
 blue flowers on the southern rim of the crater, which is about ten 
 metres, wide, and on whose highest point is a small Greek chapel. 
 * , 
 
 Hamilton (op. cit.) calls this Kara Devlit. At the present day this is 
 the name of the coue near Menne. 
 
 t The word "devlit" means properly "state, government" (Redhouse, 
 Turk. Diet., . . p. 571). At Kula it seems to have the signification 
 of "mountain." The authors quoted all translate it ' ' inkstand," but for this 
 I could find no authority. Cf. v. Diest (Von Pergarnon . . . zum Poutus, 
 Peterm. Mitth. Erg.-Heft 94, p. 40), who likewise translates "inkstand." 
 
 J Hamilton makes it 867. Both determinations are barometric.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE* KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 13 
 
 The crater of Knla Devlit is some three hundred metres across, 
 oval in shape and double, a smaller and later crater occupying the 
 southwest corner of the larger, the ejections from which have 
 helped to raise the southern rim to its present greater height. The 
 larger crater wall is quite perfect except at the east side, where it 
 has been broken down by a comparatively early stream, the surface 
 of which is almost invisible owing to the accumulation of lapilli and 
 sand over it. The inner walls of the two craters, which slope at an 
 angle of 30, are composed of loose lapilli, with here and there 
 large masses of scoria and vesicular lava, in some of which were 
 found inclosures of rock brought up from below. The lapilli and 
 scoriae show few signs of decomposition, due doubtless to the fact 
 that the rain-water soaks rapidly through them owing to their 
 porous character. Probably owing to the same cause there are no 
 gullies affording natural sections where the structure of the crater 
 walls can be studied. There seems not much reason, however, for 
 doubting that the cone is entirely a cinder cone, with no lava-flows 
 in it except, perhaps, near the base. 
 
 The lava streams of Kula Devlit have all, as far as can be seen, 
 broken out beyond the flanks of the cone, with two exceptions, one 
 the older stream mentioned above, and the other a short ridge of 
 lava on the south flank, near Piresik Devlit. The main streams 
 form two large lava fields, one to the south and southwest, and the 
 other to the north and northeast, as shown on the map. 
 
 The former field is seen to belong to at least two distinct periods 
 of activity. To the first belong what may be called " knolls "; 
 rough and jagged bosses and hummocks of rock, of which over 
 thirty were counted to the southeast of Kula Devlit. These vary 
 form 3 to 20 m. high, above the later stream, and 15 to 60 m. broad 
 at their base. The later lava stream flows round them, leaving gen- 
 erally some space between. These " knolls " seem not to be cones 
 or domes, marking special local eruptions, but are apparently merely 
 masses of lava which have been heaped up in the course of flow of 
 the stream beneath. What cause produced such peculiar localiza- 
 tion of the crust and lava I cannot well say. In some cases they 
 seemed solid hills of lava, a few scoriaceous above, and more com- 
 pact below, but split by clefts and crevices, some of which are 20 m. 
 deep, and at the bottom of which are seen the bones of sheep, etc., 
 brought there by wolves and jackals. In the crevices and hollows 
 of these " knolls " grow some tufts of grass and flowers, and occa- 
 sionally a shrub or a wild fig-tree. Cf. PI. II, Fig. 2.
 
 14 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 The latest flow forms a nearly level * plain of black lava, whose 
 surface is extremely rough and jagged the "cindery" surface 
 characteristic of viscous streams f (one exception to this is noticed 
 later). A coating of dark-green moss has grown over this, making the 
 jagged edges still more slippery, and walking still more difficult. 
 Apart from this moss no vegetation whatever is seen on this field. 
 To the southeast the latest flow ends east of the northeast corner 
 of the town of Kula, but some " knolls" are to be seen projecting 
 above the alluvial deposit for some distance farther south. In 
 places also two streams can apparently be distinguished, one above 
 the other, the lower much more compact and with, in some in- 
 stances, a columnar structure. This columnar struture is also to 
 be seen in the lower part of the upper streams, in a few places. 
 The columns are 5-25 cm. thick and 25-40 cm. long, irregular in 
 shape, and radiating perpendicularly to the uneven surface. 
 
 The southwest stream of Kula Devlit, which, while petrographi- 
 cally apparently distinct/ yet shows no marked line of demarcation, 
 runs to within a few metres of the foot-hills of the mountain ridge, 
 leaving barely room enough for the road to Guide and Kavakly. 
 The stream shows fewer "knolls," and, if anything, is less scoria- 
 ceous than the southeast stream, but is not as deep the latter having 
 flowed into the channel of a small stream to the east of the site of 
 Kula, choking it up and giving rise to a small lake. 
 
 The largest stream of all is the north stream, which, starting 
 from the east^side of Kula Devlit, flows to the Gediz Chai', a dis- 
 tance of about 10 km. It is at first confined on the south by two 
 small second-period cones, and farther on it seems to have followed 
 a stream bed to the Gediz, which river it turned out of its course 
 to some extent, and now at its northern extremity forms a perpen- 
 dicular cliff of lava 10-20 m. high. The upper part is vesicular for 
 about two metres, the next six or seven are columnar, and the lower 
 part very compact and hard.J There seem to be some "knolls" 
 also in this lava field, but I went very little over its surface. This 
 stream seems to belong, on petrographical grounds, to the same 
 
 * The lava field at the base of Kula Devlit is 30 m. above the level at the 
 town, giving a slope of about 1.5 per cent. 
 
 f Cf. Geikie Text-book of Geology, 1893, 217. 
 \ Cf. Ham. and Strick., op. cit.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 15 
 
 period as the later southeast stream, and at the Gediz Bridge (so- 
 called Bogaz Kopriisii) there underlies it a second-period stream. 
 
 The only large third-period cone besides Kula Devlit is one about 
 1.6 km. W.N.W. of the latter, called Kara Tepe (Black Hill). 
 This is a scoria cone, 60 m. high, breached on the west side, and 
 showing a stream of lava which, after flowing a short distance west, 
 turns north, then northeast, and runs round a nameless breached 
 cone near Boz Tepe. This crater and lava stream represent by far 
 the youngest eruption of all, judging from its state of preservation. 
 The scoria is, as the name of the cone denotes, mostly black and 
 in a wonderfully fresh and undecomposed condition, the thinnest 
 threads and partition-walls being still fresh and whole. To the 
 east of Kara Tepe is a small west ward -flowing stream, with the 
 ''ropy" surface characteristic of rather fluid streams. As some of 
 the "knolls" show the same character and are similar to the lava 
 of this stream petrographically, this short stream may be assigned 
 to the "knoll" outflow of Kula Devlit. 
 
 To the north of Kula Devlit rise numerous small cones and 
 domes, 20-30 m. high, generally oblong, and many with their 
 long axes pointed toward Kula Devlit. These are covered with 
 scoriae and lapilli, and, as they are small and show no crater de- 
 pression, are held to be domes (Kupperi). They arise in a field of 
 older lava, smooth and covered with sand and lapilli, but belong 
 themselves to the third period, and perhaps to the latter part of it. 
 
 Alluvium, etc. The town of Kula lies at the north edge of a 
 small, fertile triangular plain, 690 m. above sea level. As shown 
 by a well-digging, spoken of later, the town is built chiefly on an 
 old second period stream, perhaps from Piresik Devlit, the north- 
 ern part of the town being on the edge of, and partly built on, the 
 southern Kula Devlit streams. On the east flows the small stream 
 of Kula Su, which starting as a brook in the Konurja Mountain, 
 runs northerly and empties into a marshy lake formed by the 
 damming of the brook by the southeast lava stream. 
 
 The alluvial deposit on this small plain is fertile but not very 
 deep. A similar plain lies between the north lava stream and the 
 easterly range of schist. 
 
 In the lava bed itself no springs are found, though at two or 
 three places one finds large jars kept filled with fresh water for the 
 benefit of the thirsty traveller a charitable custom of the Turks. 
 At the foot of the schistose mountains springs are quite common,
 
 16 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 furnishing clear, cold water. At Hamrnamlar (the Baths), about 
 12 kilometres north-northeast of Kula, are two hot sulphurous 
 springs, of which the hotter has a temperature of 58 C.* The 
 ruins show this to have been the site of an ancient town, though I 
 found no traces of the theatre Hamilton speaks of. About two 
 kilometres nearer Kula, on the right-hand bank of the Gediz (Jha'i, 
 a spring strongly charged with C0 2 and having a very faint taste 
 bubbles up. Hot springs and baths also exist at Ala Shehir. 
 
 PETROGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF ERUPTIVE ROCKS. 
 
 The rocks collected and examined consist of specimens from 
 outflows of the second and third periods, mica schist and horn- 
 blende schist from the Konurja Mountains to the south of Kula, 
 and one or two others to be described later. Of these, those from 
 the lava streams are the most important and interesting, and to 
 them we shall chiefly devote our attention. 
 
 Eruptive Rocks. The eruptive rocks of the Kula Basin pre- 
 sent many interesting features, some of which are common to all of 
 them, thus forming a very good example of what Vogelsaugf first 
 called " Geognostische Bezirke," and what JuddJ later called 
 " Petrographical Provinces." Iddings, in a recent paper, speaks 
 of this relation as "Consanguinity of Rocks," but without referring 
 to Vogelsang. A " petrographical province " is a district of any 
 extent where all the allied rocks possess certain features in com- 
 mon, of structure or chemical or mineralogical composition, etc., 
 which perhaps may not be readily defined, but which are character- 
 istic of the region, distinguishing the rocks of this district from 
 similar rocks of other districts. One can compare these " prov- 
 inces" to the various "schools" of painting or sculpture, and once 
 the characteristic features of the group have been grasped, one can 
 state with much certainty whether a given rock comes from that 
 district or not. The three authors quoted all give examples of this 
 
 * Hamilton, Researches, etc. n. p. 140. 
 
 t Vogelsang, "Ueber die Systematik der Gesteinslehre, etc." Zeit. d. 
 deutsch. geol. Gesell. 1872, p. 507. 
 
 t Judd, "On Tertiary Gabbros, etc., in Scotland and Ireland." Q. J. 
 Geol. Soc. 1886, p. 54. 
 
 J. P. Iddings, "Ou the Origin of Igneous Rocks." Bull. Phil. Soc. 
 Washington, 1892, p. 128 if.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LTDIA. 17 
 
 " consanguinity," of which Vogelsang's are the best and most nu- 
 merous, and the rocks under present consideration form another. 
 
 This will be spoken of again, but the whole subject is an im- 
 portant one, deserving of more study and attention than has 
 hitherto been given to it. 
 
 The Kula eruptive rocks are composed of plagioclase, augite, 
 hornblende, olivine, magnetite, and glass, some with leucite and 
 apatite, and a few secondary minerals; and are to be classed as 
 basalts, more exactly hornblende basalts. Further, they are to be 
 subdivided into hornblende-basalts proper and hornblende-leucite- 
 basanite. It was at first rather doubtful as to whether they were to 
 be called andesites or basalts, their generally andesitic structure and 
 the relatively small amount of olivine inclining one to the former 
 name. But finally their basic composition, as determined by chemi- 
 cal analysis, the character of the feldspar, the constancy of the 
 presence of olivine, the presence of leucite in some of the streams, 
 and the peculiar alteration of the hornblende, hitherto observed 
 only in basalts,* show that they really belong to the latter group. f 
 
 These basalts are all porphyritic, and may be further sub- 
 divided according to the structure of the groundmass into 
 
 (a) Those with a hypautomorphic, granular structure, con- 
 
 taining glass, which we may call " normal " basalts. 
 
 (b) Those with a true hyalopilitic structure. 
 
 (c) Very glassy forms, or semi-vitreous basalts. 
 
 (d) Tachylytes, almost pure glass. 
 
 To the first belong all the second-period lavas examined, while 
 the third-period flows belong entirely to the last three groups. It 
 must be remarked, however, that these groups shade into one 
 another, and no very sharp line can be drawn between them. 
 
 But before taking up the rocks themselves the component 
 minerals mav be described. 
 
 * Kiicb (Petrographie d, Rep. Colombia in Reiss u. Stlibel. Reisen in Sud- 
 amerika, Berlin, 1892), having examined 600 slides, and Belowsky (Petrog. 
 Rep. Ecuador in ditto), with 250 slides, chiefly of hornblende-bearing audesites, 
 did not once observe this alteration. 
 
 t C. Vogelsang (Trachyte u. Basalte d. Eifel, Z. d. d. geol. Gesell. 
 XLII. 1, 1890), in describing the hornblende-basalt of Briukenkopfehen, re- 
 marks that, owing to the great deficiency in olivine and some of its microscopic 
 characters, it has an andesitic character. Cf . Zirkel, Basaltgcsteine, 117.
 
 18 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 COMPONENT MINERALS. 
 
 Feldspar. The feldspar of these basalts seems to be constantly 
 a plagioclase, but its quantity is relatively so small and the crystals 
 so minute that it was impossible to effect a separation of any of 
 it for separate analysis. The result of an optical examination 
 shows, however, that it belongs towards the anorthite end of the 
 series. It occurs in two distinct forms ; either xenomorphic, or 
 in well-formed automorphic * crystals. The first is seen only in 
 the first sub-group mentioned above, the normal basalts, where it 
 forms part of the groundmass, in leptomorphic grains, together 
 with colorless glass. In this form few of the sections show 
 twinning lamellae, and it is possible that some of this feldspar 
 may be orthoclase, though the small percentage of K 2 present 
 makes it very doubtful. 
 
 The second mode of occurrence is much more frequent, the 
 feldspar here being in' small laths and long crystals. These are 
 present in the groundmass of all the basalts, even in those of the 
 first group, though in one or two of the tachylytes and semi- 
 vitreous basalts they are so sparingly present as to be almost 
 unnoticed. In these last cases it seems that the whole mass 
 solidified before the feldspar, which is one of the last of the 
 minerals to separate out, had crystallized. These small crystals 
 are colorless and clear, and twinning lamellae are very common. 
 Some twinned lamellae giving almost symmetrical extinction were 
 measured, the best giving angles of 31 10' and 29 45', which 
 corresponds to a bytownite. In size they vary from 0.01-0.10 mm. 
 in length, and often show a fluidal arrangement, together with 
 the augite microlites, with which, on account of their small size, 
 they are readily confounded. 
 
 Augite. The augite is present in a relatively very small 
 quantity for a basalt. 
 
 Megascopically it is seen occasionally as crystals from 1 to 
 3 mm. long, of a clear greenish-yellow color, only to : be distin- 
 guished by the eye from olivine by the perfect cleavage. 
 
 * The terms automorphic arid xenomorphic are used throughout this paper 
 Instead of Rosenbusch's terms idiom&rphic and allotriomorphic, both on the 
 ground of priority, they having been used by Rohrbach in 1886 (Miri. pet. 
 Mitth. vn. 1886, p. 88), and because they are shorter and etyuiologicallv more 
 correct.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 19 
 
 Microscopically the largest augites are colorless, or nearly so, 
 of a very pale fawn-gray color, and are generally fragments, 
 presenting both well-developed crystallographic planes and broken 
 edges. The cleavage is not well developed. 
 
 Those of a smaller size are well-formed crystals, from 0.1- 
 0.4 mm. long, generally elongated parallel to the 6 axis, but quite 
 stout in proportion to their length. The planes observed were 
 a(100), 5(010), w(110), w(lll), s(lll), p(lOl).* They are either 
 colorless or of the very pale brown color mentioned above, and 
 show no pleochroism. Occasionally crystals were seen with an 
 irregular inner core of a pale greenish gray, which is pleochroic as' 
 follows : c = dark greenish gray, b and a light greenish gray, 
 c>b>tt. The extinction angle of this greenish core is about the 
 same as that of the colorless border, in 'some cases a few degrees 
 more. The angle of extinction of the colorless augite varies 
 from 26 to 43, most of the measurements lying between 37 
 and 39. 
 
