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The Rescue. 
 
FIRE INSURANCE 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 An Encyclopedic Handbook Defining Insurance 
 
 Terms and Describing Processes and 
 
 Materials Used in Mercantile and 
 
 Manufacturing Establishments, 
 
 and Their Fire Hazards 
 
 By 
 
 CHARLES C. DOMINGE 
 
 Author of First Illustrated Book of Schedule Rating 
 and 
 
 WALTER O. LINCOLN 
 
 Members National Fire Protection Association 
 
 Price 15.00 
 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY 
 
 Chicago Office 135 William Street 
 
 Insurance Exchange NEW YORK. 
 
J}3 
 
 ii^vpiawu i 
 
 A\^J'' 
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY 
 
 THE SPECTATOR COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE 
 
 Fire insurance literature is surfeited with technical nomen- 
 clature, therefore we have tried to follow the advice of Rus- 
 kin who said, "The greatest thing any living soul can do is 
 to see something clearly and tell it plainly." 
 
 In the last decade there have been more books written on 
 the subject of insurance than at any time since insurance has 
 been looked upon as a scientific problem. Most of the writ- 
 ings have been from the pens of men of long experience who 
 realized the necessity of committing to print their valuable 
 experiences for the benefit of the profession. These works 
 have been in the main of a highly technical character de- 
 signed for the use of experienced men, or at least for those 
 who have been engaged in the profession for some time and 
 to whom was denied the opportunity of getting the informa- 
 tion at first hand. There are numerous admirable text books 
 on any particular subject, but so written that only those who 
 have had some experience in the insurance business can fully 
 comprehend the terms and expressions that are in the 
 writings. 
 
 As far as we know, there is no one book which can be 
 called a ''primer" for the guidance of those entering our 
 business and who, from their inability to secure the prac- 
 tical elementary books for study, are handicapped at the start 
 of their career, and must needs spend many years of close 
 application before their advancement really begins. It is for 
 the benefit, primarily, of the young student who seeks the 
 rudimentary education, and to save the needless expenditure 
 of time at the start, which has been the lot of most insur- 
 ance men, that this book is presented. Our aim is to make 
 this volume a "ready reference handbook" for general use 
 of underwriters, inspectors, examiners, map clerks, counter- 
 men, storage clerks, schedule men, and others. 
 
 In inspection work particularly, the beginner is at a dis- 
 
 396653 
 
PREFACE 
 
 advantage in not knowing the names and purposes of the 
 various machines used, or the usual materials or processes 
 of any particular manufacture and is therefore unable to give 
 a "word picture" in his report. 
 
 The authors have endeavored to present features which 
 may be overlooked or forgotten by the experienced man, and 
 as far as possible have avoided technicalities. The chemical 
 terms mentioned are merely from a fire insurance standpoint, 
 so as to aid in determining whether or not a certain material 
 is hazardous. The brevity of some of the subjects is due to 
 the desire to cite only the necessary data, with the thought 
 in mind that any reader interested in any particular subject 
 can secure more detailed information from books on the 
 shelves of insurance libraries. At the present time there are 
 very few manufacturing processes about which nothing has 
 been written. 
 
 While strictly a fire insurance work, this book is intended 
 also for use of members of fire departments, fire prevention 
 bureaus, warehousemen, fire marshals, factory engineers and 
 others employed in the conservation of life and property. 
 
 Grateful acknowledgement is hereby given to all those who 
 have assisted us in writing this volume, especially Messrs. 
 Charles E. Jahne, Sinclair T. Skirrow, William J. Tallamy, 
 Thomas O. Gildersleeve, William Slavik and Walter Bladen. 
 
 The authors would appreciate being advised of any needed 
 corrections so that changes may be made in future editions, 
 
 C. C. D. 
 W. O. L. 
 
ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 (Mostly Drawn by the Authors) 
 
 The Rescue Frontispiece 
 
 Reviewing Building Plans 22 
 
 Steel Theater Curtain 25 
 
 Benzine and Gasolene Safety Cans 41 
 
 Shavings Vault and Blower System 46-47 
 
 Brew House '. 55 
 
 Brewery Cold Storage House 57 
 
 Chimney Construction 84 
 
 Communication Openings 101 
 
 Invisible Heat (Conflagration Hazard) 105 
 
 Dry Room 134 
 
 Preventing Drafts in Case of Fire 136 
 
 Furring ^ 160 
 
 Fire Loss Per Capita (Diagram) 173 
 
 Comparative Fire Losses by Countries 174 
 
 Floor Openings ....... >^ . ^\ 194 
 
 A Friendly Fire . . . v>C^'.^?v ■ 205 
 
 Gas Stoves 221 
 
 Brewery Malt and Kiln House 290 
 
 A Prolific Source of Fire Losses 293 
 
 Roof Space Openings 329 
 
 Cooking Ranges 371 
 
 Roof Spaces in Frame Rows 383 
 
 Furnace Feeder 398 
 
 Safety Waste Cans 416 
 
 Sprinkler Extinguishing Fire 417 
 
 Sprinkler Head in Operation 419 
 
 Sprinkler Supervisory System 434-435 
 
 Starch Buck 440 
 
 Protection to Steel and Iron Work ." 443 
 
 Model Theater (Section) 464 
 
 Ventilating and Light Shafts 486 
 
 Finis •••••.. 51} 
 
'^Preventable fire is more than a private mis- 
 fortune. It is a public dereliction. At a time 
 like this of emergency and of manifest necessity 
 for the conservation of national resources, it is 
 more than ever a matter of deep and pressing 
 consequence that every means should be taken to 
 prevent this evil.'* 
 
 I^w^ 
 
FIRE INSURANCE 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ABACA is Manila hemp. 
 
 ABANDONMENT CLAUSE— The standard policy states 
 that there shall be no abandonment, i. e., instead of the prop- 
 erty owner turning over what is left in the way of salvage 
 to the company and demanding a full payment of the policy, 
 he Is obliged to take care of all damaged property and pro- 
 tect It from further damage to the best of his ability until 
 an adjustment of the loss has been made. 
 
 ABATTOIR OR SLAUGHTERING-HOUSE— Usually a 
 nuisance to neighborhood unless located In outlying district. 
 The majority are large area, frame. Note if coal stove heat 
 in office or lounging room; refrigerating; casing making. 
 Casings for sausage are made from entrails, cooked, cleaned 
 and dried, and require a boiler for steam kettles. 
 
 ABRASIVE CUTTING Is performed by means of stones, 
 sand, emery dust, glass, carborundum and In some cases by 
 soft, friable Iron alone. 
 
 ABSORPTION SYSTEMS— See Refrigeration. 
 
 ACADEMIES OR COLLEGES— Usually of very large 
 area with unprotected floor openings including well holes, 
 the individual rooms enclosed In lath and plaster partitions 
 with sash doors. Common hazards are those of schools, i. e., 
 heating, lighting, laundries, manual-training class rooms, 
 kitchens, pranks of students, repair shops. The moral hazard 
 Is that of private ownership, unprofitableness from poor se- 
 lection of location, inaccessibility, lack of transit facilities. 
 (See School Hazards.) 
 
 ACCESSIBILITY — In reporting out-of-town risks, it is 
 necessary to state whether the property can be easily reached 
 
8 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 by fire department and the distance to nearest company, the 
 distance to nearest fire hydrant and alarm box, the condi- 
 tion of roads whether dirt, stone or other pavements, grade 
 of road, average hydrant pressure, open bridges or other 
 handicaps which bear on the chances of salvage. See Pro- 
 tected Risks; see Remote Risks. 
 
 ACCOMMODATION LINE— A line of insurance taken by 
 a company on a poor risk to accommodate a broker whose 
 volume of busines^ warrants the acceptance of an occasional 
 undesirable risk. This practice has been very much abused. 
 Brokers who have no prestige and very little "good" business, 
 are at times hard pressed or unable to properly cover risks 
 whose insurance they have solicited, and therefore "peddle" 
 the business out to large brokers on a percentage basis. 
 See Underwriting. 
 
 ACCRUED CHARGES— This insurance is to recompense 
 the warehouseman for charges which have accrued on goods 
 left in his charge. 
 
 ACETATE OF ETHYL— Is a clear, colorless, volatile 
 liquid of fragrant odor used in medicine and flavoring. Very 
 inflammable. Flash point about 40 degrees F. 
 
 ACETATE OF METHYL— Is a clear colorless liquid. 
 Highly inflammable. Flash point about 35 degrees F. 
 
 ACETATE — A salt formed by the union of acetic acid 
 with a base. 
 
 ACETENE— Highly combustible gas. 
 
 ACETIC ACID — A colorless liquid obtained from the dry 
 distillation of wood or from the oxidation of alcohol. Used 
 in the manufacture of dye stuffs, coal tar products and vari- 
 ous manufacturing processes. Not inflammable. 
 
 ACETIC ETHYL— Same as acetate of ethyl. 
 
 ACETONE — A colorless liquid consisting of 3 parts car- 
 bon, 3 parts hydrogen, 1 part oxygen. Obtained by dry dis- 
 tillation of wood. Used as solvent for nitro-cellulose in pro- 
 duction of lacquer, and celluloid cement. Highly inflamma- 
 ble. Flash point about 35 degrees F. (See volatile solvents.) 
 
 ACETYL CELLULOSE— Made from cellulose and acetic 
 anhydride. Analagous to nitro-cellulose. Used same as cel- 
 luloid. Not inflammable. 
 
ACETYLENE GAS GENERATORS < 9 
 
 ACETYLENE— A farm of illuminating gas formed by the 
 action of calcium carbide and water, in which action the lime 
 leaves the carbon with the production of considerable heat 
 and becomes slaked lime, while the carbon unites with the 
 hydrogen and becomes acetylene. There is 12 times as much 
 carbon as hydrogen in it. Inflammable. See Calcium Car- 
 bide. 
 
 ACETYLENE GAS GENERATORS— Should be located 
 outside of insured buildings and not within five feet of any 
 opening thereto, nor should they be opened toward any ad- 
 jacent building, arLd must be kept under lock and key. The 
 dimensions of the generator house to be no greater than the 
 apparatus requires to allow convenient room for recharging 
 and inspection of parts. The house to be thoroughly venti- 
 lated and any artificial heating necessary to prevent freezing, 
 shall be steam or hot water systems. Generator houses not 
 to be used for the storage of calcium carbide except that 
 contained in the generator. 
 
 ACIDS should be kept well apart from other chemicals and 
 in many cases from each other. Fires are best fought with 
 water as organic substances will only feed the fire. Sand 
 and earth are not recommended for extinguishment. 
 
 ACID WORKS (Hydrochloric or Muriatic)— Note the 
 construction and arrangement of roasters and furnaces, glau- 
 ber salts dryers and nitric retorts; arrangement and method 
 of storing nitre and nitre bags; condensers; condition of 
 pyrites burners, glovers tower and Guy-Lusac tower; the 
 stills, mills for grinding nitre cakes, the elevator boot and 
 legs, the shafting, sulphur storage, reclaiming lead pans, seal- 
 ing and packing of carboys. 
 
 ACTORS — Lines on household furniture are not very at- 
 tractive, unless the applicant is personally known to the 
 broker as reliable and at the ''top of the ladder" in his pro- 
 fession. The value is mainly personal effects and wearing 
 apparel which must be constantly renewed. **tO keep in style." 
 As this becomes out-of-date, the moral hazard becomes per- 
 tinent. See Furnished Rooms. 
 
 ADJACENT— Near but not adjoining. 
 
10 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ADJOINING — Buildings are adjoining when they are 
 built against each other. 
 
 ADJUSTER — Merchandise losses present many angles to 
 the adjuster; they may be partial or total; there may be loss 
 by smoke to cast iron presses, or water damage to a water- 
 pump intended for pumping water out of a mine. Such claims 
 have been made and, unfortunately for the credit of the pro- 
 fession, have been allowed. Claims for smoke damage to 
 cigars in air-tight tin cans covered with wood, because of fire 
 2 or 3 doors away have also been allowed; claims for smoke 
 damage to various classes of stocks because of fire next door 
 or in the next block are so common that the merchant who 
 does not make a claim for smoke damage when there is a 
 fire anywhere in his neighborhood is looked upon by under- 
 writers as an oasis in the desert. Allowing loss on property 
 that does not show damage, and that is not damaged indi- 
 cates weakness in the adjuster, sometimes manifested in order 
 to get business, but more times because he has not the back- 
 bone to be fair to the insured and to the company, or because 
 he does not take pains to place the so-called damaged prop- 
 erty before the insured and insist upon the damage thereon 
 being shown. The adjuster must hail from the state where 
 "Show Me" is the slogan; the adjuster should be ignorant 
 and helpless; ignorant on values until shown, and helpless 
 because he is compelled to follow the contract made by the 
 company and the claimant. Probably not over one loss in 
 fifty on merchandise comes under the heading of a book loss; 
 the other forty-nine are damage or damage-claimed losses, 
 to be closed by examination of the property and agreement 
 on appraisement of the amount of loss thereon. In all cases 
 where the total loss on goods does not exceed, say 10 
 to 15 per cent of the stock, taking the claimant's ver- 
 bal statement of the amount of and class of goods in the 
 part of the building where the fire occurred, verifying his 
 story by the debris, agreeing on the amount of loss on the 
 total loss to the stock, and then fixing the loss on the dam- 
 aged goods by agreement or appraisal, is safer than settling 
 by the books. Where the loss must be adjusted by the books, 
 the inventory should be verified by the previous year's books 
 
AEROPLANE MANUFACTURING 11 
 
 in order to detect any case of double entry or purchases 
 charged twice, or stuffing the inventory. This applies par- 
 ticularly to branch stores, or to stores doing a losing busi- 
 ness, where stuffing the inventory might be necessary to 
 maintain the character of the branch manager or the credit of 
 the concern. The net inventory, the purchases at net in- 
 voice, the per cent of freight on net invoice, makes up the 
 total to be accounted for at invoice and freight. The safe 
 cash and credit; the per cent of profit over invoice cost, and 
 all other transactions as noted in the statement of loss should 
 be ascertained and agreed on in writing by the adjuster and 
 the claimant before proceeding to find the net cost. Proofs 
 should not be made up for the total loss if there be any pend- 
 ing unsettled questions, as a claim for total loss can be ad- 
 mitted at any time. The adjuster's certificate on the proof 
 as to the amount of and honesty of the loss should be dis- 
 pensed with, as it is a bad feature if the claim be contested 
 because of acts or facts ascertained after the adjustment. 
 When the loss to the property is fixed, ownership, names of 
 owners, chattel mortgages, gasoline and other factors that 
 might throw more light on the loss should be inquired into 
 and reported with proof, but in cases where the policy is 
 voided by acts of the insured or others, and admitted by him, 
 the inquiry must stop. — Fireman's Fund Record. 
 
 See Valuation of Buildings, also Loss Adjustment; see 
 Proof of Loss. 
 
 ADMIRALTY METAL is an alloy of copper, zinc and tin. 
 Used in engine making. 
 
 ADVERTISING CONCERNS— Mild hazard, consisting of 
 artist's rooms where designs are drawn or painted, tube colors 
 being generally in use. Storage of plates and cuts (some very 
 expensive), patterns and mailing records. The latter may 
 form considerable of the value, and should be kept in dupli- 
 cate or in fire-proof cabinet. 
 
 ADVERTISING MATTER— Lines should be written cau- 
 tiously. Stock may be obsolete; very susceptible. 
 
 ADVERTISING NOVELTIES consist of cheap jewelry, 
 paper, metal or wood boxes, leather and celluloid goods. 
 
 AEROPLANE MANUFACTURING consists of power 
 
12 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 woodworking, gluing, metal working, wiring wood parts to- 
 gether, covering planes and rudders with linen, varnishing 
 wood parts and propellers, coating fabrics with lacquer hav- 
 ing a cellulose base. Main hazards are storage and use of 
 large quantities of lacquer, woodworking, testing gasoline 
 motors, glue melting. Usually located in old buildings, large 
 open areas subjecting whole plant to one fire, and contents 
 very susceptible. A small amount of heat will render a ma- 
 chine valueless account of removing temper of guy wires, 
 braces and weakening framework and structure. 
 
 Dopes for Airplanes — Two classes of "dope" are now in 
 use, and the first class, comprising varnishes, consists essen- 
 tially of a solution of cellulose nitrate or pyroxylin, the sec- 
 ond class comprising the varnishes made by dissolving cellu- 
 lose acetate. According to a paper presented by Gustavue 
 J, Esselen, Jr., before the Northeast Section of the American 
 Chemical Society. 
 
 The great outstanding difference between the coatings given 
 by cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate dopes is the in- 
 flammability of the latter, a difference which will probably 
 be emphasized more and more as the use of airplanes for 
 peaceful purposes increases. Cellulose acetate dopes leave a 
 non-inflammable finish. The relative behavior of the coat- 
 ings left by the two types of dope is well illustrated by the 
 fact that some "gasoline can be poured on the piece of fabric 
 coated with a good cellulose acetate dope and allowed to 
 burn, and the fabric does not ignite. The same test applied 
 to a pyroxlin-coated cloth results in the immediate ignition 
 of the coating, and in the very short space of time there is 
 nothing left of the fabric or coating but a puff of smoke. 
 
 AFFIDAVIT RISK— A risk on which the licensed com- 
 panies have all the insurance they care to write, therefore 
 it is necessary to secure insurance from unlicensed com- 
 panies, through brokers specially licensed for that purpose. 
 
 AFFINITY OF CHEMICALS— The phrase chemical at- 
 traction is sometimes used to denote affinity. It signifies a 
 tendency of different kinds of matter to unite with each other. 
 
 AFRICAN BLACK WOOD— A species of hard wood ex- 
 tensively used in making clarinets and fifes.- 
 
AFTER DAMP (choke damp) mixture is carbon anhy- 
 dride and nitrogen resulting from explosion of fire damp. 
 
 AGAVA — A libre, native of Mexico, called "patent hair," a 
 substitute for horse hair. 
 
 AGENT' — The authorized representative of a company with 
 power to commit a company to liability, make endorsements, 
 collect premiums, sign policies and other similar duties. Re- 
 ceives an over-writing commission above the usual broker-' 
 age. May solicit insurance as a broker. See Broker. '''* 
 
 AGITATOR — A paddle or similar contrivance used to stir 
 or mix material in a kettle or tank while in process of man- 
 ufacture. -^ wiOHO^^i:-. 
 
 AIR-BRUSH — A sprayer operated under air pVes^iir^ for 
 spraying liquids. 
 
 AIR COMPRESSOR — An air pump worked under power 
 for delivering air under pressure for various purposes. 
 
 AIR SPACE — The intervention of an air space preventing 
 direct contact of combustible material with the heated body 
 is essential. This prevents the combustible material attain- 
 ing a dangerous temperature. One of the best known in- 
 sulators for either heat or cold. 
 
 AISLES — Should be maintained in all warehouses or risks 
 where bulk stock is kept to allow of easy access to all parts 
 of the floor in case of fire, and at windows so that a passer- 
 by could see the interior and so detect fire and also allow 
 firemen to enter building. Aisles should be 2 to 4 feet wide. 
 See Clear Space. 
 
 ALARM, AUTOMATIC— A thermostat placed on ceilings, 
 spaced about 10 feet. Heat expands a diaphragm which 
 causes an electrical circuit to send in an alarm to a central 
 station. See Central Stations. 
 
 ALARM, THERMOSTATIC— Alarms consist in brief of 
 two plates which are sensitized to heat, or a thermostatic 
 strip between two plates. A rise in temperature forces the 
 plates together, causing an electrical circuit which transmits 
 the' alarm. See Fire Alarm System; also Combination Red 
 Fire Alarm Box. 
 
 ALARM VALVE — Usually a part of a sprinkler system so 
 designed that when water flows through the sprinkler pipti 
 
14 INSI^ECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 an alarm is transmitted to a central station or to the engine 
 room in the building. See Variable Pressure Alarm Valve. 
 
 ALCOHOL (ethyl or grain)— Distilled from grain. Flash 
 point about 61 degrees F. Denatured alcohol, flash point 
 about 55 degrees F. Methyl alcohol, inflammable, distilled 
 from wood, flash point about 60 degrees F. Wood alcohol 
 distilled from sawdust or wood particles. Flash point about 
 35 to 50 degrees F. Alcohols of different strengths give, off 
 inflammable vapors at different temperatures. Alcohol burns 
 with a pale blue flame because it is very rich in carbon. Can 
 be extinguished with water. See Wood Alcohol. 
 
 ALCOHOL DISTILLERIES— Distilling from high wines 
 and juices of fruits or grains. Setting of, and ventilation of 
 furnaces important. Stills to have plenty of ventilation. Stor- 
 age to be in separate building. 
 
 ALCOHOL RECLAIMING— Used alcohol placed in 
 steam heated mixing-tank with agitator, treated with fresh 
 alcohol and other ingredients and then distilled in steam ket- 
 tles, the. alcohol passing through various water-cooled recti- 
 fiers and then put in drums. Distilling apparatus should be 
 in well-ventilated buildings. 
 
 ALCOHOL (Solidified) is now put up in cube form 
 for cooking and heating. It can be used on a sheet of metal 
 or asbestos without a burner. 
 
 ALDEHYDES — Derived from sulphuric acid, alcohol and 
 bichromate of potash. Volatile and inflammable. It is the 
 intermediate product in the oxidation of an alcohol to an acid. 
 
 ALIEN — See Enemy Alien Clause. 
 
 ALIGNUM FIRE DOORS are a composition of raw 
 ground asbestos mixed with silicate of soda and placed be- 
 tween two sheet metal plates greased with paraffin to pre- 
 vent adherence. Wood strips about 2 inches square are 
 used to form the shape. Material is then placed in a hydrau- 
 lic steam press to compress the substance, and the heat drives 
 t.he moisture out. Wire mesh or screens are sometimes 
 placed in the mixture. Doors may or may not be metal cov- 
 ered. The only woodworking is the occasional cutting and 
 planing of wood strips to size. Class may be likened to a 
 general metal worker but susceptibility not so great. Mild 
 
AtMg H0US£^S 15 
 
 painting hazard. Sometimes use small quantities of zapon 
 for giving a finished surface. Zapon is a highly inflammable 
 lacquer with a cellulose base. 
 
 ALKALI — A substance capable of combining with and 
 thereby neutralizing or counteracting acids. 
 
 ALKALOIDS are such substances as morphine, cocaine 
 and the like. 
 
 ALLOY — When metals are melted and mixed together 
 they form alloys. 
 
 ALMOND OIL is used in pharmacy for making emulsions 
 and ointments. 
 
 ALMOND PASTE manufacturing. Grinding and crush- 
 ing almonds, mixing and cooking in steam heated kettles 
 with glucose. 
 
 ALMS HOUSES — Correctional institutions and insane 
 asylums have a severe moral hazard due to the defective men- 
 talities and proclivities of the inmates, such as pyromaniacs, 
 which might take a vicious turn and set fire to the building 
 to escape therefrom. Usually of a large area, with open 
 shafts and well holes. Boiler house, kitchen, laundry, paint 
 and carpenter shops, also attics used for storage are impor- 
 tant hazards. See Asylums. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST— A rating bureau booklet con- 
 taining charges to be added to the ''base rate" for goods in 
 storage stores. See Storage. 
 
 ALTERNATING CURRENT— Difference between direct 
 and alternating current: Direct current flows continually in 
 one direction; alternating current flows back and forth, con- 
 stantly changing direction around the circuit. A direct cur- 
 rent of same voltage is considered the more dangerous. 
 
 ALTERNATING (MOTION— Up or down, or backward 
 and forward, instead of revolving. 
 
 ALUM POTASSIUM (aluminum sulphate)— Can be used 
 as good fire-extinguishing agents. 
 
 ALUMINATES — Compounds of alumina with potassium 
 or sodium. 
 
 ALUMINUM — A white metal which melts about the fusing 
 point of zinc. In powdered form, burns readily. The manu- 
 facturing process is very hazardous. 
 
16 INSI^ECTION Ai^D UllDERWRltiJJC 
 
 ALUMINUM BRONZE POWDERS are of different de- 
 grees of fineness, the finer forms being extremely hazardous 
 on account of the ease with which they may become ignited. 
 Water when applied to the burning powder increases the 
 force of the flames and may create an explosion. 
 
 ALUMINUM PAINT— See Bronzing Liquids. 
 
 AMALGAM — A combination of any metal with mercury. 
 
 AMBER — A fossil resin. Inflammable. Highly electrical 
 when rubbed. Used extensively for pipe stems. Imitation 
 amber, may be celluloid or gum resins. 
 
 AMMETER, AMPEREMETER— An instrument for meas- 
 uring the quantity of electrical current flowing in a circuit. 
 
 AMMONIA is a compound of two gases, hydrogen and 
 nitrogen, one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of hydro- 
 gen; it is a gas at ordinary temperature and pressure. Chiefly 
 obtained as a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating 
 gas from the distillation of coal, and from the manufacture 
 of coke in by-product coke ovens. 
 
 AMMONIA GAS— Not inflammable. In case of fire the 
 heat will cause the gas to expand and cylinders to burst 
 (coils usually have lead joints which expand and prevent 
 rupture). Ammonia gas will kill almost instantly when a 
 fire breaks out where ammonia is used for refrigeration, 
 therefore no one will stay to fight it and the plant burns un- 
 less the firemen are equipped with helmets. In cold storage 
 risks, heat has been known to expand the cold air to such an 
 extent as to burst the walls of the building. It is soluble in 
 water, the solution commonly called aqua ammonia. See 
 Refrigeration. 
 
 AMMONIA HELMET as manufactured by American-La- 
 France Fire ^Engine Co., consists simply of a sturdy leather 
 helmet which is pulled over the head, and a tank which is 
 swung from the shoulder. By means of a flexible metallic 
 tube, pure air from the tank is passed to the interior of the 
 helmet, thus affording the wearer an ample supply of pure 
 air; simply opening a valve makes the outfit ready for action. 
 
 AMMONIA WATER— See Aqua Ammonia. 
 
 AMMONIUM CARBONATE— See Heat Liberation. 
 
 AMMONIUM NITRATE— See Heat Liberation. 
 
: AMMUNITION FACTORIES 17 
 
 AMMONIUM HYDROXIDE— See Aqua Ammonia. 
 
 AMMONIUM PICRATE— A crystalline powder of yellow 
 color, highly explosive. 
 
 AMMONIUM SALTS are volatile. 
 
 AMMONIUM SULPHATE— Derived from gas works; 
 principally used in fertilizer plants. Not considered 
 hazardous. 
 
 AMMUNITION — Not necessarily the same as munitions, 
 the former applying to explosives and the latter to supplies 
 of war. 
 
 AMMUNITION FACTORIES— Blending, dry houses and 
 loading of fuses are the most hazardous. Loading fuses, if 
 properly arranged, is not dangerous. Powder house drying 
 and blending-houses are seldom insured. 
 
 AMOLENE — A benzine substitute, classed as kerosene. 
 
 AMPERE — The electrical unit for measuring current, as 
 200 ampere. An ampere is that current which one volt will 
 force through one ohm of resistance. 
 
 AMPEREMETER— See Ammeter. 
 
 AMYL ALCOHOL— Prepared from the residue of grain 
 alcohol distillation, known also as fusel oil. 
 
 AMYL ACETATE— Prepared by treating amyl alcohol 
 with acetate of lime in the presence of sulphuric acid and 
 distilling. A clear, colorless liquid, having an odor like 
 bananas. Used as a solvent for nitrocellulose. Flash point 
 65 to 70 degrees F. See Banana Oil. 
 
 AMYL ACETATE LACQUER (Pear Perfume) contains 
 celluloid in solution. 
 
 AMUSEMENT ENTERPRISES— Usually large area, light 
 frame construction in sparsely settled locations; season occu- 
 pancy only. Fires caused by cigarettes and matches. Bad 
 fire record. 
 
 AN-ffiSTHETICS — Volatile liquids (used to produce anes- 
 thesia), such as ether, chloroform, nitrous oxides. 
 
 ANGLE IRON — A bar of iron with cross section shaped 
 like the letter "L" or at an angle of 90 .degrees. 
 
 ANGOLA is a mixture of cotton and wool. 
 
 ANHYDRIDES— Compounds free from water. See Hy- 
 drates. 
 
18 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ANHYDROUS AMMONIA, by reason of its ability to 
 liquify under comparatively low pressure, is most generally 
 employed in refrigerating and ice making machines. It is 
 compressed liquid gas, non-combustible. 
 
 ANILINE is a product of coal tar produced by distillation. 
 Also prepared by reducing nitro-benzine with iron and hy- 
 drochloric acid. 
 
 ANILINE DYES— Process consists of cold mixing in 
 wooden tanks, boiling in steel tanks, kettles and retorts (some 
 under pressure), gas or steam heated. The raw materials are 
 aniline oil, napthalene, nitro-benzole, zinc dust, sodium 
 nitrate, sodium nitrite, nitric acid, fuming and concentrated 
 sulphuric acid, muriatic, hydrochloric and acetic acids, caus- 
 tic soda, sodium bisulphide, carbolic acid, dimethyl and 
 ethyl aniline, salt-petre, castor oil, barium peroxide, prussiate 
 of potash, bichromate of potash, red oil, hydrogen peroxide, 
 salts, etc. The first process is to make the intermediates 
 (use dimethyl and ethyl aniline and similar substances), or 
 base for dyes, and then to produce and precipitate the colors 
 themselves, followed by drying, grinding and mixing of 
 finished colors. Some of these chemicals are inflammable and 
 carelessness or accident will cause fire or explosion by com- 
 bining certain chemicals. Large quantities of chemicals, al- 
 cohol, acids and oxidizing agents are a source of danger. 
 
 In nitrosating, chemicals (usually dimethyl and diethyl ani- 
 line), are placed in wood tanks with water, ice and acids, 
 then treated with solution of sodium nitrite and acids, dried 
 in centrifugal extractors. , 
 
 Autoclaves are used in manufacturing intermediate aniline 
 products such as dimethyl and ethyl aniline (a mixture of 
 aniline oil, alcohol and acids). They are steel retorts, asbes- 
 tos clad, heated by direct gas heat, under pressure, to about 
 350 deg. F., and developing and maintaining a pressure of 
 about 500 lbs. for several hours, the resulting product con- 
 tained therein and thus formed is treated with alkalies, re- 
 dissolved and washed. Autoclaves should have a relief valve 
 of one-half inch and vent and smoke pipes to outer air. 
 
 Color drying and grinding and alcohol reclaiming are se- 
 vere hazards. When grinding dry colors, fires are so fre- 
 
ANIMAL OILS. 19 
 
 quent that an employee is usually stationed 'at the grinder 
 with a hose or fire extinguisher. See Paste Colors. See 
 Color Works. 
 
 ANIMAL CHARCOAL (or Bone Black) consists of a 
 charcoal formed by the destructive distillation of bones. Non- 
 inflammable solid. See Charcoal. 
 
 ANIMAL OILS are divided into two classes — the first class 
 is prepared from the fat of land animals, while the second 
 class is derived from fish or some of the warm blooded ma- 
 rine animals. They are inflammable and would readily assist 
 a fire in a building, but are practically without the spon- 
 taneous combustion hazard. See Vegetable Oils. 
 
 ANIMI — A resinous gum used in varnish manufacturing. 
 
 ANNATTO — A yellow-red pigment, chiefly used in dyeing 
 silk. 
 
 ANNEALING — The heating and gradual cooling of metals, 
 glass, etc., for the purpose of removing brittleness or in- 
 creasing ductility. High temperatures required and setting 
 of furnaces important. 
 
 ANNEALING FURNACES (used in glass works), resem- 
 ble ordinary bakers' ovens, arranged in series of three or four 
 adjoining, and heated by gas flames. The hot glassware is 
 introduced by hand and removed from one oven to another, 
 each being heated at a reduced temperature to perfect an- 
 nealing without rupture. 
 
 ANTHRACENE— A product of the distillation of coal 
 found in the residual tar. Boiling point about 550 degrees F. 
 Anthracene is separated from the tar distillate by cooling and 
 freezing, and is finally purified by washings in naphtha. This 
 process should only be done in a detached building and there 
 should be no artificial light or heat therein. 
 
 ANTIMONY oxidizes when very hot. Its oxide is volatile. 
 
 ANTIMONY SULPHIDE, used in match heads, very in- 
 flammable and in burning gives off sulphur dioxide. 
 
 ANTIQUES — Usually consist of porcelains, furniture, 
 draperies, odds and ends of novelties. The collection of an- 
 tiques is usually a hobby and in the eyes of the owner, the 
 value increases in the event of a fire. Should not be insured 
 unless inventoried. Dealers in high class goods usually keep 
 
20 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 die smaller and more valuable articles in a vault. Real an- 
 tiques cannot be replaced, and, like old wine, the value in- 
 creases with age. The moral hazard is important. Inspec- 
 tion and mercantile report required by most underwriters. 
 Antiques, so-called, are being made in factories devoted to 
 that purpose. See Art Galleries. 
 
 ANVIL MANUFACTURING— Hazards of machine shop, 
 foundry, pattern shop and storage. Large drop hammers are 
 sometimes used, and small fires may so affect them as to 
 warp the beds of the hammers and render them useless, ex- 
 cept as old iron. 
 
 ANVILS — The combustible floor, 4 feet all around, should 
 be protected against falling red-hot particles. 
 
 APARTMENT HOTEL— A hotel in which apartments are 
 rented in suites for a term usually not less than a month, in 
 which there are no kitchens, dining rooms or serving rooms, 
 but a common dining room. See Hotels. 
 
 APARTMENT HOUSE— A building occupied by three or 
 more families for dwelling purposes only. The "New Law" 
 apartments (of New York City), are much more desirable 
 risks than the old type in that the grade floor, and sometimes 
 the second floor, is of fire-proof construction; i. e., brick, 
 terra cotta, or concrete arches on steel beams, and the hall- 
 ways and dumb waiter shafts throughout are either brick, 
 terra cotta, or plaster block witth metal-covered (kalameined) 
 doors at openings. The exterior light courts are usually very 
 large. 
 
 The old type of apartments are of the ordinary joisted 
 floor construction; the floor openings, such as stairways, vent 
 shafts and dumb waiter shafts, are of combustible material. 
 The exterior light courts are usually very small and have 
 ordinary windows facing the windows of adjoining buildings 
 in the row. Many fires have traveled from one building to 
 another through these exterior (or interior) shafts. See 
 Dwellings. 
 
 APEX— A point in either chord of a truss where two web 
 members meet. 
 
 APOTHECARIES— See Drug Stores. 
 
 APPLICATION FOR INSURANCE— Legally, it should 
 
APPRAISALS FOR GO-INSURANCE 21 
 
 be made out and signed by the applicant. In common prac- 
 tice, an application is made verbally or the facts concerning 
 the proposed insurance are written in by the agent or coun- 
 terman. It should state the name, location, amount, date of 
 commencement and expiration, property covered, liens arid 
 encumbrances. See Binder. 
 
 APPRAISALS FOR CO-INSURANCE— When it is de- 
 sired to insure buildings held by trustees, executors, admin- 
 istrators or others acting in a fiduciary capacity on behalf 
 of minors or incompetents, a certified appraiser may be en- 
 gaged to fix the amount in advance so that the policies will 
 comply with the provisions of the co-insurance clause. Ap- 
 praisers' fees are usually as follows: Valuation $10,000 or un- 
 der, $10; $10,000 to $20,000, $1 per thousand; $20,000 to $100,- 
 000. $2 for first $20,000 and 50 cents per $1,000 in excess over 
 $20,000; $100,000 or over, $60 for first $100,000 and 25 cents 
 per $1,000 for the excess of $100,000.' 
 
 APRON= — A covering of timber or metal to protect a sur- 
 face against the action of water flowing over it. In theatres, 
 it is the portion of the stage floor which projects into the 
 auditorium. Also has many other meanings. 
 
 APPROVED — Signifies that the device used has the ap- 
 proval of the Board of Underwriters, and has been tested by 
 the Underwriters Laboratories. Such devices are always 
 labelled. 
 
 AQUA AMMONIA — A clear colorless liquid consists of 
 ammonia gas dissolved in water. Non-hazardous. 
 
 AQUA FORTIS is the common name for nitric acid. 
 
 AQUA REGIA— See Nitro-Hydrochloric Acid. 
 
 ARBATINE — A paint thinner, similar to turpentine. 
 
 ARBOR— See Journal. 
 
 ARC — Made by electricity; is always productive of heat, 
 the intensity of which is dependent upon the voltage and 
 amount of current. 
 
 ARC LAMP — An electric lamp in which the light is pro- 
 duced by an electric arc formed by passing a current across 
 the space between two carbons. Open arc lamps should 
 never be used where explosives or inflammable vapors, dust 
 or light flyings are present. 
 
i2 INSPECTION AND UNDERwklTlNG 
 
 •ARCADES— See Shooting Galleries. 
 
 ARCH, as used in building construction, is that portion of 
 a' floor between beams or girders; or an opening through a 
 wall. 
 
 ARCHITECT'S PLANS— Drawings, specifications and 
 blue prints take a higher rate than the office fixtures. Ben- 
 zine is used for cleaning smudge marks from tracings. The 
 
 Before any building is erected, the architect should have 
 a competent insurance engineer review the plans with a 
 double purpose in view: First, to make a building safer. 
 Second, to lower the insurance rate. 
 
 wise architect will submit the plans for his proposed build- 
 ing to an insurance rating expert before the work is started 
 so that he may obtain the lowest rate of insurance when the 
 structure is completed. See Plans. 
 
 ARCO SPOTZOFF— A cleaning fluid, flashes at ordinary 
 temperatures; classed as volatile, inflammable liquid. 
 
1 
 
 ARMORIES 23 
 
 AREA OF A BUILDING includes the thickness of the 
 walls. Floor area is the space inside of the walls excluding 
 partitions. The greater the area, the greater are the possi- 
 bilities of a fire spreading. Areas in excess of 5,000 feet are 
 usually penalized in rating schedules. Fire stops of brick or 
 concrete walls, 12 inches thick, with approved fire doors, 
 should be provided to decrease the area. 
 
 AREAWAYS — Fires are spread to basements by means of 
 poorly protected window openings. Pedestrians drop 
 cigarette butts and mischievous boys make fires in them. 
 Careless tenants use them for rubbish dumps. See Cellar 
 Fires. 
 
 ARGOLS — The scrapings from the inside of wine casks, 
 from which cream of tartar is made. 
 
 ARMORED — A name sometimes used for reinforced con- 
 crete. 
 
 ARMORIES — The enormous area and height are the pre- 
 dominating poor features. The height and span of roof re- 
 quire exceptionally heavy walls and supports. Hazards of 
 careless smokers, armorers' shops, ammunition storage, paint 
 shops, stables, mild dance hall hazard and hospital. On Jan- 
 uary 17, 1917, the Second Regiment Armory at Albany burned 
 causing a nearly total loss. About 2,000,000 rounds of am- 
 munition exploded, impeding the progress of the firemen and 
 rendering fire fighting dangerous and difficult. 
 
 ARRIS — The sharp edge or ridge on stone or metal. 
 f ARSENALS usually contain a large amount of explosives. 
 The mixing and blending should be located away from ex- 
 posed buildings. 
 
 ARSENIC ACID— A white crystalline solid material, not 
 inflammable. 
 
 ARSENIC TRIOXIDE— See arsenious acid. 
 
 ARSENIOUS ACID— A white, solid matter not inflamma- 
 ble. 
 
 ARSON — The burning of property, usually spite work or 
 for revenge; malicious burning. 
 
 ART GALLERIES — Usually large open areas with open or 
 poorly protected floor openings and numerous well holes. The 
 contents, mainly paintings, bric-a-brac, and other easily dam- 
 
24 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 aged articles. As a rule under careful management, but sub- 
 ject to severe loss in case of fire. See Antiques. . 
 
 ART GOODS — A delicate stock usually consisting of a 
 large proportion of fabrics both modern and old, which 
 usually prove a total loss in case of fire, except pure gold 
 or silver threaded goods, which can be smeltered and the 
 precious metal reclaimed. Pictures and bric-a-brac form a 
 large value. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL FLOWERS AND FEATHERS— See Flow- 
 ers and Feathers. 
 
 ASBESTIC — A composition mined in Canada containing a 
 large percentage of asbestos. 
 
 ASBESTIC PLASTER is made by mixing lime, putty, 
 freshly slaked lime, and a certain percentage of asbestos. 
 
 ASBESTOS— A mineral, both fibrous and crystalline. Can 
 be carded, spun and woven. Not afTected by acids. Three 
 general classes, amphibole, antophyllite and serpentine. The 
 first two are much alike and are silicates of lime, magnesia 
 and alumina (hornblend). The serpentine is a hydrated sili- 
 cate of magnesia. 
 
 ASBESTOS BOARDS— Used as lumber; are approximate- 
 ly 80 per cent, portland cement and 20 per cent, asbestos fibre, 
 moulded and pressed into sheets one-eighth inch to one inch 
 thick under hydraulic pressure. Can be worked with ma- 
 chine tools. 
 
 ASBESTOS GOODS— Such as paper, textiles, gaskets, 
 washers, curtains, shingles, boards, belt linings and electrical 
 goods. Processes are mixing, grinding, rolling, picking, card- 
 ing, weaving, spinning, drying with direct heat. Materials 
 used include benzine, japan, mineral oils, asphaltum, graphite, 
 wax, cotton and excelsior. Hazards include carpenter shop, 
 foundry, metal working, paper and textile machinery, print- 
 ing. In making roof paper use paper and cloth saturated 
 with asphalt, oil solutions, cement, and coated with rubber 
 solution thinned with benzine. In making tape and washers 
 do weaving and winding and treat with rubber cement, then 
 vulcanize. The foundry, mixing house for naphtha, rubber and 
 cement mixtures, the oil house, the benzine vault and japan- 
 ing room should be outside in separate enclosures. Drying, 
 
26 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 picking, carding, can soldering and vulcanizing are also im- 
 portant hazards. 
 
 ASBESTOS INSULATORS— For pipe coverings and boiler 
 casings are composed of about 85 per cent carbonate of mag- 
 nesia and 15 per cent asbestos fibre. When applied at least 
 1 inch thick are very effective. Applied same as cement. Be- 
 sides its economic value, it decreases the degree of heat ra- 
 diated from a boiler or pipe. See Insulators. 
 
 ASBESTOS PAINT— See Fire Resisting Solutions. 
 
 ASBESTOS THEATRE CURTAINS— The proscenium 
 curtain shall be composed of asbestos of long, tough, flexible 
 fibre, twisted and wrapped upon substantial brass wire thread 
 and woven into a close, even cloth, 3 feet wide. The strips 
 must be lapped not less than 1 inch and sewed with two 
 lines of asbestos and brass wire stitching. All strips shall be 
 in one continuous length the full height of the curtain. 
 There shall be at least 4 laps of the cloth at the top and at 
 the bottom of the curtain to form pockets for the top and 
 bottom bars, and the curtain shall be lapped on the sides to 
 form a continuous reinforcement for the guide clips. 
 
 The curtain shall be at least 36 inches wider than the pro- 
 scenium masonry opening, and at least 2 feet higher than the 
 highest point of the proscenium arch. It shall have wrought 
 iron or rolled steel top and bottom bars proportioned^ to size 
 to the width of the curtain, but not less than 1 inch by 2^^ 
 inches. The top and bottom bars shall be connected by four 
 steel wire cables i% inches in diameter to support the weight 
 of the bottom bar. 
 
 The curtain must be supported by steel lifting cables, one 
 at each end and intermediate points not over 10 feet apart. 
 It shall be balanced by a counterweight only to such extent 
 that when it is tripped the descent will be made in 15 sec- 
 onds. The curtain must operate in guides bolted every 2 
 feet to the proscenium wall. All apparatus connected with 
 the curtain or its operation shall be of metal. All paint used 
 on the curtain must be incombustible. Underwriters' re- 
 quirements.) See Theatres. 
 
 ASBESTOS WOOD is made of short asbestos fibres. 
 
 ASCHE BUILDING FIRE (Triangle Waist), March 25, 
 
ASPHALT 27 
 
 1911, 23-29 Washington Place, New York City, 10-story fire- 
 proof, steel and cast iron skeleton construction, terra cotta 
 arches, ironwork protected with cement and tile. Fire sup- 
 posed to have been caused by cigarette or match dropped in 
 basket of clippings. The 145 lives lost due principally to 
 locked exit doors. 
 
 ASHES should be kept only in metal receptacles, the bot- 
 tom of which should be raised above the floor. Numerous 
 fires are caused by hot ashes in wooden or cardboard boxes. 
 
 ASHLAR — A wall facing of stone, usually of a granular 
 nature such as granite or marble. Easily damaged by direct 
 or radiated heat from an exposure fire resulting in consider- 
 able loss under building insurance policies. 
 
 ASPHALINE consists of bran impregnated with chlorate 
 of potash. 
 
 ASPHALT — A bituminous substance which probably owes 
 its origin to a vegetable matter which has been subjected to 
 a slow process of decomposition or decay resulting in the 
 production of a bituminous coal, from which, by volcanic 
 agency, the asphalt has been distilled and diffused over 
 neighboring districts. 
 
 ASPHALT WORKS— In most plants the asphalt is already 
 refined when received from the previous plant, then placed in 
 coal fired or steam kettles, then roughly mixed with cracked 
 stone and sand from steam heated rotary driers. Usually lo- 
 cated in old frame buildings outside of protection. This 
 class is not considered desirable insurance. 
 
 ASPHALTUM PAINT OR VARNISH consists of as- 
 phaltum solution of benzine or other solvents. 
 
 ASSAYERS — Careful class of people. Ores are ground, 
 washed and valuable minerals extracted by dissolving same 
 in acid (heated) baths. The minerals are then reclaimed by 
 electricity and melted in annealing and smelting furnaces. 
 The laboratory and acid sections are the most hazard- 
 ous. 
 
 ASSETS are the funds, stocks, bonds or other resources 
 from which the company obtains funds to carry on the busi- 
 ness. See Liability of a Company. 
 
 ASSIGNEE — A person assigned by a court to take charge 
 
28 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of the affairs of an insolvent firm, to wind up an estate or 
 similar functions. See Trade Reports. 
 
 ASSIGNEE'S SALES STORES— Goods purchased at low 
 figures may be insured for much larger amounts. Should 
 only be written after careful inspection. 
 
 ASSURED, OR THE INSURED— The person mentioned 
 in the policy as the legal owner or custodian of property 
 set forth in the form of the policy. 
 
 ASTRAL OIL— See Mineral-Burning Oil. 
 
 ASTROGAL — A small moulding about semi-circular or 
 semi-elliptic and either plain or ornamented by carving. 
 
 ASYLUMS — Hazards of manual-training class rooms, work 
 shops, weaving raffia and dyeing same with aniline or ben- 
 zine-thinned colors, carpet weaving. See Alms Houses. 
 
 "ATE" — Chemical termination applied to certain salts. 
 
 ATOM — An indivisible particle. The smallest portion into 
 which an elemental substance can be divided. 
 
 ATTICS should be kept clean of rubbish or old furniture, 
 as the dry, unprotected wood is easily ignited and the fire 
 flashes quickly over the surface. In dwellings, usually the 
 dumping place for all kinds of trash. In frame rows, where 
 attics or roof spaces communicate, fires travel quickly from 
 one building to the entire row. See Roof Space, also Frame 
 Rows. 
 
 ATTRITION MACHINES are high speed machines, re- 
 volving at 1,500 or more revolutions per minute. Consist of 
 two metal discs, separated by a narrow space and turning in 
 opposite directions, between which the material to be ground 
 is passed. 
 
 AUCTION STOCKS are of varying description, from dia- 
 monds and precious stones to second-hand clothing and fur- 
 niture. In the latter class, the premises are usually crowded, 
 untidy and have work shops for repairing and refinishing 
 goods. As a class, are not desirable. 
 
 AUTHORIZATIONS — Fire insurance companies have un- 
 derwriters or examiners to make authorizations on the risks 
 which they assume. Authorizations usually read so much on 
 building and so much on contents. Say an authorization is 
 $125,000 on building or $75,000 on contents, or three-fifths as 
 
AUTOMATIC FIRE DOOR RELEASE 29 
 
 much contents as building being five-thirds as much building 
 as contents. In other words, if the line is $125,000 and a 
 $25,000 policy is written, the company is still open for $100,- 
 000 line on building, or three-fifths as much on the contents, 
 $60,000. See Reinsurance. 
 
 AUTOCLAVE— See Aniline Dyes. 
 
 AUTOGENOUS WELDING— Acetylene gas, blau gas or 
 hydrogen used. Two cylinders of 250 cubic feet of com- 
 pressed combustible gas or one day's supply permitted. Re- 
 serve cylinders of gas should be kept outside of building 
 sorne distance away. If inside, to be in vault of 8 inches of 
 brickwork or 4 inches of concrete, with approved fire door, 
 and ventilated to outer air. The National Board permits, at 
 one time, five cylinders to be kept, if necessary, in a double- 
 walled metal closet, ventilated, with fire door equivalent to 
 walls of the closet. See Blow Pipes, also Oxy-Acetylene 
 Welding. 
 
 AUTOMAT— See Embroideries. 
 
 AUTOMATIC DOOR OR WINDOW— One which closes 
 automatically by means of a device operated by heat. 
 
 AUTOMATIC FIRE DOOR RELEASE— In the near 
 future it is expected that the N. F. P. A. will require an 
 automatic door release in place of the present fusible links 
 in almost all cases. After exhaustive tests as to the relative 
 efificiency of the fusible links and a fire-door release, the 
 N. F. P. A. says: 
 
 "The rate of temperature rise device is very much more 
 sensitive to fire than the fusible link, and under the same 
 fire conditions will operate and release fire-doors far in ad- 
 vance of the fusible link, 
 
 "In the tests made, the rate of temperature rise device 
 operated in all cases in sufficient time to permit the doors 
 to close before there was any danger of fire passing through 
 the wall opening, while in only one case was it clear that 
 this was accomplished by a fusible link, and in this case the 
 margin of safety was slight. In two cases the fusible links 
 failed to operate, although the rate of temperature rise device 
 operated in 34 seconds and in 1 minute and 15 seconds, re- 
 spectively, in these tests. 
 
30 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 **In the first and second tests, the rate of temperature ris< 
 device operated in approximately one-third of the time re 
 quired for the most sensitive fusible links, and in abou 
 one-fourth of the time required for the least sensitive of th« 
 fusible links. 
 
 "In the third and fourth tests, the rate of temperature ris( 
 device operated and the fusible links failed to operate. 
 
 "The tests indicate that under average normal condition! 
 in fairly still air an approved form of rate of temperature 
 rise device will probably operate in less than one minut< 
 when exposed to reasonably small freely burning fires severa 
 feet distant, and that 1^ minutes is a safe limit of per 
 formance under such conditions. The tests also indicate 
 that about double this, or 3 minutes, is a reasonable limita 
 tion for fusible links under the conditions mentioned." 
 
 The release is an approved device of a pneumatic compen 
 sating type, the mechanism consisting of one or more ai 
 chambers, a system of levers and a diaphragm mounted in ; 
 metal case. The release operates when the rate of tempera 
 ture increase is abnormal, as in fire conditions, or at the rat< 
 of 15 degrees or more a minute. The device will release ; 
 fire-door from an incipient fire 25 feet distant. 
 
 AUTOMATIC SPRINKLERS— See Sprinklers. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE BODY BUILDERS may use converte( 
 wagon builders or wheelwright shops. Hazards of wood an( 
 metal working include oily floors, varnish and paint hazard 
 celluloid for windshields, upholstering, picker for hair, gaso 
 lene in tanks of cars, gasoline for cleaning grease from part 
 which are to be painted. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE FIRES originating about the engine fron 
 back-fires, short circuits of electric wiring, overheate< 
 breaks, gasoline on fire in carburettor, etc., are hard to ex 
 tinguish. A quantity of oil on the engine or in drip pan feed 
 the fire. Water is of little value. Sand or dirt thrown oi 
 is better, but a carbon-tetra chloride (base) extinguisher i 
 best. See Back-fires in Automobiles, also Gasoline Spray fo 
 Automobiles and Oxygen Cleaning Process. 
 
 AUTOMOBILE TIRES— Many, when shipped from th 
 factory, are wrapped in a paper, the inner side of which ha 
 
AVERAGE OR CO-INSURANCE CLAUSE 31 
 
 been treated with a water-proof solution. When the paper 
 is wet, the asphaltum composition adheres to the tire. Unless 
 it can be thoroughly removed with benzine, the tires are 
 classed as seconds. All tire stocks should be skidded. 
 
 AVERAGE OR CO-INSURANCE CLAUSE— The 80 per 
 cent clause is an "equalizer." It equalizes the payment for 
 indemnity and cost of same among property owners by com- 
 pelling the insured to become a co-insurer (as an individual 
 insurance company), when he fails to maintain the proper 
 percentage of insurance to value. It does not mean that a 
 company pays only 80 per cent of the amount of loss, but 
 it does mean that where there is a deficiency of insurance, 
 payment is made only in the ratio that the insurance bears 
 to 80 per cent of the actual or cash value of the property cov- 
 ered. The clause is inoperative when: 1 — The conditions 
 have been fulfilled; 2 — When the insurance exceeds 80 per 
 cent of value; 3 — When loss exceeds 80 per cent of value; 4 — 
 In case of total loss. 
 
 In case of total loss, the insured automatically becomes a 
 co-insurer when his insurance is less than the value of the 
 property. He can collect only the face value of his pol- 
 icies and must stand the balance of the loss himself. When 
 the loss exceeds 80 per cent of value, the company pays 
 policy in full. 
 
 The average clause was established for the purpose of 
 forming a uniform basis of value upon which rates could be 
 fixed without unfair discrimination against either the insur- 
 ance company or the insured. It has been demonstrated 
 that values would not be insured above 50 per cent were it 
 not for the co-insurance clause as the average loss seldom 
 exceeds that figure and the companies would thus be deprived 
 of an equal proportion of premiums. Furthermore, poor risks 
 are usually fully insured and losses o^ such property are paid 
 from premiums derived from good risks. From the side of 
 the insured, the justice of the average clause may be ex- 
 plained thus: Two building of $10,000 each are erected side 
 by side. One owner decides to insure for $2,500 at the rate 
 of 1 per cent and pays a premium of $25 with no co-insurance 
 required. His neighbor insures for $5,000, at rate of 1 per 
 
32 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 cent, and pays $50 premium with no co-insurance. Fire oc- 
 curs and damages each building to the extent of $2,500, which 
 amount each owner collects. The person carrying the larger 
 policy has been discriminated against as his neighbor collects 
 100 per cent of insurance to his 50 per cent. 
 
 The 80 per cent clause is used where the actual or sound 
 value fluctuates; the 100 per cent, clause where the owner al- 
 ways knows the value of l;lie property. 
 
 Example, showing inequality of premium income and loss 
 payment, with and without co-insurance: 
 
 Ins. Co-in- 
 Value. carried. Rate. Premium, surance. 
 
 Ins. 
 
 required 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Co. 
 
 pays. 
 
 $10000 $2000 1% $20. none 
 10000 5000 1% 50. 80% 
 
 $2000 
 8000 
 
 $2000 
 2000 
 
 $2000 
 1250 
 
 Example— 80 per cent, co-insurance clause: 
 
 
 
 
 Value of Ins. Ins. De- 
 property, required, carried. ficiency 
 
 Loss. 
 
 Co. 
 pays. 
 
 
 $10000 $8000 $6000 $2000 
 
 $4000 
 
 $3000 or 
 
 6/8ths 
 
 Assured's 
 
 proportion 
 
 1000 or 
 
 2/8ths 
 
 Example — 80 per cent, clause when loss exceeds 80 per cent, of value :. 
 Value of Ins. Ins. De- Co. 
 
 property, required. carried. ficiency Loss. pays. 
 
 $10000 $8000 $6000 $2000 $8500 $6000 
 
 See Appraisals; see Adjustments. 
 
 100 Per Cent. Clause — Means that the insured agrees 
 to carry insurance equal to the full value of the property cov- 
 ered. Similar to purchasing commodities, the company al- 
 lows a reduction of 10 per cent, in the rate where the clause 
 is attached to policies as an incentive to buy more insurance. 
 The benefit to the assured also lies in the fact that he can 
 carry 20 per cent, more insurance with but \2y2 per cent, 
 more premium outlay by virtue of the 10 per cent, rate 
 reduction. Thus: 
 
 Property 
 value. 
 
 Co-insurance. 
 
 Ins. 
 required. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Premium, 
 
 $5000 
 5000 
 
 80% 
 100% 
 
 $4000 
 5000 
 
 1% 
 1% -10 
 
 $40.00 
 45.00 
 
 Example — 100 per cent, co-insurance clause : 
 
 Value of Ins. Ins. De- Co. 
 
 property, required. carried. ficiency Loss. pays. 
 
 $10000 $10000 $8000 $2000 $5000 $4000 or 8/lOths 
 
 Assured stands balance or 1000 or 2/lOths 
 
AVERAGE RISK 33 
 
 AVERAGE RISK— The basis of all insurance, fire, life, ma- 
 rine, etc., is based on the law of average. In fire underwrit- 
 ing, the "line" is based on the average inherent physical con- 
 dition and hazards of each class of risk. A risk below aver- 
 age is one wherein the conditions surrounding it inject haz- 
 ards or conditions not found in the ordinary risk, and is above 
 average when the fire hazard is lessened by the absence of 
 any substance, process, etc., which may be classed as one of 
 the inherent hazards of the class. See Line. 
 
 AWNING MANUFACTURING— Cutting, sewing, pipe 
 cutting, threading, and painting are practically the only 
 hazards. 
 
 AWNINGS — It is desirable, from a company's standpoint, 
 to leave this item out of the building form, as many fires are 
 caused by cigarettes and matches carelessly thrown from 
 windows onto the awnings. Forms usually limit the amount 
 of coverage to a nominal sum. 
 
 AXLE BOX— See Journal Box. 
 
 AXLE GREASE — Made from a mixture of heavy mineral 
 oil with soaps made from the saponification of rosin oil, oleic 
 acid, stearic acid with an alkaline metal and carbonate of 
 soda. Cheap grades made of grease graphite and heavy pe- 
 troleum oils. No boiling is required. Hazards are steam- 
 heated kettles, storage of grease and oily condition of 
 premises. 
 
 AZOTINE — A richly nitrogenous product soluble in water, 
 obtained by treating with superheated steam, fabrics contain- 
 ing wool and cotton. Used as a fertilizer. 
 
 Al METAL POLISH is not an approved benzine sub- 
 stitute. 
 
B 
 
 BACKING — The rough masonry of a wall faced with finer 
 work. 
 
 BACK DRAUGHTS— The phenomena of "back draughts" 
 is the dread of fire fighters, for they never know at what mo- 
 ment they may be caught by one of these outbursts of flame. 
 A "back draught" is really an explosion. When there is not 
 a sufficient supply of air to produce complete combustion, 
 the combustible will give off, in addition to the products of 
 combustion, a gas which is combustible. This gas, when 
 mixed with air, becomes either a combustible or an ex- 
 plosive, according to the mixture. When the adjustment of 
 air and gas is a proper one, the resultant explosion is severe 
 enough to wreck the building. Such a "back draught" is 
 usually accompanied by a burst of flame. 
 
 BACK-FIRES IN GASOLENE ENGINES are caused by 
 the improper "timing" of the gasoline engine and by im- 
 proper adjustment of carburetor. A flame varying in length 
 shoots from the air suction of the carburetor. The distance 
 of the air suction pipe from the floor and from oil and waste 
 depends upon the size of the machine and whether it is of 
 horizontal or vertical type. See Gasoline Engines, also Auto- 
 mobile Fires. 
 
 BACK-PLASTERING— An extra coating of rough brown 
 plaster on lath between the outer sheathing and the inner or 
 finish plaster, thus securing two air spaces. 
 
 BAD FIRE RISKS— (Fireman's Fund Record.) Nice big 
 farmhouses from which the family have moved to town, leav- 
 ing them as camps for hired men, without watchful wives and 
 mothers to smell smoke and care for stoves, lamps and can- 
 dles. The hired men are careless, absent most of the time, 
 and fire occurs. See Moral Hazard. 
 
 BAFFLE PLATE— A metal shield placed midway be- 
 tween the burners of a gas stove and the stand on which it 
 
 34 
 
BAKERIES 35 
 
 rests. Baffles are used in some forms of condensers to 
 ''baffle" the gas or liquid during a distillation process. There 
 are other similar usages. 
 
 BAGASSE BURNER— The furnace in which ''bagasse" or 
 waste sugar cane is burned. 
 
 BAGGING FACTORIES produce considerable lint, and 
 machinery and fixtures are usually coated with it. Main 
 hazard is fibre weaving. As a class, poor fire risks. 
 
 BAKERIES — In order of their hazards — pie, cake, bread, 
 biscuit, cracker, commission. Considerable grease is used in 
 pie and cake bakeries, hence the additional hazard. Commis- 
 sion bakers buy and sell but do no baking. The small 
 bakery is, as a rule, a more serious fire menace than the 
 larger. In large establishments more attention is given to 
 up-keep and care. Brick ovens (wood, coal or gas heated), 
 unless built under sidewalk or under fireproof ceiling, should 
 have plenty of space between top of oven and flooring or 
 roof above, and set on concrete or earth base. Chimney 
 should conform to Underwriters' rules. Setting of confec- 
 tioner's stove important. Gas plate for heating grease for 
 pans, and wood or metal closet in which is set a gas stove 
 for "proofing" cakes, are also found. 
 
 Portable gas heated ovens, as now installed, are usually 
 well arranged, but may be set too near combustible parti- 
 tions. The floor protection should be the same as for large 
 coal ranges or furnaces. See Matzoth Bakery. 
 
 BAKERS' SUPPLY DEALERS— Stock consists of baking 
 soda, lard, spices, sugar, jellies, shortening greases, flour, 
 pie fillings, machinery, pans and moulds used by bakers. 
 Making pie fillings and jellies, using essential oils, cologne 
 spirits, sesame oil, olive oil, bottling of extracts, heating of 
 kettles and bottling cotton-seed oil are usual hazards. 
 
 BAKING POWDER — Made of starch, phosphate of soda, 
 and bicarbonate of soda. In manufacture, hazards are sifting, 
 mixing, grinding, drying, paper or wood box-making, dust, 
 and label printing. 
 
 BALK, a large beam of lumber. 
 
 BALL-COCK — A cistern valve at one end of lever, at the 
 other end of which i^ ^ floating ball. The ball ris^s ?ind 
 
36 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 falls with the water in the cistern and thus opens and shuts 
 the valve. 
 
 BALLOON FRAME— One of the poorest methods of con- 
 struction. The frame work is of light material, neither mor- 
 tised or tenoned, continuous spaces between studs from cel- 
 lar to garret which act as flues for a fire. "In this construc- 
 tion, the studs as well as the corner posts are carried from 
 the sills (i.e., the flat timber which lies along the top of 
 the foundation wall) continuously to the wall plate (usually 
 called plate) at the top of the wall, and the floor beams of 
 the second and third stories are carried by pieces, two by 
 six inches, called "ribbons," spiked securely to the studs. 
 They are stronger if let into the posts or studs. This type 
 of construction costs somewhat less than the braced frame. 
 If well braced with long struts and intcrties are strong 
 enough for all practical purposes; in fact it forms a rigid 
 structure." (How to Build a Home.) See Braced Frame. 
 
 BALSAMS — Are quite inflammable and have low melting 
 points. 
 
 BANANA OIL — Prepared by acting upon amyl alcohol 
 with acetate of lime and sulphuric acid, and distilling same. 
 
 BANANA RIPENING risks. Usually in low, dark base- 
 ments with inferior tenants. Hazards consist of an abun- 
 dance of straw or salt hay, and gas radiators with rubber 
 tubes set among this combustible material. 
 
 BANK VAULTS or record vaults. The nature of con- 
 tents requires massive construction to resist fire, burglary, 
 building collapse or explosion. Ceiling to be 4 inches thicker 
 than walls, which should be built with air space between 
 inner and outer wall. Doors, usually an outer and inner door 
 with a sort of entry between which forms an air space. Doors 
 should be steel, lined with 6 inches of concrete where in 
 pairs, or 16 inches thick where single. All material should 
 be on skids or shelves, and sills raised to prevent water 
 damage. See Vaults. 
 
 BARBER SHOPS conducted by natives of southern 
 Europe have shown a surprisingly high loss ratio. The equip- 
 ment is subjected to considerable wear and tear, and there 
 is considerable incentive to sell old fixtures (especially if 
 
BARRELS 37 
 
 Upholstered and out of date) to insurance companies. The 
 new enamelled fixtures are usually bought on installments. 
 As attractiveness is a valuable stock in trade, it is best to 
 decHne unattractive shops. Few companies care for this class. 
 
 BARBER SUPPLIES. Stock consists of perfumes, cos- 
 metics, soaps, brushes, cups. Soap making in a small way, 
 making and bottling perfumes. Use alcohol, essential oils, 
 vegetable oils and compounds of the same. Direct heat may 
 be used in heating oils or emulsions. 
 
 BARGE BOARDS— Boards nailed against the outer sur^ 
 face of a wall along the slopes of a gable end of a house 
 to hide the rafters and to make a neat appearing job. 
 
 BARIUM CHLORATE— See Chlorate. 
 
 BARIUM NITRATE consists of a heavy white crystal- 
 line-salt. Classed as not dangerous, but combustible when 
 mixed with carbonaceous bodies. 
 
 BARIUM PEROXIDE, barium dioxide. Incjmbustiblc 
 alone, but when mixed with organic matter is dangerously 
 inflammable. 
 
 BARK, the exterior covering of the trunk and branches 
 of a tree. If piled near tannery or mill the hazard is prac- 
 tically that of the factory. If near railroad, the piles are 
 liable to be set on fire by locomotive sparks. 
 
 BARLEY in bags is said to be subject to spontaneous 
 combustion. 
 
 BARREL (EMPTY) STOCKS— Underwriters should write 
 this class with caution. There have been more than one fire 
 of unexplained origin on the barrel dealers' premises, as many 
 barrels formerly contained oils, acids, chemicals, etc. Where 
 barrels formerly contained chlorate of potash there is danger 
 from spontaneous combustion on account of the wood being 
 impregnated with this substance. 
 
 BARREL STORAGE and re-coopering shops. Barrels, 
 empty or containing a small amount of alcohol, high proof 
 liquors, gasoline or benzine if left in yard where the jays 
 of the sun strike them will vaporize and cause fire if arti- 
 ficial light is brought in contact with the bung hole. The 
 height of piles and spacing are important. Usually frame 
 construction. Barrel heater important hazard. Also paint- 
 
38 iN§l>ECtlON AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ing heads of barrels with benzine-thinned paint. See Coop- 
 erages. 
 
 BASEMENT SHOPS— Where work is of a manufacturing 
 nature it is not, as a general rule, considered a desirable 
 risk. The lack of floor space brings about untidiness and 
 make-shift heating devices. Swinging gas brackets frequently 
 found. Fires in this class are very numerous. 
 
 BATH HOUSES— Those located at seashore resorts 
 usually are of light frame construction and large area. Un- 
 safe gas brackets and temporary heating apparatus may be 
 found. As they are only "season" risks, considerable rub- 
 bish is liable to collect in open space under the flooring. 
 Watchmen in winter time liable to force the coal stove ana 
 cause overheating of smoke pipe or stove. Cigarette fall- 
 ing through cracks or space between floor boards is a com- 
 mon occurrence. The fire risk is considered poor. 
 
 BATTEN DOORS— See Fire Doors. 
 
 BATTENS, pieces of boards or scantling a few inches 
 wide, used to hold several lengths together. 
 
 BATTER — The sloping backward of a face of masonry. 
 
 BATTERY OF BOILERS— A group of boilers delivering 
 steam into a main pipe. 
 
 BATTERIES— Dry cell. Cells filled with salamoniac, 
 chloride of manganese, magnesium. Sealed with parafinc, 
 topped with pitch. May have celluloid cells sealed with 
 celluloid cement. 
 
 BATTERIES— Semi-dry as used in launches. The body 
 or cell is made of a dark, sandy mixture, finely divided, com- 
 posed of manganese, peroxide of hydrogen, graphite, retort 
 carbons, sodium, silicates and ores, mixed and pressed in 
 cylindrical forms. This is called ''depolarizing" mixture. 
 Forms then put in hollow zinc holder which has been .treated 
 with muriatic acid and mercury, and a thin coating of pitch 
 put in bottom of cylinder. Between the depolarizing filling 
 and the zinc shell is a small space filled with "exciting" 
 fluid made of ammonia chloride, zinc and calcium chlorides, 
 calcium oxide, glucose, starch and rye flour. Paraffine coat- 
 ing makes the cell air tight. Two glass tubes are inserted, 
 and remaining space filled with sawdust, then sealed with 
 
BATTERIES 39 
 
 pitch. The finished battery is dipped in asphaltum or lacquer 
 and paper wrapper glued on. Hazard of pitch and wax heat- 
 ing, excelsior and sawdust storage, dip process lacquering, 
 benzine for thinning asphaltum, glue heating, handling of 
 chemicals, oily floors. 
 
 BATTERIES (Storage)— The filling composition may con- 
 tain ether, amyl acetate, alcohol and chlorates. Celluloid 
 cells and celluloid cement, lead melting furnaces and blow 
 pipe work are chief hazards. 
 
 BATTING DROSS consists of fibre and resin formed by 
 filtration of melted resin through raw cotton. Not subject 
 to spontaneous combustion. Not classed as inflammable. 
 
 BAY CONSTRUCTION is the term used to denote the 
 absence of the ordinary small-sized beams in floor construc- 
 tion and is the space representing, the span between rows of 
 parallel beams or girders. Bays are sometimes panels, some- 
 times spans. Iri mill construction a bay is the distance be- 
 tween posts. 
 
 BEAM — Iron, wood, or other suitable substance. Usually 
 rests on girders at right angles, or on posts. Used to sup- 
 port floor loads or roof. 
 
 BEANS, if wet, and left in bags, will milldew and may be 
 confiscated by Health Department. 
 
 BEARING — The points of support of a beam, shaft, axle. 
 The "rest" or the block on which or against which a jour- 
 nal turns. 
 
 BEARING WALL— A wall which supports floor or roof 
 beams or girders. 
 
 BED MOULDINGS, ornamental mouldings on the lower 
 face of a projecting cornice. 
 
 BED PLATE— A large plate of iron laid as a foundation 
 for something to rest on. 
 
 BEDSPRING MANUFACTURING — Metal - working 
 hazard with dip process painting, lacquering or bronzing. 
 
 BEES- WAX— A solid wax of which the cells of the honey 
 comb are made. Melting point, 143-147 deg. F. 
 
 BEET VARNISH— Made from red beets soaked in spirits 
 of wine. 
 
40 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BELL-METAL — Copper and tin melted together. See 
 Bronze. 
 
 BELT BOXES, especially in cotton mills should be kept 
 scrupulously clean. Often found filled with dust and flyings 
 of cotton or wool, covering everything not in rapid motion. 
 
 BELT HOLES should be boxed, i.e., enclosed at each 
 floor to provide a minimum floor opening. See Boxing. 
 
 BELT MANUFACTURING— Many use a water-proof 
 cement composed of acetone and rubber cement with cellu^ 
 loid and carbon bisulphide, or Viscol. 
 
 BELTING (COTTON)— Is made of woven cotton, and 
 waterproofed. If the belting is left in water for a few hours 
 the water will dissolve the dressing and render the belting 
 worthkss. After being wet, the belt will not run true on 
 pulleys, hence is unsalable. 
 
 BENTINE SPIRITS, approved benzine substitute. 
 Flashes at 103 deg. F. 
 
 BENZENE, obtained by fractional distillation from coal 
 tar. Colorless, volatile, inflammable. Solvent for fats and 
 gums. Derivatives used in medicines and dyestuflFs. See 
 benzole. 
 
 BENZIDINE, made from nitro-benzine, alkali solution and 
 zinc dust. Similar to making sulphonic-acid. Used in dye- 
 making. 
 
 BENZINE— Obtained by fractional distillation from 
 petroleum. Colorless, inflammable, volatile, consisting of 
 various hydro-carbons. Flash point from about 70-84 deg. F. 
 
 BENZINE SUBSTITUTES— See under Trade Names. 
 
 BENZOATE OF SODA— Toluol heated in Mott kettle, 
 then mixed with chlorine gas, making benzol chloride, then 
 nitrated. The crystals are then cleaned and dried. The re- 
 maining solution is treated with soda ash to complete action. 
 
 BENZOLE — Flash point 14 deg. F. Properties same as 
 benzene. Should be stored only in steel drums. 
 
 BENZOYL-CHLORIDE consists of a clear colorless 
 liquid. Not combustible, not classed as inflammable. 
 
 BENZOL-TRINITRO, high explosive. 
 
 BERENCO LACQUER is non-explosive. . Alcohol is used 
 as a thinner. 
 
BESSEMER STEEL 
 
 41 
 
 3TANPARPS 
 
 fO/Z^ THIS OS£ O/r 
 
 and oi^er yo/at//e o/jy, 
 
 trhtcA emit <t^ if^/mntmmU* l^e^tr- 
 
 BESSEMER STEEL— Sometimes called Ingot Iron. Pro- 
 duced from cast iron by blowing air through it while in a 
 molten state. This process is repeated until all the carbon 
 is removed. The required degree of carburization is pro- 
 duced by adding a proportion of iron containing a known 
 percentage of carbon and manganese. The Basis Bessemer 
 process, called acid Bessemer process is one where the sul- 
 phur and phosphorus cannot be removed except by em- 
 
42 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ploying a converter lined with basic material in which other 
 varieties of inon can be used. Bessemer steel can be pro- 
 duced in various degrees of hardness, but it cannot be tem- 
 pered or hardened subsequently. It has a rather lower ten- 
 sile strength than other mild steels. A Bessemer converter 
 is a cylindrical iron vessel lined with a refractory material 
 in which molten pig iron is submitted to the oxidizing action 
 of a stream of air. 
 
 BETA-NAPHTHA— See Sublime Beta-Naphtha. 
 
 BETON, sometimes called artificial stone. Made of hy- 
 draulic cement with broken stone, broken bricks, gravel, etc. 
 
 BEVEL — The slope formed by trimming away the sharp 
 edge, as of a board. 
 
 BEVEL-GEAR, cog-wheels with teeth so formed that the 
 wheels can work into each other at an angle. 
 
 BEVELLED, or self-releasing, applied to timbers on 
 masonry walls which have the bevelled end resting on the 
 wall in such a manner that when the timber is ruptured it 
 can fall out or release itself without tearing out part of the 
 wall. 
 
 BICARBONATE OF SODA, commonly known as baking 
 soda. Composed of one part each of sodium, hydrogen, and 
 carbon and three parts of oxygen. 
 
 BICHLORIDE OF TIN— This liquid is obtained by heat- 
 ing metallic tin with chloride of mercury, and condensing 
 the fumes produced, or by passing a current of dry chlorine 
 over melted tin, and condensing the resulting chloride. When 
 mixed, with water, great heat is generated. Used by dyers. 
 
 BICHROMATE OF POTASH— See Bichromate of Soda. 
 
 BICHROMATE OF SODA and bichromate of potash are 
 yellow crystalline salts which act as oxidizing agents. Not 
 considered hazardous in themselves. 
 
 BICYCLE AND MOTORCYCLE repair shops. Hand and 
 power shop work. Motorcycles drained or filled in build- 
 ing. Vulcanizing. Gasoline storage. Stock of accessories 
 including celluloid windshields. Have poor fire record. See 
 Motor Cycle. 
 
 BINDER — A temporary contract between the insured and 
 the insurer. Issued pending the issuance of a policy. On it 
 
BLANKET l^OLlClES 43 
 
 is written the name of the insured, the description of prop- 
 erty covered, location, mortgage, amount, term for which 
 the policy is to be written, and rate. Issued for fifteen-day 
 period as a rule and is renewable; cancelled in same man- 
 ner as a policy. See Application for Insurance. 
 
 BINITRO-TOLUOL— A yellow crystalline solid (not ex- 
 plosive or dangerously inflammable). Resembles trinitoluol 
 which is highly explosive. 
 
 BIRD AND ANIMAL STORES— Live animals and birds 
 easily ^asphyxiated by smoke. Fixtures, furniture and stock 
 of supplies, however, classed as good risks. Light repair 
 shop work. 
 
 BISULPHIDE OF CARBON— See Carbon Bisulphide. 
 
 BISULPHIDE OF IRON is iron pyrites. 
 
 BLACK DAMP is choke damp. 
 
 BLACK DYED GOODS are apt to cause spontaneous 
 combustion. 
 
 BLACK JAPAN — A varnish made with tar and alcohol, 
 or lamp-black and resins. 
 
 BLACK PAINT — A compound used by tanners. Contains 
 pyroxylin or gun cotton dissolved in amyl acetate. Flash 
 point 35 deg. F. 
 
 BLACK POWDER— Explosive, 75 per cent, saltpetre, 10 
 per cent, sulphur, 15 per cent, charcoal. 
 
 BLACKSMITHS— Usually locate in buildings of inferior 
 construction. Note setting of forges and anvils, tire fur- 
 naces and painting. 
 
 BLANK RATING, when the financial rating of a firm oi 
 individual does not appear in any of the mercantile rating 
 books, it is usually a good tip to keep off the line. See Trade 
 Reports; also Mercantile Reports. 
 
 BLANK WALL — A wall without openings. 
 
 BLANKET FORM — A form covering building, machinery 
 and stock under one item. 
 
 BLANKET POLICIES may cover the buildings or con- 
 tents of one, two or any number of buildings. If communi- 
 cating, they can be written with the 80 per cent, and dis- 
 tribution clause; if not communicating, the 100 per cent, 
 clause must be used without any allowance for same. These 
 
44 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 policies must be written cautiously and the liability figured 
 as though the entire amount covered in each building under 
 a blanket form. See Schedule; also Distribution Clause. 
 
 BLASTING CAPS consist of small hollow copper cylin- 
 ders containing fulminate of mercury, or a mixture of ful- 
 minate of mercury and potassium chlorate. Very dangerous. 
 
 BLASTING GELATINE is a mixture of nitroglycerine 
 and gun cotton. Pow^erful explosive. 
 
 BLAUGAS LIGHTING SYSTEM— This is a gas system 
 for house lighting and heating, using liquified hydrocarbon 
 gas made from petroleum distillate. (Colorless, inflammable, 
 and made by passing mineral oil into highly heated retorts, 
 the oil being decomposed, forming a gaseous product.) The 
 gas is stored under high pressure (900 lbs. per sq. inch) in 
 steel cylinders, and is expanded into the house piping through 
 suitable reducing and regulating valves. The high-pressure 
 cylinders, together with reducing and regulating valves, are 
 contained in a locked and ventilated metal box. 
 
 The system is arranged to run automatically with small 
 expansion tanks in this box, or non-automatically with larger 
 expansion tanks which are buried or installed in well venti- 
 lated brick or concrete houses when near buildings. 
 
 The gas itself, after introduction into the house piping, 
 embodies about the same hazards as ordinary city gas, but 
 under somewhat higher pressure (about 12 inches water col- 
 umn). The apparatus is well constructed and is safeguarded 
 as far as appears to be practicable at the present time. The 
 high pressure apparatus is to be installed outside of build- 
 ings, well removed from all openings where escaping gas 
 may enter or accumulate. (Board of Fire Underwriters.) 
 
 BLEACH, DYE AND PRINT WORKS— Raw stock in- 
 cludes cotton goods to be worked, acids, chlorate of potash, 
 chlorate of soda, acetate of iron, tin oxalite, sodium sul- 
 phate, sumac, chloride of lime, bisulphide of soda, acetate of 
 chrome, caustic soda, starch, aniline and logwood dyes, 
 aniline oils and salts. Process, dyeing, drying, singeing, age- 
 ing, calendering, printing, etching and engraving rolls, fold* 
 ing and packing. Poor fire record. Benzine is sometimes 
 used as a mordant in calico printing. 
 
BLEACHING ROOMS 45 
 
 The causes of fire are attributed to lighting, power, singe- 
 ing, dye mixing, printing, steaming, ageing, napping, and 
 spontaneous ignition of freshly-dyed goods. 
 
 BLEACHING POWDER— See chloride of lime. A heavy 
 white powder composed chiefly of calcium hypochloride 
 (known also as chloride of lime). It gives oflf chlorine gas 
 when heated or mixed with acids. Not classed as inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 BLEACHING ROOMS (sulphur) in hat factories 
 should be constructed entirely of incombustible material as 
 follows: The side walls and ceilings to be wire lath and 
 plaster (preferably on iron supports). If, however, the room 
 is wood enclosed, the same may be lined, including the ceil- 
 ing, with plaster boards or similar equivalent construction at 
 least 3^-inch thick secured by roofing nails, the nail heads 
 to be covered and all joints between the blocks filled in with 
 asbestos cement. The floor to have a course of bricks laid 
 in cement throughout and an additional similar course di- 
 rectly underneath the sulphur pot. When a vent pipe is 
 used, the same is to be constructed of brick or terra cotta 
 with a damper to be controlled from the outside of the room. 
 Metallic substances should not be employed on account of 
 corrosion. See Hats, Straw. 
 
 BLENDING — Also known as compounding, is mixing 
 liquor to obtain a desired blend. No material hazard. See 
 Liquors. 
 
 BLIND ATTIC— See Attic. 
 
 BLISTER STEEL— See Cast Steel. 
 
 BLOCK LINES— Are the "lines" which in the aggregate 
 represent the amount of liability which a company has on a 
 city block of buildings. See Line. 
 
 BLOCKING PRESS— A gas or steam-heated press under 
 pressure used in shaping hats. 
 
 BLOODED LIVESTOCK of fancy value should not be 
 written until the company is in possession of all the facts 
 of physical and moral hazard. Considerable value is wrapped 
 up in a blooded animal. A slight accident will so depreciate 
 an animal's worth that there may be incentive to destroy the 
 animal by fire and collect the insurance. See Lightning. 
 

 nUTOMA TfC 
 
 3TZRUNG BL0\A/£:R & f=*/Ri 
 
 Copyrighted. 
 
 SIDE. rLEVHT/OAJ 
 

48 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BLOW TORCHES— Should be on incombustible stands. 
 See Brazers. 
 
 BLOWER SYSTEMS for heating or ventilating consist 
 of a number of galvanized iron ducts through which air is 
 blown for heat, or from which impure or heated air is sucked 
 for ventilation. In each system, the openings in the ducts 
 are covered with wire screening. Motor-driven fans are 
 usually employed. A clearance of 1 inch from combustible 
 material is recommended, and ducts should not be connected 
 to flues or stacks used for any other purposes; neither should 
 they pierce fire walls unless an automatic drop door is in- 
 stalled where passing through. Where piercing floors, the 
 ducts should be protected by 4-inch tile or its equivalent. 
 The latter two features (piercing walls or floors) reduce the 
 efficiency of the fire wall or floor, as fire, once entering the 
 flue, travels the entire system unless stopped by standard 
 automatic dampers or doors. 
 
 BLOWERS FOR REFUSE such as sawdust, shavings or 
 buffing dust from buff wheels operate as noted. The ducts 
 are cylindrical and have a hood which fits quite close to the 
 machinery to allow a larger opening for the refuse to enter 
 the duct or pipe. As these are used in factories, they are 
 liable to breakage and disruption through carelessness or vi- 
 bration, and therefore should be substantially constructed. 
 The refuse is drawn through a cyclone or separator where 
 the fine dust is allowed to free itself, the heavy material 
 going to a vault or other receptacle. Dust from buff wheels 
 and other light material should pass through a water sprayer 
 or be deposited in a receptacle partly filled with water to 
 keep down the percentage of dust. All blower systems 
 should have suitable clean-out doors, fans and motor bear- 
 ings easily accessible and be kept clean to prevent clogging ' 
 and friction. Fires have been caused by exhaust apparatus 
 becoming overheated. See Shavings Vaults; also Buff Wheels 
 and Direct Feed to Boilers. 
 
 BLOWN OILS are made by oxidizing rape, cotton seed, 
 linseed and lard oils. Used for lubricating purposes. 
 
 BLUE BILLY or pyrites cinder is a residue from burn- 
 ing pyrites in the manufacture of sulphuric acid. 
 
SOILERS 49 
 
 BLUE PRINT making is accomplished by what is known 
 as a printing machine equipped with electric light and gas 
 heat. The paper is received in rolls, passed through a sen^ 
 sitizing solution, then over a roller-frame to a dry room. Usfc 
 citric and oxalic acids in crj^stal form, soda ash, aqua am- 
 monia, sulphuric acid, nitric acid. Dry room hazard. Arc 
 lamps. 
 
 BLUE VITRIOL is sulphate of copper. 
 
 BLUEING — Made from burnt umber, sulphur, soda, clay 
 and a liquid adhesive resembling molasses. 
 
 BOARDING-HOUSES where meals are served are con- 
 sidered somewhat better fire risks than furnished room 
 houses. The change of patrons is not so frequent. Inspec- 
 tion should be made before line is written. See Furnished 
 Rooms; also Lodging Houses. 
 
 BOILED OIL is made by heating linseed oil. Used in 
 paint, varnish and oilcloth manufacturing. 
 
 BOILER EXPLOSION— See Boiler. 
 
 BOILERS, brick set, are those which are enclosed in brick- 
 work covering the outside of the boiler, and usually having 
 a concrete or brick top. 
 
 An asbestos-clad boiler is one which is wrapped in as- 
 bestos which is applied as a cement, about 2 to 4 inches in 
 thickness. 
 
 Boilers, portable. All combustible floors and beams under 
 and not less than 3 feet in front of and 1 foot on side of all 
 portable boilers shall be protected by a brick foundation of 
 two courses of brick. See Battery of Boilers. 
 
 For installation of temporary kerosene oil burners, sec 
 Kerosene Burners. 
 
 BOILER— Does the Boiler or the Water Explode? 
 
 Water in an open kettle boils at 212 deg. F. The Fidelity 
 and Casualty Bulletin says that when the surface of boiling 
 water is subject to atmospheric pressure or zero gauge 
 pressure its temperature is 212 deg. F 
 
 When the gauge pressure is 150 lbs. per square inch the 
 temperature of the water is 350 deg. F., and if all the 
 inlets and outlets to the boiler be closed, the water will not ' 
 boil, notwithstanding the fact that its temperature and pres- 
 
50 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 sure are many times greater than the temperature and pres- 
 sure of boiling water. 
 
 If, however, a valve be opened, the water immediately be- 
 gins to boil, even though the furnace heat has been shut 
 off. But when all of the inlets and outlets are closed the 
 highly-heated water in the boiler is in fact nothing more nor 
 less than liquefied steam gas. It remains in the liquid state by 
 reason of the high pressure to which its surface is subjected. 
 
 If, however, suddenly there be made a large opening abov^ 
 the water level, as for example when a large steam pipe or 
 header is ruptured, the pressure on the surface of the water 
 being suddenly relieved permits the liquefied steam gas com- 
 monly thought of as hot water to violently explode in much 
 the same manner as if it were nitroglycerine. 
 
 The result is commonly termed a boiler explosion. It is 
 in fact an explosion of liquefied steam gas. That is to say, 
 it is an explosion of a large body of water at high tempera- 
 ture. It is no wonder, then, that boiler explosions are often 
 as disastrous as dynamite explosions. 
 
 BOILER SETTING— A small upright heating boiler has 
 been known to set fire to woodwork under its 8-inch con- 
 crete base (laid without air space). All solid materials such 
 as brick, concrete or asbestos have a comparatively high 
 heat conductivity. Porous material such as terra-cotta tile 
 or a liberal air space permitting a circulation of air is a bet- 
 ter insulation against heat than solid matter. 
 
 BOILER SMOKE PIPE against the under side of an 8- 
 inch concrete floor arch has been known to ignite stock on 
 the floor. Dust and wood chips on top of boilers are ignited 
 by radiated heat. 
 
 BOLL WEEVIL — An insect pest whose annual ravages 
 cause a loss of 400,000 bales of cotton in the South. The 
 annual loss in Texas alone as a result of the weevil's depre- 
 dations is placed at $2,700,000. Thus far the only successful 
 means of control has been the burning of dead cotton stalks 
 in the Fall, thereby destroying in a large measure the hiber- 
 nating millions that would develop into active parasites dur- 
 ing the coming season. These parasites have injected a 
 moral hazard into cotton mills, as the small crop means less 
 work and the corresponding shutting down of the plant. 
 
I 
 
 BOOKBINDERS' BOARD 51 
 
 BOLSTER — A timber or a thick iron plate placed between 
 the ends of a bridge and its seat on an abutment. 
 
 BOMBS — Whistling bombs contain potassium picrate. 
 
 BONFIRES, especially in open city lots, have caused many 
 losses by flying brands and grass fires. 
 
 BOND, the disposing of brick-work or blocks of stone so 
 as to form the whole into a firm structure by the judicious 
 overlapping of each other so as to break joint. 
 
 BOND AND CAP STONES, especially if carrying heavy 
 weights should be insulated with concrete, terra cotta or 
 brick 2 to 4 inches in thickness. Heat and the application 
 of cold water under pressure causes the stones to crack and 
 may cause the building to collapse. 
 
 BONDED WALL— See Bond. 
 
 BONDED WAREHOUSE— See Warehouse. 
 
 BONE BLACK — Made from the poorer grade of bones. 
 Subject to combustion in the presence of moisture. 
 
 BOOKBINDERS— Process consists of cutting, gluing, 
 embossing, printing and binding paper. Hazards of glue 
 pots, gas-heated embossing presses, paper scraps, printing 
 presses. See Printers. 
 
 BOOKBINDERS' BOARD MANUFACTURING— The 
 raw stock consists of paper, rags, wood pulp and fibre. The 
 process is sorting, cutting, shaking and finishing. Machin- 
 ery used are calenders (steam-heated), paper-making ma- 
 chines, steam dryers, rag cutters, beaters, boiling kettles. 
 Crude oil is used to reduce foam in beaters. Similar to 
 paper-making. 
 
 BOOKTILE— Tiling, wide, flat, thin and shaped like a 
 book. Laid so that the convex end of one sets into the con- 
 cave end of the next. Used in roof construction instead of 
 heavy tile or concrete to lessen the weight. 
 
 BOOKS — If new, offer good insurance; if old, the con- 
 trary. When piled on shelves, water damages the upper tier 
 as a rule and fire burns the outer edge. 
 
 BOOSTING — Dressing stone with a broad chisel called a 
 "booster" and a mallet. The booster gives a smooth sur- 
 face after the use of the "point," or other narrow chisel. 
 
52 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BOOT AND SHOE FACTORIES— See Shoe Factories. 
 
 BOOT DRESSING— See Shoe Factories. 
 
 BOOT BLACK AND HAT CLEANERS— Ownership 
 largely a foreign element. Use sulphur for bleaching straw hats, 
 benzine for cleaning hats, gas-heated irons and blocking irons. 
 
 BORE — The inner diameter of a hollow cylinder. 
 
 BOTTLERS of soft drinks with flavoring extract-making. 
 Work consists of washing, labeling and filling bottles. Mak- 
 ing flavoring from fruits and herbs and essential oils, using 
 steam-heated kettles and confectioners' stoves. Boiler. Ex- 
 celsior for packing bottles for shipment. Sealing bottles with 
 parafline. See Mineral Waters. 
 
 BOTTLE-STOPPERS, called "crowns," are made of sheet 
 metal stamped out and edges crimped, then lined with waxed 
 paper and cork disk. The wax is a mixture of parafline and 
 rosin, heated by gas or steam. Paper usually waxed on the 
 premises by drawing the paper strip through the melted 
 wax. The machines used are automatic, rotating and gas- 
 heated, and crimp, line and press the crown in one operation. 
 Metal working hazard. Varnishing tops. The cork disks are 
 bought ready-made for use. See Cork. 
 
 BOULINIKON, a kind of floor cloth like linoleum. Simi^ 
 lar process to linoleum-making, but made from buffalo hide, 
 
 BOWLING ALLEYS, if established and run by respon^ 
 sible people, are considered good insurance as practically no 
 stock is carried. Use wax or floor mops for dressing floors. 
 Basement alleys suffer greater damage than those above grade, 
 as water will cause the alleys to warp, necessitating relaying. 
 
 BOX-BOARD LINING manufacturing. The process con- 
 sists of cutting the boards and running them through a press 
 similar in appearance to a cylinder press which has a gravity 
 feed paste-pot attachment which drops the paste into a 
 trough, and a reel of thin paper is automatically pasted on 
 the cardboard. Used in place of paper boxes. Hazards simi- 
 lar to paper box making. 
 
 BOX GIRDER — A type of steel or wrought-iron girder 
 having two vertical webs and a flange at top and bottom 
 connecting them. 
 
 BOXED STAIRS— See Stairs. 
 
BRANCH OFFICE RISK 53 
 
 BOXING — Applied to belt openings when same are en- 
 closed at floors to lessen the size of draft opening. Cornices 
 are cut off for same reason. 
 
 BRACE-AND-INCLINED BEAM— A bar or strut for 
 sustaining compression. 
 
 BRACED FRAME— Girts or beams carry the floor beams 
 of the floors above the first, and are framed into the cor- 
 ner posts (which should extend to the wall plates), those 
 supporting the end of the beams dropped to a secure level 
 with the side girts (for this reason they are called drop girts). 
 On these girts the studs of the outer walls and partitions are 
 framed, so that each story has a separate set of 'studs. At all 
 angles also there are angle braces tending to strengthen the 
 structure. (How to Build a Home.) See Balloon Frame. 
 
 BRACKET CHIMNEY— A chimney which rests on a wall 
 bracket instead of being built up from the ground. An in- 
 creased danger when bracket is of wood. See also Corbel 
 and Wall Chimney. 
 
 BRAID AND DRESS TRIMMING MANUFACTURING 
 — Hazards are storage of raw materials, dyeing, drying, braid 
 and weave machines, winders and spoolers, sewing machines, 
 gas heated straw machines and crimpers, packing and label- 
 ing. See also Embroideries. 
 
 BRAKE — A long machine used by tinsmiths to bend the 
 sheet metal into proper shape. 
 
 BRAMWELL FEED, an automatic attachment for feeding 
 carding machines. It consists of a small pin for holding 
 the stock which is picked up by a slowly moving apron and 
 usually has a hood over the feed. The hoods should be 
 removed or have a sprinkler head placed under the same. 
 Some rating bureaus charge an extra rate for machines 
 equipped with Bramwell feeds. See Carding Machines. 
 
 BRANCH OFFICE RISK— Any risk permitted to be writ- 
 ten by the Branch Oflices, the class consisting of dwellings, 
 stores and dwellings and minimum rated stocks. In other 
 words, this class, owing to the light character, need not be 
 rated except for area or special conditions. Branch offices 
 write only the so-called preferred business, and not manu- 
 facturing risks or special hazards. See Risk. 
 
54 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BRANCH STORES— Sometimes goods are removed back 
 and forth from main store to branches. Such stocks should 
 be carefully investigated. Fires have a habit of starting in 
 branch stores which are filled v^ith out-of-season or shop- 
 v^orn goods shipped from main stores, especially if located 
 in another town. See Mercantile Reports; also Trade Reports. 
 
 BRANDY — Made by distilling fermented fruit juices. 
 Whiskey compounds are used as substitutes. See Distilleries. 
 
 BRASS — Composed of copper and zinc. 
 
 BRAZE — To unite pieces of iron, copper or brass by means 
 of a hard solder called spelter solder. See Weld. 
 
 BRAZERS (or blow torches) used in metal-working es- 
 tablishments, consist of stout, flexible tubes, carrying gas 
 from a supply pipe to a nozzle which is attached to another 
 flexible pipe through which the operator directs a stream of 
 compressed air. This stream of air serves the double pur- 
 pose of intensifying the heat of the gas flame and blowing 
 it with force against the metal surface to be worked. The 
 braz^r should rest on a solid iron bed or brick base. Rub- 
 ber tubes are permitted; but gas shut-off cock should be 
 located at permanent wall connection. 
 
 BREAK-JOINT— To so overlap pieces that the joints shall 
 not occur at the same places and thus produce a poor bond. 
 
 BREAST-SUMMER— A kind of lintel supporting a wall 
 over a door or other opening. 
 
 BREECHING— An iron flue, lined or unlined, or brick or 
 tile, connecting the larger or header flue from the boiler to 
 the stack. See Smoke Pipes. 
 
 BREWERIES — Process is steeping or soaking grain in 
 warm water, spreading same on "growing floor" to germi* 
 nate or sprout the grain; dried in kilns, stored in bins, 
 screened to remove dirt or waste, weighed, crushed in malt 
 mill, mixed with water and other ingredients (and at times 
 adulterants) in mashtub, cooking or brewing with hops in 
 steam kettles (known as wort), the liquor drawn off and 
 filtered or contents dumped into "hop-jack" where spent 
 grain is removed and liquor pumped to coolers, then fer- 
 mented in wooden vats, and "racked" or drawn off in kegs. 
 
 Hazards — In kiln house, the setting of the furnace sup- 
 

 ^/^V//////''//A y <^'^^^ ^^'^^^^y'^y^' ^i^m, *4r' 
 
 ^ 
 
 From "Live Articles on Si)ecial Hazards," pub. by 
 "Weekly Underwriter." 
 
 Brew House. 
 
56 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 plying the heat to dry the grain. Where furnace is directly 
 under the drying floors, the grain is apt to fall on the tut- 
 nace and ignite, therefore the top of furnace should be 
 hooded. Where brick-set furnaces are located in building 
 adjoining, the heated air is blown or forced into the kiln 
 house through brick flues. These buildings should be cut 
 off from balance of the plant. The suction fan over kiln 
 floors at roof collec'^s considerable dust, and fires are caused 
 by friction of maciiinery and dusty bearings. In "Brew"* 
 house, the "lofters" or "legs," which are traveling belts, en- 
 closed in wood boxing, on which buckets are fastened, con- 
 veying grain from one floor to another. They should be of 
 metal; whetiier of wood or metal they should have explosion 
 vents. The latter are small doors kept closed by spring 
 hinges. The force of a dust explosion opens these doors 
 sufficiently to cause a lessening of the force of the explo- 
 sion. The "strut" board of lofter over which passes the 
 belting should be slanting to prevent the grain from collect- 
 ing and causing friction fires in bearings. The *'boot" or 
 lower part of the lofter should also be slanting and keptg 
 clean. Malt mill to be of all metal design with magnets at 
 the rollers where malt is crushed to catch all metallic sub- 
 stances, thus preventing sparks at the rollers. Also spring- 
 boards under the rollers will keep malt packed against the 
 rollers, preventing an accumulation of dust which in the event 
 of a spark would explode. An automatic steam jet at this 
 point would extinguish fire, resulting from such dust explo- 
 sions. Screeners should have magnets where grain enters 
 through hoppers, also at grain bins through which pass the 
 lofters. 
 
 Incidental hazards are cooper shops with pitch kettle. 
 Pitch kettles are usually heated by direct fires and ought 
 to be outside the buildings under separate cover. Storage 
 of, repairing and varnishing old fixtures. Branding kegs. 
 The branding iron used to impress the name of the brewer 
 on the keg is sometimes heated by an improvised gasoline 
 fuel appliance. Stables with blanket drying room, garages. 
 (C. E. Jahne, "Live Articles on Special Hazards," The 
 Weekly Underwriter.) 
 

 ,y .,^^.,-,./1S ..,^/V.^ ^ e^^V.'.j/ 
 
 From "Live Articles on Special Hazards." pub. by "Weekly Underwriter.' 
 Cold ^toragre House, 
 
58 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BREWERY GRAIN DRYERS— Grain is received Trom the 
 hop-jacks of breweries and used by farmers for cattle feed. 
 The water is pressed out, the grain dried in large, revolving, 
 steam-heated dryers, then ground in knife-grinder and 
 bagged. Usually of frame construction in outskirts of city and 
 "shafty." The floors are pierced by elevator legs, chutes and 
 hoppers. Boiler hazard. 
 
 BRICKS should not be laid in freezing weather. Frost ex- 
 pands the water in the mortar and thrusts the brick out of 
 position. 
 
 Pale Bricks are those improperly burned and are useless 
 for building material. 
 
 Fire Bricks are made from a mixture of several clays, to 
 which has been added a certain amount of ground brick or 
 quartz. 
 
 Radial Bricks are perforated radial blocks made of tested 
 clays. 
 
 BRICK-ARCHED— An arch of brickwork laid or sprung 
 between "I" beams, as ''brick-arched" floor or roof. 
 
 BRICK-FILLING or BRICK-LINING— A stud wall fillea 
 in with brick. Although classed as frame, they frequently 
 prove to be very valuable in preventing spread of fire. The 
 brick filling should "extend to the roof boards when frame 
 buildings are built adjoining. See Frame Rows. 
 
 BRICK-NOGGING (used in place of wood-nogging pieces) 
 makes a fire stop between studding at each floor by one 
 thickness of brick set between the studs. 
 
 BRICK VENEER— One or two thicknesses of brick used 
 in place of clapboards in frame construction. Classed same 
 as frame buildings. 
 
 BRICK WORKS— Bricks are made of clay, principally sili- 
 cate of alumina with perhaps lime, magnesia and oxide of 
 iron. Made by hand or machinery, air or artificially dried, 
 then burned in kilns. Kilns are permanent, or of knock-down 
 type, built up around the arch of bricks to be burned, and 
 fires built directly under the bricks. Permanently built kilns 
 are the safer. Considered poor fire risks. Physical hazards 
 of boiler location, storage of hay and straw for packing, arti- 
 ficial drying. Moral hazard induced by exhaustion of clay 
 
BRISTLES 59 
 
 deposits, poor transportation facilities, class of help. Usually 
 large frame areas out of protection. See Tile Works. 
 
 BRIDGING JOISTS are those which extend from trimmer 
 joist at flues or fireplace to the opposite wall. 
 
 BRIQUETTES— Used in place of coal. Made of ground 
 coal, coal dust and crude oil or other heavy oil. Process is 
 grinding or pulverizing coal, mixing with oil, hydraulic 
 pressing. Oil storage important hazard. 
 
 BRISTLES used in brush-making. Prepared from hides 
 which are first softened with unslaked lime and water in a 
 tub, and the hair pulled out by hand, then cleaned with a 
 mixture of peroxide of hydrogen and muriatic acid, and 
 further cleaned with soap and water, wrapped in bundles, 
 dried. For coloring, the small bundles or wads are dipped 
 in boiling permanganate of potash. If white ends are de- 
 sired, peroxide of hydrogen will bleach the permanganate 
 and leave the ends white. Combed by hand. Dry-room prin- 
 cipal hazard. 
 
 BRITISH GUM (dextrine)— A stiffening substance ex- 
 tracted from potatoes, wheat or rye. Used by calico printers 
 and for sizing. See Dextrine. 
 
 BROKEN-JOINT — An arrangement of material such as 
 brick, laid in courses so that no two joints are immediately 
 over each other. See Bond. 
 
 BROKEN PLASTER on wood lath as used for ceilings, 
 etc., must be repaired to prevent fire from readily gaining 
 access to the concealed spaces back of it. See Furring. 
 
 BROKER — A business representative of the insured, not 
 of the company. For the commissions received from insur*. 
 ance premiums, he looks after the insurance interests of his 
 clients. 
 
 Brokers or agents who agree to procure insurance on 
 terms and conditions as agreed between them and the owner, 
 and then fail to properly protect the owner as agreed, become 
 legally liable for the loss if fire occurs, to the extent of their 
 negligence. See Agent. 
 
 BROMATES are bromic acid compounds. 
 
 BROMIDES — Compounds of bromine with metals (potas- 
 sium bromide). 
 
60 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BROMINE is obtained from sea and mineral spring water 
 or seaweed. It is volatile. If united with antimony, arsenic 
 or copper it will burn fiercely. If mixed with potassium it 
 explodes violently, producing potassium bromide. Not in* 
 flammable. 
 
 BRONZE — Composed of copper and tin. 
 
 BRONZE COLORS— Made from metallic bronze, some- 
 times mixed with such dangerous liquids as collodion and 
 amyl acetate. 
 
 BRONZE FOUNDRIES— Use iron, copper or silver ni- 
 trate for coloring the bronze castings. The nitrates are 
 diluted, applied by brush, and the castings baked in an oven. 
 
 BRONZING LIQUIDS usually contain pyroxylin or solu- 
 ble cotton dissolved in volatile, inflammable solvents. Classed 
 as inflammable. 
 
 BROODERS— See Incubators. 
 
 BROOM CORN— See Broom Factories. 
 
 BROOM CORN ROOT burns quickly. 
 
 BROOM FACTORIES employ power machinery such as 
 seeders, wood-working and metal-working machines. Gluing, 
 varnishing and bleaching. Cheap labor, crowded lofts or 
 buildings. Broom corn liable to spontaneous combustion un- 
 der some conditions. A poor fire record class. 
 
 BRUSH FACTORIES— There are many different kinds of 
 brushes, requiring different methods of manufacture. The 
 bristles and hair are usually received ready to use. Wood- 
 working machinery of various kinds used for backs. Metal- 
 working machines for parts. The wood backs are stained, 
 painted, varnished, enamelled or celluloid covered. In the 
 latter process the wooden backs are slightly warmed on a 
 steam-heated table, a thin sheet of celluloid cemented on, 
 placed in a screw press, then the celluloid edge sandpapered 
 land trimmed. In finishing department, each worker has an 
 individual cup or air brush for touching up with lacquer, 
 shellac or liquid bronze. The metal parts require japanning 
 or enamelling. The bristles are glued, or pitch or rubber-set. 
 Vulcanizing rubber, and use of rubber cement thinned with 
 naphtha are necessary. The hazards are wood and metal- 
 working, with painting, varnishing, japanning and enamelling, 
 
BUFF WHEELS 61 
 
 pitch and glue heating, handling of celluloid, use of benzine, 
 dry rooms, vulcanizing rubber. See Bristles. 
 
 Twisted wire brushes have no backs, the bristles being 
 twisted in with the wire. The only hazards are the clippers 
 and combers, which are run by individual motors. 
 
 BUCK is a small pressing board on top of pressing tables 
 in clothing factories. Steam-heated ones, used without table, 
 but require a small individual gas-heated boiler to generate 
 steam. See Pressing Tables. 
 
 BUCKRAM, used for hat frames, is cloth sized with glue, 
 dried on cylindrical or tentering dryer. 
 
 BUCKRAM AND LININGS are dyed and sized. In dye- 
 ing, aniline colors, muriatic and sulphuric acids, chloride of 
 lime, tannic acid and caustic soda are used. Gums and starches 
 are used for sizing. The gums are sometimes heated by 
 direct fire. 
 
 BUCKWHEAT, ground, is said to ignite spontaneously if 
 damp. 
 
 BUFFING is polishing by power. Considerable lint made 
 during this process. 
 
 BUFFING WAX usually contains emery dust, paraffine, 
 stearic acid, petrolatum, and mineral waxes. 
 
 BUFF WHEELS— Pieces of cloth glued and sewed to- 
 gether. To produce a high polish on brass goods without 
 lacquering, the brass part is fixed on a movable iron frame 
 which gradually forces the brass against the buff wheel. Fires 
 have arisen when inexperienced workmen have caused undue 
 friction by applying too much pressure against the buff wheel. 
 This sets fire to the buff wheel, and the flames are sucked 
 into the blower system. 
 
 BUILDERS' MATERIAL YARDS— Stock includes brick, 
 lime, cement, lath, tiling, flue pipe. Lime and cement should 
 be skidded and under cover. Unslaked lime will cause fire. 
 Cement if wet will cake and be practically valueless. 
 
 BUILDERS* RISK is generally understood to constitute 
 work of a structural nature that requires" underpinning or 
 shoring walls, constructing or reconstructing building or ad- 
 ditions thereto or enlarging the premises. See Mechanics* 
 Privilege. See Course of Construction. 
 
62 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 BUILDINGS SET ON PILES, such as at seashore, should 
 be screened around piling to prevent papers and trash from 
 accumulating under building. 
 
 BUILDING SALVAGE— See Salvage. 
 
 BULKHEAD — The enclosure of a stair, elevator or other 
 shaft or cornice built above the roof. 
 
 BULKHEAD BUILDING— The shore end of a pier. 
 Usually a story higher than the pier proper and used for 
 offices and store-rooms. 
 
 BUNKER ROOMS in cold storage plants are sometimes, 
 as in all plants furnishing their own steam, coal storage 
 rooms. This term is applied here usually when plants have 
 expansion coils in refrigeration rooms or congealing tanks. 
 Some plants have a special room for expansion coils or brine 
 pipes only. These rooms are frequently referred to as bunker 
 rooms. 
 
 BUNSEN BURNER— A single-flame upright gas jet, set 
 on metal base and usually connected with rubber tubing. 
 Used by jewelers, metal workers, dentists and in laboratories. 
 The gas shut-off to be at permanent wall connection and set 
 on metal covered table with air space under the metal. 
 
 BURNETTIZING (fire-proofing) WOOD— The timber is 
 immersed in a solution of zinc chloride, or the fluid may be 
 forced through the pores of the wood by pressure. This 
 tends to harden the wood and renders it partially incom- 
 bustible. 
 
 BURNING POINT of a substance, the temperature at 
 which it will take fire. See Flash Point. 
 
 BURNING POINTS OF WOODS— The burning points of 
 wood ranges from 400 to 600 deg. F. By burning point is 
 meant "ignition" point. The all-resinous woods have the 
 lower point of ignition and are also apt to„ give off an in- 
 flammable vapor. Non-resinous hardwoods have perhaps the 
 higher ignition point. It is claimed that California red wood 
 has the highest ignition point. This claim, however, is made 
 by manufacturers who deal in products made of this material. 
 
 BURLAP — Said to be subject to spontaneous combustion 
 when oiled or dyed. 
 
BUTTONS 63 
 
 BURNISH— To polish by rubbing. Chiefly applies to 
 metals. 
 
 BUSINESS BLOCKS IN VILLAGES— Mainly f rame ^ 
 buildings built in rows and contain the postoffice, opera 
 house, variety store, paint store. Communicating roof spaces. 
 Bad fire record. See Frame Rows; also Country Stores. 
 
 BUSINESS IN WOMAN'S NAME— See Names. 
 
 BUSINESS INTERRUPTION INDEMNITY— See Use 
 and Occupancy. 
 
 BUTCHER SHOPS— Considered good insurance, as the 
 greater liability is on fixtures rather than stocks. May have 
 an unsafe gas stove in the rear, an unsafe swinging gas 
 bracket at ice box, and a small amount of saltpetre for corn- 
 ing beef. Sawdust is found on the floors of this class. Sau- 
 sage-making and meat-packing. The fire record is good in 
 even the poorest grade of shops. 
 
 BUTTONS, CELLULOID— Celluloid is received in col- 
 ored sheets. Machinery used are stamping presses, cutters, 
 boring lathes, turning and frazing machines, drop-hammers. 
 Steam and hot water used for moulding; emery, buflf and 
 sandpaper wheels, gas or steam-heated die presses, gas blow- 
 pipes. Painting with highly inflammable liquids applied by 
 hand or air brush and containing collodion, acetone, amyl 
 acetate and mineral colors. Hazard of dry-rooms with air 
 impregnated with explosive. mixtures. See Celluloid. 
 
 Cloth-covered Buttons — Cloth scraps cut into shape by 
 hand, fitted over metal form, pressed together. Frayed or 
 rough edges singed with gas flame injected in revolving 
 metal cage or the buttons are lightly covered with alcohol 
 and set on fire in rapidly oscillating or revolving metal screen. 
 Care of scrap cloth, paper linings and cotton padding. 
 
 Composition Buttons — Made of rosin, clay, pulverized rock, 
 wheat paste, mineral oils and colors. These are mixed to- 
 gether, heated in steam kettles, rolled into sheets on steam 
 tables, cut into shape, dried. 
 
 Glass Buttons — Glass received in bars, reheated in gas 
 furnaces, pressed into shape while hot on gas-heated presses, 
 and gradually cooled in small lehr. Hazards of gas-heated 
 furnaces, lehrs and blow pipe.s. 
 
64 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Horn, Ivory, Pearl and Bone Buttons — Process similar in 
 all these, including "vegetable" ivory, which is Tanqua nuts 
 from South America. Process is boring, cutting, drilling, 
 smoothing with sand and emery wheels. Hazards of dirty 
 bearings on high-speed machines, dry rooms. 
 
 Metal Buttons — General machine-shop hazard with metal 
 working, lacquering, buffing, plating, dry rooms. 
 
 Pearl Buttons — The pearl used is from clams, oysters, 
 sometimes called mother-of-pearl. High-speed water-cooled 
 saws needed, including special machines for certain kinds 
 of buttons. Pearl cleaned in dilute sulphuric acid, polished 
 with sawdust in tumblers. Aqua ammonia and silver nitrate 
 used for coloring pearl to a darker shade. 
 
 Wood Buttons — Involves a wood-working hazard, boring, 
 ing, sandpapering, shellacing and varnishing. 
 
 BUTTRESS — A vertical projecting piece of brickwork or 
 masonry built in front of a wall to strengthen it, or a mass 
 of stone or brickwork intended to support a wall or to assist 
 it in sustaining the strain that may be upon it. 
 
CABINET FACTORIES— Lumber is brought from yard, 
 dried in kilns, taken to the mill and cut up into various sizes 
 and shapes, the work consisting of cross-cut sawing, dove- 
 tailing, rip and resawing, mortising, carving, tenoning. The 
 parts are placed in caul box prior to and after gluing and 
 assembled. A coat of water or oil stain is applied, then var- 
 nished, rubbed with pumice, polished and packed. Hazards 
 of wood-workers. See Carpenter Stoves. 
 
 CABLES — The best sign of the overloading of a cable 
 (electrically) is given when the cable begins to get hot. 
 
 Cables used in deep salt water are made as^ follows: In 
 the centre there is a core consisting of strands of copper 
 wire. This is covered with several coats of rubber. A coat 
 of jute follows, then a layer of galvanized iron wires, and 
 finally a layer of yarn and compound which forms 'the outer 
 covering. 
 
 CAGE CONSTRUCTION is a term peculiarly descriptive 
 of that type of construction represented by the most ad- 
 vanced and approved practise, a framework of columns and 
 beams, spliced at the joints, riveted at the connections, stiff- 
 ened by an efficient bracing of rods, portals or gussets that 
 make it independently safe against any external force, leav- 
 ing the thin and light exterior walls with no duty to per- 
 form except that of providing protection and ornamentation 
 to the building. — J. F. Kendall. (See Skeleton Construction.) 
 
 CALCINATION — Ores and chemicals are brought to red 
 heat to expel volatile constituents, destroy organic mat- 
 ter and loosen the mass. 
 
 CALCIUM CARBIDE is made by the fusion of lime and 
 coke, or quicklime and charcoal in an -electric furnace at 
 3,000 deg. C. See Acetylene. 
 
 A substitute for calcium carbide is a disc made of crude 
 
 65 
 
66 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 oil, calcium carbide, sulphur, sugar. These are cooked to- 
 gether and pressed into cakes. 
 
 CALCIUM CHLORIDE— Reservoirs for use with dry 
 pipe sprinkler equipments in cold storage warehouses.. See 
 diagrams issued by New York Fire Insurance Exchange. 
 
 CALCIUM LIGHT RISKS— Storage of theatre properties, 
 lighting stands and apparatus, color mixture, asphaltum and 
 alcohol, charging cylinders, air compressors, oxygen re- 
 ducing devices, hydrogen and oxygen gas outfits for lead 
 burning. Work consists of charging cylinders with illumin- 
 ating gas using compression of 225 lbs. Reducing pressure 
 on oxygen gas cylinders from 1,800 lbs. to 225 lbs. through 
 a series of valves, the last being set at 225 lbs. This class 
 should be written cautiously. 
 
 CALCIUM LIGHT TUBES for lighting are arranged in 
 pairs of steel cylinders, one with oxygen and one with 
 hydrogen. Inflammable. 
 
 CALCIUM OXIDE (unslaked lime or quicklime) is a 
 white solid mass obtained by burning limestone (incom- 
 bustible). ^ If combined with water gives off great heat suf- 
 ficient to cause ignition. Classed as hazardous. 
 
 CALCIUM PHOSPHATE is a reddish or grayish solid 
 mass whi*ch decomposes on contact with water, forming 
 hydrogen phosphide, which ignites spontaneously on contact 
 with air. Used in signal fires. Classed as inflammable. 
 
 CALENDERING — A process whereby material is finished 
 or glazed by being passed over or under the surfaces of 
 steam-heated cylinders. 
 
 CALK OR CAULK— To fill seams with something to 
 prevent leaking. Oakum is usually used. 
 
 CALORIZING IRON— No mass of iron, no matter how 
 large, can be heated red in contact with air without rusting. 
 At temperatures above red heat iron rapidly oxidizes and 
 scales away; or, in other words, burns. Calorizing is a 
 process discovered by T. Van Aller, for prolonging the life 
 of iron (or copper) by heating metals in a revolving drum 
 with a mixture containing finely divided aluminum which 
 produces a surface alloy on the metal, thus preventing the 
 metal from burning and providing means of frequent re- 
 
CANDLE FACTORIES 67 
 
 newals when used in laboratories where high temperature 
 furnaces or retorts are used. 
 
 CAMPHENE — A mixture of three parts alcohol and one 
 part turpentine; resembles camphor. Inflammable. 
 
 CAMPHENES— Etheral oils destitute of oxygen (oil of 
 turpentine, etc.). 
 
 CAMPHOR is obtained by boiling the wood of certain 
 Chinese or Japanese trees. It is inflammable. 
 
 CAMPHOR BALLS OR FLAKES— Naphthalene moth 
 camphor is inflammable; melts quickly to a fhin liquid and 
 gives off vapors \/hich attack the eyes. The vapors are 
 readily ignited. 
 
 CANALS AND FEEDERS— Entering into large bodies of 
 water are usually built for the accommodation of the manu- 
 facturing establishments adjacent thereto and act as water- 
 ways for boats, supplying water-power, and sometimes as 
 sewers. Surfaces, as a rule, are oily, due to the waste mate- 
 rial let into the canal. 
 
 CANAUBA WAX— Extracted from the leaves of the 
 Canauba palm. Melting point 185 deg. F. Used as a cement. 
 
 CANCELLATION NOTICES are sent by registered mail, 
 personal service or by sheriff or constable. Receipt must be 
 signed by all parties interested as assureds. 
 
 CANDELIA— See Vegetable Waxes. 
 
 CANDLE FACTORIES— The raw materials used may be 
 of animal, vegetable or mineral origin, such as tallow, sper- 
 maceti, paraffine or other waxes. The processes employed 
 are: Tallow in common with mineral fats consist mainly 
 of stearine and olein. It is decomposed into these two con- 
 stituents by treating it in large copper digestors set over 
 brick furnaces. In these the tallow is treated with super- 
 heated steam at a pressure of about 150-160 lbs., equalling 
 a temperature of 365-375 deg. F., the cylinders them- 
 selves being heated by direct fire heat. The resulting mix- 
 ture of the stearic and oleic acids is pressed to remove the 
 former from the latter, which is a liquid. The stearic acid 
 is then melted and run into candles, and the crude oleic acid 
 is barrelled and sold to soap-makers under the name of 
 Red Oil Hazards; The manufacture of stearine from tal- 
 
68 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 low is not especially hazardous except that occasionally the 
 digestor explodes, in which case the melted fat would be 
 scattered about. The hazard of the raw materials is the 
 large quantities in which they are stored, all of which are 
 combustible. The entire process is generally steam. 
 
 CANDLE-POWER is the measure of brilliancy. It is the 
 definite term fixed by American law as the amount of light 
 given by a candle burning 120 grains of wax per hour. 
 
 CANDLE STRUCTURE— See Flames. 
 
 CANDLES are responsible for many fires during the holi- 
 da}^ season in certain congested sections of Greater New 
 York and during religious holidays when used on mantels 
 or Christmas trees. Celluloid candlesticks, under the name 
 of "Composition Ivortur," "Imitation Ivory" and "Domestic 
 I\ory" have been found on sale in department stores. Most 
 of the candlesticks have a cup-shaped metal cap placed in 
 the top and used to receive the candle. The manufacturers 
 claim that this would prevent the candle from igniting the 
 pyroxylin. It w^as found, however, that such is not the case, 
 for when the candles were lighted and allowed to burn down 
 the candlestick ignited and burned with the customary in- 
 tensity. They should be prohibited. 
 
 CANDLING EGGS— Eggs are held in front of a light 
 before a small aperture which allows the candler to ascer- 
 tain if there are any blood spots or water spots in the eggs. 
 Dark rooms are required. Carelessness in handling packing 
 material, electric light cords hung on nails, kerosene oil 
 lamps or candles cause many fires. Candling was first done 
 by holding the egg in front of a candle. See Eggs. 
 
 CANDY FACTORIES— The materials used are sugar, 
 glucose, chocolate, essential oils, flavoring extracts, syrups, 
 nuts and spices. Starch is used incidentally. The hazards are 
 "batch warmers," which are used to keep stock from setting. 
 They resemble a hood of metal set on a bench with gas 
 burners under same. If direct fire heat is used, they should 
 set on an incombustible base and have a permanent iron 
 gas pipe connection. Candy furnaces are cylindrical iron, 
 fire brick-lined stoves, coke or coal fed with the grate near 
 the bottom and the candy kettles resting directly over the 
 
CANNED GOODS 69 
 
 fire. The principal danger is the likelihood of the candy boil- 
 ing over into the fire, where it might flare up and ignite the 
 ceiling or run over the floor. The furnace should set on 
 proper brick yentilated foundation and have metal hood 
 over. Coaters and Tumblers: Candies v^ith nut centres 
 and sugar-coated are made by tossing and tumbling in spheri- 
 cal copper vessels, steam heated, and have practically no fire 
 hazard. Dipping Pans: These are for dipping unfinished 
 candies, generally in melted chocolate. The pans are usually 
 set in the v^ork table and heated by steam. Kettles: In ad- 
 dition to the kettles used on the furnaces, stationary copper 
 and iron kettles (steam heated) are used for melting sugar, 
 glucose and syrup. Peanut Roasters: These are generally 
 small rotating iron cylinders heated by gas, coke or coal. 
 They should be properly set and guarded from inflammable 
 material. Vacuum Pans, sometimes used for boiling sugar 
 and syrup, present only the hazard of steam pipes. Starch 
 Bucks are employed to coat the candy w^ith starch. These 
 machines are motor-driven v^ith a shaking and shifting mo- 
 tion. Very little dust escapes v^here these machines are 
 used, although open lights should be removed from the im- 
 mediate vicinity. Starch Dry Rooms: Candy is moulded 
 in depressions made by patterns pressed upon the flat sur- 
 face of powdered starch, held in wooden trays, the soft candy 
 being let into the moulds by means of droppers or tin ves- 
 sels. To facilitate the setting of the candy, the starch trays 
 are placed on racks in dry rooms, which are generally frame 
 and steam heated. Dry rooms should be built of fire-proof 
 material, properly vented and without open lights. See 
 Starch Buck. • 
 
 CANE AND RATTAN WORKS— As used for chair seats, 
 furniture and baskets. Cleaned and bleached with hydro- 
 fluoric acid and chloride of lime, split, shaved and diied. 
 Hazards of dry rooms, soaking tanks, shavers, splitters, 
 gluing, machine shops, weaving cane seats, varnishing, shel- 
 lacing or painting. Without .these latter the hazard is mild. 
 
