355 =3 o I I 3 THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID THE PRACTICAL Fruit Grower BY S. T. MAYNARD, B. S., Professor of Botany and Horticulture at the Massachusetts Agricultural College. PROFUSELY ILLUSTRATED [Copyright, 1885, by the Phelps Publishing Company.] SPRINGFIELD, MASS.: THE PHELPS PUBLISHING COMPANY 1900 PREFACE. In this age of book-making, a new book should not be urged upon the public unless to supply a real need. My excuse for pre- senting at this time this little volume, is the want, 011 the part of beginners in the business of fruit culture, and of the common farmer who has not the time nor inclination to study extensive works upon the subject, of a book that shall be sold at a small price yet cover the entire field of fruit cultivation, m all its de- tails, in a plain and practical manner. The limits of the present work, however, will not allow of an extended discussion as to the merits of the many methods of growth and cultivation, and I have aimed to give oulv such as arc largely practiced by the most successful fruit growers. S. T. MAYXARD. MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, Amberst, Mass., 1885. [ Copyright, 1885, by the Phelps Publishing Company.] THE APPLE VALUE OF ORIGIN. CHAPTER I. THE APPLE (PYRUS MALUS). VALUE OF ORIGIN IMPROVEMENT BY HYBRIDIZATION AND SE- LECTION ESSENTIAL QUALITIES. VALUE OF THE APPLE. This most ancient and important fruit of the temperate zone is found and grows successfully wherever civilization exists. It is largely cultivated throughout the whole of Europe, portions of Northern Africa, Northern Asia, China, Japan, Australia, South America, and in North America from Alaska to Florida. The product of the Apple crop in a single year in the United States alone has reached the enormous amount of over 50,000,000 bushels, and more than 1,000,000 acres are planted with Apple trees. Aside from the value of its fruit, the wood is very valuable for making weavers' shuttles, and for other purposes requiring hard, close-grained wood. ORIGIN. The fruit we now enjoy is so entirely unlike the original type of the species as to be hardly recognized as belong- ing to it, yet when the specific test is applied, i, e., that of its re- production from seed, we find that the seedlings, even from the most improved varieties, soon revert to the original form. It undoubtedly originated from the wild crab of Middle and North- ern Europe. The type of the wild crab is seen in many of the wild seedlings common in neglected pastures throughout the United States, the fruit of which is hard and often acid, and the branches often tipped with sharp thorns. The improved varieties now in cultivation are the result of the influence of improved condition of soil, climate, etc. Many of, or, I might say, most of the b^% varieties known to us, are chance seedlings, or sports, as tiPy are called. No one can tell whether they resulted from erasing by natural fertilization or from a change in the germ due to superior surroundings of plant food and climatic influence. IMPROVEMENT IN VARIETIES. In considering the various subjects of improvement of varieties, methods of propagation, cultivation, pruning, etc., it will be my aim to deal in general M362291 4 IMPROVEMENT OF THE APPLE. principles, so that, for economy of space, the subject may be referred to again when necessary without repetition. HYBRIDIZATION. Very little attention has ever been given to the production of new varieties of the Apple by crossing, or hybridization ; a method which, in the case of some other fruits, has resulted in very marked progress in the improvement of varieties. Perhaps it may be of interest to those experimentally inclined in this direction to describe the process. This is per- formed by taking two flowers (and the process is the same with all fruits) of desirable varieties, as, one a strong, rampant grower, while the other produces fruit of remarkable quality; removing the stamens from one flower before it opens, and, after this operation, inclosing it in a fine gauze bag. When the pistil of this flower is in the proper condition, i. e., when the end of the stigma is covered with a viscid fluid, the pollen from the other flower is applied to its surface, and then again inclosed in the bag, until certain that fertilization has taken place. SELECTION. Another method which promises good results is that of selection; that is, by sowing the most perfectly developed seed of the best varieties. By either of the above methods, there is but little incentive to the production of new varieties of Apples or Pears, on account of the long time required to produce fruit and to test its value in many localities, and the small money value in a new variety to the originator. Whatever is done in this line must be done for posterity and from a love of the work, but, I believe, there are great possibilities of improvement in the future in the light of the improvement of the past. The best results have always come from the use of the most hardy native kinds, although the introduction of new blood, as it is called, is often marked by a wonderful improvement in the progeny. If a variety has marked failings, they are liable to be transmitted, although, in some cases, they may be overcome or covered up by the strong or valuable qualities of the other parent in the case of hybridization. IMPORTANT QUALITIES. The qualities that are most important in a new variety are: Hardiness, vigor of growth, productiveness, and Jine quality. Without the three first, the last quality is of little consequence ; because, with the people, cheap fruit in abundance is the great want, and will add greatly to their health and, con- sequently, to their happiness. RAISING APPLES FROM SEED. CHAPTER II. PROPAGATION OF THE APPLE. APPLE SEEDLINGS TO GET GOOD SEED THE SEED BED APPLE SEEDS PRESERVING SEEDS ROOT GRAFTING CARE OF SOOT GRAFTS. The varieties of Apples are propagated by buckling or grafting upon seedlings. The seedlings used for stocks are most com- monly grown from seed obtained from the pomace of the cider mills by washing. While some good seeds may be obtainod in this way, the majority must be imperfectly developed, as most of the fruit vised for making cider are the wind-falls and those in- jured' by the codlin moth. To obtain good seed, the fruit of strong native trees should be selected. The fruit may be ground up for cider and the seeds then separated, or the Apples may be planted whole. Some of the best seedlings I have ever grown were from seed planted with the whole apple in the fall. THE SEED-BED. The soil for the seed-bed should be deep and moist, and made rich by the addition of an abundance of well decomposed manure, or ground bone and potash. New soil will grow much better seedlings than that previously cultivated for several years. It should be broken up and planted with potatoes one year, or until it gets mellow. The first year after turf land is plowed there are many larv?e in the soil that feed upon the young roots of the seedlings and greatly injure them. If the seed is piirchased from seed dealers, it is often difficult to get it in season for sowing in the fall. In such cases it must be pre- served through the winter packed in boxes of sand and be kept in a cool cellar, as near freezing as possible ; or, the box may be placed partly under ground, out of doors, where there is no dan- ger of standing water, taking care that the sand does not get dry during the winter. As soon as the ground will work up fine, the seed should be sown with the sand in drills 18 inches apart, and so that the seed- lings will stand two or three inches apart. All of the weak and imperfect seedlings should be thinned out as soon as their char- acter can be determined, and the soil be kept free from weeds and mellow. If the seed-bed was properly prepared and the seed 6 ROOT GRAFTING. good, the seedlings should have made from one to two feet of growth the first season. The seedlings may be allowed to remain in the seed-bed until the following spring and then transplanted to the nursery to be budded. If to be root-grafted, they should be dug in the fall and carefully packed in moss or moist sawdust, and kept in a cool cellar until wanted for grafting. ROOT GRAFTING. During the winter, when very little can be done out of doors in the nursery, such work as root grafting and making cuttings is done indoors. The seedlings, previously dug and packed in moss or sawdust, are taken as needed from the cellar and the cions grafted upon them at or just below the collar, i. e., that part where the root and top joins. The kind of graft known as tongue or whip-grafting is illus- trated by Figures 1, 2 and 3. The stock (Fig. 1) is taken in the left hand, and such lateral roots as will interfere with planting are shortened and the lower end cut off if the root is more than eight inches long; six to eight inches is the usual length of the root. An upward, slanting cut is then made, with the tongue as at a. The cion (Fig. 2), a piece four to six inches long, of the last season's growth of the variety desired, and as nearly of the same size as the stock as possible, is then taken and a similar cut made at the base. The two parts are then pressed firmly together, and the union is bound firmly with waxed string or waxed cloth (Fig. 3). Some nurserymen prefer the string, which does not cover the entiiv surface of the cut, and others the band, which perfectly excludes the air and moisture. Cions should not be cut when fro/en, but may be cut at any other time and pre- served in damp moss until wanted for use. Fi."'- ' After the root-grafts are thus made, they are packed in boxes of sand or light soil, and the soil very firmly packed around them, especially at the point where the graft is Fig. 2. Fiu. 3. made. In the spring the root-grafts and seedlings are to be transplanted to the nursery. PLANTING IN THE NURSERY. CHAPTER III. THE APPLE NURSERY. SOIL PLANTING BUDDING TIME FOR BUDDING HOW TO BUD UTENSILS AND MATERIAL EMPLOYED POINTS TO BE OB- SERVED IN BUDDING NURSERY CULTURE FORMING THE HEAD SOIL. The soil best suited for the growth of nursery trees should be deep, rich and moist, and be plowed to the depth of at least 15 inches. The seedling for budding should be dug as soon as the frost is out and the land will work mellow. After short- ening the tap roots and some of the laterals a little, plant in rows four feet apart, and from six to eight inches apart in the row. PLANTING. After the land is thoroughly prepared and made smooth, a line is stretched and the seedlings (if the roots are not much branched) are planted with a tool called a dibble (Fig. 4). "Where the soil is made mellow to a depth of more than one foot, seedlings, root- grafts, and cuttings may be very rapidly planted by the use of this tool. If the roots of the seedlings or root-grafts are much branched, they must be planted by opening a trench with a spade or plow, as deep as required to have the top bud just above the sur- face of the soil. The most important part of the operation of planting seedlings, root-grafts or long cuttings is that the soil be very firmly pressed about the lower ends. This may be done by the foot, or, much better, by the "tamper" (Fig. 5). This con- sists of a piece of two-inch plank cut with a base of about six to eight inches, and tapering up to three inches wide at the top, in which is inserted a hoe or fork handle. BUDDING. After planting, the seedlings require very little care, except good cultivation and a little pinching to force the growth into one main stem, until August, when they are to be budded with the variety desired for the orchard or for sale. The best time for budding the apple is generally the last of V Fig. 4. 8 HOW TO BUD. August, although, if the growth of the seedlings is likely to mature earlier, by reason of drouth, leaf-blight, or insects, they must be budded earlier. Or, if the season is moist and warm, it may be done as late as September. Budding- must be done before severe freezing, as that causes a thickening or maturing of the soft cells of the cambium layer of the bark, thus making the union of the bud and stock much more difficult and very uncertain of success. Before beginning the operation of budding, the stocks should be carefully prepared by trimming off all of the lower branches and leaves for three or four inches from the ground, so as not to delay the work of cutting and inserting the buds. The material used for tying may be the bast fibre obtained from the Russian mats that come around Russian iron. This is cut into lengths of from 10 inches to one f\ foot, according to the size of the stock to be budded, and f \ separated into thin, smooth bands of one-fourth of an inch "* '^ in width. Cotton warp obtained from cotton factories is Fl - 5< being extensively used in some nurseries on account of its greater strength. The material used must be such that it will not shrink upon being wet, nor expand or loosen when dry. The bands are used in a moist condition ; which is preserved, while in the field, by putting them in a " wrapper "a roll of cloth lined with a sheet of oiled paper. The knife used must be sharp and with a thin blade rounded at the end, as illustrated by Fig. (*-. The common shoe-knife, with a short blade, is now most generally used; the upper part of the point being rounded over so as to ''i:-- '> answer the purpose of the ivory blade of the old style budding knife. How TO BUD. The process of budding is illustrated by Figs. 7 to 11. The conditions of success are: 1, the stock must be in a vigorous growing state, so that the bark will peel easily; 2, the buds must be well matured; 3, the knife must be sharp; 4, the work must be done rapidly ; 5, the buds must be firmly and evenly bound in place. When everything is ready for the work, the first thing is to prepare a lot of bud-sticks (Fig. 7). Shoots of medium size are selected, taking care to get only those that have but one leaf at a joint, as where there is more than one leaf, there are generally one or more fruit buds. The leaves are cut off, leaving about one-fourth of an inch of the petiole or stem for a handle with which to insert the bud. The bud-sticks are kept from drying by using a wrapper, as for the bands. Where much budding is to be done, two persons are generally employed ; one to cut and put in the buds, and one to tie or wrap them. BUDDING EXPLAINED. Where only a small number are to be budded, the operator carries the wrappers, both over the left shoulder, and with th e knife makes first a cross-cut about two inches from the (X ground; then a longitudinal V Fig. *. Fig. 9. one on the north side, so as not to be injured by freezing and thawing in winter; at the same time raising the bark a little, as shown in Fig. 8. A bud-stick, Fig. 7, is then taken; with the knife a cut is made just through the bark about one-half inch above the bud, taking only a very thin portion of the wood. The length of the cut must be varied for the different kinds of trees. For the peach, the whole bud need not be much more than one-half of an inch long, while for the pear and cherry it should be at least one inch in length. After the bud is cut, Fig. 9, the lower end is inserted under the raised bark of the stock and pressed down by means of the remain- ing part of the leaf stem, Fig. 10. If the bark does not peel easily enough to be raised by the pressure upon the bud, the stock is not in the best condition for success; and it may be necessary to raise it by the use of the rounded portion of the blade of the knife. After the bud is in position, it is tied by holding one end of the band in the left hand, placing it against the stock, and winding the other end over the first, so as to hold it while both hands are employed to bind the bud smoothly and firmly; winding first upward, crossing above the bud, returning and tying below the bud, as shown in Fig. 11. The most important point in tying is to bind the bark down firmly and smoothly over the bud. After the trees have been budded a week or two, de- pending upon the condition of the weather, they should be examined, and if the growth is such that the bands are cutting into the stock so 10 Fltr n as to injure them, they should be 10 FORMING THE TREE. loosened and re-tied; or cut on the back side, if the bud is found well united with the stock. The next spring after budding, the stock is cut off with a sharp knife, placing- the blade on the side opposite the bud at the height of the cross-cut, and making an upward stroke, so that the knife will come out about one inch above the bud. When growth begins it will be found that the buds of the stock will start more vigorously than the one inserted, and when they are an inch or two long, they should be broken off, that the growth may all go with the inserted bud. NURSERY CULTURE. The after-treatment of the bud and root- graft, in the nursery, should be the same; the object being the growth of clean, healthy, well-formed trees. Only one shoot should be allowed to grow, and if laterals start out, they must be pinched off. At the end of the first season's growth, or before they start in the spring following, the stocks are to be cut back to the ground, and only one shoot allowed to grow, that a clean, straight trunk may be obtained. FORMING THE HEAD. During the summer of the second year, if the growth has been satisfactory, the head is p ormed. If the trees are to be planted where they must be kept cultivated, the head should be formed five feet high. This is a difficult thing to do, but the tree must be headed up as high as possible by rubbing off the lateral buds, as soon as they start in the spring, from three to four feet up from the ground, and then pinching the ends of the lateral branches above; leaving a clean leader in the centre, upon which laterals will be formed, as is shown by the dotted lines at &, Fig. 14, Page 15. The trees must have careful attention during the entire season if fine form is desired; and only those shoots should be allowed to grow that are needed to make a well- shaped head. A large amount of foliage should never be removed from any tree; and at this stage of growth, there should not be any necessity for so doing, if they have had proper treatment. In the growth of fruit or any other kind of trees, it should be made a rule " not to cut away more wood or foliage than is absolutely necessary to accomplish the desired end, i. e., the per- fect-formed tree; for every cut upon a tree, whether large or small, can only result in weakness, although the injury may be more or less overcome by good cultivation and an abundance of plant food." If the trees are making a weak growth, indicating exhaustion of the soil, manure or chemical fertilizers must be used ; but they should be applied late in the fall or early in the spring, as a late summer application often results in so late a growth of the trees that the wood does not get well ripened, and the trees are injured in the winter. TREES FOB THE ORCHARD. 11 CHAPTER IV, THE APPLE ORCHARD. TREES FOR PLANTING PROPER FORM, AGE AND SIZE OF TREE THE LAND FOR THE APPLE ESSENTIALS TO SUCCESS LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD THE PLANTING BOARD DIGGING THE HOLES MANURING. TREES FOR PLANTING. The best trees for planting are vigor- ous trees that have reached a medium size at the age of three or four years from the bud or root-graft. While a large tree is not desirable, on account of the number of roots that must necessar- ily be destroyed in digging, it has more vitality and will stand more ill-treatment and exposure than a smaller one. The fibrous roots of the young tree will be found within a short distance of the trunk; while in an older one they have been extending a little further each year, and when dug little else but the main branches are obtained. It is a good plan to obtain trees, of medium size, if they are purchased, one or two years before the time of planting and set them carefully in the nursery row eight or ten inches apart; or if the trees were grown upon one's own grounds, take them up and transplant them again before setting out. Trees in this condition can be moved with nearly all the fibrous roots and not receive much check. If the planter has the necessary skill to grow up a tree to the prop- er form and height, after they are planted in the orchard, it would be much safer to plant stocky, low-branched trees; as a tall, slim one is liable to injury from the large surface exposed to a hot, drying atmosphere, after being removed from the shelter of the nursery. The training or " heading up " to the proper height is illustrated by Figs. 13 and 14, Page 15. For the majority of planters, until this skill is acquired, the nurseryman must grow the trees to the height adapted to orchard cultivation. THE LAND best suited for the growth of the Apple is a deep, moist, sandy loam; but the Apple will give fair crops upon almost any soil, except a very sandy one. Two methods of growth are in common use: The first where the trees are grown in turf; and second, where the land is kept uii der cultivation with some other crop. JNo matter what system 12 LAYING OUT AND PLANTING. may be adopted, one thing must be constantly kept in mind, i. e., that we cannot expect satisfactory results unless there is an abund- ance of proper plant food and moisture in the soil in condition to be taken up by the roots of the trees. DISTANCE FOR PLANTING. Trees of medium size, like the Early Harvest, Garden Royal, Fameuse, etc., should be planted thirty by thirty feet. Those that are kept in a close, compact form by heading-in may also be set the same distance. The larger kinds, like the Baldwin, Gravenstein, etc., if allowed to spread to full size, should be planted thirty-five by forty, or forty by forty feet. LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD. In planting an orchard, whether it is to be cultivated or not, it is advisable to have the rows straight and the trees at equal distances apart; not only for beauty, but for convenience in getting about among them. Perhaps the best way to do this is to use a long, hard-twisted cord or wire with marks at proper intervals upon it. The wire is much the best as it is not affected by wet or dryness, and will not stretch. This line should be stretched along two opposite sides and stakes driven at the marks upon it. Then stretch it from the opposite stakes, putting stakes at every mark, and it will be found that all are in line from every point of observation. To lay out an orchard so that the stakes shall all be exactly in line is a very simple matter, but to plant the trees so they shall be equally true, is almost an impossibility, without the aid of something besides the eye. Two methods are sometimes adopted: The first, by using the same wire employed for staking out; and second, by what is known as the planting board. The objection to the first is, that it is in the way of the workmen in planting and is liable to be moved to one side or the other by only slight pressure. THE PLANTING BOARD, however, is free from the above objec- tions, and is illustrated by |^ n f ^^ Fig. 12. It consists of a narrow board about four Fig. 12. feet long, with a notch in the centre and one equally distant from this at each end. Before digging the holes, this board is placed with the centre notch against the stake and held firmly, while the stake is pulled up and put in the notch at one end, and another stake at the notch in the other end. The board can now be taken away and the hole dug, taking care not to disturb the two stakes. DIGGING THE HOLES. If many trees are to be planted, it is best to dig as many holes during the middle of the day as can be filled with trees during the last two hours of the afternoon and the first two hours of the morning, as the roots will be much less liable to injury than if planted in the hot sun in the middle of the day. If the land is to be cultivated, the holes need be only large enough to allow the spreading of all of the roots in their natural MANURING THE ORCHARD. 