 The augite is always clear and does not show the prismatic 
 cleavage very distinctly, as a rule. Inclusions are not very common, 
 and are generally either clear, mostly brown, glass, or groundmass. 
 Some crystals were seen with a core of groundmass, of the shape 
 of the surrounding crystal. Hornblende is occasionally included, 
 and magnetite is very rare. It was noticed that in some crystals 
 in which the plane s(lll) was present, small -opaque black grains 
 were included, forming a narrow line parallel, and close, to this 
 plane alone, none of them being present m the rest of the crystal. 
 
 Twins are not common, and are almost all to be referred to the 
 usual twinning plane, a(100). Some "augite stars" and groups 
 of crystals, apparently twinned about the planes y(101) and 
 W(I2'2), were seen, and one large augite crystal had two thin 
 twinning lamellae at an angle of 27 with the cleavage cracks, 
 the twinning plane being perhaps TF(122).f ' 
 
 In many of the more glassy varieties, especially in some of the 
 semi-vitreous basalts, the augite showed the well-known "hour- 
 glass " structure,}; in some cases with interesting modifications, two 
 
 * The crystallographic positions, symbols, and lettering adopted throughout 
 this paper are those given iu Dana's Mineralogy, 6th Ed. 1892. 
 
 t Cf. Rosenbuseh, 11. 662. 
 
 tThis was first observed by v. Werveke (Beitrag zur Kenutuiss der Lim- 
 burgite. Neues Jahrb. 1879, p. 488). Descriptions are also given later by Ver*
 
 20 THE VOLCANOES OF THK KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 of which are here shown. In the one (Plate III, Fig. 3) the section 
 parallel to 6(010) shows under crossed nicols a division into five parts, 
 i.e., four border trapezoids and a central rhomboid. These do not 
 extinguish alike, the end divisions extinguishing in one direction at 
 an angle of 42 10', while the central and side divisions extinguish 
 at just about the same angle, but in an opposite direction. The 
 central and side parts do not, however, extinguish precisely to- 
 gether, there being a barely perceptible difference, and the effect of 
 the whole is to give the augite section the appearance of a low, 
 truncated, rhombic pyramid. A rather more complicated, but 
 analogous, form is shown in Fig. 4. Dannenberg observed the 
 same structure in nepheline basalt from the Leilenkopf, near the 
 Laacher See, and gives a figure, but his observed extinction angles 
 differ materially from mine. In fact none of the recorded observa- 
 tions agree in this respect among each other, as is to be expected 
 from the mode of formation of the structure. Besides these regular 
 structures, augite crystals were seen built up of many, most irregu- 
 larly-shaped, segments, which have straight edges and are sharply 
 defined under crossed nicols, but most unsymmetrically arranged. 
 
 A regular zonal structure is also frequent, the outer zones having, 
 as a rule, a larger extinction angle than the inner. The zones are 
 often sharply distinguished from each other, in other cases not so, 
 the darkness sweeping without a break, like a wave, from, the centre 
 to the circumference. 
 
 The last-formed augite consists of very small microlitic crystals, 
 their length being from four to ten times their thickness. They 
 are clear and generally colorless, but occasionally show a faint 
 greenish tinge. It was at times hard to distinguish them from 
 plagioclase laths, and some of the microlites which are grouped 
 under the head of augite are almost certainly to be referred to 
 apatite, judging from the amount of P a O, found in the basalt. 
 These microlites are thickly scattered through the basis of color- 
 less or brown glass, and give to many of the rocks their hyalopilitic 
 structure. 
 
 Hornblende. Of all the minerals composing the basalts of this 
 
 beck and Fennema (Neue geol. Entdeckungen auf Java. N. J. II., Beil.- 
 Bd., 1883, p. 21.2), Petzold (Basaltgesteine der Rbou. Inaug. Diss. Halle, 
 1883. p. 20). C. A. Mttller (Die Diabase aus dem liegenden des Osttbiiring- 
 iscben Unterdevons. Inaug. Diss. Gera, 1884, p. 21), Dannenberg (Der Leilen- 
 kopf, etc. Jabrb. d. k. preuss. geol. Landanstalt, 1891, p. 110).
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 21 
 
 reigon the hornblende offers the most interesting features and is 
 the most characteristic and most constant in its presence. Its con- 
 stancy, in fact, is perfect, it being present as the prominent con- 
 stituent in all the Kula basalts ; those of the earliest and those of 
 the latest streams, those with arid those without leucite, those with 
 much olivine and those with little, in the purely glassy tachylytes 
 as well as in the basalts of a normal structure. It is, in fact, the 
 stamp and seal of the Kula basalts. 
 
 Megascopically it is much more frequent and prominent than 
 either the augite or the olivine, and occurs as black phenocrysts, 
 from 2 to 4 mm. long, some few reaching a length of 6 to 8 mm. 
 The larger crystals have their surfaces pitted and corroded, and 
 the crystallographic planes present do not admit of even approxi- 
 mately exact measurement. The smaller crystals and needles are 
 very bright and fresh-looking. 
 
 Microscopically it is seen that the hornblende invariably occurs 
 as porphyritical crystals, never as a constituent of the groundmass. 
 It is, as a rule, well crystallized, showing combinations of the planes, 
 c(OOl), rt(100), 7n(110), and r(011), occasionally elongated parallel 
 to 6 l , but usually in stout, thick crystals. The long prisms reach 
 a length of 5-8 mm., and the short, stout crystals a length of 3-4 
 mm., but they commonly vary from 1-2 mm., and from this run 
 gradually down to 0.2 mm. Twins are not common and have the 
 usual twinning plane, (10Q). Some intergrown crystals may 
 represent other twinning laws, which, however, could not be. deter- 
 mined. 
 
 The cleavage is very well marked, though in some of the more 
 glassy rocks the cracks seem to be less easily developed in making 
 the slide than in the less glassy. 
 
 The color is generally yellowish brown, as is the case "with 
 basaltic hornblende, but some greenish-yellow individuals were 
 seen, often both present in the same slide. This green variety 
 shows a marked fondness for the more glassy rocks. Both varieties 
 are strongly pleochroic, the brown as follows : c = dark yellowish 
 brown, b = yellowish brown, a = very pale fawn-gray, with c > b 
 > a. The green variety shows the following pleochroism : c = 
 dark brownish green, b light greenish brown, a pale fawn-gray, the 
 absorption being the same as before. The extinction angle varies 
 from 4 to 14 30', in one case being as high as 23. 
 
 The hornblende crystals very commonly show a zonal arrange-
 
 22 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 . ment of color. , This is more frequent in the large crystals, the 
 small ones being generally of one (light) color. It is t also more 
 common in the more glassy rocks, though perhaps an explanation 
 of this is that in the less glassy the hornblende has undergone pro- 
 found alteration, thus obscuring the original structure. These 
 zonally built crystals show a dark core, and, surrounding this, a 
 light border, both being of the same color, but of different depths 
 of tint, as the zonal arrangement is seen in both the brown and the 
 green varieties. Occasionally the dark core is lighter towards the 
 centre, and very rarely the darker zone is the outer one. Only in 
 a few cases were four or five alternately dark and light zones 
 observed. While instances occur where the extinction angle is the 
 same in both zones, yet there is, as a rule, a small difference, gen- 
 erally from 3-5, in one case as much as 9 40', the extinction 
 angle of the dark zone being the greater. 
 
 This zonal structure of hornblende has been frequently ob- 
 served,* and appears to be analogous to the zonal development 
 of the triclinic feldspars, i.e., due to superposed growths of differ- 
 ent minerals of the same group. Oebbeke expresses the opinion 
 "that the border is not monoclinic, but triclinic." (According to 
 the figure he gives, it would seem that the inner dark core is 
 meant.) As far as my observations go, this seems not to be the 
 case, at least in the Kula basalts, as in sections parallel to a(100) 
 both zones extinguish parallel to the single system of cleavage 
 lines, and in horizontal sections the direction of extinction in both 
 exactly bisect the angles of the cleavage rhombus. One exception 
 must, however, be noted, where the lighter centre and outer border 
 extinguished parallel to the cleavage cracks, in a section parallel to 
 a(100), while the dark zone between has an extinction angle of 
 10. 30'. 
 
 An interesting feature is that the dark inner core frequently 
 shows a corroded outline, and then the outer edge of the surround- 
 ing light zone follows this line very exactly, the small curves and 
 irregularities of the inner line being often faithfully reproduced in 
 the outer, the result being a band of equal width around the dark 
 core. This proves that the dark hornblende was first formed and 
 
 * Of. Rosenbusch, op. cit. 3te Auf. i. 558 ; Hyland, Gesteine des Kilimand- 
 jaro, Miu. pet. Mitth. x. 243 ; Oebbeke, Beitrage z. Petrographie d. Philip- 
 pinen, etc., N. Jahrb. Beil.-Bd. I. 1881, p. 451 ; Rudolph, Petrographie d. 
 Amlen v. Peru u. Bolivia, Min. pet. Mitth. ix. 296.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 23 
 
 suffered corrosion, and at a later stage a hornblende containing less 
 iron was crystallized about this. 
 
 Inclusions are not very common, being chiefly glass, either 
 colorless or clear brown, or, more frequently, containing microlites, 
 like the glassy groundmass. These glass inclusions are frequently 
 arranged in a definite way, either parallel to the crystallographic 
 boundaries of the crystal, or in a similarly-shaped cluster or kernel 
 in the centre. One long crystal has a line of small brown glass in- 
 clusions down the central line. Here and there four or six-sided 
 sections are seen, which show a large similarly-shaped glass core, 
 occupying nearly the whole of the crystal space, and leaving only 
 a thin shell of hornblende around it. Augite is also a not infre- 
 quent inclusion in hornblende, this being much more often the 
 case than the converse. Magnetite is rarely seen as an inclusion in 
 hornblende, though as an alteration product it is very common, as 
 will be seen later. In one or two large hornblende crystals inclu- 
 sions of long colorless needles were seen, but their optical proper- 
 ties could not be determined, and no cross-sections were found. 
 They are probably apatite, being jnuch longer and larger than the 
 microlites of the groundmass. 
 
 There is no doubt that in the Kula basalts the hornblende is an 
 essential, original constituent, though in the case of some other 
 basalts this does not seem to be quite so certain. Here, however, 
 its constant presence much more constant than that of either the 
 olivine or the plagioclase its well crystallized form and uniform 
 method of alteration, and the inclusions of augite and ground- 
 mass, are all against any other interpretation of its presence. 
 
 Alteration of Hornblende. The changes undergone by the horn- 
 blende subsequent to its crystallization .fall under the three heads 
 of mechanical deformation, simple corrosion and magmatic altera- 
 tion. The first two may be passed over with a few words, but the 
 consideration of the latter will occupy more of our space. It may 
 be mentioned that decomposition due to atmospheric influences 
 was not noticed in the hornblende, and is not here spoken of. 
 
 Several distorted crystals were seen, and the larger crystals are 
 frequently broken, though this latter is not as common as is the 
 case with the augite and olivine. 
 
 Simple corrosion, or disappearance of part of the crystal 
 through magmatic resorption, is quite common, deep bays and 
 pockets being often formed, which are now filled with ground-
 
 24 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 mass. In all these cases of simple resorption a production of new- 
 formed substance has not taken place. This form of corrosion, 
 again, is not as common in the case of the hornblende as with the 
 olivine or augite. 
 
 Another change which may be ascribed to corrosion is what has 
 been called a " melted appearance " of the crystal, when the sharp 
 edges are rounded and the crystal reduced to an ellipsoidal or 
 approximately spherical shape. This " melted appearance " is al- 
 ways accompanied by profound alteration of the crystal, and will 
 be spoken of later in connection with the latter. The corrosion of 
 the inner dark core has been already referred to. 
 
 We now come to what is perhaps the most interesting and 
 characteristic feature, not only of the hornblende, but of the basalts 
 as a whole the magmatic alteration and alteration products of the 
 hornblende. These are of three kinds: 
 
 a. The change of the light-colored hornblende into a dark 
 reddish-brown, almost,. opaque variety, without any evident change 
 of form. 
 
 b. The formation of a border or mass of augite and opacitic 
 grains. 
 
 c. The formation of a reddish-brown mineral, occurring in long 
 so-called "club-shaped" (keulenformig) crystals, accompanied by 
 augite and opacite grains. 
 
 The first form of alteration may be dismissed with a few words. 
 It is seen almost exclusively in the scoriaceous specimens, and the 
 darkening takes place on the outer parts of the crystal or along 
 cracks. There is no change of form or separation (ausscheidung) 
 of other minerals, and the result seems to be identical with that 
 observed by other writers, and that produced by the action of 
 molten magmas on hornblende in some experiments.* 
 
 The second mode of alteration is very frequent in all eruptive 
 rocks, f and has been described by many writers, J so that it will 
 
 * Oebbeke, loc. cit. p. 474; Lagorio, Die Andesite des Kaukasus (Dorpat, 
 1878), p. 25; Becker, Ueber d. dunkleu Umraudung der Horubleuden, etc., 
 K Jahrb. 1883, n. 3; Belowsky, loc cit. p. 37. 
 
 f It is rare amoug the plutonic rocks, but common in Ilie volcanic rocks, 
 especially in tbe more basic of tbem, being frequent in the basalts and au- 
 desites, and almost unknown in tbe rbyolites. 
 
 JHyland, Gesteine d. Kilimandjaro (T. M. P. M., 1888, x. 240), gives an 
 almost complete list of tbe literature of this and tbe following form of altera- 
 tion. To this may be added tbe following:
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 25 
 
 not be described in detail here. (Cf. PL IV, Fig. 2.) Suffice it to 
 .say that the hornblende becomes changed into a mass of colorless 
 Augite and black opaque grains, in many cases accompanied by a 
 rounding of the sharp edges, but in the Kula basalts generally with 
 the preservation of its original form. The black grains, called pro- 
 visionally opacite, are commonly held to be magnetite, a view with 
 which Becker does not agree. I am inclined to think them at least 
 the greater part magnetite, on account of their exactly correspond- 
 ing appearance with the undoubted magnetite of the ground mass 
 The question is a hard one to settle definitely, owing to the great 
 difficulty of separating these minute particles from the containing 
 minerals. 
 
 That most of the colorless grains are augite * there is no doubt, 
 as they offer the same optical characters as the larger augite 
 crystals in the groundmass, and augite crystals included in the 
 hornblende, showing the same peculiar blue and yellowish polariza- 
 tion colors, and being often but not always orientated like the 
 hornblende. 
 
 There are also seen between the augite and opacite grains some 
 particles of a colorless mineral the nature of which is unde- 
 termined. Lenk, in the case of some Khone basalts, compares it to 
 nepheline, but shows that it cannot be that mineral. A similar oc- 
 currence in audesitic hornblende from Chapultepec he calls feld- 
 .spar, as does C. Vogelsang in hornblende - andesite from the 
 
 Roseubusch, Mikr. Pliys. 11. passim. 
 
 Streng, Ueber d. Hornblendediabas v. Graveneek. XXII. Ber. d. Oberh. 
 Ges. f. Nat. u. Heilk. p. 241. 
 
 Renard, Notice s. 1. Roches d. 1'isle de Kantavu. Bull. Acad. Roy. d. 
 Belg. (3) xr. No. 3. 
 
 Leak, Geol. Kenntn. d. sildl. Rhon. Verlmndl. d. phys.-medic. Gesell. z. 
 Wiirzburg, N. F. xxi, 1887. 
 
 Lenk, Geol.-petrog. Miltbeil. u. d. Vulle de Mexico. Habilit Schrift 
 {Leipzig, 1890), p. 17. 
 
 Reriard, Petrology of Oceau. Islands (London, 1889), 129. 
 