 CANNED GOODS — Generally considered by underwriters 
 to be excellent insurance, as the contents are hermetically 
 sealed. May suffer a severe loss should even a small amount 
 
70 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of water remove the labels and thereby destroy the identity 
 of the goods therein. When packed in cases, this is not so 
 apt to occur. 
 
 CANNEL COAL — A bituminous variety used by fire de- 
 partments and in open-hearth grates. 
 
 CANTILEVER — A lever fixed at one end and supporting 
 a vs^eight or resisting a force by virtue of its ov^n stiffness 
 and the strength of its attachment to the support. 
 
 CAOUTCHOUCINE (or coutchine) is a water-proofing 
 compound and a solvent of resinous substances prepafed by 
 vaporization of india-rubber at a temperature of 600 deg. F. 
 Hazardous. 
 
 CAP — Post Cap. The top member (flat) of a column or 
 post. 
 
 CAPACITY OF WATER TANKS— See Tables. 
 
 CAP FACTORY— Cloth caps, largely made from scraps 
 or piece goods; celluloid for visors, cotton batting for stuff- 
 ing, embossing ornaments, hydraulic presses, dry rooms, 
 sewing machines. Habitually untidy and generally cheap 
 class of help. Unprofitable class. 
 
 CAPITAL OF A COMPANY— The money furnished 
 by the stockholders to give stability as required in the or- 
 ganization of a company, thus providing funds from which 
 the policy-holders can draw in case of emergency. It is a 
 liability. 
 
 CAP STONE— See Bond and Cap Stones. 
 
 CARBIDES — Compounds of carbon and metals. Some are 
 explosive. 
 
 CARBINOL-METHYLIC ALCOHOL or wood spirit. 
 Inflammable liquid. * 
 
 CARBOHYDRATES— Consist of carbon, hydrogen and 
 oxygen. They include all substances bearing names ending 
 in ose. 
 
 CARBOLIC ACID is derived from coal tar. Melts at 108 
 deg. F. Not explosive in itself. Manufacturing hazard is 
 mild. 
 
 CARBOLINEUM — A wood preserver, chemical fluid. Base 
 is heavy coal-tar product mixed with chlorine gas. Flash 
 about 280 deg. F. Free from combustion. 
 
CARBON TETRA-CHLORIDE 71 
 
 CARBOLIZING — Consists of extracting the sap and water 
 from the timber and driving carbolic or tar acids through. 
 
 CARBON — This element is distributed in nature in the 
 free condition, in organic and inorganic substances. It ap- 
 pears in various forms, the most common being that of char- 
 coal, and the various kinds of coal, which are chiefly carbon. 
 
 CARBONATES — Are carbonic acid compounds. 
 
 CARBON-BISULPHIDE— Produced by passing the va- 
 por of burning sulphur over charcoal kept red hot. Highly 
 inflammable. Vapor mixed with air takes fire at 300 deg. 
 F. A solvent for fats, oils, india-rubber, phosphorus, bro- 
 mine, iodine, camphor. Also used in cheap grade paints. 
 When stored in steel drums, the hazard is not severe. 
 
 CARBON-BLACK (Lamp Black)— Consists of light and 
 finely divided carbon. It is obtained by burning oil or ^as 
 with a smoky flame. Will ignite spontaneously. Classed as 
 inflammable solid. Fires are caused by the sparks remain- 
 ing from the manufacturing processes. . 
 
 CARBON BRUSHES, used on motors, are made of car- 
 bon and graphite. 
 
 CARBON-DISULPHIDE— See Carbon-bisulphide. 
 
 CARBON OIL— See Hydrocarbon. 
 
 CARBON PAPER AND TYPEWRITER RIBBONS— 
 Use mineral waxes, beeswax, Japanese wax, canauber wax, 
 carbon black, lamp black, castor oil, olive oil, neatsfoot oil, 
 lard oils, vaseline, turpentine, alcohol, paraffine. Hazards of 
 mixing and grinding colors and ingredients, heating waxes 
 and oils, applying mixture to paper and fabrics (a cold proc^ 
 ess), glue-heaters, storage of materials. See Typewriter 
 Inks. 
 
 CARBON TETRA-CHLORIDE— Used as a basis for con- 
 tents of fire extinguishers and for cleaning fluids in place 
 of benzine. Made by passing chlorine gas over heated car- 
 bon-bisulphide, the product condensed in a cooler. A mix- 
 ture of carbon tetra-chloride and sulphur is thus obtained. 
 By introducing caustic soda or potash the sulphur dichloride 
 is decomposed and dissolved, precipitating the purified car- 
 bon tetra-chloride. It is non-hazardous and non-inflam- 
 mable. 
 
72 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 CARBONA — Carbon tetra-chloride and gasoline mixed. 
 Non-inflammable. 
 
 CARBONACEOUS SUBSTANCES— Many have no ni- 
 trogen in them, and carbon is their most important element. 
 Sugar, starch, oils and fats are carbonaceous substances. 
 
 CARBONATE OF AMMONIA is made by heating in 
 closed iron vessels bones, hartshorn or other animal mat- 
 ters and then purifying them by sublimation. 
 
 CARBONATE OF LIME is marble which contains lime 
 and carbonic acid. 
 
 CARBONATE OF POTASH is obtained from the ashes 
 of plants, potash and carbonic acid. 
 
 CARBONATE OF SODA is made from common salt. 
 It is soda and carbonic acid. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID — A gaseous compound of carbon and 
 oxygen. It is produced by the process of combustion and 
 respiration, and hence is always present in the air. 
 
 CARBONIC ACID GAS OR CARBON DIOXIDE— Cal- 
 cium magnasite is heated in ovens to about 1,400 deg. 
 F. by fuel oil or gas. The heat breaks up the magnasite 
 into carbonic acid gas and calcide magnasite. Gas is filtered 
 through charcoal purifiers to compressors. At high pres- 
 sure carbonic acid gas liquefies. Non-inflammable. Cylin- 
 ders containing same should not be exposed to heat. It 
 extinguishes fire because it eliminates oxygen, which is 
 necessary to combustion. Liquid carbonic acid gas is manu- 
 factured from marble dust mixed with water, pumped to 
 generators, mixed with sulphuric acid, charged with car- 
 bonic acid gas. From coke-fed retorts, passed through scrub- 
 bers, drawn by suction to gas absorbers, boiled, purified in 
 iron tanks, compressed, separated, cooled. Hazards are boil- 
 ers, coke fuel, clearance of steam conveyor pipes which be- 
 come hot, acid storage. 
 
 CARBONIZING means charring a substance. This proc- 
 ess is accomplished by direct fire heat, as a rule. See Em- 
 broideries. 
 
 CARBORUNDUM— Composed of slmd, carbon and a lit- 
 tle salt melted electrically, forming silicon carbide, the crys- 
 
CARPET AND RUG MANUFACTURING 73 
 
 tals of which are hard as diamonds and are used for abrasive 
 purposes. 
 
 CARBOY — A large glass bottle or demijohn enclosed in 
 a wooden crate and generally packed with straw to prevent 
 breakage. Usually used for corrosive acids. 
 
 CARBURETOR is a device to atomize gasoline or other 
 light hydro-carbons, and then mix it with air to make the 
 combination highly combustible. 
 
 CARBURETS— Same as carbides. 
 
 CARBURETTED HYDROGEN is carbon or charcoal 
 united with hydrogen. 
 
 CARDING MACHINES— Lay the fibre straight and form 
 it into a loose roving preparatory to spinning. 
 
 In woolen mills fires are caused by sparks igniting the 
 lint or flyings where cotton forms part of the goods. Sparks 
 usually at the first or **licker-in" roll. Machines are fed 
 automatically from a Bramwell feeder. Hazards depend upon 
 the amount of cotton used (wool not readily ignited). Mills 
 using the long, first-grade fibre-wool the least hazardous. 
 Cheap knitting mills and horse blanket factories use cheap 
 grade cotton and wool which contains considerable foreign 
 matter. See Bramwell Feed. 
 
 CARDING ROOMS are more preferable if detached or 
 cut off by fire doors. 
 
 CAROUSEL MANUFACTURING— A woodworking and 
 machine shop hazard usually located in light, high, one- 
 story frame buildings in sparsely settled locations. Not 
 attractive fire risks. Cheap grade labor as a rule; benzine- 
 thinned paints. Where animals are made, the seats are apt 
 to be upholstered with excelsior. 
 
 CARPENTERS' STOVES are three to four feet long, fif- 
 teen to eighteen inches wide, set on legs. Usually burn 
 wood or shop refuse. See Cabinet Factories. 
 
 CARPET AND RUG MANUFACTURING— Imported 
 wool received in bales, then fed into the washing machines 
 and then into the picking machine, then to the dry room, 
 where the heat from steam coils is forced through it by 
 means of blowers. The wool then passes to the sorting 
 room, where the blends are carefully made before it goes 
 
74 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 to the machine which tears the wool fibres apart and gets 
 them in shape for the carding and combing processes. The 
 wool is then blown into a spinning mill, after which it is 
 ready to be converted into yarn. It passes through a pick- 
 ing machine, which blends the different grades of the raw 
 material. It is then refined and purified. Through tubes, 
 the wool is forced to the carding room by means of air pres- 
 sure. It is then taken to the combing machines, which sepa- 
 rate the long from the short fibres. The strands of wool 
 are thinned out and given sufficient strength to stand the 
 weaving process. The yarn next appears in rows of spin- 
 dles in the "mule" room, where the yarn is twisted and 
 brought to its final stage. The yarn next goes to the dye- 
 house to be boiled, bleached and colored, then to the drying 
 house, and through a steaming process to set the colors, and 
 next to the weave shop, where great skill is required in the 
 assembling of the yarn and the matching of the colors. The 
 skeins of yarn are wound on spools, which are put in sets at 
 back of the looms, each color or set representing one frame 
 of color on the rug. After the weave is completed, the rug 
 comes out rough. It is passed through a finishing machine 
 to remove the roughness on the surface of the rug or carpet. 
 
 CARPET CLEANING employs, as a rule, revolving 
 drum-beaters enclosed in wood partitions, equipped with 
 suction to carry off dirt and dust. Also electrical vacuum 
 apparatus, which sucks the dirt out of the material. Dust 
 hazard. No open lights permitted in cleaning rooms; good 
 ventilation required. Hazards of dirty bearings, washing in 
 soap and water, dyeing, recoloring faded €pots with aniline 
 colors, dry rooms, pressing irons, sewing machines. Ben- 
 zine is often used for cleaning. Poor fire record. 
 
 In some households, the carpet which is tacked to the 
 floor is cleaned by naphtha without removing it from the 
 floor. The flooring becomes soaked with the naphtha. An 
 open flame may ignite the vapor arising. 
 
 CARPET SLIPPER MANUFACTURING— Cut, sew and 
 tack the materials, using pasteboard insoles glued or pasted 
 in. Untidy shops and cheap class labor as a rule. A poor fire 
 record class. 
 
CASEIN OR LACTEIN 75 
 
 CARRON OIL — A mixture of linseed oil and lime water. 
 A good remedy for burns. Should be kept in every factory 
 and home. 
 
 CANTON — A box or container made of pasteboard or 
 corrugated paper. 
 
 CARTRIDGE FUSE— A cartridge-shaped shell enclosing 
 an electrical fuse. Used to prevent the molten fuse from 
 igniting inflammable material. 
 
 CARVERS — There are two types used in woodworking — 
 duplicating and spindle. Spindle carver is a machine 
 wherein a milling cutter is rotated very rapidly ^at the end . 
 of a horizontal spindle. Duplicating carver, one with a blank 
 tool and small cutters, which are made to pass simultaneously 
 over the outlines and surfaces of a pattern and the pieces 
 to be carved. 
 
 CASE — A box for packing goods. 
 
 CASE HARDEN — To convert the outer surface of 
 wrought iron into steel by heating to white heat in contact 
 with charcoal. 
 
 CASED GOODS — Goods unopened and in cases or original 
 containers. 
 
 CASEIN OR LACTEIN— Made from skimmed milk. 
 Used in manufacturing buttons, combs and for surfacing 
 fine printing paper in preference to glue, as it is not subject 
 to moisture. Skimmed m.ilk is heated to about 135 deg. 
 F., sulphuric acid (dilute) added to precipitate the casein, 
 and the whey drained off. The curd (casein) is drained, 
 washed in water to remove the acid, dried, ground into 
 powder. There is about 3^ per cent, of casein in skimmed 
 milk. Hazards, boilers, acid storage, dry rooms, stone 
 grinders. 
 
 CASEMENT — Applied to a window which is hung upon 
 hinges in place of cord and sash weight. 
 
 CASINGS— See Abattoir. 
 
 CAST IRON is very brittle, of granular nature and can- 
 not be welded. When heated and suddenly cooled by water 
 it flies into fragments. All iron work in buildings should be 
 protected (insulated) with at least two inches of fire-proofing - 
 material. 
 
76 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 CAST-IRON COLUMNS— On account of the heavy, ir- 
 regular masses of metal forming the flanges, the beams, webs 
 and brackets set up internal strains and stresses which are 
 apt to cause invisible cracks which under any unusu^ con- 
 ditions of loading or shock might cause serious calamity. 
 Recommend fabricated steel columns properly protected by 
 either terra-cotta or concrete. 
 
 CASTING — Pouring molten metal into moulds. Ordinary 
 iron and brass castings are made in sand moulds. Iron 
 moulds are used for "chilled iron castings." 
 
 CASTOR OIL is obtained from the castor bean, the seed 
 of a plant indigenous to Southern Asia. The bean contains 
 from 48 to 60 per cent, of oil. The process of extraction 
 is as follows: After cleaning to remove sand, trash, etc., 
 the beans are crushed, packed in press cylinders and sub- 
 jected to hydraulic pressure. The oil thus expressed is, after 
 settling and clarifying, known as *'cold pressed," or medici- 
 nal, and is in color from a water white to pale yellow, de- 
 pending on the quality of the seed. The remaining 10 per 
 cent, of the oil content of the meat, after cold pressing, is 
 heated or cooked and subjected while still hot to hydraulic 
 pressure in box presses, the resulting oil being known as 
 "hot pressed," or technical oil, and is in color from a pale 
 straw to a brown tint. Approximately 5 per cent of oil still 
 remains in the meat after the above process. In order to re- 
 claim this an extraction plant is necessary. See Extracting 
 Plants. 
 
 CATERERS — Combined hazards of bakers, confectioners 
 and restaurants. 
 
 CAUL BOX — A long, oblong box with steam coils, used 
 for drying lumber of small dimensions. Should ,be lined 
 with lock-jointed tin and have wire screen over steam coils. 
 Apt to become untidy with sawdust or shavings. Formerly 
 these were heated by a smoke pipe of a stove passing through 
 the box. 
 
 CAUSTIC LIME— See Lime. 
 
 CAUSTIC POTASH— Obtained from carbonate of potash 
 or pearl ash solution, contained in an iron pot by mixing 
 it with slaked lime in small quantities at a time, the whole 
 
CELLULOID 77 
 
 being kept at the boiling point. Insoluble carbonate of lime 
 is formed and potassium hydrate remains in solution. Not 
 inflammable. There is no fire hazard to speak of. 
 
 CAUSTIC SODA is prepared by causticizing sodium car- 
 bonate with lime. Not inflammable. Practically no fire 
 hazard. 
 
 CEDAR OIL MOPS— Liable to ignite spontaneously. 
 Used extensively in dwellings. Should be in well-ventilated 
 room or a metal can with cover. They are the cause of 
 many fires. Proper name is O'Cedar. 
 
 CELESTROM EBONITE, BLACK LACQUER— Flash 
 point 290 deg. F. Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 CELESTROM GLOSSY BLACK LACQUER— Flash 
 point 290 deg. F. Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 CELESTROM THINNER— Flash point 290 deg. F. 
 Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 CELESTROM TRANSPARENT LACQUER — Flash 
 point 290 deg. F. Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 CELLAR — A room or enclosed space partly or wholly be- 
 low ground. It is usually under a building. 
 
 CELLAR FIRES are usually hard to fight on account 
 of the dense smoke. Generally when the fire department 
 arrives they immediately start to ventilate the place by cut- 
 ting holes in the floor or sidewalk lights. A special nozzle is 
 used on the hose when access to the cellar cannot be gained. 
 See Areaways. 
 
 CELLIT — A substitute for celluloid; does not burn very 
 readily. Cinematograph films are approved by the British 
 Fire Prevention Commission as non-flaming. 
 
 CELLULOID — Can be worked with tools while cold or 
 moulded like plaster when heated with steam. The basic 
 element is known as cellulose, such as cotton or fine tissue 
 paper. When cotton is used it is first washed in alkalies to 
 remove dirt and oil, washed in water and dried, cut into 
 small lengths, placed in earthen jars with nitric and sulphuric 
 acids, 1 to 3 parts. This is called nitrating. It is next 
 washed in water, dried in centrifugal extractors, and resem- 
 bles snow when chopped very fine; then mixed with cam- 
 phor. Pressed in slabs in hydraulic press. At this point the 
 
78 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 material is not very inflammable. The slabs are broken up, 
 moistened with alcohol, and colored with aniline tints, then 
 castor oil added. The product is then passed through steam- 
 heated rolls, pressed in steam-heated presses in sheet form, 
 dried and polished between thin sheets of polished steel. 
 Worked in plastic state at 150-250 deg. F.; if heated to 300 
 deg. F. will decompose and burn without heavy flame, and 
 may explode if confined. Little ether now used in its manu- 
 facture, which makes the process less dangerous. 
 
 Celluloid- is used as substitute for horn, ivory, shell, pearl, 
 wood veneers. Used in manufacture of harness rings, bil- 
 liard balls, combs and hair ornaments, picture films, shaving 
 brushes, brush and knife handles, collars, cuffs and buttons, 
 jewelry backings, decorations, emblems, piano keys, ladies* 
 collar supports, eye-shades, wind-shields. 
 
 Celluloid burns fiercely, frequently accompanied by explo- 
 sions. Most of the explosions are caused by the generating 
 of gaseous fumes, due to storing of the material in poorly 
 ventilated places. 
 
 Scrap Celluloid in heaps will ignite spontaneously and 
 should be kept free from all other forms of refuse, in 
 metal receptacles with self-closing covers. Scrap from 
 button, comb and other similar risks is sometimes used in 
 horn and fertilizer factories. Before being worked, scraps 
 should be run over a magnet to remove all metallic sub- 
 stances. Ground scrap is used for making harness rings. 
 Grinding and sandpapering produce dust and machines 
 should have blower system with separator and metal recep- 
 tacle partly filled with water in which is deposited the cellu- 
 loid dust. 
 
 Comb Risks usually employ cheap labor. The work 
 consists of shaping blanks and inserting stones. Blanks are 
 warmed on sheets of metal over gas flame or steam pipe, 
 placed in hand moulds. The stones inserted by use of a 
 cement composed of celluloid and glacial acetic acid. 
 
 Button Manufacturing requires the use of stamping presses, 
 blow-pipes for making rims and holders, gas-heated calen- 
 ders, cold or heated foot-power die presses. Occasionally 
 photo work for taking pictures. 
 
CELLULOID TOYS 79 
 
 Toys require similar machinery to buttons. Hot water is 
 used to soften and steam tables to mould sheet stock, saws 
 and small boring lathes to work it. Steam tables are apt to 
 become unduly hot and temperature should not exceed 225 
 deg. F. In working on celluloid, the danger from sparks is 
 always imminent, especially at circular saws if foreign sub- 
 stances find their way into the stock. In boring holes, the 
 spindle is usually cooled with water, as are many of the saws. 
 Dipping (coloring) involves the use of inflammable liquids 
 and should be in a separate fireproof building. An acetone 
 thinned cement is used for cementing the different parts. 
 Sheet stock, scraps, finished goods, all should be in separate 
 compartments or buildings. 
 
 Piano keys of celluloid present a fire hazard on account 
 of lighted cigar or cigarette butts being carelessly laid on 
 them. 
 
 Imitation Leathers are made of cotton cloths and covered 
 with nitro-cellulose in jeHy form and polished with celluloid 
 solutions. See Imitation Leather. 
 
 Trade names are Viscoloid, Pyroline, Fiberloid, Gallilith, 
 Pyroxolin. 
 
 CEMENT — Natural cements are made by burning impure 
 limestone at a low temperature (insufficient to vitrify). 
 They do not slake with water, but require to be ground in 
 order to convert them into hydraulic cement. 
 
 Portland cement is made by heating to incipient vitrifica- 
 tion an intimate mixture of argillaceous and calcareous sub- 
 stances, which product does not slake with water, but upon 
 grinding forms an energetic hydraulic cement. 
 
 CEMENT BLOCKS— Under-fire tests, show that the usual 
 thin webs crack under the application of very intense heat. 
 Webs should be of sufficient thickness to withstand the 
 stresses due to rapid expansion when heated. A building of 
 cement blocks is classed as frame construction by most rat- 
 ing bureaus. 
 
 CEMENT PLANTS AND PLASTER MILLS— There are 
 two processes, the wet and the dry. Raw stock in the dry 
 process is cement, rock, limestone and clay. In the wet 
 process, marble and clay. Process consists of rock crushing 
 
80 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 drying through slowly rotating iron cylinders heated by coal, 
 and burning in kilns heated to 2,500 to 2,800 deg. F. The 
 hazards are those usual to heat-producing devices, and 
 should be located a safe distance from woodwork. Dryers 
 should be in separate buildings. 
 
 CEMENTATION — The process of converting wrought 
 iron into steel by heating it in contact with charcoal. 
 
 CENTERING— The supports of an arch while being built. 
 
 CENTRAL STATION— A central location where fire- 
 alarms are received and immediately transmitted to the fire 
 department. They are superior to local or private alarm 
 systems. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL PUMP— A type of pump in which wa- 
 ter is set in rapid rotation by revolving vanes. The water 
 has a centrifugal tendency imparted to it which causes it to 
 rise through a pipe whose mouth faces tangentially the di- 
 rection of rotation. See Fire Pumps. 
 
 CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR OR EXTRACTOR— A 
 machine used for separating the lighter from the denser 
 liquids, or liquids from solids. The machine rotates very 
 rapidly on the principle that all liquids fly from the centre 
 of rotation. Used in laundries, dry cleaning establishments, 
 etc., for separating liquids from the cloth. Sometimes called 
 "whizzers." 
 
 CEREAL MILLS— See Flour Mills. 
 
 CERESINE — A natural mineral wax, same as Ozerite. 
 
 CERESINAL— A mineral wax. 
 
 CHANDELIER MANUFACTURING— Gas fixtures are 
 manufactured from tubing and gas piping, then cleaned with 
 soap or other compound, plated and lacquered either by 
 dipping or air-spraying, using Egyptian or amyl acetate 
 lacquer. Generally employ cheap labor and occupy crowded 
 lofts. The hazards are the use of volatiles and lacquer in 
 rooms with open lights. Considerable packing material is 
 used. Fire record poor. 
 
 CHANDLERS— See Ship's Chandlers. 
 
 CHAR is animal charcoal produced by heating bones to 
 a fire heat in closed receptacles and then reducing to a fine- 
 ness. 
 
CHEMICALS 81 
 
 CHARCOAL is wood partly burned. Made by burning 
 wood in heaps covered with turf and dirt. Small openings 
 are left above and below so that a little air can circulate 
 through the wood, thus continuing a smothered burning. In 
 powdered form is said to be liable to spontaneous combus- 
 tion. See Animal Charcoal. 
 
 CHAR-HOUSE— See Sugar Refineries. 
 
 CHARRING is the heating of organic matter out of con- 
 tact with air. 
 
 CHASERS — Sometimes called edge-runners, consist of a 
 heavy wheel mounted on a horizontal axis which travels 
 slowly around a circular bed, giving a crushing and mixing 
 effect to the material placed in its path. Used in paint or 
 chocolate factories. No hazard. 
 
 CHATTEL MORTGAGE— A lien upon personal prop- 
 erty, stock, fixtures or machinery for money loaned. To the 
 insurance man it is indicative of financial straits, because 
 the insured- is forced to borrow on his movable property. 
 
 CHECK VALVE— See Flap-check Valve. 
 
 CHEMICALS — Colored fife in any form, flashlight pow- 
 ders, liquid acetylene, acetylide of copper, fulminate of mer- 
 cury, fulminating gold or silver, gun cotton, nitroglycerine 
 (except U. S. P. solution), chloride of nitrogen, amide or 
 amine explosives, cymogen, volatile coal tar products having 
 a boiling point below 60 deg. F., chlorate of potash in ad- 
 mixtures of organic matter or with phosphorus or sulphur, 
 zinc dust, phosphorus, quicklime, phosphides, calcium car- 
 bide, metallic sodium and potassium, should only be allowed 
 to be stored according to municipal requirements. Dan- 
 gerous chemicals should be isolated in underground vaults. 
 Metallic sodium "and potassium in contact with water reacts, 
 releasing hydrogen, and flames result. These latter chemicals 
 should be stored in oil. See Drugs and Chemicals. 
 
 CHEMICAL EXTINGUISHERS— Hand chemicals of acid 
 type, consist of a metal cylinder in which is placed a quantity 
 of water, a glass bottle of sulphuric acid, and some bicar- 
 bonate of soda. By bringing the acid and soda in contact, a 
 gas is formed which forces the water oi»t through a nozzle. 
 This type will destroy nickel and somewhat corrode brass. 
 
82 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Should be recharged every year. See Dry Powder Extin- 
 guishers. 
 
 CHEMICAL FIBRE OR FIBREBOARD— It is a board- 
 like substance % to tV inch in thickness, and will not burn 
 readily. It is especially adaptable for covering and lining 
 trunks. 
 
 Fibreboard is made from various waste materials, such as 
 leather clippings, flax, hemp, old rope, tow, rags, paper, wood 
 pulp and in fact, almost any fibrous substance. These ma- 
 terials are chopped or cut up into very small pieces in a 
 cutting machine, then cooked in an agitated steam-heated 
 boiler, in solution with lime, soda ash and an alkali, for sev- 
 eral hours, mixed and ground in a "beater" similar in prin- 
 ciple and action to that found in paper mills, fitted with re- 
 volving knives and agitators, and rosin, soap, coloring matter 
 ' and other ingredients are added. 
 
 From the beater the stock is run into storage tanks or stuff 
 chests, which supply the board-making machine known as the 
 wet machine, where it is allowed to collect uniformly on the 
 surface of a cylinder until it is of the proper thickness. It is 
 then removed and placed on, racks to dry, either in steam- 
 heated dry rooms or on roofs in the open. See Fibreboard. 
 ^ CHEMICAL FIRE ENGINES— Are used by fire depart- 
 ments, railroads, hospitals and factories. Consist of a 40-45 
 gallon chemical tank mounted on wheels with a length of 
 hose (similar to hand extinguishers). Pressure, 75-160 lbs. or 
 higher. Tested hose especially built for this particular pur- 
 pose. To operate only necessary (in some types) to turn the 
 operating wheel at rear, which revolves the tanks. The loose 
 lead stopper drops from the acid jar, allowing the acid to 
 flow into the soda or other alkali forming the pressure. In 
 some types, the bottle containing the acid breaks, thereby 
 allowing the acid to mix with the soda. 
 
 CHEMICAL LABORATORIES— In congested districts es- 
 pecially where doing experimental work, constitute severe 
 exposures as a rule. In war times, experimenting, or man- 
 ufacturing of explosives and dangerous gases predominate. 
 
 CHEMICAL RISKS— Should be written cautiously. In- 
 spect for furnaces, ovens and chimneys. Liable to be a 
 
CHIMNEYS 83 
 
 nuisance on account of obnoxious fumes. The action of acids 
 and corrosives on fire doors and sprinkler heads makes these 
 devices short-lived. 
 
 CHEMICAL WAREHOUSES— Buildings where the as- 
 sured agrees to store separately from all other merchandise, 
 a given list of chemicals, maintaining such separation, each 
 from the other, by a substantial brick v^all not less than 12 
 inches thick, extending through roof without doors or 
 windows. 
 
 CHEMISTRY — A knowledge of chemistry is a great asset 
 to an insurance inspector, as it enables him to determine fire 
 hazards due to combination of materials which might be 
 passed by either the assured or a less qualified inspector. 
 
 CHEWING GUM MANUFACTURING— Raw stock con- 
 sists of chicle, which is usually received ready to be made up, 
 essential oils, flour, flavoring extracts and glucose. Work 
 consists of cooking in steam kettles, mixing the ingredients 
 in power mixers, rolling the gum into thin sheets by steam 
 rollers, cutting into strips, powdering and wrapping. The 
 gum is first wrapped in waxed paper. After wrapping, the 
 package is sealed by heating the waxed paper ends on a steam 
 or gas-heated table, then pressing the ends together. 
 
 CHICLE comes in various forms, some hard and some 
 soft, depending on locality in which it is produced. It is re- 
 fined and blended for use as chewing gum. Process consists 
 of breaking it into small bits in a "cracker," grinding in an 
 iron grinder, mixing in steam-heated kettles, filtering in 
 presses. A steam process. 
 
 CHILE SALTPETRE (sodium nitrate)— Sec Saltpetre. 
 
 CHILLING — Giving great hardness to the outside of cast 
 iron by pouring it into a mould made of iron instead of 
 wood. 
 
 CHIMNEYS are made tall in order to maintain a large hot 
 fire. The hot air and gases ascend the chimney at the rale of 
 50 to 60 feet a second, and the velocity of the ascending cur- 
 rent is based practically on the square root of the height 
 of the stack. 
 
 Terra-cotta tile, sewer pipe or hollow bricks are not suf- 
 ficient protex:tion by themselves. All single thickness chim- 
 
84 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 neys should be lined. Wall brackets are a source of danger 
 due to collapse or rupture, unless it be very substantial brick 
 
 _ 3TANmRP3 
 
 jT^ Tor ^ 
 
 
 
 iii".iliiiiiiiiii iiiiiiii(k''il 
 
 I 
 
 
 Ch /7hH ay 
 
 UNPBR HEA/iTH ALSO 
 
 or FtRS />LAC£, rLUE 
 Af'O rLU£ /.l^tNdj ASH 
 
 CHuT£,erc, 
 
 Copyright, 1916. G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 corbelling. Woodwork should not enter any part of a chim- 
 ney or cover the surface. Smokepipes should enter chimneys 
 horizontally. Chimneys should be cleaned once a year. 
 
CHINA DECORATING 85 
 
 The main cause of chimney fires is the accumulation of 
 soot. Soot is nearly pure carbon and is easily fired by sparks 
 from a wood fire. If damp, will smoulder for hours and is 
 liable to ignite spontaneously. Fires are sometimes caused 
 by the house settling, and the weight of the wall resting on 
 the chimney causes the bricks to loosen, leaving cracks which 
 afiford a means of sparks communicating to woodwork. See 
 Bracket Chimney; also Wall Chimney. 
 
 CHIMNEY ON FIRE— When soot has been ignited by a 
 fire it can be extinguished by shutting all the doors of the 
 room, so as to prevent any current of air and then throwing 
 a few handfuls of common salt upon the fire in the grate or 
 in the stove. In burning the salt, muriatic acid gas is evofved, 
 which is a prompt extinguisher of fire. 
 
 CHIMNEY OF RADIAL BRICK— Built of perforated 
 radial bricks, varying in size, and made from refractory clay 
 of great heat resistive quality and crushing strength. Are 
 specially baked or burned and have a series of holes in them 
 to permit even burning. Laid up in cement mortar. The 
 walls are reinforced with steel bands. When built, their 
 perforations form a dead air space which prevents radiation. 
 Better workmanship and material is required to build a radial 
 brick chimney which adds to the safety of a plant. 
 
 CHINA DECORATING OR DECALCAMANIE— China 
 is first sized with a varnish, part resin and part turps, by 
 hand brush. Design is then pasted on, pressed and washed 
 by hand with same material, then baked in kiln. Designs are 
 on paper with transfer paper called decalcomanie. See 
 Crockery. 
 
 CHINA OIL SILK — As a stock is very inflammable and 
 susceptible. Used for raincoats. Apparently use parafifine for 
 impregnating fabric. 
 
 CHINATOWN DWELLINGS— Fires are caused and 
 spread by swinging gas brackets igniting walls covered with 
 Chinese decorations, such as festooned paper, knick-knacks, 
 ornamental wood objects and prints, also ufisafe stoves. 
 
 CHINESE OIL — Used by varnishers on woodwork, ob- 
 tained from Chinese nut or berry. Inflammable. Subject to 
 pontaneous combustion. 
 
 ■ 
 
86 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 CHINESE -RESTAURANTS are seldom insured on ac- 
 count of their fire record. They are cleaner than the general 
 run of restaurants. Very little frying is done, which reduces 
 the grease fire hazard. 
 
 CHINESE WAX — A solid wax deposited by insects on the 
 Chinese ash tree. Melting point about 180 deg. F. 
 
 CHINESE WOOD OIL (tung oil)— Prepared from the 
 nut of a Chinese tree. Substitute for linseed oil. 
 
 CHIROPODISTS— Usually occupy small places on an 
 upper floor. May have unsafe gas stove. Alcohol is used ex- 
 tensively. Salves may be made on premises and heated by 
 direct heat. 
 
 CHLORATES, NITRATES, PEROXIDES— These are all 
 hazardous, owing to the quantity of oxygen which they evolve 
 when heated. Most of them can be detonated or exploded 
 when in contact with starch, sugar, gum, sweepings or dust, 
 or other organic matter, or sulphur and its compounds. 
 > Are apt to cause explosion by friction, concussion or high 
 temperature, and should be kept away from mineral acids, 
 carriers of oxygen, organic substances and sulphur. (W. D. 
 Grier in Crosby-Fiske Handbook of Fire Protection.) 
 
 CHLORATE OF ZINC— See Zinc Chlorate. 
 
 CHLORATE TABLETS contain potassium chlorate. Same 
 hazard as other chlorates in bulk. 
 
 CHLOR-BENZOL— Flash point about 90 deg. F. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF CALCIUM is muriate of lime. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF LIME is made by passing chlorine gas 
 into boxes of lead in which a quantity of slaked lime is laid 
 on shelves. Called bleaching powder. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF PHOSPHORUS, phosphorus trichlo- 
 ride, is a fuming colorless liquid. Acts strongly on organic 
 matter containing great heat. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF POTASH LOZENGES are highly dan- 
 gerous if accidentally brought into contact with an unlighted 
 phosphorus match. 
 
 chloride; of silicon is a colorless liquid fuming 
 strongly in air. Mixed with water it is decomposed, forming 
 hydrochloric acid. 
 
CHLORIDES 87 
 
 CHLORIDE OF SODA— See Chloride of Lime. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF SODIUM is common salt. 
 
 CHLORIDE OF SULPHUR, sulphur chloride, is a cor- 
 rosive fuming liquid used as solvent for rubber in vulcan- 
 izing. 
 
 CHLORIDES — All the compounds of the gas chlorine are 
 called chlorides. 
 
 CHLORINE — A heavy, greenish, poisonous gas given off 
 in some processes of manufacture and by bleaching pow^der 
 and chloride of lime, especially in the presence of strong 
 acids. It is not inflammable, but may cause fire or explo- 
 sion if in contact with ammonia, turpentine or finely pow^- 
 dered metal. Good ventilation necessary where gas is gen- 
 erated. Used as a bleaching acid, supports combustion, has 
 a strong affinity for hydrogen, but little for carbon, burns 
 quickly giving off a white smoke. Can be made with two 
 parts dilute sulphuric acid and a trifle more of chloride of 
 lime or bleaching powder. 
 
 CHLORITES are chlorous acid compounds. 
 
 CHLOROFORM may be obtained by heating chloral with 
 potassium nitrate, or by distillating a mixture of alcohol, 
 water and bleachmg powder. Burns with a greenish flame. 
 
 CHOCOLATE is made by roasting and then removing the 
 outer shell of the cocoa bean and grinding the entire bean. 
 The ground substance is put through a process to reduce it 
 to a pulp. 
 
 CHORDS IN TRUSSES— The top member and the main 
 horizontal tie are often called chords. 
 
 CHROMATE OF ZINC is obtained by precipitating a 
 solution of sulphate of zinc with bichromate of potassium. 
 U-sed in pigment printing. Chromates are of themselves 
 harmless. When treated with sulphuric acid, they will ignite 
 organic matter. 
 
 CHROMATES — Compounds of chromic oxide with metals. 
 
 CHROMES — Vandyke browns, artificially, made from pig- 
 nts, sometimes contain lamp black. 
 
 Chrome Green or Brunswick Green — Made of prussian 
 blue and chrome yellow. Somewhat combustible from causes 
 
 
88 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 such as a rise in temperature in a dryer or friction in grinder. 
 
 Chrome Yellow — Made from solution of potassium chro- 
 mate mixed with lead acetate, the chrome yellow being* 
 the precipitate (called lead chromate). Sometimes acids arc 
 used. 
 
 Chromic Acid — A dye used in calico printing. 
 
 CHURCHES — Of ordinary construction, have a very bad 
 fire record. The trouble probably lies in the fact that they re- 
 main idle and without heat the greater part of the week and 
 then the fires are forced to their capacity so as to get ready 
 for services. Furring and concealed spaces play a large part 
 in spreading fires. To make the interior attractive, the walls, 
 recesses and pipe channels are furred out to make a smooth 
 interior, leaving in some places a concealed space of over a 
 foot in depth. This, and the numerous hot air or ventilating 
 pipes cause the fire to spread and soon reach the attic over 
 the hanging ceiling and burn off the roof, which in col- 
 lapsing tears down the walls and wrecks the interior. Vest- 
 ments, altars and statuary are very e:sj:pensive. Fixed marble 
 work and stained glass wifidows are insured with the build- 
 ing and may form considerable of the building value. Fires 
 have been caused from upsetting candles, defective wiring 
 and other common causes. 
 
 CHURCH OIL is rape oil or a combination of rape and 
 mineral oils. Used in church rituals. 
 
 CHURN DRILL — A long iron bar with a cutting end of 
 steel. Much used in quarrying. 
 
 CHUTE — An inclined slide, open or enclosed, used for con- 
 veying material from one level or floor to another floor level. 
 
 CIGARETTE MAKING— Inventions and improvements in 
 modern machinery render this process principally a mechan- 
 ical operation. An up-to-date plant has automatic cigarette 
 machine with hopper holding the tobacco and attachments 
 which grasp the required amount of tobacco, roll it, paste 
 it, clip the ends, count it. The paste used is cold, although 
 some makes of machines have a small gas flame which dries 
 the wrapper before it leaves the machine. The cork tip ma- 
 chine rolls a piece of cork around the cigarette and pastes it, 
 
CIGARETTE MAKING * 89 
 
 no heat used. Tobacco is blended in a revolving drum, en- 
 closed in a wood frame, moistened and dried in separate re- 
 volving cylinders. The cylinder is on an inclined axis and 
 delivers the tobacco to the cigarette machine. "Textile" dry- 
 ers, as used in v^oolen mills, are used for drying leaf to- 
 bacco. It consists of a very long traveling belt on which is 
 placed the tobacco, heated by steam coils and hot air blown 
 across steam coils, all enclosed in a wooden frame. Hazards 
 here are steam pipes and dust collecting on fans. The to- 
 bacco is ground in an all-iron machine with knife grinder and 
 should have magnet to catch metal particles. Cigarettes 
 spoiled in the making, are macerated in a mill, the tobacco 
 screened out and used again. Storage of tobacco should be 
 in a room with even temperature, so that it will not dete- 
 riorate. Paper box making and printing, making flour paste 
 in steam kettles, cleaning and dusting tobacco-drying rooms, 
 and use of bisulphide of carbon for exterminating vermin. 
 See Tobacco. 
 
 CINDER CONCRETE— See Concrete. 
 
 CIRCUIT BREAKER— An electrical device, manual or 
 automatic for interrupting completely the flow of current in 
 a circuit. 
 
 CIRCULAR SAW — A woodworking machine with the saw 
 in the center of a flat table or stand. 
 
 CITY LOTS— There are seventeen city lots, 25 by 100, in 
 an acre. 
 
 CITY MAIN OR RESERVOIR should be sufficient to 
 give twenty-five pounds pressure at a building. A pump con- 
 nected to city main should be capable of providing twenty- 
 five pounds pressure at top line of sprinklers. Sec Fire 
 Pumps. 
 
 CLAPBOARDS— Thin boards, thicker on on^ edge. Used 
 covering the walls of houses. 
 
 CLARIFYING— See Liquors. 
 
 CLAROLIN — A benzine substitute, classed as non-volatile. 
 
 CLAY is derived from a certain kind of rock called feld^ 
 spar. When feldspar is exposed to the action of the ele- 
 
 tnts it crumbles slowly at the surface and the little par- 
 
 
90 . INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 tides combine with a certain amount of water-forming clay. 
 
 CLAY OR LOAM— If in fine state, will, if suspended in 
 water, put out a fire quicker than pure water. 
 
 CLEANING COMPOUNDS— Usually contain gasoline or 
 other inflammable solvents. Use same care in handling as 
 with gasoline. 
 
 CLEANING ESTABLISHMENTS— See Dry Cleaning. 
 
 CLEANING MACHINERY FOR GRAIN— Should either 
 be vented to the outer air, or else provided with a standard 
 dust collecting system. Machines should be provided with 
 magnets to catch metallic substances. 
 
 CLEARANCE — The clear space or uninterrupted distance 
 between any heating apparatus or device to fixed woodwork 
 or other combustible material. Temporary obstructions are 
 not included. 
 
 CLEAR SPACE— Stock should not be placed nearer than 
 2 feet from the ceiling. If placed directly under the ceiling 
 it shuts off the possibility of hose streams reaching the goods 
 behind the same. In the case of sprinklered risks it ob- 
 structs the proper distribution of water. See Aisles. 
 
 CLIPPINGS — Cotton or woolen, if clean, are usually 
 classed as desirable insurance, but inspection should always 
 be made to determine if dirty rags or paper are received 
 along with the clean clippings. If sorting is done, the num- 
 ber of hands should be noted, also whether metal receptacles 
 are used under the screens for waste material. No gas lights 
 should be permitted over sorting tables. Clippings in tailor 
 shops should be kept in metal containers. See Rags. 
 
 CLOAKS AND SUITS— Busiest season, February, March 
 and April, and June to October. (See clothing manufactur- 
 ing.) 
 
 CLOSED VESSELS that have been standing in a fire 
 should be left unopened until cool inside because vapors may 
 have been generated or contents undergone partial carbon- 
 ization and by admitting air an explosion may take place or 
 spontaneous ignition follow. 
 
 CLOSETS IN SPRINKLERED RISKS should have open, 
 wire mesh or paper-covered tops so that in case of fire, the 
 
COAL GAS 91 
 
 water can easily wet down the contents. Closets for storage 
 of janitors' or porters* rags and supplies should be metal- 
 lined or fire-proof. Oily waste and rags, as usually found, 
 are likel}^ to cause spontaneous combustion. 
 
 CLOTHEL REFRIGERATING MACHINE— Direct ex- 
 pansion system using ethyl chloride for refrigerant. The lat- 
 ter is highly inflammable. Used in small units and at low 
 pressure. 
 
 CLOTH SPONGING— Use high temperature live steam 
 rolls for shrinking and steaming. The goods are examined 
 by natural light, the cloth in bolts passing over drums or 
 frames. This class is usually found in congested districts of 
 the garment trade. 
 
 CLOTHING MANUFACTURING— See Garment Manu- 
 facturing. Poor fire record. See Sewing Tables. 
 
 CLOTHING ON FIRE— See Fire in Person's Clothing; 
 also Fireproofing Children's Clothing. 
 
 CLOTHING PRESSING— Many small shops now do con- 
 siderable power pressing by contract. Use small, but high 
 temperature, gas boiler for heating power-pressing machines. 
 These gas-heated boilers are usually poorly set and near 
 woodwork. An unattractive class. See Pressing Tables. 
 
 CLUSTER GAS LAMPS IN FACTORIES— Should have 
 springs to take up vibrations so that lamp will not break or 
 become weakened. The main stem is broken with a flexible 
 connection, made at right angles and the projecting piece 
 supported by a spring which takes up the weight and jar. 
 The distance from a combustible ceiling should not be less 
 than 48 inches, unless protected with metal and asbestos 
 shields. 
 
 COAL — Anthracite is hard coal. Bituminous is soft. Lig- 
 nite and peat are forms of coal in transition state. 
 
 COAL GAS — Used for heating or illuminating; is made by 
 the destructive distillation of bituminous (or sometimes hard) 
 coal, in externally heated retorts, usually coke fuel is used. 
 The gas from the retorts passes through a standpipe, the 
 temperature being reduced by passing the gas through a 
 ■Hyater or weak ammonia liquor seal into which is dipped the 
 
92 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 standpipe. Condensed around cold water pipes. The tar and 
 ammonia is extracted, passing through a series of screens 
 under water pressure. It is then scrubbed to separate the 
 remaining ammonia and napthalene by passing the gas 
 through coke tower or through a horizontal scrubber in 
 which are shafts to which are fastened sticks of wood which 
 revolve in an ammonia solution. After oxide purification, 
 it is stored in gas holders. It is lighter than air and ascends 
 rapidly. 
 
 COAL GAS PRODUCERS— Pressure Systems— All pres- 
 sure systems must be located in a special building or build- 
 ings approved by inspection department having jurisdiction 
 for the purpose, at such distance from other buildings as not 
 to constitute an exposure thereto, except that approved pres- 
 sure systems without gasometer having a maximum capacity 
 not exceeding 250 horse-power and pressure in generator not 
 exceeding two pounds, may be located in the building, provid- 
 ed that the generator and all apparatus connected therewith 
 be located in a separate fireproof room, well-ventilated' to the 
 outside of the building; every communication, if any, to be 
 protected by an approved fire door. In all other respects 
 the apparatus must comply with the requirements for suction 
 systems. 
 
 Suction Systems — Approved suction gas-producers may 
 be located inside the building, provided the apparatus for 
 producing and preparing the gas is installed in a well- 
 ventilated room. At no time shall the internal pressure of 
 the producer be in excess of atmospheric pressure. 
 
 The smoke and vent pipe shall, where practicable, be car- 
 ried above the roof of the building in which the apparatus is 
 contained, and above adjoining buildings. When buildings 
 are too high to make this practicable the pipe shall end at 
 least 10 feet from any wall opening. 
 
 No smoke nor vent pipe shall be within 9 inches of any 
 woodwork or any wooden lath and plaster partition or 
 ceiling. 
 
 Where smoke and vent pipes pass through combustible 
 partitions they shall be guarded by galvanized iron venti- 
 lated thimbles at least 12 inches larger in diameter than the 
 
1; 
 
 COAL 93 
 
 pipes, or by galvanized iron thimbles built in at least 8 
 inches of brickwork or other incombustible material. They 
 shall not under any circumstances be connected into chim- 
 neys or flues, except that the pipe may pass up in flues used 
 for no other purpose. No smoke pipe shall pass through 
 any floor nor through a roof having wooden framework or 
 covering.' 
 
 While the plant is not in operation the connection between 
 the generator and scrubber must be closed and the connec- 
 tion between the producer and vent pipe opened, so that 
 the products of combustion can pass into the open air. 
 This must be accomplished by means of a mechanical ar- 
 rangement which will prevent One operation without the 
 other. 
 
 If illuminating or other pressure gas is used as an alterna- 
 tive supply, the connections must be so arranged as to make 
 the mixture of the two gases or the use of both at the 
 same time impossible. 
 
 If illuminating or other pressure gas is used as a supple- 
 mentary supply,- mixing of the two gases may be permitted 
 if a suitable device is provided to prevent the supplemental 
 gas from entering any part of the producer gas equipment, 
 including the scrubber or purifier. 
 
 The opening for admitting fuel shall be provided with 
 some charging device so that no considerable quantity of 
 air can be admitted, or gas escape, while charging. 
 
 (Extracts from N. F. P. A. recommendations.) 
 
 COAL, ICE AND WOOD DEALERS usually occupy 
 basements or cellars of tenements, the dealers being largely 
 a foreign element. Unsafe coal stoves, salamanders, kero- 
 sene oil lamps, swinging gas brackets and rubbish consti- 
 tute the features of this class. 
 
 COAL OIL— See Kerosene. 
 
 COAL POCKETS — Motors for conveyors usually become 
 fdusty, and sometimes sparks set explosive fires in coal dust. 
 Steam engines and boilers should be in s-eparate buildings. 
 Garage and stable hazard. These buildings are usually high, 
 shafty and open to all winds. 
 
 COAL, POWDERED— Used in Portland cement rotary 
 
d4 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 kilns, in boilers and brick kilns. Injected under air pressure 
 into a flame or fire and produces intense heat. Eliminates 
 the ash hazard as almost perfect combustion takes place. 
 
 COAL SHORTAGE— A n^ation-wide coal famine, such as 
 experienced during the winter of 1917-18 greatly increases 
 the fire hazard. In all classes of risks, dwellings, mercan- 
 tile or manufacturing, tenants endeavor to relieve the sit- 
 uation by using improvised and often unsafe heating appa- 
 ratus. Wood often replaces coal, but as it is more inflam- 
 mable and produces a more intense heat, overheated smoke 
 pipes and stoves result. Even salamanders with coal fuel 
 are used in loft buildings and kerosene oil stoves in garages. 
 Sprinkler equipments are rendered inoperative through 
 freezing. In such intense weather street cleaning depart- 
 ments are at a standstill. ■ The conveyances for carting refuse 
 become frozen with wet material and cannot be used, barges 
 become frozen and ice-bound and cannot be towed out to 
 sea and dumped, and men will not work. This condition 
 results in accumulations of refuse and rubbish and ashes in 
 cellars. Fire departments are handicapped by frozen hy- 
 drants, icy and slippery streets or roads and physical dis- 
 comforts." 
 
 COAL, SOFT— Storage should be kept, if possible, well 
 away from the main buildings of the plant. Under no cir- 
 cumstances should it be piled up against a frame building. 
 
 If outside space will permit, the piles should be made 
 low and flat without cone effect (not higher than 12 feet) 
 and of large area, rather than of small area and piled high. 
 
 If wet coal is received, it should be dumped around the 
 edges of the pile, or in some location where the air can get 
 to it freely, and where large quantities of other coal will not 
 be packed on top of it. 
 
 COAL STOVES should set on metal which should extend 
 12 inches in front of stove. Where stock is apt to come in 
 contact, a metal shield enclosure should be provided. For 
 installation of temporary kerosene oil burners, see Kerosene 
 Burners. See Pot Stoves. 
 
 COAL SUPPLY— See Fuel. 
 
 COAL TAR — Obtained during the distillation of coal in 
 
DMixi«w COCOA rJM^zai ^ 
 
 the manufacture of coal gas. Distillates are benzine yielded 
 at temperature of 85 deg. C, toluene at 111 deg. C, phenol, 
 cresol, napthalene and benzole between 150 and 210 deg. C. 
 
 COAL TAR DERIVATIVES— Coal tar, made directly 
 from coal or from crude mineral oil, can first be turned into 
 kerosene, benzine, naphtha, gasoline, refined tar or pitch. 
 From these oils are distilled toluol, phenol (carbolic acid), 
 pyridine, eresol, anthracene and other crude products for 
 use as dyes, explosives, disinfectants and medicines. By- 
 product ovens are now used in the manufacture of coal tar 
 derivatives instead of the old "beehive" coke ovens of the 
 ^teel plants, which permitted the gas and tar from coal to 
 go to waste. The distilling process is hazardous. 
 
 COAMING — The raised curbing surrounding a floor open- 
 ing to prevent water from overflowing to a lower level. Also 
 called curbing. 
 
 COAT PAD MANUFACTURING— Use ordinary sewing 
 machines and power-cutting knives. Care and storage of 
 cotton padding important. Usually have considerable lint 
 around sewing machines and on floors. Not classed as de- 
 sirable insurance risks. 
 
 COBALT— A hard metal. 
 
 COBBLER'S WAX, lamp-black, negrosine, beeswax. 
 
 COCA-BOLA — A tropical hardwood used in making 
 clarinets, fifes and other similar instruments as a s\il?^tit>|t?, 
 for African black wood. :to<A lyna qoi 
 
 COCAINE is a white, bitter alkaloid made from cpcoa 
 leaves. 
 
 COCK — A kind of valve for the discharge of liquids, air. 
 steam. 
 
 COCK LOFTS and roof spaces. See Frame Rows. 
 
 COCOA is made by roasting and then removing the shell 
 from the chocolate bean, grinding and pressing, which forces 
 all fat out of the bean, leaving a dry substance. The fat that 
 is pressed out of the bean is called cocoa butter. 
 
 Cocoa is sometimes used in candy to r-cplace liquid choc- 
 olate. The practice of each candy manufacturer making 
 his own cocoa and chocolate, is gradually being discon- 
 tinued, owing to the skilled labor required to obtain the de- 
 
96 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 sired results and because the manufacturers are able to obtain 
 cocoa and chocolate from large factories, practically as 
 cheap as they can make it themselves. In this way they 
 also eliminate the chance they have previously taken in not 
 making the chocolate the right consistency. 
 
 COCOA BUTTER— When the oil from cocoa seeds is 
 separated from the seed itself it is turned into cocoa butter. 
 Used in making cosmetics. 
 
 COCOA-MATTING— Made from fibre which is "laid" in 
 rope walk, balled by twisting on hand-turned balling ma- 
 chines, braided into strands on ordinary braiding machines, 
 worked into matting on looms. The upper side combed and 
 the uneven edges cut evenly with shears. Shears are iron 
 rolls on which are sharp edges which, rapidly revolving, 
 shear off the edges. These and the combers should have 
 blowers to carry off the fine-cut pieces and dust. The edges 
 of the mats are sewed on ordinary sewing machines. The 
 mats are bleached in chloride of lime, dyed in aniline colors, 
 then dried. Storage of large quantities of fibre, dyeing, 
 bleaching, drying, shearing and combing are the principal 
 hazards. (Avoid this class if possible.) 
 
 COCOANUT SHREDDING consist of separating the 
 meat from the shell by machinery, shredding in attrition 
 mills and drying the flake in "textile" dryers. Flake may be 
 dried on steam tables or in large cylinders with wire mesh 
 top and bottom. (Always inspect this class.) 
 
 COEFFICIENT, or a constant friction, safety or strength, 
 etc., may usually be taken to be a number which shows the 
 proportion (or rather ratio) which friction, safety, tensile 
 strength, etc., bear to a certain something else which is not 
 generally expressed at the time, but which is well under- 
 stood. 
 
 COFFEE — A bean, the preparation of which for market 
 involves serious hazards, namely, shelling, cleaning, and pol- 
 ishing by power machinery; also roasting by direct fire 
 heat. Coffee in the bean is considered good insurance. 
 
 COFFEE AND TEA STORES— Note whether the bulk of 
 stock is in metal containers well covered, also the setting of 
 
COLD STORAGE FIRES ' ft7 
 
 the small coffee roaster and how the packing material is kept. 
 
 COFFEE ROASTING processes consist of shelling, clean- 
 ing, roasting, polishing, cooling and bagging. Inspectors 
 should carefully examine constru,ction of roasters and also de- 
 scribe the setting, whether fireproof or non-fireproof floor 
 and kind of ceiling over the roaster. 
 
 The blowers attached to the cooling pans should be vented 
 to the outer air. • 
 
 COFFEE WAREHOUSE— At a recent fire in a paint and 
 oil risk adjoinitig a coffee warehouse, pungent fumes from 
 the burning paint and oil poured into the coffee ware- 
 house. Although no- fire oi* water entered the warehouse, a 
 large loss was paid on coffee. See Exposures. 
 
 COFFER-DAM— An enclosure built in the water and then 
 pumped dry so as to permit masonry or other work to be 
 carried on inside of it. 
 
 COFFINS — Manufacturing; carpenter shop hazard, cotton 
 and excelsior for stuffing, gluing, sewing machines, painting 
 and varnishing, metal working. Fires in this class usually 
 very severe, owing to the highly varnished stock of a com- 
 bustible nature. 
 
 COIR — A sort of yarn derived from the husks of cocoa- 
 nuts. 
 
 COKE is the solid material left after evaporating the vola- 
 tile ingredients of coal by means of the destructive distilla- 
 tion of coal in closed retorts. Used in the manufacture of 
 iron and steel. 
 
 COLD AIR BOXES of furnaces should be metal rather 
 than of wood. If metal for a distance of 4 feet from the 
 furnace, the wood is not a very serious feature. 
 
 COLD STORAGE — An atmosphere maintained below 
 freezing for the preservation of meat, etc., which are apt to 
 putrefy. See Bunker Rooms, 
 
 COLD STORAGE FIRES require tons of water, that is, 
 enough to thoroughly drench the entire mass. A small 
 amount really assists the fire. 
 
 In New York City a firm recently converted the fireproof 
 cold storage building of a brewery into fur cold storage, 
 estimating that as much as ten millions of dollars worth 
 
98 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of furs could be stored therein. The owners of the furs 
 preferred that the building be not sprinklered, because the 
 water damage would ruin the stock. Fires have been known 
 to expand the cold air pipes to such an extent as to burst 
 the walls of the building. See Ammonia Gas. See Conse- 
 quential Loss. 
 
 COLLAR BEAM— A horizontal beam below the apex of 
 the roof, stretching, between every alternate pair of rafters 
 which meet at the top. 
 
 COLLAR, CUFF AND SHIRT FACTORIES— Hazard 
 that of white goods manufacturing, such as cutting, shrink- 
 ing and sewing. Clothing shrunk in steam rooms. Launder- 
 ing. Small press for printing maker's name on goods. Dry- 
 rooms. Collar-shaping machines, and other machinery same 
 as used in collar and cuff laundries. Incidental hazards are 
 paper box making, wood box making, machine repair shop. 
 See Laundries. 
 
 COLLAR SUPPORTERS— Used by women for support- 
 ing lace collars. Made of wire, cut and crimped, immersed 
 in dilute muriatic acid and water, washed in water, dipped 
 in solution of cyanide of potassium and water as a galvanic 
 process. Dipped into paint, dried, coated (dip process) with 
 celluloid. Hazards of dip process, painting, coating with 
 celluloid. Turpentine used as thinner for paint, acetone for 
 celluloid. Scrap celluloid, gas-heated drying ovens, open 
 lights near liquid celluloid. 
 
 COLLEGES— See Academies. 
 
 COLLODION — Gun cotton dissolved in alcohol and 
 ether. Used in photo-engraving. Very inflammable. Vapor 
 is explosive when mixed with air. Open flames or lights 
 prohibited. Flash point 40 deg. F. 
 
 COLOGNE SPIRITS— See Grain Alcohol. 
 
 COLONIAL WALL BOARDS— A product of calcined 
 gypsum, fibred with wood and containing small percentage 
 of Portland cement and hydrated lime formed into 32 or 
 36 inch slabs or sheets. 
 
 COLOR PRINTING— Lithographing hazard. 
 
 COLOR WORKS — Colors made by precipitation. Mate- 
 rials such as sulphuric^ muriatic and fortis acid, mineral 
 
COMBUSTION 99 
 
 salts, copperas, zinc white, cyanide potassium, chloride of 
 potash, bi-chromate of lime, nitrate of soda, and soda ash 
 are placed in dissolving vats, drained to settling tanks v^here 
 water is pumped out. Liquid colors are pumped to filters, 
 placed on trays and dried in dry rooms. They are ground 
 in mills and pulverized, sifted and packed. See Aniline 
 Colors. 
 
 COLORED FIRE or tableau usually contains chlorate 
 and often sulphur. Highly inflammable. 
 
 COLUMBIAN SPIRITS— See Wood Alcohol. Flash point 
 44 deg. F. 
 
 COLZA OIL is rape oil. 
 
 COLUMN — Sometimes called a post. A pillar, built' up 
 of steel members. 
 
 COMBINATION RED FIRE ALARM BOX— Used for 
 watchman to record his hourly rounds. If watchman fails 
 to record a certain round, a man from the central station is 
 despatched to ascertain the cause of delay. The same box 
 is used for sending in a fire alarm. 
 
 COMBS— See Celluloid. ^r 
 
 - COMBUSTION— What we usually call combustion at- 
 tends the union of oxygen with some other substance, either 
 solid or gaseous, as with carbon and hydrogen. We gen- 
 erally only use the term combustion when it is accompanied 
 by heat and light, and yet the union of oxygen with other 
 things often takes place without producing any light. This 
 is when the union takes place slowly — thus iron rusts, the 
 oxygen of the air unites with it, but so slowly that no light 
 is given out — there is heat, but so little of it that it cannot 
 be felt because the union is so slow. It is very slow fire. 
 When a man paints his iron fence to keep it from rusting, 
 he really keeps it from getting burned. In this same man- 
 ner, water puts out fire. It shuts out the oxygen of the air 
 from the burning substance. It acts much as the paint acts 
 on the iron. (Hooker's Chemistry.) See How Water Puts 
 Out Fire. 
 
 COMBUSTION ENGINES— See Gas, Gasoline, Kerosene 
 and Fuel Oil Engines. 
 
 COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY— Use collodion in wet 
 
100 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 plate photography, which is occasionally mixed on the 
 premises. 
 
 COMMERCIAL REPORTS— Reports from bureaus as to 
 the financial standing of individuals or firms. See Trade 
 Reports. 
 
 COMMISSION CLAUSE— Covers the property of the in- 
 sured and his interest in the property of others, such as ad- 
 vances and storage charges. The words "held in trust" have 
 in some cases been given a very liberal interpretation by the 
 courts. 
 
 COMMISSION MERCHANT— One who sells merchan- 
 dise on a commission basis. 
 
 COMMISSIONS AND/OR PROFITS insurance indem- 
 nifies for loss of prospective profit or commission on mer- 
 chandise or manufactured goods. There are two kinds of 
 forms (per diem and percentage). See Profit Insurance. 
 
 COMMON CARRIERS INSURANCE— This insurance is 
 to indemnify the insured for their legal liability, if any, to 
 the amount they are obliged to pay on such merchandise in 
 their care by reason of loss or damage by fire. 
 
 COMMON HAZARD means carelessness, unsafe chim- 
 neys, ashes in wood receptacles and the hazards of light, 
 heat and power, as found in all risks. See Hazard. 
 
 COMMON RAFTERS— See Jack Rafters. 
 
 COMMUNICATION — An opening from one building to 
 another, directly or indirectly by an enclosed passageway. 
 A standard communication requires an automatic "labelled" 
 fire door on each side of the wall. See Cut-off. 
 
 COMPOSITION FLOORINGS are composed of differ- 
 ent mixtures containing such materials as asbestos, magne- 
 site, sawdust, sand, magnesium chloride, etc., and are sold 
 under such names as Alignum, Asbestolith, Asbestos Gran- 
 ite, Rex, Sanita, Monolith, etc. See Flooring (composition). 
 
 COMPO-BOARD FACTORIES.— The lumber is dried and 
 reduced to slats about a quarter inch thick. These slats are 
 then laid flat and indiscriminately as to grain, after which 
 straw-board is glued on either side so as to form a large flat 
 board. Sometimes the straw-board is treated with a ce- 
 ment or gompositipii Qf resin, whiting and wax to harden it 
 
COMMUNICATXON-^OPENINGS 
 
 101 
 
 and render it water-prooi Th^e-ha^ard^ are* ihg£Te,'iif wood- 
 working risks. See Fireboard. 
 
 3TAND/\RP3 
 
 FOR. 
 
 Ccj^MUNiCATioN Opmim^ 
 
 £L£\/A TfOA/ 
 
 'must Be 
 
 ^TAA/pAf^O 
 
 CALLS ^OR WV 
 AurOAnAT^O 
 "^AB£LeD"P/R£ 
 L>00/^ OA/£AC^ 
 S/£?£^ Orrf/£ IVALL . 
 
 FOR. OTH£R, APPROVED aOO/^^ 
 TYP£^ ^ee lJA/0£Rv\^R/T£RS 
 7}£rA/JLS or~jr//<£ j>o€>r\ lABOf^Aro/?/£S L/ST vf^^^^ /"f^^^^^^^. 
 
 Copyright. 1916, G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 COMPOUND (chemically) refers to a substance contain- 
 ing two or more elements chemically united in such a way 
 
IW INSPEGTiON Al^TD aNDERWRITING 
 
 that the" properties of the compound substance bear no re- 
 semblance to those of any of its constituents/ 
 
 COMPOUND — An expression used by underwriters to in- 
 dicate a risk having many manufacturing hazards under one 
 roof; usually a loft building. 
 
 COMPOUNDING— See Liquors. 
 
 COMPRESSED GAS CYWNDERS must not be exposed 
 to the rays of the sun or any heated body. All gases are 
 subject to the law that pressure increases uniformly with 
 the temperature where the volume remains the same. 
 
 COMPRESSION AND TENSION— If two opposite forces 
 are simultaneously imparted to a body in the same straight 
 line the stress is either compressive (when the forces act 
 towards each other) or tensile (when they act from each 
 other). 
 
 COMPRESSION SYSTEM— See Refrigerating. 
 
 COMPRESSIVE STRESS tends to push the particles 
 closer together. 
 
 COMPROMISE "MILL"— A term used to express the 
 construction of a building which is below the standard of 
 "mill construction" and above the ordinary construction. The 
 timbers are of smaller dimensions than mill and the spans 
 are of less distance apart. 
 
 CONCRETE is a mixture of Portland cement, sand and 
 stone or cinders. In the Edison Phonograph Co. fire at West 
 Orange, N. J., in 1916, the concrete buildings showed su- 
 periority over alj other forms of fireproof construction. 
 Concrete partially injured by fire may set again and 
 become hard, if there is a gradual cooling off of the surface 
 and if no water is applied; but this result cannot always be 
 relied upon. 
 
 CONCRETE, CINDER— An excellent fire resistive ma- 
 terial for floor arches in fireproof construction, providing the 
 cinders are of uniform size, free from dirt and refuse and 
 contain not more than 15 per cent, of unburned coal. For 
 good work the cinders should be ground before the other 
 ingredients (sand and cement) are added. O^IMOD 
 
 CONCRETE-COVERED FLOORS— Numerous fires have 
 
CONCRETE .:'Al 1«3 
 
 occurred under dry kilns and hotel or restaurant ranges which 
 have been built on concrete-covered wood floors laid with- 
 out air space, even though the concrete was three to twelve 
 inches thick. The continuous heat slowly reduces the wood 
 to charcoal and produces spontaneous combustion at a low 
 temperature. The same principle applies to the flooring 
 around anvils and forges due to the continuous dropping 
 of hot iron on wood. Metal-covered floors are necessary 
 at anvils and forges. 
 
 CONCRETE FOR CELLAR FLOORS— One part of 
 good domestic cement, one part clean, sharp, gritty sand 
 and five parts of best clean, coarse gravel, thoroughly 
 washed, or clean, broken stone (small enough to pass 
 through a 2-inch ring), the latter preferably. All to be by 
 measure, thoroughly mixed and water then added. 
 
 CONCRETE, REINFORCED— Reinforcement consists of 
 plain bars, bars with lugs, twisted bars, those having fins 
 or protrusions, woven wire fabric, expanded metal, per- 
 forated sheet metal. Aggregates used are rock, stone, gravel, 
 cinders, broken bricks or tile, slag. Buildings are erected in 
 yarious types of construction, columns of concrete, walls or 
 floor arches of concrete, or combinations of terra-cotta 
 arches, curtain walls, etc., with concrete supporting mem- 
 bers, or all concrete. Buildings of this latter character are 
 rigid, sanitary, durable, fireproof. They have disadvantages, 
 such as faulty design resulting in collapse or cannot be used 
 for intended purposes, careless workmanship resulting in in- 
 ferior construction; dishonesty on part of contractor result- 
 ing in small percentage of cement and therefore weakening 
 of structure; expensive to alter, owing to solidity of material 
 when once hardened; floors and walls apt to become "dusty" 
 due to drying of concrete which has too small a percentage 
 of cement as binder and too much sand, or materials of 
 poor quality or not thoroughly mixed. Building collapse or 
 failure due to removal of forms too quickly before the con- 
 crete haif 'feet properly; frozen concrete; overloading new 
 structures; electrolysis. 
 , CONDENSER — An apparatus for changing vapor into 
 
104 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 liquid, usually a series of iron coils, cooled by running cold 
 water. 
 
 CONDENSER, STEAM— A part of a steam plant in 
 which the steam, after doing its work by expansion in the 
 cylinders, is condensed by coming in contact with a jet of 
 cold water or with the outer surface of tubes in which cold 
 water circulates. 
 
 CONDUIT, RIGID — Sometimes known as galvanic duct 
 and loricated. A rigid steel pipe chemically treated for the 
 express purpose of providing a concealed method of running 
 electric wires from place to place and so confining these 
 wires as to prevent any fire resulting from short circuits. 
 
 CONDUIT SYSTEMS of electric wiring are far superior 
 to open work, for the reason that the wires are better pro- 
 tected against mechanical injury and also because novices 
 cannot very easily tamper with the installation. 
 
 CONES AND WAFERS— Made of flour, lard and sugar, 
 mixed and baked. Machinery consists of gas-heated moulds, 
 revolving automatic bakers and lard heaters. See Wafers 
 and Cones. 
 
 CONFECTIONERS— Have motor or gas engine or boiter 
 for power for ice-cream machine and ice cracker. Gas stoves 
 and gas candy warmers used in candy manufacturing should 
 be properly protected. 
 
 CONFECTIONERS' STOVE— A round iron or sheet 
 metal stove with open or removable top to accommodate 
 large kettles. Gas, coal or charcoal fuel. 
 
 CONFETTI is made of paper. The sheet paper is run 
 through a perforator. The process is not hazardous, but 
 the premises are usually filled with loose waste paper, pre- 
 senting a very untidy appearance. 
 
 CONFLAGRATION BLAST— If you light a match the 
 flame will mount so high. Light a second and a third match, 
 hold them beside the first and the flame will mount succes- 
 sively higher. Blow gently upon the flame and it will have 
 a steady striking range of an inch or more. Now, if you 
 have a quarter mile of buildings all afire at once, the uniting 
 flame from them will reach to a height corresponding to 
 the area of the fire, and correspondingly great must be its 
 

106 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Striking range. In San Francisco in the language of one of 
 the official reports: "Until the wind arose the heated col- 
 umn reached almost half a mile in height." (Arthur E. Mc- 
 Farlane.) See Flames. 
 
 CONFLAGRATION BREEDERS (remedy for) — 
 First, that owners of existing buildings (defectively con- 
 structed), which are so located as to form conflagration 
 areas, be required to suitably protect roof, floors, party 
 walls, and exposed openings. Second, that automatic 
 sprinkler equipment with outside Siamese hose connections 
 and controlling valve near the main in the street be re- 
 quired in all buildings which by reason of their size, con- 
 struction or occupancy, singly or combined, might act as 
 conflagration breeders. (National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers.) 
 
 CONFLAGRATION PROBLEM— Extracts from address 
 by Franklin H. Wentworth, Secretary, National Fire Protec- 
 tion Association, before the Newark Association of Credit 
 Men: 
 
 There is a way to solve this conflagration problem — not 
 absolutely, but at least relatively. You cannot be expected 
 to tear down your city and rebuild it of fire-resisting mate- 
 rial; or even to tear down enough buildings to allow broad 
 streets or parkways — by which open spaces, conflagrations 
 might be arrested. The cities must be protected as they 
 stand. What then can be done by you beside furnishing wa- 
 ter supplies and fire departments; keeping your eity free 
 from rubbish, and prohibiting forever and always the shingle 
 roof as if it were a public crime? I would suggest this plan: 
 In the heart of nearly every city there are streets crossing at 
 right angles, along which for a very considerable distance 
 are buildings of brick, stone or concrete. Looked at upon 
 the map this shows a more or less complete Maltese cross of 
 buildings which are not wooden, and v^hich operate to divide 
 the wooden-built district into quarter sections, and which 
 might hold a fire in any one of these sections if they were 
 equipped to do so. These brick and stone buildings are 
 ordinarily valueless as firestops, because their windows are 
 of thin glass and their window-frames of wood. At Chelsea 
 
CONFLAGRATION^ ' ^ > r,-,, ^^^ 
 
 the conflagration attacked such buildings easily, breaking 
 out the panes, consuming the frames and converting every 
 story of these brick structures into horizontal flues full of 
 combustible contents. Brick and stone buildings are logical 
 and capable firestops if the fire can be kept out of them. 
 If you will trace out your Maltese cross of such buildings 
 and equip them v^ith hollow metal window-frames and vvired 
 glass, you will immediately possess the equivalent of sub- 
 stantial fire walls crossing at right angles in the centre of 
 your city, dividing it into four sections. By such a simple, 
 inexpensive, but yet strategic procedure you may be able to 
 save your city from destruction which now awaits — only 
 the right kind of a fire on the right kind of a night. — Prank- 
 lin H. Wentworth. ^•i.-iw. 
 
 The prohibition of the shingle roof, which is now g^ti^ratly 
 recognized as a conflagration breeder, is today almost uni- 
 versal within city fire limits, and from the more enlightened 
 communities it is excluded altogether. Burning shingles can 
 be carried great distances by the wind or draught of a con- 
 flagration, and when they may alight in their turn upon other 
 dry shingles they make fearful havoc. 
 
 CONFLAGRATIONS— Double fire engine companies are 
 valuable in congested sections, the second' company being 
 available for second alarms or as a reserve to answer calls 
 to simultaneous fires in the same district, thus rendering 
 unnecessary the calling of apparatus from other districts. 
 
 CONGOLEUM is a form of linoleum in which a composi- 
 tion is used in place of cork. '^'."'/'^ " ' ' 
 
 CONNECTING ROD— A piece which connects' a "crank 
 with something which moves or to which it gives motion 
 
 CONSEQUENTIAL LOSS IN COLD STORAGE 
 RISKS — According to some underwriters' bureau, if a cold 
 storage building contains a source of refrigeration, no clause 
 is necessary on the policies assuming consequential loss and 
 no additional charge is made in the rating. If the source of 
 refrigeration is derived from the outside, the policies must 
 either include or exclude the consequential loss by th'i.tise of 
 the following clauses: 
 
 Clause No. 1 excludes the consequential loss. 
 
108 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Clause No. 2 includes the consequential loss with an addi- 
 tional permit charge. 
 
 The insurance companies in order to avoid payment for a 
 consequential loss occasioned through partial or total dis- 
 ablement of a refrigerating plant (except when same is lo- 
 cated in the insured building) demand clause No. 1 on the 
 policy. If it is desired to cover against consequential loss, 
 clause No. 2 is attached and the premiuni\ advanced. 
 
 Up-to-date refrigeration plants should have "duplicate" re- 
 frigeration systems. Not long ago a fire broke out in the 
 cold storage stores, 2286-2298 Twelfth avenue, New York 
 City, which are equipped with a duplicate refrigeration sys- 
 tem. Only a very slight consequential loss was sustained 
 owing to the temperatures rising from 33 deg. F. to 51 deg. F. 
 The damage was greatest in the basement refrigerators, due 
 to the presence of the water on the floor, which quickly ab- 
 sorbed the cold air in the rooms, while on the upper floors 
 very little damage resulted, owing to the frost on the piping 
 and the insulation of the refrigerator walls, floors and 
 ceilings maintaining a sufficiently low temperature to prevent 
 serious damage until the auxiliary plant was put in opera- 
 tion. See Cold Storage. 
 
 CONSTANTINOPLE, a city characterized by uncleanli- 
 ness, the apotheosis of filth, the most fire-stricken city of 
 the world, has burned down ten times since 1792. It seems 
 unnecessary to state that over 50 per cent, of all fires are 
 caused by untidiness coupled with carelessness. 
 
 CONTINGENT LIABILITY— In New York City if a 
 frame building is damaged more than one-half of the value, 
 exclusive of foundations, the building cannot be repaired or 
 rebuilt but must be torn down. To offset this, policies can 
 be written to include , liability for loss occasioned by the 
 operation of ordinances or laws requiring the replacement 
 of entire buildings in case of fire damage exceeding a 
 given percentage of value, the rate on such buildings being 
 double the regular fire rate. The endorsement should rpad: 
 *Tt is understood and agreed that the fire limit laws is one 
 of the hazards insured against loss." See Tax Lien Insur- 
 ance. 
 
CONTRACTORS 100 
 
 CONSTRUCTION— The difference between a frame build- 
 ing and one of ordinary brick is the walls. The difference 
 between a brick building and one of fireproof construction 
 is the floors. 
 
 CONTOUR, to follow closely, as for example, covering 
 the beams of a floor so completely as to cover all accessible 
 parts of the beam. Metal or asbestos generally used. 
 
 CONTRACTORS — Subway, tunnel or other underground 
 work. Usually occupy light temporary frame structures. 
 The heating and lighting arrangements are make-shifts. 
 Workmen have rooms where they smoke and have wooden 
 lockers for their clothing. These risks sometimes have 
 power plants with air compressors, large motors, switch- 
 boards, transformers, machine shops, oil and gasoline stor- 
 age sheds. Fire on January 28th, 1917, of the Degnon 
 Contracting Company was probably caused by spontaneous 
 combustion of oily overalls in wooden lockers. Fire swept 
 through entire plant, putting entire electrical apparatus out 
 of commission. 
 
 CONTRACTORS' STABLES are not considered as good 
 as ordinary stables, as they have a considerable amount of 
 shoring material, tackle, hoisting engines and paraphernalia. 
 
 CONVECTION— Property of matter controlling the rate 
 of transmission of heat, i.e., if a bar of iron is heated at one 
 end, the heat will be conducted rapidly to the other end, 
 whereas a rod of glass can be heated to melting point with- 
 out the opposite end becoming heated. 
 
 CONVENTS are classed same as boarding-schools. See 
 Schools. 
 
 CONVERTER OF COTTON GOODS— One who buys 
 goods in the "gray" or unfinished state and dyes or other- 
 wise conditions them into finished goods. 
 
 COOKING AND HEATING APPARATUS (oil burn- 
 ing) usually have an auxiliary supply tank of about five 
 gallons capacity. They should be ten feet from burners and 
 have overflow pipe draining back to main supply; also a 
 vent pipe. These equipments introduce an additional hazard, 
 and care must be exercised in their maintenance. Only ap- 
 proved apparatus should be installed. Burners must have an 
 
lAQ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 overflow pipe arranged to draw off any excess oil by gravity 
 to a reservoir. No dampers to be used in smoke pipe be- 
 tween burner and chimney. All parts must be kept clean 
 and the apparatus not used when not in proper order. Un- 
 less installed rigidly in a fixed place the handling is apt' to 
 loosen joints and fittings. 
 
 COOPERAGES are shops for assembling staves, hoops, 
 heads and bottoms, producing barrels and pails. Regular 
 wood-working hazard; also use direct fire heat, or in some 
 cases steam for bending, shaping and setting the parts. This 
 class should be written cautiously. Second-hand (recooper- 
 ing) considered very undesirable by most underwriters. See 
 Barrel Storage. 
 
 COP — The top or head of a thing. The conical roll of 
 thread formed on the spindle of a spinning machine. 
 
 COP YARN (used for weaving cloth) — A loose-twisted 
 thread of cotton, silk, wool or mixture. 
 
 , COPING — The flat stones, iron or terra-cotta tile placed 
 on top of a wall to protect it from the weather. 
 
 COPPER — A metal of red color which does not tarnish 
 or oxidize easily. 
 
 COPRA — The dried, broken kernel of the cocoanut after 
 it is split and ready for shipment. 
 
 CORBEL — A bracket usually of brick, consisting of sev- 
 eral courses built out from the face of a wall usually for a 
 chimney support. 
 
 CORDAGE— See Fibre. 
 
 CORDEAU DETONANT is a fuse consisting of a thin- 
 walled lead tube filled with trinitoluol. 
 
 CORDITE — A form of gun cotton. Very explosive. 
 
 CORDUROY is not easily damaged by clean water pro- 
 viding the material is a good grade. The cheaper grades are 
 coated with a gummy substance and do not allow much sal- 
 vage if thoroughly wet. 
 
 CORE — Anything serving as a mould around which some- 
 thing else is to be formed. 
 
 CORE OVENS are usually constructed of brick with per- 
 forated metal floors and are either heated by hard coal fires, 
 fuel oil or gas. Flasks should never be placed (if of wood), 
 
CORK BOARDS COMPOSITION 111 
 
 on top of the ovens. The fire record shows 15.3 per cent, of 
 foundry fires are traceable to core ovens. The heating of 
 the ovens in drying the cores, which are sometimes mixed 
 with a molasses compound, drives off a heavy smoke which 
 causes a black, sticky deposit to form on the vent pipe or 
 stack. See Foundries. 
 
 CORK — The bark of a tree. Pieces are soaked in water, 
 pressed flat, dried and baled. It burns with dense smoke. 
 Cork is bleached with oxalic acid or chloride of lime. 
 
 CORK (Agglomerated Cork), known as Silax, li^lsd' '^or 
 cork discs. Ground cork is placed in ordinary bread-mixef 
 and mixed with boiled solution of albumen and glycerine. 
 
 CORK BOARDS COMPOSITION— Cork received in 
 bales, ground in high-speed knife grinders, the dust removed 
 in separators and then mixed in steam-heated mixers with 
 pitch (mixers resemble dough-mixers), then cooked in steam 
 cookers and cooled in iron air-cooled moulds. The edges 
 are trimmed with saws and sometimes planed smooth. 
 
 Ordinary cork board is made from ground cork 
 with no other ingredients. The natural resin in the cork is 
 sufficient as binder when drawn out by heat. (about 500 deg. 
 F.). The cork is fed from a steam box through blower 
 system to hydraulic presses of iron construction and passed 
 on endless conveyor to a bake oven, a' long affair of brick 
 walls heated by coal, producer gas or coke, similar in ap- 
 pearance to a lehr in a glass works. Cork grinding is the 
 greatest hazard in cork works. The cork should be 
 screened and have magnets attached to screens or hoppers 
 to attract foreign substances as the high-speed machines 
 cause sparks and ignite the dust. After grinding, it is 
 bagged and sold. Grinding should always be done in fire- 
 proof cut-off sections or in detached buildings properly 
 vented. The mills produce heat through friction and are 
 preferably water-cooled. They should be of iron construc- 
 tion and have banking devices under the rollers similar to a 
 malt mill in a brewery. A dusty process; requires vapor- 
 proof electric light globes and good ventilation. See Bottle 
 Stoppers. 
 
il2 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 CORK CEMENT— Chiefly crude shellac and wood alcohol 
 and cork. 
 
 CORK DRYERS or ovens are of high temperature, and 
 fire heat may ignite edges of cork blocks being dried. 
 
 CORK DUST is said to be subject to spontaneous combus- 
 tion if moist. Cork dust is of explosive character when in 
 suspension mixed with proper amount of air. 
 
 CORK LEATHER is powdered cork and india-rubber. 
 
 CORK PUTTY— Asphalt, cork and heavy oil. 
 
 CORK VARNISH, used extensively to protect the inte- 
 rior of ships from undue humidity due to sudden changes, is 
 made of a mixture of ground cork mixed with litharge and 
 copal and other similar substances. 
 
 CORK WORKS— See Cork Boards. 
 
 CORN CURE, made by some druggists by dissolving 
 scrap celluloid with acetone. 
 
 CORNER BUILDINGS, from an underwriting standpoint, 
 are more desirable than buildings in rows, as a fire can 
 always be fought from at least tw^o sides. 
 
 CORNICE — The ornamental projection at the eaves of a 
 building or at the top of a pier. 
 
 CORNICES and cornice bulkheads should not be continu- 
 ous. At least a six-inch open space must be obtained between 
 properties adjoining. Fires have been known to travel across 
 fronts of rows in this manner and not be discovered until it 
 has broken out in some remote place. 
 
 CORNSTALKS are now being used in paper-making. 
 
 CORRODED PIPES— See Gas Explosion. 
 
 CORRUGATED IRON on wood stud is considered prac- 
 tically the same as frame construction. 
 
 CORRUGATING PAPER MACHINE— A machine with 
 two sets of steam-heated corrugated iron rollers through 
 which the paper is run after being glued at a glue tank. 
 
 CORSETS, especially of cheap grade, will not give much 
 salvage if wet on account of the steel frames, which rust very 
 quickly. Better grades of corsets offer good salvage, pro- 
 viding they are dried immediately. Foreign-made corsets 
 are generally embroidered and specially designed, hence a 
 greater water damage is looked for in this class. Where 
 
COTTON 113 
 
 bone stays are used instead of steel stays, the salvage is 
 greater. 
 
 CORSET STAY (Description of)— Steel ribbon (corset 
 steel) is coated by a squeeze process (similar to rubber 
 coating of electric wires) with a composition similar to py- 
 roxylin (celluloid). This is applied in two coats. The pyroxy- 
 lin is evidently of a different composition from that usually 
 manufactured, as some composition other than camphor is 
 mixed with the nitro-cellulose. This composition on being 
 tested shows that same will disintegrate without flame upon 
 moderate heating, showing a strong similarity to pyroxylin in 
 this particular. This composition is highly inflammable, and 
 the ignition point is apparently very low. 
 
 COSMOS— A fibre from flax and hemp. 
 
 COST PRICE— See Sound Value. 
 
 COTTON, once ignited, is capable of maintaining smolder- 
 ing combustion for a number of days. Baled cotton often 
 ignites from friction in center of bale and will not flame at 
 surface for several weeks after so igniting. Not believed to 
 be subject to spontaneous combustion See Boll Weevil. 
 
 COTTON BATTING MILLS— Raw stock is mill waste 
 and sweepings from cotton mills. Pickers, cards, lappers, 
 garnetts, constitute the machinery used. A poor fire-record 
 class. 
 
 COTTON— DIPPING COTTON— A secret, non-inflamma- 
 ble process is now on the market which, it is claimed, will 
 eliminate the hazard of fires in this class. One of the rail- 
 roads has decided to have all cotton dipped which travels 
 over their roads, so that the same can be placed on open 
 flat cars. A recent experiment; a flat car loaded with cotton, 
 traveled nearly 100 miles without a fire resulting, although 
 the car containing the cotton was next to the engine. Ship- 
 ping cotton on flat cars witt release many freight cars for 
 other commodities, and by fireproofing it, a large sum of 
 money will be saved annually. 
 
 COTTON GINS — The processes usually divided into three 
 sections, the warehousing of the cotton containing the seeds 
 (seed cotton), the gin-room proper, where the separation is 
 made, and the lint pressed into bales, and the warehousing 
 
114 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of the seed after the lint has been removed. Most gin fires 
 are caused by hot bearings, cotton wrapped around the rapid- 
 ly revolving brush shafts and cotton clogged at the end of 
 brush drums. Underwriters write this class warily. 
 
 CPTTON MILLS— The cotton is taken from the store- 
 house to the opening room, where the ties are removed and 
 the bales pulled apart, sometimes by hand, at other times by 
 machinery. The cotton is then blown in the picker room, 
 usually by an approved system sirriilar to the blowers in a 
 wood-working plant. The machines in the picker room are 
 known as breakers, intermediate and finisher tappers. They 
 consist of a cylindrical metal box, inside of which is a steel 
 shaft, to which are attached arms which beat the cbtton to 
 a loose, fluffy state, all foreign material going to the bottom 
 of the enclosure. The cotton is delivered through a slit in 
 one side of the box in the form of a sheet, and is then rolled 
 around a steel rod in a roll known as a lap. After leaving 
 the picker room, the cotton goes to the cards. This process 
 consists of passing the cotton between rapidly revolving cyl- 
 inders covered with wire teeth to straighten out the cotton 
 fibres and lay them parallel to one another. The remaining 
 process of drawing, slubbing, speeding, spinning and weaving 
 are merely preparatory processes and present little, if any, 
 fire hazard. The main hazard in a cotton mill is the picking. 
 
 COTTON-PICKER FIRES are commonly attributed to 
 "foreign" substances in the stock. This foreign substance is 
 supposed to be stones, pieces of metal and matches. Sta- 
 tistics show that there are more picker fires in the winter 
 time than in summer, and more in "dog days'* than in May, 
 June or October. Some believe the humidity of the picker 
 room itself has something to do with it. When the relative 
 humidity of the picker room is below 25 degrees the cotton 
 may become so dry that it is readily ignited by a small 
 spark, and when it is above 80 degrees, cotton becomes so 
 limp that it winds up and packs on moving parts of pickers, 
 thereby causing fires. It is claimed that a part of these fires 
 could be prevented by avoiding both extremes of humidity in 
 the picker room. See Humidity a Factor in Cotton Picker 
 Fires, Vol. 9, N. F. P. A., April, 1916.) 
 
OK • ' COtTdN PIERS lii' 
 
 Cotton piers— sprinklers are absolutely necessary to 
 prevent "flash fires" spreading over the surfaces of baled cot- 
 ton. In May, 1916, a fire started in about 1,200 bales of cot- 
 ton stored on one of the Bush Terminal piers, Brooklyn. 
 Sixty-five heads operated and held the fire in check until the 
 arrival of the fire department. A few hours later fire was dis- 
 covered in a cotton warehouse about half a mile away. The 
 fire department would have been severely taxed with two 
 cotton fires at one time had the pier and warehouse not been 
 sprinklered. ■rtalotiaoiioi^^r- 
 
 A great many fires afe c^'iis^d "by matches being dropped 
 oil piers and docks by careless workmen, and fires are started 
 by the friction of moving the bales. Such a fire is liable to 
 smoulder for several days before it is discovered, by which 
 time it has had the opportunity to spread, so that its extin- 
 guishment is a difficult task. There is never any surety that 
 a cotton fire is out until every piece of each bale has been 
 han<i-picked and thoroughly water-soaked. A great niany 
 cotton fires have been traced to compress and gin owners 
 who entered a low-grade cotton on their books, then burned 
 it to collect the insurance. See Piers. 
 
 COTTONSEED OIL MILLS— Fires are sometimes 
 caused by spontaneous combustion in old filter cloths. The 
 special hazards of this class are spent or used fuller's earth, 
 filter-press cloths, storage of oleo-stearine and refrigeration. 
 
 COUNTERFORT— Vertical projections of masonry or' 
 brickwork built at intervals along the back of a wall to 
 strengthen it. j^^'!%.^l. 
 
 COUNTERMAN— The person who attends the counter of 
 an insurance office and passes on the merits of the business 
 which is offered to the company, by the "placers" from the 
 various brokerage offices, binding and committing his com- 
 pany to liability on the risks offered. It is necessary that 
 he be a good underwriter, as he must perform that duty with 
 snap judgment, basing his calculations of line on his knowl- 
 edge of conditions in his particular fieldj and the known haz- 
 ards and construction of the risk to be covered. This posi- 
 tion requires not only one possessing expert insurance knowl- 
 edge, but a pleasing personality, so that placers and others 
 
116 iNsi^ECTiOK And underwriting 
 
 offering business may be attracted to the office. See Ex- 
 aminers; see Underwriting. 
 
 COUNTER-SHAFTING— The shafting operating or actu- 
 ally driving the machinery, and itself being driven by the 
 main or jack shaft. 
 
 COUNTERWEIGHT or counter balance. Any weight 
 used to balance another. 
 
 COUNTRY STORES— Usually contain a miscellaneous 
 stock, chiefly general merchandise. The heating apparatus is 
 usually defective. Risks often isolated in frame rows with 
 poor protection. See Business Blocks. 
 
 COUPLINGS — A term used to express the arrangement 
 for connecting two shafts so that they will revolve to- 
 gether. 
 
 COURSE OF CONSTRUCTION risks are usually good 
 fire risks, especially if of brick or fireproof construction. 
 Theatres, churches and halls in course of construction are 
 not considered as good as ordinary buildings, owing to the 
 great amount of lumber scaffolding necessary to complete the 
 high interior of building. Many fires have been caused in 
 buildings in course of construction by the use of salaman- 
 ders, stoves and careless mechanics using gasoline torches. 
 See Builders' Risks; see Platforms. 
 
 COUTCHINE— See Caoutchoucine. 
 
 CRADLE — Applied to various kinds of timber supports 
 which partly enclose the mass sustained. 
 
 CRANE — A hoisting machine consisting of a revolving 
 vertical post or stalk. 
 
 CREAM OF TARTAR— Made from argols, the scrapings 
 from the wine casks. Process is as follows: Ground in mill, 
 cooked with hydrochloric acid and hydrated lime in wooden, 
 steam-heated tanks, precipitated, screened to remove liquor, 
 mixed with bone black to bleach, filtered, dissolved, granu- 
 lated, crystalized, dried, washed in hydrochloric acid to re- 
 move lead and lime, crushed, ground, sifted, barrelled. Hazard 
 of dryers, storage of bone black and lime, grinding in stone 
 and iron mills. Tartaric acid, in the juice of the grape, is 
 combined with potash forming a salt called cream of tartar. 
 
 CREAMERIES AND DAIRIES— Although the up-to-date 
 
CREOSOTING RAILROAD TIES lit 
 
 risks of this class are all steam process, the fire record is 
 poor. See Dairy Farms. 
 
 CREMONITES — Detonating preparations, partly com- 
 posed of picrates. 
 
 CREOSOTE— Produced by the distillation of wood tar. 
 Used to impregnate wood. Nearly as inflammable as kero- 
 sene. 
 
 CREOSOTE OIL— See Heavy Oil. 
 
 CREOSOTING RAILROAD TIES— The Reuping proc- 
 ess, with blow-back system. Under this system, the railroad 
 ties are placed in impregnating cylinders and subjected for 
 about an hour to an air pressure of 75 lbs. filling the cells of 
 wood witlw compressed air. Without reducing the pressure 
 in impregnating cylinders, creosote at a temperature of 180 
 deg. F. is forced into impregnating cylinders. When cylin- 
 ders are full of cresote, the air pressure is raised to 200 lbs. 
 Under this pressure the creosote penetrates into the cells of 
 the wood, soaking the cell walls and compressing still more 
 the air formerly put in at 75 lbs. The pressure of 200 lbs. is 
 maintained from 2^ hours to 4 hours, depending upon the 
 nature of the wood. When wood is sufficiently impregnated, 
 the air pressure is released and the expansive energy of the 
 air in the wood forces as much of the creosote out of. the 
 wood as does not adhere to the cells of the wood. The sur- 
 plus creosote is then blown back to supply tanks with a pres- 
 sure of 8 to 10 lbs. The creosote is manufactured from bitu- 
 minous coal, having a specific gravity of 1.178, and a flash 
 point of about 500 deg. F. 
 
 CREOSOTING WORKS— The finished lumber should be 
 piled a considerable distance from the plant as it burns very 
 rapidly. Storage tanks containing the creosote fluid, ought 
 not be nearer than 50 feet to the plant, with underground 
 piping and gravity return. No open lights or fires allowed 
 in treating room, which should be a detached structure. The 
 boiler should also be detached. 
 
 CRIB CONSTRUCTION— Made of superimposed planks 
 laid with broken joints and spiked together. See Piers. 
 
 CROCKERY (porcelain) — Kiln burning hazard, grinding, 
 moulding, cutting, dry rooms, hand decorating. Use turpen- 
 
1X9 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 tine and varnish from individual bottles for decorating. Ma- 
 chine shop repairs, carpenter shop, storage of packing ma- 
 terial. Large area risks predominate. See China Decor- 
 ating. 
 
 CRONSTADES— The pasty shells made of flour, water and 
 sometimes eggs, fried in grease. Used in hotels and restau- 
 rants in serving cut-up meats, fruits or sauces. Where ttwse 
 are made, the floors are apt to be grease soaked. O/^n:-? 51 D 
 
 CROSS-BRIDGING— Each pair of floor beams should be 
 cross-bridged at intervals of seven feet in their length. 
 
 CROSS SECTION in an elevation drawing is an imaginary 
 line cut through the center, 
 
 CROWN — A term applied to the uppermost or highest 
 part of an arch, that in which a keystone is fixed. 
 
 CRUCIBLE WORKS— Crucibles are used for refining 
 metals. The metal is placed inside of crucible and then same 
 is placed in furnace. Crucibles are made of French clay and 
 plumbago (which is black lead or graphite). It is moulded 
 and then baked in brick (wood fuel) retorts. 
 
 CRUDE OIL— See Petroleum. As it comes from the well 
 is a heavy, oily liquid, very inflammable, coming from Eastern 
 wells. From Western wells, flash point is above 100 deg. F. 
 to as high as 210 deg. F. 
 
 CRUDE PETROLEUM is crude oil. 
 
 CRYSTALLIZATION— When crystals are formed from 
 solutions, we term it the process of crystallization. When the 
 substance used dissolves as freely in cold as in hot water, as 
 is the case with common salt, crystalization is produced only 
 by evaporation; as the water goes off into the air, the crys- 
 tals form. 
 
 CRYSTALLIZING is really evaporating. When chem- 
 icals are in a state of solution in water or other liquid they 
 can be crystallized by evaporating the liquid. This work is 
 done in low pans, steam heated. Hazard is considered very 
 light. 
 
 CUPOLA — As used in foundries. The upright cylindrical 
 stack of iron, lined with fire brick into which is dumped the 
 scrap iron and fuel for melting. The molten mass flows 
 
through a trough to buckets, wMdl^ "drfe'^'Caffied'tb *'the 
 
 foundry. ' - -: '' ' ■ ••''•";-■' ■ ■ •"" ■■ "' - ■ 
 
 CUPOLAS and towers on public buildings are frequently 
 the depository for old records, furniture and fixtures. The 
 City Hall (New York City) tower has been destroyed three 
 times. The last fire in May, 1917, causing $20,000 loss, was 
 caused by a careless workman leaving a charcoal furnace un- 
 attended while he absented himself. 
 
 CURB — The term "Curb" when used in connection with 
 defining the height of a building is the established mean curb 
 level at the front of the building. If the building fronts on 
 more than one street, the datum for measurement shall be 
 taken at the established mean curb level on the street of 
 greatest width. When this width is common to more than 
 one street, the datum for measurement shall be taken at that 
 having the highest curb. The term "Curb" when used in 
 fixing the depth of an excavation is the established curb level 
 nearest to the point of the excavation in question. Where 
 no curb elevation has been established, or the building line 
 does not adjoin the street, the average finished ground level 
 adjoining the building shall be considered the curb level. — 
 (N. F. P. A.) 
 
 CURTAIN BOARDS— Metal or other non-combustible 
 shields placed around openings in the floor so as to bank the 
 heat and allow the sprinkler heads to operate. The heat 
 waves travel similar to water waves, rebounding when strik- 
 ing an obstruction. 
 
 CURTAIN WALL is the wall placed on the outside of 
 steel skeleton frames merely to keep out the elements. No 
 structural parts depend upon these walls. 
 
 CUSTOM OR MERCHANT TAILORS— Make clothing 
 to order for individuals from measure. Tailor shop hazard. 
 
 CUT GLASS is first blown into the general shape intended 
 from the brilliant crystal and then ground into a cluster of 
 glisteningfacets. Grindstones, continually rooistened by streams 
 of wet sand, cut the rough pattern, and emery wheels and putty 
 powder finish the brilliant angles. After the glass is cut it is 
 given an acid bath after the inner surface has been coated 
 
120 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 with paraffine and beeswax. The wax prevents the acid from 
 eating into or staining the glass. Alundum (a composition 
 of carborundum) and craigleth (natural hard stones) are 
 used for cutting. They crack under action of fire and water. 
 
 CUTLERY STOCKS— Apt to rust from moisture or damp- 
 ness. Should be salvaged immediately after a fire. See Tools 
 and Instruments. 
 
 CUT-OFF — A term used by insurance men to signify that 
 buildings are separated by brick division walls with standard 
 or non-standard doors at openings. See Communications. 
 
 CUTTING AND WORK TABLES should have gal- 
 vanized fire stops or partitions firmly set and fastened under 
 the same. These are to prevent flash fires from sweeping 
 swiftly under the entire length of the table in the cuttings. 
 
 CUTTING BOARDS— See Shoe Factories. 
 
 CYANATES are cyanic acid compounds. 
 
 CYANIDE OF POTASSIUM— Deadly poisonous. Used 
 by electroplaters in forming solutions of gold, silver, etc., 
 and by photographers for ''fixing.'* Liable to cause spon- 
 taneous combustion. 
 
 CYANIDES — Compounds of cyanogen with elements or 
 metals. 
 
 CYANOGEN is one of the most volatile of the distillates 
 from crude petroleum. Flash point zero F. Classed as very 
 inflammable. Cyanogen compounds (carbon and nitrogen 
 combine to form cyanogen), a combustible gas which forms 
 with chlorine. Sometimes used for fumigating purposes. 
 
 CYCLONE is a centrifugal collector made of iron, shaped 
 like the inverted frustrum of a cone depending upon gravity 
 and centrifugal force to separate the dust from the air con- 
 taining it. Cyclones are usually on the roof of the shavings 
 vault of a woodworker. See Shaving Vault. See Blower. 
 
 CYLINDER PRINTING PRESSES have a large flat bed 
 for the form containing the type, which passes back and 
 forth under a revolving cylinder; the latter receives the 
 paper from the feeding board and brings it into contact with 
 the form beneath. See Printers. 
 
-SOA'- 
 
 DAILY REPORT— The copy of the policy, together with 
 all other necessary information concerning a risk, sent by an 
 agent to the Home office of a comi)any for the guidance of 
 the examiner. 
 
 DAIRY FARMS— Bad fire record. Health board restric- 
 tions are said to have taken considerable of the profits of the • 
 business. In some states, if an epidemic occurs, the entire 
 herd is confiscated. The State reimburses the owner to only 
 fifty per cent, of the value of the animals destroyed. Hazards 
 of large area barns, large quantity of hay and straw on 
 storage and boiler. See Creameries and Dairies; also Milk 
 Depots. 
 
 DAMAR — A resin similar in appearance to gum arabic. 
 
 DAMMARA — A gum or resin similar to copal. 
 
 DANCE HALLS— See Halls. 
 
 DANGEROUS GOODS— See Storage Lines. 
 
 DANGEROUS PROCESSES— Most manufacturing risks 
 would be desirable insurance if the dangerous processes in 
 them were isolated or cut off from the balance of the plant 
 by heavy brick walls and "labelled" automatic fire doors at 
 communicating openings. Automatic sprinklers in these 
 rooms would also greatly aid in the protection of the plant. 
 
 DAVY SAFETY LANTERN merely has a wire mesh 
 above the light, which prevents fumes from coming in contact 
 with flame. 
 
 DEAD ENDS — Any pipe scheme containing a dead end 
 should be corrected where possible by completing the 
 parallelogram. See Water Mains. 
 
 DEAD OIL — A heavy oil distilled from coal tar after, fli'e 
 distillation of the light oils. Not very inflammable. 
 
 DEAD RISER — In sprinkler equipments. Is the riser 
 which drops down from the tank supply to the basement 
 
 121 
 
122 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 without any openings and connects in the basement to the 
 live riser which supplies the heads. See Sprinkler Equip- 
 ment. 
 
 DEAD STORAGE— Automobiles are said to be on dead 
 storage when they are not infuse, and laid up for the season. 
 Gasoline should be drained from the tanks, but this is seldom 
 done. 
 
 DEAFENED FLOORS prevent sound from traveling from 
 floor to floor. One of the best methods to deafen floors is 
 to have a layer of cinders and concrete underneath the top 
 flooring carried by thin deafening-boards resting on cleats 
 fastened to the side of beams or joists as shoulders. 
 
 DECALCOMANIE crockery decorating. — Impression 
 transferred from copper plate to paper by passing it through 
 a roller, then transferred to crockery by hand. Mineral oils 
 and turpentine are used in transferring work. Firing kilns 
 and packing material constitute the hazards in this class. See 
 China Decorating. 
 
 DECARBONIZE— See Tempering. 
 
 DECLINE — A notice. Verbal or written, from the company 
 to the insured or his agent, stating the company's refusal to 
 assume liability. 
 
 DECK-FLOOR— The main floor of a pier. A narrow 
 mezzanine floor or gallery between floors. 
 
 DECK-NOZZLE— The main nozzle for fire hose on a boat. 
 
 DECORATORS AND PAINTERS— Busiest season April 
 to October. Oily waste and oily overalls left by workmen 
 when decorating the interior of buildings have caused many 
 fires. See Painters. 
 
 DEGREE OF INFLAMMABILITY is determined by the 
 attraction of the substance for oxygen. 
 
 DELIQUESCE — A salt which gathers moisture from the 
 air is said to be deliquescent. 
 
 DEMOLITION OF FIREPROOF BUILDING— Gillen- 
 der building, 20 Wall Street, New York City, part sixteen 
 and part nineteen stories high, skeleton steel construction, 
 terra-cotta floor arches, all ironwork protected by l]^-inch 
 terra cotta. It was observed that the steel work during re- 
 moval was practically in as good a condition as at the time 
 
^ , j. DEPARTMENT STORES 123 
 
 the building was originally built in 1896. The conclusions 
 obtained from this rather unusual case were: 1st — The pres- 
 ence of corrosion in several small places where the steel work 
 was exposed to the weather (this emphasizes the importance 
 of proper protection against moisture). 2nd — A covering of 
 cement mortar protects steel from corrosive influences bet- 
 ter than any form of paint at present in use. 3rd — It is im- 
 portant to paint the steel both at the mill and after being 
 erected at the building before the cement coating is applied. 
 
 DENATURED ALCOHOL consists of grain alcohol to 
 which some substance i^ added, rendering it unfit as. a bev- 
 erage, usually contains wood alcohol, pyridiii^; or , benzine. 
 Flash 40 deg. F. Classed as inflammable. - r ,* -, f-y 
 
 DENATURED OLIVE OIL— Olive oil with about a per 
 cent, rosin oil, mineral oil, distilled wood turpentine, pyridin, 
 creosote, aniline oil or oleic acid. -v -^,i 
 
 DENITRATION— Removal of the NO2 radicle from niti*o- 
 cellulose, rendering it non-explosive. 
 
 DENSE TILE— Hard terra-cotta tile of little porosity. 
 
 DENSITY— See Specific Gravity. 
 
 DENTAL GAS — Nitrous oxide gas, colorless, incombusti- 
 ble, not hazardous. 
 
 DEPARTMENT STORES— Much of the stock displayed 
 is of a highly inflammable nature, and as different in charac- 
 ter as celluloid combs, ammunition or calcium carbide are 
 from crockery, china and glassware. The stock is very sus- 
 ceptible to water damage and breakage, and may be ruined 
 by smoke. The large well-holes, open stair and elevator 
 shafts have been responsible for the spread of fire in most 
 of these risks. If building is fireproof and sprinklered, with 
 curtain boards on ceilings at openings, this danger is some- 
 what reduced. 
 
 DEPRECIATION OF BUILDINGS— There is really no 
 set rule, in some cases a sliding scale may be applied, whereas 
 sometimes an average figure is the better way. If the 
 structure is badly worn, the depreciation would be corre- 
 spondingly greater than a building kept in good repair. See 
 Values of Buildings. 
 
 DEPRECIATION OF MACHINERY— For a great many 
 
124 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 kinds of machines, experts have arranged a percentage table 
 whereby a regular deduction each year is applied. In some 
 machines there is practically no important depreciation for 
 several years while others must be entirely rebuilt after very 
 little wear. 
 
 DETACHED — A structure which does not adjoin another 
 structure. Not necessarily isolated. Number of feet de- 
 tached should always be mentioned on inspection report. 
 
 DETERGENE— A benzine substitute, classed as non- 
 volatile. 
 
 DETONATING FUSES usually contain several ounces of 
 a high explosive such as picric acid or nitrocellulose. 
 
 DETONATORS— See Fuses. 
 
 DEVILING — The picking apart of fibres or similar ma- 
 terials by machinery. 
 
 DEXTRINE— Made from starches. The best is made from 
 potato starch from Japan, tapioca and sago from Java and 
 Sumatra, and cornstarch or similar starches. Received at 
 mills in bags, mixed in agitator where a one per cent, solu- 
 tion of various acids such as muriatic, acetic, nitric; salts, 
 hypochloride of soda, magnesium chloride and similar ma- 
 terials are added by a sprayer as the machine revolves, then 
 roasted in brick-enclosed coal fuel roasters, ground in cen- 
 trifugal crusher or grinder and bolted. Roasters are similar 
 to brick-enclosed coffee roasters, with a revolving drum en- 
 closed in brick. Hazards of roasters, grinders and dust. The 
 dextrine in roasters will take fire if the drum ceases to re- 
 volve. The dust will settle on bearings and shaftings of ma- 
 chinery. Used as a stiffening substance and as food. Some- 
 times called British gum. 
 
 DIAMOND METAL POLISH— Flash point 204 deg. F. 
 Classed non-volatile. 
 
 DIAMYL, obtained during the distillation of coal, very in- 
 flammable. 
 
 DIAPHRAGM — A single or double-movable plate or par- 
 tition placed across or inside of a tube, pipe or other hollow 
 body to record fluctuations in pressure or heat, to hold back 
 liquids and gases or to allow variations in pressure without 
 impairing the efficiency of the device. 
 
AlTtStWSi ^^^ TANKS 125 
 
 DIE — A hard block of metal or that part of a stamping 
 machine which cuts out or makes an impression on an ob- 
 ject, such as a coin. Those with a fine cutting edge are 
 classed as "edged tools/' owing to their susceptibility to fire 
 damage. 
 
 DINITRO-CHLOR-BENZOL in crystal state will feed 
 fire, not very inflammable and only slightly explosive. 
 
 DI-NITRATES are classed as explosives. 
 
 DI-NITRATING is a hazardous process. 
 
 DIP BLACK— See Shoe Factories. 
 
 DIP TANKS with automatic covers. (Inspection Dept., 
 Factory Fire Ins. Co.) — Should be in a 1-story high building. 
 Floor to be incombustible and should pitch to one side and 
 have drain pipe leading to underground well (drain pipe 6 
 inches and have coarse strainer ^-inch mesh at first floor). 
 Dip tank should be steel or iron plate riveted together. 
 Should have wrought-iron overflow pipe leading outside of 
 building to a well, these pipes to be at least 3 inches where 
 tanks hold less than 100 gals., and 4 to 6 inches for large 
 tanks, overflow to have coarse strainer at tank; the well, to 
 which overflow pipe leads, should be ventilated, and should 
 be at least four times the capacity of tank. Well should be 
 at least 15 feet from building, located down-hill and be so 
 arranged that any overflow therefrom cannot endanger build- 
 ings. Tanks should have automatic covers; a folding hinge 
 cover is generally most convenient. Cover to be metal or 
 wood covered with lock-jointed tin, and overlap the sides of 
 tank, and be secured with strong metal hinges, the hinges 
 being offset and projected against gumming. A fusible link 
 and chain and counter-balanced weight makes a satisfactory 
 arrangement. In addition to above, it is often advisable to 
 locate a metal hood directly over tank, hood to have a metal 
 flue pipe, which discharges into a properly constructed brick 
 chimney. The hood should extend well over sides of tank 
 and should be as low down as feasible, the hood an'swering 
 the double purpose of preventing, at least to some extent, 
 water being thrown into the tank by sprinklers or hose, and, 
 also, taking off flames from the burning liquid in case the 
 automatic cover should fail. (H. A. Fiske.) See Lacquer. 
 
»; 
 
 f2d INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 DIPPING ARTICLES in tanks containing inflammable 
 liquids, such as japan, enamel, varnish, etc., no matter how 
 well guarded, constitutes a severe hazard. No open lights are 
 permitted in same room. 
 
 DIPPING COTTON— See Cotton. 
 
 DIRECT CURRENT— See Alternating Current. 
 
 DIRECT FEED TO BOILERS from blower systems for 
 fuel shavings. The feed pipe connects directly with the 
 blower system; the feed end placed at the boiler feed door 
 and. the shavings blown in. Automatic dampers in the feed 
 duct prevent back-fires from racing up the duct in case of 
 clogging of the shavings or shutting down of the blower. 
 See Shavings Vaults. <ridfr[03: 
 
 DIRECT LOSS— The loss of capital "due to damage or 
 destruction of the buildings, machinery, stock or other real 
 or personal property; and this loss to the owners is usually 
 minimized by means of fire insurance. 
 
 DISINFECTANTS— Ingredients used are creosote, glyce- 
 rine, sugar, camphor oil, resin, charcoal, Texaco spirits, sul- 
 phur, euchrelytum, Russian turpentine, caustic soda, bicar- 
 bonate soda, chloral, mineral oils, nucoline (cocoanut oil), car- 
 bolic acid, coal tar, acetic acid, kerosene and essential oils. 
 
 DISPLAY FIGURES AND FIXTURES, as used to dis- 
 play clothing, dry goods, furs, etc. A complete figure con- 
 sists of *a wax head, false hair, glass or celluloid eyes, bust of 
 papier-mache (enamelled), body of papier-mache (cloth cov- 
 ered), arms of wood, wax hands with celluloid finger nails, 
 wooden or papier-mache legs, iron feet and a wire frame for 
 skirt. Hazards are metal working with foundry, painting 
 and japanning, wax heating by direct fire, making depressions 
 in wax, such as dimples with heated tools, woodworking, 
 painting complexions with air or hand brush, inserting hair 
 by first warming the scalp near a stove. Papier-mache form 
 making, drying, enamelling, painting and lacquering. Class 
 of help is inferior. Early fall and early spring are the 
 busiest seasons. This class is, as a rule, a poor one. 
 
 DISTILLATION— See Distilleries. 
 
 DISTILLERIES— Distilling is separating the lighter parts 
 from the heavier parts of a substance by vaporizing in a still 
 
DISTRIBUTION CLAUSE 127 
 
 and feCondensing same into liquid form by sudden cooling. 
 High proof liquors, such as whiskey or brandy, are made in 
 distilleries. Alcohol, cologne spirits, fusel-oil and other al- 
 cohol by-products, are produced in the process. Except 
 brandy, most are made from grain. Distilleries embrace 
 many of the brewery hazards. The grain is reduced to a 
 meal, mixed with water, cooked in steam kettles at high tem- 
 perature, run to fermenting vats where yeast is added. The 
 liquid drawn oft and mashed, is then pumped to a so-called 
 beer-still (Usually copper), at the top of which is an opening 
 to which is attached a long copper tube, one end of which is 
 inserted into a vat and connected to a worm (a spiral copper 
 condensing coil), immersed in water. The mash is boiled 
 until the liquid is vaporized and recondensed in the worm. 
 The product of this distillation is known as high wines. Di- 
 rect heat, sometimes used for stills, is more hazardous than 
 steam. Coal, coke, oil or gas are used. Setting of furnaces 
 is important hazard. The liquid produced by the first distil- 
 lation is redistilled and the vapor therefrom passes to a 
 column, which is a cylindrical separator containing several 
 cells which are designed to condense certain of the spirit 
 vapors. Some of the cells are connected to "leaches" or rec- 
 tifiers, which are receptacles containing powdered charcoal 
 through which the liquid is forced for cleaning or filtering. 
 There are various methods of distilling, somfe being a con- 
 tinuous operation. Hazards are open lights in the presence 
 of alcohol vapors, charcoal storage, putting stoves inside of 
 charring vats for drying, painting, branding and coopering 
 barrels or kegs; the method of still heating and alcohol' 
 handling. See Liquors. 
 
 DISTRIBUTION CLAUSE— "It is understood and agreed 
 that the amount insured by this policy shall attach in each of 
 the above named premises in that proportion of the amount 
 hereby insured that the value of the property covered by this 
 policy contained in each of the said premises shall bear to 
 :he value of such property contained in 'all of the above 
 amcd premises." When this clause is attached to the policy 
 it distributes the insurance over the property (at the time of 
 the fire) in the same proportions as the values are dis- 
 
i26 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 tributed and the policy immediately becomes specific insur- 
 ance for the amounts so ascertained. Example: Insurance 
 carried, $10,000. Merchandise in building, "A," $5,000; in 
 building "B," $5,000; in building "C," $10,000. Total value, 
 $20,000. Building "A" gets 5,000/20,000 of $10,000, or $2,500; 
 building "B," 5,000/20,000, or $2,500; building "C," 10,- 
 000/20,000, or $5,000. 
 
 DISULPHIDE OF CARBON (carbon bisulphide) is a 
 very inflammable liquid. When its vapors ipix with the air, 
 hydrogen or carbonic acid, highly explosive gases are pro- 
 duced. A mixture of air and the vapors from bisulphide of 
 carbon will explode at about 300 deg. F. The flash point is 
 very "low and under certain conditions the liquid may be ex- 
 ploded by shock. It is made by passing sulphur vapor over 
 red-hot charcoal and when burned it produces quantities of 
 suffocating gases. It is a colorless, heavy liquid, with an 
 odor resembling rotten eggs. It is a serious fire hazard and 
 should never be allowed inside of main buildings. It is some- 
 times used to fumigate stocks of tobacco. It is also used as 
 a solvent for gums and resins, extracting grease from wool; 
 also oil from various seeds. It may also be used as a dis- 
 infectant and germicide insect killer. (F. J. McFarlane.) 
 
 DIVI-DIVI — A vegetable product from Venezuela used in 
 tanning and dyeing. 
 
 DOCKS— See Piers. 
 
 DOLLS — Indestructible dolls. Any or all of the following 
 materials may be used to make the "dough" — ceresin wax, 
 parafline, glue, whiting, wheat-paste, linseed oil and rosin, col- 
 ored with oil colors. Moulded in forms under die presses, 
 dried, sandpapered to remove roughness, enamelled in dip 
 tank (enamel thinned with turpentine or benzine), painting 
 complexions with air sprayers or hand brush, and lacquering. 
 Heating of wax mixture by direct heat, use of benzine, 
 enamel, lacquer are main hazards. 
 
 DONKEY ENGINE — A small steam engine attached to a 
 larger one and fed from the same boiler. 
 
 DOOR FRAME — The case in which a door opens and 
 shuts, consisting of two uprights and one horizontal piece 
 connected together by mortices and tenons. 
 
'viiTiaw5i DOORS oiTaaqawi 
 
 129 
 
 DOORS— See Collapsible, Revolving and Fire Doors. 
 
 DOORS — Safety releasing latch for exit door. The latch 
 combines in a unit the usual locking devices, the door lock 
 and top and bottom latches. The usual hardware trim is 
 applied on the outside of the door. On the inside, about 
 waist high, a solid bar stretches across the door. This bar 
 stands away from the wood and connects directly with the 
 mechanism of the latch. Pressure applied to any part of the 
 bar instantly releases the lock and latches simultaneously 
 and permits the doors to open. The operation of these 
 latches under conditions of a panic is evident. The occu- 
 pants of the building rush toward the exit doors and the 
 leaders are forced against the bar across the doors, thus 
 operating the latches automatically and opening the doors to 
 safety. 
 
 DORMER WINDOW— A window which projects out of 
 the wall just under the roof. /aH tic.. 
 
 DOUBLE BACKING MACHINE— Used in paper box 
 making. A long iron table heated by steam coils; on one 
 end a large glue pot which glues one side of each of two 
 sheets of paper which runs between wood or iron rollers, is 
 dried while passing over the steam-heated table and reeled at 
 opposite end. Glue pots should be steam heated. 
 
 DOVE-TAILING MACHINE— Used by woodworkers for 
 cutting the fan or wedge-shaped grooves or projections used 
 in making joints. The term dove-tail being given to the joint 
 in question because of the resemblance of the interlocking 
 projections to a dove tail spread out. The cutting tool, also 
 shaped like a dove tail, is fixed in the end of spindle pro- 
 jecting up through a table mounted upon an iron frame and 
 rotating very rapidly. Danger of overheating bearings. 
 
 DOWEL — A straight pin of wood or metal inserted part 
 way into each of. two faces, which it unites. ' 
 
 DRAGON'S BLOOD—A resinous substatice obtained from 
 tropical trees. ' -^"'-^'^ - ''■ '-^^^--^^ ' 
 
 DRAWING— Sec Sketching. '''-" •'•' '-■^''' 
 
 DRAWN STEEL— (Drawing steel from a flat pt><^ IritO 
 
 cup-shaped pieces and tubes.) The machines used are sim- 
 
 .ilar to huge stamping presses. The thick plate of steel is 
 
^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 placed on the bed of the press and a plunger, by repeated 
 thrusts, makes an indentation which enlarges as the process 
 proceeds and eventually presses out a cup-shape piece. These 
 machines are called ''reducing" or "drawing presses." Each 
 press, has a different sized plunger, the largest plunger being 
 used first. After each reducing process, the steel is heated 
 in a rotary annealing furnace before it is placed in the next 
 press. When the tube is finally drawn out, it is washed in a 
 rust-proof solution, and threaded to receive the nut. Heavy 
 machine-shop hazard. 
 
 DRESSMAKING— Usually locate in dwellings without 
 salesrooms or show rooms and the owner lives on the prem- 
 ises. Called "parlor shops." Sewing and pressing on small 
 scale. If under five hands working, without show room, and 
 if owner lives on premises no extra rate is charged for this 
 occupancy by some rating boards. 
 
 DRESS PATTERNS (paper)— If kept in cardboard boxes 
 in the open may be counted on to suffer a bad loss from 
 smoke and water. They are usually made of the cheapest 
 grade of tissue paper, and should always be kept in metal 
 cabinets. In dry goods and notion stores they form consid- 
 erable of the value. A full set of dress patterns as sold by 
 m.ost large dress pattern firms is worth $250-$300, and are 
 kept in pigeon-holed cabinets with open fronts. See Patterns. 
 
 DRIP CUPS should be placed on all shafting, gearing and 
 sewing machines to catch oily drips. They are usually made 
 cup-shape of cast-iron. Drip pans are necessary under spig- 
 ots of oil and paint barrels in paint stores. 
 
 DRIP VALVES on sprinkler equipments must be sealed 
 shut. They are used for draining the pipes. 
 
 DROP FORCINGS — Forgings whose shape is impressed 
 upon them by dies on which a heavy weight is allowed to fall. 
 
 DRUGS AND CHEMICALS— The present European war 
 has caused a scarcity of certain chemicals and drugs hitherto 
 imported. As a result, local concerns have hurriedly erected 
 small plants for the manufacture of such goods. These 
 equipments are for the most part built for temporary use and 
 .their crudity and lack of stability makes them unsafe. See 
 i^hjemistry; also Chemicals. 
 
DRUGS 131 
 
 DRUG STORES (retail)— Usual drugs and chemicals in 
 small quantities. May bottle benzine, gasoline or alcohol, or 
 make ointments and salves by direct fire heat (grease haz- 
 ard). Basements should be inspected on account of packing 
 material, empty boxes, surplus stock and untidiness. 
 