13 positions; their size must depend upon the size and kind of tree planted. If the trees are to be planted in turf, it will be advis- able to dig the hole three to four feet in diameter and to loosen the subsoil somewhat. The surface soil should be thrown in a pile by itself, to be used for filling around the roots, and the sub- soil in another pile, to be spread upon the surface. If the soil is poor, it is necessary for success that some well rotted manure or fertilizer be put with the soil for filling in about the roots. This must be thoroughly mixed with the soil, or it may result in injury rather than benefit. If coarse manure only is at hand, it should not be used until the roots have been covered with two or three inches of soil, when it may be applied with safety. The amount to be used must vary accord- ing to the poorness of the soil and the strength of the manure, ranging from one to two shovelfuls of fine, well decomposed manure; or from two to four large handfuls of fine ground bone ; or one to two handfuls of the prepared bone and potash, well mixed with the soil. Many people will blame the nursery- man because the trees they plant do not grow, when the main cause is in the fact that there is nothing in the soil to .make them grow. One has as good a right to expect a good crop of corn from land with no fertilizing elements in it, as a good growth of trees in a similar soil. If some of the people who fail in tree planting from this cause, and most failures do result from starvation of the tree, could see the amount of manure used by the nurserymen and successful orchardists (and needed, too) to make their trees grow, they would cease to wonder why theirs do no better, and put the blame where it belongs. 14: PREPARING FOR PLANTING. CHAPTER V. SETTING THE APPLE ORCHARD. DIGGING TREES FROM THE NURSERY PREPARING TREES FOR PLANTING FORMING THE HEAD PLANTING THE TREES CUL- TIVATION- TURF CULTURE SUPPLYING FOOD TO THE ORCHARD. DIGGING THE TREES FROM, THE NURSERY. To those who may have grown their own trees, I offer a few words of advice as to the best way to get the trees from the ground with the least in- jury. Nursery trees are best dug by three men; two with spades, and one to pull out the trees after they are loosened. The two men with spades first remove the surface soil down to the upper lateral roots, for a space of at least two feet from the trunk on each side; the spades are then inserted, the soil loosened, and the roots outside of the circle of soil removed are cut off. After loosening the soil, both spades are inserted, and with u lifting movement, the third man at the same time pulling, the tree is lifted with nearly all of the fibrous roots within the space of two or three feet. The trees should be thrown in piles of from ten to twenty-five, and covered with a mat or blanket. If not to be planted at once, they should be removed to near the place of planting and be "heeled in;" that is, the roots covered carefully with soil. PREPARING THE TREE FOR PLANTING. Xo matter how care- fully the trees are dug, more or less of the roots will be destroyed or injured. As trees are often received from the nurseries, there is little to them but the top and a few stubs of roots. In this condition, there are a large number of buds on the top to be supplied with food and moisture from a small amount of roots. The consequence is that none of the branches make much growth; or, perhaps, evaporation is so great from the expanding buds, and the large amount of surface of the branches exposed, that the moisture is dried out faster than it is supplied by the scanty roots, and the tree dies. To remedy this condition, the top should be reduced in propor- tion to the amount of injury to the roots. The older and larger the tree, the more severely must it be pruned. The large roots, wherever injured, should be cut off smooth, as decay is much FORMING THE HEAD PLANTING. 15 \ more likely to spread from a torn than from a smoothly cnt surface. FORMING THE HEAD. In cutting back the top of the tree to make a balance between the root and top, the formation of the head should be kept in mind and all shoots not needed to make a good head should be removed. The trees received from most nurseries are of two forms, with slight modifications, as illustrated by Fig 13, where the branches come out at the same point; and by Fig. 14, where the branches are distributed along a main axis. The objection to the first form is, that when the trees become loaded with fruit, they are liable to split down in the fork; while in the second case, there is no such danger. A good rule to follow is, to cut away all branches not needed to give the head a good form ; and shorten all others from one-half to three-fourths, according to the amount of injury the roots had received in digging. It often happens that the trees received from the nursery are headed two low, and require " heading up." This is ac- complished by cutting away all but the leading shoot, as is shown by Fig. 13, D, and Fig. 14, A A A, where new branches will be thrown out from the lateral buds, as is shown by the dotted lines. To head trees up to six feet in height, often requires two or three years from planting. Trees with a tall trunk are more liable* to injury on account of exposure to sun, and frost, and other causes, than those with a short trunk, while in the latter the fruit is more easily gathered. PLANTING. Having the holes dug, the trees pruned, and every- thing in readiness, the most important part of the work is now to be done. Only a few trees should be dropped at once, and these with the roots in the holes, that they may not be more exposed to the air than is necessary. Three men are required to do the woik most rapidly; one to carry the trees, hold them in place, spread out the roots and press the soil in about them; and two with spades, one of whom carries the planting board. Perhaps ten trees have been dropped, when man No. 1. takes up the first tree, while No. 2. fixes the planting board with the end notches against the two stakes. No. 1 now places the tree trunk in the middle notch of the planting board and spreads the roots, while No. 3 is prepared to throw in some fine, rich, surface soil, which No. 1 works carefully in around the roots, treading it firmly in place. As soon as the tree is in its proper place, No. 2 throws his board to the next hole, and takes up his spade to assist infilling in the soil. 16 CULTURE OF THE ORCHARD. In this operation, the secret of success is to see that there are no air spaces around the roots or under the collar, and that the soil is pressed very firmly around the roots. CULTIVATION. The effect of stirring the soil after plant- ing trees is: First, in preventing the escape of moisture by forming a layer of loose non-conducting material of the surface; and second, by hastening the preparation of plant food in the soil by the air admitted. In young orchards, if it is thought necessary to cultivate, it will be found most economical to grow some hoed crop among the trees for several years at least; but as a rule, such crops will not more than pay the cost of cultivation and manure used, while they often fall far short of this, and the owner must take his profit in the increased value of his orchard. Any hoed crop may be used that does not require cultivation late in the fall, for young orchard land should never be cultivated between August first and November first, as it is almost certain to prolong the growth of wood so that the trees will be in danger of injury from the winter. TURF CULTURE. In turf culture, the preservation of moisture in the soil must be gained by the use of mulch. Any material, as brush, brakes, coarse meadow-grass, straw, leaves, planing-machine shavings, etc., may be used; while the plant food must be added in some form at the time of planting the trees, or later upon the surface. In nearly every state in the Union there are thousands upon thousands of acres of land so rough and stony that it cannot be cultivated, and upon which are often found apple trees remarkable for their vigor and productiveness. The fruit produced upon such land is noted for its high color and rich flavor, and for long- keeping qualities. Much of this land is almost worthless for any other purpose than forestry and the production of the large fruits ; and if properly planted and cared for, it would in a few years give a large income for the investment. In planting such land, particular care must be given to the' preparation of the soil directly around the tree, and to saving the material often found growing upon it, such as sedges, brakes, brush, etc., or obtained elsewhere, to be used for mulch, to prevent the escape of the moisture that is rapidly carried away by the leaves of grasses and other plants. The advantages claimed for this system are, that the trees mature their wood much earlier in the autumn, and consequently are less liable to injury from cold; the roots are protected from injury from the extremes of heat and cold, by the grass roots ; the trees begin bearing much earlier and bear more regularly, the fruit is of better quality and keeps longer; the cost of land and cultivation is much less, while a satisfactory growth may be obtained by the use of a small amount of manure or fertilizei applied to the surface, FEEDING THE TREE. 17 I wish to repeat Here, however, what I have said on a previous page: Whatever system is followed, success will not be obtained unless an abundant supply of plant food be provided; and the cheapest and best method of supplying the above conditions must be decided upon by the good sense of the grower, according to his surroundings. 2 18 THE USE OF STABLE MANURE. CHAPTER VI. MANURING, PRUNING AND VARING FOR THE APPLE OJK'UMU). STABLE MANURE HOW TO USE IT FERTILIZERS AND THEIR AP- PLICATION MULCHING PRUNING IMPLEMENTS FOR PRUNING. STABLE MANURE is always good for fruit trees in limited quan- tities, Imt it may be used so as to cause harm instead of good. It should be applied sparingly to young trees, unless the soil is very poor or an exhausting crop is to be taken from the land, that will feed largely upon the elements that tend to produce a coarse, woody growth, i. c.., the nitrogenous elements. The best time to apply stable manure is in the fall on land that will not wash badly or very early in the spring. If applied in the summer, it causes a late growth that is very liable to injury and disease. When the trees reach maturity, and are bearing exhausting crops of fruit, manure may be used more liberally, especially in the spring of the bearing year, for many trees are almost ruined by their effort to produce a very large crop of fruit, particularly should the season prove dry. Such trees are in the condition of the over-loaded and ill-fed horse, or the poor, over-worked laborer; they are all alike liable to the attack of contagious diseases. Trees that have been injured by over-bearing may be improved very much by the application of nitrogenous manure the non- fruiting year. The effect is to cause a large development of wood at the expense of the fruit buds. This illustrates a law that we find throughout all life, both plant and animal: That causes which increase the vigor of the stock or body, decrease the re- productive forces; while a decrease of vigor in the body or stock, gives activity to the powers of reproduction. Herein is a wise pro- vision of nature for the perpetuation of species; for when the body or stock is vigorous, there is no necessity for immediate provision for the future; but when the body becomes weak, na- ture makes an unusual effort to perpetuate the species by an increase of the reproductive powers. FERTILIZERS. One of the greatest difficulties the fruit grower meets in his business is that of obtaining the necessary amount of plant food to produce satisfactory results. This problem is be- CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS. 19 coming in a measure solved in the large amount of chemical manures now being manufactured. Of those kinds best suited for the production of fruit, fine ground bone and potash are the best, with more or less nitrogen to produce a vigorous plant body. The best grades of bone contain sufficient nitrogen for most soils, but for very poor land it will be found necessary to use some nitro- genous compound like nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia or animal matter. For an acre of Apple trees (forty trees) over ten years of age, the following formula will give good results, varying the quantity of the elements used according to the kind of soil, and the crops, other than fruit, removed: 'J-lo Ibs. fine ground bone. 100 Ibs. high grade (80 per cent) muriate of potash. ~)() Ibs, sulphate of ammonia or nitrate of soda. If the soil is very pool', as indicated by the slow growth of the tree, more of the last element must be used; if the land is rich, raid the trees are making too much wood, use only the bone and potash. The effect of the nitrogenous elements is to increase the leaf action of the plant; of the potash to cause a large develop- ment of starch and sugar; while the phosphoric acid of the bone causes a large development of the seed. For fruit alone, bone and potash are perhaps the best fertilizer that can be used. As with stable manure, the best time to apply fertilizers is late in the fall or very early in the spring. MULCHING. Without water in the soil, no fertilizer or man- ure will have much effect upon plant growth; and upon soils that are liable to injury from drouth, mulching' in some form must be resorted to. In the cultivation of the soil, the fine, loose layer of soil on top, is a most effectual mulch. PRUNING. The first year after the tree is planted it must have constant attention. It is like a child, and its first years of train- ing determine its character or form. After the main branches have become fixed, as illustrated in Fig. 14, Page 13, all the prun- iii;> the trees require is to give symmetry and regularity to the head by pinching out the bud of those shoots that tend to out- grow the others, until the branches become liable to injury by crossing and rubbing together or until so thick as to interfere with ease in gathering the fruit. While young, the trees should be al- lowed to grow with a close head; for when they begin to bear, the weight of the fruit will bend down the lower branches enough to let in all the sunlight and air needed for the perfection of the fruit. The largest and best fruit is always borne upon those trees with the largest and most perfect leaf development. Cutting of large branches should be avoided, as every blow made upon a tree is certain to shorten its life. It is generally known that cutting off a large quantity of branches, in the fall or winter, will cause a great increase in the size and quality of the fruit the following year. Consequently the farmer thinks he must prune his trees annually. But this increase is at the expense 20 REASONS FOR PRUNING. of the tree to a certain degree, for the number of apples is diminished in proportion to the severity of the pruning and consequently, with the same amount of food and root force that the whole crop would have had, the remaining fruit is much increased in size. Had the labor expended in pruning been directed to thinning the fruit, or in the application of more plant food, there would have been a much greater gain in the crop of fruit and no loss in the vigor of the trees. But four good reasons can be given for cutting oft' large branches from fruit trees: 1. To Improve the Form. It sometimes is the case that a tree becomes one-sided from the influence of prevailing winds, or other causes, when a little judicious cutting of branches may be necessary to rectify the trouble. 2. To Enable Teams to Work under their Branches. The re- moval of large branches for this reason is sometimes necessary, but in most cases the desired end may be accomplished by cutting off the end at an upright branch, as illustrated at a, Fig. lo. 3. To Enable the Pickers to Gather the Fruit Easily. As trees become older, especially if they have been subjected to the "annual pruning," suckers come out in large numbers upon the main branches, and make it very dim- cult to gather the fruit upon the inside of the tree. These suckers are the result of the effort of the plant to overcome the injury caused by the action of the sun and cold upon the bare branches, and should be thinned out onlv enough to accomplish the desired end, and to allow some of th-. in >st vigorous branches to develop more fully, and thus renew the tree. 4. To Remove such Branches as are Dead. The removal of dead branches is best accom- plished in the summer when the foliage is upon the trees. When large branches must be removed, the wound should jr\. be covered with linseed oil and lead paint, or grafting wax, to preserve the injured part from decay until it has healed over. This paint may be made the color of the bark of the tree by the addition of Fig. 15. Fig. 16. TOOLS FOR PRUNING. 21 a little black, green and brown coloring matter. The condition of many of the apple orchards of the country is illustrated by Fig. 16, while the more perfect form is shown in Fig. 15. IMPLEMENTS FOR PRUNING. For removing large branches, a Fig. 17 saw with a long narrow blade is best. Fig. 17 illustrates a very serviceable form. For heading-in branches that are outgrowing their neighbors, to the injury of the form of the tree, and to remove insects' nests and eggs, the pruning hook is very useful. Fig. 18. Fig. 18 illustrates the Waters' pruning hook, which is one of the best. A pruning knife is also necessary for the removal of suckers from the trunk, and for paring the wounds smooth when large branches are cut away. 22 CHANGING THE BEARING YEAR. CHAPTER VII. GRAFTING THE APPLE. AGE OF FRUITING ODD-YEAR BEARING TO CHANGE THE HEAR- ING YEAR RE-GRAFTING OLD TREES HOW TO GRAFT TIME OF GRAFTING. AGE OF FRUITING. The average a^e at which the Apple will begin to bear profitable crops of fruit, is from eight to ten years from planting in the orchard; varying with the variety, the soil in which it is grown and the care it has received. Upon light, poor soil, and in turf land, fruit will be produced much earlier than in a heavier and richer soil. With proper treatment good crops of fruit may be expected for at least fifty years, although the aver- age bearing age of the orchards of the country is probably much less. ODD- YEAR BEARING. In most orchards large crops of fruit are produced only upon alternate years. In northern latitudes the larger crop is borne upon the even year. . The cause may be climatic, as severe frosts when the fruit has set or is a little past the blossoming stage. This was illustrated in 188-1 in many .sec- tions of New England, by a frost the night of Juns 30th. Upon eastern and southern slepes the petals of the blossoms had fallen, and the fruit was in many cases from one-fourth to one-half of an inch in diameter, and was destroyed; while upon the western and northern slopes, the petals had not fallen and the fruit was unin- jured. Those sections where the fruit was destroyed by frost at that time, now promise a large crop : while the trees that fruited in 1884 are fruitless in 1885. Over-bearing one season may result in the exhaustion of the tree, so that it takes one year for it to recover its strength to produce another crop. Drouth for a succession of years may also bring about the same condition, as may also the depredations of the canker worm and other insects. This condition may be corrected: 1. By removing a part or all of the fruit the bearing year soon after setting. One operation is often successful, if thoroughly done, but sometimes it must be repeated. It should be practiced upon young trees until the habit desired has become fixed. REGKAFTING OLD TREES. 23 2. By manuring the trees the bearing year with bone and pot- ash, which lias a tendency to produce fruit buds; or by using nitrogenous manures the unfruitful year, which will produce a large growth of wood at the expense of the fruit buds. 3. Seeding down to grass the bearing year might produce the same result, but there would be danger that the crop of fruit and the crop of grass taken from the ground the same year, might result in too great a check upon the growth of the tree. 4. Plowing an orchard in turf the unfruitful year would also produce the desired change. By the judicious use of the above methods the fruit grower may control very largely the bearing year of his fruit trees, and be able to produce fruit when it will bring the highest price. RE-GRAFTING OLD TREES. Upon many farms and in many orchards are often found healthy, vigorous trees that pro- duce fruit of little value. Such trees may be grafted with any more desirable variety, and in a few years will produce valuable fruit. The kind of grafting to be employed is called cleft-graft- ing (Fig. 24). It consists in first cutting off as many branches, from two to three inches in diameter (which are called stocks), as are needed to make a full head, if the whole top is to be grafted. This number will vary from ten to perhaps fifty branches, accord- ing to the size of the tree. After all the stocks have been cut I *|# off, they are to be pared smooth. . _ i'liliMinin i'l^ / Then, beginning with the highest, ^e M each stock is split with the blade of ^^ the grafting-hook, Fig. 19, a. The Fig. 19. hook, c, is to hang the tool by when not iii use. The blade L now driven out by a blow upon the head of the wedge 6, and the wedge driven into the cleft (Fig. 20), to keep it open until the cioii is prepared and inserted. The cion, Fig. 21, a piece of ma- ture wood of last season's growth, from three to four inches long, with from three to five buds upon it, is then cut wedge-shaped in two ways, as is shown in Fig. 21 ; a cross- section of the wedge-shaped cion is shown at Fig. 22. The cioii must be cut with a sharp, Fig. 20. thin-bladed knife, with one quick, clean stroke on each side. The cion is then inserted into the cleft with the cambium or inner bark in close contact with the cambium or inner bark of the stock ; the thicker part of the cion at a, Fig 22, being placed out- 24 GRAFTING EXPLAINED. ward, so that when the wedge in the cleft is withdrawn, the pressure of the stock shall be directly upon the two cambium regions. A horizontal view of //v the completed cleft-graft is represented in Fig. 23, and a view in perspective in Fig. 24. In the above operation the important points to in- sure success are: 1. A clean, smooth cut upon the cion. 2. The perfect union of the two inner barks or cambiun layers. 