G . P , WARRE N at^^ Southern Branch of the University of California Los Angeles Form L I s 5CI was? This book is DUE on the last date stamped below MAY 13 1931 MAP 5 1934 9 1934 WOV14 1931 MAY 2 8 1962 -- Form L-9-15rn-8.'24 TCural UeitxJBoofe Series EDITED BV L. H. BAILEY FARM MANAGEMENT THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK BOSTON CHICAGO DALLAS ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., LIMITED LONDON BOMBAY CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, LTD, TORONTO Eije Eural EexkBooft Series LYON AND FIPPIN, PRINCIPLES OF SOIL MAN- AGEMENT. G. F. WARREN, ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE. A. R. MANN, BEGINNINGS IN AGRICULTURE. J. F. DUGGAR, SOUTHERN FIELD CROPS. B. M. DUGGAR, PLANT PHYSIOLOGY, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO PLANT PRODUCTION. G. F. WARREN, FARM MANAGEMENT. M. W. HARPER, ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FOR SCHOOLS. E. G. MONTGOMERY, THE CORN CROPS. H. J. WHEELER, MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. FARM MANAGEMENT BY G. F. WARREN, PH.D. PROFESSOR OF FARM .MANAGEMENT, NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY The requirements of a good farmer are at least four : The ability to make a full and comfortable living from the land ; to rear a family carefully and well ; to be of good service to the community ; to leave the farm more productive than it was when he took it. L. H. BAILEY, Neto fforfc THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1914 All rights reserved COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped Published April, 1913. Reprinted September, November, 1913. February, July, 1914- PREFACE FARM MANAGEMENT is the study of the business prin- ciples in farming. It may be defined as the science of the organization and management of a farm enterprise for the purpose of securing the greatest continuous profit. Successful farming requires good judgment in choosing a farm and in deciding on a type of farming. It demands clear business organization and management for the efficient use of capital, labor, horses, and machinery. It requires good judgment in buying and selling. The change from cheap land, hand tools, and farming to raise one's own food and clothing, to farming as a commer- cial undertaking has come upon us so suddenly that business principles are not always well understood by farmers. Nor do those who understand the application of such principles to city conditions often know how to apply them on the farm. Long ages of experience and a generation of scientific re- search have resulted in a fund of popular knowledge on how to raise crops and animals. But there is less background of tradition concerning business methods on the farm, and col- leges have given little attention to this kind of problems. The success of the individual farmer is as much dependent on the application of business principles as it is on crop yields and production of animals. The best way to find out what methods of farm organiza- tion and management are most successful is to study the methods now used and the profits secured on large numbers of farms, and determine how the more successful ones differ Vi PREFACE from the less successful, and find to which of the differences the success is due. After such principles are found, they need to be tested by use in reorganizing farms. The conclusions in this book are based on investigations of the kind given above, and on cost accounts, census data, travel and study in different parts of the United States and experience in farming. It is hoped that the conclusions may be of use to farmers and students. In preparing the book the writer has received much aid from K. C. Livermore, who helped in working out some of the data and read all the manuscript, and with whom many of the points have been discussed. Acknowledgment is also due to A. L. Thompson and C. E. Ladd for reading the manuscript and making many helpful suggestions. The Figures 2, 54, 55, and 56 were secured from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. Figures 8, 70, and 71 were furnished by the Office of Farm Management, United States Department of Agriculture. Figures 51 and 107 were furnished by F. E. Dean of Grand Junction, Colo- rado. \V. 0. Strong, Grove, Virginia, furnished" Figure 69. Several figures were furnished by the New York State College of Agriculture. G. F. WARREN. ITHACA, NEW YORK, February 22, 1913. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 SHALL I BE A FARMER? PAGE PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS DESIRABLE FOR A FARMER: The Farmer as a Business Man ...... 1 The Farmer as a Mechanic 2 The Farmer as a Naturalist 3 The Farmer as a Skilled Laborer . . . . . 4 Experience Necessary for Success . . . . . . 6 The Farm a Home Enterprise ...... 7 The Farm not the Place for the Inefficient .... 11 Summary of Personal Traits of Successful Farmers . . .13 PROFITS TO BE EXPECTED IN FARMING : Comparison of Farming with Other Occupations ... 14 Ways of Measuring Profit ....... 15 Comparison of Labor Income with City Salaries ... 16 Labor Incomes Made by Farmers ...... 16 Profits on Real Estate 18 Safety of the Investment ....... 19 Estates Left by Farmers ....... 20 Summary of Profits in Farming ...... 20 COST OF LIVING ON FARMS : Cost of Living on Farms and in Cities . . ... 21 Products Furnished by the Farm ...... 23 Cost of Living on Farms . . . . . . .25 THE FARM FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE HIRED MAN , 26 THE FARM FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE TENANT 27 FARM INVESTMENTS ......... 28 THE BACK-TO-THE-LAND MOVEMENT: The Aims of the Movement ....... 29 With Better Farming Fewer Farmers are Needed . . 30 Why the Farm Boy Went to Town 32 The Remedy is Automatic ....... 33 Movement to Cities must Continue ..... 34 How then may the Citv Obtain Cheaper Food ? . . .34 Back-to-the-village Movement . . . . . .35 vii viii CONTENTS PAGE THE FARM AS A HOME FOR PERSONS OTHERWISE EMPLOYED? The Farm as a Home 36 An Example of a City Man on a Farm .... 38 SOME THOUGHTS FOR THE FARM BOY 41 CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF FARMING DEFINITIONS : Factors that Determine the Type of Farming ... 43 EXAMPLES OF THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, SOIL, AND TOPOG- RAPHY : Corn 44 Cotton 45 Oats 46 Potatoes 47 Grass Crops 47 Apples 49 Truck Crops .......... 50 Topography 50 Animals .......... 50 RELATION OF TRANSPORTATION TO TYPE OF FARMING : General Principles ........ 51 Transportation and Crop Prices and Crop Production . . 52 Relation of Cost of Production to Disposition of Crops . 55 Transportation as Affecting Hog Production . . .55 Transportation as Affectirg Beef Production ... 59 Relation of Transportation to Sheep Production . .61 Transportation in Relation to Horse Production ... 62 Relation of Transportation to Dairying .... 63 Transportation and Egg Production ..... 66 Fruit and Vegetables in Relation to Transportation . . 68 Marginal Regions ......... 69 RELATION OF TRANSPORTATION TO DISTANCE TO MARKET OR SHIPPING POINT : General Principles . . . . . . . .71 Cost of Hauling 72 Cost of Hauling Milk 73 RELATION OF SUPPLY AND MARKET DEMAND TO TYPE OF FARM- ING : Relation of Yield per Acre to Value of the Crop . . .76 Variation in Relative Values of Farm Products . .81 CONTENTS IX PAGE Cycles of Over and Under Production and Ways of Fore- telling Them 83 Special Demands of Certain Markets 90 Supplying the Local Market . . . . . . .91 Growing Products for Home Use 92 RELATION OF TYPE OF FARMING TO COMPETING TYPES . . 92 RELATION OF LAND VALUES TO TYPE OF FARMING ... 93 RELATION OF CAPITAL TO TYPE OF FARMING : Adjustment of Type of Farming to Capital .... 94 Relation of Type of Farming to Profits with Varying Capital 95 Period of Investment 95 RELATION OF LABOR TO TYPE OF FARMING .... 96 EFFECTS OF WEEDS, INSECTS, AND DISEASES ON TYPE OF FARMING 97 RELATION OF THE TYPE OF FARMING TO THAT OF THE NEIGH- BORS : The Value of Community Experience 98 Community Labor Supply ....... 98 Advertising Value of the Neighborhood .... 99 Difficulty of ("hanging the Type ...... 100 DIFFICULTY OF DETERMINING THE BEST TYPE .... 101 THE PERSONAL FACTOR ........ 102 CHAPTER 3 DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED FARMING DEFINITIONS .......... 104 NUMBER OF SPECIALIZED FARMS ...... 105 COMPARATIVE MERITS OF SPECIALIZED AND DIVERSIFIED FARM- ING : Merits of Each Type 107 Diversified Farming and Crop Rotation .... 107 Diversified Farming Lessens Risk of Total Failure . . 108 Diversified Farming may Distribute Income . . . 108 Diversified Farming may Distribute Labor .... 108 Cases in which Specialized Farming may Pay . . . 109 SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR: Providing a Full Year's Work 109 Distribution of Labor on Alfalfa . . . . . .110 Distribution of Labor on Corn and Cotton .... 112 Distribution of Labor on Oats . . . . . .114 Distribution of Labor on Wheat ..... 117 X CONTENTS PAGE Distribution of Labor on Potatoes, Cabbages, and Apples . 118 Distribution of Labor on Beef Cattle, Sheep, and Hogs ' . 119 Distribution of Labor on Poultry 121 DIVERSIFIED FARMING ON DAIRY FARMS : Labor Distribution in Dairying ...... 122 Other Reasons for Diversified Farming on Dairy Farms . 127 Relation of Diversified Fanning to Profits on Wholesale Market Milk Farms ........ 128 COMBINING FARMING WITH OTHER ENTERPRISES , . . 131 EXTRA LABOR AVAILABLE IN SUMMER ..... 132 EXAMPLES OF SUCCESSFUL TYPES OF FARMING : Successful Farms in New York 133 Successful Types of Farming in Various Regions . . . 141 CHAPTER 4 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING WATS OF MEASURING PROFIT : Ways of Measuring Profit . 143 Theory of Limitation of Land ...... 144 Land a Small Part of the Cost of Production . . . 146 Profits per Acre and Profits per Fanner .... 146 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE ENTERPRISES : Comparison of Intensive and Extensive Enterprises . . 151 Relation of Intensive and Extensive Crops to Capital . . 152 Relation of Crop to Soil and Treatment .... 154 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE METHODS : How Large a Crop does it Pay to Grow ? . . 157 Increased Production due to Natural Causes . . . 159 Weather Risk and Intensive Methods ..... 159 Business Interpretation of Fertilizer Tests . . . .160 An Example of Cost Accounts in the Use of Fertilizers . 163 Crop Yields on Successful Farms ...... 167 Comparative Importance of Production and Size of Business 169 Comparative Importance of Yields, Size, and Diversity . 171 Raising the Maximum Yield of Potatoes .... 172 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE METHODS OF DAIRYING : Adaptation to Conditions ....... 173 The Soiling System Keeping the Greatest Number of Cows per Acre .......... 177 Receipts per Cow and Profits 180 INTENSIVE METHODS SHOULD BE PROPERLY BALANCED . . 181 CONTENTS XI CHAPTER 5 MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND PAGE ARE OUR CROP YIELDS DECREASING ? 183 WAYS IN WHICH PRODUCTIVITY MAY BE DECREASED . . 184 MAINTAINING THE ORGANIC MATTER : Importance of Organic Matter ...... 186 Crop Residues ......... 186 Farm Manure as a Source of Organic Matter . . . 187 Pasturing off Crops 188 Green Manure 188 MAINTAINING THE NITROGEN SUPPLY ...... 195 MAINTAINING THE MINERAL MATTER ..... 196 AMOUNT AND VALUE OF FARM MANURE PRODUCED: Fertilizing Value of Feed and of Manure .... 197 Amount and Value of Manure Produced by Farm Animals 197 METHODS OF HANDLING MANURE ...... 199 BEST WAY OF MAINTAINING FERTILITY A BUSINESS QUESTION . 200 CHAPTER 6 THE FARM MANAGEMENT POINT OF VIEW ON SOME LIVE-STOCK PROBLEMS AMOUNT OF LIVE-STOCK TO KEEP : Live-stock Largely Produced by Cheap Food . . . 203 Live-stock Largely Produced by Cheap Time . . . 206 Live-stock Produced on a Low Margin of Profit . . . 207 Keeping Stock Enough to Eat All the Hay and Grain vs. Always Having Feed Enough for the Stock . . . 207 Animal Unit 209 FEEDING ANIMALS : Balanced Rations 212 Short Method of Balancing Rations for Cows . . . 212 " Roughing " Animals through Winter .... 213 Feed Units 216 ANIMAL RECORDS : Milk Records 217 Short Methods of Weighing Milk 219 Butter Fat Tests 219 Production Required for Profit 220 Egg Records 221 Animal Records 222 xii CONTENTS RELATION OF SIZE OF ANIMAL TO EFFICIENCY: Size of Cows and Profits 222 Size of Horses 226 Size of Animal and Meat Production 227 PURE-BRED vs. GRADE STOCK : Profits from Pure bred Stock 227 " Grading up " Pure-breds ....... 230 Pure-bred Poultry 230 DEPRECIATION ON LIVE-STOCK : Depreciation on Cattle 231 Depreciation on Horses 233 Depreciation on Mules 234 Depreciation on Sheep . 235 Depreciation on Hogs 235 Depreciation on Hens 235 INCREASING VALUE OF YOUNG STOCK . . . . . 237 CHAPTER 7 SIZE OF FARMS The American Family-farm ... .... 239 How Large Should a Family-farm Be ? . . . . 241 RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO FARM EFFICIENCY: Size of Farm and Profits 243 Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in Use of Labor . 250 Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in Use of Horses . 255 Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in Use of Machinery 257 Relation of Size of Farm to Efficiency in Use of Capital . 260 Relation of Size of Farm to Size of Fields . . . . 262 Relation of Size of Farm to Economy in Buying and Selling 262 Are the Results Due to the Man ? 263 Best Size of Farm 264 Profits on Very Large Farms ...... 266 Relation of Size of Farm to Crop Yields .... 267 Relation of Size of Farm to Keeping Boys on the Farm . 268 CHAPTER 8 SIZE OF FARMS AND OTHER FACTORS IN DIF- FERENT REGIONS IN THE UNITED STATES A County in the Cotton Belt 270 Cotton Farms of White Farmers . . ... 274 CONTENTS xiii PAGK A. Truck-growing Region 275 An Irrigated Region 276 A Hilly Dairy Region in New York 276 A Dairy Region in Illinois 278 Farms in the Corn-belt 278 The Hard Winter Wheat Region 282 ^A Spring Wheat Region ....... 285 A Dry Farming Region . 286 Size of Farms in Some Typical States 287 Conclusions on the Size of Farm 289 CHAPTER 9 CAPITAL Relation of Capital to Profits 290 Distribution of Capital 294 Relation of Capital to Type of Farming .... 295 Economy of Cash Purchases ...... 295 Farm Mortgages 297 Keeping One's Credit Good 298 Agricultural Credit a Public Question 299 "W VYS OF FARMING WITH SMALL CAPITAL : Ways of Securing Capital 303 Changes from Hired-man to Tenant and Owner . . . 304 More Capital Necessary than Formerly .... 305 First Get an Education ........ 305 Starting as a Hired-man ....... 307 Starting as a Tenant ........ 309 Effect of Rising Land Values on Buying Land . . . 312 Cash and Share Rental 313 Farming as a Part Owner ....... 313 Types of Farming with Small Capital 314 LIFE INSURANCE FOR FARMERS : Forms of Life Insurance 315 Typical Results with Different Policies .... 318 CHAPTER 10 METHODS OF RENTING LAND Basis of Rental 321 Methods of Share Renting 323 Share of Crops . . . . . . . . 323 Share of Receipts 324 Everything Furnished by the Landlord .... 325 Systems too Rigid 326 Relation of Systems of Rental to Profits . . . .327 XIV CONTENTS CHAPTER 11 FARM LABOR MAN LABOR : PAGK Why Farm Labor is Scarce 330 The Labor Problem for the Individual 331 Using Labor Efficiently 332 Work for Stormy Days Winter Work Hours of Labor Management of Men Profit Sharing Farm Managers 337 337 339 340 342 343 HORSE LABOR : Cost of Horse Labor ........ 344 Ways of Saving Horse Labor 346 How Much Work Should a Horse Do ? . . . .348 SUBSTITUTION OF ENGINES FOR HORSES : Engines Adapted to Heavy Work 349 Engines Must Reduce Work at the Season of Greatest Pres- sure 349 PRODUCTIVE WORK UNITS ........ 360 CHAPTER 12 FARM EQUIPMENT The Maintenance of Equipment 866 Depreciation on Machinery ....... 856 Machinery Costs 367 Duty of Machinery 859 What Machinery to Buy ' 861 CHAPTER 13 FARM LAYOUT FIELD ARRANGEMENT : Size and Shape of Fields 865 Distance to Fields 368 Four Methods of Farm Layout 370 Locating the Farmstead off the Highway .... 374 Present Conditions on Farms 374 Rearranging Farms 377 CONTEXTS XV PASTURES AND FENCES : Construction .......... 385 Lanes ........... 385 Permanent vs. Rotated Pastures 386 Field Fences 387 THE FARMSTEAD: Location of Farmstead 388 The Farmyard 389 THE GARDEN 391 FARM BUILDINGS : Relation of Buildings to the Farm ..... 394 Capital in Buildings 396 Arrangement for Convenience ...... 397 Rearrangement of Buildings ....... 398 The Farmhouse .... ... 399 CHAPTER 14 CROPPING SYSTEMS Reasons for Crop Rotation ....... 402 Characteristics of a Good Cropping System .... 405 Crop notations Used in Different Regions .... 406 Two Rotations on One Farm ...... 409 Fixed Cropping Systems with Irregular Acreages . . 410 Combining Separate Fields for Crop Rotation . . . 412 Relation of Cropping and Feeding Systems .... 414 CHAPTER 15 MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS TIME TO SELL PRODUCTS : Cost of Holding Products 417 Shrinkage of Farm Products ...... 417 Prices in Different Months ....... 420 Conclusions on the Best Time to Sell ..... 422 WAYS OF SELLING PRODUCTS : Retailing vs. Wholesaling ....... 424 Selling on Commission . . 425 Farm Auctions . 426 CONTENTS CHAPTER 16 FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS PAGE KINDS OF ACCOUNTS : Accounts as a Means of Studying the Business . . . 428 ACCOUNTS WITH PERSONS OR FIRMS : Object of Bookkeeping . . . . . . . .431 Methods of Bookkeeping ....... 431 ANNUAL INVENTORY : Objects of an Inventory ....... 432 How and When to Take an Inventory ..... 43:} RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES ........ 430 MISCELLANEOUS ACCOUNTS ........ 437 COST ACCOUNTS WITH ONE OR MORE CROPS OR KINDS OF ANI- MALS : Objects of Cost Accounts ....... 437 Items with which Crops Must Be Charged and Credited . 438 Items with which Animals Mast He Charged and Credited . 438 An Account with Potatoes , , 439 CHAPTER 17 A COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS Essential Facts for Cost Accounts 441 Methods of Cost Accounting 441 A COMPLETE SET OF COST 'ACCOUNTS AS KEPT BY A FARMER . 441 INTERPRETATION OF RESULTS : Cautions in Interpreting Results ...... 443 Results on Crops 472 Cattle 474 Hens 475 Horses 475 Equipment 476 Other Uses of Accounts 476 DETAILS OF THIS AND OTHER METHODS OF ACCOUNTING AND PRINCIPLES INVOLVED : Kinds of Books or Record Sheets ...... 477 Journals and Day Books ....... 478 Double or Single Entry 479 Index . 480 CONTENTS Other Forms of Work Report 481 Estimating Values ........ 484 Accounts with Fields ....... . 484 Farm Account ........ . 485 Manure and Fertilizers 485 Equipment 486 Labor 487 Horses 487 Hay Seed 488 Double Cropping 488 Interest 489 General Expense ......... 490 Accounts of Convenience ....... 490 Personal Accounts . t . . . . . . . 491 Order of Closing Books ....... 491 Accounts on Tenant Farms ....... 493 CHAPTER 18 CHOICE OF A REGION PROSPERITY OF THE COMMUNITY ...... 494 CLIMATE : Change of Climate 496 Compensating Cycles in Weather ...... 497 Rainfall 498 Evaporation .......... 500 Winds 502 Hail 503 Length of Growing Season 503 FERTILITY OF THE SOIL : Importance of Fertility 503 Use of Soil Maps . ... . .... 505 Value of Chemical Analysis ....... 505 Plants as Indicators of Fertility ...... 511 Use of Census Figures ........ 513 Comparative Advantages of New and Old Regions . . 513 Land Prices 613 CHAPTER 19 CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM Importance of Securing a Good Farm ..... 517 Size of Farm .......... 517 Area in Crops ......... 517 The Farm Layout 518 The Lay of the Land 518 XV111 CONTENTS PAGB Fertility of the Soil , 521 Physical Properties of the Soil 622 Drainage 522 Water for Irrigation ........ 523 Condition 623 Water Supply 523 Improvements 523 Climate 524 Healthfulness 524 Roads and Markets . 524 Neighbors 525 Taxes 525 Community Improvements ....... 525 Prospective Development ....... 526 Map of the Farm 528 Score Card for Farms ........ 528 Effect of Amount of Money Available ..... 528 Cato's Advice on Buying a Farm . . . ' . . . 530 Buying the Farm ......... 531 Selection of Farms for Schools and Colleges .... 533 Selection of Farms for C'.iaritable and Reformatory Institu- tions . 533 CHAPTER 20 SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL, FARMS AND HOW TO FIND THEM 535 A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY AND CROP FARM ..... 537 A SUCCESSFUL GENERAL FARM ....... 541 A SUCCESSFUL CROP FARM, MANAGED BY A TENANT . . 546 A SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARM, MANAGED BY A WOMAN . . 551 RECORD OF A YEAR'S BUSINESS ON A FARM .... 553 SUMMARY OF MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING PROFITS . 562 TABLES AVERAGE FARM VALUES OF LIVE-STOCK, BY YEARS . . 566 AVERAGE FARM PRICES OF CROPS, BY YEARS .... 668 AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICES IN CITIES, BY YEARS . . 571 TEN-YEAR AVERAGE FARM PRICES, BY STATES .... 574 AVERAGE WHOLESALE PRICES IN CITIES, BY MONTHS . . 678 FARM MANAGEMENT FARM MANAGEMENT CHAPTER 1 SHALL I BE A FARMER? WHEN one is trying to decide as to the best occupation to follow, he should first consider the personal characteris- tics that are necessary for success in the kind of work that he proposes to undertake. Some persons, who may succeed well in the very specialized callings in the town or city, may not be qualified for farming, because farming calls for such versatile ability. The farmer is a combina- tion of business man, mechanic, naturalist, and laborer. 1. The farmer as a business man. In the days of our fathers the farm family raised practically everything that it needed. The few things not raised were received in trade at the village store. A few dollars a year were sufficient for the family needs. The measure of the farmer's success was his ability to raise his own food and clothing rather than his ability to organize his business and buy and sell. The changes that took place in agri- culture from the time David tended his flocks up to the last century, were small in comparison with the revolu- tion that has since occurred. With the introduction of machinery in the factory and on the farm, money has become necessary for the farmer. The farm no longer supplies his needs. He sells most of his products and 2 FARM MANAGEMENT buys most of his necessities. Not only must he have money to buy the innumerable necessary things for his living and equipment, but land, which was once to be had for the asking, is now dear. All these changes mean that the farmer has become a business man. He produces and sells and buys. These changes demand the applica- tion of business principles in farming. So long as the family lived directly from the farm, there was very little need for such principles. The kind of business ability needed is not so much that of the trader as of the executive who can organize a farm into a successful business enterprise. The idle horse in the barn is a more frequent source of loss than is the bad bargain in buying a horse. More farmers fail because of poor farm management than because of poor production. This is to be expected, since the principles of crop growth are much the same as they always were, while the proper organization of the farm changes with every new invention. More farmers fail because the size of farm or kind of farming does not keep men, horses, and machinery properly employed than fail because of poor crops. The successful farmer must plan his work ahead of time. It is not enough that he have a plan for field work. He should always have a plan of what to do if it storms. He must foresee most things that are about to go wrong and prevent them from going wrong. 2. The farmer as a mechanic. Mechanical ability has always been desirable for a farmer, but in the last twenty years the great increase in the number of com- plicated machines has made this ability of much more importance than formerly. Grain and corn binders, manure spreaders, potato diggers, gasoline engines, and. SHALL I BE A FARMER? 3 all the other new and expensive machines call for mechan- ical ability if they are to be used efficiently. There is something to farming besides taking a pleasure drive with a team of fine horses on one of these machines. A little carelessness or inexperience may cause a loss of more than a month's wages. Occasionally a farmer can de- pend on hired men for this mechanical ability, but usually he must not only be the mechanic, but must instruct the men and guard against their carelessness. There are still some kinds of farming in which machinery is little used, but more and more the farmer-mechanic with his machine is replacing the hand laborer. 3. The farmer as a naturalist. The farmer has ever been a naturalist. He used to conspire with the moon and the almanac to coax nature to yield a bounti- ful harvest. But he has always had many good ideas on plant and animal growth, gained from his intimate companionship with his crops and stock. The farmer must always be a naturalist. The great fund of knowl- edge that has been acquired by the many generations of farmers is now being organized on a scientific basis, and some new knowledge is being added by investigation, so that we are coming to have a large body of knowledge about crop growth and animal feeding and breeding. The farmer is not now entirely dependent upon the experience of his community. He may learn from the experiences in other states and countries and from scien- tific investigation. If a farmer is to compete with his neighbors, he must study the science of plant and animal production. If he takes a keen delight in watching crops and animals thrive, it will add much to his pleasure, and, if tempered with good judgment, will go far toward bringing success. 4 FARM MANAGEMENT 4. The farmer as a skilled laborer. A generation ago, the farmer was primarily a laborer. His machinery consisted of a wagon, walking plow, harrow, cultivator, hand corn planter, grain cradle, scythe, hand rake, flail, ax, hoe, pitchfork, and a few other tools. All of these were muscle testers. If he worked hard all day, he was ready for a night's rest. He did not have to read a bulletin on scientific agriculture to put him to sleep. Physical strength and physical skill were among the greatest assets, and were so recognized by all farmers. If a man had common sense, and if he and his wife were strong, their success was assured, for success was in raising each summer a little more than enough food and clothing for the winter. Many persons, who are not closely in touch with farm- ing, believe that the introduction of machinery has done away with the necessity for strength and skill in manual operations, but these will always be very important con- siderations for the farmer. Few people realize how hard it is to acquire this manual skill. The writer has had an opportunity to see the efforts of many city persons, and has been surprised to see how difficult it is to acquire manual dexterity. The children on the farm learn by years of practice. It takes thousands of efforts for the boy to learn to throw a baseball straight. Apparently it is just as difficult to learn to pitch hay. If this skill is acquired by ten years of practice in childhood, little is thought about it, but if it is to be acquired by a mature man, it is a serious undertaking. Milking, using a saw, using an ax, and a thousand other manual operations are hard for a grown person to learn ; but if one has been used to manual labor so that he has trained muscles, new operations are not so difficult. Grown persons who have never learned to do SHALL I BE A FARMER? 5 manual work of any kind rarely become successful farmers. The time to train the muscles is when they are young. The prospective farmer who is skillful with his hands and likes to do manual labor has two of the very desirable traits for a farmer. But some persons ask if the farmer should not spend all his time with business affairs and leave the manual work to hired help. There are instances on large planta- tions where the farmer need do no manual work, but the great majority of 'farmers must always work with their hands. In the factory one manager can supervise the work of a thousand men and can see all these men in a few minutes, but with most kinds of farming this would be men enough for half a county. If this factory manager can increase the effectiveness of each man by a little, he will earn a good salary. With most kinds of farming the farmer can use but one to five men. To have one idle manager for so few workers would make the expense of supervision ruinously large. The simple fact that the workers must always be scattered makes it necessary that the farmer be a worker as well as a manager. The man who works with his men and who treats his men as equals usually gets them to do much more work and at the same time keeps them better contented. Where cheap labor is used, this is not always desirable, but it is the best way when the hired-man is the farmer's equal, as is the case in most parts of the United States, where the hired- man is a neighbor's son. We have learned how to plow with a team of three to six horses. We no longer have one man to hold the plow and one to drive, but we have not yet outgrown, nor are we likely ever to outgrow, the thought of Benjamin Franklin : 6 FARM MANAGEMENT "He that by the plow would thrive Himself must either hold or drive." 5. Experience necessary for success. A successful engineer would not expect to buy a bank and become a successful banker without some experience in the business, yet many men feel that since they have made a success FIG. 1. One of the better farm homes in the newer part of Texas. in the city they can start farming without any experience and expect to make a profit at once. There is probably no occupation in which experience is more necessary and in which so much time is required to obtain the experience. City industries are very specialized. Farming calls for experience with weather, diseases, insects, plant feeding, animal feeding, breeding, machinery, business affairs, and a hundred other things that it takes time to learn. The only safe way for an inexperienced man to begin farming is by working for a good farmer. If one begins for himself, SHALL I BE A FARMER f 1 he should put his theories in cold storage and follow the practice of the most successful neighbors as closely as possible for the first few years. Even then he will make mistakes enough. The worst mistake of all is to assume that the farmers are all ignorant and unbusinesslike. They are the fathers and brothers of our mighty " captains of industry " and are usually as efficient for their condi- tions as the successful city man is for his. Inexperience is so serious a handicap that farmers are very loath to hire any one from the city except for very FIG. 2. One of the better farm homes in Minnesota. simple kinds of work, as picking fruit, picking up potatoes, weeding, and similar tasks. If one desires to have a chance to learn all phases of farming, he should not expect much pay until he be- comes of use. If an inexperienced person is allowed to use machinery and take care of stock and crops, the farmer is almost certain to have serious losses, un- less he has another person to watch the beginner almost constantly. 6. The farm a home enterprise. The home and the business are so closely united on the farm that success de- pends to a large extent on the home. Much of the farm work is done in the house. The hired-man may be boarded, the milk pails are washed, the 8 FARM MANAGEMENT eggs are cleaned for market, and butter is sometimes made. In many cases the women help with the milking, take care of hens, work in the garden, and do other kinds of outside work. A limited amount of such outdoor work is a good thing for health and happiness. When the farmer is away, his wife usually takes the responsibility of seeing that things go well. For these reasons, a single man or woman finds it difficult to manage a farm successfully. One may suc- ceed in a city whether he has a family or not, but on a farm the chances are much better for married persons. The young farmer usually hires out until he marries. This usually marks his start as a tenant, or, if he has the capital, his start as an owner. For success in farming, health, strength, and ability for the wife are almost as important as for the farmer. On 947 farms in New York it was found that only 4 per cent of the families consisted of one person. 1 Many of these were widows and widowers who had not yet disposed of the farm. Very few men continue in farming unless they have wives or daughters, and very few women continue in the occupation unless they have husbands or sons. Farming is distinctly dependent on the home. There are some cases where the farm is independent of the house. The hired men board themselves or live in boarding houses. If cows are kept, the dairy work is done in a dairy house. Some of these are successful farms, but most of them are owned by men who have the money and are willing to run a farm at a loss. For every such enterprise, there are probably a hundred where the farmer and his family are partners in the farm business. One great advantage of farming as compared with city 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 555. y SHALL I BE A FARMER? 9 life is that the farm furnishes work for children. Under modern conditions there are thousands of children who are more in need of a chance to work than of laws to prevent child labor. It is so hard to provide desirable work for children in cities that laws are passed to prevent them from working. This is not because work is bad for a child, FIG. 3. A typical farm home in western New York. but because of the kind of work, the surroundings, or the danger of overwork. Every child should have some regular work to do from the time he is five years old, when he begins to carry in a few sticks of wood for his mother. The city home cannot readily provide work for boys, hence they are often kept in idleness when not in school. The boy sees little of his father; all his companions are boys. On the farm the boy has companionship with his father as well as with boys. He helps his father work and feels that he is taking a man's part in the world. As he grows older, he learns how to do many things. He has responsibility for the care of live-stock. He learns that he must not neglect his stock, even if he is tired or desires to play. He learns the value of time. Every one who is to be of real use in 10 FARM MANAGEMENT the world must learn to work when he would rather not. No school can ever offer such an opportunity as the farm boy has. He has manual training, responsibility, and companionship with his father as well as school and play. No wonder that such a boy is better prepared for the world's work than is the boy who never did anything but go to school and play on the streets. At the same time that the farm boy is being trained by work, he is contributing to the success of the farm. Occa- FIG. 4. One of the better farm homes in the East. sionally a boy has to work too hard, but boys are not often injured by farm work. This opportunity for the children is one of the considera- tions that leads many persons to be farmers, even though they may not expect so great financial success as may be had elsewhere. The farm will always be somewhat isolated. The ability to entertain one's self is, therefore, a desirable trait for a farmer. Some persons secure entertainment by read- ing, by thinking, by watching crops grow, by seeing cows at pasture. Some families furnish their own music and are best pleased by the old-time songs without any vocal SHALL I BE A FARMER? 11 gymnastics. Other persons are never happy when alone. They need moving pictures, theaters, a new song every day, and crowds of people in order to be happy. The farmer sees fewer people, but gets acquainted with his own family. The family that can go a long way toward self-entertainment is in this respect best fitted for farm life. 7. The farm is not the place for the inefficient. To manage a farm successfully requires business ability and FIG. 5. A negro cabin with two rooms. One of the better class. skill in farm operations. Certainly this is not an occupa- tion for inefficient persons. Nor can the farmer use unskilled labor to good advantage. In 1890 there were 13.1 per cent of the farm laborers foreign born ; in 1900 only 8.5 per cent were foreign born. 1 Many persons have wondered why the immigrants are not hiring out to farmers as mufch as they once did. One reason is that they are of less use than formerly. There was a oime when the farm laborer from Europe made a good farm-hand as goon as he arrived, because so much of the work was done with hand tools which he had learned 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910. p. 191. 12 FARM MANAGEMENT to use in the Old Country. The farmer from northern Europe is still useful on a farm ; he knows how to care for live-stock, but little about machinery. Few farmers from southern Europe know much about either. The man who knows nothing but how to use a hoe, spade, and scythe is not of much use now. Of course he can learn how to use horses and machinery, but in the meantime he may do more harm in a few minutes than he can pay for in a month. Naturally he drifts into, work where he is of im- mediate use. There are some kinds of farming where such labor is valuable. Around some cities truck growing is passing into the hands of Italians. Nearly everywhere Italians or other cheap laborers are hired for growing vegetable crops. The same is true of sugar-beet growing. Farmers near cities often ship out such labor for temporary use in pick- ing fruit, picking up potatoes, for ditching, and for other operations where unskilled labor can be used. Some cheap labor is used in dairying, but the demand for clean milk makes it very hard to use ignorant labor. No one can produce clean milk who does not have a clean body and a clean mind. Cotton picking is the most extensive farm operation using unskilled labor. Farm work is individual work. Each worker has to take responsibility. It is not often possible to give such super- vision as can be had in a factory, because the number of workers that would be employed under one roof in a factory may be scattered over half a county. Each worker must be a foreman of his own work, and usually the owner must work, because he cannot supervise enough workers to justify him in being idle. The man who is afraid that he will work overtime is of no use on the farm. A storm may come up, stock may require unusual attention, or the SHALL I BE A FARMER? 13 owner may be called away. The farm-hand, as well as the owner, must be a man who will finish his job. Well-meaning persons have tried all kinds of philan- thropic schemes for putting the submerged population from the cities on farms. Such attempts always have failed and always will fail, except in the few instances where the submerged man has real ability. The in- efficient person is much better off in a city, where he can sweep streets, dig ditches, or work in a factory. Under constant supervision, such as can then be given, the most will be gotten out of his feeble talent. He will there contribute most to the world and will receive a better reward than he can obtain on a farm. There is now a tendency for the extremes to move to cities, the ineffi- cient and weak-willed and the strong executive to manage them. Usually the attempt to place inefficient persons on farms is further doomed to failure by the kind of land chosen. In nearly all cases cheap or abandoned land is chosen land on which the most intelligent farmers have failed to make a good living. If such persons are to be placed on farms, they should have the best land. They have handicaps enough without adding the one almost insur- mountable one of poor land. This does not mean that reform schools and similar institutions should not be on farms. This is the best possible place for such institutions. A discussion of such farms is given in Chapter 20. 8. Summary of personal traits of successful farmers. - From a study of the most successful farms, it is found that the preceding qualifications arc desirable. Occa- sionally a man makes a fair success when he has no par- ticular qualifications except muscle, but success under this 14 FARM MANAGEMENT condition is much more difficult than formerly. Occa- sionally a good executive makes a fair success when he does no manual work, but higher profits are usually made by those who combine executive ability with labor. Some very successful men have very little mechanical ability, while a good mechanic may fall. Sometimes the mechanical genius spends so much time puttering with his tools that he does not get time to use them in raising crops. Good common sense, which is another definition for business ability, is the most important trait, but the highest profits are made by those who combine this ability with experience, scientific knowledge of plant and animal production, manual and mechanical skill, and hard work. PROFITS TO BE EXPECTED IN FARMING 9. Comparison of farming with other occupations. In order to compare farming with other occupations, we must consider the capital invested, the safety of the capital, the average income, the average number of hours of labor, and the cost and standard of living. Such a comparison is very hard to make. The farmer goes without many things that the city man enjoys, but has many things that are luxuries for the city. In each case the value of the things to be had cheaply is under- estimated, while the value of the things denied is over- estimated. Each one is impressed with the greater pleas- ures that the other has. We find the aim of many farmers to be to make enough money to be able to retire to town, while the city dweller hopes to save enough money so that he may be able to retire to a farm. In each case the pleasures left behind are better appreciated when they are out of reach. SHALL I RE A FARMER f 15 The hours of labor on a farm are usually longer than in the city, hut when allowance is made for the trip to and from work, there is not much difference. The successful farm owner works long hours, but so does the successful business or professional man in a city. One advantage of farming as of any other independent business is that one does not face a " dead line." If one who works on a salary loses his position when he is past middle life, he is likely to find it hard to get another, because young men are wanted. 10. Ways of measuring profits. If all business expenses are subtracted from the farm receipts, we ob- tain the income that has been produced by the farmer and his money. If from this we subtract the value of his work, we can determine the per cent made on the invest- ment. If 'instead we subtract the interest that his money would have earned if placed at interest, we will have left the pay that the farmer received for his year's work or his labor income. If the capital is very large, the rate of interest made on the capital is the more important figure, but with the amount of capital that is usual in farming, the labor income is much more significant. Furthermore, the interest rate is easily determined, while it is difficult to estimate the value of the farmer's labor and supervision. If a farmer makes a labor income of $300, it means that his farm has paid interest on the investment at the prevailing rate in the region, has paid all business expenses, and has left $300 to pay for the farmer's management and labor. 1 If a 1 In calculating labor income, the value of board of hired labor is counted as an expense, but no personal or living expenses are counted. If the farmer's sons or other members of the family do farm work without pay, their labor is counted as an expense and rated at what they would 1G FA KM MANAGEMENT farmer's labor income does not equal hired-man's wages, he would be as well off if he sold his farm, placed his money at interest, and hired out. 11. Comparison of labor income with city salaries. The labor income made on a farm is one of the best measures of its efficiency. Labor incomes show which farmers are making most for their year's work. In addition to his labor income the farmer receives the use of a house and some products for home use. This gives a measure of profit that is very good for comparing farms and is comparable with hired-man's wages. It is not intended for comparison with the city, but may be suggestive for such comparisons. In order to compare with city salaries, we must add to the labor income the amount that the house rent and farm produce used by the family are worth. 12. Labor incomes made by farmers. In Tompkins County, New York, in 1907 the average labor income made by 615 farmers was $423. About one-third of the farmers made less than $200, about one-third made $200 to $400, and one-third made over $400. Or, one-third failed to make hired-man's wages, one-third made wages, and one-third made more than wages. 1 The house rent and farm products used in the house in this region probably average about $300, so that these farmers average about as much as a $700 salary in the city. have received had they worked for their neighbors. An increase in stock, feed, or other inventory items is counted as a receipt ; a decrease is counted as an expense. In succeeding pages Livingston and Tompkins coun- ties are referred to. In these counties interest was counted at 5 per cent, but taxes were not included with expenses. These averaged about 5 per cent, so that the labor incomes in these counties are pay for labor above 4| per cent interest on capital. Taxes should be included and were in- eluded in Jefferson County because money can be loaned on farm mort- gages for 5 per cent net. i New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, pp. 396-397. SHALL I BE A FARMER? 17 They can save more than they could on this amount in a city, because they go without many things that they would he tempted to buy in a city. Some of the farmers made much less than hired-men receive ; some received nothing for their year's work and lost money besides. Others made very good profits. Nine per cent of the farmers in this county made labor incomes of over $1000, and one per cent made over $2000. This is a general farming region that is about as prosperous as most of the North Atlantic States. In northern Livingston County the average labor in- come on 578 farms in 1909 was $666. This is one of the most prosperous regions in the United States. This labor income added to the value of house rent and farm prod- ucts would probably be equal to about $1000 in a city. Again, some of the farmers worked for nothing, while others did well. One hundred fifty-three, or 26 per cent, of the farmers made over $1000, and 34, or 6 per cent, made over $2000. The highest was $7780. Jefferson County, New York, is a dairy region. Very little is sold except milk and hay. The average labor income of 670 farms in this county in 1910 was $609. One hundred forty-five, or 22 per cent, of the farmers made over $1000, and 17, or 3 per cent, made over $2000. The highest was $4222. Labor incomes on 178 farms scattered about New York State, many of them noted farms, showed 14 making labor incomes of over $2500. The results on 2932 farms in New York have shown but 10 making labor incomes of over $4000. The highest was $9490. The average labor income of 266 farmers in southern New Hampshire in 1909 was $337. Half of the farmers. 18 FARM MANAGEMENT made less than $200. Eleven per cent of them made labor incomes over $1000 ; none made as high as $2000^ One of the chief aims of this book is to disclose the principles of farming that result in the larger profits. Similar studies in the Central West, on the Pacific coast, and in other parts of the United States indicate that in the best regions the farmers' labor incomes rarely average over $500. It is not probable that the average for the United States is as much as $300, or about one dollar per day for the farmer's labor. 2 Besides this, the farmer makes interest on his capital and has a house and some farm products. 13. Profit on real estate. The figures given above do not include any profit due to increase in the value of real estate. This may be a source of loss or may bring more profit than the farm busi- ness. Many farmers in parts of the United States, particularly in the Central West, have made most of their money on the rise in land values. Many a farmer who never made more than FIG. 6. A pioneer's barn. a living while on the farm has retired on the increased value of his land. Real estate will probably always be a part of the farm business. In buying a farm the probability of a rise in 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 75, p. 8. 2 The Farmer's Income, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 132. SHALL 1 BE A FARMER? 19 value of land is one of the very important considerations. But the gain from this source will gradually decrease as the country grows older. There are still parts of the country where good land is for sale for much less than it is really worth. Doubtless many farms will double in value in the next twenty years. But we will probably not see such a wonderful land boom of a large area as occurred in the Central West from 1897 to 1912. It does not now appear as if this land would go much higher until other parts of the country have had their prices adjusted. Many of the for- tunes that are attrib- uted to farming are due to buying land- when it was cheap and holding it until it be- came valuable. We should distinguish clearly between profits from producing crops and animals, that can probably be repeated, and profits from real es- tate that are not so likely to occur again. 14. Safety of the investment. While farming does not offer large profits, yet it offers comparative safety for the capital invested. The very fact that credit is much easier to secure on city enterprises of equal size makes the chance of loss of capital greater. Farm land is a comparatively safe investment. A farmer finds it difficult to borrow enough money to make the capital unsafe. This does not apply to renters. All their capital is invested in stock, equipment, and costs for the growing crops. It is possible to buy machinery and horses on time FIG. 7. A pioneer's sod house. Part of the so-called " unearned increment " in land values was earned while living in such houses. 20 FARM MANAGEMENT so that a tenant may be too much in debt to be able to weather hard times or poor crops. Stock may die, crops may fail, or prices may be low. If a sale is necessary, the loss is very heavy. Second-hand machinery does not sell well. The conditions that cause the tenant to sell usually affect the possible buyers so that they are not likely t^ offer good prices for stock. The tenant's capital is not a very safe investment compared with city enterprises. 15. Estates left by farmers. Another way of judging profits in farming is by the estates left by farmers. In most parts of the United States the total savings of the life's work, together with what has been inherited, com- monly amount to $3000 to $15,000. In most parts of the country the majority are nearer the lower figure. Estates of farmers who have never done anything but farm are very rarely as high as $25,000, except in the most favored regions. In the Central West during the past 15 years estates of $50,000 or even $100,000 have not been uncommon. These are usually due to increased land values. 16. Summary of profits in farming. When com- paring farming with city work, the mistake is often made of comparing farmers who have $5000 to $40,000 capi- tal with teamsters and day laborers in cities. Farmers cannot be compared with any class in cities, because the farm does not sort men so closely as does the city. Among farmers there are some who may be compared with team- sters, but a larger number are the fathers and brothers of bankers, lawyers, doctors, engineers, business men, and ; ' captains of industry," and have quite as much ability as these men. Neither should we make the mistake of comparing the city man who rents his house with the farmer who owns both his house and business. If the SHALL I BE A FARMER? 21 city tenant has only a rented home, we must remember that there are farm tenants who have the same conditions. The relative profits on the farm and in the city vary from time to time, as there are cycles of over and under produc- tion of farmers. From 1870 to 1895, farm opportunities were very poor compared with the city. This is now being followed by better times for farmers and will probably again be followed by overproduction within a generation. The cycles of good and bad times on farms last for about a generation. Farming is a conservative business. Money invested in it is comparatively safe, but it is evident that it does not offer much opportunity to make a fortune. Neither is there so great danger of poverty as in the city. The city is a place of extremes. The farm is more moderate both in its successes and in its failures. It is not often that a person engaged in farming can retire while young, but it is possible to make a good living by farming. AVith diligence and good management, one may hope to make a com- fortable living on a farm, to be able to travel some, to be able to send his children to college, and to have something for his old age. Beyond this, it is doubtful if much of an estate is for the best welfare of his children. COST OF LIVING ON FARMS 17. Cost of living on farms and in cities. While the usual pay that the farmer gets for his time is small, yet the living expenses are also low. It is usually said that the farmer gets half his living from the farm. While there are many exceptions, it is probable that this is about right on the average. The food for families in New York City in 1907 with an income of $1000 per year cost on the average about $451. Families with $1500 income spend 22 FARM MANAGEMENT an average of about $572 for food. 1 With larger incomes the cost of food increases, but is a smaller proportion of the total expense. Farmers nearly always underestimate the value of products furnished by the farm, and city persons are just as prone to overestimate it. A part of the reduced cost of living on farms is due to a reduced living as well as a reduced cost. Not all farm families live on the fat of the land. More frequently the best is sold. The chief items in the cost of living in city or country are not food, but the miscellaneous items. On many of these the farmer saves because he goes with- out. Most conspicuous of these is a bathroom and run- ning water. Running water and sewage disposal can be had at small cost in the city, but on most farms are very expensive for installation and still more expensive for operation. The cost of higher education is another very expensive item for the farmer. Usually his children must be furnished a horse to drive to high school, or must pay board while attending. In the city the children can go through high school and often through college while living at home. The farm-grown produce and the house are usually cheaper on the farm. Less expensive clothing is needed. Horses for pleasure driving are cheaper. There are many items in the cost of living that are cheaper in cities than on farms. Schools, libraries, churches, and theaters are cheaper because of less cost to get to them. Running water is much cheaper. Light is cheaper, if the farmer is not content with kerosene lamps. If the farm produces wood, it is cheaper than in the city, but if fuel is purchased in town, it is cheaper there because of less expense in hauling. All food that is shipped from 1 R. C. Chapin, The Standard of Living among Working Men's Fami- lies in New York City, p. 70. SHALL I BE A FARMER? 23 other regions is usually a little cheaper in large cities than in the small town where the farmer makes his purchases. One of the chief reasons why living may be cheaper on the farm is because the farmer can live his own life. If he has money to spend, he can find ways of disposing of it. If he needs to economize, he can do so. In the city the standard of living is not so flexible. One of the chief reasons for the high cost of living in cities is the effort to live as other people do. The custom of using all the salary as fast as it comes is so general that it is hard to resist the pressure. The farmer sees fewer cases of ex- pensive living. He is much freer to economize. 18. Products furnished by the farm. Table 1 gives the average quantity of products furnished by the farm on 106 farms in northern Livingston County, New York, as found by H. N. Kutschbach. This is one of the most diversified farming sections in the United States as well as one of the most prosperous. The diversity of farm products as well as the prosperity makes the quantity used in the house very large, probably at least twice as large as the average for the country. The average number of members of the family living at home was 4.2. The average number per family, including hired help boarded, was 5. These families are considerably larger than the average, again indicating a prosperous region. The total value of food furnished by the farm averaged $249 per farm. In the same year it is probable that this same food would have cost $350 in nearby cities if bought in quantities, and it might have cost $500 in small lots. It must be remembered, however, that in few farming sections is so much furnished by the farm, and that about one- fifth of this was used for boarding hired help. FARM MANAGEMENT On 22 farms in Minnesota in 1907 the average value of produce furnished by the farm for use in the house was TABLE 1. AVERAGE QUANTITY OF PRODUCE RAISED ON THE FARM AND USED IN THE HOUSE, 106 FARMS IN LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK, IN 1909 AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE AVERAGE PER CENT PRODUCT AMOUNT PER AMOUNT PER VALUE VALUE OF FARM INDIVIDUAL PER FARM PER IN- DIVIDUAL USING Potatoes . 50.3 bu. 10.1 bu. $28.15 $ 5.63 100 Beans 35.0 qt. 7.0 qt. 2.19 .44 80 Wheat flour 738.0 Ib. 147.6 Ib. 22.14 4.43 63 Buckwheat flour 3.7 Ib. .71b. .13 .03 7 Apples . . . 23.6 bu. 4.7 bu. 11.81 2.36 90 Milk .... 730.7 qt. 146.1 qt. 29.96 5.99 96 Butter . . . 133.9 Ib. 26.8 Ib. 38.29 7.66 87 Eggs .... 103.3 doz. 20.7 doz. 22.72 4.54 99 Honey . . . 6.4 Ib. 1.3 Ib. .85 .17 16 Wood . . . 22.8 4.6 40.99 8.20 83 cords 2 cords 2 Other fruit . . 8.92 1.78 82 Garden crops . 14.65 2.93 90 Poultry . 15.26 3.05 95 Other meat . 54.06 10.80 93 All other prod- uce .... .40 .08 4 2 Eighteen inch wood. Probably the same materials could not have been pur- chased in a city for much less than $350 to $400. Again, a part of this produce was used for boarding the hired-men, so that it is not all to be counted as a gain on the family cost of living. Table 2 shows the quantity of some of the farm prod- ucts used per farm on 22 farms in Minnesota. These farmers are producing more butter, eggs, and meat for home 1 Journal of Home Economics, Vol. I, No. 1, pp. 34-51. SHALL I BE A FARMER? 2o use than arc the farmers in Livingston County, New York, but are not using so much fruit and vegetables. TABLE 2. QUANTITY OF CERTAIN PRODUCTS RAISED ON THE FARM AND USED IN THE HOUSE, AVERAGE OF 15 FARMS IN 1906 AND 22 FARMS IN 1907 IN MINNESOTA! Milk 1221 qt. Cream 125 qt. Butter 200 Ib. Pork 365 Ib. Beef 201 Ib. Veal 34 Ib. Mutton 9 Ib. Poultry 79 Ib. Eggs 195 doz. 1 Data furnished by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. The number of persons per family was reduced to the equivalent in men and averaged 4.6 ; that is, the number of persons would probably use as much food as 4.6 men. 19. Cost of living on farms. Table 3 shows the cost of living on 106 farms in Livingston County. It does not include the value of man or horse labor used by the family or the value of the time of the farmer's family in doing household work. The total cost of living per family averages $915, or $183 per individual. The costs per indi- vidual varied from $81 to $523, but 86 per cent came be- tween $100 and $300 per individual. The farm furnished 62 per cent of the food used and half the fuel. Counting the value of the use of the house at 8 per cent of the value of the house (in addition to the cost of repairs), we find that the farm products furnish 45 per cent of the cost of living. On the 22 farms in Minnesota the average value of produce furnished by the farm was $199. The average amount paid for groceries and fuel was $195 ; for house furnishings, $25. 26 FARM MANAGEMENT TABLE 3. COST OF LIVING ON 106 FARMS IN LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK, IN 1909 AVERAGE PER FARM AVERAGE PER INDIVIDUAL Furnished by the farm. Food $249 41 126 152 41 93 52 51 110 $50 8 25 30 8 19 * 10 10 23 l Fuel House rent (8 per cent of value) . . Cash expenses. Food Fuel and light . . . Household expenses, fi ding, clothing, dishes Repairs on house . . Household help . irniture, bed- Miscellaneous expenses, books, papers, postage, church, carfare, telephone, amusements, doctor's bills, Grange dues, etc 1 Miscellaneous expenses are divided by*4.2, as the hired help do not share in these. Household expenses are a little too low per individual, as the hired help do not share in all these. THE FARM FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE HIRED-MAN 20. Opportunities as a farm-hand. The farm-hand who receives $25 per month with board and washing can readily compare his wages with the wages in a city where he would usually pay $15 to $30 per month for board and room and $2 to $3 for washing. In most parts of the country his $25 is as good as $50 per month in a city. If he is inclined to save, he will find it much easier to save on the farm, even if he gets only half the wages. A married man on a farm, who receives house rent and more or less farm products, will usually find that he needs double the farm wages if he is to live equally well in a town or city. SHALL I BE A FAliMER / '11 There is little chance on the farm for an able man to advance in pay as he can in the city. Of course, a good man will receive more than a poor one, but the farm does not offer the chance for increase in wages that is offered in the city. The farm does not need so many grades of men. The farmer himself is the foreman and everything above that grade. Only here and there is there a farm that needs high-priced men. The hired-man who proves his worth will receive his reward by being able to rent a good farm, after he has saved some money. The place of hired-man should be looked upon as a stepping-stone to rental and ownership. For this reason lie should consider the value of the experience that he is going to get as well as the wages. Very many of the most successful farmers in every region are following a system of farming that they learned while working for a good farmer. Very few men continue as farm-hands for many years. If they are able men, they change to tenant ; if they are not good men, they usually drift to cities, where they can be used in gangs. Most of the farm-hands in the United States are young men who will later be farmers. The chief exceptions are harvest and seasonal help shipped out from- cities, and the negro. THE FARM FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE TENANT 21. Opportunities as a tenant. Tenancy is a second step toward ownership. Few persons expect to remain tenants permanently. Many tenants secure land on such terms that the rent is no more than interest on the land. The best forms of renting for the tenant are usually those in which the landlord does the least supervising. Not 28 FARM MANAGEMENT because his supervision is of no value, but because the system of rental is so adjusted that he gets paid for the supervision. If the tenant has the ability, he should .supervise himself. If a tenant secures a good farm, he may hope to get ahead enough to buy a farm and make a part payment before many years. (See also Chapter 9.) FARM INVESTMENTS 22. Land as an investment. Persons who do not desire to be farmers often invest money in land. This is the very common outlet for surplus money in the Middle West. The rise in land values has greatly stimulated this movement. Under such conditions it is possible to have inflated prices, but, in general, land wisely purchased is a conservative investment. It usually pays a moderate rate of interest. In a new country the rental system is simple, and little attention is given to keeping up the land. As the country develops, farm property requires con- siderable attention from the landlord or his agent. Those who wish investments that will not call for much attention then prefer stocks and bonds. The most satisfactory way to handle farm property held as an investment is to rent it. It is rarely so profitable to hire a manager unless the owner understands farming and lives on the place or can give it constant attention. One must never expect so high returns when he invests money as when he goes into business with his money. Money lent on farm mortgages is usually safe, and calls for very little attention, hence the rate of interest is mod- erate at the present time, about 5 percent in the North Atlantic States, 6 per cent in the Middle West, and 8 per cent in the South and on the Pacific coast. These rates SHALL I BE A FARMER? '20 are constantly changing. Cash rent involves more atten- tion and on the average brings a little more returns than mortgages. Share rent, particularly if the animals are shared, involves much more attention on the part of the landlord and brings considerably higher returns. In each step, the landlord is coming nearer to going into business with his money, and so is entitled to greater returns. In Tompkins County, New York, when money was being loaned on mortgages at 5 per cent, landlords who rented for cash made an average of 5.2 per cent, and those who rented for a share of all products made an average of 9 per cent. 1 THE BACK-TO-THE-LAND MOVEMENT 23. The aims of the movement. Much of the back- to-the-land movement is an attempt to send persons to farms in the hope that this will result in more produce and so decrease the cost of living. Some of it is a desire of the city to get rid of its paupers. The subject is much con- fused, because many persons call a patch in the suburbs a farm. Men of wealth have country homes on which they play at farming. The alluring articles on the subject have led some persons of small means, who do not have the capital or experience necessary for success in farming, to buy farms whose value they were even less qualified to judge. Much of this exploitation has been encouraged by the mistaken idea that any " little farm well tilled " will support a family. The real estate dealer does not know any better, or if he does he does not tell. He has been very willing to find the attractive bargains desired. The farmer who owns the land consents to part with it when he gets enough more than it is worth for farm pur- 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 541. 30 FARM MANAGEMENT poses. He often has the pleasure of returning to the city one of its gold bricks with compound interest. He can then retire to town to take the house made vacant by the new farmer. There are some fundamental principles of the adjust- ment of population between city and country that need to be considered by all persons interested in the question. FIG. 8. A comfortable farm home of a lawyer who went back to the farm in the Shenandoah valley. 24. With better farming fewer farmers are needed. President Gilmore of the College of Hawaii, who spent some years teaching agriculture in China and the Philip- pines, estimates that 70 per cent of the Chinese are farmers. Others place the estimate as high as 80 per cent. Each man farms about 2 acres of land. Yet the greatest need of China is more men. Land is idle because, with the methods used, there are not men enough to farm it. Rail- roads and industry are held back because of shortage of SHALL I BE A FARMER? 31 men. The first step in progress is for each farmer to use machinery and animal power so that he can work more land. This would allow a larger proportion of the popula- tion to do other things. In the days of our forefathers, the entire family worked on the farm. Little time was spent in going to school, in reading, or in travel, yet the few farm tools were so crude and the farming so poorly done that a family raised little more than it consumed. Work as hard as they could, the family was often threatened with famine. Nearly all persons had to be farmers to live. In India and China we have much the same condition to-day. One family raises little more than it uses, hence a very large part of the popu- lation are farmers. So long as this condition continues, it is impossible for a high state of civilization to develop. When our fathers began to use machinery and better farming methods, it became possible for one family to produce enough to feed two families. This made it possible for half of the population to do other kinds of work. At the same time, the farmer became a purchaser of articles that formerly were unheard-of luxuries. If civilization is to progress, this movement must con- tinue. It allows men to engage in research and invention, to write books and magazines, to manufacture and trans- port the things that a higher civilization demands. Best of all, it allows the youth of the land more years of school- ing. All progress in civilization depends on having each farmer produce more than his father produced. Iowa furnishes an excellent illustration of increased efficiency of farmers. Farmers have learned to drive three-, four-, and five-horse teams. This has resulted in a decrease in rural population. Rather than a calamity, this decrease in population is an evidence of a wonderful in- 32 FARM MANAGEMENT crease in efficiency of farmers. The people of Iowa have not died. The sturdy sons, who have learned how tc use human labor to such good advantage, have moved to Texas, Washington, Canada, and all the country between, and wherever they have gone they have been efficient. With the spread of the improved methods that are used by our better farmers, it is probable that the time may soon come when one farmer will raise enough to feed five or six families. When this time comes, only 15 to 20 per cent of the population will be farmers. These farmers will pur- chase many things not yet invented, and all civilization will have taken a long step forward. This means that we shall have a constant movement to cities, but there will always be a small number going from the city to the farm because they prefer farm life. The balance of the movement must always be cityward, so long as farmers continue to become more efficient. All these fundamental principles are lost sight of by the enthusiast who would have everybody (except him- self) go back to the farm. If any further evidence is needed of the futility of striving against an economic law that is as firmly established as the law of gravitation, this evidence is furnished by the few persons who have really gone from city to country, as a result of all the agitation and yards of writing on the subject. 