 DRUGS (wholesale) — Risks of this class not only carry 
 large quantities of dangerous drugs and chemicals, but they 
 may also do the following work: Drug grinding in stone or 
 steel mills, cutting, compounding, separating, bolting, sifting, 
 mixing, drying and packing. All combustibles should be kept 
 in an underground vault, cut off from the main building by 
 standard fire doors. Drugs and chemicals such as ether, 
 nitric acid, chlorate of potash, etc., should not be packed 
 in the same box or in close proximity to each other, as a 
 sudden jar, sufficient to break the bottles, may cause an 
 explosion. Some of the causes of fires, according to fire 
 reports, are spontaneous combustion in barrel of powdered 
 charcoal, explosion in chlorate of potash storage closet, 
 explosions of carboys containing nitric acid and barium diox- 
 ide, explosion in barrel of tar, fires in or near grinding and 
 pulverizing machines probably due to friction of foreign sub- 
 stances or grinding, substances containing phosphorus, igni- 
 tion of inflammable vapors in compounding room. Fires in 
 this class are extremely dangerous because the action of radi- 
 ated heat or the application of water in contact with certain 
 chemicals, will cause fires or explosions of chemicals which of 
 themselves would not be dangerous otherwise. Phosphorus 
 should be stored under water outside of main building. (J. 
 Younes.) See Chemicals. 
 
 DRUID ROOF is cotton duck soaked in paraffine, borax 
 and sulphate of magnesia, then painted with a composition 
 of liquid asphaltum, soapstone and graphite. Said to be both 
 water and fireproof. 
 
 DRUMMOND LIGHT, made by causing the burning gases, 
 hydrogen and oxygen, to strike against a piece of lime. The 
 lime becomes intensely heated and shines with a dazzling 
 brilliancy. 
 
 DRY CLEANING AND DRY DYEING (benzine or 
 paphtha process). Always a dangerous exposure. Buildings 
 
152 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 should be detached from surrounding properties, the greater 
 the distance the better. Entire construction should be fire- 
 proof; no basements; and areas as small as possible. Dry- 
 rooms should be cut off from main buildings and cleaning 
 rooms, and only steam heat used. Steam pipes should have 
 screens of wire mesh to prevent goods coming in contact 
 with them. Racks for clothing should be iron. Entrance to 
 washing room should be from outside only. Perforated pipes 
 or steam jets are recommended for extinguishing fires in 
 these rooms; the control valve located outside of building 
 and easily accessible. Ventilators should be near floor as 
 the vapor falls, being heavier than air; vents to be about 10 
 inches by six inches with wire mesh screens. Distilling ap- 
 paratus for reclaiming dirty liquids is usually located in 
 cleaning room. Centrifugal extractors for drying washed 
 goods generate electricity through rapid motion, and a spark 
 is liable to explode the vapor in the machine. Naphtha and 
 benzine to be stored underground as per requirements. See 
 Dyeing and Cleaning. 
 
 DRY COLORS— See Aniline Dyes; also Color Works. 
 
 DRY DISTILLATION— Heating without access to air, in 
 closed receptacle. 
 
 DRY DOCKS — Fires have been caused by shavings and 
 portable furnaces, soldering devices, oakum storage, paint- 
 ing and spontaneous combustion of oakum and oily waste. 
 
 DRY KILNS — The most common causes of fires are over- 
 heating, faulty construction and uncleanliness. The intense 
 heat fosters the fire when started. An efficient steam jet is 
 the best fire extinguisher. Modern kilns are made of con- 
 crete with tile roofs. See Kilning. 
 
 DRY PIPE SPRINKLER EQUIPMENT— In unheated 
 buildings where the water is liable to freeze sprinklers are in- 
 stalled "dry pipe," i. e., instead of water the piping contains 
 air under pressure which holds shut an automatic water-con- 
 trol valve. This valve opens and admits water into the pipes 
 when the pressure is weakened by the escape of air through 
 sprinklers opened by fire. Test of, in Fireproof Cold 
 Storage. Test number one was made with the circulating 
 refrigeration system in full operation ancj started with an in- 
 
DRY ROOMS 133 
 
 itial temperature on the floor of approximately 30 deg. F. 
 The first sprinkler head operated 17^ minutes after the light- 
 ing of the first pan of alcohol. Alcohol pans were lighted in 
 succession every 30 seconds. Test number two was made with 
 the circulating system completely cut off by starting with in- 
 itial temperature of 30 deg. F. The first sprinkler head oper- 
 ated 15 minutes after lighting of the first pan. Extracted 
 from detail report made by E. S. Clayton, March 19, 1913. 
 See Sprinklers (Dry Pipes). See Dry Valves. 
 
 DRY POWDER EXTINGUISHERS— Their use is not 
 encouraged. They are inferior to water or chemicals. Com- 
 posed of about 85 per cent, bicarbonate soda and 15 per cent, 
 iron oxide, silica, starch, fuller's earth, Venetian red; yellow 
 ochre is added to prevent caking. Will cake in damp places 
 and powder may lose its strength. They are, however, bet- 
 ter than frozen water pails in unheated buildings. See 
 Chemical Extinguishers. 
 
 DRY ROOMS should be of all-metal design and steam- 
 heated. Wood dry rooms, even if lined with lock-jointed 
 metal, are not approved. See illustration on page 134. 
 
 DRY ROT — Decay in such portions of the timber of houses 
 as are exposed to dampness. The best preventive is creosote. 
 
 DRY VALVES — Attached to sprinkler systems in buildings 
 without heat. Ten pounds of air is sufficient to hold back 
 sixty pounds of water, but most engineers have the air-gauge 
 show 25 pounds of air to be positively safe. 
 
 DRYERS — Usually made of soaps composed of lead and 
 manganese in some form or other, usually as the linoleate or 
 the resinate. They are needed in all paints. It is assumed 
 that they exert no chemical action, but attract oxygen from 
 the air by virtue of their presence. May contain volatile oils. 
 (See Japan Dryers.) 
 
 DRYING OILS — The chief one is linseed oil, derived from 
 flaxseed. Subject to spontaneous combustion, especially if 
 mixed with organic matter. 
 
 DUALIN — A foreign make of nitroglycerine. Explosive. 
 
 DUMBWAITER DOORS in the basement of apartment 
 houses are usually blocked open or tied open so as not to in- 
 convenience the errand boy delivering orders. Boys stand 
 
134 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 at these shafts and smoke. The bottoms of shafts are some- 
 times filled with waste paper and rubbish even in the "high- 
 class" apartment houses. Sometimes large wooden packing 
 
 DRY ROOMSmJ 
 
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 AfAr£r/Ai tv/TM iJie£i^£> ^jje£ pac^ at ^/'r///Af^. 
 
 iF COILS 
 INSIDE Ofi 
 
 Of£RH£AD 
 
 ^sli/f^Jfp]'^^''"^^ ^^ ^'>ri£^^ r/fAA/ A/O /(> US.^AtfS ,*/ 
 
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 COMBi/JTiBt.£ \ £AViy/9l£A/r£RAAf£j: /r OA/ WOOO £lOOK *VAA/T4-'' ^ 
 
 mreRiALZ-Aw^fi co/vcAer£ o/^ S/ai/la/Z MA4s . FCfi y£^r(Jeea6oye) 
 
 Copyright, 1915. G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 boxes filled with paper adjoin these shafts. 'Tire patrol" re- 
 ports show numerous lires from these causes. Dumbwaiter 
 shafts should be of terra-cotta, concrete, common brick or 
 
DUST iSS 
 
 plaster block with labeled self-closing fire doors at all open- 
 ings. See Shafts. 
 
 DUMPS FOR STREET CLEANING DEPARTMENTS, 
 especially on water fronts, are littered with debris and rub- 
 bish scattered all around, and underneath piers and docks in 
 the vicinity. All such piers should be enclosed from low- 
 water line to pier floor, so as to prevent waste floating under- 
 neath. Many fires at these places. 
 
 DUPLICATING CARVER— The work is clamped to 
 frames in a similar position to pattern or model, and by a 
 parallel motion a blank tool and small cutters are made to 
 pass simultaneously over the outline and surface of the pat- 
 tern. Machine parts rotate 5,000 to 15,000 a minute and heat 
 up. See Spindle Carver. 
 
 DURABOLD, a waterproofing compound. Flash 110 deg. 
 F. Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 DUST — Accumulations of dust on bearings of machinery 
 cause undue friction and numerous fires. Fires flash along 
 dust-covered shelves or woodwork. The presence of much 
 dust denotes poor housekeeping. Ordinary dust, such as 
 found in offices, office buildings and schools, consists of hu- 
 man hair or hair from soft hats, wool and cotton from cloth- 
 ing, sand and dirt tracked into building, wings from dead 
 flies, paper, iron from nails in shoes, carbon from coal smoke, 
 salt from perspiration. The presence of bacteria in dust, 
 aside from the fire hazard, is the reason boards of health and 
 labor departments demand proper ventilation. 
 
 The most hazardous, the most easily ignited and the most 
 explosive dusts are sugar, dextrine, starch and cocoa. Almost 
 any finely divided material will explode if mixed with air in 
 the proper proportion and ignited — dust of coal, soot, grain, 
 bronze powder, celluloid, lycopodium, dust from buff wheels. 
 Where dust is produced in any process, proper ventilation 
 with blowers to conduct the dust from the machines to a safe 
 place should be provided, and if the dust is of an explosive 
 character, explosion vents (small boxes or openings provided 
 with covers kept in place with spring hinges) should be pro- 
 vided on the conveying pipes. As with sugar dust, there is 
 often sufficient violence in explosions to wreck buildings 
 
 ft 
 
136 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 where the quantity of suspended dust is sufficient to explode. 
 See Fly. 
 
 DUSTLESS DUSTERS— Principally flannel saturated with 
 linseed oil and paraffine. Subject to spontaneous combustion. 
 
 DWELLINGS — There are more fires in dwellings than in 
 any other class of risk. Were it not for the millions of them 
 insured they would not be written at current rates. Although 
 many lives are at stake, building and fire departments and 
 insurance companies give less supervision to them either 
 
 In case of fire, close every door you pass through on your 
 way out of a burning building. In this manner the oxygen 
 necessary for combustion is reduced to a minimum. 
 
 before or after completion or occupancy than to other classes 
 of buildings. There are more defects of common hazards in 
 the ordinary dwelling than in the owner's factory. The ten- 
 ants are, through familiarity, blind or indifferent to the need 
 of fire prevention. As winter approaches fires are started in 
 
• OMITiaWH . I>YE WOOD jITDaqgUi 1^7 
 
 Stoves or furnaces with no thought of the need of cleaning 
 chimneys of birds* nests or soot, replacing rusted smoke 
 pipes, protection under stoves or the 'general condition. Un- 
 safe gas jets, which are penalized ten cents in nearly all 
 rate schedules of factories, are numerous in dwellings and 
 cause many fires. See Apartment Houses, 
 
 Palatial Country Houses (Journal of Commerce, Nov. 27, 
 1916), owing to the lack of fire protection, open country and 
 the high values contained therein, are now looked upon by 
 ^underwriters as business to be avoided if possible. 
 
 DWELLINGS (fireproof) — Rating Bureau Requirements. 
 All floor openings leading from the basement to the upper 
 floors must be cut off in the basement by brick, terra cotta 
 or concrete shafts at least four inches thick with solid kala- 
 mein or kalamein and wired glass doors; also kalamein trim. 
 If there is a continuous shaft from basement to upper floors, 
 the former must be cut off in similar manner. Large air 
 ducts used in indirect heating systems need no cut off, unless 
 they have openings in the basement, in which case automatic 
 dampers must be installed. Elevator dcum and motor room 
 must be cut off in a standard manneriP.IjA ' 
 
 DYE can be made from the roots, leaves and stalks of net- 
 tles. Used in woolen stuffs. 
 
 DYE WOOD — Extracted from logwood and fustic. Fires 
 are sometimes caused from the union of chemicals used. 
 Where stock is kept, especially in ground or powdered form, 
 even small fires usually results in severe losses owing to 
 water making the colors run. An unprofitable class. 
 
 DYE WOODS, such as logwood, are prepared for extract- 
 ing by first cutting the logs in small pieces the size of 
 kindling wood. These are put in an all-iron knife grinder, 
 revolving at about 950 r.p.m., then ground finer in corrugated 
 iron roller machine, revolving at about 1,100 r.p.m., which 
 reduces the wood to finely divided particles ready for the 
 steam vats. Hazards of high-speed grinders, high-tension 
 electric currents, transformer. See Logwood. 
 
 DYE WORKS— See Bleach, Dye and Print Works. 
 
 DYEING AND CLEANING WORKS— Equipment con- 
 sists of revolving washing drums using soap and water, 
 
13S INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 centrifugal extractors, dye tubs and kettles, drying rooms, 
 gas or electric pressing irons, gas-heated crimpers (or steam), 
 mangles and finishing. Materials used are chloroform (for 
 removing spots) alcohol, benzine, acetic acid, sulphuric acid, 
 ammonia, oxalic acid, sal-soda, glycerine, neatsfoot oil, per- 
 oxide of hydrogen and blue stone. See Dry Cleaning. 
 
 DYERS, as a mordaunt, use thin solution of nitrate of 
 iron and water for loading green cotton goods. See Dry 
 Cleaning and Dyeing. 
 
 DYNAMITE — A high explosive formed by mixing nitro- 
 glycerine with an absorbent material to form a plastic solid. 
 Frozen Dynamite should never be used. Most high ex- 
 plosives freeze at temperatures between 45 and 50 deg. F., 
 and when frozen will explode only imperfectly or not at all. 
 When frozen it is thawed out before being used. See Ex- 
 plosives. 
 
 DYNAMITING BUILDINGS to check the path of a 
 large or sweeping fire is seldom employed in the city, al- 
 though more or less explosives have been used for this 
 purpose in all conflagrations. 
 
 DYNAMO CLAUSE— See Electrically-driven Machinery. 
 
 DYNAMOS — See Electrically-driven Machinery. 
 
EAGLE SOLVENT— A benzine substitute, classed as non- 
 volatile. 
 
 EARNED PREMIUM— That portion of the premium rep- 
 resenting the length of time the company has assumed lia- 
 bility; the premium for the length of time the policy has 
 been in force, and retained by the company in case of can- 
 cellation. See Premium. 
 
 EARTH OIL is petroleum. 
 
 EAVES — The edge of a roof which overhangs a wall. 
 It is designed to carry off the water without flowing down 
 the side of the wall. 
 
 ECCENTRIC — A circular plate or pulley surrounded by 
 a loose ring and attached to a revolving shaft and moving 
 around with it but not having the same center, for pro- 
 ducing an alternate motion. 
 
 EDGED TOOLS— See Instruments. 
 
 EDGE-RUNNERS— See Chasers. 
 
 EFFECTIVE LOAD— The effective span in feet multi- 
 plied by the weight of the distributed load per foot run. 
 
 EGG DEALERS — Hazards of candling eggs and pack- 
 ing material. See Candling. 
 
 EGGS — If eggs are thoroughly wet while in storage they 
 are liable to become spoiled in a short time. Water re- 
 moves from the shell of the egg a gelatinous covering which 
 helps to keep air and germs out of the inside of the egg. 
 See Candling; see Consequential Loss. 
 
 EJOO— Called Indian hemp, a black fibre. 
 
 ELECTRICITY, properly installed, is the safest kind of 
 light. Repairs or extensions should be made only by ex- 
 perts. Regular examination is necessary to detect defects. 
 Amateurs are responsible for many of the electric wire 
 fires. Electric power is safer than other forms because all 
 
 139 
 
140 INSI^ECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 the power is transmitted through stationary wires and not 
 rapidly moving belts or shafting which have friction gear- 
 ing, overheated bearings and which necessitate floor open- 
 ings. 
 
 When repairing or altering, all old wires or "dead ends" 
 should be removed as they are apt to become charged and 
 cause fire. 
 
 A large percentage of the so-called "unknown cause" fires 
 are directly traceable to poor insulation, poor wiring, over- 
 loading wires without proper fuses, or poor installation of 
 motors. Overfusing is a common happening. Direct cur- 
 rent (brush motors) should be carefully protected from 
 dust. Induction motors, while not subject to this dust 
 hazard, should be very carefully wired because the hazards 
 from currents are greater than at brush motors. 
 
 Among the conductors are metals, charcoal, animal fluids, 
 water, vegetable and animal bodies, flame, smoke and vapor. 
 Among the non-conductors (called insulators) are rust, oils, 
 phosphorus, lime, chalk, rubber, camphor, marble, porcelain, 
 dry gases and air, wool, silk, glass, transparent stones, wax 
 and amber. Some of these become conductors when wet. 
 
 Defective insulation, such as wires hung on nails, is apt 
 to cause short circuits through abrasion or the wearing off 
 of insulation, the arc setting fire to surroundings. Conduits 
 are the best form of wiring. Wires strung loosely are dan- 
 gerous, and apt to become damaged. Water in leaky con- 
 duits and wires in contact with dampness, such as under- 
 ground wires, causes blowouts. 
 
 ELECTRIC ARC— The intensely bright arc produced be- 
 tween two carbon points in air, when a current of electricity 
 passes from one to the other across a gap. 
 
 ELECTRIC CABLE DUCTS— See Pipe Shafts. 
 
 ELECTRIC DEVICES— The National Board states that 
 30,000 fires a year are caused by carelessness in using elec- 
 tric devices. A new form of peril is coming into prominence 
 as a cause of much destruction, and its fires are so directly 
 associated with carelessness that it has been deemed neces- 
 sary to issue a special warning. Because of their convenience 
 small electric devices, such as pressing irons, curling irons, 
 
ELECTRIC HAZARD 141 
 
 toasters, electric pads or blankets, electric plate warmers and 
 electric sterilizers or heaters, are now to be found in nearly 
 every community. If these were used with proper care the 
 danger would be negligible; but, unfortunately, a proportion 
 of their users do not realize the peril of leaving them in cir- 
 cuit when not in use. In such cases these devices tend to 
 become overheated, whereupon they are liable to set fire to 
 anything combustible with which they come in xontact. 
 Most of these fires are small, but the aggregate loss is large, 
 and occasional instances show extensive damage, as in the 
 case of the $350,000 fire in a Boston residence. This was 
 traced to an electric plate-warmer in the butler's pantry. 
 Fires of this class furnish a special peril to life, being most 
 frequent in dwellings, and often breaking out in the night. 
 A characteristic example is that in which an electric press- 
 ing iron is left upon the ironing board with the current 
 turned on and then forgotten. In such a case the fire may 
 not occur until some hours later. It is safe to say that 
 most of these fires are entirely preventible and can be charged 
 to nothing but carelessness on the part of the user. Various 
 safety devices have been added by certain of the manufac- 
 turers of these articles, and among them are some that are 
 fairly effective, but there is one absolute precaution which 
 should be borne in mind at all times by every user, namely, 
 that of shutting off the current when not personally and 
 continuously supervising its use. See Electric Iron. 
 
 ELECTRIC HAZARD— In the eyes of the underwriter it 
 is a question of heat and not light. Heat is caused by wires 
 carrying too great a current; therefore it is necessary to find 
 out if wires are overloaded or provided with proper fuses. 
 
 ELECTRIC IRON — An electric iron in use in Dayton, 
 Ohio, was left on a table and burned its way through the 
 table, through the flooring, then through a joist that sup- 
 ported the flooring and was found dangling by its wire in 
 the room below without firing the building. They should 
 have a thermostat switch placed in the iron to automatically 
 cut off the current whenever the temperature exceeds a pre- 
 determined point, usually 400 to 600 deg. F. See Electric 
 Devices. 
 
142 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ELECTRIC LAMP SHADES— These shades are made of 
 colored fabric, and have shaped corrugated sides designed 
 to stretch to snugly fit naked incandescent electric light 
 globes with which they come in contact. The use of these 
 shades is fraught with danger as electric light bulbs readily 
 heat sufficiently to ignite material with which they may come 
 in contact. Unsuspecting customers are apt to purchase 
 these shades and install them in their homes for decorative 
 purposes near curtained windows, drapery or other inflam- 
 mable material where the light might be left burning in- 
 definitely and thereby cause a fire. 
 
 ELECTRIC MOTOR— A machine by which electrical en- 
 ergy is transformed into mechanical energy to rotate a shaft.. 
 
 ELECTRICAL SUPPLY STOCK— Work is repair- 
 ing and assembling fixtures, repairing motors, winding, 
 afmatures, buffing, soldering, relacquering. Use considerable; 
 packing material. Numerous portable electric light wires for' 
 displaying domes and globes is a poor feature. The insula- 
 tion wears off by continuous use and careless handling, and 
 short circuits are frequent. 
 
 ELECTRICAL TERMS — Broadly speaking, ampere 
 means volume; volt, pressure; and watts, the resulting quan- 
 tity. A volt is the measure of pressure. Amperes multi- 
 plied by volts equals watts. The quantity (watts) of elec- 
 tricity delivered over a single circuit is the direct product of 
 the volume (amperes), multiplied by the pressure (volts)^ 
 A thousand (kilo) watts are the mechanical equivalent of one 
 and one-third horse power. Lighting circuits usually carry 
 105 to 120 volts, although some towns have 220 volt systems.. 
 
 ELECTRICALLY-DRIVEN MACHINERY— If fire takes; 
 place within the machine itself, the fire policy is not liable 
 for damage to the machinery. If, however, the fire extends; 
 to other property, the company is liable for the property so> 
 destroyed. If fire starts elsewhere than in the machinery,, 
 the company is liable for the damage to the machinery. 
 
 ELECTROLYSIS— The destructive effect upon metals of 
 an electric current. The most common form is the effect 
 upon underground pipes, lead-covered cables, and metal work 
 of building foundations. The effect is the pitting or erosion 
 
ELECTROTYPING ^^3 
 
 where the electrical current leaves it. Stray currents from 
 power houses seeking return to the power house utilize 
 pipes, metal structures and cables in their path (usually be- 
 cause the return feeders are of insufficient capacity). The 
 damage occurs where the current leaves these structures. 
 
 Electrolysis (electrolytic corrosion) is disintegration 
 caused by stray electric currents attacking underground 
 steel work. Where the electrolysis is severe or continuous, 
 it may cause the collapse of steel skeleton buildings. 
 
 ELECTROPLATES— Inspection should be made to see if 
 wood backed, also whether kept in fireproof vault, in stacks 
 or in boxes. 
 
 ELECTROTYPING— Wood cuts, half-tones, and zinc 
 etchings are so much in use at the present time that it is 
 necessary to describe briefly their manufacture, and also to 
 mention some of the hazards found in their production. 
 These cuts are sometimes placed in the press with other 
 type, as in ordinary printing, but quite frequently electro- 
 types are made from them; this is especially true of wood 
 cuts. The electrotype is then placed in the press while the 
 original is preserved for future use. In wood engravings, 
 Turkish boxwood is cut into pieces of the desired size and 
 the surface to receive the design is finished so as to be per- 
 fectly flat and smooth. The next step is to' have the design 
 or picture traced or drawn on the block to enable the en- 
 graver to begin his work. Sometimes this is done by hand, 
 but now-a-days most of this work is accomplished by the 
 use of photographic negatives. The object to be reproduced 
 is photographed by means of the negative, the design or pic- 
 ture is printed on the face of the block which has previously 
 been covered with a sensitized solution. Arc lights are gener- 
 ally used to do this printing; this makes it unnecessary to 
 depend upon the proper weather condition. The engraver 
 then takes the design, and with hand tools cuts away those 
 portions of the face of the block which must be removed to 
 produce the design in relief. Nothing but hand tools are 
 used in this work. A "lining" machine is used to produce 
 the fine parallel lines appearing on these cuts. No hazard 
 of much importance presents itself in this business, except 
 
144 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 that of arc lights, which should be, and generally are, pro- 
 tected by glass globes. 
 
 ELEMI — A composition of resin used in lacquer making. 
 
 ELEMINE — Rosin boiled in water containing carbonate 
 of soda. 
 
 ELEVATION — In reviewing plans it is the drawing which 
 shows the height of the building with all the stories com- 
 bined. 
 
 ELEVATOR BOOT— The lowest part of a 'lofter" or 
 elevator (also termed elevator leg), enclosing the pulley un- 
 der which passes the carrying belt. 
 
 ELEVATOR BUILDINGS— All buildings such as grain 
 elevators, used in the handling of any combustible substance, 
 especially where finely divided dust is liable to be produced, 
 should be built of fireproof materials. Non-fireproof construc- 
 tion type have a bad loss record. 
 
 ELEVATOR HEAD— The opposite end to the ''boot" en- 
 closing the driving pulley. See Strut Board. 
 
 ELEVATOR LEG — The narrow, continuous boxing, en- 
 closing a belt-and-bucket or chain-and-bucket elevator, 
 through one or more floors. 
 
 ELEVATORS are used in grain warehouses or breweries 
 to convey grain from one floor to another, and also from 
 boats to cars. In the latter case, it is called a "marine 
 leg." 
 
 EMBOSSERS — Used by woodworkers for pressing pat- 
 terns on wood in imitation of carving. The machine con- 
 sists of a plate or roller bearing a design in relief with a 
 device to hold the work to be embossed and another device 
 for heating the plate or roller. Gas heat is generally used, 
 although live steam and sometimes gasoline have been 
 used. 
 
 EMBOSSING PRESS— Similar to a cylinder press. One 
 type is the revolving press, the revolving portion of which 
 is covered with fine needles which make impressions on the 
 paper. Others are similar to a screw press, in which case a 
 die is used for making the impression. Both are usually 
 gas heated, and flexible connections are sometimes necessary 
 unless the "bed" or stationary part of the press is heated, in 
 
;4iTiaw>i^^^^o^f^^^^ES 145 
 
 which case a rigid iron pipe connection can be made. See 
 Printers. 
 
 EMBROIDERIES— Dress goods, lace, netting with braids, 
 cords, spangles or beaded cord are embroidered on a "Bon- 
 naz embroider," a type of machine similar to the ordinary 
 sewing machine. The best of machines are imported. Hem- 
 stitchers, scalloping and imitation hand embroidery machines 
 are similar to the ordinary sewing machine. A "braider" is 
 a circular all-iron machine similar to a knitting machine for 
 making bodies of sweaters. On it round, flat, elastic or 
 soutache braids are woven. The rough edges of braids are 
 singed over a gas flame, alcohol, gasoline or kerosene torch 
 or lamp. "Chenille" machine: a machine designed to make 
 cords, tassels, etc., as used on portieres or draperies, dress 
 goods or millinery trimmings. Usually of wood, a small af- 
 fair, the yarn being drawn through the machine to a larg^e 
 wheel on opposite side of room, the reverse action of the 
 wheel and the chenille machine making the twist. The ma- 
 chine is usually very oily and covered with lint. Swiss em- 
 broidery: Swiss machines are large, 5 to 15 yards long, 
 (Weighing 2 to 18 tons. Should always be set on substantial 
 bases, preferably in the basement or first floors of buildings, 
 the foundation resting on terra firma. The pattern is placed 
 on a board at one end of the machine, an operator tracing 
 the design with an arm (called pantograph), which also regu- 
 lates the action of needles and punches which embroiders 
 the goods. The goods are stretched along the entire length 
 of the machine, which is motor-driven. An "automat" at^ 
 tached to a Swiss machine takes the place of the operator. 
 It works on the same principle as a player-piano,^ having a 
 perforated pattern instead of a music roll, which makes the 
 design, and is also motor-driven. Oily, lint covered motor, 
 oily floor and swinging gas brackets are the hazards of these 
 Swiss machines. 
 
 Passementerie is the edging, bead work, or lace trimmings 
 for dress goods. All hand work; no material hazard. 
 
 Stamping is transferring a pattern to piece of goods 
 to be embroidered. The transferring is done by rubbing a 
 piece of colored chalk, wax or lamp-black thinned with ben- 
 
 m 
 
¥»te INSPECTION AMD UNDERWRITING 
 
 zine over the perforations of the patterns similar to a 
 "pounce." » 
 
 Carbonizing — Braids are frequently sewn on buckram 
 which has been treated with sizing of diluted sulphuric acid. 
 Heat tends to disintegrate the buckram. The goods are 
 placed on a wire mesh over a gas flame in an oven. The 
 heat carbonizes the buckram and leaves the braid intact; 'A 
 source of danger, unless the oven is properly constructed. 
 Carbonizing is also done by passing a hot iron over the 
 buckram. 
 
 Plaiting, Ruching, Fluting and Crimpers are gas-heated. 
 Unless the rollers become overheated, thereby burning the 
 goods, there is little hazard if the gas connection is of iron. 
 
 Bleaching is done with benzoin or hydrogen peroxide; 
 cleaned with alcohol, turpentine, benzine or chloroform; 
 dyed in aniline colors. Important hazards are heating of siz- 
 ing kettles, rubber tubes at gas-heated machines, swinging 
 gas lights at Swiss machines, stamping with benzine and 
 lamp-black, and the carbonizing ovens. Very susceptible 
 stocks. Water will streak the goods, mildew, or make the 
 colors run. After a fire they should be immediately sorted 
 and dried. Wash embroideries generally yield a good salvage. 
 Imported machinery with necessary loss of time in replac- 
 ing parts must be considered in "use and occupancy" 
 lines. (W. O. Lincoln, "Live Articles on Special Hazards," 
 The Weekly Underwriter.) , 
 
 EMERY AND SANDPAPER MFG.— Hazards of crush- 
 ers for raw materials, dry rooms, pulverizing. Paper is 
 coated with glue and by continuous process passes through 
 a steam heated machine where the dust-is deposited On the 
 paper. ' ooJsirifmjttHq I)jb:-ioii3q 
 
 EMPTY BOXES— All kinds of fii-e wdo'd, tioxes, etcVin 
 yards and alleys should be stacked neatly and kept free 
 from rubbish. 
 
 ENAMELS are mixtures of pigments, varnish, oils and 
 japan. 
 
 ENCLOSED — Surrounded by partitions to prevent 
 draughts and fires from spreading from floor to floor. See 
 Shafts. 
 
ENEMY ALIEN CLAUSE 147 
 
 END CONSTRUCTION— As applied to laying terra cotta, 
 is the same as side construction, except the blocks are laid on 
 ends instead of sides. See Side Construction". ''' 
 
 ENDORSEMENT— A term expressing a change in* the 
 original contract of insurance, thus: change of locatiqri, 
 name, increasing or reducing amount, etc., are noted' oti 
 policy and signed by agent or officer of the company. • ■^^"' 
 
 ENEMY ALIEN CLAUSE— The Executive Committee 
 recommend and urge all members of the N. Y. F. I. Exchange 
 to employ on all policies hereafter issued in this area the 
 following clause in order to make reasonably sure of avoid- 
 ing violation "of the so-called Trading with the Enemy Act 
 of the United States Congress, approved October 6, 1917: 
 
 "This entire policy shall be void if the insurance here- 
 under, directly or indirectly, is for, or on account of, or 
 on behalf of or for the benefit of an 'enemy* or *ally of 
 enemy' (as defined in the Act of Congress, approved Octo- 
 "Ber 6, 1917, known as the 'Trading with the Enemy Act,' or 
 iamendments thereto, or in any proclamation of the Presi- 
 dent pursuant thereto), or is for any person who is acting 
 for^ on account of, or on behalf of, or for the benefit of any 
 'enemy* or 'ally of enemy* unless the interest of the 'enemy* 
 or 'ally of enemy* has been conveyed, transferred, assigned 
 and delivered to the Alien Property Custodian, or unless 
 with a license from the President of the United States per- 
 mission is granted to injure the 'enemy' or 'ally of enemy.*** 
 
 The foregoing has been agreed upon in conference with 
 the representatives of the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers and other company organizations and interests for 
 adpption in all cases where policies appear to protect an 
 unnamed beneficiary such as would be covered by the trust 
 and commission clause, the expression "heirs of* or "estate 
 of" or "a^ now or may hereafter be constituted'* or "on 
 storage or for repairs,'* etc., etc. (Author*s Note — The sit- 
 uation regarding the trust and commission clause has not 
 been definitely settled.) 
 
 ENGINE OILS— Hydrocarbon oils of gravity 32 to 33 
 degrees. Flasji point 300 to 400 deg. F. Animal or vegeta- 
 ble oils are only used in mineral oil compounds. 
 
148 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ENGRAVERS use plate printing presses somewhat similar 
 to transfer presses in printing risks (only much larger). To 
 keep the ink warm a gas jet is usually used, but kerosene oil 
 lamps may be found. Use of kerosene oil lamps should be 
 discontinued. Benzine is used for cleaning. Metal should be 
 placed under the presses. Oily waste to be kept in safety 
 can. 
 
 EPSOM SALTS— See, Sulphate pf Magnesia. 
 
 EQUAL TO— An insurance term meaning the adjoining 
 building is higher, therefore being equal to a parapetted wall. 
 A very high ceiling building or story of a building, such as 
 a church, may be described as being one equal to two (or 
 more) stories in height. 
 
 ERADELINE— Flash point 100 deg. F. Classed non- 
 volatile. 
 
 ERADICATOR PAINT OR GREASE may contain ether, 
 gasoline, alcohol, acetone, etc. 
 
 ERWIN AUTOMATIC EXTINGUISHING OUTFIT— 
 For extinguishing oil or naphtha fires in tanks. Briefly — a 
 white foam is ejected on the surface of the burning mate- 
 rial from standpipes containing a chemical solution. A lead- 
 lined thimble containing acid is closed with a fusible link 
 which in burning allows the thimble to fall in the chemical 
 solution in the standpipe and the chemical mixture is forced 
 out under pressure. , , . ,-, 
 
 ESSENTIAL OILS— Liquids which give the odor§ peeu- 
 liar to plants from which they are derived, or are produced 
 by the combination of substances in the plant which react 
 when brought into the presence of water. They have strong 
 odors, and are generally volatile. ,, ,: . 
 
 ETCHING^A process of engraving by means, of hydro- 
 fluoric, nitric or hydrochloric acid. If glass, hydrofluoric acid 
 only can be used. 
 
 ETHER — Prepared by distilling alcohol and sulphuric 
 acid in retorts. Volatile, highly inflammable. When mixed 
 with oxygen it explodes. Flashes at 29 deg. F. . /,r * . .^, 
 
 Petroleum Ether — Very light and volatile petroleu;iv pis- 
 tillate. Used as a solvent. More inflammable than gaso- 
 line. 
 
EXPLOSION 149 
 
 Sulphuric Ether — Highly inflammable and volatile. Flashes 
 at zero F. Made by treatment of alcohol with sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Spirits of Nitrous Ether — More inflammable than alcohol. 
 
 ETHILENE — A colorless gas which burns with a luminous 
 smoky flame. 
 
 ETHYL ACETATE— See Acetate of Ethyl. 
 
 ETHYL ALCOHOL— See Grain Alcohol. 
 
 ETHYL CHLORIDE— A gas at ordinary temperature. 
 Stored under pressure in small tubes and used by dentists 
 for freezing purposes. Not as hazardous as ether. Volatile 
 and inflammable. Boils at 55 deg. F. 
 
 ETHYL-METHYL KETONE— A colorless inflammable 
 liquid. Flash point 30 deg. F. 
 
 ETHYL NITRATE— A thin yellow liquid. Boils at 61 
 deg. F. Volatile and inflammable. May ignite spontaneously 
 at 194 deg. F. 
 
 ETHYL OXIDE is ether. 
 
 EXAMINER — One who examines and passes on the risks 
 submitted by special agents, or agents through a daily re- 
 port system. He is an underwriter and should have a good 
 knowledge of building construction and hazards. See Coun- 
 terman. 
 
 EXCELSIOR, if damp, is subject to spontaneous com- 
 bustion if the natural sap still remains. 
 
 EXCLUSION — The standard policy does not permit of 
 excluding any portion of an insured building (insured as a 
 whole), except the cost of foundations and excavations be- 
 low the level of the ground. 
 
 EXOLIUM — A benzine substitute. Flash point above 100 
 deg. F. 
 
 EXPANDED METAL — A steel plate slit in one operation 
 and pulled and enlarged into diamond or other shape meshes. 
 Also slotted or punched steel plates. 
 
 EXPERIMENTS or experimental works or manufactur- 
 ing risks should be declined unless their objects are clearly 
 understood. In case of failure, the insurance collected is 
 often all that is back of the enterprise. 
 
 EXPLOSION — When gas or vapor is released so suddenly 
 
150 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 as to cause a loud noise, an explosion is said to occur, as for 
 instance, the explosion of a steam boiler or a cylinder of 
 compressed gas. Great and increasing use is made of explo- 
 sive processes in gas, petrol and oil engines for driving 
 machinery of all kinds. In these engines, the material that 
 explodes is a mixture of air with combustible gas, vapor or 
 finely comminuted liquid and, in the explosion, these are 
 suddenly converted into water vapor and the oxides of car- 
 bon, which latter are gases. Although all these things are 
 liable to explode, none of them are called explosives; this 
 term is confined to liquids and solid substances which pro- 
 duce much more violent effects than exploding gaseous mix- 
 tures, because they occupy much smaller volumes originally. 
 (A. Marshall.) See Velocity of Explosions. 
 
 EXPLOSION (Black Tom)— New York Harbor, July 
 30th, 1916. Two explosions resulted from a fire that was 
 started maliciously or accidentally among freight cars that 
 had been placed on the terminal tracks of the Lehigh Valley 
 Railroad at Black Tom preparatory to a transfer of their 
 contents to barges for export movement. The more severe 
 of the two explosions occurred on the land and involved 
 about 400,000 pounds of dry trinitrotoluol packed in wooden 
 cases, while the second explosion on the water involved 
 100,000 pounds of dry picric acid. Black Tom was occupied 
 by the warehouses of the National Storage Co., and the 
 Lehigh Valley Railroad had therein its office, float bridges 
 and tracks. Practically all of the brick warehouses were 
 demolished by the explosion. As explosives are essential in 
 peace as well as in war, and must be transported, all re- 
 strictions that promote safety and are practicable must be 
 enforced, in other words, uniform regulation by the Fed- 
 eral government of the water as well as the land carriers of 
 dangerous articles. Ocean going ships must sacrifice more 
 of their conveniences to the cause of safety in tidewater 
 terminals. (Extract from Bureau of Explosives report.) 
 
 EXPLOSION INSURANCE— Policies cover property 
 damage due to explosions of every name and nature, except 
 from boilers and flywheels, originating within such apparatus, 
 which insurance is covered by casualty companies only. 
 
Explosives i51 
 
 Form reads as follows: On all buildings of their manu- 
 facturing plant, including chimney, also sprinkler tank and 
 
 fixtures, and yard hose houses, all situate , and 
 
 on contents thereof (except accounts, bills, currency, deeds, 
 evidences of debt, money, notes or securities) therein or on 
 premises above described, through explosion (excluding 
 boiler and flywheel explosions originating within said ap- 
 paratus), occurring on said premises. Note. — When boiler 
 or flywheel explosion is included the rate is 25 per cent, 
 higher. 
 
 The policy also covers machinery or stock belonging to 
 others which the assured are under obligations to keep in- 
 sured; also machinery or stock consigned to them, or held 
 in trust, or on commission, or sold but not delivered by be- 
 ing removed; but this policy does not cover machinery or 
 stock on which there is specific insurance. 
 
 This company shall not be liable for any loss caused by 
 explosion originating from any of the materials and/or proc- 
 esses incidental to the business of the assured. Note. — If 
 this clause is eliminated, the rate is increased according to 
 occupancy. 
 
 It is warranted by the assured and made a condition of 
 this contract that constant nightwatchman service shall be 
 maintained; furthermore, that at times when plant is not in 
 operation, constant day watchman service shall be maintained 
 during the life of this policy. Note. — Not required on dwell- 
 ings and mercantile. 
 
 Other insurance permitted without notice until requested. 
 
 The policy does not cover any automobile which may be 
 within the premises of assured. 
 
 50 per cent, co-insurance mandatory. Allowance made for 
 80 per cent, co-insurance. 
 
 EXPLOSIONS from static electricity. See Static orFric- 
 tional Electricity. 
 
 EXPLOSIVE — An explosive is a solid or liquid substance, 
 or mixture of substances, which is liable, on the application 
 of heat or a blow to a small portion of the mass, to be con- 
 verted in a very short interval of time into other more stable 
 substances, largely or entirely gaseous. A considerable 
 
152 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 amount of heat is also invariably evolved and consequently 
 there is a flame. (A. Marshall.) 
 
 EXPLOSIVE GELATINE is about 90 per cent, nitro- 
 glycerine and 10 per cent, gun cotton. 
 
 EXPLOSIVES should be stored in a dry, well-ventilated 
 place, not warmer than 80 or 90 deg. F. They should be 
 kept under lock and key, so that children or irresponsible 
 persons cannot have access to them, and should not be stored 
 in locality where hunting or other shooting may be done, 
 unless they are kept bullet proof. Most high explosives 
 freeze at a temperature between 45 and 50 deg. F., and when 
 frozen will either explode imperfectly or not at all. Low 
 explosives are exploded by a spark; but a spark will not 
 explode high explosives, although it may ignite them, and 
 the heat and pressure caused by burning in a confined space 
 may result in an explosion after a time. High explosives 
 can only be properly exploded by a powerful shock. This 
 shock is brought about in their use by exploding a detona- 
 tor inserted in the charge of explosives. This detonator is 
 either a blasting cap, which is exploded by a spark from 
 a fuse, or an electric fuse (pronounced fu-zee) which is ex- 
 ploded by a fine wire superheated by an electric current. See 
 Dynamite. 
 
 EXPOSURE (EXTERNAL)— A condition, structure or 
 material which increases the hazard of a risk through burn- 
 ing or exploding. It defines the likelihood of a building be- 
 coming ignited without its walls. The exposure depends 
 upon the width of streets or alleys, the space between build- 
 ings and the nature of the construction and occupancy of 
 such buildings. The hazard may be reduced by the use of 
 standard wire glass windows, shutters, doors and^ skylights 
 and outside sprinklers. About one-sixth of the losses are 
 caused by exposure fires. 
 
 Inspectors should carefully note all exposures, the distance 
 away and whether outside openings of risk are protected by 
 labelled wire glass windows or standard shutters. The fol- 
 lowing is the fire record of exposure fires in Greater New 
 York as taken from the New York Board of Fire Under- 
 writers' report: 
 
Loss 
 
 % 
 
 $169,468 
 
 .026 
 
 148,507 
 
 .014 
 
 171,442 
 
 .011 
 
 98,781 
 
 .014 
 
 82,344 
 
 .008 
 
 52,782 
 
 .006 
 
 263,327 
 
 .056' 
 
 350,289 
 
 .04 
 
 738,799 
 
 .13 
 
 234,220 
 
 .064 
 
 150,697 
 
 .062 
 
 45,823 
 
 .020 
 
 EXTRACTION PLANTS 153 
 
 BUILDING— 
 Year Insurance 
 
 i?ip.... $ 6,362,822 
 
 i^'ll..,. 10,811,063 
 
 I9I2. .,. 14,742,149 
 
 1913...., 6,862,499 
 
 1914.. ;..,..:;. 7; 11,422,651 
 
 1915..... ;V..:.! 8,181,076 
 
 CONTENTS— 
 
 1910....... 4,684,224 
 
 1911 8,567,924 
 
 1912., ,,-^4. 5,729,133 
 
 i913^:A^^r^. 3,624,729 
 
 1914..;.*... 2,422,303 
 
 1915 1,601,119 
 
 EXPOSURE (INTERNAL)— The hazard due to exposing 
 the property of one or more tenants of a building to the 
 danger of fire spreading from the premises of another ten- 
 ant in the same building. In rating, the internal exposure 
 is the most hazardous occupancy; as paper box making, 
 painters or carpenters, which increase the rate of building 
 and of other less hazardous tenants. 
 
 EXPRESS OFFICES AND DEPOTS— Frequently old or 
 dilapidated buildings of various construction. Hazards of 
 unsafe heating and lighting appliances, miscellaneous stor- 
 age, including chemicals and explosives, smoking by em- 
 ployees, and used as a "hang-out." See Legal Liability. 
 
 EXTRACTION PLANTS, NAPHTHA PROCESS— (Oil- 
 seed works, and Refuse Disposal plants). Walls should be 
 heavy common brick with light corrugated iron roof. 
 Screened openings should be provided at floor levels to carry 
 off vapor. Lighting by incandescent lamps, marine type 
 vapor-proof globes, all wiring in conduit with screw joint 
 junction boxes and marine type fittings*; no switches should 
 be permitted in the building. 
 
 The naphtha tank should be buried outside the building. 
 
154 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 The Process — The meats from the oil works are brought 
 into the extracting building and dropped into bins having 
 spouts feeding into the extractors. These are cylindrical 
 steel drums having stirring arms rotated by shaft and gear- 
 ing. The bottom of each contains a perforated metal false 
 bottom under which is located a copper pipe, steam heating 
 coil and a p.erforated steam jet coil. Charging doors are 
 located in the top through which the meats are fed, and dis- 
 charge outlets provided in the sides near the bottorh: There 
 are also pipe connections for the naphtha at both top and bot- 
 tom connecting with vaporizers and discharge tanks, all of 
 which are inclosed vessels. The extractors are partly filled 
 with the meats and then hot naphtha vapor passed through 
 same, passing through the extractors in series, the naphtha 
 vapors forming a solution with the oil. The mixture is 
 pumped from the extractors into a receiving tank and steam 
 is turned into the heating coils in extractors, the vapor 
 from same being condensed in suitable condensers. Live 
 steam is then blown into extractors to remove as much of 
 the remaining vapor as possible. This is also condensed in 
 the condensers. The discharge doors of the extractors are 
 then opened, and the extracted meats dropped into a screw 
 conveyor from whence they drop into another conveyor and 
 are returned to the oil mill plant. The balance of the opera- 
 tion of obtaining the oil from the naphtha and entrained water 
 is one of settlement where the water separates through dif- 
 ference in specific gravity and is then drawn off and dis- 
 tilled, the mixed vapor and oil being introduced into a still 
 heated by steam, the naphtha vapor distilling off and being 
 condensed, the oil remains. The process is hazardous. See 
 Garbage Reduction Plants. Vx^ji i .. 
 
 EVAPORATING— See Crystalizing. >T hnn 
 
 EVAPORATION — The conversion of a liquid into a gas- 
 eous state by action of heat. 
 
 EVERITE PRESSOLINE— A benzine substitute, classed 
 as non-volatile. 
 
 EXTRACTS— See Flavoring Extracts. 
 
iixiTittn 
 
 FACING in building construction; a wall or surface cov- 
 ering of stone or similar substance on the outer wall. 
 
 FACTORS — A firm or individual who acts as a banker 
 for, or a backer of, another firm or perspri, advancing money 
 to buy goods or carry on a business. Usually in wholesale 
 woolen, piece goods or dry goods businesses. 
 
 FACTORY — According to the Bureau of Fire Prevention, 
 a factory is in substance any mill, workshop, or other man- 
 ufacturing or business establishment, and all buildings, sheds 
 or other places used in connection therewith where one or 
 more persons are employed at labor. No smoking is per- 
 mitted in factories in New York City. 
 
 FAIR GROUNDS— A group of hastily and flimsily con- 
 structed frame buildings of varied occupancy, such as shoot- 
 ing galleries, stables, live stock pens, lunch rooms, display 
 rooms, demonstrating machinery, race tracks. Not consid- 
 ered desirable. Temporary occupancy and on leased land. 
 
 FALLING WALL HAZARD— Most rating organizations 
 add a certain charge for this feature; sometimes a percentage 
 of the rate of the exposing risk is taken. Experience shows 
 that in case of a severe fire in a high exposing building with 
 a separated distance, the lower building so exi^Dsed is liable 
 to be destroyed by falling bricks and debris. See Wind. 
 
 FARM — At piers, is the open space in front of the pier 
 used for open storage of merchandise. 
 
 FARMS have been considered as unprofitable insurance 
 by many large companies. Hazards include the use of gaso- 
 line stoves or engines, incubators and brooders, feed grind- 
 ing, lighting by acetylene ga^ systems, wood burning fur- 
 naces, evaporating fruit in a room with red-hot pot stove, 
 garage, threshing machines, unsafe heating apparatus. Stove 
 pipes through floors to heat upper rooms are quite frequently 
 found. In place of scalding hogs with steam, farmers have 
 
 155 
 
156 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 been known to sprinkle gasoline on the carcass and set it 
 on fire. The quick flash burns off the hair without damaging 
 the hide. 
 
 FARRIERS— See Blacksmiths. 
 
 FAT RENDERING— Plants buy fat -from butchers and 
 deposit same into steam jacketed (covered top) rendering 
 kettles with agitators. The liquid (tallow) derived therefrom 
 is run to a covered sump pit from which it is pumped to a 
 tank on the floor above. The residue or waste material is 
 removed and placed in hydraulic presses and pressed into 
 cakes. The cakes are then placed in a power grinder and 
 made into chicken feed or used as fertilizer. Hazardous. 
 Entire premises usually oil soaked. 
 
 FATIGUE OF MATERIALS— The increased weakness 
 produced by frequent bending or by sustaining heavy loads 
 for a long time. 
 
 FEATHERS AND FEATHER PILLOWS— Feathers are 
 sorted in a sorting machine, cut up in a high speed knife cut- 
 ter equipped with a blower system which draws the feathers 
 through a suction pipe to a duster, thence to the storage bins. 
 Bins are usually of wire mesh, on wooden frames. The 
 lighter feathers are deposited on the upper portion of the bins 
 and the heavier feathers fall to the floor. The pillow cases 
 are then filled and sewed up. Cotton is sometimes added; 
 in which case a cotton picker may be used. Considerable 
 dust about premises. Knife cutter should have magnets to 
 catch metal particles. 
 
 FELT — A rather coarse fabric or cloth, made of fibres of 
 hair, wool, coarse paper, etc., by pressure and not by weav- 
 ing, treated with resin. 
 
 Felt (roofing) is sometimes made from the refuse of 
 flax treated with resin. 
 
 Felt (cotton) in bales is considered subject to sponta- 
 neous combustion. 
 
 FELT PACKING — As used for automobiles and electrical 
 machinery is about 80 per cent, wool and 20 per cent, cotton. 
 The hazard of making the packing is cutting, stitching and 
 gluing. These are usually good risks, unless the felt is 
 manufactured on the premises. 
 
FIBRES 157 
 
 FENCES — If of slatted wood, especially along the line of 
 steam railroads, are considered poor risks. Fires have been 
 known to start at one end and burn for miles. 
 
 FERMENT — To allow moistened organic matter to un- 
 dergo a process of decay. 
 
 FERMENTATION— A chemical action brought about by 
 the action of micro-organisms or "ferments." 
 
 FERRO-MANGANESE is imported from England. With- 
 out it some kinds of steel cannot be made. Produced from 
 ores of iron and manganese in high temperature smelting 
 furnace. 
 
 FERRO-SILICON — Compounded of iron and silicon. Non- 
 hazardous. 
 
 FERRY BOATS— Should be inspected. Lines are usually 
 offered on the old wooden hulls rather than on the modern 
 type of steel hull. 
 
 FERRY HOUSES of frame construction are apt to be a 
 total loss. If barnlike construction, they burn rapidly. Haz- 
 ard of oil rooms and lamp filling, repair shops, baggage 
 rooms, lunch rooms and heating apparatus. 
 
 FERTILIZER — The commercial mixed varieties have very 
 little fire hazard when packed and ready for use. 
 
 Fertilizer from fish scrap and crabs. Process — boil- 
 ing in digesters where all unused agents are removed, dry- 
 ing residue and reducing same to carbon in high tempera- 
 ture dryer, ground, bagged. Subject to spontaneous combus- 
 tion by absorbing oxygen very rapidly. 
 
 FIBRES are divided into two classes, hard and soft. Hard 
 fibres, by virtue of their construction, do not absorb water 
 rapidly when immersed and do not heat or decompose as 
 rapidly as soft fibres which, when damaged, must be picked 
 apart and dried at once if any salvage is to be expected. 
 The largest losses are caused by the collapse of the building 
 due to the swelling or expansion of the soft fibre from the 
 excessive absorption of water. Spontaneous combustion is 
 not attributed as the cause of these fires. See N. F. P. A. 
 Quarterly (T. E. Sears), October, 1913. See Bagging Fac- 
 tories. 
 
158 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Hard Fibres — Manilla, Sisal, Henequen, Maguey, Mescal, 
 Istle, Zapupe, New Zealand, Mauritius, Cabinja. 
 
 Soft Fibres — Hemp, American, Italian, Russian jute. Sunn, 
 Flax. 
 
 Hemp Fibres of all kinds are destroyed if exposed to 
 a heat of 300 deg. F. Hemp is an annual plant of the mul- 
 berry family, a native of Asia. Classed as a soft fibre. 
 
 Flax is a native of western Asia. Used chiefly in the 
 manufacture of linen sewing thread, fishing lines, etc. Classed 
 as soft fibre. 
 
 Sunn Hemp is a base fibre from an annual plant and also 
 known as Conkanee, Indian, Brown. and Madras hemp. Used 
 in manufacturing cordage. Classed as soft. 
 
 Jute is a base fibre, growing principally in India. Used 
 chiefly in rugs, grain sacks and binding twine. Classed as 
 soft. 
 
 Caburya — A fibre produced in Costa Rica and sometimes 
 called Central American sisal, used for binder twine. Classed 
 as hard. 
 
 Maguey is a comparatively new fibre on the market, and 
 is produced from the leaves of the Maguey plant, which 
 very closely resembles the henequen of Yucatan. Classed as 
 hard. 
 
 Sisal — The true sisal is taken from the leaves of the sisal 
 plant, a native of Central America. Classed as hard. 
 
 Henequen is a native plant of Mexico, known in the 
 trade as sisal. It belongs to the same botanical family as 
 the true sisal. Classed as hard. 
 
 Manilla Hemp — Known as Manilla or Abaca, is grown 
 principally in the Philippines. Classed as hard. 
 
 Mauritius — A hard fibre obtained in the island of Mauri- 
 tius. It is white in color and more flexible than henequen. 
 Classed as hard. 
 
 New Zealand Flax — Sometimes called hemp, is not 
 at all like wither hemp or flax, but is obtained from the 
 leaves of a native plant of New Zealand. Classed as hard. 
 
 Zapupe — A fibre which grows in loamy soils and with 
 more moisture and less lime than seems necessary for good 
 results with henequen or sisal. Classed as hard. 
 
FILM VAULT 159 
 
 Istle — A fibre grown on the high, arid tablelands of 
 northern Mexico. The fibre is shorter than the henequen 
 plant. Classed as hard. 
 
 Mescal Maguey — Similar to henequen, finer and softer, pro- 
 duced in Mexico. Used chiefly in cordage and twine mills 
 on the Pacific coast. Classed as hard. 
 
 FIBRE WAREHOUSES for the storage of cotton, hemp, 
 sisal, etc., are especially designed. For charges made in 
 rating, see New York Exchange schedule. Buildings should 
 be low, one-story brick buildings, with wallS parapetted and 
 coped and areas restricted, limited window openings, walls 
 blank wherever possible. The height to which cotton bales 
 may be piled is restricted, and clear aisle spaces are de- 
 manded. See Warehouses. 
 
 FIBREBOARD— Made from leather chips, flux, old rope, 
 paper, wood pulp and similar stuff. Ground, cooked by 
 steam in solution of alkalis, mixed with binder of such 
 material as glue or rosin, colored, pressed into sheets, dried, 
 varnished or stained. See Chemical Fibre; see Compo-Board. 
 
 FILBERTS— See Nuts. 
 
 FILLERINE — A fertilizer ingredient made from iron ox- 
 ide. Liable to ignite spontaneously. 
 
 FILLERS — Used by woodworkers, are made of various 
 combinations of silax, silver white, cornstarch, whiting, 
 plaster paris, raw and boiled linseed oil, turpentine, japan 
 and benzine. 
 
 FILM VAULT (Test for Ventilation)— By F. J. T. Stew- 
 art, of N. F. P. A., 4-22-'15, Leonia, N. J. 
 
 A structure of 12-inch terra cotta blocks having 133 cubic 
 feet was vented with a side opening 285 square inches and 
 filled with films on shelves in and out of cans and space 
 between racks filled with loose films and ignited with elec- 
 tric spark, 1800 pounds of film in all. The tongue of flame 
 which shot out from the vault almost immediately after 
 the ignition of the film projected itself 75 feet, continuing 
 for several minutes, or until all the gases generated within 
 the vault were consumed. The vault was undamaged, prov- 
 ing that the area of ventilation provided was undoubtedly 
 
160 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 sufficient to prevent explosion from the rapid decomposition 
 of film under similar conditions. See Motion Picture Films. 
 
 FILTER CLOTHS should be washed directly after being 
 used. 
 
 showing The wall finish M"V» o»d witliout air ^^ace. 
 
 
 f~^rres in TuRR£0 WALLS 
 Re HARD TO LOC/^r£ 
 NO F'/G^r 00^ XtCCOtJA/7' 
 *• 77/-ff <ZOA/C£AL£0 
 FAC£, 
 
 Copyright, 1915, G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 , dir*<f ©n 
 
 J 
 
 olid 
 Wall 
 
 FILTERING— See Liquors. 
 
 FILTRATION— This is done to get rid of foreign mate- 
 rial of all kinds, or to extract solid matter. The old-fash- 
 ioned way is by filtering or straining through filter cloths, 
 
FIRE ALARM SYSTEMS i^ 
 
 but the up-to-date method is by means of bone black 
 filters in a large steel tank, partly filled with ground bone 
 black (charcoal), the liquid being fed at the top and strained 
 through the charcoal. 
 
 FINISH (plain or hard)— A wall plastered direct without 
 furring or no finish at all. See Furring. 
 
 FINISHING — As the name implies, is the last process in 
 manufacturing an article. 
 
 FIRE — According to the Standard dictionary, is heat and 
 light emanating from a body. 
 
 Fire is rapid oxidation formed by heating carbon sub- 
 stances to a point where they combine rapidly with oxygen. 
 All ignitable substances, such as wood or paper, are carbon 
 substances. Consider the amount of such material enter-, 
 ing into the construction of a frame building and realize 
 that a heat force of a few hundred degrees of heat will over- 
 balance the fire equilibrium, and the wonder is that we have 
 not more fires. 
 
 FIRE — Buildings do not burn because of the material en- 
 tering into their construction, but from carelessness, inflam- 
 mable contents or faulty design. 
 
 When certain chemical substances unite rapidly a large 
 quantity of heat is generated and we have the phenomenon 
 which we call fire. See Chemical Substances; see Water 
 Puts Out Fire. 
 
 FIRE ALARM SYTEMS are various in character. In 
 crude form, consist of bell ringing, whistle blowing, ham- 
 mering on locomotive tires severed in the center, or other 
 metallic substances. The modern method is, open the door 
 of street fire alarm box and pull down once only the hook 
 that is in view, letting it slide back to its original position 
 by its own momentum. This act causes a disc in central 
 fire station bearing number of box pulled to drop, and a 
 man on duty tel'egraphs said number to fire companies who 
 are supposed to respond. Automatic and pneumatic alarms 
 are installed by placing series of thermostats on ceilings 
 which operate by having the fuse within them melted by 
 excessive heat contact, by which action alarm is given at 
 
lA^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 central fire station. See Combination Red Fire Alarm Box; 
 also Alarm. 
 
 FIRE APPLIANCES (freezing of, precaution against) 
 
 — Unless extreme vigilance is exercised the very best 
 installation of fire appliances may suffer temporary dis- 
 ablement from frost. Automatic sprinkler systems, hydrants 
 and all appliances using water for fire extinguishment nat- 
 urally require special care and attention in winter. The 
 following precautions should be taken; inspections being 
 thorough, with nothing taken for granted. 
 
 1. Ascertain if all portions of buildings are properly 
 heated at all times to prevent freezing in any of the sprink- 
 ler pipes, particular attention being given to exposed places, 
 such as hallways, entries, stair towers, under sidewalks, 
 show windows, shipping rooms, attics, roof monitors and 
 skylights. 
 
 2. Examine tanks and all pipe^, fittings and valves, whether 
 for steam heating, general water service, or fire protection. 
 See that none is frozen or has been frozen, and that they are 
 all in operative condition, and where there is any liability 
 of freezing, provide the necessary protection. All metal 
 work supporting tanks should be thoroughly cleaned from 
 rust and painted, also tank hoops. 
 
 3. Examine carefully and provide suitable boxing around 
 any pipe lines which may be in an exposed location (either 
 between ground and first floor, between buildings, or near 
 windows, doors, etc.). Make frequent tests during the win- 
 ter of such sprinkler systems in order to make sure the, 
 piping is not frozen. 
 
 4. Ascertain if sprinkler dry valves are in working order,, 
 not leaking, and piping thoroughly drained; if alarm con- 
 nection and gong are in order; if air pumps can be depended 
 on for the winter. 
 
 Note. — Do not overlook low points on dry system not 
 controlled by main drain. Blow low points out occasionally 
 to free from condensation. 
 
 5. See that all valves are open that should be open, and 
 try water outlets to ascertain if all pipes are free and ready 
 for servic?. 
 
FIRE APPLIANCES 163 
 
 6. See that extra sprinl^lers are on hand in case of need to 
 replace frozen or melted heads. 
 
 7. Be sure that engineer or supervising employee is fully 
 posted as to the purpose and intention of every valve and 
 pipe.v , 
 
 8. Try pumps and see that they are in proper working 
 order. 
 
 9. Test all of the hydrants and indicator posts, and see 
 that they drain properly. 
 
 10. Examine inside standpipes and connections. 
 
 11. Instruct the night watchman thoroughly in the use 
 of all fire apparatus and the operation of all valves. 
 
 12. Examine the end of suction pipe to see that leaves 
 or other refuse matter have not clogged up the holes in the 
 strainer. The capacity of the pump may be greatly reduced 
 by this defect. ■ - -< 
 
 13. Take measures to prevent freezing of water in casks 
 and pails in cold buildings. 
 
 14. Empty and recharge chemical extinguisher to insure 
 their being in perfect working order. 
 
 A thorough examination should be made of the entire 
 heating system before putting it into service. All heating 
 pipes should be carefully brushed down, and, where the 
 piping is located along walls, any rubbish or litter which may 
 have accumulated should be removed and pipes kept free 
 from dangerous contact with walls, partitions, etc. 
 
 When it becomes necessary to close a sprinkler valve dur- 
 ing working hours, a competent man should be stationed at 
 the valves, so that the water can be turned on immediately 
 in case a fire occurs. 
 
 When necessary to make changes in sprinkler system, ex- 
 tra care should be taken to have the least possible portion 
 of the equipment out of commission at one time. 
 
 Whenever it is necessary to shut water oflF sprinklers, or 
 in any way modify the fire protection, 'the inspection de- 
 partment having jurisdiction should be first notified. (N*. F, 
 P. A.) 
 
164 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 FIRE BOATS (New York City). 
 
 Capacity, 
 Name Horsepower gals, per min. 
 
 Zophar Mills 550 6,000 
 
 New Yorker 750 12,000 
 
 Seth Low 240 3,500 
 
 A. S. Hewitt 450 7,000 
 
 G. B. McClellan 500 7,000 
 
 James Duane 900 9,000 
 
 Thomas Willett 900 9,000 
 
 C. W. Lawrence 500 7,000 
 
 Wm. J. Gaynor 950 7,000 
 
 D. A. Boody 240 5,000 
 
 Launch, Velox 250 5,000 
 
 FIRE CLAUSES— Those attached to leases usually read 
 as follows: 
 
 Form No. 1. — It is understood and agreed that should the 
 premises be damaged so as to be totally destroyed, lease is 
 to be cancelled. Note. — This form is acceptable to most 
 companies. 
 
 Form No. 2. — It is understood and agreed' if the building 
 be so damaged that the lessee or owner elects not to rebuild, 
 then this lease shall come to an end. Note. — This form is 
 not acceptable to most companies, as the lessee or owner 
 can rebuild or cancel the lease as they may choose. See 
 Leasehold Insurance. 
 
 FIRECRACKERS made by the Chinese consist of potas- 
 sium nitrate or saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal. American 
 made firecrackers contain potassium chlorate, sulphur and 
 carbonaceous materials. 
 
 FIRE DAMP (Marsh Gas) occurs in nature during the 
 decay of organic matter. Usually in coal mines. Inflam- 
 mable, but will not support combustion. When mixed with 
 oxygen it is very explosive. 
 
 FIRE DEPARTMENT CONNECTIONS— See Siamese. 
 
 FIRE DOOR — A door built under specifications of the Un- 
 derwriters Laboratories, with approved sill, frame, hangers 
 and attachments, as per tests made at the laboratories, show- 
 
FIRE DRILLS 165 
 
 ing such a door will resist fire for at least one hour. In 
 approved installations, to protect an opening in a fire wall, 
 one automatic and one non-automatic door is required, but 
 two automatic doors are preferred. An automatic door is one 
 designed to close automatically through the release of 
 weights due to the melting of fusible link as the result of 
 fire heat. A self-closing door has a fusible link attachment, 
 but is generally kept closed when not in use, or, if open, it 
 automatically closes when released; counterweights being 
 used. 
 
 The melting point of fusible link is usually 165 deg. F. 
 The fire-resisting value of a wood door encased in tin de- 
 pends upon the exclusion of oxygen from the wood, there- 
 fore retarding or preventing combustion, and also upon the 
 degree to which bulging in the covering can be prevented 
 while the door is exposed to fire. To obtain these results, 
 the covering must be so applied that the joints between the 
 plates will remain intact and provision made for the escape 
 of the gases generated from the wood core. See Alignum 
 Fire Door. 
 
 FIRE DOOR MANUFACTURING, whether lock-jointed 
 or kalamein, are no better than other wood and metal work- 
 ing shops. Frequent fires. See Kalamein Door Manufactur- 
 ing. 
 
 FIRE DRILLS in factories. In New York State the 
 law requires fire drills at least once every three months un- 
 der the supervision of the local fire department, in every fac- 
 tory employing 25 or more persons. The Fire Prevention 
 Bureau of New York City offers the following suggestions: 
 
 Definition of Fire Drills — The orderly vacating of a build- 
 ing by its occupants in the least possible time in case of 
 emergency, panic or fire. Thjs to be by nearest safe means 
 of exit, and the use of such auxiliary fire appliances as may 
 be provided for the extinguishment or retarding of fire. 
 
 Suggestions for Drills: 
 
 1. All employees shall be formed into squads or compa- 
 nies. A monitor or captain shall be .designated to take 
 charge of each squad for the purpose of conducting them 
 from the premises; also a monitor or captain to take charge 
 
166 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of each squad designated to operate auxiliary fire appliances 
 for the purpose of retarding or extinguishing the fire. 
 
 2. On receipt of alarm of fire all employees shall assem- 
 ble on their respective floors at such point and in such man- 
 ner as shall be designated by the monitor or captain in 
 charge of that floor; remove all work and portable articles 
 from aisles; form in double files with arms linked, and when 
 ordered, shall march from the floor in a rapid but orderly 
 manner to such exit as may be designated by said monitor 
 or captain. 
 
 3. There shall be a sufficient number of employees desig- 
 nated by the owner, lessee or tenant of the premises to take 
 charge of the drill and to operate auxiliary appliances. 
 
 4. Guards shall be stationed at the head and foot of each 
 flight of stairs to preserve order and keep the line in motion, 
 or retarding same as may be necessary. 
 
 5. Squads shall be designated to search for those who 
 have fainted or fallen. 
 
 6. All drills shall be conducted in silence, save for the or- 
 ders issued by those in authority. 
 
 7. An employee shall be designated to transmit the alarm 
 for fire to the city department from the nearest fire alarm 
 box. 
 
 FIRE ENGINE — An engine, pumping one full stream from 
 a six-inch service main, will often reduce the pressure on the 
 line below a serviceable point for another effective fire 
 stream. 
 
 FIRE ESCAPE— See Fire Tower. 
 
 FIRE EXIT PARTITION— A partition subdividing a 
 story to restrict the spread of fire, and sufficiently stable to 
 provide an area of refuge for the exit of the occupants 
 thereof. See Horizontal Exit. 
 
 FIRE EXTINGUISHERS— A siphon of soda in the home 
 can be used as a fire extinguisher. The carbonic acid gas 
 in the water helps to extinguish the flames. See Extinguish- 
 ers; also Fire Appliances. 
 
 FIRE HEAT from wood is estimated to be from 800 to 
 1,400 deg. P.; from coal, 2,200 deg. P.; charcoal, 2,400 deg. F. 
 
 FIRE HOSE (care of) — Aside from the generail care neces- 
 
FIRE INSURANCE AS COLLATERAL Ifi? 
 
 sary to observe when the hose is not in actual use, it must be 
 thoroughly overhauled after a fire to detect such defects as 
 scorching, cracking, cuts due to dragging hose over cornices 
 or rough edges, and then neatly placed on racks. See Fric- 
 tion Loss. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE will only cover a small part of your 
 loss if you have a fire. Insurance is a partial repayment, 
 not a guarantee against fire occurring. It is indemnity against 
 loss or damage by fire. 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE AS COLLATERAL (Fireman's Fund 
 Record) — The importance of fire insurance as collateral se- 
 curity can be understood when we are told that 97 per cent, 
 of the commerce of the world is carried on by paper ex- 
 change, and 3 per cent, of it for cash. 
 
 Fire insurance is the support of commerce, the endorser, 
 the collateral security for the protection of credit. 
 
 A cargo of Pacific Coast salmon, wheat, fruit, wine or 
 other products, shipped to Europe, is balanced by a cargo 
 of manufactured articles shipped from Europe to China or 
 Japan, and the latter shipment is balanced by tea and silk 
 shipped from China or Japan to San Francisco, Los Angeles, 
 Portland or Seattle, the coast products being thus paid for by 
 the tea and silk. This is credit, no cash being used, but the 
 credit being guaranteed by fire and marine insurance poli- 
 cies, makes the transaction cash, as a loss of either cargo 
 would be made good by the insurance. 
 
 Fire insurance as a collateral is the basis for credit. It 
 enables the wholesale merchant to extend credit to the re- 
 liable trader, to the extent of five times the trader's capital, 
 at the same prices as for cash in sixty days; for if the trader 
 sells the goods, he will pay his bills, and if his goods are 
 destroyed or lost, his insurance collateral will pay his debts. 
 In either case he is practically a cash man, gets his goods at 
 cash price, and can sell to the consumer at less than if he 
 bought at credit prices without collateral. The reduced prices 
 at which the trader gets his goods (the sellers taking no 
 risk) also pays for his insurance over and over again. Fur- 
 thermore, as the fire insurance policy covers all stock that 
 goes into the store during the term of the policy, $5,000 
 
168 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 insurance on a $7,000 stock may in the course of a year 
 have under its protection $30,000 or $40,000 worth of mer- 
 chandise, thus reducing the cost of his insurance by dis- 
 tributing its protection over large values. 
 
 Fire insurance as collateral security also reduces interest 
 rates and increases the purchasing power of capital. 
 
 The owner of a lot who wants to build a house can hire a 
 greater sum of money from the bank on the property and 
 at a lower rate of interest, when his mortgage debt is se- 
 cured by insurance on the building, than he could without 
 insurance. A warehouse receipt for wheat, fruit, wine or 
 other produce, backed by an insurance policy, will, as col- 
 lateral, command money at a much less rate, including the 
 premium paid, than a mortgage on real estate will in the 
 same locality. 
 
 A buyer with a capital of $20,000 invested in wheat or 
 other produce in a warehouse can insure that produce for 
 95 per cent, of its value; then, with the warehouse receipt, 
 and the insurance policy as collateral, he can get $19,000 
 from the bank, and with this $19,000 go into the market, in- 
 vest that sum in more produce, and, repeating the opera- 
 tion, compete in the market for $150,000 or $200,000 worth 
 of produce on an original capital of $20,000. 
 
 The exporter who places a cargo of wheat, fruit, wine or 
 salmon on a ship insures it under a marine policy, with which 
 and the bill of lading he commands money immediately, at 
 the European rate of interest, to buy another cargo; and by 
 repeating the operation not only increases the purchasing 
 power of his capital, but he has the advantage of cheap 
 money to operate on. This enables the producer to get a 
 better price than if he had to depend on the competition of 
 local capital, and emphasizes the benefit of insurance as col- 
 lateral. 
 
 Fire insurance as collateral also protects invested capital 
 from unnecessary disturbance. 
 
 Millionaire capitalists who manage large mining, manufac- 
 turing or other enterprises in which stockholders are inter- 
 ested, seek the protection of fire insurance for collateral se- 
 curity, as it enables them to obtain cash for immediate repair 
 
I^IRE LOSS 169 
 
 of any fire damage to the property, without using funds 
 that can be applied to better advantage by continuing unin- 
 terrupted dividends to interested people, many of whom need 
 the money. 
 
 This idea of protecting investments by the man of mil- 
 lions should be applied by the man of hundreds. 
 
 The rebuilding of San Francisco following the earthquake 
 and fire is the best evidence of the value of fire insurance as 
 collateral security for investments and loans that the busi- 
 ness world ever experienced. Without the $180,000,000 paid 
 by the fire insurance companies as indorsers (under their poli- 
 cies) and the credit obtained for as many more millions 
 based upon the collateral security of their policies, San Fran- 
 cisco, instead of now being a city of skyscrapers, would be a 
 city of shanties and ash-heaps. 
 
 It is asserted by economists who have studied the value 
 of insurance as collateral securiljy that the saving in inter- 
 est rates to the borrower, and on the cost of goods to the 
 consumer, amounts to a much greater sum than the total 
 premiums paid by the insured, and that the loss collected is 
 all clear profit. — (The Weekly Underwriter.) 
 
 FIRE INSURANCE TECHNOLOGY is the art of know- 
 ing the special features of a risk and how to inspect the 
 premises. 
 
 FIRE LOSS (Extract from Lecture by W. N. Bament)— 
 The fire insurance contract is based on a contingency, and 
 rates are made to cover the contingency, and any omission 
 of that which good faith demands in connection with it is 
 sufficient to warrant a court in declaring the contract void. 
 In these days, however, no underwriter thinks of contesting 
 a claim that is due even to pure negligence. The irresponsi- 
 ble act of an insane person is no bar to recovery under a fire 
 insurance policy, neither is the intentional destruction of the 
 wife's property by the husband, or the opposite. Claims for 
 loss due to property falling in a stove are not recoverable, al- 
 though loss due to curtains blowing into a gas jet flame must 
 be paid for. Both are friendly fires, the difference being 
 that in the case of the curtain a new and hostile fire be- 
 gins at the time of contact. Spontaneous combustion, un- 
 
170 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 til it becomes so rapid as to produce a flame or glow, cannot 
 be classed as fire, otherwise many kinds of decomposition, 
 which is in fact combustion, would have to be paid for. 
 Damage due to smoking lamps is likewise not recoverable, 
 else thousands of homes would have to be redecorated at 
 the expense of the companies. 
 
 Damage to steam boilers, due to lack of water in the 
 boiler, is not covered, although in the case of a fire being 
 kindled under a dry boiler by a stranger a judgment was 
 rendered in favor of the insured. A Wisconsin case fur- 
 nishes the only departure from the harmony of opinion, and 
 it declared that violent and unusual heat in a furnace loses 
 its friendly nature and judgment was awarded against the 
 insurer. 
 
 Proximate cause is sufficient. A flywheel explosion due 
 to a short circuit caused in a remote part of the building by 
 fire attacking a cable of insulated wires was held a loss by 
 fire under the Massachusetts standard policy. Damage done 
 by firemen under the mistaken impression that a fire exists 
 is not covered. The preponderance of court opinion is that 
 explosions occurring during a fire are incidents of the fire 
 and their damage is covered. 
 
 The concussion of air which destroys adjacent property 
 upon an explosion is held to be an intervening cause such as 
 will defeat recovery. Damage from explosion due to light- 
 ning striking a powder magazine has been held to be not 
 covered, while payment of damage to adjoiningj)roperty done 
 by the falling wall of a ruin blown over by a high wind 
 seven days after the fire was enforced upon the company. 
 Where a city ordinance prevents the repair of a building 
 damaged more than a certain percentage the insurer is 
 liable for the value of the property less any salvage. The in- 
 surer is also liable for extra expense required by city ordi* 
 nance in the making of repairs to a partially burned building. 
 
 FIRE LOSSES IN UNITED STATES, 1875-1916 
 (from The Insurance Year Book) — 
 
 Aggregate 
 Year Aggregate Fire Loss Insurance Loss 
 1875 $78,102,285 $39,327,400 
 
FIRE LOSS TABLES 171 
 
 1876 64,630,600 34,374,500 
 
 1877 68,265,800 37,398,900 
 
 1878 64,315,900 36,575,900 
 
 1879 77,703,700 44,464,700 
 
 1880 74,643,400 42,525,000 
 
 1881 81,280,900 44,641,900 
 
 1882 84,505,024 48,875,131 
 
 1883 100,149,228 54,808,664 
 
 1884 110,008,611 60,679,818 
 
 1885... 102,818,796 57,430,709 
 
 1886 104,924,750 60,506,564 ' 
 
 1887 120,283,055 69,659,508 
 
 1888 1 10,885,665 63,965,724 
 
 1889 123,046,833 73,679,465 
 
 1890 108,993,792 * 65,015,465 
 
 1891 143,764,967 90,576,918 
 
 1892 151,516,098 93,511,936 
 
 1893 167,544,370 105,994,577 
 
 1894 140,006,484 89,574,699 
 
 1895 142,110,233 84,688,030 
 
 1896 118,737,420 73,903,800 
 
 1897 116,354,575 66,722,145 
 
 1898 130,593,905 73,796,080 
 
 1899 153,597,830 92,683,715 
 
 1900 160,929,805 95,403,650 
 
 1901 165,817,810 100,798,645 
 
 1902 161,488,355 94,775,045 
 
 (Estimated by publishers 
 of The Insurance Year Book) 
 
 1903 145,302,155 104,000,000 
 
 (From Nat'l. Board Tables) 
 
 1904 229,198,050 144,000,000 
 
 1905 165,221,650 116,000,000 
 
 1906 518,611,800 292,000,000 
 
 1907 215,084,709 127,000,000 
 
 1908 217,885,850 . 157,000,000 
 
 1909 188,705,150 143,000,000 
 
 1910... 214,003,300 175,000,000 
 
 (Continued on page 174) 
 
Vf^^?^f;>J^J. 
 
 m})}j?);;^^j^^>???x-^ 
 
 Per Capita Fire Loss Figures Analyzed. 
 
 Strictly Preventable (Black), Partly Preventable (Shaded), 
 
 and Unknown (White). 
 
 Per Capita 
 States Fire Loss 
 
 Rhode Island $3.71 
 
 New Hampshire 2.54 
 
 California 2.57 
 
 Massachusetts 2.60 
 
 Nevada 2.62 
 
 Connecticut 2.63 
 
 Florida 2.72 
 
 Delaware 2.76 
 
 New Jersey 3.52 
 
 Montana 3.37 
 
 Georgia 3.18 
 
 Maine 2.97 
 
 Texas 2.95 
 
 Washington 2.42 
 
 New York 2.41 
 
 Illinois 2.30 
 
 Iowa 2.28 • 
 
 Minnesota 2.26 
 
 Oregon 2.24 
 
 North Dakota 2.23 
 
 Nebraska 2.23 
 
 Michigan 2.15 
 
 Tennessee 2.06 
 
 Maryland 2.02 
 
 Wisconsin , 1.83 
 
 Arizona 1.79 
 
 Idaho 1.75 
 
 Kansas 1.70 
 
 Missouri 1.65 
 
 Louisiana 1.62 
 
 Pennsylvania 1.58 
 
 Indiana 1.55 
 
 South Dakota 1.54 
 
 Virginia 1.52 
 
 Ohio 1.48 
 
 Oklahoma 1.48 
 
 Arkansas 1.42 
 
 Alabama 1.39 
 
 Vermont 1.37 
 
 Kentucky 1.35 
 
 South Carolina 1.34 
 
 Mississippi 1.32 
 
 West Virginia 1.22 
 
 North Carolina 1.13 
 
 DIst. of Columbia 1.05 
 
 Wyoming 1.04 
 
 Colorado 1.03 
 
 Utah .95 
 
 New Mexico .84 
 
 f /'/'^/'/'/'^/'/'x'/i 
 
 The 1916 Fire 
 Loss figures here 
 shown are in dol- 
 lars and cents. 
 They represent 
 more than 97% of 
 the total fires in 
 the United States. 
 The figures for 
 several states 
 would be some- 
 what increased if 
 full statistics were 
 available. — From 
 " S a f e g uarding 
 America Against 
 Fire," Nat. Board 
 of Fire Under- 
 writers. 
 
i>MITIJIW>J 
 
 J 'R^T'^ 
 
 France ^ 0.49 
 
 Ett^and SO 35 
 
 Germany *0 28 
 
 Italy <y Austria $0 23 
 
 Switzerlatid f015 
 
 Hollattd I^O.U 
 
 How the Fire Losses 
 Compai'd 
 
 (Year of 1916) 
 
174 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 1911 217,004,575 190,000,000 
 
 1912 206,438,900 194,000,000 
 
 1913 203,763,550 196,000,000 
 
 1914 221,439,350 210,000,000 
 
 1915 172,063,200 167,500,000 
 
 1916 214,530,995 195,000,000 
 
 1917 250,753,640 230,000,000 
 
 • 
 
 Fire Loss Per Capita in United States 
 
 1915 $1.71 
 
 1916 2.10 
 
 FIRE LOSSES IN VARIOUS COUNTRIES 
 Fire Losses Per Capita Year 1911 
 
 United States $2.62 
 
 England , .53 
 
 France .81 
 
 Germany 21 
 
 Ireland 58 
 
 Italy 31 
 
 Russia 1.17 
 
 FIRE LOSSES (per capita) 1916— Boston seems to enjoy 
 the unfortunate distinction of topping nearly all the cities 
 of the. world in annual fire losses. For 1916 its loss was 
 $3.30 for every man, woman and child in the city. Taking 
 all cities of the country of about 400,000 population and up- 
 ward, the per capita losses figure as follows: New York 
 City, $1.56; Bronx and Richmond, $1.59; Brooklyn and 
 Queens, $1.52; Washington, $1.06; Chicago, $2.05; Los An- 
 geles, $1.11; New Orleans, $1.13; Baltimore, $1.05; Detroit, 
 $2.24; Minneapolis, $3.84; Kansas City, %2.76) St. Louis, $2.03; 
 Newark, $2.70; Buffalo, $2.27; Cincinnati, $1.51; Cleveland, 
 $1.13; Philadelphia, $1.63; Seattle, $1.96; Milwaukee, $2.41, 
 and Pittsburgh, $2.98. 
 
 Of these municipalities, it will be noted, Minneapolis is the 
 only one that exceeds Boston's startling record. Moreover, 
 the average per capita fire loss of 329 cities in the United 
 States is but $2.20, which is $1.10 below that of the Hub. 
 
/ LARGE FIRES IN U. S. SINCE 1897 175 
 
 United States Geological Survey statistics state that: 
 
 1. During year 1907 fire caused the death of 1,449 persons 
 and the injury of 5,654. 
 
 2. Each year $250,000,000 of tangible values are wasted by 
 fire. 
 
 3. Each minute of each day of the year ^ees $500 in value 
 rising in flame and smoke, leaving an ash-pile as its pyre. 
 
 4. Each year the fire loss equals $2.65 per capita of our 
 95,000,000 population. 
 
 5. Each year this needless loss equals a tax of $13.00 per 
 each family of five of our population. 
 
 6. Each year shows a record of forty fires to each 10,000 
 of our population. 
 
 FIRES, LARGE, IN UNITED STATES SINCE 1897— 
 From The Insurance Year Book. 
 
 Newport News, Va.. $2,000,000 1897 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa.. 2,000,000 1897 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 2,000,000 1898 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 2,000,000 1898 
 
 Victor, Col 2,000,000 1899 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 3,000,000 1899 
 
 Hoboken, N. J 5,500,000 1900 
 
 Bayonne, N. J 4,500,000 1900 
 
 • Jacksonville, Fla 11,000,000 1901 
 
 Waterbury, Conn 3,000,000 1902 
 
 Paterson, N. J.. 7,000,000 1902 
 
 Cincinnati, Ohio 2,000,000 1903 
 
 Baltimore, Md 50,000,000 • 1904 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 3,000,000 1904 r 
 
 New Orleans, La 3,200,000 1905 
 
 San Francisco, Cal 350,000,000 1906 
 
 New York, N. Xt • t-t • •> •• • - 2,500,000 1908 
 
 Chelsea, Mass.-.,1..(V.'^'.-V.. .,..'- v:12,000,000 1908 
 
 . Chisholm, Minn., Etc.'. ...... 5,000,000 1908 
 
 Wallace, Idaho, Etc 4,500,000 1910 
 
 Cedar Spur, Mont., Etc 6,000,000 1910 
 
 Minnesota 3,500,000 1910 
 
176 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Albany, N. Y 5,500,000 1911 
 
 Bangor, Me 3,500,000 1911 
 
 Coney Island (Dreamland).. 2,500,000 1911 
 
 New York 3,000,000 1912 
 
 Houston, Texas 4,500,000 1912 
 
 Hamilton, Ohio 2,000,000 1913 
 
 Hot Springs, Ark 2,250,000 1913 
 
 Salem, Mass 14,000,000 1914 
 
 Newport, Va 2,000,000 1915 
 
 Chicago, 111 2,000,000 1915 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 2,000,000 1916 
 
 Fall River, Mass 2,000,000 1916 
 
 Paris, Texas 5,000,000 1916 
 
 Augusta, Ga 5,000,000 1916 
 
 Canton, ' Md 2,000,000 1916 
 
 Marshfield, Ore 2,100,000 1916 
 
 Black Tom Is., Jersey City... 11,000,000 1916 
 
 Swissvale, Pa 4,000,000 1917 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa , 2,000,000 1917 
 
 Kingsland, N. J 12,000,000 1917 
 
 Atlanta, Ga 5,000,000 1917 
 
 Drumwright, Okla 2,000,000 1917 
 
 Brooklyn, N. Y 2,000,000 1917 
 
 Baltimore, Md 3,500,000 1917 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 2,000,000 1917 
 
 Jersey City, N. J 2,000,000 1918 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 3,000,000 1918 
 
 North St. Louis, Mo 2,500,000 1918 
 
 Noxen, Pa 2,250,000 1918 
 
 FIRES IN FRANCE— See Responsibility for Fires. 
 
 FIRE IN PERSON'S CLOTHING— Throw the person 
 down and, commencing at the head, wrap a rug, mat or any 
 woolen cover around him and roll him on floor. A woman 
 
 attempting to extinguish such a fire should be careful that 
 her own clothing does not become ignited, and should hold 
 
 the covering in front of her, and beginning at the person's 
 head, throw the covering toward his feet. If alone, lie on 
 floor and roll to nearest rug and wrap yourself in. Do not 
 
PIRE iPAlLS Iff 
 
 run to an open window, door or to the street, as this will fan 
 the flames. 
 
 FIRES AT SEA— One of the most promising of the new 
 methods of fighting fire on shipboard at sea is to fight the 
 fire with fire. By this system the hot gases that come from 
 the boiler flues and ordinarily go up the smokestack are used 
 to smother a fire. 
 
 A vessel is equipped with great pipes running from the 
 boiler room to all parta of the ship, and at any time the flue 
 gases can be switched from the smokestack to these pipes. 
 The pipes would pour these flue gases into the hold or the 
 sections of the ship where the fire was raging and smother it. 
 
 Flue Gas contains only 9 per cent, of oxygen, and 15 per 
 cent, of oxygen is required to support fire. Consequently if 
 great quantities of flue gas are poured into the burning hold 
 the oxygen there will soon be reduced to a point where com- 
 bustion cannot continue and the fire must die out. Automatic 
 sprinkler protection is the best known method of extinguish- 
 ing fires and is particularly applicable to ships. There are 
 numerous small compartments on all ships where a fire can 
 smoulder a long time before discovery. A sprinkler in one 
 of these rooms would insure rapid extinguishment. 
 
 FIRE PAILS are the simplest, handiest and best extin- 
 guisher for incipient fires. One standard fire pail is required 
 for each 500 square feet of floor area. Pails to be galvanized, 
 painted red with word 'Tire,*' of 10 or 12 quarts* capacity. 
 So that they may be easily accessible, pails are to be placed 
 not less than two feet from the floor to the bottom of pail, 
 nor more than five feet from floor to top of pail. In fire insur- 
 ance ratings, one fire extinguisher is considered equal to six 
 pails; but one-half of the equipment must be pails. Fire 
 bucket tanks holding six pails are approved. One-half the re- 
 quired number of pails in grease or oil risks to be filled with 
 sand. On piers, or roofs of sheds or buildings, oak casks or 
 tanks of 50 gallons capacity, each having three fire pails, 
 casks staggered 50 feet apart, are accepted. Hasty filling of 
 fire pails while the inspector is waiting in 'the ofiice for the 
 manager may be detected by finding spilled water on floor 
 under them, swinging pails, or water in agitation. This trick 
 
178 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 is often resorted to. See Pails and Casks; also see Stag- 
 gered. 
 
 FIREPLACES— Open fireplaces should be provided with 
 screens to keep sparks in and to prevent children's clothing 
 coming in contact w^ith the fire, and to keep sparks froni 
 flying into the rooms. Most fires are caused by radiating 
 heat to combustible floors or mantels. A safe fireplace will 
 have a fireproof hearth of an area and thickness to prevent 
 radiated heat igniting the floor, and the mantel should be of 
 incombustible material. Ornamental hearths have been re- 
 sponsible for many fires. They are mostly made of flat tiling 
 or cement laid on the floor boards in a thin layer. Tenants, 
 unaware of the danger, frequently build fires on them with 
 disastrous results. 
 
 FIRE PREVENTION OBSERVATIONS of Fire Chief 
 Kenlon of New York on the needs of fire prevention. A few 
 of the great needs are: " , ' 
 
 "1. Fire Walls in Factories. I would have every lott and 
 factory building with more than 5,000 square feet of floor 
 capacity to a floor divided by fire walls. If light is needed, 
 and a wall would shut it out, let the wall in part — say 40 per 
 cent of it — be built of polished wired glass. This material 
 would withstand an intense heat for thirty minutes or more. 
 Doors through the fire wall, built of thoroughly fireproof 
 material, would allow the persons on one side to flee for 
 safety past the fire wall if fire should break out in their por- 
 tion of the room. 
 
 "2. Fire Escapes in Enclosed Towers. There is absolutely 
 no doubt that the present form of fire escape is doomed to 
 go as inadequate. The inclosed staircase in a fireproof tower, 
 built outside the building, is the one sensible solution of the 
 problem. Entrance is had in this type of fire escape only 
 through doors reached by balconies and not directly from the 
 building where a fire may be raging. Thus the fire tower is 
 not only fireproof, but is smoke-proof as well. 
 
 "3. Automatic Sprinklers in All Department Stores, Stor- 
 age Warehouses and Manufacturing Lofts. The sprinkler has 
 already proved its efficiency, and its installation should be 
 made compulsory. 
 
FIREPROOF 179 
 
 "4. A Sane Alteration of the Law Regarding Exits. At 
 
 present staircases are required to be the same width whether 
 the building be four or forty stories high. Owners should be 
 compelled to widen the staircase in large buildings toward 
 the bottom, following a carefully graduated scale, so that the 
 people rushing down from above would not jam into people 
 from below above the maximum capacity of the staircase. 
 With the adjustment of staircases to the fire needs should 
 come the ^certificate of occupancy,' under which an owner 
 would be prevented from changing the character of his build- 
 ing after having been inspected and approved — so that an 
 inspection for mere storage purposes should not cover the 
 putting of hundreds of girls to work in factories on upper 
 floors. 
 
 "5. A Rigid EnforcemeTit of the Regulations Requiring 
 the Removal of Rubbish. A good janitor and an efficient en- 
 gineer in a factory building are the firemen's best friends. I 
 would like to see an incinerator in the basement of every 
 large building, in which rubbish could be thrown as soon as 
 it reaches the cellar. This would insure its destruction. In 
 the absence of the incinerator, the next best substitute is a 
 receptacle for rubbish of fireproof material which would pre- 
 vent its accumulation in a condition to serve as fire food. 
 
 "6. The Abolition of Heavy Fireproof Roofs. The fire- 
 proof roof of slate and metal is itself a menace, as it is espe- 
 cially liable to crash through the building, carrying floor after 
 floor with it to the ground. The heavy roof of the Equitable 
 Building is what did the damage and smashed in the floors 
 that killed Fire Chief Walsh. Before that fire I would not 
 have thought to include the making of lighter roofs as a great 
 necessity." 
 
 FIREPROOF— The term used 'fe^^tiress a building built 
 of fire-resisting material, such as steel or concrete, which of 
 themselves are not combustible and will withstand the rav- 
 ages of an ordinary fire without rupture or impairment for 
 at least four hours. The term "fireproof" is a popular ex- 
 pression used to denote "fire-resistive." See Unprotected 
 Iron. 
 
 FIREPROOF APARTMENT HOUSE (Alwyn Court 
 
}66 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITtKC 
 
 Building) — Fire, March 4, 1910. Ordinary glass windows al- 
 lowed the fire to leap from floor to floor on the outside of 
 building. Wired glass windows in standard sash and frame 
 would have prevented this. 
 
 FIREPROOF BUILDINGS (Weekly Underwriter)— "A 
 
 so-called fireproof building bears about the same relation to 
 its contents that a furnace or stove does to the material put 
 into it to burn. As a rule the fireproof building will pre- 
 vent the spread of fire to other buildings just as a fire will 
 not spread from one stove to another placed near it; but the 
 contents of a fireproof building will be consumed once the 
 fire is well under way just as thoroughly as the coal and wood 
 in the stove. Further, the heat will be retained in the fire- 
 proof building and human beings, if they fail to get out 
 quickly, will be killed. This is particularly true of a building 
 filled with merchandise, and to a very much less extent to 
 an office building. If there is only the ordinary office fur- 
 niture in an office building, the danger to life is not great; 
 but if there is a large amount of inflammable material, such 
 as partitions, office records, etc., stored in some dark floor, 
 you would not want to be in the upper part of some tall 
 structure where the stairs and elevators are in open shafts 
 and carry the heat chimney-like to the upper floors." 
 
 A building constructed entirely of fire and heat-resistive 
 material is fireproof as long as it contains no inflammables. 
 The contents of such a building are more liable to destruc- 
 tion than the same material in a frame building. Under- 
 writers frequently overestimate the amount of salvage to be 
 derived from a stock on the floor of a fireproof building and. 
 frequently have an "over-line" when fire comes. See Demo- 
 lition of Fireproof Building. 
 
 FIREPROOF CONSTRUCTION, according to insurance 
 requirements. A building shall be deemed fireproof con- 
 struction if it conforms to the following requirements: All 
 the walls constructed of brick, stone, concrete or terra cotta; 
 all floors and roofs of brick, terra cotta or reinforced con- 
 crete placed between steel or reinforced concrete beams and 
 girders; all the steel entering into the structural parts en- 
 cased in at least two inches of fireproof niaterial, excepting 
 
FIRE PUMPS 181 
 
 the wall columns, which must be incased in at least eight 
 inches of masonry on the outside and four inches on the in- 
 side; all stairs, elevators, public hallways, corridors or other 
 shafts inclosed in fireproof partitions or enclosures; all 
 doors of fireproof design and labelled; all stairways, land- 
 ings, hallways and other surfaces of incombustible material; 
 no woodwork or other combustible material used in any par- 
 tition, furring, ceiling or floor (the latter may be wood if 
 laid on sleepers without air space) and all doors and sash 
 trim and other interior finish of incombustible material; all 
 windows (side walls and in courts), shall be wired glass in 
 labelled sash and frame. Note. — In factories the floors should 
 be inclined and cement covered with scuppers to carry oflF 
 water. See Wood Finish and Trim. 
 
 FIREPROOF ROOFS— See Fire Prevention. 
 
 FIREPROOFING CHILDREN'S CLOTHING— Dissolve 
 25 cents worth of ammonium phosphate in one gallon of cold 
 water for five minutes. If an ounce or two of alum is added 
 to the last water in which the clothing is washed, they will 
 be less inflammable. See Fire in Person's Clothing. 
 
 FIREPROOFING COTTON GOODS— Use sodium stan- 
 nate and ammonia sulphate. 
 
 FIREPROOFING OR STAINING WOOD— Lumber is 
 piled on iron cars and run into large steam cylinders, and by 
 means of a vacuum the air is drawn out of the lumber. It 
 is then put into a solution of ammonia and salts for fire- 
 proofing except for cheap work when alum is used. For 
 staining, salts and bark extracts are used. After lumber is 
 entirely saturated, it is taken out and placed again on trucks 
 and run into brick and frame hot air kilns at 125 deg. F. See 
 Burnettizing. 
 
 FIRE PUMPS— National standard sizes: 
 
 Diameter 
 of Steam 
 Cylinder. 
 
 14 in. 
 
 Diameter 
 of Water 
 Plungers. 
 
 7K2 
 
 Steam Pumps 
 
 Length Gals, 
 of per 
 Stroke. Minute. 
 
 12 500 
 
 No. of 
 m"Fire 
 Streams. 
 
 2 
 
 Suction. 
 
 8 
 
 Dis- 
 charge. 
 
 6 
 
 16 in. 
 
 9 
 
 12 
 
 750 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 18 in. 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 1000 
 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 20 in. 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 1500 
 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 
 10 
 
182 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Centrifugal Pumps 
 
 Capacity and speed. The four standard sizes for centrifu- 
 gal pumps will be as follows: 
 
 
 Size 
 
 of 
 
 Pump 
 
 
 Gals, per Min. 
 
 
 
 
 No. VA" Streams. 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 1000 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 1500 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Size of Pump (gals, per mirute) 
 500 750 1000 1500 
 
 Suction Inlet 6 in. 8 in. 8 in. 10 in. 
 
 Discharge Outlet 6 in. 8 in. 8 in. 10 in. 
 
 A centrifugal pump is usually named 4-inch, 5-in, 6-inch or 
 7-inch, according to the size of its discharge outlet. This 
 outlet, also the inlet, should be enlarged to the Standard 
 Underwriter outlet, either in the casing pattern or by reduc- 
 ing casting bolted to the pump casing, so as to bring the 
 openings up to the sizes given in the table above. 
 
 Rotary Pumps — Standard Sizes for Rotary Fire Pumps. 
 
 Nominal 
 
 Gals, 
 per Min. 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Width 
 of Buckets. 
 
 Approximate 
 
 Distance 
 
 Between Centers 
 
 Approx. H.P. 
 
 Approximate No. of Required 
 
 Speed Rev. V/g'' for 100 lbs. 
 
 per Min. Streams. Pressure. 
 
 500 
 
 8 in. 
 
 7 in. or 8 in. 
 
 
 275 
 
 2 60 
 
 750 
 
 9 in. or 10 in. 
 
 8 in. or 9 in. 
 
 
 275 
 
 3 90 
 
 1000 
 
 10 in. 
 
 9 in. or. 10 in. 
 
 
 250 
 
 4 120 
 
 1500 
 
 12 in. 
 
 10 in. or 12 in. 
 
 
 250 
 
 6 180 
 
 Suction and Discharge Openings. 
 
 The openings in pump casing for suction and discharge 
 must not be less than as given below: 
 
 500 
 
 Size of Pump. gal. 
 
 Suction Inlet 6 in 
 
 Discharge Outlet 6 in. 
 
 750 
 gal. 
 
 1000 
 gal. 
 
 1500 
 gal. 
 
 I'm. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 10 in. 
 
 5 in. 
 
 8 in. 
 
 10 in. 
 
FIRE RECORD 183 
 
 FIRE PUMPS should be in separate fireproof buildings or 
 a section so isolated that a serious fire will not put the pump 
 or source of power out of commission. Fire pumps for stand- 
 pipes using electric power, should have their source of cur- 
 rent supply so protected that fire in building they are de- 
 signed to protect, will not put them out of commission. Like- 
 wise, discharge pipes should be buried underground with post 
 indicator valves to control the risers in the various sections. 
 Lessons learned at Brooklyn Eastern District Terminal fire, 
 November 25, 1912. See City Mains and Reservoirs. 
 
 FIRE RECORD— A careful underwriter will not only look 
 up the financial standing of the applicant, but will refer to 
 the fire record book which contains the names of people who 
 have had one or more fires of sufficient importance, which 
 might indicate that they should be under scrutiny. The rec- 
 ords are furnished by bureaus which collect this data and 
 furnish it to company subscribers. 
 
 FIRE-RESISTIVE— See Fireproof. 
 
 FIRE-RE§ISTIVE CONSTRUCTION is a better name 
 than fireproof construction. It means that buildings and all 
 of the parts of buildings are designed and arranged to retard 
 the action of fire. There is really no such thing as a fireproof 
 building. 
 
 FIRE-RESISTIVE SOLUTIONS— Asbestos paint pos- 
 sesses the valuable property of retarding the action of fire. 
 Coating of sodium tungstate also retards the action of fire. 
 
 FIRE RISK of a substance depends upon two properties: 
 1st, upon the amount of inflammable vapor that it will liber- 
 ate or furnish in a given time; 2nd, upon the temperature at 
 which this vapor will ignite. Dangerous substances possess 
 both these properties; the absence of one vastly increases the 
 safety. 
 
 FIRE RISKS— See Bad Fire Risks. 
 
 FIRE RUINS — It is not considered good judgment to 
 write lines on a risk which has suffered a fire and the damage 
 not repaired or in process of repair. 
 
 FIRE SHUTTERS are built in the same manner as fire 
 doors if metal clad. Iron shutters have "flat bar" or "angle 
 iron" frames. 
 
184 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 FIRE-STOPS — Furred walls or partitions may he fire- 
 stopped while the building is being constructed, if the work- 
 men place all the broken brick, loose mortar and other in- 
 combustible material (which is usually carted away) at the 
 floor levels of all stories where the furred walls communi- 
 cate to other floors. An incombustible partition of fire- 
 resistive property between sections, cornices, frame walls, etc. 
 (Not a complete cut-off nor a fire wall), or may describe in- 
 termediate walls or buildings between risk and exposing 
 risks. See Furring. 
 
 FIRE STREAM— Standard fire stream; by this is meant 
 the delivery of not less than 250 gallons of water per minute 
 through a 1^-inch, smooth-bore nozzle, and to secure this 
 volume it requires a pressure of not less than 45 pounds to 
 the square inch at the base of the nozzle, which will give ap- 
 proximately a reach of 63 feet horizontally and about 70 feet 
 vertically. (John R. Freeman.) ^ 
 
 •FIRE STREAMS — The quality of fire streams depends 
 directly upon the pressure at the nozzle and the form of 
 nozzle used. 
 
 By good fire streams are meant streams which carry the 
 calculated distance retaining to a reasonable extent their 
 solidity and without excessive spray. Costly experience has 
 shown that in serious fires a small stream is evaporated as 
 it falls in spray through the flames while if a large stream is 
 thrown, enough may escape the evaporation to pass through 
 the heated gases and reach the burning coals themselves. 
 John R. Freeman, C. E., after exhaustive tests on streams 
 from nozzles set forth the following specifications for a good 
 fire stream, which up to the present have been considered as 
 outlining fairly the requisites of such a stream: 
 
 (a) A stream, which at limit named, has not lost conti- 
 nuity of stream by breaking into showers of spray. 
 
 (b) A stream, which up to the limit named, appears to 
 shoot nine-tenths of whole volume of water inside of a circle 
 15 inches in diameter, and three-fourths of it inside of a ten- 
 inch circle. 
 
 (c) Which is stiff enough to attain in fair condition the 
 height or distance named, even though a fresh breeze were blowing. 
 
umn^WH-.^^ WALL 185 
 
 (d) which a limit named will, with no wind, enter a roofn' 
 through a window opening and barely strike ceiling witti 
 force enough to spatter well. 
 
 From the above, it may be assumed that with a certain 
 named limit the stream would be good, while at another it 
 may be poor. This is just the case. For instance, a stream 
 which holds its shape for a distance of fifty feet may be com- 
 pletely broken up at seventy-five feet. (Fr€d Sheppard in 
 Fire and Water Engineering.) 
 
 FIRE TOWER— A brick or other masonry tower or shaft 
 enclosing a stairway of fireproof material. The walls must 
 extend from ground to at least three feet above the roof. No 
 openings are permitted except fireproof windows over a court 
 or street. The entrance is indirect, i. e., a "lead" such as 
 a balcony outside of main building connects to an open air 
 vestibule entering the stairway enclosure. Stairs must open 
 on a street or a passage to street. Affords a sure exit from 
 building and a vantage point for firemen, asr^iUDu flame or 
 smoke can enter the tower directly. rr^ ogii^l 
 
 FIRE WALL — In strict sense should be a maso'nry wall of 
 sufiicient thickness, height and width to withstand the ele- 
 ment of fires confining them to a prescribed (theoretical) 
 area. Not less than 12 inches thick, without openings, ex- 
 tending above roof at least three feet and projecting from 
 side walls of protected buildings. A wall subdividing a build- 
 ing to restrict the spread of fire. It shall have such thick- 
 ness as to prevent the communication of fire by heat conduc- 
 tion. It shall have such stability as to remain intact after the 
 complete combustion of the contents of the buriding on one 
 side of the wall; and its structural integrity shall be unaffect- 
 ed by any wreckage of the building resulting from such fire, 
 or its extinguishment. In fire-resistive buildings with full 
 protection floors and roof, a fire wall need not be continuous 
 through all stories, nor need it extend through the roof. In 
 all other buildings it shall start at the foundation, be contin- 
 uous through all stories, and extend three feet above the roof. 
 (N*. F. P. A.) See Fire Prevention Observations. 
 
 Fire Wall, An Outside — A solid, blank masonry wall at 
 least 12 inches thick. It is either part of a building or a 
 
X96 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 separate wall built to protect a building agakist an exposure. 
 In case of frame buildings, the wall should extend five feet 
 beyond building walls. The fire record shows that many 
 serious losses have been averted by the use of specially built 
 fire walls. 
 
 FIRE POINT — Temperature at which oils become perma- 
 nently ignited. Usually several degrees above the flash point. 
 
 FIRE WINDOW — A window (wired glass) installed as 
 per Underwriters' requirements, and constructed of materials 
 which have been tested and approved by the Underwriters' 
 Laboratories. The sash, frame, glazing, automatic closing 
 device are included in test. 
 
 FIREWORKS depend upon nitrates to support com- 
 bustion and not upon chlorates, , 
 
 FIREWORKS (special) contain red phosphorus, a ful- 
 minate, and are explosive. 
 
 FIRE ZONES — Localized fire zones are found in nearly 
 every large city. They are localities which seem to attract 
 a certain class of tenants bent on incendiarism. There is a 
 set of people who move from one city or section of a city 
 to another with the avowed purpose of incendiarism. They 
 change their names but not their habits. The class is not 
 confined to any one race or nationality. Too much car6 
 cannot be exercised in scrutinizing the records of antece- 
 dents of applicants whose term of residence in any particu- 
 lar section or city is very short. 
 
 FIRELESS COOKERS— Report of a fire— Fire was prob- 
 ably caused by spontaneous combustion. This was very 
 likely due to the sides of the receptacle sweating and dam- 
 pening the sawdust, or to the disc in being dropped into the 
 bottom, broke the solder and allowed grease or water to get 
 through into the sawdust. Only vacuum cookers should be 
 used or the manufacturer should do away with all solder 
 joints in the tin and otherwise safeguard the device against 
 fire. (N*. F. P. A., Vol. 4, 1911.) Mineral wool is a good 
 packing. 
 
 FIREMEN'S SEARCH-LIGHT (acetylene torch)— A 
 
FLAMES 187 
 
 portable acetylene torch consisting of a generator (water to 
 carbide type), using calcium phosphate as an ignition agent, 
 and a burner. Designed for use when a strong, not easily ex- 
 tinguished, portable flame is desired; such as, around fires 
 and in smoky rooms. Its hazards are in a class with those, 
 of commoner forms of open flame kerosene torches. 
 
 FISH PLATES — Splices of inch-board, three feet in length, 
 nailed like splints for a broken limb, on both sides of a 
 splice. 
 
 FISH STORES — In frying fish lots of grease is used. 
 Ranges become very greasy. The entire top should be en- 
 closed in metal hood, ventilated to proper flue. 
 
 FISHING TACKLE— Manufacturing hazards are metal 
 and woodworking. Use celluloid cement and amyl acetate 
 when binding rods. 
 
 FIVE AND TEN CENT STORES— Stock consists of al- 
 most anything from a pin to a white elephant. Very sus- 
 ceptible, hard to adjust losses, seldom insured by knowing 
 underwriters. See Variety Stores. 
 
 FLAMES (Candle Structure)— The flame of a candle 
 is a curious thing as it teaches one of the best lessons 
 possible to the student of fire protection. Every lighted can- 
 dle is a gas factory. If you will look carefully at the flame 
 when the air is still, you will see that it is hollow, like a 
 shell, and the space inside of this shell is filled with dark 
 gas not yet afire. There are three principal regions to a 
 candle flame, the interior region is dark and consists of coal 
 gas, the next region is where oxygen is being united with 
 the gas (the luminous part), while the last is the oxydizing 
 region, the hottest part of the flames. The flames seen in 
 burning buildings have the same structure. See How Water 
 Puts Out Fire. See Conflagration Blast. 
 
 FLANNELETTE is generally used for nightgowns on 
 account of its long loose nap. If it becomes ignited, it is 
 almost certain the wearer's life is doomed as it flashes up im- 
 mediately. It should be treated with a lasting chemical fire- 
 proofing process. See Fireproofing Children's Clothing. 
 
 FLANGE — A projecting ledge or rim. 
 
 FLAP-CHECK VALVE— A valve with a flap hinged at 
 
188 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Upper side, allowing the passage of liquids in one direction 
 only. See Ball-check Valve. 
 
 FLASH POINT of a substance is the temperature at 
 which it gives off inflammable vapor. The lower the flash 
 point, the more dangerous. See Burning Point. 
 
 FLASHER — A device for throwing circuits in and out to 
 the lights for intermittent electric signs. 
 
 FLASHING — Broad sheet of metal with one edge inserted 
 into the joints of brickwork and projecting out several inches 
 and fastened down close to the roof to prevent leaks. 
 
 FLASH-LIGHT POWDERS— Aluminum and magnesium 
 powders mixed with chlorate of potash and other carriers of 
 oxygen for intensification ignite readily and are highly ex- 
 plosive; should be kept in cool, dry places. 
 
 FLASKS — Boxes which contain the mould Jiitol^l' which 
 melted iron is poured for casting. Used in foundries; 
 
 FLAT ARCH— In floor construction, an arch with flat 
 upper and lower surfaces. Generally not as strong as seg- 
 mental arches. See Floor Arches. 
 
 FLAT ROOF— A roof which has a pitch not exceeding 20 
 degrees. 
 
 FLAVORING EXTRACT MANUFACTURING — Use 
 steam and gas percolators, mills, mixers, alcohol, fruit 
 juices, essential oils. Care of packing material, method of 
 heating kettles and grinding are main hazards. Not consid- 
 ered a desirable class. 
 
 FLAX — A fibre yielded by a certain plant. See Fibres. 
 
 FLAX STRAW— Formerly a waste by-product of the flax 
 industry of the Southwest, is now utilized in paper making. 
 
 FLESHING — Consists of removing, by machinery or hand, 
 the fatty tissues clinging to the flesh side of skins or hides. 
 
 FLOATERS — A policy that covers goods wherever located 
 without specifying any designated locations, except that it 
 excludes goods in the main plant or factory. Not all com- 
 panies care for floating insurance. 
 
 FLOATING FOUNDATION— Is an entire flat bed of 
 concrete and steel reinforced. Used only when a solid 
 foundation cannot be reached. 
 
 FLOCK — The refuse fibre from rag-grinding machines. 
 
FLOOR ARCHES I8d 
 
 The Flock which is used for covering wall paper is ground 
 felt. The dust made in grinding flock is heavier than air 
 and said to be non-explosive. Flock dust thrown into the 
 air spreads rapidly, but quickly falls to the floor. 
 
 FLOOR ARCHES— Columbian System consists of a com- 
 bination of rolled steel bars and concrete. The bars are of 
 cross-shaped section and are hung to the floor beams by steel 
 stirrups cut to the exact shape of the bar used. The bars and 
 stirrups are then surrounded by cement concrete. Two forms 
 of this system are in use, the ''panelled," in which there is 
 only one plate (the floor), and the "flat ceiling," in which 
 plates are employed for floor and ceiling. Beams are pro- 
 tected by a concrete slab, made at the building and held on 
 the beam flange by malleable iron clips moulded in the 
 blocks and held in place by longitudinal wires. These blocks 
 are placed on the beams first and concrete filled in to make 
 the plate and haunches at the same time. The concrete used 
 is generally 1 part cement, 2^ parts sand, and 5 parts 
 broken stone. 
 
 Columbian Beam Plate is made of concrete moulded 
 generally at the building. There are two ties running 
 through the block lengthwise and two malleable iron clips set 
 right in the block. Then, when block is laid, the concrete is 
 run right in on the top. It is a straight concrete arch. Co- 
 lumbian Iron Bars are made either single, cross or double- 
 cross in section and about 5 inches deep. These run from 
 beam to beam, hung in stirrups. The malleable iron clips are 
 protected by the concrete. There is a ^-inch air space 
 below the beam between the concrete protection. The ceil- 
 ing consists of a concrete floor plate as in the previous form 
 with the addition of lighter bars, resting on the lower flanges 
 of the beams on which bars the concrete ceiling slab is cast. 
 An air space is left between the two plates (floor and ceil- 
 ing), but the exposed webs are either left exposed or are 
 encased in concrete. 
 
 Expanded Metal Compan/s System Flange Type, when 
 used for wide spans (from 8 feet to 15 feet), has arched 
 channels about 4 feet apart, sprung from girder to girder to 
 reinforce and stiffen the floor plate. Concrete ribs are then 
 
190 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 built up on these channels to the level of the tops of the 
 girders, and sheets of expanded metal are laid flat on the tops 
 of the beams and the concrete ribs to receive the concrete 
 floor plate. 
 
 Another form designed to give a level ceiling for plaster- 
 ing is constructed by laying sheets of expanded metal on the 
 lower flanges of the I-beams. A 3-inch concrete plate is 
 then placed and tamped and a lighter cinder concrete is 
 filled up to the tops of the beams. 
 
 The concrete used is generally made of 1 part cement, 2 
 parts sand and 5 to 6 parts furnace cinders, the mixture 
 varying somev^hat with the character of the sand and cinders. 
 
 Fawcett System consists of hard-burned t'erra-cotta 
 lintels running from beam to beam and filled on top 
 with a cinder concrete. For convenience in setting, the ends 
 of these lintels are cut diagonally and they are laid at such 
 an angle to the beams that the shorter diagonal is at right 
 angles to them. These lintels bear on and fit around the 
 lower flanges of the beams so as to leave an air space of 
 about ^-inch under their entire length. This space connects 
 with the interior of each lintel, and theoretically there is a 
 connected air space under all beams and through all lintels. 
 Air flues or thimbles may be built into the exterior walls, 
 thus connecting these spaces with the outside air. 
 
 In erection, the lintels are set without mortar. No reliance 
 is placed on them for ultimate strength as they are employed 
 only as centers to receive the load-bearing concrete. For the 
 supporting metal work, small I-beams are used, usually 4 
 inches to 7 inches, spaced from 2 feet to 2 feet 6 inches on 
 centers. 
 
 Guastavino System consists of arches of hard-burned tiles 
 laid in three courses and is used more generally in public or 
 semi-public buildings. These tiles are 1 inch by 6 inches by 
 12 inches, and are laid in neat Portland cement, breaking 
 joints. 
 
 The arches are designed especially for each building and 
 may be either dome or barrel-shaped. The dome arches have 
 been used for rooms as large as 70 feet square and may be 
 laid with a decorative tile requiring no finish. The essential 
 
l^LOOR ARCHES 1^1 
 
 point of this system is, that the best cement must be used. 
 The concrete is simply a filling. There are no steel sup- 
 porting members in the arch. 
 
 Hennebique System — The armature of the beams is formed 
 by steel bars placed at the lower flanges, and by vertically 
 placed stirrups which embrace the bent steel tension bars. 
 The columns have the steel rods near the corners and tied 
 together at close intervals with hoop steel ties or collars. 
 
 Herculean System reinforced floor arch is composed of 
 terra-cotta blocks held in place between each rdW-6f^ tile with 
 "T" irons. ' ' " 
 
 Kahn System — Made by Trussed Concrete Steel Co. 
 Use a truss bar. The cross-section shows two horizontal 
 flanges or wings, projecting at opposite sides. These flanges 
 are sheared up at intervals to form rigidly connected diago- 
 nals, making a unit of main bar and shear members. Re- 
 sembles a straight bar with iron bars sticking upward at 
 about 45 degrees. 
 
 Lee Hollow-Tile and Cable-Rod Floor System — Combines 
 terra-cotta blocks with suspension cables for use in long 
 spans in place of other reinforcement. 
 
 Mackolite Floor System consists of moulded blocks 
 made of plaster of paris, mixed with water and chemicals. 
 The mixture is moulded in forms, left a short time to set, and 
 kiln-dried for about four days. These blocks are made u^ to a 
 maximum length of 5 ft. Flange protection tiles are held un- 
 der the beam flanges by dove-tailed projections from the main 
 blocks. Cinder concrete with nailing strips and finished floor 
 is employed as usual and the ceiling may be plaster directly 
 on the blocks. The floor differs materially from most of 
 the construction in general use in that the material is de- 
 signed to act as a beam or lintel instead of an arch. No 
 centering is required for erection, and as there is no end 
 thrust, no tie-rods are needed. 
 
 Melan Arch System depends mainly for its strength on 
 the use of steel ribs (usually T's or light I-beams), or by lat- 
 ticed iron rods bent to the shape of the arch, and sprung from 
 the lower flanges of the I-beams. A curved "center" is ap- 
 plied close to the underside of the ribs and then, starting at' 
 
192 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 one beam, coarse concrete is filled in and rammed toward the 
 haunches for a depth equal to about two-thirds of the depth of 
 the curved beam. The remaining one-third is filled with a finer 
 mixture of cement and sand. Each side is built and rammed 
 separately, and the key is then filled in and rammed verti- 
 cally. This system has been used on spans of from 12 to 16 
 feet with the curved rib spaced 3 to 5 feet, according to 
 strength required. The rise of the arch is from one-tenth to 
 one-twelfth of a span. Tie-rods are used to take up the 
 thrust. The use of this system may be criticised as the con- 
 crete is used as a beam and an arch at the same time. The 
 closer the ribs are spaced, the less objectionable does this 
 feature become. 
 
 Metropolitan System consists of a composition plate 
 with, wire suspension cables instead of metal bars for 
 the metal members. These cables are anchored to the 
 walls and laid across the tops of the beams and spaced from 
 seven-eighths to one and one-half inches on centers accord- 
 ing to the spans and loads, and are laid parallel. Lengths of 
 seven-eighth round iron rods are laid on the cables below 
 the top of the beam, so as to deflect the cables uniformly 
 three inches below the tops of the beams in a six-foot span. 
 Centers are then placed between the beams and one inch be- 
 low the iron rods. A composition formed of about one part 
 plaster of paris by bulk to two parts of spruce or hemlock 
 planer shavings, with sufficient water to mix thoroughly, is 
 then poured into place and tamped, and brought to a level 
 one-half inch above the tops of the beams. This forms a 
 floor plate four inches thick ready for filling, screeds and 
 wooden floor. The portions of the beams below the ceiling 
 line are protected by a two-inch thickness of a composition 
 poured at the same time the plate is made, into forms left in 
 the centers. The flanges of the beams are wrapped with wire 
 netting before the composition is poured. 
 
 Sawdust is used in the composition of the Metropolitan 
 floor. They use plaster of paris and one or two-inch long 
 planer shavings. This construction is used somewhat in 
 apartment houses. They put heavy plank floors on top and 
 anything of weight is screwed through the plaster to the 
 
FLOOR ARCHES 193 
 
 floor. In the Metropolitan floor the under side of beams or 
 girders is protected by making a mould between the "center" 
 and pouring right around the beam. The stuff is mixed up in 
 such a liquid form that it can be poured right on. This type 
 has been tested and accepted by some city building depart- 
 ments. 
 
 Ransome System — Use square steel rods, twisted cold, for 
 reinforced concrete construction. • 
 
 Rapp System uses rolled sheet iron T*s laid on the 
 bottom flanges of the beams spaced 8^ inches *on centers, 
 held in position by spacing-ties. Bricks are then laid be- 
 tween the T's and grouted, and the space up to the beam top 
 filled with cinder concrete made about one to eight. The 
 lower flanges are wrapped with wire lath and plastered when 
 the ceiling is finished. 
 
 Roebling System uses a steel-ribbed wire cloth cen- 
 tering and a cinder concrete aich or plate. This centering is 
 permanent and is sprung into place between the lower 
 flanges of the beams, and the adjoining sheets are lapped or 
 laced. Cinder concrete is then filled in up to the top of the 
 beam giving a thickness of not less than three inches at the 
 crown. A wire lath ceiling may be suspended under the arch 
 of the beam flanges, or the beam flanges may be protected by 
 wire lath filled with concrete. The latter is much better. If 
 no suspended ceiling is used, the lower flanges of the beams 
 are protected by only the plaster on wire mesh about one 
 inch thick. 
 
 "Trussit" Sjrstem — For light concrete roofs, curtain walls 
 and solid partitions. Trussit is corrugated, expanded steel, 
 reinforcing sheets, made in form of continuous "V's," erected 
 without forms or centering. Made by General Fireproofing 
 Co. 
 
 FLOOR AREA— See Area. 
 
 FLOOR LIGHTS — Heavy glass in wood or iron frames 
 inserted into the flooring to give light below. In non-fire- 
 proof buildings if the glass is at least ^rinch thick in iron 
 frames, no charge is made in some of the local rating 
 schedules. 
 
 FLOOR OILS— See Mops. 
 
m 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 • FLOOR OPENINGS should be protected in a standard 
 manner. See Illustration. 
 
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 CHUT£S, SfiOt/LO 
 
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 ^^O HAy£ LABMLSO 
 £//i£aOORS AT 
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 S££ 
 
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 ^HA£ts)FbR AFPUmo 
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 Jl , /.^\^>. ^/^ — ^ .. ««— '''^^ <aBg^ SHAFT 
 
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 Copyright. 1915, G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 ^um-^TAt^oAivD pt^cmcnt/ 
 
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 ' FLOORING, COMPOSITION— Used in place of linoleum 
 br "'cement-finished floors in office buildings. The composi- 
 tions vary, but the ingredients are asbestos pulp, wood flour 
 (pulverized poplar), paraffine oil, cement, silax, manganese, 
 
FLOWERS AND FEATHERS 195 
 
 chloride of magnesium, graphite, talcum, marble dust, iron 
 oxide, chrome and earth colors, aniline colors, magnesite, 
 lamp-black. The majority of the compositions contain 25 to 
 40 per cent, asbestos. The hazards are mixing, blending and 
 cooking the various ingredients. Steam kettles usually 
 employed. Some (burr stone) grinders for powders, pressing 
 in hydraulic presses. Usually air dried. The dressing, ap- 
 plied after the flooring is laid, consists of linseed oil, oxide 
 and aniline colors and turpentine. To clean the surface of 
 coloring matter foreign to the composition and also for a 
 dressing or polish a mixture , of linseed oil, resin, acetone, 
 alcohol, nitric 'acid is used, then waxed with paraffine. As- 
 phaltum is or may be added for waterproofing. Direct heat 
 for wax is objectionable. 
 