3. Rapid work, that the cut parts may not be exposed long to the air. After the grafts have been put in and the wedge driven out, the whole cut surface must be covered with grafting wax, to exclude both air and moisture. A very good article may be purchased of seedsmen and dealers in nurservmen's supplies, or it may be made Fitf. -'3. as Allows: Melt together equal parts of rosin, beeswax and tallow; oi one-half the quantity of good linseed oil in place of the tallow may be used. When cool, the mixture should be pulled, to give it toughness. In very cool weather it must be put in slightly warmed water, to make it work easily; and in warm days, it should be taken to the orchard in cold water. Two cions are generally put into each cleft, when large enough, to insure success ; but when growth of both has become certain, one should be cut off. In this method of grafting only the branches used for clefts are cut away the first season; for, to cut them all away, would give the tree too severe a check. All suckers that may come out near the cleft during the summer should be removed, that the force of growth may all go into the cion. The best time for grafting is just as the buds begin to swell, which, for the Apple and pear, is from April loth to May loth in the latitude of Boston, or between TIME TO GRAFT. the forty-second and forty-third parallels. The plum and cherry must be grafted much earlier to be successful, or from^ April 1st to April loth, according to the season. It is often advisable to graft only one-half of the tree the first year, and the balance the uext season, to prevent injury from too severe pruning. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES. CHAPTER VIII. VARIETIES OF APPLES. NUMBER OF VARIETIES SELECTION NEW VARIETIES CLASSIFI- CATION OF VARIETIES STANDARD SORTS OF SUMMER, FALL AND WINTER APPLES CRAB APPLES PROMISING NEW KINDS. At the present time, there probably are not less than one thousand kinds of Apples in cultivation, each possessing 1 some marked characteristic that will enable it to claim the name of a distinct variety. The variations most commonly found are in form, size, color, quality, time of ripening, habit of growth, color of shoots, and leaves, and their liability to the attack of insects or diseases. Of the numerous varieties that have been described in the more extensive works on fruit culture, probably not more than ten can be said to be thoroughly hardy, productive and sat- isfactory in any one section of the country. In the West many varieties succeed that are unprofitable in the East, and vice versa. The young fruit grower must decide what kinds are best for liim to plant by consulting his markets, as to what kinds are in demand at paying prices; and by consulting his neighbors and successful fruit growers, as to what kinds are best adapted to his soil, exposure, etc. NEW VARIETIES. Few, if any, of the varieties now in cultiva- tion may be called perfect; and it is the part of wisdom for the grower to try, on a limited scale, a few of the newer and more promising kinds or those adapted to special markets or soils, to determine if some specialty may not be grown that will be more profitable than the common kinds that everybody grows. But until special skill is obtained in growing specialties, or until it is proven beyond a doubt that a new variety has superior merits, or is adapted to a special market, it is best to confine one's main effort to the growth of the safe and sure kinds. CLASSIFICATION OF VARIETIES. For convenience of description and the determination of the different kinds, all varieties of Apples are divided in three classes as follows; Summer, Autumn, and Winter, although it may be SUMMER AND FALL APPLES. 27 difficult often to say where one class ends and the other begins, with many varieties. STANDARD VARIETIES. In this list I shall only include a few of those varieties that are especially desirable and profitable in a large section of our country, and especially in New England and the Northern Middle States. For a more extended description of varieties I would refer the reader to that valuable and complete work, 'Dowm'ng's Fruits and Fruit Trees of America," and the descriptive catalogues of many leading and reliable nurserymen. STMMER APPLES. Early Harvest. This is a very early yellow Apple, of medium size and fair quality. It reaches its greatest perfection upon a deep, rich and moist soil, and to be profitable the fruit must be freely thinned. It should be carefully picked as soon as fully grown, and taken to the market before it begins to mellow, as in that condition almost every touch will leave a brown mark upon the skin, which injures its sale very much. It is valuable for dessert or for cooking 1 , and is in season in July and August. Red Astrachan. A large, flattened, red Apple, of Russian origin. The flesh is very white, crisp and tender, and cooks white; but is rather acid for table use. Tree hardy and productive; August. Williams' Favorite. This Apple is, for the table, what the Red Astrachan is for cooking and ripens a little later. It is a large, oblong, conical Apple, of brilliant color, with a mild, sub-acid, aromatic flavor, and veined, yellowish flesh. For the most profit, the fruit must be thinned while small, and at ripening be picked from the tree as it colors; for if picked while greeiij it fails to color up well. The tree is vigorous, open in growth and pro- ductive; August. Sweet Bough. A large, pale yellow Apple, sweet, juicy and good; valuable for home consumption. Sweet Apples are not generally in good demand in most markets, except in limited quantities. FALL APPLES. Oldenburg (formerly called Duchess of Oldenburg). Of Russian origin; fruit large, roundish, striped yellow and red; valuable for table or cooking ; generally a profitable variety ; tree productive and bears early. Gravenstein. Another valuable Russian Apple of large size, somewhat flattened; yellow, nearly covered with stripes and splashes of light red. The flesh is crisp, juicy and of the best quality. The tree is remarkable for its vigor and productiveness. It is one of the most desirable and profitable of fall Apples ; September to November. Maiden's Blush. Perhaps the handsomest Apple in cultivation; of medium size and nearly round ; skin of light lemon color, with a shade of crimson often covering one-half the Apple on the ex- 28 WINTER VARIETIES. posed side. The flesh is white, crisp, juicy, but rather acid for table use ; tree vigorous and productive upon good soil ; September and October. Pumpkin Sweet. A very large sweet Apple, oblate in form, with more or less rvisset over the whole surface. In quality rather coarse, but sweet and cooks well. Tree remarkable for its vigor and moderately productive ; September and October. Fall Pippin. A large Apple somewhat resembling the Rhode Island Greening, but large, with a white flesh and often with some blush upon the exposed side. Tree vigorous and moderately Cluctive; valuable, especially for cooking; September to ember. WINTER APPLES. Baldwin. A bright red Apple of medium to large size, of fair quality and a good keeper. Tree vigorous, productive and perhaps more profitable than any other variety for the general market and for shipping. Probably more trees of this variety have been planted in the Northeastern and North Middle States in the past five years than of all other kinds together. Ben Davis. A large red or striped, late-keeping Apple ; oblong or slightly conical in form, and of fair quality. It originated in the West, and will probably prove valuable in this section. Fameuse (or Snow Apple). Fruit of medium size, of dsep red color, and with a remarkably white flesh; very juicy, crisp and of the finest quality; tree vigorous and productive. It is a valuable dessert apple, and when grown upon rich soil and the fruit thinned, is of good size and profitable. King. A very large, red, striped Apple, of good quality: tree vigorous and productive. Profitable in New York state, but not generally tested in New England. Lady's Sweet. One of the best winter sweet Apples ; of large size, roundish, conical in form and nearly covered with red; sweet, crisp, tender and keeping till May. Tree moderate in growth, but productive. Mother. One of the finest dessert Apples ; of large size, oblong, conical, with a very yellow, spicy flesh; tree moderately vigorous and productive; November to January. Nonsuch. A large, oblong or conical early winter Apple, of fine sub-acid flavor. Tree moderately vigorous and remarkably productive; a valuable dessert and market fruit. Rhode Island Greening. Everywhere known as a very good early winter AppL;, succeeding almost everywhere ; excellent both for cooking and dessert. Tree rather spreading in form, vigorous and productive. Roxbury Russet. A very acid, nearly round, russet Apple, valued especially for its late-keeping qualities. Tree vigorous an'l moderately productive; requires a deep, rich, moist soil. CRAB APPLES. 29 Hyslop. Very large, deep crimson, and of fair quality; very Lardy, vigorous and productive. Transcendent. A very large variety of tlie Siberian crab; yellow and red in color and of good quality. TLe tree is remark- able for its great vigor; moderately productive. Montreal Beauty. Very large; briglit yellow shaded witL red; of fair quality; tree vigorous and productive. Siberian Red and Yellow. Old varieties, liardly superseded by tlie new sorts in quality and productiveness. ADDITIONAL VARIETIES. SUMMER. AUTUMN. WINTER. Beuoni, Alexander, Cooper's Market, Early Strawberry, Porter, Fallawater. Golden Sweet, Chenango Strawberry. Grimes' Golden, Summer Rose. Lady Apple, Tolman's Sweet, Dauver's Sweet. NEW AND PROMISING VARIETIES. Haas, Red Bietigheimer, Red Russet, Suttoii Beauty, Wealthy, Tufts' Baldwin. 30 HARVESTING APPLES. CHAPTER IX. GATHERING AXD XTOHIXd APPLES. GATHERING SHAKING OFF PICKING LADDERS ASSORTING PACKING KEEPING COLD STORAGE GENERAL REMARKS. GATHERING. Summer and autumn Apples, if for market, should be picked and sent to market as soon as mature, on ac- count of their perishable nature. Yellow and green varieties require greater care in picking and packing than the colored soils, as every bruise results in a brown mark that injures their sale. For cooking purposes, all the fruit upon a tree may be picked at once; but for table use or to supply fruit stands, some varieties must be picked only as they color upon the tree. Such varieties as the Gravenstein and Fameuse are often very profitable if kept in cold storage until December, when they bring very high prices. As a rale, the sooner Summer or Autumn Apples are in the mar- ket the more profitable they are to the grower. Winter Apples should not be picked until fully grown, but should be secured before severe freezing weather takes place, and always before the ripening or mellowing process begins, to have them keep well. I think it a pretty well settled question that Apples picked early in autumn,?, e^ on or before October first, will keep longer than those picked after October twentieth, al- though they will not be of as good quality nor as large. No Apples Summer, Autumn or Winter -should ever be shaken from the tree, as not one in ten thus gathered will fail to receive some injury. The fruit should be picked by hand into baskets suspended by hooks upon the ladder or branches; or iu a bag suspended over the shoulder, with the mouth open in front; or by means of the hand pickers shown in Figs. 25 and 26. For getting into the tops of tall trees, the long ladder is indis- pensable. An improved .-. - _ _ form is shown in Fig. 27; the sides are drawn to- Fi3< -'' gether at the end so that the point may be thrust in among the branches without the ends catching, as with the common ladder. An extension ladder, made so as to fold over and form a supporting or step-ladder . (Fig. 28), is very convenient for gathering tho f-^iit PACKING FOR MARKET. 31 upon the lower branches, and also in the top. The ordinary step-ladders are also very serviceable. ASSORTING. After picking the fruit, it should be put into piles of eight to ten bushels each under the trees, or into barrels and taken to the barn or shed floor, and should be allowed to undergo the sweating or curing process for several days. Some growers pick, assort, and pack the fruit at once in the oivhard. If allowed to stand several days in a cool place before heading up, this may not be an objec- tionable practice; but if the head is put in at once, the fruit will not generally keep as well as if longer exposed to the air after picking. The Apples should be sorted into two kinds, the No. 1, or firsts, and No. 2, or sec- onds. This is absolutely necessary for suc- cess, The No. 1 fruit if nicely put up, will Fi;,M'7.ofteii bring more in the market than if both Fiy. 28. kinds were sold together, for it only requires a very few poor specimens in a barrel to injure the sale of the entire lot. The No. 1 fruit should be large, fair, and free from worm-holes. Some attention should be given to evenness in the size of the fruit in each barrel or lot. PACKING. For shipping to Europe, or sending to any distant market, there is no package equal to the common, clean flour barrel. The full-sized barrel, holding two and a half bushels, is more satisfactory to all parties than the small "pony" or two- bushel barrel. Before the head is put in, the barrel must be shaken from side to side, to settle the fruit as much as possible. Then pack evenly 011 top, one or two inches higher than the top of the staves, and the head is then pressed in place by means of a screw-press; or, better, by the simple l^ver-press, illustrated by Fig. 30, Page 35. The hoops are now driven in place, and the head nailed firmly. Packed in this way, the barrels may be tumbled about to the entire satisfaction of tho worst kind of baggage-smasher and not be injured. In packing for shipping to Europe, the bottom layer is faced, so that when this head is taken out (and the barrel is opened at this end when offered for sale), the Apples will present an attractive appearance. Honest pack- ing throughout the barrel will be found the most profitable in the long run. KEEPING FRUIT. The best condition for the preservation of fruit is a rather moist atmosphere, w r ith the temperature kept as near to the freezing point as possible. The ordinary winter fruit is commonly kept in fair condition until the middle of March, or sometimes later, at a much higher temperature, in the common cellar. Perhaps the best way to keep winter fruit, with the ordinary facilities of the farm, is to put it in ordinary barrels with the heads out ; or, in large shallow boxes, holding from three to five 32 FRUIT IN COLD STORAGE. bushels, after the sweating process has been gone through with; placing the boxes or barrels in a shed on the north side of another building that can be opened at night tiud closed during the day ; or into a cool, airy cellar that can be opened and closed in the same way. If packed in barrels, only one tier can well be arranged in the room, except by putting rails or narrow boards across the tops of the first tier of barrels, but in boxes they may be arranged as in Fig. 29, in several tiers, so that circulation of air may be obtained over the fruit. In a dry place the barrel has a Fig. 29. the advantage that the fruit is not exposed as much to the air; but in a moist place, unless the temperature is kept very low, the fruit will decay much more rapidly than if in boxes. By closing the building or cellar during the day time, and open- ing upon cool nights, the fruit room may be kept much below the average outside temperature. If the fruit begins to decay, it should be attended to at once and be carefully assorted, as a single decaying specimen very soon spreads decay to the others. COLD STORAGE. To preserve any fruit much beyond its natural time of ripening requires special appliances. Cold storage houses are now much used by shippers and fruit dealers. A very simple and serviceable cold storage house may be constructed at a small expense in the following manner: Select a place where the soil is light and dry, and where natural surface drainage will carry the water from the roof readily in all directions; and upon a brick or stone foundation erect a building just like a common ice house, with walls two feet thick. Between the boards upon the walls fill in with spent tan, sawdust or machine shavings, and cover the floor overhead with one or two feet of the same material. Double doors should be provided at each end, and also ventilators at the top, with double covers. The fruit room may be a lean-to against the wall of some other building, thus saving the construction of one wall. The temperature is kept low by opening during cool nights and closing during the day; or, if very low temperature is required, ice must be introduced upon the floor above. In that case, the floor must be made water-tight, and means provided for carrying off the water from the melting ice. During the winter no heat will be required except in very severe weather, when the introduction of a small stove, with a tile chimney passing through one of the ventilators, may be necessary. Thermometers must be kept at all times, both inside and out, for constant consultation. In all the operations of gathering, packing, sorting, keeping and marketing of fruit, success must depend upon the vigilance and good judgment of the owner. A single hour in severe weather, or a day or two with too high temperature, will often ruin the entire product of a year's labor. EXTENT OF THE EXPORT TRADE. 33 CHAPTER X. MARKETING THE APPLE. LOCAL MARKETS REPUTATION EXPORTING APPLES EXTENT OF OUR FOREIGN TRADE PACKING FOR EXPORT HOW TO EX- PORT APPLES EVAPORATING FRUIT. By far the larger quantity of the fruit grown in this country is sold in. local markets; and the man who has the largest quantity and the best fruit, can command the best patronage. It requires but a few years to gain a reputation for the production of good or poor fruit, and this reputation generally determines the question of profit 'or loss in fruit culture. All the fruit possible should be sold in the local markets, as it saves the commission of the middle-man to the producer or consumer, which is a clear gain to the community. It often happens, however, that the crop in one locality is much larger than can be consumed, and shipping becomes a necessity, in order to keep up the price above the cost of production. Shipping to Europe has become a very extensive business within the past ten years, as is shown by the following summary taken from the NEW ENGLAND HOMESTEAD of June 6, 1885: The season for exporting- Apples from America to England opened August If). 1884, and closed May It), 18X5. being- a period of 39 weeks. Last year the season closed in January, owing to the short crop in this country. The exports for the past five years compare as SEASON. NO. 1884-:.. 787.785 1883-4. SI. 55^ 1882-3, 3,395.504 1881-2, jr'.D.LT.J 1880-1, 1,328,80(5 TOTAL .SHIPMENTS FROM TOTAL RECEIPTS AT Boston, :io.<;-! :!.is 4.2(5 1.08 Average, 1.92 2.12 2.00 3.95 1.95 Most of the Apples exported were bought up by speculators for $1 to $1.25 in the country, and cost 15 to 35c. per barrel to get on shipboard. Freights from Boston to Liverpool have been two to three shillings per barrel, averaging about two shillings six pence, or 60c. The brokers who handle the sale of the goods charge 5 per cent commission on the gross amount of the sales, or 20c. per barrel on a shipment that sells for an average of $4 per barrel. Probably $1.60 per barrel will represent the average cost to speculators of Apples on shipboard during the past season. Add 60c. for freight and 20c. for commission, and the middle- man has $2.40 to deduct from the price received in Liverpool. It appears from our comparative statement above that the average price has been $3.95 per barrel in Liverpool, which leaves a profit to the middleman of $1.55 per barrel more than the producer received. To be on the safe side, suppose we call this margin only $1 per barrel and allow $87,785 for shipments that resulted in loss, for shrinkage, etc., then on the total exports of 787,785 barrels it will be seen that the middlemen have made an even $700,000. Now if farmers had followed the simple directions for placing Apples on the Liverpool market, which THE HOMESTEAD gave in August last, they could have saved the larger portion of this amount. We PREPARATION FOR EXPORT. 35 know several who did follow our directions and realized from 50c. to SI.-") per barrel more for their crop than the local buyer offered. I also append a description of the best method of preparing the fruit for shipping, taken from Herbert Myrick's valuable work, "Money Crops; How to Grow and How to Sell Them," published by the Phelps Publishing Company, Springfield, Mass; price 50 cents: What we wish to emphasize here is the proper preparation for market and the marketing 1 of this great money crop. Careful sorting into various grades of quality and honest packing are essential to the lasting success of any brand for we assume that every large orchardist or apple packer puts his special brand on every barrel he fills and strives in every way to g - et up a reputation for that brand. In the Liverpool, England, auction market, which annually consumes from one to three million barrels of American fruit, certain brands have become so well known for honest packing and uniform good quality as to command one to three shillings per barrel above other stock. As Liverpool prices are usually high enough to make a handsome return above the N ew York market, and as the foreign demand is constantly increasing, the American farmer will not fail to give more attention to this profitable crop. Red Baldwins are most popular in England, those from Nova Scotia standing first, Canada second and America third, this classifica- tion being due to Tiiethod of packing largely. The plan pursued by the most successful Nova Scotia fruit growers is this : Take the hardwood barrel under the tree for convenience, pick the Apples with care, place them in without sorting, and when filled head the barrel without pressure. Then wheel it into the fruit house, and let it remain there during the sweating or curing process. When ready to make a shipment the process of sorting begins. Have a large table in the fruit house, and on it empty the barrels, two at a time. Apples can be selected much better in this way than if picked from a heap on the floor. Aim to select none but perfect Apples, but as those of every variety have different degrees of perfection in size, form or color, make two classes and mark them accordingly. In packing or filling the barrel, the object is to get into the package the largest quantity with the least injury to the fr-uit. Apples are very easily injured by too much pressure applied to them in packing, and also by being packed too loosely. When the barrel is properly filled, instead of putting on the pro- per head in the first place and ap- plying pressure to it, use a false cushion head which will play loosely ;hion head is hi the barrel. Tlis cushion head is lined, apiece of old sacking answer- ing well for the lining. Considera- ble pressure can be applied to this cushion head without injury to the fruit. Place this cushion upon the Apples, and apply the press (Fig. 30) with a pressure sufficient to get the Apples together throughout the barrel. Then remove the false head and place the head proper, apply the press and complete the work. In marking, use the words "choice" or "medium," as the case may be, stenciled in small letters on the barrel, accompanying the name of the Apple. Then on each package stencil the name of the packer in full, as a guaranty of the uniformity of the package throughout. Full and complete instruction as to exporting Apples, so as to save to the farmer the enormous profits sometimes made by the fruit buyers and exporters, are also given in the work above quoted. 