25. Why the farm boy went to town. The Civil War removed so many persons from production that prices were very abnormal. With the war over, the soldiers and others rushed to the great fertile prairies of the Central West, hoping to raise crops and secure these big prices. Just as they became well established, new machinery began to be introduced : binders, drills, gang plows, check row corn planters, and big threshing SHALL I BE A FARMER? 33 machines, making one of the most important and most dramatic revolutions of history. These machines so increased the productive capacity of the farmer as to result in great overproduction of crops. The proportion of the population required for farming was suddenly decreased so enormously that a rush to the cities was necessary. But men could not go fast enough to keep the balance between city and country. There were too many farmers ! The overproduction was so serious that from 1875 to 1897 we had the most serious agricultural depression that the country has ever experienced. As late as 1896, the average price of corn on farms in Nebraska was 13 cents per bushel of shelled corn. 1 The corn from my father's farm, as good corn as ever grew, sold for 8 cents. In 1897, the average price for this state was 17 cents. 1 The Eastern farmers were even worse off. They had pur- chased their farms at inflated prices, and not only worked for almost nothing, but lost capital besides. All this time, great fortunes were being piled up in the cities. The farm boys moved to town by the hundreds of thousands, because the city offered good wages and farming did not pay. This movement was the best possible thing for the country, and, in the vast majority of cases, was best for the individual. 26. The remedy is automatic. When the balance of society is thrown so far out of adjustment, the tendency is to swing too far to the other extreme. The rush to the city continued a little too long, but no back-to-the-farm movement is necessary, or even desirable. A large pro- portion of the farm boys are now remaining on the farm, because it pays. It required only a few years of good prices to check the rush to cities. A good index to the 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., 1897, Yearbook, p. 723. 34 FARM MANAGEMENT situation is given by the agricultural college students. A few years ago, practically none of these returned to farms for the very good reason that they could not afford to do so. To-day the great majority of these students are planning to farm at once, or as soon as they can get the necessary capital. There may be some danger that we shall keep too many boys on farms and again have an overproduction of farm produce ten or twenty years from now, when all these boys become farmers. Both city and country will be best off if the adjustment of population takes place without such violent shifts as the past generation ex- perienced. 27. Movement to cities must continue. It is not necessary, or desirable, that all farmers' sons remain on the farms. Much less is any large movement back to the farm desirable. There will always be some persons born in cities who are country-minded. These should go to the farm. But so long as farmers become more efficient, we will need a smaller and smaller per cent of the popula- tion engaged in farming. Farming paid so poorly that the flood to cities continued a little too long. It has already been stopped. It cannot be reversed. We will now expect a gradual current from farm to city, and a limited number of persons will always be going from the city to the farm. 28. How then may the city secure cheaper food? A considerable part of the agitation on this subject is a desire of those who live in cities to get more persons to go to the farms in the hope that food prices will go down. We are not likely to again see such cheap food. Prices were so ruinously low that, even with virgin soil, the farmers could not make wages. During this period of cheap food, SHALL I BE A FARMER? 35 a very complicated and expensive system of handling farm products developed. In 1912, the New York State Food Investigating Commission estimated that the food supply for New York City cost 350 million dollars with all charges paid at the railroad terminals. This same food cost 500 million dollars when it reached the kitchens. This in- crease of 45 per cent is attributed to wasteful methods rather than excessive profits. The farmers did not receive the 350 millions, as the products had already been handled many times. Persons who desire to reduce the price of food had best turn their attention to the very wasteful system of handling farm products from the time they leave the farm until they reach the consumer. This is a city problem. The farmer is not likely to solve it. He does not understand city conditions. Half of the present ex- pense of trading in farm products ought to be eliminated. Here is a problem worthy of the best thought. 29. Back-to-the-village movement. " It seems to me that what is really needed is a back- to-the- village movement. This should be more than a mere suburban movement. The suburban development enlarges the boundaries of the city. It is perfectly feasible, however, to establish manufacturing and other concentrated enter- prises in villages in many parts of the country. Persons connected with these enterprises could own small pieces of land, and by working these areas could add something to their means of support and also satisfy their desire for a nature-connection. In many of the villages there are vacant houses and comparative!}- unoccupied land in sufficient number and amount to house and establish many enterprises; and there would be room for growth. If the rural village, freed from urban influences, could then become a real integrating part of the open country sur- 36 FARM MANAGEMENT rounding it, all parties ought to be better served than now, and the social condition of both cities and country ought to be improved. We have over-built our cities at the expense of the hamlets and the towns. I look for a great development of the village and small community in the next generation; but this involves a re-study of freight rates." l THE FARM AS A HOME FOR PERSONS OTHERWISE EMPLOYED 30. The farm as a home. There are relatively few city persons who become farmers in the sense of making their living from a farm, but all over the country there are thousands of persons who live on farms while continuing their town or city business. Around every town and village, and for many miles out from the large cities, there are persons who have some other business than farming, but who live on farms. The custom is most prevalent in the East, not only because of the larger population and more railroads, but because farms are so cheap. There are great numbers of persons who have demonstrated that this is a desirable and economical way to live. In Tompkins County, New York, the United States Census includes as farms about 500 small places that are occupied by persons who have some business other than farming. Many large farms are occupied in the same way. This county is not near any large city. It is 250 miles from New York. Ithaca, in the center of the county, has a population of about 15,000. There are a few small villages. A study of the larger places in six townships was 1 L. H. Bailey, The Country-Life Movement, p. 26 ; see also his con- trasts between the country-life and back-to-the-land movements. SHALL I HE A FARMER? 37 made in 1907. Besides the small places, there were 42 farms among 983 that were occupied by persons whose chief business was something other than farming. Many others derived some income from outside work. Among the occupations represented on the 42 farms were : laborers, politicians, carpenters, mechanics, engineers, store keepers, mail carriers, road commissioners, teachers and professors, salesmen, stock dealers, butchers, millers, lawyers, glass blowers, creamerymen, and others. The average size of the farms was eighty acres. The average capital invested was $3804. Some of the owners worked on their farms nights and mornings. Most of them worked during their vacations and other spare time. This time averaged about one-fourth of the year. On the average the farm receipts were $296 above the farm expenses. The average pay for their regular work was $614. With the same investment they could have lived in about equally good houses in town, but would not have had farm products for home use and would probably not have earned much of the $296. By living on farms they have gained half of their food and about $300 per year besides. They have increased their incomes by about 50 per cent, besides having the use of a house and farm products. As an example, one man worked most of the year as a farm-hand, for which he received $375. He owned a farm of twenty acres, with a total capital of $1326. He kept two old horses worth $110, raised two and one-half acres of potatoes from which he sold $200 worth, kept one pure-bred Holstein cow from which he raised a heifer calf worth $50, and sold $93 worth of milk. He also kept about sixty hens from which he sold $109 worth of eggs. 38 FARM MANAGEMENT Other sales were hay $89, hogs $85, poultry $6. His farm receipts exceeded the expenses by S202. 1 The farm evidently offers an excellent opportunity for persons who are otherwise employed but who can arrange to live on a farm. The living expenses are much reduced, and the farm may frequently be a source of revenue besides. 31. An example of a city man on a farm. On one of the farms mentioned above, a careful daily record was FIG. 9. The farm garden that produced S80.12 worth of products. kept of the produce furnished for home use. Most of the time the family consisted of five persons. They were experienced in farm work, as both parents had grown up on farms. The farm had been purchased three years before, at which time all the small fruits were set. The apples, cherries, and pears came from a small orchard that also produced fruit for sale. The garden contained three -fourths of an acre. Considerable care had been given to planning and developing it for three years, but i New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 562. SHALL I BE A FARMER? 39 the garden was so arranged that only a small amount of labor was involved. All the labor, except the gathering of products, was done by hired help. It required about 100 hours and cost $21.16. The horse labor was valued at $5.52. The garden was the best one seen in the county, so that it represents the possibility and not the average. Table 4 shows the number of times that products were gathered and the amount that these would have cost, if purchased at the local stores. The number of meals of each was more than the times gathered, as enough for more than one meal was usually brought in. It will be seen that this family makes an unusually large use of milk, eggs, and apples. In the next year, a little less garden produce was grown, but more cherries, peaches, plums, and quinces were raised, and a veal calf was butchered for home use. The purchased food for this household amounted to $225.10 for the year. It would not be safe for a city family without farm experience to count on doing so well. It must also be remembered that the products are chargecT at what they would have cost to buy. If one were selling, the milk would have been 3 cents instead of 6, and many other things in about this proportion. On this farm of 90 acres the receipts for products sold paid all expenses except interest and left $135 to spare. The family, therefore, received this amount, .the use of the house, and the farm products used in the house as interest on the investment. If they had lived in town, the same investment would have been required to buy an equally good house. The reduction in the cost of living en- abled the family to save money. They could not have saved much of the salary, if they had lived in town. Of course, they had certain inconveniences that some persons 40 FARM MANAGEMENT TABLE 4. FARM PRODUCTS USED BY A FAMILY LIVING ON A FARM BUT EMPLOYED IN A CITY TIMES GATHERED VALUE Garden products. Asparagus 31 $4.56 Beans string 27 1.91 Beans, for winter, 8 qt Beets 9 .80 .41 Beets, for winter, 2 bu .50 Blackberries 3 .30 Cabbage 1.00 Carrots for winter ^ bu .30 Celery, 350 for winter 15.00 Chard 3 .13 Currants 18 qt 1.80 Gooseberries, 17 qt. 1.70 Grapes, 60 qt 3.00 Horseradish 2 .20 Lettuce 15 .84 Onions '. . . . Onions, for winter and to pickle . . Peas 5 23 .17 .95 1.51 Potatoes, new Potatoes, 24 bu. for winter .... Radishes 33 21 2.40 18.00 1.06 Raspberries 17 3.83 Rhubarb Salsify 12 .73 5.00 Spinach 15 1.36 Strawberries 45 qt. 15 5.40 Sweet corn 13 .78 Sweet corn, to dry .75 Squash summer 3 .30 Squash, for winter 1.00 Tomatoes 9 3.68 Tomatoes, to cellar for fall .... Orchard and farm. .75 29.25 Cherries, 44 qt 2.21 Peaches f bu 1.00 Pears, 1 bu 2.00 Eggs, 321-| doz 81.36 Poultry, 38 chickens 20.90 Milk 3009 qt 180.54 Wood 10.00 $407.38 SHALL I HE A FARMEIf? 41 would not accept, even if they did have to spend all their income. SOME THOUGHTS FOR THE FARM BOY 32. The choice of an occupation. One of the most important decisions in the life of every person is the choice of an occupation. One should carefully consider the advice of his parents and friends, but the final decision must be made by each individual for himself. It is not at all necessary that every boy follow his father's occupation. What distinguishes America from the old world is the mobility of its society. Every boy may do what he likes. He is not held by tradition. We must strive to maintain this freedom for all time. It is just as important as a free government. Each person should choose the occupation in which he will be of most use in the world. Even from the selfish standpoint, this is usually best. The ultimate rewards in money and in pleasure are usually largest when one is doing the work that he can best do. The farm boy has had a good apprenticeship that would require several years to acquire. This is a valuable train- ing for any occupation, but is likely to be of most value in farming or in experiment station or agricultural college work. The high salaries paid in cities are misleading. They sound much larger than they really are, when the cost of living is considered. If one is sure that he prefers some other occupation and that he has a fair chance for success in it, he should cer- tainly not be a farmer. But, in many instances, the dislike of farming is merely 'a " case of the blues." Periods of discouragement come to every one regardless of his occu- 42 FARM MANAGEMENT pation; a change of occupation will not prevent them. There is no occupation that looks good when one is con sidering all its disadvantages. Unfortunately, human nature is such that we are likely to see the bright side of the other man's work and the dull side of ours. If one is to succeed in any occupation, he must learn to work when he had rather not, and to keep at it even if he is tired. Farming is not an easy task. It is worth while. It is worthy of a man. It combines physical labor with thought, so that it calls for an all-around development. If one is to be a farmer, he should prepare for the business. An agricultural college education is desirable to-day. But a young man is preparing not only for to-day, but for forty years from now, when such an education will bo much more necessary. The college course will help during every one of these forty years. We rarely see a man who regrets having gone to school too long. Nearly every one regrets having stopped so soon. Lack of money need not discourage anyone. Any boy who has good health can work his way through an agricultural college, and there are ways of starting farming with little money. It is not advised that any young man be a farmer. It may be very much better for him to leave the farm, but before leaving the farm, he should consider both sides of the question. CHAPTER 2 TYPES OF FARMING DEFINITIONS TYPES of farming may be defined in many ways, de- pending on the contrast in mind. The most frequent dis- tinction made is in source of income, as hog-farming, wheat-farming, apple-growing, and so on, or the distinc- tion may be more general, as live-stock-farming, grain- farming, and fruit-farming. The type may also be defined as to its diversity. If only one important product is sold, the farming is special- ized. If several important products are sold, it is called diversified or general farming. This subject is discussed in Chapter 3. Sometimes the contrast in the intensity of operation is considered. Systems that call for very intensive working of the land are called intensive ; those that use less labor for the area are called extensive. This subject is discussed in Chapter 4. As to the maintenance of fertility, farming may be de- fined as exploitive, when little attention is given to keeping up the fertility of the land, or conservative, when con- siderable attention is given to this question. This subject is discussed in Chapter 5. 33. Factors that determine the type of farming. The chief factors that determine the type of farming in any region are : climate, soil, topography, transportation, 43 44 FARM MANAGEMENT distance to market or shipping point, market demand and supply, relation of the type to other competing types in the region, price of land, capital, labor supply, custom, insects, diseases or other pests, and personal desires of the farmer. EXAMPLES OF THE INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE, SOIL, AND TOPOGRAPHY These physical conditions are the most important factors in determining the type of farming, but it is the combina- tion of these with many other factors that settles the mat- ter. The other factors may be so important as to result in a type of farming very different from what the physi- cal facts suggest. 34. Corn. For corn-production, there is no other large area of land in the world that has such a favorable combination of soil, climate, and topography as is found in the corn-belt of the United States. Corn requires a mellow soil well supplied with vegetable matter, heavy rainfall in the summer months, hot days, and hot nights. In addition, if it is to be raised economically, the land must be fairly level. The fact that it must be culti- vated and must have abundant rain makes it an unsatis- factory crop for hillsides, as the land will wash too much. On first thought, it would appear that one might supply the plant food by fertilizers, and the water by irrigation, but this is not so simple as at first appears. Corn requires more organic matter than most crops. Fertilizers do not take the place of organic matter. If the soil is not well supplied with decaying vegetable matter, it is usually necessary to supply it by adding farm manure or plowing under sod. Some crops are much easier to raise with fertilizers alone. TYPES OF FARMING 45 The necessary water might be supplied by irrigation, but corn does not respond to irrigation as well as some other crops. The dry air of an irrigated region is favorable for some crops and injurious to others. Corn can be grown by irrigation, but the increase in crop compared with humid regions is not so great as is the increase with some other crops, such as alfalfa, sugar beets, and wheat. \ I V FIG. 10. Distribution of the cotton crop in 190'J. One dot represents 8000 bales. We may expect that corn will always be the leading crop in the Middle West. There are a number of types of farming based on corn as the major crop. 35. Cotton. For cotton, there is no other large area in the world that has such a favorable combination of climate and soil as is found in southern United States. We may expect that cotton will remain the leading crop of the South. Thus far, it has been grown too exclusively, just as corn has been grown with too little rotation in the corn-belt. In both regions, rotations and types of farm- 46 FARM MANAGEMENT ing are developing that center around the important crop without making it the only crop. 36. Oats. Oats require a cool, moist climate for best development. A climate that is best for corn is too hot for the best yield of oats. If oats are grown on the best corn land, it is of the utmost importance to plant them as FIG. 11. Distribution of the oat crop in 1909. 500,000 bushels. One dot represents early as possible so as to give them the benefit of the cool part of the season. A little farther south oats do not pay at all, but if we go far enough south, the oats can be sown in the fall and thus grow during the cool season, and make a good crop. The best oat section is so far north that the weather is too cool and the season too short for the best yield of corn. Wheat is another cool weather crop. Oats do not require as rich a soil as corn. Fair crops of oats can be grown on land that is so poor that it will not TYPES OF FAHM1NG 47 produce a crop of corn. If the land is too rich, it is in- jurious to oats, as they grow too much straw and too little grain, and are likely to lodge. 37. Potatoes are much like oats in their climatic re- quirements. They require cool, moist weather and do best on rather light, deep soils. Most of the potato supply of the country is grown north of the best corn land. In the irrigated sections of Colorado, Utah, and neighbor- ing states, potatoes do well. The altitude keeps the weather cool, and the moisture is supplied by irrigation. Early potatoes are grown in the South during the cool season. Early planting provides fairly good climatic conditions, and the high prices received make up the dif- ference. Potatoes will grow on acid soils. This makes them the most important cash crop on many of the poor soils of northeastern United States. Root crops, such as sugar beets and mangels, are favored by the cool, moist weather, but these require considerable lime, so that they are not much grown except on good soils. The potato yields of Europe are often cited to show how poorly we in America farm. It would be just as fair to compare corn yields in the best parts of Illinois with Europe to show how poorly they farm in Europe. We can never hope to equal the potato yields of Europe, because their climate is so much better for the crop. For the same reason, they can never hope to equal our corn yields. The European climate is much better for root crops, oats, wheat, and grass. The Gulf Stream is quite as much responsible for their good yields of these crops as are the methods of farming. 38. Grass crops require cool, moist conditions for their best growth. One of the great problems of southern United States is the grass question. Except in the 48 FARM MANAGEMENT mountains, the states south of Kentucky find it difficult to raise good pastures or hay. The best grass section of the United States is north of Washington and east of the one-hundredth meridian. In this section, timothy and red clover are the great hay FIG. 12. Distribution of the hay and forage crop in 1909. One dot rep- resents 25,000 tons. plants. Alsike clover, alfalfa, and redtop are also im- portant. Alfalfa is a lime-loving plant. It grows well on the limestone soils anywhere in eastern United States. If the soil is not too short of lime, it may be made to grow well by applying lime. But if the subsoil is very seriously deficient in lime, it is not often possible to grow alfalfa successfully. Timothy and red clover are medium in lime require- ments. They grow well on soils that do not have enough lime for alfalfa. There are many areas in this grass region TYPES OF FARMING 49 that require lime for the best growth of these crops, particularly on the hill lands from southern Illinois to New England. Redtop will grow well on soils that are too poor or too short of lime to grow timothy. Alsike clover is somewhat more hardy in this and other respects than red clover. The great pasture plant of this section is Kentucky blue-grass, sometimes called June-grass (Poa pratensis). White clover is also important. On soils that are too poor to grow Kentucky blue-grass, Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa) is the most important pasture plant. Kentucky blue-grass requires much more lime than Can- ada blue-grass. If a soil contains enough lime or is well supplied with lime, the Kentucky blue-grass will usually run out the Canada blue-grass. If a region grows Kentucky blue-grass or alfalfa very abundantly, it is practically certain that the soils still have a fair supply of limo. West of the one-hundredth meridian, the chief hay plant is alfalfa, and the chief pasture plants are the native grasses. South of Washington, various forage plants are grown. Cow peas are one of the important hay plants, but these must be planted every year and are hard to cure. On some of the limestone soils, alfalfa is grown. Bermuda grass and Johnson grass are grown, but these are bad weeds. The pasture and hay question in the South is a difficult one, as the very climatic conditions that make it a great cotton region are unfavorable for grass. It is not a natural grass country. 39. Apples. The apple crop is primarily adapted to the region that was by nature heavily wooded. In New York there are orchards with trees over one hundred years 50 FARM MANAGEMENT old that are still bearing. These trees have persisted in spite of neglect, because the climate is so favorable for tree growth. The heat that makes a good crop of corn or cotton is unfavorable for apples. Fruit trees do not re- quire so rich a soil as is necessary for corn. The peach tree is as readily injured by too rich a soil as by too poor a soil. On the best corn land, apples and pears blight badly. There are some good apple regions in irrigated sections of the West, but their area is small in comparison with the vast area in the Eastern States that is adapted to apples. In 1909, New York raised more apples than all the states west of Iowa. 40. Truck-crops. Crops that require much hand labor, as truck-crops, are usually grown on light soils, because such soils will grow a crop earlier and because there is much hand labor. Sandy soils are much easier worked than clay soils. The muck or peat soils are best of all. There are two general truck regions, one about each city and one in the South for supplying early vegetables. 41. Topography. Danger of erosion may require that the land be kept in sod. Steep hillsides may prevent the use of machinery. When the work was done with hand tools, the side hills were not at so great a disadvantage. Many side hills have been turned into hay, pasture, or forest, or have been abandoned because machinery could not be used on them to good advantage. Every new machine that is invented makes the earning of a living more difficult for the man who cannot use the machine. If he must compete with a machine by his hand labor, he must reduce his standard of living or change his type of farming. 42. Animals. Live-stock is also much affected by cli- mate. One of the most striking cases is the failure of the TYPES OF FARMING 51 horse in hot regions. The work must then be done by mules or cattle, or in the hottest regions by the water buffalo. Indirectly, the climate affects stock raising by limiting the grazing period. Many attempts have been made to introduce beef cattle in the North Atlantic States, but the grazing period is too short. Pastures are cheap, but the winter feeding period is too long. In spite of land values and feed prices, England and Scotland are better situated than New England for raising meat. The long grazing season more than makes up the difference in prices of land and winter feed. By limiting the crops grown, the climate and soil limit the animals raised. All of the noted horse-breeding sections of the world are regions in which the soil is well supplied with lime and mineral matter. The quality of the horses from Kentucky is well known. They are grazed on blue-grass that grows on a soil rich in lime. The Percheron horse in France is raised on a limestone soil. The rich valley of the Clyde 1 River furnished the oppor- tunity for the production of the Clydesdale. Such illustrations may be multiplied indefinitely. Among the first things to consider in deciding on a type of farming are climate and soil. RELATION OF TRANSPORTATION TO TYPE OF FARMING 43. General principles. The fundamental principle is tli at products that are easily and cheaply shipped and that will stand shipment 'will usually be produced far from the centers of population, because near market they can- not compete with bulky and perishable products. Perish- able 1 products or products that are bulky for their value will usually pay best when grown near the consumers- 52 FARM MANAGEMENT All other factors limiting the type of farming affect the result, but next to soil and climatic limitations the freight and express rates and cost of handling produce are the most important factors in determining the type of farming. The problem seems to be little understood by farmers, agricultural colleges, or city business men. Experience forces farmers to abandon types that are too far out of adjustment, but frequently the wrong cause is assigned. 44. Transportation and crop-prices and crop-produc- tion. Table 5 gives the average farm values of certain crops on December first for the five years 1907-1911 in- clusive. The states are arranged in order, extending from the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. Most of the products are cheaper in eastern Nebraska and western Iowa than at any other point. From here they are shipped both ways. All prices are compared with the Iowa price as 100 per cent. The primary factor in fixing the differences in these prices is the cost of trans- portation to the centers of population. For prices of other products and for other states, see Table 83, page 576. Massachusetts has a good climate for hay-production, but the local supply is not sufficient to feed the horses and dairy cows. Hay must be shipped in. The high cost of shipment raises the price, not only of the hay shipped in, but of that grown in Massachusetts. Corn is also shipped in, but the cost of shipment is less in proportion to its value. The farm value of hay is 226 per cent of the Iowa price, corn 166 per cent, oats 157 per cent. Wheat is so little grown that no farm price is reported. The Massachusetts farmer can grow wheat and can get perhaps a fifth more than the Iowa price, but he can get two and one-fourth times the Iowa price for his hay. He would be very foolish to grow wheat. TVPEN OF FARMING f>3 TABLE 5. AVERAGE FARM PRICE ON DECEMBER 1 FOR CERTAIN CROPS FOR FIVE YEARS (1907-191 1). 1 WITH COMPARISONS WITH THE IOWA PRICE AS 100 PER CENT. CORN WHEAT OATS HAY POTATOES Per Per Per Per Per Cent Cent Cent Cent Cent Price of Price of Price of Price of Price of Iowa Iowa Iowa Iowa Iowa Price Price Price Price Price Colorado $.69 147 $.85 98 .$.50 135 $ 9.67 113 $.67 110 Nebraska .47 100 .84 97 .37 100 7.15 83 .72 118 Iowa . . .47 100 .87 100 .37 100 8.58 100 .61 100 Illinois . .49 104 .93 107 .40 108 11.62 135 .73 120 Indiana . .50 106 .94 108 .40 108 12.00 [ 140 .68 111 Ohio . . .55 117 .97 111 .43 116 12.55 146 .67 110 New York .73 156 1.00 115 .51 138 14.71 171 .64 105 Massa- chusetts .78 166 .58 157 19.40 226 .83 136 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, pp. 505, 518, 530, 560, 566, and Yearbook, 1911, pp. 524, 535, 546, 569, 573. A ton of hay in Massachusetts will buy 25 bushels of corn. In Iowa it would buy only 18 bushels. The same ton would buy 33 bushels of oats in Massachusetts, but would buy only 23 bushels in Iowa. It is easy to see why the New England farmer comes so near to a one-crop system. There are whole townships in New England in which there are no threshing machines. Corn is raised for the silo, and some is raised for grain. Comparatively little small grain is raised east of Syracuse, New York, and still less east of the Hudson River. In this section, shavings and sawdust are largely used for bedding. Straw is too valuable. In 1909, the area of hay grown in New England was five times the total area of all other crops combined. A common practice in New England is to keep nearly all 54 FARM MANAGEMENT the farm in grass. When a spot gets poor, it is plowed up, farmed for a year or two, and re-seeded. These small irregular patches of crops in the center of a hay field are amusing to a Western farmer, but the New Englander has a reason for his practice. Potatoes, truck crops, or fruit combined with hay and corn silage for the dairy make a very profitable kind of farming for this region. As we go westward, the relative prices change. In New York a ton of hay will buy 20 bushels of corn or 29 bushels of oats as compared with 18 of corn and 23 of oats in Iowa. In 1909, hay occupied 62 per cent of the area in crops in New York and 40 per cent of the crop area in Pennsylvania, 29 per cent in Ohio, and 25 per cent in Iowa. From the prices it would appear as if corn might be the second crop in New York, but oats are second in area and corn third. In value, hay is first and potatoes second. There is much land not adapted to corn that grows oats fairly well. Oats are also desired as a crop with which to seed grass. The straw is also worth more than in Iowa. Winter wheat is grown to some extent in New York and Pennsylvania. Considerable of the wheat in New York is sown after beans without plowing. This greatly reduces the cost of production. In Pennsylvania it is often sown after corn and potatoes without plowing. The wheat is also a good crop with which to seed grass. Similar comparisons can be made for other regions and other crops. These cases are cited to show the principle involved and how it works under modifying conditions. It is difficult to compare Northern and Southern states on this basis. Feed prices are usually higher in the South, but the pasture season is longer, so that more of the meat and butter can be grown on pasture. Pasture is also im- portant for hogs and hens. Poultry obtain more green TYPES OF FARMING 55 feed and more insect food in the South. This partly offsets the high feed cost. 45. Relation of cost of production to disposition of crops. No subject seems to be more generally mis- understood than the relation of crops to stock. The usual theory seems to be that if corn and hay can be easily and cheaply grown, they should be fed to live-stock. Perhaps the basis of this error is the absurd practice of some in- stitutions of charging feed to animals at the cost of pro- ducing it rather than at what it can be sold for, less the cost of marketing. Some farmers are able to produce hay at a cost of $5 per ton. On other farms it costs $25. When this is charged to cows, it should be counted at its selling value. The cost has nothing to do with the value. The farmer who produced it at a cost of So might feed it to steers and get $8 for it ; by this means he could make a profit on the two things, and steers might be hailed a very profitable enterprise. This sort of figuring misleads some farmers. If hay is worth $15 a ton on the market, a farmer is very foolish to sell it to steers for $8, no matter what it cost him. It would be equally unwise to sell it if he could feed it to cows and get $16 for it. If the man whose hay costs him $25 can get only $16 for it by feeding it to cows, he will lose money on the two enterprises, but he should not blame the cows for his loss. Every crop should be disposed of in the way that will pay best, regardless of the cost of producing it. In figuring on live-stock, manure should of course be counted at what it is worth, but no more and no less. 46. Transportation as affecting hog-production. It requires about 5 to 6 pounds of corn to produce a pound of hog. The pound of pork can be shipped at a much less cost than the 5 pounds of corn. The opinion that corn 56 FARM MANAGEMENT and hogs go together and that the center of the corn-belt is the center of the hog-raising region is almost universal. Figures 13 and 14 show how far this is from the truth. The center of the hog-raising region is where feed is cheap- est. The best place to raise hogs is as far west as one can go and yet be sure of a corn crop. Even between the neighboring states of Iowa and Illinois, the adjustment is very striking. Illinois produces more corn than Iowa, but has only about half as many hogs. At the time of the last census, Illinois had one hog for each 150 bushels of corn raised. Iowa had one for each 79 bushels. A dif- ference of 2 cents per bushel in the price of corn has been sufficient to make this surprising difference in the number of hogs. TABLE 6. NUMBER OF HOGS AND PIGS THREE MONTHS OLD OR OLDER ON APRIL 1, 1910 HOGS AND PIGS BORN BEFORE JAN. 1, 1910. Colorado 110,922 Nebraska! 1,970,895 4,299,499 2,603,062 Indiana 1,906,258 Ohio 1,574,009 New York 364,375 Massachusetts 62,368 Comparing Illinois and New York, the difference is still greater. In 1910, the freight rate on corn in carload lots from Chicago to New York was 8.2 cents per bushel, or if shipped by lake 5.77 cents. The freight rate on dressed hogs was 45 cents per 100 pounds. 1 About 30 bushels of U- $ Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, pp. 649-650. 57 FIG. 13. Distribution of the corn crop in 1909. One dot represents 1,000,000 bushels. FIG. 14. Distribution of hogs in 1909. One dot represents 14,000 hogs. 58 FARM MANAGEMENT corn is required to grow a 300-pound hog. To ship this corn to New York would cost $2.46 in carload lots. The 300-pound hog would produce about 225 pounds of dressed pork that could be shipped for $1.01. On every hog thus produced, the freight rates make a difference of $1.45 in favor of growing the hog in Illinois. As a matter of fact, the difference is much more than this. The com- missions and cost for handling corn are greater than for handling the pork produced by it. The farm price of corn is 24 cents more in New York than in Illinois, or a difference of about three times the freight cost. The average farm price of corn on December first for five years (1907-1911) has been 47 cents in Iowa and 73 cents in New York. If an Iowa farmer uses 30 bushels of corn to grow a 300-pound hog, his feed will be worth $14.10. The same feed would be worth $21.90 in New York, or a difference in cost of $7.80 on every 300-pound hog raised. There are no figures showing the average price that farmers receive for hogs. By correspondence, I have obtained prices paid to farmers at the same date in the two regions. The difference is rarely as much as one cent a pound, or about $3 per hog. This would leave a difference of about $4 per hog in favor of Iowa. If the hogs are pastured on clover, the Iowa farmer has a still greater advantage, as the difference in the price of hay that is thus lost is still more in his favor. A considerable number of hogs are raised in New York to consume waste products, such as whey, skim milk, garbage from the cities and villages. Aside from hogs thus fed, most of the hogs are grown for home use. On April 1, 1910, there was an average of three hogs and pigs per farm in New York. In Iowa the average was 35. It often pays to raise products for home use that it would TYPES OF FARMING 59 not pay to raise to sell. The difference between the price that a farmer receives and what he would have to pay at the meat market is a good profit. Since one family does not need as many pigs as one sow will raise, only a portion of the farmers keep hogs. A limited number of pigs may be raised to weaning age and sold to neighbors at a good profit. Two litters are usually raised per year. Or one litter is raised while the hog is being grown for home use. Those who are in this business usually find that they cannot afford to raise hogs to sell. They must be disposed of as pigs. Occasionally, hogs are so high in price compared with feed that grain can 1)3 used in the Eastern States to produce pork at a profit, but when this is the case, the profit is very much larger in Iowa. This results in an increased production there and a decrease in price. When one is on the danger line for the profitable production of any article, he needs to be very careful about entering the business when prices are temporarily high. 47. Transportation as affecting beef-production. Because the North Atlantic States have cheap pasture land, many persons have thought that, for this reason, these regions should produce beef cattle. But the pas- tures can be used for only five to six months, and the value of winter feed is so high that the industry is usually un- profitable. It usually requires about 10 pounds of corn and 10 pounds of hay or the equivalent in other feeds to produce a pound of steer, good farmers do better. 1 If we assume that a 1000-pound steer is half grown on pasture, we would have the following comparison : 1 The Standard Cattle Co. fed 51,393 steers in eleven years. For each pound of gain these steers averaged 13.3 pounds of grain and 9.4 pounds of hay. W. A. Henry, Feeds and Feeding, 7th edition, p. 399. 60 FARM MANAGEMENT IOWA NEW YORK Pasture 1\ tons 89 bu. c two summers $20.00 21.45 41.83 $10.00 36.77 64.97 hay orn $83.28 $111.74 These figures show that, even if we assume that pasture is worth twice as much in Iowa as in New York, the winter feed much more than offsets the difference. Using more or less feed than is called for above, or using a silo, may affect the figures, but does not affect the principle. It is the cost of the year's feed and not the cost of the feed for one season that must be considered. For profit- able beef production, we must have a very long grazing period, or must have cheap winter feed, or both. England is better situated than our North Atlantic States for beef production, because it has such a long grazing season. The adjustment that the farmers have made to meet the conditions is shown in Table 7. On April 1, 1910, Nebraska and Iowa had more than one-fourth as many yearling steers and bulls (3 months to 15 months) as they had cows and heifers (16 months old or older). Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio had less than one-sixth as many as cows, . and New York and Massachusetts had only one for 25 to 30 cows. In these two states practically no steers are kept. The number reported represents practi- cally "the number of bulls kept. Instead of raising steers, these two Eastern States sell practically all their bull calves as veal. Near cities, the calves are often killed at birth, as feed is too expensive to make it pay to keep them to the legal age for veal. The East Central States sell many of their calves for veal, but raise some steers. TYPES OF FARMING 61 TABLE 7. STEERS ON FARMS ON APRIL 1, 1910 STEERS AND BULLS BORN IN 1909 PER 100 Cows 1 STEERS AND BULLS BORN BEFORE 1909 PER 100 COW8 Colorado 18 46 Nebraska 26 40 Iowa . 28 36 Illinois 15 20 Indiana 15 15 Ohio . 14 15 New York 4 3 Massachusetts 3 3 1 Number of steers and bulls for each 100 cows and heifers born before Jan. 1, 1909; most of these would be 2 years old or older. The West Central States raise nearly all their calves. The age at which the steers are sold also shows an adjust- ment to feed prices. The Western States keep their steers to two or three years of age, as is shown by the fact that they have twice as many of the older ones as of the year- lings. 48. Relation of transportation to sheep-production. Sheep are more efficient users of feed than cattle, but not so efficient as hogs. On an average, it takes about 3.5 pounds of grain and 5.1 pounds of hay to produce a pound of sheep, 2 10 pounds of hay and 10 pounds of corn for a pound of steer, and 5.6 pounds of corn for a pound of pork. The hog has a still further advantage in that in butchering it dresses off about one-fourth, while cattle and sheep dress off about 35-50 per cent. Sheep will eat many products that cannot be well used by other stock. They help to rid a farm of weeds. For these reasons, a few sheep are kept as scavengers on many farms where it would not pay to keep a large number. 2 D. H. Doane, Sheep Feeding and Farm Management, p. 71. 62 FARM MANAGEMENT In the bean-growing sections of New York and Michigan, sheep are kept because they make good use of bean pods and cull beans. Many farmers who have pasture, and who do not wish to keep dairy c/)ws, keep sheep. They may not pay very well, but where feed is high, they are usually better than beef, and do not interfere with farm work as much as dairy cows. Winter lambs are usually produced near market. They are seldom produced in large enough numbers to be FIG. 15. Distribution of yearling colts, 1910. One dot represents 400 colts. shipped by freight. When raised near market and shipped by express, the cheaper transportation may offset the higher feed cost. 49. Transportation in relation to horse-production. Horses are not so readily shipped as meat. They are more likely to be injured in shipment, and, in addition, must become used to a new climate before they are of TYPES OF FARMING 03 much use. The brood mare can do nearly a full amount of farm work besides raising a colt, so that only a small part of her. feed need be charged to the cost of raising colts. For these reasons, colts can be raised where it would not pay to raise beef. Table 8 shows that colts are most numerous where feed is cheapest, but are raised to some extent in other states. When the price of horses drops, it is the states with high-priced feed that are first forced out of colt production ; as the price rises again, they are the last states to go into the business. TABLE 8. COLT PRODUCTION l NUMBER OP HORSE AND MULE COLTS PER 100 HORSES Colorado 13 Nebraska 13 Iowa 13 Illinois 12 Indiana 11 Ohio 9 New York 4 Massachusetts 2 1 Horse arid mule colts for each 100 mares, stallions, and geldings born before 1909. 60. Relation of transportation to dairying. Butter, condensed milk, milk flour, and cheese are easily shipped. The center of production of these products is constantly moving westward. Much distress has been caused by the persistence of butter making in some Eastern regions that are being forced out of the business. In a region that has to depend to a considerable extent on shipped-in feed, the competition with dairymen in the region from which the grain comes is ruinous. C4 FARM MANAGEMENT Some of the cheese-making sections of the East are able to continue the business by roughing the cattle through the winter as cheaply as possible, and depending mostly on the cheap feed furnished by pastures for cheese making. In other cases, milk is shipped to the cities in winter when there is a good demand, and cheese is made in summer. FIG. 16. Distribution of dairy cows in 1910. One dot represents 5000 cows. The average price received by farmers for butter in 1910 and 1911 was 25 cents in Iowa, 29 cents in New York, and 33 cents in Massachusetts (Table 9). The New York farmer receives 16 per cent and the Massachusetts farmer 32 per cent more than the Iowa farmer. These differences are sometimes cited to show how rich the Eastern farmer ought to get by making butter. But the cost of production has just as much to do with profits as the price received. Comparing the cost of raw materials (feed) in these states, we find that corn is 56 per cent and hay 71 per cent higher in New York than in TYPES OF FARMING 65 TABLE 9. AVERAGE PRICE RECEIVED BY FARMERS FOR BUTTER (1910 AND 1911) l AVERAGE FARM PRICE PER POUND PER CENT OF THE IOWA PRICE Colorado 29 116 Nebraska 21 84 Iowa Illinois Indiana Ohio 25 24 22 24 100 96 88 96 New York 29 116 Massachusetts 33 132 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, p. 632; 1911, p. 634. Iowa, but that butter, the manufactured product, is only 16 per cent higher. It takes 2.5 pounds of butter to buy a bushel of corn on a New York farm and only 1.9 pounds in Iowa. It takes 51 pounds of^ butter to buy a ton of hay on a New York farm, but on an Iowa farm it takes only 34 pounds. On a Massachusetts farm it takes 59 pounds of butter to pay for a ton of hay. It is evident that the East cannot compete with the Middle West in butter production. The center of butter production is rapidly shifting to the region of cheap feed. Those farmers who persist in making butter in regions of high-priced feed are usually receiving very little for their work. Sometimes other things are so profitable as to overcome the loss on butter. Even those farmers who have special customers rarely receive enough to make the business very profitable. In one county in New York it was found that farmers who made butter rarely made hired-man's wages, and when they did, it was because the profits from some other 66 FARM MANAGEMENT enterprise more than paid the loss on butter. Milk sold to creameries to be made into butter paid better, but required extra good production peT cow to pay. 1 In Connecticut, with an extra good herd of cows, the average cost of producing butter for five years (1906-1911) was 38 cents per pound. 2 The average farm price of butter for the two years 1910 and 1911 was 33 cents. At this price, there was an average loss of $16 per cow per year. Market milk must be produced near the consumer, be- cause it is both perishable and bulky for its value. But it is not free from competition. Within the range of pos- sible shipment of any of our cities, there are very many more cows than are required to produce the necessary milk. Whenever cheese or butter prices drop, there is a tendency for farmers who are farther from the railroad to sell milk instead of making butter. Along every railroad that hauls milk, there is a strip of land from which all the product is sold as milk, but a little farther back from the railroad, it does not pay to haul milk, so that butter or. cheese are made. Milk trains can readily be put on more roads, or extend farther from the cities if necessary. Some regions have a milk train in winter, but none in summer. There is an immense reserve of milk that can be used for butter or cheese when milk is low, but that can be sold as milk whenever prices warrant. 61. Transportation and egg-production. It is so difficult to get eggs to the consumer in good condition that the farmer near the market has the advantage. A dozen eggs will buy 16 pounds of wheat in New York, but will buy only 13 pounds in Iowa. The chief chicken food 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 483. * Connecticut, Storrs Bulletin 73. TYPES OF FARMING 67 in Iowa is corn. A dozen eggs will buy 23 pounds oi corn in Iowa and 21 pounds in New York, 24 pounds in Massa- chusetts, 14 pounds in South Carolina and 14 pounds in Mississippi. There is about the same difference on poultry as on eggs. (Table 10.) TABLE 10. AVERAGE PRICE RECEIVED BY FARMERS FOR EGGS AND POULTRY (1910 AND 1911). l EGGS CHICKENS Average Farm Per Cent of the Average Farm Per Cent of the Price Iowa Price Price Iowa Price Colorado . 26 137 13.4 140 Nebraska 18 95 9.1 95 Iowa . . . 19 100 9.6 100 Illinois 20 105 10.9 114 Indiana . . 21 111 10.8 113 Ohio . . . 22 116 11.3 118 New York . 27 142 14.4 150 Massa- chusetts . 34 179 16.8 175 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, pp. 643, 644, and 1911, pp. 634, 648. The prices are the averages for the first of each month. A farmer will receive a lower average for the total eggs or meat sold, because the largest sales conn in tho months of lowest prices. With better methods of handling eggs and poultry, and more promptness in shipment, the ratio may be changed, but it appears as if the regions near market will always find egg production a profitable business. The home market will always be largely supplied by a home-grown product, even though it may ship in butter, flour, beef, and pork. There seems to be no question but that hens pay better in the North than in the South. If we assume that a hen lays 8 dozen eggs and that there 68 FARM MANAGEMENT is 5 pounds of poultry sold for every hen kept, we would have the following comparisons : 1 MASSA- CHUSETTS IOWA SOUTH CAROLINA MISSISSIPPI 8 doz. eggs . 5 Ib. meat . Total . 2.72 .84 3.56 1.52 .48 2.00 1.68 .58 2.26 1.52 .58 2.10 The difference between Iowa and Massachusetts is enough to pay the entire feed bill for a hen a year. In South Carolina, corn costs more than in Massachusetts. The average egg production per hen is about half as much as in Massachusetts. Diseases are also worse in the South. Poultry in the South gathers more of its own food, because of the long season for green food, and because of the abundance of insects. The cost for housing is also l p ss, but the cost of housing in the North should not be over 10 to 20 cents per hen per year. After allowing for all these differences, there is no question but that the profit is better in the North. The South will always raise poultry for local ,use, as will every other country, but it is not the place to go if one is thinking of locating a poultry farm. Such a farm should be located nearer large markets, or might be located in the region of cheap food, if the lower prices could be overcome by care and prompt shipment. 52. Fruit and vegetables in relation to transportation. - Fresh fruits that are very perishable must be produced relatively near market. Apples may be shipped long distances, but must be protected from freezing. Low- 1 The actual price received would, in each case, he somewhat less than the amounts given above, because the prices are the average by months.. More products would be sold during the months of low prices. TYPES OF FARMING 69 priced apples are bulky for their value and must, therefore, be produced near market. Only the very best are worth shipping long distances. For this reason the growers in the Western States have become skillful graders and packers. But the largest apple market is with the working people, who cannot afford to pay for fruit that is worth shipping across a continent. For every fancy box of apples that is sold in any city, many barrels of cheaper apples are sold. Most of the growers in the North Atlantic States strive for quantity and economy in production combined with fair quality, rather than sacrifice both of these for quality. There is an enormous demand for low- priced apples. Most farmers in the Central and North- eastern States find that they can make more money by supplying this demand than by trying to compete for the very limited fancy trade. The Baldwin, Greening, Ben Davis, and other wholesale types of apples are usually most profitable. Truck and vegetable crops and flowers are, in general, perishable and very bulky, hence are grown very close to cities. A city's truck crops usually come from very near by ; milk is shipped farther, eggs still farther, meat and flour still farther ; clothing may be shipped around the world. The only case in which fresh vegetables are shipped far- is when they come from Southern to Northern markets. In this case they have no competition from nearer farms. Such products compete with greenhouses. Within the same latitude, long-distance shipment of truck is rarely profitable. 53. Marginal regions. With every product, there are regions of greatest profit and regions where the type is out of the question, but it is very hard to draw the line between the two. In the best regions there are always 70 FARM MANAGEMENT some farmers who fail to make a profit. In regions not so well adapted to the product, some farmers may have the business so well organized as to make a profit, but the same effort would make a much greater success if ex- pended under better conditions. This idea is illustrated in Fig. 17. If each dot on the left of the vertical line represents a farmer who is producing LOSS * * *. vVXtt * PROFIT v .Jowa MY AUss. FIG. 17. Diagram showing comparative chances of making a profit on pork production on grain feed in different states. Each dot on the left- hand side of the line represents a farmer who would lose by producing pork, and each dot on the right-hand side represents a farmer making a profit. hogs at a loss, and each dot on the right-hand side of the line represents one who is producing them at a profit, we will have a distribution somewhat as shown in the figure. In Iowa most of the farmers make a profit on hogs. If the business is well handled, it may give a very large profit ; if poorly done, it may still pay ; but if too badly managed, it is possible to lose on the business. In Ohio, with higher-priced corn, the highest profits are lower and the danger of losing is much greater. In New York it is very difficult to make a profit on hogs that are raised on grain. In Massachusetts it is probably TYPES OF FARMING 71 impossible. It is foolish to attempt to produce hogs on grain feed under such unfavorable circumstances. The same effort expended in types of farming that are adapted to the region will bring a much greater return. RELATION OF TYPE OF FARMING TO DISTANCE TO MARKET OR SHIPPING POINT 54. General principles. The distance that the farmer has to haul his products and the character of the road limit the type of farming, but this influence is not so striking as is the effect of transportation. Products that are bulky for their value, such as milk and vegetables, are usually grown near the railroad or market. But if prices are high enough, the haul may be much farther. Much depends on the roads and the size of the load. A full load of milk may be hauled six miles at less cost per can than it costs a farmer to haul a few cans a mile. Near some of the large cities, immense loads of vegetables are sometimes hauled so far that the load has to start in the evening to reach the market in the morning. Wool is hauled long distances. (Table 11.) Sheep, cattle, and horses can be produced farther from market than most products. Grain can be profitably hauled for a greater distance than hay or potatoes. In the case of some products, such as butter and eggs, the cost of hauling would be small if loads were taken, but the farmer must take these to town frequently. The very small amounts taken at one time often make the cost very high. Farmers cannot afford to go to town often enough in summer time to keep eggs fresh. The poor quality of the 3gg supply and consequent low prices will continue until 72 some system of frequent delivery is started. Possibly the parcels post law might be so modified as to allow the rural mail carrier to carry cases of eggs. 55. Cost of hauling. In Table 11 are given the average distance to market, size of load, and cost of hauling for TABLE 11. AVERAGE COSTS OF HAULING PRODUCTS FROM FARMS TO SHIPPING POINT : TOTALS FOR STATES REPRESENTED l AVERAGE PRODUCT HAULED & % S.| o t *^"O '" 03 1 to a i a -a a gg _oj o, c >.B & 3 0) *"T3 is a -*^ ^ i/ P O H il(S 03 o'C QtfH O C 62(2 o os Apples . . 114 9.6 0.9 2,300 $2.79 i $0.12 i $0.25 Barley . . 226 8.8 .7 3,970 2.67 .07 i .16 Beans 22 9.0 .8 3,172 2.75 .09 ! .20 Buckwheat . 8 8.2 .8 2,438 2.90 .11 .27 Corn . . . 981 7.4 .6 2,696 1.78 .07 .19 Cotton . . 555 11.8 1.0 1,702 2.76 .16 .27 Cottonseed . 110 10.7 .9 1,654 2.42 .15 .28 Flaxseed 51 10.4 .7 3,409 2.70 .08 .15 Fruit (other than apples) 99 11.6 1.1 2,181 3.53 .16 .28 Hay ... 761 8.3 .7 2,786 2.32 .08 .19 Hemp . . 7 5.2 .7 3,393 2.10 .06 .23 Hogs (live) . 316 7.9 .7 1,941 2.00 .10 .25 Hops . . 14 11.7 1.0 3,665 3.89 .11 .19 Oats . . . 798 7.3 .6 2,772 1.82 .07 .19 Peanuts . . 19 8.1 .6 1,363 1.67 .12 .30 Potatoes 569 8.2 .7 2,679 2.34 .09 .22 Rice . 18 7.5 .8 2,407 2.70 .11 .29 Rye ... 78 8.4 .7 2,625 2.23 .08 .19 Timothy seed 5 8.0 .8 2,410 1.92 .08 .20 Tobacco 113 9.8 .8 2,248 2.28 .10 .20 Vegetables (other than potatoes) . 152 9.8 .9 1,852 2.84 .15 .31 Wheat . . 1,051 9.4 .8 3,323 2.86 .09 .19 Wool . . 41 39.8 5.6 4,869 21.39 .44 .22 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Statistics, Bulletin 49, p. 16. TYPES OF FARMING 73 many counties in the United States. The cost of hauling, of course, changes constantly, but the time required to haul a given distance is not likely to change much. It will be seen that the average time required to haul a load is about a day for ten miles. Many factors affect the rate of hauling. Under usual conditions, farmers who haul two miles or less can haul three to. four loads a day. If the haul is two to four miles, three loads are commonly hauled. For four LO six miles, two loads are usually hauled. In general, if the cost of hauling from the farm to the shipping point is not over 5 per cent of the value of the product, it may be regarded as reasonable. If the cost is 10 per cent, it is very high. The cost can often be re- duced by hauling larger loads. 56. Cost of hauling milk. In nearly all parts of the country a large amount of time is wasted in hauling milk. Not infrequently, the time spent is worth more than the milk. Every morning, thousands of American farmers take a drive of from half an hour to half a day with a little milk. The trouble is that the loads hauled arc too small. Frequently one can see a half dozen farmers coming along the same road with so little milk that one wagon might haul it all. Sometimes farmers have milk enough to make a full load. Sometimes it can be hired hauled. Sometimes neighbors can take turns hauling. By these means the cost can be kept reasonable. The only excuse for the many long drives taken with a can or two of milk is that the farmer has nothing else to do. This is an admission that his type of farming ought to be changed. The cost of hauling milk and of hiring it hauled in Delaware County, New York, is given in Table 12. The 74 FARM MANAGEMENT FIG. 18. Going to the creamery with two cans of milk, hauling is excessive. The cost of FIG. 19. A full load of milk from many farms. low. The cost of hauling is TYPES OF FARMING 75 men who haul for pay have full loads so that they can haul it at a low cost and yet make wages for themselves. In determining the cost when the farmer hauls the milk, his time was counted at 15 cents per hour, a boy's time at 8 cents, a team's at 15 cents or 8 cents for one horse. These prices are very low. It will be seen that the cost of hauling milk one mile is almost as much as the cost of hiring it hauled 8 miles. The time taken to get ready and to hitch up, as well as the size of the load, make the cost very high. TABLE 12. COST OF HAULING MILK FROM THE FARM TO THE CREAMERY, 148 FARMS, DELAWARE COUNTY, NEW YORK l MILK HIRED HAULED MILK HAULED BY THE FARMER MILES FROM FARM TO CREAMERY t-i umber of Farms Cost for Each Dollar's Worth of Milk Number of Farms Cost for Each Dollar's Worth of Milk 0.5 19 .047 1 3 .043 16 .064 2 12 .042 13 .066 3 18 .055 6 .097 4 12 .061 5 .155 5-6 24 .060 3 .138 7 8 Q Ofi^i 9-10 4 .068 3 .199 13 1 .068 1 Thesis by E. H. Thompson, Department of Farm Management, Cornell Univemty. These dairies had good-sized herds, averaging 28 cows. With smaller herds it is evident that the cost of hauling is very hig'i when the farmer hauls his own milk only. The profit from milk production is not high enough to stand very high cost for hauling. From 21 farms the milk was hauled by the farmer to a 76 FARM MANAGEMENT platform from which it was hired hauled. The average distance to the platform was .55 miles. The cost to haul for each dollar's worth of milk averaged $.058. The average distance from the platform to the creamery to which the milk was hired hauled was 5.4 miles, and the cost for each dollar's worth of milk averaged $.056. It cost the farmer more to hitch up and haul the milk half a mile than to hire it hauled ten times as far. Because of the high cost of hauling, we find along every railroad that carries milk to cities a more or less irregular boundary line at varying distances from the railroad, beyond which the milk is made into butter or sold to creameries, or cheese factories. If the price of milk rises a little, there is a very large supply that is available, on a day's notice. It is this great reserve supply that makes it difficult to raise the price of milk. In choosing a farm or deciding on a type of farming, one must consider the cost of hauling the products. RELATION OF SUPPLY AND MARKET DEMAND TO TYPE OF FARMING Of the many phases of this subject, the following are here discussed : relation of yield per acre to value of the crop ; changes in comparative values of products ; periods of overproduction and underproduction ; special demands of certain markets ; supplying the home market ; and supplying the farm family. 57. Relation of yield per acre to value of the crop. - Few other industries are so subject to violent changes in pro- duction and consequent changes in prices. When a manu- facturer buys a certain number of hides, he knows fairly definitely how many shoes he will have to sell. But when TYPES OF FARMING 11 a farmer plants a certain area of wheat or cotton, he knows little about what his yield will be. In the ten years, 1901 to 1910, the yield of potatoes in New Jersey has varied from 59 to 132 bushels per acre. Corn in Illinois has varied from 21.4 to 39.8 bushels. Wheat in NO.RM AL FIG. 20. Rainfall for June, July, and August and yield of corn per acre. 1 Average yields of corn 1888 to 1902. Average rainfall for June, July, and August. Kansas has varied from 10.4 to 18.5 bushels. Cotton in Texas has varied from 125 to 225 pounds. 2 Such varia- tions are to be regularly expected for all crops. The chief cause for them is the variation in rainfall. It is this great uncertainty that makes the opportunities for speculation in farm products, and for gambling on future prices. The relation of rainfall to yield of corn in the corn-belt 1 U. S. Dopt. Agr., Yearbook, 1903, pp. 215-244. * U. S. Dapt. Agr.. Yearbook, 1910. 78 FARM MANAGEMENT states is shown in Figure 20. The yield of corn follows almost exactly the rainfall for June, July, and August. For products that are easily stored, such as cotton and grain, the years of highest yields are often, but not always, the years of highest value per acre. But for perishable crops, like potatoes, cabbages, and apples, the years of high production are usually the years of lowest value per acre. More perishable crops, as fresh vegetables and straw- berries, are still more subject to violent changes in price. TABLE 13. RELATION OF YIELD PER ACRE TO VALUE PER ACRE OF CORN, COTTON, AND POTATOES IN THE UNITED STATES l CORN COTTON POTATOES YEAR Yield Value Yield Value Yield Value per per of Lint per of Lint per per per Acre Acre Acre Acre Acre Acre Bu. Lb. Bu. 1891 . 27.0 $10.98 179.4 $13.10 93.7 $33.53 1892. . 23.1 9.09 205.0 17.22 61.5 40.65 1893 . . 22.5 8.21 148.8 10.42 70.3 41.71 1894 . . 19.4 8.86 191.7 8.82 62.4 33.43 1895 . . 26.2 6.64 155.6 11.83 100.6 26.73 1896 . . 28.2 6.06 124.1 8.19 91.1 26.08 1897 . . 23.8 6.26 181.9 12.00 64.7 35.37 1898 . . 24.8 7.10 219.0 12.48 75.2 31.11 1899 . . 25.3 7.66 184.0 13.32 88.6 34.60 1QOO OK } Q O9 1Q4. A on 04. 70 1 i7\J\J . . 1QO1 fOO Ifi 7 7.U^S in OQ -L t7^.T: IftQ O oU.o ftrc c O^. / o ^n 97 A 7V/ A . 1902 . . 1 ' '. i 26.8 i\j.\j& 10.81 J.U7.U 188.5 15.61 Ui>.O 96.0 >' ' . _ 1 45.22 1903 . . 25.5 10.82 . 174.5 21.32 84.7 51.99 1904. . 26.8 11.79 204.9 17.89 110.4 49.96 1905 . . 28.8 11.88 186.1 20.47 87.0 53.67 1906 . . 30.3 12.06 202.5 20.41 102.2 52.29 1907 . . 25.9 13.38 178.3 18.54 95.4 58.86 1908 . . 26.2 15.88 194.9 16.9(5 85.7 60.50 1909. . 25.5 15.20 156.8 21.80 106.8 58.59 1910. . 27.7 13.37 170.7 24.24 93.8 52.35 1911 . . 