 FLOORS— See Waterproof Floors. 
 
 FLORISTS— The fire record of this class is good. Few 
 companies write stock of live plants as a very little heat will 
 ruin the entire stock. Owners, therefore, cannot afford to 
 have a fire. Storage of large quantities of moss and painting 
 of frames are principal hazards. 
 
 Florists occupying sjnall buildirigs,*« at times decorate 
 the entire interior ahd front of. building with white birch 
 bark or similar fast burning material, adding to the hazard of 
 spreading fire. See Hot Houses. 
 
 FLOUR is one of the best extinguishers for a fire caused 
 by the spilling of and ignition of kerosene. Flour in bags, if 
 wet, will cake, spoil and constitute a heavy loss. In barrels, 
 considered good insurance. 
 
 FLOUR MILLS — After the grain has been thoroughly 
 cleaned it goes to the roller mills to be ground, the stock 
 being separated by sifting machines. After each grinding, the 
 coarse stock goes back to the "breaks," and the fine passes 
 to the purifiers and between smooth rollers, and then to the 
 flour bins. In short, flour making is a process of separation, 
 the desirable parts being slowly subtracted until only the 
 waste or by-product is left. The hazard consists of dusty 
 bearings and dust-laden atmosphere. This class is not very 
 attractive as a fire risk. 
 
 FLOWERS AND FEATHERS— Artificial flowers and 
 
4.96 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 feathers. Busiest season, September and October, January and 
 February. Leaves: Mainly of muslin, sized with gum arabic, 
 glycerine and paraffine, varnished and shellaced. Cut out of 
 large sheets of cloth previously painted and dried. Veins 
 are made in die presses either cold or gas heated. Painted 
 with air brush, coated with paraffine (waxing), sprinkled with 
 tinsel (ground glass and mica), for frosting and dew. Tub- 
 ing: Hollow muslin for stems. The muslin is treated in a 
 bath of warmed linseed oil, cut into strips and drawn 
 through a "tubing machine." This resembles a metal box on 
 an iron table, two rows of holes in the sides through which 
 the strips are drawn, and heated by gas. Gas connection 
 should be iron piping. 
 
 *'Flock" tubing is ordinary tubing covered with hair or 
 wool flock. "Ciroleum" tubing is made of a mixture of glycer- 
 ine and gelatine to which is added small seeds. When made 
 up, resembles rubber. Steel wires are covered with the mix- 
 ture, allowed to cool and wires withdrawn, leaving a hollow 
 tube. 
 
 Flowers are jnade of silk, brocaded cloth, velvet, etc., 
 cut by hand or poVer. die presses,^ colored with anilines by 
 hand or air brush. ./^Goffering" : Goffey irons are small gas- 
 heated tools, with ball-end' and" Wooden handle. Used to 
 round out petals. "''Gripping/^ or pinching and crimping, are 
 very similar, all gas-heated. Some flowers are of paper, 
 worked cold, dipped in wax. The heating of the wax kettle 
 important. Metal flowers, stamped out of sheet tin, painted 
 and soldered to wire frames. Pain'ted in dip tank. 
 
 "Peps" are small berries, pollen stems or flower cen- 
 ters. Made in automatic machine of a heavy thread, stiffened 
 with sizing of gum arabic and starch, dipped in paste 'paint 
 and dried in gas-heated machine. Cherries and fruits made 
 of cotton, moulded in treadle machines, dried, painted and 
 varnished. 
 
 Preserving and Fireproofing of Natural and Artificial 
 Foliage — Mixture contains sulphate of ammonia, silicate of 
 soda, rock salt, sugar, glucose, and chlorine. Mixed in 
 wooden tanks in which the foliage is immersed. Delicate 
 plants first dipped in gelatine and paraffine bath. This 
 
FLUE FIRES 197 
 
 process does not fireproof, but renders the foliage slow burn- 
 ing at ordinary temperature. Plants are bleached with di- 
 luted sulphuric, hydrofluoric and acetic acids. 
 
 Feathers used in millinery are mainly ostrich, chicken 
 feathers being used for quills and wings. Raw ostrich 
 feathers are kept in bins according to quality. They are sort- 
 ed, washed, whipped by hand to open up the flues, dyed and 
 dried "Branching" is the term applied in making up feathers 
 in bunches or branches. Rubber cement is used from open 
 cups. Tips are colored by hand or air brush with aniline 
 colors, and dried in gas-heated ovens. 
 
 Ramie — ^Used in making artificial plumes. It is sewed on 
 knitting frame, steamed, curled, tinted with aniline colors by 
 air brush. All flower stocks are very susceptible to fire, 
 smoke or water. In making leaves the handling of acetone, 
 amyl acetate, turpentine, alcohol, benzine, liquid bronze, dry 
 boxes, celluloid for leaves, gas-heated machines, waxing, and 
 dyeing are the main hazards. — (Live Articles on Special Haz- 
 ards. (W. O. Lincoln, "Live Articles on Special Hazards" — 
 The Weekly Underwriter) 
 
 FLOWING PRESSURE— See Static Pressure. 
 
 FLUE — The enclosure by means of which heated air or 
 gases are conducted to the outer air, as a smoke flue from a 
 smoke pipe. 
 
 FLUE DUST may be very inflammable if metallic zinc dust 
 is present. 
 
 FLUE FIRES — Four or five pounds of common salt 
 poured down the chimney will probably put out the blaze. 
 The carbonic acid gas so generated is a fire extinguishing 
 agent. 
 
 FLUORIC ACID — A corrosive acid used by glass etchers. 
 
 FLUORIDES — Compounds of fluorine with metals (cal- 
 cium fluoride). 
 
 FLUXES — Various substances used to prevent the instan- 
 taneous formation of rust when welding two pieces of hot 
 metal together. 
 
 "FLY" — The linty dust produced at textile (woolen, cot- 
 ton, etc.) working machines. It is one of the main features 
 to be watched by the inspector when inspecting a knitting 
 
I'Sfir INSPECTlOK AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 mill. It is always present in the card room, more especially 
 where all cotton or cotton waste is used. See Knitting Mills. 
 See Dust. 
 
 FLY WHEEL — A heavy revolving wheel used for equaliz- 
 ing the motion of machinery. 
 
 - FLY WHEEL PITS are the cause of many fires. In one 
 instance a steam syphon was located in the pit and the en- 
 gineer entered the pit with an open torch and an explosion 
 and fire resulted. The real cause of the fire was the oil and 
 grease which had been allowed to accumulate in the wheel 
 pit. The oil and grease had become volatilized by the heat 
 from the steam syphon so that when an open flame was in- 
 troduced, a fire immediately occurred.,.,, These wheel pits 
 should be kept clean of oil and litter. lowoftf' 
 
 FOAMING — An undue amount of boiling, caused by grease 
 or dust in the boiler. 
 
 FOLDING BOX MANUFACTURING RISKS are better 
 than solid box makers because less gluing is done, fewer ma- 
 chines used and goods are packed flat instead of in solid 
 form. Flat packed stock offers more salvage and presents a 
 less crowded condition. See Paper Box Factories. 
 
 FOOT-POUND— This term can be easily understood as 
 follows: If you lift a weight of one pound to a height of 
 one foot you have done a foot-pound of work. If you lift it 
 two feet you have done two foot-pounds, and if you lift three 
 pounds six feet you have done eighteen foot-pounds of work. 
 In other words, the product of the weight and the height 
 give the foot-pounds. Or force times distance will also give 
 the foot-pound measurement. If you exert a pressure of 10 
 pounds through a distance of ten feet you will have exerted 
 100 foot-pounds. Watt discovered that a dray horse when not 
 tired could do 33,000 foot-pounds in one minute and this unit 
 is called a horse-power. Thus if an engine hoists a weight of 
 330 pounds through a distance of 100 feet in one minute, it is 
 exerting one horse-power. See Horse-Power. 
 
 FOOT-VALVE— The check in the lower end of a pump 
 section pipe preventing the backward flow of water once 
 raised in the suction. See Strainer. 
 •FOREIGNERS, who are natives of countries where long 
 
FOREST FIRES t^i^^ri (199 
 
 names predominate, frequently abbreviate or entirely change 
 their name to one of American pronunciation, usually for no 
 ulterior purpose, but proper name should be slscertained, if 
 possible. See Names. 
 
 FOREST FIRES— In New York state, the Bureau of 
 Foresty has inaugurated a system of telephone communica- 
 tion from about fifty stations on high peaks from whence the 
 fire rangers can call for help if fires are discovered, supplant- 
 ing the old method of having the ranger ride to the nearest 
 settlement for help, thereby giving the fire a chance to 
 spread. The Bureau reports state, that causes of fire in order 
 of their importance are: Railroad locomotives, lightning, 
 careless campers, fishermen and hunters, settlers clearing 
 land. There are three kinds of forest fires — the "surface 
 fire," which merely runs in the leaves and ground litter; the 
 "ground fire," that covers the underbrush of dense forests, 
 and the "crown fire," the most dangerous and terrifying of 
 all. A "crown fire" is usually caused when the ground or 
 surface fire reaches tlie top of a ridge or knoll and the in- 
 creased draft carries the blaze up the trunks of the trees to 
 the tops of the "crowns." It is the crown fires Which have 
 made the great forest fires of history. Surrounding the 
 burning area by a trench from which everything down to the 
 mineral soil has been removed, is the only kind of a fire line 
 which will stop a ground fire, and it will often stop a surface 
 fire. For surface fire "whipping" or using brush branches or 
 water soaked sacking to whip the burning leaves at the edge 
 of the fire back into the burning area is most effective. Sand 
 as well as water is valuable in fighting this kind of fire, too. 
 There is only one way to fight a crown f.re. That is by back 
 firing — fighting fire with fire. This method is extremely 
 dangerous, consisting of setting a counter fire far enough 
 from the main body of the original fire so that all inflam- 
 mable material will be burned by the time the fire reaches 
 that point and the fire will die from lack of material to feed 
 on. The backfire is set far enough from .the main fire to 
 escape the draft which is fanning the blaze. 
 
 FORGE HAMMER — A heavy hammer for forging large 
 pieces, and worked by machinery. See Anvil Manufacturing. 
 
200 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 FORMALDEHYDE— Used by embalmers and also as a 
 preservator and fumigator. 
 
 FORMATES — Formic acid compounds. 
 
 FORMIC ACID — A colorless liquid of pungent odor. 
 
 FORMS — From the brokers' or companies' standpoint, see 
 "Live Articles on Special Hazards." 
 
 FORSITE — An explosive material. A foreign make of 
 nitroglycerine. Considered more dangerous than dynamite. 
 
 FOURDRINIER MACHINE— A paper-making machine in 
 w^hich the pulp is screened and made into sheets. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS— The bases of walls, piers, columns, etc., 
 directly supported or kept in equilibrium by the earth. 
 
 FOUNDATIONS FOR SKYSCRAPERS are sometimes 
 laid as follows: Heavy, hollow steel piles are driven through 
 quicksand and to rock. They are then cleaned out with com- 
 pressed air and then two-inch steel rods inserted to act as 
 reinforcement for the concrete which will eventually be 
 poured in. This system of foundation work is used because 
 it is much quicker than the former method of sinking an 
 open pit to rock. 
 
 FOUNDATION WORK— (Robert H. Pearson.) Foun- 
 dation work calls for the best engineering skill, and the 
 design and construction involved requires much study, as 
 each problem demands a special solution. The best condi- 
 tion from an economical point of view is to have the level 
 rock just below the cellar floor of a building; if the rock 
 is higher the expense of excavating is large and if lower 
 the footings must be carried to bed rock. Ordinary ground 
 will maintain safely a load of 2 to 4 tons per square foot, 
 dry clay from 4 to 6 tons per square foot, and gravel from 
 6 to 10 tons per square foot. Having these figures in mind, 
 the necessity for footing buildings on good bed rock will 
 readily be seen, if we consider the fact that one of the N. Y. 
 skyscrapers weighs approximately 120,000 tons, with a wind 
 pressure on building surface computed at 40,000,000 pounds. 
 The cellar flooring of high buildings usually runs from 30 
 to 45 feet below the street, and if rock is not encountered 
 at that depth, it becomes necessary to foot the foundations 
 on concrete piers sunk to meet the bed rock, and if the 
 
FOUNDATION WORK 201 
 
 rock is below the water level, or at a considerable depth 
 below cellar excavation, the only known way to reach it is 
 by means of the pneumatic caissons. These caissons are 
 simply air-tight bottomless boxes, rectangular or cylindrical 
 in cross section, and equipped with a steel reinforcement on 
 bottom which is known as the cutting edge, the interior be- 
 ing large enough to accommodate a gang of men whose 
 duties are to excavate the space within the area which it 
 covers. 
 
 Prior to putting the caisson in place, a pit sufficiently large 
 to allow for its entry is dug in the ground on the site 
 which the finished pier or monolith will occupy, a derrick is 
 installed and the caisson seated accurately in place to a 
 depth usually 6 feet below the main, excavation. When in 
 place the caisson is provided with a strong decking which 
 allows a height of about 6 feet for workmen within the 
 chamber. On top of the caisson decking vertical sections of 
 air shafts are set up, these sections being usually circular in 
 form, three feet in diameter, made of steel plate, each sec- 
 tion measuring about 10 feet in length, and forming a means 
 of passage to the working chamber for men and material. 
 
 The air lock is placed at top of shaft and usually consists 
 of a steel cylinder about 5 feet in diameter, 7 feet high and 
 bolted in position. 
 
 There are two doors in this chamber, one at the top and 
 one near the bottom; an attendant is stationed on a plat- 
 form near the upper door, whose duty it i^ to regulate the 
 air pressure, attend to signals from working chamber and 
 open and shut the air-lock doors as required. 
 
 When the outer door is opened, the inner door is closed 
 and vice-versa, thus retaining the pressure in the caisson. 
 Signal is made by whistle operated by compressed air within 
 the chamber, a valve and the necessary piping being pro- 
 vided for this purpose. 
 
 A ladder is installed within the shaft and workmen travel 
 to and from the working chamber by this means. 
 
 Excavated matter from working chamber is loaded in 
 small canvas bags and carried by workmen to air lock, or 
 it is blown out by the compressed air through special pipe, 
 
202 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 but these methods have been improved on recently and it is 
 now possible to use half a cubic yard bucket without inter- 
 fering with the caisson efficiency. 
 
 When the caisson and its appurtenances are put in place, 
 concrete is poured around the air shaft so as to form slabs 
 about 12 inches thick, this having sufficient strength to sup- 
 port a mass of wet concrete on caisson walls; sections of 
 airshaft are added and concrete is filled within the forms in 
 5 foot courses until the pier is built up to about one-half its 
 full height. As the top of the piers are to be sunk below the 
 temporary surface of excavation they are enclosed within 
 coffer-dams placed 3 or 4 feet beyond, these coffer-dams 
 serving to exclude the earth from the column piers until such 
 time as the open excavation is completed. 
 
 Forms are set up within the working chamber and con- 
 crete is built up to the desired height, after which it is sunk 
 through the water-bearing ground, compressed air being 
 used as the sinking progresses below water level, when 
 another section of concrete is added, and so on until the 
 anchorage point has been reached. 
 
 Owing to frictional resistance it is necessary to use cast 
 iron blocks to weight the caisson for the purpose of sinking 
 and this, in addition to the weight of the caisson, forces the 
 work downward until the footing is reached, when the sur- 
 face of the rock is cleaned and leveled, after which the whole 
 interior of the caisson and shaft connecting the working 
 chamber with the atmosphere is filled with concrete well 
 rammed into plac'e, thus forming a monolith upon which to 
 support the superstructure. 
 
 FOUNDRIES — Usually large area frame buildings. Haz- 
 ards of pattern and flask making; preparation of the mould, 
 including core making, melting and reduction of the metal 
 to a proper fluidity, pouring the molten metal into the mould, 
 and cleaning and finishing the casting, also core ovens and 
 painting iron or wood patterns. When casting, a man should 
 be stationed on the roof to detect flying sparks alighting on 
 the roof or on nearby structures. Casks of water with fire 
 pails should be placed every fifty feet on the roof. There 
 should be 12 inches clearance around floors or roof where 
 
FRAME ROWS 20^ 
 
 Stack fram melting furnaces passes through. See Core Ovens 
 and Cupolas. 
 
 FOUNDRY FIRES— Carbon dioxide is a very good ex-; 
 tinguisher^ providing the seat of the fire can be. enclosed. 
 Water thrown on the glowing metal will for'm oxy-hydroge» 
 gas and should therefore not be used. ; i >] >?'^ 
 
 FOUNDRY FLASKS— Frames of wood or iron, four 
 sided, no top or bottom. Used to hold the sand moulds in 
 position. Wooden ones frequently become charred from" 
 molten metal. ^ Fires arise from storing flasks inside oi 
 buildings or against wood partitions where hidden sparks 
 break out into fire. w x: . ■ x 
 
 FOUNDRY SAND— "Water-proof" sand used by fotirrdef^ 
 when casting in sand moulds is composed of ground resin,' 
 flour and secret white powder. Prevents the molten lead 
 from adhering to mould. Process is grinding, mixiilg';%eat^ 
 ing resin by direct heat. Non-hazardous. -"f )nu; 
 
 FRAME — A term used when pieces of timber are put tO-^ 
 gether so as to form a truss or other structure. 
 
 FRAME CONSTRUCTION— See Balloon and Braced 
 Frame. . ' i; 1 
 
 FRAME ROWS — Many of these rows, have open spaced! 
 called c6ck-loft6, roof spaces or small attics, which are opeii* 
 from one building to another. This space is between the top 
 floor ceiling and the roof. It may be from 6 inches to 5 or 6 
 feet in height. Besides containing considerable dust,^ shavMgs 
 left at the time the building was built, they are sometimes' 
 used for storing old mattresses and junk of all kinds. Fires 
 once started, entering these concealed spaces, are hard to Id-' 
 cate and put out. The tendency of a fire to go through 
 spaces is greatly increased by the pressure of the air and %ot 
 gases produced by combustion. Hot gases always rise, there-" 
 fore the danger is greater directly under the roof. Pafti-' 
 tions of incombustible material to under part of roofboards 
 should be placed on each side of the studs between build- 
 ings at roof spaces. See Attics; also Roof Spaces, Cock- 
 Loft, and Brick-filling. ' '• ' }'-" 
 
 FRAMING AND TIMBER WORK— See Braced Frattie' 
 arid Balloon Frame. 
 
204 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 FREEZING WEATHER— See Fire Appliances; also Fuel. 
 
 FRENCH POLISH is a polish formed by dissolving shel- 
 lac in spirits of wine. 
 
 FRETWORK MANUFACTURING— See Cabinet Mak- 
 ers. 
 
 FRICTION (revolving) is the friction of journals and 
 bearings of every description. Roller friction is the resistance 
 offered by the circumference of the wheel of a vehicle to the 
 propelling power. Sliding friction is the friction of two flat 
 surfaces as in a planing machine. Friction is worse in suc- 
 tion pipes than in discharge. 
 
 Friction Wheels — Wheels so placed that the journals of 
 the shaft may rest upon their rims and thus be enabled to 
 revolve with diminished friction. 
 
 FRICTION LOSS in fire hose. From experiments of J. 
 R. Freeman. In pounds per hundred feet, with various 
 amounts flowing. Nominal diameter 2 J/2 inches; actual ap- 
 proaches 2^ inches. 
 
 Gallons Flowing 
 100 
 
 Unlined linen 5 
 
 Rubber-lined, fair 4 
 
 Rubber-lined, good . . 2 
 
 3-inch hose about 40 per cent, of the above. 
 
 FRICTION LOSS in water pipes is determined by loss in 
 pounds pressure per square inch for each 100 feet of length 
 on different size clean iron pipe discharging given quantities 
 of water per minute. 
 
 FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY— See Static Electricity. 
 
 FRIENDLY FIRE— One that does not leave its seat of 
 origin, as, for instance, a smoking oil stove or oil lamp, char- 
 ring from radiated heat (unless fire ensues), like charred 
 beams under a furnace. The damage caused by soot is not 
 covered by the fire policy. 
 
 FRIEZING MACHINES— Sometimes called a shaper, used 
 by woodworkers. These machines consist of two vertical 
 spindles projecting up through a table and rotating rapidly 
 in opposite directions. Each spindle carries cutters of vari- 
 
 50 
 
 200 
 
 250 
 
 300 
 
 350 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 33 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 18 
 
 29 
 
 40 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 9 
 
 14 
 
 20 
 
 27 
 
FRUIT EVAPORATORS 
 
 205 
 
 ous designs as desired. They are used for beveling, making 
 edge mouldings. Considerable dust and refuse made. 
 
 FROZEN WATER— No receptacle has been made with 
 sufficient strength to resist the bursting power of frozen 
 water. 
 
 A Friendly Fire. 
 
 FRUIT EVAPORATORS— Fruit is pared, cored, trimmed, 
 bleached with sulphur fumes, sliced and dried, packed. Evap- 
 orators resemble a brick kiln; steam or furnace heat, with 
 furnace set in kiln, fruit on slatted floor above. 
 
 Bleaching with sulphur fumes, in separate building, or by- 
 putting same on belt-conveyor passing through a bleaching 
 box. Both use a pot of burning sulphur. Fruit-preparing 
 usually by machinery. Busy season, September to January. 
 
 FRUIT JUICE MANUFACTURING— See Flavoring Ex- 
 tracts. 
 
 FRUIT PRESERVING AND CLEANING— Raw mate- 
 rials consist of tapioca, currants, dates, raisins, citron, etc. 
 Machinery consists of raisin-seeding machines, currant-wash- 
 
208 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 i-ng machines, steam kettles, dry-rooms, tubs of syrup. Not 
 a desirable class. 
 
 FRUIT STORES— Owing to health board regulations, re- 
 'quiring certain fruits, shelled nuts, etc., to be covered, deal- 
 ers are using sheets of celluloid for a covering. In large 
 stores, considerable quantity is kept on hand. If well estab- 
 lished, considered a desirable class. Salvage in case of fire 
 is very small. 
 
 FUEL is a substance whose combustion in atmospheric 
 oxygen can be utilized as a source of heat energy for com- 
 mercial or domestic purposes. 
 
 In zero weather, the supply of coal should be care- 
 fully noted by inspectors as experience has shown that a lack 
 of supply may lead to the crippling of the automatic sprinkler 
 equipment due to lack of heat. See Fire Appliances. 
 
 FUEL OIL — Crude oil with some of the lighter hydro- 
 carbons (gasoline, benzine, etc.), removed, leaving the heavy 
 tar oil. Flashes usually at about 150 deg. F. Classed as 
 non-volatile. In large units, tanks preferably buried under 
 ground rather than above ground. Should have a steampipe 
 or other device suc^i as a blanketing gas or foam for ex- 
 tinguishing fires. Conveyor pipes to be run underground 
 with accessible gate valves to shut off supply. See Petro- 
 leum, also Oil-burning Equipments. 
 
 FULCRUM — The point about which a lever turns. 
 
 FULL RISK — A risk on which a company is committed 
 to the full limit of its acceptances. In other words, the com- 
 pany has written all the insurance it cares to accept on the 
 particular risk. See Lines; also Risk. 
 
 FULL WAR COVER— See War Risk Insurance. 
 
 FULLER'S EARTH RECOVERY— Earth saturated with 
 oil is removed from filter presses and placed in steam stills 
 where oil is driven off and recovered as refined oil. The 
 earth thus freed is calcined to remove all volatile and or- 
 ganic matter, and, after cooling, is ready for use agfain. 
 
 FULMINATES— These metallic salts are explosive with 
 heat or friction. Should be kept from mineral acids, car- 
 riers of oxygen, liquefied oxygen, organic substances and 
 sulphur. If water or other liquid with which a fulminate has 
 
FUR INDUSTRY 207 
 
 been mixed is sprinkled about and the drops left to dry, the 
 slightest residual traces of the fulminate will explode of 
 themselves, the greatest violence being exhibited when they 
 are exposed to the rays of the sun. Even the dust swept 
 up in fulminate works has a tendency to explode sponta- 
 neously. — (W. D. Grier.) 
 
 FULMINATE OF MERCURY is made by dissolving 
 mercury in strong nitric acid. It is extremely sensitive to 
 the heat of friction and is handled immersed in water or 
 alcohol to prevent explosion. Used in ammunition works. 
 
 FULMINATE OF SILVER is a grayish white crystalline 
 material used in torpedoes. More sensitive than mercury 
 fulminate. Liable to spontaneous combustion. 
 
 FULMINOSE— Cellulose changed by heat. 
 
 FUMEXER — Trade name for an apparatus for venting 
 vapors from inflammable liquids. It is a curved metal hood 
 with wire glass side and back, equipped with, suction fan 
 for drawing off vapor from air brushes, and a drip pan for 
 catching excess liquid. 
 
 FUMIGATION— Carbon bisulphide is sometimes used in 
 tobacco factories to exterminate insects. 
 
 FUMING SULPHURIC ACID— Used in fortifying the 
 mixed acids used for nitrating. See Oleum. 
 
 FUMOTH — Used in fumigating as a protection against 
 the Mediterranean or flour moth. The process is: Slow- 
 burning paper is saturated with a secret material (claim non- 
 hazardous). This paper is slowly burned in a coal stove or 
 other receptacle which has ducts leading to the machinery 
 or elevator legs, etc. The fumes are forced through the 
 machinery parts by means of a slowly-revolving fan. The 
 outlet from these burning fumigators is protected by a dou- 
 ble wire gauze, and the intake air is also protected with 
 wire gauze. 
 
 FUR INDUSTRY (Charles E. Jahne)— The fur industry 
 is very extensive. The class of employees is largely of 
 foreign type. The larger and more important shops 
 are well cared for, and attention is given to the mat- 
 ter of cleanliness; but the middle or smaller classes 
 are generally crowded and untidy, and the employees 
 
208 'INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 are addicted very much to cigarettes. It is a common oc- 
 currence to open the shop door unexpectedly and see an 
 employee smoking while standing with a "SMOKING PRO- 
 HIBITED" sign directly in line of his vision, then ask the 
 shop foreman if he allows smoking and receive his innocent 
 reply, "Never." Then the inspector leads the foreman to 
 the offending employee, who, of course, claims he was never 
 told not to smoke in the shop, and then the matter closes 
 with a promise from both foreman and employee that it 
 will never happen again, and the inspector knows as well as 
 they do that neither one expects to make good his promise. 
 
 There are many failures and fires in the fur trade. The 
 manufacturers of small means are severely handicapped. 
 There are, practically speaking, three grades of furriers. The 
 first grade usually has first selection of importations; the 
 second-raters, the second choice, and the third-rater takes 
 what is left and usually pays as much as others for an in- 
 ferior article. It is in the last class that most failures oc- 
 cur. The better the skins, the more easily they are manu- 
 factured at less expense, and the third-rater therefore has 
 an added expense to cover up defects. 
 
 The fur industry is divided into many parts, namely, the 
 sale of raw skins, the dressing of skins, the manufacturing 
 of hatter's furs, of dressed skins into garments, of muffs and 
 boas, of robes, of caps, of fur tails and heads; also, the trade 
 ^ the taxidermist, who by his art of dressing and stuffing, 
 produces the animal hide in a form representing its natural 
 outline. 
 
 We will endeavor to consider these departments and point 
 out the hazards connected with each, so as to give at least 
 a faint idea of them. 
 
 In the capturing of the animals, it is most desired that 
 they shall be trapped rather than shot because in trapping 
 only the feet or neck of the animal is punctured, while in 
 shooting, the body skin is usually damaged, and thereby re« 
 ducing the value. 
 
 Skins are known as the seasoned and the unseasoned. The 
 better of the two are the seasoned, because they are cap* 
 tured during the coldest weather, that being the time when 
 
FUR INDUSTRY 209 
 
 the hair is the strongest and most oily and the skin the 
 toughest. In skinning the animal, the punching process is 
 the best, because there is less liability of cutting the skin 
 or having the flesh cling to it. After removing the skins, 
 they are dried by natural air, and if the pelt is soft, it is 
 sprayed with water to harden it. They are then baled for 
 shipment, except the finest grade of seals, which are often 
 salted down and packed in casks. When they are received 
 by the dealers in raw skins, they are examined to determine 
 whether they are firsts or seconds (those without knife cuts 
 from the skinning process being the first). 
 
 Dealers in Raw Skins usually have drying and flesh- 
 ing rooms. Herein lie the hazards in their class. The dry- 
 ing of the skins is usually done by gas heat and in frame 
 enclosures with the skins hung on wooden racks. The room 
 should be made of some fireproof material, the hangers of 
 metal and the skins so arranged that if one or mofe should 
 fall from their supports, they would not come in contact 
 with the heating apparatus. Steam heat for the drying 
 room is the most preferable from a safety point. All scrap- 
 ings from the fleshing work should be placed in metal re- 
 ceptacles. Sawdust is often used for the grease absorption 
 on the floor of the fleshing room. Sand is preferable; but 
 no matter which is used, the sweepings should be removed 
 at least daily. 
 
 The next to consider is the fur-dressing trade. The skins 
 are received here in bales generally, but very often in loose 
 form, and stored in piles awaiting the process. In case of 
 fire in the storage rooms, and the skins should not be burned 
 but thoroughly water soaked, they should not be allowed to 
 remain in piles over seven or eight days (the time being 
 governed by the temperature), as they are liable to become 
 heated and then fermentation would be rapid, and this would 
 render the skin practically useless. The skins are in turn 
 examined, and fleshed if particles adhere to them; then, if 
 dirty or sandy, they are washed in plain water and dried by 
 artificial heat, preferably gas. They are then tramped. This 
 means placed in a barrel (one skin at a time) containing 
 sawdust, and tramped upon by a man with light slippers on 
 
210 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 his feet. This makes the skin soft and pliable and also 
 works out the grease which is absorbed by the sawdust. 
 The skins are then rolled, e. g., drawn back and forth over 
 round sticks by means of which they are stretched and 
 flattened; and if any humps or ridges still exist they are 
 skived, or trimmed down with a sharp knife. They are then 
 cleaned in drums, which are large cylindrical-shaped casks 
 practically resembling squirrel cages, which contain quanti- 
 ties of sawdust, preferably cedar wood dust. The drums are 
 rotated by power, and the forced contact with each other, 
 and the mingling with the dust, all serve to clean the skins 
 and remove all remaining greases (at times charcoal stoves 
 are placed under the drums in cold weather), and lastly, 
 comes the hand beating with rattans, which serves to fluff 
 up the fur. 
 
 - There are times when the skins must be bleached or 
 dyed. To dye them, aniline or logwood dyes, sumac, am- 
 monia, sulphuric and nitric acids are used, and this is not 
 a hazardous process. In the bleaching process, an ajr-tight 
 room is needed; sulphur cakes are put in a crucible or ppt 
 which is set on some fireproof base, and the sulphur which is 
 set on fire with a match, burns very slowly without a flame,, 
 practically smoldering, and gives escape to dense fumes 
 which penetrate the hair and hide. Many firms have fireproof 
 vaults in which the more expensive furs are stored. See 
 Hides. 
 
 Manufacturing of Hatters* Furs is a very much more haz- 
 ardous process than fur dressing, on account of the high- 
 speed machinery used. Hatters' furs are usually shipped in, 
 burlap-covered bales. Water, if clean, will not damage the 
 stock very heavily if immediately salvaged, and providing the 
 stock is not scattered about. Smoke has a bad effect on 
 the stock because it is very hard to remove the odor. The 
 stock on the pelts is a different proposition, and offers only 
 small salvage. Felt hats are made of hatters' fur. - ^ 
 
 \ This specific work is the producing of the animal hair iii 
 a proper condition for use by the manufacturers of felt hats 
 and felted fabrics. The preferable skins to be used are the 
 beaver, coney, rabbit and hare; because tbeyi are the most 
 
FUR INDUSTRY 211 
 
 susceptible to the carroting process, which is intended to 
 stiffen the hair for the cutting machines. Carroting means 
 a spraying, usually with a hand brush, of a weak solution of 
 nitric acid, carrot oil and water on the hair, and the skin 
 then passes to the dryer, which is heated to about 150 deg. 
 F. At one time it was thought that only coal fires were 
 proper for this drying, but that severe hazard is now elimi- 
 nated by the use of steani. Previous to the carroting, the 
 skins are examined and fleshed, if necessary, and after the 
 carroting they are trimmed; that is, the irregular edges are 
 straightened; then they go to the combers and then to the 
 shearing and blowing machines, These machines remove the 
 hair from the pelt and blow all foreign particles free from 
 it. The blowers have separators attached and the hair and 
 foreign particles are carried to different receptacles. The 
 possibility of overheated journals covered with dust and hair 
 and resultant combustion causing rapid flash fires is a serious 
 feature. The finished product is packed in papei: bags and 
 burlap bales. The pelts are sold to tanners. ,_ ^ 
 
 Fur Garment Manufacturing contains practically ^ tz^ilor- 
 ing hazard, with the additional feature of stretching and 
 drying skins by nailing them on boards and standing them 
 around coal stoves,, or in small gas-heated drying rooms. 
 After the frying, they^ |]^;|^S ^IV;^ turx^ Jo ^tj)e^.,^^^^^ 
 liners and finishers. ..>;,^> M^ hn^ ^:'i^f^t'^,V,,^v^^!r•■;>'.•^l 
 
 Muffs, Boas and Caps are made largely by pieced 
 skins for the cheap grade stock, and of whole skins for the 
 high-grade stock. You find the hazards of the fur garment 
 shop here with the additional and serious hazard of the use 
 of cotton bats and shoddy, which are used for stufiing or 
 filling purpos:es. The latter very naturally increases the pos- 
 sibility of an untidy shop, 
 
 Fur Tails are made from- the clippings and waste. This 
 class includes, the poorest type of fur manufacturing, both 
 from the standpoint of tidiness and rank of employee§^ -CJ^t,- 
 ting and sewing are the only operations, ^. a.t y;:; : 
 
 The Taxidermist is in a sense a part ;of the fur trade, 
 in ' that he receives the, skin^ fron^ tj^e fur dresser for 
 mounting. The serious f^e^tu^^^ ju l^^.sj^pp are the storage 
 
212 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 and handling of materials for stuffing; use of waxes and 
 paints for tinting and finishing, and the woodworking in the 
 making of moulds, frames and bases. Materials used for 
 stuffing are cotton, shoddy, excelsior and sawdust. 
 
 In conclusion, let us sum up the brief hazards of the fur 
 trade: 
 
 Dealers in Skins — Fleshing and drying. 
 
 Fur-Dressers — Fleshing skiving, tramping, cleaning in 
 drums, dyeing and bleaching, benzine for removing grease 
 from heads. ru w ju 
 
 Hatters* Furs — Carroting, cutting, blOS^itig, drying. 
 
 Garment Manufacturing — Drying, cutting, sewing. 
 
 Muffs, Boas and Caps — Cutting, sewing and filling and dry- 
 ing. 
 
 Taxidermist — Drying, stuffing, decorating and wood- 
 working. 
 
 The above all have a grease hazard to some degree. 
 
 Fur Tails — Cutting and sewing. 
 
 Fur Pointers — Use fish glue for setting seams. 
 
 FUR COLD STORAGE VAULTS— Rooms should be of 
 small area and each equipped with ice house door entering 
 vestibule and the inner door of two thicknesses of sheet iron 
 interlined with 4-inch cork block. Direct pumping brine 
 system with coils on walls. No blower or suction fans. 
 
 Regular watchman and clock service, sprinklers on dry 
 pipe line with control valve outside of vault. Automatic 
 alarm, expansion thermostatic operating at about 130 deg. F. 
 and connected with central station. Trouble alarm, consist- 
 ing of electric thermometers. Approved electric wiring, 
 outside switch with pilot light to indicate when lights are on 
 or off. Masonry walls 12 inches thick, insulated with 4-inch 
 cork block and cemented. Floors insulated and water-proof 
 with two layers of felt (tarred), 1-inch corkboard alternating 
 and finished off with 2-inch concrete. See Consequential 
 Damage. 
 
 FUR HAT FACTORY— Fire, caused by watchman open- 
 ing door of alcohol recovery oven, the vapors therein being 
 exploded by the watchman's lantern. An approved watch- 
 man's lantern should always be used. 
 
FURNACES ai^* 111 
 
 FURS IN COLD STORAGE— Underwriters should be 
 careful not to authorize "too high" a line, as considerable 
 value may be concentrated in very small space. See Conse- 
 quential Damage. 
 
 FURNACES — For installation of temporary kerosene oil 
 burners. See Kerosene Burners. 
 
 FURNACES (portable hot air type) should be placed at 
 least four feet from any combustible partition or ceiling. If 
 protected by metal shield, not less than two feet. Wood 
 floors under furnaces should have sheet metal or one-eighth 
 inch asbestos covered with two courses of 4-inch hollow tile 
 or equivalent, this in turn with at least three-sixteenth inch 
 boiler iron plates. Three courses of brick, top course laid on 
 edge, producing a ventilating air space, may be used in lieu 
 of the terra-cotta. See Cold Air Boxes. 
 
 FURNISHED-ROOM HOUSES— Contents are usually 
 undesirable, owing to the great inroads made by apartment 
 hotels taking the better class of roomers, and the rapid de- 
 terioration of furrtiture from wear and tear. The furnishings 
 in the cheaper grade houses are bought from second-hand 
 dealers. Many fires are caused by smoking, carelessness 
 with matches, swinging gas jets, cooking on gas, alcohol or 
 kerosene oil stoves. See Actors; also Boarding Houses and 
 Lodging Houses. 
 
 FURNITURE POLISH is usually made of clay, petro- 
 leum, varnish, linseed oil, benzine, acetic acid, glacial acetic 
 acid, nitro-benzol, lemon oil, oil of citronella, turpentine. 
 
 FURNITURE STOCK— If stock is all new and only oc- 
 casional "touching up" is done, packing material in standard 
 bin, safety waste can for polishing rags provided, this class 
 appears to be acceptable. Cabinet making or re-upholster- 
 ing may be done. 
 
 FURRING is the finish applied to a wall to prevent damp- 
 ness. The usual method is to lay furring strips on wall 
 about 16 inches O. C, then place the wood lath over the 
 stud and then finish with plaster. This leaves a concealed 
 space of about 3 inches. Fires getting into this space are 
 hard to locate and put out. The up-to-date method is to 
 place asphaltum directly on the naked brick walls and thca 
 
211 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 c6at with plaster, leaving no concealed space. See Finish; 
 see Fire Stops. 
 
 FUSE — Device for breaking an electrical circuit vv^hich may 
 become overloaded. 
 
 FUSE (ammunition) forms the point or nose of the pro- 
 jectile. It is made of machined brass and aluminum parts 
 enclosing a powder train and detonators. Platinum fuses 
 cause ignition when exposed to coal gas or alcohol vapors. 
 
 FUSE (powder) is a train of powder or a fuse which leads 
 to a charge of powder. 
 
 FUSEL OIL (amyl alcohol) — Colorless to yellow liquid, 
 produced in the fermentation of starch and sugar, and is 
 separated from grain alcohol. Commercial flashes at over 
 80 deg. F. 
 
 Fusel Oil — The refuse from the distillation of spirits. 
 
 FUSIBLE LINK, as used on fire doors, etc., made of bis- 
 muth, tin and lead and antimony. The ordinary link fuses 
 at 165 deg. F. Even though a cord is used in place of wire 
 to hold open a door or packing bin, a fusible link is needed, 
 as it melts when temperature rises sufficiently, whereas direct 
 heat is required to burn a cord. 
 
 FUSION POINT OF METALS— 
 
 Blast furnace slag 2500 deg. F. 
 
 Bessemer retort slag 3100 " 
 
 Brass 1600 
 
 Bronze 1450 " 
 
 Cast iron (pig) 2000-2400 
 
 Copper 3000 " 
 
 Ferro-nickel steel 2250 " 
 
 Gold ..^<;M^, 1950 " 
 
 Iron (pure) 3275 " 
 
 Iron (wrought) ., 3300-4000 " 
 
 Lead ... 630 " , 
 
 Manganese steel 2300 " 
 
 Nickel 2700 
 
 Silver 1750 " 
 
 Solt Solder 340 
 
 Steel ■ 2400r3300 
 
FUSION POINT OF METALS 2lS 
 
 Tin 450 deg. F. 
 
 Zinc 750 
 
 Glass 2000-2300 " 
 
 N. F. P. A. (May 7, 1914). Reprinted from Western 
 Actuarial Hazards report. 
 
 FUSTIC — A dyestuff from wood or Venetian sumac. See 
 Dye Woods. 
 
 b-j<i 
 
 /SIG 0. 
 
 
GABLE ROOF — A sloping roof forming a vertical trian- 
 gle. 
 
 GALENA — An ore, compound of lead and sulphur. 
 
 GALIPOT — A white resin obtained from turpentine. 
 
 GALITH — A substitute for bone, horn, ivory or celluloid; 
 produced from milk; nearly pure casein. 
 
 GALVANIZED IRON is iron which has been coated with 
 zinc to prevent it from rusting. The iron is simply dipped 
 in zinc and is not coated by any galvanic process. Zinc, 
 after a short exposure to air, becomes coated with a fine 
 film of oxide which does not increase, and this preserves 
 the zinc itself, as well as the iron beneath it. The setting 
 of ovens should be on non-combustible bases. The acids 
 used are hydrochloric, sulphuric and muriatic. — (The Weekly 
 Underwriter.) 
 
 GALVANIZING KETTLES are brick set kettles, usually 
 5 feet wide 12 feet long and 4^^ feet high. The walls 
 are about 20 inches thick, the inner 6 inches being enclosed 
 on the four sides by a boiler iron compartment containing 
 the coke fire, while the top is covered with metal plates. 
 The fires are kept going continuously as long as six years, 
 for it would take a long time to get the zinc in proper 
 form if it once became chilled. No woodwork should be 
 near kettles. — (Live Articles on "Special Hazards," The 
 Weekly Underwriter.) 
 
 GALVANIZING DRY— Metal is packed in zinc dust in 
 sealed iron drums, placed in gas heated kilns and subjected 
 to high temperature for about six hours, which deposits a 
 coat of zinc on the metal. 
 
 Drying Ovens (for galvanizing) are usually enclosed in 
 brick walls with a steel beam and boiler iron top, while 
 
 216 
 
GARAGE 217 
 
 the base is half-inch iron plates, underneath which are the 
 various flues, with a coke fire at each end of the oven. 
 
 GAMBIER — A vegetable tannin, extracted from the leaves 
 of an Indian tree. Used in tanning. 
 
 GAMBRELL ROOF— A roof with four sloping sides. 
 
 GARAGE — A housing place for automobiles. Gasoline 
 feature important. Hazards of repairing batteries and seal- 
 ing same with pitch, which is generally heated by gas; braz- 
 ing, cleaning parts with gasoline, burning out carbon cylin- 
 ders of cars, storage of oils, smoking. Oily waste should 
 be placed in proper cans. It has been found that by 
 placing fire pails two to five feet above the floor as per Un- 
 derwriters' requirements, they are often broken by automo- 
 biles backing into them as they hang on the wall. Some rule 
 should be adopted by rating bureaus to allow full allowance 
 for fire extinguishers without pails, or to have a barrel of 
 sand with fire pails nearby instead of hanging pails ^here 
 they can be easily broken. A "bumper rail" along the wall 
 is recommended. See Sewers. 
 
 GARBAGE REDUCTION PLANT— The garbage arrives 
 in scows. Grab buckets deposit it in hoppers; it drops to 
 traveling conveyors on which it is carried to digesters and 
 receiving tanks, and to the presses, which expel the water 
 and grease. The water and grease run off to catch basins 
 and the solid matter (vegetable garbage) is taken from the 
 presses and shoveled to a traveling conveyor, which de- 
 posits it in dryers. From the dryers, the material is sent 
 to the degreasing plant (naphtha extracting process), which 
 extracts nearly all of the remaining grease by means of 
 percolators, which are horizontal tanks, steam heated, with 
 strainers. From the percolators it is run to the evaporating 
 tanks (steam 280 deg. F.), where the vapor (naphtha) is 
 taken off by means of piping to the condensers. After con- 
 densing, the naphtha is again returned to the storage tanks. 
 At this stage the mass (garbage tankage) is again conveyed 
 to the dryers, where it is redried and put through the per- 
 colating process, after which time the mass (tankage) is 
 practically free from grease and deposited into storage house 
 in dust form to be used fpr fertilizer. See Extraction Plants. 
 
218 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 GARBAGE TANKAGE— A product from digesters and 
 extractors of garbage reducing plants. Subject to sponta- 
 neous combustion. 
 
 GARMENT WORKERS— Many fires have been caused 
 by smoking, untidiness, gas or electric pressing irons, in- 
 dividual motors. Considered an unprofitable class. See Cut- 
 ting and Work Tables; also Pressing Tables. 
 
 GARNET — A machine which winds cotton bats on cylin- 
 ders in sheets. A type of wool card. 
 
 GAS BLACK — The soot produced from the combustion 
 of hydro-carbon fuel or illuminating gas. Also made from 
 natural gas burned under revolving cylinders, the deposited 
 soot being removed by scraping. It is nearly pure carbon. 
 
 GAS BRACKETS should be 3 feet below any combustible 
 or open ceiling. If shielded with suspended metal shield, 
 they may be 18 inches distant. No gas bracket shall be 
 nearer than 5 inches measured from the burner to the wood- 
 work or other combustible material. No swinging or fold- 
 ing gas brackets allowed against any combustible partitions; 
 same must be protected by wire cages and metal placed on 
 walls where brackets swing. If gas brackets over sewing 
 machines are nearer than 2 feet they must have wire globes. 
 No rubber hose is permitted to be attached to any gas jet. 
 
 GAS CYLINDERS— See Compressed Gas Cylinders. 
 
 GAS DISTRIBUTING PLANTS— The gas is made else- 
 where and comes through pipe lines to gas holders and is 
 then distributed to various sections of the city under press- 
 ure. Many buildings comprise one of these plants. Power 
 house with boilers, dynamos, generators, exhauster house 
 with pumps, water cooling tower, condensers, carpenter shop, 
 oil storage house, lamp storage shed, battery recharging and 
 repairing, machine shop, meter repair shop, linemen's storage 
 and supplies, including lubricating oil, conduits, cables, 
 paint, ladders, tackle; blacksmith shop, arc lamp repairing, 
 paint shop. See Gas Works. 
 
 GAS ENGINES— The hazards. Rubber gas bags are dan- 
 gerous because escaping gas, due to accident or leak, may- 
 cause an explosion or fire. When used they should be 3 
 feet in a lateral direction from ignition charnber. Exhaust 
 
GAS METERS 8t» 
 
 chambers or pots become very hot. Frequently they set on 
 wood to reduce vibration incident to the operation of the 
 engine, and for support. No wood should be allowed. The 
 chamber or pot should be raised at least four inches above 
 the floor or set on incombustible base. The exhaust pipe 
 should be two inches from all woodwork and enter a proper 
 flue, extending at least six inches above the flue or chimney. 
 Floors under and 24 inches outside of engine should be 
 metal clad with flanged edges. Woodwork back of engine 
 should be sheathed with metal as the wheel throws con- 
 siderable oil. 
 
 GAS EQUALIZERS — Galvanized iron gas equalizers are 
 now being used in connection with gas engines in place of 
 the old rubber bags. They insure a steady and uniform gas 
 pressure to the engine and are practically indestructible. 
 The old style rubber gas bag was the cause of many fires. 
 
 GAS AND VAPOR FIRES can best be fought by closing 
 all doors or other means of ventilation, thereby excluding 
 the air, and then turning on steam. 
 
 GAS FIXTURES AND GLOBES— Stocks usually kept in 
 basements. Stock is crated or in barrels packed with straw 
 or salt hay. Hazards are overcrowded stock, unsafe gas 
 brackets without wire cages, untidy premises due to packing 
 material. See Chandelier Manufacturing. 
 
 GAS HOLDERS — Large steel tanks, usually near gas 
 works. Used for storing the gas after it is manufactured. 
 These holders are really reservoirs from which gas is con- 
 stantly being taken and constantly replenished, as a gas 
 plant never ceases manufacturing its product. 
 
 Gas Holders (gasometers), holding millions of cubic 
 feet of gas are a menace to surrounding buildings in case 
 of destruction by wind storms or other agencies.. . 
 
 GAS LIGHTS — Inverted gas light mantles have "caused 
 many fires by reason of red hot carbon dropping on com- 
 bustible material. A wire mesh should be placed under 
 the burners or an enclosed globe used. 'Gas Lights which 
 are two feet or less above sewing tables should be caged. 
 See Cluster Gas Lamps. ' . .** ,. , ■ , 
 
 GAS METERS— Fir^s h^ve tnelt^cl off X^^ connectmg pipe 
 
220 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 and caused a jet of burning gas to be projected into the 
 room, setting fire to surrounding woodwork. An outside 
 shut-off valve is recommended for business buildings. Leaky 
 meters are responsible for numerous fires. Meters should 
 not be placed near gas jets. Looking for leaks in meters 
 with a candle has caused many explosions. See Gas Safety 
 Valves. 
 
 GAS OIL — A residue from the process of making gas. 
 Flash point over 100 deg. F. Not volatile. 
 
 GAS PIPES — Fires have been caused by leaky service 
 pipes which have become so corroded that scales could be 
 picked off with the fingers. Holes appear in the pipe and 
 quantities of gas fill the premises. If an open light is near, 
 an explosion is apt to follow. 
 
 GAS PRESSING IRONS left with gas burning cause fires 
 by burning through tables, unless on iron stands three 
 inches high. See Pressing Tables. 
 
 GAS PURIFYING WASTE— A fertilizer ingredient. See 
 Iron Mass. 
 
 GAS RANGES — Vents from gas ranges should be of three 
 or four-inch tile, extending through roof to the outer air. 
 Usually they are of galvanized iron and set in between studs 
 of frame walls and terminate in attics. It takes but a short 
 time for this flue or vent to become heavily coated on the 
 inside with grease. Should a pan of fat. boil over, fire would 
 ensue and pour out into the attic. See Ranges. 
 
 GAS STOVES should be placed on iron stands and be 
 connected with rigid iron piping. Rubber tubing should never 
 to be used. Stoves must be six inches from combustible par- 
 titions and shielded to 12 inches above the stove. See Baf- 
 fle Plate. 
 
 GAS SAFETY VALVE— A safety device to prevent the 
 escape of gas from meters during fires. The danger of es- 
 caping gas from meters supplying fuel to a fire and endan- 
 gering lives of firemen is too apparent to need comment. 
 The gas-valve safety device for preventing the escape of gas 
 consists of a valve plug of any size desired with a hard steel 
 ball soldered into hollow of plug with solder that will melt 
 

 //cJ 
 
 JIN UNSAFS ARRAmeMBNT 
 
 Copyright, 1916. G. A. Ina. Co. 
 
2i2 INSPECTION AK£) UNDERWI^ITING 
 
 at 120 deg. F. No special fittings are required, ordinary 
 gas tee being used in place of elbow over the meter. 
 
 The valve will automatically shut off the gas in case fire 
 burns oflf the lead meter connections or melts the soldered 
 joints on the meter itself. When the solder melts, the ball 
 drops into the mouth of the pipe and the gas. pressure is on 
 top of the ball and not against it. The nipple or pipe in 
 the bottom of tee should be reamed just a little to make it 
 perfectly round as seat for the ball. This device was in- 
 vented by John P. Doyle, a fireman. 
 
 GAS TUBING MANUFACTURING— Raw stock is wire, 
 cotton and silk yarn, glycerine, glue, litharge, Venetian red, 
 metal parts, rubber tips. Hazards are steam heated kettles 
 for glycerine, glue dipping mixture, wire drawing and spin- 
 ning. 
 
 GAS WELL— How Mr. Guerin, of the New York Fire De- 
 partment, extinguished a fire in a burning gas well. Put 
 men behind shields, push the shields to within ten or fifteen 
 feet of the well, raise the pressure in the two seven-eighths 
 of an inch nozzle to forty or fifty pounds and have the 
 streams played on the base of the well casing so that they, 
 converged from an angle of 90 degrees. 
 
 "This was done. Then I had the streams slowly raised 
 up to and through the column of gas until they reached the 
 base of the glare. At this juncture the men who were hand- 
 ling the hose were ordered to squeeze their thumbs against 
 the stream at the nozzles so that the water spread like a 
 fan. They followed instructions. 
 
 "Striking the flame where it merged with the column of 
 gas, the water became steam, the roar of which exceeded 
 that of the gas itself. The fire went out like a snuffed can- 
 dle. The steam had simply cut off the flame from the gas." 
 
 GAS WORKS— Pentone used for standardizing light in- 
 stead of candles is a hydro-carbon, very volatile and inflam- 
 mable. In the reviving room, chips, sawdust and iron filings 
 that are being revived should be not spread more than 12 
 inches deep, because the mixture may spontane and set fire 
 to woodwork. See Gas Distributing Plants. 
 
 GASKET — Rope, yarn or hemp used for stuffing the joints 
 
GASOLINE 223 
 
 of water pipes, or rubber bands for making connections wa- 
 ter tight. 
 
 GASOLINE— Flash point 84 to 88 deg. F. Ordinary gaso- 
 line boils at 113 deg. F. Its vapor is power producing; when 
 pure will not explode, but when mixed with from 2 to 6 
 parts of air becomes explosive in the presence of an open 
 light or flame. When stored above ground it is con- 
 stantly vaporizing due to the changing temperatures of 
 the atmosphere. Should be stored underground in ap- 
 proved tanks where the temperature remains nearly sta- 
 tionary. When stored in this manner, it will not explode. 
 It is often used for cleaning automobile parts by means of 
 a brush. When used in this manner around the engine, a 
 spark from the motor is apt to explode the accumulated 
 vapors, enveloping the car in flames. Cleaning chamois 
 skin gloves with gasoline by rubbing them, or cleaning silk 
 in the same way, or filtering gasoline through a chamois 
 cloth when filling an automobile tank, generates static elec- 
 tricity which will ignite the vapor. See Benzine. See Pe- 
 troleum. 
 
 Gasoline vapor is about three times as heavy as air, and 
 therefore the greater portion will be found near the floor, 
 and travel to an open flame, flash back to the container, and 
 cause an explosion. One pint of gasoline will make 200 
 cubic feet of air explosive. 
 
 Gasoline, benzine, naphtha or other fluids which emit an 
 inflammable vapor below the temperature of 100 deg. F. 
 should be stored outside all buildings in steel tanks buried 
 at least two feet underground. 
 
 Storage tank shall be constructed of steel at least one- 
 quarter of an inch thick; shall have a capacity of not more 
 than two hundred and seventy-five gallons, and shall, under 
 test, stand a hydrostatic pressure of at least one hundred 
 pounds to the square inch. 
 
 Tank shall be coated on the outside with tar or other 
 rust-resisting material, shall rest upon a solid foundation, 
 and shall be embedded in and surrounded by at least twelve 
 inches of Portland cement concrete, composed of two parts 
 pf cement, three parts of sand and five parts of stone. 
 
??4 INSPECTION„j^Np^^l[JNDERWRITING 
 
 No storage tank shall be placed under the sidewalk nor in 
 front of the building line. 
 
 Storage tank shall be equipped with a filling pipe, a draw- 
 ing-off pipe and a vent pipe; provided, however, that no stor- 
 age tank installed as part of an hydraulic or pressure stoxr 
 age system shall be required to have a vent pipe. All pipes 
 shall be of galvanized wrought iron and shall have malleable 
 iron fittings. All screw joints shall be made with litharge 
 and glycerine. 
 
 The filling pipe shall be at least two inches in diameter, 
 and shall be laid at a descending grade from the sidewalk 
 in front of the garage to the tank. 
 
 The intake of the filling pipe shall be located in a heavy 
 metal box, which shall- be sunk flush with the sidewalk at the 
 curb level and fitted with a heavy metal cover, which shall 
 be kept locked when not in. use. 
 
 The filling pipe shall be closed at the intake by a cock or 
 valve fitted with a coupling for attaching to the hose of a 
 barrel wagon, and with a screw cap to close the opening 
 when not in use. 
 
 Each filling pipe shall be provided with a screen made 
 of two thicknesses of 20-mesh brass wire gauze, placed im- 
 mediately below the filling cock or valve. 
 
 The vent pipe shall be at least one inch in diameter, and 
 shall run from the tank to the outer air at least ten feet 
 above the roof of the garage and at least ten feet from the 
 nearest wall of any other building, and shall be well braced 
 m position. 
 
 The vent pipe shall be capped with a double goose-neck, 
 hood or cowl, and provided with a screen made of two thick- 
 nesses of 20-mesh brass wire gauze, placed just below the 
 gooseneck or cowl. 
 
 Regulations of the Municipal Explosives Commission of 
 the City of New York. See Petroleum; also Liquid Tank. 
 
 GASOLINE ENGINE fires occur largely from exhaust 
 pipes and from ''back-fires." The small engine generally has 
 its gasoline supply in the base, and very often the unions 
 of the pump connections become leaky, and gasoline drips 
 from them. If possible, when inspecting a risk having a 
 
GASOLINE SPRAY FOR AUTOS 225 
 
 gasoline engine, the machine should be seen in operation. 
 The main cause of trouble is the exhaust. Carbon very 
 quickly collects in the muffler and exhaust pipe, and is likely 
 to give trouble if the exhaust pot is confined or near in- 
 flammable material. The engines burning fuel oil or dis- 
 tillate should be treated same as gasoline engines. In prac- 
 tice, the exhaust pipe from big engines is run to a concrete 
 muffler, usually built underground outside of building with 
 " wooden tops. Sometimes these concrete pits burst open or 
 the tops burn off. This is a severe hazard to buildings of 
 frame construction or where any combustible material is ad- 
 jacent to the muffler. 
 
 GASOLINE SPRAY FOR CLEANING AUTOS— A proc-. 
 ess employed for cleaning oily automobile machinery with- 
 out dismantling. To meet this demand a gasoline spraying 
 machine has been placed on the market. This machine is 
 made of galvanized iron and resembles a 2i/^-gallon chemi- 
 cal extinguisher in appearance. It is provided with about 
 5 feet of ^-inch rubber hose, a ^-inch nozzle, a pressure 
 gauge and an air pump fastened to the tank. For cleaning 
 purposes about 2 gallons of gasoline is placed in the tank 
 and then an air pressure of from 50 to 150 pounds is pumped 
 up. To clean the automobile parts, from o'ne to two gallons 
 of gasoline under pressure is sprayed on the machine parts. 
 It is understood that, after the car has been sprayed, the 
 gasoline is allowed to vaporize and the vapor to blow away 
 before the machine is started. Notwithstanding this sup- 
 posed method of procedure several fires have occurred due 
 to premature starting of the automobile. At some garages 
 this is done inside of the buildings, and at others it is done 
 in the street. An extremely hazardous process. •" ^ 
 
 GASOLINE STORAGE TANKS— One type td Jpi-eyeht 
 the accumulation of vapors. Water is poured in tank forc- 
 ing the gasoline to the top. The water is drained off to 
 admit of more gasoline. Tanks are also equipped with froth 
 or foam extinguishing apparatus, consisting of a glass bottle 
 containing acid which is broken by a hammer when the fusi- 
 ble links melt, letting the acid mix with chemicals such as bi- 
 carbonate of soda and soap bark, which, under pressure, 
 
225 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 forces the resulting foam or froth on the surface of the 
 burning liquid. Gasoline is also stored under gas, such as 
 nitrogen or carbon dioxide under pressure. 
 
 GASOLINE STOVES— Considered more dangerous than 
 kerosene stoves. The storage and handling of supply is im- 
 portant. Leaky stoves are dangerous. 
 
 GASSING — Passing material through a gas flame or over 
 rows of Bunsen burners in order to remove the down or 
 fuzz. 
 
 ^ GATE VALVE — The valve used on sprinkler equipments 
 to control the water supply. They should always be sealed 
 open. The latest type, O. S. & Y. (outside screw and yoke), 
 enables the inspector to see at a glance if valve is open. The 
 old style "target" valve depending on a plate marked "open" 
 or "shut" is not looked upon with favor by inspection de- 
 partments. Emergency gate valve at base of tank should 
 not be sealed. This valve is used to drain the tank in case 
 of accident. See Valves; see Sprinkler Equipments. 
 
 GEARING— A train of cog-wheels. 
 
 GELATINE — A substance obtained from one of the boil- 
 ings in the manufacture qf glue. 
 
 GELATINE CAPSULES FOR MEDICINE— Gelatine is 
 boiled in kettles, usually Mott kettles (by direct heat), to a 
 thick mass and moulded into capsule form by hydraulic 
 presses, dried in dry rooms. Oily floors frequently found. 
 
 GENTS* FURNISHING stocks, if damaged by water, have 
 a fair salvage as they can, in most cases, be relaundered and 
 pressed and sold at auction sales. 
 
 GEORGIA PINE TURPENTINE— See Turpentine Spir- 
 its. 
 
 GERMAN SILVER — An alloy of copper, zinc and nickel. 
 It does not contain sterling silver. 
 
 GILSONITE — A high-grade asphaltum, mined in the 
 western states. Melts at 300 to 350 deg. F. Used in mak- 
 ing cable insulation. Is useless if water comes in contact 
 with it before being compounded. 
 
 GIN — A machine for separating cotton from its seeds. See 
 Cotton Gins. 
 
 GINSENG ROOT — A yellowish root, irnpprted mainly 
 
GLASS WORKS 227 
 
 from China. Used extensively by the Chinese for medicinal 
 purposes. Susceptible to water and smoke damage. 
 
 GIRDER — A timber larger than a common beam and on 
 which the floor beams rest. 
 
 GLASS OR CHINA is usually packed in barrels or boxes 
 with plenty of straw or salt hay. In case of fire, the place 
 might resemble the after effect of a ''bull in a china shop." 
 
 GLASS DEALERS— Have stock of ordinary sheet glass, 
 art glass, wired glass, and plate glass. Turpentine is used 
 for cleaning off old glass brought in from jobs. There is 
 little salvage in large sheets of glass, as heat and cold water 
 applied will crack them. 
 
 GLASS WORKS — Glass is composed of silica and alkalis. 
 The principal ingredients are sand, lime, soda ash, potash, 
 cullett, charcoal, oxide of lead, kelp, saltpetre, and cobalt. 
 The process is as follows: Materials are mixed together to 
 form a "batch," which is placed in a fire clay pot, inserted in 
 a brick-enclosed furnace and heated by soft coal. When 
 the batch has cooled to a temperature of about 1,900 degrees 
 it is ready to be "gathered." This is accomplished by means 
 of an iron blow pipe which is inserted into the fire clay pot, 
 the molten glass clinging to the end of the pipe resembling 
 a ball. The glass blower then blows through the pipe which 
 inflates the glass ball, soap bubble fashion. The glass design 
 is then placed in a water jacketed mold, after which it goes 
 to a brick set tempering oven or "lehr" in order to give the 
 glass the proper temper. See Annealing Furnaces. 
 
 GLASS (Colored) 
 
 Amber is produced by the addition of carbonaceous mat- 
 ter, i.e., grain, coke, coal, or other organic matter. It is also 
 produced by sulphur and certain sulphites. 
 
 Black is produced by an excess of coloring matter such as 
 manganese, cobalt, or iron. 
 
 Blue can be produced by cobalt or copper. 
 
 Canary is produced by uranium. 
 
 Green, chromium or iron alone will produce green, though 
 it is usually made by combining several oxides. 
 
 Purple is produced by manganese dioxide. 
 
 Red or ruby is produced by gold, selenium or copper, 
 
229 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 (C C. Dominge, "Live Articles on Special Hazards," The 
 Weekly Underwriter.) 
 
 GLASS, FROSTED— Made by treating the glass in a so- 
 lution of hydrofluoric acid with ammonium carbonate or with 
 a sand blast. AVI XHD HO a^^AJO 
 
 GLASS, LEADED— The shop hazards are crifnpin^,' ^cut- 
 ting and soldering. Gas mufflers are used for soldering 
 irons. Glazing and painting in small way. • i 
 
 GLASS AND MIRROR WORKS— Fire which causes 
 much' smoke ruins the glass by cracking and smoking. 
 Smoked glass, especially plate, is useless unless ground 
 down. This process exceeds the cost of the glass. The 
 white glass, resembling marble, is very expensive. Such 
 glass is ruined if smoked up. The grinding stones are made 
 of a composition, very hard, varying in thickness from one 
 to two inches. They crack under the action of heat. Cutting 
 stones are carborundum, which also crack under heat. 
 
 GLAUBER SALT— See Sulphate of Soda. 
 
 GLORY HOLES (in glass factories) are small brick-en- 
 closed circular furnaces using fuel-oil heat. These small 
 furnaces heat the glassware so as to trim the edges. Setting 
 and clearance should be carefully inspected. See Glass 
 Works. 
 
 GLOVES — Cotton Gloves. Cut by hand or machine or 
 die presses; stitched on sewing machines; pressed and 
 formed into shape by steam-heated glove forms. Light 
 hazard. ' 
 
 Men's gloves, being heavier than women's, are not so sus- 
 ceptible as the latter and, if slightly damaged, can still be 
 used as work gloves, whereas women are very loath to wear 
 any glove which is spotted or defective. Kid Glove stock 
 very susceptible. 
 
 GLUCOSE occurs naturally in most fruits, honey and 
 corn. Sometimes made from potato starch. 
 
 GLUE — Gelatine produced by boiling the parings of hoofs, 
 and also from fish. Factory hazards of boiling and evap- 
 orating. The arrangement of drying ovens and sulphur burn- 
 ers is important. Usually a nuisance to neighborhood. A 
 class avoided by most companies. 
 
GOLD BEATERS 229 
 
 GLYCERINE is formed when natural fats decompose by 
 treatment with alkalis or superheated steam. 
 
 GLYCOL (or ethylene alcohol) is a liquid between glycer- 
 ine and alcohol, the vapor being inflammable. 
 
 GLYOXILINE contains gun cotton, very inflammable. 
 
 GOLD BEATERS— The first process is to beat the gold 
 in a "shodder," which consists of pieces of specially pre- 
 pared skin, with which the .metal is interleaved. Though the 
 hammer used is 14 pounds in weight, the elasticity of the 
 skin causes a rejb^ui^id, ,whicjh,iGpnsiderably reduces the exer- 
 tion of lifting. : .j^, , ,>„;,i., ,,^ ,. 
 
 The "shodder" during the beating process looks rather like 
 a pack of cards, only a little larger, and the "cutch" into 
 which , the pieces of gold, already thinned out to several 
 times their original size, has much the same appearance. 
 At this stage, however, much finer skins are used — so fine 
 that the 700 or so of which the "cutch" is composed make 
 a thickness of less than one inch. After some hours more 
 of beating, the gold leaf is again cut and put between jyjet 
 another book, or pack of skins, known as a "mold." 
 
 The "mold" is beaten on for about four hours with ham- 
 mers of varying weights and sizes, according to the stage of 
 the beatings. The transferring of the incredibly thin leaves 
 of rich, yellow rnetal from the "mold" to the books bought 
 by the gilders is done with a very fine pair of clips, or 
 pincers, made of the lightest wood. 
 
 The leaf is laid on a cushion of soft leather, and then deli- 
 cately cut to the size of the book with a simple-looking in- 
 strument of .wood with sharpened sides, known as a 
 "waggon." 
 
 GOLD PAINT—See Bronzing Liquid. 
 
 GOLDSMITHS— Hazards of melting pots, metal work- 
 ing, gas blow pipes, polishing. 
 
 GOLF BALLS — The core is gelatine or soap and water 
 or an acid resembling sulphuric in a rubber bag around 
 which is wrapped a tight rubber strip, then follows a layer 
 of rubber strips and an outer shell of gutta-percha and com- 
 position. 
 
 GOODS IN HANDS OF— A term signifying that goods 
 
23a INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 belonging to one party are in the hands of another party, pre- 
 sumably to be made up, as for instance, cloth in the hands 
 of a contract tailor to be made up into garments. Con- 
 sidered desirable insurance at current rates, even in sweat- 
 shops, as quite often it is found that prior to the fire most 
 of the goods have been returned to the owner. See Sweat- 
 shops. 
 
 GOOSENECK — The inverted end of a cast iron or other 
 pipe used at the end of vent pipes above the roof of garages, 
 etc., to prevent rain from getting into the pipe. 
 
 GOVERNOR — The part of a machine which regulates the 
 speed; usually by two balls attached to springs on a revolv- 
 ing axis. Increase in speed causes the balls to fly outward, 
 which action regulates a valve, which in turn reduces the 
 amount of power consumed by the machine. 
 
 GRAHAMITE — An asphalt used in making cable insula- 
 tion compound. Contains carbon and has caused mine fires 
 in West Virginia and Utah. 
 
 GRAIN ELEVATORS or Warehouses. Grain is usually 
 received from barges or trains, elevated to top of building 
 and dropped into receiving bins, called "garners." Thence 
 it is cleaned, mixed, bleached and perhaps cooked. From 
 the steam cooker the grain is conveyed in worm conveyor 
 to a hopper, through rollers to squeeze out water, then to 
 grain dryer, and through an exhauster, where dust is con- 
 veyed by blower to a cyclone. 
 
 The bins are usually "cribs" made of planking, and extend- 
 ing from first to top floor. When the warehouses are built 
 in rows they are usually connected by endless belt conveyors 
 on which the grain travels from one building to another. 
 Standard automatic drop doors should be at each side of 
 openings at fire walls. Cleaners and other machinery are 
 usually located on first floor. The "scourers" (smut re- 
 movers) and mills should have magnets, as they revolve at 
 high speed, as do the "clippers," which clip the ends of 
 the grain. Sulphur fumes are used for bleaching. 
 
 Dryers are invariably steam-heated. Cleanliness about the 
 plant and machinery is essential. Dust in machinery and 
 elevating machinery is more hazardous than that found un- 
 
' 14 ftJT^WJW GRAIN FIRES .I^fim 231 
 
 der ordinary atmospheric conditions from handling of the 
 grain. The use of open lights or of unguarded electric lights 
 lowered into bins to ascertain the quantity of grain therein, 
 has often caused an explosion of the dust in suspension in 
 the bin from the open light or the breaking of the electric 
 light bulb. All lights should have guards. Grain dust explodes 
 from sparks in grinding or milling machines, electric sparks 
 from motors or from static electricity generated by rapidly- 
 moving belts and pulleys. Fires are caused by clogged ele- 
 vators (sometimes called lofters) or grain accumulating 
 around "strut-boards," also by friction gearing at machinery, 
 journals resting on wood, cyclones, wood pulleys, sparks 
 from motors or railroads. Dust spouts from cleaners should 
 not exhaust on railroad side of building as sparks from 
 locomotives may enter the spouts. 
 
 Fireproof grain storage tanks can be built of terra-cotta 
 tile, circular in shape, furred on the outside with tile 2 inches 
 in thickness and 12 inches in height (the furring tile overlap 
 the inner tile), the whole being reinforced by pairs of steel 
 tension bands running through the walls at frequent inter- 
 vals. The steel tension bands are imbedded in a cement 
 grouting and the outside furring is applied with a cement 
 mortar. The foundation walls and base are built of concrete. 
 
 GRAIN FIRES — A great many of the disastrous field 
 grain fires originate when threshing begins. Fires in 
 threshers are mainly caused by static electricity in the ma- 
 chines. 
 
 Suggestion of Insurance Department of Washington 
 
 This hazard can be guarded against to some extent by 
 keeping the top of the machine open, allowing the smut 
 and dust to blow away. Have shovels and some spaded-up 
 earth handy to the feed, as shoveling dirt into the separator 
 will frequently extinguish the fire. Chemical extinguishers, 
 of 2 and 3 gallon capacity are most efficient. 
 
 Threshing-machine engines should be equipped with spark 
 arresters and precautions should be taken* to keep the same 
 clean and clear from soot. When the engine is moving 
 from one setting to another a man with a wet sack should 
 follow fifty to one hundred yards behind the machine in 
 
nt INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 order to extinguish any fire which may be started by sparks. 
 A barrel of water with tub and wet sacks should accom- 
 pany all threshing outfits. 
 
 The ash dump should be thoroughly covered with dirt and 
 wet down before leaving the setting. The engineer should 
 not be depended upon to extinguish dump fires, but. the grain 
 growers should be on the ground and see that all fires are 
 carefully extinguished. 
 
 Sparks from trains — If a field is exposed to railroad, hay 
 strip should be cut about fifty feet wide, and fire guards of 
 at least ten feet of furrows plowed between railroad track 
 and the field. If field is exposed to country road where 
 there is considerable dry grass or the road is strawed, "it is 
 well to plow a fire guard between the field and the road. 
 
 Old straw stacks which have been burned at the time of 
 plowing frequently cause fires. Precaution should be taken 
 not to set the machine or allow the new straw pile to be 
 near the burned butt of the old straw pile. 
 
 Back fire from gas engines — A number of fires are caused 
 by back firing of gas engines. The exhaust should be 
 screened and kept free from dust and precaution should be 
 taken to have a guard follow the gas engine when moving. 
 Exhaust should be at least five feet above separator where 
 used on combines. A chemical fire extinguisher should 
 always accompany the engine. 
 
 Smoking — Under no circumstances allow smoking in any 
 field at any time after grain begins to ripen. 
 
 Oily rags which are used for cleaning up around ma- 
 chinery should never be thrown aside, or dropped in a field, 
 as is sometimes done. Spontaneous combustion may result! 
 All threshing machines should be equipped with metal re- 
 ceptables for oily rags. 
 
 Fires in the field are very difficult of control, especially 
 where the straw is heavy. Every precaution should be taken 
 to eliminate the cause. A very large proportion of the fire 
 loss can be prevented if farmers will plow at least ten feet 
 of furrows around stacks as soon as the grain is cut, mak- 
 ing a circle large enough to take in both the setting and 
 separator and leaving the engine outside the furrow. By use 
 
GRAIN STORAGE WAREHOUSES 233 
 
 of a harrow or other means, the stubble should be removed 
 from the ground. It is not sufficient to plow two or three 
 furrows that do not fully cover the stubble. It is little less 
 than criminal to allow a fire to spread in this manner when 
 it can be largely controlled by following these suggestions. 
 
 Fighting field fires — The most effective way is with wet 
 sacks. Men should go out on all sides with wet sacks and 
 beat it toward the centre. A barrel or tub of water should 
 be put in a machine or wagon and immediately driven to 
 the fire lighters so that they can keep their sacks wet at 
 all times. 
 
 Fires in setting — Grain sacks burn very slowly, especially 
 when in large piles. If work be started immediately most 
 of the damage can be prevented. Straw should never be 
 piled on sacks until after the engine has been moved and it is 
 made absolutely certain that no fire can spring up. 
 
 Combined harvesters — When grain is harvested by a com- 
 bine, the sack grain should be taken care of promptly. There 
 is a large and useless risk in leaving sacked grain scattered 
 about the field. Remember, it is your duty under the policy 
 conditions to prevent and put out all fires and save grain 
 after the fire. Do not be misled by the impression that 
 you should not touch the grain until the adjuster arrives. 
 You violate the policy conditions if you do not use due 
 diligence to take care of it. 
 
 GRAIN STORAGE WAREHOUSES— Old type brick 
 construction are lined with continuous planking of crib 
 construction forming bins. This peculiar construction, to- 
 gether with the enormous height and almost total lack of 
 windows or fire escapes, makes this class a hard one to fight 
 in case of fire. Fires in this class usually are of a "flash'V 
 nature and sprinklers may not prove effective. Even though 
 heavy blank fire walls separate the various buildings, if much 
 water is thrown on the grain the walls are apt to bulge and 
 come down when the wet grain expands. (Lessons learned 
 from Dows Store Fire, Oct. 14, 1917.) See Cleaning Ma- 
 chinery. 
 
 GRANITE— Under fire will explode and fly off in frag- 
 ments or it will disintegrate into a fine sand. 
 
234 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 GRANULATING — Forming into grains or small masses; 
 separating molten substances by dropping or pouring into 
 moving water. 
 
 GRAPHITE, or Black Lead, as it is called, is a form of 
 carbon. It is used in lead pencils. The name "black lead" 
 is misleading, for there is no lead in this substance, which 
 is purely carbon with a very small amount of iron. 
 
 GRAPHITE (artificial)— Made from anthracite coal, can 
 be used as a lubricant in graphite grease form. 
 
 GRAVITY AND PRESSURE SYSTEMS for Fuel Oil- 
 Inspectors should ascertain if gasoline or fuel oil system is 
 supplied by gravity or pressure. The former is not approved, 
 because the supply is above the point of use and the supply 
 pipes continually contain oil whether system is in operation 
 or not. In the latter case, the system depends on a pump 
 to bring the oil to the outlet, the supply pipe pitched to 
 drain back to supply tank. 
 
 GRAVITY SUPPLY of water is the best thing for fire 
 purposes. A reservoir of good capacity or a large standpipe 
 gives a reserve supply already stored at the higher eleva- 
 tion and available to meet any sudden large demand. Water 
 thus stored is, we may say, capital on hand, giving strength 
 to meet any emergency, whereas, the best pumping equip- 
 ment must depend on the right action promptly taken when 
 special demands arise, and there must be very large re- 
 serve capacity to meet possible heavy calls which would 
 come but rarely. (French.) 
 
 GRAVITY TANKS— The usual requirement for sprinkler 
 tanks is an elevation of 20 feet above roof to give about 15 lbs. 
 pressure on top lines. Ordinary sized tanks are made of 
 2y2-inch. first grade dressed lumber, or steel. Round hoops 
 are used, as flat hoops burst from rust. Water is kept from 
 freezing by steam coil; but at times steam jets are used. Ex- 
 posed piping must be packed frost-proof. "Tell-tales" are 
 used to indicate height of water, although mercury gauges 
 may be used. These latter are connected to tank riser on 
 tank side of check valve and installed inside of building. 
 
 GREASE FIRES in hotels and restaurants are caused by 
 the ignition of grease which has collected in the ventilator 
 
GROUND (MADE GROUND) 235 
 
 pipe connected with large ranges. The grease slowly con- 
 denses on the inside of the pipe until it is thickly coated, 
 when it may ignite, and because the pipe has not ample 
 clearance from combustible material, start a fire. Some au- 
 thorities recommend steam jets. Water thrown on grease 
 when afire will scatter the fire. Sand or even sawdust is 
 preferable. See Oil Fires. 
 
 GREASE ERADICATOR— See Eradicator. 
 
 GREEK FIRE — A colored fire mixture, classed as fire- 
 works. 
 
 GREEN HIDES— See Hides. 
 
 GREER OIL — Made from sediment of gas oil, volatile. 
 
 GRILLAGE — A sort of net work of timbers laid cross- 
 ing each other. 
 
 GRILLAGE FOUNDATIONS— See Floating Founda- 
 tions. 
 
 GRISSETTES— Plain triangular pieces of plate iron riv- 
 eted by their vertical and horizontal legs to the sides, top 
 and bottom of box girders for strengthening their angles. 
 
 GROCERS— See Canned Goods. 
 
 GROIN — An arch formed by two segmental arches or 
 vaults intersecting each other at right angles. 
 
 GROOVED- AND-SPLINED— Planks grooved^ af 'tbtK 
 edges instead of tongue and grooved. When laid, a strijp 
 is driven in between the planks, which takes the place of 
 tongue. 
 
 GROUND (Made Ground) — Cinders from smelting fur- 
 naces or others which contain a large percentage of uncon- 
 sumed coal should not be used for filling under buildings. 
 Plant of the Tottenville Copper Co., Staten Island, April 
 14, 1910, suflFered a loss of approximately $20,000. Fire dis- 
 covered near the melting furnaces and was probably started 
 by hot coals finding their way through a crack in the bot- 
 tom of pot melting furnaces or flue and thereby coming in 
 contact with the unconsumed coal in the cinders of which 
 the filling under the floor of the building was composed. 
 N. Y. Board of Underwriters. 
 
 GROUT — The mortar poured into the interstices between 
 stones or bricks. 
 
^it INSPECTION ANi> tJNDERWRlTlNG 
 
 GUANO (manure) — If wet is liable to cause spontaneous 
 combustion. Although the hazard is very mild, inspectors 
 should always suggest that pigeons and chickens be removed 
 from the attics or cupolas of buildings. 
 
 GUARDS — During war times when incendiaries are active, 
 the question of sufficient armed guards plays even a more 
 important part than the construction of the building and the 
 hazards contained therein. The year 1917, with its heavy 
 loss record, shows that many plants were not properly 
 guarded. See War Conditions. 
 
 GUAYULE— A form of rubber. 
 
 GUNCOTTON— Cotton soaked in nitric and sulphuric 
 acid mixture. The stronger the nitric, the more powerful the 
 guncotton. A weak solution produces collodion or celluloid. 
 See Nitro-cellulose. 
 
 GUN METAL (or Bronze) — A compound of copper and 
 tin. 
 
 GUN POWDER — A mixture of potassium nitrate or salt- 
 petre, powdered charcoal and sulphur. The explosive quality 
 of gunpowder is due to the fact that it will burn with great 
 rapidity without contact with air and that in burning it 
 liberates large volumes of gas. 
 
 GUTTA-PERCHA— Making in sheets, steam-heated mix- 
 ers and calenders are used. When mixed, beeswax is added 
 to keep the gutta-percha from sticking to the rollers, and 
 oxide of iron and oxide of zinc is also added. The sheets 
 are sprinkled with talcum powder to prevent adhering when 
 rolled up. Hazard is mild. Gutta-percha is rubber. 
 
 GYPSUM- is sulphate of lime. Found in rock formation. 
 It is a slow conductor of heat, as it contains in its mass a 
 multitude of infinitely fine air cells. Gypsum manufacturers 
 claim that three inches of gypsum properly applied to steel 
 or ironwork will hold the temperature of the metal to about 
 300 deg. F. when exposed to 2,200 deg. F. for a period of 
 four hours. 
 
 GYPSUM ARCH (Fire Test)— A 4-inch panel flat arch of 
 gypsum and shavings reinforced with Clinton Wire Cloth, 
 two inches cinder concrete fill on top and soffit of arch cov- 
 ered with 1^4 inches of plaster, 1 part cement -and 3 parts 
 
GYPSUM PLASTER MILLS 237 
 
 composition plaster. Span of arch 5 feet 3 inches center of 
 I beams. Furnace of 12-inch concrete, interior about 9 feet 
 above grating on which the fire was placed. Heat averaged 
 1,700 degrees for 4 hours. The gypsum arch surprised those 
 in charge with its unexpectedi..ftrength. The arch had been 
 in place about two weeks. The arch was intact — the wire 
 mesh reinforcement exposed where water from hose stream 
 washed the plaster ofif, about 3 inches remaining show re- 
 sult of calcination; the lower flanges of I beams were exposed'. 
 The sawdust showing in arch is natural in color showing 
 heat did not penetrate through arch further than one-half 
 inch. No load test applied, '^ 
 
 Water Application — ^At intervals of 5 minutes the follow- 
 ing was applied: 2^-inch hose with 1^-inch nozzle, 100 
 pounds pressure at hydrant. First, stream of one minute 
 duration at each of two doors to quench fires, one minute 
 streams on arch, outside flushed for one minute, hose ap- 
 plied three times to interior of furnace to cool and wash 
 down. 
 
 GYPSUM PLASTER MILLS— Reduce gypsum to the fin- 
 est possible powder or flour before passing it to the cookfers 
 or calcining kettles and then to 'apply only such degree ot 
 heat as will serve to carry off such proportion of its con- 
 tained moisture as will prevent the voluntary setting or 
 hardening of the finished material when exposed to the 
 atmosphere. Inspect carefully before binding lines. ' 
 
 .rrp a n»m 
 
H 
 
 HAIR — Human hair stocks are not considered desirable, 
 owing to susceptibity of stock. 
 
 HAIR CURLERS are made of piece or scrap leather, cut 
 and sewed with a cotton filling through which runs a wire. 
 Hazards are storage and sorting of scrap leather into which 
 considerable quantities of rubbish find their way; sewing 
 machines, storage and use of cotton batting or tow. Usually 
 untidy appearance. 
 
 HAIR-DRESSERS— Use alcohol for massage purposes, 
 and in lamps for curling irons, electric curling irons and 
 hair dryers, gas-heated hair dryers. Some use benzine for 
 cleaning hair goods and also make cosmetics on the prem- 
 ises. 
 
 HAIR FABRIC as used for nets or braid. The hair is 
 reduced to a paste by a solvent, run through an artificial 
 silk spinner and drawn out in threads. Can be braided or 
 woven like horse hair. 
 
 HAIR GOODS— Manufacturing— The hair is washed in 
 hot water with or without disinfectant, bleached (usually 
 with peroxide or hydrogen), dried in dry room, curled on 
 irons, hand combed, or dyed. Use aniline dyes, muriatic 
 and sulphuric acids. See Dry Rooms, also Bleaching. 
 
 HAIR NETS are made by hand from Chinamen's queues 
 or from combings of women's hair. 
 
 HAIR ORNAMENTS are usually made of celluloid, ivory, 
 imitation ivory, vegetable ivory or bone. Involves hazards 
 of celluloid working on power machinery. See Celluloid. 
 
 HALLS — Buildings used for halls' and lodge rooms are 
 usually of large, open area; either frame or ordinary brick 
 construction with unprotected floor openings. May have 
 miscellaneous stores on ground floor. The hall proper usu- 
 ally has a complete stage equipment; the stage constructed 
 
 238 
 
D; HARDENING AND TEMPERING 239 
 
 of wood or other light material; makeshift dressing rooms 
 and an abundance of old properties and scenery which accum- 
 ulate and are rarely ever removed. The dance floor is highly 
 polished, and care should be exercised in storing of oil and 
 floor mops. Gangsters frequent the poorer class halls. 
 Many fires are caused b}^ smoking. Fires once started in 
 this class are hard to extinguish. Poor fire record. 
 
 HALVING — To notch together two timbers which cross 
 each other so deeply that the joint thickness shall only equal 
 that of one whole timber. 
 
 HANGERS — Fixtures projecting below a ceiling to sup- 
 port the journals of long lines of shafting, or piping. 
 
 HANDKERCHIEFS— Fancy handkerchiefs are mounted 
 on colored pasteboard which, when wet, may stain and 
 thereby reduce the value of the goods. The manufacturing 
 consists of cutting, sewing, hemstitching and ironing. Classed 
 as white goods manufacturing. The nature of the business 
 requires cleanliness. 
 
 HARD COAL is almost wholly composed of carbon. 
 
 HARDWARE — Heavy hardware stocks are mostly un- 
 polished wares and are preferable to light hardware, which 
 is polished and therefore more susceptible to rust from 
 moisture. 
 
 HARD WOODS— Generally classed as those cut from 
 broad-leaved trees. Underwriters prefer hardwood and write 
 larger lines than on soft woods. See Soft Woods. 
 
 HARDENING AND TEMPERING— Known as Heat 
 Treatment Process in machine-shops; consists of hardening 
 and tempering tool steel. The steel is first placed in gas- 
 heated hardening ovens until a certain temperature is 
 reached and then plunged into an oil trough with agitator. 
 The oil used is principally fish oil, flashing at about 550 
 deg. F. Care should be taken to see that the furnace is 
 properly set. 
 
 HARNESS-MAKERS— Work consists of stuffing collars, 
 sewing and oiling harness. Tow, straw, hair, or hay may be 
 used as stuffing material. 
 
 HARNESS OIL is mainly neatsfoot oil. 
 
 HARTIN — A resin obtained from lignite. 
 
240; INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 HARTITE— A fossil resin found in coal beds. 
 
 HARTSHORN— See Ammonia. 
 
 HATCHWAY — A horizontal opening in a floor. Should 
 be automatically trapped in order to prevent fire from gain-^ 
 ing access to other floors. See Shafts. 
 
 HATS (FELT) — Busiest season is summer. Made of wool 
 or fur felt. The hats are shaped from the felt in gas or 
 steam-heated presses over plaster moulds, then laured (put- 
 ting on the nap) by brushing the felt so that the hair lays 
 in one direction and greasing with a cloth pad which is 
 applied until a gloss is obtained. The lining is then put in. 
 Heating of lauring stoves important, gas being principally 
 used but sometimes kerosene oil. 
 
 Buckram frames for hats are sized with shellac, varnished 
 and glued. See Buckram. 
 
 HAT STOCKS are very susceptible. Derby and other 
 stiff hats are practically ruined as far as sale is concerned 
 if damaged by water or smoke. Soft hats are not so easily 
 damaged. Straw hats are usually a total loss. 
 
 HATS (STRAW)— Straw braiding is usually a separate 
 business. In making hats, the braided straw is sewn by ma^ 
 chinery and blocked, i. e., moistened, formed over plaster or 
 spelter moulds and pressed in gas or steam-heated presses, 
 then bleached or dyed, varnished or shellaced and dried. 
 Bleaching is done by peroxide of sodium or sulphur fumes. 
 Glue or shellac is used for sizing. Blocking presses require 
 several rubber tube gas connections. There may also be a 
 foundry for making spelter moulds. Paper boxes may also 
 be made on the premises. The arrangement of glue kettles 
 and construction of dry rooms and bleaching rooms are most 
 important hazards. See Bleaching, Dry Rooms, Sulphur. 
 
 HATTERS' FURS— See Furs. 
 
 HATTERS' SUPPLIES— Stock consists of embossed or 
 plain lining or those stamped with maker's name, sweat 
 bands and trimmings. Use rubber cement for cementing 
 leather, gas crimpers for linings, embossing presses and sten- 
 ciling presses. 
 
 HAUNCHES— The parts of an arch from the skewback 
 to the keystone. 
 
HAY 241 
 
 HAY — Spontaneous combustion in sweating hay is one of 
 the chief causes of the large barn loss. According to the 
 Ohio bulletin, spontaneous combustion in hay originates in 
 the following manner: 
 
 "The cells in hay continue to live and breathe for some 
 time after it is cut, and they alone in a close mow, heat the 
 hay to a temperature of 132 deg. F. Added to this is the 
 heat from the microscopic spores of fungi which continue 
 to grow in the blades of hay during its fermentation, the 
 heat created by the development of the hay seeds and the 
 heat of the sun upon the roof. These three causes, acting 
 together, may heat closely packed hay stored where there is 
 no ventilation to a temperature of 212 deg. F. The hay then 
 begins to char; the charcoal formed absorbs oxygen and 
 the mass grows still hotter. The hay reaches 265 deg. F., 
 and then the mass blazes. Bran, grain and silo material 
 may ignite spontaneously if placed under similar conditions." 
 
 HAY AND FEED STORES— Generally crowded to the 
 doors with baled hay with more or less of it loosely scat- 
 tered about. Smoking prohibited. Method of heating and 
 lighting important. Dust hazard is mild. 
 
 HAZARD — The word '"hazard," as applied to fire insurance, 
 carries the same meaning as in ordinary usage, and means 
 the point of danger, or to be in jeopardy or danger. The fire 
 hazard is the inherent quality or surrounding of a risk or 
 piece of property which makes it more or less liable to con- 
 tagion or destruction by fire. Powder or gasoline is hazard- 
 ous. Frame dwellings are more hazardous than steel struc- 
 tures. The risk is the thing insured, the hazard is the danger 
 which surrounds the risk. (Fire Facts, issued by Washing- 
 ton Surveying and Rating Bureau.) See Risk. 
 
 HAZARD, PHYSICAL — Any feature of a risk which af- 
 fects the risk, either structurally or from conditions therein. 
 
 H. C. TYPE AND PLATE CLEANING FLUID— A ben- 
 zine substitute acceptable to underwriters as not dangerous. 
 
 HEADER BEAM — (Also see Chimney Construction). The 
 beam on which is fastened the stirrups for beam supports 
 or into which is framed the joist It is also used in floor 
 opening construction. 
 
242 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 HEADER COURSE— A course of brick laid with end out- 
 ward in wall to form a bond. At least every sixth course in 
 brick wall should be a header course. 
 
 HEAT is a physical property obtained by mechanical 
 energy; by passing an electrical current through a substance; 
 from the sun, or by chemical means. 
 
 HEATERS (Water Heaters)— The gas flame flaring out,, 
 caused by wind blowing down vent pipe, has caused fires.'^ 
 Vents should be carried above roof and be equipped with 
 wind deflector. Vents should never terminate in an attic or 
 concealed space — the heat is apt to bank up and cause fire; 
 If in contact with wood, the continued heat, while even at?^ 
 low temperatures, carbonizes the wood which is apt to burst 
 into flame. 
 
 HEATING APPARATUS— If in doubt as to whether it is 
 unsafe or not, place the hand on the combustible material 
 nearest the heater. If the hand cannot remain because of 
 the heat, be ,on the safe side and consider it unsafe. 
 
 HEATING, COMBINATION SPRINKLER HEATING 
 SYSTEMS— See Sprinkler and Heating Systems. 
 
 HEAVY OIL— The fractional distillate obtained from coal 
 tar between 225 to 270 deg. C. Inflammable. -^^iAi^^i; 
 
 HEELBALL — Composition of lamp-black and wax!. USsed 
 by shoemakers. Manufacturing process is hazardous. 
 
 HEMSTITCHING (manufacturing), employ ordinary sew- 
 ing machines and gas-heated crimpers, which usually have 
 rubber tube connections. 
 
 HEIGHT OF A BUILDING is the distance from the curb 
 or street level to the highest point of the roof in case of flat 
 roofs, or the average height of the gables in case of roofs 
 having a pitch of more than 20 degrees. The height of a 
 building seriously afifects its insurance. It is very difficult tp 
 fight fires "up in the air" as the ordinary fire steamer or 
 tower is not designed for excessive height. In very high 
 buildings inside standpipes are relied on for furnishing water 
 for extinguishing purposes. (N. F. P. A.) 
 
 HEIGHTS AND AREAS IN FACTORY BUILDINGS— 
 Factory buildings of excessive height and area have long 
 been recognized by underwriting organizations as a grave 
 
omrmv. ^^^^ ^^^ 
 
 danger to life and property, owing to the difficulty of co4-' 
 trolling fires in them. It is logical to assume that the men' 
 best fitted to determine safe limits of heights and areas are 
 the men who have made a life work of combating fires under 
 all conditions of weather and hazard. The following is the 
 average of the replies of 50 fire chiefs throughout the country. 
 
 Area between 
 fire walls 
 
 Type of building Stories in sq. ft. 
 
 Brick or joisted construction, not sprinklered.3.2 5,200 
 
 F. P. construction, not sprinklered 5.3 9,300 
 
 Brick or joisted construction, sprinklered 4.8 10,500 
 
 F. P. Sprinklered 7.5 21,600 
 
 (From booklet, Ira H. Woolson.) 
 
 HEMP — Hemp without a prefix such as manila hemp, sisal 
 hemp, etc., is generally understood to mean the fibres from 
 the true hemp plant. The basis of all vegetable fibres is to be 
 found in cellulose; a compound belonging to a class of nat- 
 urally occurring substances known as carbohydrates. Ordi- 
 nary hemp is classed as a soft fibre which must be handled 
 at once, if damaged, if any salvage is to be expected. From 
 the underwriting standpoint, fibres may be divided into two 
 principal classes, i. e., hard and soft fibres. Hard fibres, by 
 virtue of their construction, do not absorb water rapidly 
 when immersed and do not heat or decompose as rapidly as 
 do the soft fibres. Hemp requires about 110 days for its 
 growth, and is cut either by hand or special machinery. The 
 hemp stalks are dried, set in shooks and sometimes bundled 
 and stacked. Later the shooks or stacks are opened and the 
 hemp again spread out for exposure to action of the dew, 
 frost, and sun, which dissolves the gums holding the filaments ^ 
 together and makes the inner woody stem dry and causes it, 
 to fall away readily when passed through the breaker. Hemp 
 exposed to a heat of 300 degrees practically destroys the 
 fibre. Fibres in storage warehouses, if thoroughly wet down 
 after a fire, have been known to cause the collapse of the 
 building walls due to the swelling and expansion of the fibre 
 from the excessive absorption of water. Large masses of this 
 
244 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 fibre, when wet, heat rapidly and soon decay, and unless 
 steps are taken at once, very little or no salvage can be ef- 
 fected. Authorities seem to be divided as to whether fibres 
 are subject to spontaneous combustion, although the follow- 
 ing authorities are quoted as follows: 
 
 Hemp, especially if gathered in wet seasons, is very liable 
 to get heated. Experience at Maysville, Kentucky, indicated 
 that wet hemp is a very dangerous neighbor. Many of the 
 fires that occurred there in hemp could not be satisfactorily 
 traced to any other cause than spontaneous burning. (Harris' 
 Ins. Chemistry.) 
 
 Hemp in a pure and thoroughly dry condition may attain 
 such a degree of desiccation, under the influence of moderate 
 warmth, the radiant heat from a stove or piping, and in sum- 
 mer from the rays of the sun, that pyrophoric carbon is 
 formed, and the mass takes fire. (Von Schwartz in "Fire 
 and Explosion Risks." — (D. Van Nostrand Co.) ^' 
 
 T. E. Sears, an authority on fibres, states that as far as he 
 could learn, no positive proof has ever been given that fibres 
 are subject to spontaneous combustion. Hemp mills as a 
 class, are not very desirable insurance. Hemp in the field 
 is a rather new feature for underwriters and very little in- 
 formation is available, owing to the lack of experience with 
 this class. Owing to the nature of the soil in California, 
 perhaps only the tall-growing single-stalk variety can be 
 grown. The tariff rate of 6 per cent, in some locations is 
 charged and this would indicate somewhat the hazard in- 
 volved. Aside from the spontaneous combustion (probable) 
 hazard, inspectors should see that the fields are "cleared of 
 all stubble or foul stuff which would permit a fire to com- 
 municate from stack to stack; find out whether the insurance 
 also covers in the factory or shredding building; carefully 
 note all exposing buildings and distance from the railroad 
 tracks on account of sparks from locomotive; gasoline trac- 
 tors used in the fields; lightning, and smoking by the em- 
 ployes. See Fibres. 
 
 HEMP KURDS — Formerly a waste product, is now being 
 used in paper making. 
 
 HENEQUEN— See Fibres. 
 
1^ P HIDES AND SKINS 24& 
 
 HERAKLIN — Used for blasting purposes; explosive. 
 1 HERROLIN — A liquid used in the gasoline motor in- 
 dustry. It is diluted with gasoline to make the gasoline 
 vapor more explosive. It is really nothing more than highly 
 purified and distilled gasoline v^hich seems to regenerate 
 other gasoline when mixed. 
 
 HELICAL STAIRWAY— A spiral stairway. 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS (T. O. Gildersleeve)— The name 
 I'-hides" is commonly given to the undressed skins of the 
 large domestic animals, such as oxen, horses, etc., while 
 those of the smaller animals are called skins. See Tear-offs. 
 
 Green Hides are salted and dried. The salt acts as 
 a preservative, keeping the albumen inactive. The dried 
 hides are dried in open air and the albumen becomes in- 
 active and in both cases they can be kept for a long time. 
 They are receiving today in New York City hides from Japan 
 and China. (Considered good insurance.) 
 
 If Salt Hides become wet, the water washes out the 
 preserving quality or salt and the albumen becomes active 
 and they decompose very soon if not resaltcd, especially in 
 hot weather. (Considered good insurance.) 
 
 Dry Hides wet with water become soft and the albumen 
 becomes active and will decompose very soon if not dried 
 klmost immediately. The actual loss in both cases, salt and 
 dry, should be small. (Considered good insurance.) 
 
 Dxessed Hides such as harness and sole leather un- 
 dergo various processes in tanning and are more susceptible 
 to fire damage on account of the oils used in finishing. Water 
 is apt to cause stains, but if immediately refinished the sal- 
 vage should be large. (Not as good as undressed hides.) 
 
 Pickled Hides (brine solution) are skivers and thin 
 hides. If dried will crack and break. These- are shipped in 
 brine in barrels. (Good insurance.) >^0fii1 . 
 
 Undressed Hides are not as susceptible to fire as 
 dressed hides, but if exposed to excessive heat they become 
 so hard that they will crack and break. (Not so good as 
 pickled hides.) 
 
 Water would not have any bad effect on hides in barrels 
 unless the barrels are open, then it would weaken the brine 
 
24« INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 and possibly discolor the top hides. Fire possibly would not 
 effect stock in closed barrels, and if open would only dam- 
 age the top hides if salvaged at once. Should fire burst the 
 barrels a large loss may result. Water has a damaging effect 
 on skins, especially if not dried at once. 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE STEAM— Most rating bureaus con- 
 sider IS lbs. to the square inch as high pressure. Below this 
 pressure they are classed as low. Sometimes the safety valve 
 can be adjusted so that when 15 lbs. is exceeded the steani 
 will blow off. 
 
 HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM (New York City)— This sys- 
 tem is supplied by pumps. Six of 5,000 gallons capacity each, 
 in each Oliver and Gansevoort street pumping station. Ag 
 soon as the alarm of fire is soupded the pumps are started 
 and 125 lbs. pressure is immediately ready. By 'phoning the 
 pumping station, this pressure is increased according to the 
 nature of the alarm, in 25-lb. installments until a maximum 
 of 500 lbs. is reached. See Water Mains. 
 
 HIGH WINES— See Distilleries. 
 
 HIP ROOF — One that slopes four ways, thus forming an^ 
 gles called hips. 
 
 HIPS — Pieces of timber placed in an inclined position at 
 the corners or angles of a roof. 
 
 HOARDING — A temporary closed fence of boards placed 
 around a building in course of construction. 
 
 HOG-CHAIN BEAM— A beam strengthened by tie-rods 
 under same sprung from end to end of beam, with straining 
 posts below, under which passes the tie-rods. Used to pre- 
 vent bending or buckling. 
 
 HOLD DUST (a substitute for sawdust)— Composed of 
 sawdust and wood fibre treated with a solution of ammonium 
 phosphate in dilute triatonic alcohol, certain salts, a disin- 
 fectant, traces of iron and aniline coloring matter. Will 
 not burn at ordinary temperatures. 
 
 HOLLOW FINISH— Sheathing, lath and plaster, etc., for 
 walls, ceilings or partitions, which allow a hollow space back 
 of same. 
 
 HOLLOW METAL DOORS AND TRIM— These are 
 considered next in merit to standard fire doors, which are 
 
HOOD 147 
 
 too ungainly to be used in office buildings. Some time ago 
 a fire on the 26th floor of the Singer Building, New York 
 City, completely burned out the entire contents of a room 
 used for the storage of old records; but was confined to the 
 room by the hollow metal door. 
 
 HOLLOW SQUARE— A group of adjoining or adjacent 
 buildings arranged in the form of a square with a yard or 
 court in center. Fires communicate through the windows or 
 other openings (unless protected) at the angles formed by 
 the buildings. 
 
 HOOD — A metal canopy placed over a gas range, coal 
 range, retort or other stove to catch vapors, smoke or gasses 
 and pass them out of the buildings through a vent pipe. 
 Hoods, if covered with two inches of asbestos, may be placed 
 not less than nine inches below a combustible ceiling. If 
 without asbestos covering, the distance should be eighteen 
 inches. See Ranges. 
 
 HOOPS FOR SPRINKLER TANKS should be round. 
 The flat hoops rust, and their condition cannot be ascertained 
 until they rust through. 
 
 HOPPER — A container such as a bin with spout, used for 
 feeding grain, etc., to mills or machinery. A temporary stor- 
 age bin. 
 
 HOPS are hand piclced and dried in kilns on screen floor 
 over furnace having a pan of sulphur on top. When baled, 
 and in warehouses, are difficult to burn. When wet, will ex- 
 pand sufficiently to burst the walls of buildings. Susceptible 
 to smoke or water damage. 
 
 HORIZONTAL EXITS — Openings or means of egress 
 from a floor to the corresponding floor of an adjoining build- 
 ing by means of a doorway cut through a fire wall and pro- 
 tected by standard fire doors. See Fire Exit Partition. 
 
 HORN BLACK or animal black is almost identical with 
 bone black, but is generally in a more finely, divided form. 
 Animal refuse, albumen, gelatine, horn hoof shavings, etc., 
 are subjected to dry distillation in a still or retort; the black 
 carbonaceous mass which is left is washed with water and 
 powdered in a mill. Used for printers' ink, blackening, and 
 the cheaper grade of varnishes and paint. 
 
t4a INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 HORN AND FERTILIZER FACTORY— Concerns some- 
 times use celluloid scrap. This is mixed indiscriminately with 
 the horn, etc., and ground by the "pressed horn and meal 
 worker," then placed in dryers. While the temperature will 
 not ignite the horn, dust it readily fires celluloid dust and fre- 
 quent fires are likely to occur. 
 
 HORSE OIL— Obtained by boiling down flesh and fat; 
 used in making palm or rosin soap. 
 
 HORSE-POWER— This term is intended to express the 
 amount of work that a power plant will do. The word was 
 coined by James Watt, the father of the steam engine. He 
 finally decided that a dray horse was capable of doing 33,000 
 foot-pounds of work in one minute, and so this amount of 
 work he called a horse-power. • Example — Horse pulling 3,300 
 pounds vertically upward 10 feet in one minute exerts one 
 horse-power. See Foot-Pound. 
 
 HORSES — The sloping timbers which carry the steps in 
 a staircase. 
 
 HORSES AND OTHER LIVE STOCK— The policy form 
 usually limits the amount payable in case of loss for each 
 animal; thus, $2,000 on horses, in case of loss, no one horse 
 to be valued at over $200. Numerous losses have been paid 
 where unscrupulous dealers have substituted old "skates" 
 for good stock and then set fire to the stable. After a serious 
 fire it is hard to determine the true value of stock. The 
 bodies of horses which have been killed in a fire become 
 bloated. This, and the fact that all the hair and skin have 
 been burned off, make it almost impossible to judge the 
 value of the animal. See Stables. / -----^ • 
 
 HORSES STABLED ABOVE GRADE— See Stablest 
 
 HOSE — In the manufacture of fabric-covered rubber hosci 
 the hazards are those of rubber working with vulcanizing, 
 weaving and covering. If covered with flexible metal, there 
 is a machine shop hazard, with metal spinning. This hose is 
 vulcanized in a very long vulcanizer sometimes 30 feet lojjg. 
 See Rubber Works. It ., 
 
 HOSE STREAMS (Effective height of), according to E. 
 V. French. 
 

 HOSPITALS 
 
 
 249 
 
 1^-inch 
 
 Limit of height, 
 
 with moderate wind 
 
 smooth nozzl 
 
 e With 100 lbs. 
 
 With 80 lbs. 
 
 With 60 lbs. 
 
 Length of hose at hydrant 
 
 at 
 
 hydrant 
 
 at hydrant 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 
 ft. 
 
 ft. 
 
 100 
 
 88 
 
 
 82 
 
 67 
 
 200 
 
 82 
 
 
 72 
 
 59 
 
 300 
 
 I! ?.i j«->y^ r. 
 
 
 65 
 
 52 
 
 400 
 
 m^q.p'io^ 
 
 
 58 
 
 44 
 
 500 Sni 
 
 ij^pOO 13 ft i 52 
 
 
 52 
 
 40 
 
 700 ^'^'' 
 
 '^^' " 53 
 
 
 43 
 
 33 
 
 1,000 
 
 42 
 
 
 34 
 
 25 
 
 HOSIERY AND UNDERWEAR STOCKS— Usually in 
 pasteboard boxes. Woolens are subject to shrinkage or stain 
 if wet. Cotton goods can be washed and salvaged. 
 
 HOSPITALS — Usually consist of a group of ordinary 
 constructed brick buildings with frame roof structures or 
 cupolas, and freely communicating, and with unprotected 
 floor openings, especially stair wells. Fire hazards are laun- 
 dries, kitchens, paint and carpenter shops, medicines or oils 
 boiling over on stoves, storage of drugs and chemicals, in- 
 cluding ether, Columbian spirits and alcohol, and other com- 
 mon hazards. In cities, hospitals have fire drills of. all em- 
 ployees, including nurses and staff, with fire alarm systems 
 and standpipes with hose. 
 
 HOSTILE FIRE is one that leaves its seat of origin. See 
 Friendly Fire. v . i 
 
 HOT BLAST— Is a term used, in "conflagrations. In the 
 Chicago fire, the fire started outside the congested district, 
 developed into hot-blast form, then swept through and be- 
 yond the congested district, and finally burned out for lack of 
 fuel. These fires cannot be stopped by firemen while the 
 wind holds out, but they have been checked and deflected up- 
 wards by barriers consisting of two or more fire walls, or 
 their equivalent, with a free air space between as in the case 
 of fires out of control, which have been stopped by a mere 
 alley, with buildings fully shuttered on each side. (From 
 paper by Albert Blauvelt, Before American Society of Me- 
 chanical Engineers.) See Flames; see Conflagration Blast. 
 
 HOTELS, especially of the better class, are considered 
 
^0 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 good risks. This is due mainly to the superior management 
 and careful scrutiny given by all in charge, day and night. 
 As a general rule the construction of the non-fireproof hotel 
 is not so good on account of the large well-holes, furred 
 walls, and poorly protected floor openings. They are in- 
 spected regularly by city departments on account of the lives 
 at stake, and the fire fighting equipment is usually in good 
 order. Fires have been caused by chefs pouring grease on 
 top of ranges for the purpose of hastening cooking by getting 
 top of range red hot. See Apartment Hotel; also Seashore 
 Hotels. 
 
 HOT HOUSES connected to florist shops, fair risks if 
 heating apparatus is safe. 
 
 HOUSEHOLD INVENTIONS— Consist of kitchen uten- 
 sils of tin, aluminum, enamelled, plated and japanned ware. 
 Hazards include wood and metal working with japanning by 
 spraying or dipping. Fire record df class is poor. 
 
 HOUSEKEEPING— This expression is used to denote the 
 care and cleanliness about a plant. See Dust. 
 
 HOUSE WRECKERS OR MOVERS— Equipment con- 
 sists of ropes, rigging, tackle, lubricating oils, second-hand 
 lumber, shoring timbers, building materials. 
 
 HOUSINGS — In roller mills, the vertical supports for the 
 boxes in which the journals revolve. 
 
 HUMIDOR — A box or room (usually of wood), in which 
 cigars are kept moist by using wet sawdust on the floor or 
 by sprinkling water on the floor. 
 
 HYDRANT PRESSURES according to E. V. French. 
 The following table shows the hydrant pressures needed 
 with various length? of hose to discharge 250 gallons per 
 minute through a 1^-inch nozzle: 
 
 Length of Hose Pressure at Hydrant 
 
 100 feet 63 lbs. 
 
 200 " 77 " 
 
 300 " 92 " 
 
 400 " 106 " 
 
 500 " 120 " 
 
 700 " 149 " 
 
 1000 " 192 " 
 
HYDRODYNAMICS 251 
 
 HYDRANTS — The approved fire hydrant or fire plug is so 
 constructed that when the valve is closed by raising a flange 
 on the rod all the water remaining in the hydrant is allowed 
 to escape through an opening at the bottom where it runs to 
 waste into the ground, through the open lower end of the 
 frost jacket. This jacket is a hollow cast-iron cylinder sur- 
 rounding the working parts of the hydrant. Without this 
 arrangement, water remaining in the hydrant would freeze 
 and burst the hydrant. Upon the approach of winter all 
 hydrants should be tested for proper draining to prevent 
 freezing. 
 
 HYDRATE composed of salt, oxide or acid with water. 
 
 HYDRAULICS is the science of the flow of water 
 through pipes and the raising of water to various heights. 
 
 HYDROCARBON is a liquid composed of carbon and hy- 
 drogen. Flashes at zero F. Classed as inflammable. Hydro- 
 carbons: all compounds of carbon and hydrogen. 
 
 HYDRO-CARBON OIL is obtained from crude pe- 
 troleum and from the tar obtained from bituminous coal. 
 Flash 200-500 deg. F. 
 
 HYDROCHLORIC ACID (muriatic)— A corrosive liquid 
 formed by combining hydrogen with chlorine. Not inflam- 
 mable. See Acids. Usually kept in carboys. 
 
 HYDROCYANIC ACID— A colorless, volatile, very in- 
 flammable liquid, used for fumigating to destroy the flour 
 moth in flour mills. 
 
 HYDRODYNAMICS— There are four important but 
 simple considerations which must be kept in mind for under- 
 standing the dynamics of water pressure. First, water, like 
 other liquids, exerts equal pressure in all directions owing to 
 the fact that its molecules move freely over and upon each 
 other. Pressure exerted upon water in a hollow ball with 
 numerous perforations would expel the water from all the 
 perforations with equal force. This, it need not be explained, 
 is the principal of the hydraulic press, where the pressure 
 of a small pipe of water exerted over a wide surface shows 
 the same pressure for every square inch of such wider sur- 
 face. It is the principle upon which an inch pipe inserted 
 jtightly in a barrel full of water will burst the barrel when 
 
252 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 the water reaches a certain height in the pipe, although the 
 weight of water in the pipe may be trifling. Secondly, water 
 like any solid, has a known weight for a given quantity. 
 Third, water will flow with less or greater velocity through 
 pipes according to the pressure exerted upon it, which pres- 
 sure may be simply that of its own weight, due to its eleva- 
 tion above the point of escape from the stored body or the 
 pressure exerted by a force pump. Fourth, water, like a solid 
 in motion, is subject to the retardant effect of friction of its 
 surface against the surfaces rubbed against. Consequently 
 water flowing through a pipe is retarded in its flow by the 
 friction of its particles on the sides of the pipes what is 
 known as "skin friction," naturally greater in rough interiors 
 of pipes than in new, smooth ones. (From lecture F. C. 
 Moore.) 
 
 HYDROFLUORIC ACID— A fuming corrosive liquid 
 made by treating a mineral, known as flourspar, flourite 
 or calcium flouride with sulphuric acid. (See Etching Acid.) 
 
 HYDROGEN, the lighest of all gases, burns with a pale, 
 blue flame, giving out much heat. Hydrogen gas is inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 HYDROSTATICS is the science which treats of quiet 
 water or water at rest in a reservoir. 
 
 
 jr>rrnq 
 
I 
 
 I BEAM — An iron or steel beam, the cross section or end 
 view of which is the shape of the letter "I". 
 
 ICE CREAM CONES— See Wafers and Cones. 
 
 ICE FORMATION— (In sprinkler piping in risks involv- 
 ing mechanical refrigeration). As a preventive measure, 
 up-to-date plants have an apparatus for reducing the amount 
 of moisture in the air used in charging the dry pipe system. 
 This apparatus consists of an air pump taking air from a 
 small refrigerator room constructed especially for the pur- 
 pose. It is called the air chiller, and discharges back through 
 coils and a settling drum located in the same room. A valve 
 is placed at the bottom of the settling drum for drawing off 
 the accumulation of water removed from the air. See Ring 
 Ice Formation. 
 
 ICE HOUSES— Usually large, light frame construction 
 and filled with salt hay, sawdust or hay between each cake 
 of ice. Inspectors should note if located near water that is 
 pure and not contaminated. Sweating hay is subject to spon- 
 taneous combustion. Instances have been known where the 
 owner has kept the ice so long that it froze into one mass 
 and could not be removed except by blasting, in which case 
 the ice has no market value. The moral hazard should al- 
 ways be investigated. 
 
 ICE-MAKING — There are two distinct methods of freez- 
 ing the water by the same evaporating agents. One is tht 
 Can System, whereby the filled cans are almost entirely im- 
 mersed in brine which is kept cool by ammonia expansion 
 coils. An agitation of the brine is secured by means of pro- 
 peller wheels in the brine, usually operated by a motor. 
 
 The other is known as the Plate System, where cells are 
 filled with water. The walls of the cells are iron plates form- 
 ing a chamber, inside of which coils are placed through 
 
 253 
 
254 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 which brine is circulated or in which ammonia is expanded. 
 With this system, the freezing progresses from each side 
 and toward the center, but so as to form two plates of ice, 
 the freezing process being arrested before the center is 
 frozen. Iron bars are frozen in these cakes, with which they 
 are raised out of the cells by cranes and pulleys. The cakes 
 of ice are loosened from the plates by turning warm water 
 into the coils. It is claimed for the plate system of ice-mak- 
 ing that the product more nearly approximates natural 
 frozen water, and that artificial cooling of the ice store- 
 rooms is not necessary whereas with the can system a tem- 
 perature of about 28 degrees must be artificially maintained 
 to prevent the ice from melting. 
 
 IFE — A white fibre from which cordage is made. 
 
 IMITATION LEATHER— Paper, cloth, wood pulp, cel- 
 luloid, fibre and cloth sheets are the main bases. These are 
 sized, impregnated with nitrated cotton in paste form in a 
 calender (set of steam rolls), dried, varnished, painted or em- 
 bossed or enameled. This is a hazardous process, including 
 picking cotton and drying nitrated cotton (the same process 
 as in making cellulose). The mixture is inflammable, and 
 the vapors are explosive. The cellulose is mixed with sub- 
 stances like clay, with oils to add to the spreading qualities 
 and then colored. As in making oil-cloth, the coating process 
 is repeated for desired thickness. This latter feature should 
 be in fireproof cut-off section. Embossing press and cor- 
 rugating machines are mainly gas-heated. The nitrating 
 building, picker house, boiler room and storage buildings 
 should be detached. See Leather. 
 
 IMITATION MARBLE AND ONYX are usually made at 
 slate quarries. The slab of slate is cut, ground and polished 
 smoothly, and gradually submerged in a vat or tub of water. 
 The water is streaked with paint which adheres to th^ slate 
 as it submerges. When removed, the slate is baked in a 
 kiln, polished, varnished, dried and rubbed with oils to ob- 
 tain a high finish. Benzine or turpentine paint are sometimes 
 used. 
 
 IMPOST— The upper part of a pier from which an arch 
 springs. - 
 
INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMPS 255 
 
 IMPROVEMENTS— This class of insurance should bt 
 written with extreme care, and should, wherever possible, be 
 included in the building or contents items. Where the im-^^ 
 provements to buildings are written separately from the in- 
 surance on the building, they usually take the building rate 
 with an additional charge added thereto when written sepa- 
 rate from building insurance. Insurance complications are 
 likely to ensue after a loss unless the same insurance com- 
 pany insures both the improvements and buildings. Inspec- 
 tion should always be made to determine the nature of the 
 improvements. It may develop as very good insurance such 
 as a new brick front, or on the other hand, it may be very 
 poor insurance such as highly ornamental plaster ceilings, 
 mirrored side walls, fresco work, wall paintings. Tenants 
 who install permanent improvements such as mentioned 
 above have an insurable interest in same although they prop- 
 erly belong to the owner of building, who (by virtue of 
 ownership) may claim damages in case of fire. In this in- 
 stance it is possible that the same loss might be paid twice, 
 both to tenant and owner. Only competent underwriters 
 should accept "Improvements" insurance. 
 
 INCANDESCENT ELECTRIC LAMPS called in the 
 trade "carbon lamps." They are being rapidly replaced by 
 Mazda and Tungsten lamps. An extensive detail process but 
 briefly described is as follows: Glass bulbs received with col- 
 lars attached, two copper wires tipped with platinum are in**'^ 
 serted and the filament put on. The filaments are of ordi- 
 nary absorbent cotton in solution of zinc chloride, injected 
 into wood aJcohol under air pressure in a bulb which solidi- 
 fies the filament; placed in carbonizing furnace where it re- 
 mains until carbonized. The temperature is about 4000 deg. F. 
 Flashing follows, which process is, passing an electric cur* 
 rent through the filament in the presence of gasoline vapor. 
 The flashing apparatus consists of a glass container of gaso- 
 line from which is passed a rubber tube to a vacuum vessel 
 containing the filament which is held by. clamps connected 
 with electric current. The current passing through the fila- 
 ment brings it to incandescence, and the gasoline vapor 
 passed into the vacuum, the vapor being broken down and a 
 
25ft^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 black metallic appearing covering of hydrocarbon deposited 
 on the filament. It is then cemented to the platinum (or sub- 
 stitute) wires. The bulb and the mount are fused together and 
 the air exhausted from the bulb. A more perfect vacuum is 
 created by the use of amorphorous phosphorus and alco- 
 hol. (Numerous spark fires due to friction are caused at this 
 point more than at any other in the process.) The lamps 
 are tested with electric current, to determine the candle- 
 power and defects, packed and shipped. Electric hazard se- 
 vere. Glass blowing, blow pipe work, use of alcohol, zinc 
 chlorides and amosphous phosphorus, carbonizing ovens, 
 flashing with gasoline vapors, buffing and packing are the 
 usual hazards. 
 
 INCENDIARISM — The act or practice of maliciously set- 
 ting fire to buildings. See Pyromaniac. 
 
 INCENSE — The material is a mixture of powdered char- 
 coal, starch and perfumes, molded into small cakes and dried. 
 The only severe hazard is the grinding of charcoal. 
 
 INCOMBUSTIBLE— Materials which not readily ignite 
 when subjected to ordinary fire. 
 
 INCOMBUSTIBLE BUT NOT FIREPROOF— The term 
 refers to steel skeleton, construction built with unprotected 
 iron work. 
 
 INCREASE OF HAZARD— The policy states that if there 
 be any increase of hazard, the assured shall notify the in- 
 surance company. The courts have liberally interpreted this 
 clause, giving the insured the benefit of the doubt in most 
 cases. An increase of rate does not necessarily, signify an 
 increase of hazard. 
 
 INCUBATORS AND BROODERS— The most popular is 
 the type heated by kerosene oil lamps. The end of the in- 
 cubator should be protected with non-combustible material 
 plus an air space of at least 1 inch between the metal shield 
 and the incombustible material. The heater should be all 
 metal with riveted joints. The heated air pipe entering the 
 incubator ought not to be in contact with the woodwork. 
 All woodwork should be protected with metal or asbestos. 
 The lamp should be of metal bowl type, rigidly set, and ar- 
 
INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS 257 
 
 ranged SO that it cannot be filled while lighted or while it 
 is in the incubator. 
 
 Brooders should be of non-combustible material. In place 
 of kerosene oil type, some employ hot water, gas or elec- 
 tricity, and the rules governing the installations of these are 
 those of approved general practice. Kerosene oil-heated 
 types of brooders or incubators have a poor fire record. 
 
 INDEPENDENT WALL— An outside wall carrying loads 
 of but one building. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER is the solidified sap of the rubber tree. 
 See Caoutchouc. 
 
 INDIA RUBBER CEMENT is India rubber solution of 
 coal tar naphtha. 
 
 INDIAN COTTON, called Lintus or Linters, is similar to 
 shoddy. 
 
 INDIAN SPIRITS— A benzine substitute; acceptable to 
 underwriters; has a flash point of about 105 deg. F. 
 
 INDIGO — A blue coloring substance originally obtained 
 from the indigo plant; now artificially prepared as a coal tar 
 product. In underwriting, care should be taken to see that 
 this stock is kept away from other stocks. A hose stream 
 played on this material will cause colors to run through the 
 building and damage other stocks. 
 