36 THE APPLE BORER. CHAPTER XL INSECTS INJURIOUS TO THE APPLE. THE ROUND-HEADED BORER FLAT-HEADED BORER WOOLLY LOUSE OYSTER-SHELL HARK LOUSE TENT CATERPILLAR CANKER WORM APHIS CODLIX MOTH MAGGOT CURCULIO. THE ROUND-HEADED APPLE-BORER (Saperda bivittata) (Harris). This is one of the most injurious insects to the Apple tree. The perfect insect, Fig. 31, a, is a beetle about three-fourths of an inch long*, with three light-brown and two creamy- white stripes upon its wing covers. It tries in the night, laying its eggs upon the trunk in crevuvs of the bark, near the ground, in June and July. The eggs hatch, and the young larvae penetrate the bark, feeding upon the sap wood for nearly two years; often eating a space from one to two inches in diameter, Fi '^ :j1 '''- and in young trees sometimes nearly gird- ling them. Its chips are packed behind it, except a fe\v during its early stages of working, when, by careful examination of the tree, its presence may be discovered. After t the second year it generally penetrates the heart-wood, sometimes going through young trees ; or, in larger ones, making a turn and coming near the bark, where it under;, its changes (Fig. 31, b, shows the chrysalis and comes out the perfect beetle (Fig. 31, c. ) the third year, leaving a clean hole about i^ g . -i. /,. three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. It may be d'si-overed in the tree by the tine chips it exudes while very young, and by the liark over the injured part turning dark- brown, and sometimes cracking. Remedy. The only sure remedy is to ex- amine the trees carefully once or twice each season, and dig out the borer with a strong, pointed knife. THE FLAT-HEADED APPLE-BORER (Chrysobothris femorata). Th'is beetle is much smaller than the last, and moves in the day THE WOOLLY LOUSE. 37 time. It lays its eggs, not only upon the trunk, but sometimes on the main branches. The flat-headed larvse, Fig. 32, , works, for a time, in the sap- wood, then makes an upward burrow, and, turning, comes out in another place, just under the bark, where it undergoes its changes. Fig. 32, 6, shows it in the chrysalis state: Fig. 32, d, is the perfect beetle; Fig. 32, c, the head of the borer, en- larged. It is uncertain whether the Flat-headed Apple-borer completes its growth and transformation in one or two years. Remedy. Its presence may be known in the tree in the same way as the Round-headed Apple Tree Borer, and the same remedy must be applied. The use of washes upon the trunk to prevent insects from depositing their eggs is of uncertain value. Perhaps the best of these is a solu- tion of soft soap in wh'.ch has been mixed ,a teaspoonful of crude petroleum to the gallon or a t'lblespoonful of carbolic acid or coal tar. THE WOOLLY LOUSE, OR APHIS (Schizoneura lanigem). Al- though commonly known as the root louse, and more generally found upon the roots of the Apple, it often causes much injury to the branches. It is a small insect (Fig. 33), about one-sixteenth Fig. 32, a, 6, c. d. to one-eighth of an inch long, and more or less covered with a cottony or nearly white substance, whence comes its commojt name. It attacks the branches in patches, sucking their juices, and causing black, canker-like places, which spread, often destroy- ing the limbs. 38 THE TENT CATERPILLAR. Remedy. The application, with a stiff brush, of the solution of soft soap, recommended above, will probably effectually destroy them. THE OYSTER-SHELL BARK-LOUSE (Aspi<1'm!"/;/>r//// harmless to man or ani- mals, is as effectual as the paris green, and should be used in preference to that deadly arsenical preparation. THE APPLE APHIS OR PLANT-LOUSE (Aphis mali). This i-s a small, green tly (Fig. ,'>9) (very similar to the common plant- Fig. 39. louse which attacks House plants), that often appears in large numbers upon the young shoots, injuring them by sucking out their juices. It is destroyed by the application of a strong solution of whale-oil soap and tobacco water, or by the application of the pyrethrum powder just at night. THE CODLIN MOTH. 41 THE CODLIN MOTH (Carpocapsa pomonella ) . Fig. 40 is an Apple injured by the codlin moth ; e, larvse escaping ; f, moth at Fig. 40. rest; y, same with its wings spread; d, chrysalis. This is perhaps the most injurious insect that attacks the fruit of the Apple. It flies. at night, and lays its eggs in the calyx or blossom-end of the fruit after it reaches a half inch in diameter. The egg hutches, and the fruit is destroyed, as shown in the figure. At maturity, the worm comes from the Apple and forms its cocoon under the bark of the tree, upon boards, fences and other dry places. Remedy. Pasturing the orchard with swine or cattle will destroy many of the worms that fall with the fruit, while a large number of fowls in the orchard will generally attend to all that may come out of the Apples before they fall. The cocoons may also be trapped under bands of straw or cloth put around the trunks of the trees, and examined occasionally during the summer. 42 APPLE MAGGOT PLUM WEKVIL. A second brood often comes out in the early autumn, which attacks the winter fruit. THE APPLE MAGGOT (Tripeta pomonella). This insect has so increased within the past few years as to threaten the total destruction of the "Apple crop in some sections. The perfect insect is a small fly, (Fig. 41, 6), resembling, the common house fly, but is much smaller. As the Apple approaches maturity, the fly lays its eggs in the fruit by puncturing the skin. The larva, or maggot, (Fig. 41, ), of which there .are often several in one apple, make burrows in all directions, rendering the fruit worthless. Remedy. No remedy but the destruction of the infected crop by feeding to swine or cattle has been discovered as yet. This will be effectual if all the fruit is destroyed as it falls from the tree. THE PLUM WEEVIL, OR CURCULIO (Canotrachelus nenuphar). Fig. 42 a, the perfect insect, much enlarged; Z>, natural size, at work upon the plum; c, larva?; d, injured fruit. Until recently, it was generally supposed that all the worms found in the Apple were the larvje of the codlin moth. My attention was attracted two years ago to the large number of Apples falling from the trees early in the summer. Upon examination it was found that nearly every one bore the crescent-shaped mark of this insect, and most of them contained the worms of the plum weevil. In the examination of nearly one thousand fallen Apples, only eight or ten contained worms that did not bear the marks of this insect. Remedy. The only effectual remedy for this injury to the Apple is the same as for the codlin moth and Apple maggot. LABELS FOR FRUIT TREES. Apple trees and all fruits should be carefully labelled, that the owner may not forget the names of the kinds, and also that any subsequent possessor may know with- out doubt what varieties he is growing. Most of the confusion in LABELS FOR FRUIT TREES. 43 names of fruits and plants results from forgetfulness and guess work. The best label that can be used is the triangular zinc, six to eight inches long, one inch wide at one end and tapering to a point at the other, and written upon with a common lead pencil. A name written upon such a piece of zinc, slightly corroded (old zinc is better than new) will last a lifetime and increase in dis- tinctness from year to year. The label is attached to the tree by winding the small end around a small branch. As the branch increases in size the zinc uncoils so as not to cut into it, and when the branch becomes too large to retain it, the label is attached to a smaller one. Any label, however, is liable to become displaced by wind, teams, etc. ; and if perfect security is desired, a plan of the orchard or garden must 1> made and the names of the varieties recorded in their proper places. As long as the plan is preserved there can be no uncertainty as to the location and names of varieties. 44 THE PEAR INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER XII. THE PEAR (PYRUS COMMUNIS). ITS HEALTHFULNESS ORIGIN VALUE IMPROVEMENT PROPA- GATION THE NURSERY THE ORCHARD FORMING THE HEAD VARIETIES HARVESTING MARKETING PRESERVING INSECT PESTS DISEASES . Although not generally considered one of the most healthful of fruits, the Pear is, from its peculiar flavor and qualities known as mtlting, buttery, sugary, etc., a fruit much liked by most people; eaten in its fully ripe condition and in moderate quantities it is a healthful and delicious fruit. In its natural and unimproved condition, the fruit was hard and composed almost entirely of gritty wood cells, known to botanists as sclerogenous cells, and a harsh and astringent juice that was anything but digestible, and which led that ancient writer, Pliny, to say, "All varieties whatsoever are poor meat unless baked or boiled." Until fully ripe, most varieties of Pears have more or less of the above qualities, and should be eaten with moderation, unless cooked. For preserves no fruit is superior to the Pear. Like the apple, the Pear is a native of Middle and Northern Europe. It is a tree that sometimes in its most natural condition lives to a greater age than the apple, but is much more liable to the attack of disease. The Pear stands third in the list of large fruits, in the value of its products. The methods of improvement are the same with the Pear as with the apple. Perhaps about an equal number of good varieties of Pears may be credited to improvement by hybridization and selection; while, like the ap- ple also, many of the best varieties of Pears are chance seedlings, the origin of which no one can tell. PROPAGATION. It is propagated by root-grafts and by budding. The seedlings used for stocks are generally imported from France, where they are grown in large quantities and to great perfection. Some nurserymen are successful in growing their own seedlings from imported seed. The best seed is that obtained from vigor- ous, natural seedlings. The seed-bed should be in a rich, warm, new soil, rather moist than otherwise. The seedlings are gener- PROPAGATION. 45 ally liable to the attack of the leaf blight that stops their growth in July. For this reason, the bed must be made unusually rich with an abundance of well-rotted stable manure, and a liberal supply of bone and potash. The seedlings should have the same treatment as the apple in grafting and when planted for budding. The best results are generally obtained from budding, although some nurserymen are very successful with root-grafting. For the best results, the grafts should be made early in winter, and greater care is required in keeping them until spring. NURSERY. The soil for the growth of the tree iii the nursery should be deep, rich, and rather moist, but well underdrained, naturally or otherwise, and kept thoroughly cultivated. The seedlings and root-grafts are planted in the same way as the ap- ple and the same distance apart. At from two to four years from budding the trees are ready for transplanting to the orchard. THE ORCHARD. For the best results, land like that described for the nursery should be selected. The Pear will not prove profitable upon such a great variety of soils as the apple, but good fruit may be obtained in limited quantities even in poor soil, if an abundance of plant-food is supplied, and mulch provided to prevent the escape of moisture. The preparation of the land, the tree, and the methods of planting are the same as for the apple, to which the reader is referred. The- Pear tree naturally grows in a pyramidal form, and, while it sometimes grows as large in diameter as the apple tree, it is more compact and requires less distance. Fifteen by twenty feet are the best distances, according to the variety and method of training'. Such varieties as the Seckel, Giffard, Bartlett, etc., and other varieties if unpruned at the ends, and most other kinds, if kept well headed-m, need not have more than the former space, while Clapp's, Boussock, etc., should not be planted less than the latter distance. FORMING THE HEAD. During the first few years of its growth after planting in the orchard, the Pear tree has a tendency to growth in only two or three leading shoots. All but one of these must be pinched in at once, and the centre one or leader must be pinched a little later and be forced to throw out laterals. In the formation of the head, the branches should be distributed along the leader, as shown in Fig. 13, Page 15. Close attention must be given to prevent, by pinching, any branches out-growing the leader, or from growing more upon one side than the other. In land that must be cultivated, the head should be formed at least five feet high, to enable teams to work readily under the branches. THE AGE OF BEARING. The Pear tree may be expected to produce paying crops of fruit from five to eight years from planting in the orchard, according to the variety. Unless at- tacked by disease it will bear for fifty years and upward. Like 46 VARIETIES OF PEARS. the apple it generally produces fruit only on alternate years, un- less the land is kept quite rich. The cause of this habit is the same as with the apple, and the remedies the same. VARIETIES. In form, size, and color of fruit, the Pear does not vary as much as the fruit of the apple, but in the color of the branches and the leaves and its habit of growth, the variations are much greater; so much so, that most varieties may be dis- tinguished by the expert upon examination of the tree alone. Varieties may be classed as Summer, Autumn and Winter. SUMMER PEARS. These, as a rule, are small in size and very parishable. Among ths best, in order of ripening, are : Osband's. Small, nearly round; skin green, changing to yellow when ripe, with a brownish cheek; valuable only for home con- sumption. Giffard. Medium size ; in form and color like the Bartlett, but with more blush upon the exposed side; tree of rather slender growth and moderately productive; of gooi quality and one of the most profitable early Pears. Rostiezer. Of fine quality; small in size, acute pyriform; in color resembling the Seckel ; one of the best in quality, but the tree is of very straggling, irregular growth. Clapp's. A very large Pear of fair quality, but has the fault of rotting at the core if ripened upon the tree; obtuse pyriform; yellow, with a brownish red blush upon one half. The tree is vigorous and productive, coming early into bearing. The fruit must be picked at least two weeks before it would naturally ripen upon the tree. AUTUMN PEARS. Bartlett. This, among the Pears, is what the Baldwin is among the apples, and the Concord among the grapes. The fruit is large, of fair quality and never rots at the core. The tree is moderate- ly vigorous, and so productive that it is liable to injury by over- bearing; a fault that must be remedied by thinning, and by giving an abundance of plant food the bearing year. It is in sea- son in September. Bosc. A large, light russet Pear, with a large body and long neck, to which is. attached a long stem; flesh white, juicy, and of fine quality. The fruit is so large and heavy that it is liable to drop, and the tree should be trained low. It is one of the best fall Pears, ripening in October in our latitude. Seckel. Small, of the best quality; obtuse pyriform; light cinna- mon russet, with a brownish red blush on the exposed surface. To be of good size the fruit must be thinned. The tree is a vig- orous and compact grower, and regularly productive, ripening in October. Sheldon. Nearly round, russet, of large size, juicy, sweet and good. The tree is moderately vigorous and productive; one of HARVESTING AND MARKETING. 47 the best in cultivation. The color of the fruit is rather against it for market, but when it becomes known it brings good prices. It is in season from October to November. Anjou. Large, obtuse pyriform; greenish yellow when ripe, with a slight blush upon the sunny side ; flesh white, juicy, melt- ing and rich ; tree vigorous, hardy and moderately productive. The fruit is the finest of its season from November to De- cember. WINTER PEARS. Lawrence. Medium to large; resembling the Bartlett in form, but rather shorter and of a light yellow color; flesh juicy, sweet and good; tree moderately vigorous and productive. It is one of the best early winter Pears, coming in season in December. Dana's Hovey. A small Pear, resembling the Seckel somewhat in color and quality; round or obovate in form. It is perhaps the best winter Pear in quality, but its size makes it objectionable for market. ADDITIONAL VARIETIES OF VALUE. SUMMER. AUTUMN. WINTER. Bloodgood, Howell, Josephine of Malines, Dearborn, Flemish, Easter, Tyson, Boussock, Cornice, Souvenir du Congres. Clairgeau. Vicar. NEW VARIETIES OF PROMISE. Frederick Clapp, President Clark. GATHERING AND RIPENING. All varieties of Pears, with one or two exceptions, are improved by picking from the tree, from one to two weeks before they would naturally soften. Varieties like Clapp's and some others that rot at the core, must be picked as early as two weeks, while the Bartlett may be allowed to grow longer. The longer a variety can remain upon the tree the larger they become, as all fruits increase very rapidly in size just before the mellowing process begins. The best way to ripen the Pear to have it the most highly col- ored and of the best quality, is to place them in shallow trays or boxes in a dark, cool room. MARKETING. The early varieties of this fruit are very perish- able and should be marketed as soon as ripe. Clapp's, Bartletts and Boscs brought into market a little before their season, by picking early and hastening the ripening process in a warm, close room, often command a much better price than if sold when the main crop naturally comes in. So such varieties as the last two autumn kinds and Sheldon, Anjou, etc., if kept a month or two in cold storage, sometimes sell at double the price received at the natural time of ripening. The grower who is alive to the times will soon learn whether he can get a larger income by selling 48 INSECTS AND DISEASES. arly or late, and must be prepared to do either as his best judg- ment shall dictate. PRESERVING. Summer and Autumn varieties cannot be pre- served much beyond their natural season without considerable expense, but late fall and winter kinds may be kept in the same manner as the apple. For shipping to a distant market, the bar- rel is the best package, unless the fruit is soft, when they must l)e sent in crates or baskets. For storing and keeping the fruit, shallow boxes are much better than the barrel. Until the ripen- ing process begins, the fruit should be kept in a cool, airy place, as they are less liable to decay than if in a close atmosphere. INSECT PESTS. All the insects described as injurious to the apple, with the exception of the canker-worm, are more or less injurious to the Pear, and the same remedies should be applied. In addition to the above, are the Pear-tree Psylla (Pst/ll />///'') This is a very minute insect that punctures the branches and leaves in May, causing an exudation of juice which attracts numerous ants, flies and wasps which feed upon the juices that es- cape. The exudation dries and becomes sticky, and the particles of dust in the atmosphere adhere to the shoots and leaves, so that during the latter part of summer the whole tree has a blackened, dirty appearance. A diluted emulsion of kerosene and soft soap is an effectual remedy. This is described by Prof. Riley, as fol- lows: Take two parts of kerosene and one of soft soap, and churn or stir until a kind of butter is produced. This prepara- tion may be diluted with ten, twenty or fifty parts of water, according to the delicacy of the plant or the insect to be destroyed. A few other insects are slightly injurious to the Pear, but a description is not deemed important in so condensed a work as this. For a detailed description of all insects injurious to fruits and fruit trees, the reader is referred to Sounders' "Insects Injurious to Fruits." DISEASES. Fire Blight. This disease is often very destructive to the Pear, and its effect is to cause the leaves, shoots, and some- times the entire tree but more often only a portion of it to turn dark brown or black, as if scorched by fire. It always fol- lows some cause of weakness, as a late growth in the fall, caused by the use of coarse manure or late cultivation, when the shoots are injured by cold; or after bearing a heavy crop of fruit; or it may result from an exhaustion of the soil, or from the unnatural growth caused by plowing after the land has been in turf for some time; or from seeding down with a grain crop. In almost every case that has come under my observation, some reasonable expla- nation may be given for its appearance. The disease is of a fungoid or algoid nature, and only attacks trees that have become weakened in some way. The only remedy is, first, to cut away the diseased parts as soon THE PEAR LEAF BLIGHT. 49 as the disease appears ; and by the use of the proper kind of food and cultivation, obtain a healthy growth. If the soil is rich, do not cultivate and apply potash; if poor, use potash, fine ground bone and some nitrogenous material in the fall or early spring. Leaf Blight. This is a disease that attacks the leaves of 3~oung seedlings and sometimes of established trees. It is a fungus growth, similar to the grape, strawberry and other leaf diseases, and is remedied only by good cultivation and proper food. It of- ten comes upon the Pear seedlings planted in the nursery in July, when, upon the first indication of its presence, budding must begin, or the leaves will soon fall off and budding cannot be done at all until the following' season. 4 50 THE PEACH. CHAPTER XIII. THE PEACH (PRUNUS PERSIC A). IMPORTANCE ORIGIN PROPAGATION ORCHARD FERTILIZA- TION AGE OF BEARING WINTER PROTECTION THINNING THE FRUIT VARIETIES GATHERING MARKETING INSECTS DIS- EASES ROT. Iii importance, as a money crop, the Peach stands second in the list of large fruits. It is a healthful and nutritive fruit, when perfectly ripe, and liked by all. To reach its best condition, the Peach must be ripened upon the tree, but when shipped a long distance, it cannot be allowed to ripen before picking. ORIGIN. The Peach is supposed to have originated in Asia, from the bitter almond. It has long been cultivated in Southern Asia, China, and Southern Europe, and is much esteemed as an article of food and luxury. Its successful cultivation has always been confined largely to the Southern temperate zone, as the tree is naturally tender and liable to injury from sudden climatic changes. In favorable locations and under the proper treatment it is, however, often a profitable crop even north of the 42d parallel. PROPAGATION. It is propagated by budding upon seedlings that are grown in the nursery, instead of the seed-bed, as with the apple and pear. The seeds that produce the best stocks are those from strong, healthy, natural, new-budded seedlings. Most of the seed used by nurserymen is obtained from Virginia and Tennessee, where natural fruit is largely grown, and where it is claimed the disease known as the "yellows" has not made its ap- pearance. The pits may be planted either in the fall or in the spring. In fall planting they should be covered about two inches deep, if the suil is heavy, or three inches if light, in rows four feet apart and three or four inches in the row. In spring planting, the pits are "bedded" the fall previous; that is, placed in a bed about six or eight inches deep in layers first two inches thick of seeds, then two inches of soil, and so on until all the pits are put in; making the bed from six to ten inches thick. The action of the frost cracks the stones so that the kernels will most of them shell out BUDDING THE PEACH. 