 C. Vogelsang, Tracbyte u. Basalte d. Eifel. Zeit. d. d. geol. Gesell. XLII. 
 1, 1890. p. 13. 
 
 Osnnu, Beitr. z. Kenntu. d. erupt. Gest. d. Cabo d. Gata. II. Zeit. d. d. 
 geol. Gesell. XLIII, 1891, p. 688. 
 
 Osanu, Basalt fr. Southern Texas. J. of Geol. i. 344. 
 
 Kiich, loc. cit. p. 55; Belowsky, loc. cit. p. 44; Herz (ditto,, p. 11G. 
 * Koto (Studies of some Japanese Rocks, Q. J. Geol. Soc. 1884, p. 439) was 
 the tirst to show that these grains were really augite.
 
 26 THP: VOLCANOES OF THE KU.LA BASIN IN LYIHA. 
 
 Kelberg, in the Eifel. Doss * also observed it, but expressed no 
 opinion as to its nature. It seems to me probable that it is feld- 
 spar, but I can give no definite proof one way or the other. 
 
 The third effect of alteration may be regarded in most cases as 
 a first stage of a process of which the formation of an augite-opacite 
 aggregate is the second and final one. The characteristic feature 
 of this alteration, which lias been previously observed several times, 
 is the presence of a reddish-brown mineral, occurring in long crys- 
 tals, sometimes thicker towards one end, whence the name " keu- 
 lenformig " (club-shaped) applied to them. (Cf. PI. IV, Fig. 1.) 
 Their terminations, while pointed, do not seem to be strictly crystal- 
 lographic, and the cross-sections observed were irregular in outline, 
 and as far as could be seen not bounded by crystallographic planes. 
 In length they vary from 0.16-0.05 mm. by 0.03-0.005 mm. thick. 
 Some appear to show cleavage parallel to the long axis. 
 
 In color they are reddish brown to greenish brown, and are 
 strongly pleochroic ; parallel to the long axis olive-green, and at 
 right angles to this light brown and dark red-brown respectively, 
 the last showing the greatest absorption, and the first the least. 
 They are thus shown to be biaxial, as is also indicated by the fact 
 that no isotropic sections were seen. The extinction appeared, in 
 every case, to be parallel to the long axis. In many cases the brown 
 individuals are so light in color, and so sharply developed and sep- 
 arate from each other, that I had excellent opportunities for ob- 
 servation. This is remarked, inasmuch as, in regard to the 
 extinction, my results differ from those of most other observers, as 
 will be seen later. 
 
 These crystals lie, not in an irregular and confused way, but 
 the majority of them arranged parallel Jto the 6 axis of the horn- 
 blende crystal, while others cross these at angles of about 60 in 
 either way, the measurements varying from 57 to 67. These ob- 
 liquely-lying crystals are generally found along the sides of the 
 hornblende crystal, those in the interior being mostly parallel to 
 the 6 axis. . In horizontal sections of hornblende crystals most of 
 the small crystals lie in planes parallel to the pinacoids and prisms 
 of the hornblende. Occasionally at the ends of large hornblende 
 crystals, seen in section parallel to 6, the brown crystals are 
 
 *Doss, Die bnsaltischen Laven, etc., der Hauran, etc. Min. pet. Mittlu 
 vn, 1886, 514.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 27 
 
 grouped in tufts, shaped like a half-opened fan, and spreading 
 towards the interior of the hornblende. The brown crystals at 
 the sides of the hornblende individual lie at angles of about 60 
 wsth the vertical edge. 
 
 Filling the interstices between the brown crystals are magnetite 
 and colorless augite grains, with a few grains of the undetermined 
 mineral spoken of above. The brown aggregate (which for the 
 sake of convenience we shall call this mixture of brown mineral, 
 augite and magnetite) is formed along the outer surfaces of the 
 original hornblende, and also on the sides of cracks, and on some 
 broken or corroded surfaces. In a few cases large fragments of 
 hornblende crystals show this alteration on the original planes, 
 while the fracture edge runs across both the fresh and the altered 
 substance. It seems to show a preference for the brown variety of 
 hornblende, and especially for the dark form of this. In many 
 cases the inner dark core is altered to brown aggregate, while the 
 outer light zone is unchanged, showing that the dark hornblende 
 was first altered and the lighter colored hornblende subsequently 
 deposited on the surface. 
 
 It is to be remarked that this alteration to brown aggregate has 
 taken place in nearly every case without marked change of the 
 original form or surfaces of the hornblende crystal, though in some 
 cases the altered hornblende has undergone corrosion, like the un- 
 altered, but not to as great aii extent. 
 
 It has been already stated that the two last-described alterations 
 are apparently separate stages of one process, and the following 
 facts may be adduced in favor of this view. The hornblende 
 crystals which have been altered to brown aggregate near the outer 
 surface or along cracks have the rest of their substance perfectly 
 unaltered. (PL IV, Fig. 1.) Sometimes the alteration has pro- 
 ceeded so far that only a small kernel of the original hornblende is 
 left, and again none remains, the whole of the hornblende being 
 altered. Very often an augite-opacite border is seen around the 
 brown aggregate, though it also happens, but more rarely, that the 
 augite-opacite border is present without the brown aggregate. In 
 the former case the hornblende crystal is made up of a kernel of 
 unaltered hornblende, around this a zone of brown aggregate, and 
 again outside this a ring of augite-opacite aggregate, with gener- 
 ally the line of demarcation between the last two very ill-defined. 
 This may be called the second stage, the third being where all the
 
 28 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 hornblende substance has disappeared, giving place to a core of 
 brown aggregate and an outer zone of augite-opacite. The last 
 stage is where the brown aggregate has entirely disappeared and 
 there remains of the hornblende nothing but a so-called " pseudo- 
 crystal " of augite-opacite aggregate, with or without change of 
 form. (PI. IV, Fig. 2.) 
 
 These last two stages are beautifully shown in the second- 
 period basalts, especially in that from a well-digging in the town of 
 Kula, to be spoken of later. It must, however, be remarked that 
 an alteration to brown aggregate seems to be not necessary to the 
 formation of the augite-opacite aggregate, but that the hornblende 
 itself is readily changed into the latter without the preliminary 
 formation of brown aggregate. This observation agrees with those 
 of other observers, and an explanation of it is given on a following 
 page. 
 
 The most striking fact in connection with these two alterations 
 is the perfect manner in which the original hornblende crystal 
 has as a rule preserved its form, notwithstanding the great 
 chemical changes it has undergone. Taking into consideration 
 the fact that the new product is granular and not compact, the 
 outlines are wonderfully sharp, allowing of quite exact measure- 
 ments of the angles presented by the sections. Doelter and 
 Hussak * mention the same fact in regard to hornblende which 
 was subjected to the action of a molten basaltic magma in two 
 of their experiments, and several instances of the same phenom- 
 enon in nature will be found in the literature on the subject. 
 
 There are, however, exceptions, chiefly in the last stage, and in 
 the second-period basalt. Here, as already mentioned, the altered 
 hornblende crystals are rounded and present an appearance which, 
 Sommerlad f graphically says, looks as if they had melted and run, 
 or, as Hylaud puts it, looks as if they had been "washed." These 
 rounded forms chiefly occur in the case of the smaller crystals, 
 and almost always when they have been completely altered to an 
 augite-opacite aggregate. Some cases were seen where the brown 
 aggregate has evidently been disintegrated and scattered through 
 the substance of the rock. In two cases a large augite (one with 
 
 * Doelter and Hussak, Ueber die Eiuwirkung geschmolzener Magmeu auf 
 verschiedene Mineralien. K Jahrb. 1884, i. p. 24. 
 
 f Sommerlad, jj.Ueber bornblendefilhrende Basaltgesteiue. N. Jahrb. II. 
 Beil.-Bd. 1886, 141.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 29 
 
 an accompanying olivine crystal) had surrounding part of it (and 
 of the olivine) a " mantle " or fluid ally arranged covering of brown 
 aggregate, and in other cases particles of brown aggregate are 
 scattered as inclusions through large clear augite crystals. In one 
 or two instances inclusions of well-shaped hornblende crystals 
 altered to brown aggregate were seen in augite crystals. All these 
 cases are exceptional, but taken together seem to show that the 
 augite was formed at about the same time that the alteration of the 
 hornblende was taking place, in the first cases the augite having 
 evidently been formed before or at the same time, and in the 
 others subsequently. It must be also noted that no instance 
 was seen of an augite inclosing hornblende altered to augite-opacite. 
 
 The Kula basalts are all very glassy, yet it was observed to be 
 the rule that the more glassy the rock the less the alteration, the 
 last stages being reached only in the least glassy varieties. This 
 fact has also been observed by many writers, including Rosenbusch, 
 Hyland, Lenk, Petzold, and Kiich. 
 
 To return to the brown aggregate stage of alteration, there is 
 given in a note * the literature on the subject so far as the writer's 
 knowledge of it extends. From an examination of this it will 
 seen that, first observed by Zirkel in 1870 in the basalt of the 
 Niirburg in the Eifel, it has subsequently been found in basalts of 
 
 * Zirkel, Basal tgesteine, p. 26. 
 
 Rosenbusch, Mik. Phys. 8te Aufl. i. 560. 
 
 M5bl, Die Basalte u. Phonolithe Sachsens(1873), p. 130. 
 
 Van Werveke, Beitr. z. Kenntn. d. Gesteine d. Insel Palma. Neues 
 Jahrb. 1879, p. 825. 
 
 Backing, Jahrb. d. geol. Landesanstalt, 1880, p. 160. 
 
 Sommerlad, Ueber hornblendeftihrende Basalte. Neues Jahrb. 1882, n. 
 Beil.-Bd. p. 150. 
 
 Petzold, Basaltgesteine der RhOn. Inaug. Diss. Halle, 1888. p. 26. 
 
 Doss, Die basaltische Laven und Tuffe der Haurfin. Min. pet. Mitth. vn, 
 1886, p. 515. 
 
 Lenk, Zur geol. Kenntn. der sudl.-RhOn (Wurzburg, 1887), p. 79. 
 
 Hyland, Ueber die Gesteine des Kilimaudjaro. Min. petr. Mitth. x, 1888. 
 p. 238. 
 
 Hatch, On the Characters of Rocks collected in Madagascar. Q. J. Geol. 
 Soc. 1889, p. 349. 
 
 C. Vogelsang, Trachyte und Basalte der Elfel. Zeit. d. deutsch geoL 
 Gesell. XLII, 1890, p. 19. 
 
 Osann, Beitr. z. Kenntn. der. Gesteine des Cabo da Gata. II. Ditto, 
 1891, p. 688. 
 
 Zirkel, Lehrbuch d. Petrographie, 1893, i, 719.
 
 30 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 Saxony, Palma, the Khone, the Hauran in Syria, Kilimandjaro, 
 Madagascar, and Gabo.de Grata. All these hornblende .basalts 
 seem to have been poor in glass, and most of them to have con- 
 tained nepheline, as is usually the case in hornblende basalts, 
 though in the present instance none was found. The descriptions 
 of the brown mineral agree perfectly, except in one point, with 
 my own observations. Through the kindness of Prof. Dr. Zirkel 
 and Dr. Lenk, I was also able to examine slides of the basalts 
 from the Eifel, and the Spahler Berg and Sparbrod on the Ehon, 
 and establish the identity of these occurrences with my own. 
 The exception spoken of is the oblique extinction which almost all 
 the writers observed, varying from " parallel or little inclined " 
 (van Werveke) to maxima of 20 (Hyland) and 25 (Doss), the 
 usual extinction angle lying between 7 and 15. It is to be 
 noted that Doss (p. 515) observed in one or two specimens from 
 the Tell Sfech that the altered hornblende contained not only 
 small, dark-brown, club-shaped " hornblende " crystals, but also 
 small " rod-like," yellowish-red to yellow crystals which have par- 
 allel extinction and whose chemical nature is undetermined. 
 Similar contradictory statements are made in regard to the be- 
 havior of the brown crystals towards hydrochloric acid, some of 
 the authors stating that they are, others that they are not, acted on 
 by it. 
 
 The general opinion is that these "club-shaped" bodies are 
 also hornblende, though Petzold, Hyland, and Lenk are inclined to 
 doubt this, and leave the question an open one. The smallness of 
 the crystals, their intimate mixture with the other alteration prod- 
 ucts, and the consequent difficulty, nay, impossibility, of complete 
 separation, render a chemical analysis of the pure material out of 
 the question, and their nature must, to a large extent, at least as 
 far as the occurrences observed up to the present time are con- 
 cerned, be determined on other grounds than chemical ones. 
 
 All the non-chemical means of investigation seem to me to 
 point to the conclusion that these small reddish-brown crystals are 
 in reality hypersthene, and the reasons for this opinion are now 
 given. It must be premised that I do not regard the point as 
 proved and the question definitely settled, the arguments I am pro- 
 ceeding to bring up going to show the great probability of the 
 mineral being hypersthene, and not amounting to positive proof. 
 The result of an unsatisfactory chemical analysis will.be given 
 later.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LBYIA. 31 
 
 a. In the first place, the investigations of a number of ob- 
 servers * on melted hornblende show that on cooling (at least under 
 the laboratory conditions chosen) it cecrystallizes as augite. This 
 is the unanimous result of all their experiments, and no case is 
 known where hornblende recrystallized as hornblende. As Hyland 
 pertinently says, " One cannot well explain theoretically how this 
 tendency of melted hornblende to crystallize out as augite can be 
 overcome." The results of the above-cited experiments seem* to me 
 also a strong ground for doubting the hornblende nature of the 
 body in question, and for supposing it, on a priori grounds, to be- 
 long to the pyroxene group. 
 
 b. The pleochroism of the crystals agrees perfectly with that of 
 hyperstheue, which is givenf as o or a brownish red, b or b reddish 
 yellow, c or b green. Hyperstheue is usually elongated or prismatic 
 parallel to 6, and taking the long axis of our crystals as 6, we find 
 an absolutely identical pleochroism. Some of the crystals also show 
 a tendency to become tabular parallel to J(010), judging from the 
 pleochroism, which is quite frequent in hypersthene, but not the 
 usual habit. 
 
 c. The constant parallel extinction observed by me (cf. Van 
 Werveke, Doss, and Osann) points to a rhombic mineral, taken in 
 connection with the pleochroism, and strengthens the idea that we 
 have to do with hypersthene. 
 
 In contradistinction to my observations stands the almost unani- 
 mous testimony of the various observers that the mineral extin- 
 guishes obliquely. That this is a serious objection to the hypersthene 
 theory I must admit; yet it can, I think, be explained in two ways. 
 It must be remembered that in almost all the cases quoted the crys- 
 
 * Mitscherlich and Berthier, Pogg. Ann. 1831, xxn. 338. 
 
 G. Rose, ibid. 
 
 Fouque and Michel-Levy, Synth^se des Mineraux et des- Roches (Paris, 
 1882), pp. 61-78. 
 
 Becker, Dunkle Umraudungen der Horublenden. Neu. Jahrb. 1883, n. 8. 
 
 Doelter and Hussak, Einwirkuug geschuiolzeuer Magmeu. Ibid. 1884, 
 i. 24. 
 
 Becker. Schmelzversuche mit Pyroxnen und Ampuibolen, Zeit d. d. 
 geol. Ges. xxxvii. 1885, p. 10. 
 
 Cf. Ramnjelsberg, Mineralchemie . u. 394. 
 
 t Dana, Mineral. 6th ed. 1892, p. 349. Cf. Blaas, Jilngere Eruptivges- 
 tei'ne Persians (Min. pet. Mitth., in., 1880, p. 482), and Hatch, Gesteiue d. 
 Vulcan Gruppe von Areqiiipa (ibid., VH, 1886, 339).
 