 INDIGOTINE— A dyestuff used in the color blue. 
 
 INFANTS* AND CHILDRENS* WEAR— Usually white 
 goods. Susceptible, but if attended to at once after a fire, 
 considerable salvage can be derived. Subject to mildew and 
 the colors running from ribbons. Usually kept in glass show 
 cases. 
 
 INFLAMMABLE LIQUIDS should be stored in rooms 
 constructed of 8-inch brick or 6-inch tile walls with similar 
 roofs and doors with sills raised 4 to 6 inches to prevent 
 the liquid from running into other rooms. All doors should 
 be standard automatic, and windows wired glass (double 
 glazed preferred) in hollow metal sash and frame. Good 
 ventilation is a primary requirement. AH liquids flashing 
 under 100 deg. F. are classed inflammable. 
 
 INFLAMMABLE VAPORS— Those heavier than air set- 
 tle close to the lowest leyel and are present in an invisibly 
 
258 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Stream leading to an opening of any kind such as a door 
 or stairway. An open light 100 feet away may be sufficient 
 to ignite this vapor. Precautions as to ventilation, electrical 
 devices, vent fans, etc., are the necessary requirements. 
 
 INGOT — A lump of cast metal, as for instance: a pig of 
 cast iron. 
 
 INHERENT HAZARDS— The hazards found in the or- 
 dinary risk of a given occupation aside from the common 
 hazards of light, heat and power or of special processes. See 
 Hazard. 
 
 INITIALS — It is well not to pass a line of insurance with- 
 out ascertaining the first name of the assured. Many women 
 use the initial of the first name without prefixing Miss or 
 Mrs. This is often resorted to as a subterfuge to mislead 
 the insurance company into believing that the insured is a 
 man. See Woman's Names. 
 
 INK (Printing Ink)— Ordinarily made of linseed oil, lamp- 
 black, soap and nut oils, dry colors, Japan, varnish an'd rosin 
 oil. Manufacturing requires the use of grinding mills, mixers, 
 calenders, kettles and furnaces. Ink mills usually consist of 
 three calender rolls, steam-heated, one revolving in the di- 
 rection opposite to those above and below. The paste is 
 ground between the rolls for mixing and smoothing. 
 
 INSECT AND VERMIN EXTERMINATORS— May 
 contain carbon bisulphide, gasoline, or other similar sub- 
 stances. Rat exterminator can be made of ground sponge 
 saturated with flour, sugar, grease, barium carbonate. 
 
 INSPECTOR — One who inspects the risk on which a com- 
 pany assumes liability. He should have a good knowledge 
 of building construction and hazards and also know some- 
 thing about machinery, electricity and chemistry. 
 
 INSPECTORS should "train their noses" as well as their 
 minds and eyes. In these days of new processes, the olfac- 
 tory sense will often indicate and detect the use or pres- 
 ence of substances which may not be visible but which can 
 be detected by smell if the inspector is familiar with odors. 
 
 The best inspector is not always the one who boasts loud- 
 ly of his education and finishes his day's work in spotless 
 clothing, imrna^ulate linen and with lily-white hands. There 
 
INSPECTORS 259 
 
 are many inspectors arrayed thusly who can only be dubbed, 
 "The Sign Readers." The ambitious, conscientious and suc- 
 cessful inspector will always endeavor to obtain all the in- 
 formation due him, in probing- for causes, conditions and re- 
 sults, with the manner of a gentleman, the speech of a diplo- 
 mat and the common sense of a man. He will always at- 
 tempt to investigate "concealed spaces," whether he begrima 
 his skin or his clothing. And last but not least, he will never 
 allow himself to think, or act as though he believed, that 
 he owns any person's property, because he bears the title. 
 Inspector. The assured invariably judges the company from 
 the speech or actions of its representative. In conclusion, 
 let the Inspector who thinketh he knoweth it all, take heed, 
 lest he be made ashamed; because that type of an Inspector 
 is usually a pronounced failure. Inspectors should always 
 point out the defects of a risk to the tenant and oflTer sug- 
 gestions toward their correction. All processes, special ma- 
 chinery, common hazards and exposures, should be set forth 
 in the report. There is a wide difference between inspection 
 work by rating bureaus and the work done by individual 
 companies. In the former, construction and the physical 
 hazards as relating to rate-making are noted while in the 
 latter the "human element" enters, i. e., the moral hazard, 
 general appearance, prosperity, class of help and other fea- 
 tures which a company requires for underwriting purposes 
 and which are not brought out in the rating schedule. — 
 (Chas. E. Jahne.) 
 
 INSTRUMENTS (SURGICAL)— The hazards are those 
 of machine shops with forging, annealing, emery wheels, 
 blow pipes, engraving. The parts are usually cleaned with 
 benzine to remove grease or oil and treated in a bath of 
 nitric and sulphuric acids. 
 
 Instruments and razors are subject to rust from dampness 
 and do not necessarily have to become wet. 
 
 INSULATE — To cover with a non-conducting substance. 
 
 INSULATED — A body is insulated when it is separated 
 from other bodies by a non-conducting substance. 
 
 INSULATING COMPOUND— For electric wires and 
 cables, the composition is principally rosin, pitch, parafin, 
 
8W INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 gilsonite, montan wax, grahamite and prepared asphalt. 
 These are heated in steam kettles or Mott kettles with di- 
 rect fire heat. Such a composition has a very high flash 
 point. 
 
 INSULATION, on electric wires, in burning give off fumes 
 which are injurious to or will suffocate firemen when fight- 
 ing fire. 
 
 INSULATORS — Substances which do not conduct elec- 
 tricity such as glass, gutta-percha or porcelain. See Air 
 Space; also Asbestos Insulators. 
 
 INSURANCE — A system of collecting sums of money 
 (called premiums) from a number of people to pay the losses 
 of a few. The rate therefore should be graded according to 
 classes of trade to effect an equal distribution of the cost 
 (premium) among those businesses which have shown a 
 larger percentage of fires than some others. 
 
 INTERIOR DECORATORS— Those occupying small 
 shops or grade floor stores are in some cases considered de- 
 sirable insurance risks when they have only a few pieces of 
 furniture or draperies on display while other shops may be 
 crowded with furniture to be remade, antiques, odds and 
 ends, draperies, stocks of wall-paper and present an untidy 
 condition. The higher class concerns usually occupy sev^ 
 eral floors of a building in a good section with offices, show- 
 rooms and workrooms. Here we may find upholstering, 
 drapery-making, sewing, furniture repairing, also retail stocks 
 of fancy goods or notions. See Painters. 
 
 INTERTIE — Small pieces of timber placed horizontally 
 between, and framed into vertical pieces to tie them together. 
 
 INVERTED ARCHES are frequently built under open- 
 ings in order to distribute the pressure more evenly over 
 the foundation. 
 
 INVERTED GAS-LIGHT mantles have caused many fires 
 owing to the red-hot carbon dropping on combustible mate- 
 rial. 
 
 INVISIBLE HEAT— See Flames. 
 
 IODIDES — As chlorine forms chlorides with many of the 
 metals, so iodine forms iodides with them. 
 
IODINE 261 
 
 IODIDE OF NITROGEN— A highly explosive black pow- 
 der, used in combination with drugs. 
 
 IODINE is produced to some extent from the ashes of 
 deep seaweed, but mainly from crude Chile saltpeter or 
 Caliche. It is bluish-black, lustrous crystalline solid, slightly 
 volatile and sparingly soluble in cold water. Melts at about 
 114 deg. C. (238 deg. F.) and boils at about 184 deg. C. It 
 is usually imported from South America in small hardwood 
 kegs bound with iron hoops, covered with dried skins which 
 are said to be intended to keep the kegs from falling apart 
 should the destructive action of the contents on the wood 
 and metal weaken the keg to the point of collapse before the 
 iodine is ready for use. 
 
 OwiiTg to its great tendency to stain everything with which 
 it or its vapor comes in contact it should not be stored in 
 buildings containing other merchandise, unless it is on a 
 floor lower than those on which the other stocks are kept. 
 
 Iodine Extract presents a better insurance proposition, as 
 it is kept in bottles packed in wooden boxes. — (W. J. Tal- 
 lamy.) 
 
 IRON — Cast Iron has considerable carbon, Wrought Iron 
 no carbon, Steel about one per cent, carbon. When an iron 
 band or hoop is first heated and then at once placed upon 
 the body which it is intended to surround, it shrinks or con- 
 tracts as it cools and thereby fits very tightly. 
 
 IRON BED AND SPRING MANUFACTURING— Main- 
 ly a machine shop hazard with drills, presses, rolls, stretch- 
 ing and special machines. Parts are sometimes dipped in 
 black asphaltum or coated with aluminum or bronze paint. 
 Excelsior pads used for wrapping. The class has a poor 
 fire record. 
 
 IRON BORINGS, TURNINGS AND FILINGS, are more 
 or less subject to spontaneous combustion when moist. 
 Should be kept in metal receptacles. Sometimes called 
 "swarf." 
 
 IRON CLAD — A frame wall sheathed with corrugated 
 iron, replacing the clapboards. 
 
 IRON FRONT BUILDINGS— If in rows are apt to have 
 a hollow space back of the iron fronts. Fire is likely to 
 
262 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 travel from one building to another unless this concealed 
 space is backed up with brick or other fire-resisting material. 
 
 IRON MASS — A mixture of wood shavings with hydrated 
 ferric oxide. Used to remove sulphur from coal gas. 
 
 IRON MASS (SPENT)— Called spent-iron sponge. Is 
 iron mass after saturation in gas purification. Subject to 
 spontaneous combustion on exposure to air. 
 
 IRON RUST— Oxide of iron. 
 
 IRON-ON-STUD WALL— Corrugated iron or sheet iron 
 fastened directly on studding. 
 
 ISINGLASS— Bladder of fishes. The better grade is made 
 from the giant sturgeon of Russia. See Mica. 
 
 ISOLATED — A building is isolated when it stands alone 
 with no other building in vicinity. • 
 
 ISOMETRIC DRAWINGS -All vertical lines are 90 deg., 
 while all other lines are 30 deg. 
 
 ISOPRENE — The raw product from which artificial rub- 
 ber is produced. 
 
 ISTLE — A fibre of a tropical American plant, grown 
 abundantly in Mexico. Used in brush making. See Fibres. 
 
 IXTLE— Same as Istle. 
 
 IVORY BLACK — Made by burning or charring chips of 
 elephant tusks and other hard bones free from fat. 
 
 
JACKETED — A means to prevent "direct" heating by plac- 
 ing a steam or water jacket around the kettle or other re^ 
 ceptacle containing the substance to be melted, thereby pre- 
 venting such substances as glue, pitch or wax from over- 
 flowing onto the fire. Also an insulating covering on steam 
 pipes. 
 
 JACK-RAFTERS— Small rafters laid on the purlins of a 
 roof for supporting the shingle laths. 
 
 JACK SHAFT— Intermediate driving shafting. Usually 
 driven by main shafting and drives the countershafting. 
 
 JAMBS — The sidts of an opening through a wall, as door, 
 window and fireplace jambs. 
 
 JAPAN BLACK — A varnish made with tar and alcohol, 
 or lamp-black and resins. 
 
 JAPAN DRYERS— Made of linseed oil and gum shellac 
 cooked in a varnish kettle. Litharge, burnt umber, sugar of 
 lead and turpentine may be added. Naphtha and benzine 
 may be used, especially as a thinner. When cooked to a 
 thick substance called a "pill" it is cooled and thinned. 
 Baked Black Japans, made of linseed oil and asphalt, copal 
 resins, kauri gums and turpentine. 
 
 JAPAN WAX — A solid wax extracted from the berries of 
 the Japanese lacquer tree. Melting point 120-125 deg. F. 
 
 JAPAN, ENAMEL AND LACQUER OVENS— To be of 
 all metal, double wall, with air space filled with insulating 
 material; vented to the outer air and heated by steam or 
 electricity. Direct fire heat is a serious hazard. If gas is 
 used, the heat should be radiated through an all-sheet metal 
 flooring between burners and lacquered goods to prevent the 
 vapors in oven being ignited by exposed flames. Vent pipe 
 and oven not to be near woodwork. See Dip Tanks. 
 
 JEWELRY — Novelty jewelry is mostly imitation ware, 
 
 263 
 
264 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 such as imitation pearl (glass), pins and trinkets. Shops use 
 gas blow-pipes, small metal working machines, gas or elec- 
 tric-heated dry-boxes, lacquer and celluloid-enamel. 
 
 JEWELERS use benzine for watch and clock cleaning, by- 
 dipping the mechanism in an open dish of the liquid. 
 
 JEWELERS' PUTTY— An oxide of tin. 
 
 JIG SAW — A very narrow thin saw worked vertically by 
 machinery and used for sawing curved ornaments in boards. 
 It jigs up and down. 
 
 JOBBERS — Their method of conducting business differs in 
 various lines. They can be classified as speculative whole- 
 salers and are the middlemen betwen the mill or mill agent 
 and the retailer or small manufacturer. For instance, a job- 
 ber in piece goods, silks, woolens or cotton, buys direct from 
 the "mill agent" or commission merchant, on say a 30-day 
 basis, or buys up small lots or "jobs" for cash. In turn he 
 sells to the small manufacturer or retailer whose business is 
 too small to be recognized by the "mill agent," on a longer 
 term basis and in smaller lots as desired. For this accom- 
 modation, the buyer is willing to pay an advanced price 
 for the goods, of say 5 to 10 per cent, which represents the 
 jobber's profit. Also some jobbers take advantage of a man- 
 ufacturer's temporary financial embarrassment and offer him 
 a low figure on a cash basis for his product. For instance, 
 in the cloak and suit line, a manufacturer may need some 
 ready money to meet a note before his garments can be mar- 
 keted in the regular way. A jobber may buy the garments 
 for cash at a figure which would permit him to resell to a 
 retailer or wholesaler at less than they could ordinarily buy 
 direct from the manufacturer, and still make a profit for 
 himself. 
 
 JOINTERS — Woodworking machines used to make a true 
 surface or edge for gluing, also for trucing up smoothly, 
 chamfering, beveling. Similar to planers except without feed 
 rolls, the work being held against cutters by hand, producing 
 a great deal of refuse. Cylinder head rotates rapidly and is 
 liable to overheat bearings unless clean and properly aligned. 
 
 JOIST — A beam set on edge to which the flooring is fas- 
 tened. 
 
JUTE RISKS 265 
 
 JOURNAL — The end or other part of shaft which rests 
 on or against a bearing and supporting the ends of a hori- 
 zontal revolving shaft. 
 
 JUNK SHOPS — While of one general class, may be sub- 
 divided into classes such as those who carry all metal, metal 
 and rubber, or those who include paper and rags. Sometimes 
 used as a "fence" for stolen goods, and frequently as "hang- 
 outs." Very poor fire risks. 
 
 JUTE— See Fibres. 
 
 JUTE RISKS— Raw stock consists of hemp, istle, jute, 
 sisal, old burlap, tar, mineral oil, starch, borax, soda, tampica, 
 talc and ammonia. Process consists of opening, picking, 
 lapping, carding, roving, drawing, twisting, spinning, rope 
 preparing .by laying, coloring, tarring, polishing, weaving, 
 calendering and honking. This class has a very poor fire 
 record and should be written with extreme care. Jute is 
 bleached by exposing the fibre to the action of perman- 
 ganates and then sulphuric acid. 
 
 JUTE SHODDY is made by macerating burlap bags, 
 sacks, etc. See Hemp; see Cordage. 
 
 SI 
 
KAKODYL — A heavy fuming liquid which takes fire when 
 coming in contact with air. 
 
 KALAMEIN DOOR—A metal-clad door, the metal being 
 in large sheets pressed over the wood door. Unless labeled, 
 not considered very good in case of fire. 
 
 KALAMEIN DOOR MANUFACTURING— Metal and 
 woodworking hazards. The metal is placed over the wood 
 and power saws then cut through metal and wood, some- 
 times causing sparks to drop into the oil-soaked sawdust un- 
 der the saw table. Poor fire risks. 
 
 KALAMEIN IRON is a trade name for open hearth sheet 
 steel covered with a thin alloy of tin and lead. 
 
 KALSOMINE — A sort of lime or whiting used to coat 
 walls. 
 
 KAPOK OR COPAC— A cotton or silky fibre covering 
 the seeds of a tropical tree found in East and West Indies. 
 It is a substitute for hair and cotton and used for pillows, 
 mattresses, life preservers and linings for aviators' coats. It 
 is non-absorbent. Heat expands it. It costs more than cot- 
 ton but can be renovated simply by steaming. When loose 
 burns very rapidly. Not subject to spontaneous combustion. 
 Classed as a fibre. Sometimes called "Silk Floss." 
 
 KEROSENE BURNERS— Specifications for the Tempo- 
 rary Installation of Small Kerosene Burners for Emergency 
 Use in Fire Boxes of Cooking Stoves, Heating Stoves, Fur- 
 naces and Boilers — Permission may be granted for the tem- 
 porary use only as an emergency measure of special burn- 
 ers in stoves and furnaces as a substitute for coal or other 
 fuel. 
 
 The capacity of gravity tanks containing kerosene shall not 
 exceed 2 gallons for stoves and 5 gallons for boilers or fur- 
 naces. The tanks should preferably be located outside of 
 building; if inside, they shall not be within 5 feet measured 
 
 266 
 
KEROSENE BURNERS 267' 
 
 horizontally from any fire or flame. Pressure tanks shall not 
 exceed 10 gallons total capacity (air and kerosene), and if 
 inside shall not be within 10 feet measured horizontally of 
 any fire or flame. •. v ,• \ > 
 
 Tanks for kerosene shall be constructed of galvanized she^t 
 iron or steel; all joints to be riveted and soldered or made 
 tight by some equally satisfactory process. The shell of tank 
 shall be properly reinforced where coniiections are made. 
 The tanks shall be sufficiently strong to bear without injury 
 the most severe strain to which they are likely to be sub- 
 jected in practice. Tanks for systems under pressure shall 
 be designed for six times the maximum working pressure 
 and tested for twice the maximum working pressure. 
 
 Gravity tanks shall be readily accessible for filling, and be 
 set in a drip pan constructed of galvanized sheet iron or 
 steel, with joints riveted and soldered or made tight by some 
 equally satisfactory process. The tank and pan shall be sup- 
 ported on a shelf rigidly secured to wall or partition. The 
 drip pan shall be at least two inches deep and extend four 
 inches beyond tank at sides and front. The wall or partition 
 back of tank shall be covered with sheet metal, which shall 
 extend four inches beyond the sides and twelve inches above 
 tanks; the sheet metal shall also overlap the side of and ex- 
 tend to bottom of pan. 
 
 Each pressure tank shall be set in a drip pan on the floor 
 at a safe location and protected from injury. The tanks 
 shall be placed in a pan two inches deep and extend at least 
 four inches beyond the tank on all sides. 
 
 A drip pan capable of holding the fuU capacity of supply 
 tank shall be placed below oil burner. 
 
 Piping — Standard, full-weight wrought-iron or steel or 
 brass pipe with substantial iron or brass fittings shall be 
 used and connections made tight with well-fitted joints. Pip- 
 ing to be run as directly as possible find be protected against 
 injury. Systems under pressure to be designed for six times 
 the maximum working pressure, and installation, when com- 
 plete, to be tested to twice the working pressure. 
 
 Any storage of oil outside of a buried tank shall be limited 
 to 60 gallons in an oil barrel or its equivalent. 
 
2^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 A shut-off valve should be placed in the pipe line as near 
 as possible to oil receptacle and one near burner. (Recom- 
 mendations of New York Board of Fire Underwriters.) 
 
 KEROSENE OIL— A petroleum distillate; flash point 
 about 115-125 deg. F. See Mineral Burning Oil. 
 
 KEROSENE OIL STOVES or lamps should not be filled 
 while lighted, or even when hot. 
 
 KETONE — Chemical group, sometimes called acetones. 
 
 KEYSTONE— The center stone in an arch. 
 
 KID GLOVES — Not considered attractive stocks because 
 only a slight moisture will class the stock as seconds. 
 
 KILLED ACID is made by dissolving zinc in hydrochloric 
 or muriatic acid. 
 
 KILNING is merely drying on a large scale. Inspectors 
 should note construction of side walls, roofs and floors, and 
 whether cut off in separate building or communicating. The 
 heat used is preferably steam or hot air; if the latter, fan 
 and motor should be carefully inspected. Pipes should be 
 preferably above or at the sides of the material to be dried, 
 not below, on account of the light material falling on the 
 pipes and being ignited. Steam jets can be used to advan- 
 tage to extinguish fires in kilns. China kilns^ used for dec- 
 orating, are mainly of brick construction; coal or coke fuel. 
 Numerous small gas-heated kilns of special design are found 
 in art decorating establishments. See Dry Kilns. 
 
 KILOWATT— A thousand watts. A watt is the electrical 
 unit of power, being the product of one volt by one ampere; 
 746 watts equal one horse-power. See Electrical Terms. 
 
 KINDLING WOOD FACTORIES use heavy wood-work- 
 ing machinery, chiefly cross-cut saws. Generally crowded, and 
 untidy with loose bark. Usually occupy old buildings and 
 employ cheap labor. Not considered as good as ordinary 
 woodworkers. 
 
 KING POST — The center post, or rod, extending verti- 
 cally from the collar beam to the ridge board. All those 
 on each side of it are queen posts or rods. 
 
 KIPS are the hides of young animals. See Hides. 
 
 KIRKER-BENDER SPIRAL FIRE ESCAPE consists of 
 a spiral slide incased in a cylinder six feet in diameter. En- 
 
KNITTING MILLS 269 
 
 trance is by a passage from each floor to the tower. Persons 
 slide to the foot of the tower on the spiral incline. 
 
 KITCHEN RANGES— When the kitchen range is placed 
 eighteen inches from a wood lath-and-plaster or stud parti- 
 tion, partition must be shielded with metal extending from 
 the floor to three feet above the range. See Stoves; also 
 Ranges. 
 
 KNEE — A piece of timber bent to receive some weight, or 
 to relieve a strain. 
 
 KNIT GOODS are very likely to be stained by smoke; 
 will shrink if wet; if colored, the colors are apt to run, 
 
 KNITTING MILLS are mills making sweaters dr knit 
 goods. Process consists of washing, dyeing, picking, cutting, 
 finishing, carding, spinning, knitting and drying. The hazards 
 of the picker room consist of the light, inflammable stock, 
 sometimes containing foreign matter, passing through high- 
 speed machines. A full-fledged picker room contains a burr 
 picker, mixing picker and duster, and lappers which discharge 
 the stock after it passes through them into the gauze or 
 blow room. The card room: After the raw stock is cleaned 
 and mixed in the picker room it is transferred to the cards, 
 which lay the fibre straight and form it into a loose roving, 
 preparatory to spinning process. The main hazard in card 
 rooms is the presence of foreign matter in stock, which emit 
 sparks when coming in contact with the rolls of cards. The 
 other processes present only mild hazards. Always remem- 
 ber the higher the grade of the output the better the risk. 
 Avoid the mill with a low-grade cotton and cotton waste, 
 especially if the picker room is not properly cut off and the 
 card room is over the finishing room. The fire record (un- 
 sprinklered) is not very good. — R. G. Potter. 
 
 KNOCK-DOWN— Parts of an object before assembling, 
 as chairs in knock-down condition. 
 
 K. O. — A term used by insurance men to denote a poor 
 risk. Means "Keep off." — Gene Eagles. 
 
 KOHOLIA — A form of alcohol used as a fuel for heatihg 
 in place of small portable gas or oil stoves. 
 
LABELLED GOODS— See Canned Goods. 
 
 LACE CURTAINS— Cleaners and dyers use nitrate of 
 iron, permanganate of potash, sulphuric acid and benzine. 
 The dry room is the main hazard. 
 
 LACE PAPER WORKS— The lace paper is perforated in 
 revolving machines, then sized or varnished. The perforating 
 dies are mostly hand-made and many are imported. It takes 
 from one to three months to engrave a large die ,some of 
 which are two feet long and cylindrical in shape. Dies should 
 be kept in vaults. All scrap paper should be baled daily. 
 Use and Occupancy insurance should be written with caution. 
 
 LACE WORKS — The hazards are weaving, sewing, knitting, 
 twisting, bobbin-winding, sizing, silk-throwing, embroidering, 
 lace-making, dyeing and drying. In dyeing use muriatic, 
 acetic and sulphuric acids. For sizing, use glycerine, gela- 
 tine, gum arabic and starch. These are heated in a steam or 
 gas-heated kettle. Goods are bleached with chloride of lime 
 and caustic soda. At times do considerable repair work and 
 use benzine and alcohol for removing stains, and gas or elec- 
 tric irons for pressing. The needle lead pot is gas-heated. 
 Machine repair shop work is extensive in most plants. Ex- 
 pensive silks should be kept in vaults. Imported machinery 
 forms a large proportion of value. White laces are "dry 
 dyed" by refinishers, who place them in wooden tumblers 
 containing a yellow powder called "Dutch white," which 
 turns the laces a creamy white. 
 
 LACES in some cases will be almost unimpaired after a 
 serious clean-water damage if they are what is known as 
 wash laces; but fancy laces will not, as a rule, give near as 
 much salvage. 
 
 LACQUER FLASHES at about 75 deg. F. The prepara- 
 
 270 
 
LACQUER FIRES 271 
 
 tion, storage and manufacture is very hazardous. Should not 
 be stored in large quantities. Usually consists of nitro-cellu- 
 lose dissolved in volatile solvents. Classed as inflammable. 
 
 Dry rooms for lacquered goods should have drip pans un- 
 der or on steam pipes to catch excess liquid, as fires have 
 been caused by steampipes covered with lacquer. 
 
 LACQUER FIRES— Sawdust, if spread over the surface in 
 sufficient quantity will readily and successfully extinguish 
 fires of inflammable liquids, especially lacquer, when con* 
 tained in moderate-sized tanks, such as those ordinarily used 
 in manufacturing plants, or small fires in these liquids on 
 the floor. The efficiency of the sawdust is undoubtedly due 
 to its blanketing action in floating for a time upon the sur- 
 face of the liquid, thereby excluding the oxygen of the air. 
 The sawdust itself is not very easily ignited, and when it does 
 become ignited it burns without flame. The burning embers 
 are not sufficient to reignite the lacquer. In sixteen fire tests 
 the fire was put out in from 11 seconds to 1 minute 55 
 seconds. See Dip Tanks. 
 
 LACQUERING— See Varnishing. 
 
 LACQUER SHELLAC is a mixture of shellac and lacquer. 
 Inflammable. 
 
 LACTEIN— See Casein. 
 
 LADIES' FURNISHINGS, if not kept in cardboard boxes 
 or in cases, will suffer severe damage from smoke and water. 
 Considered no better than millinery. 
 
 LADIES' TAILORS are in the same class as dressmakers. 
 They make suits, coats and skirts for individual customers. 
 Use gas irons for pressing and benzine for cleaning. 
 
 LAGGING — A covering of loose plank, as that placed upon 
 centers and supporting arch stones. 
 
 LAGGING — A covering of felt or other poor conductor of 
 heat applied to steam boilers, pipes, etc., to prevent radia- 
 tion. 
 
 LALLY COLUMN consists of a steel outer shell filled 
 with concrete under hydraulic pressure. Spme rating bureaus 
 require an outside insulation of from two to four inches of 
 concrete or tile. 
 
 LAMP-BLACK — A kind of soot made by letting the smoke 
 
2f2 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of burning substances, such as oil, pitch or rosin, collect in a 
 chamber lined with leather. If moist, is subject to spon- 
 taneous combustion. See Carbon Black. 
 
 LAMP EXPLOSIONS— Many of these may be prevented 
 by trimming the wick daily. When burned for several even- 
 ings without trimming, the wick becomes black, clogged and 
 incapable of supplying the oil clearly and uniformly, and the 
 chimneys are sometimes filled with flame and smoke, to the 
 embarrassment and alarm of those present. Some explosions 
 would be prevented by never extinguishing the lamp by blow- 
 ing down the chimney; for if the wick happens to be too 
 small, the flame may be driven down into the oil. The best 
 way is to turn it down with the button until it is extin- 
 guished. 
 
 LAMPS smoke when the wick is too high because of in- 
 sufficient oxygen. Smoke is made up of little particles of 
 carbon, because oil as well as wood contains carbon. It 
 smokes because more oil rises in the wick than can unite 
 with the oxygen supplied, making an imperfect combustion. 
 
 LAMP SHADES of celluloid or paper should not be placed 
 on electric lamps or bulbs. Many bad fires have been caused 
 by these flimsy articles. 
 
 LANTERN SKYLIGHT— Similar to monitor. A raised 
 roof with glass sides, usually extending the entire length of 
 a building. 
 
 LAPPER — A machine which combs out or cleans the 
 stock, passing it over a wire mesh cylinder, and laying it in 
 the form of a lap. 
 
 LATHE — A machine for shaping wood or metal parts by 
 causing them to revolve while acted upon by a cutting tool 
 held in place by a slide rest. 
 
 LATTICE GIRDER— A type of girder in which the web 
 is made-up of diagonal iron or steel bars,' which form a lat- 
 tice between the flanges. 
 
 LAUGHING GAS — A mixture of one part oxygen and 
 four parts nitrous oxide. Used by dentists. 
 
 LAUNDRIES (Chinese)— A class to be avoided. The haz- 
 ards are swinging gas brackets, coal stoves of laundry type, 
 with clothing hanging over and around them; improvised dry 
 
HiTiaw Laundries 273 
 
 rooms, gas bosom ironers with rubber tube connections, gas 
 irons, gas and coal stoves for heating irons. 
 
 LAUNDRIES (Collar, Cuff and Starched Goods)— Wash- 
 ing drums are revolving wood cylinders into which the goods 
 are placed for washing. The goods are dried in centrifugal 
 extractors, then starched and ironed. Starch kettles are either 
 steam or gas-heated. Dry rooms are usually metal-liued and 
 steam-heated, having an iron track on which a rack of wet 
 goods travels which is pulled in and out on the tracks. Some 
 dryers have an overhead traveling track with a rack, to which 
 the goods are hung and dried by the traveller passing slowly 
 through. Dryers should have wire mesh over steam-piping 
 to prevent goods coming in contact. There is less dust and 
 lint in this class of laundry than in those doing general work. 
 Ironers (called m^angles) are large steel rollers, cloth-covered 
 and gas-heated. Gas mufflers are used for hand-irons. "Tip- 
 ping" machines are used to finish off the fronts of collars 
 and are gas-heated. 
 
 Power Laundries — Process consists of washing, rough-dry- 
 ing by wringing, and drying in centrifugal extractors, starch- 
 ing, ironing, and drying in dry rooms. There are special iron- 
 ers, such as "art edge" ironers and "moulding ironers" for 
 turn-down collars, both gas-heated. The old style sadiron is 
 only used in the small store laundries. If used they should be 
 set on a solid iron stand at least 18 inches from all woodwork. 
 If the plant machinery is all steam process and the boiler is 
 cut-off in a standard manner and the building is of fair con- 
 struction it should be a desirable risk. Only write a small 
 line on the stock, which is equivalent to second-hand stock. 
 
 LAUNDRY STOVES— The rule for setting is the same as 
 for hotel ranges. When set on legs, two courses of four- 
 inch tile are required. * 
 
 LAURING— See Hats (felt). 
 
 LEAD — Derived principally from an ore called galena and 
 has a bluish gray color. It oxidizes or tarnishes easily .and 
 melts at low temperatures. 
 
 LEAD DROSS — Material skimmed from the surface of 
 molten lead. When cold it is non-hazardous. 
 
274 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 LEAD NITRATE— A white, heavy, translucent salt. Not 
 an oxidizing material. 
 
 LEASE is a contract for the use of a building for a year 
 or term of years. If the terms of the lease are complied 
 with, the lessee is virtually the owner during the term men- 
 tioned in the contract. A lease is a valuable holding, there- 
 fore the lessee should provide for indemnity in case the build- 
 ing is destroyed by fire. See Leases; see Leasehold Insur- 
 ance. 
 
 There are two forms of leases. First, value of a lease, 
 where the building is occupied by the lessee. Second, profits 
 of a lease, where the lessee sublets the building to make a 
 profit. 
 
 LEASES with the "self-reducing" clause are commonly 
 written and the premium is obtained in the following man- 
 ner: Policy written for eleven years for the full amount of 
 $110,000, the tenth year for $100,000, and so on to the first 
 year, $10,000, which added together, equals $660,000, divided 
 by 11 years, equals $60,000, and the premium is figured on 
 the $60,000 amount, but in case of loss the first year, assured 
 could collect $110,000, the second year $100,000, and so on, 
 deducting $10,000 for each year the lease has to run. It is 
 also customary to write this insurance specifying so much 
 reduction per month. In this case the premium may be com- 
 puted upon an amount representing the average between the 
 policy amount at the beginning of the first month and at the 
 beginning of the last month of its term. See Leasehold In- 
 surance. 
 
 LEASEHOLD INSURANCE— This class of insurance 
 should be written cautiously and follow the same adjustment 
 as the building losses. The form should be carefully scrutin- 
 ized to ascertain what restrictions are included, as for in- 
 stance, "building is not to be used for a certain class of busi- 
 ness or tenants." In this instance the neighborhood may 
 change and property could not be leased for said purpose, 
 making leasehold insurance very undesirable. Leases should 
 not be insured unless the assured has a good bargain. An 
 assured may take a building during prosperous times and 
 later be losing money in consequence of change of trade. The 
 
LEATHER 275 
 
 fire clause should always be carefully reviewed. If no fire 
 clause appears in the form it would be acceptable as no fire 
 restrictions would then appear. If total destruction can- 
 cels the lease the form is also a good one, but if the form 
 reads "it is optional with the lessee or the owner," the 
 proposition is a poor one and should not be entertained. In 
 this latter case the building may only suffer a very small 
 damage and the lessee or owner decide not to rebuild, in 
 which case the company would be forced to pay .a total loss 
 up to the amount of the policy. Only competent underwrit- 
 ers should accept ''Leasehold" insurance. See Profits of a 
 Lease. ,03ia ^ISHTAaJ 
 
 LEATHER — A skin is cut into three thicknesses. The 
 top is the "skiver" or grain, the middle is the "splits" and 
 the bottom the "flesher." 
 
 The wholesale leather dealers term fancy leather, any 
 leather .used by the bag, case, strap, belt, trunk and novelty 
 trade. 
 
 The word fancy is used in quoting trade prices; in such 
 cases it refers to colors. 
 
 You cannot strictly determine the limits of fancy leather, 
 as ordinary leather is used by the bag, etc., trade. In such 
 cases it comes in the fancy class. Pigskin used by a harness- 
 maker is only pigskin, but if used in the bag, etc., trade, it 
 is fancy leather. 
 
 Insurance underwriters usually put all kinds of leather in 
 the fancy leather class, except sole and harness, yet some 
 have put the latter in this class, especially if highly finished 
 and of light weight. They would possibly be correct, from 
 an insurance standpoint, or at least be on the safe side, to 
 class all leather as fancy, except sole and harness. Probably 
 the latter is less subject to damage. — T. O. Gildersleeve. 
 
 Leather (Finishing) — Received at tanneries in dry 
 state, soaked in water and in lime pits (called beam house), 
 washed again in water, the water squeezed out by "putting- 
 out" machines, dried, "staked," and "seasoned" by use of 
 ammonia and albumen, tanned, dried, softened by machinery, 
 ironed and dressed. If raw hides are received they are 
 "fleshed" and "unhaired," i. e., the hair and flesh adhering to 
 
Z76 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 the hide is removed. Tanning and finishing differ for differ- 
 ent kinds and qualities of leather. There may be used gam- 
 bia, sumac, tanbark, chrome, neat's-foot oil, soap, salt, sul- 
 phuric acid, aniline or logwood dyes. See Celluloid (Imi- 
 tation Leather); also Imitation Leather and Patent Leather, 
 ■ LEATHER BELTING— Some factories use celluloid 
 cement instead of glue for waterproofing or finishing. Cellu- 
 loid is apt to be dissolved on the premises with acetone and 
 used from ppen cans. 
 
 LEATHER CEMENT is a solution of rubber in gasoline 
 or carbon bisulphide. Flashes at zero F. Very inflammable. 
 
 LEATHER DECORATORS do painting, embossing, stain- 
 ing, sewing, cutting. Use amyl acetate, japan, lacqiier, tur- 
 pentine, benzine. Coloring is usually done by airbrush 
 (spray). Write this class cautiously. 
 
 LEATHER DOG-COLLARS— Work consists of cutting, 
 splitting, skiving, creasing (creasers, gas-heated), eyeletting 
 and riveting machines for brass ornaments, cementing with 
 rubber cement, shellacing, varnishing and buffing metal parts. 
 
 LEATHER DUST is attributed as the cause of a fire in a 
 shoe factory recently. Rapidly revolving drums covered with 
 emery or sandpaper produce a fine dust; also a good deal of 
 lint was made by the cloth-covered buffing wheels. The fire 
 was possibly caused by sparks from the machines. After the 
 fire the floor was dotted all over with lumps of glowing dust 
 resembling lumps of incandescent charcoal. These balls or, 
 lumps could be picked up without falling apart, when handled 
 gently. — Fire Chief Soule, Coatesville, Pa. 
 
 LEATHER FINISHERS— Some bag makers use alcohol, 
 acetone, benzine, shellac, linseed oil, glycerine, lampblack and 
 turpentine. 
 
 LEATHER LININGS— Bag linings are the inner side of 
 split sheep skins, called "skives"; usually tanned with sumac, 
 dyed with anilines, tacked on boards to stretch, softened 
 either by hand or power machines. Before tacking they are 
 ^'slicked up" to remove all loose or rough surfaces by laying 
 same on a glass washboard and being scraped with a knife. 
 Graining is done in a machine similar to a mangle, having a 
 
LEGAL LIABILITY '^l 277 
 
 copper roller with indentations, heated by steam over which 
 the skin is rolled. 
 
 LEATHER (PATENT)— In making the varnish for the 
 patent leather, linseed oil is heated by wood or coke fires 
 to about 580 deg. F. The temperature of the oil is lowered 
 in open air to about 250 deg. F. and then thinned or reduced 
 with naphtha and turpentine, which are slowly added. Fires 
 have occurred in this process, due probably to adding the 
 naphtha and turpentine before the oil is properly cooled. The 
 "daub" consists of linseed oil, lampblack and benzine. — 
 Adamson. 
 
 LEATHER SCRAPS and remnants from factories are 
 used for fertilizer by reducing same to a pulp and extracting 
 the animal ammonia. Leather remnants burn very slowly, 
 in fact in bags they have stopped the progress of fire. 
 
 LEATHER SOFTENERS may contain inflammables. 
 
 LEATHER (SOLE)— Will easily stain from water to such 
 an extent that the spots cannot be removed. 
 
 LEATHER— (TRADE NAMES) for leather substitutes, 
 Leathertex, Neolin, Textan, Keratol, Fabrikoid, Texoderm, 
 Pantosote. 
 
 LEGAL LIABILITY — Forms are sometimes written for 
 expressmen as follows: •$... . on their legal liability in, or 
 for all merchandise and for baggage held in their custody as 
 common carriers, warehousemen, forwarders or freighters. 
 It being mutually understood and agreed that if claim is 
 made against the assured hereinunder for merchandise or 
 baggage held for them, the insurers shall have the option of 
 either admitting such claim for payment, or if resisting it in 
 the court, the legal expenses incurred in such resistance to 
 be borne by the insurance companies interested, in the pro- 
 portion that the total amount of insurance shall bear to the 
 total amount of such claim or claims. Only competent un- 
 derwriters should accept "Legal Liability" insurance. 
 
 LEHRS OR LEERS (tempering furnace) in glassworks 
 have a solid brick wall at sides and a flat brick-arched top. 
 They are either coke or gas-heated. The hot ware from the 
 glassblowers is placed on iron trays at the receiving end and 
 
278 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 then slowly propelled through the length of the lehr on a 
 traveling belt. 
 
 LEMON OIL — Composed of lemon grass and paraffine; 
 used by piano polishers. 
 
 LEPTYNE — A substitute for turpentine in thinning paint 
 or varnish. Classified same as turpentine. Flashes at 99 
 deg. F. Fire test, 120 deg. F. 
 
 LIABILITY — Where a tenant occupies a number of floors 
 in a fireproof building with fair cut-oflFs between floors, the 
 usual practice is to carry the full line authorized for one 
 floor and a half line on each of the additional floors. This 
 same rule applies to a row of buildings or well-constructed 
 ordinary brick buildings with heavy floors and standard floor 
 openings. 
 
 LIABILITY OF A COMPANY is primarily divided into 
 two classes, contingent and actual or accrued. Contingent 
 liabilities are based on the possibility or likelihood of being 
 called upon to meet claims such as losses. When these losses 
 occur, the liability is then actual or accrued. Policies in force 
 are the principal liability. See Assets. 
 
 LICORICE (stick manufacturing) — Process is crushing, 
 grinding and pulverizing of licorice root in chasers. It is 
 mixed with sugars in paste form, boiled in tanks, where other 
 ingredients are added, made into various shapes by machinery 
 and dried on trays in dry rooms. 
 
 LIGHT SHAFT— A shaft in the interior of a building for 
 the admission of light; usually has thin glass windows. A 
 light well is a large open or enclosed light shaft. See Shafts. 
 
 LIGHTNING (scientifically known as static electricity) is 
 caused by the disruption discharge of the positive electricity 
 in the clouds rushing to equalize the negative electricity in 
 the earth, or vice versa. Discharges upward are by no means 
 uncommon, although not often observed. 
 
 LIGHTNING RODS, if properly installed, effectually pro- 
 tect buildings. Prof. Dodd says: "Let us see how a flash of 
 lightning is made, for there is always something at work 
 ahead of the lightning flash, getting things ready. 
 
 "Before a house is struck with lightning, the house is first 
 charged by induction. 
 
KITIHW: LIME 279 
 
 " 'Induction* is taken from the word 'induce' and induce 
 means to 'coax or pull your way.* 
 
 "Before a house is struck by lightning an electric strain is 
 placed upon it. That is, a condition has been coaxed into 
 it, and it is this condition we have to deal with if we would 
 prevent it from bursting into a lightning explosion.; 
 
 "Now the air is a poor conductor of electricity, and things 
 that stick up from the earth into the air, like houses and 
 barns, become discharging points for the earth's electricity, 
 and in this way the house gets ready to be struck. 
 
 "So the lesson we wish to impress here is this: 'Lightning 
 is due to causes.' Electricity first gets in its work and loads 
 up a cloud. Then this cloud fixes up things on the earth and 
 induces an opposite electric condition, and the two electrified 
 surfaces strain and pull on each other, and when the strain, 
 gets great enough so that the air cannot resist any longer, off 
 she goes with an explosion through the house, and the under- 
 taker has a job on hi-s hands." 
 
 Cattle or other livestock herded in wire-fence enclosures 
 are apt to be electrocuted if in contact with the charged wire. 
 
 LIGNITE — Carbonized fossil wood. Subject to spontane- 
 ous combustion. 
 
 LIGROIN — A volatile distillate from crude petroleum. In- 
 flammable. Flash iero F. See Petroleum. 
 
 LIME — Obtained by calcining marble or by adding a solu- 
 tion of carbonate of ammonia to a solution of chloride of cal- 
 cium. See Calcium Oxide. 
 
 Lime (unslaked) should be kept under a water-tight shed 
 or building on proper skids. Many fires have been caused, 
 especially along the water front, when the rising tide causes 
 the lime to slake, creating enough heat to set fire to the 
 structure. Firemen playing hose on lime will slake it with 
 the same result. Usually found in builders' material yards. 
 
 LIMESTONE FRONTS of buildings are damaged by heat 
 more than any other granular building stones. They become 
 calcined under intense heat, or are decomposed into lime. 
 
 LINE — The amount of liability which a company carries 
 on a risk. The amount is determined by the loss ratio ac- 
 
28a INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 cording to the company's underwriting experience or judg- 
 ment. See Average Risk, also Block Lines. 
 
 LINCRUSTA— A wall covering. See Wall Coverings. 
 
 LINENS offer very good salvage if only damaged by clean 
 water and are dried immediately. 
 
 LINIMENTS usually contain crude petroleum, ether, alco- 
 hol, chloroform, turpentine. 
 
 LINOLEUM — The foundation of linoleum is burlap. This 
 is impregnated with ground cork, linseed oil and oxide of 
 lead in a calender roll. A heavy coating is then applied and 
 printed in various designs. The coating mixture is made of 
 scrim (light cotton fabric) which is hung on racks and sat- 
 urated with linseed oil. The oil which adheres at about 100 
 • deg. F. rapidly hardens. This process is repeated until there 
 is a thick coating (called skin). The roll is then cut down 
 and ground between rollers. A cement is made of oil, resin, 
 kauri gums and ground cork, colored if desired. The mix- 
 ture is cemented on the burlap foundation. The printing of 
 designs is a continuous process, the sheets passing through 
 a machine under blocks of different colors which, rising and 
 falling, do the printing. Hazards of cork grinding, dry rooms, 
 oil soaked premises, spontaneous combustion in oily mate- 
 rials. 
 
 Linoleum (ground) is subject to spontaneous combustion 
 when moist. 
 
 LINOTYPE MACHINES resemble huge typewriters and 
 set up one complete line of type at a time. The operator 
 sits at a keyboard, strikes a letter and the matrices (brass 
 slugs on which is an impression of the desired character) 
 fall down through a channel until a line of type is made up. 
 Metal followers push the line across until it is dropped in 
 front of a pot of hot type metal. The lead is forced by air 
 pressure against the matrix. The only hazard is the lead 
 pot, which is usually gas heated. The gas connection should 
 be rigid iron piping. Metal should be placed on the floor 
 under the machine. See Printers. 
 
 LINSEED OIL — Is pressed from flaxseed by either cold 
 or hot process. Moderate steam heat is required for kettles 
 
LIQUID TANKS 281 
 
 and presses where the seeds are cooked and pressed. Floors 
 usually very oily. 
 
 LINTELr — A horizontal beam across the opening in a wall 
 over windows, doors, etc. When of wide span and support- 
 ting heavy brickwork or masonry it is called a "breast- 
 summer." 
 
 LINTERS (unbleached)— The cotton scraped from the cot- 
 ton seeds after the best or loose cotton has been removed. 
 
 LINTUS— See Indian Cotton. 
 
 LIGNITE (Used for Backs of Brushes)— Made from pow- 
 dered asbestos with resin, shellac and lampblack in small 
 proportions (not hazardous). 
 
 LIQUID AIR is air condensed into a liquid at high pres- 
 sure and low temperature. A powerful explosive. 
 
 LIQUID BRONZE— See Bronzing Liquid. 
 
 LIQUID CEMENT— A rubber cement used for roofing. 
 
 LIQUID GAS— Obtained by the dry distillation of raw 
 petroleum and by-products of the lignite and oil industries. 
 The vapors and gasses are obtained by the decomposition of 
 the material in retorts, passed through tar separators and 
 cleaned. The gases are liquified by cold and pressure, car- 
 bureted and put in cylinders for shipment. 
 
 LIQUEFIED PETRGLEUM GAS is liquid condensed by 
 compressing the gas from petrol oil wells. Classed as in- 
 flammable. 
 
 LIQUID TANKS (For Gasolene or Other Inflammables) 
 — Burning liquids can best be extinguished by forming a 
 blanket of gas such as generated when carbon tetra-chloride 
 or bi-carbonate of soda, or a solid is formed on the surface. 
 This cuts off the supply of air and dilutes or breaks up the 
 volume of natural air by introducing a non-inflammable 
 agent with it. 
 
 Liquid Storage Tanks — The size of tanks, distance from 
 buildings and location are determined by local underwriters 
 and governed by National Board rules. Small sized tanks 
 are usually buried three feet under ground, and below all 
 piping connected thereto, set on a solid foundation and have 
 filling and vent pipes. Tanks should be of all steel or 
 wrought iron, all joints riveted, soldered or caulked, brazed 
 
?82 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 or welded, (soldering alone is insufficient), and coated on the 
 outside with rust-resisting material such as tar or asphaltum. 
 The fill pipe should be screened with fine wire mesh and the 
 vent pipe not less than three feet from a window or other 
 opening. Only an approved pump or device should be used 
 to draw liquid direct to receptacle, and such liquids not to be 
 in open containers. See Gasoline. 
 
 Portable tanks of 40 to 60 gallons capacity are built of solid 
 steel 3/16 inch thick, set on rubber-tired wheels with ap- 
 proved pump and vent pipe. These latter are used mainly in 
 garages. 
 
 LIQUOR in barrels will yield a greater salvage if the bar- 
 rels are laid on their sides instead of ends, as this method 
 will prevent water from seeping through and spoiling the 
 contents. 
 
 Liquors — There are two kinds, fermented and distilled. 
 All spiritous liquors are fermented. Distilling, a hot process, 
 embraces the whole process of making of potable spirit 
 from cereals and grains. This process includes the grinding 
 of the grain, mashing and fermentation, and thereafter the 
 separation of the alcohol from the other constituents. See 
 Distilleries; see Rectifying. 
 
 Refining — The purification by redistillation for the pur- 
 pose of eliminating impurities. 
 
 Blending — Mixing together, by a cold process, whis- 
 keys, spirits, gins and other such articles. 
 
 Clarifying — For the purpose of clearing the color of 
 wines either by allowing sufficient time for the liquor to set- 
 tle or by hastening the process by adding such substances 
 as whites of eggs, Spanish clay, gelatine or other ingredients. 
 
 Filtering — The straining of liquors. 
 
 Compounding or Rectifying — A cold mixing process. 
 
 Additional hazards in distilleries are extract-making, coop- 
 ering, barrel painting, bottle washing, storage and hand- 
 ling of alcohol in large quantities. 
 
 LIQUORINE — An approved benzine substitute for clean- 
 ing printing presses. 
 
 LISTED NON-FIBRE STORAGE— Stores used for the 
 storage of general merchandise. In New York city the rates 
 
vf TTmWvt?ITHOGRAPHING 283 
 
 are figured on the Exchange Mercantile Schedule with 
 an allowance of 35 per cent, for base rate and l7^^ 
 for the building. This final rate, called base rate, to be added 
 to the rate for the commodity desired to be stored. For 
 example: Baking powder is 17c + 10c base, makes 27c proper 
 rate to be charged. See Warehouses; see Storage. 
 
 LISTED STORAGE STORE— See Warehouses. 
 
 LITHARGE— Is yellow oxide of lead. Sodium Nitrate is 
 roasted with metallic lead which form nitrite and litharge. 
 
 LITHOFRACTEUR is a foreign make of nitro-glycerine. 
 Explosive. 
 
 LITHOPONE — A dry powder used in paint. A combina- 
 tion of zinc and lead. 
 
 LITMUS — By boiling blue cabbage or certain lichens in 
 water, a blue solution is obtained. A drop of acid added to 
 this liquid turns it a bright red. Used in experimental labra- 
 tories. 
 
 LITHOGRAPH CRAYON DRAWINGS— Artists draw on 
 stones with ordinary crayon, after which the stone is treated 
 with a solution of sour gum (gum arabic with a few drops 
 of nitric acid). A separate stone is used for each color. 
 When a blue color is desired, instead of drawing with crayon 
 they first sensitize the stone with a solution of bichromate 
 of ammonia and white of egg, then photograph on it. The 
 stones are usually cleaned with turpentine. 
 
 LITHOGRAPHING— Most stones used in lithographing 
 are imported from Bavaria and come in all sizes from those 
 having an area of about one square foot to those which 
 have an area of about twenty square feet. They are usually 
 four inches in thickness, but can be used until they 
 are not less than one inch thick. This is made possible by 
 backing them with slate which not only provides the re- 
 quired thickness but also strengthens them as well. The 
 principle of lithographing is the printing from a flat stone 
 surface so treated that ink will adhere to the design only. 
 To get this result it is necessary to have* two stones called 
 the engraved stone and transfer stone. The process is as 
 follows; the stone is polished by hand with pumice and 
 water until its surface is perfectly smooth. It is then given 
 
284 INSPECTION AND UNDEliWRITING 
 
 a coating- with a gum arabic solution which is left on the 
 stone to protect it. The stone is then engraved by hand, 
 and in doing this the engraver cuts thru the hardened gum 
 solution and removes it while the rest of the surface re- 
 mains protected as before. When the gum solution on the 
 stone is kept wet, no ink will adhere to it, and when the en- 
 graved part is inked no water will mix with the ink. The 
 stone is therefore moistened with a sponge and "rolled up- 
 or inked with a leather ink roller. The stone is now com-- 
 plete and is called the engraved stone, but as mentioned be- 
 fore, the printing is done from a stone having a flat surface 
 called a transfer stone. The next step is to transfer the en- 
 graving to the flat surface of this stone. After the engraved 
 stone has been inked a piece of specially prepared paper is 
 laid on the engraving and it is subjected to pressure in a 
 hand press. The engraving is now transferred to the paper 
 which is then laid on the second stone with the ink-side 
 down. The ink under pressure eats into the stone which 
 previously has been polished with pumice stone and water, 
 but has not been protected with the gum solution. The 
 transfer paper is now removed and the stone is covered with 
 the gum solution which adheres to those positions only 
 which have not received the ink from the transfer paper. 
 The stone is now moistened with water and again inked. 
 After being proof read it is placed in the cylinder press simi- 
 lar to those described above and is ready for printing. These 
 presses have both ink and water rollers, under which the 
 stone passes back and forth at each revolution. 
 
 LITHOGRAPH SHEETS may be subject to spontaneous 
 combustion if placed in large piles before being thoroughly 
 dried. This heating is caused by the linseed or other dry- 
 ing oils in the ink. 
 
 LITHOGRAPH STONES AND PLATES— Very suscep- 
 tible to fire and water damage, and may crumble almost to 
 dust when so damaged. The stones are imported. 
 
 LIVE RISER— The pipe leading from the supply tank 
 with mains and laterals to feed the sprinklers. See Sprink- 
 lers. 
 
LODGING HOUSES 285 
 
 LIVESTOCK— See Stables; see Lightning; also Blooded 
 Livestock. 
 
 LOCK CORNER MACHINES— For cutting tooth-like 
 projections on the end of pieces which are to form the con- 
 current sides of a box or drawer; vertical or horizontal man- 
 drells carry gauges of saw-like cutters which rotate rapidly. 
 Considerable fine refuse is made. 
 
 LOCKERS— In the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New 
 York City, a fire started in the locker room where the artists 
 store their canvases, paints, oils, brushes, etc., evidently 
 caused by spontaneous combustion. All lockers should be 
 of metal on raised legs with open screen front to allow ven- 
 tilation. In this manner, refuse under the lockers can be 
 readily seen, and a fire can be seen through open front. 
 Oily waste in pockets of workmen's overalls is apt to cause fire. 
 
 LOCK-JOINTED— See Fire Doors. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVES for Mill Yard Use— Steam locomotives 
 without fires are now being used. The steam is pumped in. 
 to a reservoir under high pressure. The tank is sufficiently 
 large to run the engine for several hours. This eliminates 
 the danger of spark fires from the ordinary locomotives. 
 
 LOCOMOTIVE SPARK HAZARD— This hazard is an 
 ever-present one along railroads, especially where bituminous 
 coal is used for fuel. Buildings, especially with shingle roofs, 
 within a radius of one-half mile should be written with this 
 hazard in mind. 
 
 LODGING HOUSES— Usually of ordinary construction 
 with joist floors, open or poorly enclosed floor openings. 
 Individual rooms are usually enclosed in frame partitions 
 extending part way to ceiling thereby adding considerable 
 combustible material to the interior. Hazards are pot stoves 
 for heat, furnaces, use of benzine for exterminating insects, 
 swinging gas jets, and smoking. Usually located in the poor- 
 er sections. The fire record is poor. See Boarding Houses; 
 also Furnished Rooms. 
 
 LOFT — The first loft of a building is the first floor above 
 the grade. 
 
 LOFT BUILDING— Usually interpreted to mean one oc- 
 cupied by omnibus manufacturing tenants. 
 
286 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 LOGWOOD is wood from which logwood dyes and ex- 
 tracts are made. Received in this country in varying lengths 
 to 6 feet and small in diameters. The surface under the 
 bark is very splintery. When on fire in dry state it burns 
 very rapidly due to the rough surface, smolders a long time 
 and sparks and embers fly a considerable distance in a wind. 
 When on fire, the smoke is thick, pungent, opaque (making 
 nearby objects invisible) and hard to fight. In small piles it 
 is readily extinguished, but in large piles up to 40 feet, the 
 fire will smolder for days. 
 
 The dye is extracted from logwood as follows: The logs 
 are chopped into chunks, sawed by power saws, broken into 
 smaller pieces and ground in machines. It is cooked in 
 steam-heated vats where it remains until the dye is cooked 
 out of the wood. The liquor is separated from the mass by 
 centrifugal extractors and barrelled. See Dye Woods. 
 
 LONGITUDINAL SECTION in a drawing shows the ob- 
 ject lengthwise as distinguished from transverse or cross. 
 
 LOSS ADJUSTMENTS— Many of the unsatisfactory loss 
 adjustments are caused by the failure of the assured to make 
 satisfactory proof of the value of the stock at the time of 
 the fire. Misguided people do not try to salvage any goods 
 after a fire by separating the damaged from the undamaged 
 goods for fear of experiencing trouble with the insuring 
 company. Non-current forms are an ever present source 
 of trouble to an adjuster. See Proof of Loss. 
 
 LOSS COST— The relation between the amount of prop- 
 erty insured in a certain class and the amount paid in losses. 
 Loss cost is the cost of carrying a certain class of risk. 
 
 LOSS RATIO— The percentage that the amount paid in 
 losses bears to the premiums received in any class of risk. 
 
 LOST POLICY RECEIPT (or voucher) is a release given 
 by the assured to a company when the original policy has 
 been lost, thereby releasing the company from obligation un- 
 der the contract. 
 
 LOUVRE — A slatted ventilator. Used in place of a win- 
 dow. Built of metal or wood slats, slanting to permit foul 
 air to escape from a room but preventing fire from enter- 
 ing from the shaft because the openings between slats slant 
 
LUMBER YARDS 287 
 
 inwardly. When used in shafts should be of metal with 
 riveted rather than soldered joints. See Diagram on Venti- 
 lating Shafts. 
 
 LOWER FLANGE— The under part of "I" beams. These 
 should be protected with at" least two inches of approved 
 insulation, although if unprotected, this should not be con- 
 sidered a serious defect in construction if the arch springs 
 from the lower flange and protects the webs. 
 
 LOW WINES are classed as alcohol, cologne spirits, 
 fusel oil and other alcohol by-products. See distilleries. 
 
 LUBRICATING OIL— Manufacturing consist of mixing 
 different grades of heavy mineral oil with some animal or 
 vegetable oil. The lower the flash point, the more likely is 
 the atmosphere surrounding the machinery to be impreg- 
 nated with inflammable vapors. 
 
 LUDLOW TYPOGRAPH MACHINE— A newly-invented 
 machine for setting lengths of lead type in line lengths simi- 
 lar to monotype work, except that this machine is smaller 
 and the type is cast against a brass matrix. 
 
 LUMBER — Second-hand lumber is somewhat better than 
 other second-hand stocks as there is always a market for it. 
 As a class, second-hand lumber yards are not attractive risks. 
 They usually occupy leased ground. 
 
 LUMBER YARDS— Inspectors should state whether it is 
 hard or soft wood; note the height of piles, and whether 
 piled solid or with open spaces between, and whether piles 
 rest on earth, shavings, sawdust or skids. He should note 
 the aisle space, whether lumber exposes windows of mill or 
 other buildings, prevailing winds, whether yard is fenced in. 
 If near a steam railroad there is danger from sparks of loco- 
 motives. Lumber yard fires are hard to fight. Rating 
 bureaus add a charge for exposure to lumber if the mill ex- 
 poses the lumber yard, unless 100 feet distant. 
 
 LYCOPODIUM— Obtained from certain plants. In pow- 
 dered form it is inflammable. 
 
 LYE — Common name for Hydrate of Pbtash or Soda. 
 • LYDDITE is a form of gun-cotton; an English trinitro- 
 phenol. 
 
M 
 
 . MACARONI MFG.— The farina and flour are received in 
 bags, then dumped in hopper and conveyed to storage bins 
 according to the grade. From the storage bins, it is brought 
 by worm conveyor to the scales to be weighed according to 
 the batch desired. It is then dumped in the mixing ma- 
 chines which are directly under the scale, hoppered to the 
 kneaders, then passed to the rolling machines where the mass 
 is rolled up into ^-inch-thick cartridge forms and dropped 
 into macaroni cylinder presses. The plungers of the press 
 are forced down by hydraulic pressure, squeezing the paste 
 through a compartment die which is perforated with a num- 
 ber of circular holes with a core held in the centre. It is 
 dried atmospherically or in heated rooms. 
 
 MACARONI SHOPS in basements are usually crowded, 
 and have unsafe dry rooms or heating apparatus. Many of 
 these shops employ direct coal heat for drying purposes. 
 
 MACHINERY — Heavy machinery on upper floors, even 
 though normally substantially supported has wrecked many 
 buildings in case of fire because the supports weaken or burn 
 away. Drip-pans should be placed under all oily machinery 
 to catch oil drips and so prevent oily floors. 
 
 Machinery in Rapid Motion — See Shaftings. 
 
 Machinery (Second-hand) — Even old or unused usually 
 has a market value unless obsolete, badly damaged, or worn 
 out, in which case it has only the value of old iron. 
 
 MACHINES of a revolving type, gas-heated, are permit- 
 ted to have flexible rubber connections instead of rigid iron 
 piping. 
 
 MACHINE SHOPS— See Metals Workers. 
 
 MADE GROUND— See Ground. 
 
 MAGIC METAL POLISH— An approved benzine substi- 
 tute. 
 
 MAGNESIUM POWDER— Will burn readily and is not. 
 
 288 
 
MAIL ORDER CONCERNS 289 
 
 easily extinguished by watei? A stream of water will scat- 
 ter the burning particles. 
 
 MAGNET — A magnetic device placed in grinding mills, 
 hoppers, chutes, feed spouts, etc., to arrest any metal particles 
 and prevent them from entering the machine where, in grind- 
 ing or milling, they may create a spark and explode the dust 
 in the mill. 
 
 MAGNETO MAKING— Machine shop hazard, annealing, 
 nickel-plating, buffing, testing, sealing with wax. Benzine for 
 cleaning parts, lacquering. 
 
 MAGNOLIUM — An alloy of aluminum and magnesium 
 90-98 per cent, aluminum). It is imported in pigs or ingots 
 for casting. . y>\ i 
 
 MAGUEY— See Fibres. !?! J 
 
 MAIL ORDER CONCERNS— 'ffiey carry nearly every 
 variety of goods. Where no manufacturing is done, the 
 premises resemble warehouses with open stocks and on 
 shelves. Included in the general merchandise there may be 
 calcium carbide, automobile tires, rubber cement, small arm 
 ammunition, lubricating and other oils, celluloid articles. 
 Large concerns usually have repair departments for damaged 
 merchandise. 
 
 MALT EXTRACTING— After the above process the grain 
 is soaked in tanks of cold water, then steam is turned into 
 the tanks to cook it, then evaporated and packed in kegs. 
 
 MALT ROASTING (for Breweries)— Malt received from 
 breweries, roasted usually in an ordinary coffee roaster which 
 consists of a cylindrical revolving drum equipped with agi- 
 tator and heated by direct coal heat. It is drawn off in 
 metal-cooling pans, where the heat is drawn out by suction, 
 then "lofted" by cup-conveyor to a hopper which feeds a 
 grinding mill. A magnet should be at the hopper or at the 
 rollers of the mill to catch metallic pieces such as nails. See 
 Brewery Malt Mills. 
 
 MANGLE — An ironing machine used in laundries for flat 
 work. They are large steel rollers, clothrcovered and either 
 steam or gas-heated. 
 
 MANICURISTS— Usually locate in private dwellings or 
 apartments or in barber shops. Usually have or make small 
 
From "Live Articles on Special Hazards," pub. by "Weekly Underwriter." 
 Malt House. 
 
MARBLE WORKERS 291 
 
 quantities of cosmetics and pomades. At times use alcohol 
 or gas stoves. If in a dwelling, and not over three hands 
 employed, with the owner living on the premises, there is no 
 extra rate charged for this occupancy in New York City. See 
 Massage Parlors. 
 
 MANSARD — The top portion of the outer walls which 
 slope to the roof. The backing is usually of wood or lath 
 and plaster on studding. Termed by fire fighters as " a lum- 
 ber yard up in the air" because of their inability to locate 
 the seat of the fire once it gains access to the concealed 
 space. 
 
 MANUAL ALARM — Usually a small red box with a ring 
 attachment at the bottom, which if pulled down sends in a 
 fire alarm. 
 
 MAP CLERK — A junior underwriter whose main duty is 
 to write the "lines" on the map so that the company's lia- 
 bility can be seen at a glance. He must also understand 
 forms and rates and adjust reinsurance. See Underwriter; 
 see Examiner. 
 
 MARBLE is easily damaged by fire. Where it forms any 
 considerable part of the building structure such as marble 
 fronts or facings, underwriters usually cut down their "line." 
 
 MARBLE WORKERS— Stone and granite such as used in 
 buildings are included. Work is sawing, planing, cutting, 
 drilling, polishing, rubbing. Polishing is done by machinery 
 on flat, soft stones, using a mixture of dry putty and oxalic 
 acid as an abrasive. Glycerine is used for highly polished 
 stones. Broken pieces are cemented with plaster of Paris, 
 beeswax or stick shellac. The latter two are usually heated 
 by gas blow pipes. Gas or gasoline torches are used for 
 heating lead for dowels. Usually occupy large area frame 
 buildings heated by "salamanders." See Imitation Marble. 
 
 MARGARIC ACID is obtained from hog fat and potash. 
 
 MARINE GLUE — One part India rubber, 20 parts gum 
 lac and 12 parts benzine. 
 
 MARINE-LEG — Used in connection with grain elevators 
 located on water fronts. A movable elevator leg, so ar- 
 ranged that grain can be conveyed from the hold of a boat 
 by dipping the elevator boot into the liojd, 
 
2S12; INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 MARINE INSURANCE— Is a contract whereby one 
 party for a specific sum agrees to indemnify another who has 
 an interest in the property exposed to marine risks, against 
 loss incidental thereto. The policy covers goods from port 
 to port but by endorsement they may be covered from some 
 place in the interior until delivered to the assured's store or 
 warehouse at port of destination. Almost all marine con- 
 tracts are valued policies. 
 
 MARKED OFF — An expression used by insurance men 
 when an application or policy is returned to the company 
 when the insurance is not wanted. 
 
 MARKETS (Chicken) — Especially where killing is done 
 are usually untidy with feathers, guano and wooden crates. 
 Stoves are used for heat and for heating water. Not an at^ 
 tractive class. J 4AM 
 
 MARKET VALUE— See Sound Value. - '~ - 
 
 MARSH GAS— See Fire Damp. 
 
 MASSAGE PARLORS— Usually in connection with hair 
 dressers and manicurists. Use electric vibrators for massag- 
 ing, electric baths and various other electric appliances. 
 Some are connected with the lighting system with ordinary 
 sockets. Others are on separate circuits or run by storage 
 batteries. Alcohol and face creams are used extensively. 
 Salves are mainly heated on alcohol stoves. See Manicurist. 
 
 MASSICOT— Oxide of lead. 
 
 MASTIC — A resinous substance from a shrub. Used in 
 varnish-making. 
 
 MATCHES (Manufacturing) — Many different processes 
 are employed. One of the common being a cylinder of pine 
 or poplar wood, the length of seven matches, which has been 
 soaked in water to make it tough, is placed in a lathe which 
 cuts off a continuous shaving, the thickness of a match. As 
 this shaving comes away from the log, it is cut into seven 
 strips, each as wide as a match is long. As soon as the 
 splints are separated. from the block, they are seized in iron 
 clamp plates which form an endless chain. The endless 
 chain carries the splints across a steam-heated drum which 
 warms them nearly t6 the temperature of paraffine into which 
 they are dipped. From the paraffine bath the splints move on 
 
UTXHW/1.' MATCHES 
 
 293 
 
 continuously to the rollers that carry the "heading" mixture, 
 phosphorus, chlorate of potash, etc., and as the matches 
 are carried past the rollers each one receives a red or blue 
 head as the case may be. From the rollers they continue on 
 through a room swept by a blast of cold, dry air. The 
 matches move on until just before they reach the starting 
 point, again air automatically thrusts them out and places 
 them side by side in a box. 
 
 The composition of match heads varies a great deal in dif- 
 ferent factories and consists of various combinations of glue, 
 rosin, phosphorus, sulphur, chlorate of potash, saltpetre, 
 red lead, bichromate of potash, nitrate of lead, antimony sul* 
 phide and fine sand. 
 
 A Prolific Source of Fire T^osses. 
 
 The sulphur match tip is made of a paste consisting of 
 chlorate of potash, sulphur, colophony, vermillion and gum. 
 
 The "strike anywhere" match tip usually contains phos- 
 phorus and potassium chlorate. 
 
2^4 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 The "strike-on-box" match head is partly composed of 
 potassium chlorate while the box contains red phosphorus. 
 
 Paper match heads are dipped in chlorate of potash, amor- 
 phous phosphorus, sulphur and iron oxide. 
 
 Incomplete reports of the National Board of Fire Under- 
 writers for the year 1915 show a loss over the country total- 
 ing $4,324,596 due to matches. 
 
 In New York City alone, the fire department's report of 
 1915 shows that there were 1,346 fires attributed to matches, 
 causing a loss of $227,886. 
 
 The Underwriters* Laboratories of Chicago have made a 
 careful study and test of matches and now issue the label 
 service covering this line of goods. The testing covers the 
 subject of flying heads, ignition temperatures, stability of 
 head and composition, afterglow, strength of splint and meth- 
 od of packing. 
 
 The label service is divided into two classes. Class "A** 
 is the "strike on the box" type, where the match is struck on 
 a prepared surface and the ignition point is above 340 deg. 
 F. Class "B" is the so-called "strike anywhere" match, and 
 the ignition point is above 300 deg. F. This type of match 
 is double-dipped, the outside bulb being inert and of larger 
 diameter than the tip. It is constructed so that it will not 
 ignite from friction or when it is trod upon. The splints of 
 both types of matches are treated to prevent afterglow, and 
 they are required to be of a reasonable strength. 
 
 At this writing there is only one manufacturer who has ob- 
 tained the label service. This concern manufactures both 
 classes of approved matches. 
 
 The hazard from the careless handling of matches cannot 
 be too greatly emphasized and it would be well to advocate 
 stringent laws for those who continue to use them with utter 
 disregard for the loss of life and property that they may 
 cause. — (S. T. Skirrow, "Live Articles on Special Hazards," 
 The Weekly Underwriter.) 
 
 MATTRESSES — Materials used are tow, shoddy, sea grass, 
 cotton, hair, moss, excelsior and fibres. Work consists of 
 picking and rolling cotton or other materials in pads, filling 
 and tufting, sewing slip covers. They may also assemble and 
 
MECHANICS' PRIVILEGE 295 
 
 paint bed springs. Hazards are cotton and fibre picking, 
 storage of upholstering material, dust in the presence of open 
 lights, loose materials about the premises. In small shops, 
 coal stoves are used for heat. Unless the various processes 
 are segregated, the entire floor may become covered with 
 dust. A very poor fire record class. 
 
 MATZOTH BAKERY— Matzoths are made of flour and 
 cracker dust. Bakers use sifters, cleaners and occasionally 
 mill flour. The baking oven is brick enclosed with fire box 
 underneath. The dough is placed on a revolving metal drum 
 over the fire and baked in one revolution. When baked, the 
 crackers drop on a woven cloth belt conveyor which takes 
 them to the packing room. Some of the crackers may be 
 burning and if not removed from the conveyor are carried 
 to the packing room where they might set fire to combustible 
 material. Several fires have been attributed to this cause, 
 and also to friction in dust box of flour mill. (Poor fire 
 record.) See Bakeries. 
 
 MECHANICS' PRIVILEGE— Allows mechanics to be em- 
 ployed in the building for ordinary alterations and repairs 
 without limit of time. Just when and where a builders risk 
 condition takes place is sometimes rather a difficult question 
 to decide, but most underwriters claim that so long as the 
 building in not weakened or added to but merely altered by 
 means of painting, carpentering and other interior work, the 
 mechanics* privilege is all that is necessary. See Builders' 
 Risk. 
 
 MEDICINAL OILS— See Mineral Oil. 
 
 MELINITE — A powerful explosive. 
 
 MELTING FURNACES— Called "pot" furnaces. Used by 
 glass manufacturers and are generally circular in form with 
 an inside lining bench and crown of fire clay blocks and 
 brick and an outside enclosure tapering above the crown 
 forming a chimney stack. The base is usually brick about 
 10 feet thick with brick arched cave or tunnel. They use 
 soft coal for heat. There are a number of openings in these 
 furnaces which receive the crucible or pot which contains 
 the "batch" of glass ingredients. Aside from the setting, 
 the only hazard of any importance is the woodwork which 
 
296 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 should be removed to at least 18 inches. — The Weekly Un- 
 derwriter. 
 
 MELTING POINT of metals. See Fusion Point. 
 
 MEMORIAL WINDOWS are part of the building and 
 may form considerable of building loss in case of fire. Few 
 companies will write them as separate insurance. 
 
 MEN'S FURNISHINGS— Susceptible stock. When col- 
 ored goods are water damaged, the colors either run or 
 goods become mildewed and prove total loss. White goods 
 mildew but these can be washed. Cheap jewelry may be in- 
 cluded which tarnishes. 
 
 MENTHOL — Resembles camphor. Obtained from oil of 
 peppermint by cooling; volatile. 
 
 MERCANTILE BUILDING— One occupied by mercantile 
 tenants such as those having stocks, offices and very light 
 manufacturing. 
 
 MERCANTILE RATING— When the financial rating of a 
 person or firm does not appear in any of the mercantile rat- 
 ing books it usually indicates lack of capital or credit but 
 may only signify that the bureau has no information on 
 which to base a rating. See Trade Reports; also Blank 
 Rating. 
 
 MERCERIZED GOODS— Water will practically ruin 
 stocks of this nature, which are also severely damaged by 
 dampness. 
 
 MERCERIZING — A process which imparts a gloss or lus- 
 tre to cotton fibres by treating the tightly stretched fibres 
 with caustic soda, followed by washing and drying. 
 
 MERCHANDISE SPECIFIC FORM— In writing insur- 
 ance under this form, add to the base rate of warehouse, the 
 amount named in the alphabetical list. Specify the mer- 
 chandise by name and if the rate is for a particular kind of 
 package, mention the package. See Storage; see Warehouses. 
 
 MERCHANT POLICE— In place of the ordinary watch- 
 man, are hired by owners of merchandise, usually on docks 
 and piers, to prevent thievery. The merchant police are re- 
 sponsible for all goods ^ lost and therefore are always alert. 
 
 MERCHANT TAILOR— Does custom work, and may also 
 have stock. See Custom Tailor. 
 
METAL WORKERS 297 
 
 MERCURIC CHLORIDE— Corrosive sublimate, heavy 
 white salt, no fire hazard. 
 
 MERCURY is the only metal which is in liquid form. It is 
 white, having a brilliant metallic lustre. Boils at 660 deg. F. 
 Alcohol is used as a substitute for mercury in thermometer 
 where very low temperatures prevail. 
 
 ^ MERCURY FULMINATE— Produced by solution ' of 
 nitrate of mercury and alcohol. Powerful explosive. 
 ^^' METAL BEDS AND SPRINGS— Busiest season April 
 to July, September to November. Metal working hazards 
 including japanning and enameling. Use considerable excel- 
 sior for packing. (Poor fire record class.) 
 
 METALIZING — Dipping articles in molten metal. 
 
 METALLIC POTASSIUM (and sodium) are kept by near- 
 ly all drug houses. Should be kept in oil, because if water 
 ^cpmes in contact with them, flames result, as the reaction 
 releases hydrogen. 
 'metallic POWDERS such as aluminum and bronze 
 have a great affinity for oxygen and are considered dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 METAL SIGNS (Lithographed)— Sheet metal working 
 and varnishing hazard. Benzine thinned paint used in dip 
 tanks. A roller varnishing machine is sometimes used with 
 celluloid varnish. Dry rooms same as lacquer dry rooms. 
 
 METAL TUBING (Manufacturing) embraces the hazards 
 of gas-heated brazers, roller mills, stamping presses, swag- 
 ing machines and heavy metal working machinery. Floors 
 usually oily and greasy. 
 
 '* METAL WORKERS— Machines used are lathes, shapers, 
 'Aliilling machines, drill presses, emery wheels and similar de- 
 vices. If the floors are of wood, the machines should set 
 on metal with edges curbed to prevent oil soaking into the 
 wood. Waste used around machinery when oily should be 
 kept in self-closing cans with legs so that the bottom of the 
 can is off the floor. Iron filings should be kept in similar 
 receptacles. Some shops do lacquering or japanning. Only 
 a day's supply of such materials should be kept on hand in 
 the building. Dry rooms for lacquered parts should be stand- 
 ard in construction. 
 
2M INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 METHYL ALCOHOL— See Wood Alcohol. 
 
 METHYLOXALIC ACID— Is recovered from the prod- 
 ucts of dry distillation of wood; inflammable. 
 
 MEZZANINE FLOOR— A gallery or half floor, of small- 
 er area than other floors of the building. 
 
 MICA — Manufacturing such goods as electrical insulators, 
 lamp chimneys, etc. There are but few plants in the United 
 States. The stock of mica is received in rough state from 
 mines, cut up into small pieces, worked up into several lay- 
 ers using shellac as a cement, pressed into sheets by hy- 
 draulic presses, dried in ovens, cut to size, formed in steam 
 moulds. They are gradually cooled in these same moulds 
 by circulating water jackets, then dried in ovens, edges 
 trimmed with jig saws and surface ground down on car- 
 borundum wheels and the seams cemented with shellac. 
 When put in ovens to dry, the mica is placed on a sheet 
 of metal previously oiled. Metal parts are riveted on by 
 foot power presses. Hazards embrace light metal working, 
 machine shop for repairs, storage of shellac and alcohol, dry- 
 ing ovens, steam pipes at mould tables in contact with wood. 
 
 MICALITE— A substitute for sheet celluloid. Non-in- 
 flammable. 
 
 MICE — Have long been credited with causing fires and al- 
 though experiments with mice and matches have been un- 
 successful, the following is a true report of a concrete case: 
 A fire was discovered under a floor in a residence. A large 
 quantity of water was poured in. When firemen arrived they 
 took up the floor boards and discovered a large nest between 
 the beams and in it were acorns, chestnuts, pieces of cloth, 
 plumbers' waste, cheese, and — half of a burnt match. See 
 Rats. 
 
 MILK DEPOTS— High pressure boiler hazard, which sup- 
 plies steam for pasteurizers, sterilizers, bottle washers and 
 dry rooms. Crate or box-making for bottles, tinsmith shop 
 for repairing of cans, refrigerating machinery, printing labels 
 and caps are hazards found at some plants. The fire record 
 is not very good. See Dairy Farms; see Creameries. 
 
 MILL AGENT— An agent who sells the product of mills 
 
MILL CONSTRUCTION 2M 
 
 to the trade, receiving a commission for same, although .g.opcjs 
 are shipped and billed direct to the buyer. '..;:, .,,.-,',, 
 
 MILL CONSTRUCTION— Briefly, mill construction em- 
 braces the following: (1) Consists of making a fire stop of 
 heavy plank between stories so that the spread of fire may 
 be retarded. This necessitates doing away with all openings 
 in floors such as belt holes, stairways, elevator wells, or all 
 such must be in cut-oflf towers. (2) The timbers and floor- 
 ing required to give the necessary stability and strength are 
 arranged so as to offer as smooth a surface and as few cor- 
 ners, on which fire may feed, as practical, also doing away 
 with all concealed spaces in walls or floors. This is accom- 
 plished by using very heavy floor timbers spaced 8 to 12 
 feet apart and floors of 3 to 4-inch plank with single or 
 double top flooring. Roof to be 3 inches thick and covered 
 with gravel or tin. In a building of this character fire can 
 be readily reached with water from either hose stream or 
 sprinklers. (3) Floors must be tight as well as heavy so as 
 to prevent fire, smoke or water from working through. This 
 is one of the most important features of a mill building and 
 one to which sufficient attention is not paid. Due to poorly 
 seasoned plank or poor workmanship openings are left 
 around posts, at side walls or elswhere and fire smoke or 
 water spreads through these openings destroying or impair- 
 ing the efficiency of the floor. See Bay Construction; see 
 Compromise Mill. 
 
 • MILL WASTE— Odds and ends from fabric mills, mace- 
 rated and bleached to obtain a resemblance to cotton. 
 
 MILLINERY is liable to include almost anything from a 
 delicate chiffon to a stuffed bird, but can be counted on to 
 give practically 100 per cent, loss in nearly every fire starting 
 in this class, because the salvage, once the stock is smoked or 
 wet, is practically nil. 
 
 MINE FIRES are caused by ignition of timbers, wooden 
 stoppings and brattic cloths, hay or oil-soaked material by 
 open torches, the ignition of coal by blown-out shots, or ex- 
 plosions of fire damp or coal dust, or the improper use of 
 explosives; surface fires communicating to the mine through 
 the shaft or tunnel, underground furnaces and boiler plants. 
 
300 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ignition by friction on oily wooden rollers or rope haulage- 
 ways; fires occasioned by spontaneous combustion of coal, 
 timber or greasy waste. Most effective means of exploring 
 and combating fire is the oxygen helmet. Article, H. M. Wil- 
 son, Insurance library. 
 
 Mine Fires spread rapidly. Unless extinguished within 
 a few minutes from the start, the closing of the section or 
 mine often becomes necessary. Mines should be patrolled by 
 lookouts and employees, especially English-speaking, and the 
 more intelligent should be organized into a fire brigade for 
 instant service. 
 
 MINERAL BURNING OIL— Obtained by the fractional 
 distillation of crude petroleum and shale oil. 
 
 MINERAL INDIA-RUBBER NAPHTHA— Produced 
 during the process of refining tar by sulphuric acid. 
 
 MINERAL LUBRICATING OILS— See Hydrocarbon. 
 
 MINERAL OIL FOR MEDICINAL PURPOSES— Petro- 
 leum oil products and Russian white oils are used. Work in 
 compounding risks include mixing the oil with Fullers earth, 
 then refining, distilling, filtering, all by steam heat. Bar- 
 relling, bottling, labelling, painting barrel heads and chemical 
 laboratory for testing. Premises usually very oily. 
 
 MINERAL OILS are usually products of coal tar and pe- 
 troleum. They are considered more hazardous than the ani- 
 mal or vegetable oils. The most important thing to know is 
 the flash point. If not mixed with vegetable or animal oils 
 are not subject to spontaneous combustion. 
 
 MINERAL WATERS AND BEVERAGES— Work con- 
 sists of making flavoring extracts, charging or carbonizing 
 water with marble dust, straining, filtering, bottling, labelling, 
 packing. Use steam or gas-heated kettles, steam-heated bot- 
 tle washers. Bottles are packed in excelsior or straw jackets. 
 See Bottlers. 
 
 MINERAL WOOL— The product obtained by forcing a jet 
 of steam or air against a stream of molten slag or molten 
 rock. 
 
 MIRROR BACKING— An amalgam of mercury and tin. 
 Tin foil, i. e., tin leaf, is first applied over the glass, then 
 
MOLASSES WASTE LIQUID SOI 
 
 mercury is poured upon this, and it unites with the tin, mak- 
 ing an amalgam. 
 
 MIRRORS — (Electroplating Mirrors) — A new method of 
 silvering mirrors consists of depositing the metal on the glass 
 by means of a high potential electric current. Electrical 
 hazard. 
 
 MITRE SAWS — Used by woodworkers to cut any kind of 
 pieces at an angle. 
 
 MIXED ACIDS — Mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. 
 If in contact with organic matter will cause fire. 
 
 MOLASSES DEALERS make rock candy at times using 
 steam vacuum kettles. They may also have benzine for thin- 
 ning paint for barrel heads. 
 
 MOLASSES REFUSE— The ashes of molasses refuse 
 (used for fuel in molasses or sugar factories), contains about 
 1-3 potash and 5 per cent, phosphoric acid. Is used for 
 fertilizer. 
 
 MOLASSES WASTE LIQUID— Used in fertilizer. The 
 waste liquid derived from molasses contains about 60 per 
 cent, water and 40 per cent, substance. The body portion is 
 now reclaimed by the following process: Waste pumped into 
 large wood tanks, then to steam-heated still evaporators with 
 condenser apartments. The heavy liquid is then run into 
 large storage tanks, and then flowed to a hopper, into which 
 ground phosphate is added. It is then mixed and dried. Con- 
 sidered non-hazardous if fuel oil system for dryers is ap- 
 proved and no grinding of phosphate on the premises. Mo- 
 lasses-soaked floors burn fiercely. 
 
 MOLLACH — A benzine-thinned stain used by leather 
 goods manufacturers. 
 
 MOLYBDENITE — Ore of molybdenum which is used to 
 give hardness to steel. 
 
 MONITOR — A raised roof structure of various shapes and 
 sizes, with glass sides. Sometimes called "Texas" or "Lan- 
 tern Skylights." 
 
 MONOLITH — A single piece or block of stone, as a sin- 
 gle piece stone column. 
 
 MONOLITHIC CONSTRUCTION— An all reinforced 
 concrete building. 
 
303 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 MONO-NITRATES are not necessarily dangerous. 
 
 MONOTYPE MACHINE— Used by printers for casting 
 and setting up lead type in single letters. First a key board 
 is used, where the different styles of type, spacing and align- 
 ment are indicated by perforating a roll of paper. This paper 
 roll is put in the casting machine. Air pressure blowing 
 through the perforations of different sizes and spaces regu- 
 lates the machine operation so that the lead type is auto- 
 matically cast and set up. Usually motor driven. The lead 
 pot should have rigid iron connection, and floor under ma- 
 chine should be metal clad. See Printers. 
 
 MONTAN WAX— A soft coal distillate from Austria; 
 melts at near 180 deg. F. Not hazardous. 
 
 MOPS — Prof. John H. Bryan, principal of the Ward School 
 at Marion, Ohio, on several occasions found mops used by 
 the janitor in oiling the floor burned to ashes, it being evi- 
 dent that the building each time narrowly escaped being 
 burned. To prove the nature of the trouble, he saturated 
 several mops with the floor oil and hung them where there 
 were no inflammable surroundings. A mop saturated with oil 
 at 5 p. m. was found to be very warm at 7 a. m., and in one 
 instance he watched a mop until it burst into flames. It is 
 claimed that the ill-fated Collinwood school fire may have 
 started in this manner. 
 
 MORAL HAZARD— The moral hazard of a risk is most 
 pertinently described by Colonel Ducat as 'Hhe danger from 
 frictioh caused by high insurance and low depreciated stocks 
 and property coming together. And just the difference be- 
 tween what would have been the fire loss with no insurance 
 and the fire loss under insurance would be the moral hazard 
 of the risk." 
 
 Unoccupied dwellings outside of the police protection of 
 cities or towns, slept in once in a while by caretakers, which,, 
 by the way, is not dwelling occupancy unless approved by . 
 the agent. They are open to tramps, subject to carelessness 
 of boys and like the family-deserted farm dwelling, are haz- 
 ardous risks. 
 
 Ex-factory buildings that may have cost thousands of dol- 
 lars, but which, with their machinery removed, have been pur- 
 
MORAL HAZARD fm 
 
 chased for a few hundred dollars and converted into barns 
 and warehouses. Such buildings are liable to be overvalued 
 and insured for more than they are worth. 
 
 Stocks of merchandise purchased at assignee's sale for 65- 
 cents-on-the-dollar invoice, and insured at 85-cents-on-a-dol- 
 lar invoice, because the insured got a bargain. Careful con- 
 sideration of the property as to present cash value from an 
 insurance point of view is necessary. 
 
 Long distance over the hills and far away from the agency 
 risks^ on which the commission will not pay the agent for 
 surveying them, and the amount of premium will not warrant 
 the expense of the special for inspecting them. When in- 
 sured "unsight, unseen," as boys swap pocket knives they are 
 often sold (by fire) in a manner that causes the local agent 
 to think the company carrying the business may also have 
 been sold. 
 
 Property that has outlived its usefulness, that is unoc- 
 cupied, that is not adapted for the purpose for which it was 
 intended, that is overvalued, that is offered at forced sale, 
 or that is at a distance from the agency, should be avoided; 
 or, if written after full knowledge of the facts pertaining to it 
 have been obtained, the amount of insurance thereon should 
 be based upon commercial cash values, instead of upon the 
 cost of replacement, and rates should be made to cover the 
 hazard. 
 
 In betting $1,000 under a policy of insurance against $7.50 
 premium or any other amounts, unsatisfactory losses can 
 often be avoided by keeping an eye on the possible amount 
 of loss instead of on the small amount of premium. It is also 
 an excellent plan in such cases to carefully examine the other 
 fellow's stake before accepting the bet. 
 
 Losses under the conditions stated are not necessarily 
 criminal; they can arise from legitimate carelessness that 
 would not occur if the insurance was 70 or 75 per cent, of the 
 commercial value instead of the commercial value being less 
 than 75 per cent, of the insurance. 
 
 Moral Hazard— (By Samuel R. Weed, in "The Week- 
 ly Underwriter.") What is that intangible, but important, 
 part of fire risk which is commonly called the moral hazard? 
 
aw INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING ^% 
 
 It exists in other lines of business, and, in fact, it is omni- 
 present in all vocations where financial responsibility is in- 
 volved, and is frequently a synonym for a form of dishonesty. 
 If we hear of a bank or a stock broker or a merchant who is 
 dishonest we fj^equently describe his condition as overbur- 
 burdened with "too much moral hazard." Consequently we 
 must understand at the outset that moral hazard is a risk 
 which to a greater or less extent permeates all kinds of busi- 
 ness. It is the same as short weights in the grocery, or coal 
 yards; it is the same as misrepresentation in mxcrchants* 
 transactions or downwright fraud in manufacturing, or any 
 other dishonest proceeding to deceive the public on the part 
 of the man who has something to sell and finds a market 
 among the innocent purchasers. In the majority of cases 
 there are some ways of discovery and detection, and often 
 of punishment, but in fire insurance the moral hazard risk 
 goes down much deeper because it is a long-drawn-out proc- 
 ess of crime which may be conceived months or years before 
 it is actually committed, and it is more generally suspected 
 than proved. It is, however, sometimes confirmed by cir- 
 cumstantial evidence, but even then the victim has no redress. 
 It is intangible because we have to search into the inner mo- 
 tives of man and go below the surface before finding any im- 
 portant proof. Attempts to describe it in general terms have 
 often been made, but the difficulty of a description applicable 
 to each case is increased by the fact that no two instances are 
 precisely alike. . . . 
 
 There are certain questions which should be answered by 
 the agent, or which he should answer for himself, which will 
 assist him materially in forming a correct judgment whether 
 the insurance seeker is a safe subject for the company: 
 
 1. Has the applicant been long established in business in 
 the place? If not, is he a resident or a newcomer, and if the 
 latter, where was he formerly located, and why did he 
 change? 
 
 2. Does his business appear to be prosperous? Has he 
 good local credit? Have any of his notes been protested by 
 the local banks? Has he ever failed, and if so, upon what 
 terms did he settle with his creditors? 
 
MORAL HAZARD 305 
 
 3. Was he ever burned out? Where and how did the fire 
 originate? Was he insured, and if so, did he have any trou- 
 ble in settlement with the insurance companies? Are the 
 same companies willing to insure him again? An inquiry ad- 
 dressed to your head office will often bring out this informa- 
 tion, which is inaccessible at your own residence. 
 
 4. Is the insured a woman? Or is the active manager do- 
 ing business as agent for his wife, and if for another, for 
 whom? Has the present owner or manager of the business 
 ever been connected with anyone who has suffered from fire? 
 
 5. Is the business of a declining class? Are the premises 
 poorly located in the town for profit? Is the building out of 
 repair? Has there been any difference with the landlord, 
 and is the owner of the building a desirable person to insure? 
 
 6. Has the applicant suffered from strikes or differences 
 with labor unions, or been publicly or privately threatened 
 with damage by strikers or discharged workmen? . . . 
 
 The companies as a rule dislike to insure property in the 
 name of a woman unless it be one of the small stocks which 
 may properly be managed by her sex, such as a retail haber- 
 dashery or a dressmaking stock. But the trouble with a 
 woman in the case lies in the probability that she is being 
 used as a mask for somebody else. It is surprising how 
 many cases turn up where, by the use of a woman's initials 
 only, companies are deceived by the supposition that it is a 
 masculine whom they are insuring. I know an examiner for 
 an important city company who invariably sends out an in- 
 quiry when initials only appear for the full name of the per- 
 son or persons insured. He uses this form of query: "Is the 
 'insured male or female? If a female, is she married, and if 
 so, what is the full name of her husband? If a widow, please 
 state the fact." This examiner once told me that in the course 
 of five years he had turned down several daily reports be- 
 cause he learned that the insured was of the feminine gender, 
 and what is still more remarkable, at least one in ten of the 
 risks on which policies had been canceled .for this reason 
 had subsequently burned. Probably this should be called a 
 "suspected moral hazard" in which the woman is not directly 
 to blame, and if the whole truth were known it would be 
 
^^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 found a man profited by the loss of such a risk far more than 
 the woman whose name was used as a cloak for the man's 
 insurance. These instances are easily connected with incen- 
 . diarism, and I have no doubt that many of them belong to 
 some of the worst classes of moral hazard which have ever 
 come to light. 
 
 I presume you will be surprised when I assert that there 
 is a new kind of moral hazard affecting the business of fire 
 underwriting now in vogue quite unknown twenty-five years 
 ago. I mean a sort of reverse action of the moral-hazard 
 principle succeeding a fire quite apart from its origin. I be- 
 lieve the experience of the last twenty years has demonstrat- 
 ed that many an honest loss has been turned into a dishonest 
 loss by the temptation, or whatever else you choose to call 
 it, to indulge in crookedness directly aroused by the fire. 
 Somehow the underwriters are often treated as easy marks 
 who can be plundered by fraudulent claims and robbed of 
 large sums by schemes to cover up the real loss with a layer 
 of fraud which sometimes escapes detection. I believe that 
 the discovery of such schemes is generally possible through 
 patience and perseverance, as well as by skillful handling of 
 the testimony. Some very remarkable evidences of this kind 
 of moral hazard have been gathered by our loss committee, 
 and the former manager, Mr. Robb, could, if he would, tell 
 you of one very extraordinary case in the surrender of pol- 
 icies for a large amount upon a stock of plate glass in this 
 city without any payment at all, after a most elaborate 
 scheme of fraud had been prepared which was exposed by 
 accident. One of the links in the chain was weak, and that 
 broke down all the connecting links. I am obliged to with- 
 hold the particulars of this case, but I believe it was one 
 where the rascality really followed the fire. 
 
 The temptation to swell loss claims sometimes overtakes 
 men who ar« esteemed honest and upright in all the walks 
 of life. The peculiar view which some people hold regarding 
 the value of their property after the damage frequently leads 
 to downright perjury, a phase of moral hazard which is gen- 
 erally created, promoted, suggested and carried forward by 
 the new profession known as the public adjusters. I wish it 
 
MOTION PICTURE BOOTHS 507 
 
 were possible to take up the record of every loss handled by- 
 public adjusters in the last ten years. The revelation would, 
 I am sure, astonish you. <7i; 
 
 MORDANTING — Means fixing the colors of the dyes 'so 
 as to thoroughly impregnate the material. 
 
 MORTGAGEE CLAUSE (full contribution)— This clause 
 is usually placed on policies covering the second and third 
 mortgagee's interest. The object of this clause is to make all 
 policies contribute their proportion of loss in case of fire. If 
 the insurance company controls the insurance for the first 
 mortgagee, the full contribution feature may be omitted. 
 
 MORTGAGEE INTEREST— Except in special cases, the 
 interest of the mortgagee is not insured direct or separate, but 
 is covered by the usual mortgage clause. 
 
 (MORTISE — A hole cut in one piece for receiving the 
 tenon which projects from the other piece. A chisel mor- 
 tiser, by repeated thrusts, produces the desired hole. 
 
 MOTION PICTURE BOOTHS— Usually built of asbestos 
 lumber ^-inch thick on 1^ by 1^ and ^-inch angle iron 
 frame. Iron booths are now obsolete. Where the equipment 
 is permanent, tile or brick is used. Shutters should close 
 automatically. Ventilation: metal pipe should extend to outer 
 air (not to attic). Hand-operated machines: the operator is 
 always at the machine and therefore can readily detect any 
 mechanism which might go wrong. If the machine is elec- 
 trically driven, it may run wild, the film become clogged, and 
 before the operator could shut down the machine many feet 
 of film may be burned. Machines should be fastened to floor 
 to prevent tipping them over. Automatic shutters on ma- 
 chines are to shut off rays from the arc lamp when machine 
 stops and thus prevent ignition of the film. The upper mag- 
 azine in the machine holds the film being shown which is 
 i run through a thin slot to a lower magazine where it is 
 wound up. These slot openings are just large enough to ac- 
 commodate the film. Arc lights at machines should be en- 
 closed in metal box lined with asbestos. Careless operators 
 are responsible for most of the fires in picture booths. Ex- 
 tinguishers and sand pails are required in booths. 
 
 MOTION PICTURE FILMS are made of nitro-cellulose. 
 
308 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Non-inflammable films are made of cellulose acetate. Those 
 of the pyroxilin type when stored in poorly ventilated vault 
 are apt to decompose and the gas arising, when mixed with 
 air will explode if ignited. The master film (original nega- 
 tive) is very valuable, especially before copies are made. 
 Sometimes one film will exceed in value the entire contents 
 of the studio. The values run up to half a million dollars for 
 a single film. See Film Vault. 
 
 MOTION PICTURE SHOW HOUSES— Note if building 
 is specially designed for this purpose or a converted building, 
 the construction and cleanliness of booth, heating apparatus, 
 lighting system, care of scrap films which are produced when 
 reels are re-joined after breaking, location of re-winding 
 room for films. The ordinary picture show building is a 
 high one-story building and may embrace the theatre hazard 
 by having a wooden stage for vaudeville performances, wood- 
 en dressing rooms and a quantity of scenery. 
 
 MOTION PICTURE STUDIO— Usually consists of a 
 group of buildings varying in size and construction and com- 
 municating with each other. In some, the different depart- 
 ments are in separate buildings or sections; while in others, 
 the dressing rooms, scenery storage and painting, carpenter 
 shop, studio and carpenter shop may be under one roof. The 
 stage and its equipment is usually of a portable or knock- 
 down type. At least one side and the roof of studio is glass. 
 Neither wired glass nor glass with screens can be used for 
 studio lights because the wires would show on the picture if 
 taken by natural light. 
 
 Process: Films received in metal cans, washed in benzine, 
 sensitized in glycerine bath. The picture is taken and de- 
 veloped in bath of hyposulphate of soda and hydroquinon, 
 glycerine and water and a thin solution of water and mer- 
 cury, then air dried. Printing is done in a high speed all 
 metal, electric power printer. An incandescent light is in an 
 enclosed cylinder in center of printing machine with a small 
 aperature to transmit light. The negative and positive films 
 are on open reels and pass through a thin slot about five 
 inches from the light and wound on reels underneath the 
 printer. The film is then perforated, i. e., a row of small holes 
 
MOTION PICTURE STUDIO ZQ9 
 
 is made down each side of the film which fit the cogs on a 
 reel on which the film is wound. Perforators are high speed, 
 electric power machines, equipped with a suction pipe to 
 carry off the dust created. The small particles are dropped 
 through bottom of machine to a metal can. The joining of 
 sections of film is done by hand, each worker having a small 
 bottle of cement. The films are then polished on reels on 
 which are fastened flaps of felt saturated with alcohol and 
 operated by hand. They are then projected through a mov- 
 ing-picture machine to detect imperfections. (A moving-pic- 
 ture machine is sometimes called a projecting machine.) 
 Laboratory work consists of making a special cement for join- 
 ing films composed of carbonate of potassium, collodion, amyl 
 acetate, acetone, iodide potassium, sulphuric acid, ethyl 
 acetone and sulphuret potassium. Joining, printing, develop- 
 ing, perforating, polishing, cleaning, property rooms, car- 
 penter shop, painting, laboratory and projecting should be in 
 separate rooms. Rubber-covered floors are used a great deal 
 to prevent nails in heels of shoes producing sparks and set- 
 ting fire to film scrap on floor. Care in disposal of film 
 scrap is very important. Film vaults should conform with 
 underwriters' requirements. 
 
 National Association of the Motion Picture Industry, Inc., 
 says: 
 
 1. Keep plenty of water handy, (a) In an automatic sprin- 
 kler system suitable to your conditions; (b) In convenient 
 buckets; (c) In faucets with an inch and a quarter hose and 
 nozzle attached; (d) Have fire extinguishers, which every- 
 body is shown how to use; (e) Keep sand pails handy. Sand 
 will stop a small film fire quickly and will not damage the 
 stock. 
 
 2. Keep film in containers when not actually in use. The 
 time lost in replacing it is nothing. Naked film is the one 
 condition that guarantees that a little fire will get beyond 
 control in a few seconds. 
 
 3.. Throw film scraps into self-closing metal cans, never 
 into open waste baskets. 
 4. Keep the cutting rooms, etc., well swept. The tiny 
 
310 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 pieces of film that fly about make the dust as dangerous as so 
 much gunpowder. 
 
 5. Have a professional electrician do all your wiring, in 
 accordance with every city ordinance, no matter how "un- 
 reasonable" it seems. Have the light globes caged — a broken 
 
 i globe may make only one spark, but that can ignite $1,000 
 worth of film. Handle no film by any artificial light but 
 electricity. 
 
 6. Box your radiators and steam pipes. The film that 
 touches a hot pipe and crinkles up might just as easily have 
 burst into flame. 
 
 7. Enforce the "no smoking" rule. Give the boys a smok- 
 ing room if they need it, and make the boss and his guests 
 who are looking over the place leave their cigars, cigarettes 
 and pipes outside, as they would if they stepped into a theater 
 for a glimpse of the picture. 
 
 8. Banish the "strike anywhere" match. Furnish boxes of 
 safety matches free, if necessary. But don't have anything 
 that will light except when it is intended to. 
 
 9. Keep only enough cement, gasoline and collodion on 
 hand for the day's work. They are all highly inflammable, 
 and should be stored where they can do no harm. 
 
 10. Appoint one man or woman as fire monitor, and let 
 him know it is all his job is worth to fail to call down the 
 boss, the cutter, or the office boy for any carelessness. 
 
 Bad housekeeping and carelessness: Unguarded radiators. 
 Unprotected electric light globe over film. Electric wires 
 wrapped around steam pipe. Film scrap on floor. Lengths 
 of film on floor. Willow waste basket used. Film on fire 
 extinguisher. Too much film on each table. Film not kept 
 in cans. Smoking. Waste paper and newspapers on floor. 
 Posters in same room with film. Lack of order and cleanli- 
 ness. 
 
 Motion picture studio fire, 226-32 West Thirty-fifth Street, 
 New York City, Jan. 3, 1917. The tables on which the films 
 were joined or examined, had an electric light in them, lo- 
 cated in a well and covered with a heavy piece of glass. 
 The glass cover in one of the tables was very loose fitting, 
 in fact, it was not the original glass made for the opening. 
 
MOTOR CYCLE AND BICYCLE REPAIRS 311 
 
 While an employee was joining a reel on this table, the 
 electric light globe broke. It is thought the heavy glass 
 cover fell on the globe, and as a result the film on the table 
 caught fire. Some of the employees tried to put the fire 
 out by throwing the film on the floor and stamping on it, 
 but were not successful. The flames ignited other films in 
 the vicinity, some of which were not in cases. There were 
 about 59 reels, part in cans, a few of which were in a single 
 wall metal cabinet at the time of the fire. The fire spread 
 over the entire rear mezzanine on the second floor, roof and 
 main part of the studio and filled the premises with an irri- 
 tating dense smoke. Some of the employees had difficulty 
 in getting to the street, due to the smoke. The importance 
 of segregating motion picture studios and factories and the 
 necessity for automatic sprinklers in connection therewith 
 was illustrated by the fact that the contents of this film de- 
 partment furnished exceptionally inflammable fuel to the fire. 
 This fire would seem to justify the regulations of the fire 
 department requiring a special permit and rigid safeguards* 
 for the storage of inflammable films in excess of five reels 
 (5,000 feet) the practice of having electric lights on the film 
 tables, should be discouraged as much as possible. The 
 danger may be somewhat reduced by making the heavy glass 
 over the top of the light well permanent; also the bottom of 
 the well should be removed so no pieces of film can lodge 
 around the electric light globe. — (New York Board Report.) 
 
 MOTOR CYCLE AND BICYCLE REPAIR SHOPS— 
 Usually located in basements or on grade floors, with apart- 
 ments above. Machine shop hazards, with oily floors. Some- 
 times do painting, enameling, vulcanizing, cleaning with gaso- 
 line and have a large stock of acetylene gas cylinders for 
 sale, a stock of automobile accessories, including celluloid 
 articles, and a gasoline supply station. These places are 
 sometimes used as "hang-outs." See Bicycle and Motor 
 Cycle. 
 
 MOTOR GENERATOR— A combination of motor and 
 dynamo. The shafts of each are coupled together, so that 
 when the motor shaft rotates it will turn the dynamo shaft. 
 
 MOTORS should be enclosed to prevent foreign matter 
 
312: INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING : 
 
 coming in contact with same. The boxes should be lined 
 with zinc or asbestos and kept clean. Oil pans under same 
 will prevent oil from saturating floor. 
 
 MOVING BUILDINGS— Buildings that have been moved 
 should always be inspected to ascertain if the walls have been 
 weakened or if the chimneys have been crackad. ,.,.; 
 
 MUFFLER — A type of gas stove with a hooded top to re- 
 tain the heat. Used to heat soldering or pressing irons. 
 
 MULE — A long iron frame spinner used in silk mills. 
 
 MULLIONS — Upright bars dividing a window into two or 
 more lights. 
 
 MUNGO — Obtained by "devilling" the rags or remnants of 
 fine woolen goods. 
 
 MUNITIONS are not necessarily the same as ammuni- 
 tion. Usually denotes war material with the exception of ex- 
 plosives. 
 
 MUNITIONS PLANT FIRES— The growth of the 
 munitions business has resulted in greater precautions 
 for safety being taken in many factories that were 
 not operated with success prior to the war. They have 
 since become successful, thus minimizing the moral hazard. 
 Overtime also has a tendency to minimize the risk, inasmuch 
 as when work people are on the premises all the time any 
 incipient fire is more likely to be arrested before actual dam- 
 age is done. The following are features of the report: pro- 
 longed hours of labor, night work, etc., have increased the 
 period of action of the active special or manufacturing haz- 
 ards. A tendency toward uncleanliness has been created or 
 enhanced by long hours of labor, the difficulty of obtaining 
 satisfactory help, the increased congestion of equipment and 
 material, and, above all, by the failure of superintendents, 
 through pressure of other business, to give attention to mat- 
 ters of housekeeping. The introduction into established risks 
 of new manufacturing or special hazards or processes. In 
 some cases there has been failure to protect these in a satis^ 
 factory and permanent manner on the assumption that they 
 were of a temporary character. In other cases there has been 
 failure to realize the true nature of the hazard involved and 
 ignorance of protective measures. — (Weekly Underwriter.) 
 
MUTUAL INSURANCE 313 
 
 MUNTINS— See Mullions. 
 
 MURIATE OF AMMONIA— See Sal-ammoniac. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID— See Hydrochloric Acid. 
 
 MURIATIC ACID VAPORS will extinguish fires. 
 
 MUSHROOMING — A term v^sed to express the action of 
 fire which travels up a shaft in a building and spreads out 
 on the upper floor. Usually a mushroom fire destroys the 
 roof. 
 
 MUSIC STOCKS— Sheet music stock is very susceptible 
 to water damage. Great percentage of the stock is usually 
 obsolete or out-of-date stuff. 
 
 MUSICAL INSTRUMENT FACTORIES include wood 
 and metal working and varnishing hazard. (Poor fire record.) 
 
 MUSTARD FOR TABLE USE is ground wet in burr 
 mills, mixed with spices and vinegar and bottled. The hazard 
 is mild. (Always inspect this class.) 
 
 MUSTARD OIL is pressed from seeds by hydraulic press 
 after crushing and grinding, then filtered. All machinery and 
 woodwork becomes very oily. The grinding of mustard seed 
 is not so hazardous as the grinding of mustard after all oil 
 has been extracted. (Write class with caution.) 
 
 MUTUAL INSURANCE— This differs from stock insur* 
 ance by charging a set premium for each class at the incep- 
 tion of the insurance. At the end of the year, part of the 
 profits of the company are returned to the policy-holders of 
 each class of insurance which has shown a profit. 
 
 do to 
 
N 
 
 NAILS OR SCREWS packed in kegs suffer severe water 
 damage. In order to get a fair amount of salvage, they must 
 be thoroughly dried at once to prevent rust. Galvanized 
 ware gives greater salvage. 
 
 NAKED LIGHTS— See Inflammable Vapors. 
 
 NAMES — Business in Woman's Name — A business may be 
 in a woman's name for any of the following reasons: She 
 may be a widow or unmarried, divorced or a "grass widow"; 
 her husband may have broken a lease and to avoid suit trans- 
 ferred the business to her; a judgment may have been entered 
 against her husband and to avoid payment, transferred thfe 
 business to her; failures of husband; husband may have a 
 bad fire record, or, owing to manner of conducting business, 
 credit is denied him by the trade. Instances are known 
 where the husband has sold a business with the proviso that 
 he would not engage in the same business as a competitor 
 to the new owner, but has started up a business as a com^ 
 petitor in his wife's name. The wife or other female relative 
 may have furnished the capital or owned the business before 
 marriage; it may be a woman's trade, such as corsets or in- 
 fants' wear, the wife conducting the business and the husband 
 being employed elsewhere. See Moral Hazard; also For- 
 eigners. 
 
 NAPKINS — This stock is little affected by water damage. 
 
 NAPPERS — Machines designed to brush or pick up the 
 surface of knitted cloth, producing long nap or fleece effect. 
 See Knitting Mills. 
 
 NAPHTHA, GASOLINE, BENZINE or other fluids 
 which emit inflammable vapors below 100 deg. F. should be 
 stored outside of buildings in steel tanks, buried at least two 
 feet below ground, or otherwise isolated. In printing estab- 
 lishments permission is given by local boards of underwriters 
 
 3H 
 
NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION 31S 
 
 to store these materials above ground outside of building in 
 an approved safety can not exceeding five gallons' capacity 
 if in a box, on a permanent shelf, securely fastened to the 
 wall, but not directly in front of a window; the shelf to be 
 of metal, provided with guard rail, so that the can cannot 
 be readily dislodged by accident. The law prohibits using 
 fire-escapes for storage of such inflammables. Should be 
 used in the building from approved safety can and kept out- 
 side on a shelf on nights, holidays and Sundays. A box of 
 sheet iron, under lock and key, or other incombustible ma- 
 terial, is recommended as a protection from the weather. The 
 box will fulfill the requirement for a guard rail. See Petro- 
 leum; also Inflammable Liquids; see Inflammable Vapors. 
 
 NAPHTHA CEMENT— See Rubber Cement. 
 
 NAPHTHALENE— Coal tar camphor; white crystalline 
 solid. Usually kept in wooden barrels. Not hazardous. 
 
 NAPHTHALIC (or phithalic acid)— A crystalline acid ob- 
 tained from napthalene. Inflammable. 
 
 NAPHTHA SOAP is said to contain a small amount of 
 naphtha. 
 
 NAPHTHA WOOD— See Alcohol. 
 
 NARROW STREETS— Buildings on narrow streets 
 should be written with caution. The fire department is oft- 
 en handicapped in fighting the fire for lack of room' for 
 their apparatus and cannot perform their best work. 
 
 NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION—^ 
 The purpose of the National Fire Protection Association is 
 *'to promote the science and improve the methods of fire 
 protection and prevention; to obtain and circulate informa- 
 tion on these subjects and to secure the co-operation of its 
 members in establishing proper safeguards against loss of 
 life and property by fire." It is supported by members' sub- 
 scriptions. There are two classes of members, active and 
 associate. j 
 
 NATRONA — A form of petroleum. 
 
 NAVAL STORES— Turpentine, pitch,, rosin and tar. 
 Usually stored in large area frame sheds or in yards along 
 water fronts. Painting barrel heads is sometimes done on 
 premises. Burn fiercely. 
 
316 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 NAVE — The main body of a building having connecting 
 wings or aisles on either side of it, as in a church. 
 
 NEATSFOOT OIL— Derived from the feet of various ani- 
 mals. Used for leather dressing. Rags saturated with this 
 oil should be kept in self-closing waste cans. 
 
 NECKWEAR (especially ladies*) is very susceptible to 
 damage from smoke, fire and water. This stock might in- 
 clude the finest grade of chiffon and malines. See Silk Neck- 
 wear. 
 
 NEEDLES — Made from steel wire, cut into lengths, heat- 
 ed in furnace and rolled. Points are made on grindstone by 
 hand. An automatic machine cuts out the gutters and flat- 
 tens the heads. Eyes are punched in, and the needles tem- 
 pered in a furnace. To polish, they are spread on a cloth, 
 sprinkled with emery dust, oil and soft soap, and rolled in 
 the cloth (called "friction" bath) rinsed in water, sorted and 
 packed. Stock subject to severe water damage. 
 
 NESTY — A term used by insurance men to describe con- 
 gested areas of frame buildings. — Gene Eagles. 
 
 NET SURPLUS of a company. After all liabilities have 
 been met (including unearned premium reserve and paid up 
 capital) that which remains is net surplus. It is an asset 
 set aside mainly for the purpose of meeting obligations due 
 to large conflagrations. 
 
 NETTLES — Fibres grown on plantations are now being 
 . used as fabric substitutes for cotton. 
 
 NEUTRALIZE^ — If an acid is deprived of its acid prop- 
 erties by means of an oxide (base) or vice versa it is said 
 to be neutralized. 
 
 NEUTRAL SALTS, i. e., Glaubers, Epsoms, etc., are so 
 called because the acid properties of the sulphuric acid are 
 wholly neutralized in them. Neutral Spirits, see Grain Al- 
 cohol. 
 
 , NEWMAN SYSTEM of time recording for watchmen. 
 The Newman System equips the watchman with a portable 
 watch-clock which must be carried in rotation on ever> 
 hourly inspection round to patrol stations located at the im- 
 portant inspection points, and each having a key, which when 
 inserted and turned in the clock, registers on a paper dial 
 
NITRATES Oiraaqf: 317 
 
 therein the distinctive mark of that station and the exact 
 time at which the station was visited. The keys are fastened 
 and sealed at the various stations. The clock is locked while 
 in possession of the watchman. 
 
 NEW VENTURES are usually tabooed by underwriters 
 unless capital is in evidence to promote the business. 
 
 NEWSPAPER PLANTS— Printing hazards. Employ day 
 and night shifts and some employees generally about the 
 plant at all times. The last class to want a fire because the 
 success of a newspaper lies in keeping editions going. Con- 
 sidered good moral fire risks. 
 
 NICOTYLIA— An oily inflammable liquid. 
 
 NIGGERHEAD— A small black box enclosing the alarm 
 mechanism on a water flow alarm attached to a sprinkler 
 system. 
 
 NO. 99 — Special cleaning fluid, classed as kerosene. 
 
 NITRANILINE — Powder used by dyers, cannot be ig- 
 nited. A subjection to moisture causes it to decompose in 
 which action it throws off heavy fumes and generates heat. 
 
 NITRATES— Nitrate of barium. See Barium Nitrate. 
 
 Nitrate of Copper Crystals — If bruised or moistened will 
 smoke and may explode. 
 
 Nitrate of Lead — See Lead Nitrate. 
 
 Nitrate of Strontia — See Strontium. 
 
 Nitrate of Potassium — See Potassium Nitrate. 
 
 Nitrate of Potash — Formed by the union of nitric acid 
 and potash (commonly called nitre or saltpetre) is one of 
 the ingredients of gunpowder. 
 
 Nitrate of Soda^— See Soda Nitrate. 
 
 Ferric Nitrate is used by dyers. 
 
 Silver Nitrate — Used in photo-indelible inks and mirrors. 
 
 NITRATING is usually a hazardous process. 
 
 NITRATING ACID— See Mixed Acid. 
 
 NITRE — See Potassium Nitrate. As soon as emptied nitre 
 bags should be thoroughly washed and dried in the open. 
 Empty bags are very inflammable. 
 
 NITRIC ACID — Composed of nitrogen and oxygen, ob- 
 tained by the action of sulphuric acid upon nitrate of potash. 
 See Acids. 
 
SX» INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Extracts From a Paper Before the Cincinnati Convention of 
 the International Association of Fire Engineers by Chief 
 M Thomas A. Clancy of Milwaukee, First Vice-President of 
 the Association: 
 
 If concentrated nitric acid be poured upon powdered char- 
 coal it will take fire under ordinary temperatures. 
 
 Paper, cotton, sugar, starch, and certain other organic 
 substances treated with concentrated nitric acid, become thor- 
 oughly changed, and though in their outer form they re- 
 main the same, they become violently explosive. 
 
 Warm nitric acid run into badly annealed carboys will 
 crack them, and set fire to the straw or other packing, or 
 combustible material surrounding them. If this powerful 
 oxidizing acid reaches pine wood, especially pine knots, a 
 fire will result with frightful rapidity. 
 
 Nitric acid, while contained in the carboy, is safe enough, 
 but should it leak into organic matter, the mixture becomes 
 spontaneously inflammable. 
 
 Like many other chemical substances it is readily affected 
 by light, and many substances formed by its action are de- 
 composed by exposure to sunlight. 
 
 Uses of Nitric Acid — Nitric acid is used in a very large 
 number of industrial operations, viz.: in dyeing, in the prepa- 
 ration of lacquers; in the manufacture of picric acid, nitro- 
 benzol, etc.; in the manufacture of many coal-tar colors; 
 in many explosives, as gun-cotton, fulminate of mercury, 
 nitroglycerin, etc. 
 
 The nitrates, as the compounds derived from nitric acid 
 by the replacement of its hydrogen by a 'metal are called, 
 are, like the acid itself, powerful oxidizing agents. They 
 therefore require considerable care in handling, not because 
 they have any tendency to burn in air, but because of their 
 liability, when mixed with oxidizable matter, to produce its 
 oxidation and consequent ignition and inflammation. Slight 
 friction of a nitrate against any dry inflammable matter, such 
 as wood, may be sufficient to start a fire. If the nitrate and 
 inflammable substance be intimately mixed there results a 
 violently explosive combination. Gunpowder is such a mix- 
 ture. 
 
V :* ' ; NITRIC ACID 319 
 
 Nitrates which are specially important on account of their 
 common occurrence are: 
 
 Sodjium Nitrate — Largely used as a manure and in the prep- 
 aration of nitric acid, sometimes in the manufacture of min* 
 ing powder. 
 
 Potassium Nitrate, "Saltpetre" or "Nitre"— Used for pre- 
 serving certain articles of food; in the manufacture of 
 matches and of gunpowder. 
 
 Lead Nitrate — Used in the preparation of pigments. 
 
 Ammonia Nitrate — Used in the preparation of nitrous ox- 
 ide, the "gas" of the dentists, and in certain explosives. 
 
 The so-called "Nitrate of Iron" of the dyer, prepared by 
 oxidizing "copperas" (ferrous sulphate) with nitric acid, con- 
 sists mainly of ferric sulphate. 
 
 "Aqua Fortis" or "strong water" (because of its great sol- 
 vent power) is the name given nitric acid by Gerber (A. D. 
 750-800), or one of his immediate predecessors, who made it 
 by heating together saltpetre, copper, vitriol and alum. The 
 first mention of the present process of making it is by Basil 
 Valentine (A. D. 1450-1500) who says, however, that this 
 method has long been used. Nitric acid was, therefore. One 
 of the earliest mineral acids known. 
 
 Industrial Importance — Nitric acid occupies a peculiar po- 
 sition, somewhat like that of sulphuric, of great industrial 
 importance as an intermediate step in the production of other 
 products. Its salts are used to some extent in electroplating, 
 since practically every one is soluble; in fireworks and col- 
 ored lights, because of their high oxidizing power, and it is 
 essential to the manufacture of many organic compounds* 
 besides nitrocelluloses, azo and diazo dyes. In tonnage and 
 value, it stands among the leading chemical products. In 
 the form of nitrates or substitution products it is essential 
 in some way to the production of practically every explosive, 
 while its salts (chiefly from natural deposits), are used for 
 fertilizer in this country to a great extent. ■ ,,h ;l<ri.' j 
 
 Storage— Nitric acid should, if possible,. be stored ^butsfde 
 of manufacturing buildings or plants. If this cannot be done, 
 then in vaults located in the basements of buildings. Some 
 dealers in this article have separate compartments so that, in 
 
«3t INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 case of breakage, the contents may not run over the floor 
 or mix with other acids and form explosive compounds of 
 poisonous gases. Great care should be taken not to have 
 more than what is actually required on any floor of the 
 building and the acid not used should be returned to the 
 carboy and vaults at the end of each working day. Due 
 care should be taken not to jar the necks of the carboys 
 in opening them. A small, cheap saw will readily saw 
 through the plaster of Paris around the stopper, allowing it 
 to come out easily. Heat of any kind will cause the acid 
 in the carboy to expand and, overflowing, will generate heat 
 when it comes in contact with the straw packing of the carboy. 
 
 NITRITE— A salt of nitrous acid. See Sodium Nitrite. 
 
 NITROBENZINE— Benzine treated with fuming nitric 
 acid, resulting in a heavy, yellow, oily substance. Also known 
 as oil of mirbane. 
 
 NITROBENZOL— See Mirbane Oil, also Trinitro Benzol. 
 
 NITROCELLULOSE— Formed by the nitration of cotton 
 by treatment with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. 
 Highly inflammable and explosive. 
 
 NITROCELLULOSE FILMS— The storage, preparation 
 and manufacture is very hazardous and they should not be 
 stored in large quantities where subject to one fire. 
 
 NITROGEN — A gas, which with argon, constitutes four- 
 fifths by volume of the atmosphere, and constitutes the basis 
 of nitric acid. 
 
 NITROGLYCERINE— Obtained by nitrating glycerine 
 with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids. A heavy oily 
 liquid of yellowish color resembling glycerine in appearance. 
 Highly explosive and dangerous. It freezes at about 40 deg. 
 F. Very insensitive to shock when frozen and for this reason 
 has been shipped packed in ice. 
 