51 when they begin to germinate in the spring. It sometimes hap- pens that the action of the frost is not sufficient to crack the stones, when it must be done by a slight blow with a light ham- mer upon the edge of the pit, placed upon a block of wood. The kernels should be planted in rows the same distance as for fall planting, and be covered one inch deep. The advantage of fall planting is that it requires less labor, but many of the pits will fail to germinate, and where small quantities are grown this method is not to be recommended. In spring planting, every kernel will generally germinate and the nursery rows will be more fully stocked than if the uncracked pits were planted in the fall. The soil best adapted to the growth of good trees is a medium sandy or gravelly loam. The fertilizer used should be well de- composed stable manure, in moderate quantities, with fine ground bone and potash. The land should not be too rich, as, if the growth is very rapid and coarse, the trees are liable to injury dur- ing the winter. A soil that will produce fifty to seventy-five bush- els of corn to the acre is sufficiently rich for Peaches. BUDDING. The seedlings make a rapid growth and will be in readiness to bud in August. The best time for this work is just before the growth is checked by early frosts, or the last of August or first of September. The Peach is very easily budded and the growth is so rapid at this season that the bands must be cut in a week or two from the time of budding or the buds will be injured by the cutting in of the bands, or rather by the over-growth of the stock. The stocks should be cut off the following spring and only the inserted bud allowed to grow, as directed for the apple. At one year from cutting of the stock, the trees are in their best condition for transplanting, and at this age are better than if older. They are divided into No. 1 and No. "2 grades, classed according to size. The larger trees are generally those that were budded upon the stronger and most vigorous stocks, and consequently are most valuable; although the smaller the tree, as a rule, the less loss of roots there will be in digging and in two or three years from planting the smaller trees will often equal the'iarger in size. June-budded trees are being advertised very largely by many nurserymen. Although small in size, having grown only one sea- son from the seed, the roots are much less injured in digging and are less checked by removal than larger trees. In cost there is little or no advantage either way between the June-budded and the No. 1 fall-budded trees. THE ORCHARD. The best soil for the Peach is a warm, sandy or gravelly loam, situated upon more or less of an elevation. The exposure may be either north, south, east or west, if the land is high; but the fruit will be of better quality if the exposure is to the south, southeast or southwest. The reason why the Peach succeeds better upon high land may be found in the fact that the extremes of heat and cold are not as severe, and that the hio-her up we go the earlier and more thoroughly will the wood be ripen- id, and the later will the buds start in the spring. 52 PLANTING THE ORCHARD. There is, perhaps, less variation in size and form of tree in the different kinds of Peaches than with other fruit trees, and the distance of planting is more uniform. For unpruned trees (those not headed-in), the distance should be eighteen by eighteen, or twenty by twenty feet. If the tree is to be kept headed-in, which is advisable, ten by fifteen, or twelve and one-half by twelve and one-half feet will be sufficient. PLANTING. The tree should be prepared for planting in the same way as the apple, except that it may be advisable to cut off all the laterals to allow a new head to form upon a clean stem three or four feet high. In pruning up in this way to a "stick," care must be taken not to cut off the buds at the base of each shoot, as the proper formation of the head depends upon having buds well distributed along the main cane. Having the branches distributed along the axis, as is illustrated in Fig. 14, Page 15, is more important in the case of the Peach than with any other fruit tree, as the wood is very brittle and easily broken by the weight of fruit. Transplanting, training and pruning are the same as described for the apple. An annual pruning, however, should be given, consisting of cutting back the last season's growth one-half in the fall or winter to keep the tree in close, compact form, as is shown Fig 43. Fig. 44. by the dotted line a, ft, Fig. 43. This is rendered necessary by the natural tendency of the tree t-> grow only at the ends, pro- ducing few or no new laterals each year and resulting in the condition illustrated by Fig. 44, 'unless corrected. CULTIVATION AND MANURING. This subject, as discussed un- der head of The Apple, may be applied to the Peach. In the ap- plication of manure or fertilizer to any fruit crop, and to those especially like the Peach and pear, that are liable to injury from cold and other causes, great caution must be used. No tree can be expected to produce a large crop of fruit without a liberal supply of food. The farmer never expects to get a large or pay- ing crop of corn or potatoes from land unles's he applies from WINTER PROTECTION. 53 fifteen to fifty dollars' worth of manure or fertilizer; yet many a fruit grower will expect to gather crops, many times the value' of either of the above, without any fertilizer at all, The fruit growers who apply to their orchard annually twenty-five dollars' worth of fertilizing material, I believe are few in number. In the case of a Peach orchard from five to ten years old, this amount, or even fifty dollars' worth would not be too large a supply to put on to an acre when the trees are to bear a heavy crop. As with the apple and pear, manures or fertilizers should l>e applied late in the fall and early in the spring. While young, much care is needed not to force too large a growth of wood. For fruit, ground bone and potash is the best fertilizer that can be used. The growth of the Peach tree in turf land promises to be a method by which much of the climatic injury may be avoided. AGE OF BEARING. Fruit may be expected in paying quantities at from three to five years from planting in the orchard. The average age of the Peach tree in this section is hard to deter- mine, but is not probably over ten years from the time of trans- planting, and during this time the average number of crops may perhaps be three. The greatest obstacle to the successful cultivation of the Peach in this latitude, is the destruction of the fruit-buds in cold weather, It occurs in seasons when the growth is late, or when the buds are started into growth by extremely warm weather in December, followed by severe cold. It is claimed by many fruit culturists that the fruit-buds will be destroy- ed under any conditions when the thermometer indicates 1.") below zero. Little, however, is positively known as to this matter, and this claim may be generally the case, but I have known buds to be uninjured by a temperature of 18 below zero, and also to be destroyed by a temperature not lower than 18 above zero, Fahrenheit. WINTER PROTECTION. This uncertainty of the Peach crop leads us to consider if some means may not be employed by which the crop may be made secure. One method which I successfully adopted a few years since, is that of laving down the trees. Two young trees about four years old were taken for the experiment. The roots upon one side were loosen- ed and cut off at about one foot from the tree. The soil was then loosened upon the other side, and the trees bent down and held in place by a heavy post. Over the whole was thrown a few bun- dles of corn stover. The roots that stood out of the ground when the tree lay prostrate were covered with a foot or two of soil. In this state the trees passed the winter in safety, and in the spring were righted up and the soil pressed carefully and firmly about the roots. The result was a fair crop of Peaches when all other buds were destroyed. This seems a practicable method, and if the roots are made to grow more largely upon ono "A THINNING TIIK KIM II. side of the tree than the other by ;ui occasional root-pruning, there can be little difficulty in bending over even large trees, aiid little injury need result to the tree. Standing up or tying ])ine boughs or corn stover in among the brandies has been also suggested, and might be easily and cheap- ly accomplished if the trees are trained low. The high price which thoroughly ripe native fruit commands, will warrant con- siderable expense in the application of any system that will in- sure a crop every season. TmxxiXiJ THK FiiriT. Of all the large fruits cultivated per- haps none are more benefited by thinning than the Peach. The tree is very likely, when it does produce a crop, to set so manv blossoms that the tree will be almost certain to be injured in its attempt to ripen the crop. The annual pruning or shortening-in is beneficial by removing nearly one-halt' of the fruit buds, but it will be found that one-half of those remaining may generally bi removed. When the fruit has reached from one-fourth to one-half inch in diameter, the t rees should be examined and all imperfect specimens removed. <)nl\ one good specimen should be left on the short spurs of from one to five inches in length; and on the longer branches, only one to each five indies of \\ood. The quantity of fruit will not he diminished, on account of the in- creased six.e of each specimen, while the number of seeds mat ured will be lessened. Now the injury to the tree results from its ef- fort in ripening a large number of seed-, rather than in the pulp that Surrounds them, hence the wisdom of thinning the fruit on this account alone. CLASSIFICATION. The fruit i-- divided into two great classes, tin "white fleshed " and "yellow tleshed " varieties. These mav be again divided into " free-tone- " and " clingstone*," those in which the stone does not adhere to the pulp, and varieties in which the flesh clings to the stone. The YfkrietieS of both cla--e> that are most desirable inihis latitude, are given in the order of ripening: ^ I l.i <\\ I 1.1 -in I- VAKII i DBS, Crawford's Earl if. A fine, large Peach, of good quality, ripen- ing early in September. The tree is very vigorous and produc- tive, but not quite as hardy as some of the white-fleshed varie- ties. It brings the highest price in the market, and is a free- stone variety. Crawford's Late. Very .-imilar to the above, but perhap- a little larger and more hard\ ; ripens the last of September: free- stone. WHITK. KI.IMIII' V. Mill III-. Waterloo. Medium to large, of fair quality, and ripening about the first of August; clingstone. Earl// /i''Vfr.--.- -Medium to lar^e; creamy white in color, and of good quality ; August. VARIETIES OF THE PEACH. 55 Mountain Rose. Medium to large; round, with dark red cheek; tlcsh white, juicy and good; freestone; last of August or early September. Oldmixon. Medium to large; greenish white, with red cheek; flesh white, juicy and rich. The tree is hardy and productive, ripening its fruit in the middle of September. This is one of the most hardy and productive varieties. Stump. Resembles the last, but ripens much later and is per- haps equally desirable. The tree is very hardy and productive. ADDITIONAL VARIETIES. Sclmmakei, Reeves' Favorite, Excelsior, Pratt, Wheatland, Wager. (\.\-\ in KI.\(,. I'nlike the apple and pear, the Peach readies its highest, excellence only when ripened upon the tree. This fact makes it, in //x 1n*t condition, a local fruit and insures paying prices to the grower in Northern sections who will allow his fruit to ripen hilly and market it carefully. It is true that large quantities are shipped from the sections where the fruit reaches perhaps greater perfection than in Northern latitudes, but on ac- count, of the necessity of its being picked while yet hard, it is sent to market before it reaches its best condition and is. in ouality, much inferior to that grown with us, where our fruit is allowed to ripen upon the tree. M ARXETIXI;. Iii the South the Peach is gathered, often before fully grown, and packed in baskets or in crates of about one-half bushel. Kor the local market, to bring the highest price, it must become almost mellow before being picked, and should be packed in small baskets or boxes a single layer in depth, or at least, not more than t \\ o layers deep, and taken to market in sach a way as not to roll or rattle about. In this way choice Peaches will often command from live to eight dollars per bushel. INSI-.CTS. The only insect that is seriously injurious to the Peach is known as the I'xtnr (*1\, in the fall and be Fig. 54. planted before the ground freezes; or be tied in bundles of twenty-five and preserved by burying in soil where there will be no standing water; or in a cool, moist cellar, in sand. In the spring they are planted in rich, moist soil, with the upper bud just at the surface of the soil. In planting, the main condition of success is to press the soil very firmly about the base of the cuttings. Cuttings planted in the fall should be covered with some mulchy material to prevent their being thrown out by the frost. Most of the common kinds may be propagated in this way. The Delaware, and a few others, however, fail to root from long cuttings and must be grown by short cuttings. The short cutting consists of a single bud and from two to three inches of wood, cut in various ways. The most common form is shown in the above figure, No. 4. These cuttings must be rooted in sand and by the aid of artificial heat. They are made in the whiter and put in beds or boxes of sand the cuttings being one or two inches apart, and the boxes or bed having bottom heat; that is, with hot water or steam heat or fermenting stable manure, under them. The conditions under which they are most success- fully rooted are, a temperature of the soil or sand of fifty or sixty degrees and that of the atmosphere forty or forty-five de- grees. When well rooted, the cuttings are transplanted to boxes of soil; or, if the danger of frost is past, to the open ground. Short cuttings make better plants than those from long cuttings, if they are properly treated, as the roots all come out from nearly the same point, very much like those of seedlings. Layers. Layering the Grapes is done during the summer, when it is called a summer layer, or in the spring, when it is called a spring layer. A summer layer consists of a shoot of the present season's growth, bent down early in July and cov- ered with six inches of moist soil. Before covering it is best to GRAFTING THE GRAPE. 71 cut off a thin layer of bark along the underside of the cane, which will facilitate the emission of roots. At the end of the summer or the following spring, this cane is cut from the pareu vine and will be found a well-rooted, strong plant. By the spring method, Fig. 55, as many plants may be pro- duced from one layer as there are buds upon the cane laid down. When the layer is to be made, a trench is dug six or eight inches .ieep, in which is laid the cane of the last season's growth, fixing it firmly in the bottom by the use of forked sticks or stones, as shown at a, Fig. 55. This remains uncovered until the buds have sent up about ten inches' growth, when the soil is thrown in. It will often be found that the buds near the parent vine and those at the end of the cane will grow first and more strongly than those in the center. To overcome this, the cane should be bent up and the end stuck into the ground, as shown at b, Fig. 55. The bending checks the flow of sap at the end of the cane. The sap rises more rapidly to the highest point and the result is an increased growth of the center buds. At the end of the season, roots will be found coming from around the base of each shoot, and by cutting the canes between the nodes we have as many good vines as there were buds upon the covered part of the cane. By no other method can as many vines be as certainly obtained as by the spring layer, and the process is so simple that he who lias one vine may rapidly increase his stock. GRAFTING. With no other fruit is grafting so uncertain of success as with the grape vine. Various methods have been sug- gested, but perhaps the one described below is the most certain. In the fall, just before the ground freezes, take any strong stock that you wish to graft; and, removing the soil from the roots, cut the main cane off a few inches below the surface. Upon this is to be practiced cleft-grafting. The stock is now split (if very tough and gnarly a saw may be used to split it), and scions of one or two buds are cut and inserted, as illustrated by Figs. 20 to 24, Pages 23-24. After the wedge has been withdrawn, the soil is pressed closely about the graft, no wax being used, but covering it up to the top bud of the scion. Over this scion is placed an an inverted small flower-pot, so that when the soil is removed in the spring the scion may not be disturbed. The whole work is now covered with at least a foot of soil, and as severe weather approaches, over this is thrown enough litter to prevent the ground around the stock from freezing. In this way, if the grafting is successful, a very strong growth will be made the next season, and the second year a fine crop of fruit may be expected. I have known a single bud placed in a stock less than three-fourths of an inch in diameter to make a growth of two canes over eight feet long the first season. This affords a good way of testing new varieties, and is one of the most certain methods of grafting the vine that I have tried, but I would not count upon more than three successes in five trials. 72 SETTING THE GRAPE VINE. THE VINEYARD. The best vines for planting in the vineyard are No. 1 one-year-olds from cuttings or layers. These should not have made less than eighteen inches of wood, and have a large mass of fibrous roots. The best soil is a, light sandy or gravelly loam that does not suffer from drouth; and if on an elevation sloping to the south, the fruit will be of much finer quality and will be less liable to injury from late - frosts in th'e spring or early frosts in the fall. The more small stones in the soil the warmer it will be, and the richer and earlier the fruit. Before planting, the land should be thoroughly prepared and marked out with a marker or with a plow. If very accurate spacing is desired, the marking or staking should be done with the line or wire. The soil should be made moderately rich by the use of well-rotted stable manure or bone and potash. The distance of planting is from s!x by ten feet, to ten by ten feet according to the vigor of the variety and the mode of train- ing. For all but the very small growing kinds, like the Dela- ware, Lady, etc., I think the latter distance the best. The nearer they are planted, the less space the roots will have in which to develop and the more fertilizing material will need to be applied, and vice versa. The most rapid way of planting is to furrow out the land both ways, and the vines are planted at the intersection. Before planting, the top of the vine should be cut oft' to two or three buds, and if the roots are very long, it is well to cut them back to ten inches in length. Having prepared the vine, the hole is prepared with a spade by taking out three or four spadefuls of soil at the intersection of the furrow previously made, in such a way that the soil in the center will be a little higher than that on the border of the hole, so that the ends of the roots may lie planted about eight inches deep while the crown of the root shall be covered only four or five inches. Spread out the roots in all directions and fill in with good surface soil, pressing it very firm- ly in place. If the soil be very poor, a handful or two of fine ground bone may be worked in with the soil about the roots with great benefit. CULTIVATION. The land of the vineyard may be planted for the first two years with some low-hoed crop like potatoes or beans; provided a little more plant-food is returned to the soil in the fall or spring than is taken up by the crop removed. Per- haps there is nothing better to grow in the newly-set vineyard than the bean crop, as cultivation would cease early in July; while the land would be disturbed by digging the crop of potatoes so much and so late as to cause a late growth of the vines. Xo crops should ever be planted in the vineyard that will shade vines. PRUNING AND TRAINING. The First Year. During the first summer, the vines will require no care except to see that they are not injured in cultivating the other crops. They will grow PRUNING AND TRAILING. 73 better and mature their wood more thoroughly, lying upon the ground, than it' supported by stakes. At the end of the first year's growth, or before the sap begins to move in the spring of the second year, the top of the vine should be cut back to one strong cane of three buds. Tt is per- haps best to do this in the fall of the first year, and then cover up the end of the cane with one or two shovelfuls of soil to protect it from the winter. The Second Year. Only one cane should be allowed to grow the second year, and this should be tied up to a stake. Any kind of a stake that is four or five feet high will do for this purpose. All laterals that may start from the buds at the base of the cane should be pinched off as soon as they are four or five inches long, and all the growth forced into the main cane. When the cane has reached the top of the stake, the end should be pinched. This will cause it to become thick and stocky, and the wood to mature more fully. At the end of the second year the cane may be laid down again to protect it from injury. SUPPORTS AND TRELLISES. The vine has now reached a stage where it needs some permanent support. Two methods are com- monly employed by vineyardists for supporting their vines, stakes and trellises. The advantages of the first are that the vines can be cultivated both ways with the horse during the spring and early summer, and that material often obtained very cheaply from one's own land may be used for stakes, while the trellis is more durable and the vines require less support to keep them up from the ground. STAKES. In this method various kinds of stakes are used. Fig. 56. Fig. 57. Some vineyardists use only one stake (Fig. 56), and others use two stakes, one about eighteen inches each side of the vine, as shown 74 TRELLIS FOR THE GRAPE. in Fig. 57. The chestnut, larch and cedar posts are of about equal durability. Posts of sawn two by three-inch stuff are often used, and have the advantage, that if they are renewed just before they break off, the new stakes may be easily inserted where the old ones were removed without making a new hole, if the work is done in the spring. TRELLISES. In this method, many kinds of trellises have been used, but the best and most commonly used is made of posts, nine feet long, set from fifteen to twenty feet apart, and three feet below the surface. The end posts should be large and well braced, while smaller ones may be used in the middle. Upon these posts (Fig. 58) are placed three or four No. 14 galvanized wires, the first one being not less than two feet from the groun' 1 . These are fixed in place with staples, and the wires are stretched loy means of levers or by the common barbed-wire stretcher. No. 16 wire is sometimes used, but is rather small to support a great weight of vine and fruit; and the larger the wire the more distant can the posts be set. TRAINING. Having the stakes set or the trellis made the third year, the vine must be established upon the supports. If the stakes are used, the system of training consists in simply winding one cane arounde ach stake, and fixing it in two or three places so that it shall not slip down (Figs. 56 and 57). The string of any coarse, strong material, should be tied with a loop around the vine so as to allow for ihe increase in size by growth. The third season the fruit is borne upon the laterals from the main cane, but the fourth year it is borne upon spurs made by cutting these laterals back to three buds in the fall or winter, as shown at a, Fig. 58. The pruning each year after the vine Fig. 58. has become established consists in simply cutting back the last season's canes to spurs. Only a limited number of spurs should SYSTEMS OF TRAINING. 