23.9 14.77 207.7 18.28 80.9 64.64 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1900, 1910, and 1911, TYPES OF FAHM1NG 79 The average yields per acre and values per acre for corn, cotton, and potatoes in the United States for 21 years are given in Table 13. One might expect that an increase in the yield of corn would give an increased value per acre, and a decrease in yield decrease the value per acre. For corn the yield and value have gone in the same direction 10 times and in opposite directions 10 times. For potatoes the yield and value have gone in the same direc- tion 5 times and in opposite directions 15 times. A very low yield of potatoes seems always to be worth more than a large crop. Even with corn, we find the 17-bushel yield of 1901 worth more than the 25-bushel crop of the preceding year, and almost as much as the 27-bushel crop of the following year. In the case of potatoes, the results are very striking. In 1891, the aver- age yield per acre was 94 bushels, and the value per acre was $34. The next year the yield dropped to 62 bushels, but the value per acre was $41. In 1894, the yield was 62 bushels with a value of $33. The next year the yield jumped to 101 bushels, but the value dropped to $27 per acre. Two years later the yield again dropped to 65 bushels, but the value per acre rose to $35. Again we see the 66-bushel yield in 1901 worth more than the larger crops of the years preceding and following. In general, the years of very large crops of potatoes bring low returns per acre, and very small crops bring high returns. This is merely another way of showing how easily the potato market is affected by too many or too few potatoes. After a year of good prices, all the newspapers are filled with advice about increasing the area of potatoes or doubling the yield per acre. We constantly see figures given to show how many billions of dollars better off the 80 FARM MANAGEMENT farmers of a state would be if they followed some par- ticular method that would double crops. These results always assume that the prices would be unaffected, an assumption that is so absurd as to be humorous. If Mr. John Jones could double his crop, and have the world crop remain the same, he might receive all the good things promised. But when the general production is too great, the price drops so that the crop is usually worth less than a normal crop. Perishable products are constantly meeting the peril of overproduction. In 1912, beautiful peaches rotted in Texas, because they were not worth picking. Watermelons often meet this fate. In 1896, thousands of bushels of apples were left on the trees, because they were not worth picking. In the spring of 1910, potatoes sold on some farms for 10 cents a bushel. It was in 1898 that corn sold for 8 cents in Nebraska. It is desirable that production be increased, but a sudden increase is very unfortunate for city as well as for country. The low prices please the consumer, but discourage the farmer, and result in a too violent decrease in production that pleases no one. One reason why this question is not better understood is because a community may have a large crop in a year when there is a general shortage of the crop and conse- quently get high prices, or a community may have a short crop in a year of good crops. These figures are for the whole country and reflect the general condition of the country. They show that in general the farmers receive as much or more for the potato crop in years of a general short crop. One other factor enters into the question, so far as the individual is concerned. It is the amount of the product consumed on the farm by the family, by stock, or used 81 as seed. This amount is more or less constant. In the years of poor production, the net amount to sell may be so small that the higher prices will not compensate for the short crop. The price of potatoes seems to be high enough so that the total value of the crop sold is likely to be highest in the years of small crops. Crops that are partly fed nearly always pay the farmer best in years of good crops, because in poor years the amount left after feed and seed is deducted is so small. The prosperity of the farmer is, of course, influenced by the condition of the country, so that high yields and low prices are in part offset by general business conditions. 58. Variation in relative values of farm products. The relative prices of farm products are constantly changing. The value of wheat on the farm has been decreasing relative to the prices of corn, oats, eggs, and most other products. (Table 14.) Thirty years ago a bushel of wheat would buy 4 dozen eggs; now it buys only 2.7 dozen. It would then buy 2 bushels of corn; now it TABLE 14. COMPARATIVE FARM PRICES, SHOWING WHAT A BUSHEL OF WHEAT WOULD BUY AT DIFFERENT PERIODS, FROM TABLES 81 AND 82. BUSHELS OF CORN BCSHELS OF OATS DOZENS OF EGGS 1 1866-1870 2 2 29 38 1871-1875 23 2 8 38 1876-1880 2.7 3.1 5.1 1881-1885 2.0 2.5 4.0 1886-1890 2.0 2.5 3.9 1891-1895 1 6 2.1 3.2 1896-1900 .... 23 29 3.7 1901-1905 1 6 9 2 2 6 1906-1910 1.7 2.2 2.7 1 The price of eggs used is the city wholesale price, Table 82. G 82 FARM MANAGEMENT buys only 1.7 bushels. It would then buy 2.5 bushels of oats ; now it buys only 2.2 bushels. Barley has decreased in price relative to other grains, but during the past few years seems to be rising again. (Table 81.) Horses have shown the most striking increase. Fifteen years ago a horse would buy 156 bushels of oats ; now it will buy 238 bushels. It would then buy 5.1 tons of hay ; now it buys 8.7 tons. It would then buy 127 bushels of corn ; now it buys 182 bushels. All these shifts in price affect the type of farming. The area of wheat in the United States decreased 16 per cent from 1899 to 1909 ; hay increased 17 per cent, corn 4 per cent, oats 19 per cent. The relatively low prices now secured for wheat are doubtless the chief cause for its decrease in acreage. TABLE 15. PRICES OF VARIOUS PRODUCTS COMPARED WITH THE 1896-1900 PRICES AS 100 PER CENT. FROM TABLE 82. CORN OATS WHEAT BEEVES HOGS SHEEP BUTTER EGGS 1896-1900 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 1901-1905 163 154 113 110 143 126 122 154 1906-1910 179 185 131 122 162 150 143 183 In Table 15 it is shown that since 1896 to 1900 the prices of corn, oats, and eggs have been rising more rapidly than the prices of wheat, beef, hogs, sheep, and butter. As population increases, we must expect that grain will rise in price relative to meat and butter. In China and Japan, this process has gone so far as to practically eliminate animal food except eggs and chickens. The hen is a much more efficient user of food than other animals. TYPES OF FARMING 83 The margin of profit on animals is constantly becoming closer, so that better stock and better feeding will con- tinue as serious problems. TABLE 16. COMPARATIVE FARM PRICES, SHOWING WHAT A HORSE WOULD BUY AT DIFFERENT PERIODS, FROM TABLES 80 AND 81. BUSHELS or OATS TONS OF HAT BUSHELS OF CORN 1866-1870 153 5.7 117 1871-1875 184 5.3 152 1876-1880 179 6.1 156 1881-1885 194 7.2 151 1886-1890 232 8.5 183 1891-1895 191 6.6 148 1896-1900 156 5.1 127 1901-1905 1906-1910 189 238 6.9 8.7 137 182 59. Cycles of over- and under-production and ways of foretelling them. Man is so constituted that he is too likely to think that present conditions are to continue. If we have a wet year or two, we think that it will always be wet; if good prices, these are to remain forever. In the case of prices, it is the very feeling of certainty that present conditions are to continue that makes it impos- sible for them to do so. One of the most important gifts for man to cultivate is his ability to forecast the future. This ability is one of the most valuable business assets. The usual guide that is followed in determining what crops and animals to produce is the profits of the last year or two, but since prices may be temporarily high or low, longer periods should be considered. Many factors are involved. The yields in the community may be good in a year of poor crops, or the community may have poor crops in a year of general overproduction and low prices. 84 FARM MANAGEMENT Add to these uncertainties the fact that the weather has nearly as much to do with the total crop as the acreage, and it is no wonder that the farmer finds it difficult to tell what acreage to plant. With the annual crops, the acreage is kept fairly close to the country's needs. The longer the time required to grow a product, the worse the periods of over- and under-production become. A short- age of an annual crop may be made up in a year, but it takes ten to twenty years to adjust the area of apples, and fifty to a hundred years to grow a lumber crop to supply a shortage in lumber. Apples in the Northeastern States are a good crop with which to illustrate this point. If the supply of apples is short, prices will be high. If this condition continues for a few years, planting will be encouraged, but the trees planted will have no effect on the next year's crop. Prices may go still higher and so stimulate more planting. This condition may continue for twenty years, after which comes the deluge of apples, with more trees coming on every year. This is what happened during the past generation. Apples paid well from 1854 to 1864. From 1864 to 1874 prices were very high. They continued fairly good till 1878. They then dropped and continued to drop till 1896, when thousands of bushels were not picked. Since 1896, prices have been rising, and for the last few years they are again so high that people are becoming wild about them. Nearly all the bearing apple orchards in New York were planted between 1855 and 1878 ; planting then practically stopped. It had been much overdone. In the early nineties some orchards were cut down. In one township in Monroe County, New York, which is in the center of the apple belt, 57 per cent of the apple TYPES OF FARMING 85 trees were planted from 1859 to 1878; only 11 per cent were planted from 1879 to 1903 ; while 21 per cent were planted from 1904 to 1908. 1 In 1908, less than 6 per cent of the apple crop of this county was borne on trees planted since 1878. From the fact that there were so few trees planted between FIG. 21. Areas of apples planted in different years, Parma township, Monroe county, New York. 1878 and 1903, we must expect high prices in most years until the recent plantings affect the result. Judging by past experience, this would be about 1920 to 1925. In the meantime, indications point to a very serious over planting just as occurred in the seventies (Fig. 21). There is no shortage of apple land. Most of the till- able land in the North Atlantic States is well adapted to the crop. There is also much good apple land in the 1 M. C. Burritt, Thesis in Cornell University Library. York, Cornell Bulletins 226, 229, 202, 307. See also New 86 FARM MANAGEMENT other states. There is no reason why an average of fifty years of apples should pay better than other crops. Ab- normally high profits are the peril of the industry. The fact that apples are high in price is no indication that they will be high when the proposed new orchard comes into bearing, nor are low profits an indication that profits will be low. The only way to tell whether to plant apples is to study the comparative numbers of old and young trees, and the present rate of planting. According to the 1910 census, there were in the United States 151,000,000 apple trees of bearing age, and 66,000,000 not of bearing age. These numbers do not appear to indicate over planting, but the danger at the present time is that we have just entered upon a period of planting, and it appears that too many are likely to be planted before the young trees come into bearing. It is unfortunate that the trees not of bearing age are not well distributed. Most of them are of very recent plantings. From the figures thus far available, it appears that the periods of over- and under-production of apples last about twenty to twenty-five years, as it takes this time to get enough trees raised to bearing age to cause overproduc- tion, and about another equal period of little planting before prices rise high enough to stimulate another plant- ing wave. It would appear to be the part of wisdom for a farmer to start planting or buying orchards about the middle of the low-price period when every one is dis- couraged, and to stop planting 'at the time when prices are so high that every one is planting. Some farmers do follow this practice. The farmer who planted in the eighties has already been rewarded. The same sort of cycle occurs with all farm products. TYPES OF FARMING 87 With potatoes, high prices are usually followed by in- creased acreage, but if the increase is too great, the farmers are told of the fact by the prices the next fall. They do not go on for ten or twenty years, as in the case of apples, before the wisdom of the acreage is put to test. Hogs usually rise in price for two to three years and then drop for two to three years. A very abnormal corn or or >*06S HMtfS 1 7 ; \ /.^ 1 ., ; x 7 " =: -~ / " x s . 4 ' \ "7 /". ^ // ./ , ,.--- '/ V. _ -^ (fl-oioNf-t^NNN ^.NC-*^ isisisiiiiissi 3i Teb MAR Apr? A\<\y June Jol^ Ao^ Sept. Oct. .Nov. Dec- FIG. 33. Distribution of man labor on 11 acres of potatoes. Black is work fixed as to time. White is plowing and marketing. wheat harvest conflicts with alfalfa cutting in some regions ; it sometimes conflicts with timothy and clover harvest. 00 700 HOUR5 J<\n F&b A\AR APR AAV June July Ao$. Sept Oc-T A/ov Deo. FIG. 34. Distribution of horse labor on 11 acres of potatoes. Black is work fixed as to time. White is plowing and marketing. 118 FARM MANAGEMENT The plowing should be done as early as possible. In some regions this makes it conflict with the second cutting of alfalfa. 88. Distribution of labor on potatoes and cabbages and apples. In the North, potatoes conflict with corn, HOUffS 400 JAD Feb MAR Ap July A"<- Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. FIG. 35. Distribution of man labor on 3 acres of apples. Black is work fixed as to time. White is marketing, manuring, etc. and early potatoes conflict with the early spring crops. Late potatoes and winter apples conflict very seriously, not only at apple-spraying time but at apple-picking time. HOURS 00 JAH Teb tt\&n ftpR (A Ay June Joly A"g Sept. Got. Hoy. Dec. FIG. 36. Distribution of horse labor on 3 acres of apples. Black is work fixed as to time. White is marketing, manuring, etc. Late cabbages fit in almost perfectly with either winter apples or potatoes. We find many farmers combining cabbages and potatoes, and cabbages and apples, but the DIVERSIFIED AMD SPECIALIZED FARMING 119 combination of late potatoes and winter apples is very unusual. Of course, a small acreage of each would re- quire much the same labor as a larger acreage of one, but this requires double equipment and has many other dis- advantages. 89. Distribution of labor on beef cattle and sheep and hogs. None of the meat-producing animals re- quires much work. This is one reason why the margin of profit is so close on such animals. If one does not feed very skillfully, he has no other means of making up for the mistake. Beef cattle interfere very little with farm work. During the summer they are at pasture, and if the water supply is convenient, they require very little attention. Sheep require most attention at lambing time. This sometimes interferes with spring work, but usually is early enough so as to cause little trouble. Sheep shearing conflicts with spring work, but is a short job if only a few sheep are kept. If many are kept extra shearers are usually hired. Sheep interfere with crops so much less than dairying does that many farmers who have highly profitable crops keep sheep when cows would pay much better, if they did not interfere with crop growing. Winter dairying does not interfere quite so much, but, in general, sheep or winter feeding interfere with crops less than dairying does. If the region has profitable crops, the com- bination of sheep and crops may pay better than cows and crops, because cows limit the crops that can be grown. But if crops do not pay very well, the combination of cows and crops is usually better than sheep and crops. Hogs require relatively little attention, except when the pigs are coming. The spring pigs sometimes interfere with spring work, and fall pigs may interfere with fall 120 FARM MANAGEMENT HOURS xn. Feb. /"\( Ao<. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. FIG. 41. Distribution of man labor on 18 cows and 11 other cattle. White is milk hauling. grain for the cows, and in addition can raise cash crops to sell or do other kinds of work. If the wife and children help milk, this provides for the extra help needed at milking time. One man can do his share of the milking, haul the milk, and, with a little help in harvest, raise the feed for twenty or thirty cows. If his wife and children milk, he may have a full year's work. This is merely another way of saying that dairying is only a partial day's work. The wife helps with the milking anil does housework between milkings, or the chil- 124 FARM MANAGEMENT dren go to school between milkings. This is the common practice in all dairy sections where nothing but milk, butter, or cheese is sold. It is the custom not only in America, but in all other countries. Occasionally a farmer has such unusually good cows, or has money enough, so that he can hire men to milk, even though he does not have work for them between milkings. A much more satisfactory way of solving the problem is to raise some kind of crops, fruits, or vegetables for sale. Men can then do all the milking and can be kept profitably employed between milkings. This is the way that the problem is usually solved on the most successful farms. Sometimes the crops sold will much more than pay the entire labor bill. The same problem arises in keeping horses busy. To haul milk and manure and raise feed for the cows does not keep horses busy, but* this combined with other enter- prises makes a good business. Winter dairying helps the labor situation, as there is then less work on cows at the time when crops require the most work. There are some cases in which a specialized dairy farm may pay best. There is occasionally a dairy farm where one man milks as many as 20, and in one case the writer has seen 24 cows regularly milked by one man. To milk and care for this number of cows is a full day's work. But few men can milk this number. If a soiling system is practiced, there is less loss of time, but this system is not profitable except under very unusual conditions (page 177). If a dairyman retails milk, this provides work between milkings. Even with retail milk, many farmers combine other enterprises. DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED FARMING 125 HOUf?S rOO Jojn. Feb. A&R Af>R./"W( Jone Jo\x Au<. Sept Oct. Nov. Dec. FIG. 42. Distribution of field labor of men on a Dakota grain farm, raising 280 acres wheat, 127 acres oats, 60 acres barley, 49 acres flax, 20 acres hay. 52 acres fallow. 1 80O 1OO Jan. Feb. MAR Ap. MAY June July Au Seft. Oct /Vov Pco, FIG. 4.'i. Distribution of field labor el horses on farm given above. i U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, i911, p. 278. 126 FARM MANAGEMENT Sometimes pure-bred stock and wholesale milk produc- tion are combined, and the extra work and care necessary HOURS 4oo 300 . Feb. AW. ApR. f\AY ^ uae J U 'Y Au<.5ept Oct Nov Dec, FIG. 44. Distribution of field labor of men on a general farm in the Middle West, raising 95 acres of corn, 28 acres of oats, 7 acres of spring wheat, 8 acres of winter wheat, 6 acres of barley, 37 acres timothy and clover hay, 7 acres of alfalfa hay, 48 ac^es of timothy seed, 4 acres of potatoes. 1 may keep the men busy, but unless the stock is exceptional, it can best be combined with cash crops or with retailing. A few farmers produce certified milk. The extra work feOO 5OO J( /\u H o * a Z S5 8 B SgS K FROM STOCK 5-- eg c 1^ ig O 05 O O as a OS 2 o $% f. s OS /: I >:t '-7 ca -C S8 CO o CO DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED FARMING 135 00 00 SIS "rH O> -we. Ill 8 Us 3 PL, - O - ~ * - " I ^1 if f^S^f^l^ W 01 O CO rH i I r I Tt< * CO rH rc x --D -,c co O -_ 1 o^ * -2^ g 8.Ss| ^ g M 03 2 >-i O 13 t^ > * cS o 73 -5 G T3 . oil iC t- 4J 136 FARM MANAGEMENT tc >, -4-=> * CO CO F> 5? o o O o | 6 VI j3 co"O S CT MO w ~ 38 J w t^. CO CO CO iO iO CO CO iO C^l O CO 2 I co co CO CO CO * 1C ^H CO -H CO GO o (N 00 -^ o a O o 2 o o -=4-H >> >o cS C'-i ^Off o o t*^ .388 o^ ft r lk ans ket 100, 500 beans 950, po- te Legho pure- attle abbag Wholesale $2400, hay $1013, oats Cabbage $21 $1360, whea tatoes $600 Whit 2718 $64 olstei 640, , $ lk Ho 2874, ltry mi d 55 s gs $ poul tail bred $22 ples $22 R o 00 O 1 I I I CO CO CO CO (M T-H r* if CO rH to X t- O iO i-l ) CO *" C m B 03 . co""^? co nT co 43 ^ h3 ft bC^H b CO" Q 5 CH 5uC 43 JJQ ^ |_. O CO 03 ^ 03-CHH O ^ SgSoq II o o (N 43 ff\ Q % :"C 53 23 c 'a 11 i-H 'pOO'S M -^ M -^ 03 ^ O *H O ^> 43 co O 1 g"1 O CO O CO a 00 'X O5 CO (O CD" 71 8 O 03 *O o'go CO i 140 FA RM MA NA G EMKNT ACRES GROWN o 00 i-O >, CC CC WO ,_, *S !> cpt^ O ' >-\ ^ J_J or^.-oo 8 2 a SJ 01 CM CO GO CO CO CD t/3 g tuo a o c3 & .a CO O " a J4 CU % - . c3 cc ,o C ' A4 o ~ GO H gs g2 a K tl H 5 "1^ CD >* ^ ci c' M jrt #. C ^S ^ -' 9 IS, * O N 32 DIVERSIFIED AND SPECIALIZED FARMING 141 until it has become so profitable that the other important products have been dropped. Nearly all such farms were more diversified in the early years. 97. Successful types of farming in various regions. - The most generally successful type of farming in New York is dairying, combined with potatoes and hay or other cash crops. Corn for the silo, hay, and oats are raised for feed. Eggs are usually a minor product on such farms. In those parts of the state where hay is cheap, colts are a minor product. If the dairy cattle are pure-bred, the profits are usually larger, but more capital is required. It usually pays to gradually go into pure-breds as one's capital increases. Occasionally, the pure-bred stock become so profitable that it pays to drop the cash crops. But such cases are rare. Farms that retain cash crops nearly always make more than similar farms that omit such crops. If the land is not adapted to other crops, hay may be the only cash crop. Those who have two or more cash crops are usually doing better than those with one. The sale of milk for cities usually pays better than selling butter fat to a creamery. Selling to a creamery usually pays better than making butter. In some sections where the soil is particularly good, cabbages, field beans, apples, potatoes, grapes, truck crops, or canning factory crops are so profitable that live- stock is somewhat reduced, or sheep and more young stock are kept so as to leave the farmer free to raise crops. The same general conditions prevail in Pennsylvania and Ohio. In all these sections there is great diversity in farming. For the corn-belt, the most generally successful type of 142 FARM MANAGEMENT farming is the raising of corn and oats for sale, together with hogs, dairying, colts, and eggs. Many of the success- ful farms sell all of these products. Corn and hogs are usually the most important sales. Near cities, milk is often the major product. But the most successful dairy farms combine corn and hogs with dairying. As we go west, oats, corn, and hogs decrease and wheat increases. For central Nebraska and Kansas, the most successful types of farming combine wheat as the major cash crop, with colts, eggs, cows, and hogs. Still farther west, wheat, colts, cattle, and eggs are the most important sales. Going north from the corn-belt, the most generally prof- itable type of farming is to raise wheat, oats, and barley as cash crops, combined with cows, colts, eggs, and some hogs. In the South, most of the successful farms make cotton the major cash crop, and combine corn and hogs or other live-stock. Hay is grown for home use. It is better to have two to four important products than one. It is usually not desirable to have a lot of little things. Except when grown for home use only, there should be enough of the product so that it can be produced economically. REFERENCES Seasonal Distribution of Labor on the Farm, W. J. Spillman, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1911, pp. 269-284. New York, Cornell Bulletin 295. What is Farm Management, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 269, pp. 16-23. The Place of Economies in Agricultural Education and Research, Wisconsin, Research Bulletin, 16 pp. 119-125. Farm Management, F. W. Card, pp. 73-78. Seedtime and Harvest Average Dates ' of Planting and Har- vesting in the United States, U, S, Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, pp. 488-494, CHAPTER 4 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING SOME crops require much more work than others, and when successful bring high returns for the area grown. Greenhouse vegetables and fruits are typical examples. Farming with such crops is called intensive farming. There are also intensive and extensive methods with any product. One may strive for very high production at the cost of much extra time and money, or may be contented with smaller production at less cost. WAYS OF MEASURING PROFITS 98. Ways of measuring profit. Perhaps more mis- takes are made by using inaccurate ways of counting profit than by any other means. High-class agricultural papers have quoted the total value of ail the descendants of a ewe to show that sheep raising pays. Nearly all agricultural colleges call the difference be- tween the value of the milk and the value of the feed of dairy cows, profit. The feed is usually about half th? cost. With very extensive methods of dairying in Minne- sota, the average costs for six years on many farms were, feed per cow $23.13 ; other costs $28.61. 1 With intensive methods of dairying, and higher priced feea, in Connecticut, the average costs per cow for five years were $84 for feed 1 Minnesota, Bulletin 124, p. 108. 143 144 FARM MANAGEMENT and $65 for other costs. 1 This bulletin is a notable ex- ception to the usual run of dairy bulletins that ignore all costs except feed. Nearly all colleges, as well as farmers, speak of the difference between the cost of fertilizer or any other treatment and the value of the increased crop as profit from the treatment. How far the cash cost of fertilizer may be from the total cost of the increased crop is shown on page 1G4. Profit per acre is usually considered rather than profit per farmer. All these and many other errors in arithmetic and business judgment often lead to the recommendation of methods that are entirely too intensive for present conditions. Farmers are gradually using more intensive methods, as prices of farm products and other conditions make such methods profitable. But it rarely pays a farmer to follow the revolutionary advice of the enthu- siast who has just returned from Europe. America may waste land. Europe wastes labor. Whenever the word profit or net profit is used in this book, it is used correctly. It means profit after all ex- penses of every kind have been subtracted. 99. Theory of limitation of land. The usual assump- tion of nearly all writers is that the land available for the individual farmer is limited and that the profits that he can make are directly proportional to the production per acre. This mistaken idea seems to be firmly grounded in the minds of agricultural writers and speakers. One col- lege has issued a circular in which the opening sentence is, " The amount of milk and butter fat produced per acre is, generally speaking, the final test of profitable dairying where all feed is raised on the farm." 1 Connecticut, Bulletin 73. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 145 Very rarely is an American farmer limited to any partic- ular area. It is nearly always possible to buy or rent more land. It is not at all necessary that one have money enough to buy all the land that he farms. Fifty-four per cent of the farmers in the United States own all the land that they farm, 9 per cent own part of the land that they are farming and rent part of it, and 35 per cent rent the entire area. The usual assumption seems to be that if a man has only '$1000, he must find a farm and kind of farming that can be conducted with this capital as an owner. It is strange how universally writers ignore the opportunities as tenants and part owners. Nearly three million farmers in the United States are using these means of securing a start in farming rather than farm on the small area that their limited capital might buy. If a man has not money enough to buy and equip a fair sized farm, it is much better for him to rent all or a part of his land. (See page 309.) Not only is land for an individual farmer fairly easy to secure by rental or ownership, but the land of the country as a whole is far from exhausted. The fact that most of our land is held by a deed does not mean that the supply of land is exhausted. One needs but to travel over the United States to realize how many millions of acres there are in swamps and other reclalmable areas not in farms. On the vast majority of the individual farms there are areas of little used land ; land in woods, or brush, or wet places, that may be reclaimed whenever prices make such reclamation worth while. A trip through the Southern and Eastern States impresses one with our tremendous reserve supply of land that is little used, but that will some day be developed, when we need it. 146 FARM MANAGEMENT 100. Land is a small part of the cost of crop produc- tion. Labor is in nearly all cases the most important item in cost of production. Highest profits can only be secured when proper attention is given to all the factors of cost. But if only one factor is singled out as the im- portant one it should be labor and not land. Under con- ditions of very extensive farming in Minnesota on new land that is not fertilized, the use of land varied from 11 to 51 per cent of the total cost. TABLE 23. RELATION OP LAND COST TO TOTAL COST OF CROP PRODUCTION IN MINNESOTA l TOTAL COST OF PRODUCTION PER ACRE LAND RENT PER CENT or TOTAL COST Clover and timothy hay Oats Corn husked from stand- ing stalks $5.59 8.86 10.44 $2.87 2.87 3.25 51% 32% 31 % Silage corn 19.89 3.50 18% Potatoes 26.37 3.00 11% Mangels 32.68 3.50 11% 1 Minnesota, Bulletin 117. As land becomes more valuable, the usual assumption is that rent will constitute a larger proportion of the cost. The opposite is more likely to be true, because more in- tensive crops and more intensive methods are then used. The average for a very successful New York farm is given in Table 24. Land is worth $100 per acre, so that rent is higher, but it constitutes only 6 to 50 per cent of the total cost of production, depending on the crop. 101. Profits per acre and profits per farmer. A potato crop that may return $50 per acre, or a lettuce 148 FARM MANAGEMENT crop that may return $500, sound very much bigger than a corn crop that may be worth $30 per acre. These figures give no indication of the profits. When all costs are subtracted, the crop producing the highest receipts may not give the largest profit per acre. But even profit per acre has no significance, unless we know how many acres TABLE 24. RELATION OF LAND COST TO TOTAL COST OF CROP PRODUCTION ON A SUCCESSFUL NEW YORK FARM TOTAL COST OF PRODUCTION PER ACRE LAND RENT PER CENT OP TOTAL COST Cucumbers Cabbage $81 74 <_> 5 6% 7% Potatoes 59 5 8% Oats Clover hay 18 14 5 5 28% 36% Timothy hay .... 10 5 50% a farmer can grow, how this fits into his year as a whole, and how much capital it involves. The most important problem of the farmer, particularly of the American farmer, is how to get the most for his year's labor. If cherries give a net profit of $50 per acre, and hay a profit of $10, the farmer who refuses to raise cherries may still be wise, if cherries interfere with hay, because the time required to raise one acre of cherries may raise 10 acres of hay. There are some instances in which land is limited so that the acre basis has some im- portance, but it is usually easy to either buy or rent land. The results of a set of cost accounts on a 90-acre farm in 1909 are shown in Table 25. This farm had about 45 acres of tillable land. From the usual method of figuring profits 150 FAliM MANAGEMENT per acre, it would appear as if this farmer should plant more apple trees, because apples gave him over six times the profit per acre that he secured from oats and hay. But for the time spent on it, timothy hay gave three times as much profit as the apple orchard. The word profit is here used in the correct sense. The hay paid for the use of the land, use of buildings, use of horses, machinery, all labor, interest on these costs for the time the money was invested, and all other costs, and, in addition, left a profit of 63 cents for each hour of labor. If we add this to the labor cost of 18 cents an hour, we find that the hay paid all expenses except labor, and paid 81 cents an hour for labor or $8.10 for each ten-hour day spent on it. The orchard paid $4.10 for a similar day. In addition, this was known to be an average year for hay and oats and an extra good year for the orchard. TABLE 25. COMPARISON OF RECEIPTS AND PROFIT PER ACRE WITH PROFIT PER HOUR OF JJABOR RECEIPTS PER PROFIT PER PROFIT PER ACRE ACRE HOUR OF LABOR Orchard $101.75 $38.28; $023 Oats 26.42 6.84 .33 Timothy hay .... 15.67 6.37 .63 After studying these figures, the farmer very wisely decided to go in debt for another farm so that he could raise more oats, wheat, and hay. He preferred to sell his labor to the crops that paid best for it. The wisdom of this procedure was shown by the results of the next three years, for he made more than he could have made in twice the time with the small farm. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSILE FARMING 151 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE ENTERPRISES 102. Comparison of intensive and extensive enterprises. Sometimes the crop that pays the largest profit per hour is also most profitable per acre. Such a crop is doubly de- sirable. But the vast majority of American farmers are wise in continuing to raise the staple crops. The world needs hay as well as strawberries. It needs cotton as well as oranges, and seems to be willing to pay its workers just as good wages for the extensive as for the intensive crops. The more speculative enterprises have more violent ups and downs, so that if the best years are taken, very surprising results may be shown. On one farm in 1911 the profit on 15 acres of cabbages was $1174. In the same year on the same farm the loss on 14 acres of cucumbers was $555. It would be impossible to make either such a large profit 'or such a large loss on hay. The average of the cucumbers and cabbages was less than the profit made on the same area in hay. The next year, 1912, cabbages were so ch^ap that th^y failed to pay, but cucumbers paid well. When other conditions are right it is desirable to combine one or two of the more speculative intensive crops with general farm crops. Whether oranges, grapes, strawberries, potatoes, chickens or roses, or some other intensive crop, will pay better than corn, oats, wheat, hay, and cotton, and cows, is chiefly a matter of adaptation to conditions. There are conditions under which apples pay better than corn, just as there are conditions under which corn pays better than apples. But the average of success for a series of years in the best apple or orange regions does not appear to be any better than the average in the best corn or hay re- gions. The more speculative enterprises have more vio- 152 FARM MANAGEMENT lent ups and downs, so that in some years they pay better and in some years they cause greater losses. But there do not appear to be any types of farming that are regularly more profitable than other types, provided each type is con- ducted where it belongs. This is just what we should expect, when we realize that no farmer has a corner on any crop. Whenever one product pays much better tlian others, there is always a rush of farmers into that industry. We may be fairly sure that if some one thing is paying abnormal profits, it will soon be at the bottom of the list because of overproduction. (See pages 76 and 89.) 103. Relation of intensive and extensive enterprises to capital. The intensive products do not appear to require much less capital than the extensive for the same profit. It is popularly assumed that one may run a poultry or veg- etable farm with little money and yet make a good profit. Less land may be required, but for an equally good profit, as large a capital is usually involved. There are many poultry and truck farms with small capital, but the poultry farmers or fruit farmers making a given labor income usually have as much capital as the farmers making the same labor income from more extensive enterprises. There may be less capital in land, but more capital in other things. It has been shown on page 95 that for persons with small capital, crops are likely to pay better than live-stock. In this case, the less intensive business pays best for persons with small capital. In Table 22, we find three farms (Nos. 24, 25, 34) that are very intensive farms with small areas and small capitals. But four of the small intensive poultry, fruit, and truck farms (Nos. 2, 8, 9, and 20) have more capital than some of the farms of 150 to 200 acres. 154 FARM MANAGEMENT One very important advantage of the more extensive types of farming is that for the same capital more land can be owned. With the general tendency for land to rise in price, the profit from the increased value of the farm is often as great as the savings of the farmer. 104. Relation of crop to soil and treatment. Intensive crops should be grown on the soil best adapted to them, unless there is a shortage of such soil. The farmer who tries to raise truck crops on soil that is not naturally good for this purpose will find it very difficult to compete with farmers on better soil. Apples can be grown on the cheap hill soils of Pennsylvania and New York. Some persons have considered that this is sufficient reason for recom- mending that large orchards be planted on this cheap, poor land. But there is plenty of good land in these states adapted to apples. The crop should be grown on the good apple land and leave the land that is not so good for apples, for less intensive crops. Most farmers realize this. The least intensive way to use land is to leave it in woods ; the next least intensive is pasture. Hay, small grain, and cultivated crops follow in order. There is some land being farmed in the United States that cannot by any means be made to pay reasonable wages to the operator, at the present prices of farm prod- ucts. The outlying hills of the Appalachian and other mountain ranges of the Eastern States have many such farms. This fact is self-evident, but seems to be forgotten in the wave of " back-to-the-land " talk that now fills American publications. No one advocates working an iron mine that does not pay. Why work land that does not pay decent wages to the operator ? It has often been demonstrated that such land can be made to yield big INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 155 crops. But such a demonstration means nothing if the cost of production is more than the value of the crops grown. It may be interesting in showing us how easy it will be to increase crops when the prices received warrant the increase. Much of the hill land now in farms should be used in the least intensive way, that is, for forests. FIG. 49. Using land too intensively. This land should be kept in permanent pasture. The farmer cannot make reasonable wages by working it. When population becomes very dense, it may be needed for crops. In the early days, when most of the work was done with hand tools or oxen, the farmers seemed to have no idea of the difference between vertical and horizontal. Much land was cleared that is too steep for profitable use, except in growing lumber. Hills were not such a serious obstacle to scythes and grain cradles. If land is too steep for the use of modern machinery, it should be allowed to grow lumber or pasture. A profitable way of using much of it is to fence it in fairly large tracts for pasture. If the pasture is too small, the cost of fencing is too great. 156 FARM MANAGEMENT How farmers have boon forced to give up fanning much hill land that it does not pay to farm is shown by the cen- sus figures. In New Hampshire, there were 2,308,112 acres of improved land in 1880, and only 929,185 acres in 1910, less than half as much. Every New England State FIG. 50. Too steep to farm with much profit. has shown a great decrease in improved land in farms. At the same time, the best land in these states is being used more intensively than ever before. Men are starved off the poor hillsides, that ought to be in white pine, at the same time that the most intensive systems of farming are yielding excellent profits on the good land. Merely be- cause some one cleared land and built a house on it is not- sufficient reason for farming it. The same principle applies in the choice of places to INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 157 plant various crops on the individual farm. The land that it will not pay to till should be used for woods or pasture. Crops that require much labor should be given as good a soil as other conditions will allow. Suppose that one is growing a young orchard, and that the trees will damag? an intertilled crop by one-fourth. The crop planted in the orchard should be the least costly of the crops that will do. Such crops as strawberries or small fruits are too in- tensive to grow in orchards unless land is very limited. The injury to these crops may be enough to pay rent on addi- tional land on which to raise them, and till the orchard besides. Again the same principle holds in using fertilizers or other intensive methods. It is probably as easy to in- crease a potato or apple crop by 20 per cent as it is to increase a wheat or corn crop the same amount. But the increased crop of corn or wheat may not pay, while the same percentage increase may be very profitable on the higher priced crop. For this reason, the most extensive use of fertilizers is on potatoes and truck crops. Very high prices for the general farm crops accomplish the same result. The high price of hay near eastern cities often makes it pay to fertilize hay. INTENSIVE VS. EXTENSIVE METHODS 105. How large crops does it pay to grow? Much better crop yields may be secured by the use of more labor, more fertilizers, and more expense in general. Just how far it is wise to go in this respect is always a problem. Most farmers are not growing as large crops as their condi- tions warrant ; some are growing larger crops than it pays to grow. With our increasing population, it pays to grad- 158 FARM MANAGEMENT ually intensify methods, and as in making any change, the majority do not advance quite so rapidly as conditions warrant. With the revival of interest in country life, the country is being flooded with advice by persons who know little about farming. The usual theory is that every farmer ought to grow two or three times the yields per acre that he now secures, regardless of cost or profit. Farmers are usually wise enough to try these theories cautiously. Such advice is most ruinous to the intelligent " back-to- the-lander," who is usually thoroughly convinced that all he has to do to insure his success is to. raise a larger crop than his neighbors. He hopes to apply scientific methods and show his neighbors how foolish the old ways are. Usually his science is only that of increasing the yield. He fails to count the cost. No method is scientific that fails to count the cost. A little more intensive methods will pay in most regions, and sometimes a complete change is needed. But farming is not subject to such violent changes as manufacturing, because the climate and soil are its unchangeable basis. This idea is not new. It is expressed by the farmer who, while viewing the enormous crop on some experimental grounds, says that he also could raise such a crop if the railroad or state would pay the bills. The same idea is expressed by the economist when he speaks of the law of diminishing returns. 1 Cato expressed the same idea when he said, " Know that with a farm as with a man, however productive it may be, if it has the spending habit, not much will be left over." Pliny expressed it better, " I may possibly appear guilty 'Principles of Rural Economics, T. N. Carver, pp. 118-119 and 182-184. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 159 of some degree of rashness in making mention of a maxim of the ancients which will very probably be looked upon as quite incredible, ' that nothing is so disadvantageous as to cultivate land in the highest style of perfection.' " l I wish again to call attention to this wise maxim of the ancients, and I presume that many of the readers still consider this law as quite incredible. 106. Increased production due to natural causes. Many times the results in one year are compared with the results in succeeding years with different methods. If the right year is chosen, we may expect wonderful results. For with the same methods, the weather and crop pests may show differences of over 100 per cent on succeeding years. A more frequent source of error is the comparison of intensive methods on good soil with ordinary methods on ordinary soil. In nearly any community there are soils that will give twice the yield given by other soils of the same region. 107. Weather risk and intensive methods. Just how much it is wise to spend on a crop is largely a matter of weather. If the rainfall limits the crop, no amount of fertilizer can save it. On the contrary, the fertilizer may result in very serious injury in dry weather. Because of this danger, much farm manure is thrown away in the semi- arid regions. In most cases, a way can probably be found to use the manure to a profit by making very light applica- tions with a manure spreader, particularly as a top dress- ing. It may be shown that certain methods will conserve moisture. Such methods are likely to be used in semi-arid regions, but are not likely to be adopted in humid regions. 1 Cato's Farm Management, Translated by "A Virginia Farmer." 160 FARM MANAGEMENT In the semi-arid region, the rewards for such work are fairly sure, because the drought is sure. But in regions of more rainfall, such methods may pay in one year in three and fail in all the other years, because there is water enough without them. On the occasional year, when the extra work of moisture conservation pays, it must pay for the intervening years when it was not needed. In every dry year, the question of irrigation for the eastern half of the United States is raised. Many at- tempts have been made to irrigate, but only rarely has it paid. Irrigation in humid regions is likely to be delayed too long, in the hope of rain. Frequently, it is followed by a rain, so that there is injury from too much water. The occasional year when irrigation pays, must pay for the intervening years when irrigation was not needed, or was a positive injury. There are some farms on which irrigation of market garden crops pays. As a result of eleven years' test of irrigation at the New Jersey Experiment Station with asparagus, blackberries, raspberries, currants, and goose- berries, the conclusion was reached that on no crop had irrigation paid. 1 As the population increases, the ex- ceptional instances of success with irrigation will increase, but will never be numerous, except on high-priced crops. Overhead irrigation from pipes has paid on high-priced crops on a number of farms. 108. Business interpretation of results of fertilizer tests. The use of fertilizers has increased enormously. As crops rise in price, their use is certain to continue to increase. Many farmers would make more money if they used more fertilizer, but a farmer needs to be very careful about applying the results that he reads about in bulle- 1 New Jersey Agr. Exp. Sta. Report, 1906, pp. 218-220. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 161 tins. The facts there recorded as to yields may be ac- cepted, but the conclusions as to profits are usually absurd, because the difference between the cost of fertilizer and the value of the increased crop is called profit. All the other costs, such as interest, crop insurance, hauling and apply- ing fertilizer, harvesting, storing, and marketing the in- creased crop are ignored. The primary object of such experiments is to determine the effect of any particular treatment. This part is usually well done and is of great value to farmers. The business interpretation of results is very poorly done. The same point applies in the interpretation of results of any other intensive methods. The statement that it costs no more to handle a large crop than a small one is almost universally accepted by persons who have never kept any accounts of such work. It has even been as- sumed that it costs no more to grow, harvest, store, and sell 75 bushels of corn per acre than it does to raise 31 bushels. 1 Any conclusions based on such an assumption are worse than useless. We must know the extra cost of growing and handling the larger crop before we can tell how large a crop it pays to grow. There is a limit both ways in profitable crop production. When the writer has called attention to the extra costs involved in handling the increased crop, at meetings of agronomists, there has always been some one present to ob- ject to assigning any value to the farmer's time, on the theory that the farmer's time is not worth anything any- way, and that if he gives a cow or a crop $10 worth of feed or fertilizer and gets back $11 he has made a fine profit, even if $5 worth of extra labor docs have to be ignored. In the first place, the farmer's time is worth at least farm i U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1911, p. 326. M 162 FARM MANAGEMENT wages ; if not, he had best hire out to a neighbor who will pay him wages. No farmer whose time is so used as to bring little or no return for his labor, is likely to have money enough to invest in improved methods. The farmer is interested in ways of earning more than farm wages. He owes no thanks to any one who persuades him to adopt methods that do not pay wages. A farmer can find plenty of ways of working for nothing without outside aid. The almost universal method of interpreting fertilizer tests is shown by the following example taken from the very excellent work of the Ohio Experiment Station. TABLE 26. RESULTS OF SECOND FIVE YEARS IN A FERTILIZER TRIAL IN OHIO l VALUE OF TREATMENT COST OF FERTILIZER INCREASED CROPS ABOVE COST OF FERTILIZER Plot 2, phosphorus .... Plot 6, nitrogen and phosphorus Plot 8, phosphorus and potas- sium $ 2.40 14.40 8.90 $13.99 19.29 14.34 Plot 11, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium 20.90 19.64 1 Ohio, Bulletin 182, pp.- 145 and 159. This bulletin follows the universal error and calls the last column profit. The conclusion is therefore reached that the complete fertilizer used on plot 11 pays best. But the $19.64 is not profit. Of all the costs involved, only the cash cost of fertilizer has been subtracted from the increased value of the crop. The fertilizer on plot 2 cost only $2.40, while that on plot 1 1 cost $20.90, a difference of $18.50. The increased INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 163 crop on the latter plot pays this and leaves $5.65 to pay for the other extra costs. This must pay interest on $18.50, crop insurance, pay for hauling and applying the extra fertilizer, and for harvesting, storing, and marketing the increased crops of 10 bushels of corn, 15 bushels of oats, 9 bushels of wheat, and 1785 pounds of hay. The farmer is not likely to find any one who is willing to undertake this contract for $5.65. Comparing plots 2 and 6, we find an increased cost of $12 and an increased return above cost of $5.30. This has to pay interest on $12, crop insurance, pay for hauling the extra fertilizer, and for harvesting and marketing. Certainly plot 6 pays better than plot 11, for there is only 35 cents to pay all the extra costs of the larger crop. Without a further analysis of the results, we would conclude that on this soil and under these conditions, one should use nitrogen and phosphorus. But the farmer who is short of money will spend all he has for phosphorus, because it gives a phenomenal return. Most farmers who have this type of soil are short of money and most of them use fertilizers that contain little but phosphorus. It is probable that a fertilizer that is mostly phosphorus, but that contains a little nitrogen and, perhaps, a little potassium, will pay best on this soil. This is the experi- ence of farmers on this soil in New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. It is also fairly certain that a little heavier applications than the farmer commonly uses would pay, if the farmer has the necessary money. 109. An example of cost accounts in the use of fer- tilizers. Table 27 gives the results from a set of cost ac- counts in growing 60 acres of timothy hay on a New York farm. The increased crop, due to fertilizing, was about 164 FAEM MANAGEMENT 60 tons. The table gives a close approximation to the cost of producing this increased crop. It will be seen that the real cost of the fertilizer on this farm is $634, not $272. In this case, a so-called profit of over 100 per cent by the usual method of figuring would really be a loss, because the fertilizer is less than half the total cost. TABLE 27. REAL COST OF THE INCREASED CROP DUE TO FER- TILIZING 60 ACRES OF TIMOTHY Cost of Fertilizer 8000 pounds nitrate of soda $185.00 2080 pounds muriate of potash .... 39.77 10354 pounds of acid phosphate .... 47.37 $272.14 Other Costs Freight on fertilizer 26.66 39^ man hours hauling fertilizer at 2l.G . 8.53 58 horse hours hauling fertilizer at 13.2 . 7.66 29 man hours mixing fertilizer .... 6.26 841 man hours sowing fertilizer .... 18.25 101 5 horse hours sowing fertilizer . . . 13.40 200 man hours hauling in and storing 60 tons hay 43.20 160 horse hours hauling in 60 tons hay . 21.12 108 man hours pitching hay to baler . . 23.33 Meals for hay pressers 14.40 Meals for hay pressers' horses .... 7.30 118 man hours hauling 60 tons to railroad 25.49 208 horse hours hauling 60 tons to railroad 27.46 Use of barn (proportionate share) . . . 95.00 Fire insurance (proportionate share) . . 3.00 Interest on above costs for 7 mos. . 6% 21.46 $362.52 ~ The labor costs are charged at the average cost on this farm for the year 1911 ; not the cash paid the men but the real cost of labor, which includes wood, milk, use of house, etc. Horse labor is charged at cost, 13.2 cents per horse hour. A very moderate cost for a New York farm. The time required for baling and hauling hay, barn stor- INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 165 age room, and fire insurance are directly in proportion to the crop grown. These are charged at the average cost per ton for 1911. The charge for hay stcrage is low. The use of fertilizers on this farm has made it necessary to build more barns. The extra time of cutting, tedding, and raking the larger crop and additional use of machinery has not been counted. The time to load and haul to the barn is estimated from the time for the total crop, but is very close to correct. The farm is three miles from the railroad and has some bad hills, but over two tons of baled hay is hauled per load. No hay loader is used, but other- wise work is economized. The charge for baling of $1.25 per ton is not counted, as this is deducted from the price when selling. In most years, the 60 tons of hay from this farm will sell for $900. This allows a profit of $265 from fertilizing, not a profit of $628 that would be indicated by usual methods of figuring. With hay at $10 per ton, there would be a loss from using fertilizers, yet by the experiment station method of figuring the profit would be over 100 per cent. It will be seen that the fertilizer is much less than half the total cost. The costs may be summarized as follows : Fixed costs, fertilizer, freight on fertilizer, mixing and applying fertilizer, interest on these $365.25. Costs directly proportional to crop, hauling in, storage, fire insurance, baling, hauling to market, interest on these - $269.41, or $4.49 per ton. We can then determine approximately what increases and prices are necessary for profit on this farm. With an increase of half a ton per acre from the treatment, the fixed costs are $365 and the variable costs $135. The 30 tons of hay would have to bring about $16.66 per ton 166 FARM MANAGEMENT to pay the cost. This would not be a very attractive in- vestment with hay at less than $18 to $20. In some extra good years, this treatment on this farm may give an increase of If tons per acre. The fixed costs would then be $365 and the variable cost $404. The cost of the 90 tons of hay would be $8.55 per ton. FIG. 51. An irrigated pear orchard in Colorado. The high cost of irri- gation and transportation makes very intensive methods most profitable. We find that the increased crop costs approximately $16.83 per ton if the increase is one-half ton, $10.58 per ton if the increase is one ton, and $8.55 if the increase is one and one-half tons. Farmers in New York often grow hay by ordinary methods at a cost of $6 per ton. These results may suggest the reason why farmers are so slow to take up the fertilizing of hay. If one can grow more acres by or- dinary methods, he may do as well or better than by spend- ing his limited capital for fertilizer. If he cannot buy or rent more land or if he has plenty of money, he may use fertilizers. When land becomes worth more it will pay to be more saving of it. The farmer who kept these cost accounts considers that INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 167 it pays to fertilize hay on his farm. He has followed the practice for some years and expects to continue, but does not think that there is any very high profit when the risk and the new barns are all considered. These results are, of course, given to show a method of business study and not to give a discussion of fertilizing hay. The additional cost in fertilizing some other crops, such as oats and wheat, are usually less. 110. Crop yields on successful farms. Farms that secure large yields per acre often fail to make a good profit. Efficient management will bring fairly good profits with ordinary production, but the highest profits come from a combination of efficiency and good production. Of 1317 farms in one county in New York, 13 made labor incomes of over $2000. The crop yields on these farms averaged 27 per cent better than the average for the re- gion. Part of this difference was due to the soils being better than the average, and part was due to better farm- ing. The average yield of hay on all farms was 1.3 tons ; the most profitable farms averaged 1.6 tons. The average yield of oats was 33 bushels. The most profitable farms averaged 43 bushels. The potato yields on the most profitable farms averaged 219 bushels. Some farms se- cured much higher yields than these, but not higher profits. Twelve farmers, whose labor incomes were between $1500 and $2000, had crop yields 34 per cent above the average, so that their crops were better than the crops on the most successful farms. 1 In five townships in Livingston County, New York, there were 19 farmers out of 671 who made labor incomes of over $2500. On 6 of these farms, the crop yields were below the average, but the crops on the 19 farms averaged 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, pp. 524 and 529. it) FA KM MANAGEMENT 18 per cent above those of the region. The average yields for the region were: hay 1.4 tons, oats 41 bushels, wheat 19 bushels, beans 16 bushels, potatoes 106 bushels. The most successful farms secured nearly one-fifth larger yields. If one were to compare the yields on these most successful farms with the average of the state, the difference would be greater, because the soils in this region are much better than the average of the state. By comparing with the neighbors in the same year, we see how much of the larger yield is due to better methods or better soil than the neighbors have. Something more than large crop yields is necessary for large profits. There were 69 farmers in this region whose crops were over 25 per cent above the average ; 28 of these farmers failed to make even average labor in- comes, and only 29, or 42 per cent, made labor incomes of over $1000. If we are to use only one measure of efficiency, size is more important than quality. There were 112 farms of over 200 acres ; 54 of these, or 48 per cent, made labor incomes of over $1000. When both quality and size of business are combined, the chances of success are much improved. There were 25 farms of over 200 acres on which the crop yields were over 15 per cent above the average ; 17 of these gave labor incomes of over $1000. If we included the additional qualification that the animals kept be fairly productive, nearly all of the farms left would be highly profitable. Of the eight large farms that failed to give a labor income of $1000, seven failed because after having grown the good crops, they fed them to animals that failed to pay, either because of poor quality of animals or wrong kinds of products, INTENSIVE ANT) EXTENSIVE FARMING 1(J9 One man had crops a third better than the average, and secured a production per cow of double the average, but at a labor and feed cost that was too great. His farm would have paid much better, had he discharged half his men and fed his cows less. Of the 18 men who had farms of 200 acres or more, and who secured good crops and good pro- duction per animal, he was the only one who failed to make a labor income of $1000. The other 17 averaged $2352. In five townships in Jefferson County, New York, there were 17 farms out of 670 that gave a labor income of over $2000. On three of these, the crop yields were below the average. The crops on the 17 farms averaged one- fifth above the average of the region. Again, this differ- ence was partly due to better soil and partly to better management. These same farms were three-fifths larger than the average farm. 111. Comparative importance of production and size of business. In Jefferson County, the average labor income was $609. The 97 farms with the best crop yields (crops 32 per cent or more above the average) made an average labor income of $684. Twenty-three were above $1000, but 51, or over half, failed to make average labor incomes. Crop yields alone are important but do not seem to have a controlling influence on profits. The 97 farms with the largest receipts per cow from milk and butter ($84 or more) made an average labor income of $968. Forty of these were above $1000. The 97 largest farms (224 or more acres) made an average labor income of $898. Forty-two of these were above $1000. The chief products sold in this county are milk and hay. Some oats, potatoes, eggs, pure-bred cattle, and other 170 FARM MANAGEMENT products arc sold. Hay, silage, and oats arc raised to feed. In this region, which depends primarily on dairying, the production per cow and size of farm are the most important factors affecting profits. The crop yields are important, but are not as important as either the cows or the size of the business. In a region where crops are more important, the yield per acre has more effect on profits. TABLE 28. COMPARATIVE IMPORTANCE OP PRODUCTION, SIZE OF BUSINESS AND DIVERSIFICATION, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK AVERAGE LABOR INCOME NUMBER MAKING LABOR INCOMES ABOVE $ 1000 PER CENT MAKING OVER $1000 Average of 670 farms . . $609 145 22 97 farms with highest crop yields 684 23 24 97 farms with highest re- ceipts per cow .... 968 40 41 97 largest farms .... 898 42 43 23 farms in the class with best crops and best cows 994 9 39 71 large (over 200 acres) and diversified farms . 1044 33 46 31 large farms (over 200 acres) with crops and cows as good or better than the average . . . 1567 27 87 13 large diversified farms with crops and cows as good or better than the average 1968 13 100 The combination of large crop yields and high-producing cows is better than either one alone. There were 23 farms that came both in the class of high-crop yields and high production per cow. The average labor income on these farms was $994. Nine were above $1000. But even with INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 171 this combination of good cows and good crops, 9 failed to make labor incomes as good as the average. These were small farms. 112. Comparative importance of yields and size and diversity of business. The combination of size of business and diversity is even more important than high production. It appears that the reduction in cost by having a business large enough and diversified enough to keep men, horses, and machinery busy is greater than the reduction in cost that comes from high yields of crops and production of animals. There were 71 farms of over 200 acres that derived over 20 per cent of their receipts from crops. The labor income on these farms averaged S1044. Thirty-three were above $1000. A farm ought to have crop yields and cows as good or better than the average. This means receipts per cow of $59 or more from milk and butter. There were 31 farms of over 200 acres that secured crop yields as good or better than the average and that also had cows as good or better than the average. The average labor income on these farms was $1567. If we add the further qualification that the farms shall be diversified, the profits are still larger. There were 13 of these large farms with production as good or better than the average that derived over 20 per cent of their receipts from crops. The average labor income on these farms was S1968. The lowest was $1093. The importance of high production has long been em- phasized, but it appears that a size of business and type of farming that provide full work for labor and equipment are even more important than high production. The largest profits come when good production is combined with the proper size of farm and type of farming. 172 FARM MANAGEMENT It appears that the average farming of any community is not quite as intensive as conditions warrant. It pays to use methods that will secure a little better crop than the average, but farmers are not so foolish as to be 100 per cent out of adjustment to their conditions, as is assumed when it is said that they ought to secure double the present yields on any given soil. 113. Raising the maximum yield of potatoes. An intensive potato farm has attracted considerable attention. 1 The farmer has laid 10 miles of tile drain on his 57-acre farm. His average yield of potatoes for the last nine years reported was 282 bushels. One year it was 417 bushels. The average receipts for the first nine years were $214 above farm expenses. This represents the pay for the owner's work and interest on capital, or the amount that the family had to live on and pay interest, but the farm increased in value during this time. For the second nine years, the average receipts were $2786 and the farm ex- penses $1775. This leaves $1011 per year as pay for the use of capital and owner's labor. Half of this was earned by the $10,000 capital. The other half represents pay for the farmer's labor, or his labor income. This is a little lower than the average for the neighboring townships in Livingston County. One in every twenty-five of the farmers in this region made over $2500. The farm is a little over one-third as large, but the capital is as large as the average in the region. The same energy would undoubtedly have brought at least double the profit, if expended in farming by the usual methods of the region. The high yields attracted so much attention that one of the great railroads hired the owner to manage demonstra- tion farms. Naturally, the farmers who have watched the 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 454. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 173 expenses of the railroad farms have been slow to accept the so-called scientific methods. They have, however, been helped in some details of potato production. The farmer who has accomplished these results deserves the utmost respect. He has shown great originality and has shown what high yields can be secured. They have another value in showing us what possibilities we have for the future, when conditions may possibly warrant more intensive methods. We need not be alarmed as to how we shall be fed in the future. It is always desirable to have such experiments, just as it is desirable to have experiments with aeroplanes. But to exploit such methods as an example for farmers to follow is as foolish as it would be for a farmers' society to try to demonstrate to the railroad that it could secure more business if a nice passenger station were built at every crossroad. The increased returns are easy to secure, but an increased profit is a different matter. Probably farmers, as well as railroads, can make more by a little more intensive methods, but not by trying to secure maximum crops. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE METHODS OF DAIRYING 114. Adaptation to conditions. What intensive meth- ods it will pay to use in dairying depends on many factors, chief among which are the relative prices of feed, labor, and milk. Near some of the large cities in Germany very intensive methods pay best. Land, feed, and milk are high in price, and labor is cheap. Under such condi- tions the problem is largely one of getting the greatest amount of feed from an acre. The soiling system is then used. All the feed is cut and carried to the cows, because in this way more stock can be kept on a given area. In 174 FARM MANAGEMENT northern Minnesota we have the other extreme. Labor is high, and feed, land, and milk are very cheap. Here the cows run out much of the year and pasture on prairie grass in summer and corn stalks in winter. No attempt is made to secure very high production per cow. Between these extremes we have all degrees of variation. The intensive method is as much out of place in Minnesota as the Minnesota method would be in Germany. The least intensive method of dairying is to produce most of the product in summer on pasture and carry the cows over winter on hay and cheap roughage. This is the practice in Holland and in the parts of New York and Wisconsin where cheese is produced. It is better economy to produce the cheese on cheap feed and store it than it is to try to produce it on high-priced winter feed. The same practice is followed to some extent with butter making, but a larger proportion of the butter supply is made in winter because it is less easily stored. A more intensive method of dairying is to feed hay and grain in the winter so as to get some production during this season. This is justified when butter or milk brings a fair price. This is the common practice of the majority of dairymen in America. A still more intensive method adds corn silage and in- creases the grain. This is the usual method followed by dairymen who have fairly large herds and who are near enough cities to get a good price for milk. Silos are not often used with less than 10 to 20 cows. With all of the above methods, summer pasture is used as far as possible. When land becomes very scarce and milk very high in price, the pasture is replaced by a soiling system. Farmers in the very edge of cities are the only ones that often find this profitable in 'America. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 175 Table 29 gives an interesting comparison of the five- year average results for a dairy herd in Connecticut with the results of cost accounts on 27 farms in Minnesota. The cows in Connecticut were fed nearly three times as much grain as those in Minnesota. They were fed a TABLE 29. COMPARISON OF AVERAGE COSTS OF PRODUCTION OF MILK ON SOME MINNESOTA FARMS AND ON A CONNECT- ICUT FARM ' MINNESOTA CONNECTICUT Pounds of grain 877 2525 Pounds of hay 5050 2 2284 Pounds of sila fjr f 8727 Days of pasture 164 133 Pounds of milk produced per cow Pounds of butter (85 per cent fat) 4499 201 6379 324 Cost of feed $23 $84 Other costs 29 65 Total cost 52 149 Value of product plus $15 for fifl Value of product, milk 4^* qt. Gain . . 8 Loss 16 1 Minnesota, Bulletin 124, and Connecticut, Bulletin 73. 2 Includes some stover, fodder, and a little silage. little more roughage, but were pastured less. The more intensive methods in the East are further indicated by the fact that the other costs aside from feed are over twice as much, and are finally shown in the production of 61 per cent more butter per cow. The milk was counted at 4 cents a quart in Connecticut. The average prices received in Minnesota were 2.4 cents for milk and 22 cents for butter. 17G FARM MANAGEMENT The herd in Connecticut failed to pay. If we assign the same values to the manure and calf in Minnesota as was done in Connecticut, then the Minnesota herds gave a profit of $8 per cow. Or, expressed another way, the manure and calf had to be worth $7 to come out even in Minnesota, and $31 in 'Connecticut. If the Connecticut herd had paid Minnesota prices for feed and received Minnesota prices for the product, the milk would have been worth $72 per cow. The feed would have cost $43, or about one-half as much as it did in Connecticut. The other expenses would have been only slightly reduced, provided the same methods had been used. The calf and manure would then have to be worth about $50 to come out even. 1 But the Minnesota farmer, with his apparently slipshod methods, has secured the calf and manure for $7. It appears absolutely certain that as intensive methods as are used in Connecticut would not pay in Minnesota. Possibly the methods are a little too intensive, even for Connecticut. On the other hand, it is probable that the profits in Minnesota might be increased by a reasonable increase in intensity of the business. If the cows in Minnesota had paid Connecticut prices for feed and received Connecticut prices for milk, the feed would have cost something less than $63 per cow, and the milk would have been worth $84 per cow. The profit would have remained practically unchanged. A few of the other charges would have been greater. It is also probable that the milk inspectors would refuse to take the milk, if these methods were used in Connecticut. 1 Feed values in Minnesota averaged $4.92 per ton for hay, $1.71 for silage, about $20 for grain, and 83 cents a month for pasture. In Con- necticut, hay averaged $16, silage $4, grain $30 per ton, and pasture $10 for the year. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 115. The soiling system. Keeping the greatest num- ber of cows per acre. The farmer has been repeatedly shown that he can keep more cows per acre by a soiling system, that is, if green feed is cut and brought to the cows, rather .than use a pasture, but few farmers have adopted this method. The farmer is concerned with profit for a year's work, not with entertaining the greatest possible number of cows. A soiling system is feasible in Europe, where labor is cheap and land very expensive ; it is not feasible in America, except on a very few farms with entirely unusual conditions. A description of one of these farms, that has been published as a Farmers' Bulle- tin, is in great demand. 1 The farmer had 15 acres of land near a large city in Pennsylvania and by a soiling system raised all the roughage for 30 head of stock, 17 of which were cows in milk. The milk was sold to a state institution two miles from the farm at the wholesale price of 25 cents a gallon the year around. This was at a time when farmers in the state were usually getting about 8 to 12 cents a gallon. The milk was unusually high in fat, but the price was equivalent to 50 cents a pound for butter fat. The value of the land is not given, but it was mortgaged for $480 per acre. At this time, good land for dairy purposes in the state could have been bought for $50 and rarely sold for as much as $100 per acre. With more than double the usual price of milk and with land worth ten times as much as that on most dairy farms, a soiling system was the only logical system. The owner developed a city-lot type of farming excellently adapted to his conditions, but absolutely out of place on farms that sell milk at usual prices. If he had sold his milk at usual prices, he would have lost money. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 242. N 178 FARM MANAGEMENT Unfortunately, the bulletin was called, " An Example of Model Farming," and many persons have thought that this furnished a model for farmers who sell milk at 2 to 3 cents a quart instead of 6| cents. Because of his success under these very unusual conditions, this farmer sold his farm for a high price and was hired at a high salary as manager of another farm. Here the attempt to establish a similar system resulted in a very heavy loss for his employer. There is not sufficient data given in the bulletin to calculate a labor income, but it appears to be less than $1000, a good labor income, but not large. It is interest- ing to compare this with the results obtained by many other farmers; the one on page 537 is typical. This farmer made a labor income of $3414 ; the year before it was $2750. With about the same capital that was in- vested in the intensive farm, he made three times the labor income. This farmer kept a cow for each seven acres rather than a cow to the acre. He sold milk for an average of 2.7 cents a quart rather than 6j cents. In- stead of spending any time hauling green crops to the barn, he raised cash crops for sale, while the cows were in the pasture gathering their own crops and distribut- ing the manure. Each farmer followed the method best adapted to his conditions. There are thousands of men who are succeeding by usual methods for every one that is succeeding by the soiling system. The amount of labor involved in hauling green crops, that are mostly water, and in hauling out manure is enormous. At the New Jersey Experiment Station the equivalent of 50 cows were kept for 6 months on various soiling crops. During this time 278 tons of green crops were cut and hauled to the barn, and probably over 300 INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 179 tons of manure were hauled back to the fields. 1 The labor of hauling the feed and manure, to say nothing of the cost of growing the crops, would more than pay the pasture bill on most dairy farms. It is evident that land and milk must be very high in price, before a soiling system will pay. A less intensive system that pays on most dairy farms is to have enough corn silage to supplement the pasture at times when the pasture is poor. But even this is too intensive a system in the newer regions and far from cities. In Minnesota, it was found that $1 expended for labor and other costs of production of a hay crop gave a product with a feeding value of $2.21. For the same cost, fodder corn gave $1.38, silage $.98, and mangels $.79. The last two failed to pay the cost of production. 2 In some parts of Europe, and occasionally in the edge of large cities in America, it pays to follow a soiling system in the summer, with silage or roots for winter. In the Eastern States, and near cities in other states, it generally pay; a farmer, who has 10 or more cows, to pasture in summer and feed corn silage and hay in winter. Farther west, where hay is choaper, the silo is less profitable. In some sections it has not yet proved its worth. Root crops rarely pay in America, except when one is making advanced registry records, or under some other unusual conditions. Sometimes it pays to have a small amount of roots to furnish a succulent feed, if the herd is too small to justify one in having a silo. The farmer's problem is to intensify his business up to the point of greatest profit for his conditions. Since con- ditions are gradually changing ifi favor of more intensive 1 E. B. Voorhoes, Forage Crops, p. 35. * Minnesota, Bulletin 117, p. 31. 180 FARM MANAGEMENT methods ; and since there is a tendency for the average person to lag behind, it follows that a little more inten- sive methods than the average of the community will usually be best. (See also pages 181 to 182.) 116. Receipts per cow and profits. In Tompkins County, New York, the 12 most profitable farms out of 1317 received 48 per cent better returns per cow than the average of the region. They purchased 89 per cent more grain feed per cow than the average. Those who kept sheep secured returns per ewe 83 per cent above the average. 1 In Jefferson County, New York, there were 17 farms out of 670 that made labor incomes of over $2000. The average receipts from milk and its products were $59 per cow on all farms, and $92, or 56 per cent, more, on these most successful farms. The receipts from stock sold above purchases averaged $14 per cow on all farms, and $11 on the most successful farms. By comparing with the crop yields on these farms (page 167), it will be seen that the production of the animals exceeds the average by very much more than does the production of crops. The factors that determine crop production are much less under control than are the factors that affect animal production. If one does his part for a half better crop yield than the average under his conditions, he is not at all sure of getting this yield, because the weather may limit the crop. But if one does his part for a half better production from animals, he is fairly sure of corresponding returns. (See also pages 169 to 171.) 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 525. INTENSIVE AND EXTENSIVE FARMING 181 INTENSIVE METHODS SHOULD BE PROPERLY BALANCED 117. Profits limited by the weakest point. There is no use in using a heavy fertilizer treatment, if the rain- fall or tillage is not in proportion, neither does it pay to give the same attention to common stock that should be FIG. 52. Profits depend on many factors. They cannot rise above the limits set by the weakest point in the system. given to pure-breds. The false statement is often made that it costs no more to keep pure-bred stock than it does to keep grades. It takes more capital, more feed, and more care, if the business is to be made to pay. It is foolish to keep pure-bred stock and give it no better care than is given to common stock. This sort of a relation- ship should run throughout the farm business. One can- not afford to get the best machinery and continue to use 182 FARM MANAGEMENT cheap, weak horses. If he has good machinery and good horses, he cannot afford to use inefficient men. It re- quires experience and good judgment to keep somewhere near to the proper adjustment of all the factors of pro- duction. No farmer ever keeps all these factors just right. Figure 52 illustrates this point. The profits cannot rise above the limiting factor. Methods should be intensified with uniformity in attention to all the limiting factors. Whenever one point is improved, it is likely to call for improvement in other lines. -In most regions it pays to spray apple trees. But after going to the expense of spraying, one cannot afford to neglect some other point as tillage or pruning. After one has fed his cows more, he needs to be sure that he gives the care that should go with the larger feed. REFERENCES Principles of Rural Economics, T. N. Carver, pp. 117-202. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. IV. pp. 94-96. Agricultural Economics, H. C. Taylor, pp. 88-116. CHAPTER 5 MAINTAINING THE FERTILITY OF THE LAND No system of farming can be considered entirely satis- factory that does not maintain the fertility of the land. In periods of low prices, it is sometimes necessary for the farmer to neglect the future in order to make a living in the present. It is also sometimes necessary for a man who is heavily in debt to follow methods that he will change when he reduces the debt to a safe limit. But, in general, we desire types of farming that will maintain crop yields, and, as prices and land values increase, it becomes desirable to increase yields beyond what they were on the virgin soil. 118. Are our crop yields decreasing? Somebody started the story that our crop yields are decreasing. It has been repeated so many times that it is now accepted as true. Figure 53 shows the facts in the case. It is the average of the ten leading crops of the United States. It shows that the highest crop yields ever secured have been in the last fifteen years. The increase in yield per acre has been very marked. We have good years and poor years, but crop yields are increasing very rapidly. All that is necessary to have them go up still farther is to pay the farmer more for his produce. By bringing in land that is now little used, and by better methods of farming, that are already known to farmers, it would prob- ably be possible to increase our total production of crops 50 183 184 FARM MANAGEMENT per cent in three years, if the farmer could be assured of prices high enough to warrant the expense involved. 119. Ways in which productivity may be decreased. (1) The fertile surface soil may be carried away by erosion, by wind, or water. Probably more soil fertility is lost in this way than by cropping. This may be prevented by keeping the soil in sod, by keeping cover crops on it FIG. 53. Yearly average yield per acre of 10 leading crops combined (representing in area nearly 95 per cent of all cultivated crops) . 100 represents the average for the 43 years. 1 during the winter, and by terracing the land as is done in the South. (2) The soil may cease to hold the proper moisture supply. This may be remedied by drainage and tillage, and by additions of humus-making material. (3) The soil may cease to be favorable for the develop- ment of soil organisms. This may be remedied as No. 2 and by the application of lime. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr. Crop Reporter, Jan., 1911. MAINTAINING FERTILITY OF LAND 185 (4) The nitrogen and lime of the soil may be carried away in drainage water. (5) The constant cropping may exhaust the available supply of some plant-food. Each crop removes a certain amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. In time this may limit the available supply. Usually it is not a shortage of the absolute amount of such food in the soil, but a shortage of that which the plant can secure in soluble form. This may be remedied by drainage, tillage, additions of humus, lime, fertilizer, and manure. (6) The exhaustion of the organic matter is the most frequent cause for decrease in crop yields. This affects crops in many ways. It may result in an unfavorable physical condition of the soil that will limit the crop when there is no shortage of food. The soil may " bake " or it may lose its water-holding power. Since the organic matter furnishes the nitrogen by its decomposition and encourages the fixation of free nitrogen, its exhaustion will be accompanied by a shortage of nitrogen. Or becauso of the lack of organic matter, the mineral ele- ments may not be rapidly enough dissolved, although present in abundance. In such a case, the addition of phosphoric acid or potash might increase the crop, but it would usually be wiser to supply organic matter so as to render available the food that is already in the soil. Many soils are losing their fertility in all of the ways mentioned above. (7) In arid regions, the accumulation of alkali is one of the most frequent sources of decreased production. Too heavy applications of water make the problem worse. This may be remedied by tile drainage. 186 FARM MANAGEMENT MAINTAINING THE ORGANIC MATTER 120. Importance of organic matter. The most im- portant soil problem in nearly all regions is the question of organic matter. This problem is particularly serious in the South. In regions with long seasons, a tremendous quantity of organic matter is used up each year. In colder regions, the " decay " is less rapid. In the South, the great soil problems are organic matter And erosion, and the latter problem is, to a considerable extent, a prob- lem of organic matter, because this helps to hold the soil. Each farm must ordinarily grow its own organic matter supply. Occasionally, a farmer may depend on purchased manure or hay, straw, or other feed, but these are expen- sive and bulky to handle, and cannot often be secured at prices that will enable a farmer to make a profit from them. There are three general methods of adding organic matter to the soil. (1) By crop roots, stubble, etc. (2) The use of farm manure. (3) Plowing under of green crops. 121. Crop residues. On some of the richer soils in the North, the clover and other crop roots and stubble seem to be sufficient to keep up the supply of organic matter, but on most soils some of the crop must be returned to the land, if the supply is to be maintained. In parts of the corn-belt, the corn is husked from the standing stalks, because where feed is very cheap it does not pay to harvest corn stalks. 1 The stalks are then pastured more or less, and are plowed under for the succeeding crop. This is a valuable source of organic matter on these farms, and goes a long ways toward keep i Minnesota, Bulletin 104, p. 86. MAINTAINING FEllTILITY OF LAND 187 ing up the supply. Sometimes the stalks an; burned. This may occasionally be desirable, but one should be very sure of it before he destroys such valuable material. In a few sections in the western part of the United States, wheat is harvested with a combined harvester and thresher that leaves the straw scattered over the field. When this is plowed under without burning, it furnishes a large amount of humus-making material. In parts of the western wheat country, where grain cannot be safely left standing until it is dry enough to thresh, the threshing is done from the shock or stack. Here the straw is often burned. It is difficult to get this straw to rot in a region of short rainfall. It is, however, a serious waste to burn it, and, if possible, it should be worked down by stock and then spread very thinly on the land as a top dress- ing, or be saved in some other way. In this region, as well as in most of the country, the problem of organic matter is a serious one. 122. Farm manure as a source of organic matter. About 40 per cent of the organic matter that is fed to animals is returned in the manure, and all of the bedding used is so recovered. Heiden found that 47 per cent of the dry matter fed to a horse was recovered. A full-grown steer returned 56 per cent of the dry matter of the feed. 1 R. E. Deuel fed 46 cows for one week and weighed and analyzed feed, bedding, and manure. The cows had been on the same ration for some time previous to the test. He found 45 per cent of the dry matter and 43 per cent of the organic matter of the feed eaten was recovered in the manure. Young animals, lean animals, or those that are produc- 1 Feeds and Feeding, W. A. Henry, 7th edition, pp. 34 and 265. 188 FARM MANAGEMENT ing milk, or work, digest their food closely. From the limited information available, it appears as if one might count on a return of about one-half of the organic matter of the food, but with usual methods of handling probably not over one-fourth to one-third reaches the field. 123. Pasturing off crops. The practice of pasturing down crops is on the increase. This is a method of saving labor as well as enriching land. It is particularly useful with hogs and sheep. This method has long been used in England. It seems destined to increase in this country. Cow peas, soy beans, rape, or other crops, may be sown in corn to be pastured off by sheep. 1 Hogging off corn is becoming increasingly popular. The hogs save the work of harvesting corn and hauling- manure. 2 Rye, wheat, peanuts, and other crops, are similarly harvested by hogs. Very little grain is wasted. The straw or stalks arc left on the land. With this system, the water supply should be moved from time to time, so as to secure a better distribution of manure. In addition to its advantages from the standpoint of labor, this method is one of the best for keeping up fertility. Over half of the manure is usually lost when stock is fed in yards. 124. Green manure. Sometimes crops are grown for the purpose of plowing under for green manure. We are usually deceived as to the amount of material that this adds to the soil. It takes a good soil to grow two tons of dry matter per acre. More frequently, one-half a ton is secured. Three tons of farm manure usually give over a ton of dry matter 3 and, after being properly spread, are probably worth more than a ton of dry matter in green 1 Sheep Feeding and Farm Management, D. Howard Doane. 2 Minnesota, Bulletin 104. 3 Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, p. 498. FIG. 54. A crop of corn with rape; sown at last cultivation. Ready to be pastured by sheep. Or the rape and corn may b B o CO H B a H ^s* P < w Q *! H-J N |Si pl r* ~1 *4 << o. W K i; <> OH 5 W 93 -5 > a K 2 i-H ^H r^(M CO I-H (N CO Tti I> O5 COO' -31 I I i I i 1 l SwOOOQiOQ( rH (M 1C O I SIZE OF FARMS 249 this should be subtracted the other farm expenses and the value of farm work done by other members of the family, to see what the farmer received for his time. (Table 39.) The average farm family on farms of 50-99 acres, there- fore, received considerably less than $311 for its year's work. It is evident that these farmers failed to receive wages, and it appears as if those on farms of 100 to 174 acres made farm wages, and that those on larger farms made more than farm wages. The high figures for the farms of less than 3 acres are due to the inclusion of sheep ranches on free ranges. These were farmers with little or no land, but they used large areas. The chances of an individual are certainly poor if he has a very small farm. The Census gives the percentage of farms of each size with given values of products not fed to live-stock. Table 40 shows that of the farms of 3 to 49 acres, only about one in 200 produced as much as $2500 TABLE 40. PERCENTAGE OF FARMS OF VARIOUS SIZES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1899 PRODUCING $ 1000 WORTH AND $2500 WORTH OF PRODUCTS NOT FED TO LIVE-STOCK l PER CENT WITH $1000 PER CENT WITH $2500 ACRES FARMED TO $2499 WORTH OF WORTH OF PRODUCTS PRODUCTS NOT FED NOT FED Under 3 acres . . 7.0% 5.2% 3-9 .... 1.5 0.6 10-19 .... 1.8 0.4 20-49 .... 2.0 0.3 50-99 .... 7.4 0.6 100-174 .... 21.8 1.4 175-259 .... 37.3 5.2 260-499 .... 39.6 12.7 500-999 .... 33.3 24.3 Over 1000 . . . 25.6 39.5 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. xlvii. 250 FARM MANAGEMENT worth of products not fed. Only about 2 farms out of a hundred reached the $1000 figure. But for farms of 175 to 259 acres, 37 in 100 reached $1000, and 5 of them exceeded $2500. This does not show just what theirlabor incomes were, because expenses and interest are not de- ducted, but it shows that the men on the larger farms at least have a chance to make money, while the persons on the very small farms rarely have a chance to make much, because the total value of products is too* small. 162. Relation of size of farm to efficiency in use of labor. On the 586 farms in Tompkins County, New York, the receipts per acre were more on small farms than on the larger ones, but the single item of labor cost was so great that it more than offset the difference in receipts. Other expenses were also more per acre on the small farms. If the farmer's labor is worth $326, which is the aver- TABLE 41. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO RECEIPTS, EXPENSES, AND LABOR. FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS, TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES AVERAGE SIZE (ACRES) RECEIPTS PER ACRE LABOR COST PER ACRE 1 RECEIPTS MINUS LABOR PER ACRE OTHER EX- PENSES AND INTEREST PER ACRE NET PROFIT PER ACRE 2 30 or less 21 $26.14 $19.90 $6.24 $13.76 loss $7.52 31-60 49 14.24 8.10 6.14 7.61 loss 1.47 61-100 83 12.49 5.60 6.89 6.32 gain .57 101-150 124 11.56 4.54 7.02 6.13 gain .89 151-200 177 10.89 3.92 6.97 5.22 gain 1.75 Over 200 261 10.93 3.33 7.60 5.22 gain 2.38 1 Total amount paid for labor, value of board of laborers, value of unpaid labor by members of the family, and the farmer's labor estimated at $326 for the year. 2 Profit after deducting expenses, interest on capital at 5 per cent, and all labor as defined above. SIZE OF FARMS 251 2S ~ to } Tf 40 80 /20 J60 Act-*.* 200 240 280 32.0 FIG. 63. Relation of size of farm to acres farmed with $100 worth of labor. age value placed on it by the farmers, then there is a net loss of $1.47 per acre on farms of 31-60 acres, and a gain on the larger farms. (Table 41.) In Livingston County, New York, the area farmed with TABLE 42. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO EFFICIENCY OF LABOR. 586 FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS ACRES AREA FARMED PER $100 WORTH OF LABOR l 30 or less 31-60 5 acres 12 acres 61-100 18 acres 101-150 22 acres 151-200 26 acres Over 200 30 acres 1 Total labor cost includes wages paid, board of laborers, value of unpaid labor by members of the family, and $326 for the labor of the farmer. 252 FARM MANAGEMENT $100 worth of human labor is five times as great on the largest farms as on the smallest. On the farms of 31 to 50 acres, the labor cost is over twice as much per acre as on the farms of 151 to 200 acres. In spite of the fact that the labor cost is so high on the small farms, the crop yields are no better. The product of a man's work on the 151- to 200-acre farms is over twice as much as the product of a man's work on the 31- to 50-acre farms. The same point is shown by work in other counties. (Tables 42, 43.) TABLE 43. AREA RELATED TO EFFICIENCY OF LABOR. 578 FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES FARMED ACRES FARMED WITH $100 WORTH OF LABOR l 30 or less 31-50 51-100 : 4.4 8.8 13.0 101-150 151-200 Over 200 16.6 18.1 21.8 1 Total labor cost includes wages paid, board of laborers, value of unpaid labor by members of the family, and $420 for the labor of the farmer. On a small farm it requires relatively much more time to do the chores. Six horses and 12 cows do not take nearly twice as much time as is required for 3 horses and 6 cows. There are many farm operations that require two men, so that no matter how small the farm may be, one man cannot do all the work to good advantage. Even with the smallest farms, some help is hired. (Table 44.) The farms of 151 to 200 acres are the smallest group that employ two men by the year. In this group there SIZE OF FARMS 253 is an average of 2.3 men per farm; that is, 1.3 men besides the operator. (Table 44.) One hired-man by the year is the smallest number that can be used to run a farm effectively. In this County, it appears that, on the average, a farm must be over 150 acres if it is to justify one in keeping a man by the year. The farms averaging 79 acres employ an average of a man for half of a year. This is 53 acres per man. But 175 acres is farmed with a little less than one additional man. The additional man makes it possible to farm 96 more acres, almost twice as much per man. At the same time, the crop yields are just as good. TABLE 44. RELATION OF SIZE OF FARM TO EFFICIENCY OF LABOR. LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES FARMED AVERAGE ACRES VALUE OF UNPAID LABOR EXCEPT OWNER'S CASH PAID FOR LABOR APPROXI- MATE NUMBER OF MEN ' ADDI- TIONAL MEN ADDITIONAL ACRES FARMED 30 or less 20 $7 $28 1.1 31-50 . 43 31 29 1.2 0.1 23 51-100 . 79 41 113 1.5 0.3 36 101-150 . 127 51 218 1.8 0.3 48 151-200 . 175 93 341 2.3 0.5 48 Over 200 305 129 633 3.3 1.0 130 On the average, the additional area is farmed at the rate of 130 acres per man. It appears that in Livingston County, after one has labor to run a given farm, he can farm 130 acres more by hiring one more man. 1 The approximate number of men is found by adding the cash cost of labor to the value of unpaid labor, and dividing by the approximate cash cost of one man, $325, thr? adding the operator to the number secured. For the United States, figures are not given as to the amount of farm work done by members of the farm family 254 FARM MANAGEMENT other than the operator. Allowing for this, it would ap- pear that a man farms over twice the area on the farms of 175-259 acres as on the 50 to 99-acre farms. The Census figures do not give the crop yields that result, but from the work in New York, it would appear that the crop yields are likely to be as good on the larger farms. Table 45 shows how the farmers of America have in- creased the area of crops raised per male worker. The area per horse has not changed much. The farmers are driving more horses per man and so saving man-time. They are driving a third more horses per man, and raising a third more acres of crops per worker, than the farmers did in 1880. This table would seem to indicate that im- proved machinery has not saved horse-time, feut has saved man-time, because one man drives more horses. TABLE 45. INCREASING EFFICIENCY OF FARMERS IN THE UNITED STATES l 1880 1890 1900 1910 Average number of acres of crops per male worker 16 years old or older Average number of acres of crops for each horse, mule, or ass one year old or older 23.3 13.5 27.5 12.4 31.0 13.5 12.7 Average number of horses, etc. per worker 1.7 2.2 2.3 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. xxxi. The crops included are buck- wheat, barley, corn, rice, oats, rye, wheat, hay, tobacco, cotton, hops, and sugar cane. These are the only crops reported for every year. Other crops reported in 1900 averaged 1.2 additional acres per male worker, and 0.5 per horse. The table does not include all the minor crops, because some of them were not reported before 1900. The area of all crops in 1900 averaged 33 acres per male worker. SIZE OF FARMS 255 Horses and mules are not much used before they are three years old. If only horses and mules three years old are included, and if all the minor crops are counted, the crop area per mule or horse in 1900 would be 17.1 acres. 1 The number of work animals per male worker was 1.9. 163. Relation of the size of farm to efficiency in use of horses. Economy in the use of horse labor is becoming increasingly important. In most parts of the country, it costs as much, or more, to keep a team of horses as it does to keep a man. The best way to economize in the use of horses is to keep them employed. It is difficult to keep horses busy if the farm is too small. Table 46 7or Tompkins County, New York, shows how the number of horses increases with the size of farm. Colts 30 10 80 120 \bO 10 w FIG. 64. Relation of size of farm to acres fanned by a horse. 1 The Census of 1900 reported 18,276,551 horses and mules 2 years old or older, and reported 1,727,672 as 1 and under 2 years old. Horses and mules increased at the rate of 395,807 per year from 1890 to 1900. We may, therefore, assume that there were about 1,331,865 two and under 3 years old. This would give about 16,945,000 three years old or older. 256 FARM MANAGEMENT are not included with horses. The figures are for horses old enough to work. The farms of less than 30 acres average 1.4 horses per farm. Three or four horses are the smallest number that can be used efficiently with modern machinery. The farms of 151 to 200 acres are the smallest ones that have an average of four horses per farm. TABLE 46. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO HORSES. OPERATED BY OWNERS 586 FARMS ACRES AVERAGE SIZE (ACRES) AVERAGE NUMBER OF HORSES ACRES PER HORSE 30 or less 21 1.4 15 31-60 49 2.3 21 61-100 83 2.8 30 101-150 124 3.4 37 151-200 177 4.3 41 Over 200 261 5.3 49 Average 103 3.1 33 .The figures of acres per horse are still more striking. The small farms have not enough horses to make efficient teams, and yet they are over-supplied with horses compared with their area. On these farms there are only 15 acres per horse. On the largest farms one horse farms three times this area, with no resulting decrease in crop yields. When we consider the cost of keeping a horse, we see what a great advantage the larger farms have. In Livingston County, on the 31- to 50-acre farms, a horse farms 18 acres, but on the 151- to 200-acre farms, a horse farms 27 acres. Yet the crop yields are just as good on the larger farms. The cost of horse labor to produce a given amount of crop on the larger farms is little over half that for the smaller farms. SIZE OF FARMS 257 On a small farm, the horses cannot be kept in constant use, because there is not work enough. On a one-man farm, the horses are kept out of the fields whenever the farmer does chores, hand work, or goes to town. On a two-man farm, one man may be using all the horses while the other man does other work. If there are four or five horses on the place, the man who is working the teams may be driving three or four horses. At the same time, the other man may make a trip to town with one horse. All the horses are then kept at work. A farm with five horses has a great advantage in being able to ad- just the size of team to machinery and work. It allows a five-horse team, a four-horse team, or two two-horse teams, with a single horse for other work, and allows a three- and a two-horse team. By these means, the labor of men and machinery is economized, and work can be more promptly done. The chores are frequently done by the man not working the team, again keeping the horses in the field. It is almost impossible to keep the horses busy on a one-man farm. If a farmer has only two horses, he cannot take advan- tage of the great economy that comes from driving three- and four-horse teams. Even if he could borrow the horses and machinery, he could not use them to advantage in his small fields. The Census figures for the United States point to the same conclusion. 164. Relation of size of farm to efficiency in the use of machinery. Most of the common farm machinery can be used to do the work on a 200- or 300-acre farm, as well as on a small farm. If the small farm buys the ma- chinery, it is at too great a cost per acre. If it goes without macninery, the loss of time and yields is even more serious. s 258 FARM MANAGEMENT Table 47 shows the relation of size of farm to investment in machinery and tools. The farms of 61-100 acres had an average of $341 worth of machinery. These valua- tions are probably not over half of what new machinery would cost. Any one who has ever made a list of the nec- essary farm machinery will see how inadequately these small farms are equipped. Yet this machinery costs much more per acre than on the larger farms. The an- nual cost for housing, repairs, and depreciation, interest, oil, insurance, has been found by cost accounts to be about 20 per cent of the value of the machinery. The annual cost per acre for use of machinery would be about $1.75 on the smallest farms and $1 on the largest farms. TABLE 47. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO EFFICIENCY OF MA- CHINERY. 586 FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS, TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES AVERAGE SIZE (ACRES) VALUE or MACHINERY AND TOOLS INVESTMENT IN MACHINERY PER ACRE 30 or less 21 $125 $5.95 31-60 49 243 4.96 61-100 83 341 4.11 101-150 124 495 3.99 151-200 177 592 3.34 Over 200 261 914 3.50 Average 103 407 3.95 One mower, one hay rake, one tedder, one hay loader, one corn harvester, one grain harvester, one grain drill, one manure spreader, one potato digger, one potato planter, can do their work on a 250-acre farm as readily as on a small farm. Few of the small farms have half of these SIZE OF FARMS 259 tools. If a small farm does have nearly all the list, it cannot use them enough to pay for the investment. The more efficient and numerous machines become, the larger our farms should be. It is interesting to notice how many of the tools are of very recent development. Almost half of the value of farm machinery on a well-equipped farm is invested in machinery that has been perfected in the last few years. Apparently, the efficiency with which the labor of men, teams, and tools can be used is the important factor in making the larger farms pay better. The results on tenant farms also agree with these conclusions. The tenant who furnishes labor finds the larger farms more profitable. The profits of the landlord who furnishes no labor seem to be little affected by the size of the farm. Table 48 gives the same results for another county. The small farms arc under-equipped, but at double the cost per acre of the large farms. TABLE 48. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO EFFICIENCY OF MA- CHINERY. 578 FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES FARMED VALUE or MACHINERY INVESTMENT IN MACHINERY PER ACRE 30 or less $141 $7.05 31-50 . . 226 5.26 51-100 . . 503 6.37 101-150 . . 523 4.12 151-200 . . 707 4.04 Over 200 . . 955 3.13 Exactly the same point is she wn by the Census for the United States in 1900. The farms of less than 100 acres had a very poor equipment, but the investment per acre was much more than on the large farms. (Table 49.) 260 FARM MANAGEMENT TABLE 49. AREA RELATED TO EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF MACHINERY, UNITED STATES, 1900 l INVESTMENT IN ACRES FARMED VALUE OF MACHINERY MACHINERY PER ACRE OF IMPROVED LAND Under 3 acres $53 $31.18 3-9 42 7.50 10-19 41 3.15 20-49 54 2.08 50-99 106 2.16 100-174 155 1.87 175-259 211 1.64 260-499 263 1.38 500-999 377 1.31 1000 and over 1222 2.35 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. 186. Cooperative ownership of machinery is often desirable and helps, to some extent, to solve the problem for the small farm, but there is much time lost in taking machines from one farm to another, and it is much more difficult to plan the work so as to have the operations done at the proper time, when more than one farmer is concerned. 165. Relation of area to efficiency in the use of capi- tal. The small farm has relatively much more of its capital invested in unproductive ways. No matter how small the farm may be, the owner desires a respectable house. Table 50 shows that the smallest farms have 43 per cent of their capital in houses ; the largest farms have somewhat better houses, but have only 9 per cent of their capital thus invested. The barns on the small farms also take a much larger proportion of the capital. The smallest farms have 19 per cent of their capital thus invested, the largest farms have only 11 per cent thus tied up. An equally good barn for SIZE OF FARMS 261 ten head of stock costs much more than half as much as a barn to house twenty head of stock. The smallest farms have an investment in barns of $164 per animal unit. 1 The largest farms have only $50 per animal unit. Yet observations lead to the conclusion that the stock on the larger places is better housed. If interest, repairs, de- preciation, and insurance on a building amount to 10 per cent of the value, then the housing cost per animal unit would vary from $16 per year on the smallest farms to $5 per year on the largest. TABLE 50. AREA RELATED TO INVESTMENT IN BUILDINGS, 578 FARMS, LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK ACRES FARMED VALUE OP HOUSES PER CENT OP TOTAL CAPITAL IN HOUSES VALUE OF OTHER BUILDINGS PER CENT OP TOTAL CAPITAL IN OTHER BUILDINGS VALUE OF OTHER BUILDINGS PER ANIMAL UNIT 30 or less $1494 43% $655 19% $164 31-50 . . 1000 23 681 15 95 51-100 . . 1236 18 1091 16 87 101-150 . . 1477 14 1408 13 74 151-200 . . 1810 13 1900 13 73 Over 200 . . 2113 9 2552 11 50 Again the figures for the United States show the same conclusion. The larger farms -have better buildings, but at a less proportionate cost. The farms of less than 20 acres have over one-third of their capital invested in buildings and machinery. Those of over 175 acres have less than one-fifth of the money thus employed. Money thus invested is not only unproductive, but is a source of constant cost for repairs. If a farmer had all his money invested in buildings and machinery and mules, his income 1 All animals reduced to their equivalent in cows or horses, see page 209 for definition. 262 FA EM MANAGEMENT would, of course, be zero. In fact, he would not be a farmer at all. 166. Relation of size of farm to size of fields. The small farm of necessity has small fields, if a rotation is followed. Cost accounting has shown a considerable differ- ence in the cost of producing crops on small and fairly large fields. Every operation costs more. It also costs very much more to fence small fields than large ones. (See page 368.) TABLE 51. RELATION OF SIZE OP FARM TO EFFICIENCY IN THE USE OF CAPITAL, UNITED STATES, 1900 l ACRES FARMED VALUE or BUILDINGS PER CENT OP TOTAL REAL ESTATE VALUE Under 3 $653 54% 3-9 428 45 10-19 .... 316 35 20-49 303 29 50-99 532 26 100-174 724 22 175-259 1007 19 260-499 1127 17 500-999 . 1403 15 1000 and over .... 2261 10 1 Twelfth census, Vol. V, pp. li and 187. 167. Relation of size of farms to economy in buying and selling. Usually better terms can be obtained when a farmer is able to buy and sell in large quantities. There is a great saving when drain tile, lime, fertilizers, feed, and stock can be bought in carload lots, if any of these are wanted. There is also a gain when stock, hay, pota- toes, cabbages, and apples can be shipped in carloads. Sometimes the same results can be secured by cooperative buying and selling. SIZE OF FARMS 263 168. Are the results due to the man? Some persons believe that there are 40-acre farmers, 80-acre farmers, and 300-acre farmers, and that all these men have so shifted around that the larger farms are always in the hands of the better men. The better results are, there- fore, all attributed to the man. A study of the history of a large number of individual farms and farmers shows that the man is only one of the many factors that have to do with success. The soil and the area of crops grown are more frequent causes of success and failure. To make even a moderate success on a small farm is very much more difficult than it is to make a good success on a fair-sized farm. When the necessary equipment and horses for an 80-acre farm will be almost sufficient for 160 acres, and when a family can do all the work on the larger farm, it will be seen at once that the larger farm will double the income without much more expense. It therefore becomes a task for a genius on the 80-acre farm to compete with a very ordinary mortal on the larger area. It takes much less intelligence to make a profit out of a mowing machine that cuts 50 acres than it does out of one that cuts 10 acres a year. It takes less ability to make a profit out of four horses that raise 100 acres of crops than it does to make a profit out of half as many horses that farm only 40 acres. It takes much less intelligence to direct a hired man so as to make a profit from employing him, if he drives 3 or 4 horses, than it does if he drives two horses. The confusion has arisen from the almost universal tendency to deal with extremes, and to think of the small farm as a one-man farm and the large farm as a farm where 264 FARM MANAGEMENT the operator directs many men. It certainly takes ability to handle a large number of men on a large farm, but the problem between a 100- and a 200-acre farm is not in num- ber of men employed, but in having only half work for them on the smaller place. The large farms operated by tenants show the same degree of efficiency as those operated by owners. 1 Fre- quently, after the tenant saves enough money, he becomes an owner of a small place. The efficiency in the use of his horses and machinery is then limited. A study of the shifts of individuals is exceedingly inter- esting and instructive. A farmer frequently rents or buys more land and farms it without any more help, horses, or machinery. The logic of the question ought to be sufficient without any of the preceding discussion. If small farms are more efficient than larger farms, then all the more able men would choose small farms, and if they had money left over, invest it in other ways. 169. Best size of farm. Figure 62 shows that 300 acres is approaching the limit of the most profitable size of farm, for the type of farming. All the tables show that with a small farm, a little increased area results in enormously increased efficiency, but additional area for a larger farm does not result in the same saving. Ulti- mately, a size is reached that provides full employment for men, horses, and machinery. When this point is reached additional land requires more equipment. The point at which this change occurs varies with climate, soil, and other conditions, and for different kinds of equipment. Wagons soon have to be duplicated; grain binders are adapted to larger acreages. 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 542. SIZE OF FARMS 265 Usually it is not possible to get much more than 300 acres that is well located with respect to the farm buildings. When the land is too far from the buildings, too much time is lost in going to work, and in hauling manure and crops. Even if one can buy land that is properly located, 640 acres is ordinarily the limit that can be run from one center. If the farm is laid out like Figure 80, this area would be as near the buildings as 160 acres usually is, because the buildings are so frequently at the corner of the farm. With some exploitive types of farming, such as occur in parts of the West, the products are not hauled to the farmstead, and manure is not hauled back to the fields, hence larger farms may pay. But with mixed farming that develops as the country grows older, 300 to 600 acres is all that it is generally profitable to run from one center. Men who have more land usually run it as separate farms. The Taft Ranch in Texas has tried different sizes of units, from 50 acres for a farm rented to a Mexican, to 2000 acres of crops for a farm run by a manager with hired labor, and with the buildings all at one center. The plans for the future are to lay out the largest units in tracts of 1200 acres of tillable land, with 600 acres on each side of the road. Larger areas make the fields too far from the buildings. The crops are cotton and enough forage to feed the mules, so that there is a minimum of hauling. The land is level and all other conditions ideal for large farms. In regions where the land is nearly all tillable, and the rainfall fairly good, a farm should contain at least 160 acres. This provides for a fairly efficient use of men, horses, and machinery, when the chief crops raised are grain and hay. But it takes less ability to handle a 320- acre farm efficiently. The sizes that are proving most 266 FARM MANAGEMENT efficient for various types of farming will be discussed in the next chapter. In order to use machinery and horses effectively a farm ought to be large enough to use five horses. It must be large enough to use at least one man, or grown boy, besides the operator, if it is to be run econom- ically. 170. Profits on very large farms. We have seen that the moderately large farm of 200 to 400 acres has a very great advantage over the small farm. These farms are essentially alike in character. But the " bonanza " farm is an entirely different proposition. All of the usual dis- cussions of large farms apply to this class. There are several reasons why it is very difficult to handle farms of several thousand acres profitably. The great variety of work that must be done makes it difficult to handle men in gangs and use them like machines. The large area over which operations must be carried on makes it impossible to use factory methods. The frequent change of work on a moment's notice, because of weather or other conditions, makes it difficult to prevent lost time in shift- ing from one job to another. It is difficult to keep a large gang employed on stormy days. Part of the difficulty of keeping men busy is obviated by giving each man some land to work for himself, with the agreement that he is to work by the day whenever he is needed. When not needed, he can work for himself. The man who works with his men and who treats his men as equals has a great advantage over one who merely superintends work. The great majority of farm operations require judgment and interest on the part of the worker. It is not often possible to run more than 600 acres, or in some cases 1000 acres, economically from one center, on ac- count of the lost time in going to and from fields, and in SIZE OF FARMS 267 hauling crops and manure. Occasionally, there is a suc- cessful enterprise made up of a number of such units all under one direction, but usually it then becomes desirable to give the man on the ground an interest in the business. The customary way of doing this is to rent the farm. In other words, to break it up into small farms. This is usually more satisfactory, even if the farmer is a negro. The great majority of southern owners find it better to rent the land in areas adapted to a negro family, rather than run large farms with hired labor. There are some exceptions. Large farms have been most successful in growing sugar cane. Large nurseries have an advantage over small ones, particularly in selling the product. The same point applies to seed farms and plant-breeding farms. Some vegetable and fruit farms are able to use men in gangs at certain seasons of the year, and so handle large areas. 171. Relation of size of farm to crop yields. The city man and the political economist at once ask what effect the larger farms have on the food production of the TABLE 52. SIZE OF FARM RELATED TO CROP YIELDS. 586 FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS, TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE . (ACRES) Oats Potatoes Hay Bushels Bushels Tons 30 or less . 21 35 117 1.38 31-60 . . 49 32 111 1.36 61-100 . . 83 32 119 1.33 101-150 . . 124 34 114 1.35 151-200 . . 177 32 127 1.24 Over 200 . 261 35 113 1.24 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 425. 268 FARM MANAGEMENT country. Apparently, the crop yields are as good, or a little better, on the large farms than on the small ones, with the exception of hay, which seems to yield a little better on the smaller farms. Certainly the small farms are not producing more per acre. In addition, much more of the food is consumed in the production, since more horses are kept per acre. The smaller farms seem to be too small for the best production from the standpoint of the city, as well as from the standpoint of the farmer. 172. Relation of size of farm to keeping the boys on the farm. One of the chief reasons why boys leave the farm is because there is not enough work to make it pay to stay. There may be work puttering around, but a boy TABLE 53. RELATION OP SIZE OF FAKM TO BOYS LEAVING THE FARM, 674 FARMS, JEFFERSON COUNTY, NEW YORK PE R CENT OF So NS ACRES FARMED FAMILIES At Home On Other Farms Not Farmers 30 or less 25 21% 33% 46% 31-50 . 29 52 22 26 51-100 . 171 75 8 17 101-150 . 187 78 10 12 151-200 . 136 72 10 18 Over 200 126 84 8 8 of energy wants to do productive work. The writer re- cently heard a farmer on a 40-acre farm say that he could keep four men busy. His seventeen-year-old son added that he would be no better off in the fall than in the spring. They were both right. The boy will leave the farm, be- cause there is not profitable work for him. A study of this question was made in Jefferson County, SIZE OF FARMS 269 New York, on 674 farms. On the smallest farms, 79 per cent of the sons had left home. On the largest farms, 16 per cent had left. About half of those who left the farms have gone to cities or towns. The others are farming or are working as farm hands for neighbors. The farmers on the small farms averaged a little older than those on' the large farms. But the difference is not enough to ac- count for the large number of sons away from home. REFERENCES New York, Cornell Bulletin 295. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 259, pp. 17- 27. Principles of Rural Economics, T. N. Carver, pp. 117-223. Agricultural Economics, H. C. Taylor, pp. 117-135. Twelfth Census, Vol. V, Part I, pp. xliii-liii and 186-205. CHAPTER 8 SIZE OF FARM AND OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFER- ENT REGIONS IN THE UNITED STATES FIGURES on the average size of farm for the United States are hard to interpret, because greenhouses, arid ranges, and many other equally striking contrasts are all averaged together. There are few states that have a sufficiently uniform type of farming to make the figures of much sig- nificance. But it is possible to select counties in which nearly all the farms are of one type. The best way to study any problem in agriculture is to select a region that is an agricultural unit. The counties here compared show conditions and tend- encies in the corn-belt, the cotton-belt, truck-growing region, hard winter wheat region, spring wheat region, irrigated region, and semi-arid region. 173. A county in the cotton-belt. Dallas County, Alabama, is a region of good soils. Its farms were typical large plantations before the war. In 1860, there were 7785 white persons in the county and 25,760 slaves. The colored population has increased faster than the white. In 1910, there were 9890 white persons and 43,511 negroes. One in 10 of the farmers in 1910 was white. The farmers are so largely negroes that the county may be used to study the adjustment of size of farm and other factors to farming by negroes. The Census does not give the size of farms by counties 270 OTBElt FACTOttS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 271 before 1880, but we know that before the war the county was divided into large plantations of several hundred acres. By 1880, the average size of farm had decreased to 103 acres and in 1910 it had decreased to 44 acres, or 31 acres of tillable land. The proportion of farms operated by owners has rapidly decreased. In 1910, only 11 per cent were so operated. The land owners have found it best to divide up the land into tracts that can be worked by one negro family. The number of farms of less than 50 acres has more than doubled since 1880. The average farm in 1910 grew about 19 acres of cotton, 5 acres of corn, and 2 acres of all other crops. There was an average of a little over one mature horse or mule per farm. This shows the typical farm of the colored farmer, " 20 acres and a mule." There was a little over one cow per farm, two hogs, and 14 head of poultry, and less than $50 worth of machinery per farm. These farms with 19 acres of cotton and a mule are family-farms. This is about all the work a mule can do and about all the work a colored family cares to do. It provides full work for a family in cotton-picking season, and nearly full work in the cotton chopping season, but not during the remainder of the year. How prosperous these farms are may be judged from the fact that the value of the house and all other farm buildings averages $189 per farm. Any county in the cotton-belt, where nearly all the farms are operated by negroes, shows the same figures. Bolivar County, Mississippi, has over 12 colored farmers for each white farmer. The farms average 31 acres with 24 acres of tillable land. There was a little over one work animal per farm, less than one cow, nearly two hogs, 1 1 head of poultry, 15 acres of cotton, 4 acres of corn, 2 acres of hay and forage crops, and an acre or two of other crops. 272 FARM MANAGEMENT w m H o Q fc 3 I NOO3HQ 88 | - | a fe Sg Nvwaang g * i a s u sss V1083NNITO co 00 O oo "2 ..; S aaavj mt> ov^ v* 8 v aH 3 N fe (N S3 CO f2 IH 2 S Ava 1-1 "^ ^ 2^ 89 ^ 89 ^ gs; VAU>I S S i- t- AHTang 1 1 1 1 *^ ^ *"* *" IA 69 if ss Jiii J2 05 CO S cf S s CO ^J O i Sg g 5 & q | "-1 w 1O ** IM 99 e@ fe t^ H IN S 8S HVifl 'AujnoQ N CO . . ~ ^"2aa "H - -S > S S S 2 jjjij OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 273 * * CO co co 5! ^ U5 00 L ? CO * CN CO *' 2 "^ M 00 CN c o CN 1- C5 O CO CO co CN '' - 1 CO :o -1 US 00 O> r-t l> " X o CN Eg oo 1-1 "? r^ m o O /.. 1-1 co M CN co CO *""* O ^ ^ t^ rc CO v. * f co T'| 00 00 N . 05 ^^c^S^^^ OS CN * * 00 CO 3 Cl 2 t^ CO 31 CO ;o CN J^ OS CO I-H 00 CO CN ^^CN-.QO M 3 o * * CN CN a o> ^ *~i n . * CN t^ CN t^ -H CO CO i-l 2 M 00 t~ CO CO -H 00 00 -H CO rt /, w CN CN ^-i CN C5 'O t^ ** 5 a 8 II B 73 d 03 03 43 g CO t_i ^ U !n ** o ^ ^ c *- a 2 o " a 3 f I ^ili O O *0 T3 3 a 8 g S 274 FARM MANAGEMENT In 1910, there were seven counties in Mississippi that had over 10 colored farmers for each white farmer. The area of improved land per farm in these counties varied from 23 to 29 acres with an average of 25 acres. When we realize that large plantations have been forced to divide into these small patches and use a tenant system rather than operate with hired labor, we are forced to the conclusion that these small farms are generally better adapted to the conditions, otherwise they could not have driven out the large farm. 174. Cotton farms of white farmers. How large a farm would be best in the cotton-belt in a region where white farmers, who have the necessary capital, do the farm work as such farmers do in the North, is hard to say, because there are few, if any, counties where the land is nearly all worked by well-to-do white farmers. In Coffee County, Alabama, there are nearly 5 white farmers for each colored farmer. The average size of farm in this county in 1910 was 91 acres with 47 acres of im- proved land. The farms had only one and one-third work animals per farm, but they raised about 37 acres of crops per farm, half of which was cotton. These are family-farms, as indicated by the fact that hired labor cost only $35 per farm. These farmers were nearly all poor, as is indicated by the fact that the total value of all farm property per farm was only $1583. If these persons had more money so that they could use more mules and machinery, it is probable that larger farms would be found to be more efficient. The difficulty of getting cotton picked usually limits the area of this crop to what the family can pick. But if there is money enough to provide mules and equipment, other crops can be grown. It will be seen that these OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 275 white farmers are farming more land than the colored farmers not by increasing the area of cotton, but by adding on other crops. This also enables them to use their work animals to a better advantage. Each work animal raises 8 more acres of crops than in Dallas County. By carrying this a little farther, and by adding on more live-stock and with a little day help, a white family that has a grown son can raise 100 acres of crops, about one-fourth of which is cotton. There are a considerable number of farmers scattered throughout the South who are doing this. If there are no sons a hired man by the year will be needed. In general, the area in crops, as well as the yield per acre, must be increased before the individual worker in the South can be very prosperous. Most of the white farmers of the South lack capital and many of them lack the edu- cation necessary for efficiency. 1 The South can never prosper so long as it drives a one-mule team. 175. A truck-growing region. Gloucester County, New Jersey, is a region largely devoted to truck crops. In this county the number of farms of over 100 acres has decreased. Farms of 50-99 acres are most numerous, but there are more farms of less than 50 acres than there are of over 100 acres. The average size of the farm has de- creased slightly in the past 40 years. In 1910, there were 62 acres per farm or 47 acres of improved land. There was an average of 14 acres of potatoes, sweet potatoes, and vegetables, and 16 acres of other crops per farm. Small grain has almost disappeared from this county. A small area of corn and hay continues to be grown for 'North Carolina, Bulletin 84 calls the "one-horse farm" the chief enemy of progressive agriculture. See also U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 259, p. 18. 276 FARM MANAGEMENT feed. In 1909, there was about one acre of small grain, 8 of corn, and 7 acres of hay and forage crops per farm. There was an average of a little less than three work ani- mals and three cows, nearly three hogs, and 61 head of poultry per farm. The total live-stock amounted to about 7 animal units. The farms in this county are family-farms, as is indicated by a hired labor cost of $312 per farm. The income is mostly derived from truck crops and eggs. Most of the feed is raised. The largest single item of cash expense is $278 per farm for fertilizers. This amounts to about $9 for each acre of crops. When one-third of the area is -in vegetables, it appears that about 30-50 acres of crops, together with a little live- stock, provides full work for a farm family. 176. An irrigated region. Utah County, Utah, has been settled for many years. There has been time for adjustment of the size of farm to meet conditions. General farming is followed. The chief products are alfalfa, wheat, sugar beets, and potatoes. Oats, corn, barley, vegetables, fruit, and eggs are also important. The size of farm has been increasing for the past 20 years, but the area of improved land per farm has been fairly constant. In 1910, there was an average of 43 acres of improved land per farm. The area of improved land, the total capital, and number of work animals are approximately the same as in the truck growing county in New Jersey. 177. A hilly dairy region in New York. Delaware county, New York, is a noted dairy region. The county derives most of its income from cows. The average size of farm is 152 acres. There was an average of 39 acres of crops and about 16 cows per farm. There was an average OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 277 of only 1 .7 acres of crops to the animal unit. The cost of purchased feed amounted to about $400 per farm or $25 per cow. The farmers raise very little except hay and corn for the silo. The region is not very prosperous, although it has splendid buildings and so looks prosperous. The buildings were mostly built one or two generations ago when considerable income was being derived from lumber. It is now difficult for a young man of small means to buy a farm and pay for it out of the land, in spite of the fact that the women usually help milk. The small number of tenants shows that few persons are trying to start without capital. Most of the farmers inherited their farms. Some of the few tenants are on land in which they have, or will have, a part interest by inheritance. There are some rich, prosperous farms in the river valleys, but the averages reflect the condition on the hills, because most of the farms are hill-farms. The greatest difficulty is the small area of tillable land. This not only fails to raise cash crops but fails to raise enough feed. The greatest need of the region is diversified farming. But this calls for more tillable land to the farm, or larger farms. There are a few farmers in this region who have more tillable land and who sell cash crops as well as milk. These are usually doing well. The best thing for this region would be to combine farms so that there would be twice the area of land in crops and twice the pasture area. The best half of the cows from the two farms should be kept. Each of these cows would then have double the" pasture area, so that the pasture would furnish feed for a longer period and be improved. Half the tillable land would then be available for cash crops. The profit on half as many good cows that have abundant pasture would be greater than 278 FAEM MANAGEMENT on the present number. The combined farms could be farmed with one less horse than the separate farms. This would make an average of 88 acres of crops, 16 cows, and 3.4 horses per farm. Some farmers have made this change and prospered thereby. 178. A dairy region in Illinois. McHenry County, Illinois, is an important dairy region. The farms average 129 acres with 68 acres of crops and 18 cows. There is an average of 2.1 acres of crops per animal unit. The farmers in this region usually raise most of their feed, raise corn for hog feed, and small grain and corn for sale. The combination of dairying with cash crops and hogs raised on home-grown corn makes a very good business. Some farmers in this region sell little but milk. Usually they are not doing as well as those that follow diversified farming. Dairy farms follow the same principle as other American farms, they tend to the family size. About fifteen to twenty cows is the average number that a family can care for. Of course, some are larger and some are smaller. The farmers in McHenry County are doing fairly well. With only $202 worth of hired labor they raise an average of 68 acres of crops, keep about 18 cows, and raise hogs and young stock. There is a total of 32 animal units per farm. 179. Farms in the corn-belt. Shelby County, Iowa, is typical of considerable of the corn-belt. It is a good county to study, because it does not have large cities that result in the mixture of many types of farms. Most of the farms in this county are typical corn farms. In 1909, there were 58 acres of corn per farm, 31 acres of small grain, 23 acres of hay, and less than an acre of pota- toes. There was an average of 6 work animals, 27 cattle, OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 279 30 mature hogs, and 110 poultry per farm. A total of 40 animal units are kept. Most of the farms in this region were 80 or 160 acres when the country was first settled. The farms of less than 100 acres are rapidly disappearing, and the 160-acre farms are decreasing but are still the most numerous size. Farms of 175 to 500 acres are increasing. TABLE 55. SIZE OF FARMS, SHELBY COUNTY, IOWA NUMBER IF FARMS SIZE OF FARMS (ACHES) 1880 1890 1900 1910 Under 20 14 50 77 93 20-49 238 149 134 108 50-99 763 729 484 333 100-174 (943 888 175-259 915 1474 \ 469 479 260-499 [ 257 285 500-999 15 22 23 26 1000 and over 1 1 Average acres 123 103 156 167 Average im- proved acres 100 93 147 159 Since 1880, the number of farms of 20-99 acres has de- creased from 1001 to 441. During the same time, the larger farms increased from 931 to 1679. The farms of less than 20 acres are mostly homes of retired farmers or of persons who hire out to farmers or do other kinds of work. Few of them are real farms. Few of the farmers on farms of 50 acres depend entirely on the farm for their living. Many of them work for neighbors. The average farm in 1910 contained 167 acres, of which 159 acres were improved land. This is over three times the area of improved land in the county in New Jersey. 