 32 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LY1HA. 
 
 tals are spoken of as being "very dark/' or "almost opaque." and 
 " only allowing of optical examination in thin parts of the slide." 
 I conclude from this that the slides were relatively thick, especially 
 in the case of the earlier investigators, and so the oblique extinction 
 might have been caused by augite grains, unaltered hornblende, or 
 particles of feldspar, lying above or below the brown mineral. It 
 also seems possible that, unconsciously, a personal bias may have- 
 entered into the question; i.e., that the observers had the idea that 
 the mineral was hornblende, and thought they saw an oblique ex- 
 tinction when it was in reality parallel. The illusion would have 
 been heightened by the form of the crystals, which are often thicker 
 at one end than at the other. However this may be, I can only say 
 that, in my slides of the Kula basalts, the mineral was, in most cases, 
 light colored, large, and well formed enough to admit of exact opti- 
 cal examination; that only such crystals were relied on; that they 
 all extinguished parallel; and that this parallel extinction was ob- 
 served and noted while I still thought the mineral hornblende, and 
 before the idea of its be'ing hypersthene had occurred to rne. 
 
 d. It will be remembered that in sections parallel to b of the horn- 
 blende most of the crystals are arranged parallel to this, with others 
 crossing them at angles of 60, while in sections perpendicular to 
 the vertical axis the crystals are mostly perpendicular to the pina- 
 coids and prisms of the hornblende. On the supposition that these 
 crystals are hornblende in the latter case the arrangement can be ex- 
 plained as analogous to the network of rutile needles crossing at angles 
 of 60 in mica; but for the other case no such explanation, based 
 on the crystallographic properties of the host, can be given, the 
 only important angles in hornblende near 60 or 120 being that of 
 the prismatic cleavage, which would only affect the needles seen in 
 horizontal section. The only twinning planes so far known in 
 hornblende are a(WO) and c(OOi), the latter giving rise to twin- 
 ning lamellae. Therefore, as we cannot find the explanation in tho 
 original hornblende crystal, we must look for it in the mineral itself; 
 and here the hypersthene theory comes readily to our aid, and fur- 
 nishes us with a good explanation. We find, in fact, that the dome 
 (101) is a twinning plane of hypersthene, giving an angle between 
 the two 6 axes of 60 58', it being also a twinning plane of the allied 
 mineral enstatite. Becke* observed in andesite from southern 
 
 * Becke, Ueber Zwillingsverwachsungen Gesteinbildender Pyroxeneu und 
 Ampbibolen. Min. Pet. Mitth,, vn. p. 93.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 33 
 
 Bukowina hypersthene needles twinned in accordance witli this 
 law, producing stellate forms, and he compares them with angite 
 twins with the twinning plane W(122). 
 
 e. It has long been known that augite and hornblende tend to crys- 
 tallize (when together) in parallel position that is, with the 6 axes 
 and the ortho- and cliuo-pinacoids parallel. Hypersthene has been 
 o.bserved* as an inclusion in augite in parallel position, and hence 
 it can be inferred that it would also lie in parallel position in horn- 
 blende. This has, in fact, been observed by Hatch and Osann in 
 cases cited below, and by Lacroix. If now we consider our mineral 
 hypersthene, we find, by means of the pleochroism, that the crystals 
 lying with their long axes parallel to the hornblende 6 have mostly 
 their macro-pinacoids parallel to the brachy-pinacoids of the horn- 
 blende, as is also the case in the parallelism of pyroxene and horn- 
 blende. 
 
 /. The alteration of hornblende into hypersthene (along with 
 other minerals) has been already several times recorded. f Hatch 
 describes occurrences in andesites from the volcano Pichupichu near 
 Arequipa, where the hornblende has become altered to a mass of 
 feldspar, augite, hypersthene, and magnetite grains and crystals, 
 the augite and hypersthene being in parallel position. Rudolph's 
 and Lenk's examples are not as striking, while Osann refers the 
 rhombic pyroxene observed by him to bronzite. It must be re- 
 marked that in all these cases of rhombic pyroxene as an alteration 
 product of hornblende, it was also present in the rock proper. " 
 
 (f. On general chemical and mineralogical grounds it seems 
 unlikely that, after the alteration of part of the hornblende to 
 augite and magnetite, the rest of it should again crystallize as horn- 
 blende. 
 
 The above are my arguments in favor of the hypersthene hypothe- 
 sis. As previously remarked, they are not held to be entirely con- 
 clusive, but as indicating a great probability. The subject seems a 
 difficult one, but the difficulties have so far been chiefly those 
 offered by the unsatisfactory nature of the occurrences. With 
 
 * Bucca, Le Andesite dell' Isola di Lipnri. Boll. R. Com. Geol. d'ltalia, 
 Nos. 9 and 10, 1885, p. 286. Lacroix. Sur Quelques Roches d'Armenie. Bull. 
 Soc. Geol., 3d, xiv., 1891, p. 744. 
 
 f Rudolph, op. cit. p. 294 ; Hatch, Arequipa, pp. 352, 354 ; Lenk, Mexico, 
 p. 17 ; Osann, op. cit. p. 688.
 
 34 THE VOLCANOES OF TIIF KTTLA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 better material, which I hope to obtain, the question can undoubt- 
 edly be definitively settled. 
 
 In one of the hand specimens from the well-digging before referred 
 to was found a dark spot, some two or three centimetres in diame- 
 ter. On examination under the microscope this proved to be a 
 mass of brown aggregate, magnetite, and some large augite crystals, 
 with very little unaltered hornblende. It was thought that the 
 brown crystals could perhaps be separated, and material enough 
 obtained for chemical analysis, so the dark spot was reduced to a 
 coarse powder, and the groundmass separated by means of Thou- 
 let's solution. It was impossible thus to separate the brown mineral 
 from the augite, and the brown mineral, as well as the magnetite, 
 was attracted by the magnet. An attempt was therefore made to 
 separate the magnetite by digestion with warm dilute HC1. Con- 
 siderable iron was extracted, but it is to be feared that some of 
 the brown mineral was itself decomposed, and hence the analytical 
 results partially vitiated. However, an analysis of the resulting 
 material was made with the following result, the alkalies not hav- 
 ing been determined: 
 
 H 8 0(Ign.) 0.50 
 
 SiO, 49.00 
 
 Al a 3 - 7.78 
 
 Fe 2 s 7.62 
 
 FeO 2. 93 
 
 CaO 19.60 
 
 MgO 10.44 
 
 K a O,Na,0 _ 
 
 97.87 
 
 This result, it will be seen, is against the theory of hypersthene 
 being present in any considerable quantity. For, hypersthene being 
 a ferrous magnesium meta-silicate with a percentage of FeO, vary- 
 ing from 10.04 to 28.40 %* we would expect in the material 
 analyzed not only a much larger percentage of FeO than was found, 
 but also that the quantity of FeO present would be greater than 
 that of the Fe 2 3 . The very large percentage of CaO is striking, 
 and seems only explicable on the theory that a much larger quantity 
 
 * Dana, op. ell. p. 350. '
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 35 
 
 of augite was present than the microscopical examination seemed to 
 show. 
 
 It is remarkable that this analysis is almost identical with analy- 
 sis of augites from Kircheip and Naurod, and shows much resem- 
 blance to those of augites from the Vogelsberg and Greenwood 
 Furnace.* I am inclined to say that much of the iron was lost 
 through the treatment with HC1, though I must admit that this 
 would not necessarily alter the relative proportions of ferrous and 
 ferric iron, unless the ferrous iron present is more easily dissolved. 
 It is much to be deplored that the result obtained is so unsatis- 
 factory, but I hope on my next visit to Kula to obtain more 
 appropriate material. 
 
 Theories of Alteration. We are next confronted with the prob- 
 lem of the formation of this brown aggregate, and the augite- 
 opacite aggregate, which has engaged the attention of many 
 investigators, but which seems to be still in an unsettled and 
 unsatisfactory condition. While agreeing with Hyland and Som- 
 merlad as to the difficulty of the explanation, I think it worth 
 while to examine the question and to offer my quotum toward its 
 solution. 
 
 It must be remembered that we have two processes to consider, 
 or, what is perhaps more correct, two stages of one process. It is 
 true that in most cases of similar alteration of hornblende and 
 biotite the formation of brown aggregate has not been observed 
 (never in the case of biotite); but the evident close connection of 
 the two methods of alteration in the rocks under discussion makes 
 it seem probable that they are, at least partially, due to the same 
 cause or causes. It is possible that one of the causes to be brought 
 forward later may explain the difference in the two, but they will 
 at present be discusse^ together. 
 
 It may be well to state first, in compact form, the various phe- 
 nomena which must be explained by any theory proposed. The 
 brown hornblende seems much more subject to these alterations 
 than the green. The hornblende is generally, but not necessarily, 
 changed first to a brown aggregate, and next to an augite-opacite 
 aggregate; in the process some of the Fe a 3 being reduced to FeO. 
 This change takes place first near the surface of the crystal and 
 works inward, or else, especially in the case of the brown aggregate, 
 
 * Daua, op. tit. p. 360, Nos. 71, 72.
 
 36 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 along cracks, and here without contact with the surrounding rock 
 magma. The alteration, especially that to brown aggregate, often 
 occurs without any change of form in the hornblende crystal. A 
 layer of unaltered hornblende substance can be deposited on horn- 
 blende altered to brown aggregate, but it was not observed around 
 the augite-opacite. The augite-opacite alteration is seldom, and 
 the other never, met with in the plutonic or more acid volcanic 
 rocks, and both alterations seem to be more common the less glassy 
 the groundmass. The brown aggregate seems to have been formed 
 at a comparatively early period. 
 
 We shall first state the various theories and ideas that have been 
 advanced on the subject, as by a general view and comparison we 
 can more readily determine what is of value and what may be re- 
 jected. It must be stated that the theories attributing this altera- 
 tion to atmospheric action and decomposition, and the views that 
 the magnetite, etc., are inclusions, are not considered, as numerous 
 facts observed since their proposal have effectually disposed of 
 them. 
 
 Zirkel,*as the cause of the formation of the augite-opacite border,. 
 says "that the dark opacite border is the product of the caustic- 
 chemical action of the surrounding, still half-molten magma on the 
 already crystallized hornblende crystals." 
 
 Kosenbusch, describing the so-called pseudomorphs of mag- 
 netite after hornblende and biotite, says I : " Such pseudomorphs 
 appear to be conditional on resorption of the older porphyritical 
 crystals, which, in certain stages of development of the magma, are 
 not able to exist." In describing the dark border of biotite J he re- 
 marks that it is less developed the more glassy the groundmass, 
 " since here the solidification was completed before conditions 
 could enter which would endanger the existence of the biotite." 
 In another place he attributes the alteration to the action of the 
 magma during the eruption, there being at this period a great 
 change in the chemical constitution of the magma, " and loss of 
 water through sudden, or at least rapid, diminution of pressure, and 
 the consequent considerable increase of its acidity." 
 
 * Zirkel, Ueber die krystalliuischen Gesteiue langs des 40te Breitgrades 
 in Nordwest-Amerika. Ber. d. k. Sachs. Ges. d. Wiss. 1877. p. 197. 
 f Rosenbusch, op. cit. 8te Aufl. i. p. 285. 
 i Ditto, i. p. 583. 
 Ditto, 2te Auti. ir. p. 660.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 37 
 
 Sommerlad,* after remarking that an explanation seems hard 
 to find, goes on as follows: " Perhaps the original crystals were here 
 melted, either only on the borders, or else completely, and the 
 microlites were produced during quick cooling, and at the same time 
 particles of the groundmass penetrated between them." 
 
 Petzold f speaks thus: " Perhaps one can form the following 
 conception of their genesis [of the brown crystals] : The early crys- 
 tallized hornblende underwent the solvent action of the molten 
 magma, out of the solution there separated later augites, together 
 with feldspar and the brown, hornblende-like mineral. From a 
 chemical point of view there is nothing against this theory." 
 
 Siemiradzki J thinks that " hornblende is produced in the depths 
 in circumstances of strong saturation of the magma by superheated 
 steam, and great pressure, while augite separates at the surface on 
 cooling of the dry magma. The opacitic border of the hornblende 
 crystals arises through action of the dry (freed from the crystal- 
 forming H.,0 vapor) molten magma on the crystals floating in it, 
 while the augite is unacted on." 
 
 Lagorio says : " The cause of the corroding action of the 
 molten mass on the already crystallized ingredients is to be looked 
 for, primarily, in the changed chemical composition, which the still 
 fluid part undergoes through separation of successive generations 
 of ingredients. But this change is not yet, it appears, enough for 
 an effective assault on the already formed minerals. There is 
 necessary for this still another circumstance." This other circum- 
 stance he takes to be the heat developed through diminution of 
 volume on solidification, and he goes on : "This explains suffi- 
 ciently well the frequent occurrence of opaque borders, and other 
 corrosion appearances in crystals in rocks, in which, after separa- 
 tion of the primary ingredients, further crystallization took place." 
 
 Kiich, I after stating Zirkel's, Rosenbusch's, and Lagorio's views 
 on the subject, admits that a corrosive action of the magma has 
 undoubtedly taken place where the original contours of the horn- 
 
 * Sommerlad, op. cit. p. 150. 
 
 f Petzold, op. cit. p. 29. 
 
 | Siemiradzki, Geologiscbe Reiseiiotizen aus Ecuador. N. Jahrb. Beil.-Bd. 
 iv, 1886, 207. 
 
 Lagorio, Ueber die Natur der Glasbasis. Miu. pet. Mittb. vui, 1887, 
 462. 
 
 || Kiicb, op. cit. pp. 56. 57.
 
 38 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 blende are more or less changed. He contends, however, that in 
 the case of hornblende crystals which have preserved their original 
 forms, and also where a separation of magnetite grains has taken 
 place in the interior of the crystal, that no such corrosive action is 
 possible. His explanation is that the alteration is due to a " simple 
 action of heat." 
 
 Belowsky,* while admitting that Kiich's theory explains many 
 appearances, yet does not admit that it will explain all. " Accord- 
 ing to my opinion, the solvent and decomposing activity of the 
 molten magma is to be put in the first rank." 
 
 It is seen on examination of these various theories that all the 
 writers quoted, with the exceptions of Sommerlad, Petzold, Kuch r 
 and Belowsky, follow Zirkel in attributing the alteration to a cor- 
 rosive action of the molten magma, differing in details, and in their 
 explanations of the action. Exactly what sort of action this is sup- 
 posed to be is not clear, though most seem to imagine a chemical 
 reaction of some sort between the magma and the hornblende. 
 Rosenbusch and Lagorio introduce certain physical conditions a& 
 necessary the one diminution of pressure, the other a sudden rise 
 in the temperature on solidification, the latter being also invoked 
 by Sommerlad to account for the melting of the hornblende after 
 solidification. Petzold and Belowsky both suppose a solution of 
 the hornblende crystal by, and subsequent deposition of augite and 
 opacite from, the molten magma. Kiich, on the other hand, at- 
 tributes the change entirely to the simple influence of heat, without 
 fusion of the crystal. 
 
 Zirkel's explanation that the action of the molten magma i& 
 one of a " caustic-chemical " nature may stand as the general state- 
 ment of this class of explanations, though the phrase is rather a 
 vague one, and with no very definite meaning. 
 