 NITROGLYCERINE SPIRITS— A solution of nitro- 
 glycerine of not more than 10 per cent, strength in grain al- 
 cohol; same inflammability as grain alcohol. 
 
 NITRO-HYDROCHLORIC ACID— Mixture of nitric and 
 hydrochloric acids; gives off chlorine gas. 
 
 NITROLEUM — Another name for nitroglycerine. 
 
 NITROTOLUOL — There are various compounds shipped 
 
NOTICE OF LOSS 321 
 
 as nitrotoluol, for example, dinitrotoluol, mononitrotoluol and 
 trinitrotoluol — some liquid and some solid. None of the 
 liquids are explosive or dangerous. Of the solids, trinitrotol- 
 uol is the only one classed as a high explosive. 
 
 NITROUS ACID — A compound of four volumes of nitro- 
 gen and one of oxygen. 
 
 NITROUS ETHER— See Ethyl Nitrite; also Ether. 
 
 NON-BEARING WALL— One which supports no other 
 load than its own weight. 
 
 NON-CONDUCTORS— Substances that do not conduct or 
 transmit heat or electricity. 
 
 NON-DRYING OIL— Chief one is olive oil from olives. 
 
 NON-INFLAMMABLE— The term "non-inflammable" ap- 
 plies to materials and substances which will ignite but 
 will not support flame when subjected to ordinary fire. 
 • Alternative Definition — The term "non-inflammable" ap- 
 plies to articles, goods, wares, merchandise or materials of 
 construction which will support combustion, but will not 
 readily burn. 
 
 NON-STIPULATED WAREHOUSE— See Warehouses. 
 
 NOT WANTED— Policies are frequently written, de- 
 livered to the assured, then returned to the company because 
 the insurance is not wanted. Should not be marked off after 
 it has been in force for any length of time because an earned 
 premium is then due. 
 
 NOTICE OF LOSS— The first notice sent an insurance 
 company when a loss occurs, stating that a fire has occurred, 
 the date, and approximate amount. 
 
 NOTIONS — This stock generally suffers a bad damage 
 from fire. The stock is composed of many different articles, 
 some very susceptible to water and others to smoke or the 
 rusting of the metal parts which are generally on small 
 wares. Celluloid articles may form part of this stock. 
 
 NOVELTY JEWELRY MANUFACTURING— See Jew- 
 elry. 
 
 NUCOLINE — Trade name for cocoanut oil. 
 
 NUISANCES — Glue factories, slaughter houses, soap fac- 
 tories, etc., in thickly populated sections are avoided by 
 
322 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 many underwriters. They may lower the value of sur- 
 rounding property. May burn from incendiarism. 
 
 NUT AND BOLT FACTORIES— Hazards of annealing, 
 tempering, machine shops with heavy and light machines, 
 threaders. Wood floors readily become oil-soaked. Soda- 
 and-water cutting fluid used in place of oil at the threaders 
 reduces the oily floor hazard. 
 
 NUT GALLS — An excrescence formed on the leaves of 
 certain trees by female insects. They contain tannic acid. 
 
 NUTMEG OIL, if mixed with iodine, detonates and causes 
 fire. 
 
 NUTS — Filberts, with solid shell, considered good insur- 
 ance. Walnuts with parted shells not as good as filberts. 
 Shelled nuts yield very little, if any, salvage, if wet, scorched 
 or even smoked. 
 
o 
 
 OAKUM — Fibre tarred with pine tar and mineral oil; 
 should be kept in a standard vault. Process: Fibre is put 
 through an oakum-carding machine and then run between 
 corrugated rolls on which a solution of tar is kept dripping. 
 This saturated fibre is then wound up and pressed into bales 
 ready for shipment. The process is hazardous. The tar pot 
 should preferably be outside of main building and heated by 
 indirect heat or steam. Surrounding woodwork burns quickly 
 when saturated with the drips or scattered tar solution. 
 
 OAT CRUSHERS— Used in stables for crushing oats. 
 Should have a magnet attached to keep metallic substances 
 from passing through the rollers and creating sparks which 
 might ignite the dust. If oats are screened before crushing 
 the hazard is lessened. 
 
 OATS — Fires have probably been caused by spontaneous 
 combustion due to the fermentation of the grain stored in 
 damp places. 
 
 X'O, G. — The abbreviation for "on centers," meaning the dis- 
 tance from center to center of timbers, as beams "spaced 16 
 inches O. C." 
 
 "OCCUPANCY"— Means the use to which a building is 
 put or the purpose for which it is occupied. The contents of 
 a building determine its "occupancy." The "occupancy" may 
 be a carpenter or paint shop, a garage, school house, thea- 
 tre or grocery store. One building may have several occu- 
 pancies, as stores on the first floor, offices on the second, 
 and lodging rooms above. "Occupancy" in fire insurance 
 schedul-es means the classification of the business of the 
 tenants of any building. (Fire Facts, issued by Washington 
 Surveying and Rating Bureau.) See Loft, 'also Risk. 
 
 OCHRES — Clays tinted with oxide of iron and manganese 
 and small per cent, df water and sulphur. Artificially dried 
 
 ?23 
 
324 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 to expel water. Yellow ochre due to oxide of iron; brown, 
 to manganese oxide. They are ground in raw linseed oil. 
 
 OFFICE BUILDINGS (fireproof)— The main features are 
 the height, protection of ironwork, and floor openings. Many- 
 losses have occurred from old records and files kept in wood 
 cabinets or lockers in rooms where boys go to lounge and 
 smoke. Recommend all-metal construction for lockers. 
 
 OIL AND GREASE fires are best fought with ashes, 
 earth, sand or cloths providing they are in well-ventilated 
 places. If in closed places the introduction of steam will be 
 found most desirable. 
 
 OIL, BOILING POINTS— Illuminating 212 deg. F. to 450 
 deg. F. Lubricating, 450 deg. F. to 800 deg. F. Paraffine 
 oil, 600 deg. F. to 800 deg. F. Naphtha, 90 deg. F. to 212 
 deg. F. Mixture of lubricating and paraffine oils, 450 deg. F. 
 to 800 deg. F. The lower the boiling or flash point the 
 greater the danger of combustion or explosion. 
 
 OIL BURNING EQUIPMENTS (except household)— 
 Except in isolated sections, the supply tank should be three 
 feet under ground or three feet below basement floor of 
 building and lower than any of the piping. This allows the 
 oil to return by gravity to the tank. The capacity of tanks 
 is regulated by local underwriters. Tanks (iron) to have a 
 firm foundation, the soil around same well tamped (po.unded 
 down), the covering to be dirt with 6-inch concrete topping, 
 tanks coated with rust-resisting paint. Above-ground tanks, 
 oil must be pumped to building and not run by gravity to 
 supply pipes, otherwise, in event of fire, a broken pipe would 
 allow all the oil to drain from the tank and be a source of 
 danger to surroundings. Dikes are built around tanks to 
 prevent the oil running away where gravity feed is used. One- 
 inch vent pipes are required on all tanks to extend 12 inches 
 above any tank car or reservior. Those connected to tanks 
 located inside of buildings should extend outside. of build- 
 ing, three feet from any building and one foot above the 
 roof, with screened gooseneck. See Cooking and Heating 
 Apparatus. See Fuel Oil. 
 
 OILCLOTH FACTORY FIRE— Chandler Oilcloth Co., 
 Yardville, N. J., May 2, 1916. The cause probably being 
 
OILCLOTH FACTORY FIRE 325 
 
 gasoline vapor in the drying cells and coating room. The 
 recommendations follow: (1) Where drying is accomplished 
 by direct radiation in the drying cells, a system of ventilation 
 by means of air exhaust fan in a separate building, taking 
 suction from the bottom of each cell and discharging to the 
 atmosphere should be employed; (2) Drying cells should be 
 of heavy brick walls (side), but of light fire-resistive roof; 
 fire doors should be at openings; (3) Coating machines 
 should be provided with steam jets and floor should be 
 sprinkled to keep humid condition of air; (4) Coating ma- 
 chine knife rolls, etc., should be grounded together with 
 shafting and machines; (5) Electric light wiring in coating 
 room should be standard in conduit with vapor-proof 
 globes with wire guards; (6) Automatic sprinklers; (7) Quan- 
 tity of coating mixture and gasoline should be reduced to 
 minimum.— (A. R. Ramsdell, N. F. P. A., Vol. 10, 1916.) 
 
 OIL-COOKING AND HEATING— See Cooking and 
 Heating Apparatus. 
 
 OILED CLOTHING— Clothing which has been water- 
 ^ proofed with linseed oil. When packed in solid piles is sub- 
 ject to spontaneous combustion. Should be hung on racks so 
 that air will circulate through the stock. 
 
 OIL FIELDS — Deep-well drilling particularly is very haz- 
 ardous because the boiler generally used has an open fire box 
 and is liable to start a grass fire. The forge is usually kept 
 within the derrick, and is safe in small volume wells or when 
 the wind is blowing in the opposite direction. When a large 
 gas pocket is struck, however, and the forge fire is not 
 quickly extinguished, enormous fires usually result. 
 
 OIL GAS — Produced from paraffine oil. It is heavier than 
 coal gas and heavier than air, rolls along the ground like a 
 cloud and can be readily observed. It has been known to 
 travel 300 to 400 feet to an open fire, flash back and explode 
 the gasometer. When ignited in this manner, the flame is 
 immense and lasts longer than the same volume of coal gas. 
 Sec Pintsch Gas. 
 
 OIL HOUSES— See Factory Oil Houses. 
 
 OIL IN CANS — If cans are coldered, a moderate degree 
 
326 , INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of heat may melt the solder, allowing the oil to escape, and 
 thus feed the fire. 
 
 OIL OF MIRBANE— See Mirbane Oil. 
 
 OILPROOF— See Shoe Factories. 
 
 OIL REFINERIES— Lightning is the greatest danger to 
 tanks. Direct heat is used, and leaky valves or defective 
 equipment may allow inflammable vapors to escape. After 
 condensing, oil is graded by re-distilling. Gasoline and 
 kerosene are purified with acid in large tanks agitated by 
 steam or air under pressure. 
 
 OIL SEPARATORS— Those installed in a garage should 
 be connected to the house drain, and be so arranged as to 
 separate all oils from the drainage of the garage. See Gar- 
 ages. 
 
 OIL STORAGE— Risks may include gasoline, and filling of 
 cars. Fires have been caused by back-firing of automobiles 
 in driveways of buildings. Automobiles should be kept out- 
 side of buildings and barrels or cans loaded outside. Tanks 
 of small capacity may have a combined fill and vent pipe 
 so arranged that fill pipe cannot be used without opening 
 vent. Oil is conveyed to underground storage tank by * 
 means of a fill pipe with inlet on street or yard. The inlet 
 opening should be capped and surrounded by an iron box 
 with cover and kept locked to prevent tampering. 
 
 OIL STOVES when on fire should have ashes or wet 
 cloths placed around them, and, if possible, under the same 
 (without moving the stove) and the fire then smothered with 
 wet cloths. It is unwise to move the stove as the oil is 
 likely to spill and spread the fire or explode. 
 
 OIL TANK FIRES are mainly caused by being struck by 
 lightning. The tanks should have a permanent electrical 
 "ground" so that in case they are struck this may prevent 
 the ignition of the contents. See Erwin Extinguisher. 
 
 OIL TANKS— When on fire, if a sufficient quantity of 
 dry, fine, tough foam (glue and glucose formula) is spread 
 upon the burning oil surface, this foam, being lighter than 
 oil and made of minute bubbles confining carbonic acid 
 gas, will probably extinguish the fire. 
 
 OIL TESTING— In testing an oil for its flashing temper- 
 
OIL WAREHOUSES 327 
 
 ature the most rational method would be to heat the oil to 
 a given temperature, aspirate it well with air and apply a 
 flame to the mixture, noticing if an explosion occurs. 
 
 OIL OF TURPENTINE— See Turpentine. 
 
 OIL OF VITRIOL— See Sulphuric Acid. 
 
 OIL WAREHOUSES— Lubricating oil burns with a dense 
 black smoke. Water in tremendous quantities is necessary 
 to extinguish a fire once started in an ordinary-sized building. 
 Barrels burst open, oil and water soak through walls and 
 damage stocks in adjoining buildings. 
 
 OILY FLOORS under all kinds of machinery should be 
 cleaned with a solution of ammonia, potash and lye. Under 
 all heavy machinery such as pipe cutters, printing presses, 
 motors, gas engines, a metal base with curbed edges should 
 be placed to catch the oil and prevent it from spreading 
 and soaking the floor. Sand should be used in place of saw- 
 dust for catching drips. 
 
 OILY WASTE RECLAIMING— Use steam-heated cen- 
 trifugal machines, similar to laundry extractors, for extract- 
 ing the oil. Fires have occurred in heaps of oily waste 
 awaiting reclaiming. A class avoided by most companies. 
 
 OINTMENTS — Ingredients include lanium, parafline, pe- 
 trolatum, cocoa butter and wax. Hazards of heating by 
 direct heat, and oily floors. 
 
 OLD METALS— See Refiners. 
 
 OLD RECORDS and Files— See Office Buildings. 
 
 OLD RUBBER and Metals— See Junk Shops. 
 
 OLEOMARGARINE— Made of beef suet and cottonseed 
 oil. 
 
 OLEO-STEARINE— A packing-house product derived 
 from beef fats. 
 
 OLEUM or N. O. V. (Nordhousen Oil of Vitriol)— The 
 commercial term of fuming sulphuric acid containing anhy- 
 dride. 
 
 OLIBANUM — A fragrant gum resin, readily ignited. 
 
 OLIVE OIL — Used in cooking food, soap-making, etc. 
 On the premises of bottlers sawdust is used to catch the 
 drips from barrels. Fires from spontaneous combustion have 
 
328 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 been thus caused. Sulphured Olive Oil is obtained by the 
 extraction of olive oil by means of bisulphide of carbon. 
 
 OLIVOLINE — A non-gumming oil for lubricating. 
 
 OMNIBUS RISKS— Those housing a number of tenants 
 with different manufacturing hazards. Companies usually 
 write cautiously. 
 
 ONE-FIRE RISK— A risk, either a single building or 
 group of buildings mutually exposing each other and sub- 
 ject to destruction by a single fire. One of the most im- 
 portant features to understand in underwriting. 
 
 ONYX (Imitation)— See Imitation Marble. 
 
 OPAL OIL — A petroleum distillate treated with sulphuric 
 acid and rape oil. 
 
 OPEN FINISH— The absence of any finish so that the 
 studding or ceiling joists are exposed. 
 
 OPENINGS TO ROOF SPACE should be boxed to pre- 
 vent fire entering the same. See Illustration. 
 
 OPEN POLICY ACCOUNTS are opened for the conven- 
 ience of brokers or assureds for the purpose of simplifying 
 the writing of various sums of insurance, covering at various 
 locations for short terms, such as goods in storage. A policy 
 number is assigned to the account and all entries are made in 
 an "open policy book" instead of on a policy. At the end of 
 each month the company renders a bill for the amount of 
 premium due for insurance carried during the month. 
 
 OPEN SPRINKLERS (automatic)— There are a number 
 of risks where the successful control of fire is predicated 
 upon an immediate and more general discharge of water, and 
 where the item of water damage is not to be reckoned with. 
 To meet this condition a new idea in sprinkler protection has 
 been installed in the sulphur-grinding room of the National 
 Sulphur Co., at Bayonne, N'. J. This room is protected by 
 a system of open sprinklers which are made automatic in 
 action by the introduction of a quick-acting valve which 
 holds back the water, and operated by an approved auto- 
 matic heat-actuated device. In other words, this new sys- 
 tem becomes operative upon the "rate of rise" principle 
 rather than a predetermined temperature as in automatic 
 sprinkler protection. Open sprinklers on outside of buildings 
 
OPEN SPRINKLERS 
 
 329 
 
 are controlled by a valve, operated by hand. The system is 
 dry pipe, and heads are already open, therefore no fusing is 
 necessary. Used also to protect property from exposure 
 fires. Used at the sides of piers for protection against burn- 
 ing vessels. See Sprinklers. 
 
 ^STANDARDS 
 
 /^O/Z, 
 
 OPENINGS ^- ROOF SPACE. 
 
 XF OP£NS/^GS THROUGH 
 Roof SFAces AK£ cur<y/=F 
 
 By FROr£R JEA/Ci-OSUR^S. 
 F/R£ WiUL B£ R£T/IRDEO PT^CM 
 
 
 Copyright. 1915. G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 
»30 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 OPIUM — This stock is usually kept in metal-lined cases 
 in the basement on account of the temperature at this point 
 and also to keep away from other commodities. It is very 
 valuable. Fire and heat would be likely to cause serious 
 damage to this stock. Water washes out the morphine alka- 
 loid and renders it valueless. Opium is a milky exudation 
 from the unripe capsules of the poppy plant and this milky 
 substance is rendered concrete by exposure to the air. As 
 found in commerce it is a reddish brown, sticky gum-like 
 body with a bitter taste and a heavy odor. It is used as a 
 medicine and smoked as an intoxicant. Crude opium is usu- 
 ally handled in small lumps (gum-like) about 2 to 3 inches 
 in diameter and are frequently wrapped in tropical leaves and 
 packed in well-constructed metal-lined cases. 
 
 OPTICIANS — Principle hazard is lens grinding. A de- 
 posit of pitch is put on one side of the lens before grinding. 
 Pitch is usually heated by direct gas heat. 
 
 ORDINARY — Designates a brick building constructed in 
 the ordinary manner with joist floors and roofs. Derives 
 the expression from the fact that about ninety-five per cent. 
 of brick buildings are of this type. Briefly speaking, the 
 walls are brick; floors and roof, single one-inch boards on 
 wood beams. Any brick building inferior to semi-mill or 
 mill construction can properly be termed "ordinary." 
 
 ORES — Iron is never found in the earth in its metallic 
 state, but always combined with oxygen or some other sub- 
 stance forming ores. 
 
 ORGANS — Most companies refuse to write church organs 
 unless receiving a line on the building or other furniture of 
 the church. Very susceptible to fire and water damage. 
 
 OSAGE ORANGE— A tree extensively cultivated for 
 hedges. Used by dyers and tanners, the dye therefrom being 
 chiefly used to color khaki uniform cloth. 
 
 OSMACO REDUCER— Flash point 110 deg. F. Classed 
 as non-volatile. 
 
 OSTEOCOLLA— Glue made from bones. 
 
 OSTRICH FEATHERS— If raw, will stand quite some 
 water and smoke, and still give good salvage. Water has 
 very little effect if clean, because the feathers must be 
 
OTHER INSURANCE PERMITTED 33^1 
 
 washed in water anyway. Finished feathers are very sus- 
 ceptible, owing to dyes used and the prepared quills. 
 
 OTHER INSURANCE PERMITTED— The body of the 
 policy states that the company must be notified if other ia- 
 surance is taken to cover the property insured. The Clause 
 is designed to frustrate over-insurance as an inducement to 
 incendiarism. It is now a general practice to include "other 
 insurance permitted" on forms without ascertaining the real 
 value of the property. See Forms. 
 
 OUT-BUILDINGS — These innocent-looking structures are 
 liable to contain almost anything from rags to dynamite. 
 
 OUTPUT — A business term meaning the product of 'a fac- 
 tory, irrespective of the sales. -iO^XO 
 
 OVERALLS— See Contractors. h'^b'i^n ?a 
 
 OVERLOADING OF FLOORS— Liable to cause sagging 
 and throw shafting out of alignment, resulting in friction 
 and over-heated journals. Buildings with this feature should 
 be avoided. 
 
 OVERTIME — Factories which continually work their men 
 overtime have been known to have numerous fires, owing to 
 the sleepy indiflFerence of the tired workmen. According to 
 the terms of the printed policy, it is necessary to have a per- 
 mit to work later than 10 p. m. 
 
 OXALIC ACID — Prepared by heating sawdust with mix- 
 ture of caustic soda and caustic potash. Used in calico print- 
 ing, dyeing, bleaching, cleaning brass. Non-hazardous. 
 
 OXIDES are so called because they contain oxygen. 
 
 OXIDIZING — Combining a compound or an element with 
 oxygen. It may be rapid or very slow, with or without a 
 flame. See Spontaneous Combustion. 
 
 OXIDIZING SUBSTANCES should be separated from 
 carbonaceous materials. 
 
 OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING — A combination of 
 oxygen and acetylene used for cutting or welding, producing 
 a temperature as high as 6,000 deg. F. Used in most large 
 machine shops and garage repair shops. The acetylene is sel- 
 dom generated on the premises, but is received in tubes or 
 tanks (cylinders) in the same manner as compressed oxygen. 
 The apparatus is portable. The cylinders are provided with a 
 
Hi INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 fusible plug melting at 240 deg. F., to prevent explosions and 
 in case of fire to allow the gas to escape slowly. Special 
 storage places necessary. Cylinders not to be subjected 
 to unnecessary heat, such as near a stove. Exercise care in 
 handling for if break occurs, the acetylene gas under pres- 
 sure (about 1,800 lbs.), is released and by proper mixture 
 with air is explosive. The oxygen and acetylene cylinders 
 each have a pipe attached, leading to a nozzle where the 
 flame is used, and each cylinder has a pressure-regulating 
 device indicating the working pressure being used and the 
 pressure in the tank. These outfits are dangerous when 
 used by careless workmen. See Autogenous Welding. 
 
 OXYGEN — A colorless, odorless, non-inflammable gas. It 
 is needed to support combustion. If excluded from the air 
 surrounding a fire, the blaze would immediately be ex- 
 tinguished. 
 
 OXYGEN CLEANING PROCESS for cylinders of auto- 
 mobile engines. From report of Underwriters' Association 
 of New York. 
 
 The apparatus consists of an ordinary commercial metal 
 oxygen cylinder containing the gas at an original pressure 
 of about 300 lbs. The outlet is piped to a reducing valve set 
 at from 15 to 25 lbs. and at this pressure the gas flows into 
 some 5 to 8 feet of rubber tubing terminating in a combina- 
 tion handle and controlling throttle by which the oxygen is 
 fed through a small metal tube some 10 to 14 inches long, 
 forming a nozzle. In some cases it would appear that the re- 
 ducing valve is omitted and the pressure reduced by ex- 
 pansion only. 
 
 The practice seems to be to remove spark plugs from the 
 automobile cylinders, and bring each piston successively to 
 the top of its stroke as its own cylinder head is being treated, 
 thus closing both ports of the cylinder. A burning match 
 or taper or a small piece of kerosene-dipped waste or piece 
 of paper is then dropped into the spark plug opening and the 
 oxygen jet introduced. The combustion thereon becomes 
 much more active, consumes the original kindling rapidly 
 and continues at high temperature until all carbon deposits 
 are also burned away. When the last of the carbon is con- 
 
OXYGEN GAS CYLINDERS 333 
 
 sumed the flame ceases. The only outlet during this process 
 is the spark plug opening, through which the oxygen is in- 
 troduced and bits of incandescent carbon, varying in size 
 according to the conditions, some as large as a medium-sized 
 pea, are blown out with considerable velocity. Some pre- 
 cautions in the shape of asbestos sheets are usually taken to 
 prevent these sparks from falling inside the engine hood or 
 elsewhere where they might do harm. It seems to be the 
 practice to keep an extinguisher or two at hand while the 
 work is being done. 
 
 OXYGEN GAS CYLINDERS— The approved type have a 
 safety outlet sealed with a fusible metal, which melting, al- 
 lows the slow escape of the gas. Storage should be outside 
 of building, if possible. 
 
 OXYOZON— Metal polish. Flash, 208 deg. F. Classed 
 non-volatile. 
 
 OZOKERITE— A natural mineral wax. Melts , it 140 
 deg. F. 
 
 OZONE — A colorless gas with a pungent odor like 
 chlorine. 
 
PACKING — The material placed in the stuffing box of 
 shafting to prevent leaks. Also pipe-covering. Materials 
 used in boxing merchandise. 
 
 PACKING BINS— All inflammable substances used in 
 packing, such as strav^, tow, moss, tissue paper, excelsior, 
 should be in a standard packing bin. Wood boxes must be 
 lined with lock-jointed sheets of tin, hiding the nails so they 
 cannot come out, and prevent the oxygen reaching the wood. 
 The cover of box of same material, arranged with fusible 
 link to close automatically. 
 
 PACKING CASES— Yards where boxes are made or re- 
 made usually locate in congested sections. They may be in 
 high piles under windows of adjacent buildings and contain 
 considerable rubbish. Sometimes classed as conflagration 
 breeders. 
 
 New Packing Cases — Firms making them usually locate 
 in old buildings. Ordinary woodworking hazards. If un- 
 dressed lumber is used, planers are necessary. Soft woods 
 are used exclusively. Not considered desirable insurance 
 risks. 
 
 PAILS AND CASKS— Are liable to freeze in cold build- 
 ings. Non-freezing solutions should be put in them at the 
 approach of winter. Calcium chloride can be used to good 
 advantage. See Fire Pails. 
 
 PAINT REMOVERS may contain alcohol, wood alcohol, 
 benzole, gelatine or naphtha. The flash points are usually 
 high, but the wax content prevents evaporation to a certain 
 extent and the fire hazard is reduced thereby. 
 
 PAINTERS AND DECORATORS— Busiest season, April 
 to October. Stock consists of the usual paints, wall paper 
 samples, scaffolds, ladders and may include inflammables, 
 such as benzine and turpentines. Smoking on premises 
 
 334 
 
PAINTS 335 
 
 should be prohibited. Fires have resulted from spontaneous 
 combustion of oily rags and overalls. In buildings where 
 painters have been at w^ork, care should be exercised to see 
 that all refuse and waste material is removed at night before 
 locking up. Gasoline torches for^ burning off paint have 
 caused many fires, due mainly to the workman leaving the 
 device unattended. 
 
 PAINTINGS — In writing insurance on paintings care 
 should be used as to the wording of the policy form, and the 
 moral hazard investigated. There are three general forms. 
 First, one of agreed limit of value; second, "it is understood 
 and agreed that this is its true value.'* Under this form, com- 
 pany must pay total loss in case of fire. Third, with aban- 
 donment feature, the company is required to accept surren- 
 der of paintings in case of loss. Co-insurance is quite neces- 
 sary in writing paintings, to protect the interest of the com- 
 pany. 
 
 PAINTS — Composed of pigment and liquid. Pigments are 
 
 inert substances, such as asphalt, clay, coal, barytes, coke, 
 
 coal-tar, charcoal, chalk, feldspar, carbon, flint, granite, 
 
 graphite, gypsumite, lamp-black, lime, magnesia, manganese, 
 
 , ochre, iron, pitch, quartz, resin, sand, silica, zincs and oxides. 
 
 Oils and Solvents — Bisulphide of carbon, carbon tetra- 
 chloride, benzine, cotton-seed oil, cod oil, poppy oil, resin 
 oil, petroleum, turpentine, ammonia, linseed oil, alcohol, acetic 
 acid, sulphuric acid, muriatic acid, glycerine, carbonic acid. 
 The degree of inflammability depends wholly on the nature 
 of the liquid ingredients. The quantity on hand for use 
 should be kept to a minimum. 
 
 Acid-proof Paints may contain coal tar, pitch, min- 
 erals, cement, ochre, asbestos, slaked lime, dryers, litharge, 
 saltpetre, sulphur, mica, zinc, acetone. 
 
 Fire and Waterproof Paints may contain coal tar oil, gyp- 
 sum, japan, liquid rubber, nitric acid, silicate, slate dust, sal- 
 soda, potash, antimony, sodium, ochres, sulphur, caustic 
 potash, mica, sulphate of zinc, acetone, soap, saltpetre. 
 
 PALM OIL— A semi-solid fat extracted from the fruit of 
 several species of palm. Used in soap making. 
 
 PANAMA STRAW HATS are not damaged by clean 
 
ase INSPECTION and underwriting 
 
 water and only need to be reblocked even though being in 
 water for a considerable length of time. The best grade of 
 Panama hats are woven by hand under water. 
 
 PANEL RAISERS — A wood-working machine similar to 
 jointers. Make considerable refuse. Bad features, over- 
 heated bearings, ignition of greasy sawdust. 
 
 PANEL WALL — An exterior non-bearing wall in a skele- 
 ton structure, built between piers or columns and supported 
 at each story. 
 
 PAPER BOXES are made principally from cardboard 
 which is cut to size, grooved (scored), where the sides and 
 ends are to be folded, and the edges fastened together by 
 strips of paper. This latter process is called "stripping." At 
 times cold paste may be used or the corners wired together. 
 The method of glue heating is important. The premises are 
 usually crowed and untidy. Rubbish and clippings may be 
 found in concealed spaces and around steampipes. The class 
 of help is generally of an inferior quality and the fire record 
 of the class is very poor. Printing labels or boxes is an 
 incidental hazard. See Folding Boxes. 
 
 PAPER-HANGING FACTORIES— See Wall Paper Fac- 
 tories. 
 
 PAPER MILLS — Raw materials, wood pulp, rags, straw, 
 hemp, old paper, flax, jute, small amount of powdered gyp- 
 sum, clay, sulphates of barium and calcium. Wood pulp is 
 cut into small bits, ground and pulverized, pressed into 
 sheets, baled, then sent to the factories. 
 
 Wood pulp is received at the mill in bales. The bales are 
 split open and the pulp separated into layers of about 2 
 inches thick. These layers are placed on a movable belt 
 which carries it to a cutting machine. It is then carried by 
 a belt to the top of the building, where it is directed into 
 one of four separate tanks. 
 
 There are two types of cutting machines in use. One used 
 in winter and the other in summer. The type used in winter 
 is similar to a metal drum with three 3-inch grooves cut on 
 opposite sides, in which sharp steel plates are placed. These 
 revolve at high speed and when the wood pulp is forced 
 through the machine, it is cut into narrow strips about ^- 
 
OVIIT!; PAPER MILLS 337 
 
 inch wide and 4 inches long. The type of machine used in 
 summer for cutting the wood pulp resembles a very coarse 
 circular saw and there are many of them on one shaft and 
 set about 2 inches apart. This cuts the pulp much finer and 
 is used in summer because the pulp is then much softer and 
 can more easily be cut. This process is called shredding. 
 
 The tanks used are about 25 feet in height and 18 feet in 
 diameter, constructed of wood. These are filled to within 
 three or four feet of the top with water. The water used 
 is called chalk water, and is that which is squeezed out of 
 the wood pulp in the final process of making the paper. 
 About 28 of these bales are put into each tank and also a 
 quantity of white clay resembling chalk, mixed to a milky 
 consistency, and also a small amount of rosin. This is 
 churned for about one or two hours. It is then sent to an- 
 other mill a short distance away, where it is further churned, 
 glue and alum is added, and the pulp is then sent through 
 presses where it is squeezed and made into paper. 
 
 The clay is put into a tank and thoroughly mixed with 
 water for about two hours and at the end of that time is 
 put into another tank, where it is mixed again so that there 
 is no possibility of any lumps or hard substances remaining 
 in the mixture. 
 
 The hazards in this process are the collecting of wood-pulp 
 dust around the bearings of the motors and cutting ma- 
 chines, which may become oil-soaked and are then liable 
 to spontaneous combustion. It is also conceivable that for- 
 eign parts, such as metal, might enter the cutting machines 
 and there cause a spark, starting a fire. 
 
 There are other processes, such as boiling in caustic soda, 
 and sometimes lime, or in sulphuric acid, sulphate of lime 
 or magnesium. Pulp is also boiled in sodium sulphate. In 
 all these, a similar process reduces the mass to a pulp, then 
 bleached in acids, the minerals added, colored, pressed into 
 sheets of paper, sized. The sulphur burners should be in 
 a detached fire-proof building. Dusters to -remove dust from 
 stock should have blower system. Rags and old paper are 
 used in making cheap grade paper and spontaneous combus- 
 tion has occurred in rooms where they are stored. Other 
 
^3i INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 hazards in this process are storage of sulphide pulp and 
 lime, friction and hot bearings in high-speed cutters, high 
 pressure steam cookers, sorting tables and uncleanliness. — 
 S. T. Skirrow. 
 
 PAPER PATTERNS— Very susceptible. Stocks may be 
 obsolete. Lines should be written with caution. 
 
 PAPER RULING— The machine consists of a flat wooden 
 bed, in centre and between sets of wooden rollers located 
 at either end. Cords are run over one set of rolls, through 
 an ink trough or pad and rolled over the rollers at opposite 
 end. The paper is ruled as it travels under these cords 
 across the bed of the machine. For double ruling, springs 
 are connected to a bar with tail-piece of cloth wet with ink. 
 From this cloth, the ink runs down a series of needles set 
 like a comb, and as the paper passes under the needles a 
 ruled line is made. 
 
 PAPER SIZINGS composed of soda ash, resin, alkalis and 
 colors. In manufacturing, the hazards are direct heat for 
 rosin kettles, drying ovens, mixing tanks, recoopering and 
 painting barrels used in shipping the material. 
 
 PAPER STOCK— Rags, old paper or other material used 
 for making paper. (A K. O. class.) 
 
 PAPER TUBES— Mailing tubes, ribbon spools and the 
 like. In manufacturing, raw stock is rolled paper, glue, 
 pasteboard and labels. Processes are slitting, winding, cut- 
 ting, glueing, and tube forming; all similar to paper-box 
 making. 
 
 PAPIER MACHE — Produced hy pressing the pulp of pa- 
 per between dies or by pasting paper in sheets upon models. 
 Porous paper is used, saturated with flour and glue. As each 
 layer is made it is heated. The form is then varnished, 
 dried, shellaced and again dried. Principal hazards are dry 
 rooms, use of lamp-black varnish, heating of glue and un- 
 tidy premises. 
 
 PARAFFINE — A solid wax obtained from petroleum. 
 Melts at 125 to 135 deg. F. 
 
 PARAFFINE OIL— Heavy, non-volatile oil, high 
 flash point. 
 
PARTITIONS W. 
 
 PARANITRANILINE— A moist substance resembling yel- 
 low ochre, received in 50-gallon wood casks, claimed to be 
 non-combustible and non-inflammable. Used in combination 
 with iron filings, borings and muriatic acid. 
 
 PARAPET — The portion of a wall extending above the roof. 
 
 PARAPETS, while designed to prevent fires from spread- 
 ing from one building to another over the roof boards, do 
 not prevent a fire from spreading to a raised roof, monitor 
 light or roof structure on another building if they extend 
 above the parapet. 
 
 PARCHMENT PAPER— Paper treated with dilute sul- 
 phuric acid, washed in water, dipped in solution of either 
 ammonia, sodium carbonate or zinc chloride. 
 
 PARIS GREEN is made of blue vitriol, sulphate of copper, 
 arsenic ^nd soda ash. 
 
 PARKS — See Amusement Enterprises. 
 
 PARQUET FLOOR MANUFACTURING— Hazards of 
 woodworking with varnishing and shellacing, gluing, oiling, 
 painting. Boards that are to be laid in damp locations have 
 the underside coated with asphaltum. Stores engaged in this 
 business sometimes have considerable lumber on hand, a 
 generous supply of floor oil and wax, a circular saw and a 
 machine for dressing floors. 
 
 PARTITIONS should be built of incombustible material. 
 Wood is not recommended. In sprinklered risks, wood par- 
 titions should not be placed nearer than two feet from ceil- 
 ing unless the upper two feet is thin glass in light wood 
 frame. If partition is solid, it should extend midway be- 
 tween the sprinkler heads. 
 
 PARTY WALL— A wall used to support floor or roof 
 members of adjoining buildings. Should be at least twelve 
 inches thick to allow four-inch space between ends of beams. 
 
 PASSEMENTERIE— See Embroideries. 
 
 PASTE COLORS— Aniline dyes are dissolved in hot water 
 in large wooden tanks and allowed to cool, then run into 
 large wood vats, and the precipitate treated with hydro- 
 chloric acid, sulphuric acid and alum. This is filtered 
 through a cloth and a pasty mass secured which is put in a 
 steel mixer with lithographic varnish, then through slow- 
 
340 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 moving rolls, where most of the water is squeezed out, and 
 dried in dry rooms. No benzine, turpentine or alcohol is 
 used in the process. An unprofitable class to insure. See 
 Aniline Dyes. 
 
 PASTE FILLERS are mixtures of ground quartz, pig- 
 ments, oil and japan. 
 
 PATENT AND ENAMELED LEATHER— Consists of 
 several applications of "daub" which is generally linseed oil 
 and lamp-black or some other pigment. It is usually thinned 
 with naphtha. The main hazards are boiling linseed oil over 
 an open fire, the reducing of oil with naphtha, the mixing of 
 lamp-black, preparation of the "daub," japanning the leather, 
 and drying ovens. Solutions of nitro-cellulose also used. 
 A hazardous process. See Leather. 
 
 PATTERN LATHES, for turning shoe lasts, etc., are 
 made so that the scroll pieces to be turned at one time are 
 rotated slowly and simultaneously with a pattern over which 
 a blank pointer passes. By following the surface of the 
 pattern, the pointer advances or withdraws by means of 
 a parallel or pantograph motion, rapidly rotating cutters 
 to and fro form the various pieces to be turned. Large 
 amount of refuse, high speed, danger from overheating bear- 
 ings. 
 
 PATTERNS — Underwriters seldom write patterns without 
 having a share of the stock or machinery and usually limit 
 the pattern item to not more than 10 per cent, of the amount 
 of the policy. Patterns are easily damaged and difficult to 
 replace without much labor. Should be stored in vaults. See 
 Dress Patterns; also Records. 
 
 PAWNBROKERS' STOCK— Considered good inswrance if 
 mainly covering on silverware, jewelry and tools. Where the 
 stock is largely wearing apparel, the risk is not as attractive. 
 The stock belongs to the person pledging same, except the 
 right and interest which the pawnbroker acquires by law 
 when accepting same. See Right and Interest. 
 
 PEANUTS are rendered unfit for food if subjected to fire 
 damage, and little salvage can be expected. An analysis of 
 burned peanuts after a recent fire showed that the oils, fats, 
 protein and ammonia contents were greatly reduced. 
 
PEARL BUTTONS 341 
 
 PEARLASH— See Carbonate of Potash. 
 
 PEARL BUTTONS— Snail, oyster and mother-of-pearl us- 
 ually used. The snail is cheap, the mother-of-pearl expensive. 
 A greater portion of all the shell is wasted in the cutting ow- 
 ing to the varying thicknesses. As the shell is worked the 
 value increases. The mother-of-pearl veneers are the most 
 expensive, as all the shell is ground from the back, leaving 
 only the ornamental face. The thinner the veneer, the more 
 expensive per pound. The thinnest cost $25 to $200 per 
 pound. 
 
 Pearl is porous. As it is worked, it is kept soaked in water. 
 Considerable water damage can result from a fire if the shell 
 is left for any length of time in dirty or stained water, be- 
 cause it will become discolored. Even smoky water will 
 lessen its value. The shell buttons are cleaned with pumice 
 stone, emery dust and muriatic acid. Fire at a temperature 
 of an ordinary baking oven will ruin shell if. subjected to the 
 heat for as much as ten minutes. The fire eats out the car- 
 bon, leaving only lime. Gas blow pipes and small furnaces 
 are required for heating lead for buttons with lead backs. 
 
 PEAS, if wet and left in bags, will mildew and may be con- 
 fiscated by health authorities. 
 
 PEAT MOSS — Used in stables in place of straw, is cleaner, 
 less dusty and presents less fire hazard. 
 
 PEBBLE MILL — A tumbler revolving on an inclined axis. 
 Used for grinding. The material to be ground is put in the 
 mill with iron balls or round stones. These grind the ma- 
 terial as the machine revolves. 
 
 PENCIL WORKS— May include steel and fountain pen 
 making, involving wood, metal and rubber working and ma- 
 chine shops. Use linseed oil, benzine, alcohol, turpentine, 
 varnish, lacquer, crude oil, graphite, white lead, dryers, amyl 
 acetate and paraffine. Pencil rounding machines create con- 
 siderable dust and fine shavings, and should be equipped with 
 blowers. 
 
 Hazards of dry rooms, gluing, embossing presses, lacquer- 
 ing by dip process, color grinding and mixing, graphite and 
 firing in retorts, kilns for baking pencil leads. 
 
 Gold and Silver Pencils — Hazards of goldsmiths and silver- 
 
342 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 smiths, metal working, annealing, tempering and engraving. 
 
 Rubber Fountain Pen Holders — Hazards of rubber making, 
 calendering, steam heated mixers, cutters and tube machines, 
 sandpapering, vulcanizing, dry rooms, buffing, use of rubber 
 cement. 
 
 Incidental hazards of printing and paper box making. 
 
 Copying Pencils and Ink Pencils are made of a concen- 
 trated solution of aniline violet added to graphite and china 
 clay. 
 
 ColoredL Pencils are made of Prussian blue or chrome yel- 
 low mixed with white wax and tallow. 
 
 PENTANE— A clear colorless volatile liquid. Boils at 95 
 deg. F. or less. Flash point zero F. Highly inflammable. It 
 is obtained from the more volatile portions of petroleum. 
 
 PENTINE— A benzine substitute, flash 102 deg. F. Classed 
 non-volatile. 
 
 PENTONE— A hydro-carbon. See Gas Plants. 
 
 PENT HOUSE— The enclosure on the roof which is gen- 
 erally used for the elevator machinery or store room. 
 
 PER CAPITA FIRE LOSS— See Fire Loss per capita. 
 
 PER CENT. PROFIT INSURANCE— See Profit Insur- 
 ance. 
 
 PERCHLORIDE OF POTASH— A white crystalline solid 
 used as an oxidizing agent. 
 
 PER DIEM PROFIT INSURANCE— See Profit Insur- 
 ance. 
 
 PERFORATED PIPES are not recommended, as they al- 
 low the water to flow throughout the entire floor instead of 
 only directly to the seat of the fire, as in automatic sprinkler 
 equipments. The large water damage incurred, even at small 
 fires, offsets the salvage which might otherwise be expected. 
 
 PERFUMERS, making toilet preparations, mix, sift and 
 grind dry powders. Use alcohol, essential oils, nitric, hydro- 
 chloric and oxalic acids, paraffine and herbs. Confectioners 
 stoves usually used for heating salves. Always inspect be- 
 fore binding this class. 
 
 PERMANGANATE OF POTASH is subject to sponta- 
 neous combustion whenever brought into contact with or- 
 ganic matter. This may occur either from foreign matter 
 
vJK : PETROLEUM OIL 343 
 
 leaking into the packages, or from small crystals of per- 
 manganate falling on the floor of a warehouse. Agitation, 
 such as caused by trucking, will facilitate the process. 
 
 PERNASEL — A dipping fluid for coloring glass bulbs. In- 
 flammable. 
 
 PEROLIN — Composed of sand, iron slag, sawdust, paraf- 
 fine oil, is a disinfectant and an ordinary floor oil. 
 
 PEROXIDE OF BARIUM, if exposed to the air and sun, 
 may cause spontaneous combustion. 
 
 PEROXIDE OF SODIUM is a yellowish white powder 
 used as a bleaching agent. Chemically it is a combination 
 of the elements sodium and oxygen in equal proportions. 
 
 It is a powerful oxidizing agent, and has a strong affinity 
 for water. In combination with the latter it forms caustic 
 soda and hydrogen peroxide. As a fire hazard, this sub- 
 stance ranks among the most dangerous found in ordinary 
 manufacturing plants. The danger lies in dropping the sub- 
 stance on tables or floors, where it is liable to get wet, or in 
 leaving it in uncovered vessels where water may be dropped 
 on it. In combination with water it may heat so rapidly 
 as to set fire to surrounding material- — Gorham Dana. 
 
 PET-PRO-CO SPIRITS— Flashes at 108 deg. F. in open 
 cup tester. Graded as non-volatile. 
 
 PETROLEUM OR CRUDE OIL— (Charles E. Jahne.) A 
 natural rock oil composed of hydrocarbons. It is classed 
 with natural gas and asphalt as bituniens- — natutal gas con- 
 taining the more volatile members of the series, and asphalt 
 the solid, while petroleum is composed chiefly of the liqilid 
 members, although it contains a small proportion of the solid 
 and gaseous compounds. Other names of petroleum are rock 
 oil, mineral oil and naphtha, the latter being employed espe- 
 cially in Europe for the Russian oils. In 1635 Pennsylvania 
 settlers dug small wells and found it seeping in from surf 
 rounding rocks. Wells were driven to greater depths and 
 the flow naturally increased. New fields continue to yield 
 sjnie, especially in Pennsylvania, "Ohio, West Virginia,. Ken- 
 tucky, Texas and California. Of the foreign countries, Rus- 
 sia is the most serious competitor the United States has in 
 the oil production. Petroleum is of various tints, but largely 
 
344 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of green and black. The modern method of drilling for pe- 
 troleum is similar to that used in sinking artesian wells. The 
 most prominent feature of the oil drilling outfit being the 
 derrick, which is a tall pyramid-like wooden frame about 75 
 feet high, 12 feet square at the base, and 3 feet at the top. A 
 churn drill is used. A round rock core is drawn out and an 
 iron pipe inserted. In many cases the oil does not flow when 
 the oil rock is struck, and it is customary to explode a tor- 
 pedo in the hole, whereupon the oil gushes out with force 
 and continues to flow until well or vein is drained. The 
 cheap and rapid transportation of crude oil from the wells to 
 the refineries is one of great importance. At first the oil was 
 transported on carts, then by barges or tank cars, but the 
 modern method is by pipe lines. Pipes are four to eight 
 inches in diameter laid underground with bends in them at 
 regular intervals to allow for expansion and contraction. 
 Stations with pumps and storage tanks are placed every 25 
 or 30 miles, the oil being received in tanks at one station and 
 pumped from there to tanks at the next station. Since all pe- 
 troleum contains more or less wax or paraffine, much trouble 
 is often experienced in the clogging of the pipes, especially 
 in cold weather, and to clean them out, an instrument known 
 as a "go-devil" is sent through the pipes. This is so con- 
 structed that it is forced along by the moving current of oil 
 and scrapes the paraffine coating off of the inside of the pipes. 
 Pipe lines now run from the Appalachian region to New 
 York, Jersey City, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago, Cleve- 
 land. The refining process consists of the separation of the 
 component hydrocarbons by a system of fractional distilla- 
 tion. This is usually carried out by the use of horizontal steel 
 cylinder tanks of about 600 barrels capacity each, with a 
 dome on top of it, and from this dome is a pipe which carries 
 the vapor from the steam heated oil to a condenser, which 
 is a series of pipes surrounded by cold water. When the oil 
 is placed in the tank or still, and the steam is turned on, 
 the various increases of temperature cause the vapors of the 
 various products to escape to the condensers intended for 
 them. 
 
 The first product is a light gas known as cymogen, for 
 
PHONOGRAPHS 345 
 
 medical purposes, escaping at 32 deg. F. The next is rhigo- 
 lene, a petroleum ether sometimes called sherwood oil, at 65 
 deg. F. The next is naphtha at 80 to 120 deg. F. The next 
 benzine at 120 to 150 deg. F. The gasoline product will vary 
 from 190 to 200 deg. F., depending on oil's condition. Ligroine 
 is a special grade solvent naphtha produced at a boiling point 
 from 190 deg. F. to 250 deg. F. Then follow the illuminating 
 oils of kerosene type. The residuum remaining in the still is 
 then passed through a further process and produces paraffine 
 wax and lubricating oils. The composite remaining at the 
 ending is used for fuel oils. 
 
 Gasoline, naphtha or benzine, while lying absolutely mo- 
 tionless is not dangerous, but the slightest tremor will cause 
 a vapor to rise, and this vapor coming in contact with gas 
 or other flame will ignite, and a stream of fire will follow 
 from the point of ignition to the body from whence comes 
 the vapor and an explosion will follow. A lighted match was 
 dropped into a barrel of benzine which was absolutely still 
 and no explosion followed, but if that barrel had been dis- 
 turbed a little and the vapor had arisen ever so lightly, an 
 explosion would surely have resulted. These oils are classed 
 as extremely volatile, and for that reason the insurance and 
 fire departments are compelled to prescribe stringent laws 
 for the storage knd handling of them. See Gasoline. 
 
 Petroleum Ether — See Benzine; also Ether. 
 
 Petroleum Naphtha — See Benzine. 
 
 Petroletim Oil may include any oil derived from crude pe- 
 troleum. 
 
 Petroleum Soap — Common soap made from resin and low 
 grade tallow containing petroleum bodies mechanically held. 
 
 Petroleum Spirits — Highly inflammable. See Benzine. 
 
 PEWTER— An alloy of tin, lead and antimony. 
 
 PHENOL is, chemically speaking, hydroxy-b-enzine, and is 
 prepared from the carbolic or middle oils by treatment with 
 caustic soda, alkali and precipitation with sulphuric acid, 
 followed by refining by distillation. — W. D. Grier. 
 
 PHONOGRAPHS— Dealers in this line may carry a large 
 quantity of records equal to one-fourth to one-half of the 
 value of the entire stock. They are kept in open pigeon- 
 
346 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 holed cabinets, and are very susceptible. Repairing and re- 
 finishing machines are incidental hazards. 
 
 Records are made of such materials as shellac, wax, sili- 
 cates, rosin, and lamp-black for making composition records; 
 copper and brass sheets; copper and nickel salts for plating. 
 Processes are grinding, compounding, mixing and rolling 
 stock for records; wax discs and cylinder making, buffing, 
 polishing, plating, machine shop work and assembling. 
 
 PHOSPHATE OF AMMONIA— Sometimes used for fire- 
 proofing scenery. 
 
 PHOSPHORETTED HYDROGEN— When phosphorus 
 combines with hydrogen it forms a gas having a strong odor 
 resembling garlic. This gas takes fire of itself when mixed 
 with air and burns with a bright yellow light. It is this gas, 
 sometimes seen at night over marshy land, which causes the 
 light to be called ''Will o' the wisp." 
 
 PHOSPHORIC ACID— When phosphorus burns it forms 
 a snow-like substance which dissolves very rapidly in water, 
 forming phosphoric acid. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS— Generally sold in cylinders, is com- 
 monly obtained from bones in which it exists, combined with 
 lime. It is white and has a waxy appearance. It has so 
 strong an affinity for oxygen that it is kept in water. Ex- 
 posed to th-e air, fumes arise from the surface. This results 
 from its uniting with the oxygen of the air. It takes fire 
 from so little heat that it is necessary to be very cautious in 
 experimenting with it. It is so eager to unite with the oxy- 
 gen of the air that a little friction produces heat enough to 
 make it unite with it and so quickly as to burn. (Hooker.) 
 It is used in most laboratories. In one of the colleges of 
 Brooklyn a bottle containing phosphorus immersed in water 
 was upset and immediately set fire to the surrounding wood- 
 work. It gave off a luminous glow and had the appearance 
 of a larRC fire. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS (red) amorphous, a reddish brown pow- 
 der not subject to spontaneous combustion. Inflammable. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS (yellow)— A waxy solid. Will ignite at 
 ordinary temperature if exposed to th$ air. Usually shipped 
 
' PHOTO ENGRAVING 347 
 
 under water. Besides being very poisonous, it is very in- 
 flammable. 
 
 PHOSPHORUS (white)— The same as yellow phosphorus. 
 
 PHOTO AND ADVERTISING MOUNTS— Cardboard 
 used as mounts for photographs and the backs for signs. 
 Similar hazards to paper box making with gluing and em- 
 bossing. 
 
 PHOTO ENGRAVING— Half-tone work is the process 
 which reproduces pictures or designs on metal plates by 
 means of photography. The name half-tone is applied to this 
 kind of work because in printing the picture or design on 
 the plate, a glass with fine intersecting lines is placed be- 
 tv/een the plate and the negative. All that appears in the 
 picture from these fine intersecting lines are numerous small 
 dots, each of which results from the point of intersection of 
 the above-mentioned lines. It is necessary to mention at this 
 point that in half-tone work the wet plate process is used, and 
 this necessitates the use of collodion in preparing the nega- 
 tive. Collodion is therefore one of the important hazards. 
 This mixture is usually prepared on the premises, conse- 
 quently open lights in the vicinity are dangerous. As it 
 evaporates quickly, and is quite expensive, the bottles in 
 which it is kept are seldom left uncorked. Electric lights are 
 usually used in dark rooms. After completing the negative, 
 it is printed in the usual way on a copper plate sensitized to 
 receive the impression, and developed in chemical solutions, 
 then gently heated over a gas flame. It is then placed in an 
 iron solution which etches all the surface except the design 
 or picture to be printed. The plate is then trimmed and cut 
 out by power machines and is finally backed with a wooden 
 block. 
 
 PHOTO-ENGRAVURE PLATES are steel faced copper 
 plates. Hazards are plating, washing plates in whiting and 
 nitric acid and coating with wax to prevent rusting. Method 
 of wax heating is important. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHERS* DRY PLATE (mfg.)~Sheet glass 
 is sensitized (coated) with emulsion of gelatine and nitrate of 
 silver, usually on a coating machine by cold process, the 
 plate being passed through a trough of the solution and 
 
34$ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 dropped on a felt belt passing through the machine. No 
 heat; on the contrary, ice is put in tub under emulsion to 
 keep it cool; dried in low temperature room. Chemicals 
 used include nitric, acetic, euramic acids, ether, ethyl alcohol, 
 nitrous phenol, chlorides. In making colored plates, the 
 above process is also followed, anilines being used for col- 
 oring. Printing in some places is done by an electric printer 
 operated by motor of light voltage and ''lined" (blue lines 
 put in) by violet rays with arc light under a hood. May 
 use an autoclave for testing colors. Stock of plates is very 
 delicate. They are stored in a dark room and are ruined if 
 subjected to light as would be the case in a fire. They also 
 would be spoiled by water. Hazards are indicated above and 
 include photographing, developing and printing, dry rooms 
 and gas heated developer. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHERS' Developing Solution consists of dis- 
 tilled water, silver nitrate, citric, oxalic and other acids, and 
 solutions of a non-hazardous character. 
 
 PHOTOGRAPHY— In wet plate work, collodion is gen- 
 erally used, and this is a hazardous process. In dry plate 
 work only mild acids are used and the process is not hazard- 
 ous. Dark rooms should have electric light rather than gas 
 or kerosene oil. 
 
 PIANO MFG. — Lumber thoroughly dried in kiln is brought 
 to the mill-run, sawed and planed into the proper sizes. 
 Many parts are made of quarter-sawed pieces glued together. 
 The wooden portions of a grand piano are referred to as con- 
 sisting of cases and trimmings. The case includes the rims 
 with the supporting beams or braces within, the legs and 
 pedals. The rim is made of continuous pieces of wood (ve- 
 neer) glued together. The outside finishing veneer is ap- 
 plied at the same time when forming is done. The processes 
 consist of sandpapering, finishing (which includes staining, 
 filling, varnishing, rubbing, flowing and polishing. The sound- 
 ing board (or belly) is the most important part of a piano, 
 and calls for a special kind of wood, thoroughly dried. The 
 work on iron plate, wnres and stringing, hammers, heads 
 and actions presents very little fire hazards. The hazards are 
 
PIERS 349 
 
 those of woodworking plants where varnishing is done. See 
 Celluloid Piano Keys. 
 
 Sea grass is sometimes used instead of cloth for polishing 
 cases. The rubbing varnish contains oil and turpentine. The 
 sea grass is very light and evidently confines the heat more 
 than cotton cloth or waste, as spontaneous combustion in 
 waste cans is very frequent. It will heat up in a few hours 
 sufficiently to warm the can. 
 
 PICKERS— See Cotton. 
 
 PICKLING — The term is used in connection with plating 
 risks, where the metal is cleaned by dipping in nitric and 
 sulphuric acid. 
 
 PICRATES should be kept away from mineral acids, car- 
 riers of oxygen, ozone, organic substances and sulphur. Ob- 
 tained from carbolic acid or phenol by the action of nitric 
 acid. Used as dye for woolens and leather, and making ex- 
 plosives. Highly explosive. 
 
 PICRIC ACID is highly explosive. 
 
 PICTURE FRAME DEALERS— Hazard is hand wood- 
 working, usually only mitering of corners, varnishing, paint- 
 ing and gilding. Susceptible stock. Other classes of art 
 goods may be included in the stock. 
 
 PICTURE FRAME MAKINO-Woodworking hazards, 
 paper back making, painting, bronzing, varnishing, glazing, 
 embossing mouldings on gas-heated presses. A poor fire 
 record class. 
 
 PIE BAKERIES — Hazards include mixing dough by ma- 
 chinery, preparing and cooking fruits and jellies on confec- 
 tioners' stoves, lard and grease melting pots, baking. Us- 
 ually greasy risks. 
 
 PIER — The support of two adjacent arches or the support 
 of the lower part of the building. If bond and cap stones are 
 in pier they should be insulated. 
 
 PIERS — Open piers are usually built of crib construction, 
 i. e., wood piling (usually creosotcd), then the heavy wood 
 timbers and cross bracing, and finally the heavy plank floor- 
 ing. The frame covered pier is similar to above, except that 
 it is covered over with a frame shed or enclosure. The 
 corrugated iron pier is the type usually found in local ter- 
 
tS^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ritory, with sides of corrugated iron on iron or angle iron on 
 wood stud, the roof of corrugated iron on wood purlins on 
 steel truss or wood frame. The fireproof pier is of non- 
 combustible material throughout, although some piers having 
 wooden piling have been termed fireproof. The strictly fire- 
 proof pier should have incombustible piling (concrete) with 
 a reinforced concrete flooring or base, the sides of pier struc- 
 ture either concrete, copper filled in with concrete or terra- 
 cotta tile. All steel work, including roof trusses, should be 
 protected with at least two inches of concrete or tile. Sky- 
 lights should be thin glass in metal frame with standard 
 screen above. Curtain boards should be extended from the 
 roof to divide the roof area and thus prevent the rapid spread 
 of fire along the ceiling. These should extend to the lower 
 side of the roof trusses, or lower if possible. In lieu of 
 curtain boards, the area can be divided into smaller sections 
 by the use of fire walls, which should extend to below low 
 water line and be parapetted and have standard doors. Par- 
 titions or walls enclosing the boiler, oil room, rigging and 
 other storage rooms should be of fireproof material with la- 
 belled doors at the openings. The fire protection usually 
 consists of an approved standpipe and hose system, a supply 
 of water casks with pails, and a special fire signal. A few of 
 the latest types are protected by an approved dry pipe sprink- 
 ler system and day and night watchman service. The occu- 
 pancy is usually general merchandise with fi.bre in transit. 
 At this writing war material, including small arm ammuni- 
 tion, may be included. Automobiles enter to unload or load 
 freight. The fire record of the unsprinkled non-fireproof 
 piers is far from good. Fires have been spread by burning 
 objects floating under piers, therefore we recommend plank- 
 ing for enclosing sides and ends of piers to extend to low 
 water mark. Hazards may include immigrant stations with 
 lunch counters, gas or coal stoves in workmen's lounging 
 rooms, baling waste paper from railroad cars and smoking. 
 Pier fires are usually severe, owing to large areas. (C. C. 
 Dominge, ''Live Articles on Special Hazards," The Weekly 
 Underwriter.) See Cotton; see Canals and Feeders. 
 
 PIGMENTS — The dry inert colors used in paint making. 
 
PIPE LINES 351 
 
 PILASTER — A reinforcement of a wall by increased thick- 
 ness at various points. Used mainly as an additional sup- 
 port for wide span roofs. 
 
 PILES — Large timbers driven into the ground for the pur- 
 pose of making a secure foundation. 
 
 PINTLE — A contrivance of cast iron, consisting of two 
 thick circular plates connected by a solid cylindrical sup- 
 porter, placed between posts between the floors of stories. 
 Used in mill constructed buildings. 
 
 PINTSCH GAS— Pintsch process. Petroleum oil subjected 
 to high temperature, which converts oil into a vapor gas, 
 and, after going through purifying process, is pumped into 
 compression holders to a pressure of 75 pounds or more. 
 By this pressure the gas is carried by underground pipes to 
 car tanks. Oil is stored underground. Other apparatus con- 
 sists of retorts, purifying cylinders and gasometer. The tar 
 deposit is put in iron drums. The great danger is of escap- 
 ing gas. See Oil Gas. 
 
 PINTSCH TAR OIL— Flash point above 100 deg. F. 
 Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 PIPE LINES, if above ground and used to convey hazard- 
 ous liquids such as gasoline or crude oil, are not looked upon 
 as desirable by the inspector or underwriter. A short time 
 ago the following was reported: "An overhead pipe line was 
 used for conveying crude oil from Penn Horn creek on the 
 Hackensack meadows to Bayonne for refining. It is believed 
 the pipe was weakened by the shaking it received a month 
 ago when the munitions plant at Kingsland was blown up. 
 The oil seeped out until the surface under the pipe line was 
 coated with it, and it is supposed a hot spark from a passing 
 locomotive ignited it and a severe fire resulted. All pipe lines 
 should be underground and securely bedded. See Petro- 
 leum. See Gasoline. 
 
 PIPING — Doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its 
 carrying capacity four times. Suppose a 2-inch pipe is used; 
 the cross section 2-inch pipe contains 4 square inches, which 
 is the result of squaring the diameter (multiply the diameter 
 by itself). A 4-inch pipe will have a cross section of 16 
 square inches, which is four times greater than a 2-inch pipe. 
 
352 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 The orifice of a sprinkler is f^-inch diameter, or .39 square 
 inches. See Water Mains. 
 
 PIPE OPENINGS— Ordinary Construction, Single Floors. 
 Flooring to be closely fitted around all pipes, except steam 
 pipes, and each pipe to be provided with a satisfactory floor 
 plate. Steam pipes to be fitted with metal sleeves in accord- 
 ance with requirements of the New York Board of Fire Un- 
 derwriters. 
 
 Ordinary Construction, Double Floors, Mill Construct- 
 ed Floors — Flooring to be closely fitted around all 
 pipes except steam pipes, and each pipe to be pro- 
 vided with a satisfactory floor plate. Steam pipes to be 
 fitted with metal sleeves in accordance with requirements of 
 the New Board of Fire Underwriters. Space between pipe 
 and sleeve to be filled in with non-combustible material (min- 
 eral wool, asbestos, etc.), securely held in place by satis- 
 isfactory ceiling and floor plates. Each pipe opening to be 
 provided with substantial wood curbing extending 3 inches 
 above floor. A water-tight joint to be effected between curb- 
 ing and flooring by means of tar, paper properly flashed 
 around the curbing. 
 
 Fireproof Floors — Space between pipes (except those sub- 
 ject to unusual expansion, such as steam, hot water, etc.), 
 and floor arches to be made water-tight by means of Port- 
 land cement mortar properly filled in. 
 
 Steam pipes, etc., to be provided with an approved water- 
 tight metal sleeve cemented into floor as above, and ex- 
 tending 3 inches above finished floor surface. Portion of 
 sleeve above floor surface to be protected from injury by a 
 cast iron collar or by a curb of Portland cement mortar at 
 least 3 inches thick. Space between pipe and sleeve to be 
 filled with non-combustible material (mineral wool, asbestos, 
 etc.), securely held in place by satisfactory ceiling and floor 
 . plates. 
 
 PIPES (smoking pipes) — Briar root received in crude form, 
 cut, bored, sandpapered, varnished and buffed. Holes are 
 filled with stick shellac heated over gas flame. Gas heat used 
 for glue and oils. Woodworking machinery creates consid- 
 
PIPE SHAFTS 353 
 
 erable fine shavings and dust, and should have blower at- 
 tachments. 
 
 PIPE SHAFTS should be enclosed in standard shafts of 
 concrete, terra cotta or brick, with standard fire doors at all 
 openings and a thin glass skylight at the roof. Many fires, 
 especially in fireproof office buildings, have started in these 
 shafts, which contain electric cables and canvas wrapped 
 . pipes. There may also be waste paper and rubbish. Once 
 on fire, they are hard to extinguish. It sometimes becomes 
 necessary to chop away walls and floors to locate the seat 
 of the fire. 
 
 PITCH KETTLE— Usually a direct-fire heated brick set 
 furnace. Used in breweries to heat pitch for the lining of 
 kegs. Room containing pitching apparatus should be cut off 
 in a standard manner. Superheated steam is use4 to melt 
 out the old pitch in the kegs. '')orH" ^■ 
 
 PITCHED ROOF— A sloping roof. 
 
 PIT PITCH— Made of gas tar. 
 
 PLACERS — Persons employed by brokerage houses to 
 place insurance with companies. One of the main requisites 
 of the business is to be frank and honest in the statements 
 made about the risk to the underwriter or counterman. One 
 false statement or "fib" will forever remain in the mind of 
 those accepting the placer's propositions, and they will al- 
 ways be suspicious for fear that the placer is trying to "put 
 one over." 
 
 PLANERS — Rapidly rotating blades mounted upon hori- 
 zontal shafts parallel to the latter, together with a feeding 
 mechanism and table upon which the stock is laid in its pas- 
 sage through the machine. There are four kinds, surface, 
 matchers, flooring machines and dimension planers. Great 
 deal of refuse is made. Should have blower attachments. 
 
 PLANS — All plans on buildings about to be erected should 
 be reviewed by an insurance expert before the work is started 
 in order that the lowest insurance rate may be obtained when 
 the structure is complete. 
 
 PLANT — The outfit of machinery, stock and fixtures 
 necessary for carrying on any kind of business. . 
 
'354 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 PLAN VIEW — The drawing of any one floor of a build- 
 ing looking down on it from a point above the drawing. 
 
 PLASTER — A mixture of plaster of paris, sand, wool or 
 animal hair. Plaster is made by heating gypsum sufficient to 
 drive off three-fourths of all the combined water which it 
 contains, and grinding finely the hydrated residue. 
 
 PLASTER BLOCK— Plaster block, if solid and not less 
 than 3 inches thick or cinder plaster block can be expected- 
 to give a very good account of itself (as a protection to 
 iron work) in very severe fires, comparing very favorably, al- 
 though not as reliable as common brick or good concrete. 
 To prove this fact, attention is called to the excellent man- 
 ner in which the plaster block stood up in the Mansard in 
 the Equitable fire, although the intense heat melted brass in 
 many cases. 
 
 Plaster Block, Laboratory Test of — A fire test at an 
 average temperature of 1700 deg. F. on a 6-inch plaster block 
 showed that the block calcined Yi inch after one-half hour's 
 duration, increasing proportionately until at four hours' dura- 
 tion the calcination amounted to 2^ inches. 
 
 The building code for New York City will permit 3-inch 
 solid plaster block as standard insulation for iron columns, 
 2-inch blocks for lower flanges of girders and l>^-inch blocks 
 for lower flanges of beams. 
 
 For all shafts, whether stair, vent or elevator, blocks must 
 be at least 4 inches thick. 
 
 PLASTER BOARDS are made of gypsum plaster with a 
 binder such as wood pulp, wood fibre, excelsior. Made in 
 sheets one-half to one inch thick, and used extensively as a 
 fire retardant furring. The plaster is received in bags, mixed 
 with water, pressed in roller machine where the fibre is added, 
 cut into slabs with saw, air dried. Drying is usually done on 
 the roof of the building or a lattice frame enclosure as a 
 separate structure. Large amounts of excelsior or other 
 fibre stored in premises is a menace. Construction of build- 
 ing usually light frame. Not very attractive fire risks. 
 
 PLASTER FIGURES— Made by moulding plaster, wire or 
 excelsior used as a binder. They are sized with glue, dried 
 in dry rooms, shellaced and coated with paint or bronzing 
 
PLATFORMS 355 
 
 liquid. Hazards are heating wax or glue by direct heat, dry 
 rooms, excelsior storage, painting, untidy premises. Poor 
 fire record. 
 
 PLASTER OF PARIS— Calcined and powdered gypsum. 
 
 PLATE GIRDER— A large steel girder used to span an 
 arch or opening, as for instance, over the top of the proscen- 
 ium in a theatre. 
 
 PLATE PRINTERS— See Engravers. See Etching. 
 
 PLATFORMS — Temporary overhead sidewalks are some- 
 times put up in front of buildings in course of construction 
 so that pedestrians can traverse the street, and workmen can 
 carry material into the building. Sometimes electrical ap- 
 paratus for lighting and hoists are installed under these plat- 
 forms. As all wiring, switchboards, etc., are for temporary 
 use, they are usually very carelessly installed. In April, 
 1918, a severe fire occurred underneath such a platform at the 
 Pennsylvania Hotel, and was evidently the result of defective 
 electric installation at switchboard. The fire was severe 
 enough to totally destroy that portion of the limestone front 
 under the platform for a distance of over 150 feet and 
 scorched buildings on the opposite side of the street. See 
 Course of Construction; see Builder's Risk; see Spall. 
 
 PLATINUM — A metal used largely in the manufacture of 
 chemical utensils, owing to its immunity to the effects of 
 acids, heat, etc. Considered good insurance. 
 
 PLINTH — ^The square, lowest member of the base of a 
 column or pier. 
 
 PLUMBAGO — A mineral lead used in crucible manufactur- 
 ing. As this substance passes through intense heat during 
 the manufacturing process, it suffers practically no fire dam- 
 age, and is considered good insurance. 
 
 PLUMBERS — Usually carry only a small amount of in- 
 surance on stock, the value being mostly in tools and fix- 
 tures. May have gasoline torches or furnaces, charcoal fur- 
 naces, forge, light metal working, painting. 
 
 PLUMBERS' SUPPLIES MANUFACTURING— Hazards 
 of wood and metal working, sandpapering, dip staining, 
 painting, lacquering, varnishing. Not an attractive class as 
 a rule. 
 
356 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 PLUSH — Is of different grades and weaves. Cop yarn 
 (cotton and worsted) is for warp and woof. The plush piling 
 is silk, cotton and mohair woven together in one single 
 strand. The cop yarn, which furnishes the top and bottom 
 body fabric, is woven together with the plush piling by 
 means of a weaving machine, and a knife attachment sepa- 
 rates the top and bottom warps or fabrics. Cop yarns come 
 in skeins. In this process very little lint or flox is produced. 
 The "tigers" or rough combers of plush, however, produce 
 considerable silk flox, which should be cleaned up daily. See 
 Silk Plush. 
 
 POLE-PLATE — A longitudinal timber resting on the ends 
 of the tie beams of roof. 
 
 POLICY — A personal contract between the assured and 
 the company. When the property covered is sold or trans- 
 ferred to a new location, the policy does not cover new 
 owner nor new address unless so endorsed. 
 
 POLISH AND POLISHING COMPOUNDS may contain 
 such inflammable agents as will make the flash point of mix- 
 ture 80 deg. F. or lower. May include an abrasive material, 
 gasoline, chlorate of permanganate, nitrates, varnish, mineral 
 and vegetable oils. 
 
 POLITICS— The truth of the statement that there is a fire 
 hazard in politics, although but vaguely comprehended by 
 the average citizen, comes oftentimes with distinct empha- 
 sis to those interested in maintaining municipal fire depart- 
 ments in a state of high efficiency. Politics may interfere 
 directly by forcing fire chiefs to fill their ranks with men 
 physically incapable and sometimes insubordinate, and also 
 indirectly, by tampering with the building department in 
 such manner as to allow the flagrant disregard of most need- 
 ful precautions. 
 
 POOL ROOMS— Tables are usually bought from the man- 
 ufacturer on the installment plan. ''Ivories" must be warm 
 for good playing, hence, unless the place is steam heated, 
 large pot stoves are usually employed. Smoking hazard. 
 Place may be used as a "hang-out." 
 
 POP-CORN MANUFACTURING— Raw stock is corn, 
 molasses and glucose. Work consists of sugar coating and 
 
POTASSIUM 35T 
 
 making pop-corn into balls and cakes. Hazards are coke 
 and gas heated poppers, and confectioners' stoves. Portable 
 ovens used by bakers, usually gas heated, should set on at 
 least 4 inches of brick on sheet iron (with air space) and a 
 safe distance from all woodwork, and be vented to a proper 
 flue. 
 
 PORTLAND CEMENT— Composed chiefly of lime, 
 alumina and silica. 
 
 POST-CARDS — Picture post-card making includes design- 
 ing, embossing, lithographing, printing. Air brushes are used 
 for coloring. A poor fire record stock. 
 
 POSTS — Square or round timbers set on ends; used for 
 corner supports. 
 
 POT STOVES — Made of an unlined iron casting varying in 
 thickness from ^ to ^ inch and set on three legs. Many 
 of the stoves are too small to properly heat the entire floor, 
 and in consequence they are forced and the fire-pot kept 
 red hot. This condition causes the casting to crack. After 
 these cracks appear the pressure from the heat and fuel with- 
 in spreads the opening, which soon becomes large enough to 
 allow the burning fuel or sparks to fall out on the floor. 
 Any stove having an unlined fire pot and standing on three 
 legs should be prohibited. Cracked fire pots should be in- 
 stantly repaired. 
 
 POTASH— Hydrate of potassium. 
 
 POTASSIUM— Obtained from potash, is very difficult to 
 keep because it is continually uniting with the air, but the 
 air may be shut out by placing the potassium under naphtha. 
 It has a bluish white color and is quite soft. If potassium 
 be left exposed to the air, it tarnishes at once, and in a short 
 time is all turned to potash, the oxygen of the air uniting 
 with it. If you throw a little piece of it upon water, it steals 
 away the oxygen from the hydrogen of the water and flies 
 about the surface burning with a beautiful violet flame. The 
 flame is the hydrogen set free by the union of the potassium 
 with the oxygen of the water. — Hooker's Chemistry. 
 
 POTASSIUM CHLORATE— In the dyeing of fabrics 
 where potassium chlorate is used as the oxidizing agent, 
 there is considerable danger of fire due to the rapid oxidation 
 
358 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of the aniline dye and the chlorate. Not inflammable, but 
 its presence increases the intensity of fire by the evolution 
 of oxygen. See Barium Chlorate. 
 
 POTASSIUM CYANIDE— A heavy white solid; not haz- 
 ardous. 
 
 POTASSIUM METALLIC— See Metallic Potassium. 
 
 POTASSIUM, NITRATE— White crystalline salt, classed 
 as non-inflammable and not dangerous, but its presence in- 
 creases the intensity of fire by the evolution of oxygen. 
 
 POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE— A purplish crystalline 
 salt rich in oxygen. May cause fire v^hen mixed with com- 
 bustible material. 
 
 POTASSIUM PEROXIDE— See Sodium Peroxide. 
 
 POTASSIUM PICRATE— Mixed with water, is used as 
 substitute for yellow ink in coloring maps. 
 
 POTATO CHIPS— Use power machines for paring and 
 slicing. Cook the slices in grease by direct or indirect fire. 
 Greasy risks. A poor fire record class. 
 
 POTATO IVORY— Artificial ivory made from good pota- 
 toes, washed in dilute sulphuric acid and boiled in same so- 
 lution. They become solid, then are washed and slowly 
 dried. 
 
 POTATO SPIRITS— See Amyl Hydrate. 
 
 POWER HOUSES are generally F. P. construction with 
 approved electrical equipment. Considered desirable insur- 
 ance. 
 
 PREFERRED BUSINESS (so-called) is insurance on 
 risks of minimum hazard or maximum protection, such as 
 dwellings, fireproof buildings or sprinklered risks. 
 
 PREMIUMS — Companies must accumulate sufficient re- 
 serve from premiums collected each year to pay for large 
 losses occurring from conflagrations which, as a rule, occur 
 every few years. See Earned Premium. 
 
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER— Several methods are 
 used to artificially preserve timber from decay. The sap 
 may be expelled by hydraulic pressure and replaced by 
 chemical fluid, or the timber may be saturated with some 
 chemical fluid which will combine or act upon the albumen 
 and prevent decay. See Wood Preservatives. 
 
PRESSURE ^ 359 
 
 PRESERVING AND FIREPROOFING Natural and Ar- 
 tificial Foliage. See Artificial Flowers and Feathers. 
 
 PRESSING IRONS (electric) should be made foolproof. 
 The temperature of a flat iron for safe and satisfactory use 
 is from 400 to 600 deg. F. This temperature is not danger- 
 ous, but when the irons as now designed are allowed to re- 
 main with the current on continuously, then the temperature 
 rapidly increases to 1200 to 1400 degrees, or even 1800 degrees 
 in some instances, and the iron may reach red heat. The 
 hazard may be overcome by means of a new device called a 
 thermostatic switch placed in the iron, and which automat- 
 ically cuts oflF the current when the temperature exceeds a 
 predetermined range, usually 400 to 600 degrees. See N. F. 
 P. A. Bulletin for details. 
 
 PRESSING TABLES in tailor shops. The boards and 
 bucks should be covered with metal. Also floors under and 
 2 feet at sides of tables. Many fires are caused by hot irons 
 resting on woodwork. 
 
 PRESSURE — How to figure pressure on the top line of a 
 sprinkler equipment. Take a building seven stories high, or 
 80 feet above the grade, with a pressure of 40 pounds at the 
 main hydrant. Multiply .434, which is the pressure for each 
 foot of elevation, times height (80 feet), which equals 34.7 
 pounds. Deduct 34.7 pounds from the pressure at the main 
 (40 pounds) which leaves a working pressure of only 5.30 
 pounds on the top line of sprinklers. Note. — A column of 
 water 12 inches high having an area of one square inch 
 weighs .434 pounds. See Water Pressure. 
 
 Pressure — Assume a gravity tank is 12 feet high and 
 elevated 20 feet abovfe the roof and sprinkler heads are one 
 foot below the roof. Take 12 feet plus 20 feet plus 1 foot 
 equaling 33 feet x .434 equals 14.19 pounds pressure on high- 
 est line of sprinklers. Note. — The combined pressures of 
 gravity tank and pressure tank cannot be added, for in case 
 of fire, the water will first be used from the pressure tank 
 until the pressure is below that from the gravity tank, then 
 the water will flow from the gravity tank. 
 
 Assume, in the case of a pressure tank, that it is eight feet 
 above the roof and sprinkler heads one foot below the roof. 
 
^360 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Add 8 feet plus 1 foot equals 9 feet x .434 equals 3.9 pounds 
 pressure, plus the pressure showing on gauge on pressure 
 tanks, say 75 pounds, equals 78.9 pounds pressure on highest 
 line. 
 
 PRESSURE TANKS of sprinkler systems, steel or 
 wrought iron, are two-thirds full of water and one-third of 
 air. A gauge to show height of water in tank is placed at 
 end of tank. 75 pounds pressure is usually maintained. 
 Pressure tanks operate prior to gravity tanks when the water 
 flows through sprinkler pipes. The pressure of water in the 
 pressure tank holds shut the check valve on riser to gravity 
 tank, and when the water or pressure is released, the water 
 from gravity tank starts to flow. 
 
 To ascertain if water is at proper level in pressure tank, 
 first close pet cock at the bottom, then open valve at top of 
 glass gauge, then open valve at lower end of glass gauge 
 and the water will rise. After finding water level, close lower 
 valve in glass gauge first, then close valve at top of glass 
 gauge and open pet cock at the bottom. See Sprinklers. 
 
 PREST-O-LITE (acetylene gas)— A fire in one of these 
 plants demonstrated that acetylene gas itself will explode if 
 compressed with air. Excessive heat and high pressure will 
 also cause explosion. 
 
 PREVAILING WIND record for 35 years shows N. Y. 
 City to be on average W — N.W. See Wind. 
 
 PRIME — To put on the first coat of paint. In sash, door 
 and blind factories benzine thinned paint is generally used. 
 
 PRINTING HAZARDS— Composing, ink mixing, press 
 work, wrapping, benzine or a substitute for cleaning presses, 
 oily waste, waste paper, oily floors. • Job presses are used 
 only for small work. In this type of press, the type bed 
 and tympan (sheet holder) come together on a vertical plane. 
 Metal should be placed under all presses to prevent floors 
 from becoming oil soaked. The fire record is usually good. 
 See Cylinder Press. 
 
 PRINTING INK is generally made of boiled linseed or nut 
 oil, and mixed with lamp-black and soap. Write class with 
 caution. 
 
 PRINTERS' ROLLERS are made of glue, glycerine and 
 
PRIVATE FIRE PLANTS 361 
 
 molasses on a steel core. There are two kinds, one for sum- 
 mer and one for cold weather use. The former is made of 
 a harder mixture to withstand heat. 
 
 PRISM LIGHTS — Used principally on extension skylights 
 in order to lighten dark locations. In New York City they 
 are classed as thin glass unless the part in the valley is one- 
 half inch thick, or unless glasses are not more than four 
 inches by four inches on metal frame, in which case glass 
 must be one-half inch thick over all and one-fourth inch 
 thick in valley. See Sun's Rays. 
 
 PRIVATE DWELLINGS— See Dwellings; also F. P. 
 Dwellings. 
 
 PRIVATE FIRE PLANTS— A steam fire pump capable 
 of furnishing at least two good fire streams, should be pro- 
 vided and connected directly to standpipe system, with gate 
 and check valves in such connection, taking suction prefer- 
 ably from city main through a connection not less than 4 
 inches in diameter, or in the event or this supply not being 
 available, the pump to take suction from a reservoir of say 
 20,000 gallons capacity, with a possibility of some variation 
 according to the special case under treatment, such reser- 
 voir to be filled by connection to the city main, automatically 
 controlled by float valve. 
 
 The pump and boilers should be cut off from the building 
 by preferably a fire wall, in which case the sill at the door- 
 way should be at least two feet above the basement level, or 
 if this is not possible, a dwarf wall not less than two feet 
 high should be provided, which would prevent flooding the 
 pump and boiler room in the event of the water which finds 
 its way into the basement i"eaching the depth indicated. A 
 sufficient quantity of steam to run the pump should be kept 
 up at all times and an engineer on duty night and day. 
 
 A signal system with a station on each floor with gong 
 and indicator in the engine room for the purpose of notify- 
 ing the engineer of the location of a fire and when the pump 
 should be put in operation. 
 
 A watchman should patrol the building at night, and dur- 
 ing the day, on Sundays and holidays, making hourly rounds, 
 a record of the rounds being made on an approved watch 
 
362 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 clock, and stations connected therewith to be located on each 
 floor and in such manner as to require the watchman to patrol 
 practically all parts of the building. 
 
 PRIVATE WATER WORKS— See Water Works. 
 
 PRODUCER GAS PLANTS— The producer and all appa- 
 ratus connected therewith should be safely set on a solid 
 foundation, and all platforms used in connection with gen- 
 erators should be of incombustible material. For detailed de- 
 scription, see National Board Standards. Producer gas is 
 made by partial or incomplete combustion of coal in the 
 presence of an air supply which is regulated, and leaves no 
 combustible residue. 
 
 PROFIT INSURANCE— Insurance on profits may be 
 written under two or more forms, which may be principally 
 described as "per diem" and "per cent." Per diem profit 
 insurance is generally used where only a very small stock 
 of merchandise is carried. Percentage profit insurance in this 
 case is not acceptable to most companies as can be readily 
 seen from the following example: A cafe has a $1,000 stock; 
 50 per cent, profit would be $500. If fire ensues with a total 
 loss the companies must pay $500, whereas if policy was writ- 
 ten under the "per diem" form with an amount of $500 at 
 $20 a day profit it would be 25 days before the total amount 
 of insurance would be used up and the chances are that the 
 premises would be in working order before the 2S-day period 
 terminated. 
 
 Per cent, profit insurance is the most commonly used and 
 should always follow the stock adjustment. Extreme care 
 should be exercised in writing this class of insurance as many 
 brokers' forms read "company shall be liable for a loss of 
 profits equal to, say, 20 per cent, or 25 per cent, of the 
 value of merchandise insured. With this form the stock 
 may only suffer a 1 per cent, fire loss and yet the company 
 would be obliged to pay a 20 per cent, or 25 per cent, profit 
 loss. The form should read that the loss would be a certain 
 per cent, of the value of the damaged merchandise (not the 
 value of the merchandise insured) ; in other words, the profit 
 loss should follow the stock adjustment. Only competent 
 underwriters should accept profit insurance. The following 
 
/ 
 PROFITS OP A LEASE ^ 
 
 will illustrate the reason why large concerns carry per- 
 centage profit insurance. A large woolen firm has stock of 
 piece goods and are well stocked up, their fall stock being 
 all in. A fire breaks out and they sustain a total loss. Their 
 own mill cannot fill orders for three months, therefore they 
 are obliged to go to other mills to supply them. In order to 
 protect themselves against such a contingency, they carry 
 percentage profit insurance so that they will receive their 
 regular profit just as if nothing had happened. 
 
 PROFITS OF A LEASE— This is considered good insur* 
 ance if the conditions of the proposed insurance are 
 thoroughly understood by the underwriter. The amount of 
 insurance is determined in the following manner. Assume 
 that ten years ago, a very old building was leased for a 
 term of years at $10,000 per year. The building is remodeled 
 and the lease is now worth $20,000 a year. Should the 
 building burn, the lessee may be forced to pay $20,000 a 
 year for a similar lease in the vicinity. Therefore he se- 
 cures a "profit of lease" policy for the difference for which 
 he paid $10,000 and the present value, $20,000, to protect 
 his interest for each year the lease has to run. Again he 
 may have leased the building, and sublet the property for a 
 much larger sum; in which event, the amount of difference 
 between what he pays and what he receives is his profit. 
 
 PROHIBITED RISK— One of a class which has shown 
 such an unprofitable loss ratio that a company will not 
 write any insurance therein or thereon. 
 
 PROOF OF LOSS is the sworn statement of the insured 
 to the insurer, setting forth the time fire occurred, the 
 amount of loss and damage sustained, information concern- 
 ing ownership, the cash value of property covered, the names 
 of other companies interested, and the amount of their pol- 
 icies, the total amount of insurance carried and the oc- 
 cupancy of building at the time of fire. See Adjuster. 
 
 PROOF SPIRITS— See Grain Alcohol. 
 
 PROPRIETARY MEDICINES (liquid- or tablet form)— 
 Use stone and iron mills, chasers, pulverizers, dry rooms, 
 presses for tablets. May use in the manufacture such things 
 as nitroglycerine, carbon bisulphide, sulphuric ether, turpen- 
 
\ 
 
 364 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 tine, essential oils, sulphur, phosphorus, camphor, nitric, 
 hydrochloric and glacial acetic acids, lamp-black, powdered 
 charcoal, denatured and grain alcohol. Sometimes use port- 
 able oil or gas stoves. 
 
 PRO RATA — Used when a policy is cancelled by other 
 than the assured (unless rewritten), in which case the pre- 
 mium retained is figured in the proportion to the time the 
 policy has been in force. See Short Rate. 
 
 PROTECTED RISKS— Risks under fire department pro- 
 tection. See Accessibility; also Topography. 
 
 PROVISION DEALERS— Work consists of meat wash- 
 ing and trimming, sausage meat grinding and stuffing, cook- 
 ing, lard rendering and pressitig, smokehouses, refrigerat- 
 ing, pickling, coopering. May have small carpenter and paint 
 shop in large plants, also stable and garage. See Smoke 
 Houses. 
 
 PRUSSIAN BLUE— Made of sulphate of iron and yellow 
 prussiate of soda. Chlorate of potash is used for oxidizing. 
 See Soluble Blue. 
 
 PRUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic)— Composed of hydrogen, 
 carbon and nitrogen. See Hydrocyanic Acid. 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS— See Halls. 
 
 PUDDLING FURNACE— Used to convert cast-iron into 
 wrought-iron. 
 
 PUG MILL — A mixing machine used chiefly in clay and 
 paint factories. Used for tempering brick clay in pot- 
 teries. 
 
 PULLEYS (wood) in an elevator head may cause fire 
 when the elevator becomes choked. Experiments prove that 
 when a choke-up occurs, the friction of the wood pulley on 
 a canvas or rubber belt will produce actual fire (not merely 
 excessive heat or smoke) in from six and one-half to 
 twenty minutes, depending principally on the kind of belt 
 used, the size of the pulley, and the height of the elevator. 
 Iron pulleys should always be used. See Strut Boards, also 
 Elevators. 
 
 PUMICE STONE— A volcanic product. Used as an abra- 
 sive. Considered good insurance. 
 
 PUMPS — If a pump shows 43 lbs. of pressure it is the 
 
PYRENE 365 
 
 equivalent to head of 100 feet, in other words, same as a 
 gravity tank 100 feet elevation. 
 
 On the approach of cold weather, pumps should be tried 
 to see if in proper working order. Examine the pump suc- 
 tion pipe to see if strainer is clear and free from refuse or 
 otherwise obstructed. See Fire Pumps. 
 
 PURCHASE MONEY MORTGAGE— Where a party 
 purchases a business and pays the former owner a cer- 
 tain amount each month. The former owner retains a mort- 
 gage until the full amount is liquidated. This transaction is 
 considered O, K. by underwriters. The buyer is consti- 
 tuted the sole owner. Loss is usually made payable to the 
 mortgagee. (Inspect and get trade report.) 
 
 PURLINS — The horizontal pieces placed on rafters for 
 supporting the roof covering. See Piers. 
 
 PUTTING-OUT MACHINE (in leather works)— A ma- 
 chine which squeezes the water out of the skin. 
 
 PUTTY — Linseed oil and whiting. Mixed and heated in 
 steam kettles with agitators. Rapid motion mills for grind- 
 ing. Barrel painting, soldering irons for can tops, linseed oil 
 storage and oily rags and floors are principal hazards. Glue 
 putty is made from whiting and hot, melted glue. 
 
 PYRALIN— Celluloid. 
 
 PYRENE — A secret liquefied gas, said to consist of carbon 
 tetra-chloride charged with carbonic acid gas to the point 
 of saturation, with a small amount of ammonia gas and 
 hydrochloric acid. Pyrene extinguishers are recommended 
 for garages, car barns, chemical plants, calcium carbide fires, 
 paints, oils and varnishes but not for general factories' pur- 
 poses, department stores, etc. It vaporizes and forms a gas 
 blanket excluding the oxygen from the fire. , 
 
 PYRIDINE— Used for denaturing alcohol. 
 
 PYRITES— Or natural disulphide of iron. A dense, hard 
 mineral of crystalline structure and pale yellow color. There 
 is some doubt as to whether they are subject to spontaneous 
 combustion, although several cases are on record of fires 
 starting in the holds of ships where only this cargo was 
 stored. The pyrites used in manufacturing sulphuric acid 
 usually contain about 48 per cent, of sulphur, 40 per rent. 
 
366 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of iron and the balance silica, copper and arsenic. It is 
 burned in a kiln which is kept supplied with fresh quanti- 
 ties of ore. 
 
 PYRO — A prefix signifying fire. Also abbreviation for 
 Pyrogallic Acid. 
 
 PYROBAR PARTITION BLOCKS— Hollow; are made 
 of gypsum (plaster of paris) and wood fibre. Approved for 
 partitions when 3 inches thick. 
 
 PYRODENE— A so-called fireproof paint. 
 
 PYROGRAPHIC OUTFIT— Consists of a bottle of ben- 
 zine, a rubber tube connecting to a needle and a small bulb 
 which is squeezed by hand the same as an atomizer. The 
 needle is first heated, and then the benzine vapor pumped 
 to the needle to keep it hot while burning the wood. Flem- 
 ish white wood is mostly used. 
 
 PYROLIGENEOUS ACID— The crude acid obtained by 
 the destructive distillation of wood. Has smoky odor, not 
 inflammable. 
 
 PYROMANIAC — A fiend who sets buildings on fire, usu- 
 ally only to see them burn, or watch the fire engines run to 
 the fire. See Incendiarism. 
 
 PYRONONE— A high explosive. 
 
 PYROPHORES — Substances glowing and igniting spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 PYROXYLIN — Solutions of pyroxylin, nitrocellulose, or 
 soluble cotton dissolved in amyl acetate or other solvents. 
 See Celluloid. 
 
QUARRIES (slate) — Hazards of large frame areas and dry 
 kilns. Moral hazard is most important. The natural sup- 
 ply of slate may be exhausted and render the plant useless, 
 or slate may be of poor quality which would cause a great 
 depreciation in the value of the quarry. Cost of transpor- 
 tation to markets may be so high that the plant cannot oper- 
 ate at a profit. 
 
 QUEBRACHO — An extract from wood bark, used in tan- 
 ning. Will melt, but will not burn. 
 
 QUEEN POST OR QUEEN ROD— See King Post. 
 
 QUICK LIME— See Lime. 
 
 QUICKSILVER — Commercial name for mercury. 
 
 QUILL TOOTH PICKS— Work consists of sterilizing and 
 repacking natural and artificial quills or straws and covers 
 for same. Use motor-driven machines for making covers, 
 and gas or steam for heating water. 
 
 QUINOLENE— An oily inflammable liquid. 
 
 QUOIN STONES— Stones placed along the vertical 
 angles of a building. 
 
 367 
 
R 
 
 RABBET OR RABBITT— A groove along the edge of a 
 board or a door frame, as for instance, fire doors of swing- 
 ing type must be rabbetted. 
 
 RACING STABLES have a poor fire record. Belmont 
 Park, Long Island, burned twice in one month in 1917. See 
 Stables. 
 
 RACKING OFF (in breweries)— This means drawing the 
 beer into kegs. A filling machine and liquid gas tank are 
 used for pressure. See Breweries. 
 
 RADIANT METAL POLISH— Flash point 200 deg. F. 
 Classed non-volatile. 
 
 RAFFIA— A grass fibre. 
 
 RAFTERS — Those timbers which form the inclined sides 
 of a roof and carry a roof covering. Joists to which roof 
 boards are nailed. 
 
 RAGOSINE OIL— A mineral oil. Flash, 380 deg. F. 
 
 RAG STOCKS — This business has a very poor fire record, 
 especially where sorting or baling is done. Open gas jets 
 over sorting tables, smoking and coal stove heat are poor 
 features. Generally occupy basement with poor class of 
 help. See Clippings. 
 
 RAILROAD CAR HOUSES— A standard Railway Car 
 Storage House should be so constructed and protected that 
 it may not contribute in any manner toward the spread of 
 fire therein, and contribute only, in case of fire, not to exceed 
 sectional losses of the structure. One single division should 
 not exceed dimensions to expose to any one fire a greater 
 number of cars therein than would represent a valuation of 
 $200,000 of combustible rolling stock, or a total interior 
 trackage of not more than 1,800 feet. 
 
 368 
 
RAILROADS 369 
 
 Floors — To be of brick, concrete, stone, cinders or earth. 
 
 Pits — To have brick, stone or concrete retaining walls or 
 piers; brick or concrete floors; steps of stone, concrete or 
 iron; the rails to be supported on brick, concrete, stone or 
 wood stringers exposed on one side only, and to have not 
 more than four-track sections communicating. 
 
 Tracks — To run clear from building, without break or 
 transfer table. To be terminated by suitable bumpers, so 
 that there will be a clear space of not less than three feet 
 between bumpers and wall of building. Special track work 
 in front of building to be provided with guard rails, where 
 necessary. 
 
 Track Doors — Track doors to be in pairs, to be arranged 
 so that whether open or closed any door of one pair will 
 not interfere with the operation of any other pair. When 
 within 10 feet of cut-off walls, to be constructed and hung 
 as for a standard swinging fire door. Approved metal roller 
 doors may also be used. 
 
 Hazards — All electrical, heating, power and occupancy 
 hazards to be installed and maintained, and where necessary 
 to be cut off, to be in accordance with the rules and require- 
 ments of the National Board of Fire Underwriters. 
 
 RAILROADS: — Protection along railroads to prevent 
 brush or forest fires. Along railroads, fire safety strips are 
 employed. A strip about 25 feet on each side of the track is 
 cleared of all material. Back of this there is a strip of woods 
 from 50 to 60 feet wide, on which the timber is left but 
 from which all the underbrush on the ground is removed. 
 Beyond this wooded strip is a ditch from 5 to 6 feet wide 
 and a foot or more deep. The dirt from the ditch is thrown 
 back toward the railroad and forms a small embankment. 
 Cross ditches are dug through the wooded strip about 100 
 yards apart. After the material on the ground is cleared 
 each year there is nothing else to be done and it is seldom 
 that a fire escapes. By this device, and by strict enforce- 
 ment of laws governing the use of spark arresters, etc., the 
 number of fires started by railroads is kept down to a sur- 
 prisingly small total. See Forest Fires. 
 
 RAILROAD TERMINALS— Usually large area of frame 
 
37a INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 construction. Should have plenty of fire pails and extin- 
 guishers and a good standpipe system. In unheated por- 
 tions, the water in standpipes is apt to freeze. Oftentimes 
 the standpipes are drained at the beginning of winter and 
 supply must then be turned on in engine-room or pumping- 
 station, when there is a fire. In transporting perishable 
 freight, such as potatoes, in box cars during cold weather, 
 there is grave danger of freezing. Instances are known 
 where the burlap and straw covering was deemed insufficient 
 and a coal fire built in the car, with the result that the car 
 and the freight were destroyed. A poor fire record class. 
 
 RAINES LAW HOTELS— Hotels only in the eye of the 
 law as the furnished rooms above the saloon are seldom, if 
 ever, used. Always inspect this class. 
 
 RAIN-LOOP — A loop made in electric wiring just before 
 it enters the wall of a building, to prevent rain from follow- 
 ing in. 
 
 RAISING PLATE— See Wall Plate. 
 
 RAMIE — A fibre from an oriental plant of the nettle fam- 
 ily, used instead of cotton for braids, trimmings, napery, etc. 
 Similar in appearance to thrown silk and woven the same 
 as straw braid in a straw hat factory, on a **ramie" machine, 
 then sized with glue or starch, dried over steam coils and 
 smoothed in steam or gas-heated roller. 
 
 RANDOM STONES— Stones thrown into the water to 
 form a foundation or retainer wall. 
 
 RANGES (large) should have a hood to confine, and ven- 
 tilating duct to carry off grease-laden vapors or smoke. A 
 fan draws the vapors to a stack or flue. These hoods and 
 vents become coated on the inside with grease, which takes 
 fire from the stove. Steam jets are sometimes installed un- 
 der hood so that if grease is ignited a valve on steam pipe 
 can be turned on to smother the fire. See Gas Ranges. 
 
 RANGES (Small) — Should be set on one course of 
 brick on sheet-iron. Large ranges should be set on fireproof 
 floors. If the floors are combustible, ranges must be set on 
 a foundation consisting of two courses of four-inch terra 
 cotta or three courses of brick, top course pigeon-holed, on 
 metal. Foundation to extend 12 inches in front (except if 
 
RANGES 
 
 371 
 
 solid fuel is used, in which case 24 inches are required), also 
 12 inches sides and rear. If ranges have four-inch legs, only 
 one course of terra cotta needed. If 18-inch clear space 
 metal shield only is required. See Gas Ranges. 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 ^oM he Sef *^^& O^ /jre^r€>o///<>or^. ff^oorj are, 
 (ontBusf/h/&,^an^>s /Tfusf oe ser or? rz /ci^^e^aihofv c»w/s//^ 
 of ftvo C^i/r^eJ of terra c^i^a. (eacA -f'^S^/c^fve// /aJe/ )/? 
 
 Copyright. 1916. G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
372 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 RAPE OIL — An oil resembling olive oil, pressed from 
 rape seed. Flash, 440 to 580 dcg. F. Used at altars, 
 
 RATES — The object sought in fixing fire insurance rates 
 in New York City.— By W. O. Robb. 
 
 1. To provide such a premium income from the aggregate 
 of fire underwriting operations in the' metropolitan district 
 as will in average years be sufficient to pay the losses in- 
 curred in that district plus the specific expense and a pro 
 rata share of the general expense of doing business, and yet 
 leave margin enough both to pay a fair profit on the capital 
 and surplus invested and to provide for the accumulation of 
 a reserve against extraordinary . or conflagration losses not 
 occurring in average years and not to be treated as exclu- 
 sively a metropolitan district contingency. 
 
 2. To so apportion this levy, or insurance tax, among the 
 various classes of risks as to make each class come as near 
 as possible to the payment of its own losses and the con- 
 tribution of its proper proportion toward the expense, profit 
 and reserve accounts. 
 
 3. So to distinguish among individual risks of the same 
 class that proper credit will be given or proper charge made 
 for all variations above or below the standard of the aver- 
 age risk of the class, according to best judgment of under- 
 writers and the fire protection experts; that every property, 
 owner can be made to see just what it is that operates, and 
 how far it operates, to make his insurance cost more or less 
 than his neighbor's in the same business, so that the sus- 
 picion as well as the actual practice of unfair discrimination 
 may be removed, and that every proper kind of pressure 
 and inducement may be brought to bear in the direction of 
 the improvement of the fire hazard and the reduction of the 
 fire waste. See Schedules. 
 
 RATS, FIRES CAUSED BY— The following is quoted 
 from a bulletin of the United States Biological Survey: 
 
 It is generally believed that rats and mice cause fires by 
 igniting matches with their teeth. The testimony of chiefs 
 of fire departments and adjusters of fire insurance claims 
 confirms this belief, and many specific instances have, been 
 given of fires caused in this way. A fire, which resulted in 
 
RATS, FIRES CAUSED BY 373 
 
 the partial destruction of the Sultan's place at Scutari, Asia 
 Minor, in 1856, had such an origin. During 1907 the fire de- 
 partment of Washington, D. C, gave a similar explanation 
 of a fire which seriously damaged a large store and its con- 
 tents. 
 
 Manufacturers of matches often dip them in paraffine to 
 protect the phosphorus. The parafiine is attractive to rats 
 and mice, and the matches are often carried under floors 
 and behind partitions, where they are subsequently gnawed. 
 Paper and other combustible materials collected by the ani- 
 mals add to the danger of fires. Moreover, since the heads 
 of phosphorus matches contain from 14 to 17 per cent, of 
 phosphorus, it does not require actual gnawing by rats to 
 ignite them. Hot weather, excessive heat from furnaces, or 
 friction of any kind may effect the same result as the teeth 
 of rats, when the matches have been carried into a nest made 
 of combustibles. 
 
 Fire§ in mills and warehouses have been traced to the 
 spontaneous ignition of oily and fatty rags or waste carried 
 under floors by rats or mice. Cotton mills are said to be pe- 
 culiarly subject to fires from this cause. 
 
 Phillip's Warehouse, Church Street, London, was twice set 
 on fire and damaged by reason of gas leaks. In both in- 
 stances the lead gas pipe leading to the meter had been eaten 
 through by rats, and the escaping gas was accidentally set 
 on fire by workmen who were searching for a leak. In a 
 similar instance of gas leak caused by rats in a London pri- 
 vate residence, no fire resulted, but a sleeping family of four 
 persons narrowly escaped death by asphyxiation. An in- 
 spector in the employ of the Washington Gas Light Com- 
 pany recounts a similar instance in that city where pipes 
 were gnawed by rats, but fortunately it occurred when the 
 inmates were awake. 
 
 The most common way in which rats cause fire is by 
 gnawing away the insulating covering from wires used in 
 electric lighting, where the wires pass under floors or in- 
 side of partitions. The insulating materials are used for 
 nests, which rats often build of combustibles placed in con- 
 tact with the naked wires. Insurancecompanies, a few years 
 
374 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ago, estimated the fire loss of the United States due to de- 
 fective insulation of wires at $15,000,000, yearly; and since 
 rats and mice are the chief agents in impairing the insulation 
 after the wires are in place, a large part of the above sum 
 must be charged to these animals. 
 
 RAW RUBBER— See Crude Rubber. 
 
 RAZOR STROPS— After being tanned and dressed, they 
 may be oiled with tallow or neatsfoot oil dressing, and then 
 embossed. Wooden handles may also be made on the prem- 
 ises. See Leather. 
 
 REAR YARDS which are untidy with rubbish, old boxes, 
 etc., have been the cause of many fires. Should be kept 
 clean. See Vacant Lots. 
 
 RECEIVING STATIONS are depots where customers* 
 goods are received to be sent away to factories, such as 
 goods to be dyed, laundered, etc. Usually good risks if only 
 minor repairs are made. 
 
 RECIPROCATING MOTION— The opposite of revolv- 
 ing motion. 
 
 RECORDS — On wooden racks, tier upon tier, offer no re- 
 sistance to fire and the dried-out bindings and paper con- 
 duce to the rapid spread of a fire. Government archives 
 with records of surveys, and similar records of private firms 
 are irreplaceable, when once destroyed. Heads of institu- 
 tions show a marked lack of thoroughness in leaving such 
 records exposed to the fire fiend. See Patterns. 
 
 RECTIFYING— A cold process by which the "proof" of 
 the liquor (percentage of alcohol contained therein), is either 
 raised or lowered. Water is used to reduce, and additional 
 alcohol to raise the proof. Commercial alcohol is about 90 
 proof. Aside from the .handling of alcohol, there is no haz- 
 ard to this process. See Concentration by Fractional Dis- 
 tillation; see Liquors and Distilleries. 
 
 RED LEAD — An oxide of lead. In its making, special 
 furnaces are required. The cuppellation furnace converts 
 metallic lead into litharge. The reverberatory furnace or oven 
 reduces metallic lead into litharge. 
 
 RED OIL is oleic acid. When impure, said to ignite 
 spontaneously. 
 
REFRIGERATION 375 
 
 RED-SANDERS WOOD— An East Indian wood used in 
 dyeing. 
 
 REDUCTION — A process carried on by treating the com- 
 pound to be reduced with powdered metal, the purpose being 
 to abstract a certain amount of oxygen by forcing it into 
 combination with the reducing element. 
 
 REDWOOD— Although a soft wood offers considerable 
 resistance to fire; is very slow to ignite and will not burn 
 except under the most favorable condition. Used for out- 
 side walls of frame buildings in the western part of the 
 United States. 
 
 REED AND RATTAN— See Artificial Flowers and Feath- 
 ers. See Willow. 
 
 REFINERS AND SMELTERS OF METALS— Fur- 
 naces, kettles, pits, etc., should be carefully inspected as to 
 setting and clearance. Usually occupy ramshackle properties. 
 See Sweep Smelters. 
 
 REFRIGERATION— There are two systems of producing 
 artificial refrigeration in common use at the present time, in 
 both of which the use of volatile liquids is necessary. They 
 are commercially known as the "compression" and "absorp- 
 tion" systems, named in order of their popularity. In the 
 compression system, ammonia and carbon dioxide are com- 
 monly used, the former being the more dangerous from 
 nearly all points of view. 
 
 The compression system is divided into three parts, 
 namely the compressor, the condenser and the expansion 
 sections. The compressor draws the expanded or heated 
 gas from the expansion coils, compresses and forces it un- 
 der pressure through the condenser coils (coils of pipe 
 cooled by running water), where the gas is again reduced to 
 a liquid and conducted to the expansion coils which it en- 
 ters through an expansion valve (usually a needle valve). 
 The expansion coils are iron pipes in which the volatile boils 
 or vaporizes. Volatiles in use require a great deal of heat 
 to vaporize. This heat is taken from the surroundings of 
 the expansion coils. As the gas becomes heated it is again 
 withdrawn by the compressor and forced through the same 
 cycle of operation as before. 
 
376 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 The absorption system is not as hazardous as the com- 
 pression system inasmuch as no mechanical energy is nec- 
 essary except a small pump used in forcing the solutions 
 from one part of the system to another Volatile gases will 
 not condense at the temperature produced by the running 
 water at the condenser unless they are under pressure. In 
 the compression system, the pressure is maintained by the 
 compressor. In the absorption system, the pressure is main- 
 tained by boiling. A solution of aqua ammonia is placed in 
 a boiler (usually steam-heated). The ammonia having much 
 the lower boiling point is promptly vaporized at a pressure 
 sufficient for condensation and is conducted through various 
 sections (purifying and separating), until it reaches the con- 
 densers, where it returns to liquid form and is conducted to 
 the expansion coils (refrigerator) as in the compression 
 system. 
 
 After the gas has done its frigorific work, it is conducted 
 to a chamber in which it is mixed with and finally absorbed 
 by water, the mixture returning to the boiler or generator 
 where it undergoes the process of distillation as before. The 
 expansion coils are sometimes used in direct refrigeration, 
 i. e., the volatile is allowed to expand in coils of pipes in 
 the refrigerator, usually located at the sides or top. Where 
 high temperatures are desired, however, the expansion coils 
 are immersed in tanks containing a rich brine, which is 
 cooled by the expansion of the volatile, and forced through 
 pipes in the refrigerator. 
 
 Hazards — Boiler and engine-room hazards usually exist in 
 connection with refrigeration plants, and the inherent haz- 
 ards should be properly guarded. In addition there are se- 
 vere incidental refrigeration hazards, especially where am- 
 monia is used. Ammonia forms explosive mixtures with 
 lubricating oils in the compressor. In order that this haz- 
 ard be confined to the least possible space, oil traps are 
 placed in the pipe line between the compressor and con- 
 denser, designed to remove the oil from the gas. No open 
 lights should be allowed in engine room. No ammonia 
 cylinders (filled) should be kept on the premises except in 
 room at low temperature. 
 
REFRIGERATING PLANT FIRE 377 
 
 Fire Department Connections are now required in New 
 York City for plants above a certain tonnage capacity. A 
 connection is made between by-pass connected with safety 
 valve and sewer. The connection is provided so that water 
 may be injected to absorb and cool ammonia, and neutralize 
 the inflammable gas, if any be present. — W. J. Tallamy. 
 See Bunker Rooms; see Cold Storage. 
 
 REFRIGERATION (iceless) in the home. The refriger- 
 ator is made on the principle of the "ammonia absorption" 
 system. The machine has a combined absorber, generator or 
 still, condenser and receiver. Into the generator (which is 
 heated by artificial means), is placed a mixture of ammonia 
 and v^ater. The heat distills the ammonia, which passes 
 through a water jacket pipe to the condenser and cooler, 
 and passes on in the form of anhydrous ammonia to the re- 
 ceiver. The ammonia vapor in the receiver takes up con- 
 siderable latent heat, and the receiver becomes intensely 
 cold, cooling the surroundings. The process is repeated 
 automatically by cooling of the generator by means of a 
 water jacket, which creates a vacuum in the generator, and 
 the vaporized ammonia rushes from the receiver back to the 
 generator. A small apparatus. 
 
 'refrigerating PLANT FIRE— Fire was caused by 
 ignition of waste paper, etc., and generated an intense heat 
 which melted the lead joints in the condenser, releasing the 
 ammonia gas. This gas (probably foul gas), composed 
 largely of hydrogen, due to the disassociation of ammonia 
 gases under heat from pressure, ignited and burned like 
 huge blow-torches under heavy pressure. After the inflam- 
 mable foul gases had been expelled from the piping, pure 
 ammonia vapor undoubtedly issued and probably aided in 
 smothering the fire. It is recommended th^t all rooms con- 
 taining refrigerating apparatus be cut off from the balance 
 of plant by fireproof partition, with approved automatic fire 
 doors at the openings. 
 
 REGULATING RHEOSTATS are boxes containing re- 
 sistance coils. They are attached to the motor generators 
 and can be adjusted to give any resistance desired. The 
 
378 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Speed of machines can be thus varied at will and their 
 voltage thus controlled. 
 
 RE-INSURANCE— Oftentimes a company will write a 
 larger policy on a risk than the **line sheet" calls for, to ac- 
 commodate a broker or an assured, who desires policies for 
 large amounts. To reduce its net liability, the company 
 then places part of its line in another company. A re-insur- 
 ing company may require "a retainer clause" to be put on its 
 policy, especially on poor risks, which, in brief, states that 
 the company holding the original policy and reinsuring 
 agrees to retain as much liability as it is reinsuring. See 
 Liability; see Placer. 
 
 RE-LYT — A water-proofing compound used in shoe fac- 
 tories for softening leather. Made of oils and greases. Flash 
 about 350 deg. F. Classed non-inflammable, non-hazardous. 
 No thinner required. 
 
 REMOTE RISKS should be written with extreme care. 
 The one fact of being in territory not readily accessible for 
 inspection is efiough to satisfy the company that low lia- 
 bility should be assumed. See Accessibility. 
 
 RENDERING FATS AND GREASE— Unprofitable as a 
 class. The entire interior is usually grease-soaked and 
 burns rapidly. The tankage, or solid matter left after render- 
 ing, is pressed into blocks and used as fertilizer. See Fat 
 Rendering. 
 
 RENEWAL — A policy continued in force at the expira- 
 tion of the original contract by the issuance of a '^renewal 
 receipt" or by issuing a new policy under the same condi- 
 tions as the original, to take eflfect as the old policy expires. 
 
 RENT INSURANCE is written mainly on apartment 
 houses to cover loss of rents in case of fire. Two forms are 
 used, occupied or occupied and vacant. Better than build- 
 ing insurance. While the fire loss may be 50 per cent., the 
 rent insurance may be one-third or less, figured on the length 
 of time it takes to repair the building. Only competent un- 
 derwriters should accept "rent" insurance. 
 
 RENTS AND LEASEHOLDS— Sums derivable from 
 real property, which are lost by the assured if a fire inter- 
 rupts the continuous enjoyment of the property. As to the 
 
RESPONSIBILITY FOR FIRES 379 
 
 tenant under lease, a fire means the destruction or impair- 
 ment of the property right for which he has paid or is ob- 
 ligated to pay. 
 
 REPELLO — Waterproof comxpound used in shoe factories, 
 not volatile or inflammable. Can be used inside of building. 
 
 RESERVE of an insurance company is based upon the 
 amount of unearned premiums of policies in force. States 
 require a definite percentage of all premiums to be set aside 
 by the company ranging from 40 to 100 per cent. It is for 
 the protection of outstanding policy holders. 
 
 RESIDENCE SECTIONS— Usually deteriorate when 
 changing from one class of people to another less desirable 
 class. Values depreciate especially near the border of a 
 growing "colony" section. Very important to watch the 
 growth and changes in all sections of a large city. 
 
 RESIDENT BUYER— One who buys from manufactur- 
 ers or wholesalers for other concerns. They receive goods 
 for examination and act as a buying agent. Stock therefore 
 is only on trust, belonging to the manufacturer who sh-ps 
 same, or to the consignee. 
 
 RESIN can be obtained by distilling the exudations of the 
 fir tree, oil of turpentine passing over, and resin remaining. 
 Inflammable. See Rosin. 
 
 RESINATE (precipitated) of zinc. If moist may ignite 
 spontaneously. The New York Board of Underwriters ex- 
 cludes this from listed storage stores. 
 
 RESINIFICATION— Sec Gumming. 
 
 RESIN OIL— Distilled from resin. 
 
 RESISTO — A water-proofing compound for sole leather. 
 Used in shoe factories. No thinner required. Flash 400 
 deg. F. Not inflammable. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY FOR FIRES— Under the Code Na- 
 poleon in France, a man is held responsible for fire damage 
 to his neighbor. Each fire is investigated and the owner or 
 tenant of any premises must show he is not responsible for 
 a fire starting in any premises occupied or owned by him. 
 In France a tenant usually insures by one policy the fol- 
 lowing items. (1) His own property; (2) The risk of re- 
 sponsibility for damage to the building; (3) The risk of 
 
^0 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 responsibility for damage to his neighbors. A landlord in- 
 sures in one policy the following items: (1) His own prop- 
 erty; (2) His responsibility for damage to the property of 
 tenants; (3) His responsibility for damage to the property 
 of neighbors. 
 
 RESTAURANTS— Kitchens in hands of careless people 
 are apt to become very greasy. Bread is frequently dried in 
 a wood box on shelf over range, under hood. See Ranges, 
 also Hotels and Chinese Restaurants. 
 
 RETAIL BUSINESS has been said to embrace everything 
 good, bad and indifferent. It is this class which requires 
 careful scrutinizing both by inspectors and underwriters. 
 
 RETAIL STOCKS— Considerable value is under counters 
 and subject to water damage in case of fires. Those in 
 w^ardrobes are better protected if top is watertight to pre- 
 vent staining or streaking of goods from water. See Second- 
 hand Stocks. 
 
 RETAINING WALL— A wall which retains adjoining 
 earth or other material producing lateral thrust. 
 
 RETENE — Highly inflammable hydrocarbon. 
 
 REVETMENT— A retaining wall. 
 
 RHEA — A species of nettle, the stalks of which contain 
 fibre. 
 
 RHEOSTAT — An electrical device for introducing and cut- 
 ting out resistance. See Regulating Rheostat. 
 
 RHEXITE— A sort of dynamite. 
 
 RHIGOLENE OR SHERWOOD OIL— See Petroleum. 
 
 RIBBONS — Usually rolled in paper strips on a pasteboard 
 centre. This method gives considerable protection from 
 water, smoke and dirt. If dried quickly, the salvage should 
 be large. If this stock is laid sidewise on racks instead of on 
 ends, the salvage will be greater. 
 
 RIBBONS (manufacturing) — Consists of weaving, braid- 
 ing, tubing, singeing, yarn preparing, curling, gilling (comb- 
 ing and straightening). 
 
 RICE, if wet and left in bags will mildew and be unfit for 
 food. 
 
 RICE MILLS — Classed as a cereal mill but with less haz- 
 ard. Process is cleaning, separating, removing outer shell 
 
RISK 381 
 
 (shelling), hulling, separating bran, "pearling'* or scouring, 
 drying bran, grinding in iron attrition machine at high speed, 
 and polishing. Hazards are overheated bearings, steam dry- 
 rooms, friction and dust at attrition mills and polishing. Ele- 
 vator legs, spouts and hoopers set through floors conduce to 
 rapid spread of fire. 
 
 RIDGE OF A ROOF— Its peak or sharp edge along its 
 very top. 
 
 RIDGE POLE (ridge piece or ridge plate)— The highest 
 horizontal timber in a roof extending across the tops of the 
 rafters of the truss. 
 
 RIDGE ROLL— The roll along the ridge of the roof and 
 on the peaks of dormer windows. 
 
 RIDING ACADEMIES— See Stables. 
 
 RIGHT AND INTEREST OF PAWNBROKER— Com- 
 panies only insure money pawnbroker advances on goods 
 pledged or pawned together with the interest accrued. The 
 form covering right and interest of the assured in the articles 
 and stock of merchandise in fireproof safes is considered good 
 insurance. See Pawnbroker. 
 
 RING ICE FORMATION— A condition sometimes found 
 in sprinklered refrigeration plants. It is the formation of ice 
 inside of the pipes due to condensation of moisture in the 
 compressed air. See Ice Formation. 
 
 RIP-RAP— See Random Stones. 
 
 RIP-SAW — A kind of circular saw. 
 
 RISERS— See Dead Risers; also Live Risers. 
 
 RISK — In insurance literature the term "risk" is a term 
 applied to any piece or kind of property which an insurance 
 policy may cover. A "risk," therefore, is any article or com- 
 modity or building which is liable to be damaged or de- 
 stroyed by fire, which liability or danger the insurance com- 
 pany assumes for a stated price, called "the premium." (Fire 
 Facts, issued by Washington Surveying and Rating Bureau.) 
 See Occupancy; also Hazard. 
 
 RISKS declined by other companies should only be ac- 
 cepted after careful survey and trade reports. Usually the 
 other company had a very good reason for declining. See 
 Full Risk; also Prohibited Risk. 
 
i^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ROAD HOUSES — Usually conduct a season business. 
 Most of them are of light frame construction and located 
 in open country subjected to high winds. They may be left 
 unguarded part of the year. Moral hazard should be investi- 
 gated. Fire record of this class is poor. 
 
 ROASTING is accdtnplished in high temperature kilns or 
 ovens, see Kilning. 
 
 ROCK OIL — See Petroleum. A mineral naphtha. 
 
 ROCK SHAFT— One that rocks or only makes part of a 
 revolution each w^ay. 
 
 ROD PIN AND DOWELL MACHINE— Small machine 
 resembling a lathe. Ordinarily consists of a cutter-head and 
 chuck mounted in line with the pulley driving them, the stock 
 passing through the axis of both. Considerable refuse is 
 made. 
 
 ROENTGEN RAYS— See X-Rays. 
 
 ROLLING STOCK— The cars, locomotives and all other 
 equipment on wheels of a railway. See Railroads. 
 
 ROOF LATHS— Narrow strips, laid on rafter to which 
 the shingles are nailed. 
 
 ROOF SPACES— The space between the top floor ceiling 
 and roof. They are usually accessible from the scuttle open- 
 ing leading to the roof and may be used for storage pur- 
 poses. The openings leading from scuttle to roof space 
 should be closed in with one-inch boards or trapped at ceil- 
 ing. In frame rows, roof spaces between buildings must be 
 cut off by incombustible partitions. Usually, unless the party 
 walls are brick filled to the lower part of the roof boards 
 plaster boards are nailed each side of the studs, the joints 
 filled with cement plaster. Many disastrous fires have spread 
 through these concealed spaces, and firemen experience dif- 
 ficulty getting at the seat of the fire. See Attics; see Frame 
 Rows. 
 
 ROOFING — A five-ply composition roof properly laid is 
 considered the equal of a metal roof by some rating bureaus. 
 
 ROOFING CEMENT— Consists of pitch, tar or asphalt 
 with inflammable solvents. 
 
 ROOFING MOPS — Those dipped in asphaltum or coal 
 tar and left to dry or drain may ignite spontaneously. Used 
 
ROPfe MANUFACTURINd^'^^^^ 
 
 3d3 
 
 in making tar and gravel roofs. Should b^e^r'eitioyed frotti 
 
 the' building when not in use. ' ."- .. .•...;.. •'^;. ., 
 
 ROPE MANUFACTURING— The fibred u^ed are HerriiJ; 
 
 jute and coir. Machinery consists of tearing ihiacliiii^i 
 
 fOR. 
 
 Co/i/^wMc/irm 7^00F3FAC£3 
 
 IN FRAM£ 3U/LO/A/GS 
 
 A F'flO/s/r £l£VAT/OA/ 
 
 
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 ;oll ft> 
 
 Copyright/ ikr/ai A. Ins. Co. 
 
 jRf^P'ffOJL^^O 
 
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of 
 
 ^. INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 (devils) which break up the long tow ready for treatment in 
 the breakers, finishers and carding machines; the hemp sof- 
 tening machines, which. reduce the harshness of the fibre by 
 the crushing action of the fluted surface of the rolls; the 
 spreading or preparing machines, called "chain drawer" 
 which dress the hemp fibres, parallelizing them and forming 
 them into "sliver." At the back end of this machine there 
 is a tank containing an emulsion of oil and water used as a 
 lubricant for the fibre under treatment. The drawing frame 
 machine is a fibre dressing machine somewhat similar to the 
 chain drawer, but used for the more_refined finishing process 
 of dressing. \^— v 
 
 ROSETTES — Circular or ornamental fixtures from which 
 drop cords for electrical lamps are suspended. 
 
 ROSIN — Common resin or rosin is obtained as a residium 
 in the distillation of oil of turpentine. It burns rapidly with 
 dense yellow sooty flame. 
 
 ROSIN OIL is distilled from rq^in., ,ItJs a light oii 
 Same inflammability as turpentine. ^^ v^ . v4 
 
 ROTARY CONVERTOR— An appaTaTui tor cfian^^^^^ 
 ternating currents into direct currents. 
 
 ROT-STEEP — An alkaline lye used to remove the sizing 
 on calico cloth before it is printed. 
 
 ROTTEN-STONE— An earthy mineral used in hand rub- 
 bing and finishing furniture. 
 
 ROUTING is grooving out. 
 
 ROYAL SPIRITS— Not approved by underwriters as a 
 benzine substitute. 
 