280 FARM MANAGEMENT If we measure a farm by the amount of labor, these are really smaller farms than the farms in New Jersey. About the same labor was hired as in the county in Utah and half as much as in New Jersey, and less labor than in the dairy county in Illinois. These Iowa farms are not bonanza farms. They are family-farms. With the intelligent use of horses and machinery, a family in this county can farm '320 acres and do it well without hiring much help. The movement in this county is toward farms of 160 or more acres. The counties studied in Alabama, New Jersey, and Utah are making only a limited use of machinery and horse power, because the types of farming are so largely dependent on hand labor. Shelby County, Iowa, is typical of an entirely different system of farming. When one man begins to drive four horses instead of one or two, we have entirely different conditions. As we would naturally expect, the farmers who drive four-horse teams are prospering. Much of the rise in land values in the Central West is due to the great economy in production that has come from the use of modern machinery. It is often said that this machinery has saved horse labor, but the saving is in men more than in horses. The negro's mule raises as many acres of crops as does the horse in Iowa, but the negro drives one mule. The Iowa farmer drives more horses, so that he raises nearly five times the crop area per man. After the county was settled, the size of farms began to decrease. The idea of driving more than two horses then came in and in twenty years raised the size of farms 65 per cent. It is this change that has resulted in the decrease in rural population in Iowa. OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 281 The population of this county rose rapidly until 1890. It was a little larger in 1900, but decreased 8 per cent in the next ten years. To those who have not studied the situation, this appears as a great calamity, but it is an indication of the greatly increased efficiency of farmers, due to machinery and education. Probably the highest point in population was reached in the early nineties. Until this time, very few men drove over two horses on any farm machinery except on the grain binder and, occasion- ally, on a smoothing harrow. The two-horse team was the regular way of farming. Considerable corn cultivation was still done with one horse. During the nineties, men began to drive four-horse teams on discs, gang plows, and smoothing harrows. This practice has continued to increase, but has not yet reached its limit. We shall expect the driving of three, four, and five horses to con- tinue to increase. When a farm family with only $156 worth of help raises 58 acres of corn, 31 of small grain, and 23 of hay, besides caring for 8 horses and mules, 27 cattle, 30 mature hogs and their pigs, and 110 poultry, we do not need so many farmers as when it requires one man to drive each horse. To do this amount of work would probably have required two families in 1880. The population of rural Iowa has decreased because the farmers have learned how one man may do almost as much work as two did before, and do it better. Nearly one-fifth of the farmers who own their own farms rent additional land. This is because they find that they can farm more land without having to increase their horses, machinery, or labor to any great extent. In spite of other types of farming near cities, Iowa as a whole shows the same changes. The farms of 20-49 acres decreased in number 27 per cent .in the ten years from 282 FARM MANAGEMENT 1900 to 1910. Farms of 50-99 acres decreased 22 per cent. Farms of 100-174 acres were practically stationary. But farms of 175-499 acres increased 5 per cent. It is evident that for the usual types of farming in Iowa, 160 to 320 acres is the most efficient size of farm. At the same time that the family farm is increasing in size, the number of large farms is decreasing. There is no tendency toward " bonanza" farms. There is also an increase in the number of places of less than 20 acres. Some of these are greenhouses, gardens, and other types of farming that cluster about cities. Probably more of them are homes of persons who derive most of their in- come from some other source. At the same time that the farms in much of the Central West are increasing in size, the farms in New Jersey, Delaware, and Alabama are decreasing in area. The same change is taking place around the cities of the Central West. Whenever general farming is replaced by truck growing and other hand labor types, the farms become smaller. In such states as Ohio and Indiana, the farms in the general farming regions are increasing in area at the same time that farms around the rapidly growing cities are being divided up for truck patches. It is these con- flicting movements that make it necessary to study areas that are fairly uniform in type of farming in order to understand the conditions. 180. The hard winter wheat region. Clay County, Nebraska, is typical of much of the region growing hard winter wheat. This county has enough rainfall so that corn can be grown. Corn and wheat each occupy about two-fifths of the area in crops. Oats and hay each occupy about one-tenth of the area. Practically all of the wheat and some of the corn and oats are sold. A considerable OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 283 part of the corn is fed to hogs. Colts, beef, butter, and eggs are minor products. Most of the settlement of this county took place be- tween 1870 and 1885. Many of the settlers were not soldiers and so were entitled to only 80-acre homesteads. In 1880, there were 886 farms of from 50-99 acres. Practi- cally all of these were 80 acres. TABLE 56. CHANGES IN SIZE OP FARMS, CLAY COUNTY, NEBRASKA NUMBER ( >F FARMS 1880 1890 1900 1910 Under 50 acres 50-99 . . . 100-174 . . . 175-259 . . . 260-499 . . . 500-999 . . . 109 886 1176 11 64 482 1394 21 184 334 f 858 \ 377 1 304 29 158 186 794 451 321 22 Over 1000 . . . 1 1 Average acres . Average improved acres .... 134 100 160 139 172 146 182 163 The county was not fully settled before grain binders and mowers came into general use. About 1895, the prac- tice of driving four or five horses on gang plows and wide harrows started. In a few years the plowing, harrow- ing, discing, drilling, harvesting, and some other opera- tions began to be done with four- or five-horse teams. The 80-acre farm does not furnish full employment for one man who drives 4 horses. In thirty years, the number of farms of 50-99 acres has decreased from 886 to 186. This size of farm has been practically eliminated. 284 FARM MANAGEMENT The 160-acre farm is not large enough to fully employ a small family. One man, with the help of a son during school vacations, can do all the work on 200 acres, except in harvest. The 160-acre farm is still the most numerous in the county and may so continue. While not large enough for greatest efficiency, it provides a fairly good liv- ing. Many persons are content with this area, if they do not have sons to help. Some persons who have only money enough to own 160 acres do not always find additional land to rent even if they desire it. Sometimes a tenant cannot get more than 160 acres. The number of farms of 100 to 174 acres decreased from 858 to 794 in the last ten years. During the same time, the number of farms of 175 to 259 acres increased 20 per cent and the number of 260 to 499 acres increased 6 per cent. It is evident that farms of about 240 to 320 acres have a very great advantage over all other sizes. This is about the area necessary for a family-farm under the conditions in this region. How fully the owners, as well as the tenants, realize the importance of having land enough to provide full employment is shown by the fact that 36 per cent of the farmers who worked their own land rented additional land. There is no tendency to develop bonanza farms. There are only a few farms of over 500 acres, and the number is decreasing. On one five-mile road in Clay county that the writer has traveled over many times there used to be 13 houses ; now there are 8. If it were in the East, where lumber is cheap, the other 5 would be left as abandoned homes. But lumber is too valuable, so all are torn down. Some- times a few trees that have not been removed are still standing. The land is all farmed. OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 285 Barton County, Kansas, is one of the leading counties in the production of hard winter wheat. Corn is more frequently injured by drouth in this county, so that more of the land is devoted to wheat. The average size of farm has increased from 180 acres in 1880 to 305 acres in 1910. The most numerous size of farm is 260 to 499 acres. This means that half sections, 320 acres, are the most popular size. In 1909, there was an average of 152 acres of wheat, 36 acres of corn, 19 acres of hay, and 3 acres of other crops per farm, a total of 210 acres of crops raised per farm be- sides caring for cattle, poultry, and other live-stock. Yet the hired labor on these farms cost only $312, exactly the same as on the farms of 62 acres in New Jersey. Although five times the area, these farms are no larger than the New Jersey farms in terms of man-labor. They are family-farms, but there were 8 work animals per family instead of 3. 181. A spring wheat region. Lac qui Parle County, Minnesota, is typical of much of the spring wheat region of Minnesota and the Dakotas. As might be expected, these farms are about the same size as in the winter wheat region. With the driving of more horses per team, the size of farms in this county has rapidly enlarged. In 1910, there were only half as many farms of 50-99 acres as in 1900. The 80-acre farm is practically eliminated. There are only three-fourths as many farms of 100-174 acres as there were ten years ago. The increases have been in the 175- to 499-acre groups. In 1909, the crops grown per farm averaged 56 acres of wheat, 33 of oats, 23 of barley, 24 of hay, 24 of corn, 7 of flax, and 3 of other crops. This makes a total of 170 acres of crops per farm. In addition, there were approxi- 286 FAEM MANAGEMENT mately 6 dairy cows, 8 other cattle, 10 mature hogs, and 93 poultry per farm. All this is done with only $298 worth of hired labor per farm. It is easy to see why the farmers in the Central West are prosperous. They have learned how one man may do the work of two by putting the two teams together and dispensing with one driver. In the older parts of the coun- try, the farms have been divided into small fields, as well as small farms, and the farmers are more conservative, so that the use of four-horse teams is not so frequent. But the practice is gaining ground in all regions where large areas of small grain and cultivated crops are raised. Whenever this change takes place, it is inevitable that the farms become larger. They must be large enough to provide fairly full employment for a family. 182. A dry farming region. As we go from humid to dry regions, the chances of securing a crop become less and the size of farm increases. It is necessary to have a large area in years when a crop is secured, in order to carry the family over dry years. Barton County, Kansas, is less certain of crops than Clay County, Nebraska, or the county in Minnesota, and has larger farms. As we pro- ceed to semiarid regions, the farms become larger. The farms in Barton County average 305 acres. Rush, the adjoining county on the west, is much drier. Here the farms average 388 acres. The next county, Ness, is still drier, and the farms average 629 acres. Sherman County, Oregon, is a good county to study for dry farming conditions. The rainfall is only about 10 inches, but the low evaporation makes it possible to raise wheat by dry farming methods. In this county, the farms of less than 500 acres decreased over one-half in the ten years from 1900 to 1910. There are almost as many OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 287 farms of over 1000 acres as there are of less than 500. The average size is 799 acres, with 588 acres of improved land. The usual practice in this county is to till the land one year to save moisture and raise a crop the next year. The attempt is to save two years of rain for one year's crop. In 1909, there were 264 acres of wheat and 42 acres of other crops per farm. But when measured in terms of man-labor these farms were only a little larger than the 62-acre farms in New Jersey. But there were 13 work animals per farm instead of 3. 183. Size of farms in some typical states. Table 57 shows the size groups in which the number of farms in- creased or decreased in the ten years 1900 to 1910. 1 In nearly all states there is an increase in number of farms of less than 20 acres. Some of this increase is due to the very commendable tendency for persons who are em- ployed in towns to live on small places where some products may be raised for home use. In some states, the retired farmers have many such small places around towns. Prob- ably in every state there is an increase in greenhouses and other intensive types of farming near the towns and cities. In the states where grain, hay, and live-stock farming predominates, the farms of 175 to 259 acres usually show the most rapid rate of increase. The sizes that show the largest percentage of increase are marked + +. In Ohio and Indiana, the most rapid increases have been in the 100- to 174-acre group ; in New York and Minnesota in the 260- to 499-acre group. The farms of 20 to 100 acres are usually decreasing rapidly. This is the region where farmers are driving more horses per man. Under these 1 In comparing states where the number of farms have increased in all groups percentages must be used, but for the states here used the num- bers show the point. 288 FARM MANAGEMENT conditions the farms of 20 to 100 acres are too small for farming with horses and machinery, and appear to be too large for greenhouses, homes of town workers, and others who make up the increase in places of under 20 acres. TABLE 57. INCREASES AND DECREASES IN NUMBERS OF FARMS UNDER 20 ACHES 20 TO 49 50 TO 99 100 TO 174 175 TO 259 260 TO 499 500 ACRES OR MORE Grain, hay, live- stock New York . + + . . + + + Ohio . . . + + Indiana . + + + + + Illinois . . . + + + + Iowa . . . + + + + + + Missouri + + + + + + Wisconsin . + . + + + + + Minnesota . . + . . + + + + Truck growing Connecticut + + + Massachusetts + + . New Jersey + Delaware . . + + + Maryland . + + + - Cotton North Carolina + + + . South Carolina + + + Georgia . . + + + + - Alabama . . + + + Mississippi . . + + + . - Louisiana . + + + -f + indicates sizes showing most rapid rates of increase. In regions where truck growing or cotton predominates, farms of less than 100 acres are increasing most rapidly. Farms of over 500 acres are decreasing in number in nearly all the states except in arid regions and in regions where much of the land is kept in woods or pasture. These results agree with all the previous discussion of size of farm. OTHER FACTORS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS 289 184. Conclusion on the size of farm. From Table 54, it is evident that a work animal can raise 18 to 30 acres of crops. If nearly all the crops are tilled, 20 acres is some- times full work. If most of the land is in small grain and hay, the area may be considerably more. With a mixture of all three, such as is common on diversified farms, a work animal can usually raise 25 to 30 acres of crops. Every farm ought to have at least two men for efficient work. If there are no sons working at home, then there ought to be one hired-man. Most of the better class of farms have the equivalent of one man besides the operator. If most of the work is done with one horse tools, and if a horse can raise 20 acres of crops, it is evident that there should be about 40 acres of crops and two work animals per farm. This is practically the condition in the truck growing counties. If much of the work is done with three- and four-horse teams, it is evident that two persons can then raise 150 to 200 acres of crops if they have help in harvest. This is the condition in the general farming counties studied. Most farms have pasture land and other land not in crops. It is evident that for types of farming where grain, hay, and live-stock are the chief products, the farms must be from 150 to 300 acres for efficiency. This agrees with the studies of profits in relation to size of farm. For truck growing, 80 acres is usually as large a farm as 300 in general farming. An acre partly covered with greenhouses may be an equally large business. Whatever the type of farming, the farm should be large enough to allow for the use of the well established labor- saving practices, and large enough to provide a variety of products that make a full year's work. CHAPTER 9 CAPITAL THE capital per farm was fairly constant until the last fifteen years. The amount of money required to buy a farm and equip it has now suddenly increased. Along with this change has gone an increase in the number of tenants, but it has been shown that the proportion of the agricultural workers who own their farms has not changed much. The proportion of hired-men has decreased as rapidly as tenants have increased. (Table 65.) The higher land values and greater investments in machinery all call for more capital than was once necessary. The average capital per farm in 1910 was $ 6444. 185. Relation of capital to profits. We have already seen how important it is to have a farm large enough for efficient work. So long as we deal with one type of farm- ing, size of farm is a good measure of size of business, but when many types of farming are compared, capital is a better measure. The capital available is becoming increasingly important in farming. Some of this capital may be secured by renting land or borrowing money. Because of shortage in capital, 37 per cent of the farmers in the United States rent all the land that they operate, and 9 per cent own part and rent part of their land. Only a little over a half (54 per cent) of the farmers own their entire farms. Of the farmers who own all or part of their land, 34 290 CAPITAL 291 TABLE 58. AVERAGE VALUE OF FARM PROPERTY PER FARM IN THE UNITED STATES YEAR REAL ESTATE IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY LIVE-STOCK TOTAL 1850 1860 1870 $2258 3251 2799 $105 120 102 $376 533 462 $2739 3904 3363 1880 1890 1900 2544 2909 2905 101 108 133 393 506 536 3038 3523 3574 1910 5471 199 774 6444 per cent are mortgaged. Only 36 per cent of the farmers own all the land that they operate and are free from mortgage. Rented land, mortgages, notes, and buying on time are different ways of trying to increase the capital available for use. The fact that so large a proportion of the farmers secure additional capital by some means is an indication of how important farmers consider the capital to be. Studies of profits made by farmers show the same results. In one county, in New York, the average owner with less TABLE 59. RELATION OF CAPITAL TO PROFITS. 615 FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS, TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK CAPITAL NUMBER OF FARMS AVERAGE LABOR INCOME $2,000 or less .... 2 001--4 000 36 200 $192 240 4 001-6 000 183 399 6001-8,000 94 530 8,001-10,000 .... 10,001-15,000 .... Over 15 000 45 44 13 639 870 1164 292 FARM MANAGEMENT than $4000 capital has not made as much money as a hired-man receives. Those with a capital of $10,000 are, on the average, making very good profits. It has been suggested that the more able men have the larger capitals, and that the results are due to the man rather than to the amount of capital. But most of the men who make successes in farming begin with small capital ; there must be some able men beginning now. As a matter of fact, there are many able men, both young and old, who are farming with very little money. If the question is one of the man, then these should be doing well. Table 60 shows how many men with small capital are making fair profits. TABLE 60. RELATION OF CAPITAL TO PROFITS. 615 FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS PER CENT OF THE CAPITAL NUMBER OP FARMERS FARMERS MAKING LABOR INCOMES OF OVER $1000 $2,000 or less .... 36 2 001-4 000 200 o 4 001-6 000 183 8 6 001-8,000 94 14 8,001-10,000 .... 45 22 10,001-15,000 .... 44 32 Over 15,000 13 46 Of 36 farmers with capital of less than $2001, not one made a labor income of $600. Of 236 who had less than $4001 capital, not one made a labor income of $1000, and only one made as much as $800. The possibilities of large profits with so small a capital do not seem very bright. The possibilities of a large loss are also greater when one has a large capital. It is almost impossible to make a CAPITAL 293 large loss with a small capital. If one has $15,000 invested and is not in debt, and if the farm receipts are $300 more than the farm expenses, there will be $300 for the family to live on. But the labor income will be minus $450, since the farmer has made this much less than 5 per cent interest on his capital. Six of the 57 farmers with capital of over $10,000 failed to make 5 per cent on their capital or had minus labor incomes. One of these had more farm expenses than receipts. The largest loss was a labor income of minus $948 made by a man with $22,385 capital. Records for 578 farms in northern Livingston County, New York, give the same result. The farmers who are using a capital of less than $5000 are on the average not making as much as hired-men receive. They would be better off if they lent their money and hired out at farm wages. (Table 61.) TABLE 61. CAPITAL RELATED TO LABOR INCOME. 578 FARMS, NORTHERN LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK CAPITAL NUMBER OF FARMS AVERAGE LABOR INCOME $5,000 or less .... 5,001-7,500 87 80 $291 407 7,501-10,000 .... 10,001-15,000 .... 15.001-20,000 .... 20,001-30,000 .... Over 30,000 112 164 62 55 18 480 769 1001 1062 1691 Of the 87 farmers who used less than $5000 capital, only six made labor incomes as large as $1000. One-third of those who had $10,001 to $15,000 capital made labor incomes of $1000 or more. Half of those who had 294 FARM MANAGEMENT over $15,000 capital made labor incomes of $1000 or more. The need of more capital is strikingly shown. It is difficult to make reasonable wages if the capital is too small. With a sufficient capital, it seems to be much easier to make both interest on the capital and pay for the farmer's time. TABLE 62. RELATION OF CAPITAL TO PROFITS. 578 FARMS, NORTHERN LIVINGSTON COUNTY, NEW YORK CAPITAL PER CENT or THE FARMERS MAKING LABOR INCOMES OF OVER $1000 $5,000 or less 7 11 16 33 46 51 50 5,001-7,500 7 501-10 000 10,001-15,000 15,001-20,000 20,001-30,000 Over 30 000 The same point is shown for New Hampshire farms. 1 Wherever such studies are made, the importance of capital for successful farming is strikingly shown. 186. Distribution of capital. The proportion of capi- tal to be invested in land, stock, and equipment varies with the price of land and stock as well as with the type of farm- ing. A farm may have its capital properly distributed, after which land may double in value and about the same stock and equipment may still be best, but the percentage of the capital that each of these represents may then be different. In 1900, the proportion of the money invested in buildings varied from 10 per cent of the capital on sugar plantations 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Plant Industry, Circular 75. CAPITAL 295 to 43 per cent on farms that derived their chief income from flowers and plants. The amount invested in ma- chinery and implements was 3 to 4 per cent of the total capital with most types of farming, but was 22 per cent on sugar plantations. The investment in live-stock varied from 1 per cent on flower and plant farms to 21 per cent on live-stock farms. 1 TABLE 63. AVERAGE CAPITAL AND ITS DISTRIBUTION ON FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES 1900 1910 Land exclusive of buildings . . . Buildings . . . Implements and machinery Live-stock . $2285 620 133 536 64% 17 4 15 $4476 995 199 774 70% 15 3 12 Total . . . $3574 100% $6444 100% 187. Relation of capital to type of farming. The types of farming that require little land usually require more capital in other forms, so that the amount of money required for a given labor income is not strikingly different. In general, it appears that persons with small capital had best put most of their effort into raising crops to sell rather than in raising too much live-stock, because live-stock calls for additional investment above that required in crop production. (See pp. 94 to 96.) 188. Economy of cash purchases. In most parts of the United States, there are no adequate facilities for ob- taining credit for farmers. As a result, the manufacturers of machinery and fertilizers act as bankers as well as doing their regular business. So little farm machinery is 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. Ivii. FA EM MANAGEMENT sold for cash that in some regions there are no cash prices. If machinery bought in the spring is paid for by Octo- ber 1, the price is counted as cash. Most of the chemical fertilizers are purchased on time. It is hard to realize what a tremendous credit business these agencies conduct. In order to sell the product, they must not only produce machinery and fertilizers, but must furnish the farmer credit. What really happens is that while banks do not furnish the necessary capital to farmers, they furnish it to the machinery and fertilizer companies, whose credit comes from the large number of farmers who owe them. It would be much better if farmers conducted their own credit associations, as is done in Europe. The companies from which the farmer buys on time, charge enough to make a good profit on the credit business, as well as on their regular business. If there is no cash price on a piece of machinery, it does not mean that the firm has generously donated the use of money to the farmer. He pays a good high rate of interest in the in- creased price. Some cases in which ca'sh prices are offered give some idea as to what rates of interest are really charged. The writer obtained prices from one dealer as follows : a plow that regularly sold for $13 on a year's time at 6 per cent interest, could be purchased for $12 cash. If this plow is boiTght on time, the real interest charge is $1.78, or 15 per cent on the cash price. He sells a grain binder for $125 on a year's time at 6 per cent, or for $118 cash. The real interest charge in this case is $14.50. The rate of interest is 12 per cent, not 6. This dealer estimates that, on an average, the prices are enough more to make the real interest charge 12 per cent. This is in a region CAPITAL 297 where farm mortgages rarely bring as much as 6 per cent. The practice of the dealers is justified by the expense of collection, bad debts, and by the fact that the dealers are forced to take on the functions of a bank, a business for which they are not well situated. It would be much better if we had means of securing adequate credit directly, and if the feed, fertilizer, machinery, and other articles were purchased for cash. Farmers are not much given to buying on the installment plan. This is even a worse way of obtaining credit. The fact that there are many collections makes it necessary to charge a still higher rate of interest. Another objection to buying on the installment plan is that it is usually used as a bait to lead persons to buy things that they cannot afford. Houses in the city are sometimes bought on the installment plan to good advantage. 189. Farm mortgages. If land values are fairly stable, it is usually safe to mortgage a farm for half its value, provided the money is wisely used in the farm business. If crop yields are uncertain, the danger from a heavy mortgage is greater than where yields are uniform. Farmers often come to look upon the money obtained by a mortgage as a permanent part of their capital. This is a dangerous view to take. One may sometimes con- tinue to renew a mortgage from time to time to good advantage, but this money must never be looked upon as a part of the permanent capital. One must always be pre- pared in advance to either pay or renew a mortgage. The agreement for renewal ought to be made at least a year before a mortgage becomes due, so that there will be no trouble. It must be remembered that while money obtained on a mortgage greatly increases the chances of making money, it also increases the chances of losing. 298 FARM MANAGEMENT 190. Keeping one's credit good. Since few farmers have money enough to conduct their business to good ad- vantage, it is of the greatest importance that the credit be kept good. Nothing is more detrimental to one's credit than allowing innumerable little bills to go unpaid. It is much better to borrow enough from some one source, or allow one large bill to stand than it is to allow small bills to accumulate. In making promises to pay, one should be sure that he does not promise too soon. It is much better to make the promise far enough away so that one may do better, rather than not do so well, as he agreed. Roberts has well expressed the experience of the farmer who always has things charged in his " Farmer's Business Handbook." " Most sane people are extremely unhappy when their outgo is equal to or exceeds the income. Some are really unhappy only when the bills come in ; while others live in dread of petty debts scattered they know not where, and in amounts which have been forgotten, not knowing whence the next dun will come or how or when disgrace may fall upon them. How often I have seen a noble, industrious farmer marketing his chief money crop of the year, the wheat or the wool, or the fat live stock! With what honest pride he laid the check for several hundred dollars on the bank counter and then stuffed that ' wad ' of bills into his ' side pocket! ' Then with what a cheerful voice he asks at the desk of the grocer for the amount of his account! ' Fifty-six dollars and seventy-two cents,' the clerk responds. ' There must be some mistake ; it cannot be more than half that.' The items are looked up, the charges are correct, the bill is paid! In a voice out of which some of the courage has gone, he asks for his account at the dry goods store. This is nearly one hundred CAPITAL 299 dollars. He disputes the account, says he never had the goods, there is some mistake, they have been charging neighbors' purchases to his account; he takes an hour to inspect the items, pays the bill under protest, and, concluding that he has had enough unhappiness for one day, takes something to drink and lets the half dozen other fellows wait for their pay. For it will be some pleasure to carry even a small roll of bills for at least a few days in the year." The progressive farmer keeps his money in a bank and pays with checks. He no longer carries money \ViLLiA*isBURG,VA_fckJ THE PENINSULA BANK Ilia. , ^ ^ ^^ ^^ -BOT.1.ARS FIG. 65. A properly written check. The statement of what the money was paid for makes a receipt. about with him or hides it in an old boot. There are many advantages of using checks. One very important advantage is that the check makes a receipt. 191. Agricultural credit as a public question. With the revival of interest in agriculture, the fact that we have no adequate system of agricultural credit is attracting attention. The condition is certainly a very serious one. Farm mortgages are made for too short a time when the slowness of returns from some of the best farm invest- ments is considered. It takes time for tile drains and pure- 300 FARM MANAGEMENT bred stock to pay. Railroads issue bonds to run many years, but the farmer in America has no means of obtaining ten- and twenty-year loans. The rate of interest on mortgages in some regions is much higher than it would be if some sort of cooperative credit associations were formed. An even more serious consideration is the problem of securing credit for current expenses while the crop is being grown. There is really no system of securing such credit for American farmers, except in some of the highly prosperous regions. The following discussion by H. C. Price in the Rural New Yorker of Oct. 19, 1912, presents some important phases of the question. THE BANKERS AND THE FARMERS The general awakening of interest in the necessity of a better system of credit for American agriculture has started the bankers studying the farmers' business, and it behooves the farmers in turn to study the bankers' business, and especially their interest in the establishment of agricultural credit institutions. The necessity of a more readily available capital for carrying on the farmers' business is granted by every one who has given the least attention to the matter. But how this is to be done is the point at which the interests of bankers and farmers are likely to conflict. If there is money to loan and securities to sell, the banker naturally wants the business, and he wants the business in such shape that it will make him a good profit. The bankers' associations have taken the matter of agricultural credits up seriously, and have investigated the European systems ; their periodicals are filled with articles on the subject. CAPITAL 301 It has become so much a live issue that the national political parties have included it in their platforms, and without doubt something will be done in the near future to establish either public or private institutions from which farmers may make loans on favorable terms. Unless the farmers take a hand in this, the financial interests of our country are likely to shape such institu- tions to suit their interests first and the farmers' interests second. Already there are suggestions of a large central land bank with almost unlimited capital for financing farmers, of land mortgage associations with like gigantic capital to handle loans on farm real estate. But there are some fundamental factors concerned in the matter that must be observed if a system is established that will give the relief that is necessary and proves the success that similar institutions have proven in European countries. FIRST : Farmers must be represented in its manage- ment and control. The German agricultural credit or- ganizations, which are the best in the world, are managed by farmers and for farmers. They are literally a union of the farmers for the farmers and by the farmers. Bankers and financiers can cooperate and assist such organizations, but they cannot do for the farmers what they must do for themselves. SECOND : Farmers' credit organizations must be on a limited liability, basis. For that reason the Raiffeissen system which is so widely distributed in Europe and by many advocated for introduction in America is not appli- cable to our conditions, because the one thing on which Raiffeissen built his association was the unlimited liability of members. It was literally " one for all and all for one." The American farmer will not become a member of an association by which he makes himself liable for all of 302 FARM MANAGEMENT his property. With a peasant population such as the one near where Raiffeissen founded his societies it made little difference to the members whether they pledged them- selves for all their property or not, because they had noth- ing to lose anyhow. But the American farmer will not and should not willingly risk his farm and all he has by becoming a member of an association which has unlimited liability of its members. THIRD : Farmers do not want any subvention or subsidy from the Government. France has established her agricultural credit institution on the basis of free govern- ment loans and granted legal monopolies the privilege of furnishing real and personal credit to farmers. The farmers of America have no need of free loans from the Government; all that they need is to sell their credit for what it is worth, so that they may borrow on as favorable terms as other industries. FOURTH : Agricultural credit organizations should be under Government supervision. The bankers probably will not indorse this proposition heartily. But if the in- terests of the farmers are to be protected and the institu- tions are to be of undoubted security, they must be under direct Government supervision. The success of the Ger- man land mortgage association has been due to the fact that it has been under direct Government supervision and indirectly Government control. FIFTH : The credit institution that serves the farmer must be close at hand. Whether it is a bank, a land mort- gage association, or wherever the farmer gets his credit, it needs to be close at hand where he can go personally and make his arrangements. For this reason the large cen- tralized institution located in the cities will not serve the purpose. The farmer needs a decentralized system CAPITAL 303 that has its branches in every township. The success of the European rural banks is due to the fact that they are established in the rural communities where they are convenient for the farmers and they conduct their business to suit the convenience of the farmers, including business hours. The reason the present situation of credit and banking facilities for the American farmer is so unsatisfactory is because the banking business has been developed to suit the needs of the city and not the country. The farmer has been left to adapt himself to the rules and regulations of banks conducted for city customers. And now the banks are awakening to the fact that they do not meet the situation as far as the farmer is concerned ; moreover, that the farmers are threatening to take over their own business and establish their own financial institutions along lines that have proved successful in other countries. The farmers and bankers may well confer together in this matter, and the bankers in their deliberations will do well to call upon the farmers to express what they think could and should be done. The farmers in turn can well afford to consult the bankers and get their point of view. The elimination of selfish interests and the promotion of American agriculture should be the goal of both bankers and farmers. WAYS OF FARMING WITH SMALL CAPITAL 192. Ways of securing capital. One of the easiest ways of securing the use of capital is to be a tenant. In 1910, sixty-four per cent of the farmers in the United States rented all or part of the land that they operated, or secured additional money by means of mortgages. It is 304 FARM MANAGEMENT not at all necessary that one own all the property that he operates. If one has only a small amount of money, it is usually very undesirable to try to farm on the small area that this money will buy. There are many degrees of farming, adapted to varying capital. One may be hired-man, share renter, cash renter, or may own part and rent part of the land operated, may have the owned land mortgaged, or may own all the land free from debt. Each of these varying degrees of responsibility requires more capital than the preceding. Many farmers pass through each of the stages as they secure more money. 193. Changes from hired-man to tenant and owner. There is no permanent class of tenants or hired-men in America. Most of the hired-men on farms are the sons of farmers. They are usually young men who are getting a little money ahead in order that they may become tenants. The classification by ages of the males engaged in agricul- ture in 1900 is given in Table 64. Seventeen per cent of the persons who owned their farms were less than 35 years old, but 43 per cent of the tenants and 89 per cent of the TABLE 64. MALES ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE IN 1900 BY AGE GROUPS l AGES OWNERS TENANTS OTHERS 1024 years 2% 10% 71% 2534 years 15 33 18 3544 years 25 25 6 4554 years 25 19 3 5564 years 19 9 1 65 and over 14 4 1 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. Ixxx. CAPITAL 305 other workers were less than 35 years old. Only 5 per cent of the -laborers and 32 per cent of the tenants were over 45 years old, but 58 per cent of the owners had reached this age. The proportion of tenants in the United States is rapidly increasing, but this increase seems to be in pro- portion to the decrease in other workers. It appears that when all workers are considered, the proportion of owners is practically constant. The hired-men are decreasing and the tenants increasing. This change is probably due to the combination of machinery and higher land values. TABLE 65. PERCENTAGE OF MALES ENGAGED IN AGRICULTURE AS OWNERS, TENANTS, AND OTHER WORKERS 1 1880 1890 1900 Owners Tenants 42.2 14.5 42.0 16.6 42.3 23.1 Other workers ... . . 43.3 41.4 34.6 1 Twelfth Census, Vol. V, p. Ixxviii. 194. More capital necessary than formerly. Much more capital is now required than formerly' for successful farming. Land costs more. More and better machinery is used, and this calls for more horses and more acres to keep it busy. All this means that it usually takes longer to become an owner than formerly. But a well-equipped, modern farm is worth time and effort. 195. First secure an education. The young man who proposes to start farming should first get an education. Education is much more essential in farming than it was 25 years ago. It will certainly be more essential in the future than it is to-day. A young man who is getting 306 FARM MANAGEMENT ready to start farming is not preparing for to-day only ; he is preparing for forty years from now. In one county the farmers who had attended high school made almost twice as much as those who had never been beyond the district school. TABLE 66. RELATION OF EDUCATION TO LABOR INCOME, 573 FARMS 1 EDUCATION NUMBER OF FARMERS LABOR INCOME Attended district school . . . 398 $318 Attended high school .... 165 622 More than high school . . . 10 847 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 552. A high school course is worth more than an investment of $6000 in five per cent bonds. We do not have figures for a large number of college men, but a college course seems to be worth as much more. Time spent in high school seems to be worth about $7 per day to one who is to be a farmer. Part of the greater labor income made by those with more education is due to the large capital available because of previous saving. But when the farms in this county were sorted into groups with equal capital at the beginning of the year, the farmers with more than a district school education made an average of $211 more during the year than did those whose education stopped in the dis- trict school. It may be said that the more able persons are the ones who went to high school. This is partly true, but is by no means universal. Studies in this county showed that accidents, such as the distance to school, when the farmer CAPITAL 307 was a boy, were very decided factors in determining the amount of education. Of course, education does not insure success. Some men succeed without it, and some fail with it, but the chances of success are much better with a good education. Every boy who proposes to farm should study in some agricultural school. He should, at least, take a three months' winter-course, if he cannot take a longer course. Any one can check these ideas, if not the figures. We hear men regretting all kinds of acts. Those who have cows are sorry that they did not plant orchards. Those who have orchards wish that they had different varieties. Those who went West wish that they had gone South. But whoever heard of a man wishing that he had not gone to school so long ? Franklin was right when he said that an investment in knowledge pays the best interest. 196. Starting as a hired-man. For a farm boy with- out an agricultural college education, the best way to start is as a hired-man. If the neighborhood is a pros- perous one, it is the place to begin ; if not, go where farmers are prosperous. By working from two to five years, he may save enough money to become a tenant. If he has proved himself both worthy and efficient, he will have no difficulty in renting a good farm. In whatever position one is working, he should strive to earn at least twice what he gets. Men do not buy cows ; land, or labor unless they expect to make a profit on it. If one gets all he earns, why should any man desire to hire him ? When the salary is raised, it is not because the employer thinks that the increase will be earned, but because it has been earned. This holds true on farms, in shops, in universities, everywhere ; one must always earn his increase in pay before he gets it. 308 FARM MANAGEMENT No matter what pay one gets, part of it should be saved. A young man who gets $20 a month as a farm hand and who cannot save part of it is not likely to save if he gets $200 a month. The writer has seen many just such changes in salary and has rarely seen a person who could possibly save a cent on $2400 a year who had not been able to save something on $20 a month. Saving is a habit. It is independent of the wages received. If one has the " spend-it-all " habit, better pay will make no dif- ference. If he has the saving habit, he will save more as the pay increases, but may or may not save a larger per centage of the pay. If a man has not had a good farm experience on a well- managed farm, he should find one of the most successful farmers in a region where farmers are prosperous and hire out for a year or more. A graduate of an agricultural college who has grown up on a farm and who has no money can usually start best by teaching, in experiment station work, or as a farm manager. By taking the best position available, when experience, op- portunity, and salary are all considered, he should be able to save more in a year than the farm hand receives. A position that calls for travel and study on farms is very desirable for one or two years. A place as farm man- ager on a real farm is good both because of the experience and the low expenses. Some of the best paying positions are as managers of country places. The experience gained on such places is often harmful. If any ideas are gained, they are likely to be extravagant notions that are adapted to spending money not to making money. The college graduate usually skips the tenant stage. In such cases, the farm should be bought as soon as one has money enough to secure the place on contract or by part CAPITAL 309 payment. The farm is then rented while one continues in his position. In this way a farm may be bought long before it could possibly be purchased if one were to at- tempt to equip and run it. The salary should usually pay the interest and some of the principal. The rent may be applied on the principal. Either the salary or rent should pay the interest. It is not likely that both will fail in the same year. If one were on the farm and had a crop failure, he might lose the place. When the farm is largely paid for, one may move on to it. This is the plan followed by nearly all the men who wish to farm and who are in ex- periment station and government work. One great advantage of buying a farm as soon as pos- sible is that it ties one to the land. A salaried position may wean one away from the farm. The farm furnishes a place to spend vacations. It forces one to economize in his youth. There is a general tendency for land values to rise. If wisely chosen, the rise in value of the farm may be equal to the interest. The first farm purchased need not be the one on which the final home is to be made. If it is a good investment, it may be sold and a larger and more desirable place may be purchased. In choosing a farm, productive soil is the first considera- tion. It rarely pays to work a farm that is not located in a prosperous community. 197. Starting as a tenant. A young man who has worked hard and efficiently and has made a reputation for honesty usually finds it easy to rent a good farm as soon as he has saved enough money to start. Part of the pay for being a good " hand " is the better chance that is likely to come as a tenant. Young men of small means are commonly recommended 310 FARM MANAGEMENT to use small farms and go into more intensive farming, or buy poor land that is cheap. Neither of these recommen- dations is generally applicable, for either one requires about the same capital as the usual type of farming in order to be equally profitable. The way that most farmers of small means get started is by being tenants. In Tompkins County, New York, the average tenant with less than $3000 capital made a larger labor income than the average owner with less than $5000 capital. The chances of making a large labor income were also greater for the tenants. 1 TABLE 67. RELATIVE OPPORTUNITIES FOR MEN WITH SMALL CAPITAL AS OWNERS AND AS TENANTS, TOMPKINS COUNTY, NEW YORK CAPITAL AVERAGE LABOR INCOME, FARMS OPERATED BY OWNERS PER CENT MAK- ING INCOMES OF OVER $600 $3000 or less $225 3% 3001-4000 242 10 4001-5000 339 15 5001-6000 459 32 Over 6000 673 45 131 tenants with capital of less than $3001, averaging $1187 made an average labor income of $367, and 15 per cent made over $600. It is evident that the opportunities of an owner in this region with less than $5000 are not so good as are the op- portunities of a tenant. Very few men in this region re- main tenants after the total value of their farm property (capital) is over $2000. Apparently, one should have a 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 537. CAPITAL 311 capital of at least $2500 and be able to secure at least as much more on credit before he changes from tenant to owner, as $5000 seems to be the least capital on which one is likely to succeed as an owner unless he rents additional land. If a tenant is on a good farm, it will usually pay to remain there until he has a chance to buy a good place. It is better to rent a good farm than to own a poor one. Half of the crop on good land is often more than the entire crop on poor land. Similar figures for another county are given in Table 68. Tenants with less than $1000 were doing no better than TABLE 68. RELATIVE OPPORTUNITIES WITH A GIVEN CAPITAL AS OWNER, PART-OWNER, AND TENANT, NORTHERN LIVING- STON COUNTY, NEW YORK OWNERS OPERAT- OWNERS RENT- ING THEIR OWN ING ADDITIONAL TENANTS LAND ONLY LAND CAPITAL or OPERATOR Num- ber of Average Labor Num- ber of Average Labor Number of Average Labor Farms Income Farms Income Ffirms Income $1,000 or less 20 $368 1,001-2,000 3 $38 65 481 2,001-3,000 10 81 8 $145 54 610 3,001-4,000 16 195 9 462 27 626 4,001-5,000 23 347 7 570 16 869 5,001-7,500 46 355 14 485 7,501-10,000 62 400 19 583 More 1 10,001-15,000 75 694 19 705 than I 22 1282 15,001-20,000 28 935 3 1018 $5000 J Over 2,0000 29 1412 3 2269 hired-men. In this region, a tenant with this capital is not prepared to work a good sized farm effectively. In some parts of the United States it may pay a man to 312 FARM MANAGEMENT change from hired-man to tenant with less than this capi- tal, but in most of the live-stock and grain and hay regions, one needs $1500 to $2000 worth of stock and equipment before he is ready to start. Part of this capital may be borrowed. It will be seen that with any given capital, the tenants are making more money than the owners. Apparently, one should have about $5000 worth of property, or be able to borrow enough to make up this amount, before he should change from tenant to owner in this region. He ought then to rent additional land if it can be secured conveniently. If land values are likely to rise, the prob- lem is more complicated. The larger profits on tenant farms are not due to any ad- vantage of tenancy over ownership, except in the question of capital. Renting is one means of getting the necessary capital for efficient work. Few owners have enough capital to farm to the best advantage. If the tenants owned the farms that they rent, their labor incomes would be larger. A tenant with $3000 in this region can run a business with a total capital of about $15,000. With this, he is able to do much better than he could do if he tried to make his little money furnish land as well as stock and equipment. It is much pleasanter to own one's farm and have no interference from a landlord, and to have a home of one's own, but in many cases the farmer loses too much to gain these pleasures if he changes to an owner before he has money enough. 198. Effect of rising land values on buying land. In the above discussions, no attention is given to rising land values. If land is likely to rise, it will pay a tenant to buy a farm much sooner than would otherwise be desir- able. The rise in land value is sometimes more than the CAPITAL 313 rent or interest paid. This is one of the reasons why tenants change to owners when they do not have money enough to farm to the best advantage. The loss from farming with too little capital must be balanced against probable rises in value of land in order to tell just when to change from tenant to owner. The time to take risks is when one is young enough to start over if he loses by the venture. A young man may buy a farm when it would not be wise for an older person with the same amount of money to do so. Of course no one should buy a farm unless he has a reasonable chance of paying for it. 199. Cash and share rental. When the landlord takes part of the risk, particularly if he owns any of the stock, he has to give the place considerable attention. He must be paid for his risk of crop failure, risk of a poor ten- ant, and for his oversight. For these reasons, share rent has to be higher than cash rent. It usually pays the tenant to rent for cash and so assume these risks. The risk of a poor tenant and the cost of oversight can then be elim- inated, so that the pay for these is added to the tenant's profit. Even the risk of crop failure due to weather is sometimes slightly reduced when one owns all the crop. Table 69 shows the results for two counties. Tenants who share the crops have a little less capital and make less than those who share the animal products. Those who rent for cash have more capital and assume more risk, but get much more for their labor. Landlords who share the crops or animals have more risk and get a higher interest on investment, but much of this higher return is pay for the extra oversight. 200. Farming as a part-owner. The opportunities of farming as a part-owner seem to have escaped public 314 FARM MANAGEMENT notice, but have not escaped the attention of farmers. The number of farmers who own as much land as their money will allow, and who rent additional land, is rapidly increasing. The number increased about a third from 1900 to 1910. There are now over half a million such farms in TABLE 69. TENANT'S CAPITAL AND LABOR INCOME WITH CASH AND SHARE RENT l CASH RENT SHARE OP RECEIPTS SHARE OF CROPS Tompkins County Number of farms .... 29 109 6 Tenant's capital .... $1584 $1264 1177 Tenant's labor income . . 604 342 467 Landlord's per cent . . . 5.2 9.0 12.4 Livingston County Number of farms .... 91 80 33 Average acres per farm . . 207 181 152 Tenant's capital .... $3781 $2168 $1736 Tenant's labor income . 870 502 372 Landlord's per cent . . . 5.5 8.2 8.3 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 541. the United States. Nearly one-fifth (18 per cent) of the farmers who own land rent additional land. These farmers usually have less capital than those who do not rent more land. Table 70 shows that in two coun- ties these part-owners had less land than owners, yet by renting more land they had larger farms than the owners and made larger labor incomes. The additional acreage is usually farmed with the same horses, machinery, and men that would be required any- way. 201. Types of farming with small capital. Tables 17 CAPITAL 315 TABLE 70. LABOR INCOMES OF OWNERS WHO RENT ADDITIONAL LAND x OWNERS OWNERS WHO RENT ADDITIONAL LAND Tompkins County Acres owned .... 105 89 Acres rented .... 51 Total acres farmed 105 140 Labor income . . . $407 $522 Livingston County . . Acres owned .... 126 81 Acres rented .... 57 Total acres farmed 126 138 Labor income . . . $575 $609 i New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 426. and 18, page 94, show that the most successful types of farming with small capital are usually those that sell a large amount of cash crops. Long time investments should in general be avoided so long as one is heavily in debt. Wood lots, orchards, pure- bred stock are usually best added after one has at least made enough so that he can be fairly sure of paying for his farm. Buildings, fences, and other improvements should be made with great caution if one is heavily in debt. The best way to pay off a mortgage is usually to spend most of one's energy in raising all the crops possible. The im- provements and pure-bred stock may be excellent things to add as soon as one is able. LIFE INSURANCE FOR FARMERS 202. Forms of life insurance. Nearly every one should carry life insurance. If one is heavily in debt and has any 316 FARM MANAGEMENT one dependent on him, he should be sure to carry enough insurance to protect his family in case of death. There are several forms of life insurance. Some of the more common forms are, (1) renewable or convertible term, (2) ordinary life, (3) limited payment life, and (4) endow- ment policies. (1) The renewable term is the cheapest form of life insurance for a short time. If one needs more insurance than he can readily pay for, it is a good form to take out temporarily. With this form one pays a certain premium for a definite number of years. If this policy is continued, the amount to pay is increased from time to time. During the time that the policy is in force it may be changed to one of the other forms by paying at the proper rate for the age at that time. This is a higher rate than would have been charged at the beginning, be- cause one is then older. (2) The ordinary life requires the same payment yearly so long as one lives. But the dividends allowed by most companies act to reduce the amount of the payment year by year so that the amount usually decreases. This is usually the best form of insurance for one who has a good place to invest money safely at a rate of interest above 3| per cent, provided he has the strength of character to save money. (3) The twenty payment life or other limited payment policies call for a still larger premium. One pays enough to pay the yearly premium and enough more to be put at 3 or 3^ per cent interest so that by the end of the twenty years the accumulated excess and interest on it will pay the future premiums. If one takes out an ordinary life policy and puts the difference between the payments on this and on a twenty payment policy in a savings bank and con- CAPITAL 317 tinues this for twenty years, the amount in the savings bank at 3 or 3^ per cent will pay the future premiums. The 10, 20, or 30 payment policies are good forms for one who has a salaried position. He can then get his insur- ance paid for before he is too old. Usually such a person does not have a good safe way to invest money, so that the low rate of interest is all right. (4) Endowment policies include still more of the invest- ment feature. At the end of the 10, 20, or 30 year period the policy has a cash value as great as the amount for which one is insured. With a twenty year endowment policy for $1000 one pays enough to carry his life insurance and invests enough more so that at the end of twenty years the investment is worth $1000. Since most insurance companies are on a 3 or 3^ per cent basis, it is evident that one gets a low rate of interest. But many persons in cities are not able to secure good safe investments for small sums. Persons on a salary are not likely to save unless they have obligations coming due. They will pay the premium on an endowment policy when they would not otherwise save the money. For such persons these are good forms of policies. A farmer usually has plenty of ways to invest money at better rates of interest. His investment in land is usu- ally a safe investment. Few farmers have enough money to properly conduct their business. Furthermore, the farmer's money is not so likely to be wasted on trinkets as is the money of the salaried man in town. The farmer is much more likely to use his money in improving his farm or his stock because he sees so many things that he would like to do. In short, the farmer is not looking for 3 per cent investments. If he has nothing else to do with his money, he can pay off the mortgage that is perhaps held by a life 318 FARM MANAGEMENT insurance company at 5 per cent. There is not much profit in investing money with a life insurance company at 3 per cent and borrowing it back at 5 per cent, as is some- times done. The best form of life insurance for the man who has a good safe way to invest money is the ordinary life policy. One may then expect to be able to continue to pay the pre- miums after the twenty years, but even if he is so unfor- tunate that he has to stop payment the policy will go on at about half its face value. 203. Typical results with different policies. A definite example will illustrate the merits of the different policies. The following are the rates of the Connecticut Mutual Insurance Company for a man twenty-five years of age: A ten-year renewable term policy for $1000 costs $14.93 a year. After the first year the dividends reduce the amount to be paid by about $1 .50. At any time during the ten years the policy can be changed to some other form of policy by making proper payments. At the end of ten years the rate is raised. This policy is little used. It is adapted to the single condition where one needs more in- surance than can be paid for in another form of policy and expects later to drop it or to have more money so that it can be changed to another form of policy. An ordinary life policy for $1000 at the same age, 25 years, costs $20.14 a year. At the end of twenty years such a policy has a cash surrender value of $230.50, or if payment of premiums is stopped there is a paid up insur- ance value of $457 at no farther cost. The amount to be paid is reduced by the annual dividends. These dividends reduced the actual amount paid for such a policy taken out twenty years ago to $315.44. CAPITAL 319 A twenty payment life policy for $1000 at the same age costs $29.98 a year. The cash surrender value of such a policy at the end of twenty years is $504.59. At the end of twenty years one is insured for life for $1000 without any more payments. The actual amount paid or cost of such a policy taken out twenty years ago was $478.93 above the annual dividends. A twenty year endowment policy for $1000 costs $49.21 a year. At the end of twenty years this policy has a cash value of $1000. The ordinary life and twenty payment life are the most popular policies. Let us see what one would get for the same yearly payment with these two forms. A twenty payment life policy for $1000 at 25 years of age costs $29.98. This same annual payment would pay for $1489 of ordinary life insurance. The comparisons are as follows : TWENTY PAYMENT LIFE ORDINARY LIFE Premium per year $29.98 $29.98 Probable total cost for 20 yrs. above dividends as based on experience of previous 20 yrs. Amount of the Insurance dur- ing the 20 yrs 478.93 1000.00 469.69 1489.00 Paid up Insurance at the end of 20 yrs 1000.00 68000 It will be seen that the same payment will carry nearly a half more ordinary insurance. It is to be expected that a farmer will be able to pay the premium after 20 years, and so continue the larger policy, but if he cannot do so, he will still have a paid up policy for $680.00. Having settled 820 FARM MANAGEMENT the amount that one can pay annually it is usually better for the farmer to carry a half more ordinary life insurance rather than the smaller amount of twenty payment life that the same cost will carry. The best form of policy for persons on a salary is usually the 20 payment life or other limited payment policy, but for persons in as conservative a business as farming, who will save and invest their money, it appears that the or- dinary life policy is usually best. REFERENCES New York, Cornell Bulletin 295. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp. 162- 202, Vol. II, pp. 483-485. Twelfth Census, Vol. V, Part I, pp. li to Hi, Ivii-lix and Ixiv-lxvi. CHAPTER 10 METHODS OF RENTING LAND METHODS of renting land are becoming of increasing importance. Thirty-seven per cent of the farmers in the United States now rent all the land that they operate and 9 per cent rent part of the land. Renting is the common means by which the young man gets started in farming. It is the usual means of handling land when the farmer wishes to retire. Most of the rented farms in the northern part of the United States are owned by re- tired farmers and rented by younger men. 204. Basis of rental. The profit required by the landlord is in proportion to his risk and trouble. Cash rent requires least risk and is the cheapest rent. If the landlord receives a share of the crops, he takes a risk on weather and on the kind of farming done by the tenant. In return, he requires a higher rent. If the landlord fur- nishes part of the machinery and stock, his risk is still greater. He has risk of loss by natural causes and because of a tenant's carelessness. Not only is the risk greater, but the time and bother in looking after the place are in- creased. The rental rates become still higher. If the landlord furnishes everything, and even trusts the tenant for his groceries, as is the system with many negro tenants, it is evident that the risk and supervision required are at their maximum. The landlord must then receive a very high rental. Y 321 322 FARM MANAGEMENT In Tompkins County, New York, the landlords who rented for cash made an average of 5.2 per cent. Those who owned part of the stock, paid part of the expenses, and received half of the receipts, made 9 per cent. The tenants who rented for cash made an average of $604 for FIG. 66. One of the troubles of a tenant. their labor. Those who rented for a share made an average of $342. (See Table 69, page 314.) With all systems where the landlord shares in the risk of poor crops, he also has a risk of the tenant not doing his work well. This risk is greatly increased when the land- lord shares stock and part of the expenses. The landlord must be paid for this risk. The best system of rental for a tenant who is a good farmer and who has the money, is to rent for cash. He assumes all the risk that the land- lord must take of having a poor tenant, and by tending to his business makes this much more. There are tenants METHODS OF RENTING LAND 323 who are better off if watched, either because of careless- ness or lack of knowledge. Such a man may do better if he rents of a landlord who knows how to farm and who will give considerable time in looking after the place. The landlord who does not desire to give much personal attention to the farm had best rent for cash or a share of the crops. If the landlord has time and desires to watch the farm rather closely, it is better to rent for a share of the crops or for a share of all receipts. In regions where the common system of rental is a share of receipts, as in some dairy sections, land is not so attractive an investment for persons who live in town as it is in regions where the landlord furnishes nothing but the land. The fact that farm investments are so easily looked after when the land- lord furnishes nothing but land is one reason why all classes of people in the Middle West like to invest money in land. This, in turn, has been one reason for the very great rise in prices of land in that region. 205. Methods of share renting. There are three more or less definite systems of share rental with all de- grees of variation. 1. The landlord may furnish nothing but land. 2. He may furnish part of the productive live- stock, part of the feed, seed, and fertilizer, and pay part of the threshing, silo filling, and similar bills. 3. He may furnish everything except the human labor. Share of crops. In the newer regions, where the chief product sold is grain, the common system of rental is for the landlord to furnish nothing but land. The tenant de- livers the landlord's share of the crop to the railroad. The tenant usually gets about three-fifths of the grain. He also has the straw, corn stalks, etc., for use on the farm. In regions where the land is very rich, the rent is some- 324 FARM MANAGEMENT times as high as one-half. In regions where the crops are not so good, the tenant gets two-thirds to three-fourths of the crop, and on land that is very uncertain, he some- times gets even more. The rent also varies with the kind of crops grown. If there is any considerable area of sugar beets, or other crops requiring much labor, the tenant gets a larger share. Naturally there are all sorts of minor variations. One of the very common ones is to require the tenant to pay cash rent for pasture. Sometimes this is placed so high that it is really a bonus paid to get the farm. The landlord sometimes pays part of the thresh- ing and similar bills. 206. Share of receipts. In dairy regions, and gener- ally in the Eastern States, where a large part of the farm products are fed to live-stock, the usual system is for the landlord to pay for half of the seed, feed, fertilizer, thresh- ing bill, silo filling, hay pressing, and furnish half of the stock, except horses, and get half of the receipts from all sources. The tenant furnishes horses, machinery, and all labor. If no cash crops are grown, this system is unfair to the tenant, because he furnishes half of all expenses on stock, except buildings, and does all the labor. As a result, in such regions the landlord is often forced to furnish all the cows and sometimes part of the horses and equipment in order to get a tenant. The straight half and half is fair when the tenant sells considerable hay. If the chief crop sold is potatoes or some other crop requiring con- siderable labor, the system again needs modifying. The general tendency is to hold too close to the half and half system. As a result, the tenant desires to sell all the hay possible and the landlord desires him to keep many cows and raise potatoes, cabbage, or other laborious crops. It is fairer and results in better profits for both parties if the MET&ODS OF RENTING LAND 325 landlord gets a larger share of hay sold than he does of potatoes or other laborious crop. 1 All sorts of variations occur as a result of bargaining. The landlord may get half the eggs. The tenant may get all the eggs and furnish feed for hens, or he may get per- mission to keep a certain number of hens on undivided feed. On 109 farms in one county in New York, there were only a very few leases that were exactly alike, yet the general principle was that labor of men, horses, and ma- chinery offset land, everything else being divided equally. In sections where little stock is kept, the tenant some- times gets permission to keep a little stock on undivided feed. As live-stock increases in the newer regions, the tendency is for the landlord to share in stock or rent for cash. 207. Everything furnished by landlord. The com- mon system of rental to negroes and Mexicans in the Southern States is for the landlord to furnish everything and get one-third or half the cotton. The exact share varies according to the soil in different regions. A man who rents in this way is sometimes called a " share hand." The tenant merely does the work with the landlord's mule and machinery. Often the landlord runs a store from which the tenant buys his food and clothing on time. The limit that he is allowed to buy is determined by what the landlord thinks the tenant's share of the crop is likely to be worth. By this system, the tenant is always in debt and rarely saves anything. Of course, there are excep- tions. An increasing number of negroes are furnishing their mule and machinery and getting a larger share of the crop, but the majority are " share hands." 