 Lagorio rightly objects to Rosenbusch's theory that it is not clear 
 what " Umstande " are meant, but that probably the quicker cooling 
 in glassy rocks is thought of. He disproves this by an experiment 
 of plunging a biotjte crystal into a molten acid and alkali-rich magma, 
 and then allowing the mass to cool. The solid mass is perfectly 
 glassy, but the biotite crystal shows in the section an opacitic bor- 
 der, though the action of the molten magma was-almost momentary. 
 The high percentage of SiO, (in this case ca. 69$) would seem to 
 
 * Belowsky, op. cit. p. 45.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 39 
 
 favor Roseubusch's idea that the acidity of the basis has to do 
 with the corrosion. Against this it may be urged that the Kula 
 basalts are basic rocks with a percentage of silica of 47.5-48. We 
 learn from some analyses of basalt and their glass bases by 
 Lagorio* that the difference in acidity of a basic rock, poor in 
 alkalies, and its glass basis is practically nothing, in two cases the 
 glass being even slightly more basic than the basalt. It is there- 
 fore safe to assume that the glass basis of the Kula basalts and 
 hence the molten magma at all stages was a basic one, and yet we 
 have here the alteration extremely well marked and very constant. 
 An objection to Sommerlad's theory is that one would expect, in 
 accordance with his idea of quick cooling, to find the brown crys- 
 tals, and augite and opacite grains, as frequently in the very glassy 
 rocks as in the less glassy, which we know net to be the case. Pet- 
 zold remarks that this theory is forced, and justly says that if this 
 were the case one would expect to find the microlites, and so forth, 
 in the neighborhood of such altered hornblende crystals, which we 
 do not. This objection would also lie against Petzold's theory 
 itself, against which perhaps no chemical objection can be brought, 
 but grave physical ones. But it seems to me that the strongest 
 argument against these or similar theories involving a fusion or 
 solution of the hornblende crystal is the fact that so many cases 
 occur where the hornblende is altered in substance and yet not in 
 form. One cannot say that in the one case the alteration in sub- 
 stance is due to one cause and in the other case to another, as Kiich 
 seems to do, since the alteration product in both is identical, but we 
 can logically attribute the alteration of substance and alteration of 
 form to different causes. To me it is impossible to conceive of any 
 body preserving its sharp outlines if existing in a fluid or semi-fluid 
 state in a moving molten magma; and that the magma was in mo- 
 tion after (and hence during) the alteration is shown by the fluctu- 
 ation structure of the microlites about all the larger altered crys- 
 tals. That after the solidification of the surrounding magma the 
 hornblende could have become fused without losing its form ispos- 
 ble, but that such should happen before solidification of the magma 
 I hold is impossible. Belowsky exclaims, " Why should not the 
 sharp contours of the crystals be retained on a solution of the 
 hornblende and immediate separation of augite- and ore-grains ?" 
 
 * Lagorio, op. cit. p. 479.
 
 40 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYIHA. 
 
 But it seems to me much more proper to ask, Why should they be 
 retained ? Such an occurrence would run counter to all our experi- 
 ence. The idea also of immediate separation of augite and mag- 
 netite which he has to suppose, and which Sommerlad is also com- 
 pelled to bring in, seems decidedly forced, unnatural, and unneces- 
 sary. So I shall exclude from consideration as an explanation of 
 the alteration of substance any fusion or solution of the crystal, as 
 being not in accordance with the observed facts. The change of 
 form often seen, in some cases very profound and amounting to a 
 complete scattering of the altered crystal through the rock sub- 
 stance, is not necessarily due to fusion, but is much more probably 
 simple mechanical disintegration, the granular pseudomorph not 
 being as coherent as the unaltered crystal. 
 
 Siemiradzki's view that the hornblende was formed at a consid- 
 erable depth under conditions of great pressure and saturation of 
 the magma with superheated steam seems to me to have much 
 to recommend it. It js chiefly based on the fact that so far we have 
 been unable to produce hornblende under conditions of dry igne- 
 ous fusion, while augite is readily so produced.* I cannot, how- 
 ever, agree with him in regard to the period of formation of the 
 augite. In the Kula basalts the augite is frequently an inclusion 
 often in large crystals in the hornblende, this being much more 
 often the case than the converse. Indeed part of the augite 
 seems to have been formed at the same time as, if not before, the 
 hornblende, and the formation of the two apparently went on hand- 
 in-hand for some time, the formation of hornblende finally ceasing, 
 while that of the augite as rnicrolites still continued. It is per- 
 fectly possible that augite may be formed in a moist molten magma 
 as well as in a dry one. His explanation of the cause of the altera- 
 tion is a general one and, with the exception of the magma being 
 supposed dry, apparently identical with Zirkel's. An objection to 
 his theory that the alteration is dependent on the dryness of the 
 magma lies in the fact that steam is usually present in the lava 
 when it reaches the surface, and hence the magma is hardly ever in 
 his supposed waterless condition. This objection, however, lies 
 only against his explanation of the alteration, not of the formation, 
 of the hornblende, his view of the latter seeming to me to be a very 
 probable one. 
 
 *Cf. Fouque et Levy, Syuthese cles Miueruux et des Roches, p. 102.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 41 
 
 That Lagorio's " changed chemical constitution of the magma " 
 due to loss of some of the constituents as minerals crystallized out 
 is not always a necessary condition, seems to be shown by the fact 
 that zones of unaltered hornblende are seen around altered sub- 
 stance. The rise in temperature due to solidification which has 
 in fact been observed * may enter as a factor, and will be spoken of 
 again. 
 
 To sum up: Though the process under discussion is strictly a 
 chemical, or physico-chemical, alteration, yet, as crystallization of 
 the newly formed bodies takes place, it may, I think, be justly 
 assumed that factors of simple crystallization would also play a role 
 in the present process. 
 
 Michel-Levyf gives the three factors of temperature, pressure, 
 and mineralizing agents, as bringing about crystallization in molten 
 magmas. He further remarks that in basic rocks pressure and 
 mineralizing agents are of little importance, and the minerals we 
 can ascribe to them biotite and basaltic hornblende are rare in 
 basic magmas, and in the last phases of rock formation are often 
 absorbed and changed to augite and magnetite. 
 
 Iddings J in an able paper gives the following list, the factors 
 being arranged in the order of their importance : 
 " Cooling, and a certain amount of 
 Time, or the Rate of Cooling. 
 Chemical Composition of the magma. 
 Mineralizing Agents. 
 Pressure." 
 
 Some, or all, of these may enter into the problem, and I would 
 further propose two additional ones. 
 
 But we must now take up for consideration the two modes of 
 alteration separately, as the conditions of the formation of the two 
 aggregates produced are evidently not quite the same. We will first 
 consider the brown aggregate, as this is the first formed, and, to a 
 certain extent, leads to the other. 
 
 *"Scacchi, Palmieri, and Guariui observed this phenomenon during the 
 eruption of Vesuvius in 1855 in the lava of the Fossa della Vetrana. Cf. Roth, 
 Der Vesuv und die Umgegeud von Neapel. Berlin, 1857, pp. 293 and 304." 
 Note in Somuierlad, op. cit. p. 142. 
 
 f Michel-Levy, Structure et Classification des Roches eruptives. Paris, 
 1889. pp. 5 and 9. 
 
 t Iddiugs, On the Crystallization of Igneous Rocks. Bull. Phil. Soc. 
 Washington, xi. 1889, pp. 106, 113.
 
 42 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 For the formation of this (the brown aggregate) I would intro- 
 duce a factor, the effect of which seems, heretofore, to have been un- 
 recognized, namely, the chemical action of gas occluded, or otherwise 
 present, in the molten magma. Hydrogen is, of all gases, the most 
 easily occluded by a molten magma, and that it is abundant in the 
 gases given off during eruptions is well known. Its presence is un- 
 doubtedly due to the dissociation of water at the high temperature- 
 of the fluid lava. If we adopt Siemiradzki's theory we must sup- 
 pose that the crystallization of the hornblende started at' a consider- 
 able depth, when the lava was saturated with water vapor, due 
 to the ingress of water which started the eruption. As the lava as- 
 cends the conduit this water vapor becomes partially dissociated, the- 
 dissociation of steam taking place gradually, as shown by experi- 
 ments. Whether Siemiradzki's theory is correct or not, hornblende 
 is present (as shown by the broken and distorted crystals) in the- 
 moving mass of magma containing occluded hydrogen at a high 
 temperature. This hydrogen, occluded and hence in close molecu- 
 lar contact with the ingredients of the mass, would exert a power- 
 ful reducing action on the hornblende (which seems especially sub- 
 ject to certain forms of alteration), reducing the Fe 3 3 to FeO, 
 with the production of hypersthene, magnetite, and some augite. 
 The hydrogen, it will be observed, could penetrate crevices that the 
 molten magma would be unable to do, and so account lor the fre- 
 quent alteration we observe in such places. That this action should 
 take place only in basaltic rocks seems at first, perhaps, an objec- 
 tion. But when we remember that it is almost solely in these rocks 
 that brown hornblende occurs, that this variety is the only one that 
 contains Fe a 8 to a large extent, and that in the Kula basalts, as 
 well as in other instances, this is the only variety altered, the green 
 generally remaining unchanged, we have, I think, found the ex- 
 planation. It is only in these rocks that the hornblende contains 
 iron in a reducible condition. It would seem from this that it re- 
 quires the reduction of Fe a 3 to FeO, and not merely the presence 
 of FeO, for the formation of the brown (hypersthene) aggregate. 
 In this alteration it would seem that the chemical constitution of 
 the magma may be left out of account as a direct factor, it having, 
 of course, to do in the first place with the formation of a brown 
 hornblende rather than a green. However this may be, it is cer- 
 tain that a high temperature is necessary, not only for the dissoci- 
 ation of the water, but for the reducing action of the resultant
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 43 
 
 hydrogen. That pressure is necessary seems probable, but of this 
 we cannot be certain. It will have been noticed that for all this 
 process no fusion or solution of the hornblende is necessary, and 
 hence the crystal may retain its shape and sharp edges, as we find to 
 be the case. As the dissociation of water begins at a temperature 
 considerably above that of the melting-point of basalt, at a higher 
 point of the conduit much of the dissociated hydrogen and oxygen 
 would recombine, producing a moist magma, and hence, through 
 the absence of free hydrogen, preventing further alteration, and al- 
 lowing the production of fresh hornblende, which would either be 
 deposited on the already altered crystals, or else separate out as 
 smaller crystals. 
 
 The formation of an augite opacite aggregate is a different, and 
 perhaps a simpler, process. It must be borne in mind that, as 
 shown previously, it invariably takes place at a later stage than the 
 alteration into brown aggregate. 
 
 Of Iddings' list of factors given above we can safely eliminate 
 those of pressure and mineralizing agents, on the ground of La- 
 gorio's, Becker's, and Doelter and Hussak's experiments, which 
 show that hornblende can be altered to an augite-opacite aggregate 
 under ordinary atmospheric pressure, and in a dry magma, without 
 the presence of mineralizing agents. In this I am at one with 
 Michel r Lev3% though, as will have been gathered from foregoing 
 remarks, I cannot admit the resorption of hornblende, in this case. 
 
 It would perhaps seem reasonable to exclude also the chemical 
 constitution of the magma, since we find the same alteration tak- 
 ing place in acid and basic, and alkali-rich and alkali-poor, magmas. 
 Against this can be urged the undoubted fact that the alteration is 
 more frequent in the basic vulcanic rocks. Perhaps an explanation 
 similar to that brought forward for the same factor in the brown- 
 aggregate formation could be found, but at present it seems best to 
 retain this factor, though with some hesitation. 
 
 That a high temperature is necessary is certain, but that the rate 
 of cooling enters in is rather doubtful, since arguments can be 
 brought forward on both sides. However, on the ground, chiefly, 
 of the more frequent occurrence in the less glassy rocks, it must I 
 think be retained, though, like the preceding, with some hesitation. 
 
 Into this process I would also introduce a new factor, a molec- 
 ular change similar to that occurring in many bodies under certain 
 conditions, as the change of monoclinic to orthorhombic sulphur,
 
 44 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 and that of many organic compounds into isomers or polymers. I 
 suggest then that this alteration is due to a chemical action of the 
 magma the nature of which is not very clear on the hornblende 
 crystal, either unaltered or changed to brown aggregate, in the lat- 
 ter case the brown mineral (hypersthehe) alone being affected. 
 This obscure chemical action is aided, or perhaps superseded, by a 
 molecular change going on in the crystal itself due to a long-con- 
 tinued high, but gradually diminishing, temperature, or a slow rate 
 of cooling. This molecular change splits up the hornblende mole- 
 cule, the ferrous and ferric oxides present going chiefly to form 
 magnetite and the CaO and MgO forming (with a small pro- 
 portion of the iron) a colorless pyroxene, which is probably a 
 diopside. It seems probable that the composition of amphibole is 
 a more complicated one than that of pyroxene, and " Tschermak* 
 has shown reason for writing the amphibole formulas as double the 
 corresponding ones for pyroxene." It is also to be seen that the 
 formula of an aluminous hornblende containing Fe 2 3 is more 
 complicated than that'of a (probably) non-aluminous pyroxene con- 
 taining little or no iron. Hence the molecule is much more readily 
 split up, and subject to alteration under conditions which would 
 not affect the augite molecule. The same reasoning applies in the 
 case of the brown aggregate alteration. 
 
 The above explanation of what is, it must be confessed, a diffi- 
 cult subject is roughly given, and may not be completely satisfac- 
 tory. Still it seems to me to be fully as reasonable as, and more 
 definite than, any of the theories heretofore proposed, and gives an 
 explanation for all the observed phenomena. My time and space 
 do not permit me to go into the details of this last point, or to enter 
 into a longer discussion of the subject, but enough has, I think, 
 been said to make the theory clear, and the reader can follow out 
 its application at his leisure. 
 
 Olivine. One of the characteristic features of the Kula basalts 
 is the relatively small quantity of olivine present, which, while very 
 constant in its occurrence, forms but a very small proportion of the 
 component minerals. It is always, like the hornblende, porphy- 
 ritic. The largest oli vines vary from 0.5-3.0 mm. and are nearly 
 all fragmentary. The smaller. crystals vary from 0.05-0.4 mm. in 
 length by nearly the same in thickness, and are, in contradistinc- 
 
 * Tschermak, Miii. pet. Mittb. xxxvin, 1871. Cf . Dana, Miner, p. 388.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 45 
 
 tion to the larger, usually well formed. They show the planes 
 fl(100), 5(010), wi(110), rf(101), and (021). Frequent rect- 
 angular sections are seen, indicating the absence of prisms or 
 domes on many of the crystals. Though the largest oli vines are 
 bright greenish yellow as seen macroscopically, in sections they are 
 both colorless and are remarkable for their perfect clearness and 
 freedom from alteration. With the exception of two specimens 
 from A'i Tepesi, where the olivine is colored a clear reddish yellow 
 on the border, the olivine is without a trace of decomposition of 
 any sort. This freshness of appearance and the colorlessuess, taken 
 together with the imperfect way in which the augite shows its cleav- 
 age, rendered it a matter of great difficulty at times to distinguish 
 the two minerals. 
 
 Though the smaller olivines are, as a rule, well formed, yet here 
 and there peculiar forms due to irregularities of growth and devel- 
 opment, to which olivine is very prone, were seen, in some cases the 
 angles being developed more than the faces. What is probably due 
 to a similar cause is shown in PL III., Fig. 5, though it may be a 
 corrosion phenomenon. There we have a section parallel to a(100), 
 showing the brachypinacoid 6(010) and the dome (021). It is seen 
 that the angles are sharp, while piercing all the domes are holes 
 leading to shallow cavities filled with groundmass. The bottoms of 
 these cavities are not flat but convex, and their comparatively great 
 width and narrow mouth are very striking. A crystal similar to 
 these is seen in the sideromelan nucleus of a manganese nodule 
 from the bed of the South Pacific.* Another inclusion form 
 which seems to be a consequence of growth is shown in Fig. 6. 
 Here two large spots of clear brown glass are seen at each end of an 
 olivine crystal. This arrangement, which is quite often met with, 
 is probably due to the formation of a crystal forked at the two 
 ends, as is so common in olivine, the filling of the open spaces 
 with groundmass at that period apparently free from microlites 
 or magnetite and the subsequent growth of olivine substance be- 
 yond and around them, completing the crystal form, and isolating 
 the two masses of glass. In another case (Fig. 7) a hexagonal sec- 
 tion is seen with four bands of brown glass lying parallel to the 
 prisms, and in still another we have a lozenge-shaped section of 
 
 * Report of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Challenger": Deep-sea Deposits. 
 London, 1891. PI. XVI., Fig. 1.
 