75 be allowed to remain, according to the strength of the vine, cut- Fig. 59. ting away all weak shoots. From each of the spurs should be allowed to grow one or two canes, and upon each of these there should not be allowed to mature more than two bunches of Grapes, and if the vine is not strong, only one bunch. 76 THE HORIZONTAL ARM SYSTEM. Upon the trellis the vine may be established in a natural fan system (Fig-. 08), in the vertical arm system (Fig. 59), or in the horizontal arm system (Fig. 60). All the various systems by which the vine is trained may be brought down to two the spur system, and the renewal system. By the spur system all the canes at the end of the season are cut back to three buds, as shown at the dotted lines 'a, Fig. 58. . By the renewal system, S canes are grown this sea- .jrf son for fruiting the next ; * while the cane that has borne fruit, is cut back to a spur from which is grown the cane to produce the fruit the next season. The two systems are practiced with various modifications, but the whole secret of succ ss lies in the amount of strong, thoroughly ripened wood that can be produced and of allowing only a small number of large, perfect bunches to remain upon the vine. The thinning of the fruit should be done as soon as the grapes are the size of peas. All the small bunches should be removed and only one or two be left upon each new shoot, according to the strength of the vine. Under the best of cultivation a vine four or five years old may produce from five to ten pounds of choice fruit; and as it increases in size and vigor, it may produce as high as twenty pounds. The average for vins- yards, in full bearing, will not be over ten pounds of choice fruit per vine. PRUNING. The beginner in Grape-growing is often much troubled about the best time to prune the vine and the best methods of pruning. With vines that are well established the work is very simple and consists, in the spur system, in cutting- TIME AND MANNER OF PRUNING. 77 back all the .strong- shoots to three buds and removing entirely all weak canes not needed to carry out the system. In the re- newal system, those shoots that are to remain for fruiting next season are shortened to a proper length, and the shoots from wlii eh the new canes are to be grown are cut back to spurs. All wood, not needed to carry out the system, is cut away. The best time for pruning is in the fall or winter. Pruning after the sap begins to move in the spring, or after the middle of March, cannot be recommended, although there is no evidence to prove that the vines are injured by the " bleeding " that takes place when pruned so late. The best implement for pruning is the common hand .pruning , O, 61. shears, of which there are many good patterns. The dotted lines at a, Figs. 01 and 62, show where the cuts are to be made. PRUNING- OLD VINES. In many gardens there are to be found old vines that have not been pruned for years, and the fruit is small and almost worthless. The owner still neglects it because he does not know how to take hold of the vine and put it into shape. Such a vine, with a lictle care, may be made productive, and can easily be brought under some system of pruning. The first thing to do in the fall, is to cut, and cut, and cut away until the vine consists of the necessary arms, branches or laterals to allow a single one to each wire, stake, slat or other support used. From these branches during the following summer will come out numerous sprouts. Such of these as are needed to re- 78 SUMMER PRUNING HARVESTING. place the old canes or to furnish fruit spurs are preserved, and the others rubbed off before they have made much growth. At the end of the first season, or at least of the second, the vine will consist of new wood, and any of the various systems may be car- ried out with it. In the case of such old vines, unless canes of one year's growth can be found for arms, no fruit will be pro- duced the year after the first pruning. No fear need be had that the vine will be injured, as winter pruning generally tends to in- crease growth rather than diminish it. This is just the oppo- site of summer pruning. SUMMER PRUNING. In order to force the growth into the canes that are to produce the fruit and the canes for renewal, summer pruning is resorted to. This consists in pinching out the end bud of the fruiting cane when it has reached two or three feet beyond the last bunch of fruit; and pinching back the renewal cane when it has reached the length required for the kind of support used. A large amount of foliage should never be removed from tree, vine or plant, unless to check its growth, for it is certain to re- sult in injury. The maturity and perfection of the fruit, and in fact that of the whole plant, depend upon the amount and vigor of the foliage ; and the common idea that removing the foliage to let in the sun hastens the ripening process, is wholly wrong. The best fruit is always found under the foliage shielded from the hot, scorching sun. GATHERING THE FRUIT. Unlike some other fruits, the Grape does not improve in quality after removal from the vine, and consequently must be allowed to remain upon the vine until ripe. A very certain indication of the maturity of the Grape is when about one-half inch of the stem where it joins the cane has turned brown like the bark of the cane. Light frosts will injure par- tially ripened fruit, but when fully mature, it takes a freeze to seriously injure it. To retain the beauty of the fruit, that is, not to injure the bloom, the bunches must be removed by taking hold of the stems and breaking them off or by cutting with a knife or scissors. Where large quantities are to be gathered, large shallow trays are used upon which a single layer of bunches is placed; then the trays are carried upon a rack to the packing or 'storing room. Small quantities may be picked in the field, trimmed and packed in baskets or trays ready for market. PACKING AND SHIPPING. For a distant market, only thick- skinned kinds can be successfully shipped. These are sorted, all the imperfect berries cut out; the bunches are then packed closely in small baskets holding from five to ten pounds. For local markets, they are taken to the dealer in trays or shallow baskets, in a single layer, so that the bloom will not be injured. PRESERVING. The Grape is a fruit that may be easily kept much beyond its season. The most perfect conditions for pres- VARIETIES OF GRAPES. 79 ervation are a moist, cool atmosphere, and the temperature about 35. This is only obtained by the use of ice. In this section^ varieties like the Concord, that ripen from the first to the middle of September, may be kept until the last of November under such conditions. Thick-skinned kinds may be preserved later in a cool, dry place, by packing in single layers of cotton wool in a close box, but the stems generally shrivel and the berries are likely to drop. CLASSIFICATION. Varieties are classified into black, red and white. BLACK VARIETIES. Moore's Early . For its extreme earliness, for the northern fruit belt, this must be placed first. The vine is a pure native, hard}*, moderately vigorous and productive; berry very large, round, and nearly black; bunch medium and large, with much less bloom than the, Concord; quality fair, equaling the Concord and ripen- ing ten days earlier. Concord. For vigor, hardiness and productiveness, this is still unequaled. In quality it is only fair and with a thin skin. It is still "the Grape for the millions," and is too well known to need further description. Warden. A seedling of the Concord, and in some sections said to be superior to that variety. It resembles its parent in all particulars, but may be a little earlier and of better quality. Wilder (Rogers' No. 4). A hybrid Grape of large size and fine quality; bunch large and showy. Wrth careful culture it may be found profitable. RED GRAPES. Delaware. This little Grape is everywhere known. It is hardy, productive, but slow in growth, and the thin leaves are liable to injury from mildew. The fruit is of the best quality. The Del- aware requires careful and rich culture. Brighton. Medium to large, of good quality, and ripening with the Concord. Color rather dark red, which is an objectionable color for a market Grape; of fair quality and a good keeper. Vergennes. A red Grape of more recent introduction, but es- pecially valuable for its late keeping qualities. WHITE GRAPES. Lady. A small Grape of good quality; vine rather slow in growth, but hardy and productive. ' Martha. An old variety, with vine resembling the Concord; fruit medium in size and of fair quality. ADDITIONAL VARIETIES OF MERIT. Rockwood, Jefferson, Niagara, Francis B. Hayes. 80 GIRDLING THE GRAPE. GIRDLING THE GRAPE. In our northern sections, frosts come so early that even the Concord often fails to ripen, and there is need of some process by which even later varieties of high quality may be ripened with certainty. Such a process is found in what is known as gird- ling or ringing. It con- sists in taking a ring of bark out of the growing cane, just below the fruit as shown in Fig. 63. The girdling should be done about four weeks in ad- vance of the usual time of ripening. The effect of this is to cause a rapid in- crease in the size of the fruit and to hasten its ma- turity from ten days to two weeks. In a series of experiments, made at the Massachusetts Agricultur- al College, it was found that the quality of the fruit was not injured by the .girdling, nor could any perceptible injury be discovered to the vine. The ring of bark mfty be removed rapidly with the knife, Fig. 64. The use of strings or wires twisted tightly around the canes will probably answer the same purpose as the removal of the ring of bark. Only those canes that are to be cut away entirely at the end of the season, should be girdled. The cane is girdled at A, Fig. 63, Fur. 64. and after fruiting is cut back to E, leaving two canes, C and D, for the continuation of the treatment. The cane B is to be cut back to one or two buds at the fall or winter pruning. INSECTS. The Grape is a fruit generally one of the least sub- ject to injury from insects. Some seasons the Rose Bug, which is too common to need description, plays havoc with the blossoms* just as the fruit is setting, and in a few sections has done some injury to the foliage. It is an insect that notning seems to des- troy, but it may be paralyzed by the use of the pyrethrum powder, applied just at night, when the bugs may be caught upon THE PHYLLOXERA. 81 the curculio screen. Hand-picking, which has been resorted to by some growers, is too expensive except upon very choice vari- Fig. BS. eties. It L claimed by the Buhacli company that their prepar- ation of pyrethrum will kill this pest. Should this prove to be the case, the screen will not be needed. Phylloxera or Grape Vine Louse {Phylloxera vastatrix). This is the insect that is so destructive to vines of European vineyards, and has destroyed thousands and thousands of acres of vines there. It is a native of this country and by some means was transported across the Atlantic and has propagated and developed with great rapidity upon the more tender European Grapes. It is generally found in two forms, the leaf and root form. The former is very small, not over one thirty-second of an inch in length, of a light yellow color, and sucks the juices of the leaves and tender branches, causing small warts or galls upon them. The leaf forms of the Phylloxera is shown at Fig. 65: . front view of the young louse; b, back view; of the louse; c, the egg; d, a section of one of the galls ; e, a swollen tendril ; f, g, h, mature egg-bearing gall-louse, lateral, dorsal (or back), and ventral (or belly) views; i, the antenna; /, the two-jointed tarsns. The root form (Fig. 66) is of about the same size and causes similar swellings upon the fibrous roots. Fig. 66, illustrates the root phylloxera: a, the roots of a Clinton vine, showing the swellings; I,, young louse in the hibernating stage; c, d, antennse 6 82 VARIOUS FORMS OF PHYLLOXERA. Fig. 66. and leg of the same; ;>!" and Pear. 4 Currant. M Strawberries, etc. 5 Apple and Pear. 11 Cherries. 6 Raspberries. 12 Strawberries. 13 Apple and Pear. This may seem to many to be a much larger crop than any but the very best of land can support, but the farmer and gardener, to be successful, must use his land only as a place in which to manufacture his crops, as the manufacturer does his factory, and if the raw material is not already in the soil (his factory), he must go to market and buy it. It will be found, however, that on most soils the addition of the fertilizing material necessary to grow the vegetables that can be planted on the land, will be suf- ficient to enable the trees to make all the growth they ought ta make until they begin to bear fruit. To insure a healthy and fruit-producing growth of fruit trees and small fruits, wood ashes, ground bone, potash and the phosphates should be ust d. If it is thought best not to plant the full amount at ov.o?, the larger trees may be planted, and one or two plants of each o* the small fruits, from which, with a little care and skiUr p-'nnts enough may be propagated in a year or two to comi*iW the plantation. FRUITS FOR THE NORTH. 105 APPENDIX. FRUITS FOR THE COLD NORTH. T. H. HOSKINS, M. !>.. IN RURAL NEW YORKER, AUGUST 1, 1885. The winter of 1884-85 was the coldest known in Northern New England fqr at least a quarter of a century. The thermometer went lower, stayed low longer, and went low oftener than in other cold winters, and all these things conjoined to produce a maxi- mum of ill effects upon our fruit trees. In addition, the snow was slow in coming, the ground not being permanently covered until near Christmas, so that unmulched trees suffered more or k-ss from root-killing. The only thing lacking to make it the worst of all possible winters for orchardists was a violent alterna- tion of temperatures. The winter was unbrokenly cold. Such a winter is by no means an unmixed evil. For the ex- perimental tree grower it was a genuine test winter, enabling him to form a correct judgment as to the hardiness of his trees. With between one and two hundred species and varieties in my grounds, I am able to report results which will be useful to many readers along our northern border and in the Dominion. The most prominent fact demonstrated is the general worth- lessness, "in the cold North," of all tree fruits of Western Eu- rope. Apples, pears, plums and cherries were alike destroyed or crippled; hardly one, even of those of Canada, escaped. Never- theless, the efforts of our Canadian neighbors have not been without their value, for their seedlings and selections give us the hardiest of the West European stock. That there is a vast dif- ference among them in hardiness, all with experience in growing 106 .RON-CLAD VARIETIES. them will allow, though I believe Prof. Budd does not think there are any strictly "iron-clad" sorts among them. Some of the Northeast European varieties have been in this country for half a century, and it may be that among the hardiest sorts of New England few, if any, are free from admixture with this strain or race, or with the Siberian species, which has been still longer in America, and is, in some of its varieties, to be found in almost every orchard. The Siberian is quite as different in all its lead- ing characteristics from the Russian, as it is from the English and French apples, while the North German, Swedish and Polish tree fruits seem to be intermediate between those of Southwest Europe and those of Russia. Of all the apples in Northern New England but one came through last winter unscathed. This is the Foundling, a native of Groton, Massachusetts. My trees came from Canada under the name of Late Strawberry of Montreal, which the Montreal horticultural society has decided to be the Foundling. The only perfectly iron-clad Canadian apple is Pearl of Montreal not a native, but imported from France, and believed by Prof. Budd to be a true Russian. It is a very productive, beautiful and deli- cious September dessert apple, but must be ripened on the tree to develop its quality, and is then far too soft for shipment, being defaced by even the most gentle handling. The hardiest native Canadian apple I have is the St. Lawrence, which seems to be nearly as hardy as Wealthy; but it is a very poor bearer here, even on trees seventeen years planted, though on the island of Montreal it is quite productive. The Fameuse is slig-htly less hardy than the St. Lawrence, and the Mclntosh Red is certainly no hardier than the Fameuse, yet none of those were fatally in- jured or worse hurt than the Baldwin often is in Maine and Mass- achusetts. Ben Davis and Clyde Beauty, apples of New York origin, and the hardiest I have tested from that state, were des- troyed, as was the excellent New York crab-hybrid VanWyck Sweet. Of Maine apples, Cole's Quince and Rockwood are the hardiest I have tried, and were not hurt much more than the Fa- meuse. Of the natives of Southern and Western Vermont, Bottle Greening, Northern Sweet and Tinmouth failed to stand the cold, as did also Granite Beauty of New Hampshire. The only native apple of Vermont, outside of this (Orleans) county, that proves strictly iron-clad is the Bethel. It is a pity that this fine apple, fully equal to the Baldwin in every other point, is a shy bearer, especially when young. At a size when Wealthy yields a barrel per tree, the Bethel gives scarcely a dozen. Of our Orleans county seedlings the most valuable are Scott's Win- ter and Newport Winter Sweet, Magog Red Streak being super- seded by the Wealthy. Newport Winter Sweet is a thorough iron-clad, equal in all respects to Tolman's (which is not iron-clad) and much better for eating uncooked. Of Western apples, I can report well of Iowa Russet, a fine apple RUSSIAN APPLES. 107 receiveu some ten years since from Prof. Budd, and the only Russet that passed through last' winter unharmed. From South- ern Minnesota, Giant Swaar and Rollin's Pippin (received from A. W. Sise, of Rochester, Minn.) seem uninjured. The Giant Swaar is a very valuable apple as good, I think, in every way among the yellow apples as Wealthy is among the reds. I am much pleased with it. The Wealthy was not in every case un- harmed, though only a few were hurt, and these were trees which had previously been hurt in the trunk by "sun bark blight," i. e., injury from the strong action of the sun on the southwestern side. The large majority of my Wealthys are uninjured and bearing a good crop for the off year. Wolf River, from Wis- consin, shows itself, much to my surprise, to be vulnerable, though not seriously harmed. And now for the Russians, which must, I am sure, be the best, if not the only reliance for the severest spots. We ought never to have placed the Red Astrachaii among these. Its hardiness is below that of Fameuse, and about equal to that of Tolman's Sweet, Blue Pearmain and Westfield Seek-no-Further. None of these die, but all are practically worthless here. Astrachan is only politically a part of Russia, with a climate like that of Southern New "York. There is no other among the more than fifty Russian apples I have tested that shows any defect in hardi- ness except Alexander, which is much hardier than Astrachan, though not ranking with Fameuse. Nevertheless, I have no doubt that degrees of hardiness under extreme exposure will be found among the Russians, perhaps even here, but certainly in Dakota, Minnesota, Northern Wisconsin and Michigan, Manitoba and Canada. But for my location, the question of hardiness is eliminated from the consideration, and we are left merely to se- lect our sorts among the Russians on other considerations! The best so far in my orchard, in order of season, are Yellow Trans- parent, Tetot'sky, Duchess of Oldenburg, St. Peter, Prolific Sweeting and Golden White. These are all summer and fall kinds. It is not yet time to determine in regard to winter kinds, as we have not had them long enough to judge them certainly. Those I have in bearing, Borsdorf and Little Seedling, though good keepers, are too small. The later importations, Antonovka, Titovka (suppose we call them Antony and Titus), Arabka, Bogdanoff, the Winter Aports and Anises, and the Longfield, are all apples of good size and quality, and from them and others of the same season, there is no doubt that good selections can be made, which will succeed in all parts of America likely to be inhabited by white men. As regards other tree fruits, last winter wiped out all pears ex- cept the small Russians from Budd and Gibb ; all cherries except Lieb, Large Montmoreiicy and Minnesota Ostheim Seedling of Mr. Myers; all plums except Arctic (injured), and the blue and yellow Orleans of Canada, and the Eastern and Western natives, 108 VALUE OF IMPORTED VARIETIES. and my only Russian, " Arab," from Prof Budd. It is evidently of no use for us to bother longer with any of the tree fruits of Western Europe. The work already done by the Iowa agricul- tural college, through Prof Budd, in bringing over the hardy tree fruits of Northwestern Europe, propagating and distributing them, is a full return for all the money expended in establishing agricultural colleges in this country. NOTES FROM THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY. The biennial reports issued by the American Pomological society (of which Charles W. Garfield of Grand Rapids, Mich., is the secretary at present, and of which the late Marshall P. Wilder was president), are among the most valuable horticul- tural publications, but not one fruit grower in a thousand sees this valuable report. The publishers of MAYNARD'S PRACTICAL FRUIT GROWER have therefore thought wise to occupy the remaining pages of this book with a brief summary of some of the best practical points from the American Pomological society's report for 1885. We first give a few extracts from the annual address of the late President Wilder upon that occasion. WHAT THE AMERICAN POMOLOGICAL SOCIETY HAS ACCOMPLISHED. When we reflect on the unsettled and chaotic condition of pomology in our country when our society was established, the narrow limits to which fruit culture was confined, and the few engaged in it, and compare it with the immense territory now occupied for this purpose, and its importance as a great industry of our country, I think it may be well to take a retrospective view and see what our society has accomplished. Its formation opened a new era of enterprise in the annals of American pomology, which has no parallel in those of other lands. It was the first great national pomological society, em- bracing in its organization the largest area for fruit culture in the world, where almost every fruit of every zone may be grown in perfection. It has brought into close communion of interest, and concert of action, the most experienced and skillful pomologists of our WHAT THE SOCIETY HAS DONE. 109 country; and by its proceedings and publications has furnished examples and methods of work which have been adopted by other pomological and horticultural societies, all working har- moniously together, and thus has become the acknowledged pomo- logical authority of our land. It is truly an AMERICAN society, having, through all the vicis- situdes of the past, held in the bonds of friendly intercourse for the promotion of our cause, the