208. Systems too rigid. Too little attention is given i New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, p. 540. 326 FARM MANAGEMENT to the comparative costs of different crops and animals. If the general system is for the landlord to get a certain share of the crop he often insists on having the same share of an intensive crop like potatoes as he gets of a hay crop. The result is that the tenants try to reduce the area of intensive crops when a fair system of rental might make this the best crop for both parties. If every farm grew j ust the right area of crops of each kind, the differences on different crops might average up even. But with a rigid system some tenants are persuaded to grow crops on which the landlord makes a big profit and the tenant makes nothing. Other tenants grow crops on which they make more than their fair share of profit. Such cases are exceedingly frequent. The writer knows of many farms every year where considerable areas of such crops as pota- toes, cucumbers, and cabbages are grown for half when the tenant has no extensive crops to balance up the system. In other cases, men get half of a good hay crop for cutting when they do not raise any intensive crops. In 1911, one of the very successful farmers in New York rented seven acres of land from a neighbor for growing potatoes. The usual system of rental is a half, so that neither of them thought of any other basis. The tenant turned over $350 worth of potatoes for the use of seven acres of land when the land was not worth over $500. The landlord made about 70 per cent on his investment. The farmer made very little. In Tompkins county, New York, about three-fourths of the rented farms have such a combination of crops and stock as to result in a fair division of the profits. But about one-fourth are unfair to one party or the other. There were such cases as a tenant making a labor income of $835 when the landlord made less than 3 per cent. At METHODS OF RENTING LAND 327 the other extreme a landlord made over 20 per cent when the tenant made a labor income of only $142. A consid- erable number of landlords made over 10 per cent when the tenants made less than hired-man's wages. Most of these were cases where the tenant spent most of his time milking cows and raising potatoes for half. When the landlord pays for half the feed for productive stock, half the seed, fertilizer, etc., and gets half the re- ceipts, he really pays for part of the labor cost. He furnishes the houses and half the milk and other prod- ucts that are given to men. He furnishes the barn for horses, and usually furnishes half the hay that horses eat, so that he pays part of the cost of horse labor. And since he furnishes part of the cost of man labor, he really pays for part of the time that men spend on horses. Part of the machinery cost falls to him because he furnishes the barns to house machinery and part of the man and horse labor to care for machinery. The cost of hay and apples for the farm from which accounts are given on pages 445 to 471 was divided as suggested above. By the usual system of rental in this region the tenant and landlord share receipts equally. But the hay crop would cost the landlord $220 more than it cost the tenant, while the small orchard would cost the tenant $60 more than it cost the landlord. If a farm is mostly devoted to hay, the tenant has the best of the bargain. If it is mostly devoted to cows or intensive crops, the landlord has the best of it. It would be better if we had a more flexible system, so that the share would vary with the kind of crops more than it does. 209. Relation of systems of rental to profits. The best form of rental for a tenant, who has money enough and who is a good farmer, is cash rent. 328 FARM MANAGEMENT What is best for the landlord depends on how much at- tention he can give to the place and on his knowledge of farming. Share rent will pay him better if he has the time and knowledge necessary. The form that is best for keeping up the farm is usually for the landlord to share in live-stock. But cash rent, or any other form of rental, may do as well if the conditions are so made that live-stock keeping is encouraged. It is often best to have the tenant pay the taxes. This prevents the taxes from being raised too high because the owner is not present to protest. There are some points on which both parties gain. For instance, if the farm is large enough so that the tenant can get the most out of his horses and equipment, he can afford to pay a higher rent and yet make more for himself. Tenant farms are usually larger than farms operated by owners. The system of rental used by the Wadsworths, who own large tracts of land in western New York, is successful from every standpoint. The owners get a fair rate of interest, the tenants do well, and the soil is kept up. The secret of this success is that the farms are large enough so that the tenants can do the work economically. Most of the farms contain 200 to 300 acres. The leases also favor the keeping of live-stock by charging a low rental on pasture and hay land and require that the hay and straw be fed on the farm. A successful system in Maryland, described in Farmers' Bulletin 437, accomplishes the same results. The lease is so drawn that it pays the tenant to keep stock. The farms are large enough so that the tenant may make a good profit for himself and the owner. In this estate, there are twenty-one farms. The smallest farm had 150 acres in cultivation. On the average, there were 269 METHODS OF RENTING LAND 329 acres of cultivated land per farm. The bulletin states that only about 72 per cent of each farm is in cultivation, so that the total area is considerably larger. This is the right kind of economy for the landlord. He gives the tenant land enough so that the tenant can get the most out of his horses and machinery. In this way, both parties prosper. If the farms were half as large, the waste of horse and machine time would ultimately result in a loss to each party. In many cases, it would pay the landlord to combine two farms. He could then get better tenants and make more. A tenant cannot take advantage of the gain that comes from driving three- and four-horse teams unless he has about 100 to 200 acres of crops, because each horse ought to raise 20 to 30 acres of crops. REFERENCES A System of Tenant Farming and Its Results, Farmers' Bulletin 437. Methods of Renting Farm Lands in Wisconsin, Wisconsin Bulletin 198. Relations between Landlords and Tenants, Cyclopedia of Ameri- can Agriculture, Vol. IV, pp. 180-185. Farm Management, F. W. Card, pp. 48-55. Agricultural Economics, H. C. Taylor, pp. 235-326. Principles of Rural Economics, T. N. Carver, pp. 224-234. FARM LABOR MAN LABOR 210. Why farm labor is scarce. There are several reasons why farm labor is not so abundant as formerly: (1) Perhaps the most important cause is education. Most of the farm work is and always has been done by the farm family. Formerly the children began farm work as soon as they were old enough and continued to work for the family until 21 years of age. They went to school for a few months in the winter. To-day most of the farm chlidren remain in school longer. The age of employ- ment has been raised. The children probably work as much when not in school. In the typical agricultural state of Kansas, one-third of the population is in school. (2) The farm families are probably smaller than for- merly. (3) Women are doing less farm work. (4) Tenancy is increasing, apparently about as rapidly as the proportion of hired-men decrease. Farms that used to be large enough to employ a hired-man by the year do not require two men all the year when more horses are driven by each worker. Many men who might be hired- men, therefore, become tenants. (5) Until 1898, farming was subject to frequent and dis- astrous overproduction, so that farming rarely paid well. At the same time, the cities were prospering. The better 330 331 opportunities caused a stampede of young men to cities. As in most cases of violent readjustment, the pendulum went a little too far. See also page 32. (6) Foreign immigrants are not going to farms so much as formerly, because our methods now depend on machin- ery with which the emigrant from European farms is not generally familiar. The hand labor types of farming, like truck growing, are getting more foreign labor than ever before, but probably 95 per cent of American farming calls for machinery. 211. The labor problem for the individual. The average farmer makes interest on his money and wages for the work he does. The labor problem is not to be solved by having more laborers or cheaper laborers, but by directing labor better than the average farmer directs it. The individual had just as bad a labor problem when wages were $10 a month as now that wages are $30. Whenever it becomes easy to make money out of labor by average methods, hired-men change to tenants and effect a readjustment of wages. The problem of making money out of hired labor can never change. If labor is abundant and cheap, it is because the average profit from using it is low. He who is to make by employing labor must direct it better than the average. Whenever labor is effective, it is high priced. Wages are low in China be- cause little is accomplished in a day. The individual farmer is always better off in periods when wages are high. At these times, the problem of making money out of hired labor is the same as it always is, but much of the farmer's profits are on the labor that he and his family do. When wages are high, the average returns for this family labor are good. 332 FARM MANAGEMENT The one way to solve the labor problem is to organize the farm business so well that the labor used on the farm is unusually effective. In other words, to so manage the farm work that a given amount of labor accomplishes more than on the average farm. 212. Using labor efficiently. The most striking dif- ferences in the effective use of labor are due to size of v * FIG. 67. Saving time on a Virginia farm. business. Our farms are not yet adjusted to our ma- chinery. The farm that has the proper adjustment has a very great advantage over the farm that is too small. (See Chapters 7 and 8.) The type of farming also limits the efficiency in use of labor, as discussed in Chapter 3. The farm fields have not yet been adjusted to meet the conditions called for with modern machinery. The farmer who has hii| land in large fields has a great ad van- FARM LABOR 333 tage over the farmer who has small fields. The layout with respect to the buildings is also of great importance. Farm buildings and water supply are common sources of loss of time and money. There can be no profit on time spent in doing chores in an unhandy barn. Proper intensity of culture will bring highest returns for labor. Too much or too little work on crops or animals will result in loss. Too much work will cause a loss just as surely as too little. One of the easiest ways to make a profit on hired labor is to have each man drive more horses. Much may be saved -by hauling large loads in marketing products. Three-horse wagons should come into more general use. The character of the hired labor should correspond with the work. High-priced labor is cheapest for exacting work, but low-priced labor is cheapest for work that requires little judgment. Picking up potatoes, picking cotton, picking fruit, and weeding vegetables are kinds of work that can be done by cheap labor. Such labor is often shipped out from cities, and is usually paid by the amount of work done, quart, or pound, etc. Figure 73 shows a gang of Italians picking strawberries in New Jersey. Men, women, and children all work. Ordinary farm help is too expensive for such work. For work where intelligence is required, as in handling machinery and horses, it is often easier to make a profit by paying more than the usual wages. One man may be worth twice as much as another, but wages are not so variable. By paying a little more, one can often get very much more work done. But merely paying higher wages does not bring this result. One must be a good enough judge of men to be sure that he is getting better men when he pays higher wages. 334 FARM MANAGEMENT A greater use of telephones and mail delivery will save much time. Parcels post will save many trips to town for small repairs. If work is done at the proper time, it may result in great saving of labor. This is particularly true in the control of weeds. The chief purpose of cultivation is to control FIG. 68. Saving time on a Nebraska farm, the regular practice in most of the wheat country. One man to a team. No loader or driver is necessary. weeds. The time to kill weeds is when they are just sprouting, before they can readily be seen. If one uses a weeder or other tool that will cover a wide area at fre- quent intervals the weeds may often be controlled at small cost. A proper crop rotation will go far in reducing the cost of weed control. 1 Every farmer should carry a memorandum book and keep a list of work to do. Weather and other conditions" are so variable that one may need to change work at a moment's notice. No one can keep in mind all the things that need to be done about a farm. A rain may come up and the 1 The Weed Factor in the Cultivation of Corn, U. S. Dept. Agr.. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 257. 335 men stop work. A few days later, teams may be kept out of the fields while some inside work is done that might as well have been done during the rain. Extra trips are often made to town to get something that might have been gotten before, had it been thought of. The way to think of it is to always carry a memorandum of work to be done and jot down things whenever they are thought of. On one profitable farm where such a memorandum book has been kept for five years, there has never been any time lost on account of weather either in summer or winter. There is always work ahead for rainy days and FIG. 69. Saving time in a New York timothy field. for cold or stormy days in winter. The farm employs four men most of the time and sometimes as many as seven. The winters are long and summer rains frequent, yet by always keeping a memorandum of work, there is work for men whenever it storms. As soon as the storm is over, there is practically always work for horses until the ground freezes. Even in the winter, the horses work nearly every day when the weather is good. The following lists of winter and stormy day work show some of the work that is done on this farm in advance of 336 FARM MANAGEMENT FIG. 70. Saving time in a Maine potato field. the time that it is needed. Much of this work, such as cleaning the henhouse and barn, oiling carriages and wagons, setting horses' shoes, and sharpening tools, is kept as regular rainy day chores. FIG. 71. The low-down potato wagon that saves labor. See Figure 70. FARM LABOR 337 213. Work for stormy days. The following list of rainy day work includes a few of the things done on the above farm. These are more or less regular things. Many other things have been done but once in the five years : Clean barn. Sweep down cobwebs in barn (4 times a year). Set horses' shoes. Get machines ready to use (about 1 month before each opera- tion starts, so as to have time to make repairs if necessary). Replace broken window lights in buildings (every fall). Clean oats, wheat, etc., with fanning mill (long before needed). Clean shop. Oil wagons and carriages. Repair machinery. Sharpen all tools. Clean cellar (twice a year). Mix feed. Mix fertilizer. Oil harness. Sharpen mower sickles. Wash and pack eggs. Clean henhouse. 214. Winter work. Live-stock demands more atten- tion in winter, so that by combining live-stock with crops, a part of the winter work problem is solved. The following are some of the kinds of work that are done'in winter on well-organized farms. Some of these, as repairing machinery, are universal ; others, as work in the wood lot, apply to certain regions only : Repair each piece of farm machinery. Make tools and do other carpenter and repair work. Oil and repair harness. Haul manure. Sharpen all tools. z 338 FARM MANAGEMENT Sharpen mower sickles. Mix fertilizer. Sharpen posts for fence. Prune orchard and other trees. Clean seed. Repair buildings, particularly inside work. If the farm is in a region where wood-lots pay, the work in the woods getting out posts and lumber and fuel will provide work for good days. Such crops as hay and grain may be marketed in the winter. Near cities, some of the teams and men do teaming work in winter ; near forests, they sometimes do lumbering. FIG. 72. Homo mixing of fertilizers, good work for winter. If one keeps a memorandum of work, there will always be plenty to do on a diversified farm. The winter is also FABM LABOR 339 the time for the farmer to take his vacation. Some of the time should be spent in going to meetings and in reading and study. Considerable is said about having the farmer manufac- ture articles for sale during the winter. A few farmers do this kind of work. It usually pays better to -do work on the farm that prepares for the next season rather than try to do manufacturing. On a diversified farm it is usually possible to find work enough for every day in the year. Manufacturing enterprises would not usually provide work for horses, and idle horses are as serious a problem as idle men. Furthermore, any manufacturing enterprise requires equipment. This equipment must be idle when farm work is being done. 215. Hours of labor. The eight-hour day is coming to be the ideal in cities, although the vast majority of workers still work more than eight hours, and thousands work twelve hours. The day's work on the farm is usually longer than in cities. There are very good reasons why it should con- tinue to be a longer day. Farm work is so varied that it is not so monotonous as most kinds of city work. A man on a farm usually takes care of live-stock before breakfast. After breakfast, he may get his team out for field work. At noon, he again does chores, and usually has a warm dinner at a table rather than a cold one from a dinner pail. Some chores are usually done after supper. During the day, a great variety of things may be done, bringing into play many different muscles rather than using the same ones all day. The city worker often has a half hour to an hour to ride or walk night and morning to go to his work, so that an eight-hour day may be as long as a ten-hour day on the farm. When the farmer's day ends, he is usually at his home. 340 FARM MANAGEMENT Some farmers say that they work 16 hours a day, when they mean that they are out of bed 16 hours. They fail to distinguish between work and meal time, but there are some farmers who do work as much as 14 hours a day in the summer. On a number of farms in Minnesota, it was found that the average in a region where considerable dairying was done was 8.6 hours, and in a region largely devoted to grain farming, 7.4 hours. The corresponding hours of Sunday work were 3.4 and 2.2 hours. 1 The averages were for 313 days. If holidays and other days off were counted out, the average would be higher. These averages do not give all the facts. The days in summer were long, and on many days in winter very little was done. Another side of the question is the necessity of caring for live-stock. Stock requires attention early in the morning and again at night. A ten- or eleven-hour day is long enough to give this attention. A ten-hour day of actual work is long enough for a farmer except in harvest, threshing, and other times of unusual pressure. Of course, no set time can be made on a farm, because the weather, the stock, or other circumstances may make it necessary to work very long days at any time. The farm crops and property must be cared for. But for normal occasions, when there is no great pressure of work, ten hours is a good standard to set. When dealing with ignorant labor, as the negro or Mexi- can, the common rule is to work from sun to sun. This is a natural day, particularly where men do not carry watches. 216. Management of men. The most satisfactory farm hand is the son of a neighboring farmer. Such men know how to work and are more likely to be interested, as 1 Minnesota, Bulletin 97, p. 11. FARM LABOR 341 they usually plan to farm for themselves later. Most of the farm labor is from this source. Estimates by farmers scattered all over the United States indicate that 70 to 80 per cent of the farm laborers and tenants find it reasonably possible to acquire farms of their own. 1 This class of help should be treated as the equal of the farmer in every way. The almost universal custom is for the farm family to take such men into the family circle as members of the family. Usually it pays to discuss plans for work with such a young man. In this way, his interest will be held. Very frequently such a man will take as keen an interest in the farm as does the owner, provided the owner discusses plans with him. Men of this kind do not need to be worked in gangs. In fact, it is usually desirable to scatter men so that if a breakdown or delay occurs, few men will be stopped. Another kind of hired help is the less reliable kind that gets drunk whenever occasion arises. The farmer can sometimes help to hold such a man on the farm by pro- viding reading matter or something else to hold the interest. Sometimes the best thing to do is to discharge him. The best men usually hire by the year. They do not want to spend the winter loafing. It follows that one must so organize his farm as to provide a full year's work if he is to secure his choice of men. In the Eastern States, married men are more frequently employed. Probably this is because there are more houses on the farms than are needed. In many cases in other sections, it will pay to build a house, if good married men can be secured regularly. When the house and all other items are counted, married men usually cost more than single men, but are often more reliable. 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1910, p. 199. 342 FARM MANAGEMENT The pay should vary with the season of the year. If a month hand receives the same pay the year around, the owner will feel that he is getting too much in winter ; and in harvest, when day hands are getting big wages, the month man will feel that he is working for nothing. By varying the pay, the year's total may be the same, but both farmer and laborer will be better satisfied. When dealing with Mexicans, negroes, or Indians, the problem is entirely different. All contracts should then be simple. Men must be treated fairly, but with great firmness. These men do not often desire to work as regularly as does a man who hopes to own a farm as soon as possible. Usually the negro saves little. A good way to hire such labor is to furnish a house and about an acre of land which the man can work for himself with the agreement that he is to work for the farmer at a certain wage per day whenever he is needed. Instead of providing rainy day work, as is done with men who want to earn money every day, such a man works only on days when he is needed. He takes his much desired vacation on days when there is no work. Usually he will take time off anyway, and he may as well do it when there is no work. 217. Profit sharing. Schemes for profit sharing have been worked out for some railroads and factories. Farm- ing also has its method of profit sharing. It is by renting farms. Some persons have thought that the farm laborer might share in the profits on a farm, but the first problem is to know what the profits are. It is hard enough to an- swer this question when one is disinterested. It becomes practically impossible when two parties are interested. The writer has known of many attempts to share profits, but has seen very few satisfactory results. A share of FARM LABOR 343 the receipts or other definite rental system is usually the only satisfactory profit-sharing plan. 218. Farm managers. --On nearly all farms in America, the one who directs the work does as much labor as any of the men. The owner or manager usually works with his men, unless there are 10 to 20 men employed. When only 3 or 4 men arc working, the cost of supervision FIG. 73. Enough workers to justify the farmer in spending most of his time directing the work. The farmer raised the crop with his own work. He becomes a non-worker in the picking season only. is altogether too heavy if the manager does nothing but direct work. No industry that does not have a monopoly can afford a no n- working manager for so few men. The man who works with his men usually gets them to take an interest in the work and to accomplish much more. Business men who own farms often make mistakes in this matter. They often employ farm managers who feel too important to work. But what else is a farm manager to do, if he has only two or three men to direct ? With so few men, he should be the best worker of the lot. Sup- pose that the manager is paid $1000 a year, as is frequently 344 FARM MANAGEMENT the case on farms owned by city business men. If he directs three men, the expense of supervision is about as much as the wages paid the men. If the farm raises only 150 acres of crops, the cost of supervision will be over $6 per acre, or more than the rent on $100 land. The Taft ranch in Texas is an example of a well-organ- ized large business. Here a foreman has charge of 1200 to 1800 acres of crops. He directs 25 to 35 men and about 60 mules. They raise 50 acres of crops per man and 25 acres per mule. Cotton is the chief crop. Other help is, of course, required to pick the crop. The cost of the foreman here is about 50 cents for an acre of crops. The supervision of the entire ranch may add 25 cents to this. Many farmers in the South are losing by having too great an expense of supervision. Before the War, one manager directed many slaves. To-day there are many cases where one man directs only a very few workers and yet does no work himself. This makes the cost of super- vision too great. Either the number of workers directed should be increased, or the manager should go to work. The only other alternative is that the workers and manager all remain poor, because they are following such a bad system. HORSE LABOR 219. Cost of horse labor. The economical use of horse labor is as important as man labor. In Minnesota, in 1907, the cost of an hour's work of a team in different counties varied from 15 to 22 cents per hour. (Table 71.) In the same region, the cost of man labor averaged about 12 cents. The time of the team is, therefore, worth much more than the time of the driver. Where feed is worth FA KM LABOR 345 more, the difference is still greater. Table 71 gives the results for a number of farms in three counties in Minne- sota and for three very successful farms in New York. There are few, if any, regions in the United States where horse labor is cheaper than in Norman County, Minnesota. The chief reason for the higher cost in the other counties and in New York is the higher prices of feed. The other TABLE 71. COST OF HORSE LABOR 1 YEAR FOOD COST PER HORSE TOTAL COST PER HORSE HOURS WORKED PER DAY COST PER HOUR Norman Co., Minn. . . 1907 $47 $77 3.0 7.7 Lyon Co., Minn. . . 1907 64 93 3.4 9.0 Rice Co., Minn. . . 1907 75 104 3.1 11.0 Farm 1, New York . . 1911 92 131 2.9 14.9 Farm 2, New York . . 1911 90 174 3.8 14.8 Farm 3, New York . . 1911 117 177 4.9 13.1 1 Minnesota, Bulletin 117, pp. 15, 16. costs were about $30 per horse in each of the regions in Minnesota. Farmer No. 2 in New York had a very high cost of depreciation by death of two horses. On the New York farms, the man labor cost 12, 19, and 22 cents per hour. The 19 cents is more typical. Farmer No. 1 hired only one person, a half-witted boy. This reduced his labor cost. Farmer No. 3 paid rather high wages. On New York farms, horse labor usually costs 25 to 30 cents per hour for a team. Man labor costs 15 to 20 cents per hour. Economy of horse labor is, therefore, seen to 346 FARM MANAGEMENT be even more important than economy of man labor. The chief reason for the high cost of horse labor is the large amount of time that horses do not work. On the farms in Minnesota, the horses averaged a little over 3 hours a day for 300 days. On farm No. 3 in New York, an unusually well-organized farm, they worked 4.9 hours. This farmer HOURS 1000 aoo Nov. Dec. 1- IG. 74. Distribution of horse labor on farm No. 1. Seven horses kept. If done at the proper time, the work could be better done with 5 horses. Black is work fixed as to time. White is work that might have been done at some other time. is the one previously mentioned who kept lists of work for all kinds of weather, so that all odd jobs were done when teams could not work. A farmer should look upon an idle team in the barn in exactly the same way as he looks upon a hired-man asleep in the hay mow. If the high cost of horse labor were realized, horses would be worked more. The chief reason why it is not realized is because the cost has suddenly increased with the rise in value of feed and labor, and farmers have not yet realized the change. 220. Ways of saving horse labor. There are many FARM LABOR 347 ways of saving horse labor. The most evident way is to keep the horses busy and so reduce the cost per hour. By planning the work ahead it is often possible to do the work with fewer horses. The horse labor for farmer No. 1, Table 71, is shown in Figure 74. The farmer kept two extra horses at a cost of $262, when the only time that he needed them was in plowing for oats and corn. HOUf?b JOOO 600 6OO 400 aoo Jan feb AAR Apu A^ v)frdv wberri eS 8ft Aspcxr&tf us 8?t Rhubarb Goose a Currants 8ft. R^5p berries 6?r HT^k berries 8ft berries r & D e & - o \ i- FIG. 98. A farm garden laid out for convenience in working. should be planted in long rows on one side of the garden. These rows should be 6 to 10 feet apart. While they are young, a row of vegetables should be raised between them. Such plants as raspberries and blackberries should be con- fined to solid rows about 2 feet wide. This allows for reg- ular horse cultivation. Strawberries and other shorter lived plants should come next. The land that is to raise 1 Illinois, Bulletin 105. FARM LAYOUT 393 vegetables can then be plowed in one block every year. This strip can be planted from one side. The land for the later planting can then be kept harrowed until it is planted. Interplanting of small fruits and trees is very inadvisable unless land is very limited, because more work is required. If all perennials are at one side, the remainder of the garden will be straight for plowing. The rows of vege- tables should be at least two and one-half feet apart to allow for continued cultivation with a horse or team. Cultiva- tion should be so frequent that weeds will never get started. In this way, little hand labor will be required. The soil should be generously manured. It is not prof- itable to raise so valuable a crop^on poor land. If any crop is short of manure, let it be the cheapest crop. The garden and orchard should contain every kind of fruit and vegetable that will grow in the region and that the family likes. There should be enough varieties to cover the season. The season may be prolonged by bring- ing vegetables into the cellar. Full-grown green tomatoes may be kept for about two months by wrapping them in paper. Watermelons will keep some time. Celery may be transplanted to the cellar and kept watered. It will then grow new shoots that are of the finest quality. If one becomes interested, he will find many ways of adding to the usefulness and pleasure of the garden. A small hotbed, perhaps four by eight feet, will grow several crops of lettuce and radishes and also plants for .the garden. A hotbed is a simple affair. Old boards may be used to make a tight frame, which is about 24 inches deep on the north and 18 inches deep on the south. This is filled with firmly tramped horse manure that is just be- ginning to heat. It is covered with about six inches of good soil, and is then ready for the window-sash. Before 394 FA KM MANAGEMENT making such a hotbed, one would do well to buy the sash and make the bed to fit it. See also pages 23 and 38. FARM BUILDINGS 243. Relation of buildings to the farm. All the farm buildings should be in keeping with the farm. One should not build an expensive house on a cheap farm. If an expensive house is desired, a good farm should be bought on which to put it. The same principle holds in cities. It is very unwise to build an expensive house on a cheap lot, or a cheap house on an expensive lot. The barns should be in keeping with the amount and quality of the land. One should be very sure that he is going to use the buildings for many years before he builds FIG. 99. Too many buildings for a 190-acre farm, hence they are in poor repair. a larger barn than the farmers of the community usually desire for the farm in question. Some of the money wisely invested in farm buildings is usually lost in selling a farm, but if the farm is over-built, the loss is heavy. There seems to be little consideration given to this relationship. As the country grows older, the number of places with too many or too expensive buildings increases. One does not need to travel far in any old country to find examples of very expensive farm buildings neglected and out of repair, because too expensive for the farm to carry. FARM LAYOUT 395 One should consider the matter very carefully before he puts up buildings. A delay of a year or two is better than a serious mistake. A mistake in permanent buildings is a mistake that lasts more than a lifetime. It passes on to the next generation. So long as a farmer spends his FIG. 100. A set of barns that cost $600 for each animal housed. At least six times too expensive. Too large for the farm. Poor con- struction, as the low, many-gabled roofs allow little storage room and are very expensive to maintain. energy and money in raising crops he usually has little to regret. Two thousand years ago Cato gave advice on this sub- ject that is just as good and just as much needed to-day as it was when he wrote it. " In his youth the farmer ought diligently to plant his land, but he should ponder before he builds. Planting does not require reflection, but de- mands action. It is time enough to build when you have reached your thirty-sixth year, if you have farmed your land well meanwhile. When you do build, let your buildings be proportioned to your farm, and your farm to your buildings. It is fitting that the farm buildings be 396 FARM MANAGEMENT well constructed, that you should have ample storage room, so that you can wait for high prices, something which will redound to your honor, your profit, and your self- respect." 1 Cato is also quoted as advising to buy what others have built and thus " enjoy the fruits of another's folly." This a^ain is good advice to-day. 244. Capital in buildings. Very little can be said about the proportion of the capital to be invested in buildings, because the prices of land and lumber change so frequently. It is said that the city worker ought not to spend over 20 per cent of his salary in rent. Ordinarily not over 10 to 20 per cent of the capital should be invested in the farmhouse. Barns for stock should rarely cost over $50 for each 1000- pound animal housed. In the South, this cost should be FIG. 101. An expensive brick henhouse that the hens can never pay for. It would take 5 dozen eggs per hen per year to pay her house rent. much less. This cost includes materials and all labor. Money invested in a barn would not be looked upon as a 1 Cato's Farm Manag?m.:nt, translated by a "Virginia Farmer." FARM L A TOUT 397 very attractive investment if it did not pay at least 8 to 10 per cent a year. This amount has to cover interest, repairs, depreciation, insurance, and taxes. If one in- vested $1000 in a dairy barn to house 20 cows, the annual rent that the cows should pay would be $80, or $4 per cow. If butter sells for 30 cents a pound, this would require 13 pounds of butter from every cow to pay her barn rent. In many parts of the United States the barns cost less than $50 for each cow or horse. Nearly all persons from the cities who go to farming invest too much in farm buildings. There are many cases where the barns and milk rooms cost as much as $1000 for every cow housed. Each cow ought to pay $80 a year for the privilege of living in such a palace. These cow- palaces are often built by misguided wealthy men, who feel that they are building a barn that is to be a model for farmers. But farmers are far from free from the same error of over- investment. Many times a farmer finds that he has money enough to build a new barn and starts out to outdo his neighbors, regardless of whether his farm would justify such a barn or not. The cost of a henhouse ought not to exceed $1 per hen. If a comfortable house can be built for less, so much the better. This cost would make the yearly charge about 10 cents per hen. There are also many cases in which too little money is invested in buildings. 245. Arrangement for convenience. Even more im- portant than the capital invested in buildings is the ar- rangement for saving labor. The average farmer makes more mistakes in this than in over-capitalization. Farm buildings are put up at different times, and usually without 398 FARM MANAGEMENT any definite plan. On any particular day, it is easier to do the chores as the buildings stand than it is to rearrange them, hence they go on generation after generation. On one of the most profitable dairy farms that the writer knows, the milk house where the milk is strained is so far FIG. 102. The dairy barn on the farm given on page 537. Over 75 years old, but serviceable and economical. See Figure 103. from the cows that the total distance walked in milking 20 cows is over a mile a day. The problem on the vast majority of farms is not the building of new houses and barns, but the rearrangement of old ones so as to make the work easier. 246. Rearrangement of buildings. Prices and other agricultural conditions change so frequently that it is often desirable to build on a plan that allows for possible changes in the type of farming. In the Northeastern States, a barn 34 or 36 feet wide is a desirable width. Such a barn is wide enough for two lines of cows. It will make a good FARM LAYOUT 399 horse barn and provide for one row of stalls and a row of box stalls. It is a good width for a henhouse or ma- chinery storage. If a barn is narrower than this, it does not give room for two lines of cows. If wider, it makes the work of mowing away the hay too great. The critical points in a building are the roof and founda- tions. Paint is usually more emphasized because it is FIG. 103. Cows in the barn shown in Figure 102. The capital is in- vested in the stock rather than in the building. more conspicuous, but it is the roof and foundations that really limit the life of buildings. 247. The farmhouse. The type of house that is suited to the city is wholly out of place in the country. The superabundance of gables and striking shapes may not be conspicuous in a city, but in the country they give an appearance of lack of dignity. A house that is to stand alone must have strong lines. 400 FARM MANAGEMENT City houses are almost always too tall to look well if standing alone. When flanked by equally tall neighbors, they may look better than low buildings, but when set off by themselves the appearance is entirely changed. It is much like a forest tree that appears well sur- rounded by tall trees, but that looks like an exclamation point when standing by it- self. There are certain good types of houses that always look well. The latest fashions are soon out of date. The farmhouse should be built in a style that always looks well. One builds a house for 50 or 100 years, not for a season only. Nearly everything about a farmhouse should be entirely different from a city house. This is the reason why architects' plans are nearly always out of place on a farm. Such plans are usually for city conditions. The fees for planning farmhouses are not large enough to attract architects to study the problem. The back door of the farmhouse, or the side door, is the chief entrance. Most persons who come to the house go to the back door, because this is where the people are work- ing. The back door should, therefore, be as good as the front door. The farm activities center in the back part FIG. 104. A city house in the country. It is too tall to look well. FARM LAYOUT 401 of the house, in the back yard, and at the barn. The back yard should be an attractive place. The farmhouse should provide storage room. The farm family does not depend on a half dozen deliveries a day. The cellar must provide storage not only for products for home use, but usually for products to sell. Very rarely does a city home provide a place where a barrel of apples can be kept without spoiling. The first floor, the cellar, and the fuel shed should all be handy, as these are the center of operations. The back door should be near the ground so that there will be few steps to climb. There should be a place in the back part of the house for men to wash. If the farm has running water and sewage disposal, there should be a wash room in the back part of the house on the first floor. It is also desirable to have a bathroom on the second floor. The second floor of the farmhouse is usually used for sleeping rooms. The outdoors is so much a part of the house that there would be too much going up and down stairs, if the second floor were used for any other purpose. Since household help is hard to secure, and since the farm family usually has to do its own work, all arrangements for saving work are of great importance. It is usually desirable to use the same room for a dining room and living room. The majority of farmhouses also have this same room for a kitchen, but a separate kitchen is pre- ferred if it can be afforded, on account of the heat in summer. REFERENCES U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 236. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, L. H. Bailey, Vol. I, pp. 142-161, Vol. II, pp. 90-97. 2o CHAPTER 14 CROPPING SYSTEMS ROTATION of crops means that the crops grown on each field are changed from time to time in a fairly regular way. Practically every farmer does change crops occasionally on at least part of his farm, but the changes are often more or less haphazard. There are many fields in America that have been in cotton, corn, or wheat for 10 to 50 years. As the country grows older, the enemies of crops increase, and the need for rotation becomes more apparent. The ma- jority of farmers will ultimately come to use more or less definite rotations. The advantages of having a variety of crops are often confused with the advantages of crop rotation. There are many reasons why diversified farming pays best. Some of these are given in Chapter 3. But one may have a diversity of crops and yet not do much rotating of crops. There are many farmers who grow corn, alfalfa, and wheat, but who do not do much rotating. 248. Reasons for crop rotation. There are many reasons why crop rotation is a good thing. The final factor that forces farmers to change crops is usually either weeds, insects, or diseases. Crop rotation (1) helps to control these enemies ; (2) may provide for keeping up the humus supply of the soil ; (3) may provide for the growth of grass and legumes on each field ; (4) often saves labor ; (5) may keep the land occupied with crops a greater part of the time ; (6) allows for the alternation 402 CROPPING SYSTEMS 403 of deep and shallow-rooted crops ; (7) may provide for a balanced removal of plant food ; (8) may control toxic substances ; (9) systematizes farming. (1) Nearly every crop is accompanied by certain weeds that are able to grow with it, but that do not bother other crops. The weeds that bother tilled crops are different from those that interfere with hay. If small grain is grown continuously, the land may become very weedy. These particular weeds are usually easily killed by cultivation. Wild oats are a serious pest in various parts of Minnesota and Dakota. If tilled crops are grown, they are readily controlled. Wild mus- tard is a very serious weed in small grain in some regions. Daisies and wild carrot are weeds in some regions where hay is left continuously, but are not bad weeds in corn. The opposite is true of pig weeds and foxtail. Similarly, there are many diseases that injure one crop, but that are not harmful to some other crop. Flax-sick soils are merely soils that are infested with a flax disease ; rotation can control it. Potato scab may become serious if this crop is grown on the same land year after year. The same principle holds for insect pests. The corn root worm and root louse often force rotation. Nearly all of the insect enemies of crops are checked to some extent by crop rotation. Many of them are controlled. (2) If crops are not rotated, the fields that are con- stantly in tilled crops will soon have their humus supply seriously decreased. Small grain crops bring the same result, but less rapidly. All the serious results that follow the exhaustion of the humus then follow. This is most disastrous in the Southern States, where cotton is the chief crop. The land is usually cultivated for a long season. This, together with the hot weather, favors the 404 FARM MANAGEMENT rapid destruction of humus. The clovers and grass crops usually increase the humus. The control of weeds, in- sects, and fungi, and the maintenance of the humus supply are the chief reasons for rotating crops. (3) If crops are rotated, the other benefits that come from growing legumes and grass may be secured for each field. (4) Labor is often saved by crop rotation. Grasses are sown in small grain, so that one fitting of the land does for two crops. In some parts of the country winter wheat is sown after potatoes or beans, so that one plowing of the soil does for three crops the tilled crop, the wheat crop, and the grass crop seeded in the wheat. In most of the Middle West, oats are disked or cultivated in on corn ground without plowing. In some parts of this region, the yields are better on disked than on plowed land. In other parts, plowing is better. Cowpeas may be grown between the rows of corn without additional fitting of the soil. (5) By crop rotation, the land may be occupied more of the time. Wheat may follow oats and grass follow wheat, so as to keep the soil in use. If the season is long enough, it is possible to grow more than one crop a year. (6) Deep and shallow rooted crops may be alternated, thus making use of the deeper soil. (7) Formerly it was thought that the chief reason for rotating crops was because plants use the plant foods in different proportions, so that when the soil became ex- hausted for one crop, it might contain the kind of food that the other crop required. As a matter of fact, the increased yields resulting from rotation cause the removal of more of each kind of food than is removed by the smaller yields that are secured if one crop is grown con- CROPPING SYSTEMS , 405 tinuously. However, the fact that plants use foods in different proportions may be of some importance. (8) It is thought by some persons that each plant gives off certain substances through its roots that are injurious to the plant, but that may not harm another crop. If the theory is true, it furnishes another reason for rotation. (9) Crop rotation systematizes farming. It makes farming less complex rather than more so. It may re- quire considerable study to get a rotation established, because the fields may need to be rearranged, and one of the new fields may have several kinds of crops to be adjusted. Usually a cropping system simplifies the farm layout and reduces the number of fields on the farm. See Figures 88 and 89. 249. Characteristics of a good cropping system. There are a number of things that a crop rotation should provide if possible : (1) The area of each crop should be nearly the same year after year, unless there is a definite reason for changing it. (2) The rotation ought ordinarily to provide an abun- dance of roughage and pasture for the number of animals kept. The cost of handling such bulky .products as hay, straw, silage, and roots is too great if these are bought from other regions. (3) It is very desirable that the rotation include one tilled crop for the elimination of weeds. (4) It is very desirable that the rotation include a sod. A sod is favorable for the fixation of nitrogen and the increase of the humus supply. If the sod includes clover or alfalfa, the fixation of nitrogen is further favored by the legume. (5) The rotation and feeding system should in some way provide for keeping up the organic matter of the soil. 406 FARM MANAGEMENT Fertilizers may be used to supply plant food, but the farm must grow its own organic matter, unless hay, straw, or manure are purchased. (6) The rotation should provide as large an area of the most profitable cash crop or crops as can be cared for. Nearly every region has one crop that pays better than any other for the time spent on it. In the Northeastern States, it is hay. In the Middle West, corn. In the northern and western part of the Middle West, wheat. In the South, cotton. In. each case, the farmers desire to grow as many acres as possible of the profitable crop, hence the tendency to one-crop systems. A cropping system for the Northeastern States should grow as much hay as possible, because this is the most profitable cash crop for the labor involved. In the Central West, there should be as much corn as possible. In the South there should be as much cotton as possible. Scientific men are likely to underestimate the impor- tance of the farmer's experience. The crop that the farmer persists in growing as a single crop should not be reduced too much. Even on a dairy farm in the South, it is usually advis- able to grow as much cotton as the labor can cultivate, because this is such a profitable crop. A dairy farm in Illinois should grow as much corn as the men and horses can possibly care for, because it is so profitable as a cash crop, or as hog feed. The New York, Pennsylvania, or New England farmer should raise all the hay his men and horses can harvest, even though his main business may be dairying, poultry, or fruit. In each of the above regions, the most successful farmers follow this practice. 250. Crop rotations used in different regions. The actual practice in most parts of the cotton belt is to grow CROPPING SYSTEMS 407 cotton almost continuously. It is rotated more or less with corn. and other crops. This system fails to provide stock food and fails to provide for keeping up the humus supply of the soil. A highly recommended rotation that has not yet come into general use is : First year, cotton. Second year, corn with cowpeas between the rows. Third year, oats followed by cowpeas. This rotation makes the area that a family can farm practically three times as great as when nothing but cotton is grown. A family can raise all the cotton that it can pick and by properly organizing the work, raise the other crops besides. 'This requires that two- and three-horse teams be used. In the winter wheat belt of Kansas and Nebraska, wheat, corn, alfalfa, and oats are the most profitable crops. In the drier parts of the region, wheat does much better than the other crops, and the area of these is re- duced or almost eliminated. It is difficult to provide a very satisfactory rotation with these crops, because alfalfa is a long-lived plant and because wheat does not follow corn readily, and the area of oats desired is usually less than the area of corn. The practice of some of the best farmers. usually provides a rather long and some- what indefinite rotation. Corn may be grown on the same land for two years and sometimes a little longer. It is followed by oats one year. The oats are followed by wheat. The wheat continues several years. It is then followed by alfalfa that is left several years. In the northern part of the spring wheat region of the Dakotas and Minnesota, good rotations have not yet been generally adopted. The most profitable cash crops 408 FARM MANAGEMENT are wheat, barley, oats, and flax. All these are spring planted crops. As the farming is becoming more diversi- fied, more corn and hay are being grown. These provide a good rotation. In regions where the crops do well, corn or potatoes may be followed by several years of small grain crops, and these followed by timothy and clover. This may leave half or more of the land in small grain and yet provide a good rotation and provide for the keeping of live-stock. In the corn-belt, a very satisfactory rotation is : corn two years, followed by oats in which timothy and clover are seeded. If the grass is left one year, half of the land may be kept in corn, or the grass may be left longer, if desired. The farmers in the Northeastern States usually raise corn, potatoes, cabbage, or other tilled crops on sod. These are usually followed by oats. In most of the re- gion, timothy and clover are seeded with the oats. In some parts, the oats are followed by wheat in which grass is seeded. In either case, the grass is left as long as it is good. This is generally three or four years. The first year of grass is mixed clover and timothy. The later years are mostly timothy. The standard rotation of all this region is a tilled crop followed by one or two years of small grain, and this followed by about three years of hay. This is a region of many kinds of farming, and there are many variations, but the above is the rotation on the majority -of farms. There is not room to give many of the multitudes of rotations that have proved satisfactory in different regions. For a very extended list of rotations used or recommended for different regions in this and other countries, see " Cyclopedia of American Agriculture," Vol. II, pp. 99 to 109, CROPPING SYSTEMS 409 Nearly all farmers will want to vary the rotation from time to time as prices and other conditions change. It is not often desirable to follow an absolutely fixed system year after year. The example of England is often cited as a region where farmers have fixed rotations, but this is not the case. The farmers of England vary the areas from year to year and change the rotation to meet changes in prices of products. The farmers in the Northeastern States probably have about as definite rotations as do those in England. In the South and in the new regions of the United States, very much more attention should be given to crop rotation. 251. Two rotations on one farm. Many farmers use more than one crop rotation. Potato growers often grow potatoes in a three-year rotation of potatoes, small grain, clover; and at the same time, use a longer rotation on other parts of the farm. A rotation of corn, small grain, and hay, making a five- or six-year rotation, is often used for the other land. The two rotations often change fields, so that a field is sometimes in one of the rotations and sometimes in the other. In the bean-growing section of New York and Michi- gan, the beans are usually grown in a rotation of beans, wheat, and hay. The same farms often have another rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and hay. The two systems are usually worked in together, so that a field is sometimes in one and sometimes in the other rotation. In tobacco-growing sections, tobacco is often grown in a very short rotation on the richest land, and the remainder of the farm used for a longer rotation with general farm crops. Often it is desirable to have a rotation on small fields 410 FARM MANAGEMENT near the barns, that is independent of the main farm ro- tation. This may be to provide pasture for hogs or sheep, to grow root crops, or other minor crops. (See Figure 105.) 252. Fixed cropping systems with irregular acreages. - It is not always desirable to grow exactly the same area of each crop year after year, because prices and other conditions are too changeable. On the other hand, the /3/6-GXASS /9/7- G/MSS /9/S - GffASS /9/7 - GffA/Af /9I8 - COff/V /9/9 - WHf/ir /9/S- Gff/ISS /9/6 - G/TA/A/ 19/7 - CORN '9/8- WHEAT /3/9 - GffASS 19 IS- ffffHW 1917- WH&4T /9/3- GRASS /9/9- G/f/ISS /9/S- COff/V /9/C- WHJ4T 19/7 '- G/?SS /9/8 - G&4SS /9/9 - GSM//V FIG. 105. A Minnesota farm and proposed rearrangement. Two rotations are given. One near the barn for hog pastures and one for the general crops. 1 variations in areas on many farms are without any definite reason. If one wishes fixed areas, it is not necessary that the same area of each crop be grown. A fixed rotation can usually be arranged with any area desired. Suppose that a farmer desires to raise 46 acres of hay, 35 of oats, 12 of corn, and 15 of potatoes, he would proceed as follows in order to see what his best field arrangement and rotation would be : 1 U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 236. CROPPING SYSTEMS 411 He will grow 108 acres of crops each year. If he divides the area into three fields of 36 acres each, he might use the following rotation and arrangement : FIELD 1913 1913 1914 112 A. corn 1 ... 15 A. potatoes 9 A. hay 36 A. oats 36 A. hay 112 A. corn 2 ... 36 A. oats 36 A. hay 12 A. corn 15 A. potatoes 9 A. hay 3 ... 36 A. hay 15 A. potatoes 9 A. hay 36 A. oats The poorest 27 acres in the hay field is plowed up each year for corn and potatoes. The remaining 9 acres is left for hay. The next year oats are planted on all of this field. The area in sod should be fall plowed in order to get a good oat crop on this part. Timothy and clover are seeded with the oats. The .third year this field is in clover and timothy hay. Each field follows this same rotation, so that there is always the same area of each crop. There are always two large fields, and every year one field is divided into three parts. This gives one acre too much of oats and one too little of hay. If this is not satisfactory, one acre of oats may be cut for hay, or one acre of oat and pea hay may be grown. The same crops might be grown in a four-year rotation on four fields of 27 acres each. A field of hay is plowed up for corn and potatoes. The next year this is sown to oats and 19 acres of the field is seeded to clover and timothy. The remaining 8 412 FARM MANAGEMENT acres is planted to oats again the next year, and is then seeded. FIELD 1912 1913 1914 1915 1 . . [ 12 A. corn j 15 A. pota- 27 A. oats | 19 A. hay 1 8 A. oats 27 A. hay ( toes 2 . . 27 A. oats f 19 A. hay | 8 A. oats 27 A. hay [ 12 A. corn | 15 A. pota- ( toes S . . { 19 A. hay 1 8 A. oats 27 A. hay 12 A. corn 15 A. pota- 27 A. oats toes i . . 27 A. hay [ 12 A. corn j 15 A. pota- 27 A. oats j 19 A. hay |8A. oats ( toes The most important differences between this and the three-year rotation are that part of the oats are grown after oats rather than after hay. Most of the corn and potatoes are grown on a two-year-old rather than a one- year-old sod. The oats are in two separate patches each year rather than in one large field. Usually the three- year rotation will be preferred. In a similar manner, a rotation may be planned for almost any acreage that may be desired, by trying three, four, five, six, or more fields and the corresponding rota- tions, and picking the best one. 253. Combining separate fields for crop rotation. If the farm is composed of fields that cannot be thrown together, the problem can ordinarily be solved. The following is an example from a much-cut-up farm, showing how the operator arranged the fields for a five- year rotation. In the farm there were seven fields, no two of which could be thrown together, as they were sepa- rated by public roads, streams, or other obstacles. CROPPING SYSTEMS 413 Before the rearrangement was made, the fields were as follows : FIELD AREA AND CROP 12 oats not seeded with grass 6 clover 30 hay 9 hay 12 hay 10 corn 9 wheat seeded to grass 5 hay 12 hay The total area is 105 acres. This would make five areas of exactly 21 acres. Field 1, and 3 acres of 6, made one of the new fields. The balance of 6 and 5 made another. Number 2 made one. The balance of 2 and 7 made one ; 3 and 4 made one new field. The land had formerly been farmed as 9 separate fields. The new arrangement leaves the number of NEW FIELD OLD FIELD CONDITION SPRING FIRST YEAR FIRST YEAR SECOND YEAR T 12 A. oat 1 . . f 1-18 A. [6- 3 A. stubble ] 6 A. clover Oats Wheat [ 3 A. timothy 2 . . 2-21 A. Timothy Corn Oats 3 . . }2- 9 A. 1 7-12 A. Timothy Timothy Corn 4 . . J3- 9 A. 14-12 A. Timothy Timothy Timothy 5 . . f 5-19 A. 16- 2 A. 10 A. corn stubble 6 A. wheat 2 A. timothy 110 A. oats seeded 6 A. wheat 2 A. oats seeded Clover 414 FARM MANAGEMENT separate pieces the same, because the old fields 2 and 6 are both divided. The table shows how the rotation of corn, oats, wheat, and two years of hay could then be started. By the end of the second year the rotation is fully established. It is not always so quickly done. 254. Relation of cropping and feeding systems. The cropping and feeding systems naturally go together. The variety of such systems makes a discussion of them very difficult. Usually the farm should provide abundant pasture for the stock kept, or, stated another way, no more stock should ordinarily be kept than can be pas- tured. The stock and stock products produced on pasture are the cheapest gains. Usually the cropping system provides all the pasture and roughage for stock. It is usually desirable to raise most of the grain fed, except in the Northeastern States and other regions where cash crops may pay enough better to make it profitable to buy grain rather than raise it. A horse or mule usually eats about three tons of hay or equivalent in a year, and about 100 bushels of oats or equivalent. Pasture may reduce the hay. In much of the country, it is cheaper to replace half or all of the oats with corn. About 70 bushels of corn is usually fed. The amount varies with the work and other feeds. Before one can do much figuring on such problems he must find out the practice of the community. In fairly intensive dairy sections, in regions north of Washington, cows usually eat about one ton of grain, one ton of hay, and 4 tons of silage, or 1\ tons of hay if silage is not fed. Again these amounts are exceedingly variable. Some farmers feed very little grain and get most of the milk in summer. CROPPING SYSTEMS 415 It is usually considered that about 7 sheep eat as much as a cow. Well-fed hens eat a little more than twice as much for their weight as do other farm animals. The common estimate of a bushel of wheat or equivalent for a hen a year is not far from correct. If only a few hens are kept, a large part of this may be picked up around the farm. REFERENCES Farm Management, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 236. Planning a Cropping System, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 102, Part III. Laboratory Exercises in Farm Management, Warren and Liver- more, pp. 20-27. CHAPTER 15 MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS VERY much is said about the" marketing of farm prod- ucts, and yet there is, perhaps, no subject on which really helpful advice for the individual farmer is so lacking. FIG. 106. - Faneuil Hall market, Boston. The historic Faneuil Hall in the background overlooks a busy market place. The reason appears to be that marketing is so much a community or public question that there is little that the individual can do. 416 MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 417 The marketing of fruit, high-priced stock, and other specialties is almost as important as good management of the farm. The marketing of staple products is an easier problem. TIME TO SELL PRODUCTS 255. Cost of holding products. If products are held for higher prices, the prices received must be high enough to cover interest, insurance, shrinkage, pay for storage room, and extra cost of handling. The interest and insurance can be determined in any community. The extra cost of handling depends primarily on how conveniently the storage is arranged. It varies from no cost to a very high percentage of the value of the product. Some helpful information is available on shrinkage and prices in different months. 256. Shrinkage of farm products. The shrinkage of ear corn stored in cribs on 8 successive years at the Iowa Experiment Station is shown in Table 78. TABLE 78. SHRINKAGE OF EAR CORN STORED IN CRIBS AT AMES, IOWA. AVERAGE OF 8 YEARS TOTAL SHRINKAGE TO DATE AVERAGE FOR THE MONTH November 5.2% 5.2% December January 6.9 7.5 1.7 .6 February 7.8 .3 March April May 9.7 12.8 14.7 1.0 3.1 1.9 June 16.3 1.6 July 17.3 1.0 August .... ... 17.8 .5 September 18.2 .4 October 18.2 .0 2E 418 FARM MANAGEMENT On a farm in Kansas, 16,155 bushels of corn, 70 pounds to the bushel, was weighed as it came from the field during the husking season. It was weighed again in July when it was sold, and weighed 14,896 bushels. This is a shrinkage of 7.8 per cent. A number of tests in Illinois showed a range of shrink- age of 12 to 20 per cent during the first year. This was for corn husked in October and early November. From the results in Iowa, it will be seen that the shrink- age is very rapid when first stored. There is little de- crease in weight during the winter, but a heavy shrinkage when hot weather comes on. Average figures on shrinkage of corn must be used with judgment, because the condition of the corn at the time of storage is so variable, and because the weight depends so much on the weather. During damp weather, corn absorbs moisture so that it gains in weight. In one case in the Illinois tests, a crib of corn gained 3 per cent during a wet week in March. The shrinkage is also dependent on the number of rats and mice that one is raising. In parts of the South, the loss due to the grain moth is exceedingly heavy. All the examples of shrinkage are for ear corn. The cob shrinks relatively more than the grain, so that if corn is sold shelled, the shrinkages here given are a little too large. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye shrink comparatively little after the grain has gone through the " sweat " either in the stack or in the bin. When stored in large elevators, the shrinkage is estimated to be about 1^ per cent in six months. The chief source of shrinkage on the farm is the grain eaten by rats and mice. Well-cured hay, as it is ready to go to the barn, usually MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 419 loses from 10 to 15 per cent in weight by the time it has gone through the " sweat." Sometimes the loss is less than 5 per cent, and sometimes it is over 20 per cent. Clover and alfalfa usually lose more than timothy. After hay has passed through the " sweat," it loses very little. After this time, if damp weather follows dry weather, it will often gain in weight. H. W. Gilbertson reported eight cases in which from 7 to 15 tons of baled hay were stored from one to three months. The dates of baling varied from October 1 to December 22. The average time stored was 61 days. The total amount of hay in the eight lots was 185,038 pounds. The total loss from shrinkage and shattering was 2264 pounds, or 1.2 per cent. Most of the lots were timothy, but some were clover and timothy mixed. It is evident that there is very little shrinkage of hay after it is dry enough to bale. There is more loss from shattering than from shrink- age. Gilbertson also reported the losses from shrinkage and shattering on 18 car loads of hay shipped to New York by one dealer. The hay was baled at different times during the year, and came from different farms. The total weight in the barns at time of baling was 399,378 pounds. The average time of storage was 73 days. The loss from shrinkage and shattering in hauling and ship- ping and errors in weights was 15,533 pounds, or nearly 4 per cent. On 20 other car loads, the loss from shattering and errors in weights amounted to an average of nearly 1 per cent. Potatoes shrink by loss of water from the individual potatoes, by loss of adhering dirt, by freezing, and rot. On only the first of these are figures of any general value. The other shrinkages apply to individual cases only. 420 FARM MANAGEMENT The shrinkage by evaporation varies greatly. If stored in a warm, dry cellar, the shrinkage from this cause may be as much as 20 per cent. If stored in a cool, moist cellar, the evaporation is much less. When buried in pits, the loss from this source is usually small. Farmers and managers of potato exchanges usually expect a loss of 10 per cent when potatoes are stored in quantity and kept till April. Occasionally, the losses are very small, and in a very few instances, potatoes have been stored several months without any loss. On the other hand, the loss may be very much above 10 per cent. With the best storage conditions, a loss of 5 per cent is very good. With fairly good conditions, 10 per cent is to be expected. Sound apples in cold storage shrink very little, usually not over 1 to 5 per cent. When stored in a cellar, the loss is usually much more. The loss from rot of apples is usually much more than the loss from evaporation. 