 RUBBER BALLOONS AND TOYS— Rubber is mixed 
 with naphtha in power mixers and put in open dip tanks. 
 Wood forms, previously shellaced, are dipped in this rubber 
 solution until coated, and then dried by hot air. When dry 
 the thin rubber skin is stripped from the form, cured in bath 
 of bisulphide of carbon, chloride of sulphur and alcanin paste, 
 powdered with soap stone and packed. Water colors and 
 lamp-black are used for coloring. A poor fire record class. 
 
 RUBBER CEMENT— A heavy solution of rubber in gaso- 
 line, naphtha or carbon bisulphide. Inflammable. In facto- 
 ries underwriters permit only two quarts for each floor, same 
 
V RUBBER-COATED CLOTH 385 
 
 to be kept in safety pots and thinned with carbon tetra- 
 chloride. If a greater quantity is required, the excess must 
 be stored outside of building. 
 
 RUBBER-COATED CLOTH— Rubber grinding machines 
 wash and remove the impurities. It is then mixed with min- 
 eral powders such as paris white, pyrites, etc., and dried by 
 air. A machine with two steel rolls grinds the mineral mat- 
 ter into the rubber. It is then churned in gasoline. The dis- 
 solved rubber is spread upon sheets of cloth in a spreading 
 machine which coats the cloth, after which it is either coated 
 with potato starch and printed or the printing is done with a 
 solution containing carbon tetra-chloride as a solvent. All 
 machines should be grounded especially at the knives of 
 spreaders to remove any static electricity. The rubber iis 
 vulcanized by being draped on racks in steam heated room 
 at about 250 deg. F. or cured by passing the goods over a 
 roll partly submerged in a trough of carbon-bisulphide, car- 
 bon tetra-chloride and chloride of sulphur'.' ''^-fo i'.uj, :LMi ^ 
 
 RUBBER, Crude — Considered desirable insurance, as it 
 has practically no fire hazard. It is apt to deteriorate from 
 heat if piled closely, therefore it should be piled loosely in 
 a cool place such as a basement. It is received in this coun- 
 try in large chunks called "biscuits." .'^^i -^Aor^i fJ: 
 
 Raw Rubber shrinks greatly in transit, and the'losiS is made 
 up by covering the rubber with sulphur, rosin and turpen- 
 tine after it reaches the warehouse. The rubber absorbs 
 this mixture and the loss is made up in a few weeks. There 
 is some danger of rubber igniting when treated : i^i tjhjs. man- 
 ner. • ■ . ^--.rry. ^-.~r,;-.r-.n^ 
 
 RUBBER (imitation) — As used for parts of electrical 'ap- 
 paratus, telephone receivers and transmitters and for insu- 
 lating. Made of crude shellac, ground mica, terra elba (or 
 infusorial earth) ground asbestos and tar oil. These are all 
 placed in a steam heated mixer and reduced to a pliable pulp, 
 then rolled into sheet or block form, or placed in hydraulic 
 presse-s containing steel moulds. From presses they are 
 cooled by natural air, then passed to cutting, trimming and 
 buffing machines. No benzine or cement. Hazards, mixing, 
 
3!66 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 rolling; pressing, buffing, packing, trimming. The material 
 is; worked on machines for ordinary use. '-^t 
 
 RUBBER (old) — Rubber or old metals are considered de- 
 sirable insurance by themselves; but in connection with rag 
 QF paper stock are poor risks. 
 
 . \RUBBER for mechanical purposes— Process 
 similar to manufacturing other forms of rubber. The rubber 
 is made into strips or sheets from the crude stock. 
 ^^JRUBBER LINED CLOTH is made by inserting a sheet 
 ;oi rubber between two thicknesses of cloth and drawing. them 
 tnrpugh steam heated calender. The cloth is coated ,|«rat>i 
 , talcum to prevent adhering when it is rolled up. 
 J.' A lire r occurred in a coating machine when in operation, 
 probably from static electricity. The coating mixture was 
 being poured into a tank which communicated with trough 
 in "dope" (mixture) machine by pipe. The difference be- 
 tween "dope" machine and the spreader is that the dope ma- 
 chine runs over roller which revolves in mixture in trough, 
 while the spreader mixture runs directly on the upper surface 
 of stretched cloth and is spread out by the cloth passing 
 under knife edges. 
 
 RUBBER RECLAIMING— Old shoes, rubber boots, hose 
 and the like are used. Much foreign matter, such as 
 nails, tacks, fabric are extracted by hand. The stock is then 
 cut up by hand and broken in small pieces in a "cracker," 
 then placed in a lead lined wooden tank of sulphuric acid, 
 which eats out the remaining foreign matter. It is then 
 washed, ground, calendered, dried, mixed with coal tar resid- 
 ium and vulcanized. 
 
 RUBBER SHODDY— Regenerated or reclaimed rubber 
 consists of old rubber which has been subjected to chemical 
 treatment to prepare it for further use in the rubber indus- 
 try. Liable to ignite spontaneously. Called "springs." : 
 
 RUBBER TIRES for automobiles. Crude rubber is washed, 
 cut, dried by air or vacuum, made into sheets. Fabric is im- 
 pregnated with rubber in calender rolls, cut into bias strips 
 (a cotton cloth being placed between strips to prevent ad- 
 hering). Tire is built up in successive layers and cemented 
 together with rubber cement, then worked on core or form. 
 
RUBBER TIRE 387 
 
 The rubber cover is applied and the mass pressed, under hy- 
 draulic power, vulcanized, painted with chalk on inside, in- 
 spected and packed. 
 
 Some makes, when received from the factory, are wrapped 
 in a waterproof paper, lined on the inside with a water- 
 proofing solution containing black asphaltum. When this 
 paper is thoroughly wet, the black sticks to the tires, and 
 unless it can be readily cleaned off with benzine, the tires 
 must be sold as seconds. All tire stocks should be skidded. 
 
 RUBBING OIL — That used by furniture dealers usually 
 has a crude oil base. Rags saturated with this are subject 
 to spontaneous combustion. i .; 
 
 RUBBISH of most any sort is a breeding place- f6r' fires. 
 
 RUBBLE — Masonry of rough undressed stone. '•' ' 
 
 RUINS— See Fire Ruift'S; >wi>no3-nKnr u bn/. 
 
 lofi fi i>.. 
 / -~aVJAV.VTa'5A2 
 
 ysr. 
 
SACCHARINE — Similar to sugar, the saccharine matter 
 of the cane juice. It is artificially prepared from toluene, 
 the substance found in the light distillate of coal tar. Used 
 in making candy. 
 
 SACKETT BOARD— Made of four layers of wool felt 
 and three layers of gypsum plaster, the outer surface bejng 
 felt. Made in thicknesses of 54 inch, ^ inch and 5^ inch. 
 Fire retardant and a non-conductor of heat and sounds 
 
 SADDENING — In the mordanting of cotton, iron or cop- 
 per sulphates are used for saddening or darkening. 
 
 SAFES are rendered fireproof by the moisture held in the 
 intermolecular spaces of the fireproof composition. When 
 the safe gets hot this moisture is driven by the exterior heat 
 into the interior of the safe in the form of steam, thus keep- 
 ing the interior or temperature of the safe below the point of 
 ignition or charring. This is proved after the safe has passed 
 through a hot fire and is opened. Everything inside the safe 
 is protected, owing to the condensation of the steam. In- 
 spectors should measure thickness of all walls and doors. 
 See Vaults. 
 
 SAFETY-VALVE— A valve on a boiler which automati- 
 cally opens at a predetermined pressure, and above which 
 pressure it would not be safe to force the boiler. It lessens 
 the danger of explosions. 
 
 SAGAX WOOD — Made of ground straw and cement 
 binder. 
 
 SALAMANDER — A paper used between floors. It is wa- 
 terproof and fire-resisting. 
 
 SALAMANDER — An open top, portable, cylindrical stove 
 on legs. Used in buildings in course of construction, stone 
 y^rds, sheds and foundries for heating purposes. Coal and 
 coke are commonly used as fuel. 
 
 388 
 
nTI>iW5: ' SALOONS •'lii^ijU: ^89 
 
 SALIENT — An angle or corner projecting outward. 
 
 SALOL — A modern drug made by treating phosphorus 
 with chlorine and carbonic acid gas. The product is mixed 
 with salicylic acid in powdered form and carbolic acid in a 
 heated glass retort. 
 
 y SALOONS — The bar fixtures and advertising signs are 
 usually owned by the brewery supplying the beer. Ordina- 
 rily only the stock is owned by the saloonkeeper. They are 
 considered good fire risks, and the loss ratio. i§ very good. 
 Saloons situated along water fronts and in "dive" localities 
 catering to a low element are not considered good risks, 
 but when profitable to the owners, can be written with cau- 
 tion. Prohibition legislation, police activities, etc., have 
 forced liquor stores out of business. Many fires in this class 
 are caused by men of a nationality naturally hot tempered 
 and quarrelsome, who may upset a stove or lamp in a saloon 
 brawl. Usually have gas stove on wood with rubber tube 
 connection behind lunch counter and an unsafe swinging gas 
 bracket in basement at ice box. 
 
 SALT, if placed with kerosene or other hydrocarbon oil, 
 will arrest hydrogen and prevent an explosion. 
 
 SALT DEALERS — The incidental hazards are mixing, 
 milling and packing salt. Power belt conveyors should be 
 given special attention by inspectors. Salt in bins is ren- 
 dered inedible if wet with dirty water. 
 
 SALT HAY is recommended for packing material in glass- 
 ware and other risks where large quantities are used. It 
 burns very much slower than ordinary hay. See Packing 
 Bins. 
 
 SALT HIDES— See Hides. 
 
 SALTPETRE — (Extracting saltpetre from nitre and chlor- 
 ide of potash.) A saturated solution of water and nitre is 
 made in flat, iron, open-top steam-heated tanks, to which is 
 added chloride of potash. The mixture is boiled for about 24 
 hours, pumped to cylindrical steam-heated kettles where it is 
 concentrated by re-boiling. Both .the water and the residue 
 are drawn ofif to open-top iron tanks where they are allowed 
 to settle and evaporate. The mixture at this point consists of 
 saltpetre with impurities, dirt and sodium carbonate. The 
 
390 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 salt settles at the bottom of the tanks containing the water of 
 solution, and after the water is drained off, the salt is shov- 
 eled out. The mixture when evaporated, is placed in other 
 tanks where it is boiled and washed, then crystalized in 
 wooden tanks. The crystals are carried in a worm conveyor, 
 and are dried while passing through a dryer which is usually 
 frame, steam and hot-air heated. The crystals are sifted and 
 ground in burr mills. About 100 pounds each of nitre and 
 potash will make 116 pounds of saltpetre and 60 pounds of 
 salt. The nitre while in bags absorbs moisture from the 
 air and is always damp. When empty, the potash and nitre 
 bags are boiled to reclaim the remaining substances. The 
 floors are soaked and dripping with saltpetre when the plant 
 is in operation. If the plant were shut down, there might 
 be some danger from spontaneous combustion in wood floors 
 when very dry, as they might ignite spontaneously, as do dry 
 nitre bags. Brick drying ovens are sometimes used for the 
 higher grades of crystals. See Potassium Nitrate. 
 
 SALTPETRE OR POTASSIUM NITRATE is found prin- 
 cipally in the warm sections of India where rain rarely falls. 
 It is produced by the decay of nitrogenous substances in the 
 presence of air, moisture and alkaline earths. It is used in 
 the manufacture of high explosives, gunpowder and fire- 
 works, as a preservative and for medicinal purposes. . ^' ' 
 
 SALTPETRE AND NITRE, storage and handling.~£ike 
 the chlorate, it gives up its oxygen very readily and has many 
 similar characteristics. In contact with any combustible mat- 
 ter it decomposes rapidly, five-sixths of its oxygen being 
 available for the oxidation of combustible matter. Its ca- 
 pacity for supporting combustion will be appreciated when 
 it is known that one volume of nitre represents 3,000 volumes 
 of air in its power for supporting combustion. Fires in the 
 empty bags in which the nitre has been kept are therefore 
 imminent and burn fiercely. In fact, in the presence of car- 
 ton (as in wood) nitre burns stubbornly in all cases. When 
 in contact with hot coals occasioned by an external fire or 
 by a fire resulting spontaneously it deflagrates violently. 
 It oxidizes sulphur with unusual ease. — Hooker's Chemistry. 
 
 SALTS — This term ordinarily used by^ chemists, means 
 
SALVAGE CORPS 391 
 
 substances which are neither acid nor alkaline and yet contain 
 the main ingredients of both acids and alkalis, like sulphate 
 of potash. 
 
 SALVAGE (buildings) — When a large fire is reported most 
 insurance companies immediately send an inspector to give a 
 rough estimate of the amount of loss, so, that they may know 
 their approximate losses each day. In a six story and base- 
 ment brick building of ordinary construction, the brick walls 
 can be figured at 40 per cent, of value and 8.5 per cent, for 
 each floor and roof. See Valuation of Building. 
 
 SALVAGE CORPS— The New York Salvage Corps is 
 maintained by the New York Board of Fire Underwriters 
 for the purpose of salvaging goods when a fire occurs. Tar- 
 paulins are thrown over the merchandise, water is pumped 
 out of basements, temporary roofs are put on buildings, to 
 prevent further water damage. A patrolman is stationed on 
 the premises to prevent removal of goods by trespassers. 
 The corps is financed by the company members of the Board 
 of Underwriters by a system of taxation according to the 
 amount of premiums received by each company in the terri- 
 tory covered by the Salvage Corps. A number of wagons 
 are employed which race to the fire when an alarm is sounded. 
 
 SALVAGING STOCK— The New York Salvage Corps 
 now employ a gasoline-driven pump which will pull 1,800 
 gallons of water a minute out of any flooded basement. 
 Care must be taken where the "forced out" water is thrown 
 or there is a likelihood of choked sewers and more trouble. 
 
 SANDPAPER MACHINE, for smoothing stock. There 
 are five types — belt, drum, disc, spindle, and slip-and-slap. 
 Belt Sanders consist of carrying sanders or other belts cov- 
 ered with sandpaper operating over two pulleys some dis- 
 tance apart. Drum sanders are cylindrical in shape, resem- 
 ble planers. Disc sanders consist of discs covered with can- 
 vas and at the end of shaft, revolving rapidly. Spindle sand- 
 ers are small in diameter and either vertical or horizontal. 
 Slip-and-slap sanders consist of strips of sandpaper fastened 
 to hub-radials. All these machines create a great deal of 
 dust and should have blower systems attached. 
 
 SANDPAPER MANUFACTURING— See Emery. 
 
392 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 SANDSTONE, used for building fronts, withstands the ac- 
 tion of fire better than any other stone front. The fire and 
 water will in time flake off the stone. 
 
 SANGAJO— Flash point 139 deg. F. Classed non-volatile. 
 
 SANITAS^— A disinfecting and preservative Solution made 
 by forcing a current of air through vessels containing hot 
 water and turpentine. 
 
 SAPONIFICATION— Decomposing fats into fatty acids 
 and glycerine, as in soap manufacturing. 
 
 SAPON-WOOD— A dye wood. 
 
 SARDINE FACTORIES— The fish are dumped into a con- 
 veyor and carried to the cutting room, where in the case 
 of large fish, the heads and tails are removed by knives 
 and the entrails cleaned out. They are then washed auto- 
 matically and scales are removed by attrition during the con- 
 veying and washing. The fish are then deposited in pick- 
 ling bins. An endless belt with cups scoops up the washed 
 'fish, elevates them to the packing room and deposits them 
 on a flaking machine with a carrier belt which receives 
 fish from the conveyor and deposits same side by side and 
 passes them between large hollow belt-covered squeeze rolls 
 to remove the excess water. The fish are then deposited 
 on metal trays or "flakes," and as the trays are filled they 
 are removed to the drying process or the cooking ovens. 
 The hazards of cooking, drying, oil filling, bathing and test- 
 ing require special attention. 
 
 SASH — The framework which holds the squares of glass in 
 a window. A,'i-3f. ^' v', . - 
 
 SASH FRAME— The frame which receives th^'sasK.'' 
 SATOLITE — A substitute for celluloid made from soya 
 beans. Claimed by the manufacturers to be non-inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 SAUSAGE CASINGS— The casings are packed in salt in 
 barrels, pounded down to make them compact, and water is 
 added to fill the barrel. Clean water will npt have any bad 
 effect on this stock, but dirty water will have a very bad 
 effect, especially to the stock at the top of the barrel. Ex- 
 cessive heat will injure the quality of the casings. 
 
SCENIC STUDIOS 393 
 
 SAV-ON ,§PIR^TSrTTA h^nm^^m^^^tnte.^cla^.^sei .^#j non- 
 volatile. ,l^^^ biir> nbiyjyiotq etti "^riiFffiiailr vc( 'V'ujiir) ttaow;' 
 
 SAWDUST mixed with bicarbonate of soda has been 
 found efficacious in extinguishing oil and grease fires. Saw- 
 dust in a finely divided state excludes the oxygen from the 
 fire without which it must die out. It is used by store- 
 keepers; in factory spittoons, and at gas engines and mo- 
 tors. No sawdust is permitted on the floor (except in meat 
 and fish markets). Sand should be substituted in place of 
 sawdust for these purposes. 
 
 SAW-TOOTH ROOFS are generally used by textile mills 
 and machine shops because they slope like a mound and of- 
 fer better lighting facilities than the flat skylight. They are 
 sometimes called "Northern Lights." 
 
 SAXON BLUE-rr;A-L.l»ixtii^e^.p|^iijdigQ,, sulphuric acid, pot- 
 ash and water. ^r^G^ qiiog r,musoo^ .xgiI 
 
 SCANTLING — A timber less than five inches square a.t the, 
 end., .,.::, ...iUv^r: -rAHO^ 
 
 SCENIC STUDIOS (painting scenery) not in connection 
 with theatres. The main part of the studio building is a 
 very high one-story, tower-like structure which permits the 
 stretching and painting of very large canvasses. Use coal or 
 gas stoves for heating glue for sizing, and water. May also 
 use benzine thinned paint. Considered poor insurance risks. 
 
 SCHEDULE, as used by rating bureaus, is the make-up 
 of the insurance rate, as, for example, Metal Workers, whose 
 base rate is 75 cents plus five cents for skylights, plus 10 
 cents for floor openings, less 10 cents for water pails, etc. 
 
 SCHEDULE is a general form used in writing insurance 
 on plants consisting of several buildings instead of writing 
 a separate policy on each building or contents thereof. The 
 total amounts of each item are arranged in order, and the 
 insurance companies write a certain percentage of the en- 
 tire schedule. This also simplifies matters for the assured and 
 reduces danger of non-current forms. See Blanket Policy. 
 
 SCHEDULE EXPERT is primarily an inspector of merit 
 who is thoroughly conversant with the many schedules in 
 use. He must be well versed in construction, hazards, sal- 
 vagie oi various merchandises, heating apparatus, chemistry, 
 
394 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 etc. His mission is to reduce the rate of insurance to its 
 lowest figure by installing fire protection and other devices. 
 
 SCHOOL HAZARDS— Manual training rooms, with oily 
 rags, rubbish, shavings, glue-pots and domestic science rooms 
 with gas stores; janitors' rooms with floor oil, paints for use 
 about building, janitors' supplies; small repair shop, and 
 storage rooms for old fixtures and desks; floor mops, chemical 
 laboratory. Where plumbing is taught small plumbers' shop 
 hazard. 
 
 Inspectors should be very careful to note the termination 
 of the air ducts in schools built a decade ago, whether they 
 terminate at the floor of the attic or are carried through 
 roof. Unless through roof, a fire can be sucked through the 
 duct to the attic and burn oflF the roof. >•>!!/. :->iiuv}uu>^ 
 
 SCOURING SOAP POWDER, usually miarfe of caustic 
 soda, soda ash and silax. Scouring soap same as above with 
 cocoanut oil added. 
 
 SCRATCH COAT of plaster; the coat applied directly to 
 the lath, then scratched with a trowel to form a key tor-fhe 
 finishing coat of plaster. * ^ 
 
 SCREED — A wooden strip or a strip of mortar laid on 
 a wall to gauge the thickness of the plastering to be applied. 
 
 SCULPTORS* STUDIOS— Work consists of composition, 
 plaster, clay, bronze, and stone-work and sometimes wood- 
 working of frames. 
 
 SCUPPERS— Holes or tubes to allow the floors to be 
 drained of water in case of fire. If standard scuppers are in- 
 stalled they usually have a bearing on the insurance rate; gen- 
 erally used in warehouses and fireproof or mill constructed 
 factories. ^ 
 
 SCUTCHING (in bleach works), the process of opening 
 the cloth after it has been washed. 
 
 SCUTTLE— The small opening leading toai^xoo^.^'^-.^^'^^./.^ 
 
 SEA GRASS — Used for upholstering and polishing furfii- 
 ture. See Piano Manufacturing. 
 
 SEASHORE HOTELS— Usually large area frame, subject 
 to sweeping winds, undermining by high tides, etc. Few 
 companies write them. Season occupancy. In case of bad 
 
nw, SECOND-HAND STOCKS 395 
 
 season by reason of epidemics, unseasonable^ » weather or 
 similar circumstances, a severe moral hazard creeps 4h;'' See* 
 Hotels. • >:. : - ■ ■.1^'- 
 
 SEAMEN'S OUTFITTERS— The stock consists of meii's 
 furnishings, hats, caps, ready-made overcoats and clothing,, 
 notions, novelties, toilet soaps, perfumes, overalls, oil suits, 
 rubber boots, shoes, cheap jewelry, musical instruments and 
 similar articles used by sailors on board ship. See Ship 
 Chandlers. / ; ; 
 
 SEARCHLIGHT ENGINES are used by the New York 
 Fire Department in cases where the lighting system of the 
 building or street have been put. out i;^:^!, commission on ac- 
 count of fire. '■ ., hr-- 
 
 SEBASTIN— A high explosive. 
 
 SECOND-HAND STOCKS should always be avoided. 
 Sometimes when a line covers new stock, together with 
 second-hand stock, a clause is added, "It is understood 
 and agreed that this company shall not be liable for a loss or 
 damage to any of the above-described property for an 
 amount in excess of the actual cost price to the assured." 
 
 SECRETAGE — A process of crisping hair to make it iato 
 felt by means of mercury and nitric acid. 
 
 SECRET PROCESSES should not be written, even 
 though the inspector is told "nothing of a dangerous char- 
 acter is used," because the fire record shows that in many 
 instances this statement has been untrue or misleading. . .- 
 
 SECURITE— An explosive compound. 
 
 SEEDS IN BINS on storage will not burn readily, but 
 when wet will sprout and be rendered useless. The swelling 
 of wet seeds and hops in large quantities in compact masses 
 has been known to push out the walls of brick buildings. »-^ 
 
 SEGMENTAL ARCH— A curved arch, forming the segf^i 
 ment of a circle. n .((•».■> tin/i 
 
 SEIDLITZ POWDERS contain bicarbonate df '^so'd^i'f 
 rochelle salts and tartaric acid. The hazards are grinding, 
 mixing and sifting. . / 
 
 SELF-CLOSING DOOR— One ordinarily closed and 
 which closes automatically after being opened. 
 
396 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 SELF-REDUCING CLAUSE— Used in connection with . 
 leasehold insurance. See Profits of a Lease. 
 
 SELF-RELEASING BEAMS— See Bevelled. 
 
 SERPENTINE PAPER— Colored; used for decorating 
 narrow papers. ..^i::-'J-'iv :; 
 
 SETTING — Term used iniboileiDDn furnace installations to 
 denote the enclosing walls. 4 fictJiIy »«3orl3 ^ajood Ti^d . 
 
 SEVIN OIL — Same as olive oil. Shale oil and petroleum. 
 Each liquid yields on fractional distillation a heavy volatile 
 and inflammable gasoline. 
 
 SEWERS FROM GARAGES— These are used for draiti'^ 
 ing off surface of cleaning floors, the water from which con- 
 tains oils and grease and gasoline. The sewers are always 
 warmer than the air above the streets. In many cases they 
 are made warm from the escape of steam or hot water from 
 factories. With volatile oils in the sewer, we therefore have 
 the conditions for their ready conversion into vapor. The 
 gasoline vapors rise and mix with the air, while the heavy 
 oils find their way into the river, or when the mouth of the 
 sewer is closed they gather at the water level within the 
 sewer at some distance from the river, to be discharged only 
 at low tide. The law forbids the throwing of gasoline into 
 the sewer, hence oil separators are required in garages. See 
 Oil Separators. -''i^ ^'^^uon^ 
 
 SEWING TABLES— Where a double row of tables \k tisitf 
 a continuous trough should be built between the rows in 
 which to place the work as it is made, thus preventing it 
 from falling in between the rows of machines. See Cutting 
 Tables. ;j >. ic; ' ■ * 
 
 SHAFTINGS AND BEARINGS of all^oHs may be dan- 
 gerous on account of heating, especially if connected to rapid- 
 ly moving machinery, due to poor alignment, binding, or in- 
 sufiicient oil. They are likely to become oily, and to accumu- 
 late dust and inflammable "fly" or lint, and also saturate 
 nearby woodwork with flying oil. 
 
 SHAPERS OR FRIEZING (spindles) consist of two ver- 
 tical projections through a table and rotating rapidly in op- 
 posite directions. Make considerable refuse and bearings 
 
SHAVING VAULTS ^i t97 
 
 become overheated. Classed as heavy woodworking ma- 
 chines. ^-.,., - _-,— ^^^. 
 
 SHAFTS — Open shafts are the quickest and most natural 
 means for a fire to travel through a building, aiding the quick 
 destruction of the building and endangering the lives of the 
 occupants. See Dumbwaiter Doors. 
 
 SHARP SAND— Sand, the particles of which have facet* 
 with sharp edges. 
 
 SHAVING SOAP— Principally tallow, stearic acid, pal«? 
 oil, barium chloride, peroxide of hydrogen, oil of euchrelytU' 
 A steam process, using kettles, filters, stills, rolling an<^ 
 moulding presses. Also use solution of lye, ammonium sul- 
 phate and glycerine. 
 
 ! SHAVING VAULTS should be constructed of brick or 
 concrete walls not less than 12 inches thick and parapetted at 
 least 3 feet above roof and situated outside of building, with 
 no communication. Vault should be used only for the stor- 
 age of shavings and dust. No machinery, shafting or belts 
 should be operated within or pass through the same. The 
 roof to be of fireproof material with proper vent. The floor, 
 of concrete, with an incline from the rear to the front. There 
 should be only one opening, three feet from floor (not over 
 9 square feet) for the removal of the shavings to the boiler 
 room, and this opening should be protected by a ^-inch 
 boiler iron drop door, operated automatically in vault chan- 
 nels, which should be bolted through the wall. The boiler 
 iron vault door opening just mentioned should be at rigl^t 
 angles to the firing door of the boiler and not nearer th{aii 
 6 feet from same. Steam jets or automatic sprinklers are 
 sometimes placed inside of the vaults. Feed-pipes which 
 empty their shavings directly into the boilers are not recom- 
 mended. See Direct Feed. — (See Illustration on page 398.) 
 
 SHEATHING — Matched or unmatched boards on the ex- 
 terior of a building; covering a surface with wood boards, 
 metal, etc. 
 
 SHEAVE — A grooved pulley with block and bearings, and 
 sheave brackets over which cables or ropes are rtin. 
 
 SHEEP DIP sometimes contains inflammable liquids. A 
 liquid into which sheep are dipped to remove vermin. 
 
39S 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 y!A2 qHAH2 
 
 (Copyrighted. Patent applied for.) 
 
 Sterling Automatic Improved Furnace Feeder, Showing Method of 
 
 "Direct Feed to Boiler from Blower System 
 
 (Side Elevation) 
 
 SHEEPSKIN — Dyers and dressers use sumac, ,logwp^,d, 
 quebracho, sulphuric acid, ammonia and alcohol, anilines, 
 potash. Splitters, staining with air brush, embossing presses 
 for fancy articles, greasing, fur dyeing and dressing, are 
 principal hazards. See Hides. 
 
;: [,» SHIP-BUILDING :^i<igMt 399 
 
 SHEETING— See Lagging. 
 
 SHEET TIN— See Tin. 
 
 SHELLAC — A resinous exudation produced by the punc- 
 ture of a species of insect which congregate in large numbers 
 on the tender branches of various East Indian trees. The 
 insects become surrounded by the resinous exudation which 
 gradually hardens, and in which the larvae of the female re- 
 main. Dissolves in alcohol, muriatic acid, acetic acid. 
 
 SHELLAC VARNISH— Gum shellac, partly dissolved. . 
 
 SHINGLE ROOFS of wood should not be permitted. The 
 fire record shows many fires from this type of construction. 
 If a building has a wood shingle roof, the chimney should be 
 provided with a spark-arrester. See Spark-arrester, , . 
 
 A patented fireproof shingle is now being made of felt 
 saturated with asphaltum, in which ground rock is imbedded, 
 coated with asphalt and finished with ground slate. 
 
 SHIPBUILDERS' YARDS usually have many low frame 
 buildings with power wood-working and metal-working; 
 foundries, blacksmith shop, welding with compressed gases,, 
 and painting. Not a profitable class with most companies. 
 
 SHIP-BUILDING (Hazards of)— In Wood Ship-build- 
 ing yards, woodworking, large woodworking machinery, 
 large quantities of sayvdust, shavings and chips; recommend 
 shavings vault and blower system; accumulation of waste 
 wood and chips under hulls in shipways. This space should 
 be constantly kept cleaned up and refuse removed. Lumber 
 in yard, clear space rules should be strictly adhered to. Stor- 
 age of oakum should be kept in detached building a safe dis- 
 tance from ways and other buildings. Spinning of oaku,ip 
 should be done in a separate building from main oakum stor- 
 age building, this latter building to be properly ventilated 
 at eaves and ground level and screened with fine wire mesh. 
 Heating of pitch and creosote important; steam* only should 
 be used. This work should not be done on the ships. Oils 
 and paints, etc., should be stored in a separate and preferably 
 fireproof building. Burning of waste material for fuel, special 
 care should be taken to see that stacks are provided with ap- 
 proved spark arresters. Glue heaters in joiner's shop should 
 be according to underwriters' rules. Locomotives and Gantry 
 
400 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 » 
 cranes should be inspected for fuel used. Storage of fuel-oil 
 
 and supply stations should be underground. (J. H. Ryan.) 
 
 SHIP CHANDLERS— Stock consists of those things 
 which are required by seamen on board ship, such as oiled 
 clothing, clothing, parts of machinery, lanterns, oils, heavy 
 hardware, ship's tackle. A hard burning stock, not easy to 
 extinguish. See Seamen's Outfitters. ' -^ < ' 
 
 SHIP FIRE PREVENTION— It ^;is ^'i-ecommended that 
 vessels be required to be equipped with spark-arresters and 
 that their funnels, or smokestacks, be covered with an effi- 
 cient metal spark-arrester (the wire mesh, which shall not be 
 less than four to the inch) when crossing the pierhead line 
 in approaching any grain elevator or any pier. The owners 
 of such vessels should be required to protect all hatch comb- 
 ings, so that cargoes of cotton or naval stores shall not come 
 in contact with the combings; also the vessels should be re- 
 quired, while loading or discharging cargoes, to couple their 
 firehose and keep the same ready for use at all times. See 
 • Fires at Sea. 
 
 SHIP YARDS (Steel)— Machine-shop hazards. Fuel- 
 oil used for heating furnaces, also portable rivet furnaces on 
 board ships. Fuel-oil should be underground, as per rules. 
 Wood framing, staging and shoring used during construc- 
 tion are bad features. Space under keels should be kept free 
 of inflammable material. (J. H. Ryan.) 
 
 SHIRTWAIST MANUFACTURING— See Garment 
 Manufacturing. 
 
 SHODDY is picked rags, shredded and torn apart by pick- 
 ers. It may be wool or part cotton. If all-wool shoddy is 
 desired, the stock is "carbonized" by removing the cotton 
 in vats of dilute sulphuric acid and chloride of aluminum. 
 The wool is then washed in alkalis, dried in high-temperature 
 dryers, ''picked," and baled. 
 
 SHODDY AND MUNGO REFUSE is used in manu- 
 facturing artificial guano. After being dried and pulverized, 
 it is used by wall-paper manufacturers as "flock." 
 
 SHODDY MILLS — Picking and carding rooms are the 
 most hazardous. The shoddy is usually conveyed from the 
 pickers to the baling room by suction ducts. Only steam 
 
SHOE FACTORIES VI 4M^ 
 
 heat and electric lights should be used; i JPew compahTes write 
 this class. -) ! ? ' :' 
 
 SHOE FACTORIES— The upper leathers and linings are 
 cut either by hand or power die-presses. These are stitched 
 or cemented together and attached to the inner sole. The 
 center of the sole is "filled" or waterproofed, and the outer 
 sole put on and trimmed smoothly. In the finishing depart- 
 ment, the sole and heel are sandpapered, stained, waxed and 
 polished and the uppers cleaned and polished. Considerable 
 rubber cement is used. Safety pots only should be used for 
 rubber cement and the supply of cement and naphtha kept 
 outside of main buildings. Cement with a binder of ground 
 cork is usually used for a filler for soles (between the inner 
 and middle sole). Edge-setter machines, which sew the soles 
 with waxed threads, have a pot of wax through which the 
 thread runs. The pot is usually heated by steam or gas, 
 steam preferred. Buff wheels for polishing, sandpapering 
 machines, and heel-trimmers should have blowers. In the 
 lasting department, where the workers hand-sew the uppers 
 to the soles of turn-shoes, gas or electric stoves are used for 
 heating the hand-tools. In the finishing department, benzine 
 may be used for removing spots. A very important hazard 
 is the cutting-board scrapings. The cutting boards, where 
 leather is cut either by hand or power, are dressed with a 
 dressing composed mainly of glycerine, linseed oil and car- 
 bolic acid. They are dressed (scraped to remove ridges) by 
 hand. The boards are of hardwood, the scrapings are in a 
 finely divided state, and when mixed with the dressing are 
 peculiarly subject to spontaneous combustion. These scrap- 
 ings will ignite in a few hours and are considered by some 
 manufacturers to be more hazardous than the use of rubber 
 cement and benzine. 
 
 Box Toes are stiffened with dextrine and glue. Celluloid 
 is also used for box toes, heel coverings and counters. The 
 celluloid is usually found in the "lasting" department. Alco- 
 hol and acetone are used to soften the celloiloid. Heels are 
 covered with celluloid, for ladies' shoes, the celluloid being 
 softened and applied by presses, trimmed, cemented and 
 buffed. 
 
402 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Shoe Tips, after being perforated, are singed over a gas 
 flame to give the leather a clean edge, after which they are 
 dipped in dye (sometimes naplitha dye) for the desired color. 
 
 Waterproof Compounds for Shoes — Trade names are Vis- 
 col, Resisto, Repello, Anti-hude, SoIeoil,i Relyt and others. 
 They are oily substances and some are thinned with naphtha. 
 
 Dip Black is made of lamp-black and naphtha. 
 
 Oilproof — Made of gelatine and carbolic acid dissolved iri 
 naphtha. It is put on the inner part of outer soles to prevent 
 the natural oil of uppers from staining the lower part.' "''''-' i 
 
 Boot Dressing for uppers is made of lamp-black,' gum' trag^'^ 
 acanth or soap. The leather is soaked in water, covered with 
 blacking to lay the nap, dressed, and oiled with neat's-foot 
 oil. '•:> 
 
 SHOEMAKERS' FINDINGS — Miscellaneous findings 
 consist of leather, buttons, nails, polishes, brushes, rubber 
 cement, stains. If mercantile rating, is good, stock ;c2lii«>b6s 
 written at a profit. v.:^^;j rri 
 
 SHOE POLISH may contain shellac, nigrosine, caustic 
 soda, potash, aniline colors, salicylic acid, japan, beeswax, oil 
 of mirbane, alcohol, ammonia, lamp-black, glue, benzine, gum 
 tragacanth, canauher and candellia waxes and borax. Haz- 
 ards of direct fire heat for kettles, oily floors, storage of raw 
 materials. A poor fire record class. A quick burner. 
 
 SHOES, RETAIL—- Considered very desirable insurance. 
 Stocks usually give a salvage. Inspectors should note if any 
 work is being done on premises. 
 
 SHOOKS — Sets of boards in knock-down shape, used ih' 
 crate or box-making. '^'^' ';- ^j -l<^i^? 'd^y'^^'-'' •'; 
 
 SHOOTING GALLERIES usuall/Stctipy gra3e' flooVs or 
 basements. Some are located in poor sections and cater to 
 low element. Temporary occupancy with makeshift heating 
 apparatus, smoking, oily rags for wiping guns, gas lights in 
 rows under targets, and untidiness constitute the hazards. 
 
 SHORING — Bracing by means of props. 
 
 SHORT CIRCUIT— A contact between electrical conduct-, 
 ors of different potentiality without the intervention of re- 
 sistance, so that for an instant a theoretically unlimited cui:- 
 
OnVi i SIAMESE CONMECTIO»:i'^<2W I 4«3^ 
 
 rent flows through the conductors and the -centact 'point; 
 See Electrical Terms. ■ ; f.i ^n' sfi-.; 
 
 SHORT-RATE TABLE— Used in writing insurance for a 
 term less than one year. Also applied to contracts for any 
 term when the assured desires cancellation ' of a policy. See 
 Pro Rata. > r^'^rii 
 
 SHRAPNEL, in anfimunition manufacture, is tbmpostd^i 
 three major parts, the cartridge, the projectile and' the fii^e. 
 
 SHUTTERS— All windows should be protected either by 
 standard lock-joined shutters (similar to firedoor construc- 
 tion), or iron shutters having angle-iron frames. The old 
 style "flat bar" iron shutters are not recommended because 
 they buckle under intense heat. Most engineers advise wire- 
 glass windows in ^'labeled" hollow metal frames instead of 
 shutters, because they are sure to be in place when a fire 
 starts. Many a risk protected by shutters suffered severe 
 damage because they were open and could not be closed in 
 time. See Window Protection. • '= ' 
 
 SIAMESE CONNECTION— Called fire department con- 
 nections. An intake pipe located outside of a building,' with 
 two hose coupling connections. In sprinkler systems thfey 
 are connected with header system or at base of live riser. 
 In standpipe systems, connect with riser. In both instances 
 have flap-check valve. Connection should point horizontally 
 and be at least 18 inches above the sidewalk in order that 
 the fire department can make a quick hose connection to 
 steamer or hydrant. Many Siamese connections point dowh^ 
 ward and are only several inches above the sidewalk, making 
 it almost a physical impossibility to connect the ;hose« - ^ Sea 
 Standpipes. ijvj ^>fn«j>oa 
 
 SIDE CONSTRUCTION in fireproof arches, the terra*' 
 cotta blocks are placed on the sides. *'{ 
 
 SIDEWALK STANDS may have gasoline torches hyr 
 light, electric wires on nails, swingng gas brackets, unsafe 
 stove for heating or cooking. 
 
 SIGN PAINTING— Light painting hazard. All colors are 
 ih small lots but use considerable turpfentine, and some- 
 times benzine for cleaning brushes. Usually located in "run- 
 down" properties. Not a very desirable class on account 
 
404 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of cheapness of work, smoking, oily rags, crowded condi- 
 tions and making wood frames. 
 
 SIGNS (on a roof) especially if of wood, are great handi- 
 caps to the firemen. All signs should be built of incombus^ 
 tible material and be so located that firemen may get under 
 them so as to gain access to the roof. .ji/i f*i! 
 
 SILESITE— An explosive compound. Ja[ll*?AHH8 
 
 SILICA — An oxygen compound, or oxide of a substance 
 called silicon. 
 
 SILICATE OF SODA consists of 31 parts sand, freed from 
 iron, and 53 parts of dry carbonate of soda melted together. 
 It is used as a sizing to render fabrics, paper, wood, etc., 
 fireproof, also used as a mordant for aniline colors. Some- 
 times called soluble glass. — Harris. 
 
 SILICATES— See Silicic Acid. 
 
 SILICIC ACID — Sometimes called Silica. Silicic acid unites 
 with potash and soda and lime-forming bodies called sili- 
 cates. 
 
 SILICON — Not a metal, but a very hard substance re- 
 sembling carbon in appearance. 
 
 SILLS for fire doors (usually concrete or iron frames) 
 should be raised at least 1^ inches above the floor and set 
 entirely undf.r the fire-doors. These sills prevent water 
 running from one section to another. 
 
 SILK (ARTIFICIAL) is cellulose fibre artificially pre- 
 pared from suitable solutions of cellulose by forcing the 
 liquid through fine orifices and coagulating the cellulose 
 as it emerges in the form of a delicate thread. Artificial silk 
 resembles true silk very closely, in general appearance pos- 
 sessing even a higher lustre than the latter. It is not as 
 strong or durable as true silk and its strength is greatly 
 lessened when wet with water. One variety is made from 
 wood-pulp. :?iJAw: 
 
 SILK (BROAD) is woven piece silk. It is wound, reeled, 
 woven and "quilled." Weavers use benzine for removing 
 spots. 
 
 SILK CONDITIONING— Practically the same as wool 
 finishing. 
 
 SILK DYEING— Use acetic, sulphuric, muriatic and tan- 
 
OVrTTl^W SILK PLUSH 405 
 
 nic acids, bicarbonate of soda and bicarbonate of potash. 
 Nitrate of iron is used in black dyes. Where good^ "are 
 sold by wei.^ht, gambia is usually used. '■ • '^r 
 
 SILK FINISHING— Process consists of cutting, rolling, 
 calendering, singeing, rubbing, straightening, steaming, clean- 
 ing, spraying, stretching. .ix.di ' ■: 
 
 SILK FINISHING COMPOUND^A secret mixture, said 
 to contain potato flour, glycerine, glue and soap. Silk is 
 bleached with sulphide of soda. 
 
 SILK FLOSS— A vegetable fibre from the Kapoc trees 
 of the Dutch Indies, used in mattresses, etc. 
 
 SILK-GUT — Derived from the silk worm; similar to cat- 
 gut; used on ends of fish hooks. 
 
 SILK NECKTIES are sometimes cut on boards similar to 
 cutting boards in shoe factories with same hazard, also singe- 
 ing with gas flame 
 
 , SILK NOILS — The short fibres or waste silk from mills. 
 "'Silk plush — The* cop yarn as used in this territory is 
 rcceive'd in skeins from the mills making same, and is woven 
 by the local mills into the various materials. In silk and 
 plush works, it forms the strands for the warp and filling 
 for the backing of plush goods. The plush or piling is made 
 of silk, cotton and mohair threads woven into a single strand. 
 
 Plush is made on a weiaving loom similar to a silk loom 
 with the exception that two backings are used between which 
 is woven the silk piling for the plush. As the woven piece 
 leaves the loom a rapidly moving knife cuts the piling which 
 leaves two pieces of plush. Sec Plush. 
 
 "Striking out" machines, "tigers," "brushes" are then used. 
 These; are smilar in design with the exception that the wires 
 forming the comb are heavier for the first process. The ma- 
 chine consists of a wooden roller spiked with wire cotribs 
 over which the goods pass. They are employed to remove 
 any loose piling and to whip it up. The "tigers" tear out 
 most of the loose stufif, which is found oh the floor. :A(3: this 
 is silk the hazard is light. Very little lint is made. 1 '^' 
 
 The "Nellies" is next employed. This machine is a fouf- 
 sided wooden frame in upright position. At the bottom, a 
 
406 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 wooden roller with light wire comb; at top a similar roller 
 with bristles. The plush is wound on a centre roller, the 
 upper roller turned by hand. As it turns an employee "bat- 
 ters" the plush to open up the piling.v It" theft enters a dry 
 room as the plush is put on the "Nellies" wet. 
 
 At the "striking out" machine, the plush is attached to a 
 strip of cambric which is first drawn over the rollers and 
 brushes so that as soon as the machine is started the end of 
 the plush will be combed. At this machine the material is 
 first steamed to soften the texture. 
 
 The cambric cloths are dried in a dryer similar to laun- 
 dry drier. oh ij^j/rtvvi - i uc/--/iUio 
 
 Silk is woven on a single looml f\?.i\ *<<> j».f»(i** rtf* h^i>.n ;iu v. 
 
 Winders and spoolers are similar to those in knitting 
 mills. Dyeing is a wet process; aniline colors, muriatic acid, 
 bichromate of potash and nitrate of soda being used. 
 
 SILK (RAW)-— Silk as it comes from the cocoon. It is 
 spun into threads, skeined, wrapped in bundles called "books," 
 in colored or white tissue paper (tissue should be white, as 
 colored paper. will streak the silk if wet),, baled and wrapped 
 in matting for shipment. It is tested for elasticity, strength 
 of thread, quantity of natural gum, weave and twist. Moisture 
 causes mildew. Water and smoke do not seriously affect its 
 quality unless the smoke contains chemical agents which 
 will eat the fibre. Mildew and discoloration by smoke or 
 water can be removed by boiling, as in any event, it must 
 be boiled in water to remove the natural gum before it 
 can be dyed. The loss would be practically the cost of 
 labor for re-boiling, drying and re^reeling. A salvage of 
 about 75 per cent, may be expected in smoke or water dam- 
 age. It does not support combustion. It smolders, but burns 
 only upon the application of fire. Considered good insurance. 
 
 Silks art "loaded" or "weighted" with tin, sugar and 
 other materials. It is claimed to make the silk firmer and 
 cheaper without lowering the quality. Silks are sometimes 
 40 to 60 per cent. tin. The raw silk is first boiled to remove 
 the natural gum of the silk worm. About 4 ounces in weight 
 is lost in every 16 ounces boiled. It is "dyed to a certain 
 
weight/' according to tlie purpose i^oi* which the silfe 13 --to 
 be used. If silk is dyed to' 14 ounces it nleans that 2 dtincif^^ 
 of the lost weight is made up in loading and 14 ounces re- 
 turned to the dealer in place of the original 16. The tin, 
 in very minute particles, is added during the dyeing pto- 
 cess. "Weighting" — This process adds on an average of 
 seven-tenths of a pound to 100 pounds of dyed goods. ' ^'1 
 
 Silks of cheap texture may contain considerkble' cbttoft,* 
 and if wet, every color is liable to run. ' ' - fc !\»!-.'J<r 
 
 SILK SIZING— Fires have occurred ' m'- hati)1ithi''^'siifiig 
 machines from static electricity generat6^'a{''^thi6' ^ass' Wd^ 
 or guides over which the silk passes, ''''f "■ < '«• -rM/irH 
 
 SILK, SPUN or "SCHAPPE" SILK is the silk yarn spun 
 from cocoon waste (fibres from pierced cocoons) or from 
 wa^te made by throwsters. Carded and spun the same %s 
 cotton y^tn. ' •I-' 
 
 SILK (THROWN)— Raw or dyed silk ^iF^'^ha^'l^n 
 thrown or doubled ready for the weaver. 'It has- more' thkh^ 
 one strand. hljo;}-^ ^fjnrf/:>\r. •^nirm^iv- -^'AU 
 
 SILK VELVET generally suffers very'little froriiwa^W^ 
 
 damage if immediately salvaged. ' '!"'-'!>; ?< n>Tv^»»] 
 
 SILK (WASTE) is prepared for the weavers and spinners 
 as follows: It is put through "lappers," fillers or combers,** 
 "dressing frames," "spreaders," "catds," "pomers," "flossing 
 tnachines." The poor pieces of silk are picked out by hand 
 by means of strong electric lights under glass top tables. 
 Slow-speed machinery is used but lint covered journals re- 
 sult. Steam jets are used to keep down the lint and prevent a' 
 dusty atmosphere in the work rooms. See Noil6.'' ''" ' -'^''^ 
 SILK (WATERPROOFING)— The silk is fitst'V<^n^M 
 with dilute mixture of sulphate of alumina; theti with a solu- 
 tion of soap made of light-colored resin and crystalized car- 
 bonate of soda and water. The soap thus formed is sepa- 
 rated by adding corhmou salt. The soap ife dissolved ill bdH-^ 
 ing water and the silk rinsed in same. ^' •■ '- '^ ^';. '^ _'. ** 
 SILK (WILD) is divided commercially into three classes: 
 true silk, wild silk and artificial silk. Wild silk is the fibre 
 obtained from numerous wild vatieties of silk^pfo&emg 
 moths. ' 
 
408 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 SILK YARN AND FLOSS DYERS— Use sulphuric, nitric 
 and acetic acids, caustic soda. Hazards of dry rooms, silk 
 pickers, centrifugal extractors. 
 
 SILVERING— See Mirror Backing. 
 
 SILVER-PLATED WARE— Hazards are heavy and light 
 machine shop work, with drop hammers, rollers, hydraulic 
 presses, plating, buffing, pitch-heating, forging, soldering, 
 burnishing, engraving, lacquering, making lead, copper and 
 plaster moulds. 
 
 SILVERSMITHS— For cementing handles on sticks, use 
 canauba wax or a mixture of yellow ochre and resin, or a 
 mixture of resin, pitch and lime. Direct fire heat used. Platn 
 ing— See Goldsmiths. >I JIB "Siq^IAHOa" to VJl\J^Z .^{Jlg 
 
 SISAL— See Fibres. V V. .. ,„.,;^^ .. ...... ...a 
 
 SKATE — A term used in the insurance business when 
 speaking of a very undesirable risk. — Eugene Eagles. 
 
 SKATING RINKS— If built of frame or ordinary brick 
 constructon, are avoided by most insurance companies. Heat- 
 ing and refrigerating apparatus should be in cut-off section.. 
 They are "seasojn" occupancies, the moral hazard is an im- 
 portant consideration. 
 
 SKELETON CONSTRUCTION— A term applying to a 
 simple framewoork of columns and beams whose efficiency is; 
 dependent largely on the existence of exterior walls and parti- 
 tions which brace the building and hold the framework in^ 
 position, just as the utility of the human skeleton is depend- 
 ent on the covering of sinews and muscles that hold the 
 component parts together. On the other hand, the light 
 framework of an ordinary wire cage bound intp one compact, 
 unit is suggestive of an inherent strength and elastic per- 
 sistence that renders any covering an incident rather than 
 a necessity. (J. F. Kendall.) See Cage Construction. 
 
 SKEWBACK — The inclined stone from which an arch 
 springs. The protecting tile at the web to the lower flange 
 of a beam or girder. 
 
 SKIDS-^Stock of a susceptible nature should be raised at 
 least six inches from the floor so as to prevent water damage. 
 
 SKINS are obtained from calves, sheep, goats, etc. See 
 Hides. 
 
SMOKE-HOUSES 409 
 
 SKIRTING — Narrow boards nailed along a wall. 
 
 SKIVING — Removing thin shavings from the flesh side 
 of skins. See Hides. 
 
 SLAG — The dross left in the process of refining metals. 
 Also a compound of silica with metals, lime and clay. ii 
 
 SLAG ROOF — A covering of slag spread over tar orf^-ji 
 composition. 
 
 SLATE (ARTIFICIAL) is formed of clay which has been 
 hardened under pressure and heat. ivmv/v-^'i 't/r, .fi^il 
 
 SLATE ROOFS are a source of danger iaafiid^dfOSWKon 
 account of pieces dropping on the firemen. :>>x:im bn;v ,b^ii 
 
 SLEEPER— A strip embedded in arches of fif^prbof con- 
 struction to which the top flooring is nailed. 
 
 SLEEVE— See Thimble. 
 
 SLIP — The water lost in the delivery of pump due to 
 leakage past piston, and too much clearance between piston 
 and cylinder. 
 
 SLIPPERS (carpet and cloth) are usually made from small 
 pieces or ''tag ends" of carpet or cloth. The inner sole is 
 pasted and the outer sole tacked on the upper. Cold paste 
 or glue is used. Shops employ cheap labor and are usually 
 untidy. A class avoided by most underwriters. 
 
 SLIPPER TRIMMINGS— Skived leather, laces, buckram 
 and felt tops, metal ornaments, embroidery. Concerns 
 usually give the sewing to "home workers," who do it as 
 piecework. Shopwork consists of making lead buttons, metal 
 working, enameling metal parts, cementing linings with rub- 
 ber cement, sewing, embroidering, skiving leather. ,tr. 
 
 SLOW BURNING— See Mill Construction. 
 
 SMALT — A powdered blue glass, colored with cobalt. 
 Used by sign painters. 
 
 SMELTERS— See Refiners, ^ui gtibl 
 
 SMOKE-HOUSES should be' btiilt of incombustible ma- 
 terial with a vent to the outer air. The doors should be at 
 least three-sixteenths inch iron, with angle-iron reinforce- 
 ments to prevent the doors from buckling. The hanging racks 
 ahd grating over the fire should be of iron. The meat is 
 suspended from racks, and the lower grate is to prevent the 
 meat from falling into the fire. Sills should be raised six 
 
410 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 inches. If possible smoke-houses should be in a detached 
 structure. Steam jets are sometimes used to extinguish 
 fires in these compartments. The fires used for smoking may- 
 be of sawdust, beech shavings, hickory wood, charcoal. These 
 fires are either built directly on the floor or are placed in 
 earthenware pots. The 'entire interior of the smoke com- 
 partments becomes in time thickly coated with a black, 
 greasy covering from the grease-laden fumes ^fro,in.-meats. or 
 fish. See Provisions. 'r'aii T.ihnw b'jMrWn«d 
 
 SMOKELESS POWDER consists of nrtrb-ligriufti; piiri- 
 fied, and mixed with nitrates other than nitrate of lead. 
 
 SMOKEPIPES must not be nearer than 18 inches to any 
 lath-and-plaster or board partition, ceiling or any woodwork, 
 nor shall they pass through any wood floor, partition, or 
 roof. Smokepipes of furnaces, laundry stoves, large cooking 
 ranges, etc., shall be not less than 18 inches from woodwork 
 unless guarded by shields; then not less than 9 inches. 
 
 SMOKING— The National Board records for 1916 state 
 that careless smokers caused a total loss of $4,505,963 in the 
 United States. In Philadelphia, 413 fires are credited to 
 smokers. It should be made a penal offense to throw away 
 a burning cigar, cigarette in or about any building, structure, 
 car, or where it may ignite any inflammable material. In 
 New York City, a specifi.c charge of five cents per $100 
 per annum is applied to sprinkler risks, and is removable 
 upon the proper posting of ''No Smoking" signs. In gar- 
 ment manufacturing establishments a charge of 25 cents is 
 made, at present, removable only after a series of unan- 
 nounced inspections covering a period of six months. Be- 
 cause of the class of labor employed in this kind of business, 
 this requirement becomes necessary to absolutely assure the 
 bureau that all smoking has been stopped. In garages a 
 charge of 25 cents is applied, which is added upon the recom- 
 mendation of the New York Board of Fire Underwriters, 
 and is removable upon the installation of proper signs. For 
 theatres, 10 cents is added if smoking, by other than the 
 actors during the play, is allowed. S. T. Skirrow,, "Liye Articles 
 on Special Hazards," The Weekly Uuderwriter.) See Matches. 
 
 SNAP FASTENERS— A machine-shop hazard. Machin- 
 
SOAP FACTORIES 411 
 
 ery consists of die presses, drills, lathes, emery wheels, mill- 
 ing machines, blowpipefe and annealers,'in ia'ddition to clean- 
 ing with acid and japanning. 
 
 SNOWFALLS (fire danger of)— In Northern climates, 
 heavy snowfalls which remain on the roofs of houses are 
 apt to cause the roof to sag and the consequent cracking of 
 the chimney. Snow should be cleaned oflf roofs. 
 
 SNUFF MANUFACTURING— The lower leaves of the 
 tobacco plant come to the factory in hogsheads. After age- 
 ing in the factory warehouse for a few years the leaf is 
 coarsely cut up, "ordered," and' reprised back in the hogs- 
 heads to sweat or ferment. It is then ready for dessicatioh 
 and pulverizing. It is toasted in a furnace dryer or toaster 
 (which is an iron cylinder revolving in a breeching of brick, 
 in which are heating fir^s), or shaken in a series of trays 
 in a room heated by steam to a high temperature. The 
 toasted flake is groiiiid or pulverized in machines termed 
 "mulls" and the snuff cleaned in a bolting reel and packed. 
 The principal hazards aire toasting, grinding and cleaning. 
 Also kettles for heating water, salt and licorice; labeling and 
 lacquering the inside of boxes; dry-rooms. — Ira G. Hoagland. 
 
 SOAP FACTORIES— The hazards of the usual modern 
 soap factory are not very bad, as the entire process is by 
 steam heat. The rendering of fats is usually carried on in 
 a special plant for this purpose. There may be. glycerine 
 evaporators (steam-heated), stearic acid making, refrigerat- 
 ing machinery for cold-storage rooms. The oils used are 
 palm, olive, fish, whale, rape, cottonseed, cocoanut and corn. 
 The alkalis, soda, bicarbonate of soda, soda ash, carbonate 
 of potash, caustic soda. Soap making is mainly a boiling 
 process. "Crutching" is mixing the soap in an agitator ket- 
 tle with coloring matter, perfumes, etc. When soap rises 
 to the surface of the kettle, it is skimmed off and run into 
 "frames" to cool. A "frame" is a rectangular metal box on 
 wheels, with detachable sides and ends. 'When the soap 
 cools, the sides and ends of the frames are rerhoved. The 
 slab of soap is cut by vertical wires protruding through a 
 flat bed on which is placed the soap. See Shaving Soap. 
 
 SOAP POWDER and Dressings for Textile Workers— 
 
412 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Manufacturers use lactic acid, corn-syrup, gluten, tallow, gel- 
 atine, sugar, boric acid, formic acid, carbon tetra-chloride, 
 aqua ammonia, chalk. Hazard that of soap factory, includ- 
 ing chemical laboratory with usual chemicals, such as ether, 
 ethyl alcohol, tin-chloride, nitrate of soda, and caustic soda 
 in small bottles. Other soap powders are generally made 
 from absolutely dry chip soaps, ground into a fine powder. 
 , SODA — The general term applied to compounds of sodium. 
 Sodium is metalic in nature. Usually found in areas resem- 
 bling frozen lakes that consist of carbonate of soda in pow- 
 der or crystals. Has an affinity for oxygen and should be 
 kept in air and water-tight receptacles, because the least 
 moisture may start a blaze. Soda is oxide of sodium. See 
 Sodium. 
 
 SODA ASH— See Sodic Carbonate. 
 
 SODA WATER SIPHONS are sometimes charged up to 
 160 pounds pressure and have been known to explode with 
 great violence. 
 
 SODIUM is made from soda. It is not inflammable, but 
 its presence increases the intensity of a fire by the evolu- 
 tion of oxygen. When wet, it is combustible. 
 
 SODIUM BISULPHIDE— A chemical not dangerous in 
 itself, but if allowed to come in contact with chlorate of 
 sodium will cause a fire. Should be stored outside of main 
 building in same manner as chlorates or other oxygen agents. 
 
 SODIUM CARBONATE— Called soda-ash and is used for 
 bleaching cotton goods, scouring wool, and in the manufac- 
 ture of soap. 
 
 SODIUM CHLORATE— Dangerous on account of its 
 capacity for liberating oxygen. 
 
 SODIUM CHLORIDE— Common salt. 
 
 SODIUM HYDRATE— Called caustic soda, and is used 
 in soap making. 
 
 SODIUM NITRATE— A yellowish white salt, and a great 
 oxidizer. When mixed with organic matter will ignite. 
 
 SODIUM NITRATE CRYSTALS (in litharge manufac- 
 turing) are dried in a wooden, rotary, cylindrical dryer, hav- 
 ing open ends, driven by gearing and cogwheels, and heated 
 
SOUND VALUE 413 
 
 by hot air. Fires have started at the greasy driving-gears 
 due to friction. See Litharge. 
 
 SODIUM PEROXIDE— A white or yellow powder.^ A 
 strong oxidizer. When in contact with organic matter will 
 cause fire. 
 
 SODIUM SULPHIDE— Used in tanning leather. 
 
 SODIUM TUNGSTATE— See Fire-Resistive Solutions. 
 
 SOFFIT — The lower or underneath surface of an arch. 
 
 SOFT WOODS are those from coniferous or needle-leaved 
 trees, such as pine, spruce and cedar. See Coniferous Woods. 
 See Hard Woods. 
 
 SOLDER — Usually composed of lead and zinc. ^ r/^qqp 
 
 SOLE TENANT RISK— One having but one tenant. ' An 
 allowance is usually given in the rate for this feature. 
 
 SOLIDIFIED ALCOHOL consists of wood alcohol which 
 has been colloided to a soft semi-transparent mass; made by 
 colloiding with nitro-cellulose or soap. Gives off inflammable 
 vapors at about 50 deg. F. See Alcohol. 
 
 SOLUBLE BLUE— Apt to cause fires in color works 
 through friction and spontaneous combustion. See Chromes. 
 
 SOLUBLE COTTON— See Nitrocellulose. 
 
 SOLUBLE GLASS— Silicate of soda. 
 
 SOLVENTINE— Used as a varnish. Has a low flash and 
 fire test. Composed of low-grade varnish, linseed oil, benzine 
 or its equivalent. Cotton waste, saturated with it, will ig- 
 nite spontaneously. ■nnn:^ \);u 
 
 SOLVENTS are likely to include inflammable liquids con- 
 taining such substances as acetone, ether or naphtha. 
 
 SOOT — Mostly carbon. It is made up of little particles 
 which are thrown off from the burning wood and lodge on 
 the chimney sides. 
 
 SOUND VALUE— The actual value at the time of fire 
 after depreciation has been deducted. The terms "market 
 value," "cost price," etc., as sometimes used, are misleading. 
 
 SOURCE OF SUPPLY— See Water Mains. 
 
 SPALL — To chip or flake off. Stone or brick, or other 
 masonry walls spall after being heated and subjected to 
 hose streams. See Platforms. ^^^^^. ,1^,.^^,,^^^ 
 
4i'+ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 SPAN — The space between the iron beams, as for instance, 
 the terra-cotta arches are spanned 5 feet on centers.' 
 
 SPANISH BLACK or cork black is made from, ftll^^cofn- 
 bustion gases of burning cork. .vfbtxo v 
 
 SPANISH MOSS— Used in upholstering; willignlt^ spon- 
 taneously. "''''\::' ^'"^-' ^^ 
 
 SPANISH WHITIS— Same as whiting. - ' 
 
 SPARK ARRESTER— Used on foundry cui)plas,thimneys, 
 to catch sparks and prevent them from flying and igniting 
 shingle roofs. Made of wire netting and built like a cage 
 over the top of the stack. 
 
 SPECIAL BUILDING SIGNAL is a manual device requir- 
 ing some one to pull the lever which sends in the alarm. See 
 Manual Alarm. See Alarm. 
 
 SPECIAL FORMS OF INSURANCE— See Use and occu- 
 pancy; also Leases and Profit Insurance, Improvements. 
 
 SPECIAL HAZARDS^ are the fire dangers incident to 
 manufacturing plants in their pfocess bf'/wprk^^^^ 
 also Risk. ■- >= ^ ■• . u ...■:: • . 
 
 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OR DENSITY plays an important' 
 part in the engineering end of fire insurance, in that it points 
 out the connection between weight and bulk. In other words, 
 the specific gravity of the liquid is its weight in proportion 
 to the same bulk of water. Example: A bottle which holds 
 lOOQ grains of water will only hold 830 grains of spirits of 
 wine, which shows the comparison of weight under the 
 same bulk. The density of the liquids containing alcohol is 
 used by the excise to determine the amount of alcohol they 
 contain. — W. D. Grier. 
 
 SPECIFIC RATES— Those properties subject fo a' speci^f 
 rate by a central rating board or bureau by reason of ah occu- 
 pancy more hazardous than called for under a minimum rat- 
 ing. See Rates. 
 
 SPECIFIC WEIGHTS— See Specific Gravity. 
 
 SPERMACETI— A solid wax taken from the mixture |of 
 solid and liquid matter which occurs in the head of the spefm 
 whale. Melts 110 to 120 deg. ¥. 
 
 SPHINCTER HOSE— Rubber or other hose wound with 
 
SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION +15 
 
 wire. Prevents wear and tear and gives added strength to 
 hose. 
 
 SPICE MILLS — The principal hazard is grinding. If the 
 spices are ground w^et, the hazard is mild. If they are ground 
 dry, the grinder should be in a separate fireproof room and be 
 equipped with magnets. Burr mills are often used. Addi- 
 tional hazards are found at the sifters, bolters, and dryers 
 where considerable dust abounds. Considered by most com- 
 panies as an unprofitable class of insurance. 
 
 SPINDLE CARVER— A small cutter rotated at the end of 
 a horizontal spindle. . , , x \ « 
 
 SPIRITS OF HARTSHORN— See Ammohia.*'' '^^ 
 
 SPIRITS OF NITROUS ETHER— See Ethyl Nitric. 
 
 SPIRITS OF TURPENTINE— See Turpentine. 
 
 SPONGES — The best are grown in salt water where no 
 sandy bottom abounds as the sand smothers the growing 
 sponge. Sponges, when brought to the surface are black and 
 slimy and filled with water and animal matter called "gurry." 
 Several days are required for the gurry to run ofif when the 
 sponges are dead. They are squeezed out with the hands 
 and strung on lengths of coarse twine. Sponges, contrary to 
 general belief, suffer a. very severe water damage, and in- 
 surance should be written carefully. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION— When a house is be- 
 ing redecorated, the painters frequently use a wood polish 
 containing raw linseed oil and turpentine. In one instance, 
 a piece of waste with this oil was found smoldering in a 
 workman's pocket and he did not know it until his attention 
 was called to it. Polishing cloths about the home should 
 not be placed in drawers of cupboards, but hung where air 
 can circulate around them. Oily floors left when soap man- 
 ufacturers, furriers and machine shops vacate buildings have 
 caused spontaneous combustion when a new tenant has laid 
 new floor over the oily one. Sawdust in ice houses and cold 
 storage plants has been known to ignite spontaneously when 
 moist. Soft coal piled in bulk and dampened will ignite spon- 
 taneously. See Vegetable Oils. Oily Waste Cans.— (See 
 illustration on page 416.) •.- v^a,» .\ . -vV\ 
 
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION POINT— The point or 
 
m 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 temperature at which gases, vapors or solids will take fire of 
 their own accord without being brought into contact with 
 burning or incandescent substances. See Flash Point. 
 
 SPORTING GOODS— Hazards of repair shops with var- 
 nishing, hand woodworking, stock of gun-powder and car- 
 tridges, rubber cement, calcium carbide, automobile special- 
 ties, photo supplies. 
 
 Combust/on ,^ 
 
 , /s SrouaAt 
 abcvtbva. 
 Cne/r) fca./ A ct/orj 
 
 I ^ fro du e it on of htaCt 
 
 li a. »i««-^#»«</uct5>r of 
 ^^ Meat - I . . 
 
 ^ few ianitlcn fK>int 
 
 i^ff^AOT^- IF rH/3 CAN 
 
 ^^^^^ J is USepfCR WASTiS 
 
 the abore is n€Kt 
 
 l^srAL CAN en Jys, 
 Copyright. 1915. G. A. Ins. Co. 
 
 OROlNAn^MBTTALASH CAN 
 
SPRINKLER EQUIPMENT 
 
 417 
 
 SPREADING — A spreader machine is a skeleton table-like 
 structure made up with steam coils or steam-heated plates. 
 At the feed end of the spreader is located a roll, above which 
 and parallel to it, is set a knife-like piece of metal, fitted with 
 proper adjustment device so that it may be set a greater or 
 less distance from the roll. There is also provision for a 
 roll of fabric at the feed end and a reeling up device at the 
 other end of the machine. See Static Electricity. 
 
 SPRINGER— The lowest stone of an arch. 
 
 SPRINGS — A name given by manufacturers to rubber 
 shoddy. 
 
 SPRINKLER EQUIPMENT (AUTOMATIC) — Briefly 
 speaking, consists of iron piping filled with water or air, 
 
 rhoto by Paul Thompson. 
 
 Distribution of Water by Automatic Sprinkler. 
 
 securely supported immediately beneath the floors, i.e. the 
 ceilings. At intervals of eight to ten feet are attached fusi- 
 ble plugs called sprinkler-heads having deflectors designed to 
 
4W INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Spray water over the area desired. In the ordinary sprinkler 
 a solder having a melting point of about 160 deg. F. is em- 
 ployed (solder of bismuth, tin, lead and cadmium). The 
 melting of this solder releases the disc from the valve-seat 
 and the water is forced out under pressure through the orifice 
 formerly closed by the valve-seat. The deflector causes the 
 water to spray in all directions like rain thus effectually wet- 
 ting anything within the area which the sprinklers arc de- 
 signed to cover. 
 
 Among the important questions to be considered after the 
 design and probable occupancy has been considered is that 
 of heating. It should be definitely determined that all por- 
 tions of the building will be heated to about 40 6tg. F. dur- 
 ing the winter. Unfortunately water will freeze at 32 deg. F. 
 even when in pipes, a condition that some of those planning 
 equipments must realize if a wet-pipe system of sprinklers is 
 under consideration. 
 
 The latter system is preferable for the following reasons: It 
 costs less to install and to maintain and results in a slightly 
 greater reduction in insurance rates. By way of illustration: 
 A complete wet-pipe system of 1,000 sprinklers including 
 tanks and alarm service will cost about $5,000, maintenance 
 cost about $300 per annum, insurance reduction approximately 
 60 to 75 per cent., depending upon the grading of the equip- 
 ment. The same equipment, but dry-pipe system, including 
 tanks and alarm service, will cost approximately $16,000, 
 maintenance cost about $450 per annum, insurance reduction 
 approximately 50 to 60 per cent., depending upon grading of 
 the equipment. It may also be said that the dry-pipe system, 
 being under the control of one or more automatic valves un- 
 der constantly maintained air pressure of forty pounds in the 
 pipe system, is somewhat complicated and with its auxilary 
 attachments calls for much more care than the wet system. 
 — E. P. Boone. Author's Note: The figures given above are 
 pre-war figures. See Alarm, Central Station, Coal Shortage, 
 Curtain Boards, Dry Pipe Sprinklers, Dead Riser, Gate Valve, 
 Gravity Supply, Hoops, Live Riser, Open Sprinklers, Pres-" 
 sure. Sprinkler and Heating System, Sypho-chemical Sprink- 
 lers, Tables, Valves, Staggered, Tell-tales. 
 
.' » SPRINKLERS oa^iaWl 419 
 
 SPRINKLERS are made to fuse as follows: 
 
 Without color except that of its composition, 160 deg. F. 
 
 Black-corro-proof to prevent corrosion, 160 deg. F. 
 
 White color, 212 deg. F. Blue, 286 deg. F. Red, 360 deg. F. 
 
 SPRINKLERS, QUESTIONABLE OCCUPANCIES— 
 Automatic sprinklers in the following occupancies may not be 
 expected to control a fire if it has a good start owing to the 
 construction, processes involved, and the hazardous mate- 
 rials: Celluloid workers, cereal mills, cooperage plants, cork 
 factories, cotton warehouses, grain elevators, flour mills, fur- 
 niture factories, match factories, oilcloth works, rubber 
 works, saw mills, starch factories, varnish works, window- 
 shade factories, rough woodworking and sugar refineries. 
 
 y^^^BBBI^^8HPJ. 
 
 
 IMw 
 
 ■ \ 
 
 Auluinatic Sprinkler Head in Operation. 
 
 aluminum powder factories, chemical risks using substances 
 which might explode or ignite from the application of water, 
 such as sodium. It can be readily seen that fires of a flash 
 nature which inight be expected in many of the above lines» 
 or those where dust explosions are immirrent, could spread 
 a fire throughout an entire floor before sufficient heat would 
 be confined in one place to operate a sprinkler head, or which 
 might disrupt the sprinkler system. 
 
420; INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 SPRINKLERED RISKS IN ZERO WEATHER— Where 
 
 sprinkler equipment has been drained or is known to be 
 frozen, the following precautions should be exercised 
 in placing the equipment in commission in order to avoid 
 water damage and prolonged interruption of protection. 
 
 In order to prevent unnecessary annoyance and delay, it 
 is suggested the making of repairs be left with the company 
 that installed the equipment. 
 
 Have equipment examined by competent party, pipe system 
 including filling and steam pipes for tanks tested for ice and 
 leaks, and repairs effected where necessary. 
 
 Open all drain valves and remove plugs at low points to 
 insure the pipe system being properly drained. 
 
 Close all controlling valves and fill tanks slowly one at a 
 time. 
 
 Turn water slowly into system one floor at a time, after 
 having closed all drain valves and replaced plugs at low 
 points. 
 
 The following day if no leaks develop, place air on pres- 
 sure tanks and notify central station company where such 
 service obtains to restore alarm service. 
 
 Note. — The above precautions apply to both wet and dry 
 pipe sprinkler systems. 
 
 Where sprinklers are in a pendant position it may be neces- 
 sary to remove each sprinkler so located in order to test for 
 ice, and in doing this extra care must be exercised not to in- 
 jure the sprinklers. Those injured must be replaced with 
 new sprinklers before placing equipment in commission. (N. 
 Y. Fire Ins. Exchange.) 
 
 Upon the approach of winter, test all post indicator valves 
 for proper drainage to prevent freezing. Open all valves that 
 should be opened and ascertain if all pipes are free from 
 sediment and ready for instant use. Box in and pack all ex- 
 posed piping, both water and steam, the latter so that there 
 will be sufficient heat for building and for tank coils. Have 
 extra sprinkler heads on hand for emergency. 
 
 Sprinklers (Dry-Pipe) should be controlled all year on 
 approved dry-pipe valves rather than being "wet system" 
 for eight months and "dry system" for four months. In 
 
SPRINKLER LEAKAGE 421 
 
 changing from a dry system to a wet system there is an in- 
 creased amount of sediment deposited in the pipes. The 
 pipes are not always drained when cold Weather sets in, and 
 the dry valve is not always properly adjusted. All pipes 
 should be pitched to properly drain so that water could not 
 collect in them and freeze. 
 
 Cold Weather Lines, i. e., branch lines in driveways, halU 
 ways, elevator shafts, coal holes and other unheated portions 
 which arc shut off during winter should be thoroughly ex- 
 amined in the spring to detect frozen or bursted pipes and 
 imperfect valves. Upon the approach of warm weather the 
 valves should be kept open. 
 
 SPRINKLER EQUIPMENT ON VESSELS— Statistics 
 furnished by shipowners show that approximately 20 per cent, 
 of the ocean travel hazard is caused by fire or explosion. A 
 large percentage of these losses could be overcome by the 
 installation of an adequate automatic fire-fighting system. 
 Sec Fires at Sea; also Ship Fire Prevention. 
 
 SPRINKLER FAILURES are due to allowing steam pres- 
 sure to run down below minimum pressure over Sundays 
 and holidays, inadequate electric power to drive fire pumps, 
 shutting off water and then delaying repair work. Notify the 
 insurance company when it is necessary to shut off water. 
 When extensive repairs are necessary, provide additional fire 
 pails, bcse and watchmen. Put red tag (as used by Factory 
 Mutuals) on closed valves. 
 
 Fires quite often occur in unsprinklered portions, even 
 those parts where it seems impossible for a fire to originate, 
 or just after the equipment has been shut off or before its 
 installation is complete. 
 
 SPRINKLER LEAKAGE is protection against loss or 
 damage due to accidental discharge of water from the sprink- 
 ler system or tanks supplying same (including accident 
 caused by freezing). Does not protect against loss due to 
 discharge of water when fire occurs nor for collapse of 
 building unless the latter is caused by accidental leakage of 
 water from automatic sprinkler system or the tanks supply- 
 ing it. Penalties are imposed in rating for absence of floor 
 control valves, lack of proper watchman service and (or) 
 
422 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 alarm service, wood tanks on wood trestle, tanks with flat 
 hoops, concealed spaces and furring. 
 
 Sprinkler leakage.- "It is claimed from experience that about 
 50 per cent, of the losses are caused by the sprinkler head 
 itself, 30 per cent, of the losses being attributed to piping, 
 including freeze-ups, and the remaining 20 per cent, arise 
 frorft the occasional, but very severe losses which occur in 
 connection with the collapse of the tanks or the eruption of 
 a header or equivalent full volume of water supply. The main 
 thing is "what device have they on system to notify those in 
 charge in case of a break in order to shut off the supply?" 
 (N. F. P. A. Vol. 10, 1916.) 
 
 Sprinkler Leakage — Some of the causes of tank collapse, 
 preciptations and leakage for which the inspector should 
 constantly look, are as follows: 
 
 1. Freezing; excessive pressure, settlement of tanks On 
 risers, belts unguarded, near pipes; wearing out of packing 
 on valves; defective castings; overloading floors; light cast- 
 ings and heavy pressure; neglect to drain and put on dry 
 pipe valves; alternating systems in exposed places during 
 winter months, which, if undiscovered, would result in the 
 bursting of pipes. 
 
 2. Sun's rays through skylight; pendant heads on dry sys- 
 tems in extremely cold climates from condensation of moist- 
 ure; extraordinary heat and low-degree heads; belts un- 
 guarded near heads; chemical action on pipes and heads; 
 disintegration of fusing material on old heads; carelessness 
 of employees handling stock, hanging or leaning things on 
 or against pipes; leaving open in cold weather windows, 
 doors, ventilators, hatchways, monitors and other openings, 
 which, if undiscovered, would result in the discharge of 
 heads. 
 
 3. Use of timber, which, if exposed, is unduly subject to 
 rot; filling tanks before concrete or masonry is thoroughly 
 dried to the core; neglect of tanks and supports, resulting in 
 rot, rust, corrosion and decay; defects in casting or rolling of 
 metal supports; constant vibration or jarring of building; in- 
 adequate supports; inadequate size of bearing plates under 
 tank supports; crumbling of cement or mortar; flat hoops; 
 
SPRINKLER RULES OF N. F. P. A. 423 
 
 faulty construction; heating water in tanks to too high tem- 
 perature; using old buildings without consulting architects 
 as to carrying strength and builders as to condition of build- 
 ing; overloading floors, which if undiscovered would result 
 in the collapse of tanks. 
 
 4. Carelessness in maintenance of system (uninstructed em- 
 ployees, especially new ones; alarms out of order; no alarms 
 on system); watchman not visiting all parts of plant; con- 
 cealed spaces in which sprinklers are located not known or 
 indicated in some manner, which, if undiscovered, would re- 
 sult in excessive losses.— Thos. M. Donaldson in "Weekly 
 Underwriter." 
 
 SPRINKLER AND HEATING (COMBINATION) SYS- 
 TEMS — The most interestin'g feature of this system is the 
 method used for preventing the operation of the sprinkler 
 heads from the heat of the water. The hot water has an 
 average temperature of 180-200 deg. F. The maximum tem- 
 perature used being about 245 deg. F. The melting point 
 of ordinary sprinklers is 160 deg. F. In order to prevent the 
 overheating of the sprinklers, they are placed on short off- 
 sets in which the water does not circulate. At first straight 
 off-sets were used, but at present a curved pipe ^-inch 
 diameter and 18 to 20 inches long is used. — Gorham Dana. 
 
 SPRINKLERS, OPEN TYPE— These are used to protect 
 the windows facing serious exposures and are not automatic 
 in action (having no seal at the valve outlet). They depend 
 upon human hands to operate a valve at the base of the 
 riser through which water is conveyed to the sprinkler heads. 
 They are also used at eaves and cornices and are sometimes 
 called eave and cornice-sprinklers. 
 
 SPRINKLER RULES OF THE N. F. P. A.— Clear Space 
 Below Sprinklers — Full effective action of sprinklers requires 
 about 24 inches wholly clear space below the sprinklers, so 
 that they may form an unbroken spray blanket from sprink- 
 ler to sprinkler and sides of room. Any stock piles, racks 
 or other obstructions interfering with such action are not 
 permissible. Sprinkler piping should not be used for the 
 support of stock, clothing, etc. 
 
 Position of Sprinkler — Shall be located in an upright po- 
 
424 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 sition. When construction or occupancy of a room or en- 
 closure makes it preferable, permission may be given, except 
 on dry-pipe systems, to locate sprinklers in a pendant posi- 
 tion. 
 
 Position of Deflectors — Sprinkler deflectors shall be par- 
 allel to ceilings, roofs or the incline of stairs, but when in- 
 stalled in the peak of a pitched roof they shall be horizontal. 
 Distance of deflectors from ceilings of mill or other smooth 
 construction, or bottom of joists of open joist construction, 
 shall be not less than 3 inches nor more than 10 inches; 6 to 
 8 inches is the best distance with average pressure and pres- 
 ent types of sprinklers. Note particularly that the rule for 
 distance refers to the deflector of the sprinkler. 
 
 In the case of fire-resistive buildings, the distance between 
 deflectors and ceilings may be increased where conditions 
 warrant; i. e., under panel ceilings. In semi-mill or other 
 unusual construction, consult the inspection department hav- 
 ing jurisdiction. 
 
 Detailed Locations — Sprinklers shall be placed throughout 
 premises, including basement and lofts, under stairs, inside 
 elevator wells, in belt, cable, pipe, gear and pulley boxes 
 inside small enclosures such as drying and heating boxes, 
 tenter and dry-room enclosures, chutes, conveyor trunks and 
 all cupboards and closets unless they have tops entirely open, 
 and are so located that sprinklers can properly spray therein. 
 Sprinklers are not to be omitted in any room merely be- 
 cause it is damp wet or of fire-resistive construction. 
 
 Spacing of Automatic Sprinklers — Distance from Walls — 
 The distance from wall or partition to first sprinkler shall not 
 exceed one half the allowable distance between sprinklers 
 in the same direction. Additional sprinklers may also be 
 required in the narrow pockets formed by bay timbers or 
 beams and wall. 
 
 Partitions — A line of sprinklers should be run on each side 
 of partition. Cutting holes through a partition to allow 
 sprinklers on one side thereof to distribute water to the other 
 side is not effectual. This rule applies to both solid and slat- 
 ted partitions. 
 
 Where no inflammable material is stored close to the ceil- 
 
SPRINKLER RULES OF N. P. P. A. 42S 
 
 ing, the inspection department having jurisdiction may waive 
 the requirement for providing extra sprinklers in narrow- 
 pockets formed by beams and partitions where the construc- 
 tion is entirely fire-resistive, including the partitions. 
 
 MILL CONSTRUCTION— Under mill ceiling (smooth 
 solid plank and timber construction, ^5 to 12-foot bays) one 
 line of sprinklers should be placed in center of each bay and 
 distance between the sprinklers on each line should not exceed 
 the following: 
 
 8 feet in 12 foot bays. 
 
 9 feet in 11 foot bays. 
 
 10 feet in 10 foot bays. 
 
 11 feet in 9 foot bays 
 
 12 feet in 5 to 8 foot bays. 
 
 Measurements should be taken from center to center of tim- 
 bers. 
 
 Ceilings of modified mill construction having bays less than 
 three feet should be treated as open joist construction and 
 sprinkler heads spaced accordingly. ' 
 
 Bay timbers spaced three feet or more on centers but 
 less than five feet on centers, will require special ruling by 
 the inspection department having jurisdiction. 
 
 JOISTED CONSTRUCTION— Under open finish joisted 
 construction, ceilings, floors, decks and roofs, the lines shall 
 be run at right angles to the joists and the sprinklers "stag- 
 gered spaced," so that heads will be opposite a point half 
 way between sprinklers on adjacent lines and the distance 
 between sprinklers not exceeding 8 feet at right angles to 
 the joists or 10 feet parallel with joists; the end heads on 
 alternate lines being not more than 2 feet from wall or 
 partition. 
 
 Exception — An exception may be made to this rule if the 
 conditions warrant, viz., special permission may be given to 
 install but one line of sprinklers in bays 10 to 11^ feet wide 
 from center to center of the timbers which support the 
 joists. In all cases where such bays are over 11^ feet wide, 
 two or more lines of sprinklers should be installed in each 
 bay as required by the rules for spacing. Where permission 
 
.;4a6 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 is given, the sprinklers should be placed closer together on 
 a line so that in no case will the area covered by a single 
 sprinkler exceed 80 square feet. 
 
 Smooth Finish, Sheathed or Plastered Ceilings — Under 
 smooth finish, sheathed or plastered ceilings, in bays 6 to 12 
 feet wide (measurement to be taken from center to center of 
 timber girder or other projection or support forming the 
 bay), one line of sprinklers shall be placed in center of each 
 bay, and distance between the sprinklers on each line should 
 not exceed the following: 8 feet in 12 foot bays; 9 feet in 11 
 foot bays; 10 feet in 6 to 10 foot bays. Bays in excess of 
 12 feet in width and less than 23 feet in width should con- 
 tain at least two lines of sprinklers; bays 23 feet in width or 
 over should have the lines therein not over 10 feet apart. In 
 bays in excess of 12 feet in width not more than 100 square 
 feet ceiling area should be alloted to any one sprinkler. 
 
 Pitched Roofs — Under a pitched roof sloping more steeply 
 than 1 foot in 3, sprinklers shall be located in peak of roof, 
 and those on either side of peak spaced according to above 
 requirements. Distance between sprinklers should be meas- 
 ured on a line parallel with roof. Where the roof meets the 
 floor line, sprinklers should be placed not over 3^ feet from 
 where roof timbers meet floor. 
 
 Sprinklers not more than 2^ feet distant each way from 
 peak of roof, measured on a line with the roof, may be 
 used in lieu of sprinklers located in peak of roof as above. 
 
 In sawtooth roof the end sprinklers on the branch line 
 shall not be over 2^/2 feet from the peak of the sawtooth. 
 
 FIRE-RESISTIVE CONSTRUCTION — The rules for 
 slow-burning construction should apply as far as practicable. 
 The rule may be modified, however, the intent being to ar- 
 range the spacing of sprinklers to protect the contents rather 
 than the ceilings; but in no case shall the distance of a sprink- 
 ler on a line exceed 12 feet to a sprinkler on an adjoining 
 line. 
 
 PIPE SIZES — General Schedule — In no case should the 
 number of sprinklers on a given size pipe on one floor of 
 one fire section exceed the following: 
 
ri/»r: 
 
 Size of Maximum No. of 
 
 Pipe. Sprinklers Allowed. 
 
 ^-inch 1 sprinkler 
 
 1 " 2 sprinklers 
 
 UA " ..!!..!!!!..!!..!!!*'*'!'*'!***!!! ■^'^' ' ' 
 
 2 " ,....,^,,.,,.,, 10 
 
 2^ " :?^:'.?''^;-^... 20 
 
 3 " .....;wvT,,yjM;iiv. 36 
 
 4 " .v'^J.vv..j*::v;J..;>w^:*;.'i.;v..:v>a 80 
 
 5 *' ...?i. J: :....,....;'. .^;f^,;. 140 *\ 
 
 6 " ............ -^...^ ....7^.^. .200 
 
 Where practicable, it is desirable to arrange the piping so 
 that the number of sprinklers on a branch line will not exceed 
 eight. 
 
 FEED MAINS AND RISERS— Location of Risers-^^ 
 "Center central" or "side central" feed to sprinklers is 
 recommended. The former is preferred, especially where 
 there are over six sprinklers on a branch line. In high build- 
 ings, allowance must be made for frictional loss and sizes of 
 risers increased accordingly. Risers should not be located 
 close to windows, and should be properly protected from 
 mechanical injury or a possible freezing. ., .^tfii>,oinf 
 
 Pressure Gauges — A standard make, 45^-inch dial, spring 
 pressure gauge shall be connected with the discharge pipe 
 from each water supply, including each connecting pipe from 
 public waterworks, and also as follows: 
 
 In each sprinkler system above and below the alarm check 
 or dry-pipe valve. 
 
 At the air pump supplying the pressure tank. 
 
 In each independent pipe from air supply to dry-pipe sys-, 
 tems. 
 
 Use of High Degree or Hard Sprinklers — High degree 
 sprinklers should be used only when absolutely necessary 
 and Inspection Department having jursdictibn should be con- 
 sulted in each instance. When used, the following table 
 should be referred to: 
 
81* 
 
 139 
 
 19 
 
 
 
 
 . 158 
 
 1* 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 ■ 
 
 7 
 
 
 31 
 
 5 
 
 27 
 
 9 
 
 .. . 
 
 . 36 
 
 2* 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 31 
 
 3 
 
 
 •• 
 
 34 . 
 2 . 
 
 . 34 
 2 
 
 42S • INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 For ceiling temperature exceeding 100 degrees but not 150 
 degrees, install 212 degree heads. 
 
 For ceiling temperatures exceeding 150 degrees but not 225 
 degrees, install 286 degree heads. 
 
 For ceiling temperatures in excess of 225 degrees, install 
 360 degree heads. 
 
 SPRINKLER FIRE TABLES 
 
 Sprinkler Thermo- Super- 
 Watchman. Alarm. stat. visory. TotaL 
 Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- 
 fact'y. ure. fact'y ure. fact'y. ure. fact'y. ure. 
 Watchman & Sp'kler Al'm 77 
 Watchfnan & Thermostats. 6 
 Sprinkler Alarm & Thermo. .. 
 Watchman, Sprinkler Alarm 
 
 & Thermostats 1 
 
 Spr'kler Alarm & Sup'vis'y . . 
 Watchman & Supervisory. 2 
 Watchman, Sprinkler Alarm 
 
 & Supervisory 8 9* 16 1 .. .. 17 .. 17 
 
 Sprinkler Alarm, Thermo- 
 stats & Supervisory 5 1 5 1 6.. 6 
 
 Efficiency of Alarm Service, 1897-1916, Inclusive. 
 
 Satisfactory. Failure. Total. 
 
 No. of Per No. of Per 
 
 Fires. Cent. Fires. Cent. 
 
 Watchman alone 1383 89.5 162 10.5 1545 
 
 Sprinkler alarm alone 1460 93.6 100 6.4 1560 
 
 Thermostats alone 170 78.7 46 21.3 216 
 
 Sprinkler Thermo- Super- 
 Watchman. Alarm. stat. visory. Total. 
 Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- Satis- Fail- 
 fact'y. ure. fact'y ure. fact'y. ure. fact'y. ure. 
 
 Watchman & Sp'kler Al'm.1008 631* 1439 200 1639 
 
 Watchman & Thermostats 19 6* .. .. 23 2 .... 25 
 
 Sprinkler Alarm & Therm 439 35 361 113 .. .. 474 
 
 Watchman, Sprinkler Alarm 
 
 & Thermostats 35' 55* 83 7 70 20 .. .. 90 
 
 Watchman & Supervisory. 4 4* .. 8 .. 8 
 
 Spr'kler Alarm & Sup'vis'y .... 147 7 .. ..150 4 154 
 Watchman, Sprinkler Alarm 
 
 & Supervisory 47 54* 100 1 .. .. 100 1 101 
 
 Sprinkler Alarm, Thermo- 
 
 stats & Supervisory .. 26 1 22 5 27 .. 27 
 
 *These include fires where sprinkler alarm or thermostats notified the 
 watchman. 
 
 Note. — These tables do not include fires where alarm service does or 
 does not operate promptly if fire is at once discovered by employee, the 
 alarm service having no bearing on such fires one way or the other. 
 
SPRINKLER FIRE TABLES 429 
 
 Table No. 4 
 Number of Sprinklers Operating. 
 
 No. of Sprinklers No. of Fires Per Cent of Whole 
 
 Operating 1915-1916 1897-1916 Inc. 1915-1916 1897-1916 Inc. 
 
 1 450 5314 34.6 31.1 
 
 2 226 2797 17.4 16.4 
 
 3 149 1761 11.5 • 10.3 
 
 4 86 1262 ^J^ 7.4 
 
 5 57 815 4.4 4.8 
 
 6 49 695 3.8 4.1 
 
 7 26 445 2.0 2.6 
 
 8 30 440 2.3 2.6 
 
 9 20 294 1.5 1.7 
 
 10 9 260 .7 1.5 
 
 11 12 226 .9 1.3 
 
 12 16 245 1.2 1.4 
 
 13 7 140 .5 .8 
 
 14 15 170 1.2 1.0 
 
 15 8 132 .6 .8 
 
 16 to 20, 29 460 2.3 2.7 
 
 21 to 25. 28 306 2.2 1.8 
 
 26 to 30 12 210 .9 1.2 
 
 31 to 35 15 133 1.2 .8 
 
 36 to 40 8 104 .6 .6 
 
 41 to 50. 12 155 .9 .9 
 
 51 to 75 17 212 1.3 1.2 
 
 76 to 100 10 104 .8 .6 
 
 Over 100 .... 8 413 .6 2.4 
 
 Total with 
 
 data given. 1299 17093 
 Water shut 
 
 off sprinklers 19 178 
 No data .... 22 262 
 
 Total.... 1340 17533 
 
INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Table No. 5 
 
 Number of Sprinklers Operating. 
 
 No. of Sprinklers No. of Fires Per Cent of Whole 
 
 1897-1916 Inc. 1897-1916 Inc. 
 
 1 *. 5314 31.1 
 
 2 or less 8111 47.5 
 
 3 or less 9872 57.8 
 
 4 or less 11134 65.2 
 
 f 5 or less 11949 70.0 
 
 "6 or less 12644 74.1 
 
 7 or less 13089 1(^:1 
 
 8 or less 13529 79.3 
 
 9 or less 13823 81.0 
 
 10 or less 14083 82.5 ;' 
 
 11 or less 14309 83.8 \ 
 
 |:12 or less 14554 85.2 '\ 
 
 13 or less 14694 86.0 
 
 14 or less 14864 87.0 
 
 15 or less 14996 87.8 
 
 20 or less 15456 90.5 
 
 25 or less 15762 92.3 
 
 30 or less 15972 93.5 
 
 35 or less 16105 94.3 
 
 40 or less 16209 94.9 
 
 50 or less 16364 95.8 
 
 75 or less 16576 97.0 
 
 100 or less 16680 . 97.6 
 
 Over 100 413 fUr,V2,4UJo-l 
 
 Total with data given 17093 
 
 Water shut off sprinklers 178 
 
 No data 262 
 
 Total 17533 
 
SPRINKLER FIRE TABLES 
 
 Table No. 6 
 
 Sprinklers Opened on Wet or Dry Systems. 
 
 Per Cent of No. 
 No. of Fires No. of Fires with Data Given 
 
 1915-1916 1S971916, Inc. 1915-1916 1897-1916 Inc. 
 
 Wet system 1046 12236 79.3 80.2 
 
 Dry system :. 272 3016 20.7 19.8 
 
 Total with data 
 
 given 1318 15252 ^rme iaoi 
 
 Water shut off n:\AiK.ir) 
 
 system 19 178 
 
 No data 3 279 
 
 Total 1340 . .15709 
 
 Table No. 7 
 
 Primary Water Supplies to Sprinklers Opened. 
 
 Per Cent of No. 
 No; of Fires No. of Fires with Data Given' 
 
 1915-1916 1897-1916. Inc. 1915-1916 1897-1916, Inc. 
 
 Waterworks .... 707 
 Gravity Tank .... 270 
 Pressure Tank .. 252 
 Auto. Steam Pump 85 
 Auto. Elec. Pump 
 Steamer Connectiion 
 
 7809 
 
 53.8 
 
 51.5 
 
 4196 
 
 20.5 
 
 27.5 
 
 2353 
 
 19.2 
 
 15.4 
 
 867 
 
 6.5 
 
 5.55 
 
 4 
 
 
 .029 
 
 3 
 
 
 .021 
 
 Total with data 
 
 given 1314 15232 
 
 Water shut off 
 
 system 19 178 
 
 No data 7 309 
 
 Total 1340 15719 
 
43? 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Table No. 8 
 
 Effect of Sprinklers. 
 
 Practically or entirely 
 
 extinguished fire . 
 
 Held fire in check.. 
 
 Total successful 
 
 Unsatisfactory 51 
 
 Total 1340 
 
 No. of 
 
 Fires 
 
 1915-1916 
 
 No. of 
 
 Fires 
 
 1897-1916, 
 
 Inc. 
 
 Percent, of No. 
 with Data Given 
 1915-1916 1897-1916, 
 Inc. 
 
 984 
 
 11310 
 
 73.43 64.51 
 
 305 
 
 5410 
 
 22.76 30.84 
 
 1289 
 
 16720 
 
 96.19 95.35 
 
 51 
 
 813 
 
 3.81 4.65 
 
 17533 
 
 Table No. 9 
 
 Showing Effect of Sprinklers by Class of Occupancy. 
 
 Held Fire 
 Extinguished in 
 
 Fire. Check. 
 
 No. % No. % 
 
 Agricultural Implements 42 59.2 26 36.6 
 
 Auto. & Bicycle Fact's 53 59.5 31 34.9 
 
 Awning Factories 5 100.0 
 
 Bag Factories 4 57.2 3 42.8 
 
 Bakeries 27 67.5 11 27.5 
 
 Basket Factories 7 100.0 
 
 B't, N't & Screw Wks. 11 73.3 4 26.7 
 
 Boot and Shoe Shops.. 371 74.7 107 21.5 
 
 Bottling Works 4 100.0 
 
 Braiding Mills 4 80.0 1 20.0 
 
 Breweries 5 83.4 1 16.6 
 
 Broom Factories 8 61.5 3 23.1 
 
 Brush Factories 8 80.0 2 20.0 
 
 Button Manufactories . 15 88.3 2 11.7 
 
 Candle Factories 4 66.7 2 33.3 
 
 Candy Factories 49 74.3 16 24.3 
 
 Canning Works 7 70.0 2 20.0 
 
 Car Houses 19 47.5 16 40.0 
 
 Car Works 52 65.8 25 31.7 
 
 Carpet Mills 102 57.7 66 37.3 
 
 Carriage Factories .... 81 66.4 34 27.9 
 
 Cel'u'd (PyroxylinPl's'c, 77 66.3 23 19.8 
 
 Cement & Plaster Wks. 2 66.7 
 
 Cereal Mills 25 67.6 8 21.6 
 
 Chemical & W'te Lead. 32 56.1 21 36.9 
 
 Clothing Factories .... 344 78.8 85 19.5 
 
 Total Total 
 
 Satis- Unsatis- No. of 
 
 factory. factory. Fires 
 
 No. % No. % 
 
 68 
 
 95.8 
 
 3 
 
 4.2 
 
 71 
 
 84 
 
 94.4 
 
 5 
 
 5.6 
 
 89 
 
 5 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 , , 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 38 
 
 95.0 
 
 
 5.0 
 
 40 
 
 7 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 , , 
 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 478 
 
 96.2 
 
 19 
 
 3.8 
 
 497 
 
 4 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 , , 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 n 
 
 84.6 
 
 2 
 
 15.4 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 17 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 17 
 
 6 
 
 100.0 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 65 
 
 98.6 
 
 1 
 
 1.4 
 
 66 
 
 9 
 
 90.0 
 
 1 
 
 10.0 
 
 10 
 
 35 
 
 87.5 
 
 5 
 
 12.5 
 
 40 
 
 77 
 
 97.5 
 
 2 
 
 2.5 
 
 79 
 
 168 
 
 95.0 
 
 9 
 
 5.0 
 
 177 
 
 115 
 
 94.3 
 
 7 
 
 5.7 
 
 122 
 
 100 
 
 86.1 
 
 16 
 
 13.9 
 
 116 
 
 2 
 
 66.7 
 
 1 
 
 33.3 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 89.2 
 
 4 
 
 10.8 
 
 37 
 
 51 
 
 93.0 
 
 4 
 
 7.0 
 
 57 
 
 429 
 
 98.3 
 
 7 
 
 1.7 
 
 436 
 
SPRINKLER SUPERVISORY SYSTEM 
 
 Coflfee and Spice Mills. 34 72.3 13 27.7 47 100.0 
 
 Coffin Factories 32 80.0 7 17.5 39 97.5 
 
 Cold Storage Plants.... 3 50.0 3 50.0 6 100.0 
 
 Co6perage Plants 41 55.4 25 33.8 66 89.2 
 
 Cordage Works 173 66.3 79 30.3 252 96.6 
 
 Cork Factories 6 50.0 4 33.3 10 83.3 
 
 Corset Factories 4 57.2 2 28.6 6 85.8 
 
 Cotton Ginnery 10 66.7 5 33.3 15 100.0 
 
 Cotton Mills 2808 60.7 1763 38.2 4571 98.9 
 
 Cotton Warehouses ... 86 43.2 92 46.2 178 89.4 
 
 Cotton Seed Oil Mills.. 36 53.8 21 31.3 57 85.1 
 
 Cutlery and Hardware. 7 53.8 5 38.5 12 92.3 
 
 Department Stores .... 256 79.6 65 17.0 311 96.6 
 
 2.6 
 
 47' 
 
 40 
 6 
 
 8 10.8 74 
 
 9 3.4 261 
 2 16.7 
 1 14.2 
 
 12 
 7 
 
 15 
 
 52 1.1 4623 
 21 10.6 199 
 
 10 14.9 67 
 1 7.7 13 
 
 11 3.4 322 
 
 SPRINKLER SUPERVISORY SYSTEM— "Weekly Un- 
 derwriter." 1. No gate valve in the sprinkler system can be 
 closed, wholly or in part, without immediate notice to the 
 outside central office. 
 
 2. The presence of water leakage equal to the discharge 
 of one or more sprinkler heads is instantly recorded at the 
 Central Station and from there, if necessary, to the fire de- 
 partment. 
 
 3. Thus the operation of a sprinkler head, or the pulling of 
 a manual fire alarm box, that is included in this equipment, 
 assures at the earliest possible moment notice to the fire 
 department of the presence of a fire and brings immediately 
 the most important auxiliaries to the aid of the sprinklers. 
 
 4. Not more than six inches of water can drop in any 
 of the sprinkler tanks without immediate notice to central 
 office. 
 
 5. The water in any exposed tank can neither freeze nor 
 become dangerously warm without instant signal to the cen- 
 tral station. 
 
 6. There cannot be a drop of more than five pounds of 
 pressure in either the pressure tanks or fire pumps without 
 immediate notice to Central Office. 
 
 In short, no defect or disorder in the sprinkler system can 
 occur without due notice to the district office. 
 
 SPRINKLER VALVES (Closed) have resulted in total 
 losses even in risks with 100 per cent, equipments. A closed 
 valve prevents water from reaching the seat of fire. Fre- 
 quent causes of closed valves are repair work to system and 
 then forgetting to turn water on, cutting off mains or sup- 
 plies which are subject to freezing. If it is necessary to 
 
'6M 
 
 r-jntPGRAmy tahk hoat 
 
 2 WATER LEVEL 
 S THERMOMETER 
 AO\JERELOW ' 
 
 5 GATE VALUE SWITCH 
 
 6 PRESSURE SWITCH 
 
 7 AIR PRESSURE r- 
 S: WATER LEVEL /^r %i 
 9 PRESSURE ELOAT r:;. . 
 
 10 PRESSURE TAttK '' . 
 
 11 GATE VALVE SWITCH' 
 
 12 conbuiT 
 
 \3 JUhCTIOM BOX 
 
 14 VALVE-ALARM SWITCH, 
 
 \S GATE VALVE 3wiTCH - " ^' 
 
 16 HIGH SLOW PRESSURESWlTOi : 
 
 \7 C0/1DUIT ,^.,,,j- ^,^. 
 
 \Q SUPERVISORY S^T. 
 
 19 mi RETARD VALVE-ALARM BOX 
 
 20 DRY VALVE SWITCH 
 
 21 GATE VALVE SWITCH 
 
 22 AIR VALVE 
 
 23 JUHCTIOM BOXES 
 
 24 BATTERY BOX 
 
 25 GROUHD LEVEL 
 
 26 POST IHDICATOR GATE VALVE SiVITCH 
 
 27 DOUBLE COMDUIT 
 2BCITY MAIH '^ "^'^f' 
 2SDRAmPIPE'' sTJnmf h«n gtB 
 30 PRESSURE GAUGE SWITCH 
 
 3\ GATE VALVE SWITCH 
 S2 COMDUIT 
 
 33 GATE VALVE SWITCH 
 
 34 5r/?/^Ai 5(/;'Piy 
 
 55 QROUMD LEVEL 
 
 ogivxa^us 
 
 nOTf:6AT£ VALV£ TOBESUPmiSfD WH£I^E 
 FUHPTAKE5 supply UnDtRCOhSrm HEAD 
 
'U\r, J5 326]^ 
 
 SupervisorYahd Valve-Alarm Servic!?^'^^^ ^^^^^'^p 
 
 DlAORAMATIC DRAWING " " ' "; ' " ' '^ ;i ' ' ' ' ' /^ \ 
 
 Typical Sprinklered Risk. ' ^ ' 
 
 H2 
 
 •-'-. r tip ft 
 
 THISmOM OHYPmSYSTEM 
 dALA/fC£ Of SYSTEM W£T. 
 
 
 
 
436 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 close a valve, station a man at the valve to turn it on in 
 case of fire. 
 
 STABLES (horses)— It is important that the location 
 and number of horses be fully brought out in an inspection 
 report of a stable risk, also whether the runway is straight 
 or winding and leads directly to the street or whether it may 
 be blocked at night by wagons. The fire record proves that 
 you may count on a total loss in almost all cases where the 
 animals are above or below the grade floor, unless the exits 
 and runways are standard. A horse cannot be led from a 
 burning building until his eyes are blindfolded. 
 
 Oat Crushers — Should have magnet attachments so that 
 nails and other foreign metallic substances will not pass 
 through the roller and cause sparks to ignite the dust. 
 
 Stable Lanterns — Whenever gas lights are used in stables, 
 the jets should be protected with glass enclosed lanterns 
 which prevents the hay and straw from coming in contact 
 with the naked flame. Kerosene lanterns should not be per- 
 mitted. Electricity is the best method of lighting. 
 
 Private Family Stable — This is perhaps the best that can 
 be had and is one used exclusively by one family for housing 
 of horses and pleasure vehicles. Usually the upper portion 
 of the building is occupied for dwellings by the coachmen, 
 but may be a hay loft containing rubbish. 
 
 Private Business Stable — This is one where the occupancy 
 is that of a single tenant housing horses and business vehicles 
 and run as part of or in conjunction with some regular busi- 
 ness. This class would include stables run in conjunction 
 with retail stores, breweries, dairies and large merchants. 
 These are usually desirable as the conditions present are in 
 most cases better than the ordinary stable because more at* 
 tention is paid to care and maintenance. 
 
 Boarding Stables — These are comjnonly used by individ- j 
 uals or merchants for the boarding of their horses, carriage^ n 
 and wagons. In other words, the proprietor reaps a profit ^^ 
 for assuming this care. 
 
 Livery Stables — In these stables, horses, carriages and 
 wagons are kept for renting to others, and quite often they 
 are run in connection with boarding stables. While not so 
 
on ITmwaaci STABLES t, 437 
 
 desirable as a private business stable, they are good as sec- 
 ond choice. 
 
 Riding Academy — This is usually an adjunctr to^-ii/JivJ^ry 
 stable and consists of a large covered addition with tan-bark 
 floor for indoor riding. It can be placed in the same class 
 as a livery stable. 
 
 Express and Trucking Stables — While similar to a private 
 business stable, attention should be given to the kinds of mer- 
 chandise apt to be stored on the premises overnight. 
 
 Contractors* Stables— Private business in nature, but 
 usually filled with wooden forms and moulds, tools, machin* 
 ery, etc. 
 
 Sales Stables — At these stables, usually only horses are 
 kept and they are held for private sales or auctions. This 
 is one of the most carelessly kept classes, mainly because the 
 help employed is not of the best. The sporting trade and 
 representatives of buyers frequent these stables smoking, 
 etc. As a rule, there is not much interest in keeping these 
 stables clean, because the horses are kept for a short time 
 only. They are not so good as would be in a private busi- 
 ness or family stable. 
 
 Veterinary Stables — In these stables, horses are doctored 
 and treated for wounds, lameness, etc. The class can be 
 likened to hospitals, for in case of fire, many of the horses 
 will perish because some cannot be moved except with great 
 difficulty. In some cases it will be found that horses are 
 suspended from the ceiling by braces. — S. T. Skirrow in "The 
 Weekly Underwriter." 
 
 STACK — The brick chimney of a boiler or furnace. 
 
 STAGGERED — A term used in connection with spacing 
 of sprinkler heads; also casks of water on piers or foundry 
 roofs. Say casks of water on one side of pier are placed 
 every 100 feet. The next row should be placed so that the 
 casks will be opposite a point half-way between casks on 
 the opposite side. 
 
 STAGING the temporary flooring of scaffolds or plat- 
 forms. In fireproof buildings, especially theatres and 
 churches, this constitutes an extra hazard while the building 
 
438 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 is in course of construction because of the large amount 
 of light wood framing used in the interior. 
 
 STAIN REMOVERS— Sometimes contain inflammable 
 liquids. '^>'^ '^ '^'^ 
 
 STAIR-^A' ^6xed stairway is one that is enclosed without 
 a hallway, the enclosing material being fastened against 
 the under sid^ of the stairs and boxing in the sides. If 
 thefe is d s(ilf-cldsing door at the top of each stair-landing, 
 it is much better than a wood enclosed hallway. 
 
 A wood enclosed stairway is one with a continuous 
 shaft including the hallway. Fire in this class of shaft could 
 travel from the lower floor to the top of the building. Box- 
 ing is better. '.^tdi^j'ci 
 
 STAIRCASES of wood may be rendered pra'cticatlly fire- 
 resisting, if the spaces underneath the treads and risers and 
 between stringers, and also under the lower joists of land- 
 ing's are closed solid with mortar or other incombustible 
 material. See Shafts. 
 
 STAIR PADS — Usually made in mattress factories, and 
 th'e hazards are practically the same. A cheap grade of stock 
 is generally used. Some manufacturers buy up old cotton- 
 stufifed settees and upholstered furniture and use the stuff- 
 ing for the stair pads. Jute, moss and other fibres are used. 
 Hazards of pickers, "garnet''' machines, lappers, untidy prem- 
 ises, dust-laden atmospheres. A. K. O. class. 
 
 STAMP COLLECTIONS— Many single stamps are quitt 
 valuable, and a small collection of rare stamps reaches a large 
 sum. An expert is needed to determine values as minor de- 
 fects or flaws render an otherwise valuable stamp nearly 
 worthless. A class of insurance not usually solicited. 
 
 STAMPING— See Embroideries. 
 
 STANDPIPE — A water tower or a vertical water pipe with 
 hose connections for fire purposes. Those installed in new 
 'buildings should always bfe given a fire test. A recent test 
 in New York City showed many risers to be badly clogged. 
 A fire chief in New York City declared that carelessness and 
 lazy workrnen frequently throw bricks, dirt and cement into 
 the open riser rather than take the trouble of carting them 
 downstairs. The hose should be inspected occasionally, as 
 
STARCH 439 
 
 they have been found badly rotting close to the nozzle and 
 couplings. This is caused by the porters cleaning the brass- 
 work with polishing acids, and the seepage of water. Siam- 
 ese or fire department connections on the street become 
 clogged unless properly capped. They should be carefully 
 examined periodically as caps become rusted at the threads 
 or are stolen. On piers, or other similar places where many 
 outsiders have access, it is quite customary to remove the 
 brass nozzles so that they will not be stolen, or substitute 
 iron ones. As a ruse, some owners paint brass nozLles 
 black to resemble iron. See Siamese Connection. 
 STANFOIL is tinfoil made of pure tin. 
 STARCH is composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, 
 made from wheat, potatoes, corn, rice, etc. 
 
 All machinery such as pulverizers, grinders, attrition ma- 
 chines should be grounded to carry off static electricity gen- 
 erated by rapidly-moving machinery. All conveyor pipes 
 and ducts, elevator legs, should have dust collectors to pre- 
 vent dust explosions. Explosion boxes to vent and reduce 
 the force of explosion are necessary on legs and conveyors. 
 Fires occur in pressing and drying rooms where the drying 
 and pressing oil from "germ" (ground corn) takes place. 
 The germ left in dryer tank decomposes from the heat given 
 off, generating a gas which ignites. 
 
 Starch (as made from potatoes) — The potatoes are 
 washed in water in revolving tube and grated. The grater 
 is a cylindrical tube of iron, encased in wood, having per- 
 forated iron bands and rough side which, in revolving grates 
 the potatoes. The pulp passes over a moving screen upon 
 which water is played from hose streams. This forces the 
 pulp through the screen, the waste matter being shaken off. 
 The pulp travels through troughs to precipitating tanks» 
 where, after settling, the water is drawn off and the starch 
 placed in agitator vats. The mass is then dried by atmos- 
 phere on slatted wood floor and barrelled. 
 
 STARCH BUCK — A wood enclosed automatic machine 
 with an inner screen working back and forth, and a hopper 
 at one end for candy, and at the opposite end an opening 
 for the starch. This machine automatically separates the 
 
:3 
 
 p. 
 
 B 
 
 'U2 
 
STATIC ELECTRICITY 441' 
 
 Starch from the candy, cleans and delivers candy, refills and 
 delivers trays w^ith a minimum amount of dust, and is there- 
 fore recommended for factories making candies. See Candy 
 Factories. See Illustration. 
 
 STARTING BOX— A rheostat used for starting and coti-' 
 trolling motors. 
 
 STATIC OR FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY is more 
 liable to be generated v^^hen the atmosphere is clear and 
 dry than when it is moist. It is generated by the rubbing 
 together of substances that in themselves are non-conductors 
 of electricity (or one conductor and a non-conductor); such 
 as, dry wood or rubber. It may be generated by friction be- 
 tween a non-conductor and a conductor; such as, gasoline 
 and a metal pipe; although in the latter, the intensity is much 
 diminished. During the process of filling an automobile there 
 should be a good metallic disc connection between the stor- 
 age tank and the tank of the motor vehicle, so that all elec- 
 tricity generated may readily pass off to the ground as fast 
 as generated. (Automobile Topics.) In filling tanks of 
 automobiles or can with gasoline strained through chamois 
 from metal cans, the can should rest on metal to afford a 
 good ground. See Lightning. 
 
 STATIC PRESSURE is pressure created by the weight 
 of water while at rest. 
 
 STATIONERS' SUPPLIES— Consist of various wood, 
 metal and paper articles and novelties, school supplies, toys. 
 Celluloid goods are sometimes included. 
 
 STATIONERY STORES (together with penny candy 
 trade) should be written only as an accommodation risk, 
 after a survey has been made and a trade report examined. 
 Failures and fires are quite frequently reported in this class. 
 
 STATUARY (bronze) — Those of large size are made 
 from miniatures, or replicas of wax which are covered with 
 a plaster form or a covering applied by hand. The wax is 
 melted out in a furnace and the hollow space remaining is 
 filled with molten bronze. The wax used is a mixture of 
 glycerine, gelatine, canauber wax and bees-wax. The foun- 
 dry work is extensive. Here we find built-up brick kilns, 
 core ovens, wooden flasks, furnaces. Dilute sulphuric and 
 
4j^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 nitric acids are used for cleaning bronze parts. The waxes 
 used are usually heated by direct fire. This work is found 
 in- most of the departments. Large stocks of models con- 
 stitute considerable proportion of the value of the contents 
 and should be considered the same as patterns. Usually 
 frame risks of foundry type. See Sculptors. 
 
 STAYS— ^Generally applied to props, struts and ties for 
 keeping timbers in place. *;.*: 
 
 STEAM — Water converted into an elastic vapor by the 
 application of heat. Low pressure steam has a pressure be- 
 low 15 pounds to the square inch. 
 
 High pressure steam according to the rules of the Ex- 
 change has a pressure above 15 pounds to the square inch. 
 They will treat boilers as low pressure if the safety valve 
 is set at 15 pounds. If boiler room is cut off with 12-inch 
 brick or concrete side walls with standard doors at openings 
 and 8-inch concrete or brick ceiling on steel beams, no extra 
 charge is made in rate. 
 
 STEAM JETS— The efficiency of steam jets for fire ex- 
 tinguishment lies in the confinement of the steam and its 
 smothering effect on the fire, depriving it of its life-giving 
 oxygen. 
 
 STEAM PIPES must be at least 2 inches from all un- 
 protected woodwork. If protected by a metal collar, the 
 distance may be 1 ifich. There is much less damage likely 
 from low pressure than from steam at high pressure. ';; 
 
 Steam pipes, if in contact with wood, have been known\(o 
 c^use occasional fires. It is claimed that any steam pipe in 
 contact with wood no matter how low the pressure, will in 
 time produce charcoal, and as charcoal is unquestionably 
 subject to spontaneous combustion, the recommendation to 
 remove woodwork from all steam pipes is well founded. 
 
 Before heat is turned on, all dust and refuse around pipes 
 should be removed. See Pipe Openings. 
 
 STEAM TANKS or kettles (set through flooring) where 
 high temperatures are needed, should be 2 inches from wood 
 flooring. 
 : STEARIC ACID— Usually prepared from beef tallow by 
 
UlITlHWHaaV^TE^L OITDaqgHl 
 
 443 
 
 saponification with sulphuric acid, distilling, and hot press- 
 ing. Used in soap and candle manufactjiring. .,;, .-, 
 
 STEARINE — Similar to paraffine-wax. , Non-volatilg<i . 
 
 STEEL — A kind of iron or rather a compouiixlj,9f.>ii*Q9>fir9d 
 
 In a ourn'fnQ Pui/Jifta 
 tr)€ sSirucit/re, * 
 
 ierr^cf c<?^ 'i^i//st'<ff 
 
 '' 7^/J^pRpo/:^ ^ 
 
 two inche^'of terra ^*f^«^(3ncnti'e 
 
 ^A 
 
 Cast 
 
 IRpN 
 l/n|»roftcfcc| 
 
 UNAPPR0V60 APPRCVGIJij' cl MilJi^ai :>ii ■ 
 
 Copyright, 1915. G. A. Ins. Co. •,f{|offT ,; snno} \y 
 
 carbon. In every 100 lbs. of steel there are from 2 to 2}^ 
 lbs. of carbon. Steel is made from either cast or wrought- 
 iron. There are two kinds of steel, one is brittle, the other 
 is just the opposite, i. e., very flexible. If steel is heate<t 
 
444^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 then suddenly cooled, it will be hard and brittle. If it be 
 cooled slowly it will be soft, and can be readily hammered 
 out like wrought-iron. 
 
 Steel begins to lose its supporting strength at a tempera- 
 ture of about 900 deg. F, after which its loss of strength is 
 extremely rapid until at 1600 deg. F. it is practically nil. 
 — Hooker's Chemistry. 
 
 Steel (shear) — Hammered steel of fine texture and tough- 
 er than ordinary steel. 
 
 Steel (soft) — Naturally a gray color, is turned to a bluish 
 tint by heating. A long, narrow metal frame is used with 
 small perforations at top. Gas flames at the perforations 
 heat the steel when it is placed on top. See Structural Steel. 
 
 STEELITE — A new metal composed of 75 per cent, co- 
 balt and the remainder chromium. Used for tools; will cut 
 steel on a lathe; impervious to rust or acids. 
 
 STEEL WOOL— The shavings from steel wire. It is 
 practically useless if wet. Steel wire rusts readily and in 
 that condition cannot be used until the rust has been re- 
 moved. Spontaneous ignition is apt to occur in piles of 
 steel wool, if oily. 
 
 STEREOTYPING— This necessitates the formation of the 
 type in a cylinder or roller form, while the metal which pro- 
 vides the backing must also be in the same form. To pro- 
 vide this cylindrical form is the next step. The form is 
 removed to a table and a sheet of specially prepared paper 
 called the matrix is moistened and laid over the face of the 
 type and is either beaten with a large brush so that an im- 
 pression of the type is fully made or it is run through a 
 power roller press to accomplish the same result. After the 
 impression has been satisfactorily made the form with the 
 matrix is placed on a steam table to dry, and when removed 
 the matrix is still flexible enough to shape in the desired 
 manner. The matrix is now put into a casting box which 
 when closed forms a mould in the shape of a crescent on 
 one side of which the matrix is placed. Molten lead is 
 poured into the remaining space from the top and when 
 filled the metal soon hardens sufficiently to be removed. 
 The form has now been reproduced on a solid piece of metal 
 
STOCKS 445 
 
 which after being trimmed and grooved is ready to be placed 
 in the press for printing the paper. 
 
 STICKERS — Woodworking machines similar to matching- 
 planers but smaller. They have cutters for each of four 
 sides of stock and make considerable refuse. Should have 
 blowers. 
 
 STICK LAC — Lac in its natural state, encrusting leaves. 
 
 STILES — The flat vertical pieces between and at the sides 
 of panel doors or windows. 
 
 STIPULATED WAREHOUSE— See Warehouses. 
 
 STOCKS should not be placed against the walls and should 
 be on skids at least 6 inches from the floor. Aisles of 2 feet 
 should be maintained and stock not piled nearer than 2 feet 
 to the ceiling. 
 
 Stocks on grade floors of frame buildings are considered 
 nearly as good as similar stocks in brick buildings. They are 
 just as accessible to fire department. The hazards are the 
 same, and salvage is as great. Furthermore, frame building 
 being smaller in area and height than the usual brick struc- 
 ture, if collapsing, will precipitate less weight on grade floor 
 stock. 
 
 Stocks in poorer sections of the city may not be attractive 
 in appearance, but where the stock is suitable for the neigh- 
 borhood, the business established for a length of time, and 
 the other conditions incident to the business are satisfactory, 
 they are sometimes preferable to more pretentious stores in 
 better sections. 
 
 STOCK VALUATIONS are usually based on the assured's 
 inventories. If these are destroyed by fire, the inventories 
 of similar plants of like size and character are used to get 
 at an approximate value. See Lines; see Retail Stocks; also 
 Upper Floor Contents. 
 
 STONE under the action of severe heat will crack, shell 
 or calcine. It should be used most cautiously in fireproof 
 construction. 
 
 STONE YARDS— Usually enclosed in a high roofed over, 
 light constructed frame shed. Many have a traveling, motor- 
 power crane on track and trestle. Granite and polished stone 
 'subject to severe damage by fire and water. 
 
^U INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 l,.,STORAGE AND REPAIR CLAUSE should be placed on 
 all policies where goods are likely to be left on storage. 
 
 STORAGE LINES — Companies prefer to write short term 
 insurance on contents instead of yearly insurance on the 
 buildings themselves, as a greater premium income is thus 
 derived because "short rates" are charged. For knowledge 
 of hazak-dous commodities see books, ^^The Handling of Dan- 
 gerous Goods," by Joshua Phillips, and "Fire and Explosion 
 Risks," by Von Schwartz, — D. Van Nostrand Co., publishers. 
 
 STORAGE STORES, FREE AND BONDED— The dif- 
 fefeilce between these stores is— in the "Free Store" the duty 
 or revenue is paid to the goverfimefit before the goods go 
 in'storage; while in a bonded store it is'paid when the goods 
 are removed. 
 
 To remove goods from a "Bonded Store" it is necessary to 
 pay the duty or revenue on the amount that is desired to be 
 taken out of storage. When the duty (amount demanded 
 by Government) is received by the Custom House, they is- 
 sue an order to their representative at the storage store 
 showing that the duty has been paid and he permits goods 
 to be removed. 
 