 46 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 oliviue, about this a zone of ground mass, and about this again a 
 shell of olivine of the same shape as the core (Fig. 8). Inclusions 
 are, however, not very common and are mostly of brown glass or 
 groundmass, each crystal containing but one or two. They are oc- 
 casionally relatively large, and are also sometimes of the same shape 
 as the host. 
 
 Besides these glassy inclusions there were seen two olivine crys 
 tals containing peculiar trichite inclusions, such inclusions being, it 
 may be stated, of rare occurrence in basaltic hornblende. The first 
 is in a hyalopilitic basalt from one of the knolls, and is shown in 
 Fig. 9. Here there are two olivine crystals, one 1.2 X 0.4 mm. and 
 of rectangular outline, and another of about the same size, but 
 broken, adjoining it. In these are seen very fine, hair-like black 
 lines, which by the aid of high powers are resolved into rows of 
 extremely minute black grains, sometimes looking as if strung 
 along a fine black hair. In the larger crystal these margarites do 
 not lie irregularly, but' the majority of them are perfectly straight 
 and parallel to the long sides of the crystal, often curving about at 
 the ends so as to enclose an oblong space. In the broken crystal 
 they are mostly curved, and do not lie as regularly, but still are 
 generally in groups of individuals parallel to one another. At the 
 junction of the two crystals is a narrow black border on each, from 
 which many small trichites emanate. 
 
 The second case, occurring in the upper scoriaceous part of a 
 " knoll," is of an olivine crystal, 0.55x0.45 mm., shown in Fig. 10. 
 It is of an ovoidal shape, with flat ends, and is sharply divided into 
 two parts along a line running across it at its widest part. The 
 larger half shows a colorless mass of olivine, containing numerous 
 coarse black lines, which can be readily resolved into rows of black 
 grains. These margarites are all curved and lie in groups of mem- 
 bers parallel to one another. The smaller half looks under low 
 powers almost perfectly black and opaque, but the higher powers 
 show it to be also made up of colorless olivine substance, with 
 numerous black grains and trichites, mostly arranged in parallel 
 straight and curved lines. 
 
 Both these occurrences resemble the trichite inclusions in the 
 olivine of a gabbro from Mull described and figured by Zirkei.* 
 
 * Zirkei, Mikroskopische Beschaffenkeit de Mineraliern (Leipzig, 1873), p. 
 214. Cf. Renard, Petrol. Oceau. Islands (London, 1889), p. 57.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 47 
 
 The olivine also frequently shows signs of corrosion, which has 
 generally acted irregularly, forming deep bays and pockets. In 
 many cases the original outline has been entirely lost and only a 
 small part of the original crystal is left. It also happens that one 
 end of a crystal will be perfectly unacted on and show sharp angles 
 and straight lines, while the other end will be deeply eaten away. 
 All these appearances are so common and have been so often de- 
 scribed and figured that it was not thought worth while to illus- 
 trate them. 
 
 One special case, which may however be due to growth, is here 
 shown (Fig. 11). It is a rectangular section, 0.2 X 0.14 mm., from 
 one angle of which runs a small prolongation of the side. This 
 extinguishes exactly like the body of the crystal and is not an ad- 
 hering fragment. 
 
 Magnetite. This occurs both in the groundmass and, as already 
 described, as an alteration product of hornblende. In size the 
 grains vary from 0.005-0.03 mm., a few attaining a diameter of 0.1 
 mm. when the sub-metallic lustre in reflected light is easily seen. 
 These large grains are irregular in shape, but the smaller ones fre- 
 quently show sharp outlines, representing sections of octahedra. 
 
 A very interesting observation was made in regard to its occur- 
 rence in the groundmass, which has an important bearing on the 
 question of its period of formation. It will be remembered that 
 the Kula basalts can be divided as regards their structure into 
 normal, hyalopilitic, semi-vitreous, and tachylytic varieties, and it 
 may be further stated that all these varieties possess practically the 
 .same chemical composition. 
 
 In the first two types the least glassy the magnetite is very 
 abundant and the glass basis colorless. In the semi-vitreous variety 
 the magnetite is only sparingly present and the glass basis a light 
 cinnamon-brown. In the tachylytes which are almost pure glass 
 the magnetite is almost entirely absent and the glass a dark choco- 
 late-brown. 
 
 Here we have a beautifully shown transition series, the magnet- 
 ite content varying inversely as the glass content and as the depth 
 of color of the glass basis. This seems very good proof that the 
 magnetite is, in these basalts, not one of the first minerals to crys- 
 tallize out as is generally held to be the case,* but that it was among, 
 
 * Cf. Roseubuscli, op. cit. 3te Aufl. i. 287., n. 342. It is interesting to note
 
 48 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 if not quite, the last. The facts that magnetite is very rarely seen 
 as an inclusion in the other minerals,* and the numerous inclu- 
 sions of clear brown glass, point the same way. 
 
 It may be objected that an explanation of this lack of magnetite 
 in the more glassy basalts is to be found in a reabsorption by the 
 magma. This, however, seems forced and impossible, it being diffi- 
 cult to explain a reabsorption in the quickly cooled-rocks, Avhile 
 such an action did not take place in the slowly-cooled ones. It has 
 also been pointed out by Iddingsf that the first mineral to separate 
 out is the last to be reabsorbed, and vice versa.. 
 
 The above observations are quite contrary to the generally held 
 views on the subject of the relative age of the magnetite in a given 
 rock, but there can be no doubt of the facts stated. They form 
 one of the prominent characteristics of the whole series of slides, 
 and hardly an exception was to be found to the general rule. It 
 may be mentioned that Vogt has shown in a recent workj that in 
 the case of some slags the magnetite is crystallized out after the 
 olivine. 
 
 Leucite. This mineral was observed only in the lava of the 
 northeast and southeast streams, and in only one specimen of 
 lapilli from the crater of Kula Devlit out of half a dozen exam- 
 ined. The crystals are all small, from 0.05-0.3 mm. in diameter, 
 perfectly colorless, and only occasionally show anomalous double 
 refraction. The outlines are generally rounded, but here and there 
 some distinct octagonal sections are seen. They contain, as usual, 
 microlitic inclusions of augite and magnetite, the former being 
 much the more common. These augite microlites are generally 
 arranged in one or two rings, concentric with the outline of the 
 crystal, while the magnetite is more irregular. A few are seen 
 with a nucleus of dusty opaque grains occupying the centre of 
 the crystal, and an augite-microlite ring surrounding this. These 
 resemble the leucites in a leucite-basanite from Kilimandjaro 
 described by Hyland. 
 
 that Judd (Scot. Gabbros, Q. J. Geol. Soc. 1886, 79) observed exactly the op- 
 posite state of affairs in the basalts of western Scotland. 
 
 * The magnetite which occurs as an alteration product of hornblende is, of 
 course, not referred to in this connection. 
 
 f Iddings, Crystal. Ign. Rocks, loc. cit. p. 105. 
 
 t Vogt, Mineralbildung in Schmelzmassen (Kristiania, 1892), p. 210. 
 
 Hyland, op. cit. p. 261.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 49 
 
 The occurrence of leucite in connection with hornblende basalts 
 is interesting, the combination never before having been observed. 
 It may be also mentioned that this is only the second recorded 
 occurrence of leucite in Asia Minor, La Croix* having observed it 
 in rocks brought from Trebizonde, and which he identified as 
 leucite tephrites and leucitites. These leucite rocks seem to have 
 their eastern continuation in Persia, f 
 
 Apatite. This was only seen once or twice in the second-period 
 basalt from a well-digging in Kula. In this rock hexagonal sec- 
 tions were observed, about 0.1 mm. in diameter, pale gray in color, 
 and with lines of very fine dust-like grains crossing each other 
 at angles of GO . These few crystals, however, are not integral 
 parts of the rock, but are undoubtedly derived from enclosures of 
 foreign rock brought up from below. One such enclosure of 
 plagioclase containing many identical apatites was seen in the same 
 slide. 
 
 The rather large percentage of P 2 B , in one case 0.97$, equiva- 
 lent to about 2.5$ of apatite, is to be explained on the supposition 
 that some of the microlites present in the groundmass are in 
 reality apatite. Many of them do extinguish parallel to the long 
 axis, but also many obliquely. The latter may be considered 
 augite, and part of the former apatite. 
 
 Melanite and Spinel Only three crystals of the former were 
 found ; one, 0.01 mm. in diameter, in the groundmass of a hyalo- 
 pilitic " knoll " basalt, and two smaller crystals as inclusions in a 
 large augite, in a specimen from the northeast stream. They are 
 all dark brown in color, with high relief. All three are almost 
 undoubtedly derived from inclusions which have been altered by 
 contact with the basalt, and do not form essential ingredients of 
 the rock. A few crystals of green spinel were seen in the ground- 
 mass, but they are so evidently derived from enclosures of foreign 
 rock that further remarks on them will be deferred to a later page. 
 
 Biotite. Two crystals of dark-brown biotite were seen, both 
 undoubtedly derived from foreign rock. One, in a glassy knoll 
 basalt, is a brown crystal fresh in the interior but altered in the 
 outer part to a border of augite and opacite grains, and a brown 
 
 * Lacroix, Sur les Roches a Leucite de Trebizonde. Bull. Soc. Geol. de 
 France, xix. 1891, p. 732. 
 
 t Steinecke, Leucitbasalte u. a. Leucitgesteine in Peisien. Z. f. Naturwiss. 
 Halle, 4, vi, 1887, p. 1.
 
 50 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 minenil which looks extremely like the brown mineral found in 
 the hornblende. The crystals are similar in shape, but the pleoch- 
 roism is not as well marked here, and the two colors observed were 
 dark brown parallel to the long axis and light brown at right 
 angles to this. The extinction was parallel. I think it probable 
 that these crystals are the same mineral as in the hornblende, and 
 if so it will be the first case in which it has been found in biotite. 
 The second biotite crystal was in the lava of Kara Tepe, dark 
 brown, and showed no signs of alteration. Here the rock was 
 more glassy than in the other case. 
 
 GrENEKAL DESCRIPTION OF BASALTS. 
 
 Having described the various minerals that enter into the com- 
 position of the Kula basalcs, we may now take up the general 
 description of the rocks from the various localities, and for this 
 purpose an arrangement in accordance with their chronological 
 succession, as far as is possible to determine it, will be the best to 
 follow. As I did not collect any specimens of the basalts of the 
 first period, we shall pass that over and begin with the 
 
 Second-period Basalts. These are represented by specimens 
 from a well-digging in the northeast part of the town of Kula, from 
 the eastern slope of Ai Tepesi, from the end of its southeast lava 
 stream, and from the second-period stream which underlies the 
 northern Kula Devlit stream, at the Gediz Bridge. The well dig- 
 ging is, according to my host, about 35 metres deep, sunk through 
 lava, and the specimens obtained came from the lowest level 
 whence they had been newly dug. Below the lava they find 
 " baked earth," and strike water some 10 metres down in this. 
 This lava is of sp. gr. 2.733, rather rough in texture, but fine- 
 grained, with few gas pores, and perfectly fresh. Its color is light 
 ash-gray, and scattered through the rock are seen greenish-yellow, 
 glassy, augite and olivine phenocrysts, but very few hornblende 
 phenocrysts. The other specimens of this period are similar, except 
 that they are more compact and the Ai' Tepesi ones darker. The 
 sp. gr. of the piece from the slope of the cone is 2.813, and of 
 that from the end of its lava stream 2.721. This last lava showed 
 a lamellar structure resembling that of phonolite.
 
 TEE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 51 
 
 Under the microscope they are all seen to belong to the " nor- 
 mal " basaltic type, the groundmass being a mixture of colorless 
 glass and leptomorphic feldspar, with quite abundant colorless au- 
 gite microlites, plagioclase laths and magnetite grains, which often 
 show a fluctuation structure. The porphyritical generation is rep- 
 resented by augite and olivine in generally small crystals", and 
 hornblende. The last is in all these rocks most completely altered, 
 not a particle of unaltered hornblende having been seen. The 
 crystals have all gone over either into a mass of brown aggregate 
 surrounded by an augite-opacite border or, most frequently, com- 
 pletely into a mass of augite and opacite grains, with very com- 
 monly a ring of larger opacite grains near the edge. (Cf. PI. IV, 
 Fig. 2.) The form of the crystal is not as well preserved as in the 
 later lavas, and most of the smaller crystals have been reduced to 
 rounded forms. The relative proportion of glass is not as great as 
 in any of the later rocks, and this, the larger-grained structure, the 
 leptomorphic feldspar, and the perfect alteration of the hornblende 
 may serve to distinguish the basalts of the second period from 
 those of the third. The chemical composition is shown in Analysis 
 I, page 57. 
 
 Ttiird-period Basalts. We shall take up first of these the ba- 
 salts of " Tlie Knolls." The lava of which these are composed 
 presents three distinct types of structure, which show a gradual 
 transition into one another, they being all glassy. These three 
 types may be called hyalopilitic, semi-vitreous, and tachylytic. 
 
 a. Hyalopilitic. These are all dark iron - gray rocks, of a 
 very compact texture, and with few or no gas pores. The sp. 
 gr. of one of them is 2.704. Scattered through the mass of the 
 rock are numerous small, glistening, black hornblende phenocrysts. 
 while augite and olivine are seldom to be seen. Rounded grains of 
 clear colorless quartz enclosures are not uncommon, one of these 
 having a length of 15 mm. A few feldspar enclosures are also 
 to be seen in the specimens examined, and one much-decom- 
 posed piece has cavities filled with a white zeolitic mineral. This 
 piece is decomposed on the surface to a dull chocolate brown 
 mass, and veins of the same color are seen running through it. 
 The large majority of the specimens, though, are quite fresh and 
 unaltered. 
 
 Under the microscope these rocks show a highly typical hyalo-
 
 52 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 pilitic groundmass, of which the basis is a colorless glass. This is 
 very thickly strewn with small plagioclase laths, colorless microlites, 
 and magnetite grains, the last two being especially abundant. In ad- 
 dition to these is also seen a considerable quantity of black straight 
 trichites. In some places the groundmass is colored brown in long 
 streaks which run though the colorless mass. A fluidal arrangement 
 of the plagioclase laths and augite microlites, especially about the 
 large phenocrysts, is not uncommon, but not as well developed as 
 in the more glassy varieties to be next described. 
 
 Phenocrysts are quite abundant, consisting of hornblende, 
 augite, and olivine. The hornblende is generally brown, these 
 rocks being quite deficient in the green variety. The hornblende 
 is almost invariably altered, but generally only as far as the second 
 stage, where brown aggregate and a narrow augite-opacite border 
 surround a core of still unaltered substance, and the outlines are 
 well preserved. The augite and olivine present no special features 
 of interest. For chemical composition see Anal. II, page 57. 
 
 b. Semi-vitreous Type. In this type of the knoll basalts are 
 included two specimens from the " ropy " stream east of Kara Tepe, 
 which is considered to belong to the same period on the ground of 
 the character of its flow, and its great resemblance under the micro- 
 scope. These rocks are all iron-black, occurring both in compact 
 and somewhat vesicular varieties, the pores of the latter being small 
 and not very abundant. They have not the dull lustre of the pre- 
 ceding rocks, but present a rather shining fracture, with a pitchy 
 sub-resinous lustre. The sp. gr. of one is 2.647. As phaenocrysts 
 are seen many small glistening black hornblende crystals, which, as 
 well as the pores, are arranged in lines of flow. Crystals of augite or 
 olivine visible megascopically are very rare. Though some of the 
 specimens are decomposed on the surface, yet at a depth of a few 
 mm. they are perfectly fresh, moisture apparently not having been 
 able to penetrate at all. 
 