North, East, West and South, and every region where fruits can be grown on this continent. It has raised the standard of excellence by which our fruits are judged, discouraged the cultivation of inferior sorts, and thus educated the taste of the public for those of better quality, so that kinds once common in our markets have become obsolete, and are now considered unworthy of propagation. In doing this portion of its work, it has discarded by general consent more than six hundred varieties, either worthless or superseded by better sort*. it has established a uniform system of rules, by which fruits are to be shown and judged. But, what is of the highest importance, it has instituted a much needed reform in the nomen- clature of fruits, by which all long, unpronounceable, indelicate, inappropriate and superfluous words are to be suppressed in the dedication of our fruits. One of the grandest achievements of the society is its catalogue of fruits, published biennially, with isothermal divisions and columns for fifty states, territories and districts, in which are recorded the fruits which may successfully be grown in those divisions, with stars to designate the merits and seasons of each. This is a work of great merit, and not attempted by any other society, and here let me say, that we should never forget how large a debt of gratitude we owe to Mr P. Barry, as chairman of the general fruit committee, for its compilation and classification. He has performed this duty for a long course of years; and for- tunate indeed is it that we have, as his successor, his son, Mr W. C. Barry, who has been so well educated for this duty. Few things in the history and progress of American pomology have been more effective in the past and more promising of valuable results in the future than our system of state reports. They embrace correct information from trustworthy persons, having special reference to the varieties most successfully grown; new kinds worthy of special notice; the chief obstacles to suc- cessful fruit culture in each district; and correct information in regard to the extent and progress of fruit culture in each section of our country, and are published under the supervision of the chairman of the general fruit committee of our society, and con- tain a vast fund of information not elsewhere to be found. These reports constitute a mine of pomological wealth, and contain not only all the modifications and changes which may have been made in collecting information concerning the culture 110 POMOLOGY AS A SCIENCE. of fruits, but also in the naming of them, and the synonyms by which they are known, the most desirable varieties being desig- nated in our catalogue by stars, according to their several merits. I cannot close my remarks on this subject without expressing the very great interest I feel in continuing this most important branch of our researches through generations to come, so that for all time we may have a system for the advancement of pomology which shall be worthy of our nation and the great interests we represent. Had it done nothing else, this alone would entitle our society to the universal approval which it now receives, and the gratitude of the generations which are to succeed us. Before the organization of the society, while we had around us an immense region ready for the cultivation of the finest fruits, great confusion prevailed in nomenclature, and the difference be- tween good and bad sorts was very dimly appreciated. At that time pomologists experienced great difficulty in obtaining varie- ties true to name; and sometimes, after repeatedly procuring fruits, and losing years in waiting for them to bear> found them- selves where they started. The American Pomological society has performed an immense labor, through its meetings and its committees, in correcting this confusion, and it is wonderful to contrast the early condition of pomology with its present mature state. Its future labor will be continuous and of vital moment, in introducing new and valuable varieties; and what will be of the greatest importance, maintaining an accurate nomenclature. It will inform fruit-growers, in every state and territory, what fruits they are to look to for successful culture. But most im- portant of all, its business will be to give American pomology a high character as a science; to prevent the appearance of mere money-making and petty attempts to impart undue prominence to new favorites by laudatory names. The continued aim of the society will be to maintain a position of dignity, integrity and impartial usefulness. RULES OF POMOLOGY. Nothing has afforded me more gratification than the favor with which our rules of pomology and the reform in the nomen- clature of our fruits have been received. Soon after the close of our last session, we sent out a thousand circulars containing these rules, together with the suggestions of the president in regard to the much needed reform in the nomenclature of fruits. These were sent to the agricultural, horticultural and fruit-growers' associations and to the leading nurserymen of our country. Some were also sent to foreign lands. The favor with which these have been received both at home and abroad has been remarkable, showing that the time had arrived when, by general consent, this reform should be made ; and thus our society has the honor of instituting it as an AVOID IMPROPER NAMES. Ill example for the pomological world. When we reflect on the long, senseless and sometimes vulgar and ridiculous names by which so many of our most beautiful fruits are known, our in- dignation is so aroused that we desire to blot them from our memory forever. Some have thought this spirit might be too aggressive. All reforms are more or less so; but when we think of the irrelevant and inappropriate names by which many of our fruits are known, we feel the importance of keeping up our war- fare until the victory is won, and all our catalogues are purged of these improprieties. As I before felt, I still feel it my duty, as president of the American Pomological society, to urge a reform in the names of fruits, avoiding all long, superfluous, inappropriate, indelicate, ostentatious, or unmeaning titles, and if we cannot change objectionable names already applied, at least to avoid them in the future. Hundreds of fruits once known in our catalogues have become obsolete for want of good properties, and so it will be in the future, and we shall retain only those which, by their excellent quality and adaptation to our situation and wants are worthy of extensive cultivation. Like the Bald- win apple, the Bartlett pear, the Concord grape and other renowned fruits, let such varieties be dedicated to perpetual remembrance by appropriate names, and thus let us hand down to future generations a system of nomenclature pure and plain in its diction, pertinent and proper in its application, and which shall be an example, not only for fruits, but for other products of the earth. Let us have no more names of generals, colonels, captains, presidents, governors, monarchs, kings or princes, mammoths or Tom Thumbs, or such titles as Nonesuch, Seek-no-further, Ne-plus-ultra, Hog-pen, Sheep-nose, Big Bob, Ironclad, Legal Tender, Sucker State, or Sturnp-the-World. These were sug- gestions made in my last address, to which I still adhere and from which I have nothing to take back. The terms Pearmain, Pippin, Beurre, Doyenne, Bon Chretien, etc., applied to apples and pears, once described classes of fruit which are now so con- fused and blended that the names have lost their significance. The cases are very few where a single word will not form a better name for a fruit than two or more. These reforms have been adopted in the catalogue of the American Pomological society, and other prominent horticultural and pomological societies have voted to adopt the improved nomenclature, and I desire to ask the co-operation of all pomological and horticultural societies in this and other countries in carrying out this important reform. It has been suggested that the work might be carried farther than has been done in the catalogue of the Pomological society, as, for instance, by substituting Lucrative for Belle Lucrative, and Nelis for Winter Nelis. Pomologists may differ as to how far the reform should be carried, but by comparison of views they will come to a final agreement. 112 REVISING NURSERY CATALOGUES. I desire especially to enforce upon nurserymen the duty of aiding in this reform, by revising their catalogues so as to correspond with the improved nomenclature. Horticultural and pomological associations have thus far been our most powerful auxiliaries in this good work, but they do not come in contact with the people at so many points as the nursery- men whose catalogues are distributed broadcast over the land, and I would especially appeal to the many honorable represen- tatives of this profession here assembled, to give us their hearty co-operation until the work is accomplished. Let us push on constantly and vigorously while we live, that future generations, seeing its advantages, shall avoid the evils we have encountered, and shall enjoy the benefits of the improved system, and look ba'ik with giatitude to us for our labors. PRODUCTION OF NEW FRUITS. And now iii fulfillment of my promise to urge upon you while I live the importance of producing from seed new improved varieties of fruits, adapted to the various soils and climates of our vast territory, I have substantially to repeat what I have said in my former addresses. These are the means, and the only means, which God and nature have provided for the im- provement of our fruits, and the better we understand and prac- tice them the nearer shall we approach to that divine beneficence which gives flavor and richness to our fruits, and to the senses the highest types of beauty, grace and gratification. Thus from time to time I have spoken to you, and, were these my last words, I would again impress them upon you as of the utmost importance. With a careful study of the tendencies of varieties, and a judicious selection of parents, as breeders, we shall go on to produce fruits which will be adapted to every climate or condition of our land where any species of fruit may be grown. When we see what nature has done withput the aid of manipulation in the cold regions of the North, as in Russia, from whence came the Oldenburg and Tetofsky apples, the Black Tartarian cherry, and other good fruits, as seen by Pro- fessor Budd and Mr Charles Gibb, who can doubt our ability to produce fiue fruits even in the colder regions of our country? When we consider that the art of crossing varieties for their improvement was scarcely known until our day, and see what wonders have been accomplished by it, who can doubt that we may yet produce a pear with the richness of the Seckel, the form and size of the Bose, and the vigor and productiveness of the Boussock? And so we may go on to improve other fruits, until all shall be made as perfect as ever were grown by " the grand old gardener " in, Eden. But to do this we must study the characteristics of varieties and thus help nature to perfect this work. NOTES FROM OTHER MEMBERS. 113 GRAPE MILDEW. Prof C. V. Riley, entomologist of the De- partment of Agriculture, summarizing his paper, said: We thus have, indigenous to this country, two mildews that are more par- ticularly destructive to the grape-vine : The Uncinula, or the Powdery Mildew, flourishing most in a dry atmosphere, not particularly destructive to our hardier native grapes, and easily controlled by the use of sulphur. It develops chiefly on the upper side of the leaf and produces simple ovoid summer spores and more complex and ciliate winter spores, which are found upon both the leaf and the cane. Intro- duced into Europe many years ago, it is only known there in the conidial as Oidium tuckeri, and works more injury than it does with us. The Peronospora, or the Downy Grape-vine Mildew, which ramifies its mycelium in the substance of the leaf and even of the fruit, and develops most in moist or wet weather. It pro- duces its summer spores on the under side of the leaf, and a winter spore in the tissues of the dry and fallen leaves. It is not amenable to sulphur but is checked by a diluted kerosene emulsion in which a small amount of carbolic acid is mixed, but far more effectually checked, and even prevented, by a mixture of slacked lime and sulphate of copper. This should be applied early in the season, say in June, so as to act as a preventive; while the gathering and burning of the old leaves in winter time will assist. This species is more injurious with us than the other and is especially troublesome on the European vines. It was first introduced into Europe in 1877, when it was found in Hun- gary, and has since spread through the greater portion of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, etc. NOMENCLATURE or FRUITS. President T. T. Lyon of the Michigan Horticultural society said: What classes of names are to be preferred for fruits may fairly be regarded as an open question. We esteem brevity as always and everywhere desirable. The name of the originator or introducer will rarely be found inappropriate; and the same is true of the name of the place of origin, while either will generally possess the advantage of requiring but a single word; while the wish to add a character- izing word but too commonly finds expression in the use of such titles as Pippin, Pearmain, Superb, Favorite, or Beauty, or of political or military designations, designed to convey the impres- sion of superiority, but which have been heretofore so loosely employed, that they have, to persons of experience, at least, long since ceased to convey the impression intended. VV^e cannot ton strongly insist, that more than a single word will rarely be found needful; and that, if characterizing words be employed, the strictest honesty in their use be rigidly adhered to. If (as we infer should be the case) it be the purpose of the society to adhere strictly to its rule respecting objectionable names, it 8 114 KNOWLEDGE IN FRUIT GROWING. would seem necessary that, upon the presentation of a new or newly named fruit for consideration, its name be, in all cases, first considered; and that, if objected to, such objection be sus- tained, the fruit in question be designated by the name of the originator or introducer, or that of its locality, pending the designation of a satisfactory name by the proper person. Mr J. J. Thomas of Union Springs, New York, on the same topic writes: There are two great foundation principles in nomenclature: to insist on compact, expressive and appropriate names; and to give to pomology the truth and dignity of a science, and to prevent it from becoming degraded into peddler's puffing. A name may designate the locality of origin, name of the originator or of an eminent pomologist (not of a politician or warrior) and still better an indication of its appearance or other characteristic. It should not be somebody's "Prolific" or "Giant," or "Favorite;" not a superlative, bombastic, frothy or strained name. For strawberries, such names as Crimson Cone, Necked Pine and Red Alpine, are much better than Wizard of the North, Great American, Defiance, Mammoth, Monarch of the West, etc. Golden Cap Raspberry is to be preferred to Pride of the Hudson; Nivette and Lemon Cling are better than Ad- mirable, Incomparable, Royal George, or Stump the World. KNOWLEDGE. Mr E. Williams, secretary of the New Jersey Horticultural society, said: In the production of true varieties from seed, propagators have learned much; they have learned to trust more in means; we can't expect to get size by combining two large varieties. To obtain any given improvement, one of the varieties should have that feature as marked as possible, and the other should simply be a strong, well-established variety, without any such special feature. Again, I think we have much to learn with regard to the use of special fertilizers in the im- provement of varieties. We also need to learn the particular needs of special varieties. The same treatment will not answer for different varieties. Different types of varieties require different treatment, For example, the Great American. I cannot grow it; can hardly keep the plant alive, while a man not far from me grows it by the acre. He has them in wide, matted rows, and has raised, I believe, the largest strawberry crop that ever grew. He has sold us high as $1700 worth from an acre. We have to study our soils, the special climates and varieties. ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY. Prof A. J. Cook of the Michigan Agricultural College said in the course of his address: Not long ago a horticultural writer of considerable prominence urged, in one of our leading agricultural journals, that all wild trees and shrubs be carefully excluded from the vicinity of our orchards. It was argued that the presence of such vegetation would at- tract these insect enemies, and so bring added danger from their ravages. From what has been shown above, this seems a wrong conclusion. Facts show conclusively that the removing, A HOME-MADE EVAPORATOR. 115 not the planting of these wild and uncultivated plants is what has augmented the evil in our midst. With plenty of wild cherry trees about the orchard, the trees in the orchard will suffer almost none at all from the tent caterpillars in a few wild cherry trees, than when they are scattered wide through a whole orchard. I have reason to believe that the same is true of the apple tree borers, and the apple maggot. If we have the wild haw and wild crab in goodly numbers near by, the apple trees and their fruit will suffer less; often none at all. I believe, then, that reasoning from the insect side of the question, we may better plant than to up-root or cut down these wild plants and trees. VALUABLE HINTS AND EXPERIENCE. A HOME-MADE EVAPORATOR. I secured a box two feet long, 18 inches deep and two feet high. The cover was missing, so i inverted it, making the bottom answer for a top. I removed one side, cleating the pieces together near each end, and put leather hinges on, fastening it to the former bottom, but now the top of the concern. At the loose corners, I nailed in an inch-square strip to hold them firm. Inside, on each of the ends, I nailed half-inch strips, two inches apart, as slides for the trays to run upon. The trays were made of strips of half-inch stuff, one inch wide, halved in at the corners and braced by diagonal wires. They are covered with white mosquito-netting. At the top and side furthest from the door hinges, I removed a piece of the top two inches wide. I then made a chimney two inches wide, two feet long and a foot high, which I placed over the opening and nailed fast. After supper, when the evenings are long, we all set to work at the apples, and putting a few pieces of wood in the stove, begin filling the trays, the lowest first. As the second tray is prepared, the tirst one is moved up and the new one put in next to the fire, until the evaporator is full. The evaporator is placed on four pieces of brick, stood edge-wise on the stove at the corners of the machine. The apples dry off the first evening to some extent, and when the work is done up the following day the evaporator may be lifted on again, and by evening the fruit is ready to put away. My method of cutting apples is to peel, and take off two slices from each end, then core, and slice the 116 CAUSE OF PEAR BLIGHT. remainder to a thickness of one-fourth of an inch. The trays should be made one or two inches narrower than the box and ai ranged so that the hot air is driven from front to rear and back m again as in the sketch, which gives a sectional view of the evaporator. The door is hung at the top as shown, but should be kept closed except when putting in or removing trays. [R. Ferris, Essex county, N. Y. THE CAUSE OF PEAR BLIGHT. Col Leighton of Virginia claims that pear blight is caused simply and wholly by sudden changes of temperature. He says, "In the early part of May when the sap is ascending briskly, and cool nights have occurred with warm days, and when the difference of temperature within the 24 hours is about 30 degrees, twig blight appears from eight to ten days thereafter." He feels so sure that a sufficient varia- tion of temperature at this season of the year brings on blight, that he has no hesitancy in predicting the disease by the aid of the thermometer, and the disease actually did appear on May 20, 1887, as he prophesied on May 12. But at Geneva, N. Y., where I was then located, the thermom- eter showed a variation of 20 degrees between night and day ten TO SAVE GIRDLED TREES. .117 times in April aud May, so that if pear blight was caused by- such sudden changes in temperature it certainly should have appeared at Geneva, whereas it did not occur at all. Col Leigh- ten seat me some twigs from his trees "to show that bacteria had no part in the matter." Some of the diseased parts were cut up into a small amount of water; as usual when freshly blighted twigs are taken, the water was made milky with the abundance of bacteria, as verified under the microscope. A drop of this bacteria-laden water was applied to punctures made with a pin in several twigs and fruits of a healthy pear tree in the garden. After a lapse of six days the disease appeared in each instance in its usual characteristic form. Samples were sent to Col Leighton with directions by which he might tranfer the disease from these twigs through a drop of water, to his own trees again, and also with directions for observing the bacteria under the microscope. No answer has yet been received to this communi- cation. The production of the disease by inoculation took place the latter part of May, and with no other cases of the disease in the vicinity. The true explanation rf the relation of temperature to blight, as observed by Col Leighton, is doubtless this: The germs cften enter the tree through the flowers or through the young expanding leaf buds. At this time of year it is frequently too cool for the germs to multiply rapidly enough to make the dis- ease at once conspicuous. If, however, a few days of specially warm weather occur shortly after the flowers open, the germs are incited to active growth and the disease speedily becomes ap- parent. [Prof J. C. Arthur, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind. How TO SAVE GIRDLED TREES. Trees that have been girdled by mice or rabbits may sometimes be saved by making a mound of earth six inches or more thick over the injured part and press- ing it very firmly to prevent the wood from becoming dry and cracking. Sometimes painting over the wound with linseed oil paint or thin grafting wax will save them if it is done before the bark and wood get dry. After the injured part has become thoroughly dry and the trunk begins to crack, the above will be of little service if the tree is completely girdled. Any tree that has not become dry to the center may be saved, however, by the method herewith illustrated. With a short, thin-bladed chisel, a cut is made below and above the injured part as in Fig. 1, about the time the buds begin to swell. Cions are then fitted as in Fig. 3, about two inches longer than the space between the cuts. The lower end is inserted m the cut and firmly pressed into place. Then bend the cion and press the upper end into the upper cut. The number of cions will vary from two to six according to the size of the tree. After the cions have been inserted, the cuts should be covered with wax, a strong band of cloth or bast fiber should be tied over the the ends to press them firmly in place, and the whole covered 118* TO PREVENT GIRDLING. with grafting wax or waxed cloth. To prevent the wax from melting and running, a cloth may be put around as in Fig. 2. If the covering be removed in August, as it should be, the union of the cions will be found complete, and in a few years will grow together and a new outside trunk be formed. [Prof S. T. Maynard, Massachusetts Agri- cultural College. a Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 119 THE NEWER FRUITS, As discussed by the American Pomological society at its meet- ing in Boston, Mass., in September, 1887 : Apples. Yellow Transparent Dr Hoskins of Vermont: It was first disseminated by the agricultural department in 1869-70. In his severe climate on the shores of Lake Memphremagog it is en- tirely hardy. It began to bear four years from planting. It ripens in August, is good for shipping, and, unlike some of the Russians, is not subject to bark blight. Mr Lyon of Michigan said: It is a thrifty grower, hardy; several varieties are culti- vated in the West under this name. Mr Lovett of New Jersey had fruited it, but it often bears too heavily, causing the fruit to be small. J. M. Smith of Wisconsin calls it very promising. Mr Minch of New Jersey said it was the best of all in its class in all respects. Delaware Winter Mr Meyer of Delaware claims this variety to be identical with Lauver, but Mr Lovett held that it was a different variety. Mr Van Deman of Kansas, United States pomologist, was inclined to think it different. Wealthy Mr Paul said it was a vigorous, hardy and produc- tive variety on the highlands of Western Massachusetts, keeps well and is one of the best. Dr Hoskins had grown it 15 years, raising some seasons 1000 bushels ; it had better be top- worked in cold latitudes. Mr Lyou had observed it much in the Northwest, and found it liable to summer blight. Mr Hatch of Wisconsin topgrafts it; none other is so successful with him. Mr Thurber of Essex county would not recommend it for Massachusetts, but Mr Marvin found it very successful in New York, and hardier than Duchess of Oldenburg. Mr Gibb of Ontario regarded it as nearly all that could be desired, its only weak point being that it drops somewhat before ripe. McMahon's White Mr Hatch of Winconsin reports that this variety has the best of records in the West for hardiness, having stood 40 below zero, and has survived the cold better than the Russians. On extremely rich soils it is subject to blight; it is a fall apple. With Dr Hoskius of Vermont it is hardy. Wallace Howard Mr Berkmaus regarded it as one of the finest apples cultivated in the South. Mr Minch of New Jersey said it was one of the most beautiful of apples, and Dr Keary of Georgia considered it one of the best. Wolf River Dr Hoskins found it not hardy. Mr Hatch said it was not so hardy in Wisconsin as some of the old varieties. 