 NOTE — Each bonded store has a Custom House officer on 
 the premises at all times. His duty is to see that no goods 
 are removed unless an order is shown that the duty has 
 been paid. 
 
 • The object is so that the owner need not pay the duty or 
 revenue until the goods are actually sold and removed froni 
 the wafehduse.— Richardson. See Warehouses. 
 
 STORAGE STORES LISTED must be occupied, and be 
 under the exclusive control of the warehouseman. In New 
 York City, in order to have a store listed, the Board of Un- 
 derwriters issue certain requirements as to lighting, construc- 
 tion and occupancy. No volatiles or chemicals are permitted. 
 
 STORAX — An imported resinous gum used by perfume 
 manufacturers. . 
 
 STORE FIXTURES — Manufacturing hazards are those of 
 woodworker?, including painting and varnishing. The fire 
 record is not good. 
 
STOVES m 
 
 STOVE-PIPE WORKS— Mainly sheet metal working. El- 
 bows are dipped in a mixture of three parts naphtha to one 
 part of machine oil for "varnishing." An unprofitable class 
 for insurance companies. 
 
 STOVE POLISH may contain a large percentage of ben- 
 zine. Test for flash point. 
 
 STOVES — Should be on iron stands or legs, with metal 
 under and 12 inches in front of stove, and 3 feet from com- 
 bustible partitions; if partitions or woodwork are shielded 
 with metal, the distance may be 18 inches. 
 
 STOVES (kitchen)— There is a type of kitchen range 
 being used, from which it is unnecessary to remove the ashes 
 by means of the ordinary pan. A funnel is provided under- 
 neath the grate of the range. This funnel or pipe extends 
 through the floor to a receptacle in the basement. The pipe 
 or funnel should be insulated by a protecting sleeve so as to 
 provide air space where passing through the floor. There 
 is danger of clogging the funnel from neglect in emptying 
 the container in the basement. This method of dropping hot 
 ashes out of sight does not appeal to most underwriters un- 
 less they drop into a substantial brick enclosed ashpit hav- 
 ing a heavy iron door. 
 
 STOVES (pot stoves) — Used extensively in lofts as they 
 give out large volumes of heat. The fire pot which consists 
 of an unlined iron casting one-fourth to one-half inch thick 
 expands or contract from excessive heat, and sudden cool- 
 ing when the fire goes out. This causes cracks. The cracks 
 enlarge and allow hot coals to fall on the floor. 
 
 STRAIN — When a solid body is subjected to a stress of 
 any kind an alteration is produced in the volume or shape of 
 the body and the alteration is called the strain. Strain, is 
 therefore, the result of a stress or stresses (Kidder). 
 
 STRAINER — Used on sprinkler suction lines where water 
 is likely to contain weeds, refuse, etc., or where intake is 
 from a pond. See Foot Valve. 
 
 STRAW GOODS stock will give a very poor account of 
 itself in a fire because the strands are usually glued together 
 and sized. 
 
 STREETS (Unpaved) — Should always be indicated on in- 
 
4W INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 spection reports. In bad weather fire departments experience 
 difficulty in traversing unpaved, muddy roads, hence a de- 
 lay in reaching a fire. 
 
 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL— See Stress, Compression 
 and Tension. 
 
 STRESS — A stress is an internal resistance which balances 
 an external force. By placing a weighty object on another 
 object of similar character there is a downward pressure 
 (weight) or external force which is met by the internal re- 
 sistance (stress) of the under object, preserving the samci 
 in equilibrium, otherwise the lower object would be crushed. 
 
 STRETCHER— A brick or block of masonry laid length- 
 wise to the wall. 
 
 STRIKES — Firms which are constantly at logger-heads 
 with their help, should not be considered desirable insurance 
 as fires may be caused by dissatisfied or discharged em- 
 ployees. 
 
 STRINGER— Any longitudinal timber or beam. 
 
 STRIPPING in paper box factories is the glueing together 
 of the ends and sides of boxes. The "stripper" has a glue 
 pot at one end which is heated by steam or gas. If the lat- 
 ter, the glue pot should be "jacketed'* and a "baffle-plate" 
 placed under the burners to catch the hot carbon. An oper- 
 ator sits at one end of the machine and draws a strip of 
 paper (from a roll) through the glue pot. 
 
 STRONTIA — Called strontium nitrate; heavy, white, crys- 
 taline salt; a strong oxydizing agent. 
 
 STRUCTURAL STEEL should be protected with fire re- 
 sistive insulation such as terra-cotta, concrete or brick suf- 
 ficiently thick to withstand a powerful stream of water with- 
 out being destroyed thereby exposing the steel work. 
 
 STRUT — A prop, the piece that sustains compression. 
 
 STRUT BEAMS— Struts that are also subject to trans- 
 verse strain. 
 
 STRUT BOARD — A board located under the pulley at top 
 of an elevator (lofter) leg and forming part of the enclosure. 
 Should be slanting to prevent grain or dust from banking up 
 and clogging the mechanism, thereby generating sparks 
 which would ignite the dust or grain. See Breweries. 
 
.;, STUCCO CONSTRUCTION 449 
 
 STUCCO — Its composition varies. The following may be 
 used, plaster of Paris, glue, cement, silica, sand or marble 
 dust, sea sand, lime, water. 
 . STUCCO BUILDINGS are classed as frame. 
 
 STUCCO CONSTRUCTION— The older method is to 
 stucco over metal lath taking the place of clapboards ot 
 weatherboards. The newer method, no sheathing is re- 
 quired, the stucco and metal lath takes the place of sheat- 
 ing or clapboards. The sheathing should be diagonal to the 
 studding to make a firmer brace aad prevent cracking, and 
 covered with waterproof paper well lapped, providing the 
 stucco is placed over the sheathing. The waterproof paper 
 prevents the wood from absorbing the moisture from the ce- 
 ment (stucco) which would otherwise prevent proper setting. 
 Wood or metal furring strips fastened 12 to 16 inches over 
 the paper-covered sheathing will fur out the wall and metal 
 lath and allow a proper key for the stucco. Stuccoed walls 
 are a better protection against Exposure fires than frame, be- 
 cause sparks cannot find lodgement between crevices and it 
 will resist heat longer. Dense smoke will color stucco, and 
 cleaning is more difficult than painting a frame building. 
 
 STUDIOS — Hangings in studios such as tapestries, por- 
 tierres, portable scenery, pictures on easel.^, spread fire rapr 
 
 idly. ''^n'^Z 
 
 STUDS— The small size (usually 2x4 inches) intermedr 
 iate posts in walls or partitions. \/'Z'<' 
 
 STUFFING BOX— The small boxing at the end of a steam 
 cylinder and surrounding the piston like a collar. This box 
 is usually filled with flax or other packing. 
 
 SUBERINE — Organic thickening material used in calico 
 bleaching. 
 
 SUBLIMATE— To bring by heat into a state of vapor, 
 which on condensing or cooling returns to a solid state. 
 • SUBROGATION is the substitution of another person in 
 the place of a creditor, so that the person in whose favor 
 it is exercised succeeds to the rights of tire creditor in rela- 
 tion to the debt. More broadly, it is the substitution of one 
 person in the place of another whether as creditor or as the 
 .possessor of any rightful claim. The Court of Appeals of 
 
4i0 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 New York State defines "subrogation" as the "mode which 
 equity adopts to compel the ultimate payment of a debt by 
 one who in justice, equity and good conscience ought to pay 
 it." In the fire insurance business, the operation of sub- 
 rogration is used in payment of fire claims to mortgagees. 
 
 SUGAR in nature is composed of carbon, hydrogen and 
 oxygen although it cannot be made by mixing these in- 
 gredients together. 
 
 SUGAR MANUFACTURING— In obtaining sugar from 
 the cane, the juice is fiVst pressed out between heavy iron 
 rollers. This juice is then cleaned of most of its impurities, 
 and is boiled down to such a degree that the sugar will 
 crystallize as it cools. While this crystallization is going on, 
 a syrup trickles from the sugar and this is molasses. The 
 sugar crystallizes in grains, forming the common brown 
 sugar. To make it white it requires additional purifying 
 processes. 
 
 SUGAR REFINING — Requires the continuous movements 
 of the sugar in either liquid or solid form through the vari- 
 ous conveyors, boiling pans, filters, chutes and driers. The 
 process consists of mixing, filtering, open boiling, purifying 
 through bone black, vacuum boiling, molding, open-air dry- 
 ing and rotary driers, cutting, grinding and packing. The 
 nature of the processes make necessary many large open- 
 ings through the floor which cannot be cut off. The char- 
 house where the bone black is prepared should be in sepa- 
 rate cut-off building. Sugar and filter bags should be dried 
 outside of the building. The drying process should always 
 be carefully noticed by the inspector. The grinding pro- 
 duces a dust hazard. Only competent underwriters should 
 accept this business. 
 
 Sugar Refinery (P2Ui-house) — Sugar pumped from char- 
 house in semi-liquid state to receiving tanks, filtered, boiled 
 in vacuum pans and steam kettles, impregnated with sulphur 
 fumes, then to mixers and to centrifugal extractors where 
 liquid is extracted and then to storage bins, and next to sepa- 
 rators and granulators (heated by hot air), screened, bagged or 
 barrelled or sent to cube presses where it is pressed into cube 
 form, dried by steam or hot air and boxed. Sugar is also pul- 
 
SUGAR REFINING 451 
 
 verized or powdered. Fires, due to dust and friction of ma- 
 chinery at pulverizers and powdering machines are frequent. 
 As these machines have suction blower system, fires may be 
 spread from floor to floor. Dust hazard also present at 
 granulators and conveyors. The nature of the business re- 
 quires numerous ducts, pipe openings, hoppers and machin- 
 ery set through floors which cause fires to spread rapidly. 
 Sulphur storage should be in separate fireproof compartment. 
 Fires cause considerable loss from dirt, etc., to sugar in bins, 
 open pans or evaporators. 
 
 Sugar refinery fire, N. Y. Board report. May 25, 1911. 
 
 The fire shows clearly the hazard attending the pulveri- 
 zation of sugar and the need for conducting this process in 
 a separate building or the process should be conducted in a 
 section cut off by 12-inch fire walls without direct openings 
 to the other buildings. The outer unexposed wall prefer- 
 ably to be of light material such as plaster on wire lath or 
 terra-cotta blocks, so that the force of any explosion may 
 be vented outward. No dust room should be used. Dust 
 from granulators and pulverizers should be settled by spray- 
 ing in an enclosed chamber of incombustible material thus 
 eliminating the hazard of dust rooms and dust tubes. All 
 pulverizing mills should be equipped with magnets. Sugar 
 bins should be of incombustible material. 
 
 SUINT — The natural grease of wool. 
 
 SULFONAL is unsafe in a chlorate mixture. 
 
 SULPHATE — Sulphuric acid compound. 
 
 SULPHATE OF AMMONIA— Made by neutralizing di- 
 luted sulphuric acid with carbonate of ammonia. 
 
 SULPHATE OF COPPER— Composed of sulphur, oxygen 
 and copper. Used in dry batteries, etc. Made from copper 
 (usually scrap) sulphuric acid and water. Process is steam 
 as a rule. 
 
 Sulphuric acid is emptied into a lead-lined wood tank from 
 which it is pumped to a wood tank lined with vitrified brick 
 and called a pump tank. Into this tank,' copper is dumped 
 where a water spray forms a mixture of copper, water and 
 acid. This mixture is then pumped to the oxidizing tank in 
 order to obtain the proper strength, then passed over to the 
 
452 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 crystallizing tanks (which resemble plating tanks with cop- 
 per strands at intervals) where the sulphate of copper crys- 
 tals form and adhere to the copper strands. The crystals 
 are then taken from the copper strands and placed on top 
 of an open dryer with perforated top and air blast below. 
 The finished product is then barrelled and shipped. The pro- 
 cess is usually classed non-hazardous. 
 
 SULPHATE OF LIME— Lime and sulphuric acid. 
 
 SULPHATE OF MAGNESIA— Magnesia and sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 SULPHATE OF SODA— Soda in sulphuric acid. 
 
 SULPHATE OF ZINC— Is white vitriol. 
 
 SULPHATING— Changing chlorides into sulphates. 
 
 SULPHIDE — Compound of sulphur with a metal. 
 
 SULPHONIC ACID— Used in aniline color works by 
 treating aniline oil or naphthalene with sulphuric acid in 
 closed, steam or gas-heated kettles, diluted, washed and fil- 
 tered. May nitrate same with sodium nitrate and sulphuric 
 acid or nitration mixture. Can be converted into sublime- 
 beta-naphthol, an intermediate product. 
 
 SULPHUR— Ignites at about 500 deg. F. When mixed 
 with oxidizing agents, such as potassium or sodium chlorates 
 or nitrates, becomes explosive. Is highly inflammable; when 
 well ignited burns fiercely, but is not subject to sponta- 
 neous combustion except when mixed with other chemicals. 
 Explosions occur in grinding operations due to friction of 
 machinery and dust. Difficult fires to fight owing to sul- 
 phur fumes. Firemen must wear masks in fighting these 
 fires. See Sulphur Extracting Factories. 
 
 SULPHUR BLACK— A dye used in the hosiery trade. 
 It is prepared as follows: A liquid called monochlor-benzol 
 is made by passing chlorine gas through benzol. This is 
 then converted by nitrition into di-nitrochlor-benzol. 
 
 SULPHUR BLEACHING— See Bleaching Rooms. 
 
 SULPHUR DIOXIDE— Formed by burning sulphur or 
 iron pyrities in air. Non-inflammable. 
 
 SULPHUR AND IRON PYRITES are burned in what 
 are known as sulphur burners (brick-set furnaces with iron 
 doors) until the fumes go to the Glovers tower (which is a 
 
SULPHUR EXTRACTING FACTORIES 4S3 
 
 lead tank lined with an acid brick) to cool. The fumes then 
 go to the sulphuric acid chambers which are lead tanks with 
 outside frame crating, where they are converted into sul- 
 phuric acid. 
 
 SULPHUR EXTRACTING FACTORIES are filled with 
 huge boilers (usually oil fuel), which heat water to nearly 
 335 deg. F. This is pumped down into the ground through 
 pipes at a pressure of 125 lbs. It melts the sulphur beds 
 which forces the sulphur to the surface by compressed air. 
 
 SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN contains sulphur and 
 hydrogen. 
 
 SULPHURIC ACID MANUFACTURING— Plants usual- 
 ly consist of three connecting buildings, known as burner 
 room, tower building, and chamber building with an ad- 
 joining shed used for the storage of pyrites. 
 
 SULPHURIC ETHER— Very inflammable. 
 
 SUMAC — The powdered leaves and bark of an Indian tree. 
 Used in tanning. See Tanneries. 
 
 SUMMER — A large piece of timber supported by piers 
 or posts; when it supports a wall it is called a brest-summer 
 or bressummer. 
 
 SUMMER PIECE— The wood or sheet covering placed 
 in front of and covering a fireplace opening. Often times, 
 rubbish or paper will be found back of it. 
 
 SUMP OR SUMPT— A low enclosure or pit to catch 
 waste water. 
 
 SUN'S RAYS focused through imperfect prism or bull's- 
 6ye glass such as in skylights have ignited celluloid goods, 
 clothing, etc. 
 
 SUPERHEATER— Used at pitch kettle in brev/eries for 
 superheating steam coils to melt out all old pitch from 
 kegs. See Breweries. 
 
 SUPERIOR CONSTRUCTION— See Fireproof. 
 
 SURBASE — The inside horizontal moulding on wall near 
 floor. 
 
 SURGEONS* LIGATURES— Made of catgut, treated with 
 chloroform and hermetically sealed with wax in glass tubes. 
 Blow-pipes are used for heating the sealing wax. As the 
 heat is applied near the mouth of the tube, a certain amount 
 
454 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 of chlorine gas is generated by reason of vaporizing the 
 chloroform.* This is drawn off by suction pipes. Culture in- 
 cubators, cuemol dryers, sterilizers, alcohol stills, and dry 
 box for catgut are gas-heated. 
 
 SURGICAL INSTRUMENT MANUFACTURING— Haz- 
 ards of metal working, annealing, blow-pipes, forges, temper- 
 ing, nickle-plating, cleaning metal parts with benzine, buff- 
 wheels, making wood handles. At times, have an extensive 
 laboratory for making exhaustive tests. Stock is liable to 
 severe water or moisture damage unless wrapped moisture 
 proof. See Instruments. 
 
 SURGICAL SUPPLIES— See Surgeons' Ligatures. 
 
 SURVEY — The detail report of a risk made by an in- 
 spector. 
 
 SURVEYOR — A title applied to insurance inspectors. See 
 Inspectors. 
 
 SWARF — A trade term for borings from iron or steel. 
 
 SWEATING HAY— See Hay. 
 
 SWEAT-BAND MANUFACTURING— They are made of 
 leather. Use cutting machines, perforators, embossing 
 presses, rubber cement. Poor fire record class. 
 
 SWEAT SHOPS— A name given to the clothing manu- 
 facturing class doing contract work, i. e., making up the gar- 
 ments from goods belonging to dealers and sent them already 
 cut to size, and employing piece-workers. Cheap labor is 
 employed and the shops are usually untidy. Smoking, in- 
 dividual motors at machines, cracked pot stoves are the main 
 hazards. See Clothing Manufacturers; see Smoking; alsa 
 "Goods in Hands of." 
 
 SWEEP SMELTERS— Trade name for smelters who buy 
 up the sweepings of gold and silversmiths, and refine it to 
 reclaim the precious metal. The setting of furnaces and 
 kettles, should be according to standard rules. 
 
 SWING SAW — A woodworking machine with the saw in 
 the centre of a flat table or stand, operated by swinging back 
 and forth. 
 
 SWITCHBOARDS in telephone exchanges form consid- 
 erable of the value and should always be brought out in the 
 inspector's report. 
 
SYPHO-CHEMICAL SYSTEM 455 
 
 SWITCHBOARD MANUFACTURING— Hazards are 
 
 power-cutting and drilling machines for marble and slate 
 slabs. Machine shops, plating, lacquering, enameling, buffing, 
 testing with high voltage electric current and packing ma- 
 terial. 
 
 SYNAGOGUES — Same hazards as schools and churches. 
 Scrolls, vestments, parchments, etc., while susceptible, offer 
 good insurance as all efforts are made to recover them in 
 case of fire. Many of the scrolls are priceless and cannot 
 be duplicated. Smoking and candles at altars constitute the 
 principal hazards. See Churches. 
 
 SYNTHETIC PERFUMES— Those derived from coal tar 
 instead of essential oils. 
 
 SYPHO-CHEMICAL SPRINKLER SYSTEM— Manu- 
 factured by the Sypho-Chemical Corporation. Protection 
 from this system consists of a series of sprinkler pipes and 
 heads covering every portion of the building's interior just 
 like a regular sprinkler system. These pipes are filled with cal- 
 cium chloride, a non-freezing solution, which also has fire ex- 
 tinguishing qualities. The supply tank will usually be placed 
 in the basement though it may be set elsewhere if that lo- 
 cation is not suitable. This supply tank is filled with bi- 
 carbonate of soda solution. Attached to it is a syphon cham- 
 ber containing charges of sulphuric acid. At the top of the 
 riser pipe which extends above the roof is an expansion 
 chamber which, like the pipes, is filled with calcium chloride. 
 
 Method of Operation — When a sprinkler head is opened 
 by heat the first discharge is the calcium chloride which is 
 always in the pipes. The fall of this liquid in the expan- 
 sion chamber causes a suction which is transmitted to the 
 acid syphons, causing a discharge of sulphuric acid into the 
 bicarbonate of soda solution. Chemical force then sends the 
 extinguishing fluid through the pipes as through the dis^ 
 charge hose and nozzle of a soda and acid fire extinguisher. 
 The entire operation is completed in a few seconds. The 
 system is also equipped to turn in fire alarms and warning 
 signals when tampered with. It is claimed for this system 
 that it will make practical the sprinklering of smaller build- 
 ings and manufacturing plants. Special emphasis is placed 
 
456 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 on the efficient fire extinguishing qualities of a soda and 
 acid solution. One sprinkler company has announced that 
 it does not sell the system, but sells the service of its pro- 
 tection in consideration of an annual charge based upon 
 the area to be protected. 
 
 TABLES — To find the circumference of a circle, multiply 
 the diameter by 3.1416. 
 
 To find diameter of a circle multiply circumference b> 
 .31831. 
 
 To find area of a circle multiply square of diameter by 
 .7854. 
 
 To ascertain the capacity of a cylindrical tank — Ex- 
 ample: Tank is eight feet high, ten feet 'diameter at base, 
 eight feet diameter at top. Take mean diameter which is 
 nine feet. Square the diameter (9 times 9) times .7854 equals 
 the square feet of diameter times eight feet (height) which 
 equals the cubic feet times 7.48 (gallons in cubic foot of 
 water); the total is capacity of tank in gallons. 
 
 Table Showing Dimensions and Capacity of Standard 
 Water Tank: 
 
 Diameter 
 
 
 H 
 
 eight 
 
 Cap 
 
 acity 
 
 6 feet 
 
 
 
 inches 
 
 5 feet 
 
 11 inches 
 
 1000 
 
 gals. 
 
 8 " 
 
 6 
 
 
 5 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 2000 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 3000 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 9 
 
 
 5 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 4000 
 
 
 13 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 5 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 5000 
 
 
 8 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 7 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 2500 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 7 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 4000 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 5 
 
 
 7 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 6000 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 4 
 
 
 9 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 5000 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 5 
 
 
 9 ' 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 7500 
 
 
 11 " 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 * 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 8000 
 
 
 13 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 11 ' 
 
 
 10 '' 
 
 10000 
 
 
 16 " 
 
 
 
 
 11 ' 
 
 
 10 '' 
 
 15000 
 
 
 18 " 
 
 3 
 
 
 11 ' 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 20000 
 
 
 20 " 
 
 2 
 
 
 11 ' 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 25000 
 
 
 28 " 
 
 6 
 
 
 11 ' 
 
 
 10 " 
 
 50000 
 
 
SYPHO-CHEMICAL SYSTEM 457 
 
 Cylindrical Tank with Round Bottom — To find the capacity 
 in gallons of the hemispherical portion of a steel cylindrical 
 tank, cube the diameter of the tank (11x11x11) and multi- 
 ply by 1.96. 
 
 Rectangular Tank — The capacity of a rectangular tank in 
 gallons is found by multiplying its inside length, breadth and 
 height together (to find cubic contents), and dividing this 
 result, if in. inches, by 231, or multiplying it, if in feet, by 
 7.4805. Example: Tank eight feet by eight feet by eight 
 feet. Ascertain cubic feet by multiplying eight times eight 
 times eight, equals 512 cubic feet, times 7.48 (gallons in cubic 
 foot of water), equals capacity of tank in gallons. 
 
 Amount of water necessary for gravity and pressure tanks 
 in sprinklered risks — Example: A six-story and basement 
 building; add the number of heads required for each floor 
 and divide by seven, (number of floors including basement) 
 to get the average, number which we will say is 150 heads. 
 Allow 100 gallons of water for each head, i. e., 150 times 
 100 equals 15000 gallons for gravity tanks and one-half that 
 .amount or 7500 gallons for pressure tank. Pressure tanks 
 should be two-thirds full of water and one-third full of air 
 under pressure. Another way to figure, producing the same 
 result would be to average the number of heads per floor 
 (150) and take one-quarter (the number which might be ex- 
 pected to operate at one fire) which equals 37.5 heads. Al- 
 low 20 gallons of water a minute for each head (20 times 
 37.5) which equals 750 gallons per minute. For a fire of 
 twenty minutes duration (length of time of average small 
 fire) multiply 750 by 20 which equals 15,000 gallons for grav- 
 ity tank and one-half that amount for pressure tank. 
 
 Communicating Buildings — Two buildings may communi- 
 cate in a standard manner, i, e., with approved fire doors at 
 each side of each opening. One building may have a floor 
 area of 5,000 square feet, and the other 10,000 square feet. 
 The size of tanks in such a case would be that required for 
 the largest cut-ofif section (10,000 square feet) which will 
 be considered by most rating bureaus sufficiently large 
 enough to supply both sections. See Pressure. 
 
TAILORS' TRIMMINGS— Consist of buttons, piece 
 goods, ornaments for cloaks and suits, braids. Usually kept 
 in tills or pasteboard boxes. 
 
 TALLOW — A solid fat extracted from the suet of beef 
 or sheep. Melting point 115 to 121 deg. F. 
 
 TANKAGE (dried blood) — The waste material from ren- 
 dering plants. Used in fertilizer plants. Non-hazardous, non- 
 inflammable. See Extracting Plants. 
 
 TANK FIRES— If the contents of a tank is on fire, it can 
 usually be extinguished if the cover is quickly put on as this 
 shuts off the supply of oxygen, providing the cover is tight- 
 fitting. See Oil Tanks. 
 
 TANNERIES — Process consists of tanning, coloring, 
 stuffing, oiling, drying, finishing, embossing. Some plants ex- 
 tract grease from wool by naphtha process. Fires are apt 
 to take place in any of these processes. Lime and tan pits, 
 storage of hides and pickled skins should not be in main 
 building. All storehouses should be detached. Dry rooms 
 are usually heated by hot air blown from steam coils. If 
 fans are used in dry rooms they should be self-oiling to pre- 
 vent overheated bearings. In oiling and stuffing, grease is 
 used which should be heated by steam. Floors become very 
 oily from dripping hides hung up after oiling. Lime should 
 be slacked outside of building. Fleshings and scrapings are 
 subject to spontaneous combustion. Buff wheels should have 
 blowers. Hair and wool should be dried in iron textile 
 dryers. Lamp-black should be stored outside of main build- 
 ing free from dampness. Bark mill (grinding bark) should 
 be detached. In writing use and occupancy it is well to re- 
 member that tanning is a continuous process. Small fires 
 may stop entire process. Tanning liquors are spoiled by 
 
 458 
 
TAR PAPER MANUFACTURING 459 
 
 water (which would happen if a fire occurred) in the leach 
 house, and a fresh supply of liquor is not always available. 
 See Hides; see Tanning; also Skins. 
 
 TANNERS — Some use a compound of paint containing 
 pyroxilin or gun-cotton dissolved in amyl acetate. 
 
 TANNERS* OIL — A by-product of the operation of the 
 tannery. 
 
 TANNIN occurs very vividly in nature as a constituent 
 of many barks, leaves and wood. Used for tanning pur- 
 poses. 
 
 TANNING— Is done in three different ways: (1) With tan 
 bark extracts and other vegetable substances containing tan- 
 nin. (2) With alum or bichromate of potash and other min- 
 eral salts. (3) By impregnating or *'shamoying" the raw 
 skin and oil. See Tanneries. 
 
 TANQUA NUTS— A product of South America; are used 
 for making vegetable ivory buttons. 
 
 TAR is obtained as a residue from wood distillation. 
 Fires in this material can be readily extinguished by covering 
 with sand. Water will scatter the flames. 
 
 TARCOLINE — A benzine substitute classed as non-vola- 
 tile. 
 
 TAR PAPER while cooling after being made, sometimes 
 takes fire spontaneously due to chemical changes. Fires in 
 this stock burn fiercely. 
 
 TAR PAPER MANUFACTURING— Coating is a heavy 
 coal tar oil containing impure carbolic acid, anthracene and 
 naphtha. The liquid will not flash at ordinary temperature, 
 but the vapor given off during coating process is inflam- 
 mable. The "saturating" machine consists of a steam-heated 
 tank containing the coating material through which is 
 passed the felt paper. A rack, supported by an iron frame, 
 forces the paper into the coating material. A coated and an 
 uncoated roll of paper are then pressed together. Fires 
 have occurred from static electricity igniting the fumes at the 
 machine. Susceptible stocks in the neighborhood of these 
 plants are likely to suffer a severe loss o'n account of pun- 
 gent odors from burning tar. See Tobacco. 
 
 TARPAULIN — A waterproof canvas used for covering 
 
460 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 merchandise. It is usually coated with linseed oil. Those 
 used by the fire patrol to cover stocks in case of fire are 
 made of brown twill and given two coats of a preparation 
 composed of linseed oil mixed with lithia. It takes 120 days 
 to dry. 
 
 TAR POTS, boiling over, have caused frequent fires in 
 buildings in course of construction. When on fire, should 
 be smothered with sand. Water will scatter the burning 
 tar. 
 
 TARTARIC ACID— Made from crude argol or tartar, or 
 from the mass remaining after wine is removed from the 
 casks. The mass is pressed and dried and used as a basis 
 for making cream of tartar. 
 
 TAXIDERMISTS— Stock consists of stuffed birds and 
 animals and is very susceptible to fire, smoke or water. Use 
 glue, cement, excelsior and hair, wood for frames and shel- 
 lac. For museum work on large animals the skin is placed 
 on a model of plaster of paris reinforced with iron and wood 
 strips. The clay is put on about an inch thick, then shel- 
 laced and the skin glued on. Glass or celluloid eyes are 
 inserted and nose and mouth retouched with wax. Hand 
 carpenter shop, glue and wax heating, shellacing and stuffing 
 material are main hazards. 
 
 TAX LIEN INTEREST (Double the Regular Fire Rate) 
 — The form should read as follows: 
 
 On the tax-lien interest of the assured in the building 
 situate No 
 
 It is especially understood and agreed that it is the intention 
 of this insurance to cover the assured's tax-lien interest in 
 the above-mentioned property, the nature of such interest 
 being transfer of a tax by virtue of the assignment from the 
 City of New York to collect taxes, assessments and water 
 taxes. 
 
 It is mutually understood and agreed that if the above- 
 described building is totally destroyed by fire or damaged 
 to such an extent that it must be demolished in order to 
 comply with any law or ordinance of the city, or the 
 owner and or the mortgagees elect not to repair, then this 
 company shall pay the assured the full sum hereby insured. 
 
'.'I^ITIAV- 
 
 TAXPAYERS 461 
 
 or such a sum as would be sufficient to reimburse the as- 
 sured for whatever actual loss he ma-y have sustained by- 
 reason of such total or partial destruction, this sum in case 
 of disagreement to be determined by appraisement in the 
 manner provided for in the conditions of the policy. 
 
 It is further understood and agreed that whenever this 
 company shall pay the assured any sum, this company shall 
 to the extent of such payment, be thereupon legally subro- 
 gated to all the rights of the assured under such a tax-lien 
 assignment (or at its option, in the event of the full sum 
 hereby insured being paid to the assured, receive an as- 
 signment and transfer of such tax-lien) to the extent of the 
 payment made by this company. 
 
 TAXPAYERS — A term sometimes applied to a row of one 
 or two-story buildings erected for store purposes-"'and built 
 to derive enough rent to pay for taxes until such time as 
 a higher building is erected or the property is sold. 
 
 TAWING— Leather treated with alum and salt. 
 
 TEA — Almost as susceptible to smoke or water damage 
 as tobacco. 
 
 TEAK — A very durable wood for all work that is exposed 
 to the weather. It contains a resinous oil. 
 
 TEA RISKS— The main hazard is cleaning. A motor 
 blower "blender and dust remover" is used which should 
 have an enclosed fan with suction to draw off the dust to 
 outer air. 
 
 TEAR-OFFS are the portions of the hide or skin which 
 are;forn off when they are being stretched. Classed as rem- 
 nants. Used for horse collars and corners for suit cases. 
 
 TEASING MACHINE OR "DEVIL''— Used to break up 
 long tow or fibre to prepare it for the cards. 
 
 TEEL OIL— Used to adulterate olive oil. Non-hazardous. 
 
 TELEGRAPH OFFICES— Practically an office occupancy 
 with telegraph instruments. Fires caused by messenger boys 
 smoking and short circuits. 
 
 TELEPHONE STATIONS— See Power Houses; see 
 Switchboards. 
 
 TELL-TALES— On sprinkler equipments should be sealed 
 shut. It is an electrical mechanism by means of which an 
 
46i INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 alarm is sounded when water in gravity or pressure tanks 
 gets below the prescribed level. 
 
 TEMPER — If cast iron or other metals are relieved of 
 some of their carbon by heating to "red heat" with an oxi- 
 dising agent, it is called tempering. 
 
 TEMPERATURE— This question is of vast importance to 
 the fire underwriter. The ignition temperature varies greatly 
 with different materials and with the same materials under 
 varying conditions of pressure, moisture, fineness of division, 
 etc. It does not require the actual contact of a flame or 
 spark to cause a fire. Radiated heat alone from a burning 
 building, if intense enough may ignite nearby property. See 
 Chemistry of a Candle. See Illustration. 
 
 From observations, temperatures in very large fires aver- 
 age slightly over 2000 deg. F. 
 
 TEMPERING STEEL TOOLS— The tools are heated to 
 white heat in furnaces, plunged into cold water, then re- 
 heated and plunged into fish oil. 
 
 TEMPLATE — An iron plate inserted in a wall on which 
 the floor beams rest to distribute the load over a wider area. 
 
 TEMPLET— The outline of a moulding cut out of wood 
 or sheet iron. 
 
 TEMPORARY KEROSENE OIL BURNERS (in fire 
 boxes of coal stoves) — See Kerosene Burners. 
 
 TENEMENTS — Buildings classed as tenements are oc- 
 cupied by three or more families. The New York City law 
 states that in rooming houses or other buildings occupied 
 by more than two families there shall be no cooking unless 
 the buildings are classed as tenements. This is to offset the 
 number of fires due to "light housekeeping" in theatrical or 
 other rooming houses. See Apartments. 
 
 TENON — A projecting tongue fitting into a corresponding 
 cavity called a mortise. 
 
 TENONING MACHINES— Woodworking machines; pro- 
 duce considerable refuse. 
 
 TENSILE STRESSES tend to pull fibres of materials 
 apart. 
 
 TENSION~See Compression. 
 
THEATERS 46!5 
 
 TERCERA — A roofing compound made of chalk, tar and 
 sand. 
 
 TERPENES— Volatile oils of coniferous resins. 
 
 TERRA COTTA— A fine quality of clay. The'highly orna- 
 mental terra-cotta fronts of buildings are easily damaged by 
 fire. Porous terra-cotta tile, used in building construction, 
 is porous as compared to hard or dense tile. Sawdust is 
 used in its manufacture which burns out leaving pores. Un- 
 der intense heat the faces of terra-cotta tile blocks crack 
 badly and fall away. See Tile Works. 
 
 TERRORALL (a recent discovery) — High explosive, more 
 violent than T. N. T. 
 
 TESSELATED FLOOR— One formed of small blocks of 
 wood or mosaic work. 
 
 TEXACO SPIRITS— A benzine substitute, classed as non- 
 volatile. 
 
 TEXAS — A large frame roof structure or room, smaller in 
 area than the roof itself, having one or more stories in it. 
 Sometimes called a lantern. 
 
 TEXENE — A benzine substitute, class non-volatile. 
 
 THATGH ROOFS— Consist of bundles of wheat straw. 
 Used for decorative purposes on summer cottages. 
 
 THEATERS (Stage Building)— Usually a high one-story 
 building equal to 6 stories, with a deep basement; walls 
 should be of brick or concrete at least 16 inches thick, para- 
 petted and coped. The roof should have a steel truss with 
 steel beams and with either brick or terra-cotta arches, 
 spanned about 5 feet. The roof topping should be tile or 
 plastic slate, the cornice brick or tile, and the windows of 
 wired glass in hollow metal sash and frames; shutters, if any, 
 to be standard lock-jointed. The stage floor in wings each 
 side of stage to be of brick, tile or concrete arch, supported 
 by protected iron columns or brick walls. Wood flooring is 
 permitted only on the working part of the stage (center). The 
 fly galleries, which are located at the sides and over the 
 stage, should be constructed of steel be^ms and fireproof 
 arches. These are used to handle the drops, etc., and are 
 at quite an elevation above the stage floor. The painters' 
 bridge is always located against the rear wall of the stage, 
 
464 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 connecting the fly galleries. This should be of steel slats 
 laid about 2 inches apart. Above the fly galleries, about 5 
 feet under the roof is the gridiron (sometimes called rigging 
 loft), built Entirely across the stage. 
 Proscenium Wall — This separates the real hazard of a 
 
 'c i'l-vX'L'iiiitin ^Methods. 
 
 theater from the auditorium section. The proscenium 
 wall (between the stage and auditorium) should be built 
 of brick walls, thickness the same as the outside, walls, 
 never less than ' 12 inches, with 4-inch pilasters, and 
 should extend the entire w^dth of building. It must start 
 at the ground, and extend at least 4 feet above the auditorium 
 roof. If stage building is the highest, wall should extend 4 
 
«ITI8[W>! THEATERS ■-'^'l&Vil ^jj 
 
 feet above the same. The steel girder over the proscenium 
 opening must be protected v^ith at least 2 inches of portland 
 cement concrete. There must be a relieving arch in the 
 proscenium wall over the girder. This is compulsory as it 
 relieves the w^eight of the wall resting on said girder. The 
 proscenium wall under the stage should extend to the under 
 part of the stage flooring level, or flooring should be cut 
 away the width of the curtain and filled in with concrete. 
 This would form a complete separation of the stage floor 
 from the apron. The only openings allowed in the pro- 
 scenium wall should be the curtain opening and not more 
 than two others, to be located either below the stage level, 
 or one on either side of the stage on first floor; no opening 
 of any kind should be permitted above, the first floor. Open- 
 ings are not to exceed 21 square feet, each with 3-inch stan- 
 dard double lock-jointed, tin-clad fire door on each side of 
 the wall. Only one standard automatic fire door is re.- 
 quired at openings to musicians' pit. The proscenium frame 
 should be of non-combustible material, i. e., wire lath Qr 
 plaster, stucco or concrete. 
 
 Skylights over stage — Thin glass on metal frame skylight, 
 at least one-eighth the stage area should be installed. To be 
 fitted with rolling sash and glazed, glass ^ inch thick and 
 no one to exceed 300 square inches. Rolling sash should bie 
 fitted with brass wheels not less than 2^/2 inches in diameter; 
 the latter should roll on brass plate on iron frame extending, 
 entire length of sash. The skylight must be set on curb so 
 that the lowest portion of the tracks will be not less than 12 
 inches above the roof. The angle of the skylight frame to 
 be on basis of 1 inch rise to 1 foot length. The skylights to 
 be constructed as to open instantly on the cutting or burning 
 of a hempen cord which should be arranged to hold the sky- 
 light closed. The said ropes should come together at the 
 first fly gallery by iron triangle and then by single rope 
 directly under skylight to stage floor. Skylight frames to 
 close under metal hood at top, sides and bottom with metal 
 aprons lapping 4 inches downward to prevent the elements 
 lodging on same. See Asbestos Theatre Curtains. — Doming^ 
 "Weekly Underwriter." 
 
466 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 THEATRICAL TENANTS— Usually not attractive unless 
 well known and at the top in their profession. See Actors; 
 see Furnished Room Houses. 
 
 THERMIT^Pulverized aluminum for welding; inflamma- 
 ble. See Gas Evolution. 
 
 THERMOSTAT — A self-acting apparatus for regulating 
 temperatures by the unequal expansion of different metals 
 by heat. See Automatic Alarm. 
 
 THIMBLE (sometimes called a "sleeve")— Perforated or 
 plain, single or double pipe. It is used for fire protection 
 when placed about a smoke pipe which passes through a 
 partition or roof. Should be eighteen to thirty-six inches 
 larger in diameter than the pipe enclosed. 
 
 THORIUM — A powder, metallic in nature, obtained by 
 smelting process from a mineral known as monozite. Re- 
 claiming thorium from discarded mantles or clippings from 
 new mantles. They are very brittle and are received from 
 concerns who make a business of collecting them. The 
 mantle dust is washed and filtered in water in stone tubs, 
 then boiled in thin solution of sulphuric acid and water, 
 then treated with pickling solution of anhydrous ammonia, 
 sulphuric, acetic or nitric acid. Ammonia is added to crys- 
 tallize the sediment. Product is then in crystal form, put in 
 porcelain cups and dried over gas burner. Gas heat is used 
 for boiling and drying cups. Storage of acids important. 
 
 THREAD WORKS— The thread is spun at spinning mills 
 and skeined. It is received in this form at the ordinary 
 thread mill where it is wound on spools. The spools are 
 either wood or ''tubes" made of cardboard. Cotton thread 
 is "silk finished" on a "dressing-machine." The thread is on 
 reels on a frame, drawn through a sizing tank, then over a 
 hair-covered, steam-heated iron drum which dries and pol- 
 ishes the thread, which is respooled. The sizing is made of 
 gelatine or glue, borax, dextrine, starch, water, cocoanut or 
 other similar oil. The sizing kettle should be steam-heated. 
 The steam pipes at machine are apt to become covered with 
 fine dust or "fly" from the thread and should be cleaned 
 often. 
 
 THROWSTER— One who throws, twists or winds silk. 
 
TIN 467 
 
 TIE-BEAMS — Ties that are also subjected to a transverse 
 strain. 
 
 TIGERS— See Plush. 
 
 TILE WORKS— In brick and tile works, driers about 6 
 feet high, 8 feet wide and 100 feet long are used, built of 
 brick and iron frame, heated by furnace at one end and below 
 level of ^flooring or by heat passing off from kilns. Tile or 
 brick is put on boards, called ''pallets," placed on racks on 
 cars, and run slowly through this tunnel. Fires are caused 
 here by racks becoming very dry; alternating moisture and 
 heat, and the rapid absorption causes the wood to ignite 
 spontaneously. The lowest pallet becomes heated very 
 rapidly. 
 
 TILLS as applied to stocks refer to wooden drawers or 
 bins. 
 
 TIMBER — Heavy timber resists fire better than small iron 
 columns. When superficially charred, the coating does not 
 necessarily weaken the timber. 
 
 TIN — Recovering tin from used cans. An air-tight masonry 
 room is filled with cans, and warm chlorine gas forced into 
 the room, which unites with tin and forms tin chloride 
 (highly volatile). The gaseous mixture, (free chlorine, air 
 and vapor of tin chloride) passes through a condenser 
 where the tin chloride is separated from the other gases, 
 and by a chemical means, pure tin is precipitated. 
 
 I. C. Tin — This term is used to denote the covering to 
 lock-jointed fire doors. I. C. tin is charcoal iron, i. e., iron 
 with the charcoal removed. 
 
 In sheets, tin will sustain considerable water damage 
 unless each sheet is thoroughly dried immediately after be- 
 coming wet. 
 
 TIN-CLAD FIRE DOORS— See Standard Fire Doors. 
 
 TINCTURE OF IRON and diluted aqua regia, sometimes 
 mixed as a tonic, gives off an explosive gas which has been 
 known to shatter the bottle. 
 
 TINFOIL — Melted pig lead, antimony, and block tin. The 
 alloy is cast in slabs, and rolled out in plates or sheets. The 
 machinery consists of furnaces, heavy and light rolling- 
 machines and cutters, presses for coloring and printing. 
 
"4^ INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 TIN PLATE consists of iron or steel rolled into very thin 
 sheets, coated with a composition of tin and lead. 
 
 TINSMITHS have caused fires in buildings by leaving 
 gasoline torches unattended when lighted. In shops, may 
 use gas-heated soldering mufflers, gasoline torches, sheet- 
 metal cutters; paint, 
 
 TITAN POWDER— A form of dynamite. 
 
 TOBACCO — As a general rule tobacco is very susceptible 
 to smoke and water. Some tobaccos offer practically no 
 salvage as in the case of Sumatra leaf. Havanna filler is 
 tougher and offers more salvage than most other leaves. The 
 damaged leaves, however, have some little value as fertilizer. 
 
 At a recent fire, in a burlap bag risk adjoining a tobacco 
 warehouse, tons of water were poured to drown the fire. The 
 moisture penetrated the walls of the warehouse and a large 
 loss was paid on tobacco. Tobacco should not be stored 
 in basements against the walls of the building. See Cigarette 
 Factories; see Tar Paper Manufacturing. 
 
 TOILET ARTICLES AND PREPARATIONS— Work 
 consists of making cosmetics, face creams, pomades, nail 
 buffers, nail polish, wood, celluloid or metal articles and 
 packing powders. Use cologne spirits, alcohol, glycerine, 
 Russian white oil, vaseline, petrolatum, vegetable oils, and 
 waxes and clay. Hazards of woodworking, metal working, 
 celluloid working, powder grinders, sifters and mixers; 
 stoves for wax and oil heating, benzine for cleaning metal 
 parts, painting and varnishing wooden parts. 
 
 TOLUENE— Coal tar distillate, boils at 230 deg. F. Vat^Or 
 very inflammable, smells like benzine, but not as dangerous 
 to handle. Solvent for fats, rubber and resins. 
 
 TOLUOL — Is a chemical substance. It is the basis of thfe 
 explosive called tri-nitrotoluol, more familiarly known as T. 
 N. T. The Ordnance Department of the United States Army 
 says that this is the best explosive for our use in the war, 
 ks it is manufactured and transported with comparative safety 
 and is a very effective destructive agent. 
 
 The chief source of toluol are the retorts of the ga§ com- 
 panies throughout the country. 
 
 So great is the demand that steps are being taken to begin 
 
TOW i^ 
 
 the recovery of toluol from every gas plant in the Urlited 
 States. 
 
 ] What that means is vital. Tqluol to-day is v^hat gunpow- 
 der was yesterday. Sec Toluene. 
 
 TOOLS AND INSTRUMENTS of all kinds, if polished, 
 are easily damaged by water. Their value, as far as sale 
 is concerned, is thereby lessened. See Hardware; see Cut- 
 lery. 
 
 TOPOGRAPHY OF LAND— Very important to the Un- 
 derwriter in considering surburban or "out of town" prop- 
 erties. All hilly or inaccessible sections should be noted with 
 advices as to whether fire apparatus can reach the risk and 
 fire hydrants adequate, also kind and condition of roads. 
 
 TOW — After such fibres as hemp, jute and the like, are 
 .put through the cleaning process, the residues left are known 
 as tow, a ligneous product used by upholsterers. Tow is 
 dangerous inasmuch as it will glimmer at about 257 deg. F. 
 and therefore one of the most easily kindled of fibres. This 
 material in large piles is apt to give off certain gases during 
 storage, which gases when mixed with dust and ignited 
 by contact with a flame produce a violent explosion. 
 
 TOY CAPS consist of small portions of a mixture of 
 antimony, sulphide, red phosphorous and postassium chlora,te 
 between two layers of paper. They do not ignite spon- 
 taneously. 
 
 TOY TORPEDOES— Contain red phosphorus and 
 chlorates. 
 
 TOYS, (metal) — Manufacturing machine shop hazard with 
 numerous heavy and light stamping presses, cheap paints, 
 soldering, lacquering and japanning. See Celluloid. 
 
 TRACK TORPEDOES— Consist of hollow discs filled 
 with a mixture of sulphur, potassium chlorate and sand or 
 gravel. 
 
 TRADE NAMES often hide the identity of the owners 
 who may have bad fire record or poor financial record. 
 
 TRADE REPORTS— These reports usually assist the Un- 
 derwriter or Examiner to intelligently pass or reject a line. 
 They usually give a brief outline of an assured's business 
 career including failures, antecedents, fires, standing in the 
 
4r0 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 trade and credit. See Blank Rating; also Branch Stores and 
 Mercantile Reports. 
 
 TRAIL — The pipe from the reservoir to the intake of 
 pump; should not be over 25 feet long. 
 
 TRANSEPT — One of the lateral members or projections 
 between the nave and the choir of a church. 
 
 TRANSFORMER— A device acting by induction to lower 
 or raise the voltage of an electric circuit. 
 
 TRANSIT CLAUSE— This clause covers the goods being 
 brought to or from lower floors of a fireproof building to 
 those occupied by the assured. When writing insurance cov- 
 ering contents of a fireproof building (unless sole tenant), 
 underwriters require the floors on which the merchandise 
 is located to be stipulated in the policy. 
 
 TRANSLUCENT FABRIC— Is a wire gauge cloth cov- 
 ered by a layer of solidified linseed oil which penetrates be- 
 tween the meshes. Used for skylights. Process consists 
 of dipping the wire fabric several times into linseed oil until 
 covered to the required thickness. 
 
 TRANSOM — A beam over the opening for a door. Tran- 
 som light is the glass window above. 
 
 TRANSPARENT LEATHER— Ordinary skins are shaved, 
 cleaned, stretched on frames and rubbed with glycerine, 
 salicylic, picric and boric acids. 
 
 TRANSPARENT SOAP— Ordinary soap mixed in hot 
 alcohol. 
 
 TRANSVERSE SECTION— A drawing showing a section 
 across the object. 
 
 TRAPPED — A floor opening is trapped when it has a door 
 which can be raised or lowered so as to completely close 
 the opening. Automatic traps are those held open by rope 
 and fusible link. 
 
 TRAP-ROCK— On account of its strength and its fire-re- 
 sisting properties, is considered the best of the stones for 
 use as aggregate in concrete making. 
 
 TREATY COMPANIES— Re-insurance companies who by 
 agreement accept a percentage of lines taken by a company 
 on any and all kinds of risks. 
 
TRIM 471 
 
 TRESTLE — A braced framework for supporting sprink- 
 ler or water tanks, stringers of bridges, etc. 
 
 TRIATOMIC ALCOHOL— Glycerine. 
 
 TRIM — Woodwork used for wood finish. It is now be- 
 ing replaced by metal-covered or kalameined-covered wood. 
 Wood trim, in fireproof office buildings tends to cause a fire 
 to spread. 
 
 TRIMMER — A short cross timber framed into two joists 
 to sustain the ends of intermediate joints. Example — trim- 
 mer in arch so as to prevent joists from entering the chim- 
 ney breast. 
 
 TRIMMINGS — Most stocks may contain bright colors 
 which run when wet or the goods may be drawn entirely 
 out of shape. Very susceptible. 
 
 TRI-NITRATING is a very hazardous process. 
 
 TRINITRO BENZOL, compound, when dry is a high ex- 
 plosive. When wet with not less than 20 per cent, water 
 and in water-proof containers, may be shipped as inflamma- 
 ble solid. 
 
 TRINITROPHENOL (or picric acid)— A very powerful 
 explosive used in military work under the name of Melinite, 
 Lyddite or Shimmse. (See Nitro Fenzole.) 
 
 TRINITROTOLUOL (T. N. T.)— A pale, yellowish finely 
 crystallized substance somewhat resembling brick dust or 
 powdered rosin, made by treating toluol, one of the lightest 
 distillates of coal tar with strong nitric acid in three suc- 
 cessive operations. It takes fire and burns at about 480 deg. 
 F. When heated by a fire it may explode with tremendous 
 violence. (W. D. Grier.) 
 
 TRIPOLI — Buffing wax, composed of decomposed silica, 
 iron oxide, paraffine, mineral colors, rosin, lamp-black, Vienna 
 lime. This lime is unslaked lime with 40 per cent, magnesia, 
 and is not dangerous. 
 
 TROCHAS SHELLS are imported from Fiji Islands; used 
 for making buttons. 
 
 TROTTER OIL — Made by boiling sheep- feet, called hair 
 oil. 
 
 TRUNKS AND BAGS, (manufacturing)— Use wood, 
 leather, imitation leather, fibreboard or fibre for covering. 
 
471 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Woodworking hazard, glue heating, cabinet work, caul boxes, 
 dry-rooms, veneering; enamelling, japanning, painting, var- 
 nishing, using benzine as thinner; metal working, soldering. 
 Celluloid articles for trunk accessories. Shops are crowded, 
 as a rule. Fire record of class is poor. 
 
 TRUSS — Timbers assembled for supporting purposes. 
 
 TUMBLER (for polishing metal or other wear) is usually 
 a barrel in a horizontal position on an axis with sawdust, 
 carborundum or sand inside. 
 
 TUNG OIL— See Chinese Oil. 
 
 TUNGSTATES of sodium, potassium and molybdenum 
 are used for fireproofing inflammable material. 
 
 TUNGSTEN— A heavy steel-gray metallic element. Used 
 extensively in making incandescent lamps. It is a deposit 
 in rock formation. It is blended with steel for use in armor- 
 plate and projectiles; as a mordant* in dyeing; calico print- 
 ing; fireproofing vegetable fibres; as an alloy with aluminum, 
 copper, nickel, titanium or zirconium; as filaments for electric 
 lamps. 
 
 TURKISH AND OTHER BATHS— The setting of boiler, 
 which is usually high pressure, is important, also clearance 
 of all woodwork around pipes. Majority of buildings are 
 converted dwellings or of similar construction, divided into 
 many small rooms. Hazards are swinging gas brackets, 
 portable gas radiators, smoking by patrons, dormitories. 
 
 TURNOVER — A business term applying to the value of 
 the produce sold. 
 
 TURPENTINE— Distilled from crude resin, the sap ol 
 fir or pine trees. Flashes at 103 or 104 deg. F. When brought 
 in contact with a mixture of muriatic or nitric and sulphuric 
 acids it TAKES FIRE. Adulterated with crude petroleum 
 and benzine. 
 
 An odorless turpentine has been produced from sulphate 
 turpentine, a product in the manufacture of sulphate pulp. 
 Substitute turpentines are usually petroleum distillates with 
 a flash point below 80 deg. F. HHTTOHT 
 
 TURPENTINE (Mineral) — The spirit or most volatile 
 part of the native rock oils, or from artificial parafline pre- 
 pared from coal and shales. Very volatile. 
 
TYPEWRITER INKS 473 
 
 TURPENTINE OIL— Obtained from the resinous exuda- 
 tions from the wood, bark or leaves of pine or fir trees. It 
 is volatile, giving off inflammable vapors at about 95 deg. 
 F. Burns with a smoky flame because it contains consid- 
 erable carbon. 
 
 TURPENTINE TANKS— Several fires have occurred 
 where tanks were being filled with turpentine which was being 
 poured through a brass wire strainer, probably from static 
 electricity. See Static Electricity; see Oil Tanks. 
 
 TURPENTOLE— Distilled from parafiine; highly inflam- 
 mable spirit.,, .. ; 
 
 TURPINO SPIRITS— Flash 112 deg. F.; an acceptable 
 benzine substitute. 
 
 TURPO SPIRITS— Flashes at 98i/4 deg. F. by open 
 
 cup test. Classed as volatile and inflammable. 
 
 TURPOZINE— A substitute for turpentine; has a high 
 flash point. Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 TURPSITINE— Flash 105 deg. F. Classed as non-vola- 
 tile. 
 
 TUXY — The thin ribbon which contains the cordage fibre 
 is known as the tuxy. 
 
 TWIN-BEAMS — Two beams of same dimensions laid side 
 by side on edge. 
 
 TWIN-GIRDER— Same as twin-beam, but larger. 
 
 TWO-WAY HYDRANT OR FIREPLUG— One which 
 has two hose connections. See Siamese. 
 
 TYPE-CLEANING COMPOUNDS— None but approved 
 makes should be used. Many contain naphtha. 
 
 TYPEWRITER INKS, CARBON PAPER AND RIB- 
 BON — Ink factory hazard. Grinding mills for ink, steam 
 kettles, laboratory testing, mills, mixers. Use lard oil, cot- 
 tonseed oil, alcohol, benzine, sulphuric and nitric acids, etc. 
 Ribbon-winding wheels and eyeletting machines, ribbon ink- 
 ers (cold), knitting, looms for weaving, steam baths, drying 
 machines (gas heat), singeing machines (gas blow-pipe ar- 
 rangement), extractor, steam-heated rolling-machines. See 
 Carbon Paper. 
 
u 
 
 UMBRELLA MANUFACTURING— Work consists of 
 making sticks or handles, wire ribs, cementing handles on 
 sticks and covering the frame with fabric. Handle and stick- 
 making involves wood and metal-working and silversmith 
 work. The handles are cemented on sticks with canauba 
 wax, varnished, and the metal parts plated and buffed. The 
 fabric is sewed by hand or power-machines. Sometimes use 
 benzine for removing spots from fabric. Write this class 
 cautiously. 
 
 UNBROKEN AREA— An area with no subdivision walls 
 or fire-resistive partitions, and where fire could have a full 
 sweep. See Area of a Building. 
 
 UNDERGROUND WORK— See Contractors. 
 
 UNDERMINE— To excavate beneath anything. This 
 work is going on continually in subway-building. 
 
 UNDER-PIN— Add to the height of a wall already con- 
 structed by excavating and building beneath. Also to intro- 
 duce additional support of any kind beneath anything already 
 completed. See Builder's Risk. 
 
 UNDERTAKERS— Good risks, if well established. In- 
 spectors should report on casket-lining, stuffing, embalming 
 and varnishing. They use a small amount of muriatic, acetic 
 and sulphuric acids, alcohol, and formaldehyde in embalm- 
 ing work. 
 
 UNDERWRITER— One who authorizes the lines the 
 company will accept, and passes on the business taken by 
 the countermen. Should be thoroughly acquainted with con- 
 struction, hazards and losses. See Map Clerk. 
 
 UNDERWRITERS' LABORATORIES— Tests are made 
 to establish the relative fire strength of materials and de- 
 vices for insurance purposes. It is an institution supported 
 by stock fire insurance companies of the United States. In- 
 
 474 
 
UNDERWRITING 475 
 
 spection is also made at the shops of manufacturers and 
 labels issued by the Underwriters' Laboratories as evidence 
 of compliance with standards are affixed to the appliances. 
 
 UNDERWRITING— Increase of lines and resulting pre- 
 mium, rather than indiscriminate cancellations, is what pays. 
 An ideal risk is scarce, and with proper regard of hazard and 
 line, the best underwriter is one who uses good judgment 
 in selection rather than wholesale declinations. Look at the 
 risk from the average of its class. 
 
 Successful underwriting requires knowledge of hazards 
 and construction from personal inspection, familiarity with 
 local conditions, fire and loss costs o£ various classes of risks, 
 the adequacy of rates, trade conditions, and common sense. 
 
 Conditions and hazards in all manufacturing processes 
 change, usually for the better, as years advance and a more 
 intimate knowledge is had, and a more minute study of pro- 
 cesses is made, to reduce producing costs. Probably the best 
 example of this is in the shoe industry. Only a short time 
 ago this class was tabooed by most underwriters on account 
 of the fire record of the class. The manufacturers were 
 charged very high rates and only small lines were written 
 by individual companies. With increased knowledge as to 
 hazards, such as the handling of rubber cement and benzine, 
 cutting-board scrapings, etc., the hazards and also the fire 
 loss and rates were greatly reduced. Breweries and wood- 
 workers were in the same class. They now show a profit in 
 underwriting. See Upper Floor Contents; also Accommoda- 
 tion Line; see Authorizations; also Average Risk. 
 
 UNDISCLOSED INTERESTS, such as "for account of 
 whom it may concern," etc., should always be investigated 
 before line is passed. See Enemy Alien. 
 
 UNEARNED PREMIUM— That portion of the premium 
 which is returned to the insured in case of cancellation of 
 the policy. It represents the premium for interim between 
 the date of cancellation and date of expiration of the policy. 
 
 UNIT SYSTEM of construction is making each building 
 and each floor of each building a separate fire risk. 
 
 UNIVERSAL MACHINE— A woodworking machine of 
 patented type capable of performing different kinds of work. 
 
476 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 In general, they are a combination of jointers and borers 
 with mandrels for saws. Produce considerable refuse and 
 should have blower attachments. 
 
 UNOCCUPIED OR VACANT BUILDINGS. Such build- 
 ings rapidly depreciate in value. Those without caretakers, 
 especially if located outside of protection, are not considered 
 favorably by most companies. Tramps or mischievous boys 
 may gain access and set fire to the building. See Vacancy. 
 
 UNPROTECTED IRON— See Steel (for protection). 
 
 UPPER FLOOR CONTENTS— Those above the reach of 
 fire departments should be written cautiously. Hose streams 
 can hardly be expected to be effective above the sixth floor, 
 consequently firemen usually rely on the standpipe system in 
 the building for upper floor fires, See Stocks. 
 
 USNIC ACID— A yellow dye material. 
 
 USE AND OCCUPANCY INSURANCE is usually in- 
 tended to protect the assured against the loss of the use of 
 premises, also to cover net annual profits, general main- 
 tenance cost to the extent of taxes, heating and lighting, and 
 legal liability for royalties and salaries or. wages which may 
 not be discontinued by reason of an interruption of business 
 by fire. This class of business is intended for manufacturing 
 concerns; mercantile establishments usually carry profit 
 insurance. Use and occupancy insurance is somewhat diffi- 
 cult to understand unless you make a specialty of this form 
 of coverage. It is desirable that the words "not exceeding" 
 appear before the amount per day to be agreed upon so that 
 the form will not be a "valued" one; also that the words "if 
 the property mentioned is destroyed by fire" instead of "if the 
 firm is destroyed by fire." The reason for the above being 
 to cover only the property mentioned in the policy, as the 
 firm may have a fire in another location which would in turn 
 affect their use and occupancy. Should the assured, while 
 their building is untenantable as the result of fire, conduct 
 their business at another location the loss to the insurance 
 company would be correspondingly less, because the profits 
 made by the assured at their temporary quarters could be 
 deducted when final adjustment is made, and this feature 
 should be incorporated in policy forms. 
 
USE AND OCCUPANCY INSURANCE 477 
 
 It is well to avoid risks that are not well established and 
 managed or those manufacturing "fads" or catering to a tem- 
 porary trade. Summer resort hotels, concessions at sum- 
 mer parks, seasonable business, hotels located on roads which 
 are becoming less popular with motorists or situated in lo- 
 calities which have lost their prestige are poor for use and 
 occupancy insurance. In the case of seasonable trades, the 
 fire may occur during a dull season and the fire damage be 
 entirely repaired before the busy season has resumed. If the 
 concern carries use and occupancy insurance, the companies 
 might be obliged to pay the claim even though no actual loss 
 through use and occupancy had resulted. In seasonable 
 risks, some forms specify a larger amount for busy months 
 and only a nominal amount for dull months. The following 
 would be a good use and occupancy proposition: A clock 
 factory of good mill construction, modern machinery, raw 
 materials being mainly brass goods, and easily obtainable; 
 duplicate power system; boilers in fireproof section cutoff by 
 approved fire doors. A line of $24,000 insurance offered would 
 be. divided by 300 working days which equals $80 per day. 
 On account of the good construction and splendid arrange- 
 ment of the factory with duplicate power plant, cutoff boiler 
 room, and raw materials easily obtainable, this plant would 
 probably be in operation again inside of 30 days. 
 
 In some cases the building and contents of a plant may not 
 be desirable as a fire risk and yet may be a good use and oc- 
 cupancy risk; as for instance, a large one-story frame planing 
 mill would not appeal to most underwriters as a fire risk on 
 account of probably suffering a total loss and yet the use and 
 occupancy might only suffer a 20 per cent. loss. The build- 
 ing could be erected and all machinery, being modern and 
 purchasable near the risk, be set up inside of two months. 
 The following are examples of poor use and occupancy prop- 
 ositions: $200 a day on use and occupancy of a hotel having 
 150 rooms at $2 per room, decline unless the amount is $300 a 
 day, i. e., 150 times $2.00 for each room. Another case of 
 note was the recent fire in a lace paper factory in Brooklyn 
 where a small fire put the boiler and engine room and a few 
 6f the imported dies out of commission, with the result that 
 
476 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 the manufacturing was stopped for about two months. The 
 loss on the building and contents did not amount to over 
 $1,000, while the use and occupancy loss amounted to eight 
 times that figure. Use and occupancy insurance is written 
 very cautiously during war times on account of shortage of 
 labor and inability to receive raw materials and machinery 
 except after considerable delay. 
 
 The principal features to be considered are construction; 
 whether sprinklered or not, nature of occupancy; average 
 daily output, idle periods, market favorable for steady oper- 
 ation, future outlook, would assured hasten to resume oper- 
 ations, arrangement for any other plant to produce output, 
 special processes, processes in duplicate, specially made or 
 foreign machinery or dies, source of raw materials, power 
 plant in duplicate, would a small fire cripple entire plant or 
 could part of the work continue, length of time it would take 
 to replace any portion of plant. 
 
 Only competent underwriters should accept Use and Oc- 
 cupancy business. 
 
 William H. Gartside of the National Fire in a recent ad- 
 dress to the Examiners' Club of Chicago — ''When we cover 
 the use and occupancy of a manufacturing plant," said Mr. 
 Gartside, "we are covering a more or less intangible some- 
 thing, the characteristics and features of which are not as 
 plain to the underwriters as are the physical aspects of the 
 risk. The value of a building, machinery and stock may be 
 fairly judged from an inspection, but who can tell what the 
 value of the plant is as a producer? 
 
 "Two plants with physical values approximately the same 
 may vary widely from the standpoint of productivity or 
 profit, and in a large degree it is necessary to rely on the 
 owner's figures as to the use and occupancy value. 
 
 "That is one reason why some companies restrict their 
 lines to well-established firms and individuals of good finan- 
 cial standing who have demonstrated their ability to conduct 
 their business profitably." 
 
 Increases the Moral Hazard — He thinks that use and oc- 
 cupancy insurance is more apt to increase than decrease 
 the moral hazard. It is human nature to lose the sense 
 
USE AND OCCUPANCY INSURANCE 479 
 
 of responsibility as the penalty for failure to exercise that 
 sense lessens, and the man who is so completely insured that 
 he cannot lose by any fire is likely to be less vigilant than 
 the man who will have a material loss regardless of the 
 amount of insurance collected. 
 
VACANCY — A building is vacant when all movable prop- 
 erty has been removed except that belonging to the building 
 proper. It is unoccupied when no one is living in it (in 
 case of a dwelling), even if some of the furniture remains 
 or building is in hands of a caretaker. Vacant buildings 
 should always be inspected to see if they are clean and in 
 charge of a watchman. When located outside of protection, 
 they are not considered attractive fire risks. A burglar haz- 
 ard is present when no watchman is employed. Thieves re- 
 move lead pipe and fittings, brass, etc., and sometimes rig 
 up a melting furnace by connecting to the gas supply pipe 
 with a rubber tube. See Unoccupied or Vacant Buildings. 
 
 VACANT LOTS (not enclosed) are not a serious menace 
 to surrounding property if kept clean. Those enclosed or 
 partly enclosed by fences are usually "hangouts" for boys 
 and men wh.o are apt to commit acts of depredation, such 
 as building bon-fires, etc. Where lots adjoin tenements, they 
 are apt to become the depository of rubbish thrown by ten- 
 ants. Fires communicate to cellars of risks through areaway 
 windows or doors. See Wagons; also Rear Yards. 
 
 VACUUM OIL— See Hydrocarbon. 
 
 VALERIANIC ACID— A colorless, oily liquid, not inflam- 
 mable. 
 
 VALLEY — The space between two inclined sides of a 
 roof. 
 
 VALUATION OF BUILDINGS— Thumb rule for finding 
 the approximate valuation of buildings in normal times. The 
 following figures should be increased approximately 30 per 
 cent, at the present time. 
 
 Frame, 10 to 15 cents per cubic foot. 
 
 Brick, 18 to 25 cents per cubic foot (stores and dwellings, 
 6 stories or under). 
 
 480 
 
VALUATION OF BUILDINGS; i-n Ml 
 
 .! "Brick, 18 to 20 cents per cubic foot (lofts). 
 if'iFireproof, 25 to 30 cents per cubic foot (lofts). 
 
 Fireproof, 30 to 40 cents per cubic foot (theaters). 
 
 Fireproof, 35 to 50 cents per cubic foot (apartment houses, 
 ^t^tels, office buildings). a a^W^^SS^.q HJ^A 
 
 Example: A brick store and dwelling. , Frpnt, 36 feet 
 multiplied by 85 feet (depth) equals 3060 square feet, times 
 height, 60 feet (10 feet to a story including basement of 5- 
 story building), equals 18360 cubic feet. At 18 cents per 
 cubic foot, the cost would be $33,048. Note— In New York 
 City, "New Law" tenements may occupy not over 85 per 
 cent, of area of building lot, which is usually 100 feet deep; 
 hence 85 feet depth as above. See Depreciation; also Sal- 
 vage. 
 
 VALUE OF A LEASE— See Leasehold Insurance. 
 
 VALUED POLICY — A contract where no co-insurance is 
 required and the company accepts the amount of insurance 
 as the value of the property. Horses and paintings are 
 usually written under a valued form. See Profits. 
 
 VALUES — One of the important features to be ascer- 
 tained before the underwriter assumes liability on a risk. 
 
 VALUES OF BUILDINGS— When prices of building ma- 
 terials rise and thereby increase the cost of replacing same 
 in case of fire, the value of buildings increase and the insur- 
 ance should be increased proportionately to maintain the 
 ratio to co-insurance. See Depreciation; see Salvage. 
 
 VALVES — Various devices. for permitting or stopping at 
 pleasure the flow of water, steam, gas, etc. i; 
 
 Valve, O. S. & Y. (meaning outside screw and yoke)^- 
 The approved gate valve for sprinkler equipments. The dis-^ 
 tance the stem projects, indicates at a glance exactly the dis- 
 tance- it is open. See Sprinklers; see Gate Valve. 
 
 Valves (control) — On a sprinkler equipment should be kept 
 open with a leather strap, with ends sealed so that the valve 
 cannot be closed without breaking tiie seal. They are placed 
 on feed lines on each floor or each section of a risk, so that 
 water can be shut off from small areas in case of accident. 
 
 VANADIUM STEEL is steel that has been treated with 
 vanadium — a semi-rare mineral, which washes the molten 
 
♦82 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Steel of its impurities, bringing the molecules closer together, 
 giving them greater adhesiveness and making the resultant 
 product infinitely tougher and stronger. 
 
 VAPOR-PROOF GLOBES— See Open Arc-lights. 
 
 VARIABLE PRESSURE ALARM VALVE (working of) 
 When the v^ater flows just slightly, the check valve partly 
 rises and some of the water flows through a small pipe con- 
 nected to a long receptable known as a "niggerhead" cham- 
 ber. If this is only a temporary flow the water will only go 
 about one-half or one-quarter way up this chamber and will 
 find its way out of the chamber by means of a disk valve; 
 but should the check valve completely open (as in case of 
 fire) the water will immediately fill the chamber and travel 
 up to the "niggerhead" at top and bend the diaphragm, 
 causing an electrical circuit, thereby sending in an alarm to 
 headquarters or allowing water to ring the water motor 
 alarm and at the same time the diaphragm will close the 
 drip valve. See Sprinkler Equipment. 
 
 VARIETY STORES— Stock is very susceptible. Consid- 
 erable packing material is used. Financial standing of firms 
 is important, as they cannot buy to advantage in the open 
 market in competition with large firms. See Five and Ten- 
 Cent Stores. 
 
 VARNISH is composed of three essential ingredients: 
 Gum to give hardness and lustre, oil to impart elasticity, a 
 solvent or thinner to keep it in a liquid state and dryer 
 usually composed of lead and manganese. It is invariably 
 added to' the oil before the varnish is made and varies ac- 
 cording to the kind necessary to produce required results. 
 Fossil gums are used for the best varnishes; and are the 
 hardened sap of trees that lived thousands of years ago. The 
 gum known as kauri is the chief and most widely used. The 
 oils for varnish are made chiefly of linseed and china oils, 
 specially prepared and well aged. The solvent is chiefly tur- 
 pentine. In the manufacture of varnish, the varnish-maker 
 first melts the gum over a coke fire in a copper kettle. When 
 the gum is properly melted, the oil which is hot having been 
 separately heated, is added. After adding the oil, the gum 
 and oil are heated together until the two are uniformly com- 
 
VARNISH 483 
 
 bined, when the kettle is withdrawn from the fire. The kettle 
 is next taken to the thinning room where the mixture is al- 
 lowed to cool to a certain temperature and the thinner (ben- 
 zine or turpentine) or solvent added (called reducing). After 
 thinning, the varnish is pumped through a pipe to a vat or 
 cooler where, in addition to cooling, it settles and becomes 
 clearer. From the cooler the varnish is passed through a 
 filter press, which removes all the dirt and foreign matter. 
 The varnish is next pumped to the ageing tanks where it is 
 allowed to thoroughly ripen. This ageing makes the varnish 
 bright and clear. Filter cloths are cleaned with caustic soda, 
 but sometimes with benzine. Filter cloths in piles, unless 
 clean, might ignite spontaneously. — Pratt and Lambert. 
 
 Some varnishes have a flash point below 80 deg. F. 
 
 Spirit Varnish is made by dissolving resin in methyllated 
 spirit or other volatile solvent. 
 
 VARNISH AND PAINT REMOVERS— Consist of a wax 
 dissolved in benzol and gelatinized by an alcoholic or ke- 
 tonic body, usually wood alcohol. Flash point same as gaso- 
 line, but on account of wax used (to prevent evaporation) 
 the flash point is not considered as dangerous except when 
 in use by workmen. 
 
 VARNISH WORKS— If a fire occurs in the boiling house, 
 the doors opposite the fires should be opened. This will 
 create a draft, which will suck the flames up the brick stacks 
 and prevent the fire spreading to the balance of the plant. 
 If the thinning and boiling buildings are detached, without 
 communication, the class ought to be profitable. 
 
 VARNOLENE — A benzine substitute approved by Under- 
 writers. 
 
 VAULT — A compartment of brick, concrete or similar ma- 
 terial used for storage of records, paints, etc. See Bank 
 Vaults. 
 
 VAULT LIGHTS— Usually small, heavy bull's-eye glass 
 in heavy iron frames. 
 
 VAULTS FOR SHAVINGS or other refuse should be of 
 fireproof construction and located outside of main building 
 w^ith communicating openings as small as possible. Doors 
 
«4 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 to same should be standard, tight-fitting and automatically 
 arranged. See Shaving Vault; also Direct Feed. 
 
 VEGETABLE ALBUMEN, if wet will form a jelly like 
 the white of an egg. Unless immediately dried will be total 
 loss. Used chiefly in medicine. 
 
 VEGETABLE IVORY— Made from Tanqua nuts. Used 
 mainly for making buttons. 
 
 VEGETABLE OILS are extracted by hydraulic pressure 
 after cooking, or by what is known as the bisulphide of car- 
 bon or mineral naphtha process. Naphtha is put in a steam- 
 heated receptacle with the material which has been previously 
 crushed. This digester is sealed up, allowed to remain for a 
 while, the liquid is drawn off and the naphtha vapor passed 
 out through a condenser. Electric lights and steam-heat 
 should be used because in case of accident, the naphtha vapors 
 may escape into the room and be ignited if any open flame 
 is present. They are more hazardous than mineral oils as 
 they have an affinity for oxygen and dry quicker by the ab- 
 sorption of the oxygen. Animal oil, unless rancid, is not 
 apt to cause spontaneous combustion, but all oil-soaked sub- 
 stances should be treated as hazardous. See Mineral Oil. 
 
 Vegetable Waxes such as those extracted from candelila 
 plant are being widely used. Candelila wax is used in mak- 
 ing candles, phonograph records, wood and leather polishes, 
 floor wax, varnish, linoleum, rubber compounds and cellu- 
 loid, also for electrical insulating compounds. 
 
 VELLUM — Parchment made of suckling calves' hides. 
 
 VELOCITY — The rate of motion or the degree of quick- 
 ness with which an object rrioves. 
 
 VELOCITY OF EXPLOSION— See Explosion and Ex- 
 plosive. 
 
 The heat and gas evolved are the two principal factors 
 which govern the power of an explosive, i. e., the amount of 
 work it can do in the way of displacing objects. But the 
 time taken by the explosion is also a matter of great im- 
 portance. The rate of explosion is measured by making a 
 column of the explosive, confining it if necessary in a metal 
 tube, and measuring the time that the explosive wave takes 
 to travel a known distance. In black powder and similar 
 
OKI: VENEER 48S 
 
 nitrate mixtures the velocity of explosion is only a few hun- 
 dred metres a second but with modern high explosives the 
 velocity of detonation is from two to seven thousand metres 
 a second. This naturally makes them much more violent and 
 destructive. Explosives of the gunpowder type are used 
 when earth or soft rock is to be blasted or when the material 
 must not be broken up too much. — A. Marshall. 
 
 VELVET BEANS— A product of Florida, used as a for- 
 age crop and for fertilizer. A growing industry is that of 
 converting the beans into meal. They are dried and ground 
 in machines similar to a disc cottonseed huller, and also in 
 a velvet bean "beater." The former cracks the pods and the 
 latter cut them up. The meal is collected in hoppers, sacked 
 and shipped. The machines used should have magnets to 
 catch metallic substances. The beans do not burn readily and 
 are only remotely subject to spontaneous combustion, 
 whether whole or ground. 
 
 VELVETEENS are easily damaged by water. 
 
 VENEER — Made by sawing lumber into thin slices, or by 
 turning off the veneer from short lengths of logs which have 
 been previously soaked or steamed in vats. The lathes used 
 in the latter process are of heavy type with automatic fea- 
 tures for turning the log slowly and at the same time ad- 
 vancing the cutting blade against the log. Other processes 
 may include gluing and pressing the veneer upon a backing, 
 drying and filling, varnishing. The hazards are those of 
 woodworking. Stocking susceptible to fire and water dam- 
 age, as these elements will destroy or cause the veneer to 
 warp. 
 
 VEJNTILATING SHAFTS— Should be enclosed in a stan- 
 dard manner, and have thin glass skylights. Those opening 
 to toilets should have standard louvres. See Pipe Shafts; see 
 Illustration on page 486. 
 
 VENTURES— See New Ventures. 
 
 VERANDAS — Enclosed porches if continuous along rows 
 of buildings, act as communications. 
 
 VERMILLION — A red pigment consisting of powdered 
 cinnabar, or red sulphate of mercury. 
 
 VIBRATION OF BUILDINGS— Buildings, large or small. 
 
486 
 
 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 vibrate like a tuning fork whenever a heavy train passes by 
 or a storm beats against the structure. Accidents from vi- 
 bration are rare as it is well understood and guarded against. 
 The most violent are felt in the low buildings rather than the 
 
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VOLATILE SOLVENTS 487 
 
 high ones, and, as a rule, those of solid construction with 
 masonry walls and foundations. The pulsations are regis- 
 tered and recorded on a delicate instrument such as records 
 earthquakes, a movement of 1-100 of an inch being noticeable. 
 
 VINEGAR (cider or apple) — The product made by the al- 
 coholic and subsequent acetous fermentation of the juice of 
 apples. Wine or grape vinegar, same as above, only made 
 from the juice of grapes. Imitation vinegar consists of a 
 diluted solution of acetic acid. 
 
 VINEGAR AND YEAST WORKS— They are usually 
 combined processes. Yeast is made from grain, beet pulp, 
 malt sprouts, corn sugar, beet meal and similar ingredients. 
 They are milled, mashed, cooked, fermented, germinated, 
 filtered, dried, pressed into cakes. Vinegar is fermented from 
 spirits and beech shavings and such other ingredients as the 
 manufacture may add. Hazards are in some respects similar 
 to breweries, including malt milling. Twenty per cent, proof 
 spirits are usually distilled from grain for use in the process. 
 Incidental hazards of barrel painting and re-coopering. The 
 alcohol stills require good ventilation to the outer air. 
 
 VISCOL — Used in shoe factories as rubber substitute. A 
 water proof dressing for dressing leather. Thinned with pe- 
 troleum oil or benzine. In liquid form classed as benzine 
 hazard. Dipping should be done in detached building. 
 
 VISCOLOID— A trade name for celluloid. 
 
 VOLATILE ESSENTAL OILS— Are oils of turpentine, 
 camphor and the like. See Essential Oils. 
 
 VOLATILE OILS— If in doubt as to whether an oil is 
 volatile or not, place a small amount on the finger or hand. 
 If it dries very quickly, consider it volatile. See Benzine or 
 Gasoline. 
 
 VOLATILE SOLVENTS— Ether, carbon bisulphide, gaso- 
 line, acetone, benzol, flavoring or fruit ethers, ethyl chloride, 
 naphtha, benzine. 
 
 The hazard depends largely on the flash point or tempera- 
 ture at which the volatile solvents begin to give off inflam- 
 mable vapors. All the above named are highly inflammable 
 ,nd evolve inflammable vapors at temperatures from below 
 'reezing point up to 80 deg. F. 
 
 I^Kand < 
 I^Hfreezi 
 
 H 
 
488 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 The less hazardous solvents amyl alcohol, fusel oil, wood- 
 alcohol, grain alcohol, amyl acetate, turpentine and kerosene 
 are all inflammable, and some of them have low flash points 
 and are capable of generating inflammable vapors at tem- 
 peratures of from 60 to 120 deg, F. — W. D. Grier. 
 
 VOLATILITY— A property of bodies by which they are 
 disposed to assume the state of vapor and dissipate on the 
 application of heat, whether natural or artificial. 
 
 VOLT — The electrical unit of pressure. See Amperes; also 
 Electrical Terms. 
 
 VOMITORIES are short, intermediate exit passages con- 
 necting to the larger or main exitway. Used in theaters be- 
 tween main aisles of balconies to facilitate exit and for con- 
 venience. 
 
 VULCANIZERS— The same rule applies as to the setting 
 of gas stoves. Gas heat is penalized, no matter how safely 
 arranged, because gas heat at an appliance where rubber ce- 
 ment is used is considered dangerous. Steam heat is ap- 
 proved. 
 
 VULCANIZING — Cementing two or more pieces of rub- 
 ber together to form a compact mass. High temperature 
 steam or gas-heated machines of various designs are used. 
 
w 
 
 WAFERS AND CONES (ice cream cones)— The hazards 
 are gas-heated bakers, mixers, automatic wafer and cone- 
 baking machines. The cones are made up in winter for sum- 
 mer trade. The largest stock is on hand in March. The 
 busiest season January to March, but the plants start active 
 production in October. The machines are of several types, 
 flat-rotating, pan-revolving (operated by hand) sheet wafer, 
 and large automatic cone bakers. The gas heat is directed 
 on the moulds from inside burners. The dough is poured on 
 the moulds, and baked in one revolution of the baker. An 
 operator at each machine scrapes off the charred baked 
 dough from the edges of the wafer or cone and the charred 
 parts fall to the floor. In low setting bakers, the scraps ac- 
 cumulate under the baker and are frequently blazing piles. 
 All baking machines should set on at least six inches of con- 
 crete. Baffle plates, although advocated by most rating bu- 
 reaus, under machines, tend to bank up the burning scraps 
 and should be omitted. Over the large bakers, there should 
 be a metal ventilated hood, the same as over a range, to 
 carry the heated air to the outside. Paper box making, ma- 
 chine shop for repairs, printing labels and pasting labels are 
 incidental hazards. This class has a bad fire record. 
 
 WAFERS (cocoanut) — Hazards are similar to ordinary 
 bakery. Glucose is heated in kettle with cocoanut, cooled 
 on marble slab, toasted in gas or coal ovens. Note the kind 
 of heat used for kettles and ovens. 
 
 WAGONS in open yards arc good insurance if the yard is 
 fenced in, and the neighborhood is free from rowdies. Open 
 trucks are preferable to closed wagons because they ofifer 
 no concealment to trespassers. See Vacant Lots. 
 
 WAINSCOT — A wood facing to walls in rooms, extend- 
 ing from floor. 
 
 489 
 
490 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 WALLS — Several important considerations enter into the 
 construction of walls. The first is the nature of occupancy 
 of the structure bearing in mind that at some future time 
 the occupancy may radically change. The wall must be suf- 
 ficiently thick to safely carry a maximum live or dead load, 
 to stand upright to resist wind pressure and vibration and 
 form a solid fire wall especially where there is an adjoining 
 building. See Fire Wall. 
 
 Walls — For the warehouse class of buildings should be 
 common brick as follows: Twelve inches if not over 40 feet 
 high. If over 40 feet high require 16 inches for first 40 
 feet, and 12 inches above up to a height of not exceeding 60 
 feet. If over 60 feet, 20 inches for 25 feet and 16 inches 
 the balance up to 75 feet. If over 75 feet, 24 inches for 40 
 feet, then 20 inches for 35 feet, and 16 inches the balance up 
 to 100 feet. If over 100 feet, 28 inches for 40 feet, then 24 
 inches for 35 feet, then 20 inches for 25 feet and 16 inches 
 balance up to 125 feet. If over 125 feet, 32 inches for 30 feet, 
 then 24 inches for 35 feet, then 20 inches for 35 feet and 
 balance 16 inches to 150 feet high. See Bearing Wall. 
 
 WALL CHIMNEY— A chimney built into and forming 
 part of a wall. See Bracket Chimney; also Corbel. 
 
 WALL COVERINGS— Some are made of oxidized linseed 
 oil, Swedish clay, wood flour, chrome and earth colors, paraf- 
 fine, lithopone, or similar materials. Mixed dry, passed 
 through calender, spread over and pasted to paper backing. 
 Surface is polished with linseed oil and turpentine. 
 
 WALL-HYDRANT or fire plug. One set against or close 
 to a wall, connected with a supply pipe through or under the 
 wall. 
 
 WALL PAPER DEALERS AND HANGERS— Busiest 
 months, July to October. Unless stock is turned over an- 
 nually, there is apt to be considerable shop-worn stock, and 
 out-of-date patterns on hand. 
 
 WALL PAPER — Finishing Process — Paper is varnished in 
 "varnishing and printing" machine by passing the paper over 
 a rubber-covered drum, coated with benzine or turpentine- 
 thinned varnish, which deposits a thin coat of varnish on the 
 paper. Paper then passes by means of a traveling belt over 
 
WAR CONDITIONS 401 
 
 steam pipes to dry, and carried in festoons a long distance, 
 being thoroughly dried before being removed at far end. 
 A ventilator, with a suction fan is located over the steam 
 pipes, which sucks the benzine or turpentine vapors to the 
 outer air. Static electricity is often produced in this proc- 
 ess if paper is passed too close to the metal ventilator. The 
 hazards consist of color-mixing, using clay, glue, lard and oil; 
 drying and embossing. Inspectors should note color room, 
 glue heaters, machine shop, sample book making, care of 
 waste and storage of oils. Fires in this class are usually 
 Very severe. 
 
 WALL PLATE— Timber laid along the tops of walls for 
 the roof trusses or rafters to rest upon so as to distribute 
 their weight more equally upon the wall. See Template. - 
 
 WALL SIZING — Consists of caustic soda, soda ash, tap- 
 ioca flour, cornstarch, dextrine, neutral salts, gum arabic 
 and dry soap powder. Grinding, mixing, sifting and packing- 
 are the important hazards. 
 
 WALNUTS— See Nuts. 
 
 "WAR CONDITIONS"— Constitute the great outstand- 
 ing cause for the high loss record. These conditions must 
 be classified as due to — 
 
 (a) Malice, to inflict damage from hostile motives or to 
 cripple war supplies. This has been a very serious factor, 
 affecting particularly grain depots, waterfront properties, 
 lumber, tobacco, factory and warehouse risks. 
 
 (b) Fires occasioned by the high pressure under which 
 the work of production and distribution has been rushed 
 and which has been the direct cause of large factory and 
 pier fires, including many sprinklered risks of large values. 
 With this should be included the menace of employment of 
 masses of untrained, inefficient help on technical processes. 
 
 (c) Fires and explosions resulting as an inevitable con- 
 sequence of the handling of vast quantities of explosive and 
 inflammable materials of which the Kingsland, N. J., and the 
 Halifax explosions and conflagrations -are typical instances. 
 — (Frank Lock.) See Guards. 
 
 WAR RISK INSURANCE can be written under two 
 forms, limited and broad. The limited form covers losses 
 
402 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 caused by war, invasion, insurrection, riot, civil war, civil 
 commotion, including strikes, military or usurped power, bom- 
 bardment and for explosion directly caused by any of the 
 hazards mentioned. The broad forms affords protection 
 against all of the hazards covered by explosion and war 
 risk policies. 
 
 WAREHOUSE, PRIVATE— One where the contents are 
 owned by an individual or a corporation who agrees to cer- 
 tain specifications laid down by local rating bureaus. 
 
 WAREHOUSES— Bonded warehouse is one where the 
 goods are stored under government bond or control and 
 from which goods cannot be removed until certain govern- 
 ment requirements have been complied with. See Storage 
 Warehouses. See Alphabetical List; see Fibre Warehouses; 
 also Wharf Clause. 
 
 Listed Storage Stores are divided into two classes: fibre 
 and non-fibre, a distinction made to denote those which store 
 cotton and other vegetable fibres and those which do not. 
 In turn, non-fibre warehouses are dividjed into stipulated and 
 non-stipulated and chemical warehotisesITiCT/iOO 5IAVv"" 
 
 Stipulated Warehouse will not accept certain merchandise 
 and chemicals. For instance, ammonia, benzine, chlorates, 
 etc., must be stored in a non-stipulated store. 
 
 Non-stipulated warehouse will accept, in addition to what 
 is allowed to be stored in a listed store, such chemicals and 
 merchandise which is not allowed in a stipulated warehouse. 
 Warehousemen sign an agreement stipulating that, they will 
 not store any fibre (in case of non-fibre warehouse) and to ex- 
 clude from their premises explosives and all drugs of a poi- 
 sonous or nauseous character. Non-stipulated warehouses 
 may store any kind of goods except fibre. See Chemical 
 Warehouses. : 
 
 WARP in weaving is the threads which are extended 
 lengthwise in the loom and crossed by the woof. 
 
 WASHING POWDERS usually contain soap powder, soda 
 ash and fine sand. 
 
 WASH-TUBS— Usually made from soapstone, called Al- 
 berene (taken from the name of the town from which the 
 stone is quarried). 
 
WATER 4*3 
 
 mWASTE (cotton) if clean, i^;i^.t , subject to spontaneous 
 .combustion. See Oily Waste. f-.>-> y,...;! .,, 
 
 WASTE CANS (for oily waste or rags) provide a metal 
 can well riveted and with legs or rims holding bottom off 
 the floor, and the cover with a short spring or bar to keep 
 the lid off center so as to keep the can normally closed. For 
 rubbish or ashes, provide a metal can with metal rim at bot- 
 tom, so as to keep the base off the floor, and a metal coyer. 
 
 WASTE-PAPER STOCKS are prolific fire breeders. A 
 K. O. class with most insurance companies, 
 
 WATCHMAN AND CLOCK— Rounds are made hourly 
 nights from 6 P. M. to 6 A. M. and during the day on Sun- 
 days, holidays, and all idle periods. The clock must be ap- 
 proved bytlie underwriters. Central stati6h^supervisio'h'^re- 
 f erred. '; 
 
 WATCH OIL— Obtained from the dolphin, walrus, black- 
 fish, snuffer, or shark. 
 
 WATER — The total amount of water used in la'rg^ 'fires, 
 is not as great as frequently thought. A fire, for example, 
 requiring ten streams for five hours would use 750,000 gal- 
 lons. However, the rate of draft for fire fighting is fre- 
 quently high in comparison with the ordinary consumption. 
 Three standard fire streams discharging 750 gallons per 
 minute use water at a rate of a little more than a million 
 gallons a day, and ten streams means a rate of flow of about 
 three and one-half million gallons per twenty-four hours. 
 Pipe sizes must, of course, be proportioned for the maximum 
 rate of demand which any fire is likely to cause. — French. 
 See Tables. 
 
 . WATER CURTAINS— See Open Sprinklers. 
 , WATER GAS — A process in which the main volume of 
 gas, consisting of hydrogen; is taken out of the water. The 
 process* in brief, is: Steam is passed through retorts filled 
 with anthracite coal raised to a white heat by the air blast. 
 In its passage it is decomposed and the gas coming from 
 the pipes at the top consists of a mixture of hydrogen and 
 carbon dioxide. This serves as the carrier for the true il- 
 luminating agents which are a comparatively small percent- 
 age of the entire volume, and these are combined by mingling 
 
494 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 with naphtha vapor. This mixture has now about the same 
 composition as ordinary coal gas, but must be fixed — that is, 
 made a staple compound by subjecting it to the effect of 
 heat and cold. This is accomplished by conducting it through 
 two series of pipes, surrounded in one case by cold running 
 water and the other by steam. It is then purified in the 
 same manner as mentioned. By passing it through a water- 
 tower loosely filled with material such as charcoal, down 
 through which water trickles as the gaseous vapor ascends, 
 the ammonia is dissolved; then, passing it through thin 
 layers of lime, the other main impurity, sulphureted hydro- 
 gen, is removed. It is then ready for distribution through 
 the city. 
 
 WATER-HAMMER in water pipes may best be overcome 
 by introducing devices which compel the slow opening and 
 closing of cocks and valves. 
 
 WATER HEATERS— See Heaters. 
 
 WATER JACKET— A device to prevent combustibles 
 from flowing on a naked flame. See Jacketed. 
 
 WATER PUTS OUT FIRE (HOW)— In order to under- 
 stand this, we must first know what fire is and what keeps 
 it burning. 
 
 Fire is a form of chemical combustion in which flames 
 make their appearance. There may be combustion or burn- 
 ing without flame, although not without heat. When a body 
 becomes heated from any cause and wastes away, turning 
 into something else (as smoke or ashes), it is said to under- 
 go combustion. 
 
 In the process of combustion or burning there must always 
 be at least two things. First, there must be the combustible, 
 and second, some supporter of combustion. When wood 
 burns in the open air, the wood is the combustible and the 
 air the supporter of combustion. The wood could not con- 
 tinue to burn if it were not surrounded by air. The air 
 supplies the gas (oxygen) which is essential to the act of 
 combustion. 
 
 Water in small quantities is of no use because the elements 
 of water themselves are combustible (consisting of oxygen 
 and hydrogen), but when poured in from large streams and 
 
WATER PRESSURE 49S 
 
 falling in a deluge upon the flames, the heat of the latter is 
 insufficient in quantity to rapidly turn the water into steam 
 and then disassociate the oxygen and the hydrogen. Water 
 has a very high specific heat, i. e., it takes a great amount 
 of heat to change water from the cold liquid to the hot vapor- 
 ous form which we call steam. The heat of the fire is swiftly 
 devoured, so to speak, by thc^water falling upon it and ab- 
 sorbing it. The constant streams of water pouring in and the 
 clouds of steam arising serve as a blanket (not itself com- 
 bustible), which shuts off the air from the flames and thus 
 prevents them from obtaining oxygen from the surrounding 
 atmosphere as fuel as they did before. (Extracted from lec- 
 ture by Prof. Garret P. Serviss.) .See Water Pressure. 
 
 WATER MAINS should be laid in complete citcuit and 
 be of sufficient size, not less than 6 inches, to provide vol- 
 ume under such head or pressure as will insure the delivery 
 of full streams at each outlet in the service with a loss of 
 head of not over 10 to 12 pounds below normal pressure. 
 Exposed water pipes in dwellings can be prevented from 
 freezing by covering them an inch thick with a paste made 
 of boiled starch and sawdust, using a hemp twine or similar 
 cord as a binder, and then coating with tar. See Water Sys- 
 tems; see Dead Ends. 
 
 WATER PRESSURE— A cubic foot of sea water weighs 
 64 pounds. Each cubic foot may be regarded as standing on 
 a base of one square foot. Therefore, the pressure at the 
 base of a cubic foot of sea water is 64 pounds per square 
 foot. A cubic foot of water having a base of one scjuare 
 foot must be one foot high. The pressure at its base (64 
 pounds per square foot) is, therefore, the same as the pres- 
 sure which would be encountered at one foot below sea level. 
 
 One hundred and forty-four square inches make one square 
 foot. A vertical column of water having a sectional area 
 of 1 square inch would therefore weigh 1-144 as much as a 
 column equally high, but having a section area of one square 
 foot. Since the pressure per square foot is 64 pounds, the 
 pressure per square inch is 1-144 of 64 = 64-144 = 4-9 = 0.44 
 pounds per square inch. At two feet below sea level, or 
 double the depth, double the height and weight of water 
 
496 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Stands on each square inch, therefore the pressure is double, 
 or 2 X 0.44 = 0.88 per square inch. 
 
 Each extra foot of depth adds an extra pressure of 0.44 
 pounds per square inch. To find the pressure at any depth, 
 multiply the depth in feet by 0.44 pounds per square inch. 
 — The Steamships. See Pressure. 
 
 How to determine the number of gallons of water dis- 
 charged at a fire — Let us assume that a gravity tank is ele- 
 vated 20 feet above the roof and the height of the tank is 
 12 feet and the building is six stories high. 
 
 The fire takes place on the second floor. Example: 
 
 : .: :■.:•]..> .: Feeti^ Off. 
 
 Height of tank, full ^jr^? •'glJflAW •5^:^T'i^\W 
 
 Distance above roof 20 
 
 Height of sixth floor 12 
 
 Height of fifth floor 12 
 
 Height of fourth floor ,..,^. ,,.... 11 
 
 Height of third flour .,,^;..,. ^,. ... U 
 
 Height of second floor... (at sprinkler head) 2 
 
 80 
 
 To get the pressure at second floor, multiply 
 elevation by 434 * 
 
 Which equals 34.720 lbs. - 
 
 Say pressure is 35 pounds. With Grinnel type "A" head 
 21 gallons of water per minute would be discharged. (Al- 
 ways find out type of head, as amount of discharge differs.) 
 If 21 gallons of water per minute from each head, for two 
 heads it would be 42 gallons, and if heads operated for ten 
 minutes' duration there would be approximately 420 gallons 
 of water discharged. See Water Puts Out Fire. 
 
 WATERPROOFING CARDBOARD OR PASTEBOARD 
 —Paper is treated in nitric acid solution, then piled in sheets 
 and placed in hydraulic press. 
 
 * See Pressure. 
 
WATERPROOFING CONCRETE BUILDINGS 487 
 
 WATERPROOFING CONCRETE BUILDINGS— This 
 
 subject has received great attention from architects and 
 builders owing to the natural tendency of concrete to ab- 
 sorb moisture. One method, and perhaps the oldest, is the 
 tar and asphalt method of coating either with or without a 
 paper or fabric binding or reinforcement. This method is 
 useful in most cases but could not be used to advantage on 
 the outside surface of a sea wall or under similar conditions. 
 On the outside surface of a building, or on a floor where 
 acids or alkali liquids are used, the integral method might 
 be employed. In substance, this method is the introduction 
 of a waterproofing compound into the cement or concrete 
 which does not hasten or retard the setting of the concrete 
 but which tends to close up all pores or voids and thus render 
 the concrete work a solid moisture resisting body. There 
 are other methods employed by builders, and many patented 
 compounds on the market; but all of them rely on the prin- 
 ciple that there must be a continuous bond between the 
 aggregates of the concrete of sufficient strength and dura- 
 bility to withstand the elements of time and weather. 
 
 WATERPROOFING PAPER— Paper is coated with a 
 resinous soap, given bath of zinc chloride, pressed in rollers, 
 washed, dried, coated with paraffine, then run through a cal- 
 ender. 
 
 WATER SUPPLIES— See Tables for Capacity of Tanks. 
 Also Private Fire Plants. 
 
 WATER SYSTEMS— The first duty of an inspector is to 
 find out the merit of the water supply available in case of 
 fire, and if inadequate, lay out a private water supply to 
 properly protect the property. See Water Mains. 
 
 WATER TABLE— A slight projection of the lower ma- 
 sonry or brickwork on the outside of a wall and reaching 
 to a few feet above the ground surface. 
 
 WATER-TIGHT FLOORS should be required in all plants 
 where a heavy water loss is possible to the lower floors. 
 The use of scuppers for carrying off the' water is recom- 
 mended. 
 
 WATER TOWERS should be constructed so as to send 
 a horizontal stream into a building at a height of 80 feet. 
 
498 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 Sometimes they throw streams almost vertical, which are 
 of no use. 
 
 WATER-TUBE BOILER— A boiler in which the water 
 circulates in tubes, aroand which the heat and gases of com- 
 bustion pass. 
 
 WATER VARNISHES— Gum lac dissolved in hot water 
 and mixed with ammonia and borax. 
 
 WATT — See Electrical Terms; also Kilowatt. 
 
 WAX KETTLES should be steam-heated. If gas-heated, 
 the kettle should be provided with a suitable water jacket. 
 
 WAX POLISH may be beeswax and turpentine. 
 
 WEATHER BOARDS— The boards nailed to vertical or 
 inclined timbers at the sides of a building. 
 
 WEAVE — To unite, as threads of any kind, in such a man- 
 ner as to form a texture; to entwine or interlace into a fabric. 
 
 WELD — To join two pieces of metal together by first 
 softening them under the action of heat and then hammering 
 them in contact with each other. See Oxy-acetylene Weld- 
 ing. 
 
 WELL HOLE — A larger opening than an ordinary light 
 or ventilating shaft, piercing a series of floors for purposes 
 of light and ventilation. Are dangerous features. Their 
 large area makes all floors practically gallery floors, and 
 fires quickly spread from floor to floor. See Shafts. 
 
 WHARF CLAUSE is attached to insurance policies when 
 lines are to cover in storage, so that the assured is covered 
 for ten days while the goods are on the wharf waiting as- 
 signment to a warehouse. See Piers. 
 
 WHEELWRIGHT— The hazards are those of small wood- 
 workers and machine shops with painting. 
 
 WHITE LEAD is a compound consisting of carbonate of 
 lead and hydrate of lead in chemical solution. 
 
 The Carter Process — Metallic lead is melted, and while 
 molten is riven into fine particles, like flour, by a jet of 
 high-pressure superheated steam. This amorphous powder, 
 of a steel gray or dark blue color, is charged into a revolv- 
 ing cylinder 5 to 7 feet in diameter, by 8 x 12 feet long. One 
 end of the cylinder is connected to an exhaust fan, and the 
 other to a flue leading from a furnace where carbonic acid 
 
WHITE LEAD 499 
 
 gas is generated from burning charcoal. Generally the prod4 
 ucts from combustion from a coke fire under a steam boiler 
 of the plant are used for the corroding gas, the furnace gases 
 having been washed and purified to free them from the sul- 
 phur present. The temperature of the revolving cylinder and 
 the charge of powdered lead is kept at 140 deg. F. Diluted 
 acetic acid and hot water is sprayed into the chamber at dif- 
 ferent times during the corroding process. The agitation is 
 constant, as is also the heat. Balance of treatment, such as 
 grinding, is the same as Dutch process. "Rustless Coatings; 
 Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel." — John Wiley 
 & Sons, Inc., publishers. 
 
 Dutch Process — In this process thin perforated sheets of 
 lead are exposed in gall pots containing a weak solution of 
 acetic acid (water 25/2 parts of strong acid) or common cider 
 vinegar. The pots are placed in long tiers, each tier being 
 loosely covered with boards and stacked in large numbers. 
 The bed of pots is then imbedded in tan bark, sawdust, stable 
 litter, etc., that ferments and soon raises the temperature of 
 the mass to 140 to 165 deg. F. A quantity of vinegar con- 
 taining 50 lbs. of strong acid converts two tons of lead into 
 the carbonate of lead in about 100 days. The only attention 
 the beds require during the process of corrosion is to con- 
 trol the temperature of the mass by regulating the admission 
 of air to the interior of the bed by opening or closing the 
 apertures left for that purpose. The corrosion is practically 
 completed at the end of sixty days; but the lead is of light 
 specific gravity, so it is the practice to allow the beds to re- 
 main 30 to 40 days longer, in which time the lead acquires a 
 proper density. If the lead is allowed to remain in the bed 
 too long, say 5 or 6 months, it is liable to become crystalline 
 and transparent, and will be of poor covering power. Care 
 is necessary in the use of stable litter to change the white 
 carbonate of lead as it forms, into a dark sulphide of lead 
 from the sulphurous hydrogen evolved during the process of 
 decomposition of the manure. 
 
 At the time of stacking, the air in the beds contains 20 parts 
 oxygen; after two weeks it contains only 17 parts; in five or 
 six weeks 7 to 15 parts, while the carbonic acid element will 
 
$00 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 have increased from % to 23 or 27 per cent, during the 
 process of corrosion. (Note. I believe there is not enough 
 oxygen and too much carbonic acid gas to support combus- 
 tion. W. O. L.) 
 
 From 30 to 40 per cent of the lead remains unchanged, 
 which is separated from the carbonate by passing contents of 
 the pots through a series of rolls, beaters and screens. The 
 corroded lead is then mixed with water and ground in burr 
 stones to a powder. Generally this part of the process is 
 omitted (by the quick process lead manufacturers) because of 
 the fine state of division necessary to reduce the metal lead 
 for these processes. The uncorroded particles are so inti- 
 mately associated with the carbonate that they are indiffer- 
 ently eliminated in the separator and if run over the water 
 stones, will cover the face of the stones with a coating of 
 metallic lead that soon impairs the grinding power and im- 
 parts a dark color to the product. 
 
 After grinding, the mixed carbonate and water is mechan- 
 ically floated to remove any coarse particles, then pumped to 
 large settling tanks where it is double washed with pure soft 
 water and bicarbonate of soda to remove any trace of acetic 
 acid. When settled pumped to large copper drying pans and 
 water evaporated. Drying requires 6 to 8 days, the tem- 
 perature of the dry rooms being 140 to 165 deg. F. Then 
 pulverized and marketed as dry white lead or ground in burr 
 stones with linseed oil for a paste or paint. 
 
 A modification of. the Dutch process, known as pulp lead, 
 consists of taking the pulp lead from the settling tanks and 
 placing same in a tank of linseed oil and subjecting the 
 moisture to a high speed mechanical stirring for a number 
 of hours. Some of the water rises to thie top and is drawn 
 off but a great part is whipped into the emulsion or forced 
 into combination with the lead. Pulp lead is inferior. 
 
 All processes are detrimental to the health of the men 
 owing to the gases evolved during the process. ''Rustless 
 Coatings; Corrosion and Electrolysis of Iron and Steel." — 
 John Wiley & Sons, Inc., publishers. 
 
 WHITE LEAD, IMITATION— Made of lithopone, ba- 
 
OWrriHW WINDOWS 501 
 
 rytes, zint oxide, linseed oil, fish oil, corn oil, tallow,. water, 
 whiting. 
 
 WHITE VITRIOL— Also known as zinc sulphate and is 
 soluble in water. 
 
 WHITEWASH— Merely pure lime mixed with water and 
 perhaps a little salt. 
 
 WHITING — Made from chalk which is ground in a chaser, 
 settled in vats, cooked in water, dried and ground. Dry room 
 hazard. 
 
 WIND — That the direction of the prevailing wind should 
 be a factor in the underwriting of a fire insurance risk on ac- 
 count of the exposures is a fact not apt to be taken in con- 
 sideration by the inexperienced. A building to windward of 
 another, which is peculiarly liable to take fire, will be penal- 
 ized less than one in the lee of the dangerous building. 
 
 WIND MILLS — The old style types are subject to a serious 
 fire hazard due to the ignition of the wooden shafts, by rea- 
 son of over-heated gearing caused by racing in a heavy wind. 
 
 WINDOW DECORATIONS have caused numerous fires, 
 especially where gas lights are used. Highly inflammable 
 fnateifial, such as tissue paper streamers, cotton wadding 
 wrapped around strings, should not be permitted in win- 
 dows, where gas is used. A draft of air may blow the ma- 
 terial into the gas flame. Such materials should never be 
 wrapped around electric light globes. Celluloid articles can 
 be set on fire by heat radiated from lamps and sun's rays. 
 
 WINDOW PROTECTION— In the Alwyn Court apart- 
 ment house fire, March 4, 1910, the fire burst through the 
 windows at tenth floor and by means of thin glass windows 
 at court gained access to floors above. Being out of reach 
 of fire department hose streams, it was hard to combat. In 
 fireproof buildings, the intense heat of burning material is 
 projected through windows, and as smoke and flames curl 
 upward from the top of the window it thus spreads to upper 
 floors. Wired glass window protection is recommended. See 
 Wired Glass. 
 
 WINDOWS — The different parts are sill, horizontal mun- 
 tins, vertical muntins, transom bars, stop stile, upper rail, 
 jamb, head and walling-in flange. 
 
.1502 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 WINDOW SASH WEIGHTS are made from old tin cans 
 which are placed in rotary furnaces and come out as molten 
 metal; then cast into window sash weights. Foundry hazard. 
 An unattractive class. 
 
 WINDOW SHADES— Factories are usually one long 
 frame building without lights, and heated by steam from a 
 boiler in a detached structure. The sheets of cotton or mus- 
 lin are fastened to large swinging wood frames. The first 
 day, the cloth is sized with thin glue. The following day, 
 it is coated with paint reduced about two-thirds with benzine. 
 Usually a nuisance to neighborhood. A bad fire record class. 
 
 WINE contains about 8 to 25 per cent, of alcohol. No ex- 
 plosive vapors generated in manufacturing or handling. Man- 
 ufacturing is not hazardous. See Distilleries. 
 
 WIRE is covered with cotton thread by drawing the wire 
 over a roller revolving in a trough of glue then thread 
 twisted on, dried by passing over steam plate, and wound 
 on reels. An automatic machine. 
 
 WIRE FABRIC— Fine wire fabric of copper or brass is 
 made into mesh by spinning, weaving and carding, similar to 
 the process of making yarn. Other hazards are plating, an- 
 nealing, tempering and light metal working. 
 
 WIRE LATH — A fabric or mesh of wires used in furring 
 in place of wood lath. 
 
 WIRE SPIRAL COLUMNS— Consist of a continuous 
 spiral of wire held upright and spaced equidistant by ver- 
 tical reinforcing and spacing bars. Used as concrete rein- 
 forcement. 
 
 WIRE TEMPERING— The wire is drawn through the 
 flame of a coke furnace. As it emerges, it passes through a 
 sand pit and is reeled up slowly for gradual cooling. It 
 then passes through a lead bath and is reeled. The lead pot 
 is coke-heated. This method is called lead tempering. 
 
 WIRE WORKS— Hazards are drawing, spinning, anneal- 
 ing and tempering, metal working and machine shops. Con- 
 sidered good insurance risks! 
 
 WIRED GLASS— Its value lies in the fact that when 
 broken, the pieces do not fall apart. Should not be less 
 than one-fourth inch thick with wire fabric not larger than 
 
WOOD 503 
 
 seven-eighths inch and wire not smaller than 24 B. and S. 
 gauge. Plate glass is better than thin glass. See Shutters. 
 
 WIRED GLASS WINDOWS (efficiency of)— As a fire re- 
 tardant wired glass has two defects: First, it will not stand 
 as high a temperature as is known to occur in some fires and 
 under some conditions; and second, it radiates heat to such 
 an extent that combustible material at a distance of six feet 
 may be ignited on the side away from the fire, even when the 
 glass remains intact. Fusing point of glass is about 2200 
 deg. F. See Window Protection. 
 
 WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY outfits require extreme care 
 in wiring and grounding. 
 
 WOAD — A plant used in blue dye manufacturing. 
 
 WOMEN'S NAMES— See Names. See Moral Hazard. 
 
 WOOD (spontaneous combustion of) — When wood is ex- 
 posed to the long continued action of heat, it undergoes 
 progressive changes nearly akin to those which have taken 
 place during the conversion of vegetation into coal. If the 
 wood remains in contact with the heated surface for a con- 
 siderable length of time, a temperature of a few degrees 
 above the boiling point of water is enough to produce a 
 semi-carbonized film. The wood will start smoldering at a 
 very low temperature. The heat from an oil lamp or gas 
 flame some distance away is sufficient to start the smolder- 
 ing combustion. Even the temperature of a steam pipe has 
 been found sufficient to cause ignition. — Frank R. Fair- 
 weather, in "Insurance Engineering." 
 
 WOOD ALCOHOL— Clear, colorless, obtained by dry dis- 
 tillation of wood. Flash, 45 deg. F. Classed as inflammable. 
 See Alcohol. 
 
 WOOD DOORS TIN LINED— See Fire Doors. 
 
 WOOD-ENCLOSED STAIRS— See Stairs. 
 
 WOOD ENGRAVERS— Light woodworking hazard. 
 
 WOOD FENCE HAZARD— Boys with bonfires oc- 
 casionally ignite fences, which in turn set fire to nearby 
 property. 
 
 WOOD FINISH AND TRIM IN FIREPROOF BUILD- 
 INGS — Ex-Chief Croker of New York at the meeting of the 
 International Municipal Congress, said: "If I had my way 
 
^fi^ INSPECTION aUD underwriting 
 
 about it, I would not permit a piece of wood even the size 
 of a lead pencil to be used in the construction of finish of 
 any building in the United States exceeding a ground area 
 of 25 by 50 feet, or three stories in height. If there was still 
 an absolute necessity for its use, if we could find nothing to 
 replace it, it would then be well to attempt to conceive of 
 something better. I am opposed to the use of wood in any 
 form in fireproof buildings, and the law ought not to permit 
 its use. Wooden floors, wooden window frames, doors and 
 casings burn, and trim and bases burn, everything that is 
 made of wood burns and helps the fire to spread. Eliminate 
 wood — remove the cause, and you have precluded the possi- 
 bility of fires." 
 
 WOOD (fireproofing of) — Lumber is run into large steam 
 cylinders and vacuum is used to draw out the air; then it is 
 run into a solution of ammonia salts or alum, then to dry 
 kiln. Inspect this class and write cautiously. 
 
 WOOD FIBRE— Called wood pulp. Shavings boiled in 
 caustic soda then chloride of lime. 
 
 WOOD FLOORS— In fireproof buildings should be laid 
 without air space, i. e., "cement and cinder fill" should be 
 laid around the sleepers to the underpart of the floor boards. 
 
 WOOD FLOUR— Wood reduced to fine powder. Not- 
 hazardous and will not ignite spontaneously. 
 
 WOOD GAS— Obtained by the distillation of wood. Very 
 inflammable. 
 
 WOOD HEEL MANUFACTURING— Process consists of 
 woodworking, nailing, trimming, sandpapering and covering 
 with leather or celluloid. Glue heating. Celluloid is worked 
 in acetone. A poor fire record class. 
 
 WOOD NAPHTHA— See Wood Alcohol. 
 
 WOOD OIL — A drying oil similar to linseed oil, derived 
 from the nut of the Chinese tree; sometimes, called Tung 
 Oil. Likely to cause spontaneous combustion. 
 
 WOOD PRESERVATIVES— In preserving wood, the fbl-' 
 lowing materials are generally used. Coal-tar creosote, hard- 
 wood tar, wood creosote, copperized oil, sodium silicate, bi- 
 product zinc sulphate, zinc chloride, zinc sulphate, cresol 
 calcium, sodium flouride; heavy coal-tar oils mixed with small 
 
WOOL SOS 
 
 pertentage of linseed oil, and a trace of turpentine, then 
 chlorinated; i. e., treated with chlorine. Oil preparations in- 
 crease the inflammability of the wood. Inspect class. See 
 Preservation of Timber. 
 
 WOOD PULLEYS IN ELEVATOR HEADS— See Pul- 
 leys. See Strut Boards. 
 
 WOOD PULP — Commonly called wood flour when in 
 finely divided state. 
 
 WOOD SPIRITS— See Wood Alcohol. 
 
 WOODWORKING— See Cabinet Factories. 
 
 WOOL (green) — Wool which has been shipped promptly 
 after shearing, instead of lying in storage, as is usually the 
 case. It is slightly heavier and contains more moisture than 
 that which has been allowed to take the customary course 
 through the warehouse. 
 
 WOOL NOILS are the short fibres combed out of the 
 long wool. 
 
 WOOL PULLERIES— The principal hazards are the dry- 
 ers which should be of standard construction; dusters which 
 should have blowers, and the sweat room. Fair insurance 
 risks. 
 
 WOOLEN CLIPPINGS, if clean, are considered fairly 
 good insurance risks. 
 
 WOOLEN PREPARATION MILLS— Wool is "scoured" 
 (washed) to remove dirt, natural oil and grease in steam- 
 heated vats with water and soap, then dried. Dryers are 
 usually heated by air blown from steam coils. The wool is 
 placed on a continuous wire belting which travels through 
 the dry room. See Worsted Mills. 
 
 WOOLENS — If of good texture and of dark color, they 
 are not readily damaged by fire and smoke. Clean water 
 causes little damage if dried immediately. If in bolts (piece 
 goods), considered good insurance. 
 
 WOOLEYS SOLVENT— A cleaning fluid, classed as kero- 
 sene. 
 
 WORKMEN'S OVERALLS— See Lockers. 
 
 WORK TABLES— See Cutting Tables. 
 
 WORSTED MILLS — Raw stock is green wool. Proc- 
 esses in the main consist of wool sorting, wool scouring, 
 
506 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 carding, combing, drawing, spinning, weaving, wet finishing 
 and dry finishing. 
 
 WORT is extract from malt, hops and water. 
 
 WROUGHT-IRON is not brittle like cast-iron, because 
 there is only ^ to ^ lb. of carbon in every 100 lbs. of 
 wrought-iron. It seems to be composed of threads of fibres 
 of the metal lying alongside of each other, so it is said to 
 have a fibrous structure. It can be molded. — Hooker's Chem- 
 istry. 
 
 WROUGHT IRON OR STEEL when heated have a ten- 
 dency to twist, due to the softening of the material and the 
 consequent reduction of the resistance to tension and com- 
 pression. They should be protected when used as structural 
 members of a building. See Cast Iron. See Illustration. 
 
X 
 
 12. 
 
 XCIX — Special reducer, flashes at 180 deg. F. Classed as 
 non-volatile. 
 
 XGLOGRAPHY — The act or art of cutting figures in 
 wood, in representation of natural objects. 
 
 X-RAYS — A delicate, very susceptible piece of machinery 
 used by physicians. The rays produced are able to penetrate 
 many substances that are impermeable to light. The rays 
 are produced with a glass vacuum tube and a battery, from 
 which a current of electricity is sent through the tube. The 
 wires of the battery are connected with two electrodes, one 
 of which consists of a concave disc of aluminum, and the 
 other of a flat disc of platinum. 
 
 XVIII SPECIAL— A benzine substitute, flash 103 deg. F. 
 Classed as non-volatile. 
 
 XYLODIN — Paper immersed for a moment in strong nitric 
 acid and then washed in distilled water. The paper acquires 
 the toughness of parchment and the combustibility of tinder. 
 
 XYLOGLODINE— An explosive compound. 
 
 XYLOL — Inflammable liquid, used as solvent for paint. 
 
 XYLONITE — Produced from tissue paper, treated with 
 sulphuric acid and nitric acid, and converting the resulting 
 nitrocellulose into a pulp, which is afterwards mixed with 
 camphor and spirits of wine worked into a dough, pressed 
 into blocks, and cut into sheets. Very inflammable. See 
 Celluloid. 
 
 XYROLENE — An imitation ivory; similar to celluloid. 
 Very hazardous. 
 
 507 
 
YARN — Woolen or other thread spun and prepared for 
 weaving. 
 
 YEAST is a living plant used for the purpose of causing 
 fermentation. The yeast we use in baking is artificial, com- 
 posed of a dough made of flour and starch and a little com- 
 mon yeast made into small cakes and dried. It is necessary 
 to add water to start the fermentation: * 
 
 YEAST FACTORIES— The process consists of receiving, 
 elevating, cleaning, malting, grinding, conveying, mashing, 
 cooking and fermenting the grain. The scum (yeast) from 
 the tops of fermenting tanks is removed, mixed with water 
 and starch, filtered and then pressed into cakes. The hazards 
 are those of breweries. See Vinegar Works. 
 
 YELLOW METAL— A kind of brass. 
 
 YELLOW WOOD— A hard wood of the dyers' mulberry 
 tree. Used as a yellow dye in consequence of the large 
 amount of tannic acid it contains. 
 
 YUCCA GRANCA— A wild grass of the Southwest, is now 
 being used in paper-making. 
 
 508 
 
,DVllWJi\d j/ii.\ 
 
 .gdnoi-iiBM 
 
 ZACATON— See Yucca Granca. 
 
 Z BAR — An iron or steel rail, shaped at end or cross-sec- 
 tion like the letter "Z," except that angles are 45 degrees. 
 
 ZANTE— Used as yellow dye. 
 
 ZAPON LACQUER— Used for varnishing metal. It is a 
 solution of gun cotton. 
 
 ZEA FIBRE — May be used in paper or cordage manu- 
 facturing. 
 
 ZERO — In Fahrenheit's scale, 32 degrees below freezing 
 point of water. In Centigrade and Reaumur's scales, zero 
 is the freezing point of water. 
 
 ZERO WEATHER— Always brings numerous claims for 
 fires caused by overheating stoves or furnaces. See Coal 
 Shortage. 
 
 ZINC — A bluish-white metal; is brittle when cold, but can 
 be rolled into sheets when heated to a certain degree. Explo- 
 sions in chemical risks are known to have been caused where 
 zinc is dissolved in hydrochloric acid. 
 
 ZINC (resinate of) — Not permitted in listed storage stores 
 on account of the fine state of division of the resin in the 
 compound. It may be expected to heat and ignite spon- 
 taneously, if moist; similar to zinc dust. 
 
 ZINC CHLORIDE— The salt obtained by heating zinc in 
 chlorine gas; a powerful dehydrant. 
 
 ZINC DROSS — A material skimmed from zinc; a by- 
 product of galvanizing iron. 
 
 509 
 
510 INSPECTION AND UNDERWRITING 
 
 ZINC DUST — Consists chiefly of finely-divided metallic 
 zinc. Subject to spontaneous combustion when wet. Classed 
 as inflammable. Not permitted in stipulated stores. 
 
 ZINC ETCHING, up to a certain point, is quite similar to 
 half-tone work, and is usually employed to reproduce pen 
 sketches or designs which are photographed, as in half-tone 
 process. In printing on the zinc plates from the negatives, 
 however, no screen is used as in making half-tones. After 
 the sensitized zinc plate has been printed from the negative 
 it is "rolled up" or inked. The ink is then removed from all 
 parts of the plate except those affected by the light. On 
 these parts it remains and then the plate is rubbed with 
 dragon's blood, which adheres to the ink portions only. The 
 application of dragon's blood is frequently necessary to pro- 
 tect the parts of the plate which are not to be etched. After 
 sufficient number of etchings, or "bites" as they are called, 
 the plate is passed to the router. 
 
 ZINC ETHYL ignites in air of ordinary temperature. 
 
 ZINC FLUE DUST is sometimes similar to zinc dust. 
 
 ZINC METHYL is very volatile and takes fire in contact 
 with air. 
 
 ZINC OXIDES — Prepared by burning zinc in atmosphere, 
 air or by heating the carbonate to redness. To prepare 
 zinc on a large scale, metallic zinc is volatilized in large 
 earthen mufflers whence the zinc vapor passes into a small re- 
 ceiver where it comes in contact with a current of air and is 
 oxidized. The zinc oxide thus formed passes immediately 
 into a condensing chamber, divided into compartments with 
 cloths. Then filtered, pressed, dried, ground and pulverized. 
 Attrition mills, burr mills and ball mills are used for grind- 
 ing. Considerable dust is generated in the process. 
 
 ZINC SMELTERS— Hazards similar to foundries. Fur- 
 naces resemble those used in glass works. 
 
 ZINC SULPHATE— See White Vitrol.^^^^^^.^^ ^ 
 ZINKENITE — A mineral containing sulphur, lead, anti- 
 mony and copper. 
 
ZYMONE 
 
 511 
 
 ZUMIC ACID— An acid discovered in vegetable substances 
 which have fermented. 
 
 ZYMONE— The residue of the gluten of wheat after it 
 has been treated with alcohol. 
 
 Finis. 
 
MEMORANDA 
 
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 THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY 
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