 Microscopically these rocks show a largely preponderating light 
 cinnamon-brown glass basis, often mottled light and dark, and oc- 
 casionally with streaks of a much darker color. In this glass basis 
 are many augite microlites, plagioclase laths, and magnetite grains, 
 the microlites being by far the most abundant, while the magnetite 
 is present in very much smaller quantity than in the preceding. 
 The bearing of this fact on the crystallization period of the mag- 
 netite has been already discussed. The plagioclase crystals, while
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 53 
 
 fewer in number than in the hyalopilitic variety, are rather larger 
 and better developed. The black trichites seem to be entirely 
 wanting. The microlites and plagioclase crystals show frequent 
 flnidal structure. (Of. PI. IV, Fig. 1.) 
 
 The pheuocrysts are hornblende and augite, with only rarely 
 olivine. The hornblende is commonly brown, but green crystals 
 are also seen. Both are usually fresh, and when alteration has 
 taken place it has nearly always only reached the brown-aggregate 
 stage. The augite is in small colorless and very bright crystals, 
 fairly well developed, An analysis of this type was not made, but 
 compare Analysis VI. of a Kara Tepe lava, which very closely 
 resembles this type. 
 
 c. The tachylytes* occur chiefly as streaks in the semi-vitreous 
 lavas, often forming the upper surface, but one " knoll" was com- 
 posed almost entirely of this variety. They are very compact jet- 
 black rocks, with a vitreous lustre. In some places they have ac- 
 quired through slight surface oxidation an iridescent tarnish, which, 
 with their color and lustre, gives them an anthracitic appearance. 
 The sp. gr. of two specimens was found to be 2.695 and 2.747. The 
 latter is strangely high for so glassy a rock, and a mistake is possible. 
 As crystallizations are to be seen microscopically a few small black 
 hornblende crystals, and very rarely a small augite. One specimen 
 contains on the surface a few spots of white zeolitic mineral, and a 
 small quartz enclosure. 
 
 Under the microscope they are seen to consist almost entirely of 
 a clear dark chocolate-brown glass, with streaks of a darker and 
 dusty material which show the fluidal structure very finely. There 
 are also present a few augite microlites, very few small plagioclase 
 and augite crystals, and streaks of dark dusty-brown material which 
 aid in bringing out the fluidal structure. Magnetite is practically 
 entirely absent, and no perlitic cracks are seen. As phenocrysts 
 there are present hornblende in rather large crystals, both brown 
 and green, often showing zonal structure, but always clear and un- 
 altered. Large crystals of colorless augite, but very little olivine, 
 are also present. These rocks on the whole are beautiful examples 
 of tachylytes, and form Borne of the prettiest slides of the series. 
 An analysis of one is given in No. Ill, page 57. 
 
 * They are decomposed by hot HC1 with separation of gelatinous silica on 
 cooling, and so are true tachylytes.
 
 54 ' THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 Southwest Stream. This stream is composed of a dark ash- 
 gray, very compact and tough basalt, showing few or no pores. The 
 sp. gr. of one specimen proved to be 2.613. A few very small 
 hornblende crystals and still fewer augite-olivine crystals are to be 
 seen, and the specimens are all perfectly fresh. 
 
 Under the microscope they are all, with one or two exceptions, 
 of the regular hyalopilitic structure, with a colorless glass basis. 
 Microlites and magnetite grains are very abundant, the plagioclase 
 less so. The hornblende is dark brown and most of it has under- 
 gone alteration to brown aggregate, occasionally having reached the 
 last stage. The remarks made under the head of the hyalopilitic 
 knoll basalts apply equally well here, as the 'rocks seem almost 
 identical. 
 
 The two exceptions above spoken of belong to the semi-vitreou& 
 type, with brown glass basis, and are like the corresponding knoll 
 rocks except for one peculiarity. This is the presence of spots of 
 colorless glass, from 0.1-0.3 mm. in diameter, generally round in 
 shape, but often quite irregular. These spots contain, besides 
 microlites and magnetite grains, many straight black trichites, 
 which are commonly arranged in a roughly radial manner. This 
 colorless glass is surrounded by a ring of brown glass much darker 
 than the rest of the groundmass, but shading gradually into it, and 
 containing the usual groundmass microlites, etc. These spots 
 might be mistaken for leucite, but their size, the irregularity of 
 their form, the fact that plagioclase needles were seen lying both 
 in the colorless glass and in the brown ring, and the brown ring 
 itself all show that they are not leucite. Hatch * observed and 
 figured similar objects from a Madagascar basalt. They are appar- 
 ently due to small local development of iron-rich black trichites,. 
 with concomitant repulsion of the unused iron from their midst, 
 forming the ring. 
 
 North Stream. This and the following stream offer a special 
 feature of interest inasmuch as they are both leucitic. The rock of 
 which this stream is composed is light gray and compact, but mostly 
 with numerous small gas-pores arranged in streaks, showing the flow 
 structure. The sp. gr. of one specimen is 2.711. Practically no 
 hornblende is to be seen macroscopically, but augite and olivine 
 phenocrysts are abundant. 
 
 * Hatch, Rocks from Madagascar, loc. cit. p. 350.
 
 THE VOLCANOES. OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 55 
 
 Under the microscope they show a hyalopilitic structure, the 
 glass basis being always colorless. Microlites and magnetite grains 
 are very abudant, but plagioclase is rare compared with the pre- 
 ceding hyalopilitic rocks. These small bodies frequently show a 
 fluctuation structure, especially around the large phenocrysts. 
 
 These phenocrysts are hornblende, which is always altered, gen- 
 erally to the last two stages, augite and olivine in clear colorless 
 crystals and fragments, and leucite, which is quite abundant in 
 streaks and patches. The crystals are small, but very characteristic 
 and unmistakable. The description given farther back covers all 
 the points of interest, so nothing further need be said here. 
 Analysis IV shows the composition of these rocks. 
 
 Southeast Stream. This stream, as before mentioned, seems to 
 be made up of two distinct streams, one above the other, which have 
 been poured out since the period of the knolls, the lower one being 
 more compact and with a tendency to columnar structure. How- 
 ever, as the two seem identical petrographically, they will be 
 described together, a few words sufficing, as they greatly resemble 
 the rocks of the north-stream. These rocks are dark gray, those 
 of the lower, stream quite compact, those of the upper vesicular. 
 They show few crystals of hornblende, but macroscopic crystals of 
 augite and olivine are rather abundant. Three different specimens 
 had sp. grs. of 2.712, 2.715, 2.736. 
 
 Microscopically they are hardly to be distinguished from the 
 north-stream basalt, being of the same hyalopilitic structure and 
 containing leucite in addition to the usual constituents. The 
 leucite calls for no special comment, exactly resembling the occur- 
 rence just described. Analysis V is of a specimen from this stream. 
 
 Kara Tepe Stream. Specimens Avere collected from the well- 
 defined lava stream of Kara Tepe at three different points : at the 
 bottom of the crater, at a point about one hundred metres down 
 the stream, and again some fifty metres below this. No difference 
 however, is to be seen among them, either megascopically or micro- 
 scopically. They are all iron-black compact rocks with numerous 
 fine pores and a sub-greasy lustre. The sp. gr. of one is 2.604. 
 Small shining black hornblendes are very abundant, and are gener- 
 ally arranged in lines of flow. Augite and olivine are rarely seen. 
 
 Microscopically they show a groundmass of light, unmottled, 
 cinnamon-brown glass, with numerous colorless augite microlites, 
 some magnetite grains, and not very abundant small plagioclase
 
 56 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 crystals. These last are much larger than usual and better crystal- 
 lized. They nearly all show twinning lamellae, and it was in these 
 rocks that optical investigation of the plagioclase was possible. 
 Otherwise the groundmass resembles closely that of the semi-vitreous 
 knoll basalts. 
 
 The phenocrysts are mostly hornblende, which is here fre- 
 quently green, these rocks being far richer in this variety than any 
 of the others. The hornblende is generally unaltered, but Avhen such 
 is not the case the alteration generally only reaches the brown-aggre- 
 gate stage, with a kernel of hornblende. The augite and olivineare 
 not common, but in these rocks the hour-glass and similar struct- 
 ures are very common among the augites, most of them showing 
 phenomena of the sort. The chemical constitution is shown in 
 Analysis VI. 
 
 ScoricB. Specimens of scoriae and lapilli were collected from 
 the craters of Kula Devlit and Kara Tepe. They are generally 
 black^but sometimes red or brown from decomposition. They are, 
 of course, very vesicular and spongy. Megascopical crystals are 
 rarely to be seen. 
 
 They all show under the microscope a basis of dark-brown 
 occasionally red-brown glass containing many augite microlites and 
 plagioclase laths. Magnetite is very rare, but occasionally a fine 
 brown "dust" is present. Hornblende occurs in large crystals both 
 brown and green, frequently zonally colored, and often showing the 
 alteration to a dark red-brown variety. Augite and olivine crystals 
 are also present, and in one specimen from Kula Devlit leucite, in 
 crystals exactly resembling those described above, was found. It 
 was noticed that the inner surface of many of the vesicles was coated 
 with a thin layer of colorless or light-yellow substance, which showed 
 in some places a weak aggregate polarization. 
 
 Chemical Analyses. The analyses on p. 57 were made for me 
 by Dr. A. Rohrig of Leipzig. 
 
 From these analyses it will be seen that these rocks belong to 
 the more acid basalts and that they show a most marked similarity 
 with one another. The composition is a normal basaltic one, the 
 Si0 2 being rather high, the A1 2 S (also in rather high percentage) 
 coming next in relative amount, the percentage of MgO being less 
 than that of CaO, and that of K 2 less than that of Xa 2 0. The 
 generally high percentagetof Na 2 points to the presence of nephe- 
 line, but treatment of some of the slides with acid gave negative
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 57 
 
 I. 
 
 II. 
 
 ni. 
 
 IV. 
 
 V. 
 
 VI. 
 
 H 2 O (Ignit) 0.02 
 SiO 2 . 48.24 
 A1 2 O 3 2064 
 
 0.46 
 47.50 
 19.32 
 
 0.12 
 47.79 
 18 52 
 
 0.48 
 47.97 
 20 04 
 
 0.04 
 
 47.74 
 20 95 
 
 0.30 
 47.58 
 20 36 
 
 Fe s O, 4.63 
 FeO . 5 55 
 
 4.75 
 5 20 
 
 4.65 
 5 47 
 
 4.45 
 5 50 
 
 3.29 
 6 32 
 
 3.78 
 5 45 
 
 CaO ... 7 94 
 
 8 37 
 
 8 34 
 
 7 64 
 
 7 56 
 
 8 31 
 
 MgO ... 5 02 
 
 4 36 
 
 5 31 
 
 5 54 
 
 5 16 
 
 5 28 
 
 Na 2 O . 5 08 
 
 763 
 
 7 66 
 
 5 14 
 
 71'-* 
 
 6 49 
 
 K Q O 1 88 
 
 2 31 
 
 69 
 
 1 99 
 
 1 21 
 
 1 33 
 
 P 2 O 6 97 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 99.97 
 
 100.11 
 
 98.55 
 
 98.75 
 
 99.52 
 
 98.88 
 
 Sp.gr j 2.733 
 
 i 
 
 2.704 
 
 2.695 
 
 $.711 
 
 2.736 
 
 2.604 
 
 results, and this mineral seems to be absent, contrary to the usual 
 composition of hornblende basalts. That all the specimens were fresh 
 is shown by the very small ignition loss. With the above analyses 
 I, II, III, and VI may be compared the analyses of basalts from the 
 Cascade Mountains, Oregon; Ferdinandea Islands; and the ^Etna 
 lavas of 1766 and 1802, as quoted by Roth.* A striking feature is 
 the very small percentage of K 2 shown in analyses IV and V of 
 the leucitic north and southeast streams. The leucite is seen under 
 the microscope to be present in not very great abundance, yet a 
 higher percentage of K a O was expected. Zirkelf in his work on 
 basalts describes similar cases, and remarks that it is not absolutely 
 necessary for a leucitic basalt to be distinguished by a high K 2 
 percentage. 
 
 A word in regard to the specific gravities: While they are all 
 rather low for basalt, yet this is to be explained by their very large 
 glass content. It will have been noticed also that, with the excep- 
 tion of the tachylytes, whose specific gravities are curiously high, 
 the figures show a pretty regular gradation from the least to the 
 most glassy. For the purpose of more ready comparison the table 
 on p. 58 is inserted. The determinations were all made with a 
 Thoulet's solution and a Westphal's balance at 15 C. 
 
 * Roth, Beitr. z. Petrog d. pluton. Gesteine. Berliu, 1884. Dolerit uud, 
 Dolerit basalt, Nos. 11, 15, 31, and 29. 
 
 f Zirkel, Bt-sultgesteiue, p. 191. Cf. Iddiugs, Origin Ign. Rocks, I. c. 
 p. 166.
 
 58 
 
 VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 ^^ariety. 
 
 Specific Gravities. 
 
 Average. 
 
 
 
 2.813, 2.733, 2.721 
 2.736, 2.715, 2.712, 2.711 
 2.704, 2.647, 2.613 
 2.604 
 2.747, 2.695 
 
 2.756 
 2.719 
 2.655 
 2.604 
 2.721 
 
 Hyalopilitic bnsalt 
 Hyalopilitic 
 Semi-vitreous " 
 Tachylytes 
 
 s (Leucitic) 
 (Leucite-free) . . 
 
 
 
 
 General Conclusions. -Having now described the Kula basalts it 
 remains for us to make a few general remarks on them : 
 
 That they form a good example of a "petrographical province," 
 as before spoken of, the reader will now see for himself, but, of 
 course, this fact come* out more clearly from a microscopic exami- 
 nation of the rocks themselves than from any description. The 
 most striking feature about them is the unfailing presence of basal- 
 tic hornblende, and its peculiar alteration products. As stated 
 before, the hornblende, as regards constancy, invariability, and quan- 
 tity, surpasses the augite, olivine, or feldspar, and here plays the 
 leading role, and not a subsidiary one as in other hornblende-bearing 
 basalts. So much so is this the case, that here I feel justified in 
 grouping the Kula and similar basalts together as a sub-group, and 
 giving them a separate name, although thinking that a too free use- 
 of new names is rather a hindrance than a help to science. The 
 name which first suggests itself, and which on consideration seems 
 most appropriate, is Kulaite. By this we understand a sub-group 
 of the basalts either plagioclase-, nepheline-, or leucite-, which is 
 characterized by the invariable presence of hornblende as an essen- 
 tial constituent, which also, both in quantity and invariability, sur- 
 passes the augite; in other words, to a large extent replaces the 
 latter. We can have the further subdivisions of leucite-kulaite, and 
 nepheline-kulaite. 
 
 The gradual transition shown from the least to the most crystal- 
 line, and the constancy of the chemical composition in all of them, 
 are also interesting. The leucite-kulaites seem, however, to have 
 been among the last poured out by Kula Devlit, though from Kara 
 Tep6, a very short distance off, came at a probably later date a leu- 
 cite-free kulaite. The whole region must, however, be more care- 
 fully examined before entering into a discussion of this and other 
 points. The writer therefore defers further remarks and the bring- 
 ing up of other points till after an exploration of the region in the 
 spring of 1894, which he hopes to accomplish.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 59 
 
 ENCLOSURES.* 
 
 But besides the kulaites we must describe the quite numerous 
 enclosures of foreign minerals and rock which were found in them. 
 These fall under two heads: 
 
 1st. Generally small enclosures, chiefly of quartz and plagio- 
 clase, which show signs of great alteration, and are rather in- 
 timately associated with the basalt, perhaps endogenous enclosures. 
 
 2d. Masses of foreign rock which have to a large extent pre- 
 served their original form and structure, and which do not show 
 intimate association with the kulaite, exogenous enclosures. 
 
 These two groups represent different original rocks, and are in 
 no way connected with one another. 
 