257. Prices of products in different months. Table 84 gives the average prices of some farm products by months for ten years. New corn is usually not ready to sell until December. Using the Chicago price of No. 2 corn, and the Iowa tables of shrinkage, what will one make by holding corn for the July market, so as to get the higher price? The shrinkage from December 1 to July 1 was 7.6 per cent. If one has 1000 bushels of corn on December 1, he would have 924 bushels on July 1. The comparative receipts at average prices would be : December 1, 1000 bushels at 52.9^ $529 July 1, 924 bushels at 60.5<< 559 Gain by holding $ 30 On the average, it appears that one might expect to receive $30 more by holding for the high price. This MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 421 must cover interest, insurance, and storage. This is enough to pay these costs. But there are yet other problems to be considered. If corn is sold and hauled during the winter months, the work can be done when it will not interfere with farm work. This point is usually enough to offset any gain from holding. How much one needs the money must also be con- sidered. Sometimes more pounds per bushel are required when corn is very green. It rarely pays to sell under this condition. Elevators do not want corn that is too wet to ship. When they buy such corn, they find some way of cutting the price very heavily, either directly or by taking more pounds for a bushel. It rarely pays to sell until a product is fit to be handled by shippers. If a farmer is carrying considerable stock, it is very desirable to hold some corn until July. If prospects are good for a crop, it can then be sold ; if not, it can be kept. In years when corn is very high, it is usually best not to do much of this holding. In years when corn is low, it pays to hold for feed or for sale. In selling live-stock, it sometimes pays to plan to have the stock ready at the season of high prices. This is particularly true of horses. Carriage horses are usually very low in the fall and high in the spring. A farmer who is raising such horses can winter them cheaper than they can be wintered in town, so that he makes money by holding. Draft horses are highest in the spring. They have a second slight rise in price in the late fall, probably when horses are being purchased for winter teaming in cities. It usually pays a farmer best to sell draft horses in the spring. The fall seems to be the second best. 422 FARM MANAGEMENT In determining when to sell products, farmers should make careful studies of reports of prices given in agricul- tural and daily papers and government crop reports. The Crop Reporter is of great value in studying crop conditions. This is sent free on request by the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 258. Conclusions on the best time to sell. It is evi- dent that the higher prices received for products held are just about enough to cover shrinkage and interest and storage costs. This is to be expected when one stops to consider how prices are fixed. The prices offered in the large storage centers represent the average opinions of men who are constantly studying the supply and demand. These men use every available source of information and make the business a life study. If prices are not as high as the future demand is likely to warrant, there is a great demand for products to store. This demand comes from manu- facturers as well as speculators. Such a demand tends to raise the price until the profits from storage are reduced. If prices are considered too high, storage is checked and prices fall. The price offered for wheat is the consensus of opinion of farmers, millers, warehouse owners, and speculators as to the present and probable future demand and supply of this article. The majority are not always right. Often the supply is not correctly estimated and sometimes war, panics, or periods of prosperity upset all calculations on the demand. More frequently, excep- tionally favorable or unfavorable prospects for a succeed- ing crop make the prices wrong. Occasionally, a product is cornered, but this does not often happen. The price to-day is a better indication of the price a few months from now than is the opinion of any one farmer. MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 423 FIG. 107. Packing Colorado apples. Only the finest quality pays for the long shipment to the large markets. Since the profits on holding products are, on the aver- age, only interest and pay for other costs, it follows that other things will usually determine whether it pays a FIG. 108. Packing New York apples. The short shipment allows a profit from a lower grade of fruit that is produced with less care and cost. 424 FARM MANAGEMENT farmer to hold his products. The two most important factors are how much the money is needed and how the work of marketing fits in with the other farm work. The majority of farmers can make better use of the money in some other way. Sometimes it pays to hold products to be marketed in seasons when there is less farm work. Very frequently the condition of the roads overshadows all other considerations. The question of storage on a farm that has good storage room that would otherwise be idle is very different from the problem on a farm where such a building must be put up. Often there is a rush of marketing grain as soon as a product will do to sell, and sometimes before it is ready. Such grain is difficult to handle without spoiling. It sometimes congests the elevators so that there is an ab- normally low price. When any such condition arises, it is, of course, desirable to hold the product. Usually the need for money, the pressure of farm work, and the condition of the roads determine the best time to sell. WAYS OF SELLING PRODUCTS 259. Retailing vs. wholesaling. There is now very much discussion about sending products direct to the consumer. The general farm products, as cotton, wheat, corn, beef, wool, and pork, cannot often be so marketed. The discussion applies mostly to vegetables, eggs, and other perishable products that are ready for food when they leave the farm. Around every town and city there are farmers who do more or less retailing of products. Sometimes the business is large and profitable, as on some farms that retail milk. But in the great majority of cases, the retailing is done by farmers with small farms MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 425 and little money, who do not count their time very valuable. Somewhat higher prices are received for the products. The objection to retailing is that the man and horse time are often worth more than the increased prices received. If one has important work to do on the farm, retailing is usually undesirable. If there is little to do on the farm, so that time has a very low value, retailing is more likely to pay. If much of a business is being done on the farm, the owner is needed there to manage the work. Usually when a man makes enough by retailing so that he can enlarge his business, he changes to wholesale and sells his products to the grocery stores, or ships them, because he cannot afford to leave the farm as much as is necessary for a retail business. Very rarely do we see a farmer changing from a wholesale to a retail business. Another objection to retailing is that the farmer usually has too much or too little of different products. By handling products through a distributing agency of some kind, the deficiencies of different farms are evened up. The more direct marketing of farm products is likely to come about by cooperation rather than by any great increase in retail business. If farmers and consumers were properly organized, consumers' associations could buy direct from farmers, or farmers' organizations, and so eliminate some of the unnecessary costs of handling products. 260. Selling on commission. The chief difficulty in selling on commission is that the seller is at the mercy of the commission man. Goods should never be sent to an unknown commission man. Bank references should always be written to, in order to see if the dealer is re- sponsible. Even then, the risk is very great. Some 426 FARM MANAGEMENT states are now advocating laws to control the commission business. The condition is now intolerable. Like our whole marketing system, it needs a thorough overhauling. 261. Farm auctions. Farmers usually sell products that are staple. For this reason, they do not realize the importance of advertising when the occasion demands it. When one is to have a farm auction, or if he wishes to sell equipment or stock at a private sale, the advertising is of great importance. Very rarely is a farm auction properly advertised. Farmers do not make enough use of papers or the rural mail delivery. In addition to the posted hand bills, an auction ought to be advertised in each of the papers of the region. It is not enough to advertise in the paper that agrees with one in politics. The bid of a Democrat is just as acceptable as the bid of a Republican at a sale. The advertisements need not be very expensive. A few lines in the proper place in each paper will accomplish the purpose. It is also desirable to get the names of farmers from telephone books, asses- sors, or otherwise, and mail each one a sale bill. Only rarely are the products at a sale properly ar- ranged. The essential thing is that all the articles be so arranged that they can be readily seen by all the bidders. Hogs in a pen that is not readily accessible do not sell well. Whenever possible, the arrangement should be such that the bidders can form a half circle around the article. A little attention to these matters will save many dollars. Nothing so reduces the desire to bid as uncertainty as to what one is bidding on. It is well to have a list of cost prices of articles. These may be given out by the owner or auctioneer. Many a bidder hesitates because he does not know just what the article cost when new. Prices should be absolutely honest ; MARKETING FARM PRODUCTS 427 any attempt at deception is almost certain to be detected and result in loss. Time spent in cleaning animals is well spent. A dirty animal rarely brings what it is worth. Animals should be in good condition. Farmers do not realize how much the fat on a horse or cow sells for. So little is this under- stood, that near the larger cities, a good business is done in buying and fattening horses for market. Horses that the farmer let go in what seemed to him good condition, are bought, fattened, and resold. The farmer's loss is enough to cover the extra cost of selling twice and a profit for the feeder. REFERENCES Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. II, pp. 355-357 (fruit), pp. 362-365 (grain); Vol. Ill, pp. 158-162 (live-stock); Vol. IV, pp. 239-276. Farm Management, P. W. Card, pp. 109 to 144. Marketing Farm Products, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 62. Marketing Live Stock, U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 184. Fruit Harvesting, Storing, Marketing, F. A. Waugh. The American Apple Orchard, F. A. Waugh, pp. 149-181. The Business of Dairying, C. B. Lane, pp. 198-218. Market Hay, Farmers' Bulletin 508. The Prices of Farm Products, Wisconsin, Bulletin 209. The Marketing of Wisconsin Cheese, Wisconsin, Bulletin 231. Studies of Primary Cotton Market Conditions in Oklahoma, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bulletin 36. CHAPTER 16 FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS KINDS OF ACCOUNTS ACCOUNTING is usually concerned with keeping track of who owes you and whom you owe. Probably these were the tirst kinds of accounts that mankind learned to keep. Such accounts avoid mistakes and disputes as to how much one man owes another. They are necessary whenever much business is done on credit. It is this kind of accounting that is usually meant by the term ' ' bookkeeping. " It shows the relation of the business to outside persons or firms, or may be called external accounting, or personal accounting. Merchants who have a large amount of this kind of accounting are likely to think that the farmer who does not keep such accounts is very careless, but in many cases the farmer does so little buying or selling on time that he does not need to keep such accounts. 262. Accounting as a means of studying the business. - But the uses of accounting have now extended far be- yond the mere recording of debits and credits. Men are now beginning to keep careful cost accounts and other records of the internal affairs of the business for the pur- pose of learning how to conduct the business more effi- ciently. These two kinds of accounting are entirely different. One kind is a very simple matter of arithmetic. Nearly any person who is accurate can make a good " bookkeeper," but cost accounting is an investigation into the internal organization and management of the business. The keeping of such accounts involves a thor- 428 FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 429 ough knowledge of the business. The interpretation of the results and their application in the reorganization of the business call for the highest type of business ability. These two kinds of accounts are commonly confused. The statement is frequently made that the farmer ought to keep accounts as the merchant does, and that he ought to know how much his wheat costs and whether his cows pay. Such statements confuse bookkeeping and cost accounting. The merchants keep personal accounts, but these are nothing like cost accounts. Farmers probably keep personal accounts as well as city persons who have the same amount of such accounting to do. The chief reason why they do so little bookkeeping is because they have so little to do. A study of this question in one county showed that 47 per cent of the farmers kept some accounts of re- ceipts and expenses. In this same county, there were two farmers who kept accurate cost accounts. Much over half of the population lived in cities and villages, but few if any of the city business men keep cost accounts. The fact is that cost accounting is used by very few persons in city or country, but this method of studying the busi- ness is rapidly increasing. There is very little relationship between bookkeeping and cost accounting. Bookkeeping is an exact science. If John Jones buys 100 pounds of sugar at 6 cents, and has it charged, the account is exactly $6. There can be no other answer. But cost accounting contains estimates. Two persons studying the same business will not have ex- actly the same results, although the results ought to point to the same recommendations for the future management. A railroad cannot determine what it costs to haul freight. By cost accounting methods, it can arrive at an approxi- mation of the cost. - How reliable the result is depends 430 FARM MANAGEMENT on how much technical knowledge of the business the one who keeps such accounts has. The same road bed is used to carry passengers, mail, express, and freight. In order to determine approximately what it costs to haul a man or a car of coal, a very large part of the cost of railroading must be more or less arbitrarily divided between these items. The same questions arise in all kinds of cost accounting. The Tariff Board tried to find the cost of producing wool " at home and abroad." It had an impossible task. The feed that the sheep eats is used in growing both wool and meat, and sheep are only one of a number of enter- prises on most farms. The best the Board could do was to make some very rough guesses at the cost. The cost of producing a pound of pork cannot be exactly deter- mined. If it were determined, change in rainfall, in wages, land values, or any one of a hundred other items would change it next year. Every farmer and every business man makes some esti- mates of costs and what things are paying him. Often the estimate is carefully made and is fairly accurate. More frequently, it omits many items of expense and may be far wrong on others. 4 4 Chicken house 25 8 12 Lumber Wire Household goods .... Groceries 20 40 95 25 10 20 100 20 8 8 100 25 Cash 36 55 15 Miscellaneous 40 35 30 $2420 $2025 $2132 436 FARM MANAGEMENT This tenant lost about $300 in 1910 and made half of it back in 1911. This is not very encouraging, but the years were dry so that crops were poor. The farmer had four children in school. With a little help from the children, he came within $100 of making his living expenses. While this is not as good as one would like, it is not so bad for two years of rather poor crops. The 100 acres of growing wheat was a good prospect for 1912, but this was again a dry year. The farmer is doing the right thing for his conditions, that is, raising as many acres of wheat, corn, and oats as possible. If he can keep even until there is a year with good rainfall, he will make money. RECEIPTS AND EXPENSES 267. Object of keeping receipts and expenses. - Many farmers keep a list of receipts and expenses. Such accounts are of considerable help in studying the farm business. From these, one may see how much the cows, corn, and other enterprises have brought in during the year, and by making estimates of costs one may often be guided in making changes in the business. In fact, many farmers are able to figure up from memory and give a very good opinion as to which enterprises pay. The writer thinks that nearly every boy and girl should be taught to keep a list of receipts and expenses. Nothing will so soon lead to habits of thrift. Foolish expenses when written down are not so soon forgotten. It is a good thing to run over one's expenses occasionally to see whether the money could have been spent in a way that would bring more lasting pleasure or profit. FARM EECOKDS AND ACCOUNTS 437 MISCELLANEOUS ACCOUNTS 268. Other Kinds of Accounts. There is a great vari- ety of miscellaneous accounts, some of which are useful on one farm, some on another. Weather records with dates of beginning and ending important farm operations, animal records, milk records, egg records are among the ones more frequently desired. Various animal record forms are given on pages 221 to 223. There are many other kinds of farm records that are desirable under certain con- ditions. It is often desirable to make a sketch of the fields showing the location and area of crops each year. If tile drains are laid, an accurate map of their location should be kept. Such a map is necessary in making repairs or in laying new drains. Fruit growers need to keep records of the yields of different varieties, in order to learn which varieties to plant. COST ACCOUNTS WITH ONE OR MORE CROPS OR KINDS OF ANIMALS 269. Object of cost accounts. If one does not desire to keep a full set of cost accounts, he may keep accounts with the important enterprises on the farm, each one independently. The chief objections to this method are that it does not give a complete study of the business and that it is likely to be wrong, because without a full set of accounts one is not likely to know what horse labor, machinery labor, or even man labor really cost. Usually all these are underestimated. If one knows what these cost, an account with cows, corn, potatoes, or other im- portant enterprise may be of very great value. In any event, such an account will be more accurate than the usual guesses. 438 FARM MANAGEMENT 270. Items with which crops must be charged and credited. A crop must be charged and credited with the following items : CHARGES Inventory of work, seed, etc. previously given. Manure from previous crops. Manure for this crop. Fertilizers or lime, charge all or part to this crop. Seed Use of land. Use of buildings for storage of crops. Use of machinery. All man labor. All horse labor. All other costs caused by the crop. Interest on costs until money is returned. CREDITS All produce sold. All produce saved for seed. All produce fed on the farm. Bedding, etc., used on the farm. Manure charged to this crop, but probably left in the soil. Inventory at the end of the year. 271. Items with which stock must be charged and credited. Stock accounts should be charged and credited as follows : CHARGES Inventory of stock, feed, etc., at beginning of year. Purchased stock. Feed and bedding bought or raised. Pasture. Use of buildings. Use of machinery. All man labor. All horse labor. All other costs caused by the stock Interest on investment. CREDITS Sales of stock. Sales of products. All products used on farm for other stock. All products used by the family or hired-men and not paid for. Manure. Inventory at end of year. For methods of estimating values of manure, buildings, use of machinery, etc., see pp. 481 to 487. FARM RECORDS AND ACCOUNTS 439 272. An account with potatoes. The following is an account with 14 acres of potatoes grown in 1911. The work report was kept like that on page 442. POTATOES 1911 14 ACRES. (Left-hand page.) May 20 Manure 30 T @ $1.50 45 00 May 23 6 oz. corrosive sublimate 60 June 1 4 oz. corrosive sublimate 30 June 12 6 Ib. Paris green 1 32 July 3 Chas. Peck seed potatoes 160 bu. (o>, 45^ 72 00 July 13 75 Ib. arsenate of lead 6 75 July 21 50 Ib. arsenate of lead 4 50 Aug. 17 35 Ib. arsenate of lead 3 15 Mar. 31 Use of land 14 A. @ $5.00 70 00 828.5 hr. man labor .20 165 70 903 hr. horse labor @ .15 135 45 903 hr. machinery @ .05 45 15 549 92 Gain 2X2 90 832 82 POTATOES 1911 14 ACRES. (Right-hand page.) Oct. 23 226 bu. potatoes 136 00 Oct. 26 510 bu. potatoes 316 20 Nov. 3 241 bu. potatoes 261 02 Mar. 31 Seed saved, 90 bu. @ $1.00 90 00 Mar. 31 Saved for house use, 16 bu. @ 60^ 9 60 Mar. 31 Estimated value of manure left in soil 20 00 832 82 Cost of production 529 92 Cost per A. 37 79 Cost per bu. 49 Gain per A. 20 21 Gain per man hr. 34 Man time to raise an acre, 58 hours (a very low rate) Man time to raise a bushel, 45 minutes Horse time to raise an acre, 63 hours Horse time to raise a bushel, 49 minutes CHAPTER 17 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS IF instead of keeping accounts with one crop or animal as illustrated with potatoes, one keeps an account with each enterprise on the farm, he will have a complete set of cost accounts. There are some elaborate systems of double entry accounts that have been devised, usually by persons who have never actually done any real keeping of cost ac- counts on farms. It is very rarely that any such system is advisable on a farm. One must ever remember that cost accounting is an entirely different thing from ordinary bookkeeping. All that is necessary to have a complete set of cost accounts is to have an account, just like the potato account, with each enterprise on the farm. There are many advantages of such a set of accounts. Instead of accounting for only part of the labor, the entire labor of men, horses, and equipment is accounted for and charged to some account. Instead of guessing at what these are worth, we find what an hour of horse or man labor really costs. With such a set of accounts, there are always two entries, except for cash transactions. If one has an account with both the hay field and horses, he will charge the horses with hay at the same time that he credits the hay field with what the horses ate. If the hay was bought for cash, no entry is necessary except the charge to horses. If one desires, he may keep the cash account also. He will then have his accounts by the double entry method, but this 440 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 441 nearly doubles the work and adds nothing to the value of the accounts. (See page 479.) 273. Essential facts for cost accounts. In order to know what it costs to raise potatoes, or keep a herd of cows, one must keep track of all receipts and expenses, all labor of man and horse, and all transfers of feed or other materials on the farm from one account to another. Oats raised on the farm and fed to horses must be credited to the oat crop and charged to horses. Produce used in the house must also be recorded or estimated. If these three kinds of facts cash, transfer charges, and labor are recorded, one has all the necessary data for a set of cost accounts, except the inventory, use of land, buildings, etc., that need not be recorded until the end of the year. 274. Methods of cost accounting. Naturally, there are many ways of recording such data. The best way on any particular farm is the way that requires the least work and yet gives the farmer all the facts that he desires. One of the shortest possible ways of keeping accounts that will give all the information that is likely to be wanted is illustrated by the following set of accounts kept by a New York farmer in 1911. This method has been used on a considerable number of farms with good success. Later we will consider the merits of this and other methods. A COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS AS KEPT BY A FARMER 275. Methods used and accounts. On this farm accounts were kept with three alfalfa fields, buckwheat, corn grown on shares by a neighbor, cattle, equipment, farm, timothy hay, hens, horses, improvements, interest, labor, notes and accounts payable, notes and accounts 442 FARM MANAGEMENT receivable, oats 1911, oats 1912, orchard, pasture, wheat 1911, wheat 1912, wood lot, and personal expenses. The farm contains about 200 acres, about 80 of which was in pasture, woods, roads, waste land, etc. Two books were used, one for labor and one for ledger accounts. Each evening, the time spent on each crop H/SL CZ*f /? i 2-0 i. >/ / L2\ - *3 *y > * " -*? '. ^-^ -, *? *? ^^ ^7 f f f /o 3 July 31 House rent 18 Dec. 31 Use of buildings equipment 7 15 Use of buildings cows 6 GO Use of buildings hay 9 150 Use of buildings hens 10 30 Use of buildings horses 11 25 Use of houses labor 14 165 Use of house personal 25 150 Use of land alfalfa A 1 23 Use of land alfalfa B 2 9 Use of land corn 5 9 Use of land hay 9 185 Use of land oats 17 69 Use of land orchard 19 30 Use of land pasture 20 90 Use of land wheat 21 33 1 Use of land wood lot 23 52 Use of land garden 24 5 Inventory 19600 207 IS HAY, TIMOTHY, 67.4 ACRES 1911 605 Ib. hay 46361 Ib. (a $20 per ton 3000 Ib. used by hired-man's horse 14 13 tons mixed hay to cows (5^ $15 6 12i tons mixed hay to horses 11 Inventory 43i tons $826.50 Seed on hand 18.00 Manure applied since cutting 60.00 Interest is charged on the cost other than land and buildings for 6 months @ 5% (land and buildings have paid interest under farm account) 5 463 27 195 225 904 44 61 50 1820 55 454 FARM MANAGEMENT 10. HENS 1911 Jan. Feb. 8 28 Apr. 1 6 13 18 24 May 1 2 June 6 7 13 29 July 10 Aug. 1 Sept. 13 Oct. 30 31 Nov. 1 116 pullets, $116.00; 96 yearling hens, $72.00; 8 roosters, $8.00; colony houses, $20.80 ; leg bands, $1.00 ; cor- bolineum, $3.00; 42| bu. wheat, $42.50; k ton mixed feed, $15.00; oyster shell, $2.00; 27 bu. corn, $15.50 Paper for brooder house 100 Ib. grit 1990 qt. skim milk for year, summarized to save space 6 Repairs brooder house 100 Ib. corn meal 50 gal. gasoline Fire insurance permit to put incubator in cellar Advertising eggs 1813 Ib. wheat Incubator, 390 egg size 3 universal hovers 100 Ib. grit Kerosene brooders and incubators 13 Ib. chick food 600 Ib. bran, $8.70 ; 300 Ib. corn meal, $4.05 ; 300 Ib. middlings, $4.65 ; 300 Ib. cracked corn, $4.05; 100 Ib. meat scrap, $3.25 87 Ib. rolled oats for chickens Kerosene for brooders 4122 Ib. wheat, $68.70 ; 1901 Ib. cracked corn, $25.66 Insurance on hens 500 Ib. corn meal, $7.75; 500 Ib. mid- dlings, $7.75; 400 Ib. meat scrap, $12.00 ; 200 Ib. bran, $3.00 ; 100 Ib. oil meal, $2.25 178 bu. wheat from wheat field @ 95 21 2 tons wheat straw 21 67 bu. buckwheat 4 Buckwheat straw 4 Cabbage from garden 24 300 Ib. corn meal, $7.50 ; 200 Ib. bran, $2.80 ; 600 Ib. middlings, $9.90 ; 1000 Ib. oyster shell, $6.00 ; 300 Ib. grit, (Carried forward) COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 10. HENS 1911 455 Dec. 31 The sales during the year are here sum- marized to save space : doz. eggs 150 doz. eggs sold to incubate 257 5 doz. eggs used in house 25 84 hens, 7 roosters 315 cockerels 4 hens, 1 rooster used in house 25 34 cockrels used in house 25 Manure 2, 9, 19, 24 Inventory : 404 pullets, $404.00 ; 116 hens, $87.00 ; 25 roosters, $25.00; 9 cull roosters, $4.50 900 Ib. oyster shell, $5.40 ; 300 Ib. grit, $1.80 ; 300 Ib. bone meal, $7.50 ; 300 Ib. meat scraps, $9.00 ; 500 Ib. mid- dlings, $8.25; 300 Ib. corn meal, $4.80; 150 Ib. bran, $2.10; 4 tons corn, $126.75; 400 bu. wheat, $380.00; 50 bu. buckwheat, $36.00; straw, $5.00 Incubator, $30.80; brooders, $19.50; brooder house, $20.00 ; colony house made of old boards, $10.00; feed hopper, $3.00 (Carried forward) 348 I 39 53 09 62 41 44 80 117 70 2 35 10 05 20 520 586 83 1849 50 60 30 19 456 FAIIM MANAGEMENT 10. HENS 1911 (Continued) Nov. 3 10 Dec. 1 29 31 $1.80; 500 Ib. meat scrap, $13.75; freight on meat scrap, $1.15 342 hu. wheat, $324.90 ; advertisement for wheat, $.25 8000 Ib. corn 32 bu. corn from cornfield 5 400 Ib. corn meal from cows to hens 6 10 egg cases T'se of buildings 8 606 man hours (268 hens and 338 chickens) @21H 14 111 horse hours (77 hens and 34 chickens) @ I3i 11 111 equipment hours @ 3 T 9 5 i 7 Interest on average inventory $743.00 @ 5% 13 Gain 42 325 126 27 5 1 30 130 90 75 20 60 29 43 33 37 15 1555 i 87 293 32 1849 19 COMPLETE HKT OF COST ACCOUNTS 4f>7 10. HENS 1911 (Continued) 1849 19 1849 19 SUMMARY FOR YEAR HENS ROOSTERS No. FIRST MONTH DIED SOLD OR EATEN No. FIRST MONTH DIED SOLD OR EATEN EGGS LAID Jan. 212 1 8 1272 Feb. 211 1 8 1384 Mar. 210 8 2480 Apr. 210 2 8 3658 May 208 3 8 4164 June 205 2 26 8 8 2794 July 177 61 1341 Aug. 116 1316 Sept. 116 1278 Oct. 116 736 Nov. 522 2 37 1 2 773 Dec. 520 34 2786 1711 eggs were incubated. 458 FARM MANAGEMENT 11. HORSES 1911 Jan. Feb. July Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. 20 9 10 13 4 7 23 24 25 4 10 Dec. 31 Inventory : Frank, $100; Jennie, $145; colt, $40; ton mixed feed, $8 ; 400 bu. oats, $178 ; 9 tons hay, $99 Delia, bought of James Peterson, cash, $100 ; note due Oct. 1, 6%, $107.50 15 Maud, bought of James Peterson, cash, $55 ; note due Oct. 1, 6%, $100 15 Insurance 668 bu. oats @ 50 i 17 6 tons oat straw @ $6 17 3 tons wheat straw @ $5 21 Minnie Percheron colt Veterinary to date Pasture " 20 Two loads hay, Mr. Mays 12| tons hay 9 Membership Percheron society Registration of rnare 850 Ib. bran 100 Ib. oil meal Ad. colt for sale Stallion service Other costs of the year are here summa- rized to save space. Shoeing for the year Stabling for the year Halters for the year Medicine for the year Use of buildings 8 714 man hours @ 1\\ 14 33 equipment hours 7 Interest on average inventory, $947.70 @ 5 % 13 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 11. HORSES 1911 459 Mar. 21 Transferred horses to cows : 100 Ib. oil meal, $2.00; 100 Ib. middlings, $1. 50; 200 Ib. bran, $2.80, 3 bu. oats, $1.50 5 7 80 Aug. 1 Received for horse labor 1 Dec. 1 100 Ib. bran taken by hired-man on a/c 14 1 40 31 Manure for the year 2, 9, 19 ,24 50 279 hr. horse labor for hired-men 14 34 88 Inventory : Frank, $80 Jennie, $140 ; Delia, $175 ; Maud, $150 ; Minnie, $335 ; colt, $75 955 7 tons straw, $40; 500 bu. oats, $250; 600 Ib. bran, $8.40 ; 4 tons hay, $72 370 40 Work for the year : 191 hr. alfalfa A @ 13^ 1 24 83 412 hr. alfalfa B 2 53 56 4 hr. alfalfa C 3 52 130 hr. buckwheat 4 16 90 20 hr. corn 5 2 60 147 hr. cattle 6 19 11 33 hr. equipment 7 4 29 HOShrhay 9 144 04 111 hr. hens 10 14 43 848 hr. improvements, barn 12 110 24 537 hr. improvements, clearing 12 69 81 411 hr. oats 1911 17 53 43 421 hr. oats 1912 18 54 73 326 hr. orchard 19 42 38 41 hr. pasture 20 5 33 45 hr. wheat 1911 21 5 85 640 hr. wheat 1912 22 83 20 166 hr. wood lot 23 21 58 54 hr. garden 24 7 02 219 hr. personal 25 28 47 2182 80 Loss 4 41 2187 21 460 FARM MANAGEMENT 12. IMPROVEMENTS BUILDING A BARN AND ('LEAKING LAND June 5 5000 ft. lumber wood lot 23 Total cash cost of lumber, hardware, cement, etc., summarized to save space 1990 man hours on barn @ 21^ 14 848 horse hours on barn @ 13 1 11 848 equipment hours on barn @ 3 T 9 7j 7 674 man hours clearing land 14 537 horse hours clearing land 1 1 537 equipment hours clearing land 7 125 1201 427 110 33 144 69 20 2133 13. INTEREST 1911 Feb. 9 July 1 Sept. 1 Oct. 24 Dec. 23 27 Drawing mortgage, $2 ; recording, $1.35 Farmers' bank, interest on mortgage Interest in advance on loan on life insur- ance policy Interest James Peterson Farmers' bank, interest on mortgage Andrew Thomas Gain 148 22 8 149 300 632 536 1168 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 461 12. IMPROVEMENTS BUILDING A BARN AND CLEARING LAND Cost of barn $1897.77 Cost of clearing 235.66 2133 43 Carried to farm account at cost. This is a part of the farm account but was kept separate to get the cost of the barn and clearing. 2133 43 13. INTEREST 1911 Dec. 31 Interest on farm enterprises Alfalfa A 1 9 65 Alfalfa B 2 4 02 Cattle 6 75 73 Equipment 7 42 54 Hay 9 20 98 Hens 10 37 15 Horses 11 47 39 Farm 8 906 25 Oats 17 7 54 Orchard 19 8 21 Wheat 1911 21 5 65 Wheat 1912 22 3 33 1168 44 462 FARM MANAGEMENT 14. LABOR 1911 Jan. 1 Mar. 15 Nov. 25 Dec. 1 31 Work report books and ledger Wood used by hired-men 23 1 tons hay used by hired-man's horse 9 100 Ib. corn meal furnished to hired- man 6 100 Ib. wheat bran furnished to hired- man 11 The other costs of labor are here summa- rized to save space : 360 qt. milk 6 Board furnished by house 25 Board paid Paid for labor Owner's work (estimated) 25 Use of buildings by men 8 279 hr. horse labor for men 11 279 hr. equipment 7 30 27 1 1 12 25 92 904 600 165 34 11 1907 15. NOTES AND ACCOUNTS PAYABLE 1911 Dec. 31 Inventory 12,057 12,057 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 14. LABOR 1911 463 Aug. 1 Received for labor 75 Dec. 31 Labor on various farm enterprises : 208 hr. alfalfa A @ 21^ 1 44 72 212 hr. alfalfa B 2 45 58 4 hr. alfalfa C 3 86 110 hr. buckwheat 4 23 65 24 hr. corn 5 5 16 1249 hr. cattle 6 268 54 161 hr. equipment 7 34 62 1094 hr. hay 9 235 21 606 hr. hens 10 130 29 714 hr. horses 11 153 51 1990 hr. improvements, barn 12 427 85 674 hr. improvements, clearing 12 144 91 270 hr. oats, 1911 17 58 05 ' 151 hr. oats, 1912 18 32 47 583 hr. orchard 19 125 35 23 hr. pasture 20 4 95 99 hr. wheat, 1911 21 21 29 278 hr. wheat, 1912 22 59 77 146 hr. wood lot 23 31 39 81 hr. garden 24 17 42 158 hr. personal 25 33 97 1900 31 Loss 7 14 1907 45 15. NOTES AND ACCOUNTS PAYABLE 1911 Jan. 1 Mortgage, Andrew Thomas, 5 yr. @ 5% Mortgage, Farmers' bank, due 1915, 6,000 @ 5i% 5,000 20 Note, James Peterson, due Oct. 1, @ 6% 11 107 50 Feb. 9 Note, James Peterson, due Oct. 1 , @ 6 % 1 1 100 9 Mortgage, Farmers' bank, 2 yr. @ 6% 8 400 Sept. 1 Borrowed on life insurance policy 450 12,057 50 464 FA KM MA A' A CEMENT 17. OATS, 23 ACRES 1911 Jan. 1 Inventory : 134 hr. man labor (126 plowing, 8 other work) 254 hr. horse and equipment labor (248 fall plowing, 6 other work) $84.08 GO bu. oats for seed $33 117 08 Mar. 13 2 bu. seed oats, $2 ; freight, 13 jf ; bag, 25 1 2 38 14 Fertilizer 10 July 1 Insurance 3 Sept. 8 Twine and cutting 22 12 Coal for threshing 96 Oct. 8 Meals for threshers o Threshing 668 bu. (5), 2.? f 16 70 Dec. 31 Use of land 8 69 270 man hours (w, 21 \f 14 58 05 411 horse hours (5), 13f 1 1 53 43 411 equipment hours @ 3 T 9 ^ 7 16 03 Interest on $301.63, 6 mo. @ 5 % 13 7 54 378 17 Gain 27 _83 406 Dec. 31 18. OATS, 22 ACRES 1912 151 man hours fall plowing 421 horse hours @ 13 f< 421 equipment @ 3 T 9 5 14 11 7 32 54 16 103 COMPLETE SET OF COST ACCOUNTS 17. OATS, 23 ACRES 1911 465 Sept. 13 668 bu. oats to horses @ 50 p 6 tons oat straw to cows 6 tons oat straw to horses 334 36 36 406 18. OATS, 22 ACRES 1912 Dec. 31 Inventoried at cost 103 103 62 62 466 FARM MANAGEMENT 19. ORCHARD, 3 ACRES 1911 Jan. 1 Inventory : Spray materials on hand 7 June 14 1 bu. buckwheat, $1.00 ; 4 Ib. rape, 40f ; f Ib. cowhorn turnips, 50 1, for cover crop 1 90 Nov. 25 241 apple barrels 93 10 Dec. 15 Freight on apples 36 05 31 Manure 6, 10, 11 10 Use of land 8 30 583 man hours @ 1\\ 14 125 35 326 horse hours @ 13 1 11 42 38 1 326 equipment hours @ 3^^ Interest on $328.49, 6 mo. @ 5% 7 13 12 8 71 21 366 70 20. PASTURE, 43 ACRES 1911 Dec. 31 Use of land 8 90 23 man hours @ 21^ 14 4 95 41 horse hours @ 13 fS 11 5 33 41 equipment hours @ 3 T 9 g> 2\ FIG. 110. Rainfall at North Platte, Nebraska, for 36 years, from rec- ords of the United States Weather Bureau. no value except as range land is sold to settlers, or is held as a speculation in the hope of selling it. In nearly all parts of the United States, the loss from periods of drought is very serious, even though the total rainfall of the year may be large enough if it were properly distributed. One should make a careful study of the rain- fall before he invests in farm land. The rainfall of a single year, or of a few years, is not sufficient information. The variations in rainfall from year to year are very great. CHOICE OF A REGION 499 Figure 1 10 shows the rainfall at North Platte, Nebraska, for 36 years. The years from 1887 to 1892 were years of fairly good crops. Settlers located in the region and paid good prices for land. For nine years, from 1893-1901, the rainfall was below normal every year, and crops usually failed. Many of the settlers lost all their property. From 1902 to 1909 were wet years. Crops were good and INCHES __ FIG. 111. Rainfall at Dodge City, Kansas, for 45 years, from records of the United States Weather Bureau. land rose in price much higher than conditions warranted. In 1910 to 1912, crops were either partial or total failures, so that farmers who did not have considerable money were in bad straits. Nearly every one who bought land in this region from about 1905 to 1909 paid much more than it 500 FARM MANAGEMENT was worth, because land was selling on the basis of a rain- fall above normal. Those who bought land in the late nineties got it very cheap, because it was selling on a rain- fall below normal. Figure 111 shows the rainfall for Dodge City, Kansas, for 45 years. During this time, there were 9 years when the rainfall exceeded 25 inches. This is enough for good crops when properly distributed. In 9 more years, the rainfall was between 20 and 25 inches. In some of these years, fairly good crops were secured. In 27 years, the rainfall was less than 20 inches. With the very high evaporation, this amount of rain is usually not sufficient to produce a good crop. One who farms in this region should expect an average of about one small crop, one good crop, and two crop failures every four years. When two or three wet years come in succession, land values usually rise too high. When dry years come in succession, they are likely to drop too low. Farming under such uncertainties is a very try- ing business. One never knows when he may be called upon to live and pay his expenses for several years with no crops. The distribution of the rainfall is almost as important as the amount of it. Figures 112, 113, and 114 show three general types of rainfall : the summer rainfall of the Great Plains, the winter and spring rainfall of the inter mountain district, and the winter rainfall of the Pacific Coast. The frequency of torrential rains, the surface run-off, and the loss of water through evaporation should also be considered. 306. Evaporation is almost as important as rainfall. The evaporation from a free water surface at Williston, North Dakota, is 30 inches during the six months of April to September, while at Garden City, Kansas, it is 60 CHOICE OF A REGION 501 INCHES r\. ft n j. j. ft. a o. N. D. FIG. 112. Average distribution of rainfall by months, North Platte, Nebraska. INCHES iiiiL.iil 3. f. t\ ft l\ J. J. ft. S. 0. N. D. FIG. 113. Average distribution of rainfall by months, (Jgden, Utah. j. r n. A. n. j. j i\. &. o. N. D. FIG. 1 14. Average distribution of rainfall by months, Sacramento, California. 502 FARM MANAGEMENT inches. 1 Holding moisture in the soil in this part of Kansas is a very different problem from conserving mois- ture in Dakota. Figure 115 shows the lines of equal rainfall and lines of equivalent rainfall for part of the Great FIG. 115. Lines of equal rainfall in black. Dotted lines pass through places having a rainfall equivalent to 15 and 20 inches, respectively, on the Canadian boundary. Plains region. Fifteen inches of rainfall is more effective in North Dakota than 20 inches in Texas. 307. Winds. The winds also affect profits. In semi- J U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 188, p. 18. CHOICE OF A REGION 503 arid regions, the frequency of hot winds is of very great importance. Crops are frequently damaged by hot winds, when the moisture present might carry them along in normal weather. 308. Hail. The frequency of damage by hail is also to be considered. Hail is much more frequent in some regions than in others. It is most frequent in some parts of the semi-arid regions. 309. Length of season. The number of days between frosts and the frequency of injury from late spring or early fall frosts are very important climatic features. The danger of frost is often the controlling factor in fruit growing. The crops that can be grown depend not only on the length of season, but on the amount of sunshine and heat. A day in the corn-belt is a very different day from one in New England. Corn that matures in 100 days in Illinois usually requires over 120 days in New York. Information as to the climate of different states may be obtained by writing to the United States Weather Bureau at Washington, or by writing to the State Experiment Station. A few states have published valuable bulletins on climate. Some of these are listed at the end of this chapter. FERTILITY OF THE SOIL 310. Importance of fertility. The natural fertility of the land is usually the most important single point to consider in buying a farm. The man who buys a good soil at a reasonable price can usually add other things. But if the soil is not naturally good, the other good points can never make it so. In fact, man rarely makes a really rich soil out of one that was naturally poor. Nature had un- told ages to grow crops and allow them to fall back and 504 FARM MANAGEMENT decay to grow more crops. If with these ages of green- manuring a rich soil was not produced, it will never be made permanently rich. We may add manure and fer- tilizers and grow good crops, but if the soil is not naturally rich, it will fail as soon as we stop feeding it. If the crops grown are valuable enough, it may pay to farm it in this way. Most of the vegetables for the eastern cities are grown on the sandy soils of the Atlantic Coast. These soils are often little more than a place on which to grow crops. But the crops are high-priced ones ; the soils are warm and grow crops quickly. They are easily tilled. With truck crops, it pays better to add enormous quantities of manure and fertilizer on such soils than to use heavy soils that are naturally rich, but that require much more work and that do not grow vege- tables of so good quality. The manure and fertilizer very frequently cost $20 to $30 per acre per year. One very successful farmer in New Jersey uses a ton of fertilizer per acre and twenty tons of manure in growing cantaloupes. The fertilizer costs $30 and the manure $2.50 per ton, besides the hauling. Each year the farmer spends twice as much for fertilizer and manure as the land is worth. Such soils cannot be used to a profit for growing grain, hay, or live-stock. If one is to raise general farm crops, it pays very rarely to select a farm with a poor soil. If too poor, such a farm is not worth taking as a gift, if one is required to live on it. We advocate killing the cow that does not pay for her feed. Why should we farm a soil where the crop does not pay the cost of production? Some land is being farmed that cannot possibly be made to pay with present prices of products. Such land should be kept in woods or pasture until some future time when it may pay for farming. CHOICE OF A REGION 505 However, the present condition of the soil may be mis- leading. A naturally good soil may be a little out of condition and may sometimes be easily brought up at small expense. On the other hand, land that is not naturally good is sometimes growing big crops, because of the treatment given. Because men judge too much by superficial appearances, it often happens that land that is good but out of condition sells for less than it is worth, while poorer land that has been better cared for sells for more than it is worth. In order to judge land, it is necessary to consider both the present appearances and the underlying causes. 311. Use of soil maps. If a soil map of the region, prepared by the United States Department of Agriculture or by a State College, is available, it will give reliable in- formation as to the soil type and its value. The particular farm in question may be better or poorer than the soil type would indicate, but the general character and adap- tation of the soil is shown. These government reports must be read with care. They are likely to give the more cheerful prospects for the region, but if carefully read, the facts are usually reliable. 312. Value of chemical analysis. If a chemical analysis has been made of the soil type, it should be con- sidered. Such an analysis is of great value in showing fundamental deficiencies. The soil may have a very large amount of some plant- food and still give better crops when more of this food is added in a fertilizer. For this reason, some persons have lost faith in chemical analysis of soils. But if a soil is very deficient in any element of plant-food, the deficiency should be known. Chemical analysis gives this informa- tion. 506 FAllM MANAGEMENT o w - H _! H 00 5, H S < ^ S OS- RU O O O i O O OO rH CO IO CO >> 'S II P _, 1 ! _y 1 1 1 '> _ l |1 - ^00 W n St. "e o g-gO ^& lb| y s fe^ ffi 'o .fca ' . . M CHOICE OP A REGION 50? ,n J_ a o i i - Q *H .s > 5 j*; *s _> 'o fc. G , i 3 d nuousl 8s * sj r C 3 ^^: 0^^ = ' T3 _ =* S S r Oj cS ro O 03 .3 3 I 73 ^ 3j .^ tai-g ^1 3 5 e ^ _00 'S 02 v S3 m ;i M ^ if . 2 O t = c o T3 > 2T - O ^ o.^ 03^ o-e C aT iuc o *^ ^ T'o II fc. | | eau o -u * ^ ^ 5 ^ _s tn C3 SX 3 S S Sx $-3 "^ ^ *? ^^ 3 ri ^>B i ? o s " 'O ' 3 s-. i 3 rt'C S X * o b >^ , " fl 1 ' o '~~ ""w 3D Q ^^w 3- n % S3 8 8 o 7 1 o X g g 8 O Q CO O ^ a a QC^SC^ 00 1 - <-H co__ ^1 ^. a_o ^-i CO* ^ (N X* O5 S 1 CO* CO* CO* CO C^l i * 88 g g g 8 8 g g ^^ ^^ |1 CO CO *^T i , ^4 ^^ CO (M cc CO (N , 'c oc'co* coco 3* ff '-' ?3 s S ' 0* 1 1 ^ 8 85 & *f < o 11 o 8 ri o 2 o O CO o 1 o o o So \ Q S a ,-Tof 1 1 CO* ' ^H* (M* T-T 10* "** i-T ^-T ad S _. o PH S ^ >j g ^ ^ -3 J= ^O ^rt w F O of a 3 g c? ^. c i 03 jO s i 'o -/. >, 2> _c 03 js ^^ ~ cS X ^ ^ s , O 43 'to S s -2 9 O >J ^ e I X! 02 o3 a ^o C 5 OJ '5 "O o "S f^H >1 00 CD ,3 O >> ' ys 3 ^. 33 s a 'i's "3^ >S oi c3 e3 'Jl 1 K p ,a o S ^^ 3 i i Fresno S3 cS a) 3 O w 1 |l| A o -: ^ pkins, So ts on cro 6 O "o o ~ jfi O T> 1 1 i J S ID ^ o a ^1 J2 XT3 j| < c/: S HH fe p ^j-=| a < C8 o 2 j. S~| eS . .S .5 eg" J > -3 " .2.2 = ^ao'Ii O - O S i 96.9*1 508 FARM MANAGEMENT w 55 - < ? e ED ST I C H ~- W B H O to o o w cc w O |H H ; I s < ^ j j S o 3 B H O POTAS- SIUM o o d^^^sw.S : ^ ^l^l.ii o o o & O O OO J o o^i o-S ,-2 .i1|-1||i ^ ^ OS ro 00 "S fl" J>* 2 5? S a 3 o il ft S S cj G 4? W r- 03 02 -P ^ oS-S S|3 S " 3 * ft m 05 . 5 a g 2^ o CHOICE OF A REGION 509 Most of the soils in America that are rich in lime and phosphorus are productive. Many soils, particularly in the humid regions, lack both of these. The highly prosperous farming regions in the United States are all on soils that are rich in lime and phosphorus, or that have not yet begun to feel a serious shortage of these elements. If the deficiency is not too serious, the land may be prof- itably farmed. But if the deficiency is very serious, the cost of fertilizer may be as much as the rent of rich land. Furthermore, if the deficiency is very serious in the subsoil, it cannot be readily corrected for deep-rooted plants. One may lime the surface, but cannot get lime to the subsoil except by the process of letting it leach down. The writer has never seen any permanently profitable alfalfa on a soil that was seriously short of lime or phos- phorus in the subsoil. Usually on such a soil, a heavy application of lime will start the crop, but it will not do well when its roots get into the subsoil. Of course it can be made to grow, but making it pay is a different matter. Table 79 gives the amount of phosphorus, potassium, and calcium in two million pounds of soil for some typical American soils, as reported by the Bureau of Soils of the United States Department of Agriculture. The writer has arranged these in four classes according to the crop yields reported. The first two soils in the table are practically worthless, as is indicated by the low yields and abandoned land. Of course, one can raise " bumper crops " on these soils if he uses enough fertilizer, but this is no credit to the soils. They merely furnish the place for crops to grow. They do not deserve the name of soil. The farmers have learned that it does not pay to farm such land. The few who 510 FARM MANAGEMENT persist in staying because houses are there, usually live as poorly as do persons in the slums of cities. The popular assumption seems to be that these soils were once rich. They never were rich. The farmers on them never were very prosperous, except when they prospered by having a very large acreage run by slaves. The returns per worker never were good. One needs but to travel over these scrub pine lands, and then go to some of the limestone regions of Pennsylvania and Maryland, to realize the importance of locating on a fertile soil. One of the best of the soils that the writer has classed as of low productivity is the Orangeburg fine sandy loam. It is reported to yield about 20 bushels of corn. It is one of the most important cotton soils of the South, not because it is so rich, but because there is so much of it. It requires heavy fertilizing to secure good yields. The Marion silt loam of southern Illinois is a typical redtop soil. The Bureau of Soils reports 'say that corn averages only about 15 bushels, but that the farmers find this to pay as well as any crop. How rich a farmer will get growing this crop of corn is realized when we know that it usually takes 25 to 50 man hours and 50 horse hours to grow an acre of corn. Of course, good crops can be grown if lime and phosphorus are used and something is plowed under for humus. If one has to live on such a soil, he should by all means use these. But when one is choosing a farm, it is not often wise to select a soil where the fertilizer and labor of enrichment cost so much. The Volusia silt loam at Wooster, Ohio, is much better than most of this soil type. At the Ohio Experiment Station, in the region where the sample was taken, the ten-year average yields without fertilizer were 31 bushels of corn, 30 of outs, 9 of wheat, and f of a ton of hay. Much CHOICE OF A REGION 511 of the soil of this type on the hills of New York and Pennsylvania will not grow wheat or clover without much expense for lime and fertilizer. It has reached the red- top stage. It never was a good soil and never will be. It grows fairly good crops of oats, buckwheat, and pota- toes. Of course, big yields have been grown on it and can be grown, but about the only really prosperous period in farming it was when the farmers got most of their money from cutting off the crop of white pine and chestnut. To- day many of the farmers on the poorer phases of this soil are not well fed. By having very large areas, it is possible to make a good living. Much of the land is then kept in woods and large pastures. Only the best is tilled. The Hagerstown loam is, in general, a rich limestone soil. This particular region does not seem to be typical of this soil, either in analysis or yields. This is the name given to the rich limestone soils that extend from south- eastern Pennsylvania through Maryland and Virginia, eastern Tennessee, and northern Alabama and in the blue- grass region of Kentucky. This soil should be in the class of the naturally productive soils, but the sample and crops in the table are not typical. Most of the farming regions that have the soil types classed as highly productive are prosperous farming regions. The Marshall silt loam is the predominating soil of the corn- belt. The Bureau of Soils estimates that there are sixty million acres of this soil. An examination of the analyses in the table shows that the soils of low productivity contain much less plant-food than the soils of high productivity. The differences are particularly striking in the amount of phosphorus and lime present. 313. Plants as indicators of fertility. The kind and 512 FARM MANAGEMENT character of the trees, weeds, and crops help in telling the fertility of the soil. When considering plants, the entire list observed should be considered rather than the presence or absence of some one plant. It is often said that sheep sorrel indicates an acid soil, but sorrel will grow around a pile of limestone. It is a hardy plant and will grow under adverse conditions. The presence of sorrel and other plants of low lime re- quirement, and the absence of clover, alfalfa, and other lime-requiring plants, rather than the presence or absence of some one plant, is the point to consider. It is sometimes said that redtop indicates a wet soil, yet it is the chief hay plant on some dry hillsides. The fact is that redtop is a hardy plant and will live under many adverse conditions, one of which is too much water ; another is dry soil ; another is lack of lime or an acid soil. The following plants, in general, indicate good soils. Any one of them may be found on poor soils, but the general presence of these plants indicates good soils : Alfalfa, clover, Kentucky blue-grass, corn, wheat, wal- nut, ash, basswood, crab apple, quack grass, Canada thistle. The general presence of the following plants and absence of the above list suggests poorer soils or poorly managed soils : Redtop, Canada blue-grass, rye, buckwheat, oats, potatoes, chestnut, beech, pine, hemlock, spruce, daisy, wild carrot, five finger, paint brush, sorrel, golden rod. Any one of the last list will grow on a good soil, but most of them can be grown on soils that will not grow the plants of the first list. Golden rod grows luxuriantly on the richest soils, but grows on the poorest soils. If there is a general prevalence of the crops of the last list, and absence of CHOICE OF A REGION 513 those in the first list, the soil is fairly certain to be a poor one. 314. Use of Census figures. By studying the Census figures of kinds of crops grown, yields, and other Census figures, one may obtain a good idea of the condi- tion of agriculture in any of the older states. Studies such as those in Table 54 will also help. 315. Comparative advantages of new and old regions. - There is considerable rich land in the Eastern States that can be bought at $75 to $100 per acre. Very fre- quently, the improvements on a 150-acre farm are worth over half the price of the land. Which will pay better, to buy such land or go to Canada and buy open land at a few dollars per acre? In making the comparison, the improved land should be counted at what it really costs above the value of improvements. Not only are the farms improved, but the roads and school houses are built. These community improvements often represent a value of $10 per acre. It is evident that if one has the necessary capital, it is likely to pay better to buy the improved land. The new countries have always attracted those with little money. One may locate on new land and go with- out many of the farm and community improvements. It is also easier to economize in a new country. One can go to church on a spring seat in a lumber wagon very com- fortably, if all the neighbors come in the same way. It is very hard to economize so closely in an old country where most of the neighbors are well-to-do. 316. Land prices vary from time to time and are often entirely out of proportion to their values. Very fre- quently, land in one county will rise in price several years before any change takes place in an adjoining 2L 514 FARM MANAGEMENT county that is equally good. The great rise in land values in the Central West began in Illinois and Iowa and spread gradually. Farms with which the writer is familiar in Illinois reached $150, when certain farms in Nebraska were worth $40. At the present time, the Nebraska land has reached $125, and these particular Illinois farms are worth about $250. Land rose to a very high price in the Middle West before eastern and southern farms began to rise in price. Now farms in both of these regions are rising fairly rapidly, and the prices in the Middle West are about stationary. The waves of rising and falling values pass from region to region. One who knows the agricultural values of the different regions will consider the relation of prices to value before locating. Figure 116 shows the relative changes in land values in Iowa, Illinois, and New York. The values in Iowa and Illinois have advanced in much the same way. In 1890, the Iowa land offered a better investment than the Illinois land. If $1000 had been invested in average land in each state, the value in 1910 would have been $3416 in Iowa and $2616 in Illinois. But if $1000 had been invested in New York land in 1890, it would have been worth only $1220 in 1910. There is no question but that the price of New York land rose too high at the time of the Civil War. For a generation, this land dropped in value while the western land rose in price. After such a period of depression, it takes some time for confidence to be restored so that land again rises in price. There is little doubt but that New York land was relatively too high in 1870, Bnd there seems to be little doubt but that it was relatively too low in 1910. The real land values in these different states CHOICE OF A REGION 515 have a fairly constant relationship, but the prices may jump up in one region and then in another. Land values do not rise uniformly. Sometimes values become inflated. When land rises very rapidly, it is fairly certain to rise too high. Buyers come to expect their profit from the increase in value LAND VALUE $110 100 90 80 TO 60 60 40 NEW YORK 30 20 ILLINOIS 10 IOWA i t , / / // // / / / / // s s ^^ s" l ^/__ ^* < ,' ^^ ^" ,.-'' ^-^ ^ ~- * 1850 1860 18TO I860 1890 1900 1910 FIG. 116. Comparative hind values in Iowa, Illinois, and Now York. rather than the income, but this cannot continue indefi- nitely. There are some regions where land is paying only 3 per cent interest, when safe mortgages pay 5 per cent. The owners hope for a rise in value to cover the remaining interest. So long as there is another man ready to buy at the higher price, this works out all right, but there comes a last buyer. By this process, it some- times happens that land rises to much more than its real value before the drop comes. 516 FARM MANAGEMENT REFERENCES Dry Farming in Relation to Rainfall and Evaporation, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Plant Industry, Bulletin 188. The Weather Bureau and the Home Seeker, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1904, pp. 353-358. The So-called Change of Climate in the Semi-arid West, U. S. Dept, Agr., Yearbook, 1908, pp. 289-300. Forty Years of Southern New Mexico Climate, New Mexico, Bulletin 59. The Length of the Growing Season, North Dakota, Bulletin 52. Climate of Colorado, Colorado, Bulletins 127 and 182. Climate of Ohio, Ohio, Bulletin 235. The Climate of Wisconsin and Its Relation to Agriculture, Wisconsin, Bulletin 223. Frosts in New York, New York, Cornell Bulletin 316. An Agricultural Survey of Nebraska, Nebraska State Board of Agriculture, Report, 1909, pp. 267-351. Natural Vegetation as an Indicator of the Capabilities of Land for Crop Production in the Great Plains Area. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 201. Relation of Precipitation to Yield of Corn, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1903, pp. 215-224. A Study of the Soils of the United States, U. S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Soils, Bulletin 85. Fiold Operations of the Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. Soil Maps prepared by the Illinois Experiment Station. Important American Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1911, pp. 223-236. The Use of Soil Surveys, U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1906, pp. 181-188. The Future Use of Land in the United States, U. S. Dept. Agr., Forest Service, Circular 159. Land Values and Land Prices in the East and in the West, New York State Dept. Agr., Circular 18. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 1-132, 140-142, 148-151, and 151-154. How to Choose a Farm, T. F. Hunt, pp. 128-396. Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, C. G. Hopkins, pp. 136-152. CHAPTER 19 CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM THE choice of a region and the choice of a farm are much the same problem, but there are many points that have more to do with the individual farm and community than with the section of the country. 317. Importance of securing a good farm. The most important decision that the farmer is called upon to make is the choice of a farm. In regions where the soil is most nearly uniform, the problem is not so serious, but even then there are great differences in farms. In regions of variable soils, it very often happens that a farm on which it is difficult to make a living joins a good farm. When strangers are buying land, these differences are very frequently used to deceive purchasers. North- ern farmers going South and western farmers moving East are often misled into buying poor farms that sound cheap rather than buying good land. Sometimes land that has very little agricultural value has a trading value, just as an old horse that is worthless for work has a trad- ing value. 318. Size of farm. Chapters 7 and 8 have discussed the question of size of farm. If a farm is too large or too small, the chances of buying or selling to secure the proper area should be considered. If one wishes to com- bine two or more farms, and the fact is known, it is not always easy to buy at reasonable prices. 319. Area in crops. Much more important than the 517 518 FARM MANAGEMENT total area is the area of land that is ready for raising crops or that can easily be made ready for crops. Rough pasture land and brush land may be of little value. Standing timber may be very valuable, but stump land and brush land are of low value. The area in crops and natural yielding power of the soil are the most important factors in determining profits. If one is merely looking for a place to raise animals on purchased feed, he had better locate in a city, where animal products sell for higher prices. If his area in crops is too small, or the yield per acre too low, he lacks the basis for profitable farming. It should be remembered that on a well-managed, diversified farm, raising such general farm crops as cotton, corn, small grain, potatoes and hay, there should ordi- narily be 20 to 30 acres of crops per horse. A five-horse farm should have 100 to 150 acres of crops. Many farms that appear cheap are really high-priced for the tillable land. A 100-acre farm that is only half tillable and that sells for $5000 may really cost $90 per acre for the tillable land. 320. The farm layout. The shape and size of the fields and the nearness of the fields to the farmstead are important points. If the arrangement is not a good one, the cost of a rearrangement and the probable loss of time and profits while making the changes must be considered. A full discussion of this subject is given in Chapter 12. 321. The lay of the land. The topography or lay of the land is becoming increasingly important as the use of machinery increases. A steep side hill could be farmed at very little disadvantage in the days of the scythe, grain cradle, and potato hook, but may not allow the use of the self-binder, hay loader, manure spreader and potato digger. Every new machine that is invented 520 FARM MANAGEMENT makes the struggle more difficult for the man who cannot use the machine. If he must compete, with it by hand labor, he must lower his standard of living or change his type of farming. Some men are wasting their lives on land that ought to be kept in permanent pasture or woods, merely because the land is cleared and there is a house on it. Sometimes such land can be combined with better farming land so as to make a good farm. The rougher area can then be used for pasture and the better parts for tillage. (See Figure 91.) Topography also affects erosion. This problem is of greatest importance in regions of heavy rainfall, and is particularly serious in regions with a long season. Ero- sion is one of the most serious problems in the South. If contour farming has to be resorted to, the irregular fields still further increase the expense. If the land washes too much, fall plowing cannot be done. This reduces the crop area that a man can raise, and hence reduces the income. Because of erosion and leaching, side hill soils are likely to be exhausted very soon. Valleys are kept rich at the expense of the hills. Many of the wars of Europe have been fought for possession of parts of the rich valley of the Rhine. Nations do not often fight for the owner- ship of infertile land. Sometimes the topography affects production in other ways. In one township in Wayne County, New York, the four-year average yield of apples was 43 bushels more per acre on easterly than on westerly slopes. 1 The difference seems to be entirely due to the prevalence of strong west winds that blow off the apples. New York, Cornell Bulletin 226, p. 326. CHOOSING AND KUYING A FARM 521 An elevation above the surrounding country is some- times desirable for avoidance of frost. In the peach sections of northern New Jersey, the valleys are best for grain crops, but are not good for peaches, because the late spring frosts are so likely to kill the buds. The trees in the valleys bloom a little earlier. Frosts some- times occur in the valleys when the higher land is exempt. Fungous diseases are also worse in the valleys than on the higher land that has good air drainage. In regions where there are great differences in elevation, the climate of the hill lands is very different from that of the low lands. The soils are usually very different. Persons who have grown up in a plains region like the corn-belt are easily misled when they go to a hilly coun- try. It is hard to understand that in the same neighbor- hood, differences in elevation may make a difference of two weeks in the time of planting crops. There are many places in the Northeastern States where the level valley land sells for $100 per acre while level land on the hill tops a few miles away sells for $10. If there is any danger from drought, side hills are much more affected than level land. Not only does much of the water run off, but the evaporation is usually more, particularly from the south and west slopes. In a region of fairly good rainfall, the hillsides are often really semi- arid. 322. Fertility of the soil. On pages 503 to 513, there is a discussion of this very important point. The natural fertility of the land is more important than the present condition. By studying the crops and weeds on the farm, as discussed on pages 511 to 513, one may gain a fair idea of its fertility. The crops on adjoining farms should also be examined. A chemical analysis of the soil of a 522 FARM MANAGEMENT particular farm is not often available, but published re- ports may give an idea of the soil in general. Many times a good farm looks bad because of neglect. It is often possible to secure such a farm at a bargain. One must distinguish between a neglected farm and a poor farm. 323. Physical properties of the soil. Ease of tillage is an important factor in the cost of production. In general, the loamy and sandy soils are easiest to till. Such soils can be worked soon after a rain and can be worked earlier in the spring. This makes it possible to do much more work in the year. Ease of working and fertility are antagonistic. In general, the sandy soils are easiest to work, but least fertile. The clays usually contain more plant-food, but are hard to work. For types of farming that require a very large amount of labor, the ease of tillage offsets the cost of manure and fertilizers, so that sandy soils are preferred. For types that require little labor, ease of working is gladly sacrificed for greater fertility. A soil that is ideal for timothy or wheat or pasture is far from ideal for truck growing. For most types of farming, the loamy soils are best. They are fairly easy to work and are usually fertile. Such soils are adapted to the widest variety of crops, and allow for diversified farming. 324. Drainage. Natural drainage is best if it is not at too great a sacrifice in character of soil. Soils that are coarse enough to provide good drainage are often too coarse to hold fertility. Some of the loamy soils are good in both respects. Natural drainage lasts and re- quires no bill for repairs. If artificial drainage is necessary, the present condition CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 523 of drains and the amount and cost of new drains should be carefully estimated. 325. Water for irrigation. In irrigated regions, land has little or no value without water. The amount and character of the water supply is then of first importance. The danger of accumulation of alkali, the danger of a shortage of water, and the cost of water and up-keep of ditches must all be considered. Also the legal status of the water right, and whether there is danger of the more extensive use of prior rights, so as to lessen the water supply in the future. 