120 NEW APPLES AND PEARS. Mr Lyon held that it was identical with Alexander, but Mr Wat- rous of Iowa said it was entirely unlike Alexander with him, and it is not hardy. Fanny Apple Mr Green of New York had received it from Charles Downing, who recommended it as superior to the Red Astrachan. Mr Eagle of Pennsylvania found it good later than the Red Astrachan, a dark red and showy. Scott's Winter is under size, but a very successful apple in On- tario according to Mr Gibb. Dr Hoskiiis reported it as a great keeper, often being well preserved until Yellow Transparent ripens. Shaw This is a chance seedling found in a rough pasture by Mr C. C. Shaw of Milford, N. H. It has been frequently ex- hibited at the fairs by Mr Shaw; and is described by him as fol- lows: Season, September, ripening with Gravenstein; sub-acid; tree grows like the Baldwin; fruit grows on the tree similar to Northern Spy. Salome was exhibited at the world's exposition at New Orleans. It is only ordinary in quality but hardy according to Mr Lyon, though Mr Hape put it still lower and pronounced it insipid. Northwestern Greening is not of high quality, says Mr Van Deman; Mr Watrous, not hardy. .Jacob's Sweet In the opinion of Mr Thurlow, this promises to be one of the best winter apples in Massachusetts; Mr Man- ning agreed that it was very promising. Mr Lovett said it was large, handsome and sweet, and a fine grower. Pears. Comet Mr Lyon saw them at the society's meeting two years ago, where they were poor and insipid. Keiffer Mr Bourne pronounced them poor in Rhode Island; Mr Fuller of New Jersey, soft, melting, a fine pear. Mr Engle of Pennsylvania, very poor; Mr Paul of Massachusetts, grafting them over; Mr Berkmans, suited to some sections and good for the South. Mr Lovett said it was not of high quality, makes a poor stock, does not unite readily with stock, and is much like the quince in this particular; Mr Van Deman, in the South it is fine, but in '.he North it is poor. Mr Augur of Connecticut has 50 trees, great bearers, to some tastes good, and is valuable for cooking. Le Conte Mr Berkmans said that like the Keiffer it succeeds well at the South when properly managed, and ripens very good; Northern members should not be too hasty in condemning it, as it is good for Southern cultivators. Mr Coe reported that it grows well in Central Connecticut, and is better than Keiffer, but rots at the core. Dr Carey said that the growth was remark- able in Southwestern Georgia. Mr Brackett of Iowa had grown shoots 12 feet long in one season. CHERRIES WHY PEARS CRACK. 121 Pratt Mr Manning found it of the finest quality with him, m Eastern Massachusetts. Russian Pears Mr Gibb of Ontario, the best authority on Russian fruits, said that Bessemianka was the best of those pears so far tested. They must be further tested before coming to any definite or satisfactory conclusions. One with the short and simple name of Lapieganka was very promising. Mr Wat- rous of Iowa had tested 30 varieties, and Bessemianka was the only hardy one with him. In Vermont the Bessemianka is quite as hardy as the Wealthy apple, said Dr Hoskins. Mr Brackett of Iowa thought they were not so well tested as they should be, and should have further trial. Hoosac This variety originated with Mr Foot of North Adams, Mass., and h an excellent pear, said Mr Paul. J. T. Lovett considered it fine in New Jersey, and Mr Barry of New York said it was good. Wilder Mr Green reported it as fine, not inclined to rot at the core, and with him at Rochester, N. Y., is a vigorous grower. Cherries. Russian Mr Watrous of Iowa had tested many of them and some are hardy. They are hardy with Dr Hoskins of Vermont. Windsor Mr Barry of New York pronounced it very good and worthy of culture. Wragg Mr Watrous found it identical with the English Morello, but it is supposed by Prof Budd to be of Russian origin. The Kelsey plum will not succeed north of New Jersey, said President Berkmans, and Mr Lovett reported that the young trees were not hardy in New Jersey. Prunus Simoni Mr Watrous of Iowa said it was not hardy, the trees were all dead. Mr Barry reported being stung so badly by curculio that it is worthless. It was promising in Georgia; Mr Thurlow should not recommend it for the North. The Marianna plum, promising in Georgia and similar latitudes, freezes to the ground in Iowa. Robinson is a fine Southern plum. WHY PEARS CRACK. It is now generally understood that the cracking of pears is connected with their scabbing, both being due to the attack of the fungus, Fusicladium. This fungus develops in and upon the skin of the fruit, forming brown patches and retarding the growth. It rarely covers the whole fruit, and does not penetrate deeply; and as the growth is only checked in the immediate vicinity of the fungus, an uneven tension of the tissues is brought about, which may become great enough to split the pear into cracks of variable depth. The reason why some varieties are more subject to attack than others is yet to a considerable extent a matter of opinion. The two main elements which determine its abundance in any season 122 PROTECTION AGAINST MICE. are doubtless the weather and the amount of the fungus the preceding year. The enriching of the soil and cultivation are not known to have any marked eifect in either accel- erating or retarding its advent. The only practicable means yet devised for preventing it is to spray the trees a number of times while the fruit is growing with a solution of hyposulphite of soda (1 Ib to 10 gals of water) or sulphide of potassium (5 oz to 10 gals of water), preferably the latter. Not enough trials have yet been made with these fungicides, however, to make it possible to give explicit directions for their use, or to state definitely the results to be expected. [Dr J. C. Arthur, Purdue University, La Fayette, Ind. PROTECTION AGAINST MICE AND RABBITS. As a protection of fruit trees from mice, some of our good fruit tree growers find a perfect remedy by wrapping a piece of stiff tarred paper 8 or 10 inches wide around the bottom of the tree. Probably a wider strip would prevent the gnawing from rabbits as well. [Royal Stone, Otsego county, Mich. Field mice will work very badly in orchards when there is a great depth of snow. The snow should be trodden down about the trees the first time it is damp enough to do so, especially in runs where it drifts, as trees six or eight inches in diameter at the collar are often completely girdled in such situations. To protect trees against mice, rabbits or sheep, paint the trunk above their reach with a cold wash made by mixing one peck of unslacked lime with 4 Ibs of sulphur slacked in 8 qts of boiling water, and while still hot add half a gallon of crude carbolic acid and the same of gas tar, stirring well and mixing thoroughly. A flat brush is the best thing to put it on with. [Jacob Faith, Montevallo, Mo. My plan for protecting trees from mice in winter has been to tie up the trunks of our trees with laths or other strips of thin wood. This has always proved entirely satisfactory, and is cheap; for after the strips are once applied, they do not need to be re- moved for many years, except little additions of new strips as the trees grow, and the work is practically limited to tying a fresh string around them every fall, [Dr Hoskins in Rural Ver- monter. A writer in the Revue Horticole gives the following remedy for preventing the depredations of rabbits in his garden: He mixes 3 Ibs of blue vitriol with 4 Ibs of fresh slaked lime and adds the mixture to 18 gallons of water. The blue vitriol is first dissolved in two or chree gallons of water, and then both are thrown into a barrel and the water added to make 18 gallons. The mixture is applied with a whitewash brush, in dry weather only, to the trunks of the trees from the ground to a hight of a foot or two. PROTECTION AGAINST MICE. 123 The Prairie Farmer gives A. R. Whitney's remedy for mice, moles and rabbits, consisting of lime, copperas and glue. Fresh lime is slacked, and enough water is added to make it into moderately thick whitewash. Dissolve two pounds of glue in water and add a dissolved pound of copperas, and stir the whole together. This mixture is applied with a whitewash brush to the trunks of the trees late in autumn. This is similar to Prof May- nard's remedy as above, but he uses half a pound of paris green to 8 qts of water; carbolic acid is used if danger of poisoning animals is feared. To overcome these greatest of pests I propose the following, which I am confident will work satisfactorily and be compara- tively safe : In October or November, paint the trunks up to (if necessary among) the main branches with limewash and glue, in which is mixed half a pound of paris green to each pailful of eight quarts. To prepare this paint, slake the lime, using only water enough to make a thick paste; then when ready to apply, thin with a solution of common glue to the proper thick- ness to apply readily with a common paint brush. If there should be any danger from domestic animals getting at the paint, the paris green might be replaced by carbolic acid. Perhaps the use of tar- water for slaking the lime would give the paint such an offensive taste and odor as to prevent the trees being attacked. Ordinary limewash would not adhere to the bark long enough, but the use of a little glue would certainly cause it to adhere until spring. [Prof S. T. Maynard, Massachusetts Agricultural College. 124 ICE-HOUSE AND COLD BOOMS. This ice-house has been well tested, having preserved its store of ice for two years at a time. Having been erected for the use of a public building, its size is per- haps greater than would be necessary on an ordi- nary farm, but its dimen- sions may be altered to suit circumstances if the proportion of the different parts be very nearly ad- hered to. The ice room is 16 by 16 feet and 12 feet high in the clear. The cold room under the ice room is of the same size as the latter on the floor, and 7 feet 6 inches high in the clear. In addi- tion to the cold room below, there are two apartments or pas- sages surrounding the ice room which serve the two-fold purpose of preserving the ice from the exterior heated air, and giving additional room for cold storage. The width of these inclosing passages is 4 feet, and their bights are 8 feet and 9 feet 6 inches respectively. They are sufficiently wide for a series of shelves tipon one side of each throughout, which gives a very useful ex- tent of shelving room. The entrance to these apartments is by the door. The ice is received at a high door at C, Fig. 2. At E, Fig. 2, are windows to light the passages, etc., and at F, Fig. 2, are placed the stairs by which access is obtained to the ice room and to the upper part of the inclosing space. The studding of the interior frame is 3 by 12 inche *, that of the exterior frame is 3 by 10 inches, and the spaces bet wen the studding are filled with saw-dust. The space under the lower floor is filled with wood shavings. The floor and ceiling joists also have their spaces filled with sawdust. At G, Fig. 2, is a ventilator shaft, and at H a girder. The window sashes are double, and the doors have canvas linings packed with sawdust to make them of the thickness of the frame. The excavation is about 2 feet below the surface. A drain was pro- vided extending from the center of the building under the lower floor to the sewer and trapped. [R. G. Hatfield, New York City. INDEX. APPLES, assorting fruit, - - 31 barrels for, - - - - - budding, - - - - 7-20 boxts for storage, - - - 32 Storing, - - - - - summer, ------ value of, - - - - - varieties, ------ winter, - - - - - appendix, - - fruits for the cold north, Budding, ------ BLACKBERRY - - - - - 32 - 28 - - 3 26-28 - - 28 - 105 105-108 - 7-10 84-86 - - 85 84 changing the bearing year, 22 cold storage for, - - - - 32 exporting the fruit, - fall varieties, ----- 28 fertilizers for, ----- 19 foreign trade in, - - - gathering and storing, - :><>-: 52 culture, - - - - winter protection, - varieties, ---..--- CjIERRY, ----- - - 86 - 86 - 66-6* 66 hybridization, improvement by, 4 heading up the trees, - - 15 insects injurious to, varieties, - - - - - CURRANT, ------ injurious insects, - - - - 67 91-93 - - 93 Q1 apple maggot, - - - - 42 canker worm, - - - - 39 codlin moth, ----- 41 curculio, ------ 42 flat-headed borer, - - - 37 round-headed borer, - - 36 piumng, ------ 01 DISEASES of the Grape, ------ Plum, ------ pear, - - peach, ------ quince, - - strawberry, - - - - - GARDEN, Fruit, GRAPE, ------ - - 83 - 62 - - 48 - 56 - - 65 - 101 103-104 - 69-83 - - 79 oyster shell bark louse, - 38 woolly aphis, ----- 37 keeping, - - - - - - 31 manures for, - - - mulching, ------ 19 culture, __-_- cuttings, - - - - - distance of planting, - - - 72 - - 70 - - 72 - - 83 forming the head of trees in, 10 planting seedlings and root grafts, ------ 7 origin of. ------- 3 orchard, ------ H-13 culture, methods of, - 11-16 laying out, ----- 12 manure for, ----- 13 planting, 12, 14, 16 soil for, ------ 11 turf culture, ----- 16 odd-year bearing, - - - 22 pruning, - - - - 19-21 picking the fruit, - - - - 31 packing, - - - ----- 31 price in home and foreign exposure for vineyards - - 72 71 grafting, - - - - 78 SO history of, ----- insects injurious to, berry moth, - - - bug, ------ phylloxera, - - - location of vineyard, - - - 69 - - 80 - - 83 - - 80 - - 81 - - 72 69 7; 70 preserving 1 ,- - - - - - - 78 - 6<>-71 pruning, ------ soil for - - - - - - - 76-79 - - 72 78 propagation of, - 5 budding, - - - 7-10 seed, best kind of, - - - 5 bed. ------- 5 73 training, ----- varieties, ----- value of, ----- GOOSEBERRY, - - - - GRAFTING, - - - - - INSECTS injurious to the s - 72-74 - - 79 - - 69 - - 95 - 23-24 - 36-43 time of planting, - 5 seedlings, trimming, -- 5 digging, - - - - 6 qualities, important, 4 l-egrafting, - - - - 23 root grafting of, - - 2 cherry. - . - - 08 Currant, - 93 1 Insects, - grape, - - 80-81 gooseberry, ------ pear, - - 48 peach, ------__55 plum, quince, - - - - - raspberry, strawberry, - - - LABELS for fruit trees, PLUM, ----- age of bearing, - - borer, peach, - - - bug, rose - - - - cultivation, - - - classification, - 61 -65 - 90 101 - 43 58-02 - 59 - 62 - 62 59 59 diseases, -------62 fruit, gathering the - - - - 60 fruit, thinning the - - - - 59 fruit, rotting of the - - - 62 insects, --------61 origin, --------58 propagation, ------ 58 planting, distance of pruning, ------ soil, ------- treatment, nursery - - treatment, orchard varieties, standard - - varieties, additional - weevil or curculio, plum QUINCE, ------ cultivation, ----- crop, importance of 58 - 59 - 58 - 58 - 58 - 59 - 60 - 61 63-65 - 64 - 63 harvesting, ------ 65 insects, -------- 65 origin, -----_--<;:', propagation, - - - - - -63 soil, ---------64 treatment, nursery - - - - 64 treatment, orchard - - - - 64 RASPBERRY, ----- 88-90 The Red Raspberry, - - 88 cultivation, methods of - - 88 distance, -------88 origin, -------- ,S8 propagation, ------ 88 pruning, -------- ss soil, ---------88 varieties, -------88 Blackcap Raspberry, - 89-90 cultivation, methods of - - - 89 insects, --------90 propagation, ------ 89 planting, distance for - - - 89 training, ------- 89 varieties, -------89 STRAWBERRY, - - - - 96-102 cultivation, ------ 97 crop, importance of - - - - 96 diseases, ------- 101 fertilization, cross - - - - 102 gathering and shipping, - 100 101 96 - 96 97 97 - 98 96 origin, ------ propagation, - - - - planting, time of - - planting, methods of - protection, winter - - soil, ------- varieties, ------- 99 varieties, new - - - - - 100 PEAR, ------- 44.49 age of bearing, ----- 45 autumn varieties, - - - - 46 blight, -------- 48 diseases, ------- 43 distance of planting, - 45 forming the head, - - - - 45 gathering-, _______ 47 ealthf ulness, ----- 44 improvement of - - - 44 insect pests, - - 48 marketing, -------47 nursery, ------- 45 orchard, --------45 origin, - - - propagation, preserving, ripening, - - summer, - - varieties, - 44 - 44 - 48 - 47 - 46 ... - 46 variations in ------ 46 - 47 50-67 - 53 - 51 - 55 - 51 - 54 - 56 - 51 - 54 - 57 - 55 - 50 winter, ------- PEACH, --___. age of bearing, - - - budding, ------ borer, - ------ cultivation in nursery, - - classification, ---'-- diseases, ------- exposure, ----- fruit, thinning the - - - fruit, rotting of the - - fruit, gathering the - - importance, ----- insects, ------- manuring, ------ marketing, ----- origin, orchard, ------ propagation, planting, distance for - - planting, preparing tree for protection, winter - - pruning, annual - - - - seed, best ------ seed, planting - 50 soil, best .for nursery - - - 51 soil for orchard, ----- 51 tree, forming the - - - - 51 training and pruning, - - 52 varieties, -------54 varieties, additional - - - - 55 varieties, new ----- 55 - 52 55 - 50 51 - 50 52 - 52 53 - 52 50 yeltbws, ------- 57 yellows, remedy for - - - - 57 ILLUSTRATIONS. Fig. 1. Apple root cut for grafting, - ... Page 6 2. Scion cut for grafting, .---.,---- 3. Completed root graft, 6 4. Dibble, - 5. Tamper, 6. Budding knife, 7. Bud stick, 8. Stock showing the T cut, 9. Bud cut ready for insertion, 10. Bud inserted, 11. Bud inserted and tied, 12. Planting board, 13. Tree with lateral branches starting out at one point, - - 15 13. Tree with lateral branches well distributed, .... 15. A perfectly forme* apple tree, 16. An imperfectly formed apple tree, 17. Pruning saw, *| 18. Pruning hook, 21 19. Grafting hook, - - 20. Stock split with wedge of grafting hook, 21. Scion prepared for insertion into the cleft, 22. Section of scion, 23. Diagram of completed graft, 24. Completed graft in perspective, 25. The bag apple-picker, 26. The wire apple-picker, 27. The pointed ladder, 28. The extension ladder, 29. The storing boxes, 30. The lever press, 31 a. Larvae of round-headed apple borer, 31 b. Chrysalis 31 c. Perfect beetle," 32 a. JLarvae of flat-headed apple borer, 32 b. Chrysalis " " " 32 c. Head of larva? " " 32 (L Perfect beetle " 33. Stages of developement of the wooly aphis, - - - 37 34. Scale bark louse on apple branch, . 35. Male moth of tent caterpillar, - - - 36. Female " 37 ab Larvae of tent caterpillar, with web - 37 c. Eggs 37J. Cocoon " " " 38 a. Male canker worm, 38 . Female canker worm. 39. Apple aphis, male and female (mag.) ..-,.- 40. Codlin moth, in various staucs. 4^ a. Channel made by larvse of codlin moth, 40 b. Entrance of larva which escaped at , top. 411 (I. Chrysalis or codlin moth, 40 e. Larva of codlin moth, - 41 40 f. Moth with its wings closed, 41 40 . Apple maggot, perfect, insect (magnified), 41 a. Apple maggot larva (magnified), 42 a. Plum weevil or curculio (magnified), 42 d. Plum weevil, natural size, attacking the fruit, ... 42 42 c. Plum weevil larva (magnified), 42 42 <:/. Plum weevil larva, natural size on fruit, 43. Properly formed peach tree, 52 44. Improperly formed peach tree, showing signs of the yellows, - 52 45. Male peach borer, ----------- 55 46. Female peach borer, 5& 47. Larva of peach borer, - 55 48. Trunk of peach tree showing work of peach borer, - 56 49. Plum weevil or curculio, various stages, 50. Curculio screen or frame, 51. Bush form of the quince tree, - ------- 52. Tree form of the quince tree, 64 53. Long cutting of grape vine, 54. Short " " 70 55. Layer " " 70 56. One stake support for grape vine, ..... 73 57- Two " " " 73 58. Trellis, on left spur system, - 74 58. Trellis on right spur and cane system, - 74 Fig. 59 Trellis on right vertical spur and cane system, - Page lh 59. Trellis on left vertical spur system, . 75 60. Trellis on left horizontal spur system, - 76 60. Trellis on right horizontal spur and cane system - ?tj 61. Cane from spur, to be cut at a, ..... 62. One cane fruiting and one without fruit, 63. Grape vine girdled at A, 80 64. Girdling knife, 80 65. Grape phylloxera, leaf form in various stages, ... 81 66. Grape phylloxera, root form and injured root, ... 82 67. Grape phylloxera, winged form and injured roots, - - s_> 68. Grape berry moth; a, perfect insect; l>, larva ; c,d, injured berries, 83 69. Raspberry root borer, a, male; 6, female insect, .... 90 70. Male and female currant worm, 93 71. Eggs of currant worm, -.--... = ^ 72. Larvae in various stages of growth, 93 73. Female moth of the imported currant worm, 74. Larva of the imported currant worm, ... 94 74 a. Chrysalis of the imported currant wornij = 94 75. Strawberry root borer, > 101 76. Strawberry crown borer, -.*.._ 102 HOME USE CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT MAIN LIBRARY This book is due on the last date stamped below. 1 -month loans may be renewed by calling 642-3405. 6-month loans may be recharged by bringing books to Circulation Desk. Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date. ALL BOOKS ARE SUBJECT TO RECALL 7 DAYS AFTER DATE CHECKED OUT. n cm.' APR 3 '75 LD21 A-40i-i2,'74 General Library (S2700I,) University of California Berkeley YB 47352