 Endogenous (?) Enclosures. These all have rounded outlines, and 
 many have been melted after being enclosed in the stream. The ma- 
 jority of them are quartz and plagioclase, but enclosures of orthoclase 
 and a fibrous mineral were also seen. Enclosures of one or the other 
 of these kinds were found in specimens from all the streams, except 
 tho'se of the second period. As fewer specimens of these were col- 
 lected, it is possible that they will also be found here on further 
 search. About twenty were to be found in the slides, and about a 
 dozen were seen megascopically. 
 
 Quartz Enclosures. These are quite numerous, and most of the 
 megascopically visible enclosures belong here. One of them meas- 
 ures 15 mm. long. They are perfectly clear, colorless or with a 
 tinge of yellow, rounded in shape, and much cracked. 
 
 Under the microscope they show the usual features of quartz en- 
 closures in eruptive rocks. They are clear, somewhat cracked, and 
 are frequently melted to a colorless or rarely light-brown glass. 
 Occasionally a kernel of unmelted quartz remains in the centre, but 
 most of them are completely melted. The glass has the usual 
 fringe of greenish augite needles round the edge, all of them point- 
 ing radially inward. The extinction-angle of these microlites is about 
 40. One such enclosure contained inclusions of many small 
 
 * As a distinction seems advisable between essential mineral components 
 of a rock which are included in larger crystals, and fragments of foreign 
 bodies either altered or not which have become enclosed in the lava stream 
 during its flow, I use throughout this paper the words "inclusion" for the 
 former ciise and "enclosure" for the latter.
 
 60 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 (0.005-0.01 mm.), sharply crystallized green octahedra of spinel. 
 Another completely vitrified and with large augite microlites 
 was seen as an inclusion in a large augite crystal. 
 
 Plagioclase Enclosures, These are also numerous and quite 
 large, some reaching a diameter of 4 or 5 mm., when they can 
 be readily distinguished without the lense. Under the microscope 
 they appear as colorless masses of irregular outline. They all show 
 twinning lamellae, and two of these which had nearly symmetrical 
 extinction gave angles of 7 30' and 8 10', corresponding to labra- 
 dorite of about the composition Ab 3 An 5 . In some cases these 
 plagioclase masses have apparently been melted, as one or two were 
 seen containing crystals of hornblende exactly similar in size, color, 
 and stage of alteration reached to the neighboring ones in the kulaite. 
 Others, again, show at the edges a narrow border of secondary feld- 
 spar crystals arranged radially. Here the periphery of the plagio- 
 clase enclosure has evidently been melted, and has recrystallized in 
 a new form in accordance with its changed conditions. This fusion 
 may have taken place at the moment of solidification, when a rise 
 in temperature took place. Several of them contain apatite in 
 short colorless or bluish-gray prisms, often with dusty inclusions. 
 
 In addition to the hornblende and apatite most of these enclos- 
 ures include several minerals of secondary origin, their formation 
 being due to the metamorphic action of the molten basalt. These 
 secondary minerals are dark olive-green spinels, which are very 
 common, sillimanite needles, and biotite. One plagioclase enclos- 
 ure deserves especial description on account of the number and va- 
 riety of its secondary inclusions. This was in a specimen from the 
 latest southeast stream, and consists of a clear mass of plagioclase 
 showing very few twinning lamellae. Green spinels are scattered 
 through it, but are chiefly clustered together in a long streak. 
 Near this is a group of small violet-gray isotropic crystals of perof- 
 skite. Through a great part of the feldspar runs a stream of silli- 
 manite needles, lying parallel to one another and the direction of 
 the streak. A few irregularly shaped brown biotite flakes are scat- 
 tered through the mass, and in one corner are seen two or three 
 glass inclusions of probably secondary origin, consisting of a ring 
 of very pale-brown glass (0.02 mm. in diameter) with a bubble 
 in the centre. 
 
 Ortliodase and Fibrous Enclosures. Of the former only two 
 were seen. They are rounded in outline, and the feldspar is
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 61 
 
 mostly clear, but is cloudy and opaque on the edges and along 
 cracks. Several small rounded masses of colorless fibres were "ob- 
 served, which show aggregate polarization. What this mineral is 
 could not be determined, but it is neither sillimanite nor zoisite. 
 In one case a few brown spinels were included, and some clear 
 light-brown glass was seen between the fibres. 
 
 These enclosures may represent a primary separation of some 
 constituents of the magma, though the habit of the quartz grains 
 points rather to exogenous enclosures. In this latter case the 
 original rock would have been a quartz diorite. No such rock is 
 mentioned by Tchihatcheff as occurring in the vicinity, and none 
 was seen by me. For occurrences of quartz in basalt see note.* 
 
 Exogenous Enclosures. Several cases were seen of fragments of 
 foreign rock enclosed in the lava, and of these three specimens 
 were brought back for examination. One comes from the west 
 inner wall of the Kula Devlit crater, and the other two from blocks 
 in the latest southeast stream. Though the last two are much 
 decomposed by the action of the atmosphere, they all seem to be 
 fragments of the same original rock, and we shall describe the 
 crater specimen as the typical and best-preserved example. 
 
 Macroscopically this is a fine-grained compact rock, of general 
 grayish color, though on closer examination it is seen to be made 
 up of white, greenish-gray, and brownish grains. 
 
 Microscopically it is seen to be holocrystalline, with medium- 
 grained granitic structure, composed chiefly of rounded xeno- 
 morphic augite, quartz, and orthoclase grains, and seems to be an 
 augite granite. 
 
 The augite grains are colorless, but here and there colored yel- 
 lowish green through chloritic decomposition. The cleavage is very 
 well marked, the relief high, and the polarization colors the usual 
 bluish gray and yellowish. Inclusions of small zircons were some- 
 times seen. 
 
 The quartz is sometimes cracked, but clear, and much of it acts 
 as a cement for the other grains. As inclusions were seen small 
 magnetite grains and a few glass specks, but no liquid inclusions 
 or bubbles were noticed. A few small augites and zircons are also 
 included. 
 
 *Iddings, Am. J. Sci. xxxvi, 1888, 208; Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 66, 
 
 1890.
 
 62 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 The orthoclase grains are perfectly fresh, as a rule, and present 
 no specially interesting features. In some places it is kaolinized 
 and cloudy. Besides the orthoclase, a few clear plagioclase grains 
 were seen, distinguishable by their twinning lamellae. 
 
 In addition to the above, zircon and iron ores are present. The 
 former is in small hair brown crystals, some showing the bi-pyramid 
 a;(311). The pleochroism is very distinct, being colorless, or of a 
 very faint greenish tinge parallel to 6, and dark brown parallel to a. 
 The ores are magnetite and ilmenite, the latter being distinguished 
 by the mantle of leucoxene. They form irregular black grains and 
 show the lustre very distinctly. 
 
 In one place in the slide is seen a fissure filled with colorless 
 glass which contains some zircons and is much crack-eel. 
 
 The rock on the whole shows extremely few signs of alteration 
 due to the action of the basalt. The weathered specimens have been 
 altered to masses of calcite and kaolin, with here and there augite 
 and quartz grains. Some spots of extremely pale brown glass with 
 a network of fine veins of colorless glass running through them were 
 seen in these specimens. 
 
 Like the diorite no such rock is known in the vicinity as a sur- 
 face occurrence, but to judge from the slight alteration it has un- 
 dergone both in form and structure, it is probable that this rock 
 lies quite close to the surface. 
 
 On further consideration it has occurred to me that K. Mallet's 
 theory of the origin of volcanic energy may explain the difference 
 in the state of alteration of the two kinds of enclosures on the sup- 
 position that the so-called "endogenous" enclosures are in reality 
 exogenous. Mallet* ascribes the heat shown in volcanic phenomena 
 to pressure between two parts of the earth's crust, caused by tan- 
 gential strains consequent on the'contraction of the crust during the 
 earth's secular cooling. He shows that this heat would be most 
 developed along cracks or other lines of weakness, and further that 
 the heat would be greater the greater the resistance to pressure ; 
 for instance, the crushing of a granite evolving much more heat 
 than that of a sand-stone. He further shows that sufficient heat 
 is developed by the secular cooling of the globe to much more 
 than account, with the presence of water at the point of origin, for 
 all the volcanic phenomena observed. Here, it seems to me, we have 
 
 * R. Mallet, On Volcanic Energy. Phil. Trans. 1873, 147.
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. t)3 
 
 n possible explanation of the greatly altered and disintegrated con- 
 dition of the so-called " endogenous " enclosures, they being remains 
 of the rock which was crashed and melted at or near the point of 
 greatest pressure, where, on the entrance of water, the eruption was 
 started. They would hence have been subjected to peculiar condi- 
 tions, entirely different from the " exogenous " enclosures, which may 
 be supposed to come from the walls of the conduit, fragments caught 
 in the lava stream during its ascent. The above idea is put forward 
 as a possibility, and no stress is laid upon it. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS EOCKS. 
 
 Besides the lavas of the region some other rocks were collected 
 and may now be briefly described. 
 
 Mica Schist. This was obtained from the foot-hills to the west of 
 Kula, and is an ordinary yellowish-gray, glistening foliated schist. 
 
 Under the microscope it is seen to be composed almost entirely 
 of muscovite flakes, with some orthoclase between the crystals act- 
 ing as cement, and in grains, and a few zircons and quartz grains. 
 Several long greenish-gray tourmalines were also seen. It calls for 
 no further remark. 
 
 Hornblende Schist. The specimen was obtained from near Azi 
 Koi, about an hour and a half from Ala Shehir, on the south slope 
 of the Konurja Mountains. It is a very fine-grained, compact rock, 
 banded in structure, the bands being alternately dark green and 
 white. 
 
 Under the microscope the white bands are seen to be composed 
 of many rounded orthoclase and some quartz grains, a few plagio- 
 clase grains with twinning lamellae, and many small colorless zir- 
 cons which are arranged parallel to the banded structure. Small 
 flakes of brown biotite are also met with. 
 
 The dark bands, on the other hand, show an abundance of dark 
 grayish-green hornblende grains, mixed with the orthoclase grains. 
 These are strongly pleochroic as follows: c = dark grayish green ; 
 b = yellowish green ; a = pale greenish gray. These grains are 
 arranged with their c axes parallel to the bands. Some of them 
 are of a blue color, and may be referred to glaucophane. Small 
 zircons abound and somej colorless garnets, generally arranged in
 
 64 THK VOLCANOES OF THE KTILA BASIN IN LYDIA. 
 
 clusters and often showing crystal! ographic planes, are present. 
 The biotite flakes are also not wanting, but they are scarce. 
 
 Diabase. About fifteen minutes below the first Turkish guard- 
 house on the southern slope of the Konurja Mts. was found a dike 
 about 5 metres wide in the schist. The rock is of a dark greenish 
 color, very fine grained and compact. Some crystals of brown 
 diallage and white feldspar are to be seen. 
 
 Under the microscope the rock seems to be a much-altered 
 diabase, containing diallage, and shows the following composition : 
 The structure was originally rather porphyritic, and what was the 
 groundmass and augite has now become a mass of pale grayish 
 green, slightly pleochroic hornblende grains, grouped irregularly 
 and bedded in a mass of feldspar, most of which is plagioclase, but 
 of which some is orthoclase. In the hornblende clusters are large 
 irregular grains of magnetite, and through all this groundmass are 
 scattered needles of apatite and clusters of colorless garnets. A few 
 brown biotite flakes are also present. 
 
 The porphyritical crystals of feldspar, while preserving their 
 form fairly well, have suffered much alteration ; being filled with a 
 felt of sillimanite needles, which is especially thick towards the 
 centre. Between the needles are many grains of zoisite showing a 
 fine blue polarization color. Biotite flakes and a few small magnetic 
 grains are included. 
 
 The diallage occurs in crystals from 2-4 mm. long of a gray- 
 brown color. They are frequently filled with thick, dust-like 
 inclusions, and some show a dark-brown core, then a lighter zone, 
 and at the outside a dark-gray border filled with "dust."' One 
 crystal has as an inclusion a large unaltered plagioclase crystal. The 
 extinction angle in one case was 30. The crystals are generally 
 surrounded by a ring or border of green hornblende grains. 
 
 This diallage seems to be about the only mineral which has not 
 undergone profound alteration and is not secondary the horn- 
 blende, sillimanite, zoisite, biotite, magnetite, and probably the 
 garnet and some of the feldspar being of secondary origin. The 
 completeness of the change is striking the augite having com- 
 pletely disappeared, and being changed into the masses of granular 
 hornblende, and the feldspar undergoing an alteration similar to 
 saussuritization, though with less loss of form. The rock reminds 
 one of an altered diabase from Assnan, in Egypt, where also the
 
 THE VOLCANOES OF THE KULA BASIN IN LYDIA. 65 
 
 uugite has been changed into the same green granular hornblende, 
 with some uralite, and the feldspar to zoisite, but no sillimanite. 
 
 Serpentine. A narrow vein of light green serpentine was found 
 in the limestone near the end of the north stream. It offers, how- 
 ever, no special features of interest, showing under the microscope 
 a mass of colorless or pale green serpentine fibres, with a few mag- 
 netite grains. No olivine was seen.
 
 VITA. 
 
 I, HENRY STEPHENS WASHINGTON, was born on January 15, 
 1867, in Newark, New Jersey, United States of America, my 
 parents being George Washington and Eleanor Washington (nee 
 Stephens). After due preparation at home and at school I entered 
 Yale College (now University) at New Haven, Conn., from which, 
 at the end of the regular four years' course, I graduated, with a 
 special honor in Natural Sciences, as B. A. in 1886. I spent the 
 following two years in study at Yale University, during which I 
 held for a year the Silliman Fellowship in Physics, and took the 
 degree of M.A. in June 1888. The next four years were spent 
 chiefly in travelling in the West Indies, Europe, Egypt, Algeria, 
 Asia Minor, etc., parts of four winters and springs being passed 
 in Greece, where I became a member of the American School of 
 Classical Studies, and assisted in and conducted excavations in 
 Attica and at Plataea, Argos, and Phlius. The winter semesters of 
 1891-92 and 1892-93 I passed at Leipzig, studying at the Univer- 
 sity. 
 
 In Yale College and University I studied under Professors J. 
 D. Dana, Brush, E. S. Dana, A. W. Wright, Newton, Wells, Pen- 
 field, and numerous others. In Athens I heard the lectures of 
 Drs. Waldstein and Dorpfeld, and Profs. Gardiner and Tarbell. In 
 Leipzig I have attended the lectures of Professors Overbeck, 
 Zirkel, Wiedemann, Credner, Schreiber, and Lenk. 
 
 To all these teachers of mine I owe the greatest thanks, but 
 above all to Professor E. S. Dana of New Haven, under whom for 
 three years I studied mineralogy and petrography, and to Geheim- 
 rath Bergrath Prof. Dr. Zirkel, under whose direction this paper 
 was written and for whose friendly counsel and aid I feel deeply 
 grateful. 
 
 67
 
 . 
 
 . 
 . 
 
 . 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 .
 
 PLATO 1. 
 
 . BASALT F^ SCHIST 
 Hfg-2N.i>PER. . El]- LIMESTONE 
 I I- ALLUVIUM. 
 
 SCALE 
 
 , f . f , f *
 
 PLATE II. 
 
 FIG. 1. KI:LA DEVLIT FUOM THE S. W. ; PIIJKSIK DEVMT ON RIGHT. 
 
 PIG 2. "KNOLL" WITH LAYA STREAM, S. E. OF KULA DEVLIT.
 
 PLATE III.
 
 PLATE IV. 
 
 FIG.?!. FROM S. W c ~ STREAM, SHOWING HORNBLENDE PARTIALLY ALTERED 
 TO BROWN AGGREGATE. 
 
 FIG. 2. FROM SECOND PERIOD STREAM (WELL DIGGING), SHOWING HORN- 
 BLENDE COMPLETELT ALTERED TO AUGITE OPACITE AGGREGATE.
 
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