326. Condition. If stumps, stones, serious weeds, or other obstacles are present, the cost of removing these should be considered. 327. Water supply. Water is very^ expensive on farms. When labor is counted, it is much more expen- sive than in cities. Occasionally, a farm has spring water piped to the buildings so that there is practically no expense for water. Unfortunately, the conditions that make this possible sometimes result in poor farm land. If there is an abun- dant supply of good water that can be pumped by a wind- mill, the supply is fairly satisfactory. Many farms do not have water enough, or the water is of poor quality, or the wells are too deep to be pumped cheaply. 328. Improvements. The site of the farmstead, its location with respect to the fields, the number and kind of buildings, fences, and orchards will, of course, be care- fully inspected. Chief attention should be given to the roofs and foundations and frames of buildings, and least attention to paint. The arrangement or possible rear- rangement for convenience in work is of importance. But one should be careful not to buy a farm merely for 524 FARM MANAGEMENT its buildings. Many western men who are buying eastern farms are buying buildings. The farms look cheap, be- cause the buildings are worth more than the price asked. But there is no profit from buildings. In very many cases, the farms never did pay. The early settler made his little income by lumbering, and used a generous amount of lumber for buildings. The lumber is gone, the farms have such poor soils that they do not pay for working. Of course, this does not apply to the thousands of eastern farms that have rich soils, but good soils are not given away with a present thrown in. 329. Climate. The climate of the region should be studied as indicated in the preceding chapter. Often there is a great difference in climate in a few miles. One must be on the lookout for such differences. 330. Healthfulness is, of course, of great importance. The general prevalence of malaria or other diseases should be considered. Sometimes one buys a farm ex- pecting the conditions to improve, but one should be very careful about locating in a region where the people are not generally healthy. 331. Roads and markets. How serious a handicap distance to market is, depends on the type of farming and the roads. If roads are good, the handicap is not so serious with some kinds of farming. If these types of farming are, for other reasons, not adapted to the region, then distance to market is a very serious matter. Local markets are of much importance not only in selling but in buying. Their importance is less for grain and live-stock than for perishable products. Much more important than the local markets are the railroad facilities for reaching important cities. A farm located on a trunk line of railroad is worth more than a CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 525 similar farm on a branch line. The more rapid shipment and travel, as well as the better advertising that the region receives, are of great importance. 332. Neighbors. The character of the neighbors is just as important from the standpoint of profits as from the standpoint of the home. One's success is very largely i controlled by the community. Except in a few cases, ' such as when products are grown for selling in the home market, the type of farming should be the same as that of the community. (See page 98.) The character of the labor supply is also of great im- portance. If the farm boys of the neighborhood are planning to be farmers, they furnish the best farm labor. 333. Taxes. The tax rate has little significance when different regions are compared ; because farms in one region may be assessed at nearly full value and in other regions at less than half value. The amount of taxes paid, and the cash value of the farm should be used to see what the tax rate really is. 334. Community improvements. Telephones, trol- leys, churches, and schools all represent investment by the community. If these are not developed, they must be gone without or must be paid for by the farms in the future. Every community improvement adds to the value of farm land. 335. Prospective development. The probable de- velopment of the region must be considered. The possi- bility of new railroads, trolleys, and improved wagon roads should be taken into account. The possibility of a rise in land values from these or other causes is a very important consideration. A very large part of the profit in farming in many regions comes from increases in land values. Land in America is a 526 FARM MANAGEMENT SCORE CARD FOR FARMS NAMES OF FARMS SIZE 1. Adapted to kind of farming FIELDS 2. Shape and size .... 3. Nearness to farmstead . . TOPOGRAPHY 4. As affecting ease of cultiva- tion 5. As affecting production 6. As affecting erosion and loss of fertility .... 7. As affecting air drainage FERTILITY 8 Natural PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL 10. As affecting economy of "j cultivation .... 1 11. As affecting number of [ days of labor . . . . J 12. As affecting loss of soil fertil- ity ........ 13. As affecting kinds of possible crops DRAINAGE 14. Natural j 15. Artificial J CONDITION 16. Freedom from stumps, stones, weeds, waste land, etc CLIMATE 17. As affecting animal and crop production 18. As affecting number of days of labor CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 527 SCORE CARD FOR FARMS Continued HEALTHFULNESS 19. As an economic factor LOCATION 20. Distance to market . . . 21. Roadways 22. Local markets 23. Shipping facilities . . . 24. Neighbors as an economic factor 25. Labor supply of neighbor- hood 26. R. F. D., telephone, trolleys, etc 27. Churches, school, grange, etc., as economic factors . TAXES 28. Per cent on cash value . . WATER SUPPLY 29. Running water, wells . . IMPROVEMENTS 30. Site of farmstead 31. House as adapted to needs of farm 32. Other buildings .... 33. Fences ; kind, condition, ar- rangement 34. Timber, orchards, vine- yards, etc INVESTMENT 35. Probability of an increase in value ACREAGE 36. Total acres 37. Acres tillable 38. Acres pasture not tillable . 39. Acres woods 40. Acres roads, waste, etc. ESTIMATED TOTAL VALUE OF 41. Tillable area 42. Pasture 43. Woods 44. Barns 45. Houses Total PRICE ASKED Acres Acres Acres 528 FARM MANAGEMENT business investment the same as railroads or bonds. Its probable future value, as well as its earning power, should be considered. In addition, land has a home value. If one is to make his living from the farm, he should not let the home value overshadow the business value that must sustain the home. Neither should he ignore the home value. Both are important. 336. Map of the farm. Before a farm is purchased, one should make a map of it showing the field lines and fence lines. This may be sketched fairly rapidly. One can then see how the farm looks on paper. Many a good looking farm loses its good looks when a map is made, showing the location of ditches, streams, fences, etc. Each field should be marked with its crop and area; this gives a picture of the amount of waste land and poor land. 337. Score card for farms. When examining farms, it is well to use a score card like the above. Each farm may be marked on each of the points, using the words excellent, very good, good, fair, poor, or very poor. Or the corresponding abbreviations, E., VG., G., F., P., or VP. may be used. The areas of different kinds of land and estimated values are filled in with figures. The estimated value of the tillable land, buildings, etc., will be of much help if care- fully made. One should be careful not to assign too high a value to land that will not grow crops. Buildings should be estimated in accordance with their value for the use intended rather than for their cost. The chief purposes of a score card are to make the ex- amination systematic and prevent one from forgetting any points. 338. Effect of amount of money available. If one CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 529 has plenty of money, or can secure it at reasonable in- terest rates, it usually pays best to buy a fairly large farm that is in first-class condition in every way. One that has rich soil well cared for, good fences and good buildings. It is nearly always cheaper to buy improvements already made than it is to make them. Buildings, fences, drains, and other improvements usually do not add their cost to the selling value of the farm. The superficial things, such as paint and cleaning up of rubbish, usually add much more than their cost to the selling value. If one is short of money, it is evident that something must be sacrificed. He cannot then buy the best farm, even if he does know that it is the best bargain. In such a case, it sometimes pays to buy with a view to sell- ing in a few years and buying a better place. If this is done, the purchase should have the probable selling value as one of its important considerations. Many times a good profit can be made by buying a farm that is really good but that is a little neglected, improving it and selling. But if one is buying for a permanent home, what should he sacrifice first in order to make the most of his limited capital ? Should it be area, richness of soil, buildings, or some other point? In such a case, the most important consideration is what can be made of the place in a life- time. There are some points that are permanent, un- changeable conditions ; others may be remedied as time and money become available. Under such conditions, the unchangeable points should be considered first. If one has a sufficient area of tillable land that is level and naturally fertile, other things may be added later, as money and time are available. Drains may be added, fences built, buildings put up, and trees planted. But if 2M 530 FARM MANAGEMENT one invests his small capital in good buildings and fences, with too little or too poor land, he is indeed handicapped. 339. Gate's advice on buying a farm. Few if any of these ideas on choosing a farm are new. It is interesting to see how well they agree with some of the writers of two thousand years ago. Some of Gate's writings as trans- lated by " A Virginia Farmer " in " Gate's Farm Manage- ment " are interesting. " When you have decided to purchase a farm, be careful not to buy rashly ; do not spare your visits and be not content with a single tour of inspection. The more you go, the more will the place please you, if it be worth your attention. Give heed to the appearance of the neigh- borhood, a flourishing country should show its pros- perity. ' When you go in, look about, so that, when needs be, you can find your way out.' " Take care that you choose a good climate, not sub- ject to destructive storms, and a soil that is naturally strong. ' If possible, your farm should be at the foot of a mountain, looking to the west, in a healthy situation, where labor and cattle can be had, well watered, near a good-sized town, and either on the sea or a navigable river, or else on a good and much frequented road. Choose a place which has not often changed ownership, one which is sold unwillingly, that has buildings in good repair. " Beware that you do not rashly contemn the experi- ence of others. It is better to buy from a man who has farmed successfully and built well. " When you inspect the farm, look to see how many wine presses and storage vats there are ; where there are none of these, you can judge what the harvest is. On the other hand, it is not the number of farming imple- ments, but what is done with them, that counts, Where CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 531 you find few tools, it is not an expensive farm to operate. Know that with a farm, as with a man, however produc- tive it may be, if it has the spending habit, not much will be left over." A somewhat different point of view was expressed by Xenophon. " For those who are able to attend to their affairs, however, and who will apply themselves to agriculture earnestly, my father both practiced himself and taught me a most successful method of making profits, for he would never allow me to buy ground already cultivated, but exhorted me to purchase such as from want of care or want of means in those who had possessed it, was left untilled and unplanted. He used to say that well cul- tivated land cost a great sum of money and admitted of no improvement, and he considered that land which is unsusceptible of improvement did not give the same pleasure to the owner as other land, but he thought that whatever a person had or bought up that was continually growing better afforded him the highest gratification." Both points of view are good. If one is sure that he is buying a " diamond in the rough " he may well buy a neglected farm. He must, however, be sure that it is really naturally good. 340. Buying a farm. After one has decided on the farm to buy, he should examine the abstract. Usually the seller furnishes an abstract brought down to date. If he does not do so, the buyer should have one made, as he cannot afford to purchase a place without knowing that the title is good. Frequently, a contract for sale is made before the parties are ready to make the transfer. This contract should be very explicit on all doubtful points. Growing 532 FARM MANAGEMENT crops belong to the buyer, unless otherwise arranged, but in order to avoid misunderstandings, all such things should be in the contract. Fence posts and fences that have been used, go with the farm, but posts, lumber, wood, and fence wire that have never been used, also all har- vested crops, are personal property and do not go with the farm. But it is much better to go over all possible points of difference in advance, so as to avoid misunder- standings. Frequently, the farm equipment and stock can be bought with the farm at a price that will pay. It is often wise to see how much a bank will loan on the place. If by borrowing at a bank, money enough is available to make a cash offer, it is well to offer cash. In many cases, an offer of all cash will bring a considerable reduction in price. The deed should ordinarily be drawn by a lawyer, but this does not mean that one should assume that it will be correct. Very many persons sign papers drawn up by lawyers without reading them carefully, assuming that everything is all right. Nothing should be assumed. All papers should be examined more carefully than if one had drawn them h'imself. The writer has had a number of contracts drawn for the purchase of farms, and in about one-third of the cases, the lawyer has made a mistake. Usually these have been found by careful reading; but in one case the lawyer's error made the writer pay the taxes. He was directed to draw a contract so that the seller paid all taxes for the year 1906, but instead drew it with some legal verbiage that called for payment of taxes assessed before January 1, 1907. It happened that year that the legal assessment was delayed a few days after January 1. Lawyers are just about as accurate as other CHOOSING AND BUYING A FARM 533 persons ; that is, very inaccurate. The object of having a lawyer is that he may help one to avoid mistakes. There will be mistakes enough after the lawyer and the interested parties have all done their best to avoid them. All deeds, mortgages, releases, and similar papers should be recorded at once with the county clerk or other official in charge of records. 341. Selection of farms for schools and colleges. - Farms for schools and colleges should be selected for their value in teaching. Such farms should, therefore, be typical of as large an area as possible. If several soil types and other conditions can be secured, so much the better. Since schools wish to teach many subjects, it is of great importance that there be soils adapted to as many kinds of crops as possible, grain, fruit and vegeta- bles. Since many farmers will wish to come to the institu- tion, the railroad facilities should be good. There should also be ample hotel accommodations. This usually means a fair sized town. 342. Farms for charitable and reformatory institu- tions. All such institutions have an abundance of cheap labor and a large demand for vegetables, milk, and eggs. This calls for the most intensive type of farming. In many cases, it is hoped that the inmates may be trained in farming, so that they may become farm hands or, in some cases, farmers. For persons who, for some reason, have not been able to get along well in the world, it is of great importance that land be secured that will respond to care. If interest is to be aroused in farming, the soil must be such that there is a response to the efforts expended on it. From the business standpoint of economy in running such an institution, and from the standpoint of the greatest good to the inmates, good land should be selected. 534 FARM MANAGEMENT The cost of even the best land is a very small item in running such an institution. The land selected should be good land, or land that can easily be made good. The best soil type is a loam or silt loam, as these types are adapted to vegetables and other hand labor crops. If a variety of soils can be secured, so much the better. In the Eastern States it is sometimes possible to get such soils in valleys in connection with forest land. One or two thousand acres of forest and several hundred acres of farm land makes a good combination for such institutions. The forest furnishes winter work. Its products may be used for buildings and for making furniture to use and sell. Many other points, such as railroads and water supply, must be considered. REFERENCES How to Choose a Farm, T. F. Hunt. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I, pp. 133-139. Farm Management, F. W. Card, pp. 56-69. The Farmer's Business Handbook, I. P. Roberts, pp. 153-169. The Young Farmer, T. F. Hunt, pp. 57-87. CHAPTER 20 SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS CHARACTERISTICS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMS AND HOW TO FIND THEM No farm can be called successful that does not main- tain its productivity, pay all farm expenses, interest on the capital, pay for work done by members of the family, and, in addition, leave the operator good pay for his year's work ; that is, a good labor income. Sometimes a person who desires to find a profitable farm starts out by looking for unusual types of farming. Sometimes the attempt is to find a farm that agrees with some theory of what a successful farm is thought to be. This has sometimes been a farm that keeps the greatest number of cows per acre, secures the largest crop yields, uses green manure, or some other point that agrees with the searcher's fancy. By survey methods, when the capital, receipts, and expenses on each farm in a region are recorded, one finds the really successful farms. Usually they are farms that are much like those of the neighbors, but that are more efficient for some reason. Occasionally, the very profit- able farm is entirely different from the other farms of the region. Of the 49 farms in Table 22, pages 134 to 140, only 8 are very different from the farms of the neighbors. A farm may be very successful for the amount of capital 535 536 FARM MANAGEMENT that the owner has, or successful for the area used, or successful for a farm operated by a woman, or successful under some other condition. But if we wish to see what the principles of successful farm organization and man- agement are, we can best determine them by studying farms that are not so limited. The most successful farmers usually pass through many years before they are able to secure the capital and other conditions that enable them to make large profits in a year. All the time they may be doing the best thing with their limitations, but only when they overcome the limitations do they make examples of the most efficient farm organi- zation. Some persons are inclined to say that it is all in the man. But the unusual man can only express himself by definite acts. By studying many farms, it is possible to see in just what way the successful farm or its management differs from the other farms of the region. Merely being an " unusual man " does not amount to anything, unless one does something definite. Successful farms differ from unsuccessful ones by perfectly tangible things. The farm may be large, so that labor and equipment are more efficiently used. It may be that there are three or four important products rather than one, and that these fit together so that they can be produced without much more labor than one or two products require. It may be that the crop yields, or the production of animals, are increased without proportionate increase in cost. Sometimes the results are due to a better soil, or some other natural factor. Sometimes a farmer may work harder, or be able to get his men to work harder, than the average, but either or both of these do not go very far unless some other fac- tors, usually one or all of the above, are combined with the 537 work. There is nothing mysterious about successful farms. In fact, most of them do not attract much at- tention from the passer-by. Nearly always the successful farm has some points where it could be improved by applying principles used on other farms. Records are here given of five farms. One is a dairy and crop farm that is typical of hundreds of successful farms in the United States. One is a diversified crop farm that uses animals as scavengers, also typical of hun- dreds of successful farms. One is a diversified crop farm. One is a specialized farm run by a woman. One is a dairy and crop farm that is given to show a method of farm analysis, or study. A SUCCESSFUL DAIRY AND CROP FARM The farm is located about a mile from a railroad station about 250 miles from New York. Products are shipped to New York to be sold at wholesale prices, or are sold to local buyers who ship them. The farm contains 211 CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS APRIL 1, 1907 APRIL 1, 1908 Farm $10,000 900 450 3,175 $10,000 900 450 Machinery and tools 4 horses . ... 31 cows, pure-bred and grade Holstein, 9 heifers 1 bull 31 cows, 7 heifers, 1 bull .... 30 ewes, grade Shropshire .... 3,085 240 200 49 612 49 612 Feed, seed, and supplies .... Decrease of investment $15,426 $15,296 130 538 FARM MANAGEMENT acres, of which 129 acres were in crops in 1908, and about 80 acres in pasture. The soil in crops is classified by the Bureau of Soils as Volusia loam. The cropped land extends up a hill that rises 200 feet above the buildings. The pasture is on a lowland soil called Dunkirk clay loam. DETAILED LIST OF EQUIPMENT APRIL 1, 1911 1 4 walking plows . . . $15 Grain binder .... Sulky plow 40 Potato digger .... 2 shovel plows, 1-horse . 10 1 root cutter .... Spring tooth harrow, 2- 2 fanning mills .... horse 35 Buzz saw Smoothing harrow, 1-horse 5 Scales Weeder 5 Aerator Grain drill 65 Cans and pails .... Roller 20 2 brooders Wheelbarrow grass seeder 8 Carriages Hand corn planter . . 5 Milk wagon Marker and coverer . . 8 Democrat ..... 3 cultivators, 1-horse . 12 2 heavy wagons ... 1 riding cultivator, 2-horse 40 2 cutters Hand potato sprayer . . 5 Manure sleds .... Mower 20 Light bobs 10 Tedder 20 Heavy bobs 20 Hay rake 20 Harness 100 2 hay racks ..... 16 Crates, barrels, etc. . . 8 3 hay cars, forks, etc. . . 35 Small tools 20 1 The values of equipment are, of course, far below cost, as many of the tools have been used many years. CROPS 10 acres corn for silo. 15 acres potatoes, 3300 bushels, 3168 bushels sold for $1797. 2 acres cabbage, 20 tons, sold for $118. 2 acres buckwheat, 30 bushels sold for $20. 22 acres oats, 1265 bushels, 545 bushels sold for $366, part sold as seed oats. 9 acres wheat, 350 bushels sold for $357. 67 acres timothy and clover, about 100 tons, sold $110 worth. 2 acres old apple trees, sold $12. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 539 Corn, potatoes, and cabbage are planted on sod. All are followed by oats. Part of the oat land is seeded with grass, and part is followed by wheat in which grass is seeded. Hay is left two to three years. RECEIPTS Potatoes $1797 Cabbage $118, buckwheat $20 138 Oats $366, wheat $357 723 Hay $110, apples $12 122 Milk 3841 G cows, 27 calves, 1 bull 716 45 lambs, 5 ewes $204, wool $63 327 Eggs _Ji9 $7733 EXPENSES Labor paid $1286 Machinery 90 Buildings and fences 153 Grain feed 1193 Seeds 90 Fertilizer 78 Bull 75 Other expenses 319 Decrease of investment in cattle 90 Decrease of investment in sheep 40 $3414 SUMMARY Average capital $15,361 Receipts 7,733 PJxpenses 3,414 Income from capital and operator's labor ..... 4,319 Interest on capital at 5% 768 Labor income 3,551 The reason that this farm is more successful than those of the neighbors is primarily due to the combination of good size, diversity, and good production. Some of the cows are pure-bred, so that the receipts from sale of calves help out. This was the best year ever experienced on the 540 FARM MANAGEMENT farm. In the preceding year, the labor income was $2750. In that year, five horses were kept, and crops were not quite so good. In 1911, the farm was under different management. The income from capital and labor was then $517 less than in 1907. Less efficient management also resulted in less milk. Seven horses were kept when fouv could do the work. That the farm could do so well even with these conditions shows that the system is good. The farm had also increased in value due to rise in land values, so that the capital was much larger. The income was sufficient to pay 5 per cent on the capital and leave $1620 for labor income. In 1908, the owner did the work on this farm with the help of 2 hired-men by the year, and one man for 8 months, and some day help. The total work amounted to a little over 4 men. The area of crops grown per man was about 30 acres. It usually requires 3 men on such a farm when no crops are sold. There were 32 acres of crops per horse. The amount of work done is very good when we consider the high production per cow and the good crop yields. From the public standpoint such farms are also desirable. Each horse and man on this farm is contributing over twice as much as the average farm of the region to the world's food supply. The ccws averaged nearly 9000 pounds of milk, about double the state average. The receipts per sheep were also very high, because so many twin lambs were raised and sold. The receipts per ewe from lambs and wool amounted to $9.57. There is an animal unit 1 for each 3 acres of crops, so that the land can be manured with about 10 tons of ma- 1 See page 209 for definition of animal unit. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 541 nure per acre every three years, or with 20 tons every six years. The owner of this farm rented it for many years. He then bought it, but at first had an $8000 mortgage on the place. This was paid off, the daughters were sent to college (there were no sons), and the owner is now in com- fortable circumstances. This farm is typical of the most successful dairy farms in all parts of the country. It combines cash crops with dairying. In New York, the most common cash crops on different successful dairy farms are timothy hay, potatoes, cabbage, apples. (See pages 122 to 131.) Usually the farms that combine two of these crops make more than the farms that grow only one cash crop. 1 In the corn-belt, the common cash crop that combines well with dairying is corn. Sometimes the corn is marketed through the hog. In other regions, barley, oats, grass seed, wheat, etc., are combined with dairying to make the most profitable type of farming. The most profitable type of farming on dairy farms in the cotton-belt is to raise corn and hay for feed and cotton to sell. A SUCCESSFUL GENERAL FARM This farm is 6 miles from a small village, 1^ miles from a railroad, and about 50 miles from Buffalo. It contains 330 acres, nearly all of which is tillable ; 228 acres were in crops other than pasture in 1911. The soils are classified by the Bureau of Soils as Dunkirk fine sandy loam and Dunkirk gravelly loam. 1 New York, Cornell Bulletin 295, pages 506 to 509 and pages 511 to 528. 542 FARM MANAGEMENT CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS APBIL 1, 1910 APRIL 1, 1911 Farm $30,000 807 2670 $30,000 854 Machinery and tools 17 horses 2 colts 15 horses, 3 colts 4 cows 1 bull 23 steers 2,560 1024 4 cows 26 steers 1,096 4 brood sows, 18 other hogs . .. . 4 brood sows, 15 other hogs, 5 pigs . 50 hens 224 215 38 1,255 38 1,115 Supplies and cash in use .... Increased investment $35,878 140 $36,018 DETAILED LIST OF EQUIPMENT APRIL 1, 1912 Manure spreader .... $80 Grain binder .... $40 4 walking plows .... 20 Corn binder .... 15 2 shovel plows .... 5 Bean harvester ... 15 2 spring tooth harrows . . 15 Potato digger ... 40 2 spike tooth harrows . 15 Feed cooker .... 10 2 grain drills 30 Fanning mill .... 5 Roller . . 10 Scales 5 Grass seeder 5 Wagon scales ... 30 Potato planter .... 20 Cans and pails ... 5 5 hand corn planters . . 54 carriages .... 120 5 walking cultivators . . 103 wagons ...... 45 2 riding cultivators ... 30 2 cutters ...... 20 Potato sprayer .... 12 2 pairs bobs .... 20 2 mowers 40 Harness 75 Hay rake 12 Crates, barrels, etc. . 25 4 hay racks 20 Small tools .... 25 3 hay cars, forks, rope, etc. 30 $854 CROPS GROWN IN 1911 6 acres corn, 300 bushels. 15 acres potatoes, 1100 bushels sold for $744. 30 acres beans, 330 bushels, 286 sold for $629. 17 acres oats, 590 bushels. 80 acres wheat, 1600 bushels, 1400 bushels sold for $1400. 65 acres timothy and clover, 65 tons, 60 tons sold for $1320. 15 acres alfalfa, 33 tons. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 543 Corn, potatoes, and beans are grown on sod. The beans are usually followed by wheat. Corn and potatoes are followed by oats or barley, and these by wheat. Grass is always seeded with wheat and is usually left down one year. ' RECEIPTS Potatoes, 1100 bushels $744 Beans, 286 bushels 629 Wheat, 1400 bushels 1400 Timothy, 60 tons 1320 Straw, 5 tons 50 23 steers 990 3 horses 355 150 lambs 667 29 hogs and pigs 216 Eggs $2, breeding fees $8, team labor $30 40 Increase of investment . 140 $6551 EXPENSES Labor paid $310, value of board furnished $152, value of unpaid labor of son $312 $774 Machinery $167, and repairs $65 232 Fences $40, feed grinding $10 50 Horseshoeing $60, breeding fees $8 68 Seeds 148 Fertilizer 109 Paris green $10, twine $25, threshing $100, fuel $10 . . 145 Insurance $40, taxes $152 192 Steers $672, horse $91, lambs $415 1178 S2SM> SUMMARY Average capital $35,948 Receipts 6,551 Expenses 2,896 Income from capital and operator's labor 3,655 Interest on capital at 5% 1,797 Labor income 1,858 The success of this farm is primarily due to the combina- tion of good soil, large area of crops grown, and such a diversity of crops that they can be grown with a small labor cost. This was a very dry year, the poorest year 544 FARM MANAGEMENT in seven that the farmer has worked this place. In spite of this fact, he made a labor income of $1858. In 1908, he made a labor income of $3536 with the same general system of farming. The owner did the work with the help of one man for seven months, and his son for seven months, with some day help. In the winter, he does the chores alone. The area of crops grown per man was 91 acres. In 1908, when crops were better, more work was required in har- vesting. The area of crops per man was then 76 acres. He now has at least 5 more horses than are needed, but the cost of horses is kept very low, as they run loose around the straw stacks and get grain and care only when they work. A carload of lambs were bought in September and sold January 1. These were used to clean up the fields and stubble. The steers are not fattened much. They are used to work up the roughage on the farm and are sold to local butchers. This is very different from finishing steers for the market with grain feed. In the region where this farm is located, it is rarely possible to fatten steers on grain at a profit, because one cannot compete with the meat produced in the regions where grain is very much cheaper. These steers were far from fat, as indicated by the price received for them. The farm stock used up the wheat, oats, and bean straw, and corn stalks, probably amounting to 100 tons in all. They also had 38 tons of hay, 300 bushels of corn, and about 540 bushels of oats. It is at once evident that the animals received little grain. In 1908, when crops were good, the farmer fed almost three times as much grain per animal. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 545 The animals kept provide enough manure to cover the land in crops with 10 tons per acre every five years. The farmer went to district school, then worked as a hired-man seven years until he was 23 years old. He and his brother then rented 80 acres for one year, paying cash rent. The next two years, he rented a 70-acre farm alone, paying cash rent. Next he rented 110 acres for cash rent for five years. Then he rented 200 acres on shares for two years. When he was 33 years old, he rented 330 acres on shares and worked the place for six years. He then bought 90 acres and farmed it for eleven years. He then bought his present farm of 330 acres, which he has now owned seven years. He now has this farm all paid for and has built a good new house. This is like the history of many successful farm- ers. It takes a long time to get the capital necessary to farm well, but when this is secured and combined with the years of experience, more money is made in a few years than was made in all the previous years. The system of farming on this farm is typical of that followed on many farms as far west as Central Kansas, Nebraska, and the Dakotas. The cash crops vary in different regions. In one region, they are corn and oats, in another corn and wheat, in another spring wheat, oats, and barley. In any event, large areas of these crops are grown. Stock are used to work up the waste products and some of the grain. If grain is cheap, the animals may be fattened ; if not, they are carried through on roughage and sold without finishing, or may be fattened on grass ; or in a region where grain is usually cheap, they may be carried over on roughage in the hope of having cheaper grain to fatten on the following year. Most of the profit is expected to come from crops. The stock work down the 2N 546 FARM MANAGEMENT roughage and produce manure. They require little labor and are not expected to much more than pay for their feed in most years. This method of farming appears very rough to those who keep fine stock and to those who finish their meat animals for the top price. But the farmers who have a large area of cash crops, and who follow such methods, usually make money and have good crop yields. A similar system where the cash crops are cotton and grain is described in Farmers' Bulletin 364. A farm that is somewhat similar is described in Farmers' Bulletin 432. The cash crops are grain and apples. A SUCCESSFUL CROP FARM This farm is located one and one-half miles from a rail- road station about 325 miles from New York. It contains CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS TENANT LANDLORD April 1 April 1 Farm 1910 $780 1200 1911 $856 1910 $14,550 1911 $15,450 110 Machinery and tools . . horses, 2 colts . . 7 horses, 2 colts . . . 1300 300 225 2 cows, 2 calves . . . Hogs 50 hens 120 20 29 38 47,") 20 38 475 29 Supplies and cash in use Increase of investment 325 325 $2822 92 $2914 $14;904 1121 $16,025 SOME SUCCESSFUL. FARMS 547 128 acres. In 1911, there were 105 acres in crops. The products are sold at wholesale to local buyers who ship east or west, according to the demand. The farm is share rented. The results for tenant and landlord are both given. DETAILED LIST OF EQUIPMENT APRIL 1, 1911 2 walking plows .... $12 1 tedder $15 1 shovel plow .... 41 rake 10 2 spring tooth harrows . 15 2 hay racks .... 10 1 spike tooth harrow . . 7 Hay forks, cars, etc. . . 25 1 weeder 17 1 grain binder ... 70 1 drill 60 1 bean harvester ... 15 1 roller 18 1 potato digger ... 30 1 grass seeder .... 51 fanning mill .... 5 1 cabbage setter ... 18 1 scales 5 2 hand corn planters . 12 light wagons ... 60 3 walking cultivators . . 12 2 heavy wagons ... 60 2 riding cultivators . . 45 1 cutter 15 1 potato sprayer ... 20 1 pair bobs 15 1 orchard sprayer . . . 220 Harness 75 1 potato hiller .... 2 Crates, barrels, etc. . . 20 1 mower . 30 Small tools . 50 CROPS 7 acres corn, 350 bushels. 9 acres potatoes, 1400 bushels, 1124 bushels sold for $804. 15 acres beans, 215 bushels, 204 bushels sold for $438. 5 acres cabbage, 46 tons sold for $1104. 9 acres oats, 300 bushels. 2 acres barley, 45 bushels. 29 acres wheat, 634 bushels sold for $538. 22 acres timothy and clover, 30 tons, 2 tons sold for $20. 7 acres apples, about 1000 barrels sold on trees for $1076. Potatoes, cabbage, corn, and beans are usually grown on sod. Beans are usually followed by wheat. The other tilled crops are followed by oats, and oats by wheat. Grass seed is included with the wheat. The hay is left one or two years. 548 FARM MANAGEMENT RECEIPTS TENANT LANDLORD Potatoes $402 219 552 269 10 538 460 83 125 100 92 $402 219 552 269 10 538 Beans . . Cabbage Wheat . . Hay . . Apples . Veal calves Hogs and p Poultry $2 Outside lab Increase of and 1 cow igs 83 > eggs $100 or investment 1121 $2850 $3194 EXPENSES TENANT LANDLORD Labor $375, board of labor $220 . . . Machinery and repairs $595 204 $25 125 Buildings, fences, drains 450 650 Feed $26 and feed grinding $24 ... Horseshoeing 25 50 25 Breeding fees Veterinary 15 10 2 Seeds 27 27 Fertilizer $200, spray materials $30 . . Twine and threshing ^Machine work hired . 115 17 3 115 17 Barrels, bags, crates 9 Fuel and oil for farm work Insurance 6 5 2 20 25 calves 75 2 cows 80 Taxes 100 $1606 $1188 SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS SUMMARY 549 TENANT LANDLORD Average capital $2868 2850 1606 1244 143 1101 $15,465 3,194 1,188 2,006 Receipts Expenses Income from capital and labor .... Interest on capital at 5% Lal)or income Landlord's per cent on investment . . 13% Both the landlord and tenant on this farm are doing well. In order to compare the results with farms operated by owners, we can figure what the labor income would have been if the tenant had owned and operated the farm. The labor income would then have been $2334. In 1908, a different tenant worked the farm, but followed the same system of farming. The labor income was ^hen S2392. The success of this farm is primarily due to the com- bination of good soil, good crops, and diversified farming that allows efficient use of horses and labor. The year was a dry year, but the crops on this farm were good for the season. Prices, particularly of cabbage, were high enough to more than make up for the short crop. The farm has unusually good buildings and is well kept up in every way. While it is primarily a crop farm, yet the system of farming provides an animal unit for each 7 or 8 acres of crops. This makes it possible to manure all the farm with about 10 tons per acre every 7 or 8 years. In order to have a cabbage storage house, the tenant paid half the cost of building one. The few cows are used to produce veal calves. These are bought from dairymen and are allowed to suck cows 550 FARM MANAGEMENT^ for about a month. In this way, 25 calves were bought and sold during the year. The work on the farm is done by the tenant and one hired-man, and a little help from the landlord who helped spray and prune the orchard. Over 50 acres of crops were raised per man, in addition to the other work done. This is very good, particularly when we consider that there were 21 acres of such intensive crops as potatoes, cabbage, and apples, and that the work was so well done. The horses raised 21 acres of crops per horse. The tenant on this farm went to high school 2 years, farmed with his father 2 years. He then had about $500, borrowed as much more for horses and equipment, rented 75 acres of his father on shares for 2 years. Next he rented a farm of 135 acres for 3 years. He then rented this farm for a period of five years. The record here given is the first year on this lease. He is now 28 years old and is well started in farming. This system of farming is typical of the apple farms of the East. Such farms are usually diversified farms with 5 to 15 acres of apples on a 100-acre farm. In 1900, in Orleans County, N.Y., 76 per cent of the apple trees were in orchards having less than 600 trees, or less than 15 acres. In 1910, there was no county in any of the Eastern states that did not harvest at least 9 acres of other crops for each acre of apples harvested. As the country grows older, the newer regions in parts of the West that have tended to specialize on apples will doubtless become more diversified. The year's work is then better dis- tributed. The risks of failure of crop, poor prices, and pests are also less. The Eastern apple .grower expects to live and pay the farm expenses from his farm, and hopes to have his apple crop as extra profit. This man SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 551 sold apples without picking them. A more usual practice is for the farmer to pick and barrel the apples. A SUCCESSFUL POULTRY FARM MANAGED BY A WOMAN 1 The farm contained 12 acres in the edge of a village about 350 miles from New York. Eggs were shipped to a wholesale dealer in New York. CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS Nov. 1, 1910 Nov. 1, 1911 Farm $6000 400 1920 $6000 400 IVlachinery and tools .... 1300 White Leghorn hens, 40 cockerels 2520 50 200 825 1 cow 50 200 825 1 horse Feed and supplies Increase of inventory $9395 600 $9995 CROPS The crops grown were 3.5 acres of corn, 0.4 acre mangels, 1.3 acres alfalfa, 0.5 acre rape, 1 acre young cherry orchard not yet bearing. RECEIPTS 10,007 doz. eggs at wholesale $3002 8346 eggs for hatching at $7 per 100 584 584 hens, 35 roosters 478 210 pullets 311 963 cockerels 209 Butter $42, calf $11 53 Corn stalks $15, alfalfa hay $104 119 Increase of investment 600 $5356 1 The record of this farm was secured by E. W. Benjamin of the De- partment of Poultry Husbandry, Cornell University. 552 FARM MANAGEMENT EXPENSES Labor paid $625, value of unpaid labor of daughter $292 $917 Machinery and repairs 85 Buildings and repairs 48 Grain feed 1509 Straw 65 Seeds 3 Fertilizer $5, spray materials $1.20 6 Fuel and oil $5, kerosene $9.60, gasoline $40 .... 55 Carbolineum $2, egg cases $38 40 Horseshoeing 8 Insurance $4.50, taxes $45 50 $2786 StJMMAKY Average capital $9695 Receipts 5356 Expenses 2786 Income from capital and unpaid labor 2570 Interest on capital at 5 % 485 Labor income 2085 The success of this farm is due to the unusually high production of eggs per hen, and to the unusual success in raising chickens. The price received for eggs was about 3 cents a dozen above the usual wholesale price paid in New York. This increased the profit by $300. In addition to the work of the woman manager and her daughter, one man was hired by the year and one man for 6 months. This is a large amount of labor for this number of hens, but the high egg production and success with chickens seem to justify the extra labor. The other successful farms here recorded are the more usual examples of success, in that their success is due to a size of farm and types of farming and farm organiza- tion that use labor very effectively and yet secure good production, but this farm succeeds because its production is so good as to offset the high labor cost. One of the daughters took a winter course in poultry SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 553 husbandry in a college of agriculture, then started the farm in 1907. The mother and another daughter who is a college graduate now run the place. There were 300 pullets the first winter. The stock and plant has been increased each year up to its present size. To reach a labor income of $2000 in four years is very unusual success. Diversified farms on which poultry is one of the enter- prises are a more common type of successful poultry farm. See No. 9, page 135, and the records on pages 444 to 473. RECORD OF A YEAR'S BUSINESS ON A FARM In order to show the method of calculating labor in- come the following farm record is given on a record blank. The figures and words in italics are the facts that were obtained from the farm or that were calculated. Record for the year beginning April 1, 1911, and ending April 1, W12. Operator's name Age Post Office County State, N.Y. Distance and direction of the farm from station 2\ miles S. E. Name of station How many years has the present operator had charge of the farm ? 20. What was the total area of the farm, including owned land, rented land, and land worked on shares ? 155 acres. How many of the above acres were owned by the operator ? 155. How many acres were cash rented ? 0. How many acres were share rented ? 0. Of the total area how many acres were in woods? 0. How many acres of the woodland were pastured? 0. How many acres in other permanent pasture? 15. How many acres in pasture not permanent ? 8. 554 FARM MANAGEMENT AVERAGE CAPITAL INVESTED IN THE FARM BUSINESS 1 APRIL 1, 1911 APRIL 1, 1912 Farm $15,500 $15,500 Machinery and tools 1,201 1,176 Live-stock (from page 558) 2,435 2,645 Feed, supplies, etc 930 1,105 Cash kept in use 200 200 Total $20,266 $20,626 Average 20,446 Increase 360 1 In giving values of farm, machinery, live-stock, etc., give the value at which it probably could be sold. The value of the farm at the end of the year should be the same as at the beginning unless definite improve- ments that add to its value have been made. Rise in value of real estate is not counted, as the object is to study the system of farming, not real estate speculation. Machinery includes wagons, harness, small tools, and other equipment. Feed and supplies includes grain, hay, and other feed on hand at the beginning of the year but not including products held for sale. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS CROPS FOR THE YEAR 555 CROP CROPS GROWN CROPS SOLD Area Yield per Acre Total Crop Amount Sold Price Total Value Sold Corn for grain. . . Corn for silage. . Potatoes Field beans 6 6 4 22 I 15 50 bu. 12.5 tons 158 bu. 19 bu. 300 bu. 75 tons 630 bu. 420 bu. 1000 bu. 550 bu. 475 .60 $285 Roots (kind) beets Oats 37 bu. Barley Wheat 25 X 18 6 28 bu. X 1.5 tons 700 bu. X 27 tons 590 bu. .95 561 Straw Hay, clover and timothy . . 1.4 tons 27 Alfalfa, new seeding Seeds (give the kinds) Apples, bearing Apples, not bear- ing 1 8bbl. X 8bbl. X 4bbl. 3 (Give any other Fruit) peaches 1 Truck, etc. (give the kinds) (Give any other crop) . Sweet corn can- ning factory . . . 5 18 tons $7. 124 If any of the above crops were grown in orchard or with other crops or otherwise double cropped, explain If any of the year's crops are not yet sold, give the crop and amount and value of that which will be sold. Beans, 400 bu., worth $1000; Hay, 1 ton, $20. Total sold or held for sale . . $2020 556 FARM MANAGEMENT AMOUNT AND VALUE OF ANIMAL PRODUCTS SOLD DURING THE YEAR (Include the value of products exchanged for groceries, etc. Do not in- clude products used in the house.) PRODUCT AMOUNT SOLD PRICE TOTAL VALUE SOLD Butter made on the farm Ib. Cream sold to a creamery to be made into butter ... Ib. fat Milk sold to a creamery to be made into butter Ib. $135 Milk sold at wholesale to a retailer or shipping station qt 63,875 4t 2555 Milk and cream retailed by the farmer qt. Milk sold to a condensery Ib Milk sold to a cheese factory Ib. Cheese made on the farm Ib. Buttermilk gal. Wool Ib. Eggs doz. 200 25 50 Breeding fees X .. . X .. Hides .. X .. .. X .. 6 Honey Ib. Total $ 2746 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS Received for labor or team work done off the farm or for use of machinery What was the kind of work ? farm work Received for cash rent for acres in this farm. . . . Received for rent of buildings on the farm Received for sirup or sugar Received for lumber, posts, wood, etc Any other receipts $72 SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 557 Mti V D Y MBER A PURCH URING T & : E IN NUMBER AND VA HAND AT END OF THE ..... O t^ 00 Oi GO M UE ON NING R D VAL BEGIN YE UMBER A HAND AT OF TH 'O . . "* . . 6- 558 FARM MANAGEMENT CASH FARM EXPENSES FOR THE YEAR Amount paid for labor exclusive of household help . New machinery Repairs of machinery New buildings Repairs of buildings Fences Drains Hay Silage Stalks Straw Shavings G rains and concentrated feed Feed grinding Silo filling Corn shredding Milk cans, etc Milk expressage Ice Horseshoeing , Breeding fees Veterinary Milk and cow testing, acid, etc Seeds Plants Trees Fertilizer Manure Spray materials Twine Threshing Pressing Machine work hired Barrels Bags Crates Lumber sawing Fuel and oil for farm work Expressage, commissions, etc Insurance on buildings and contents Taxes, including school tax Cash rent paid for acres Other farm expenses Total.. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 559 OTHER EXPENSE ITEMS NOT CASH Value of board furnished to farm help and not paid for in cash, $161. Value of farm work done by members of the family and not paid for. Do not include the value of the farmer's time nor the value of housework, but include such work as butter making, chores, etc. At usual farm wages, what would it have cost to hire this labor ? $100. GENERAL QUESTIONS Value of operator's house, $4500. Other houses, $0. Barns and other out-buildings, $3000. If the number of cows was not constant through the year, what would the average number be? 23\. If any pure-bred stock is kept, give the breed and number of each kind. None. How many men are kept by the year? 1. Give number of other men hired by the month and number of months each worked. / man, 8 months. Son worked about 2 months in summer. Give the approximate number of days of day-help hired for haying, harvesting, silo filling, potato digging, etc., 0. Was the present farmer ever a hired-man or tenant ? Both. How long as each ? 4 V r - hired-man, 8 yr. tenant. Give particulars of how he got started. Amount of mortgage on the farm, $1700. Number of persons in the family exclusive of hired help, 7. SUMMARY Average capital (p. 554) $20,44 Receipts : Crops * (p. 555) $2020 Animals (p. 557) 173 Animal products (p. 556) 2746 Miscellaneous (p. 556) 72 Increase of capital - (p. 554) 860 Total receipts $5371 1 Include value of crops that will be sold. 2 When the total value of farm and equipment increases during the year, the; increase is counted as a receipt ; and when it decreases during the year, the decrease is counted as an expense. 560 FARM MANAGEMENT Expenses : Animals purchased (p. 557) $366 Cash farm expenses (p. 558) 1675 Other expenses not cash (p. 559) 261 Decrease of capital l Total expenses $2302 Income from capital and operators' labor $3069 Interest on capital at 5% $1022 Labor income $2047 1 See note 2 on page 559. FACTORS By comparing different farms in the same region, one may see how they differ and if enough farms are compared, may learn how the most successful farms differ from the less successful ones. Any one can fill out a blank like the pre- ceding for his farm. If accounts are not kept, the receipts and expenses may be given as nearly as possible. The errors will not be so serious as to interfere with comparing the efficiency of the farm with other farms. The following factors aid in making such a comparison of farms. The re- gion for which factors are given is a very prosperous region. The success of this farm is primarily due to the good crop yields, the diversity of the business, the fairly large acreage of crops, good production per cow, and efficient use of man labor. The farmer went to district school until he was 18 years old, hired out by the month until he was 22, then rented his father's farm of 145 acres on shares for 8 years. He then bought this farm and has been on it 14 years. He has a neat, well-kept farm with good buildings, has put steam heat, acetylene light, bath room, and running water in the house, and has the farm nearly paid for. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS FACTORS 561 AVERAGE FOB THIS FARM AVERAGE OF THE REGION Size of business. Capital $20,446 $12,037 Value of labor directed .... $871 $433 Acres farmed 155 149 Acres in crops 110 93 Animal units 33 23 Number of cows l 23^ 9 Diversity of business. Number of products bringing $500 receipts 3 Per cent of receipts from crops . . 42 58 Production. 2 Crop index 122% 100% Receipts per cow from milk and its products $114 $57 Receipts per cattle unit .... $113 $52 Efficiency in use of capital. 3 Per cent of area in crops .... 71 62 Per cent of capital in house . 22 14 Per cent of capital in barns . 15 13 Value of barns per animal unit . . 891 $70 Efficiency in use of labor. 4 Average number of men .... 2.8 2.2 Crop acres per man 39 42 Animal units per man 12 10 Productive work units of man labor (page 350) 755 479 Productive work units per man 270 218 Number of horses 7 5.6 Crop acres per horse 16 17 Productive work units of horse labor 465 337 Productive work units per horse 66 60 Value of machinery per acre of crops $10.81 $6.11 Fertility. Crop acres per animal unit 5 . . 3.3 4.0 Cost of fertilizer per acre of crops . 91 f 55? 1 If a farm has other important animals, they must be considered. 2 The results on a farm may be due to high or low crop yields or pro- duction per animal. The crop index is a comparison with the average 29 562 FARM MANAGEMENT of the region as 100 per cent. The crop yields on this farm were 22 per cent above the average. If there are no other figures, the crops may be compared with the state average. The receipts per cow from milk give an idea of the production per cow. The receipts per cattle unit are the receipts and increase inventory from dairy products and cattle divided by the number of cattle units. One grown animal, or 2 young stock, are called a cattle unit. The receipts per cow are sometimes good when the receipts per cattle unit are poor, becauss the young stock kept does not increase in value or sell for enough to pay. Receipts per hen, per sheep, or for other animals must be considered if they are important on the farm. The approximate amount of feed used on the farm may be obtained by adding feed purchased to crops raised and not sold. 8 Sometimes a farm has so little land in crops as to fail to pay. Some- times the capital is too largely invested in buildings. This farm has a rather high investment in buildings for its size, but not high enough to be serious. 4 The crop acres and animal units combined show that the men are well employed. The same point is shown by the productive work units per man. The crop acres per horse are low. One or two horses could probably be dispensed with unless they are desired for pleasure. 6 The crop acres per animal unit give a basis for comparing the amounts of manure available on different farms. With the system followed on this farm there is about 3 tons of manure per year for each acre of crops. This is much above the average. SUMMARY OF THE MOST IMPORTANT FACTORS AFFECTING PROFITS . THE most common ways by which the individual farmer makes more than the average are: (1) by working harder, (2) by choosing a region and farm that pays better than the average, (3) by having a better organized and managed business, (4) by forecasting the future, and buying land or other property or raising crops or animals to meet future shortages. The man who sees far enough ahead to raise colts for the time when colts will bring high prices is doing a good public service as well as making a good profit for himself. SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 563 Survey work and studies of successful farms indicate that the most important factors in the organization and management of the farm are : (1) size of business (partic- ularly the area in crops) , (2) diversity of the business, and (3) production (crop yields and production per animal). Very few farms rank well in all these points. Some farms are large enough, some are diversified, some have good crop yields, some have good production for cows or other animals. Most farmers have a hobby that is over- done while other things are neglected. It requires good judgment to keep the farm development properly balanced. If a farmer gets crop yields and production per animal a little better than the average and has a good-sized farm and diversified business, he is almost certain to have a profitable farm. Ordinarily there should be three or four important products sold. That is, three or four specialties, no one of which is neglected on account of the others. A care- ful farmer may hope for crop yields a fifth better than the average and production per animal a half better than the average. With these conditions and a good-sized farm he may hope for a labor income of three to five times the average after he gets his business established. Good crop yields may be the result of having a better farm than the average, using more fertilizer, or farming better in other respects. Of these the better farm is usually the cheapest way of increasing crops. But with a better soil it pays to farm better in every respect. The larger farm may be secured by ownership or rental accord- ing to one's capital. Other minor points often prevent the profits from rising as high as they might go if the entire business were well 564 FARM MANAGEMENT balanced. Occasionally too much is invested in buildings or machinery or too many horses or men are kept, or any one of a hundred other factors may be wrong. These mistakes are not so often made by experienced farmers but are nearly always made by persons who go from city to country. Of course the highest profits are made when size, diversity, and good production are combined with a well- balanced business in every other respect. But if the first four points are good a mistake in having an extra horse or man will still leave a profitable farm, although not as profitable as it might have been. No matter how profitable a farm may be a farmer will not prosper if the family expenses are out of proportion to the income. Very often the farmer who runs the most successful farm fails to accumulate money as rapidly as a less successful farmer who saves all he gets. Failure to accumulate money may be due to poor farming, too ex- pensive living, sickness, or other misfortune. Failures from all these causes are usually confused. In fact the personal factor so confuses some persons that they at- tribute all success to the man. The success of a farm is primarily dependent on the factors enumerated above. But success of an individual is primarily dependent on the relation of his income to his family expense. The highest financial success comes when a well-balanced^ suc- cessful farm is combined with economy in living. REFERENCES Many of the farms that have been written up in various maga- zines and bulletins are really not making much above in- terest on the capital invested. A number of profitable farms, also farms that are doing well with small capital, are given in Bulletin 295, pages 510 to 536 SOME SUCCESSFUL FARMS 565 of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station, Ithaca, New York. A number of successful farms are given in Laboratory Exercises in Farm Management, by Warren and Livermore, pages 50 to 62. A very successful farm of a city man who went to farming is described in U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 432. In 1909, the income due to the labor of the father and a son on this farm seems to have been about $3500. A very successful tenant farm in New Jersey is described in Farmers' Bulletin 472. A successful cotton farm that appears to have given a labor income of $2000 to $3000 is described in U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bulletin 364. A successful alfalfa and potato farm in Ohio is described in Cir- cular 107 of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, Wooster, Ohio. The man who rented this farm paid cash rent of about 6 per cent, and made a labor income of over $3000. So far as the writer can determine, these are the only bulletins that describe farms on which the labor income is as high as $2000. A farm that is interesting because of the fair profit on a small area is described on pages 7 to 16 of Farmers' Bulletin 325. This man made a labor income of over $1000 on 40 acres of land in Nebraska. With large farms and the usual types of farming, much more than this is often made in the region, but this farm is making a very large income for its size. A very successful system of tenant farming in Maryland is de- scribed in Farmers' Bulletin 437. 566 FARM MANAGEMENT TABLES OF PRICES OF FARM PRODUCTS TABLE 80. AVERAGE FARM VALUE PER HEAD, UNITED STATES, JAN. I 1 HORSES MULES MILCH Cows OTHER CATTLE SWINE SHEEP 1867 $59.05 $66.94 $28.74 $15.79 $4.03 $2.50 1868 . . . 54.27 56.04 26.56 15.06 3.29 1.82 1869 . . . 62.57 79.23 29.15 18.73 4.65 1.64 1870 . . . 67.43 90.42 32.70 18.87 5.80 1.96 Average . . 60.83 73.16 29.29 17.11 4.44 1.98 1871 . . . 71.14 91.98 33.89 20.78 5.61 2.14 1872 . . . 67.41 87.14 29.45 18.12 4.01 2.61 1873 . . . 66.39 85.15 26.72 18.06 3.67 2.71 1874 . . . 65.15 81.35 25.63 17.55 3.98 2.43 1875 . . . 61.10 71.89 25.74 16.91 4.80 2.55 Average . . 66.24 83.50 28.29 18.28 4.41 2.49 1876 57.29 66.46 25.61 17.00 6.00 2.37 1877 . . . 55.83 64.07 25.47 15.99 5.66 2.13 1878 . . . 56.63 62.03 25.74 16.72 4.85 2.21 1879 . . . 52.36 56.00 21.71 15.38 3.18 2.07 1880 . . . 54.75 61.26 23.27 16.10 4.28 2.21 Average . . 55.37 61.96 24.36 16.24 4.79 2.20 1881 58.44 69.79 23.95 17.33 4.70 2.39 1882 . . . 58.53 71.35 25.89 19.89 5.97 2.37 1883 . . . 70.59 79.49 30.21 21.81 6.75 2.53 1884 . . . 74.64 84.22 31.37 23.52 5.57 2.37 1885 . . . 73.70 82.38 29.70 23.25 5.02 2.14 Average . . 67.18 77.45 28.22 21.16 5.60 2.36 1886 . 71.27 79.60 27.40 21.17 4.26 1.91 1887 . . . 72.15 78.91 26.08 ' 19.79 4.48 2.01 1888 . . . 71.82 79.78 24.65 17.79 4.98 2.05 1889 . . . 71.89 79.49 23.94 17.05 5.79 2.13 1890 . . . 68.84 78.25 22.14 15.21 4.72 2.27 Average . . 71.19 79.21 24.84 18.20 4.85 2.07 1891 67.00 77.83 21.62 14.76 4.15 2.50 1892 . . . 65.01 75.55 21.40 15.16 4.60 2.58 1893 . . . 61.22 70.68 21.75 15;24 6.41 2.66 1894 . . . 47.83 62.17 21.77 14.66 5.98 1.98 1895 . . . 36.29 47.55 21.97 14.06 4.97 1.58 Average 55.47 66.77 21.70 14.78 5.22 2.26 U. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook, 1911. TABLES 567 TABLE 80. AVERAGE FARM VALUE PER HEAD, UNITED STATES, JAN. 1. Continued. HORSES MULES MILCH Cows OTHER CATTLE SWINE SHEEP 1896 . . . $33.07 $45.29 $22.55 $15.86 $4.35 $1.70 1897 . . . 31.51 41.66 23.16 16.65 4.10 1.82 1898 . . . 34.26 43.88 27.45 20.92 4.39 2.46 1899 . . . 37.40 44.96 29.66 22.79 4.40 2.75 1900 . . . 44.61 53.55 31.60 24.97 5.00 2.93 Average . . 36.17 45.87 26.88 20.24 4.45 2.33 1901 . . . 52.86 63.97 30.00 19.93 6.20 2.98 1902 . . . 58.61 67.61 29.23 18.76 7.03 2.65 1903 . . . 62.25 72.49 30.21 18.45 7.78 2.63 1904 . . . 67.93 78.88 29.21 16.32 6.15 2.59 1905 . . . 70.37 87.18 27.44 15.15 5.99 2.82 Average . . 62.40 74.03 29.22 17.72 6.63 2.73 1906 . . 80.72 98.31 29.44 15.85 6.18 3.54 1907 . . . 93.51 112.16 31.00 17.10 7.62 3.84 1908 . . . 93.41 107.76 30.67 16.89 6.05 3.88 1909 . . . 95.64 107.84 32.36 17.49 6.55 3.43 1910 . . . 108.19 119.84 35.79 19.41 9.14 4.08 Average . . 94.29 109.18 31.85 17.35 7.11 3.75 1911 111.46 125.62 39.97 20.54 9.37 3.91 1912 . 105.94 120.51 39.39 21.20 8.00 3.46 568 FARM MANAGEMENT o o n gM -. 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C35t>.^-ICO'-H O l> CO CO O Tt< CO OOi O5 1 1 5 3 og h O3 ^^ "^ ^H O5 CO ^^ ^^ t^* ^D ^t^ CO CO CO CO C^l CO CO "^ ^ ^ CO O5 CO Tf CO 1 ,0 4 H ^ -tx CO CO I>* C^ tv *O CD 00 CD Oi T-H CO CO T 1 o H || 8Sg g g[2i 00 CO CO CO I I a> r. a ^ P Wffl S"05COOIO 05 ^OCO^fNOO CO O51O 1 j - H is a lO^OiOCOO CO r I CO O >O t^ s COO 00 O o O5 1 *p lOCOiO^HlN l> C5COCOCOO O5 oo t> a* o i< i 6 S gog^- .0 c^oooo 1 I 1-1 00 1 o '-, i M CO CO t** O *-~i i^ ^ t^* O5 CO 10 oo oi 1 q | oocoooi-H o oooo'co' 1 ^ 1 I 00 ^H 4 O A. 2 (- O bfi QJ 2^- ] PI O o "i 3 H o> bfl CD tuo . Pi 02 E i-H CO CO "tf *O j COt^OOCTSO ce 1 5 1 1 1 1 OiOi i-H 1-1 - o M TABLES 571 T^rHrHfOCO rH O CO O O 00 CO OirHCipOS (NO5l> OOCO CO oooooo THCOCO001N CO rHOOOlMO O CJccOr-rH i-COOOOCOO CO CO 00 I-H O CO !>I>rHOCOrH r-n 10 T-H I-H 00 o I-H i lOcOrMcOiOio COrHrH rH rH CO rH CO CO iO 572 FARM MANAGEMENT coqooi>q GO CII-HTHIOI> 01 . oi^ooooJ O5 ocir-Hcoco 06 H O3 03 i I O3 i-H O3 O3 i-H i-H T I O3 i-H O3 i-H i-H i-H i-H i I rH O3 O3 lOOOO IO CO CO I-H Oi 00 *O i I CO CO i I 00 ^ I-H 00 GO O3 00 ooooco oo t~ Tt< o co I-H T}< ^(NiOi-noo oi t > t--o6c ; ico 1 w Q > ^i ^ *~! ^r qiot^oooo t> i> i i i i i oioocooo o JjgJStj CQ w W o O g _W o r B ^ ,H W I> - IB 2 COO3O1CO O^C^NOl^t'O-l COO-lO-lO^i-HO^ r lO^O^C^OQ H a ^ r ^ ^f CO Oi i^ O I-H T^ O 03 "^f "^f I-H O5 CO I-H O3 CO 00 O *;! ij o . ^. ^. . . . VAJ <( < 00 t^- Oi O CO Ot> ^ O3 O O O^ I-H iO CO iO O^ CO CO ^O O r*- w 3 a <5 EH CD "CD "CD SD bD SD OS 08 fS CO-*>O g COt^OOOiO 5g rHO3COrtOOC5< 000000 si OOOOOOOOO5 si OC3iO5CT5O5 s. C3C5O5C5t 000000 5 0000000000 5 0000000000 5 00000000< i-H i-H i-H <3 i ( i I i I i-H i-H i ocoo ioco tq oooooo 00 N CO ' high arid low cash price for Dec. page 512. ,., for Cincinnati, from Senate Reports, second session, . Transportation, Part II, page 24. Averages for 1891 in of Bureau of Labor, No. 99, March, 1912, page 605. ;., from Senate Report given above, page 27. Averages iths from Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agr. or Cincinnati, from Senate Report given above, page 31. "or all months for St. Louis, from Yearbook, ^.pril, July, Oct., for Boston, from Monthly Summary of page 3153. Prices for 1899 and later are for New York, an., 1912. April, July, Oct., for Boston, from Monthly Summary of page 3155. Prices for 1899 and later are for New York, in., 1912. (NCOO i-iOO C^C^CO COiO 00 l> CO LO LO CO o 10 Tfl lO <* Tt< >O * lO lO lO lO CO O5 1C CO CO 1-1 t-^ 00 i i 00 i I V. 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T ' T J S COl>COl> OOCOCOCO COcOCOt^-t^- i O Oi i 00 t^-O 00 CD CO S ^ D r 3 OS CO i"H CO C^ O CO T* CO O CO O5 ( a 1 '-i' ^ O5 O CO COO ^ CO CD CD CO CO H BARLEY 3 . *o t> oo ! co 1 o t^* c^ t> CO CO CO iO CD o. 00 t^ IOCS 00 IOO iQ 1C iO < =* . > 5 s .T 3 Oc ^ CD 00 O >O CO CO oco cococococo XV3HAY r A tr u vi T fe O O O5 Oi O5 O5 OS O5 OS O *O lOOOS^OOCO'-H'* CD l> 00 iO iO 1C CO CN CO (N i-i i-5 O2 CO O l> CO I-H CO 00 (N lO 00 (M 1O OOOOCOO5O5(NCO iO iO O l> CO l> O5 O5 00 O5 O5 00 <-H CO TJH O5 CO CO tO 00 CO CO l> 00 O t> lO O U5 CO CO i I CO CO (N 1-1 CO Tf >O O5 t^ CO Oi O5 00 CO t^ 00 O O 00 * 1C lO lO GO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO W 00 to 00 00 00 !> GO t^ 00 I> t^ t^ l> (35O5O05 00 GO (N -^ t^ i-l t>- GO t^ O5 i H> OS l> l> l> OS to O >O O TJ< Tfi - CO CO COO5 iOt^r-iO5t^O P3 a ^ oc ^ 576 FARM MANAGEMENT W W H > PS .C5O I> O5 1> ^t* -^ CO l> O5 iO Tf (N - 1 1-* O iH . i -^ IM ; CO i-H (N l> cJ o oi o r-n I-H ci I-H oi 06 1> to cd 10 >o >o co t^i>o6aoo6 9&1 I i-H i-H i-H i-H O5 00 * O I-H 00 i-H T-I CO CO (M (M I-H d CO 00 Oi CO * O CO>OiMO5CD i CO CO ^O t^ Tf "^ C^l CO O C^ C^l CO O 00 C5 t^- O5 00 CO 00 * l> 00 O5 t> O 00 O5 O5 00 C> I-H i-5 O O5 I-H I-H CO CO T)H i-H i Ii-Hi li li-Hi-HC^i-H i-H l-H i-H JS| i I i I i I C^C^C^i-Hl-H oqiotNioo^t^-i-H! no ioooi-HO5iocoo5co copcioqtN T-HTjHOOINOOCOCO'O T ^T-Ht~-IocOCO'' ; ^CO CO^CO^C^I CO CO CO ^ * CO CO -^ CO CO CO (N CO C^l O i-H CO (M iO I-H |COO t>COOO'-HCO-*(Noio i-H(Ni>^toGoo6o5 OI-H O (M i-t 00 lO b- O5 tO O5 C^ CO t>COiOCOiOT-HOOi-HiO piOO5(M_O5t>l>i-H >OI>i-HOOC oo 06 06 ooi-Hi-5coo>ooJ OOGC-HC50000 GO 00 GO C5 G5 t> 00 00 (M rt ^H (N ^H rH ,-H ^ i-( rH ^H rH rt ^H ^H CO - 00 (N W t> O C5 * 1C 00 t>- 1C (M < tClC^i 1> li-HC^I i I rH i I i I i I C^C^(N' 1> Hi HCI'-Hi -li-H t C5 IO N O C5 O q c^poopi>cx;c^o J oo-^oc^^T^coci COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO -H CO Tt* CO O GO b- OCO W (N O O5 O OS l> C * '-j o o c^ ci x ?. 55 as '-a . ' * 'g LJ K^ ff> 2- _a _ C3 V iliillllsliiliiilllllilililli 578 FARM MANAGEMENT c-i O as o a o I Is s "1 H O |5 d 2 ^ 55 * CO O5 ^H ^^i OOOOOO5O5O5OO5OO GOiOiOtGC' iOGOiO^fiOt^ OS OS OS OS OS O O OS OS OS OS O9 t, OS i li-HIN'^COOGO-^-lC^fN'-l'-l o CO t~^ t** t^^ t^ t** t** CO t'* t** t^ t^* t^* 3 o GO ^H iO O *O *O CO CO CO CO CO CO CO ^O CO . >> O3 J> h XGOt > -iO' !CO(CNiOO5TtO(NO ftiOiOOiOiOiOCOiOiOiOiOiOiO a> 3 t II O) o^ >, ' ' i " 8 s frajd -1 Si 1 ! 8. s ^pH^^gh-sl-s-^OQO^iH^ TABLES 579 O O CO 00 CO O> CO l> 00 CO o> 4>,-li-li-HT-( C3 CO i-5 S, iO 1C iO CO CO l> O t^ 6 2 ^Z w o Ed M ^H t> IM o oo cc t> OS 00 Oi 1C 1C Tt* Tt< * lO 0) i i s t 3 _ w _H O fc Q 580 FARM MANAGEMENT H O a t i H 00 w o a, g < PQ ( B S-2 U H O >" f? S 5 . S 5 < B g S5 H 2 ^ B 00 OS TH i~H O TH >O iO *O I~H O *O C^ O O O O i i i i i i I-H TH CN -t>;t^cooqoqoqoqoqascsoqoq lOTHCOIN'-H'-H'-HINCOOdCSOOTH C-IC ; ldC^C^C^(NC ; lC^C^C^C>lC-l t^-t^t^-t^ooooososoob-cocot"- CO t^ CO CO CO t* CO CO t^* t"^ tO CO t^^ COCOCOCOCOCOTH'TH'COCOCOCOCO iO iO ^O ^^ *-O CO t'* Oi t^* t>" CO *-O CO CO *O *O O O H *~H O T}H O ^^ ^ CO ^H ^H ^H r~H (^ C'Q C^l C^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ ^HtNfNCOCOOjOiiOOCOOOpCO ^H T-H T-H i ( ^H i-H ^H ^-H O O O ^~^ ^H rSi^:;il|!li iiilii-tiliill 1-,^^^^1-si-j^oQO^H^q TABLES 581 o g < 9 H O a z S82 a So S g o o ~ 1 iOOit>-^t l OCOiOO'-iiMi-iCO' I gaqproTPC^COiOLOCOC^r^COlN \ \ 3 * PQ 2 582 FARM MANAGEMENT O g JH Uf ~Tj4 o OQ oiO5t > -OlOO5rHC < JC ; J'OOO llffl ^p *" 'coco'(NCt>;O5(N SS 0( "^^^'^^ ^ CO CO CO CO CO O OS iO rH t> iO CO O CO C^l t^* ^O C^ O^Tt(NCO'O'OCOCOl > -rH b'bLd* >. | 33 a |^>; (-5feg